Altiplano Comestible Earths: Prehistoric and Historie

ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
Altiplano Comestible Earths:
Prehistoric and Historie Geophagy of
Highland Peru and Bolivia
David L. Browman
Department of Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis,
Missouri 63130
James N. Gundersen
Department of Geology, Wichita State University , Wichita, Kansas 67208
Research on comestible earths utilized in the Andes indicates that they have a history
of use of at least 2500 years. A hypothesis proposed for the origin of geophagy suggests
a considerably greater time depth. Comestible earths discussed involve those with physiological, cultural , or medicinal components . This analysis includes 27 indigenously recognized earths. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. r- -- --- _---- -...-,
BIBLIOTECA ETNOLOGICA
COCHABAMBA - BOLIVIA
INTRODUCTION .w.. - 1.
Geophagy, or earth-eating, is a widespread human phenomenon. Reviews of
earth consumption identify its practice on all six inhabited continents, among
all ethnic groups (Anell, 1958; Hunter, 1973; Lagercrantz, 1958; Laufer 1930).
In the altiplano and puna of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, local inhabitants name at least two dozen potentially comestible earths. Many of these
earths are also listed in Inca sources, making them clearly prehispanic in use.
We hope ultimately to identify all of these earths in archaeological deposits,
although at this point only half a dozen have clearly been identified in preInca contexts. Use of comestible earths appears to have a minimal time depth
of at least 2500 years, as a specimen of lejia or katawi was recovered from the
site of Chiripa, Bolivia, in a level predating 400 B.C.
Earlier scholars usually proposed a cultural basis for the use of such earths,
but we believe that physiological explanations are more often indicated. Our
interest in the physiological component of the earths was stimulated by the
identification of ch'aqu, phasa, millu, and other earths as significant llama
caravan trade goods exchanged by different ethnic groups over distantes as
great as 600 km or more (Browman, 1991). This evidente suggested an importante beyond just cultural. In addition, almost all the plants first domesticated
by prehistoric inhabitants in the Titicaca basin area of highland southern
Peru and northern Bolivia contained significant levels of phytotoxins. These
deleterious compounds are removed to render the plants palatable for human
consumption by a variety of processes , some of which employ the use of various
earths. Our initial research into the detoxification of Andean potatoes turned up
the fact that in the American Southwest (Hough, 1907: 467; Laufer, 1930: 171),
specific clays were eaten with wild potatoes to remove the bitterness. This
suggested that the Andean clays also might be employed to bind the bitter
phytotoxin solanine in potatoes into an insoluble precipitate, rendering the
tubers palatable.
In research in Africa, Hunter (1973: 179, 1985: 1040; Hunter and DeKleine,
1984: 169) demonstrated that comestible earths provided helpful amounts of
elemental nutrients such as calcium, potassium, magnesium , manganese, ¡ron,
zinc , copper, nickel, cobalt, and selenium. Our research indicates that one class
of our Andean earths might serve this same function. Hence it appears that
the physiological component of geophagy may be as important as the cultural
ones previously emphasized by anthropologists. Hunter's observation
(1973: 171) that "physiological drive, operating through trial and error empiricism over centuries, eventually yields a nutritional wisdom that is implicit in
many traditional practices" initially seemed the most appropriate explanation
for the origin of Andean practices.
In earlier research, Browman (1981, 1983) identified only eight comestible
earths. Subsequent research has identified additional earths, so that we now
are working with some two dozen different named earths, attempting to identify
their earliest archaeological occurrence as well as their specific utilization (see
Tables IA, IB, IC, and ID). Four clusters are proposed, based on indigenous
usages : First, the earths that seem to be valued because of the properties of
the silicates and phyllosilicates (ch'aqu, phasa, quntuya, llink'i, lliphi); second,
a cluster defined by sulfur minerals (qullpa, millu, pachacha, compi, sirsaqina,
llimpi, makaya, wanayhampi); third, a grouping including both calcium sources
(q'atawi, llamp'u, mat'agi, hake mas¡, khakya chunta, llipta/lejía) and salitres
(chal¡, suca, alcali fijo, allpa/laq' a); and last, a cluster of earths important for
copper or ¡ron metallic elements (taku, siwayru, iman kala , kopakiri).
ANALYSIS AND NOMENCLATURE
The mineral constituents of these comestible earth samples were determined
by X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD). This method of analysis is sensitive to
the crystalline structure of the constituent minerals and thereby can confirm
their presence. The reader is referred to Gundersen and Tiffany (1986: 48-51)
or Gundersen (1991:10-13) for a review of the XRD analysis method employed,
as well as a brief introduction to the elemental compositions and the structural
attributes of some of the hydrous phyllosilicates (¡.e., the clay and claylike
minerals) found in these earths. A lim¡tation of XRD is that it cannot detect
amorphous components that m¡ght also be part of the sample.
Although the bulk elemental composition of all the samples was evaluated
qualitatively by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), these results are not
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 8, No. 5, 413-425 (1993)
© 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0883-6353/93/050413-13 414
VOL. 8, NO. 5
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
Table IA. Phyllosilicate and silicate cluster.
Table IB . Sulfur mineral cluster.
Substance Alternative names Literature identification Tested samples
Substance Alternative names
Literature identification
Tested samples
Ch'aqu Ch'ako, chacco,
ch'akko, chachakko,
chacu,chago
Qullpa Kollpa, kkollpa,
kkollkke kollpa,
hancu-ccollqque,
q'ollpa, gollpa,
collpa, coipa, colpa
Two varieties:
(1) aluminum sulfate,
¡ron sulfate, copper
sulfate, lead sulfate
(2) salitre, potassium
nitrate, sodium
nitrate
Millu
Alum, aluminum
sulfate as white
variety
Iron sulfate as black
variety
88-3 & 88-11: poorly
crystallized kaolinite with
minor amounts of quartz
and plagioclase
88-7: well-crystallized phases
of a probable organic
substance; sample too small
to run standard tests to
identify
88-4: aluminous and sulfate
components in the form of
alunogen
Smectite; 88-1 & 88-16: moderately
montmorillonite with crystallized, montmorillonite
Fe, Mg, K, and as major component ; lesser
sometimes illite, amounts of plagioclase and
kaolinite , and calcite kaolinite (no calcite)
88-15 & 88-20: informants id
as ch'aqu or phasa, more
poorly crystallized
montmorillonite, some
plagioclase (no calcite)
Phasa Pasa, ppasa, ppahssa, Hydrated aluminum 88-2 & 88-9 : moderately
phasalla, p'asalla
silicate ; smectite; crystallized , quartz as a
montmorillonite with major component, minor
Fe, Mg amounts of illite and i.ronrich chlorite (no
montmorillonite)
88-15 & 88-20: informants id
as phasa or ch'aqu, more
poorly crystallized,
montmorillonite, some
plagioclase (no calcite)
88-18 : (unknown ) results same
as 88- 15 & 88 -20, indicating
this phyllosilicate used by at
least A.D. 1300
Quntuya Qontoy, contuya, Smectite
No sample
kuntayu, kontoya,
qojtoy, contaya
Llink'i Ilinqui, llinque, Marl; fuller's earth;
No sample
llinkki, ninque,
aluminum silicate
ninki, neke
Lliphi Llimpi
Mica with muscovite No sample
and biotite
presented because we had no standard reference materials prepared for quantitative studies. XRF was only a check of the composition as indicated with XRD
evaluation.
Whenever there is any ambiguity in the nomenclature of the minerals, we
will indicate how we are using these terms. We need to present some comments
on the clay and claylike mineral nomenclature we utilize.
Kaolinite is the most common "species" of the kaolin "group" of clay minerals,
which also includes others such as dickite and nacrite. Only kaolinite was
recognized in our samples. Its composition is Al(Si4010)1(OH)8 and its structure
can be compared, in a simple analogy, to an open-face cheese sandwich: the
single (Si4010) structural sheet (i.e., the tetrahedral phyllosilicate sheet) alluding to the single slice of bread, the Al4(OH)8 (i.e., the octahedral hydroxide
Sirsuqina
or
sallina
Makaya
Miliou, millua,
millo, miyu
Sirsuquema, choque
quesima,
sirsukina,
sirpukiena, salli,
sirsukena , sillana,
sillina
Macaya, macay,
ningro-macaya,
Llimpi
Wanay
hampi
or
jiwayri
qulla
Pachacha
Compi
arma
Ychma
Huanay hampi,
hiwairi kolla,
hihuayri colla
Pachach, pachas,
pachachi
Chumbe
88-10: aluminous and sulfate
components in the form of
halotrichite, with another
minor unidentified phase
also present
Sulfur, two varieties:
"wild" and "good"
black and yellow
88-6: yellow, well-crystallized
orthorhombic sulfur
88-5: black, same as aboye, but
traces of gypsum, and some
black carbonaceous matter
Ash cakes, calcareous
earth, arsenic sulfide
88-8: granular material with
well-crystallized barite and
also celestite
No sample
Cinnabar, mercury
oxides
Arsenic sulfide
No sample
Calcium sulfate
No sample
Zinc sulfide
No sample
sheet) to the slice of cheese. The regular, two-slice, cheese sandwich structure
Al4(Si4010)2(OH)4 (pyrophyllite) does not occur in our samples, but a more
hydrous mineral of a slightly similar structure does. Ideally this clay mineral
would have a theoretical composition of 8H20 • Al4(Si4010)2(OH)4 (leverrierite),
which probably does not even exist in this pure form in nature. In the real
world of clays, some Al +3 cations substitute for Si+4 cations in the phyllosilicate
sheets and some Mg+2, Fe+2, and Fe+3 cations substitute for the Al +3 cations in
the hydroxide layer between the phyllosilicate sheets. With such substitutions,
what was an electrically neutral double phyllosilicate mineral unit structure
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ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
Table IC. Metal ( iron and copper ) mineral cluster.
Table ID. Calcium and salitre cluster.
Substance Alternative names Literature identification Tested samples
Substance
Taku Taqo, tacu, taco
Siwayru Sebario, siwairu,
sihuayru
Ferruginous earth 88 -3: informant identified as
taku or qullpa; probably
qullpa as is largely
kaolinite
Hematite . two varieties :
No sample
a metallic-tinted
specular hematite,
and more matt-tinted
hematite, as male and
female siwayru (orqo
vi LIOTECA ETN©LOG;L
Alternative names
Literature identification
Q'atawi
or isku
Catahui , kataui,
katawa, katawi,
izku, iso, ishku,
iscu
Calcite
Hake
mas¡
Jaqimasi, haque
masa , haquimasca ,
Calcareous tufa,
calcium carbonate ,
waripar
ha gque, haquimasi,
two varieties: white
tulipa
huaripa tulla
and black
and china)
Iman Quisu kala, iman
kala rumi, kichi rumi,
yauri wayuta,
aputiri
Kopakiri Copaquira, kkopa,
copagira , coravira,
corahuari
Magnetite. two No sample
varieties, male and
female
Cupric sulfate, cupric
sulfide, cupric acetate,
copper silicate
mainly crystallized lowmagnesium calcite
88-13D: dark component; as
aboye, but also some
sylvite and an unknown
Khakya
chunta
No sample
became electrostatically unbalanced, and other cations such as Ca', Mg+2,
Na", and Kt are taken up by the structure to neutralize the overall charge
of the mineral. The double phyllosilicate structure is too tight for these ions
to fit in the hydroxide layer; they must fit in the interlayer zones on the outside
of the double phyllosilicate sheets. These interlayer cations are not irrevocably
held in the mineral structure and can be replaced or exchanged with other
cations from their environment. This is also the hydrated interlayer region of
this clay mineral where the large polar water molecules occur. To complicate
the structure further, the number of water molecules of the zone can vary
from zero to eight, with a corresponding shrinking and swelling of the entire
structural unit of this expandable clay mineral. In addition, certain polar
organic liquids also can displace some to all of the polar water molecules held
in the interlayer zone. All such mineral structures are collectively members
of the smectite "group" of clay minerals, the individual "species" of which are
named mainly on the basis of their relative Al, Mg, and Fe content, and to a
lesser extent on the more loosely held exchangable cations, even though the
pure compositional endmembers are not likely to exist. Our XRD and XRF
analyses suggest that montmorillonite is the "species" (i.e., aluminous but with
some Fe and Mg in the "cheese" layer) of the smectite "group" minerals that
occur in our samples. Consequently, we use the term montmorillonite because
while all montmorillonites are smectites, not all smectites are montmorillonite.
The reader might be more familiar with the commercial nickname "bentonite,"
which is essentially montmorillonite with exchangable Na' or Ca+2 cations
in the interlayer zone. The highly variable compositional and structural nature
Tested samples
88-21: low-magnesium calcite
with minor amounts of
quartz and traces of illite
88-19: low-magnesium calcite
with minor amounts of
sylvite
88-13L: light component.
Llipta or
Llukta
or
tokra
or lejia
Mat'aqi
Qhaqha chhunta,
ccacca chunta,
kkhakkya chunta,
chunta
Llikta, llichta, llijt'a,
lloita, llinta, llujt'a,
lukta, llucta, toqra,
t'oqura, toqro
Calcium carbonate,
calcium sulfate, two
varieties: black and
white
Variable composition,
usually with K, Ca,
Mg, Al, Fe,
phosphates, sulfates,
Mataka, matake,
Llampu, llamppo
Hayu, q'ayu, cachi
Suca
Alcali fijo
Allpa or
laq'a
88-14: ca. 78% K, 10% Ca,
10% S, with sylvite,
alunite, gorgeyite
chlorides, ammonia as
frequent constituents
Guano
88-12: poorly crystallized mix
Calcareous earth
Halite
of hydroxyl-apatite and
fluorapatite, and some
halite
No sample
No sample
mataque
Llamp'u
Jayu or
kachi
Chal¡
sulfate
No sample
Hallpa, alpa, laka
Potassium and sodium
nitrate
No sample
Salitre, sodium
No sample
carbonate
Saltpeter
No sample
Generic earth
No sample
(distinguished by
colors and textures)
for interna] uses
of the smectites in general gives rise to their relatively high absorptive and
cation exchange capacities.
With an appropriate geological environment (enough K+ content, adequate
thermal and mechanical energy accompanying burial, and time to mature),
montmorillonite commonly can change to illite-a mineral whose name, origin,
composition, and structure is still debated by geologists. We cannot even decide
if it is a "claylike mica" or a "micalike clay." We will proceed without such a
r,rr,%nnruArn¡ nnv• Ani INTFRNATIONAI inIIRNAI 417 418 VOL. 8, NO. 5
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
resolution by stating an idealized illite mineral would have the composition
(H30, K)2A114(Si3A1O10)2(OH)4. This structure is only a K+ step away from the
composition K2A14(Si3A1O10)2(OH)4, which is the "species" muscovite of the
mica "group" of minerals. (The Mg-Fe "species" biotite is also a member of
this mica "group"). The structural composition of muscovite is rather fixed and
has only limited absorptive and cation exchange capacity unless some of the
K+ cation can be leached out and replaced, as occurs during weathering processes. Being essentially intermediate (to a first approximation) between montmorillonite and muscovite, illite can be anticipated to be intermediate in the
absorptive and cation exchange capacities of these two minerals.
Another complex family of mineral materials expected from our literature
search to occur among the comestible earths are the "alums," which are in
essence hydrated alkali aluminum sulfates. It seems clear from our search
that previous workers simply equate any aluminum sulfate-bearing material
with alum. Some are, but most are not alum.
Specifically, alum (or potash alum) is KA1(S04)2 • 12H2O. There are other
alumlike minerals where Na' and NH4 cations have replaced K+ in the 12hydrate alum structure. All three are rare minerals. More common in occurrence, but still rare, are the 11-hydrate K- and NaAI(S04)2 • 11H2O forros.
None of these minerals were detected in our comestible earth samples. Most
alums are currently manufactured by a multistep procedure, which is outside
the scope of our review.
It seems likely, on the basis of our small sample set, that alum (per se) is
not a component of natural altiplano comestible clays. We believe this to be
true because all the members of the natural alums' are highly soluble and
therefore classified as evaporites. They usually occur as efflorescence "salts"
of weathering rocks, such as shales and felsic volcanics. To survive at all in
nature, they either collect in sheltered areas such as caves or as evaporites in
playa basins in desert environments. With addition of water, they easily dissolve, but in the cave or playa environments they reprecipitate with evaporation essentially in place. Even when dry, they can slowly dehydrate, and careful
future work might require quick encapsulation of samples to prevent hydration
or dehydration of the samples. If the local populations are attempting to modify
the material by successive solution-evaporation, there might be any number
of intermediate "hydrated alkali aluminum sulfates" produced which could
easily be recognized by XRD analysis. On the other hand, such evaporative
products could occur naturally.
Although not "alums," two aluminous sulfate hydrates, alunogen and halotrichite, were recognized, as mentioned in our discussion of the millu earths.
An aluminous sulfate material we expected to find in abundante was alunite
KA13(S04)2(OH)6, an alkali aluminum sulfate hydroxide (i.e., not a hydrate).
In contrast to the "alums," alunite is essentially insoluble in water, and once
having formed would easily survive any subsequent treatment of comestible
clay (unless heated beyond 500°C). It was found only in samples of lejia. In its
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
Table II. Test sample origins.
Sample
88-1
88-2
88-3
88-4
88-5
88-6
88-7
88-8
88-9
88-10
88-11
88-12
88-13
88-14
88-15
88-16
88-17
88-18
88-19
88-20
88-21
88-22
Name
Ch'aqu
Phasa
Qullpa/taku
Millu
Azufre negro
Azufre amarillo
Qullpa blanco
Makaya
Phasa wasa
Millu
Qullpa
Mat'agi
Hake mas¡
Lejia
Phasa
Ch'aqu
Unknown
Unknown
Cal
Ch'aqu/phasa
Lejia/q'atawi
Unknown
Date
Location
Oruro
Oruro
Oruro
Oruro
Potosi
Potosi
Unkas
Oruro
Potosi
Unkas (?)
Huari, Oruro
Potosi
La Paz
Achocalla, La Paz
llave, Puno
Estuquina site
Estuquina site
Azapa, Arica
La Paz
Chiripa site
Algarrobal site
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
July 1987
April 1987
A.D.1300-1450
A.D.1300-1450
A.D. 1000-1450
July 1987
400-100 B.C.
A2.1300-1450
Pilot study specimens purchased for Browman in the "Witches' Market" in La Paz, Bolivia, by
Niki R. Clark. Date refers to purchase date for modern samples, but to archaeological period for
prehistoric samples. Location refers to the source of the earth according to the vendor, or the
archaeological proveniente of prehistoric samples.
crude ore form, it is called alumstone or alum rock, and it is the best suited
raw material for commercial manufacture of alum.
EARTH PREPARATIONS UTILIZED ON THE ALTIPLANO
In order to investigate the physiological and cultural properties of the comestible earths, we initiated a small pilot project, collecting a series of earths
from a vendor in the indigenous pharmaceutical market (called the "Witches'
Market") in La Paz, Bolivia. In addition, a few archaeological samples of earths
were also included. These samples are listed in Table II.
Literature sources were employed to attempt to cover those earths for which
we lacked samples in our pilot study. It was evident from the sometimes
conflicting determinations that either these comestible earths, as cultural categories, could include more than one chemically defined earth, or that tentative
characterizations were in error.
In Tables IA-ID, we have summarized the various comestible earths in our
inventory. The first column contains the most appropriate native linguistic
name for the earth, while the second column includes several common alterna-
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ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
tive spellings and even alternative names . The third column lists the various
chemical identifications reported in the literature , while the fourth column lists
the chemical characterization of the substance from any sample we collected in
the pilot study. Additional details on the physiological, cultural, and medicinal
utilization of these earths are covered in a separate article (Browman and
Gundersen, n.d.).
The phyllosilicate and silicate cluster of ch'aqu, phasa , quntuya, llink'i, and
lliphi, include the most frequently consumed earths. Use of ch'aqu and phasa
has a considerable time depth, with indications of use in ethnohistoric and
prehistoric contexts. These, as well as most of the other consumed earths, are
identified in the prehispanic Inca period, and ultimately we expect to be able
to demonstrate utilization of many of the earths millennia into the past. The
silicates/phyllosilicates quntuya, llink'i, and lliphi are sometimes consumed,
but more often are employed for medicinal purposes, pigments, ceramics, or
other cultural purposes.
The sulfur mineral cluster includes qullpa, millu, sirsaquina or sallina, makaya, llimpi, pachacha, hampi or jiwayiri qulli, and compi. In some cases,
indigenous categories may include more than one chemical compound for the
same native named substance. For example, qullpa includes two variants: one
identified as an alum, and the other as a salitre . The qullpa variant identified
as an alum is employed most often in practices that make use of its astringent
qualities, such as in medicinal and religious preparations, and as a mordant
for dyes. The qullpa variant identified as a salitre is employed as a comestible
sauce. Native subcategories for qullpa (and also for millu) involved additional
differentiation between "black" or "wild," and "white" or "good," distinctions.
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
included three earths identified as consumed -chali , suca and alcali fijo-that
we have yet to find enough information on to feel comfortable with classification, although all three of these seem to be salitres used in a variety of ways,
such as salting down meats for preservation, as well as general medicinal and
comestible functions.
No mention has been made here of the preparations made from bezoar
"stones," the calculi deposits derived from the camelids as well as other animals.
Because the powdered mixtures made from these concretions or "stones" are
only used for medicinal and ritual purposes, they were not included in our
listings, although preparations made from the bezoar stones are extremely
important for ethnohistoric and prehistoric periods.
FUNCTION AND ORIGIN OF GEOPHAGY
Review of the comestible earths from the Andes indicated that while some
named varieties might be employed specifically for nutritional purposes, and
utilized as sauces, mineral supplements, and detoxicants , certain of these
earths might also be used for technological purposes , such as colorants, mordants, acarcides , and fertilizers , and others were employed in a very wide range
of medicinal ( preventative , diagnostic , and curative ) situations.
In terms of the question of whether the clays are effective detoxicants with
respect to phytotoxins , the most important Andean earths are phasa and ch'aqu
of the phyllosilicate cluster . Previous studies by Forbes (1870: 250), Chervin
(1908: 161), and Cespedes and Villegas (1977: 155) indicated these to be principally smectities , illítes, and kaolinites.
A recent study by Johns ( 1985 , 1986 ) greatly helps our understanding. Johns
studied the adsorptive qualities of phasa and ch'aqu from the Andes and dleesh
from the Chinle area of Arizona, and compared them to the commercially
purchased materials bentonite [ a trade name of montmorillonite] and kaolin
[kaolinite according to his supplier , Sigma Chemical , August 21, 1989], in
terms of their ability to adsorb glycoalkaloid ágent s, the principal phytotoxiu
of Andean tubers. The aboriginal clays had an adsorption capacity of 0.14-0.50
g of glycoalkaloid per gram of clay ; for the commercial sources, kaolin was
rated at only 0.05 g/g, while bentonite , one of the best commercially available
adsorbants , was rated at 0.37 g/ g (Johns 1985:238, 1986 : 637). In this case,
not only were the comestible clays phasa and ch ' aqu effective in adsorbing the
phytotoxins, but one of the samples , the phasa from Achocalla , Bolivia, was
superior ( 0.50 g/g) to the best commercial adsorbant (bentonite 0.37 g/ g). Johns
has rather nicely added to our research by showing that these Andean comestible earths are very effective adsorbants of phytotoxins , not only glycoalkaloids
such as solanine , which are typical of Andean tubers, but other toxic alkaloids
such as saponins , which are found in the Andean chenopod grains, and steroid
and cardiac glycosides as well.
The metals cluster includes principally ¡ron and copper compounds. The ironbased materials include taku, siwayru, and iman kala, and the copper-based
material is kopakiri. These metal compounds may be employed for therapeutic
purposes in various comestible forms. The most frequent forms of ingestion
are powders for mixing in drinks, and fabricated bars and, halls which are
eaten like candy bars.
The calcium and salitre clusters include a number of earths which appear
in large part consumed for calcium or other salts. The most important calcium
earth is q'atawi, which is frequently employed as a food additive. Utilization
of this earth has considerable antiquity, being identified in Pacific Coast samples at least by A.D. 1300, and in one sample from Bolivia as early as 2500
years ago (see Table II). Hake mas¡, llamp'u, and khakya chunta appear to
mix characteristics of sulfur and calcium compounds. Literary sources vary as
to whether they are employed because of sulfur or calcium. As with sulfur
compounds, they are often identified as both white and black, good and bad,
or male and female forms. Included in the salitre "cluster" are a number of
other mineral preparations. Some of them, such as llipta or lejia , and mat'agi,
may contain significant organic binders. Others such as jayu or kachi, and
allpa or laq'a seem to refer to generic earth and mineral salt clusters . We have
Nutritional contributions , in terms of elements otherwise deficient in the
diet , is a second physiological contribution of the comestible earths. Clays
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 421
422
vni
A
nin
r,
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
sometimes bind nutrient elements and render them unavailable to the organism. However, the kaolinite component of the Andean clays seems to be of the
same nature as those seen in the "eko" clays studied by Vermeer and Ferrell
(1985:635) in Africa, which, similar to the Andean earths, were traded over
hundreds of kilometers, were effective in adsorbing toxins, and also did not
interfere significantly with absorption of ¡ron or zinc (two of the elements
commonly bound by clays). Studies particularly of lejia or llipta suggest it
could be a valuable source of several elements. In this sense , at least some of
our comestible earths serve as important dietary mineral supplements. As
Hunter observed (1973: 179), "perhaps most important, the clays offer a much
wider range of mineral supplementation than the commercial products do."
The origin of geophagy is an issue which is difficult to determine: Just how
was it that the Andean populations discovered which earths were effective?
Johns (1986: 643) argues that because eight extant primates are geophagous,
that the earliest hominids also likely were geophagous, specifically ingesting
exogenous substances for their detoxification properties. As he points out
(1985:252), prior to human ability to control fire and use it to break down
phytotoxins which are heat -sensitive , geophagy was the major mechanism
available to human populations dealing with plant toxins. But even after the
advent of fire control, Johns argues that geophagy is a more effective means
of dealing with heat stable and/or water-insoluble compounds such as glycoalkaloids than is cooking. Recently Johns (1990:204) has proposed that "geophagy alone appears to be the key that enabled humans to overcome the
constraints (glycoalkaloid) toxicity placed on the domestication process" in the
Andes.
Primates, however, are not the only geophagous species. Many mammals
eat earth-salt licks or mineral licks are common throughout the world. In a
recent study based in North America (Jones and Hanson, 1985), herbivores
such as moose, antelope, elk, deer, bison, mountain sheep, and mountain goats,
carnivores such as brown and black bear, small mammals such as woodchucks,
raccoons, porcupine, and squirrels, and other species such as many kinds of
birds and small rodents, were all found to be geophagous.
Of particular interest to our studies, and we think to the possible origins of
geophagy, is the fact that in their analyses of the various mineral licks utilized
by the herbivores, Jones and Hanson (1985:80) found that the most important
components were three of the hydrous phyllosilicates: illites, kaolinites, and
smectites. These, of course, were the most common constituents of the Andean
phasa and ch'aqu comestible earths. It is evident that these clay and claylike
minerals might be employed by quite a number of mammalian species for their
abilities to adsorb various substances in the diet.
In answering the question how Añdearl human groups may have determined
which specific local earth Más sú table fo ^utritional or detoxification purposes
(in contrast to most o`f the earths avgilablq,around their habitations, which do
not have useful bioávailable próperties);'it' now seems most likely that the
ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS
early inhabitants of the Andes may simply have followed their prey, the various
camelids, deer, and other herbivores, and exploited some of the same locales
which the animals used as licks. We no longer have to posit the model of
Andean groups sampling all sorts of earth in a trial and error method, as
previous studies have suggested for geophagy among humans. Both the clays
exploited by herbivores in their salt licks, and the most important comestible
clays of the highland groups, phasa and ch'aqu, are smectites, illites, and
kaolinites. Hence we can suggest this linkage as a reasonable mechanism for
human identification of appropriate comestible clays, at least for these specific
varieties.
We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Niki R. Clark from Washington University in obtaining voucher specimens from the La Paz herbalist market and of Karl Gundersen, and especially
Rick Dunn from Wichita State University in sample preparation , XRD analysis, and laborious
search through the diffraction data of known minerals in attempting to help identify the mineral
components of our samples . Dr. Cam Dorey (WSU-Chemistry) made the preliminary study of
Sample 88-7 . Dr. Lucy Briggs assisted in sorting out some of the Aymara terminology. Any errors
in interpretation are ours alone.
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Received November 25, 1991
Accepted for publication March 20, 1993
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