- Social Hotspots Database

Transcription

Social Scoping Prototype
Report Product Category 7
Strawberry Yogurt
Catherine Benoît
Deana Aulisio
Caroline Hallisey-Kepka
Nick Tamblyn
Gregory A. Norris
Table of Contents
3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Research key findings
Summary
10
1. OVERVIEW
Strawberries
Yogurt in the Market
14
2. TYPICAL SUPPLY CHAIN
Types of Yogurt and Ingredients
Dairy Farms
Strawberry Cultivation
Yogurt Production
Strawberry Yogurt Sourcemap™
Human Health Impacts of Yogurt
24
3. SOCIAL HOTSPOT ASSESSMENT
Goal and Scope of the Assessment
SHDB Methodology
Hotspots based on Worker Hours (WH)
Hotspots based on the External Review of the Supply Chain (SC)
37
4. LITERATURE REVIEW OF SOCIAL ISSUES
Dairy
Strawberries
Sugar Beets and Sugarcane
Forestry and Paper
Chemical Products
45
5. MEDIA CAMPAIGNS
50
6. INITIATIVES & BEST PRACTICES
53
7. CERTIFICATIONS & LABELING
56
8. CONCLUSION
59
REFERENCES
62
ANNEX - DETAILS ON THE SOCIAL HOTSPOT DATABASE
THE SUSTAINABILITY CONSORTIUM & NEW EARTH
T ABLE OF CONTENTS
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Executive Summary
This report presents a scoping for the social life cycle assessment of strawberry
yogurt. The goal is to identify and present the social hotspots in the strawberry
yogurt supply cycle. Social Hotspots are production activities in the product life
cycle that provide a higher opportunity to address issues of concern (eg. human
rights, community well-being etc.), as well as highlight potential: risks of violations,
risks affecting reputations, and issues that need to be considered when doing
business in a certain sector in a certain region/country.
The assessment has been produced in the context of The Sustainability Consortium’s effort
to develop Sustainability Measurement and Reporting Systems (SMRS). It aims to provide
insights for the identification of a set of Sustainability Performance Indicators (SPI’s) by
each of the sector groups, in this case, the Food, Beverage and Agriculture Sector Working
Group (FBA).
The Social Scoping Pilots are also anticipated to inform more significantly the development
of the social Sustainability Measurement and Reporting System (SMRS). The initial Social
Scoping process takes the following steps:
1. Hotspot Identification
2. Review of campaigns, certifications standards and initiatives
Those two steps are compiled in this report and should be followed by:
3. Validation of Hotspots and important certifications, standards and initiatives
(by the sector working groups)
This step essentially consists of a discussion of the findings and validation when
appropriate by the sector group. In addition, two additional steps may follow the
social scoping pilot:
4. Formal identification of improvement options for hotspots
5. Proposition of a reporting framework enabling companies
to report on Sustainability Performance Indicators
A selection of research strategies has been operationalized in order to offer several
perspectives on potential social hotspots and meet the goal of the assessment.
The first two sections of this report briefly describe the yogurt industry and present an
overview of the strawberry yogurt supply chain, the different life cycle phases and its
main components. The third section describes the methodology and presents the results
of the social hotspot assessment. The social hotspots literature review is presented in the
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
fourth section. The final three sections present the main media campaigns, initiatives, and
certifications that are raising awareness to social issues in the sectors related to strawberry
yogurt and its ingredients, and relevant to the Food, Beverage, and Agriculture TSC sector
group.
The Hotspot analysis in the third section utilizes the Social Hotspot Database (SHDB)
when analyzing the strawberry yogurt life cycle. The SHDB (www.socialhotspot.org) is
a resource for Social Life Cycle Assessment providing data on 15 social themes including
approximately 50 indicators by country, and sector when available, utilizing over one
hundred publicly available references. Two separate models were tested within the SHDB
to analyze the strawberry yogurt life cycle. One model is based on the share of worker
hours by country-specific sector necessary to produce US$1M of strawberry yogurt in
the U.S. (according to a dairy product sector and vegetable and fruit sector worker hours
model). The other model is based on a literature review of the strawberry yogurt supply
chain’s main production activities and their potential locations. Results of the assessments
indicate the country-specific sectors (CSS) most at risk or offering opportunity to address
particular social issues within the strawberry yogurt life cycle (i.e., social hotspots). These
hotspots are prioritized based on a Hotspot Index that weighs the level of risk of all social
issues for that CSS and incorporates the worker hours rank of the CSS.
A literature review of reports and documents delivering information on the main social
issues found in the strawberry yogurt life cycle, is presented following the SHDB results of
CSS most at risk for Social Hotspots. The literature review validates the modeling results
and provides additional information to make expert judgments on the most pertinent
social issues, and where they might occur, in the production of strawberry yogurt from farm
to gate.
Research key findings
A ranking of the total possible 6,441 CSS with the greatest share of worker hours was
produced for the skilled, unskilled, and total workforce based on the Global Trade and
Analysis Project (GTAP) economic input/output model and wage rate data. Because the
worker hours model is not specific enough to evaluate strawberry yogurt explicitly, worker
hours across the strawberry yogurt supply chain were examined for two different U.S.
sectors, dairy products and vegetable and fruits. The rankings of CSS are based on the
greatest share of worker hours for the production of US$1M of dairy product or US$1M
vegetables and fruits in the U.S.
The data indicate that there are fewer total work hours necessary to produce US$1M of
dairy product (35,600 total worker hours/US$1M) compared to the same value of vegetable
and fruits (59,000 total worker hours/US$1M). Ninety-five percent (95%) of the worker
hours are within the top 488 ranked CSS for the dairy product sector and the top 292 for
the vegetable and fruits sector. Thus, the worker hours are more distributed across sectors
(488 compared to 292) for the milk products sector compared to the vegetables and fruits
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sector. However, compared to a product like a laptop, for which 95% of the worker hours
are within the first 71 ranked CSS, strawberry yogurt supply chain worker hours appears
to be more distributed.
The top sector for US$1M of dairy product produced in the U.S. is the dairy products
sector (this is not always the case, for skilled labor the most worker hour-intense sector
is business services). The milk product sector is responsible for nearly 20% of the total
and unskilled worker hours, and only 9% of the skilled labor. The India oil seed sector is
the only CSS from another country to appear on the top ten list, which most likely relates
to the dairy cow feed. The important U.S. sectors with regards to worker hours for dairy
products include business services and retail operations, raw milk production, financial
intermediation, construction, and transport.
The top sector for production of US$1M of vegetables and fruits in the U.S. is vegetables
and fruits in the U.S., which is responsible for 34% of the total worker hours, 38% of the
unskilled worker hours, and 8% of the skilled labor in the supply chain. The important
sectors in the U.S. with regards to worker hours for vegetables and fruits include business
services and retail operations, financial intermediation, paper products and publishing,
construction, and transport. U.S. lumber is important, most likely for pallets to ship fruits
and vegetables, as well as the chemical industry, for its fertilizers and pesticides and plastic
packaging.
According to the SHDB web instance, www.socialhotspot.org, the social issues with very
high risk at in the U.S. are: (1) the country’s refusal to ratify international labor conventions
and (2) its deficiencies in collective bargaining rights for workers. Freedom of Association
and the Right to Strike are also not well recognized. At the sector-specific level for the
growing of vegetable and fruit in the U.S., wages might not be adequate in keeping unskilled
workers above the non-poverty guideline set by the Labor Rights Forum (sweatfree.org,
2011). There is also the risk of forced labor within this particular sector. Specifically for
dairy production in the U.S., for all issues, this sector has only low or medium risk.
The top 200 Worker Hour (WH) CSS were chosen from the dairy product sector analysis
and the top 50 WH CSS were tested from the vegetable and fruit product analysis. The
results of the SHDB modeling of these WH CSS indicate that, specifically for the top ten
WH CSS, the Hotspot Index is the highest for oil seeds from India (HI=87), and ranges from
approximately 38-45 for the U.S. sectors. The dairy industry has a lowest Hotspot Index
and the highest is for corn and other grains used to feed the cows. Raw Milk falls in the
middle with a Hotspot Index of 42.
A comprehensive list of 159 total country-specific sectors (CSS) selected based on the
CSS literature review was also tested within the SHDB model. Thirty Supply Chain (SC)
CSS were selected based on their Hotspot Index, which incorporates their Worker Hours
ranking. The CSS that should be of most concern based on social impacts in food-related
sectors include vegetables and fruits from China and Philippines (however, most likely,
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strawberries in the U.S. are not sourced from these countries); dairy products from China;
sugarcane or beet sugar from India, China, and Thailand; animal products like gelatin from
India and China; and other food products like starches and hydrocolloids from China. The
chemical products sector, for production of yogurt containers mainly, may bear social issues
in Indonesia, China, India, and Venezuela. Also, fertilizers and pesticides produced from
petroleum in China are at risk. Mining of metal ores, fabricated metal products, and nonferrous metal production, specifically for aluminum lids, is of concern in India and Guinea.
The literature review of social issues, conducted in parallel, has distinguished multiple
problems in the sectors of interest, such as:
• Worker rights such as inadequate housing and transport, lack of transparency
from labor contractors, exclusion from unemployment insurance and prevention of
collective bargaining may be an issue for some hired dairy workers.
• Local food production, maintaining a community’s agriculture heritage,
recreational access, charitable activities (donation of time and money), as well as
farm “nuisances” like flies and odor are among the most important community
social issues for the dairy sector.
• Large amounts of pesticide and insecticide are being applied to strawberries that
can affect the health and safety of workers and neighboring communities.
• Occupational safety and heat stress protections, denial of rest and meal periods,
unpaid overtime and minimum wages, retaliation and wrongful termination as
well as sexual harassment are violations most commonly reported for California
Specialty crops farming operations.
The high number of the media campaigns compiled reflects that several issues pertaining
to dairy farms and strawberries were brought to the attention of the public in recent
years. It supports the social issues literature review and the social hotspots assessment of
working conditions in the specialty crops and dairy sector especially regarding freedom of
association and collective bargaining rights, infringement of workers rights and health and
safety risk related to pesticide and insecticide use.
A limited number of certifications are available for strawberries, sugar and dairies.
Ingredients often need to be organic in order to obtain a “fair” certification. One of the
most important initiatives related to strawberry yogurt is the U.S. Stewardship Index for
Specialty Crops.
Table I offers a selection of the CSS to be considered hotspots based on the results of the
assessments and literature review. The countries and sectors were selected as hotspots if:
• They are responsible for a large share of the worker hours
• They are at high risk for social issues based on the Hotspot Index
• They were identified by multiple sources including media campaigns
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Table 1: Sectors and Countries Most at Risk to be Hotspots in the Strawberry Yogurt Supply Chain
sectors to be aware of
countries to be aware of within sector
Raw Milk
USA
Vegetable and fruits - strawberries
USA, Mexico, China
Corn and other cereal grains
USA
Animal products - gelatin
India, China
Other foods - starches
China
Sugarcane, beet sugar
India
Chemical products = containers
China, Venezuela, Indonesia
Petroleum products - fertilizers
China
Summary
In brief, the SHDB assessments, in combination with the literature review of social issues
and media campaigns, indicate what production activities and countries may be hotspots
in the strawberry yogurt life cycle. Dairy and strawberry production are both responsible
for a very large amount of the worker hours in the strawberry yogurt supply chain.
Production activities for U.S.-made strawberry yogurt that rank highest in the worker
hours assessment occur primarily within the U.S. Therefore, they are important to assess
for social issues using the Social Hotspot Database, even if sectors within the U.S. have a
lower Social Hotspot Index compared to other countries.
Other countries and sectors are of interest according to an external review of the
strawberry yogurt supply chain in general. Added ingredients such as gelatin from India
or China or starches from China can be at risk of social impacts. Sugar, in particular from
India, also bares significant risk. Chemical products, including plastic containers and
fertilizers/pesticides, also represent important risk when originating in countries like
China, Venezuela, and Indonesia. Finally, while U.S. retail operations, business services,
land transport, and utilities are also non-trivial in terms of worker hours in the supply
chain, they are not considered to be primary hotspots in this assessment, since in general,
social issues in the U.S. are not as severe as in other less developed countries.
Figures I-III offer a visual representation of these CSS recommended as hotspots in the
strawberry yogurt supply chain. The most relevant social issues are indicated, but many
more were measured using the SHDB and are shown in the supplemental spreadsheet. The
sector or country of concern is indicated in the Title of the each Figure. The legend shows
the countries or CSS chosen as hotspots for strawberry yogurt. In the legend, the Hotspot
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Index is reported as HI and the Worker hours rank is reported as WH. As for the scaling of
the spider plot, 0=no data or no evidence, 1=low, 2=medium, 3=high, and 4=very high risk
or opportunity.
Because the worker hours are concentrated in mostly U.S. CSS with a fairly low level of social
issues compared to other less developed countries, the Food, Beverage, and Agriculture
Sector in the U.S, can show rapid progress if it addresses the social hotspots mentioned
in this report. However, those countries and sectors with an equally large share of the
labor time for strawberry yogurt produced in the U.S., like fruits and vegetables in Mexico
and China, as well as CSS further down the worker hours ranking, do require significant
improvements in the social sphere.
Figure I: Level of Social Issues for
Hotspots in the Fruit and Vegetable
and Dairy Sectors
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Figure II: Level of Social Issues
for Hotspots in the Chemical and
Petroleum Products Sectors
*Note: China Chemical Products
& Petroleum Products follow the
same line.
Figure III: Level of Social Issues
for Hotspots in Other Food-related
Sectors
*Note: China Animal Products
& Other Foods and India Animal
Products & sugarcane follow the
same line.
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Overview
1 OVERVIEW
Most accounts attribute the introduction of yogurt
to the people of Central Asia around 6000 B.C. The
claim is that herdsman would milk their animals and
keep the milk in carrying containers that were made
from animal stomachs.
The naturally occurring enzymes in the
stomach containers would curdle the milk
making a primitive form of yogurt. This
curdling kept the milk from spoiling and
had a good taste (Dairy Goodness, 2011).
The word yogurt is Turkish in origin.
There is another legend that yogurt was
created on the slopes of Mount Elbrus in
the Caucasus mountain range between
the Black and Caspian Seas. The story told
is that a pitcher of milk belonging to a
Turkish nomad was left warm and instead
of being spoiled a new food that was thick
and tasteful was created (N.E.M Business
Solutions, 2001).
The fermentation process of yogurt
takes place because of two useful
bacteria, lactobacillus bulgaricus and
streptocococcus thermophiles.
When
added to milk at the right temperature
for fermentation, the two bacteria
work together to create yogurt. Turkish
immigrants brought their refined methods
of making yogurt from cow’s milk to North
America in the 1700’s. While yogurt did
not become common in the U.S. until the
late 19th century, it was considered a food
staple in places like the Middle East long
before it became popular in the United
States. The top global yogurt consumers
are still the Balkan countries (Yalin, 2010).
The first industrialized production of yogurt
did not occur until 1919 in Barcelona,
Spain. The Spaniard, Issac Carasso, named
his yogurt company “Danone” after his
son, “Little Daniel”. In the 1940’s, Daniel
Carasso, Issac’s son, and Juan Metzeger
took over a factory in the Bronx, New York
and created Dannon in the United States
(Dairy Goodness, 2011). Dannon was the
first company to have some success in the
U.S. yogurt market when they decided to
mix strawberry preserves into their yogurt
and offer it as a dessert item in 1947
(Filippone, 2011).
Originally, people believed that yogurt had
preserving properties to protect the human
body against aging but this fact was never
proven. It has been agreed, however, that
regular consumption of yogurt does benefit
the digestive tract as the active culture in
the yogurt supports bacteria in the digestive
system. When lactic acid is produced from
the lactose in the milk, a preservative effect
takes place lowering the pH, which inhibits
the overgrowth of detrimental organisms.
This natural process also increases the life
of the product (N.E.M Business Solutions,
2001).
In 1950 Gayelord Hauser published a book
called “Look Younger, Live Longer”, where
he claimed yogurt was a “wonder food”.
This comment gave yogurt one of the boosts
it needed in the U.S. Yogurt sales in the U.S.
took off and production increased 500% by
1968. According to the FDA, yogurt has not
been proven to have any additional health
benefits compared to other milk products.
SOC I AL SCOPING REPORT | STRAWBERRY YOGURT
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1 OVERVIEW
But Hauser’s personal opinion went a long
way to jump-start the yogurt industry in
the United States (Filippone, 2011).
Strawberries
Strawberries can be traced back to Italy
in 234 B.C. where they were found to be
growing in the wild (Manzanita Berry
Farms, 2011). In ancient Rome and France
strawberries were used for various
medicinal purposes. The strawberry plants
that grew in the Alps were used for digestive
problems and skin diseases (Nakate, 2011).
Strawberries were not actively cultivated
until the Renaissance period in Europe.
Currently, they are most often cultivated
as an annual crop even though the plants
can last five to six years. The strawberry
can take between eight to fourteen months
to come to maturity and requires a male
and female component to produce fruit
(Filippone, 2011).
The strawberry plant is a member of the
Rosaceae (rose) family and the genus,
Fragaria (Nakate, 2011). The two most
common varieties of strawberries are
a hybrid version of the wild Virginia
strawberry, which is native to North
America, and a Chilean variety called
Futilla. Local American Indians were
cultivating strawberries as early as 1643 in
Massachusetts. The first group of colonists
sent the native strawberries back to Europe
in the early 1600’s (Filippone, 2011).
Madam Theresa Tallien, a French social
figure during the Revolution, introduced
the use of strawberries into cosmetics
and facial treatments in the 20th century;
and because of this, large-scale use of
strawberries in shampoo, moisturizers,
cleansers, and soaps emerged (Nakate,
2011).
Originally strawberries were not cultivated
in North America because they were so
abundant in the wild. By 1860, however,
strawberries were grown widely across
the country (Manzanita Berry Farms,
2011). The cultivation of strawberries
in North America became popular in the
19th century because of their use in a
popular desert dish, strawberries and
cream. New York became the hot spot for
shipping strawberries with the invention
of the refrigerated railroad. Production
eventually spread to Arkansas, Louisiana,
Florida and Tennessee. Currently greater
than 75% of the strawberry crop in North
America is grown in California. Strawberry
festivals have been dated back as far as
1850 and are still popular today (Filippone,
2011).
California produces approximately one
billion pounds of strawberries each year,
and one acre of strawberry producing land
in California will produce on average 21
tons of strawberries annually. Californians
plant approximately 23,000 acres each year.
Florida is the second largest production
state in the United States for strawberries
(University of Illinois Extension, 2011).
In 2008 the top three importing countries
of strawberries were France, Germany
and Canada, and the top three exporting
countries were Spain, United States
and the Netherlands (FAOSTAT, 2008).
Yogurt in the Market
The U.S. refrigerated yogurt market is
large and growing, both in per capita
consumption and total consumption. Sales
of yogurt and yogurt drinks grew 32% from
2004 to 2009, reaching nearly $4.1 billion
in food, drug and mass-merchant channels.
Premium, all-natural, organic, Greek-style
12
1 OVERVIEW
and functional products such as those with
probiotics are driving growth (Purcell,
2011). Danone and General Mills are the top
two market leaders, with their Dannon and
Yoplait brands, respectively. Most of the
refrigerated yogurt consumed in the U.S.
is produced in the U.S. Statistics show that
99.8% of the yogurt consumed in the U.S.
is produced within the country while only
0.2 percent is imported. Nevertheless, total
imports of yogurt increased 500 percent
from 1999 to 2001, as Spain entered the
market (Orgish, 2002).
adults increased from 52% in 2003 to 56
percent in 2009, especially among those
aged 25-44. Sixty-eight percent of women
eat refrigerated yogurt/yogurt drinks,
compared to only 43 percent of men.
Teens exhibit the highest incidence of
eating yogurt among any other group at 59
percent. Yogurt consumption among kids
ages 6-11 reached 54% in 2009, driven
by an influx of products targeted to the
younger set (Purcell, 2011).
Danone products account for the largest
share of the United States Yogurt market,
with 17.6 percent of the market in value
terms. Danone has recently agreed to
acquire an initial 40% stake in Stonyfield
Farm.
Stonyfield Farm has a strong
reputation in the U.S. market, focusing on
healthy nutritious organic produce and a
sense of environmental responsibility. At
present Stonyfield Farm leads the natural
yogurt sector. General Mills has capitalized
on the demand for convenience foods,
packaging its produce in a number of
innovative ways (Orgish, 2002).
The U.S. refrigerated yogurt market is
dominated by flavored yogurt, which
had a market share of 94.2 percent in
2001 compared with a market share of
5.8 percent for plain yogurt. Within the
flavored yogurt category, vanilla held a
market share of 7.1 percent (Orgish, 2002).
More than 1,200 new yogurt products were
introduced in the U.S. since 2005, although
product introductions fell off in 2009 amid
a troubled economy. Frozen yogurt was the
only segment to show an increase in new
products since 2008 (Purcell, 2011).
Refrigerated yogurt consumption among
13
Typical
Supply Chain
2 TYPICAL SUPPLY CHAIN
The supply chain of strawberry yogurt
starts at the dairy farm and in the
strawberry fields. This section will begin
by introducing the types of yogurt that exist
on the market and the various ingredients
that are used to make yogurt. Then, short
descriptions of how dairy farms operate and
how strawberries are grown are offered.
A typical supply chain, or flowchart, for
yogurt production is shown next, along with
detailed processing steps. This farm to gate
analysis, along with the knowledge on the
most essential ingredients used, and where
the ingredients and packaging materials
are commonly produced, are necessary for
acquiring the Social Hotspot Assessment
results presented in the following section.
Types of Yogurt and
Ingredients
Manufacturers have responded to the
growth in the yogurt market by introducing
many different types of yogurt including
low fat and nonfat, creamy, drinkable,
bio-yogurt, organic, baby, and frozen.
Traditional yogurt is thick and creamy and
unflavored. Vanilla is the most popular
flavored yogurt and fruit flavors such as
strawberry or blueberry, are also very
common. Newer, more unique flavors
such as key lime pie and chocolate have
also been introduced. Cereals and nuts
are sometimes sold together as a topping
to yogurts. Low fat yogurt, which contains
between 0.5 percent and 4 percent fat, is
currently the best selling. Nonfat yogurt
contains artificial sweeteners that provide
sweetness. Creamy yogurt, or “Greek style”
is extra thick, made with whole milk and
often strained. Drinking yogurt, like kefir, is
a thinner product, which has a lower solids
level than typical yogurt. Bio-yogurt is
made with a different type of fermentation
culture and is said to aid digestion.
Yogurt is known commonly as a form of
cultured milk because it is derived from
bacterial action on lactose, or fermentation.
This process produces lactic acid,
carbon dioxide, acetic acid, diacetyl, and
acetaldehyde (N.E.M Business Solutions,
2001). Worldwide, cow’s milk is most
commonly used to make yogurt, but milk
from water buffalo, goats, sheep, camels and
yaks is also used. Soya yogurt, a non-dairy
yogurt alternative, is made from soymilk;
this is not an animal product, being made
from soy beans. Dairy yoghurt is fermented
using a culture of Lactobacillus delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus
salivarius subsp. thermophilus bacteria.
In addition, Lactobacillus acidophilus,
Lactobacillus bifidus and Lactobacillus
casei are also sometimes used in culturing
yogurt (Wikipedia, Yoghurt, 2011).
During
fermentation,
the
bacterial
organisms interact with the milk and
convert it into a curd. They also change the
flavor of the milk giving it the characteristic
sour yogurt flavor of which acetaldehyde
is one of the important contributors. The
primary byproduct of the fermentation
process is lactic acid. The acid level is used
to determine when the yogurt fermentation
is complete, which is usually three to four
hours. The suppliers of yogurt cultures
offer various combinations of bacterial
types to produce yogurts with different
flavors and textures (Romanowski, 2011).
While milk is the primary ingredient by
weight, and bacterial culture is the most
important active ingredient, a variety of
additional ingredients including sugars,
stabilizers, fruits and flavors are also
typically added (Table 1). To make yogurt
sweeter, sucrose (sugar) may be added
at approximately 7 percent. For reduced
15
calorie yogurts, artificial sweeteners such
as aspartame or saccharin are used. Heavy
cream may be added to provide a smoother
texture. The consistency and shelf stability
of the yogurt can be improved by the
inclusion of stabilizers such as food starch,
gelatin, locust-bean gum, guar gum and
pectin. These materials are used because
they do not have a significant impact on
the final flavor. The use of stabilizers is not
required, however, and some marketers
choose not to use them in order to retain
a more natural image for their yogurt
(Romanowski, 2011).
To improve taste and provide a variety of
flavors, many kinds of fruits are added to
yogurt. Popular fruits include strawberries,
blueberries, bananas, and peaches, but
almost any fruit can be added. Beyond
fruits, other flavorings are also added.
These can include such things as vanilla,
chocolate, coffee, and even mint. Recently,
manufacturers have become quite creative
in the types of yogurt they produce
using natural and artificial flavorings
(Romanowski, 2011).
Dairy Farms
A dairy is a building used for the harvesting
of animal milk—mostly from cows or
goats, but also from buffalo, sheep, horses
or camels —for human consumption. Milk
producing animals have been domesticated
for thousands of years. In the more recent
past, people in agricultural societies
owned dairy animals that they milked for
domestic and local consumption. With
industrialization and urbanization, the
supply of milk has become a commercial
and mechanized industry. As in many
other branches of the food industry, dairy
processing in the major dairy producing
Table 1: Typical Composition of Strawberry Yogurt
(N.E.M Business Solutions, 2001)
Fat
0.1 - 3.5%
Lactose
3 - 4.5%
Milk solids non fat
11 - 18%
Stabilizer
0.2 - 0.4%
Bacterial Culture
~2%
Sucrose or sweetener
<7%
Fruit or flavor
10 - 20%
countries
has
become
increasingly
concentrated, with fewer but larger and
more efficient plants operated by fewer
workers. This is notably the case in the
United States, Europe, Australia and New
Zealand. As processing plants grow fewer
and larger, they tend to require more
automated and efficient equipment. While
this keeps manufacturing costs lower, the
need for long-distance transportation
often increases the environmental impact
(COWI, 2000).
Dairy cowherds in the U.S. range in size
from small farms of a dozen animals to large
herds of more than 15,000 (McDonald et.al.,
2007). To milk larger numbers of cows,
the cows are brought to a shed or barn
that is set up with stalls where they can be
confined. As herd sizes increase efficient
milking machines, sheds, milk-storage
facilities (vats), bulk-milk transport, shed
cleaning capabilities and means of getting
cows from paddock to shed and back are
necessary. Most dairy farmers milk their
cows at a minimum of twice a day, with
some high-producing herds milking up to
16
four times a day to lessen the weight of
large volumes of milk in the udder of the
cow. If a cow is left unmilked just once she
is likely to reduce milk-production almost
immediately and become dry for the rest of
the season.
A cow will produce large amounts of
milk over her lifetime. Certain breeds
produce more milk than others; however,
production ranges from around 6,800 to
11,000 kg (15,000 to 25,000 lbs) of milk per
lactation. The average for a single dairy cow
in the US in 2007 was 9164.4 kg (20,204
lbs) per year, excluding milk consumed by
her calves (Agricultural Statistics Board,
2009). Production levels peak at around
40 to 60 days after giving birth. Production
declines steadily afterwards, until, at
about 300-320 days after calving, the milk
ceases. About 60 days later, 12-14 months
after the birth of her previous calf, a cow
can calve again. Dairy cows may continue
to be economically productive for many
lactations, up to ten or more, the average in
the U.S. being about three.
In 1937, it was found that bovine
somatotropin (bST or bovine growth
hormone) would increase the yield of milk.
Monsanto Company developed a synthetic
(recombinant) version of this hormone
(rBST). In February 1994, the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) approved rBST
for use in the U.S. It has become common in
the U.S., but not elsewhere, to inject it into
dairy cows to increase their production
by up to 15 percent. However, there are
claims that this practice can have negative
consequences for the animals. A European
Union scientific commission stated that
the use of rBST substantially increased
health problems with cows, including
foot problems, mastitis and injection
site reactions, and caused reproductive
disorders. The report concluded that on
the basis of the health and welfare of the
animals, rBST should not be used (Broom
et.al., 1999). Health Canada prohibited the
sale of rBST in 1999; the recommendations
of external committees were that, despite
not finding a significant health risk to
humans, the drug presented a threat to
animal health and, for this reason, could not
be sold in Canada (Health Canada, 1999).
Strawberry Cultivation
Strawberries are produced year-round
in certain climates, like in California
and Florida. Together, California and
Florida account for over 95 percent of
all strawberries grown in the U.S. The
largest strawberry producing country is
the United States, growing 20-25 percent
of the world’s annual production. Spain is
the world’s second largest producer, with
about 6-7 percent, followed by Turkey and
Mexico (FAOSTAT, 2008).
In 2009 the U.S. imported 84,890 MT of fresh
strawberries valued at nearly $153 million.
Nearly all of the fresh strawberry imports
originated from Mexico. The United States
imported 77,250 MT of frozen strawberries
valued at $92.6 million. Mexico accounted
for 55,136 MT of frozen strawberry imports
valued at $65 million, followed by Chile and
Argentina. (Boriss et. al., 2010)
There are two planting seasons for
strawberry growers in the U.S.; winter –
October or November, and summer – late
July through early September.
Before
planting, the soil is typically fumigated
with a combination of methyl bromide and
chloropicrin – pesticides – under a sealed
plastic tarp. The tarp is then removed after
17
a minimum of 48 hours. The seedlings are
started in a nursery and then brought to
the field. Each strawberry plant is set in
to a deep, narrow groove in the ground by
hand. In the winters, polyethylene mulch
is applied to warm the soil and spark early
plant growth (Bertelsen, 1995).
California has the highest strawberry
yield per acre in the U.S. Strawberries
are handpicked to maintain quality and
consistency. The plants can be harvested
up to once every three days during their
peak season (CSC, 2007). In California’s
relatively warm climate and fertile soil, the
plants can produce fruit for up to 6 months
at a time. Each year every mature plant is
replaced with a new plant from the nursery
to ensure the highest quality (Bertelsen,
1995).
The United States Environmental Protection
Agency has implemented maximum
residue limits (MRLs) for pesticides used
for commercial farming (US EPA, 2011). A
maximum concentration of 60 ppm (parts
per million) has been set for inorganic
bromide due to fumigation with methyl
bromide. No maximum value was found
for chloropicrin (USDA-FAS MRL Database,
2011). The US EPA, under the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer, was mandated to phaseout
100% of methyl bromide from production
and import to the US. There is, however, a
Critical Use Exemption whereby methyl
bromide may still be used for agricultural
applications if there is deemed to be no
other economically feasible alternative
(US EPA, 2011). In California, the largest
strawberry producing state in the US (USDA
ERS, 2011), only 35 percent of the 33,000
acres of strawberry fields have completely
discontinued the use of methyl bromide
(CSC, 2011).
18
Yogurt Production
The general process of making yogurt includes modifying the composition of, pasteurizing
and homogenizing the milk; fermenting at warm temperatures; cooling; and adding fruit,
sugar, and other ingredients (Romanowski, 2011). A typical supply chain diagram is shown
in Figure 1, followed by a detailed description of the processes.
Figure 1: Life Cycle inputs and outputs for the production of strawberry yogurt
19
Modifying Milk Composition
When the milk arrives at the plant, its
composition is modified before it is used
to make yogurt. This standardization
process typically involves reducing the fat
content with a standardizing clarifier and
a separator, which uses centrifugation to
separate fat from milk. From the separator,
the milk is placed in a storage tank and
tested for fat and solids content. The solids
content of the milk is increased to 16%
with 1-5% being fat and 11-14% being
solids-not-fat (SNF) (Romanowski, 2011).
This can be accomplished by evaporating
off some of the water. With energy costs
increasing many manufactures have
switched from evaporation to a process
called fortification. In this process dried
powered milk solids are added to the base
milk prior to inoculation (N.E.M Business
Solutions, 2001). Increasing the solids
content improves the nutritional value of
the yogurt, makes it easier to produce a
firmer yogurt and improves the stability
of the yogurt by reducing the tendency for
it to separate on storage (Romanowski,
2011).
Pasteurization and Homogenization
After the solids composition is adjusted,
stabilizers and gums are added to improve
texture and viscosity before the milk is
pasteurized (N.E.M Business Solutions,
2001). The pasteurization step has many
benefits and no affect on the taste. First, it
will destroy all the microorganisms in the
milk that may interfere with the controlled
fermentation process. Second, it will
denature the whey proteins in the milk,
which will give the final yogurt product
better body and texture. Third, it helps
release the compounds in milk that will
stimulate the growth of the starter culture.
Pasteurization can be a continuous-or
batch-process. Both of these processes
involve heating the milk to a relatively high
temperature (typically 185°F / 85°C) and
holding it there for a set amount of time
(approximately 30 minutes) (Romanowski,
2011).
While the milk is being heat treated, it is
also homogenized. Homogenization is a
process in which the fat globules in milk are
broken up into smaller, more consistently
dispersed particles. This produces a much
smoother and creamier end product,
which will not separate. Homogenization is
accomplished by forcing the milk through
small openings at a high pressure so that
shearing forces break up fat globules
(Romanowski, 2011).
Fermentation
The milk is then cooled to between 109.4114.8°F (43-46°C) and the fermentation
culture is inoculated at a concentration of
about 2%. It is held at this temperature
for about three to four hours while the
incubation process takes place. During
this time, the bacteria metabolize certain
compounds in the milk producing the
characteristic yogurt flavor (Romanowski,
2011). To ensure the quality of the product,
the growing conditions of the “starter
cultures” are very important to modern
day manufacturers, and are monitored very
closely (N.E.M Business Solutions, 2001).
Depending on the type of yogurt, the
incubation process is done either in a
large stainless steel tanks of several
hundred gallons or in the final individual
containers. Stirred yogurt is fermented in
bulk and then poured into the final selling
containers. Set yogurt is allowed to ferment
20
right in the container it is sold in. In both
instances, the lactic acid level is used to
determine when the yogurt is ready. The
acid level is determined by taking a sample
of the product and titrating it with sodium
hydroxide. A value of at least 0.9% acidity
and a pH of about 4.4 are the current
minimum standards for yogurt manufacture
in the United States (Romanowski, 2011).
When the desired level of acidity is detected,
rapid cooling will take place to stop the
process. If the process is stopped too soon
or too late, the taste, smell, and texture
of the product will be affected. Careful
monitoring is necessary to avoid putrid
flavors that will take place if the molds and
yeasts are allowed to take over the product
(N.E.M Business Solutions, 2001).
Adding Other Ingredients
Fruits, flavors, and other additives can be
added to the yogurt at various points in
manufacturing process. Flavor in nonfruit yogurts are added to the process
milk before being dispensed into cartons.
Fruits and flavors can also be added to the
containers first, creating a bottom layer.
The inoculated milk is then added on top
and the carton is sealed and incubated. If
the fruit is pasteurized, it can be added
as a puree to the bulk yogurt, which is
then dispensed into containers. The
finished yogurt containers are placed in
cardboard cases, stacked on pallets, and
delivered to stores via refrigerated trucks
(Romanowski, 2011).
and presence of various contaminants. The
microbial quality of the incoming milk is
determined by using a dye reaction test,
which indicates the number of organisms
present. If the microbial count is too high
even before pasteurization, the milk may
not be used. The degree of pasteurization
is determined by measuring the level of
an enzyme in the milk called phosphatase.
Beyond microbial contamination, raw milk
is subject to other kinds of contaminants
such as antibiotics, pesticides or even
radioactivity. These can all be found
through appropriate testing and the milk
is treated accordingly. In addition, the
final yogurt product is also evaluated to
ensure that it meets the specifications set
by the manufacturer for characteristics
such as pH, rheology, taste, color, and
odor. These factors are checked using
laboratory instruments such as pH meters,
viscometers and also human panelists
(Romanowski, 2011).
Quality Control
Milk products such as yogurt are subject
to safety testing, often regulated by the
government. Testing include checks for
microbial quality, degree of pasteurization,
21
Strawberry Yogurt Sourcemap™
A potential supply chain can be seen in the Sourcemap™ shown in Figure 2 (Sourcemap,
2011). While ingredients used to make yogurt can potentially all be accessed in the U.S.,
larger companies typically source additives like gelatin, hydrocolloids, and preservatives
elsewhere. Bacterial cultures for yogurt are produced in many countries, Germany
being one. Also, plastic cups and aluminum foil lids (not shown in figure) are most likely
manufactured outside of the country.
Figure 2: Sourcemap™ for the ingredients used in strawberry yogurt (www.sourcemap.com, 2011)
Human Health Impacts of
Yogurt
Since it is made from milk, yogurt contains
protein and vitamins and is a good source
of calcium. In addition to these nutritional
characteristics, yogurt is also thought to
have additional health benefits. There is
some evidence that has shown consumption
of yogurt has a beneficial antibiotic effect.
Other suggested benefits of yogurt include
the reduction of cholesterol, protection
against certain cancers, and even boosting
the immune system. The research is still
not complete on these benefits however,
these factors will likely be important in
the continued market growth of yogurt
(Romanowski, 2011).
One of the suggested benefits of yogurt is
that it acts as a digestive aid. In the body,
it is thought that yogurt can encourage
the growth of beneficial bacteria in the
gut. These pro-biotic organisms help to
digest food more efficiently and protect
against other, harmful organisms. Another
health benefit of yogurt is for people that
22
are lactose intolerant. These people have
difficulty digesting milk products however,
they typically can tolerate yogurt. It has
also been shown that yogurt may actually
reduce the incidence of lactose intolerance
and other gastro-intestinal illnesses
(Romanowski, 2011).
Therefore, yogurt is often considered by
consumers to be good for the health because
of these aforementioned characteristics.
However, some yogurts on the market are
pasteurized after culturing, which kills the
lactase, the enzyme that makes diary more
digestible, and kills the pro-biotic cultures.
Additionally, if the label shows less protein
and more sugar or stabilizers, like fructose,
cornstarch, and modified cornstarch, the
yogurt is lower in nutritional value (Body
Ecology.com, 2007).
Kefir supersedes yogurt in nutrition. The
bacteria and beneficial yeast used to make
kefir can better colonize the intestinal
tract. Kefir contains several major strains
of friendly bacteria not commonly found
in yogurt (e.g., Lactobacillus kefyr,
Leuconostoc
mesenteroides
subsp.
cremoris, and Lactococcus lactis subsp.
diacetylactis). Kefir also contains beneficial
yeasts, such as Saccharomyces kefir, which
can dominate, control and eliminate
destructive pathogenic yeasts in your body.
They do so by protecting the mucosal lining
where unhealthy yeast and bacteria reside.
The curd size of kefir is smaller than yogurt,
making it easier to digest, which makes it a
particularly excellent, nutritious food for
babies, the sick, and the elderly, as well
as a remedy for digestive disorders (Body
Ecology.com, 2007).
23
Social Hotspot
Assessment
24
3 SOCIAL HOTSPOT ASSESSMENT
GOAL AND SCOPE OF
THE ASSESSMENT
The goal of the assessment is to provide a
portrait of the supply chain of strawberry
yogurt produced in the U.S. and its most
prominent social hotspots. Social Hotspots
are production activities, defined as
Country-specific Sectors (CSS), in the
product life cycle that provide a higher
opportunity to address issues of concern
(eg. human rights, community well-being
etc.), as well as indicating potential:
• Risks of violations,
• Risks affecting reputations,
• I ssues that need to be considered
when doing business in a certain
sector in a certain region/country.
The assessment presents two methods of
analyzing the social hotspots within the
life cycle of strawberry yogurt: (1) through
the use of the Social Hotspot Database
(SHDB) model in this Section and (2) via a
comprehensive literature review of social
issues in the supply chain in Section 4.
The Social Hotspot Database (SHDB)
project has led to the creation of 18 subcategory Social Theme Tables containing
approximately 50 characterized social
issues for approximately 200 countries and
regions and various sectors. The tables
include indicator data on social issues
and characterized risk (or “opportunity”-because a company can improve a negative
situation rather than abandoning due to
risk) for social impacts such as forced labor,
freedom of association, excessive working
time, labor laws, and access to community
services, to name a few (See Annex for all).
Global indicator and qualitative data were
collected for these tables from various
international organizations with strong
statistical agencies such as the World
Health Organization, the International
Labor Organization, the World Bank, and
many others. The indicators were then
characterized to develop a level of risk or
opportunity from low, medium, high, or
very high for social issues of interest within
each Theme.
Besides the Social Theme Tables, the SHDB
uses a Worker Hours Model that ranks
unit processes (ie., defined by CSS) by
labor intensity within a supply chain for
a specific product from a specific country.
Worker hours are a good representation
of where people are most active in supply
chains. In order to calculate worker hours
by CSS for the model, two sources of data
were required – (1) an economic inputoutput (IO) database called Global Trade
Analysis Project (GTAP) that provides total
wages paid out by country and sector per
dollar of output and (2) unskilled, skilled
and total average wages per hour for those
same CSS. By dividing the total wages paid
out by the average wage rates per hour in
each CSS, it was possible to obtain annual
unskilled, skilled, and total worker hours
to a matrix of 57 sectors and 113 countries
and regions, reporting for a total of 6,441
CSS.
Using both the Worker Hours Model and
the SHDB Social Issue Tables, it is possible
to guide the decision-making process via
hotspot identification to help determine
if and where to conduct case-speciﬁc
assessments. A Hotspot Index is calculated
to reduce the social issue risk results down
to a single value to help prioritize the CSS.
A single score like this may introduce
uncertainty in the ranking, therefore, it
25
is important to understand the results by
individual social issue as well, which is
provided in an additional spreadsheet to
this report.
The SHDB modeling represents one type of
information used in this report to identify
hotspots. The second type of information
consists of a literature review of reports
and documents delivering information on
the main social issues found in the life cycle
of strawberry yogurt, which is supported by
a summary table at the beginning of Section
4. This literature review substantiated the
results of the SHDB assessment and also
confirmed that no major social hotspots
were left undiscovered.
The scope of the SHDB quantitative
modeling based on external research
of the main production activities in the
supply chain does not include: business
and financial services, retail or wholesale
operations, or infrastructure construction.
However, these sectors are part of the
Global Input/Output (IO) model that
assesses hotspots based on worker hours.
The supporting literature review also
excludes those more logistical sectors, but
does cover social impacts associated with
the growing of strawberries, sugar, the
dairy industry, and the sectors related to
packaging and energy production.
SHDB METHODOLOGY
Social Hotspots in the strawberry yogurt life
cycle were identified as Country-specific
Sectors (CSS) based on an assessment
using the Social Hotspot Database (SHDB).
In order to identify these hotspots, two
product system models (i.e., CSS lists)
that identify the countries and sectors
prevalent in the supply chain of strawberry
yogurt were developed and tested within
the SHDB.
The first list was based on the Worker
Hours Assessment developed from GTAP’s
global IO economic equilibrium database.
The primary CSS used to assess worker
hours in the yogurt supply chain was the
dairy products sector in the U.S. The model
determined the skilled, unskilled and total
worker hours required to produce US$1M
of dairy products for the total 6,441 CSS.
Since 89 percent of worker hours occur
in the first 200 sequential CSS, only these
Worker Hour (WH) CSS’s were tested
within the SHDB. The vegetable and fruits
sector was also of primary interest because
of the strawberries used in the product.
The top 50 CSS (83 percent of the total
worker hours) in the vegetable and fruits
WH ranking were also considered, however,
these were all contained within the top 200
of the dairy product sector.
The second list modeled was based on
external research of the supply chain,
defining the materials, components and
resources required to produce strawberry
yogurt and assigning them to a specific
sector. Next, countries that extract,
refine, produce, assemble, and export
these essentials were determined via the
literature. A list of 159 additional CSS
were identified for strawberry yogurt and
evaluated using the SHDB. The second list
was primarily used to capture CSS that may
not contribute a great deal of worker hours
in the supply chain but might be critical to
production of strawberry yogurt in the U.S.
The detailed results of the two modeling
assessments are shown in a supplemental
spreadsheet to this report. A synopsis
of the results and summary tables are
26
provided in the following section and, more
succinctly, in the executive summary.
Social Hotspot Index
With over 50 characterized social issues
within 18 Social Themes for hundreds
of potential CSS (both lists), the amount
of data is difficult to assess for decisionmaking. In order to better understand the
vast amount of social issue data for each
CSS, a Social Hotspot Index was calculated.
The Index was determined by first weighing
the level of risk or opportunity identified
for each characterized social issue, dividing
by the highest potential score (ie, if all
social issues had the highest possible risk),
and multiplying by a factor of 100. A zero
was assigned to social issues with low risk,
a 1 was assigned to those that are medium,
a 2 to those with high risk, and a 3 for those
with very high risk. Summing across all
social issues resulted in a total number of
weighted social issues to be aware of when
working in that country and sector.
The index then incorporated the share
of worker hours for each CSS in the dairy
product ranking, as well as the vegetable
and fruit ranking. For those with greater
than or equal to 1 percent of the total
worker hours per million dollars of
product (top 13 in ranking), the weighted
sum of social issues was increased by 30
percent, those with greater than or equal to
0.2 percent of the total worker hours per
million dollars (top 45) were increased by
20 percent, and those with greater than
or equal to 0.1 percent of the total worker
hours per million dollars (top 100) were
increased by 10%. If the CSS also occurred
on the top 50 from the vegetables & fruits
CSS list, an additional 10% was added onto
the weighted sum.
Next, the final sum was divided by the
highest possible score for that CSS, which
discounted for the issues that have no data
(n.d.) or are not applicable (n.a.). The
maximum Index a CSS could achieve is 100
because in some cases, where the weighted
sum of social issues was greater than the
total possible score (due to the increases
added for CSS with the highest share of
worker hours), the Index was automatically
set to 100. The Social Hotspot Index was
then used to prioritize the CSS in the supply
chain with the greatest risk of social issues
or opportunity to make positive social
change.
SHDB Conceptual Model
As a summary of the methodology, Figure
3 offers a concept diagram. Two lists of
CSS were tested within the SHDB model,
one based on the share of worker hours
and another based on an external review
of other important countries and sectors in
the supply chain (green boxes). Total wages
paid out per $ of output from the GTAP IO
database and a matrix of wages by country
and sector were used to create the worker
hours model and international, secondary
sources of data were used to build the SHDB
Risk and Opportunity Tables (red boxes).
Results from testing the two CSS lists with
the SHDB tables, as well as the worker hour
rankings, were then used to calculate the
Hotspot Index (purple and blue boxes).
27
Figure 3: Concept Diagram of the SHDB Methodology
GTAP I/O Database
• Wages paid out per $ output
Wage Rates from ILO,
OECD, UNIDO, FAO-RIGA
Worker Hours
(WH) Model
CSS List based on external
literature review
CSS Lists based on
WH Rank
Social Theme Risk &
Opportunity (R/O) Tables
Social Hotspot
Inex
Country & Sector Indicator Data
from Statistical Databases
ILO, WHO, USDOS, CIA, WB,
UNDP, UNHCR
Data from an outside source
Models developed by New Earth
CSS Lists for SHDB Assessment
HOTSPOTS BASED ON
WORKER HOURS (WH)
For the Worker Hours assessment, a ranking
of the potential 6,441 CSS was produced for
the skilled, unskilled, and total workforce
for two different U.S. sectors, dairy products
and vegetable and fruits. The rankings
of CSS are based on the greatest share of
worker hours in the production of US$1M
of dairy product or vegetables and fruits
in the U.S. The worker hours model is not
specific enough to evaluate for strawberry
yogurt explicitly; therefore, CSS from the
top 200 of the dairy products ranking and
top 50 of the vegetable and fruits ranking
were evaluated using the SHDB. All of
the top 50 CSS for vegetable and fruits
fell within the top 200 for dairy products.
These CSS were given more weighting in
Final Index for prioritization
the Social Hotspot Index if they were found
on both lists.
As is shown in the orange header rows
in Tables 2 & 3, 95% of the worker hours
are within the top 488 ranked CSS for the
dairy product sector and the top 292 for
the vegetable and fruits sector. Only total
worker hours are shown, however, the
supplemental spreadsheet contains results
for unskilled and skilled labor as well. The
data indicate that there are fewer total
work hours necessary to produce US$1M of
dairy product (35,600 total worker hours/
US$1M) compared to the same value of
vegetable and fruits (59,000 total worker
hours/US$1M). The worker hours are
more distributed across sectors for the
dairy products sector compared to the
28
vegetables and fruits sector (95 percent
over 488 compared to 292). Compared to
a product like a laptop, however, for which
95 percent of the worker hours are within
the first 71 ranked CSS, strawberry yogurt
supply chain worker hours appears to be
more highly distributed.
Retail and wholesale operations in the
South Central Africa region are also on this
list. The worker hours may be exaggerated
for this CSS since the wages are extremely
low in this region and wages were used to
determine worker hours per dollar output
in the model.
The top sector for production of US$1M
of vegetables and fruits in the U.S. is
vegetables and fruits in the U.S., which
is responsible for 34 percent of the total
worker hours, 38 percent of the unskilled
worker hours, and 8 percent of the skilled
labor in the supply chain. The important
sectors in the U.S. with regards to worker
hours for vegetables and fruits include
business services and retail operations,
financial intermediation, paper products
and publishing, construction, and transport.
U.S. lumber is important, most likely for
pallets to ship fruits and vegetables, as well
as the chemical industry, for its fertilizers
and pesticides and plastic packaging.
The hotspot assessment was performed on
the top 200 ranked CSS for dairy products
and top 50 ranked CSS for vegetables
and fruits in the U.S., shown in detail in a
supplemental spreadsheet. When ranking
the CSS according to the greatest number
of hotspots, or the highest Hotspot Index,
the Region of South Central Africa and
the country Mozambique dominated the
top CSS to be concerned of. Based on the
expert judgment of the analysts, it was
Tables 2 and 3 also list the first 10 CSS
for share of worker hours each of the
two sectors. The top sector for US$1M of
dairy product produced in the U.S. is the
dairy products sector (this is not always
the case, for skilled labor the most worker
hour intense sector is business services).
The milk product sector is responsible for
nearly 20 percent of the total and unskilled
worker hours, and only 9 percent of the
skilled labor. The India oil seed sector
is the only CSS from another country to
appear on the top ten list, most likely used
to feed the dairy cows. The important U.S.
sectors with regards to worker hours for
dairy products include business services
and retail operations, raw milk production,
financial intermediation, construction, and
transport.
The hotspot assessment was performed on
the top 200 ranked CSS for dairy products
and top 50 ranked CSS for vegetables
and fruits in the U.S., shown in detail in a
supplemental spreadsheet. When ranking
the CSS according to the greatest number
of hotspots, or the highest Hotspot Index,
the Region of South Central Africa and
the country Mozambique dominated the
top CSS to be concerned of. Based on the
expert judgment of the analysts, it was
determined that the model is emphasizing
the CSS with very low wages, since the
wage per hour was used to determine the
worker hours per $ output. Since this
region of Africa is known to have a great
number of social issues, in addition to its
low wages, it is something to be aware
of when doing business there. However,
based on a literature review of the supply
chain, the CSS in South Central Africa and
Mozambique are not considered to be the
most important CSS to evaluate for social
issues in U.S.-made strawberry yogurt.
29
Table 2: Top Ten Sectors by Worker Hours for the production of dairy product (mil) in the U.S.
sector
Country/
Region
worker hours/
us $1M mil
percent of
total wh
cumulative
percent
total workforce - number of css responsible for 95% of worker hours= 488 out of 6441
Dairy Products
U.S.
7.08E+003
19.90%
19.90%
Business Services
U.S.
3.26E+003
9.16%
29.06%
Retail and Wholesale Operations
U.S.
3.20E+003
8.98%
38.04%
Raw Milk
U.S.
3117.290307
8.76%
46.80%
Financial Intermediation
U.S.
1211.952332
3.40%
50.20%
Paper products, publishing
U.S.
1085.08133
3.05%
53.25%
Construction
U.S.
803.7186856
2.26%
55.51%
Transport, truck
U.S.
713.4512079
2.00%
57.51%
Corn and other grains
U.S.
694.0898431
1.95%
59.46%
Oil seeds
India
461.5305755
1.30%
60.76%
percent of
total wh
cumulative
percent
Table 3: Top Ten Sectors by Worker Hours for the production of vegetables
and fruits (v_f) in the U.S. (XAC=South Central Africa Region)
sector
Country/
Region
worker hours/
us $1M mil
total workforce - number of css responsible for 95% of worker hours= 292 out of 6441
Vegetables and Fruits
U.S.
1.99E+004
33.70%
33.70%
Business Services
U.S.
9.31E+003
15.79%
49.49%
Retail and Wholesale Operations
U.S.
3.55E+003
6.01%
55.50%
U.S.
1591.120622
2.70%
58.20%
U.S.
1470.769214
2.49%
60.69%
Construction
U.S.
1366.695953
2.32%
63.01%
Retail & Wholesale Operations
XAC
1219.463206
2.07%
65.08%
Wood products
U.S.
911.2201465
1.55%
66.62%
Other transport, trucks
U.S.
751.3890746
1.27%
67.90%
Chemical industry, plastics
U.S.
698.7972434
1.18%
69.08%
30
determined that the model is emphasizing
the CSS with very low wages, since the
wage per hour was used to determine the
worker hours per dollar output. Since this
region of Africa is known to have a great
number of social issues, in addition to its
low wages, it is something to be aware
of when doing business there. However,
based on a literature review of the supply
chain, the CSS in South Central Africa and
Mozambique are not considered to be the
most important CSS to evaluate for social
issues in U.S.-made strawberry yogurt.
Therefore, rather than showing the CSS
with the highest Hotspot Index over all
200 CSS, the Hotspot Index for the CSS in
the top ten worker hours ranking for dairy
products and vegetables and fruits are
shown in Table 4. These CSS are at least in
the top ten of one of the sector lists, and
within 95 percent of the total cumulative
worker hours for both lists (rankings
shown in column 1). The oil seed sector in
India poses the highest risk because it is
fairly high on both the dairy and vegetable
and fruit worker hour ranks and has a very
high Hotspot Index compared to the U.S.
sectors. Within the U.S. there are a few
sectors of interest, particularly those with
a hotspot index greater than 40, such as
the raw milk sector, corn and other grain
products, paper products and publishing,
and the chemical sector. Logistical sectors
such as retail and wholesale operations,
construction and truck transport are also
above 40 and may have social impacts to
investigate deeper.
Table 4: Hotspot Indices for the CSS in the Top Ten Total Worker Hours
Ranking for Dairy Products (mil) and Vegetables and Fruits (v_f)
`
hotspot index
(0-100) 0=very high
social issues exist
worker hours rank
for mil & v_f
country
1-mil, 733-v_f
U.S.
Dairy Products
37.74
2-mil, 2-v_f
U.S.
Business Services
39.14
3-mil, 3-v_f
U.S.
Retail & Wholesale operations
40.83
4-mil, 449-v_f
U.S.
Raw Milk
41.94
5-mil, 4-v_f
U.S.
39.14
6-mil, 5-v_f
U.S.
40.65
7-mil, 6-v_f
U.S.
Construction
42.29
8-mil, 9-v_f
U.S.
Other transport, trucks
40.65
9-mil, 474-v_f
U.S.
Corn and other grains
44.73
10-mil, 92-v_f
India
Oil seed cultivation
86.67
128-mil, 1-v_f
U.S.
Vegetable and Fruits
37.85
30-mil, 8-v_f
U.S.
Lumber products
37.74
12-mil, 10-v_f
U.S.
Chemical Industry, plastics
40.65
sector Description
31
The majority of CSS with the greatest
share of worker hours for dairy products
and fruits and vegetables produced in the
U.S. are also within the U.S. Therefore,
it is relevant to investigate the social
issues specific to the U.S. Figure 4 shows
the graphical output from the SHDB web
instance, www.socialhotspot.org, for the
U.S. at the country level (sector level data
is not shown). The issues with very high
risk in the U.S. are the country’s refusal to
ratify international labor conventions and
also regarding its deficiencies in collective
bargaining rights for workers. Freedom of
Association and Right to Strike are also not
well recognized, and the number of children
out of school is a significant problem to be
aware of.
Sector-specific social hotspots are not
shown in the figure, however, for all issues
at the sector level, the U.S. dairy product
sectors have only low or medium risk. For
the vegetable and fruits sector, there is a
potential that the wages are not adequate
according to the non-poverty guidelines
set by the International Labor Rights
Forum (www.sweatfree.org, 2011). There
is also potential high risk for forced labor.
However, no case of forced labor has been
identified specifically for strawberries in
the U.S., according to the U.S. Department
of Labor (Table 7, U.S. DOL, 2010).
Figure 4: All Country Level Social Issues with Levels of Risk and Opportunity for the U.S.
32
HOTSPOTS BASED ON THE EXTERNAL REVIEW OF THE SUPPLY CHAIN (SC)
Based on a comprehensive literature review of the product system, the priority ingredients
used in strawberry yogurt are milk, strawberries, bacterial culture, sugar or artificial
sweeteners, corn starch and other hydrocolloids, including gelatin. Packaging is typically a
polypropylene cup of several sizes ranging from 2-32 oz. The cups can either have a plastic
cover or an aluminum foil seal. Fossil fuels are also necessary for agricultural production,
transportation, and manufacturing energy. The GTAP sectors and relevant producing/
exporting countries shown in Table 5 are important to analyze in the supply chain of
strawberry yogurt.
Table 5. Sectors in Strawberry
Yogurt Supply Chain and
relevant Producing/Exporting
Countries
sectors Relevant
GTAP
to yogurt
Sector (s)
GTAP Countries
Reference
Milk
RMK, MIL
USA (USA), New Zealand (NZL),
Greece (GRC), Canada (CAN),
Mexico (MEX), Spain (ESP), United
Kingdom (GBR)
www.suite101.com/.../us-tradewith-top-milk-countries-a58095
Strawberries
V_F
USA (USA), Spain (ESP), Mexico
(MEX)
www.nal.usda.gov/pgdic/
Strawberry/ers/ers.htm
USDA, 2010, world exports
Fertilizers
CRP, P_C
USA(USA), Canada(CAN),
Trinidad&Tobago(XCB),
Morocco(MAR), Russia(RUS),
Venezuela(VEN), Saudi Arabia(XWS),
Qatar(XWS), Bahrain(XWS),
Norway(NOR), China(CHN),
Egypt(EGY), Kuwait(XWS)
Economic Research Service United States Department of
Agriculture. (2009). Fertilizer
Imports/Exports: Standard Tables.
http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/
FertilizerTrade/standard.htm
Pesticides
CRP, P_C
Germany (DEU), Switzerland (CHE),
USA(USA), Israel (XWS), Australia
(AUS), Japan (JPN)
ETC Group. (2008) Who Owns
Nature? Corporate Power and the
Final Frontier in the Commodification
of Life. http://www.etcgroup.org/en/
node/707
Bacterial Culture
MIL, CRP
Germany (DEU), France (FRA),
United States (USA), China (CHN),
UK (GBR), Poland (POL)
http://www.cargilltexturizing.com/
locations/cts_loc.shtml
http://www.danisco.com/
daniscoworldmap/
Sugar Cane
C_B
Brazil (BRA), India (IND), China
(CHN), Thailand (THA), USA (USA)
FAO 2008, http://faostat.fao.
org/site/567/DesktopDefault.
aspx?PageID=567#ancor
Sugar Beets
C_B
France (FRA), Germany (DEU), USA
(USA)
FAO 2005, http://faostat.fao.
org/site/567/DesktopDefault.
aspx?PageID=567#ancor
Sweeteners – aspartame,
saccharin
CRP
USA (USA), China (CHN), France
(FRA), Japan (JPN), Indonesia (IDN),
Republic of Korea (KOR), Mexico
(MEX), United Arab Emirates (XWS),
Western Europe and Central and
South America also noted
http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/
Public/Reports/543.6500/
daniscoworldmap/
Corn – corn starch
GRO, OFD
Germany (DEU), Italy (ITA),
Netherlands (NLD), France (FRA),
Spain (ESP), United States (USA)
Continued on next page
33
Table 5. Sectors in Strawberry
Yogurt Supply Chain and
relevant Producing/Exporting
Countries
sectors Relevant
GTAP
to yogurt
Sector (s)
GTAP Countries
Reference
Hydrocolloids
(eg., Alginates,
Carrageenans, Guar gum,
Locust bean gum, Pectins,
Scleroglucan, Xanthan gum)
V_F, OFD
Brazil (BRA), Czech Republic (CZE),
France (FRA), Germany (DEU),
Morocco (MAR), Philippines (PHL),
China (CHN), UK (GBR), Spain
(ESP), USA (USA), Australia (AUS)
daniscoworldmap/
http://www.naturex.com/contacts.
html
Gelatin
OAP
USA (USA), Brazil (BRA), France
(FRA), India (IND), Argentina (ARG),
Canada (CAN), China (CHN), UK
(GBR), Japan (JPN)
http://www.reportlinker.com/
p098257/World-Gelatin-Market.html
Aluminum Foil
OMN, FMP,
NFM
USA (USA), Guinea (XWF), Australia
(AUS), Brazil (BRA), Jamaica (XCB),
India (IND)
Mineral Information Institute,
http://www.mii.org/Minerals/
photoal.html
Polypropylene cups
CRP
Germany (DEU), Italy (ITA), France
(FRA), Spain (ESP), UK (GBR),
Brazil (BRA), Venezuela (VEN), China
(CHN), Japan (JPN), India (IND),
USA (USA), Canada (CAN), Turkey
(TUR), Iran (IRN)
Global Polypropylene Market
Analysis and Forecasts to 2020,
Global Markets Direct, May 2009,
http://www.researchandmakets.
com/reports/1054766/global_
polypropylene_market_analysis_and
Global Polypropylene
Market Analysis and
Forecasts to 2020,
Global Markets Direct,
May 2009, http://www.
researchandmakets.com/
reports/1054766/global_
polypropylene_market_
analysis_and
OIL
Saudi Arabia/Iraq/UAE/
Kuwait(XWS), Russia(RUS),
Iran(IRN), Nor-way(NOR),
Nigeria(NGA), Venezuela(VEN),
Algeria(XNF), Angola(XAC), United
States(USA), Canada(CAN),
Mexico(MEX), Colombia(COL)
U.S. Energy Information
Administration, Top exporters of oil,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/country/
index.cfm
Gas exporters
GAS
Russia(RUS), Canada(CAN),
Norway(NOR), Algeria(XNF),
Turkmenistan(XSU),
Netherlands(NLD), Indonesia(IDN),
Malaysia(MYS), Qatar/Yemen(XWS),
Trinidad&Tobago(XCB), United
States(USA), Mexico(MEX),
Egypt(EGY), Nigeria(NGA)
Administration, Top exporters of oil,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/country/
index.cfm
Coal exporters
COA
Australia(AUS), Indonesia(IDN),
Russia(RUS), United States(USA),
Colombia(COL), China(CHN),
South Africa(ZAF), Canada(CAN),
Venezuela(VEN), Ukraine(UKR)
Administration, Dept of Energy,
2009. and http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Coal
Water: collection,
purification and distribution
WTR
United States (USA)
Product made in USA
34
Based on Tables 5, a comprehensive list
of 159 total country-specific sectors (CSS)
was tested within the SHDB model. The
full suite of results is shown in an auxiliary
spreadsheet. Based on a ranking of the
Hotspot Index, the top 30 Supply Chain (SC)
CSS were selected as potential hotspots
in the supply chain of Strawberry Yogurt
(Table 6). The worker hours ranking in
the first column is based on 6,441 total CSS
according to the GTAP model on worker
hours per production of US$1M of dairy
product. The Hotspot Index is calculated
using the actual vs. potential social issues
the CSS is at risk for. A higher index
indicates a greater prevalence of social
issues and a potential hotspot in the supply
chain of strawberry yogurt.
The CSS that should be of most concern
based on social impacts in food-related
sectors include vegetables and fruits from
China and Philippines (however, most likely,
strawberries in the U.S. are not sourced
from these countries); dairy products
from China; sugarcane or beet sugar
from India, China, and Thailand; animal
products like gelatin from India and China;
and other food products like starches and
hydrocolloids from China. The chemical
products sector, for production of yogurt
containers mainly, may bear social issues
in Indonesia, China, India, and Venezuela.
Also, fertilizers and pesticides produced in
China show up on the list. Mining of metal
ores, fabricated metal products, and nonferrous metal production, specifically for
aluminum lids, is of concern in India and
Guinea. However, not all yogurt products
use aluminum lids. The remaining CSS
that stand out are all for the extraction of
fossil fuels. Because it is difficult to control
where fuels are imported from, companies
do not have much control over improving
this part of their supply chain.
35
Table 5. Top 30 Countryspecific Sectors (CSS) most
at risk for social issues to be
present based on a literature
review of the most important
CSS in the supply chain of
strawberry yogurt.
Worker Hours
country
Rank in dairy
sector
Hotspot Index (0-100),
Description
0 = no high or very high
sector
social issues exist
48
Angola
Oil Extraction
100.0
2366
Nigeria
Gas Extraction
79.57
1059
Nigeria
Oil Extraction
79.17
2713
Guinea
Fabricated metal products
76.04
15
China
Chemical products, plastics
75.11
92
India
Live animals, gelatin
73.33
96
Indonesia
72.15
3106
Guinea
Non-ferrous metal production
71.88
2010
Guinea
Mining of metal ores
69.70
135
India
66.67
166
India
Mining of metal ores
66.67
61
China
Coal mining, refining
63.87
17
Venezuela
Oil extraction
63.73
1034
Indonesia
Coal mining, refining
63.64
1322
Indonesia
Gas Extraction
63.54
99
China
Other food products, starches
62.33
50
China
Vegetables & Fruits
61.51
529
India
Fabricated metal products
61.29
215
India
60.42
1292
India
Non-ferrous metal production
60.22
203
Turkmenistan
Gas Extraction
58.59
598
China
Dairy Products
57.78
367
China
Petroleum products fertilzers, pesticides
57.78
1227
China
55.91
1216
Algeria
Gas Extraction
55.91
183
China
Live animals, gelatin
55.91
766
Algeria
Oil Extraction
55.91
356
Philippines
Vegetables & Fruits
54.55
526
Thailand
54.44
63
Venezuela
53.85
36
Literature Review
of Social Issues
4 LITERATURE REVIEW OF SOCIAL ISSUES
Table 6: Social issues in the
strawberry yogurt Life Cycle based
on Literature Review
This section begins with a summary table that outlines the social issues that were found
through an extensive literature review (Table 6). Table 7, which follows, offers a list of
commodities that may be associated with child and forced labor in the associated countries.
Additional details on particular social issues are provided in the sub-sections.
SECTOR
ISSUE
Description
REFERENCE
Dairy Industry
Worker Rights
Lack of wage and hour standards, the lack
of transparency by Farm Labor Contractors,
the sub-standard housing and unsafe
transportation, the exclusion from unemployment
Insurance and the prevention of collective
bargaining may affect hired dairy farm workers.
Bon Appetit, Foundation
2011
Dairy Industry
Health and Safety
Local food production, maintaining a
community’s agriculture heritage, recreational
access, charitable activities (donation of time
and money), as well as a few farm “nuisances”
like flies and odor.
Manomet Center, 2010
Strawberry
Industry
Worker
Conditions
Strawberry production is highly labor intensive.
Martin, 2010
Strawberry
Industry
Health and Safety
Large amounts of pesticide and insecticide
applied even though fumigation is supposed
to be phased out, buffer zone are not always
implemented for workers like they are supposed
to be.
Calvin and Martin, 2010
Strawberry
Industry
Worker
Rights
Sexual harassment, low wages, undocumented
workers and undocumented indigenous workers
as well as pesticide exposure.
Rocha, 2008
Corn Industry
Health and Safety
Large amounts of inputs utilized, particularly
fertilizers and herbicides, may represent a risk to
the workers and local communities.
Fairfood.org, 2011
Chemical
Industry
Occupational
Health and Safety
Increased investment amongst industry
associations in initiatives to limit CSR risks that
are beyond legislation resulting in higher scores
on most CSR issues compared to other sectors.
Forum ETHIBEL, 2007
Chemical
Industry
Occupational
Health and Safety
LTIR rate has been decreasing, but concern is
high as companies move into Asia and Latin
American markets with weaker standards and
contract workers who the standards do not
always apply to.
Forum ETHIBEL, 2007
Chemical
Industry
Worker Rights
and Unions
Developed countries have more secure union
systems than developing countries, but both can
improve with training, literacy, education and
health programs.
ICEM, 2009
Forestry and
Paper
Worker Rights
Tendency to replace regular workers with
contract and agency labor who have lower
levels of social protection.
ICEM, 2009
Forestry and
Paper
Human Rights
and Land
Issues
Many local conflicts with commercial forest use
in these remote regions where the forest has
many other uses than lumber. ICEM is working
closely with BWI to improve local relationships.
ICEM, 2009
Energy
Sectors,
general
Worker Rights
Deregulation and privatization is being used by
some enterprises to weaken labor rights, erode
working conditions and break unions, but good
joint trade union-employer cooperation has
taken place with Global Framework Agreements.
ICEM, 2009
38
Table 7: Countries that are found
to use child or forced labor in the
production of several strawberry
yogurt ingredients (U.S. DOL,
2010)
commodity
Sugarcane
countries with
Countries with
child labor
forced labor
Belize
Brazil
Colombia
Pakistan
El Salvador
Bolivia
Guatemala
Burma
Kenya
Dominican Republic
Mexico
Panama
Philippines
Thailand
Uganda
Bolivia
Burma
Dominican Republic
Sugar Beets
Turkey
Strawberries
Argentina
Coal
Colombia
China
Mongolia
North Korea
Pakistan
Pakistan
Turkey
Ukraine
Dairy
Every state in the U.S. has some level of dairy
operations. In fact, there are an estimated
65,000 dairy farms in the United States
(Wikipedia, Dairy Farming, 2011). Dairy is
the most valuable agricultural commodity
in California, Idaho, Michigan, New
Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont,
and Wisconsin. Dairy is also the second
most valuable agricultural commodity
in eight other states; Arizona, Colorado,
Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Utah, and Washington. The
top five dairy-producing states in the U.S.
are California, Wisconsin, Idaho, New York
and Pennsylvania (USDA, 2010). California
leads all dairy-producing states with 21
percent of the nation’s gross income from
milk production. The top three states
account for more than 40 percent of cattle
inventory and milk sales. Dairy
farming is also an important
industry in Florida, Minnesota,
Ohio and Vermont.
The U.S. dairy industry is valued
at more than $35 billion in
gross income at the farm level.
Milk production, from cow to
bottle, typically takes place
on a single farm, but the size
of the farm may vary (Lowe
and Gereffi, 2009). About 99
percent of all U.S. dairy farms
are family-owned and operated.
The average herd size on a
dairy farm is 135 mature cattle,
while the majority of U.S. dairy
farms (77%) have less than 100
per herd. However, farms with
more than 100 cattle produce
77 percent of the milk (Dairy
Farming Today, 2011).
The dairy industry in the U.S. has
experienced tremendous structural change
in the past eight years. The total number
of dairy cattle operations has declined
significantly, while the number of large
operations has increased. Campbell-Arval
report that the consolidation of dairy
operations has been accompanied by an
increase in the use of production-enhancing
technologies, e.g., rBST (recombinant
bovine somatotropin), Total Mixed Ration
(TMR) machinery, free stall barns, and
more efficient milking parlors. In addition,
there has been a growth in the involvement
of large corporations (e.g., Dean Foods) in
dairy production, along with an increased
prevalence of vertically integrated supply
chains that connect individual dairy
producers with national and international
39
processing and distributing operations
(Campbell-Arval, 2009, Lowe and Gereffi,
2009).
According to the USDA, the number of
operations with 500 head of milk cattle
or more has increased since 2001 even
though the total number of operations has
decreased. The number of operations with
500 head or more increased from 2,795
in 2001 to 3,350 in 2009. The largest size
group, places with 2,000 or more cattle,
showed the greatest percentage change
from 2001, increasing from 325 places
in 2001 to 740 in 2009. While larger
operations were growing in number,
smaller operations declined in number.
Places with less than 500 cattle went from
94,665 in 2001 to 61,650 in 2009, a decline
of over 33,000 operations (USDA, 2010).
A comprehensive national survey has
found that large American dairy farms
rely heavily on foreign‐born workers. This
survey of employment practices finds
that U.S. dairy farms employed 138,000
full‐time equivalent workers, of which
57,000, or 41%, were foreigners. If half of
these workers were to lose their jobs due
to stricter federal labor and immigrant
policies, an additional 66,000 jobs could
also be lost, both directly in the sector
and outside; including jobs in grain and
fertilizer production and sales, veterinary
services, and milk hauling, to name a
few. According to NMPF, this substantial
reduction in jobs would cause a loss of
$11 billion in the economy (National Milk
Producers Federation, 2009).
Dairy farm workers reportedly earn an
average wage of $506 per week. Most
farms have also reported to provide at
least one non-wage benefit to employees,
such as paid vacation time, housing and/
or insurance. Non-wage benefits brought
average 2008 dairy worker’s salaries to
$31,521 – significantly higher than salaries
in the landscaping, ranching, and fast food
sectors that employ similar proportions of
immigrant workers (NMPF, 2009).
Dairy producers work both indoors – in
barns and offices, and outdoors – in all
kinds of weather. Modern barns, however,
are well ventilated and manure is flushed
out regularly. Working hours are long and
variable. Dairy producers must follow a
very strict daily schedule, milking and
feeding cows two or three times a day, 365
days a year (OCCinfo, 2011).
Although automation and mechanization
have helped to make the work less tedious
and physically demanding, repetitive
manual labor is often required. Dairy
producers may be required to routinely lift
items weighing up to 20 kilograms (about
44 pounds) or more. Workers must follow
safety precautions to avoid injury when
working with machinery and tools. They
must also wear protective clothing and
follow good animal hygiene practices to
prevent or control the spread of diseases.
The Bon Appétit foundation has conducted
an inventory of issues met by farm
dairy farm workers in the United States.
Workers may be affected by the lwo
wage rate and working hour standards,
the lack of transparency by Farm Labor
Contractors,
sub-standard
housing
and unsafe transportation, exclusion
from unemployment insurance and the
prevention of collective bargaining.
According to the Manomet center, key
social areas of impact from dairy farming
include local food production, community
40
agricultural heritage, recreational access,
charitable activities (donation of time and
money), and farm “nuisances,” such as flies
and odor (Manomet Center, 2010). Rural
America and the agricultural economy
in general are greatly impacted by the
strength of the dairy business. When a
dairy farm spends money locally, it creates
a multiplier effect of more than two-and-ahalf times the original dollar spent (Dairy
Farming Today, 2011). There are several
other local community impacts associated
with dairy farming; including an increased
reliance on hired labor, which has changed
the configuration of the population in
many dairy communities. Similar reports
mention that school systems and other
public infrastructure are slow in adapting
to those changes (Salant et. al., 2009).
Information on the effects of industrialized
farming (in general) on the community
comes from an extensive review by Lobao
and Stofferahn and Stofferahn (CampbellArval, 2009). These authors assessed
that negative effects include a decline in
property values, increased occurrence of
crime, higher unemployment rate, and a
decline in civic involvement; while positive
effects include increased community
income, decreased food costs, and an
increase in retail sales.
Structural changes in the dairy industry
have also had an effect on individual
farmers and farm operations in several
diverse ways. Increased reliance on hired
labor in conjunction with a need for farm
workers’ spouses to take on additional
work for supplemental income is an
example of this. In addition, modernization
and expansion has profoundly shifted
the relationship that farmers have with
their cattle, e.g., dairy operations become
focused on the management of technology
rather than livestock, or focused on cattle
as simply ‘teats and feet’, rather than
individual animals (Campbell-Arval, 2009).
Strawberries
Behind grapes, oranges and apples,
strawberries are the fourth highest ranked
U.S. fruit in terms of value of production.
Most of the strawberries used in U.S. yogurt
production are grown in the U.S. or can be
imported from Mexico (Boriss et. al., 2010).
They can be fresh or frozen. California is,
by far, the largest strawberry-producing
state; accounting for approximately 80%
of total U.S. strawberry production. Florida
is the second largest producer; accounting
for around 15 percent of the country’s total
yield (Cook, 2002). California growers
produce strawberries for both the fresh
market and, for berries that cannot be sold
fresh, the processing market (Calvin et. al.,
2010).
Strawberry production is highly labor
intensive. It may also be one of the most
difficult crops to mechanize. Indeed, there
is currently no commercial mechanical
harvester available (Calvin et.al., 2010).
Due to the fruit’s fragility, sequential point
of maturity, length of the picking season,
and the difficulty in removing leaves and
stem from the fruit, the adoption of plantdestroying mechanical harvesters has been
discouraged (Rocha, 2008).
Strawberries that remain unpicked for
even one day beyond harvesting time will
not have the appearance and flavor the
market demands. Continual picking is
also necessary to keep productivity high,
as harvested plants keep on flowering.
Because of these factors, the number of
41
agricultural workers in California doubles
in the peak harvest periods from 225,000
to 450,000. At harvest time a small farm
with 14 acres of strawberries needs to hire
over twenty-eight pickers, a medium one of
32 acres needs sixty-four and a large farm
of 100 acres needs 200 (Rocha, 2008).
Strawberry
producers
face
several
challenges regarding social issues. For
health and safety, the major concern is
the application of pesticide/ insecticide.
In particular, the widespread practice of
using methyl bromide as a pre-plant soil
fumigant against weeds, nematodes and
pathogens for strawberry production and
in strawberry nurseries has caused a lot of
concern. Under the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
and the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1990, which implements the Montreal
Protocol, the fumigant was supposed to
be phased out. However, the secretariat of
the Protocol has listed methyl bromide as
a critical exemption since 2005, meaning
that if no technical or economically
feasible alternative exists, it may still be
used. Currently, farmers are supposed to
establish buffer zones; however this is not
always implemented as required (Calvin et.
al., 2010). Diazinon and abamectin are two
other insecticides whose use is restricted,
but that are nonetheless commonly
applied in the strawberry fields. Allowing
for sufficient amount of time between the
fumigation and entry of workers into a
plantation is an issue in many cases (Rocha,
2008).
In California, the most common farm
workers issues reported by legal advocates
are occupational safety and heat stress
protections, denial of rest and meal periods,
unpaid overtime and minimum wages,
retaliation and wrongful termination, and
sexual harassment (BAMC, 2011).
In strawberry fields, Rocha (Rocha, 2008)
has compiled a list the most pressing social
issues, which include sexual harassment,
low wages, undocumented workers and
undocumented indigenous workers, and
pesticide exposure. For farm workers,
being undocumented is a risk factor for
forced labor.
Sugar Beets and Sugarcane
Sugarcane is mainly produced in the
southern hemisphere, where approximately
seventy percent of all sucrose comes from.
Both the sugarcane and sugar beet produce
a white sugar, but sugarcane can also be
processed into brown or raw sugar, while
sugar beet cannot. Brown sugar is the most
common form that sugarcane is traded in.
India and Brazil are the main producers of
sugarcane, where plantations can produce
sugarcane without having to replant when
the product is harvested. Sugarcane yields
a lower amount of sucrose than sugar
beets by almost half. Sugarcane is a water
intensive crop that remains in the soil for
12 months. Approximately one million
liters of water are used to produce 12.5
tons of commercial cane. Some sugarcane
is grown on steep hillsides without
terracing, resulting in the loss of topsoil
from the farm and a high sediment load
in rivers and estuaries. There is evidence
that a mono-culture crop has an adverse
effect on soil, health and fauna (EthicalSugar, 2011). Deforestation, labor issues,
and migrant worker related challenges are
exacerbated due to the growing demand
for sugarcane-based ethanol. Worker
health and safety is at risk in the mills and
in the fields, where exposure to hazardous
42
chemicals and the use of machetes is just
a couple of the many social issues in the
sugarcane industry. Other social issues
that make plantation jobs among the most
hazardous in agriculture include the lack of
medical care, forced labor, debt bondage,
corruption and low wages that are unable
to provide the basic needs of workers.
Wages from sugarcane production and cane
cultivation do not provide enough food to
cover the calories burned on the job (Fair
Food, Sugar Cane, 2011).
Approximately thirty percent of the world’s
sucrose comes from sugar beets; the other
seventy percent come from sugarcane.
Sugar beets are currently produced almost
entirely in the Northern Hemisphere in
places like the European Union, Central Asia
and the United States. Unlike sugarcane,
sugar beets only yield sucrose in their first
year of growth – requiring labor-intensive
replanting, often on a three and five year
rotational cycle with other crops. Market
distortion (mostly by the EU and the US,
due to high subsidies, import quotas and
tariffs so as not to be undercut by cheaper
sugar cane imports) is one social issue
surrounding the sugar beet industry. This
distortion causes an unequal footing in the
sugar industry, where the advantage goes
to sugar beet growers (Fair Food, Sugar
Beets, 2011).
Forestry and Paper
Forest-dependent jobs are often found
in small communities and remote areas
where few other economic opportunities
exist. The social impacts of this industry’s
operations are thus very important in
many regions. Due to the variability of
production in supply and the lack of global
trade union action, there is a tendency to
replace regular workers with contract and
agency labor, who have lower levels of
social protection.
Land claims, communities, and cultures
of indigenous peoples sometimes conflict
with commercial forest use. In other cases,
indigenous groups have been willing
partners, operators or owners of forestry
companies.
The harvesting of forests for lumber and
fiber may compete with agricultural,
recreational, conservation and other
interests. Forests provide materials,
energy, food, and economic income for
many communities, often in remote regions
without other alternatives.
There are a number of forest certification
schemes in existence, some of which touch
on the social dimension of sustainability.
The ICEM works closely with the Building
and Wood Workers’ International (BWI)
in evaluating various forest certification
schemes. Social sustainability of forest
lands should include respect for indigenous,
traditional or customary land tenure,
benefit sharing with affected communities,
compensation for displaced workers and
their communities, education and training
in forest stewardship, respect for human
rights and the ILO conventions, and so on.
Chemical Products
Bhopal, a chemical gas spill from a pesticide
factory in India in 1984, was a catalyzing
event and the most important catastrophe
in the chemical industry. Of the half million
people that populated the city, several
thousand died in the days after the event.
An additional 20,000 suffered health issues
in the following years. At that time, the
43
chemical industry was already preparing
the Responsible Care initiative, but
Bhopal triggered its launch the following
year. The Responsible Care initiative has
advanced safety, health and environmental
protection practices and policies in the
chemical sector. Since 2006, the program
was extended to cover, for instance, product
stewardship and dialogue over sustainable
development. Unfortunately, Bhopal was
not the only major incident in the chemical
industry; it was followed by events in
Flixborough, the UK, Texas City in the US
and Toulouse in France. Those events have
in turn led to reassessment of procedures.
The rules and regulations are constantly
being reevaluated to prevent similar
incidents (www.greenpeace.org, www.
bhopal.net and www.icis.com/.../a-guideto-major-chemical-disasters-worldwide.
html).
Representing
some
twenty
million
members worldwide, the International
Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and
General Workers’ Unions (ICEM) is the
leading Global Union Federation for unions
representing workers in the energy, mining,
chemical, rubber, pulp and paper, cement,
glass, ceramic, and related processing
industries. As such, the ICEM has important
insights into the social sustainability of
these industries.
into the Asian and Latin American markets,
where H&S standards may be weaker than
in developed economies. In these new
markets, companies increasingly rely on
contract workers to whom the company’s
H&S standards do not always apply. In
the chemical industry sector, developed
economies often have more secure union
systems than developing economies. In
both, however, the industry could do more
in contributing to social progress through
apprenticeship training, adult literacy and
education programs, and public health
programs. The trade unions can be effective
partners in these social initiatives (ICEM,
2009).
Historical environmental and health
and safety burdens associated with the
chemical industry sector combined with a
negative image amongst the general public
and an increased pressure to innovate to
remain competitive have pushed chemicals
companies to invest. Notable investments
have been made in their industry
associations and initiatives to limit CSR
risks, which often go beyond legislation. As
a result, chemical companies receive fairly
high scores on most CSR issues relative to
other sectors according to Ethibel (Forum
ETHIBEL, 2007).
A key social issue in the chemical sector
is the health and safety (H&S) of workers
and local community. Responsible Care,
the chemical industry’s global voluntary
initiative, reports for Europe that the
lost time injury frequency rate (LTIR)
has been steadily decreasing over time.
However, health and safety continues
to be of primary concern, especially as
chemical companies increasingly move
44
Media
Campaigns
5 MEDIA CAMPAIGNS
Table 11 shows that several campaigns targeted the dairy and strawberry industries. It
identified some of the same social issues compiled in the different assessments. In the
case of this report, we have not researched in depth sweeteners, pesticides/insecticides,
fertilizers and added ingredients (e.g. gelatin, pectin…) media campaigns. The high number
of the media campaigns compiled reflect that several issues pertaining to dairies and
strawberries where brought to the attention of the public in recent years. It supports the
social issues literature review and the social hotspots assessment of working conditions in
the specialty crops and dairy sector.
Table 11: Media campaigns
related to reducing the
negative social impacts of
strawberry yogurt
Name
url
campaign title
description
Strawberry Yogurt
Bioneeres
Campaign
http://www.bioneers.
org/campaigns/
food-farming-1/blog/
strawberry-fields-forever
Strawberry Fields Forever?
Strawberries Blog drawing attention
to the concerns in the pesticides and
chemicals used to treat strawberries
that cause cancer. Praising the Swanton
Berry Farm for their organic berry
growing and support of the UFW and
unionized work for labors.
AFOP
Association of Farm
worker Opportunity
Programs
http://afop.org/childrenin-the-fields/
Children in the Fields
Campaign
Strawberries Dedicated to ensuring that
farmworker children are protected and
given an opportunity to succeed in life.
By educating the public, advocating
for educational programs for migrant
farmworker children and supporting fair,
living wages for all farmworkers including
strawberry workers.
International
Initiative to End
Child Labor
http://endchildlabor.
org/?cat=30
Children in the Fields
Campaign
Strawberries Strives to improve the
quality of life of migrant and seasonal
farmworker children by advocating for
enhanced educational opportunities,
improving labor laws protecting children
in agriculture and improving enforcement.
46
5 MEDIA CAMPAIGNS
strawberry yogurt
Name
url
campaign title
description
United Farm
Workers
http://www.ufw.org/_
board.php?mode=view&
b_code=cre_leg&b_no=
5629&page=1&field=
&key=&n=8
CA Heat
Strawberries - Landmark Lawsuit
Accuses State of Failing to Protect Farm
Workers from Heat-Related Death and
Illness – Draws attention to poor working
conditions, long hours and health and
safety issues of California’s strawberry
workers and other farm workers.
United Farm
Workers
http://action.ufw.
org/page/speakout/
rubyridgesues
Ruby Ridge
Dairy - A lawsuit filed by Ruby Ridge a
large dairy co-op, against the UFW and
17 workers to try and quiet them. The
workers spoke out against poor working
conditions, threats and loss of work and
are now being sued as well. UFW has
a campaign to support these workers
against Ruby Ridge.
BCTGM Bakery
Confectionary
Tobacco Workers
& Grain Millers
http://www.bctgm.org/
linked%20sites/Dannon/
dannon_victory.htm
Organize! Dannon
Dairy – Yogurt Dannon plant workers
become members of BCTGM to become
unionized. The worker concerns were
on health and safety, retirement, dignity,
justice, respect, job consistency and
stability. When others were informed it
became a global movement to unionize.
CRPE Center on
Race, Poverty &
the Environment
http://www.crpe-ej.
org/crpe/index.
php?option=com_conten
t&view=article&id=81&It
emid=68
The Dairy Campaign
Dairy - The goal of the dairy campaign
is to protect rural communities from
dairy-related air pollution. It focuses in
health and safety of local communities
surrounded by large dairy farms.
The Australian
Workers Union
http://www.awu.net.
au/105590181
State’s Dairy Workers
Deserve a Fair Go,
Says AWU
Dairy - A state wide campaign to ensure
protection for low paid workers in rural
industries. This campaign focuses on
long worker hours, poor compensation,
unfair housing conditions with relation
to cost and condition, low wages,
exploitation of workers, unequal
treatment of workers, denial of sick
leave and working public holidays with
no additional compensation for the full
day’s work.
Afl-cio Now Blog
http://blog.aflcio.
org/2009/03/24/dairyworkers-join-bctgm/
Dairy Workers Join
BCTGM
Dairy - A blog about Land-O-Sun Dairy
workers joining the BCTGM union to end
favoritism and discrimination especially
when it comes to job bidding, also
dignity and justice. It also talks about the
intimidation factor that employees face
when trying to form a union.
IUF/UITA/IUL
http://www.iuf.org/
cgi-bin/campaigns/show_
campaign.cgi?c=435
New Zealand Dairy
Workers Union
Dairy - A campaign against the Open
Country Cheese company. Campaign
focuses on union rights, collective
bargaining, working conditions, and black
mail of New Zealand Dairy workers.
IUF Asian Food
Worker
http://asianfoodworker.
net/?p=1606
“Save the Dairy Co-ops in
Uttar Pradesh” Campaign
Dairy - A campaign to save the dairy coops that have increased the daily income
of millions of small marginal farmers,
created thousands of jobs in processing
plants, and made milk affordable as an
important source of nutrition to society.
47
5 MEDIA CAMPAIGNS
strawberry yogurt
Name
url
campaign title
description
UFW Campaign,
And the Farm
Plate Blog
http://farmplate.com/
blog/?p=4133 - http://
www.ufw.org/toj_play/
TOJNEW_12_JAL.html
Take Our Jobs Campaign
Dairy and Strawberries - A campaign
calling for legal reform for immigrant
agricultural workers. The United Farm
Workers are in support of the AgJobs bill,
which, if passed, would allow agriculture
workers in the U.S. to get legal status if
they have worked for at least 150 days in
two years and protect them from unsafe
working conditions and insure fair pay.
Breast Cancer
Action
http://thinkbeforeyoupink.
org/?page_id=10
Think Before You Pink
Campaign
Dairy-Yogurt - A Campaign focused on
Yoplait’s pink-lidded yogurt, which was
sold to raise money for breast cancer, but
was made with dairy stimulated with the
hormone rBGH. The main concern was
human health and safety.
California Dairy
Campaign
http://articles.sfgate.
com/2002-12-28/
news/17575697_1_
family-run-dairies-milkprices-gustine
California Dairy Campaign
Dairy - A campaign the focuses on all
things dairy, including worker rights,
health and safety and fair wage issues.
Dollars and Sense
Article
http://www.dollarsandse
nse.org/archives/2004/
0904arrieta.html
Hidden Horrors
Dairy - An article focusing on the
dangers and abuse that the California
dairy worker faces. It draws attention
to violations in health and safety, fair
wage, working hours, black mail, physical
abuse, enforcing labor and others.
California Rural
Legal Assistance
Foundation
http://www.crlaf.org/
who-we-are
Multiple Campaigns and
Projects
Dairy and Strawberries - A group of
statewide legal and policy advocates
for the most exploited of California’s
rural poor: the unrepresented, the
unorganized, and especially the
undocumented and indigenous farm
workers. Their vision is social justice for
rural communities, especially the poor.
PCUN Oregon’s
Farmworker Union
http://www.pcun.org/
pcun
Strawberry Pickers’ Strike
Demonstrates Power of
Community
Strawberries - PCUN’s fundamental
goal is to empower farmworkers to
understand and take action against
systematic exploitation and all of
its effects. They work to protect
farmworkers’ rights, exposure to
pesticides safety and harassment and
fair wages.
FIC The Food
Integrity Campaign
http://foodwhistleblower.
org/
Food Integrity Campaign
Dairy - The campaign objective of FIC
is to enhance overall food integrity by
facilitating truth-telling. The mission
is strategically working to alter the
relationship of power between the food
industry and consumers; protecting the
rights of those who speak out against the
practices that compromise food integrity;
and empowering industry whistleblowers
and citizen activists.
48
5 MEDIA CAMPAIGNS
strawberry yogurt
Name
url
campaign title
description
Child Labor
Coalition
http://www.
stopchildlabor.org/
Consumercampaigns/
fields.htm
Children in the Fields: The
Inequitable Treatment of
Child Farmworkers
Strawberries - Child Labour
A campaign looking at child labor in
the fields as pertains to strawberry field
workers. It addresses the problem of
children being removed from school and
working long hours, health and safety
concerns of exposure to pesticides and
protection from heat, fair living wage and
equal treatment.
AFOP
Association of
Farmworker
Opportunity
Programs
http://afop.org/healthsafety/heat-stress/
Proyecto Sol
Strawberries - A heat stress prevention
project started in July 2010 is a new
health and safety program. The program
will provide training to farmworkers and
their employers on how to prevent heatrelated illness or death.
UFW: Strawberry
Campaign
Rural Migration
News Article
http://migration.
ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.
php?id=210_0_3_0
UFW: Strawberry
Campaign
Strawberries - An article about the
unionizing strawberry workers through
the United Farmworkers Union. They
goals are to improve the employment and
living conditions of California strawberry
workers.
Social
Accountability
International (SAI)
http://www.
sa-intl.org/index.
cfm?fuseaction=Page.
ViewPage&PageID=1046
Promoting Social
Dialogue on the Rights of
Sugarcane Workers
Sugar - SAI and its local partner in the
Dominican Republic (DR), the Center for
Cultural Research and Support (CIAC),
convened the second in a series of
roundtable meetings to foment social
dialogue on key human rights issues in
the sugar cane sector.
Social Accountability International (SAI)
is a non-governmental, multi-stakeholder
organization whose mission is to advance
the human rights of workers around the
world.
49
Initiatives
6 INITIATIVES & BEST PRACTICES
Initiatives targeting the agricultural, dairy and strawberry industries are compiled in the
following table. The Stewardship Index for Specialty Crops is an important initiative in the
U.S.
Table 12: Initiatives of Social Responsibility for strawberry yogurt and its ingredients
name
url
description
social issues covered
supply chain
phases
countries
strawberry yogurt, general
Domestic
Fair Trade
Association
http://www.thedfta.org/
index.php?c=about&m
=faqs
Primary goals are to support
family-scale farming to reinforce
farmer-led initiatives such as
farmer co-operatives, and to
bring these groups together with
mission-based traders, retailers,
and concerned consumers
to build the movement for
sustainable agriculture in North
America
Fair Trade
Fair Wages
Fair Practice
Production
Manufacturing
USA
Canada
Dairy Worker
Safety Initiative
http://www.crla.org/
node/31
Initiative to advocate for
California’s dairy workers. Working
with attorneys to seek help in
trying to obtain employment rights,
advice, and representation.
Worker Hours
Fair Wages
Health and Safety
Production
Manufacturing
USA
Agricultural
Worker Health
Project
node/29
AWHP monitors and improves the
health and safety of farm workers
in the fields and in their homes.
Health and Safety
Harassment
Production
USA
Indigenous
Farmworker
Project
node/34
CRLA developed its statewide
Indigenous Farmworker Project
(IFP) to meet the needs of a
voiceless indigenous Mexican farm
worker group.
Unpaid Wages
Harassment
Health and Safety
Production
USA
Sustainable
Agriculture
Initiative Platform
Principles and
Practices
www.saiplatform.org
This is a food industry initiative
to support the development
of sustainable agriculture that
involves the different stakeholders
of the food chain. There is an
emphasis on agricultural raw
materials. Principles and Practices
for sustainable fruit production
have been published.
Worker Health and Safety,
Working Hours, Fair Salaries, Child
Labor, Forced Labor, Freedom
of Association and Collective
Bargaining, Equal Opportunities/
Discrimination, Access to Material
Resources, Access to Immaterial
Resources, Local Employment,
Community Engagement, Consumer
Health and Safety, Public
Commitments to Sustainability
Issues (Climate Change)
Raw Materials
Global
The Agricultural
Justice Project
Social Justice
Standards
www.
agriculturaljusticeproject.
org
These standards for fair trade
and social justice provide a
framework for identifying “social
justice” in organic and sustainable
agriculture.
Worker Health and Safety, Fair
Salary, Child Labor, Forced
Labor, Working Hours, Social
Benefits/Social Security, Freedom
of Association and Collective
Bargaining, Equal Opportunities/
Discrimination, Supplier Relations,
Rights of Indigenous Peoples,
Community Engagement, Local
Employment, Access to Immaterial
Resources
Applies to Farmers,
Food Businesses
(Retailers,
Distributors,
Processors),
Certifiers and
Grower Groups
USA
51
6 INITIATIVES & BEST PRACTICES
Table 12: Initiatives of Social Responsibility for strawberry yogurt and its ingredients
name
url
description
supply chain
phases
countries
agricultural initiatives
Pro-Poor
Livestock Policy
Initiative
(PPLPI)
http://www.fao.org/AG/
AGAInfo/programmes/
en/pplpi.html
Promote the formulation and
implementation of livestockrelated policies and institutional
changes that focus on reducing
poverty through equitable
livestock sector development.
Poverty
Living Conditions
Fair Wage
Production
Global
Keep Local
Farms Initiative
http://www.
keeplocalfarms.org/
Keep Local Farms is an education
and contribution program that
connects consumers with local
dairy farmers and encourages the
purchase of local foods. It is a
way to educate consumers about
the value of local dairy farms,
raise funds to support dairy farms
throughout New England, and
drive dairy sales.
Living Wage
Supporting Local Farms
Production
USA
Stewardship
Index for
Specialty Crops
www.stewardshipindex.org
This is a multi-stakeholder initiative
to develop a system for measuring
sustainable performance
throughout the specialty crop
supply chain. It will offer outcomebased metrics to benchmark,
compare and communicate
performance at any point along
the supply chain.
The Index is Under Development.
It will address social responsibility,
specifically labor issues and
sustainable community development,
as well as environmental and
economic values.
Farm, Processing,
Distribution, Retail
USA
Global GAP Risk
Assessment on
Social Practices
(GRASP)
www.globalgap.org
GlobalGAP sets voluntary
“Good Agricultural Practices”
and voluntary standards for
the certification of agricultural
products
Equal Opportunities/Discrimination,
Child Labor, Forced Labor, Freedom
of Association/Collective Bargaining,
Fair Salaries, Worker Health and
Safety, Working Hours, Social
Benefits/Social Security
Production
processes of
agricultural products
Worldwide
British Retail
Consortium
Global
Standards,
Best Practice
Guidelines
and Standard
Specific
Guidelines
www.brcglobalstandards.
com
These guidelines for retailers
and suppliers accompany the
British Retail Consortium Global
Standards and address best
practices in the food industry,
including guidelines specific to
fresh produce packers.
Consumer Health and Safety,
Consumer Feedback Mechanisms,
Worker Health and Safety, Supplier
Relations
Used to evaluate
manufacturers of
retailers own food
brand products
Global
Human Rights
Fair Wages
Production
Processing
Global
sugar
Bonsucro
Better Sugar
Cane Initiative
http://www.bonsucro.com/
index.html
Bonsucro is global multistakeholder non-profit initiative
dedicated to reducing the
environmental and social impacts
of sugar cane production. It
aims to achieve this with a
Standard that measures these
impacts accurately, and with the
development of a system to certify
that sustainable practices are
being adhered to.
52
Certifications
& Labeling
7 CERTIFICATIONS & LABELING
In addition to the business-to-business standards without consumer-facing labels, some
certification standards with or without consumer-facing labels exist for strawberry yogurt.
Certifications are mostly available for strawberries. Ingredients often need to be organic in
order to qualify for a “fair” certification.
Table 13: Certifications and Labels available for strawberry yogurt
name
url
description
supply chain
phases
countries
Food Alliance
Certification
http://foodalliance.org/
Food Alliance provides
comprehensive third-party
certification for social and
environmental responsibility in
agriculture and the food industry.
Safety
Fair Working Conditions
Production
USA
IMO Social
Responsibility
Certification
www.fairforlife.net
This certification focuses on labor
conditions with an emphasis on
agricultural products. There is an
additional certification related to
social responsibility and fair trade.
Forced Labor, Freedom of
Association and Collective
Bargaining, Child Labor, Equal
Opportunities/Discrimination,
Worker Health and Safety, Fair
Salaries, Working Hours, Social
Benefits/Social Security, Public
Commitments to Sustainability
Issues (Climate Change), Access
to Material Re-sources, Community
Health and Safety
Production
Processors
Traders
Global
Fairtrade
International
http://www.fairtrade.net/
Certifies that products meet
the social, economic and
environmental standards set by
Fairtrade.
Fair Trade
Production
Manufacturing
Global
Fair for Life
http://www.fairforlife.
org/logicio/pmws/
indexDOM.php?client_
id=fairforlife&page_
id=home
Third party certification program
for social accountability and fair
trade in agricultural, manufacturing
and trading operations.
Child Labor, Freedom of Association
Non Discrimination, Health and
Safety, Fair Wage, Social Security
Fair Relation and minimum social
standards for farmers
Production
Manufacturing
Global
Safe Quality
Food (SQF
1000 and 2000
Codes)
www.sqfi.com
SQF 1000 is a food safety and
quality management certification
program for Primary Agricultural
Producers, and SQF 2000
is a similar program for Food
Suppliers.
Consumer Health and Safety,
Worker Health and Safety, Access
to Material Resources, Supplier
Relationships
Production
Manufacturing
Global
Rainforest
Alliance
Sustainable
Agriculture
Standard
www.rainforest-alliance.
org
The Rainforest Alliance works with
farmers to ensure compliance
with the Sustainable Agriculture
Network standards for farms.
There are specific guidelines for
producers of fruit.
Worker Health and Safety, Equal
Opportunities/Discrimination, Fair
Salary, Child Labor, Forced Labor,
Social Benefits/Social Security,
Freedom of Association and
Collective Bargaining, Community
Engagement, Local Employment,
Access to Material Resources,
Access to Immaterial Resources,
Safe and Healthy Living Conditions
Farm-specific
Global
54
7 CERTIFICATIONS & LABELING
Table 13: Certifications and Labels available for strawberry yogurt
name
url
description
supply chain
phases
countries
USDA National
Organic
Program
www.ams.usda.gov
This program develops
implements and administers
national production, handling and
labeling standards used to certify
agricultural products as organic.
Worker Health and Safety,
Consumer Health and Safety
Producers and
handlers of
agricultural products
USA
Fair Trade USA
Certification
(member
of Fairtrade
Labeling
Organizations
International)
www.transfairusa.org
(www.fairtrade.net)
The Fair Trade Certified™ label
offers consumers confidence that
specific social, environmental
and economic criteria were met
in the production and trade of an
agricultural product. Fair Trade
Certification is available in the
U.S. for fruit juices, fresh fruit and
timber.
Working Hours, Freedom of
Association and Collective
Bargaining, Worker Health and
Safety, Fair Salary, Forced Labor,
Child Labor, Equal Opportunities/
Discrimination, Social Benefits/
Social Security, Rights of Indigenous
Peoples, Access to Material
Resources, Access to Immaterial
Resources, Community Engagement
Product standards
for small scale
producers, hired
labor and operators
who trade in
certified products.
United States
(Worldwide)
Soil Association
Ethical Trade
Certification
http://www.soilassociation.
org/Takeaction/
Consultations/
Previousconsultations/
Ethicaltrade/tabid/1329/
Default.aspx
The aim of these ethical trade
standards is to ensure that
there are: fair and ethical trading
relationships, socially responsible
practices, and fair and ethical
employment through the whole
organic food chain from producer
to retailer, and in both developing
and developed countries.
Living Wage
Reasonable hours of work
Decent working conditions
Empowerment in the work place
Discrimination
Health and Safety
Production
Europe
Homestead
Family Farms
Certification
Program
http://www.
homesteadcertification.
com/dairystandards.asp
The preservation of the smaller
commercial family farms.
Living Wage
Local Farmers
Production
USA
Fair wages, Benefits
Working Conditions
Harvest
Production
USA
Human Rights
Fair Wages
Production
Processing
Global
strawberry
United Farm
Workers (UFW)
Label
http://www.ufw.org/_page.
php?menu=organizing&inc
=orga_label.html
A group working to provide
working people with the
inspiration and tools to be
successful in the fields.
sugar
Bonsucro
Sugar Cane
Certification
http://www.bonsucro.com/
index.html
Bonsucro is the first metric
standard certification for sugar
cane. Their goal is to transform
the sugar can industry and be
a market driver for demand in
certified sugar cane produced
against sustainable standards.
55
Conclusion
8 CONCLUSION
This report presents a social scoping
assessment of the strawberry yogurt
product category for the Food, Agriculture
and Beverages sector. The assessment was
produced in the context of The Sustainability
Consortium’s development of Sustainability
Measurement and Reporting Systems
(SMRS). Different methods were used in
order to offer a variety of perspectives
on the potential social impacts found in
the strawberry yogurt supply chain. The
main source of information is The Social
Hotspots Database (www.socialhotspots.
org) complemented by a worker hours
model and an external literature review.
According to the Worker Hours Assessment,
the top country-specific sector (CSS) for
US$1M of dairy production is the U.S.
dairy sector, which is responsible for more
than 20% of the total worker hours. The
important U.S. sectors with regards to
worker hours for dairy products include
business services and retail operations, raw
milk production, financial intermediation,
construction, and transport, as well as
corn and other grains grown to feed
cows. Regarding the the Worker Hours
assessment for US$1M of Vegetables and
Fruits (not specific to strawberries), the
vegetables and fruits sector in the U.S. is
the most important. It is responsible for
34% of the total worker hours in the supply
chain.
The Worker Hours assessment also
indicated that the largest share of worker
hours (top 1%) is concentrated in the
production activities occurring in the
U.S. According to the SHDB Model, the
prominent social issues to be concerned
of in the U.S. are that the country does not
ratify international conventions for labor
rights, indicative in the lack of collective
bargaining rights, freedom of association
and the right to strike for workers.
There are additional countries and sectors
that appear to be sensitive to social issues
via the Social Hotspot Index. Chemical
products (plastic containers and fertilizers/
pesticides) from China, Venezuela, and
Indonesia represent important risk. Added
ingredients such as gelatin from India
or China or starches from China are also
at risk of social impacts. Finally sugar, in
particular from India, should be of concern.
The literature review concurs and
complements the assessment of social
hotspots. It highlights that working
conditions in the dairy and strawberry
industry should be investigated for social
issues related to the workers.
57
8 CONCLUSION
The results presented in this document
indicate that social issues do occur in the
strawberry yogurt supply chain, and that
companies producing and marketing yogurt
should be aware of particular countries
and sectors where the opportunity for
social improvements exists. In this report,
the added ingredients (e.g. starch, gelatin,
pectin, artificial sweeteners etc.) were not
investigated via literature review. Those
ingredients would represent further
improvement options.
Consequently, it is recommended that this
assessment be followed by a stakeholder
review of the findings in order to
validate results and move the discussion
towards identification of improvement
opportunities
and
Sustainability
Performance Indicators. What are the
actions that can be put forward to reduce
the negative social impacts of strawberry
yogurt production and what are the best
indicators to capture the results?
58
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61
ANNEX: DETAILS ON THE SOCIAL HOTSPOT DATABASE
Details on the social hotspots database
The Social Hotspot Database (SHDB) is comprised of 15 Social Themes and 4 Social Categories, including Labor
Rights and Decent Work, Governance, Human Rights, and Community Infrastructure. The themes are arranged
into tables that report on the presence and level of social issues (Table A). Within the Social themes there is often
data on more than one issue or indicator; in fact, in the 15 themes, approximately 50 indicators are assessed. In
some cases, there is data for the country level, as well as sector-specific level. The indicators are used (along with
qualitative information in some cases) to characterize risk or opportunity for 38 social issues (28 at country level
only and 10 at the sector-specific level). The sources used to compile this database are presented in Table B for
each of the social themes.
Sector-specific data is preferred, as it is more refined for the GTAP Worker Hour and Supply Chain analysis.
However, not all themes have social indicator data for every country, and certainly not for every sector. The SHDB
is, therefore, a meta-analysis of the best international data available. In cases where there is no data at the sectorspecific level the country level result is used to characterize risk for all sectors. As research on social impacts
continues to advance, and international data gathering efforts increase, it will become possible to improve the
scope and validity of the SHDB.
A supplementary spreadsheet to this document shows the indicator data and corresponding risk/opportunity
characterization (eg., low, medium, high, very high) for the social issues affecting selected country-specific sectors
(CSS) in the strawberry yogurt supply chain. CSS were chosen based on a literature review of the supply chain and
on the highest share of worker hours in the supply chain. More details on the methodology used to determine the
most at-risk CSS based on a Hotspot Index can be found within the report in Section 3.
62
Table A. Social Issues Represented in the Social Hotspot Database (Continues on page 51)
category
table theme
Labor Laws/
Conventions
data indicator
Number of labor laws
Potential of country not passing
labor laws
Number of labor laws by sector
Potential of country not passing
labor laws by sector
Number of labor conventions
ratified (out of 81 possible)
Potential of country not adopting
labor conventions
Number of labor conventions
ratified by sector
Potential of country not adopting
labor conventions by sector
Year of last minimum wage
update
Potential of minimum wage not
being updated
Minimum wages (USD)
Average unskilled wages (USD)
in country
Non-poverty guidelines (USD)
Wage
Assessment
by sector
Population Living
in Poverty
Child Labor
Forced Labor
Excessive
Working Time
Freedom
of Association,
Collective
Bargaining,
Right to Strike
in country
Non-poverty guidelines (USD)
Labor Rights
and Decent Work
characterized issue
Potential of country average
wage being < minimum wage
Potential of country average
wage being < non-poverty
guidelines
Potential of sector average wage
being < non-poverty guideline
Percent of population living on
< $2/day
Risk of population living on
< $2/day
Child labor % in country
Risk of child labor in country
Child labor % by sector
Risk of child labor by sector
Qualitative
Risk of forced labor in country
Qualitative
Risk of forced labor by sector
Percent working > 48 hours/
week in country
Risk of population working
>48 hours/week in country
Qualitative
Risk of population working
>48 hours/week by sector
Qualitative
Risk of not having Freedom of
Association Rights
Qualitative
Risk of not having Collective
Bargaining Rights
Qualitative
Risk of not having the Right
to Strike
63
category
table theme
data indicator
characterized issue
World Bank Worldwide
Governance Indicator-Rule of Law
Bertelsmann Transformational
Index - Rule of Law,
independent judiciary
Governance
Legal
System
CIRI Human Rights Index Independent Judiciary
Global Integrity Index Judicial Accountability
Overall weakness of
Legal System
Global Integrity Index Rule of Law
Global Integrity Index Law Enforcement
World Justice Project Average
Human
Rights
Presence of indigenous
population, X
Not characterized
Indigenous Population, %
Amount of indigenous population
ILO Convention adopted for
Indigenous, Y or N
Indigenous
Rights
UN Declaration for Indigenous,
endorsed (U), abstained (A),
against (N)
Risk of country not adopting
Indigenous ILO convention and
UN Declaration
Number of Laws enacted to
protect indigenous
Risk of country not passing
lLaws to protect indigenous
Qualitative
Potential for Indigenous Rights
Infringements by Sector
Social Institutions and
Gender Index
Global Gender Gap
World Bank Gender
Development Indicator
Gender
Equality
World Bank Gender
Empowerment Index
Overall weakness of
Gender Equity
CIRI Human Rights Index Economic
CIRI Human Rights Index Political
CIRI Human Rights Index Social
64
category
table theme
Gender
Equality
data indicator
characterized issue
Adolescent fertility rate (births
per 1,000 women ages 15-19)
Not characterized
Fertility rate, total (births per woman)
Not characterized
Share of women employed in the
nonagricultural sector (% of total
nonagricultural employment)
Not characterized
% Unemployed, (% of female
labor force unemployed per % of
male labor for unemployed)
Not characterized
% of women workers vs. men
by sector
Risk of Gender inequity
by Sector
Heidelberg Conflict Barometer # of conflicts
Heidelberg Conflict Barometer maximum intensity of conflicts (1-5)
Heidelberg Conflict Barometer
- change in conflicts
(positive=worsening)
Human
Rights
Number of Refugees - UN Refugee
Agency (000’s)
Potential for High Conflict
Center for Systemic Peace Indicator
Center for Systemic Peace Indicator
High Conflict
Zones
Minority Rights Group Indicator
Top Risers from last year in Minority
Rights Group Indicator, X
Qualitative
Potential for High Conflict
specific to sectors
Cases of Tuberculosis (per
100,000 population) 2008
Prevalence of Tuberculosis
2008
Cases of Malaria (per 100,000
population) 2008
Prevalence of Malaria
2008
Cases of Dengue Fever (per
Prevalence of Dengue
Fever, 2005
Cases of Cholera 2008
Prevalence of Cholera 2008
Mortality rates from
communicable diseases (per
Risk of mortality from
communicable diseases
65
Table A. Social Issues Represented in the Social Hotspot Database
category
table theme
Community
Infrastructure
Children Out
of School
Access to
Improved
Drinking Water
Access to
Improved
Sanitation
Access to
Hospital Beds
data indicator
characterized issue
Children out of School – male
Risk of Children not attending
School – male
Children out of School – female
School – female
Children out of School – total
School – total
Access to Improved Drinking
Water, % - rural
Risk of not having access to
Improved Drinking Water – rural
Water, % - urban
Improved Drinking Water –urban
Water, % - total
Improved Drinking Water – total
Access to Improved Sanitation,
% – rural
Improved Sanitation – rural
% – urban
Improved Sanitation – urban
% – total
Improved Sanitation – total
Access to Hospital Beds # beds/1000 pop
Risk of not having Access to
Hospital Beds
66
Table B. References used for each table in the SHDB (Continued on page 55)
Worker Hours
ILO Laborsta Database
http://laborsta.ilo.org/
United Nations Industrial Development Organization, UNIDO
www.unido.org
OECD
http:// stats.oecd.org/
Food and Agriculture Organization Rural Income Generating
Activities database, FAO RIGA
http://www.fao.org/es/ESA/riga/english/form_en.htm
Labor laws
NATLEX, the database of ILO’s International Labour
Standards Department - Conventions
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/country_profiles.byCountry?p_
lang=en
NATLEX, the database of ILO’s International Labour
Standards Department - Laws
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex_browse.byCountry?p_
lang=en
average wages
Non-Poverty Wages Based on US Poverty Guideline and
Adjusted Using GDP
http://www.Sweatfree.org
2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/index.htm
ILO Minimum Wage Database
http://www.ilo.org/travaildatabase/servlet/minimumwages
Spanish Ministry of Work and Immigration - most recent
minimum wage
http://www.tt.mtas.es/periodico/Laboral/200812/
LAB20081226_3.htm
Federation of European Employers - Most recent Minimum
Wage Rates for Latvia
http://www.fedee.com/minwage.html
Govt website - Netherlands most recent Minimum Wage
http://docs.minszw.nl/pdf/27/2009/27_2009_2_21809.pdf
Govt website - New Zealand most recent minimum wage
http://www.ers.dol.govt.nz/pay/minimum.html
Govt website - most recent Chile Minimum Wage
http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1003770
Newspaper Article - Croatia most recent Minimum Wage
http://www.poslovni.hr/93182.aspx
National Institute of Economic Statistics - France most recent http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?ref_
Minimum Wage
id=NATnon04145&reg_id=0
Directgov website - United Kingdom, most recent minimum
wage
http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Employment/Employees/
TheNationalMinimumWage/DG_10027201
Website - Brazil most recent Minimum Wage
http://www.portalbrasil.net/salariominimo_2009.htm
Newspaper article - Venezuela most recent Minimum Wage
http://www.abn.info.ve/noticia.php?articulo=197112&lee=3
Govt Website - British Columbia Ministry of Labor - Canada’s http://www.labour.gov.bc.ca/esb/facshts/min-wage.htm
lowest Minimum Wage
Fair Labor Standards Act - most recent US Minimum Wage
http://www.dol.gov/compliance/laws/comp-FLSA.htm
Population Making < $2/day
World Bank World Development Indicators
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.2DAY
child labor
Understanding Children’s Work Project by UNICEF,
International Labor Organization, and World Bank, Surveys
with sector specific child labor %.
http://www.ucw-project.org
UNICEF State of the world’s children 2009 Report
http://www.unicef.org/sowc09/report/report.php
U.S. Department of Labor’s 2008 Findings on the Worst
Forms of Child Labor
http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/main.htm
U.S. Dept of Labor List of Goods Produced by Child Labor
or Forced Labor 2009. Report Required by the Trafficking
Victims Protection Authorization Acts of 2005 and 2008.
U.S. Dept. of Labor Bureau of International Labor Affairs.
Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor and Human Trafficking.
http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/PDF/2009TVPRA.pdf
US Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices
67
Child labor
International Labour Organization Laborstat Database 1A-Total and economically actively active population,
by age group
http://laborsta.ilo.org
Global March - Worst Forms of Child Labor 2005
http://www.globalmarch.org/worstformsreport/world/index.html
UNICEF - statistical information including data used in
UNICEF’s State of the World’s Children
http://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_countrystats.html
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions - WTO
Reviews
http://www.ituc-csi.org/
World Bank World Development Indicators
http://data.worldbank.org/topic/social-development
U.S. Department of Labor’s Report on Youth Labor Force in
U.S. 2000
http://www.bls.gov/opub/rylf/rylfhome.htm
United Nations Special Session on Children for Barbados
http://www.un.org/ga/children/barbadosE.htm
Watchlist on children and armed conflict in Colombia
http://www.watchlist.org/
United Nations Children Fund - Gambia Country Profile
http://www.ungambia.gm/unicef/profile.html
ECLT Foundation - Addressing the challenge of child labour
in tobacco growing in Fiji
http://www.eclt.org
forced labor
ILO information cited in Human Rights Education Associates
Learning Center
http://www.hrea.org/index.php?base_id=160
U.S. Dept of Labor List of Goods Produced by Child Labor
or Forced Labor 2009. Report Required by the Trafficking
Victims Protection Authorization Acts of 2005 and 2008.
U.S.Dept. of Labor Bureau of Interna-tional Labor Affairs.
Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor and Human Trafficking.
http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/PDF/2009TVPRA.pdf
2008 U.S. Dept of State Human Rights Country Reports
Forced Labour Fact sheet “Forced Labour Statistics,
Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work,”
2006, Cornell University ILR SchoolOffice of Child Labor,
Forced Labor and Human Trafficking.
http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/forcedlabor/20
Human Trafficking and Modern Day Slavery in Egypt
http://gvnet.com/humantrafficking/Egypt.htm
LaborRights.org - Factory Profiles
http://www.laborrights.org/creating-a-sweatfreeworld/sweatshops/factory-profiles/pt-busana-indah-global
Amnesty International Report for Myanmar
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA16/024/2005
Report on Philippines by Antislavery.org
http://www.antislavery.org/english/campaigns/take_
actionbackground_to_forced_labour_and_exploitation_of_
domestic_workers_in_the_philippines.aspx
“Internationally-recognised core labour standards in Poland”
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/63/001.html
“Cost of Coercion” Report of Director General of the ILO
2009
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---rel-conf/
documents/meetingdocument/wcms_106230.pdf
Senegal: Deforestation by expansion of groundnut
monoculture, 2004
http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/85/Senegal.html
“3 million Ugandan minors risked forced labour”
http://www.afrol.com/articles/29349
Forced labour: contemporary slavery in the UK by the Joseph
Rowntree Foundation
http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/forced-labour-investigations.pdf
Free the Slaves and Human Rights Center (University of
California, Berkeley) “Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the
United States” 2004.
http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1
007&context=forcedlabor
“Zimbabwe: End Repression in Marange Diamond Fields “
http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/06/26/zimbabwe-endrepression-marange-diamond-fields
Trafficking in Persons Report 2009 - Cameroon
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic/4565c22535/4565c25f42b.
html
68
Child labor
CIA World Fact Book, Sudan
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
geos/su.html
Oxfam - Eastern Congo
http://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressrelease/2009-07-14/
rape-torture-surge-in-eastern-congo
freedom of association, collective bargaining and right to strike
ITUC annual survey of violations of trade union rights 2009
http://survey09.ituc-csi.org/survey.php?IDContinent=0&Lang=EN
ITUC - WTO General Council Review of Trade Policies
http://www.ituc-csi.org/spip.php?page=moredoc&id_type=275
U.S. Dept. of State Country Reports
Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network
http://en.euromedrights.org/index.php/news/emhrn_
releases/67/4076.html
excessive overtime
Eurofound, European Foundation for the Improvement of
Living and Working Conditions
http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2008/101/en/2/
EF08101EN.pdf
ILO Key Indicators of the Labor Market, Table 6a.
Distribution of employed population by hours worked per
week (by sex, age group and status)
http://kilm.ilo.org/KILMnetBeta/default2.asp
David BESCOND*, Anne CHÂTAIGNIER* and Farhad
MEHRAN. Seven indicators to measure decent work: An
international comparison. International Labour Review, Vol.
142, No. 2, (2003).
http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-112945029/sevenindicators-measure-decent.html
Laborsta, Distribution of the employed population by hours
of work
http://laborsta.ilo.org/STP/guest
Bardasi, Elena and Wodon, Quentin T., Working Long
Hours and Having No Choice: Time Poverty in Guinea
(June 1, 2009). World Bank Policy Research Working
Paper Series, Vol. , pp. -, 2009.
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1421702
U.S. Department of State’s Human Rights Reports, 2009.
HP Global Citizenship Audit Results for Working Time
http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/society/supplychain/
audit.html#overview
Verite Research Paper, 2004. Excessive Overtime in Chinese
Factories.
http://www.verite.org/system/files/images/Excessive_Overtime_
in_Chinese_Factories.pdf
ILO Report for Tanzania. Source of data: National Bureau of
Statistics, ILFS
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/afpro/daressalaam/
download/decent_work_tz.pdf
Verite Report referenced in Business Week 2009 article.
http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_48/
b4011009.htm
migrant workers
Population Reference Bureau, 2009 Population Data Sheet
http://www.prb.org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf
Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation
and Poverty (Migration DRC) - Global Migrant Origin
Database, 2007
http://www.migrationdrc.org/research/typesofmigration/global_
migrant_origin_database.html
International Organization for Migration
http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/
International Labor Organization - International Labor
Statistics, Laborsta, Tables M6, M7
laborsta.ilo.org
Eurostat - Statistics
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/
search_database
International Migration/Government Views and Poli-cies
2009
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2009/
WPP2009%20web/Countries/WPP2009%20Frame.htm
ILO Convention No. 97 on Migration for Employment, 1949
http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/newratframeE.htm
69
migrant workers
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.
Migrant Workers and Members of their Families New York,
aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&lang=en
18 December 1990
National Report submitted in 2008 in accordance with
paragraph 15(a) of the Annex to Human Rights Council
Resolution 5/1 - Argentina.
International Migration Outlook, 2010,
http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/
browseit/8110101E.PDF
Azerbaijan Labour Migrant Survey Report, International
Organization for Migration, February 2009
http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/azerbaijan_labour_
migrant_survey.pdf
UNESCO Series of Country Reports of the Ratification of
the UN Convention on Migrants, 2004,
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/
themes/social-transformations/international-migration/projects/
unesco-project-on-the-international-migrants-rights-convention/
International Organization for Migration, Bangladesh, May
2010
http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/bangladesh#rm
International Organization for Migration, Belarus, November
2010
http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/belarus
Towards a fair deal for migrant workers in the global
economy, International Labour Office, 2004
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ilc92/pdf/
rep-vi.pdf
OHCHR
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/migration/rapporteur/visits.
htm
National report submitted in accordance with paragraph
15(a) of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 5/1
– Chile 2009
http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=sea
rch&skip=0&query=specific+groups+and+individuals%3A+migra
nt+workers&x=0&y=0
UNHCR
http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=sea
rch&skip=0&query=specific+groups+and+individuals%3A+migra
nt+workers&x=0&y=0
Migration in Georgia: A Country Profile, International
Organization for Migration, 2008
http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/Georgia_Profile2008.pdf
Support for migrant workers: The missing link in India’s
development, Natural Resource Perspectives, 2008.
http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2466.pdf
The Rights of Migrant Workers and Members of Their
Families: Nigeria, UNESCO, October 2003
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001395/139534e.pdf
The Global economic crisis and migrant workers: Impact and
response, ILO-Geneva 2009
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/migrant/download/
global_crisis2.pdf
International Migration in the Russian Federation, United
Nations Secretariat, 2005
http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/ittmigdev2005/
P11_Rybakovsky&Ryazantsev.pdf
Puerto Rico Plan, US Department of Labor, OSHA, 2002
http://www.osha.gov/dcsp/osp/stateprogs/puerto_rico.html
International Labour Organization Multilateral Framework
on Labour Migration, 2006on Labour Migration, 2006
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/migrant/download/
multilat_fwk_en.pdf
Migration in Serbia: A Country Profile, International
http://www.grupa484.org.rs/czm/migracioni_profili/Serbia_
Migration%20Profile_2008.pdf
International Organization for Migration, Afghanistan
http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/afghanistan
International Organization for Migration, May 2010
http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/nepal
Migration in Ghana: A Country Profile, International
http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/Ghana_Profile_2009.pdf
International Organization for Migration, April 2010
http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/mali
Intra-Regional Labour mobility in the Arab World, International http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/ALO-IOM_intraOrganization for Migration, 2010
regional_labour_mobility_EN.pdf
Laborsta - ILO
http://laborsta.ilo.org/STP/guest
Migration Information
http://www.migrationinformation.org/datahub/comparative.cfm
70
Table B. References used for each table in the SHDB (Continues on page 59)
injuries in the workplace
Hamalainen, Paivi, Jukka Takala, Kaija Leena Saarela, (2009),
Global trend according to estimated number of occupational
accidents and fatal work-related diseases at region and
country level, Journal of Safety Research, 40(2):125-39
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433205
LABORSTA, International Labour Office database on labour
statistics, ILO Department of Statistics
http://laborsta.ilo.org/data_topic_E.html
International Labour Office [ILO]. (1996). ILO Code of
Practice. Recording and notification of occupational
accidents and diseases. Geneva.
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/--protrav/---safework/documents/normativeinstrument/
wcms_107800.pdf
Takala, J. (1999). Global Estimates of Fatal Occupational
Accidents. Epidemiology, 10, 640-646.
http://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/methods/en/takala.pdf
unemployment
IMF World Economic Outlook Database, October 2010
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/02/weodata/
index.aspx
Eurostat
http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=une_
rt_a&lang=en
ILO Laborsta
OECD, StatExtracts
http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=251
indigenous rights
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2008
(UNHCR)
http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain
Indigenous World 2010 (IWGIA)
http://www.iwgia.org/sw41165.asp
State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples (UNDESA 2009)
http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/SOWIP_web.pdf
Indigenous Peoples, Poverty and Development (World Bank
2010)
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTINDPEOPLE/
Resources/407801-1271860301656/full_report.pdf
Ethnic groups worldwide by David Levinson (1998) Oryx
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Indigenous peoples, poverty & human development in Latin
America 1994-2004 (2006, World Bank)
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6830~theSitePK:258554,00.html
Rights of indigenous peoples in 24 African countries 2009
(ILO)
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/--normes/documents/publication/wcms_115929.pdf
EIRIS and CAER SEE Risk briefing 2007
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seeriskindigenouspeoples.pdf
World Bank, World Development Indicators 2008
http://data.worldbank.org/
International Labour Organization ILOLEX 2010
http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/ratifce.pl?C169
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/declaration.html
gender equity
Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) 2009
www.genderindex.org
The Global Gender Gap Index, Global Gender Gap Report,
2009 World Economic Forum, Geneva Switzerland
http://www.weforum.org/en/Communities/Women%20
Leaders%20and%20Gender%20Parity/GenderGapNetwork/
index.htm
UNDP Human Development Indicators Report, 2009
http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/
The Cingranelli-Richards Human Rights Dataset (CIRI)
http://ciri.binghamton.edu/
Gender Stats - World Bank
http://go.worldbank.org/MRER20PME0
ILO-Key Indicators of the Labor Market (KILM) Data-base
http://www.ilo.org/
Dataset: Gender, Institutions and Development Database
2009 (GID-DB)
http://stats.oecd.org/OECDStat_Metadata/ShowMetadata.ashx
?Dataset=GID2&ShowOnWeb=true&Lang=en
Gender Related Development Index (GDI) - UNDP Human
Development Report 2007
http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Table_J.pdf
Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) - UNDP Human
Development Report 2007/2008
http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_GEM.pdf
71
high conflict zones
Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research,
Conflict Barometer Report 2009
http://hiik.de/en/konfliktbarometer/
The UN Refugee Agency, Global Trends Report 2009,
Refugees and International Displaced Persons
http://www.unhcr.org
Center for Systemic Peace, 2009 Global Report On
Conflict, Governance and State Fragility
http://www.systemicpeace.org/
State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
2010, Minority Rights Group International
http://www.minorityrights.org/9885/peoples-under-threat/
peoples-under-threat-2010.html
Africa: Conflicts Without Borders - Sub-national and
Transnational Conflict-Affected Areas (2007–2008)
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/JOPA7LDBRF?OpenDocument&rc=1&cc=dza
Conflict-Sensitive Business Practice: Guidance for
Extractive Industries and Conflict-Sensitive Project
Finance: Better Lending Practice in Conflict-Prone States,
International Alert
www.international-alert.org
“Investing in Stability - Conflict Risk, Environmental
Challenges and the Bottom-Line”, United Nations
Environment Programme Finance Initiative (UNEP FI), Intl.
Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)
http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/investing_in_
stability_final_report_2004.pdf
Business and Human Rights Resource Center - Business,
Conflict and Peace Portal
http://www.business-humanrights.org/ConflictPeacePortal/
Sector
Motivating and Impeding Factors for Corporate Engagement
in Peacebuilding, Swiss Peace Working Paper, Ulrike Joras,
with contributions from Rina Alluri and Karsten Palme
http://www.swisspeace.ch/typo3/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/
Working_Paper/WP1_2009.pdf
“Oil and Mining in Violent Places - Why voluntary codes for
companies don’t guarantee human rights” Global Witness
Oct 2007
http://www.corporate-accountability.org/eng/
Collier, P. et al. Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and
Development Policy. World Bank, 2003: 179
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165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=
64166093&entityID=000094946_0306190405396
Undue diligence: How banks do business with corrupt
regimes, Global Witness
http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/735/
en/undue_diligence_how_banks_do_business_with_corrupt
Addison, T. and Murshed, M. Finance in Conflict and
Reconstruction. UNU/WIDER Finance and Development
Research Programme Paper No. 20, November 2000
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U.S. Institute of Peace, Stabilization and Reconstruction, Jill
Shankleman
http://www.usip.org/files/resources/srs4.pdf
Hot Chocolate - How Cocoa fuelled the conflict in Côte
d’Ivoire, Global Witness
http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/552/en/
hot_chocolate_how_cocoa_fuelled_the_conflict_in_co
Minority Rights Group International
http://www.minorityrights.org/9885/peoples-under-threat/
peoples-under-threat-2010.html
children out of school
UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Population of School-age
Students
http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/
document.aspx?ReportId=136&IF_Language=eng&BR_Topic=0
UNICEF Child Info Statistics
http://www.childinfo.org/education_outofschool.php
health issues
WHO World Health Statistics 2010
http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS10_Full.pdf
UN FAO
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1683e/i1683e.pdf
World Health Organization Global Infobase - Noncommunicable diseases and injuries
https://apps.who.int/infobase/
UNDP Human Development Report 2010
http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.
pdf
World Health Organization 2010
http://www.who.int/countries/en/
UN Statistics Division 2008
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=644
Denguenet WHO
http://apps.who.int/globalatlas/DataQuery/default.asp
72
Table B. References used for each table in the SHDB
legal systems
CIA World Factbook, Legal System
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.
html
World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators
http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/mc_countries.asp
Bertelsmann Transformation Index
http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/en/bti/atlas/
CIRI Human Rights Data Project 2008
http://ciri.binghamton.edu/index.asp
World Justice Project Rule of Law Index 2009
http://www.worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index/
Global Integrity Index
http://report.globalintegrity.org/
hospital bed access
World Bank World Development Indicators Report 2009
http://www.worldbank.org/data
European Observatory on Health Systems & Policies - 2003
http://www.euro.who.int/document/e82881.pdf
Taiwan Department of Health
http://www.euro.who.int/document/e82881.pdf
OECD Health Data 2005
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/15/25/34970222.pdf
World Health Organization Indicators
http://www.who.int/whosis/
Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, Assessing the need
to establish new hospitals, Volume 2, Issue 2, 1996, Page
334-339, Saeed Assefzadeh.
http://www.emro.who.int/Publications/emhj/0202/23.htm
WHO World Health Statistics 2009
http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/2009/en/index.html
Journal of Health and Human Behavior, The Distribu-tion of
Hospital Beds Needed in a Region, Milton Roemer, 1960.
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2949007
access to improved sanitation
World Health Organization Progress on sanitation and
drinking-water 2010 update
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publica
tions/9789241563956/en/index.html
World Bank’s World Development Indicators 2009,
Table 3.11
http://www.worldbank.org/data
access to improved drinking water source
World Health Organization Progress on sanitation and
drinking-water 2010 update
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publica
tions/9789241563956/en/index.html
World Bank’s World Development Indicators 2009
http://data.worldbank.org/
smallholder vs. commercial farms
FAO 2000 World Census of Agriculture
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1595e/i1595e00.ht
Nagayets O (2005) Small Farms: Current Status and Key
Trends.
http://www.ifpri.org/publication/future-small-farms
Eurostat
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/agriculture/
data/database
ILO Laborsta - Economically Active Population by Industry
and Status in Employment - Table 1C
73
© 2012 Arizona State University and University of Arkansas

- Social Hotspots Database

Transcription

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