Sustainable Transportation in Al

Transcription

Sustainable Transportation in Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman.
Analysis and Concepts for the city of Al Buraimi
Moving towards a more sustainable transportation mode
Thesis by:
Pedro Becerra Rodriguez
(Student Number: 0360189)
Supervision by:
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Prof. Sonja Nebel, TU Berlin
Technische Universität Berlin
Fak VI Habitat Unit
Urban Management Master Program 2013/2015
Berlin, Germany
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder 2013
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Sustainable Transportation in Al-Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman
Analysis and concepts for the city of Al-Buraimi
Moving towards a more sustainable transportation mode
Thesis by:
(Student Number: 0360189)
Supervision by:
Prof. Dr. Sonja Nebel, TU Berlin
Berlin, Germany 2015
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Urban Management
Technische Universität Berlin
Fak VI Habitat Unit
Urban Management Master Program 2013/2015
Berlin, Germany
Cover Image by the Author. Berlin, December 2014.
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STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY OF MATERIAL
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma in any institution and to the best of my knowledge and
belief, the research contains no material previously published or written by
another person, except where due reference has been made in the text of the
thesis.
Berlin, the 31st of January 2015
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to thank the Governorate of Al Buraimi for the opportunity to carry out this
research in Oman. Special thanks to His Excellency the Governor of Al Buraimi,
Mr. Sayyid Ibrahim Bin al Busaidy, and the Municipal Councillor Mr. Mohammed
Al Baddi. I am also highly thankful to Dr. Hamad Al Gharibi, Head of the Urban
Planning Section of the Ministry of Housing in Al Buraimi, for his support during
the field trip to Oman. I also want to thank all of the people that I met and
interviewed during the field work for their valuable time and cooperation.
I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Sonja Nebel for her valuable guidance and
strong support with the supervision of this study. I also thank the administrative
staff of the Urban Management Master Programme of TU Berlin.
Lastly, I would like to thank Colfuturo (Fundación para el futuro de Colombia) and
my parents for its support during this period of studies.
IV
ABSTRACT
The city of Al Buraimi, located in the northwest of the Sultanate of Oman, has
experienced a rapid urban growth characterized by patchy and unsustainable
development over the last years. As a result of this process, the city is facing
challenges in different dimensions of the urban structure. One of these problems
is transportation, which is automobile dependent and road based. Additionally, Al
Buraimi presents segregated land use patterns, low densities, reduced travel
choices, considerable occupation of land for car facilities and high accidents
rates, among other issues. Thus, the increasing transportation needs may lead to
social, environmental and economical problems.
On the other hand, the transportation planning process is characterized by a lack
of coordination among institutions and shortage of vision. Car dependency can
be attributed to different reasons; firstly, the national transportation policy and
legal framework are focused on roads development. Secondly, prices of cars and
oil are relatively affordable in the Sultanate, and there is a car culture based on
foreign auto models. Furthermore, the current strong top down approach does
not facilitate the instruments necessary to implement a sustainable mode of
transportation. A more balanced transportation system achieved via a more
holistic, coordinated, and inclusive planning approach would provide many
benefits to the city.
This research project firstly has the aim of analyzing the current transportation
system in Al Buraimi, by comparing its performance with theoretical principles,
concepts and definitions of sustainable transportation. Afterwards, this study
intends to provide proposals which are based on criteria and concepts to switch
into a more balanced/sustainable transportation mode in Al Buraimi.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY OF MATERIAL ............................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................... IV
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... VII
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... IX
LIST OF BOXES................................................................................................. IX
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. IX
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................... XII
1. REVIEW OF AL BURAIMI .............................................................................. 12
1.1. Geographical Location ............................................................................. 12
1.2. History ...................................................................................................... 13
1.3. Population ................................................................................................ 15
1.4. Economy .................................................................................................. 16
2. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 18
2.1. Al Buraimi urban development process .................................................... 18
2.2. Current mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi ........................................... 22
2.3. Impacts of road based mode of transportation ......................................... 24
2.3.1. Social Impacts ................................................................................... 24
2.3.2. Environmental Impacts ...................................................................... 25
2.3.3. Economical Impacts ........................................................................... 26
3. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 28
3.1. Rational for Study ..................................................................................... 28
3.2. Research Objectives ................................................................................ 29
3.3. Research Question ................................................................................... 30
3.4. Secondary Questions ............................................................................... 30
3.5. Project Phases ...................................................................................... 31
3.6. Techniques for Research ......................................................................... 33
3.6.1. Semi -Structured Interviews ............................................................... 33
3.6.2. Community Questionnaires................................................................ 34
3.6.3. Direct Observation ............................................................................. 34
3.7. Limitations ................................................................................................ 35
3.6. Expected Outcomes ................................................................................. 36
4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................... 38
4.1. Literature Review ..................................................................................... 38
4.1.1. Sustainable Urban Development ....................................................... 38
4.1.2. Literature review on Sustainable Transportation ................................ 39
4.1.3. Transportation Planning ..................................................................... 41
4.1.4. Land Use Planning – Transportation ................................................. 44
4.2. Hypothesis ............................................................................................................................... 46
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5. TRANSPORTATION GOVERNANCE IN AL BURAIMI ................................. 47
5.1. Government Institutions Involved ............................................................. 47
5.2. Transportation Planning Procedure .......................................................... 49
5.3. Laws, Regulations and Strategies ............................................................ 51
5.3.1. Oman Highway Design Manual Standards ........................................ 52
5.3.2. Omani Environmental Regulations .................................................... 53
5.3.3. Oman Planning Guidelines ................................................................ 53
5.3.4. Development Control Plan Framework .............................................. 54
5.5.5. Oman National Spatial Strategy ......................................................... 54
5.4. Transportation Planning Issues ................................................................ 56
5.4.1 Governance / Procedures ................................................................... 56
5.4.2. Legal Framework ............................................................................... 59
6. TRANSPORTATION AND MOBILITY IN AL BURAIMI ................................. 61
6.1. Transportation Profile of Al Buraimi .......................................................... 61
6.1.1 Choice of transportation mode ............................................................ 61
6.1.2 Users Affordability ............................................................................... 62
6.1.3. Number of Vehicles ........................................................................... 65
6.1.4. Road Executed Lengths..................................................................... 66
6.1.5. Roads Expenditure ............................................................................ 67
6.1.6. Petrol Consumption ........................................................................... 68
6.1.7. Carbon Emissions .............................................................................. 69
6.2. Mobility Patterns ....................................................................................... 70
6.2.1. Local Mobility Patterns ....................................................................... 70
6.2.2. Regional Mobility Patterns ................................................................. 77
6.3 Evaluation of transportation facilities and mobility behaviour .................... 80
6.3.1. Roads Network .................................................................................. 81
6.3.2. Accidents ........................................................................................... 85
6.3.3. Speed Control .................................................................................... 86
6.3.4. Parking lots ........................................................................................ 87
6.3.5. Sidewalks........................................................................................... 90
6.3.6. Development of new roads ................................................................ 93
6.3.7. Transport services in Al Buraimi ........................................................ 95
7. ASSESMENT OF TRANSPORTATION IN AL BURAIMI ............................... 97
7.1 Transportation performance in regards to sustainability ............................ 97
7.1.1. Social Sustainability ........................................................................... 97
7.1.2. Environmental Sustainability .............................................................. 98
7.1.3. Economic Sustainability ..................................................................... 99
7.2. SWOT Analysis ...................................................................................... 102
8. RECOMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 105
8.1. Governance / Institutional Recommendations ........................................ 105
8.1.1. Integration and coordination in the planning procedure ................... 105
8.1.2. Change of land distribution system .................................................. 106
8.1.3. Integration of land use and transportation planning ......................... 107
VII
8.1.4. Review of laws and regulations ....................................................... 107
8.1.5. Monitoring and Enforcement ............................................................ 110
8.1.6. Decentralization ............................................................................... 110
8.1.7. Public Involvement ........................................................................... 111
8.1.8. Public/Political Acceptability and Adaptability .................................. 113
8.2. Technical Recommendations ................................................................. 116
8.2.1. Facilities for walking and biking ....................................................... 116
8.2.2. Landscaping .................................................................................... 118
8.2.3. Public Transportation ....................................................................... 119
8.2.4. Transit Oriented Development ......................................................... 122
8.2.5. Alternative Energies ......................................................................... 125
8.2.6. Improvement of Regional Public Transportation .............................. 126
8.3. Stakeholders………………………………………………………...………..130
9. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 130
10. REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 134
APPENDIX ....................................................................................................... 138
A - Interview Schedule .................................................................................. 138
B – Interview Ministry of Transportation and Communications ...................... 139
C- Interview Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs .............................. 141
D – Interview with the Governor of Al Buraimi ............................................... 142
E - Community Questionnaires...................................................................... 143
F - Plans, laws and regulations ..................................................................... 147
VIII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1– Existing and projected transportation impacts in Al Buraimi attributed to
auto-based mode. ............................................................................................... 27
Table 2– Summary of Laws, Regulations and strategies related to transportation
............................................................................................................................ 56
Table 3 – Summary of Transportation Planning Issues in Oman ........................ 60
Table 4 – Affordability of private transportation ................................................... 63
Table 5 – Road Executed Lengths in the Governorate of Al Buraimi per Year ... 67
Table 6 - Consumption of Barrels of Petrol in Al Buraimi in 2013 ....................... 68
Table 7 – Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Oman ................................................... 69
Table 8 - Functional Route Characterization Description .................................... 82
Table 9 – Operation of NOTC buses in Al Buraimi.............................................. 96
Table 10 – Transportation performance in regard to sustainability ................... 101
Table 11 – SWOT Analysis ............................................................................... 104
Table 12 – Recommendations Action Plan………………………………………. 129
Table 13 – Stakeholders of the proposed action plan……………………………130
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1 – Research Process ................................................................................. 37
Box 2- Transportation Governance Structure in Al Buraimi ................................ 48
Box 3- Transportation Planning Procedure in Al Buraimi .................................... 51
Box 4 - Governance/Institutional Recommendations Summary ........................ 115
Box 5 – Public Transportation Plan ................................................................... 121
Box 6 – Technical Recommendations Summary .............................................. 128
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - Al Buraimi Geographical Location, ..................................................... 12
Figure 2 - Map of Al Buraimi Urban Area ............................................................ 13
Figure 3 – Al Buraimi Population Growth ............................................................ 15
Figure 4 – Al Buraimi Omani Population Growth ................................................ 15
Figure 5 – Al Buraimi Expatriate Population Growth ........................................... 16
Figure 6 - Map of Al Buraimi in 1986................................................................... 18
Figure 7 - Expansion Plan of Al Buraimi 1986-1996 ........................................... 19
Figure 8 - Al Buraimi Plan 1996 .......................................................................... 20
Figure 9 - Al Buraimi Master Plan ....................................................................... 21
Figure 10 - Choice of transportation mode in Al Buraimi..................................... 61
Figure 11 - Transportation mode in Al Buraimi ................................................... 62
Figure 12 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality in Al Buraimi, .............. 64
Figure 13 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality and Age Group in Al
Buraimi,............................................................................................................... 65
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Figure 14- Number of cars registered and driving licenses issued by year in Al
Buraimi................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 15 - Roads Expenditure in Oman by Year ............................................... 68
Figure 16 - Mobility attracting points in Al Buraimi .............................................. 70
Figure 17- Local Souk (Market)………………………………………………………71
Figure 18 - Commercial Street in Al Buraimi ....................................................... 71
Figure 19 - Photo of the Bank of Oman building in the bus terminal ................... 71
Figure 20 – Photo of Buraimi Park…………………………………………………..72
Figure 21 - Lulu Shopping Center, ...................................................................... 72
Figure 22- Photo of the Sultan Qaboos Mosque of Al Buraimi ............................ 73
Figure 23 - Photos of an international border cross point in Al Buraimi .............. 74
Figure 24 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Omani Nationals) .......... 74
Figure 25 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Foreign Nationals) ......... 75
Figure 26 - Percentage of time spent to commute per activity in Al Buraimi ....... 77
Figure 27- Main destinations within Oman for residents in Al Buraimi ................ 78
Figure 28 - Map of the main destinations within Oman for residents of Al Buraimi
............................................................................................................................ 78
Figure 29 - Reasons of regional mobility for Al Buraimi residents ....................... 79
Figure 30 - Choice of mode of transportation for regional mobility within Oman . 80
Figure 31 - Map of roads network hierarchy in Al Buraimi .................................. 81
Figure 32 - National Route in Al Buraimi……………………………………………83
Figure 33 - Green area alongside the highway ................................................... 83
Figure 34 – Photos of Secondary roads in Al Buraimi......................................... 84
Figure 35 – Photo of distributor and access routes ............................................. 84
Figure 36 - Accidents, Injuries and Deaths per year in Al Buraimi ...................... 85
Figure 37 - Percentage of accidents and safety perception of residents in Al
Buraimi................................................................................................................ 86
Figure 38 – Photos of speed bumps in the roads of Al Buraimi .......................... 87
Figure 39 – Photos of parking lots in Al Buraimi ................................................. 88
Figure 40 - Sample area in Al Buraimi for parking lots analysis, ......................... 89
Figure 41 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi .................................................................... 90
Figure 42 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi .................................................................... 91
Figure 43 - Walking time per week of residents in Al Buraimi ............................. 92
Figure 44 - Walking time per week by nationality ................................................ 92
Figure 45 - What people consider as public spaces............................................ 93
Figure 46 - Aerial photography of a newly built road in Al Buraimi ...................... 94
Figure 47 – Photos of new roads in newly developed areas in Al Buraimi .......... 94
Figure 48 - Taxi of Al Buraimi………………………………………………………...95
Figure 49 - School Bus of Al Buraimi .................................................................. 95
Figure 50 - NOTC bus in Al Buraimi.................................................................... 96
Figure 51 - Omani Native Trees Species, Source ............................................. 118
Figure 52 – Sample of pergolas on paths and sidewalks .................................. 119
Figure 53 – Transit Oriented Development Concept ......................................... 123
Figure 54 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi for TOD Implementation ... 124
Figure 55 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi Projected Areas for TOD
Implementation ................................................................................................. 127
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
GCC
Gulf Cooperation Council
HDMS
Highway Design Manual Standards
MoECA
Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
MOTC
Ministry of Transport and Communications
MoH
Ministry of Housing (Oman)
MRMWR
Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
NCSI
National Center of Statistics and Information
OCCI
Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry
ONSS
Oman National Spatial Strategy
ST
Sustainable Transportation
SWOT
Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats
TOD
Transport Oriented Development
UAE
United Arab Emirates
UN-HABITAT United Nation Human Settlement Programme
Translation of Arabic Terms
Souk
‘market’
Wadi
‘valley’
Wilayats ‘districts’
At the time of writing, the value of the Omani Rial (O.R) was as follows:
1 O.R = 2 Euro
(Monthly average during December 2014)
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1. REVIEW OF AL BURAIMI
1.1 Geographical Location
Al Buraimi is a Governorate in The Sultanate of Oman, located in the northwest
region of the country. It has a strategic geographical position due to its location
on the border with the city of Al Ain (U.A.E), which links it internationally. The
Governorate is located 341 kilometers away from Muscat, the capital of Oman,
and 113 kilometers away from the port of Sohar, in the Gulf of Oman (Google
maps, 2014).
Figure 1 - Al Buraimi Geographical Location, Source: Google maps, 2014
Furthermore, the Governorate of Al Buraimi shares limits with the region of Al
Batinah in the east, and the region of Ad Dhahirah in the south. It has 3 wilayats
– Al Buraimi, Mahdha and al Sunainah. Moreover, it is estimated that Al Buraimi
has an area of 7,000 square kilometres (Oman Information Centre, 2012). The
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landscape of the Governorate is very different to that of Al Ain; it consists mostly
of wide open gravel plains and sharp jutting rocks, it is common to find native
trees on the plains as well (Wikipedia, 2014).
Additionally, Al Buraimi has an altitude of 299 meters above the sea level and the
climate is classified as hyper arid with low humidity (Wikipedia, 2014).
Figure 2 - Map of Al Buraimi Urban Area, Source: Wikimapia, 2014
1.2. History
Historically, Al Buraimi has been part of Oman since early times. Circa 600 C.E,
the oasis was occupied by the Azd tribes of Oman, then in the 700s it was
abandoned (Wikipedia, 2014). From 1800 to 1950, the area was ruled by the Al
Nuaimi tribe. Al Buraimi became an important point of trade as well as significant
producer of wheat, dates and other fruits. Moreover, its position above the sea
level and the abundant water supply from irrigation channels and wadis
contributed to the historic role of the oasis as a trading center (Oman Information
Centre, 2012).
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However, in the early 1950s, a jointly owned Saudi American oil company
believed that there was commercial oil in the territory of Al Buraimi and Abu
Dhabi. As a result, Saudi Arabia claimed sovereignty over the Buraimi oasis in an
incident known as the “Buraimi Dispute” (Meagher, 1985). The Saudis stated that
the oasis had been occupied by ancestors of the Saudi king Andul Aziz bin Saud.
Therefore, in 1952, a group of 80 Saudi Arabian guards crossed the Abu Dhabi
region and occupied Hamasa, which is one of the three Omani villages in the
oasis (Wikipedia, 2014). The Sultan of Muscat and Imam of Oman tried to defend
the territory from the invasion by gathering their forces to repel the Saudis.
Nevertheless, the British Government persuaded them to take military action.
Instead, Great Britain, acting on behalf of Oman and Abu Dhabi, challenged the
actions of the Saudis (Quentin, 2013). In 1954, there was an agreement to settle
the dispute by an international arbitration tribunal. The arbitration procedure
began in Geneva in 1955, however, Saudi Arabia wanted to bribe the tribunal to
obtain declarations in this case and attempts for arbitration failed (Wikipedia,
2014). Consequently, the British encouraged the Sultan of and Ruler of Abu
Dhabi to occupy Hamasa (Meagher, 1985). Finally, the Trucial Oman Levies, a
group supported by Great Britain, expelled the Saudis from the territory. The
dispute over the oasis continued on for years and only in 1975, the agreement,
known as the Treaty of Jeddah, between the president of U.A.E and the king
Faisal of Saudi Arabia, settled the tense situation in the oasis (Quentin, 2013).
On the other hand, for many decades there was an open border between Al
Buraimi and Al Ain City (U.A.E). Nonetheless, the border was relocated 8
kilometres from the traditional open border on the 16th of September of 2006. As
a result, the border is now closed and it is necessary to get a visa for non 1GCC
nationals in order to cross it.
GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council. It is a regional intergovernmental political and economic union
consisting of Arabs States of the Persian Gulf. Its member states are the Islamic monarchies of
Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
1
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1.3. Population
The current population in the Governorate of Al Buraimi is 96.613 inhabitants,
according to the Statistical Year Book (2014). This represents only 2.5% of the
3.855.206 inhabitants in the country. The number of Omani nationals in Al
Buraimi is 47.747, whereas the number of foreigners is 48.866 (Statistical Year
Book, 2014). Annual population growth was estimated at 7,87% in 2013.
Figure 3 – Al Buraimi Population Growth, Source: Author, 2014
Furthermore, there is currently migration of Omani nationals from other regions of
Oman to the Governorate of Al Buraimi, since it offers better services than other
places within the country. The population growth from Omani Nationals in the
Governorate was estimated in 3,78% in the year of 2013.
Figure 4 – Al Buraimi Omani Population Growth, Source: Author, 2014
15
On the other hand, the number of expatriates living in Al Buraimi has increased
significantly over the last few years. The population growth of non Omanis was
12,18% in 2013. According to the official statistics of Oman (2014), the majority
of migrants come from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sudan, The Philippines, and
other Arabic countries.
Figure 5 – Al Buraimi Expatriate Population Growth, Source: Author, 2014
Moreover, 22.135 inhabitants in Al Buraimi are under 20 years old, which
represents 22,7% of the population. The biggest age group is between 20 and 40
years old with 53.310 residents, which is 55% of the Governorate population.
Meanwhile, the number of people between 41 and 60 years old is 17.729; this
corresponds to 19%. Finally, the elderly population (over 60) makes up 3,3%,
which is all in all a total of 3.439 inhabitants (Statistical Year Book, 2014).
1.4. Economy
The Governorate of Al Buraimi has suffered an economic decline after the
establishment of the border restrictions with Al Ain in 2006 (Atkins, 2010).
Nevertheless, the strategic location is very important for commerce and it
facilitates the connection with other regions in Oman and the United Arab
Emirates. The regional linkages with the ports of Sohar (Oman) and Dubai
(U.A.E) are very important for the imports of goods into the Governorate.
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On the other hand, Al Buraimi provides goods and services such as car
maintenance, hotels, food, oil, among others, which are less expensive than Al
Ain and attract people to visit the city. Additionally, small and medium companies
do not have to pay taxes in the Governorate; only the large ones have to pay
them. Currently, 90% of the companies in Al Buraimi do not pay any taxes
(Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 2014).
According to the estimations of the Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industries
Al Buraimi Branch, it is ten times more economical to establish businesses in Al
Buraimi than in Al Ain. Therefore, this situation has led to the attraction of
companies, which see an opportunity to invest in the Governorate.
All
commercial actors take advantage of the government facilities as well as the
availability of capitalization and easier marketing and availability of goods.
The Governorate of Al Buraimi produces mostly construction materials such as
marble, aggregate and cement. These construction products are mostly exported
to the U.A.E. Moreover, it produces dates and other regional fruits, which play an
important role in the local economy as well (Oman Chamber of Commerce and
Industry, 2014).
Finally, the tourism sector is considered as one of the potential economic
activities in Al Buraimi. The presence of affordable hotels and hotel apartments
as well as the low prices of goods and services can contribute to a significant
flow of tourists. Furthermore, the 3 wilayats of the Governorate have
archeological sites, castles, forts, and traditional markets, which can be exploited
as tourist attractions to increase the number of visitors (Oman Chamber of
Commerce and Industry, 2014).
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2. INTRODUCTION
2.1. Al Buraimi urban development process
The Al Buraimi urban area has been planned and developed with segregated
land uses throughout the last 30 years. The Buraimi Expansion Plan, which was
the Master Plan designed by the Regional Development Committee for the
development of the city between 1986 and 1996, established specific uses in
different areas for the expansion of Al Buraimi in this period of time.
Al AIN
Figure 6 - Map of Al Buraimi in 1986, Source: Regional Development Committee, 1986
The Master Plan considered the expansion of the residential areas along the
highway to Sohar as well as in the plots located in front of the international
border with Al Ain. The plan also considered the development of a
commercial/industrial area, a light industrial area and a regional sports complex
along the existing road to the wilayat of Mahdah.
Finally, the plan established a protection zone of 3,5 kilometres in the east, as a
limit of the urban expansion with the intention to protect the channel from the
development process.
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Figure 7 - Expansion Plan of Al Buraimi 1986-1996
Source: Regional Development Committee, 1986
Nevertheless, throughout the years, the Buraimi Expansion Plan was not
implemented exactly as it was planned and some of the new developments had
different uses. Additionally, some of the areas which were planned to have
industrial and industrial/commercial use were not developed during the decade
1986 – 1996 and these plots of land remained empty.
On the other hand, in the year 1996, a new plan for the expansion of the city was
created. The plan did not include any protection zone and those areas were
intended to be urbanized. Significant plots of land were projected for government
use, mostly those located along the highway. However, the development of the
city in the coming years did not fully implement this plan. The areas along the
highway were mainly developed with commercial use and other plots of land
were simply not urbanized.
19
Figure 8 - Al Buraimi Plan 1996, Source: Ministry of Housing, 1996
Additionally, in the year 2006, crossing of the international border with the city of
Al Ain was restricted and two check points were established to control the transit
of non GCC nationals between Oman and U.A.E. This circumstance considerably
affected the structure of the city as the borderline had always been open and Al
Buraimi and Al Ain have had strong historical and economical ties.
The city has been suffering a significant urbanization rate over the last years, due
to the natural growth and immigration of foreigners and Omanis from other
regions, who feel attracted by the opportunities of Al Buraimi. Nevertheless, the
urban development process has not been planned efficiently and lacks
coordination among ministries. Al Buraimi is facing challenges in terms of
transportation, environment, and infrastructure, among other issues. The
disconnection between the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Transportation
and Communication, and the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
Resources has affected the sustainable growth of the city. There is neither a
balanced nor compact development due to the lack of vision and integration in
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the planning process. This process states that the Ministry of Housing allocates
plots of land to the Omani residents according to the land law Oman 2008.
Furthermore, the process is not coordinated with the transportation infrastructure
or with the public services. Additionally, not all plots of land that are distributed
are built on. This situation has led to patchy developments with low densities and
urban sprawl. Additionally, land use planning is not tied with transportation
planning.
Figure 9 - Al Buraimi Master Plan, Source: Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi, 2014
According to the Ministry of Housing (2014), the Al Buraimi Master Plan is
prepared to cope with the demands for residential land for Omani nationals in Al
Buraimi. The plan does not have a clear date of development; it depends on the
quantity of applicants who intend to get a plot of land for housing, as stated in the
national policy of land tenure. The different areas pointed out in the map (see
Figure 9) indicate the areas of land projected to be built on. It is important to
mention that once the land is allocated it is not immediately built on and the
development process is not compact.
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On the other hand, local and regional transportation are car dependent and the
strategies are focused on developing more facilities and infrastructure for
motorized transport. The Central Government in Muscat has a development plan
for the coming 5 years; however, the current planning approach requires
reviewing and reformulation.
Moreover, the strategies and decisions are
centralized in the capital and there are no efficient mechanisms for
implementation of the plans. As a result, the city development has been
disorganized and Al Buraimi has a tendency towards inadequate growth.
2.2. Current mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi
The transportation system, not only in Al-Buraimi, but also in the whole Sultanate
of Oman, is road based. This situation represents a threat for environmental
degradation and high rates of accidents. Additionally, it leads to high emissions
of green house gases which affect the public health and climate stability.
The use of private cars has been significant during the development of the city.
The reason is that the prices of vehicles and oil are low; in addition, there is
limited choice of modes of transportation. This car dependent system has led to a
high use of urban areas for parking lots, roads and other cars facilities. The lack
of green areas and public spaces with good standards of quality is evident.
The city of Al Buraimi does not have a public transport system operating in the
urban area. There are also taxis operating in the city as a complementary
mobility service, the operation is controlled and managed by the police.
Additionally, private buses provide the service of transportation for schools and
companies, these buses operate only during the peak hours when children and
workers need to commute for their daily activities.
Meanwhile, facilities for walkability are limited because they have not been
properly introduced during the development of the urban area. The current
regulation for road design in Oman considers the facilities for pedestrians,
22
however, in the case of Al Buraimi the network for walking and biking is
inadequate in certain areas and in others such facilities simply do not exist.
Moreover, the regional connections for passengers and goods are also road
based. The Oman National Transport Company, which operates with buses,
provides the service to connect Al Buraimi with Sohar, Muscat and Nizwa.
Nonetheless, most of the trips for regional linkages are made by private cars.
Furthermore, transportation of goods is facilitated utilizing commercial trucks and
also private cars; there are currently around 50 private companies which provide
the service of connection between Al Buraimi and the ports of Sohar and Dubai.
However, the regional linkage for goods is neither efficient nor sustainable
despite the strategic geographical location of the city. This situation has slowed
down the economical growth and competitiveness of the city, which is in urgent
need of improvement with regards to its regional connections by developing a
better public transport service and facilities for trading.
Consequently, the action of transportation planning and the networks in the
Governorate of Al-Buraimi need to be modified, in order to be more
environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable. In addition, there is a
segregation of land use within the city, which forces citizens to use private
motorized modes of transportation to commute for daily activities. Even though
the city is not so large yet and citizens currently do not have to travel long
distances to commute, it is important to reconsider the land use plan in parallel
with the transportation planning in order to achieve smart growth. Thus, further
mobility problems such as long time consuming transit, congestion and pollution
will be minimized. Moreover, the transportation planning in Al-Buraimi should
ensure the right of accessibility in equal terms for all the citizens. Thereby, it is
essential to set up models that prioritize pedestrians and physical activity instead
of car dependent models which entail high costs, social segregation and pollution
(Newman & Kenworthy, 1999).
23
2.3. Impacts of road based mode of transportation
Road based transportation modes have negative impacts in the urban and rural
areas. These impacts affect the social, environmental, and economical
sustainability (UN Habitat, 2013). In the case of Al Buraimi, the urban area is
small considering that only 96.613 inhabitants live in the city. Therefore,
problems such as social segregation, inaccessibility, inequality, pollution, high
noise level, congestion, among others, are not very significant yet and do not
represent an urgent challenge for the city at the moment. Nevertheless, if the
urban area keeps growing at the pace of the previous years and the new
developments continue with the same urban planning system, the city may suffer
the aforementioned issues in the short and medium term.
2.3.1. Social Impacts
The transportation planning system is separated from land use planning, as a
result, urban activities are segregated. As a consequence, in the near future,
when the city expands, the citizens will have to travel long distances to commute
for different activities and time consumption is going to be long due to
congestion. Thereby, the right to accessibility for goods, services and activities
would not be equally distributed, which leads to exclusion, social segregation and
isolation (Litman, 2002). Moreover, there would be no social cohesion and the
lack of access to opportunities would create inequality. In addition, high speed
traffic creates barriers which reduce the ease for active transport, which entails a
disadvantage for children, elderly people, and people with special needs
(Hillman, 1993).
On the other hand, Al Buraimi is hostile towards pedestrians and other forms of
urban pleasantness, as the city gives cars priority and provides limited facilities
for physical activity and enjoyment. The lack of facilities for non motorized
transportation does not support the physical fitness of the community. As a
result, the transportation system may not fulfill a good standard of community
24
cohesion and inclusiveness by encouraging walkability and bikibility (Litman,
2002). Finally, large roadways and parking facilities tend to degrade the cultural
heritage and local landscape. These effects may threaten the traditional
community and the historic structure and sites (Fausold, 1996). Consequently,
automobile based transport might threaten the historical heritage and identity of
Al Buraimi, which is a city with potential of exploiting tourism activities through
traditional heritage sites.
2.3.2. Environmental Impacts
As mentioned, the urban area of Al Buraimi is still small and environmental
problems related to transportation are not an urgent issue yet. Nevertheless, with
the city growing fast and the potential use of cars being massive, the
environment would be seriously affected due to high levels of greenhouse
emissions and noise (UN Habitat, 2013). This problem will worsen in the short
and medium term if the transportation planning is not reoriented into a more
environmentally friendly focus.
Moreover, in order to build roads and infrastructure for motorized transportation,
it is necessary to use significant areas of land which will expand the urban fringe.
The sprawl implies high quantities of asphalt for cars and hence there is more
potential for water pollution (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). As a result, the
ecosystem in Al Buraimi may be at risk of damage, threatening the local natural
resources by this urbanization rate. An additional impact is created by oil
vulnerability, according to the estimations of the peak oil production forecast; the
global oil production is projected to decline after 2020 (Miller, 2014). Thereby,
there will be increasing vulnerability to diminishing oil supply, which would need
to be overcome with the implementation of alternative energies and updated
technologies (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Thus, even though the Sultanate of
Oman currently has significant oil resources, in the long term the country can
face a shortage of petroleum when this non renewable resource is exhausted.
25
The international and national oil crisis will obviously affect the local context of
the Governorate of Al Buraimi. Furthermore, public health would also be badly
affected because the air would become polluted and the quality reduced.
Generally, car based cities have excessive smog lowering the quality of life
(Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Finally, automobile based transportation
consumes considerable quantities of fuel, which is a non renewable source of
energy that emits considerable levels of CO2 into the atmosphere; this situation
would threaten the climate stability in the region and globally (UN Habitat, 2013).
Consequently, ignoring the protection of the ecosystem by use of more
sustainable transportation may result in significant and irreversible environmental
issues for the city of Al Buraimi.
2.3.3. Economical Impacts
Road based modes of transportation require high costs of operation,
infrastructure, and maintenance in addition to the environmental risk and social
issues (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). It also entails costs for externalities such
as accidents, injuries, and fatalities. In addition, the citizens do not exercise by
walking or biking because they do not have the facilities which support these
activities. As a result, the levels of health issues such as obesity, respiratory
problems, stress, among others, may increase and the treatment can represent
considerable costs for the health care system in the long term (Litman, 2002).
Currently, the prices of oil and cars are affordable for almost all society groups in
Al Buraimi. Therefore,
accessibility does not
represent
an immediate
transportation problem as the urban area is small and private transport is
obtainable for citizens. However, the economical costs of building new
infrastructure for cars and maintenance for roads represent a meaningful amount
of the budget for development. As a result, reducing car dependency and
encouraging affordable public and non-motorized transportation would minimize
the external and direct costs of mobility. Thusly, the significant financial
resources that are currently invested in the expensive road system could be
invested in other dimensions of urban development in the city of Al Buraimi. On
26
the other hand, with the expansion of the city in the coming years, if this situation
does not change and new transport alternatives are not created, congestion and
traffic will increase. As a result, the reduction in the urban quality will translate
automatically to a decrease of economical performance (Newman & Kenworthy,
1999).
The following table summarizes the existing and projected transportation impacts
in Al Buraimi attributed to the auto-based mode of transportation:
Social Impacts
PROJECTED
EXISTING
-
-
-
Environmental Impacts
Economical Impacts
Exclusion of elderly
people, children and
people with special
needs
Inequality
No physical fitness
High rates of accidents
• Degradation of biodiversity
and local ecosystem
• High costs for new
infrastructure, maintenance
and operation
• High costs for accidents,
injuries and fatalities
No Accessibility for
functional
activities
Segregation
No community cohesion
Degradation of historical
heritage and local
identity
•
•
•
•
•
•
• High costs for the healthcare
system
• Decrease of economical
performance
• Lack of competitiveness due
to lack of efficient accessibility
High greenhouse emissions
Low air quality
Pollution
High levels of noise
Low public health
Oil vulnerability
Table 1– Existing and projected transportation impacts in Al Buraimi attributed to auto-based
mode, Source: Author, 2014.
27
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Rational for Study
The urban area of Al Buraimi has experienced a rapid growth over the last years,
due not only to the natural growth, but also to the immigration of foreigners and
nationals from other regions of Oman, who see in the city opportunities relevant
to their needs. As a result, the process of fast growing has presented the typical
problems of unsustainable urban development and, specifically for this research,
unsustainable transportation. Additionally, the city of Al Buraimi is a special case
with particular conditions, due to its location in the border with the city of Al Ain,
which historically and economically have held strong ties. Therefore, further
investigation in the Al Buraimi area is urgently needed in order to provide
effective strategic plans with vision for the coming years.
Current transportation planning in Al Buraimi and urban development planning in
general are not well coordinated and lacks vision, integration, and enforcement of
plans and regulations. Consequently, the planning process is not well
implemented and has no long term projection. In addition, no attention has been
placed on sustainable transportation and only in recent years has awareness
about sustainable development increased slightly.
There is not significant
integration of social, environmental, and economical impacts in plans and
strategies designed for transportation. Therefore, if the planning approach is not
reformulated and the situation does not change, the negative consequences in
terms of accessibility, ecological preservation, and social cohesion will be soon
evident given the current urbanization rate.
The focus of this study is the development of criteria and concepts for
sustainable transportation in the city of Al Buraimi. The topic of research was
selected because the impacts that transportation has on different urban
dimensions are relevant and planning needs to be seriously reconsidered in
order to meet the needs of the community preserving the future stability of Al
28
Buraimi. Another reason for selecting this topic of study is the concern about the
need to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation. The current
transportation planning approach has prioritized the use of automobiles as a
mean of mobility. Generally speaking, motorized transportation entails numerous
problems which may threaten the social cohesion, public health, balanced
development, among others. As a result, research on how to adopt more
sustainable transportation practices is needed. The integration of transportation
planning with the other urban planning dimensions such as land use planning,
housing, services etc, is a requirement that must be fulfilled to guarantee
organized and reasonable urban growth.
Furthermore, the rationale of the study includes the theoretical framework on
sustainable transportation and planning. The discussion of academic references
and the literature review will provide various concepts about sustainability,
mobility, accessibility, equity etc. On the other hand, it is important to analyze the
current transportation facilities and their relation with the mobility behavior of the
community. The citizen’s needs for mobility and the challenges that
transportation pose for the city can be identified by evaluating the mobility
patterns in the local and regional context. The study includes the analysis of the
existing policies and regulations related to transportation and the current
management structure. Therefore, the research integrates all the aspects of
transportation planning in order to come up with new concepts and proposals for
sustainable and locally adapted transportation in Al Buraimi. Finally, the purpose
in this research is that even though the city has experienced rapid inappropriate
urbanization over the last years, there is still potential for promising and
beneficial urban development.
3.2. Research Objectives
The aim of this research is to analyze the current modes of transportation and
the mobility patterns in the Governorate of Al-Buraimi in order to propose
recommendations. Its purpose includes the evaluation of the transportation
29
planning approach in comparison to the theoretical principles of sustainable
transportation as well. Moreover, in order to fulfill the above mentioned it is
important to include the following sub objectives:
-
To construct a conceptual framework by reviewing theoretical concepts
and definitions on sustainable transportation in order to compare them
with the transportation performance in Al Buraimi.
-
To analyze the mobility patterns in Al-Buraimi by identifying the factors
which influence urban and regional transportation. Furthermore, the study
also aims to evaluate the existing transport facilities and mobility behavior
in Al Buraimi.
-
To review the current transportation laws, regulations, strategies, planning
procedures, and how they are implemented in practice in Al Buraimi
-
To identify the problems and challenges that the current transportation
system entails and propose ideas on how to switch to a more sustainable
mode of transportation in Al Buraimi.
-
To establish criteria on sustainable transportation in order to address the
dimensions of rapid uncontrolled growth in Al Buraimi.
3.3. Research Question
In order to focus and develop the research on sustainable transportation in Al
Buraimi, it is important to formulate a general question which will orientate the
study. Therefore, the formulated primary question is:
How to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi?
3.4. Secondary Questions
As a complement of the primary question, it is important to formulate secondary
questions around the topic, which will support the definition of the specific area of
30
the research. Consequently, in order to fulfill the aforementioned, the following
questions arise:
-
How does the current mode of transportation sustain the residents’ needs of
accessibility for the local and regional activities Al-Buraimi?
-
How environmentally sustainable is the current mode of transportation in AlBuraimi?
-
How to improve the transportation planning process in Al Buraimi?
-
How to reduce the current level of automobile dependency in Al Buraimi?
-
What type of transportation is needed in Al Buraimi in order to achieve
sustainability?
3.5. Project Phases
The research was divided into four phases in order to conduct the study. Thus,
the strategic approach of this research is described in this section:
Phase 1: (Mid July 2014 – August 2014)
The introductory step of the research was based upon gathering information
about Oman and, specifically Al Buraimi. Consequently, in this process it was
possible to define the area of study and review the general essence of Oman.
Thus, the research topic, objectives, primary question, and secondary questions
were determined. This phase was essential to define the focus of the topic.
Phase 2: (August 2014 – mid October 2014)
The preparation of the field work defined the data that was necessary to be
collected in Al Buraimi in order to develop the research. At the same time, the
preliminary planning phase of the trip to Oman, determined the program for the
interviews on site, which included the main actors and institutions to be contacted
in Al Buraimi. In addition, community questionnaires were designed to interview
different groups of the society. On the other hand, the theoretical framework also
31
provided concepts and definitions which helped to gain an insight of the problems
to be addressed. The aforementioned framework was basically a literature review
where the opinions of experts, academics and organizations were discussed in
order to establish an overall theoretical approach of the topic of this study.
Phase 3: (18th of September 2014– 18th of October 2014)
The field trip in the Governorate of Al Buraimi was carried out in order to collect
data and assess the problems by becoming familiar with the place. The process
of data collection was divided into: (1) Semi Structured interviews with ministries
and institutions related to transportation in Al Buraimi, in order to obtain official
information and statistics; (2) Community questionnaires to identify mobility
patterns and quantitative data; and (3) direct observation, which included
photographic documentation and mapping, which support the qualitative
evaluation in site.
Finally, the process of literature review continued as it was relevant to compare
the theoretical principles on sustainable transportation with the current
transportation system in Al Buraimi.
Phase 4: (Mid October 2014 – Mid December 2014)
Finally, after collecting all data and information, the next step is to analyze them
and evaluate the findings in order to come up with proposals to switch to a more
sustainable transportation mode in Al Buraimi. The evaluation was made through
indicators, which showed the transportation performance in Al Buraimi, in
comparison with the principles of sustainable transportation. Additionally, the
researcher analyzed the mobility patterns in Al-Buraimi by identifying the factors
which influence urban and regional transportation. The analysis encompassed a
review of the existing transport facilities and mobility behavior in addition to a
review of the laws, regulations, and transportation planning. This phase also
included a SWOT analysis. Finally, the proposals were divided into governance
and technical recommendations. The final stage included the elaboration of the
final paper of this Master Thesis.
32
3.6. Techniques for Research
As described above, primary data collection was the main reason of the field trip
to Oman. The work in situ provided the primary data in addition to a familiarity
with the place of study. The methodology to collect this information had 3
components:
3.6.1. Semi -Structured Interviews
In the preliminary steps before the trip the target list and questionnaires for
interviews were defined. Afterwards, during the filed trip to Oman, the researcher
interviewed experts related, either directly or indirectly, to the topic of
transportation in Al Buraimi. This process was supported by the Head of the
Urban Planning Section, who works in the Ministry of Housing in Al Buraimi, and
coordinated the majority of meetings. Other appointments in Al Buraimi were set
up by the researcher through phone calls or e-mail. As Arabic is the official
language in the Sultanate of Oman, the Head of the Urban Planning Section
accompanied the researcher to translate the questions and answers when it was
needed. However, it is important to mention that some of the interviewed were
able to speak English.
The meetings were held in-person during office hours. During the meetings in Al
Buraimi, all the conversations were recorded in order to capture the entire
interview. Additionally, some of the questions formulated before the field trip were
reconsidered, modified and/or complemented once the field trip started, as it was
not possible to foresee aspects difficult to predict without familiarity of the place.
Other new questions arose in this process of meetings and interviews depending
on the information found during the field work. It was possible to hold 16
interviews during the expedition to Al Buraimi, the detailed schedule of this
itinerary and the questionnaires for the semi-structured interviews can be found
in the appendixes A-D. Finally, this methodology was essential to discover
relevant information on urban/transportation planning, regulations, statistics,
priorities, needs, problems, and challenges in the Governorate of Al Buraimi.
33
3.6.2. Community Questionnaires
A questionnaire provides a tool for finding information that you can tabulate and
discuss (Program Development and Evaluation, 1998). As a result, multiple
option and open-ended response community questionnaires were formulated in
order to identify mobility patterns and trends in Al Buraimi (see appendix E). The
questionnaires were addressed to the different groups of the society, which
included students, workers, immigrants, etc. Furthermore, through these surveys
it was intended to find information on how people move; mobility behavior,
transportation performance, needs, priorities, limitations, and regional linkages.
Before going on the field trip the researcher wrote the questionnaires in English,
however, they were translated into Arabic by the Head of the Urban Planning
Section during the work in situ. Additionally, the surveys had to be modified
during the trip because new questions arose and others did not make much
sense in practice. The surveys were carried out first by interviewing people on
the street and secondly, by going to the Ministry of Environment and Climate
Affairs and the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi, who were willing to disseminate
them taking into account the language and cultural barriers. Thus, the researcher
was supported to reach the required number of community surveys. Eventually,
64 questionnaires were conducted and they proved relevant to find the required
information. The information found on the questionnaires was tabulated to
generate statistics and indicators which provided an overview of the
transportation performance in Al Buraimi.
3.6.3. Direct Observation
This technique was employed for further contextualization of the place of study.
The aim of the direct observation was to identify the existing transportation
facilities in Al Buraimi. This included stations, road networks, sidewalks, facilities
for pedestrians, areas used for cars, parking lots, speed controls, et al.
Additionally, it was relevant to identify the critical points of transportation planning
and infrastructure. Moreover, this technique was essential to reveal the main
local destinations where citizens commute to more frequently. Meanwhile, by
34
exploring the area it was also possible to detect the quality of regional
connections and the current situation in the international border with Al Ain. The
assessment was supported by photographic documentation and mapping.
Thus, direct observation was an additional technique which provided relevant
basis for the qualitative assessment of the research.
3.7. Limitations
The process of investigation is vulnerable to limitations to find the requested
information needed to develop the study. Therefore, in the specific case of this
research, different limitations appeared during the field work due mostly to the
unavailability of official statistics and data, language barrier, duration of time of
the field study trip, and cultural issues. Firstly, the ministries and institutions in Al
Buraimi lack of official documentation and information. It was evident during the
field trip that the information is either very confidential or not well recorded. It also
seems that there is little or no coordination to include the information in a
common data base and the procedure is disorganized.
Secondly, the language barrier is a relevant limitation for efficient communication.
It was not possible to have the cooperation of a professional translator to
translate the questions from English into Arabic and the answers from Arabic into
English. As a result, many details in the conversation could not be obtained
despite the cooperation of the person who was doing the translation task. Thus, it
was difficult to delve more deeply into the underlying information during the
interviews. Thirdly, the field trip to the Sultanate of Oman was for one month.
Nevertheless, there was a festivity in the Muslim countries for one week within
the time of the field work. Consequently, during this week it was not possible to
have official meetings with the ministries or institutions. Fortunately, even though
the time was tight, the researcher found sufficient information to fully develop the
study.
Finally, the cultural issue plays an important role in the limitations of this
research. As mentioned, community questionnaires had to be conducted
35
according to the methodology of this study. Nevertheless, it was very difficult to
approach the local people to carry out the community surveys because this is not
common in the Omani society in addition to the language barrier. As a
consequence, it was necessary to find a contingency plan for the surveys, the
Municipal Council and the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs offered
support to disseminate the questionnaires among students and workers. Finally,
thanks to this cooperation it was possible to reach the number of surveys
necessary for the purpose of the study.
3.6. Expected Outcomes
This research proposes possible outcomes for the transportation planning in Al
Buraimi. After collecting and analyzing the data needed for the study, a general
understanding of the current transportation planning and structure defined
essential points for the research. Therefore, the next step after the general
review is to propose recommendations to switch into a more sustainable
transportation mode in Al Buraimi. These proposals are basically guidelines to
reform the transportation planning process taking into account governance and
technical perspectives. In addition, the particular situation of Al Buraimi and the
Sultanate of Oman are also considered in order to propose feasible
recommendations according to the context. The expected outcomes are listed
below:
-
General review of transportation planning in the Sultanate of Oman and the
city of Al Buraimi
-
General review of mobility patterns and mobility behavior in Al Buraimi
-
Transportation performance in regard to sustainability in Al Buraimi
-
Proposals to improve transportation governance in Al Buraimi
-
Proposals to reduce car dependency in Al Buraimi
-
Recommendations for the implementation of a more sustainable mode of
transportation in Al Buraimi
36
The research process is illustrated in the box below:
Research Topic: Sustainable Transportation in Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman
Rational for Study: - Need for further study in Al Buraimi regarding to sustainable transportation
- Transportation in A.B is facing challenges that affect the city structure/identity
Research Objectives: - To identify problems and challenges of transportation in Al Buraimi
- To establish criteria on sustainable transportation
Research Question: How to switch into a more sustainable mode of transportation in Al-Buraimi?
Oman and Al Buraimi
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
(Concepts and Principles)
Field Trip to Al
Buraimi (Oman)
Semi -Structured Interviews
Community Questionnaires
Direct Observation
Limitations
• Language Barrier
• Cultural Issue
Comparison of transportation
performance (indicators) with
concepts on S.T
Analysis of
Findings
SWOT Analysis
Identify problems, needs
challenges and priorities
PROPOSALS
Field Trip
Preparation
DATA COLLECTED / FINDINGS
Sustainable Transportation
Transportation Planning Procedure
Transportation Legal Framework
Official Statistics and Information
Mobility Patterns
Transportation Facilities
Criteria on how to switch into a more
sustainable transportation mode
Governance and Technical
Recommendations
Box 1 – Research Process, Source: Author, 2014
37
4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.1. Literature Review
4.1.1. Sustainable Urban Development
Firstly, it is important to review the concept of sustainability according to the
definitions stated by different researches studies that have been carried out by
experts and organizations. According to the 2 Brundtland Commission Report
(1987):
“Sustainable development should meet the needs of the existing community
without compromising the future generation’s ability to meet their own needs”.
The focus of this definition was modified in the so called “Agenda 21” of Rio de
Janeiro (1992), a conference organized by the United Nations in order to address
the problem of sustainability. In this conference, the international community
emphasized the need to expand the definition in the environmental sector. Thus,
sustainability was directly related to climate change, green house gases, and
pollution (Hutton, 2013). Meanwhile, the Center for Sustainability (2004) stated
that:
“Sustainability is the capacity for continuance into the long term future. Anything
that can go on being done on an indefinite basis is sustainable. Anything that
cannot go on being done indefinitely is unsustainable”.
Moreover, sustainable development was framed in a triple bottom line concept
defined as the protection of the environment ensuring economical stability and
social equity (Willetts et al., 2010). In the majority of sustainability definitions the
environmental dimension has been highlighted over the economical and social
ones, the reason is that the economic and social terms have been considered
Formally known as the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED),
the Brundtland Commission's mission is to unite countries to pursue sustainable
development together.
2
38
sub systems of environment (Weerakoon & Kumar, 2013). In this context,
sustainability is “equity and harmony extended into the future, a careful journey
without an endpoint, a continuous striving for the harmonious co-evolution of
environmental, economic and socio-cultural goals” (Mega et al., 1998, p.18).
Likewise, the Institute for Sustainable Communities (1997) pointed out that a
sustainable community is resilient and healthy in terms of economy, social
issues, and environment. Thereby, meeting the present needs and holding a long
term perspective with integrative vision instead of fragmented approaches.
Finally, the term livability has been linked to sustainability in the urban
development context; however, the definitions of these two terms must be
differentiated. Livability refers to conditions that affect directly the community
members – e.g. local air and noise pollution -whereas sustainability focuses on
climate change (Litman, 2008).
4.1.2. Literature review on Sustainable Transportation
The principles and definitions presented above provide a broad perspective
regarding sustainable urban development. Next, it is important to focus the
discussion on sustainable transportation according to the definitions of
academics and experts. The Transportation Research Board (1997) stated:
“Sustainability is not about threat analysis; sustainability is about systems
analysis. Specifically, it is about how environmental, economic, and social
systems interact to their mutual advantage or disadvantage at various spacebased scales of operation.”
Moreover, other experts state that sustainable transportation avoids the use of
significant areas of lands designated to build roads and cars infrastructure, which
pollutes the ecosystem and destroys the natural resources (Newman &
Kenworthy, 1999). Additionally, 3UN Habitat (2013) affirms that the current rates
United Nations Habitat, Global Report on Human Settlements 2013, “Planning and Design for
Sustainable Urban Mobility”. 2013
3
39
of greenhouse emissions and global temperatures changes confirm the urgency
to separate the transportation sector from auto and oil dependency.
Nevertheless, sustainable transportation is not limited only to the environmental
responsibility; the discussion has been lately related to the economic and social
roles that transportation plays. In 2004, the European Conference of Ministers of
Transport defined sustainable transportation as a system which is accessible,
safe, environmentally friendly, and affordable. Additionally, the Center for
Sustainable Transportation (2005) indicated that sustainable transportation is a
system which supports a vibrant economy by offering choice of transport modes
and operating efficiently. It is evident that cities which have implemented
innovative transportation systems are more competitive and efficient (Litman,
2002). The construction of roads, parking lots, and infrastructure for cars demand
expenditures of significant portions of wealth in addition to the costs of accidents
and public property damage (Litman, 2002). According to Aschauer (1991),
investing economic resources in public transportation has more returns and profit
than investing in highways. Additionally, roads construction does not necessarily
represent a considerable amount of employment in comparison with other
activities (Litman, 2002).
In a recent study, Kenworthy, Schiller and Bruun (2010) state that the aim of
sustainable transportation is to meet mobility needs of individuals and
community, reducing the social and environmental impacts of transportation
practices. Additionally, they point out the importance of minimizing resource
inputs and waste outputs which have negative effects for the public. The Global
Report of Sustainable Settlements (2013) indicates that cities would become
more sustainable if they were more compact, implementing mixed land uses and
prioritizing public and non-motorized transport. Furthermore, sustainable mobility
needs an alternative approach, which establishes land use policy measures to
reduce distances, car dependency, and needs to travel (Banister, 2007). It is
also important to value the role of technological innovation in terms of engine
40
design, alternative fuels, and use of renewable energy sources in order to reduce
levels of noise and emissions (Banister, 2007).
According to Newman & Kenworthy (1999), economic efficiency, social equity,
and human livability are also components of sustainable transportation planning.
They also indicate the need to overcome automobile dependence to minimize the
infrastructure, transportation, and time costs involved. The reduction of inefficient
land use also needs to be addressed. Furthermore, low quality of mobility,
unequal opportunity to commute, lack of public safety, loss of community
structure, and urban livability would be drastically reduced by adopting non car
dependent models and public transportation (Kenworthy et al., 2010). Automobile
dependency dominates resources such as budget, land and roadway design;
segregating
urban
activities.
Furthermore,
it discourages non-motorized
transportation because high speed traffic creates hostility against waking and
biking (Litman, 2002). It is demonstrated that cities, which provide suitable
facilities for non motorized transportation, decrease the automobile domination
and encourage citizens to exercise. People want to walk and bike; nonetheless
they feel limited by car dominance and traffic (Handy and Niemeier, 1997). In
addition, in order to reduce car volume is necessary to encourage car sharing
and public transportation. Cervero (2002) studied travel behavior influenced by
the built environment, the findings of the study demonstrated that areas
developed with high quality sidewalks encourage commuters to take a bus, ride
sharing, or carpooling. It also shows that the pedestrian environment shapes the
quality of the public space and supports community cohesion; as a result,
walking should be put in the spotlight of transportation planning (Kenworthy et al.,
2010).
4.1.3. Transportation Planning
Different theoretical concepts on sustainable development and sustainable
transportation were reviewed above. Further discussion regarding planning is
needed in order to understand the principles of good management for
41
transportation and how planning is linked to the sustainability issue. According to
the experts and academics, a new planning paradigm is necessary in order to
address sustainable transportation. This new paradigm is based on: (1) The
interaction and integration of policies and mobility management; (2) Relevant
background factors that guide planning and policy; and (3) Development of
suitable techniques, infrastructure and technology (Kenworthy et al., 2010).
Sustainable mobility is an alternative paradigm which strengthen the links
between land use and transportation planning in addition to the investigation of
the city’s complexity (Banister, 2008). Moreover, empirical studies have
concluded that sustainable cities should be preferably over 50.000 inhabitants in
population, with densities over 40 persons per hectare, with mixed land use, and
developments for public transportation (Banister, 2005, 2006).
Additionally, it is important to reduce travel demand and increase accessibility by
planning cities with mixed developments, which reduce automobile dependency
to commute (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999), thus distances are shorter and
reachable for walking and biking. Reducing the need to travel needs substitution,
this means that a trip is no longer necessary because it has been replaced either
by a non travel activity or by technology (Banister, 2008). Furthermore, the
author also points out that transport policy measures can reduce private car use
by implementing parking controls and road pricing, facilitating the use of public
transportation at the same time. The modal shift can be achieved by considering
the street not only as a road, but also as a space for people encouraging new
uses such as street markets and play zones (Banister and Marshall, 2000).
According to Banister (2008), car ownership will become more affordable in the
coming years; as a result, a strategy to reduce car use is to increase the cost of
insurance and stricter procedures to pass the driving test. Moreover, the key
point to reduce car use and encourage walking, biking, carpooling and public
transportation is the use of “push and pull” measures (4OECD, 2004). The criteria
4
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Environmental Strategy”, 2004.
42
for the selection of these measures are: (1) Easy to implement; (2) Highly
Efficient; and (3) High level of acceptance (Mobility Management Measures,
2013). As a result, the new transportation paradigm requires raising public
acceptance and engagement in actions to support sustainable transportation.
(Banister, 2008). Consequently, public acceptability will lead to political
acceptability, which in the end will change the situation. The UN Habitat (2013)
highlights in its report for Sustainable Urban Mobility that the main challenges to
reach the sustainability goals are the acceptance and adaptation of the
governments to change institutions, administration, and governance.
Thus, transportation policies and regulations should be inclusive of and
integrated with land use planning, which requires structural changes in
institutions and governance (UN Habitat, 2013). Meanwhile, Banister (2008)
affirms that it is important to understand the expectations of individuals to
succeed in the implementation of actions for sustainable transportation.
Therefore, he points out two key elements in the individual dimensions. The first
is that there is acceptance to the proposed policy and efficiency in its
implementation. Secondly, that the policy is fair for the individual and the society.
Furthermore, Banister assures that it is only through new attitudes and the
engagement of users of transport that changes can be achieved. Finally, it is
relevant the interagency collaboration among the organizations responsible for
transportation planning, management, and operation in addition to the integration
with the responsible agent for land development (UN Habitat, 2013).
On the other hand, according to Litman (2000) sustainable transportation
demands a more comprehensive analysis of impacts and broad solutions. The
principles for good sustainable transportation planning also include the active
involvement of the public to consider alternatives and evaluate criteria (Litman,
2000). The strong involvement of the stakeholders through an interactive and
participatory process to commit themselves to the sustainable transportation
paradigm is essential (Banister, 2008). Additionally, participative policies play an
important role in citizen’s engagement; educating the public and creating
43
awareness (Laing et al., 2012). As a result, the new transportation planning
approach should recognize the integrated importance of robust policy,
community participation in the design and strategy development, user’s
behavioral change, and the provision of appropriate infrastructure for sustainable
transportation (Laing et al., 2012).
4.1.4. Land Use Planning – Transportation
Special attention should be drawn to the direct relation between land use
planning and transportation. The UN Habitat (2013) argues about neglecting the
relation between land use and mobility, which has led to urban sprawl in many
urban areas. Compact cities with high densities and mixed use, which also have
high quality of infrastructure for non-motorized modes combined with policies that
minimize car based modes, represent a more sustainable mobility approach
(Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). According to Banister (2008), the continuous
growth of car dependency can be attributed not only to the increase of individual
ownership, but also to the dispersion of activities in the city-region. The increased
spatial separation of residential areas, workplaces, commercial areas, and
schools causes the rise of travel distances and time, especially in cities with
urban sprawl and low densities (Scott et al., 2005). In Addition, urban population
density is one of the indicators that affect transportation. High densities facilitate
accessibility by reducing distances and complement mixed land use, as a result,
lower trip durations and short distances enhance the possibilities of non
motorized transportation such as walking and biking (Kenworthy & Laube, 1996).
The land use objectives are more transit-oriented, focused on higher density,
with mixed land uses which interrupt the growth of car-based development
(Banister, 2008).
Furthermore, car dependency has a number of negative land use impacts
because it requires a significant amount of land paved for roads and parking
areas (Litman, 2002). Different studies have shown that automobile oriented
cities require three times more land for roads and parking than traditional,
44
pedestrian-oriented cities (Litman, 2002). The land is an essential resource which
should be regulated to avoid land waste generated by excessive roads and
parking space (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999).
At the same time, transportation planning and land use need to consider
accessibility and proximity as their first planning principles for sustainable
transportation. (Kenworthy et al., 2010). Additionally, Integration of land use and
transportation planning is necessary to ensure the efficiency of urban mobility
systems (UN Habitat, 2013). In contrast, the Transportation Research Board
(2000) disagrees with the emphasis in the integration of land use and
transportation as the key factor to reduce automobile dependency and increase
non motorized modes. In addition, the publication points out that transportation
planning should be refocused by implementing policies which are intended to
influence travel behavior using the existing facilities rather than constructing new
capacity.
Additionally, Banister (2008) indicates that land and transportation planning
parallel to the implementation of policies to change behavior are complementary
actions to adopt a more sustainable mode of transportation. This implies the
improvement of facilities for non motorized, and establishment policies,
regulations and awareness raising.
Moreover, many agencies that regulate land use have no responsibility for
mobility policies resulting in a serious institutional disconnection with no
opportunity for integrated actions (UN Habitat, 2013). According to the UN
Habitat report, this tendency of disconnection among institutions is especially
evident in cities which have a weak tradition of urban land-use planning and
control.
45
4.2. Hypothesis
At the beginning of this research, the preliminary answer was that affordability in
prices of cars and oil has led to car dependency as a predominant mode of
transportation in the Sultanate of Oman. At the same time, Al Buraimi has been
developed with segregated land uses and there is a disconnection between
transportation planning and land use because there is not enough coordination
amongst institutions to integrate them, which has led to urban sprawl.
Additionally, all the policies and strategies for transportation are focused on autobased modes, which have entailed unsustainable practices that threaten the
public health. Therefore, factors such as accidents, pollution, inefficient
accessibility and other issues may result in serious environmental, social, and
economical problems.
Nevertheless, policy makers and planners have not taken effective action to
transform the transportation planning procedure in order to achieve sustainability.
The current national policy, regulations, strategies, and plans are designed to
develop urban transportation based on private cars. Consequently, it is important
to reconsider the transportation planning processes on the national, regional, and
local level. It is also assumed that public awareness and adaptation are needed
in order to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation. This process of
consciousness and adaptability includes institutions, governance, decision
makers, and the community.
46
5. TRANSPORTATION GOVERNANCE IN AL BURAIMI
5.1. Government Institutions Involved
The government in the Sultanate of Oman is centralized in the capital Muscat.
The Royalty is the main authority in the country; beneath the monarchy, the
Supreme Committee for Planning is the responsible party for policy making at all
levels of urban planning and the preparation of the urban development strategy
(Al Gharibi, 2013). Moreover, there are 12 different ministries responsible for
making and implementing decisions on policies. Additionally, Oman is divided in
11 governorates which have to adopt and apply all the decisions made in the
Central Government. Each governorate has a governor, a municipal council and
departments from the 12 different national ministries (Governorate of Al Buraimi,
2014).
The Ministry of Transport and Communications is one of the 12 national
ministries in Oman. It is responsible for the planning and implementation of
transportation infrastructure and maintenance. The Ministry of Transportation and
Communications also defines the general guidelines, plans, budget, regulations,
strategies, and decisions for transportation in the whole Sultanate. As a result,
the Governorate of Al Buraimi has to consider all the official guidelines and
regulations established by the Ministry in the Central Government.
On the other hand, there are 2 departments in charge of transportation in the
Governorate of Al Buraimi. The first one is the department of the Ministry of
Transport and Communications, which is the responsible for the construction and
maintenance of highways and regional roads. This department also applies for
budget allocation from the Central Government. Secondly, the Office of Technical
Affairs, which is a department of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and
Water Resources in Al Buraimi and is the responsible party for the local
transportation network in the city. In this case, the allocation of financial
resources is made by the Buraimi Municipality, which at the same time gets its
47
budget from the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources of
Oman. The municipalities in the Sultanate were created in 2011 with the aim of
strengthening the local level. The allocation of a budget to the municipalities
depends on the percentage of their population compared to the total national
population. On the other hand, the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi has elected
and appointed members who represent the people and support the Governor of
Al Buraimi. The Governor is responsible for the decisions in the Governorate,
which includes the 3 wilayats: Al Buraimi, Mahdha and Al Sunainah.
The governance structure for transportation described above is illustrated in the
graph below:
Royal Authority
Agency responsible for planning
Agencies responsible for transportation
Ministry of Housing
(Responsible for
land administration and
Master Plans)
Municipal Council of Al Buraimi
(supports the Governor in decisions)
Ministry of Regional
Municipalities
and Water Resources
Department of the Ministry of
Transport and Communication
in Al Buraimi
(Responsible for highways and
regional roads in the
Governorate)
Local Level
Ministry of Regional Municipalities
and Water Resources in Al Buraimi
(Al Buraimi Municipality)
Regional
Level
Governorate of Al Buraimi
(makes decisions for the 3 wilayats)
Ministry of Transport
and Communication
of Oman
National Level
Supreme Council of Planning
Municipality Office of
Technical Affairs
(Responsible for local transport
network)
Box 2- Transportation Governance Structure in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
48
5.2. Transportation Planning Procedure
The Supreme Council for Planning produces a planning framework for the
organization of the physical development in the Sultanate of Oman. Within this
framework, the Ministry of Housing develops Regional Plans for all regions of the
country (MOTC, 2013). Based on these Regional Plans, the Supreme Council for
Planning designs 5Town Structure Plans. The aforementioned plans are the base
for the development, which includes the transportation infrastructure. As
mentioned before, in the specific case of Al Buraimi, the implementing agencies
are: The Department of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications in Al
Buraimi, responsible for the highways and regional roads, and the Buraimi
Municipality, which is the branch of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and
Water Resources in Al Buraimi and has an office for technical affairs regarding to
the local road network.
The Supreme Council for Planning and the Ministry of National Economy
coordinate a 20 Year Development Plan for each region in Oman. From this
development plan, a 5 year plan is designed for the whole Sultanate and a
budget is produced by each ministry, defining priorities and programs at the
same time. The Ministry of Transport and Communications determines the
priorities and schemes, thus, works such as roads improvements and roads
reconstruction are usually considered because of poor safety conditions,
congestion,
and
infrastructure
failure
(MOTC,
2013).
Furthermore,
the
development of new areas requires building more roads and transportation
facilities. The regional initiatives in the form of GCC proposals for international
road networks influence identification of the schemes as well (MOTC, 2013).
The Department of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications in Al
Buraimi and the Office of the Technical Affairs of the Municipality have to
coordinate the new road developments, concerning the existing and proposed
services which could be affected. Therefore, they need the information from the
5
Town Structure Plans are also known as Master Plans for the development of the cities/towns
49
agencies in charge of public services such as the Public Authority for Electricity
and Water, oil and gas companies, telecommunication companies, waste water
companies, among others. It is important to mention that the Ministry of Housing
of Oman is in charge of land use planning, mapping, and lots allocation.
According to the Omani legal framework, each national citizen has the right to
receive a plot of land to build a house (Land Law of Oman, 2008). Consequently,
the Ministry of Housing allocates residential plots of land to the Omani nationals
above the age of 23, including women. The process of plot allocation is made by
draw. At the time that the land is allocated, there is not infrastructure of
transportation or public services. Thus, after a considerable area has been
developed then the roads and service infrastructure are built. This is the process
of urban development in the urbanized areas. Moreover, the Ministry of Housing
is also responsible for the land acquisition of the new projects for transportation.
However, there is no connection between land use and transportation planning
because they are the responsibility of separated ministries which find it difficult to
coordinate in these two dimensions.
According to the transportation planning procedure, in theory there is intergovernmental consultation to coordinate the process among agencies. Moreover,
the procedure also states that there should be public consultation through the
local representatives, who are members of the Municipal Council. Nevertheless,
this process is only to inform and explain proposals to the community, regarding
the impacts of the new transportation projects (MOTC, 2013).
The conventional stages used for transportation proposals consist of feasibility
study, preliminary design, and final design. At the stage of design, the Ministry of
Environment and Climate Affairs assesses the environmental risk and, if the
project complies with the regulations, the ministry issues the permission to build
new roads and/or transportation infrastructure (MOTC, 2013). Additionally, traffic
demand predictions, economic benefits, alternative routes, and topographical
surveys are also considered during the planning process.
50
The transportation planning procedure stated in theory is illustrated in the
diagram below:
Supreme Committee
for Planning
Ministry of Housing
Regional Plans
Urban Planning
Town Structure Plans
(Master Plans)
Planning Framework
Ministry of
Transport and Communications
(Regional Network)
Ministry of Regional Municipalities
and Water Resources through
the Office of Technical Affairs
(Local network)
Implementation Agencies
- Construction of new regional
roads and highways
- Improvement of existing
regional transportation facilities
- Regional roads reconstruction
•Construction of new local roads
•Improvement of local network
•Reconstruction of local roads
Priorities and schemes
Community
(Public Consultation)
Feasibility Study
Preliminary Design
Final Design
Conventional Stages for Transportation Proposals
Ministry of Environment
and Climate Affairs
(Issues environmental
permissions for new roads)
Ministry of Housing
(Land acquisition, land
administration)
Agencies in charge of public
services: Public Authority
for Electricity and Water,
oil and gas companies,
telecommunication companies,
waste water companies
(assessment of existing
and proposed services)
Coordination / Permissions
Box 3- Transportation Planning Procedure in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014 (based on the
planning procedure stated in the Oman Highway Design Standards)
5.3. Laws, Regulations and Strategies
The Omani legislation contains 4 regulations related to transportation. The most
important regulation for transportation planning is the Oman Highway Design
Manual Standards, which comprises 2 documents with guidelines for
transportation planning, design, and implementation. These standards were
made by a committee lead by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications
and they take into account the national, regional, and local level. In addition, the
Omani Environmental Regulations is another legal document concerning
transportation. This regulation is divided into Royal Decrees, which contain
51
specific standards for environmental preservation by preventing pollution,
degradation and ecosystem damage. Furthermore, the Oman Planning
Guidelines, which is a document of the Ministry of Housing of Oman, defines
among other things, guidelines and codes for roads and accessibility in the rural
and urban areas. Finally, the Development Control Plan Framework, which is a
document prepared by the Ministry of Tourism, contains a summary of various
policies, guidelines, and standards for the planning and development of
Integrated Tourism Projects (SCTP, 2010).
Additionally, the Oman National Spatial Strategy highlights the socio economic
and
environmental
sustainability
issues
for
the
national
and
regional
development. (Schrenk et al., 2012). The objective of the ONSS is to propose
policies for the physical planning and implementation, while considering the long
term strategy Oman Vision 2020.
Thusly, the components of the legal framework and the ONSS are described in
the following paragraphs:
5.3.1. Oman Highway Design Manual Standards
This manual provides broad guidelines for the responsibilities of particular
authorities and organizations involved in transportation. This document does not
only include design standards, but also planning and implementation procedures,
which should be applied in all levels of government. These standards have been
established by a Technical Committee, which had representation from the
Ministry of Transportation and Communications, the Royal Police, the Supreme
Council for Planning, the Muscat Municipality, the Municipality of Dhofar, and the
Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources (MOTC, 2013). This
regulation has been developed based on previous legal frameworks for
transportation design and implementation. The standards were meant for the
design of highways, arterial, secondary, distributor, and access routes, which in
other words, means the hierarchy of national and local roads. In addition, the
52
regulation considers the facilities for pedestrians in the urban areas, the
mitigation of possible negative impacts on the environment, and landscaping
(MOTC, 2013). This regulation establishes some technical codes that must be
followed in the design and implementation stages. Additionally, it states the
planning procedures for national and regional strategies, according to the Oman
Planning Guidelines (SCTP, 2010). Finally, the Oman Highway Design Manual
refers to the 3 stages of the roads project scheme, which are the feasibility study,
preliminary study, and final project. The traffic flows, capacities, and levels of
service of the new transportation projects must meet the standards’ criteria.
5.3.2. Omani Environmental Regulations
This set of laws was created by the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
in order to prevent pollution, environmental degradation, chemicals hazards, and
damage to the ecosystems in the Sultanate of Oman (MOECA, 2013). The law is
mainly addressed to the industrial activities which handle hazardous chemicals.
In addition, it includes the control of emissions and noise levels, which indirectly
refers to transportation activities as well. Through this regulation, the Ministry of
Environment and Climate Affairs issues permissions for all activities that
represent a risk to the environment. Furthermore, it declares the mandatory
fulfillment of the codes and it establishes procedures for inspection and
enforcement. The planning process also states that all new roads projects need a
license which certifies that they comply with the environmental requirements.
5.3.3. Oman Planning Guidelines
The guidelines were issued by the Ministry of Housing; they established planning
definitions and standards for the development in the urban and rural areas. The
document is also related to transportation as it states standards for road
networks and accessibility (MoH, 2014). Furthermore, the guidelines determine
the land uses permitted along the highways and the distances between the roads
and buildings. Moreover, the master plans must establish the limits of the
53
projected areas which will be urbanized, the projected roads, and protection
areas. It also complements some of the standards that have been established by
the Oman Highway Design Manual. The guidelines are directly linked to the
building codes and they state the number of required parking lots per project,
depending on the built area, land use, and density of the project. Finally, they
determine the minimum distances between residential areas and service
facilities.
5.3.4. Development Control Plan Framework
The DCPF is a document which contains guidelines and standards for the
development of integrated tourism projects (MOT, 2010). Consequently, the
framework encompasses standards of transportation facilities for accessibility to
tourism complexes such as hotels, clubs, restaurants, and tourist attractions. The
standards define the number of parking lots for these facilities, the type of roads
and streets to access, and traffic impact assessments according to the traffic
volume. Additionally, the standards recommend implementing facilities such as
sidewalks and bikeways in the tourist areas, where people can explore the
places by walking or cycling. Finally, the framework also considers the
preservation of the local landscape.
5.5.5. Oman National Spatial Strategy
The ONSS was prepared by a group of international experts in order to assess
further development strategies and design the national vision of spatial strategy,
which includes medium and long term objectives (Schrenk et al., 2012). It is a
response
to
the
Omani
Government’s
intention
to
promote
balanced
development through a National Strategy and it is based on the Oman Vision
2020. The ONSS, which was launched in 2010, considers proposals and
instruments for implementation of holistic planning approaches on the national
and regional level. The fields included are: Geographic Information System for a
common
data
base,
environmental
resources,
cultural
heritage,
social
54
development, economic sectors, transport and mobility, land use, institutional
and legal affairs, and capacity building (Schrenk et al., 2012).
The strategy emphasizes the importance of sustainability and environmental
preservation in Oman through integrative spatial planning. This includes the
optimization of land use, natural resources consumption, protection of cultural
heritage, preservation of biodiversity, and reduction of impacts and hazards.
Additionally, the ONSS states the importance of socio-economic development by
upgrading social services and facilitating the development of different
enterprises. Thus, the ONSS should bring better job opportunities, better
education and training for manpower, and better quality of life (Schrenk et al.,
2012).
Furthermore, the ONSS identifies strategic needs for infrastructure and services
in the urban and rural areas within the country. In the meantime, the
implementation of the ONSS Information System intends to assess and monitor
environmental, socio-economical, infrastructural, and other spatial regulations.
The Oman Geographic Information System is a data base that provides relevant
data required for various purposes in different fields.
Currently, the ONSS does not have a legal status and is not confirmed as a
strategy yet. The first stage of feasibility and assessment is done; however, the
second stage of assessing implementation is on the way. So far, the companies
which will implement the strategy have been hired; however, no further decisions
have been made in the process. The strategies on transportation are included in
the current implementation assessment of the ONSS.
55
The laws, regulations, and strategies are summarized in the table below:
LAWS AND REGULATIONS
Oman Highway Design Manual Standards
• Design standards for transportation facilities
• Transportation planning and implementation
procedures
• Technical codes for transportation infrastructure
• General scheme for transportation projects
• Mitigation of environmental impacts
• Landscaping
Oman Planning Guidelines
• Standards for the development of urban and rural
areas
• Master Plans must establish the limits of the
projected areas which will be urbanized, the
projected roads and protection areas
• Standards for accessibility in urban and rural
areas depending on land use and location
• Distances between residential areas and services
facilities
• Number of parking lots depending on density and
size of the facilities
Omani Environmental Regulations
• Prevention of pollution, environmental
degradation and destruction of local ecosystems.
• Control of emissions and noise levels
• Licenses and permissions for industrial,
commercial and transportation activities and
infrastructure
• Monitoring, inspection and enforcement of
environmental regulations
Development Control Plan Framework
• Standards of transportation facilities for
accessibility to tourism complexes
• Number of parking lots for tourism facilities
• Types of roads for tourism facilities
• Traffic impact assessment for tourism projects
• Recommendation of sidewalks and bikeways in
tourism areas
• Preservation of local landscape in the new
tourism projects
STRATEGIES
Oman National Spatial Strategy
•
•
•
•
•
•
Balanced urban and rural development based on Oman Vision 2020
Proposals and instruments for the implementation of integrated planning approaches
Geographical Information System for a common data base for planning
Socio economic development
Environmental and cultural heritage preservation
Infrastructure and services in the urban and rural areas
Table 2– Summary of Laws, Regulations and strategies related to transportation,
Source: Author, 2014 (based on the legal framework of Oman)
5.4. Transportation Planning Issues
5.4.1 Governance / Procedures
The review of the laws and regulations has summarized the current legal
framework related to transportation, which is applicable to the whole country. As
it was described, in theory the planning procedure states the coordination and
integration of the planning process. Nevertheless, in practice the procedure lacks
56
coordination among ministries. For instance, in Al Buraimi the activities among
the Ministry of Housing, the Office of Technical Affairs of the Municipality, and the
Ministry of Transportation and Communications are not coordinated. There is
disconnection between land use and transportation planning which has led to
segregation of urban activities and car dependency. As it was described in the
planning procedure, the Ministry of Housing decides the Master Plan for the
development of Al Buraimi through the Supreme Council for Planning. It
establishes the projected areas to be urbanized and later on, the residential
lands are allocated to Omani nationals who start building their houses. The
Ministry of Housing, as a land administrator, allocates the residential lands to
Omani nationals. Nevertheless, not all plots of land are built on at the same time
because it is not mandatory under the national land distribution policy. As a
result, the urbanization process is characterized by patchy unsustainable growth.
On the top of that, when the new areas are developed, there are neither roads
nor public services functioning within. Only when there are a considerable
number of houses built in an area, the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and
Water Resources builds the local roads and the services infrastructure. It is
problematic that the fact is that the urbanization process is not simultaneously
integrated with infrastructure and transportation facilities in Al Buraimi.
Additionally, there is a gap in the local government structure of Al Buraimi
regarding who has the responsibility of the local network. Currently, the
responsibility for the local transportation network lies with the Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources in Al Buraimi through the Office of Technical
Affairs. The separation of the local transport network from the Ministry of
Transportation and Communications is not appropriate. The Highway Design
Manual is mostly focused on the inter regional roads network. However, there are
standards for the local level which have not been implemented in Al Buraimi. The
Office of Technical Affairs finds challenging the implementation of the national
regulation
and
the Ministry
of
Transportation
and
Communications
is
disconnected from the local transportation in the city. Furthermore, the procedure
57
is problematic considering the centralized structure of governance in the
Sultanate of Oman. The Central Government in Muscat decides the plans,
regulations, and strategies for the entire country, perhaps ignoring important
facts in the local context. There is not autonomy in the Governorate of Al Buraimi
or the Municipality to make decisions focused on the priorities and needs of the
city/region. In addition, according to the planning procedure there is meant to be
public consultancy in Oman. However, in practice this process does not include
the community members of Al Buraimi, who are not aware of participation. The
planning process is completely top down and centralized in the capital, Muscat.
One of the issues in the Sultanate of Oman is that information is neither available
nor accessible to those affected by the decisions made in the Central
Government. Such information is not provided and it is not possible to become
informed about new plans and strategies. Moreover, there is not a strict
enforcement of the legal framework through efficient monitoring tools. In addition,
processes are bureaucratic and do not serve efficiently all stakeholders within a
reasonable timeframe. On the top of that, the decisions made in the country are
not subject to review to make sure that all the initiatives target the common
interest and meet their objectives. Additionally, the planning process in Oman is
not effective in terms of environmental sustainability because the natural
resources are not optimized and the ecosystems are not always protected from
the impacts of development. Furthermore, some of the projects and
developments in Al Buraimi do not meet the needs of the community. The lack of
vision for medium and long term impacts, accompanied by the scarce consensus
in the society to determine the common interest for the community, limits the
good governance capacity in the country. Lastly, there is lack of monitoring
systems which track the institutions activities and responsibilities, thus disclosing
the results of the implementation process.
58
5.4.2. Legal Framework
The Office of technical Affairs of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and
Water Resources does not build the local network projects with the standards of
the Ministry of Transportation and Communications (see examples in the next
chapter). Therefore, it is evident that the implementation of the legal framework is
not fully complied with and disconnection is evident between the national,
regional, and local levels. As mentioned, all the plans, regulations, and strategies
are decided by the Central Government in Muscat. Consequently, there are not
strong instruments or mechanisms for the implementation of the legal framework
in Al Buraimi.
In addition, the Oman Highway Design Manual does not state a clear procedure
for monitoring or inspecting the implementation stage. The responsibilities at the
different levels of government and institutions are not defined, thus, the
regulation does not specify clear roles regarding the authorities involved in
transportation. The imprecise definition of responsibilities is another reason why
the local level does not fulfill the national regulations in Al Buraimi.
Furthermore, the Oman Highway Standards Manual and the Law for Oman
Planning Guidelines are evidently focused on road based transportation and
facilities for automobiles. Additionally, the standards consider neither the design
nor the implementation of public transportation in the urban areas. Meanwhile,
facilities for pedestrians are slightly included in the regulations, but the
implementation is not clear on the local level. As a result, Al Buraimi does not
provide solid infrastructure for walking and biking. Finally, even though the
Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs issues permits for new transportation
projects, the Omani Environmental Regulations do not encompass limits for the
urban development and its role in protection is not relevant in terms of
sustainable planning. These regulations are mostly focused on reducing the
industrial activities impacts. They do not include a reduction of urbanization
process impacts in its legal framework. For instance, the law states the
59
environmental procedures for the process of building roads. Nevertheless, it does
not go further in protecting the ecosystems by reducing the areas allowed for
new
developments.
Consequently,
it
is
not
completely
preventing
all
environmental risks that transportation entails. The laws are mainly focused on
emissions; however, transportation entails more environmental issues than the
law is currently addressing.
The planning issues are summarized in the table below:
Government/Procedure Issues
• Lack of coordination among ministries and
institutions
• No integration between land use and
transportation planning
• No vision in planning
• Centrality
• No public participation
• No public consensus
• information is neither available nor accessible to
those affected by the decisions
• Bureaucracy and long time to implement
• Sustainability is not considered
• lack of monitoring systems which track the
institutions activities and responsibilities
Legal Framework Issues
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
No enforcement of legal framework
No monitoring
No strong mechanisms for implementation
No clear definitions of responsibilities of the
institutions of the different levels of the
government
Regulations and laws made for car facilities and
road based transportation
No considerations for public transportation
Regulations not fully implemented in the local
level
Lack of regulation for walking and biking
Environmental regulation focused more on
industrial activities than integrative urban
development
Table 3– Summary of Transportation Planning Issues in Oman, Source: Author, 2014
60
6. TRANSPORTATION AND MOBILITY IN AL BURAIMI
6.1. Transportation Profile of Al Buraimi
6.1.1 Choice of transportation mode
As mentioned in the introduction of this study, the affordable prices of oil and
cars in addition to the road based transportation policy of Oman, has led to
automobile dependency in Al Buraimi. As a result, the vast majority of residents
use car to travel. 6 It is estimated that 90% of citizens move by private car,
whereas 5% travel by taxi, which is the only complementary mean of transport
available for the citizens. Furthermore, 2% of the residents travel by private bus;
this number only includes certain students and workers, who use the service
provided by their schools and companies. Meanwhile, only 2% and 1% of the
residents commute by walking or biking respectively. The information on choice
of transportation in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the graph below.
90
90
80
Percentage
70
60
private car
taxi
bus
50
40
walking
biking
30
20
10
5
2
2
1
0
private car
taxi
bus
walking
biking
Figure 10 - Choice of transportation mode in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
Estimation of the choice of transportation mode based on community questionnaires. Field trip in
Al Buraimi (Oman), September - October 2014.
6
61
The indicator on choice of transportation in Al Buraimi reveals that transportation
in Al Buraimi depends on the motorized mode, which is not efficient in terms of
sustainability. According to the field surveys, 97% of the transportation in Al
Buraimi is motorized, while only 3 % is non-motorized.
Al Buraimi
Non-Motorized (Bikes / Walking)
3%
Private Car
90%
Taxi
5%
Bus
2%
Motorized
3%
97%
Figure 11 - Transportation mode in Al Buraimi, Source, Author, 2014
6.1.2 Users Affordability
The city of Al Buraimi does not provide a diversity of means of transportation.
There is no public transportation system and 90% of residents use private cars to
commute. As a result, special attention should be drawn to private transportation
to analyze the affordability. Considering indicators such as residents’ income per
month and prices of cars and oil, it is evident that private transportation in Al
Buraimi is affordable for residents. For instance, in the automobiles’ market, new
cars are available from 500 7Omani Rials, which is 1.000 Euros approximately.
Additionally, prices of fuel are very low due to the fact the Sultanate of Oman is
an oil producing country. The price for one litre of oil is normally 0.12 O.R (NCSI,
2014), approximately 0.24 Euros. Meanwhile, the average minimum wage in
7
O.R: Omani Rials is the currency of the Sultanate of Oman
62
Oman is 325 O.R per month 8 (Zawya, 2013), which is 650 Euros/month,
approximately. Additionally, the costs of car insurances and maintenance are not
expensive.
On the other hand, the Oman National Transport Company, which is the national
company operating regional buses, provides the public service for connections
with other regions in Oman for the price of 4 O.R (8 Euros approximately). Thus,
the price of public inter-regional transportation is affordable as well. The
transportation affordability is summarized in the table below.
Minimum Wage Average
in Oman
Price of oil / litter
Minimum price of a new car
325 O.R
(650 Euros)
0.12 O.R
(0.24 Euros)
500 O.R
(1.000 Euros)
Table 4 – Affordability of private transportation, Source: Author, 2014
On the other hand, the situation of car ownership in Al Buraimi presents a
contrast between Omani nationals and expatriates. 9It is estimated that 62% of
Omani residents in Al Buraimi own a car, whereas 38% do not own any car. By
contrast, only 24% of the expatriate residents in Al Buraimi have a car, while
approximately 76% do not have a car. The reason of this difference is that
migration in Al Buraimi is a phenomenon which started becoming significant only
5 years ago. Thus, the foreigners who arrive in the city have other priorities over
buying a car such as sending revenues to their countries, among others.
Nevertheless, owning a vehicle is affordable for expatriates as well.
Minimum Wage Average is applicable only for Omani Nationals
Estimation of car ownership based on community questionnaires carried out during the field trip to
Al Buraimi.
8
9
63
The graphs below illustrate the estimation of the percentage of the residents’ car
ownership according to the nationality.
Omani Citizens
Foreign Citizens
76
80
70
70
62
60
60
50
50
38
40
40
30
30
24
20
20
10
10
0
0
Car Ownership
No Car Ownership
Car Ownership
No Car Ownership
Figure 12 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality in Al Buraimi,
Source: Author, 2014 (Based on the Community Questionnaires)
Furthermore, if the car ownership indicator is focused on the different age
groups, it shows that the majority of residents, Omani or foreigners who own a
car, belong to the age group between 20 and 40 years old. Beneath this group,
Omani residents under 20 years old have a considerable percentage in car
ownership. It shows that even for the younger people, prices, and regulations on
car ownership facilitate the availability for all groups age. This information also
confirms that cars owners and drivers are mostly young people. Additionally, only
a small number of Omani people between 40-60 years old have a car.
Based on the percentage of car ownership by nationality, the indicator related to
the age groups is illustrated in the next graphs.
64
Foreign Citizens
80
70
60
Omani Citizens
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
50
40
3
64
64
40
37
40
30
30
20
30
20
10
5
5
20
14
10
0
Car Ownership0
20
5
5
14
10
12
12
No Car Ownership
Under 20
20-40
22
18
0
Car Ownership
40-60
No Car Ownership
Over 60
Figure 13 - Percentage of Car Ownership by Nationality and Age Group in Al Buraimi,
Source: Author, 2014 (Based on the Community Questionnaires)
6.1.3. Number of Vehicles
The number of cars in the Sultanate of Oman and, consequently, in the city of Al
Buraimi has increased progressively over the last years. The tendency has kept
pace with the population growth; in addition, the city has raised the number of
driving licenses issued. According to the General Directorate of Traffic (2014),
there were 22.034 registered vehicles operating in the city in 2011; this number
rose to 24.684 and 27.037 registered vehicles in 2012 and 2013 respectively.
On the other hand, there were 24.732 driving licenses issued in the Governorate
of Al Buraimi in 2011. The number of licenses increased to 26.838 in 2012. Later
in the year 2013 the number arose to 27.075 (General Directorate of Traffic,
2014). Therefore, considering that Al Buraimi has 96.196 inhabitants, the
indicator estimates that for each 1.000 inhabitants in Al Buraimi there are 281
vehicles.
65
Consequently, it is evident that the affordability of cars and lack of diversity of
modes of transportation will keep the constant growth in the number of vehicles
in Al Buraimi and, in the Sultanate of Oman in general.
The information described is illustrated in the graphs below:
Number of cars registered by year
30000
Number of driving licenses by year
30000
27037
25000
25000
24684
20000
26838
27075
2012
2013
24732
22034
20000
15000
15000
10000
10000
5000
5000
0
0
2011
2012
2013
2011
Figure 14- Number of cars registered and driving licenses issued by year in Al Buraimi,
Source: Author, 2014 (Based on information of the General Directorate of traffic of Oman)
6.1.4. Road Executed Lengths
Over the last 3 years, there has been a considerable increase in road building in
the Governorate of Al Buraimi. This is attributed to the urban growth of the city
and new infrastructure built for regional linkages. According to the National
Center of Statistics and Information of Oman (2014), only 15 kilometers of roads
were built in 2011. However, in 2012 the road length increased sharply and 103
kilometers of new roads were laid. Afterwards, 113 kilometers of new roads were
executed in 2013 in Al Buraimi.
There is a tendency of building more roads for transportation. As a result, more
environmental impacts should be expected in the coming years if this rate keeps
up the current pace of roads building. As mentioned before, using significant
66
areas for road based transportation is not a sustainable practice because it
entails negative environmental impacts.
The information is summarized in the table below
2011
2012
2013
Graded
Dual
Single
Graded
Dual
Single
Graded
Dual
Single
Kilometer
15.0
‫ـــ‬
‫ـــ‬
Kilometer
‫ـــ‬
3.0
100
Kilometer
3.0
4.0
106
Total: 15 Kilometers
Table 5 – Road Executed Lengths in the Governorate of Al Buraimi per Year
Source: National Center of Statistics and Information, 2014
6.1.5. Roads Expenditure
Specific information of the expenditure on roads in Al Buraimi was not available.
Nevertheless, the total expenditure in roads in Oman can provide an overall idea
of the economic costs attributed to the infrastructure for road-based
developments in the Sultanate. According to the National Center for Statistics
and Information (2014), the Oman Government Development Expenditure for
roads was 384.9 Millions in O.R in 2011. This expenditure decreased slightly to
373.3 Millions of O.R in 2012. Afterwards, it increased again and the cost was
424.3 Millions of O.R in 2013 (approximately 848.6 Millions of Euros).
Furthermore, according to the Department of the Ministry of Transport and
Communications in Al Buraimi (2014), the budget allocated for maintenance in
the highways and regional roads is 100.000 O.R per year, which is 200.000
Euros per year approximately.
Thereby, the information on road expenditure shows a significant amount of the
development budget invested on car-based transportation infrastructure.
The described above is illustrated in the next graph.
67
430
424.3
Millions of Omani Rials
420
410
400
390
384.9
380
373.3
370
360
2011
2012
2013
Figure 15 - Roads Expenditure in Oman by Year
Source: Author, 2014 (Based on the information of the NCSI)
6.1.6. Petrol Consumption
The consumption of petrol has risen in Al Buraimi as a consequence of the
increase in number of vehicles, new roads for transportation, and affordable
prices. According to the National Center of Statistics and Information (2013), the
petrol consumption in 2010 was 1.194.000 Barrels. In the year 2011, the
consumption was 1.560.000 Barrels, whereas in 2012 it increased to 1.826.000
Barrels. There is a tendency in the growth of petrol consumption in Al Buraimi,
which entails emissions of carbon dioxide in the environment. The information
indicates that the transportation mode is not efficient in terms of reducing
emissions and pollution.
Governorate
Total
Al Buraimi
2010
1.194.000 BBL
2011
1.560.000 BBL
2012
1.826.000 BBL
Table 6 - Consumption of Barrels of Petrol in Al Buraimi in 2013, Source: NCSI, 2014
68
6.1.7. Carbon Emissions
On the other hand, the activities related to transportation contribute to carbon
emissions depending on how sustainable they are. In the case of the Sultanate of
Oman, the transportation is road based, which entails carbon footprints in the
atmosphere. According to the World Bank (2014), the carbon dioxide emissions
in Oman increased significantly over a period of only 20 years, measuring such
emissions from 1990 to 2010. The number of metric tons in 1990 was 6.3 per
capita, which rose to 20.4 per capita by the year of 2010. Furthermore, the total
number of thousand metric tons produced in the Sultanate of Oman in the year of
1990 was 11,386, whereas in 2010, the production of thousand metric tons grew
by 57,202.
The increase in carbon emissions entails negative impacts in the environment; it
affects the air quality and contributes to global warming. In the case of Al
Buraimi, transportation is not environmentally sustainable because it is
automobile dependant, thus it emits greenhouse gases which pollute.
The information described is depicted in the table below.
Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Oman
TOTAL
CARBON INTENSITY
PER CAPITA
Thousand metric tons
Kilograms per kilograms
of oil equivalent energy use
Metric tons
1990
2010
1990
2010
1990
2010
11.386
57.202
2.7
2.5
6.3
20.4
Table 7 – Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Oman, Source, World Bank, 2014
69
6.2. Mobility Patterns
This section aims to focus on the aspects which characterize mobility in the city
of Al Buraimi and the region. It is important to understand the aspects that
influence why, where, and how individuals in Al Buraimi commute to their
destinations either in the city or in other regions of the Sultanate of Oman.
Therefore, in order to itemize the analysis, the section is divided between local
and regional mobility patterns.
6.2.1. Local Mobility Patterns
As described in the transportation profile of Al Buraimi, the vast majority of
residents travel by car as the city is based on an automobile model. Thus, it is
important to focus on the places within the city where people commute more
often for different urban activities. The identification of such areas is based on the
community questionnaires and direct observation on the field.
The points that create local mobility are indicated in the map below:
AL AIN
4
5
10
11
3
6
10
1
10
1- Shops/Commercial
2 – Souk (Market)
3 - Bus Terminal
4 – Sports Club
5 - Al Buraimi Park
6 - Sports Complex
7 - Hospital
8 - Shopping Mall
9 – Buraimi University
10 - Mosque
11- Border Cross Point
International Border
7
8
2
9
11
Figure 16 – Mobility attracting points in Al Buraimi
Source: Wikimapia, 2014 / Modified by: Author
70
The commercial activities such as shops, restaurants, markets, and other
services generate considerable demand of mobility in Al Buraimi. These activities
are located in the main arterial roads of the city, where density is higher. It is
important to mention that these commercial points are located close to the
international border with Al Ain (U.A.E). Moreover, residents from Al Ain
frequently cross the border to go to Al Buraimi where they can find more
affordable prices of goods and services, increasing the flow of traffic.
Figure 17- Local Souk (Market)
Source: Author, 2014
Figure 18 - Commercial Street in Al Buraimi
In addition, the bus terminal of Al Buraimi concentrates, in its surrounding area,
not only the facilities of the Oman National Transportation Company, but also
commercial and financial activities. This is a strategic point in the city where a
considerable number of people commute.
Figure 19 - Photo of the Bank of Oman building in the bus terminal, Source: Author, 2014
71
On the other hand, the leisure activities influence mobility in Al Buraimi as well.
The facilities for sports are the Buraimi Sports Club and the Sports Complex,
which attracts significant number of people during sports events generating high
traffic flows on the access roads. Additionally, the Buraimi Park, which is the only
public green area for recreation in the city, is another point where people
commute frequently during the evenings and weekends. Moreover, the Lulu
Shopping Centre, located on the highway to Sohar, is the largest mall in the city
and attracts a significant number of people everyday.
Figure 20 – Photo of Buraimi Park
Figure 21 - Lulu Shopping Center,
Furthermore, the health care facilities such as hospitals and medical centers and
education facilities such as schools and the Buraimi University generate high
demands of mobility. There is a main hospital in Al Buraimi located on the
highway and a secondary hospital as well. Additionally, there are 27 public
schools and 8 private schools in Al Buraimi. According to the National Center for
Statistics and Information (2014), it is estimated that there were 8.918 students in
Al Buraimi in 2013. As previously mentioned, the schools and the Buraimi
University provide bus transportation service for the students.
Moreover, the mosques in Al Buraimi are essential points for the Muslim
residents, who are the majority in the city. They are an important mobility
generator within the urban area; the largest mosque is the Masjid Sultan Qaboos,
72
which is located in front of the main roundabout of Al Buraimi. There are many
mosques located in different parts of Al Buraimi and easy to reach by walking in
the residential areas.
Figure 22- Photo of the Sultan Qaboos Mosque of Al Buraimi, Source: www.Buraimi.net, 2013
On the other hand, the crossing points of the international border between Al
Buraimi and Al Ain are critical points of traffic flow, due to the considerable
number of people crossing the border everyday. There are two crossing points
and they present congestion mostly during the peak hours. The Omani residents
in Al Buraimi go to Al Ain attracted by the shopping facilities, relatives living
there, schools, and services not available in their city, whereas the residents of Al
Ain go to Al Buraimi because prices of goods and services are lower. As a result,
the demand of mobility from one place to another and the restriction by
immigration control in the border generate high volumes of vehicle flows.
According to the community questionnaire outcomes, 50% of the Omani
residents in Al Buraimi cross the international border more than once per week. It
means than approximately 23.873 people cross the border frequently during the
week. In addition, taking into account the number of residents of Al Ain and the
number of foreigners and tourist who cross the border per day, the traffic volume
is even higher.
73
Figure 23 - Photos of an international border cross point in Al Buraimi, Source, Author, 2014
The restriction at the international border has the aim of controlling the transit of
non GCC citizens. As a result, the Omani residents in Al Buraimi can cross the
border anytime. However, the non GCC foreigners have to get the permission to
go to Al Ain, which limits them in crossing the international border. Consequently,
analyzing the outcomes of the field surveys, this demonstrates the difference in
the mobility patterns between Omani and expatriates going to Al Ain.
The information collected indicates that 27% of Omani residents in Al Buraimi
cross the border daily, 23% cross the border more than once per week, 13%
once/ week, 16 % more than once per month, 14% once/month, and 7% never.
30
27
25
23
Percentage
20
16
15
14
13
10
7
5
0
Daily
More than
once per
week
Once per
week
More than
once per
month
Once per
month
Never
Figure 24 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Omani Nationals), Source: Author, 2014
74
In contrast, only 20% of the foreign residents in Al Buraimi cross the international
border with Al Ain daily and 20% more than once per week. In addition, 10% of
expatriates go to Al Ain once per month and 50% never do it because they are
not allowed.
50
50
45
40
Percentage
35
30
25
20
20
20
15
10
10
5
0
Daily
More than once
per month
Once per month
Never
Figure 25 - Frequency to cross the border with Al Ain (Foreign Nationals), Source: Author, 2014
Time spent to commute:
The traffic volume in Al Buraimi is not high and does not represent an urgent
problem for the city nowadays. The average time to commute is between 20 and
30 minutes and there are not important delays in time travelling. Nevertheless,
the city is growing fast in terms of area and population and density is low.
Consequently, problems in congestion and long time to commute may appear in
the coming years if the city keeps the current development trend.
Furthermore, the peak hours in Al Buraimi are: from 7:00am to 7:30am, which is
the period of time when students and workers commute to schools, university
and working places. From 2:00pm to 2:30pm students finish their activities and
return home, at the same time, there is a midday break for workers. From
6:00pm-6:30pm is the last peak road use period when workers commute home.
75
According to the surveys carried out during the field trip, 35% of the workers take
between 10 and 20 minutes to commute, 25% take between 20 and 30 minutes,
and 16% take less than 10 minutes. Meanwhile, 24% take more than half an hour
in order to reach their working place.
Moreover, 50% of the students take between 20 to 30 minutes to commute,
whereas 40% need more than half and hour and 10% take less than 20 minutes
to reach either the schools or the Buraimi University. The reason why a
considerable number of students need more than 30 minutes is that the
university is not located in the urban area as it is 20 Kilometers away on the way
to Sohar. Another reason is that some of the students who live in Al Buraimi
study in Al Ain and cross the border everyday, which is time consuming.
Additionally, 50% and 45% of the residents take between 20 and 30 minutes to
commute for shopping and leisure respectively. Meanwhile, 25% of the citizens
need less than 20 minutes and 40% need more than 30 minutes to travel for
shopping. Finally, 18% of the citizens take less than 20% to travel for leisure
activities while 37% need more than half an hour. The residents who need more
than 30 minutes usually go to Al Ain and need to cross the border.
It is relevant to mention that the time spent is only for one trip, according to the
surveys, people need 2 trips per day on average for their main activities (working
and/or studying). Other activities such as shopping and leisure present an
average of 4 to 6 trips during the week.
On the other hand, crossing the border with Al Ain takes around 20-minutes for
Omani residents, whereas for foreigners it takes longer due to the office
procedures of getting the visa to the U.A.E and passports control at the crossing
points.
76
The information on time to spent to commute in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the
graph below.
50
45
40
50 50 45
Percentage
35
30
35
25
25
20
20
15
10
20
15
16
20
15
10
15
14
10
5
5
5
5
4
3
5
3
5
5
0
5min-10min
10min-20min
Working
20min-30min
Studying
30min-40min
Shopping
40min-50min
50min-60min
Leisure
Figure 26 - Percentage of time spent to commute per activity in Al Buraimi
Source: Author 2014 (Based on the community questionnaires)
6.2.2. Regional Mobility Patterns
Special attention should be placed on the characterization of the regional
linkages between Al Buraimi and other regions of Oman. Thus, during the field
surveys, it was intended to identify the places in Oman that generate mobility
from Al Buraimi. Additionally, it was important to find out the reasons for travelling
and the choice of modes of transportation to other regions.
Consequently, according to the field surveys, 40% of residents in Al Buraimi
travel more to the capital Muscat and the port of Sohar. In contrast, only 10% of
the citizens travel to Nizwa as a main destination, while 6% go to Ibri, 3% to
Salalah, and 1% to other regions. The information is displayed in the next graph.
77
40
40
40
35
30
Percentage
25
20
15
10
10
6
5
3
0
Muscat
Sohar
Nizwa
Ibri
Salalah
1
Others
Figure 27- Main destinations within Oman for residents in Al Buraimi
Source: Author 2014 (Based on the community questionnaires)
The geographical locations of the aforementioned places are indicated on the
map below
Al Buraimi
Figure 28 - Map of the main destinations within Oman for residents of Al Buraimi
Source: www.ezilon.com, 2013 / Modified by: Author
78
On the other hand, the reasons of regional mobility for the residents in Al Buraimi
are mostly for tourism and leisure. According to the field surveys, 60% of
residents travel to other regions for tourism. There are two reasons why people
travel to the Port of Sohar: it is the closest beach within Oman and the port is a
strategic point for transportation of goods. Thus 15% of people travel for activities
related to work and business; these destinations are mainly Sohar and Muscat.
Additionally, 15% of the residents travel to visit relatives. Meanwhile, only 7% of
people travel for shopping, and 3% for other reasons.
60
60
50
Percentage
40
30
20
15
15
10
7
3
0
work/business
tourism
shopping
family
others
Figure 29 - Reasons of regional mobility for Al Buraimi residents
Source: Author 2014 (based on the community questionnaires)
On the other hand, the means of transportation for regional linkages are
dominated by cars as well. According to the field surveys, 85% of the residents
travel to other regions within the country by private car, whereas only 10% travel
on the buses of the National Oman Transportation Company. Moreover, 5%
travel by taxi.
79
It is evident that there is an inefficient public transport system for regional
transportation in Al Buraimi. The service provided does not meet the needs of the
residents in terms of comfort, punctuality, and frequencies.
90
85
80
70
60
50
private car
bus
40
taxi
30
20
10
10
5
0
private car
bus
taxi
Figure 30 - Choice of mode of transportation for regional mobility within Oman
Source: Author, 2014 (based on the community questionnaires)
6.3 Evaluation of transportation facilities and mobility behaviour
The aim of this section is to describe and link the current transportation facilities
in Al Buraimi with the mobility behaviour. In other words, it means to explain how
the transportation infrastructure provided is related to the manner how residents
move in the city. The transportation facilities include roads, means of
transportation, sidewalks, parking lots, terminals, speed controls, etc. Meanwhile,
the mobility behaviour considers the accidents rates, walkability, and use of
public space, among others. The analysis considers the relationship between
transportation and public space quality in addition to the evaluation of the existing
facilities from the sustainability perspective.
80
6.3.1. Roads Network
According to the Highway Design Manual of the Ministry of Transport and
Communications, the roads network in Oman is structured in different levels
depending on the accessibility, speed, distance, and traffic flows. As a result, it is
possible to categorize roads in Al Buraimi with the national standards hierarchy.
Al Buraimi has a national route, which is the only highway in the city, which
connects it with Sohar-Muscat and Ibri-Nizwa. This national highway is linked to
two secondary routes in Al Buraimi, which connect the wilayat of Mahdha and the
two international border crossing points. Additionally, the accessibility from the
highway to the other areas of the city is based on distributor roads that play an
essential role for the local network. Finally, the access routes connect individual
settlements and residential areas with the distributor network. These routes are
low speed and low traffic volume roads for local mobility.
The roads network in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the map below.
Figure 31 - Map of roads network hierarchy in Al Buraimi,
81
Road Classification
Functional Description
National Routes
Specialist long distance highway route with
high speeds
Secondary Routes
Regional or area networks made up of links
between towns and national routes. They
provide some access to local areas
Distributor Routes
Local networks which link identifiable traffic
generators such as urban zones with
secondary routes.
Access Routes
Routes to individual settlements
Table 8 - Functional Route Characterization Description, Source: MOTC, 2013
The highway in Al Buraimi, which is a national route that connects the city with
the highways to Sohar and Ibri, presents high traffic flows and a speed limit of
120km/hour. Additionally, facilities such as the Sport Complex, the main hospital,
the Police Department, the bus terminal, hotels, the Buraimi University, and the
Lulu Supermarket are located along this route. In the local context, it functions as
an axis in the urban structure as it connects not only Al Buraimi, but also Al Ain
with the rest of Oman, playing an essential roll in the international linkage with
the U.A.E.
On the other hand, parallel to the highway there is a local route which separates
the high speed traffic with the access for the buildings located along the national
route. Moreover, there are green areas between the highway and the local roads
located alongside. These are the only green spaces provided for pedestrians in
Al Buraimi and are designed with the purpose of creating a barrier between the
highway corridor and sidewalks. The highway fulfils all the standards included in
the regulation for national roads; it has a high quality and good performance in
regard to traffic flow and low congestion.
82
Figure 32 - National Route in Al Buraimi
Figure 33 - Green area alongside the highway
The secondary routes in Al Buraimi connect the highway with the international
cross points and the wilayat of Mahdha. According to the regulation of the
Ministry of transportation and Communications, the speed limit on this type of
road is 40km/hour in the urban areas and 80km/hour in the rural roads.
Nevertheless, in reality the speeds driven are higher than allowed. The
secondary route to Mahdha functions as a main entrance to the industrial area of
the city and other facilities such as the waste treatment plant and the dumping
site. The facilities for waste are located approximately 10 kilometers away from
this route. This road is for trucks and heavy traffic due to the activities located in
this area. Moreover, it is also the access to the Buraimi Park and the residential
areas in the west of the city. According to the MOTC (2014), there is a project
plan for the dualization of the road to Mahdha, which would increase the traffic
flow. On the other hand, the secondary roads that connect the highway with the
international border concentrate the most important commercial areas of the city
alongside them. Facilities such as restaurants, shops, the souk (market), hotels,
retailers, and other businesses are located along the secondary routes. The
traffic is usually congested during the peak hours, thus increasing likelihood of
accidents. Other critical points in this network are the two international crossing
points which gather a considerable number of cars and traffic. The secondary
roads in Al Buraimi have good conditions and high standards of quality.
83
Figure 34 – Photos of Secondary roads in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
The distributor roads in Al Buraimi connect the highway and the secondary roads
with the local access routes. They typically do not have high traffic flows and the
speed limit is 40km/hour, which actually is higher than allowed in the regulation.
These roads facilitate access to residential areas, schools, mosques, small
shops, and businesses, and institutional facilities. The regulation also states
considerations for facilities for pedestrians along the distributor routes. However,
provisions for sidewalks are not well implemented in the low hierarchy roads of Al
Buraimi. Additionally, the access routes are roads for the access to properties,
this type of road has less traffic flow and the speed limit is 40km/hour.
Congestion and traffic are not an immediate challenge for the city as distances
are short and time spent to commute is reasonable.
Figure 35 – Photo of distributor and access routes, Source: Author, 2014
84
6.3.2. Accidents
The most urgent problem that transportation presents for Al Buraimi is the high
rate of accidents. According to the Royal Oman Police (2014), in the year 2013
the city recorded 325 non serious traffic accidents, 381 injuries, and 42 deaths
due mostly to high speeds and drivers misbehaviour. The situation has not been
effectively controlled by the Transit Department of the Royal Oman Police and
the accident rates have increased slightly over the last years. The situation is not
only that drivers do not respect the speed limits or misbehave, but also that
automobiles are available for almost everyone. There is a car based culture
influenced by foreign tendencies and low sense of community awareness for
safety. Therefore, high accident rates can be attributed to the car based mode of
transportation in Al Buraimi, which threatens the public health and creates
hostility in the city. Furthermore, the situation can worsen in the future when
more areas are urbanized and more cars are operating in the city.
The statistics of numbers of accidents, injuries, and deaths per year in Al Buraimi
are illustrated in the graph below.
400
381
350
300
360
318
325
315
310
250
Accidents
200
Injuries
Deaths
150
100
50
42
32
27
0
2011
2012
2013
Figure 36 - Accidents, Injuries, and Deaths per year in Al Buraimi
Source: Royal Oman Police, 2014
85
On the other hand, according to the community questionnaires, it is estimated
that 56% of the residents in Al Buraimi have suffered a car accident whereas
44% have not had any car accident. These numbers are directly related to the
perception of safety on the streets, regarding to the risk of having an accident.
According to the surveys, 58% of the citizens think that it is not safe and 42%
believe that it is safe.
60
60
50
40
44
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
Citizens w ho have not
had a car accident
58
50
56
Citizens w ho have had a
car accident
42
0
Safe
Unsafe
Figure 37 - Percentage of accidents and safety perception of residents in Al Buraimi
6.3.3. Speed Control
In order to control the speed of vehicles using the roads, the Office of Technical
Affairs in Al Buraimi and the Royal Oman Police have implemented actions to
regulate and enforce the limits and reduce the number of accidents. In the local
roads, speed bumps have been installed with the purpose of slowing down the
vehicles. They are located regularly in the internal road network. Additionally, the
police have installed cameras on the highway and secondary roads to monitor
the traffic. Nevertheless, these actions have been ineffective in achieving a
significant reduction in the accident rates. In addition, the speed bumps are not a
good solution in terms of aesthetic. On the other hand, the Royal Oman Police
have started doing campaigns to raise community awareness and reduce driving
86
misbehaviour throughout the country. The problem of accidents is not only a local
issue in Al Buraimi and the numbers indicate that the Sultanate of Oman is
suffering of an increasing road accident rate per year.
Figure 38 – Photos of speed bumps in the roads of Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
6.3.4. Parking lots
Car dependency in Al Buraimi entails the demand for significant urban areas for
parking lots. The transportation mode has favoured the cars instead of the
pedestrians, thus, it is more common to find parking places than sidewalks or
green areas. It is possible to find either formal or informal parking lots; the city
has built considerable areas for car facilities. However, it seems that the demand
for parking is higher than the supply of available places to park.
It is common to find empty plots of land which have not being built on within the
city, these places are usually used as parking lots when all the other facilities are
occupied. Therefore, there is a lack of regulation to avoid the occupation of these
plots of land by cars. The transportation mode is not compatible with the
balanced use of land. Areas which could be used as public spaces with
possibilities for community interaction, enjoyment, and cohesion are being
wasted to accommodate the high number of vehicles. Furthermore, parking in Al
Buraimi is free, lacking of regulation and control which affects traffic congestion.
Moreover, parking lots have environmental and aesthetic impacts which need
87
innovative solutions through a better parking management. The problem of
parking lots in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the photos below.
Figure 39 – Photos of parking lots in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
On the other hand, as part of the direct observation in the field trip, a specific
area of four blocks in Al Buraimi was selected, in order to measure the area and
percentage of land used for parking lots. The analysis indicated that 15% of the
areas was used for parking lots and 25% were empty plots, which were also
occupied by cars. It also showed that densities are very low and land is not being
used efficiently. Only 60% of the selected area is built up, additionally, there are
not sidewalks because the areas are used by cars.
The analysis of the sample urban area is illustrated in the map below with the
details of square meters and percentages.
88
Area
m2
Percentage
76.829
100%
Blocks
73.362
95%
Access Routes
3.467
5%
Built Areas
44.017
60%
Parking Lots
11.004
15%
18.341
25%
Selected Area
Empty Plots
(used as parking lots)
Figure 40 - Sample area in Al Buraimi for parking lots analysis,
89
6.3.5. Sidewalks
Many of the urban areas of Al Buraimi have been developed without considering
pedestrians facilities. Others have either poor quality of sidewalks, reduced
space for walking, or only segments of pavement. It is evident that Al Buraimi
does not support physical activity; moreover, the city has not built facilities for the
mobility of elderly people, children, and people with special needs. Furthermore,
the building codes are not enforced to maintain the distance between buildings
and roads. There is lack of spatial justice in the distribution of urban spaces in
the city because there is no equity for accessibility. The existing facilities are not
fair with people with disabilities and disadvantage certain age groups.
Additionally, prioritizing cars create hostility against pedestrians and discourage
the option for non-motorized transportation.
As a result, the transportation mode in Al Buraimi does not provide accessibility
in equal terms, ignoring the importance of providing a good environment for the
community. The description of the sidewalks situation is illustrated in the photos
below.
Figure 41 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
In the picture on the left, two situations can be seen: the poor quality/bad
condition of the sidewalk and reduced space for pedestrians. The majority of
space is occupied by parking lots, which disadvantage walking. In the picture on
90
the right there is not space for pedestrians and there is an insufficient distance
between the buildings and the road. There is no possibility to walk in an exclusive
space created only for pedestrians.
Figure 42 - Sidewalks in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
In these examples, we can see in the left photo that there is no sidewalk and the
space, which should be for pedestrians, is occupied by cars. In the picture on the
right, the sidewalk is narrow and with no continuity. Thus, people do not walk
because Al Buraimi does not provide the appropriate facilities.
According to the field surveys, the average walking time per week is very low.
The outcomes of the questionnaires show that approximately 15% of the
residents never walk, whereas 65% of them walk below than 2 hours per week.
Moreover, 15% walk between 2 and 4 hours per week, while only 5% walk more
than 4 hours per week. These numbers show the lack of physical activity in Al
Buraimi and the strong car dependency of the society for transportation. In
addition, specifying the percentage of walking time between Omani and foreign
residents in Al Buraimi, it is evident that the Omani nationals walk less than the
foreigners because they typically own a car.
The indicator shows that Omani people walk fewer than 2 hours per week and
foreigners walk more. The information described is depicted in the graphs below.
91
70
65
60
Percentage
50
40
30
20
15
15
10
5
0
Never
Below than 2 hours
Between 2 and 4
hours
More than 4 hours
Figure 43 - Walking time per week of residents in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
70
60
30
Percentage
50
40
Foreigners
Omani
30
20
10
35
15
15
5
0
Never
Below than 2 hours
Between 2 and 4 hours
More than 4 hours
Figure 44 - Walking time per week by nationality, Source: Author, 2014
On the other hand, the community surveys showed that only 2% of the residents
in Al Buraimi bike and the 98% never do it. There are no facilities in the city for
biking and they have not even been considered in the development of public
spaces.
The inadequate facilities for pedestrians are directly related to the scarce public
urban spaces in Al Buraimi. There are only few green areas and one park in the
city, there is a need of more quality open spaces which provide a friendlier
environment for the citizens. According to the community questionnaires, 85% of
92
the interviewed people think that public spaces in Al Buraimi have low quality
whereas only 15% perceive that public spaces have good standards.
Additionally, the surveys had the aim of identifying what areas people considered
as public spaces. Thus, 46% pointed out parks, 34% green areas, 11%
sidewalks, and 9% roads respectively.
50
45
46
40
Percentage
35
34
30
25
20
15
10
11
9
5
0
Roads
Parks
Green Areas
Sidewalks
Figure 45 - What people consider as public spaces, Source: Author, 2014
6.3.6. Development of new roads
New internal roads have been developed over the last years in disperse/patchy
developed areas of Al Buraimi. The city has spent significant amounts of financial
recourses in roads located in the outskirts. The new infrastructure entails high
economic costs and it does not compensate for the low benefits that it represents
for Al Buraimi. The decision makers are not considering a balanced development
and are sacrificing significant areas of land. This is not sustainable in terms of
environment and economy because it destroys the local ecosystem, investing
high amounts of money without meeting the needs of the city. Therefore, the
budget for development could be invested in a more reasonable manner. The
problem of the unsustainable development and new roads is illustrated in the
photos below.
93
Figure 46 - Aerial photography of a newly built road in Al Buraimi, Source, Wikimapia, 2014
As shown in the picture, this is an area which has been slightly built up and has a
very low density. There are widely dispersed and isolated housing units, as a
result of the inadequate land distribution policy. In this example, it can be seen
that some of the residential plots of land have not been developed by the owners,
the development is not compact and there is not a balanced growth in the new
urbanized areas. Additionally, the new road built is benefiting only a few
residents and it is considerably affecting the local ecosystem.
Figure 47 – Photos of new roads in newly developed areas in Al Buraimi, Source, Author, 2014
In these pictures, two new developed areas can be seen with new roads for the
accessibility of only few housing units, the urbanization of these lands does not
follow a coherent process. The current policy of the Ministry of Housing allocating
plots of land, which are not built homogenously, is negatively affecting the smart
growth pattern of Al Buraimi.
94
6.3.7. Transport services in Al Buraimi
There are limited choices of modes of transportation for local mobility in Al
Buraimi. The few available services provided are private transport such as taxis,
school buses, and buses for workers. The operation of taxis is controlled and
regulated by the Royal Oman Police. There are no taxi companies in charge of
the service and there is not informal transport. Moreover, the bus service for
public schools is managed by the local government. In contrast, the bus service
for private schools, Buraimi University, and workers is managed directly by the
education institutions or by the companies. The buses do not operate with
defined stops or routes, they are allowed to travel and stop everywhere.
Figure 48 - Taxi of Al Buraimi
Figure 49 - School Bus of Al Buraimi
Furthermore, the National Oman Transportation Company provides public bus
services to travel from Al Buraimi to Sohar-Muscat and Ibri-Nizwa. The NOTC is
the only transportation company in the Sultanate and operates throughout the
country. However, the service does not match the demand of regional linkages in
Al Buraimi. Finally, there is an ongoing plan in the Ministry of Transportation and
Communications of Oman in order to build a railway to link Al Buraimi with Sohar
and Muscat. The project is still not official, but is being seriously considered as
one of the priorities for the regional transport in the north of Oman. In the long
term, the intention is to develop the railway system to connect Oman with the
95
Emirates (MOTC, 2014). The summary of the operation of the National Oman
Transport Company is described in the table below
Figure 50 - NOTC bus in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
Characteristics
Al Buraimi – Sohar - Muscat
Muscat – Sohar - Al Buraimi
Al Buraimi – Nizwa
Nizwa – Al Buraimi
7:00am
Timetables
1:00pm
5:00pm
5:00pm
Price
Service Quality
4 Omani Rials
4 Omani Rials
-No punctual
-Uncomfortable
-Low Frequencies
- Poor quality of buses (outdated)
Table 9 – Operation of NOTC buses in Al Buraimi, Source: Author, 2014
96
7. ASSESMENT OF TRANSPORTATION IN AL BURAIMI
7.1 Transportation performance in regards to sustainability
The aim of this section is to analyze the transportation performance of Al Buraimi
in comparison with the principles of sustainable transportation, according to the
theoretical framework previously reviewed. The description and evaluation of the
research findings have provided a holistic overview of the subject of study.
Therefore, the exercise to assess the transportation sector in Al Buraimi needs to
be considered an integrative approach, which includes the social, environmental,
and
economic
dimensions.
This
analysis
will
provide
basis
for
the
recommendations, as it will show the specific factors of transportation that need
improvement in order to be more sustainable.
Consequently, the key findings were analyzed in relation to the concepts, criteria,
definitions, and ideas on sustainable transportation, discussed in the theoretical
framework through the literature review.
7.1.1. Social Sustainability
In order to assess the transportation performance in terms of social sustainability,
it is necessary to identify if it fulfils the principles of equity, fairness, security,
health, community development, and inclusiveness.
As it was described in the previous chapter, the transportation mode of Al
Buraimi has favoured cars as a main mean of transport. Thus, cars dominate the
spaces, which in theory should be for pedestrians. The transportation facilities for
cars have invaded the space for people, disadvantaging the most vulnerable
groups of the society such as children, elderly, people with disabilities, and
immigrants. As a result, by excluding these groups transportation does not meet
the principle of equal accessibility. Furthermore, there is not diversity in the
transport system in Al Buraimi. The domination of cars in addition to the lack of
97
public and non-motorized transportation, have led to car dependency. The study
has demonstrated that private car use dominates over other means. Thereby,
there are mostly automobiles as the choice of mode of transportation. The
principles of fairness and equality are not complied with the transport system of
the city. This is another indicator of inadequate performance in regard to social
sustainability.
On the other hand, the transportation mode in Al Buraimi represents a constant
risk of accident for the residents. The high accident rates (325 accidents, 318
injuries, and 42 deaths) indicate that there is a lack of physical safety in Al
Buraimi. Additionally, it does not support physical activity because there are
limited facilities for non motorized transportation and there is hostility against
pedestrians. Therefore, transportation performance in Al Buraimi does not match
the principles of security and health.
Furthermore, the quality of the street environment is very low and the city does
not provide appropriate conditions for community inclusiveness and cohesion.
There is no infrastructure to enjoy the city in terms of friendly urban spaces free
of hostility, as a result, the residents of Al Buraimi feel intimidated to walk and
bike. Thereby, transportation does not meet the needs for community
development.
7.1.2. Environmental Sustainability
Generally, ecological sustainability is considered the main dimension for
balanced development. Nevertheless, it must be considered in equal terms with
relation to the other dimensions, which are components of the holistic approach
of sustainability. The assessment of the transportation performance in regard to
environmental sustainability is based on the comparison with the principles of
climate stability, air pollution, biodiversity, and natural resources protection. It is
evident that the emissions of carbon dioxide in Oman have increased over the
last 20 years. This situation considerably affects the climate stability because it
98
worsens global warming and climate change. As a result, the transportation
performance in Al Buraimi, and the whole country, does not fulfil the principle of
climate stability. The high amounts of auto emissions in the atmosphere affect
the environment because it increases the levels of pollution and exposure to
harmful pollutants. Since there are no standards to limit emissions from
automobiles there is no prevention for air contamination, which is one of the
principles for environmental sustainability. The situation of emissions in Al
Buraimi does not represent an urgent problem so far. However, actions should
be taken in order to prevent future negative and irreversible impacts.
Furthermore, the transportation mode in Al Buraimi has used considerable areas
of land for its infrastructure and facilities. The indicator of roads executed lengths
demonstrates that Al Buraimi built 98 kilometres of new road in only two years.
Moreover, Al Buraimi uses extensive urban areas for parking lots and fuel
consumption is constantly going up (1.826.000 BBL in 2013). Additionally, the
city does not have a compact development with high densities and mixed land
use. This process of development is not efficient in terms of biodiversity
protection because the policies do not maximize the efficient use of resources
such as land and energy. Consequently, there is not preservation of high quality
habitat. This assessment indicates that transportation performance in Al Buraimi
is not sustainable in terms of environmental sustainability.
7.1.3. Economic Sustainability
This dimension is assessed according to the economic principles of affordability,
operation costs, and transportation to support economic development and
productivity. Firstly, by measuring the transportation performance in regard to
affordability, it is evident that prices of cars and oil are affordable for the
residents. The residents of Al Buraimi need to spend less than 20% of their
salary for transportation, which is the indicator that measures the affordability. It
is important to point out that affordability in transportation has positive and
99
negative aspects. It is positive because residents can afford motorized access to
basic services and activities. In contrast, it is negative because it encourages
more resource consumption and increases in the number of cars, which in the
end affects social and environmental sustainability. On the other hand, the
operation costs indicate that the maintenance of highways in Al Buraimi is
100.000 O.R/year. In addition, the new roads and facilities for transportation
entail significant expenses for development. It was reported that Oman invested
424.3 Millions of O.R in 2013, which is 51 O.R more than the previous year. On
the top of that, costs of accidents and externalities represent high expenses for
the city. Therefore, transportation performance does not fulfil the principle of
efficient operation.
Furthermore, the lack of more efficient facilities for transportation of goods slows
down the economic productivity in the city. According to the Chamber of
Commerce and Industry branch in Al Buraimi (2014), the existing interregional
transportation structure is not suitable for the efficacy of trading and economic
competitiveness. The strategic location of Al Buraimi gives high potential for
economic
development;
nevertheless,
it
is
necessary
to
improve
the
transportation of goods to and from the port of Sohar. The inefficiency in the
regional linkages in terms of trading has not encouraged the growth of local
businesses. Consequently, transportation performance does not meet the criteria
in order to support the local economic development and productivity. In
conclusion, the assessment of the transportation performance in Al Buraimi
indicates that it is not sustainable in comparison with the theoretical principles of
sustainable transportation. Therefore, the current transportation planning
requires review and reformulation in order to switch into a more sustainable
mode.
The transportation performance in regard to sustainability is summarized in the
table below. The assessment shows in green the principles of sustainable
transportation which are fulfilled and in red the principles that do not match the
theoretical criteria.
100
Principles of
Sustainable
Transportation
Components
S
N.S
Reason
I. Social
Transport System Diversity
Limited choice of modes of
transportation.
No public transportation system.
No non-motorized transportation
Accessibility by most vulnerable
groups of the society
Children, elderly and people with
disabilities are excluded. Lack of
dedicated pedestrian paths.
Domination of automobiles and no
spatial justice.
Minimize risk of accidents
High rates of accidents
Support physical fitness
limited facilities for non motorized
transportation
Low quality of public spaces
Walkability and Bikability
Limitations for walking
No facilities for biking
Quality of street environments
Low quality of street environments.
No green areas
Physical segregation due to cars
and high speeds.
Equity / Fairness
Security and health
Community
Development
(Support community
cohesion and
inclusiveness)
II. Environment
Climate Stability
Reduce global warming
emissions
Mitigate climate change impacts
Reduce air pollution
Prevent Air Pollution
Resources and
biodiversity
protection
Reduce exposure to harmful
pollutants
Increasing emissions of greenhouse
gases
Increasing automobile exhaust
emissions in the Sultanate of Oman.
Reduce level of noises
Increasing number of cars
Minimize transport facility land
use
Significant areas used for
transportation facilities
Encourage more compact
development
Dispersed and low density
development
Preserve high quality habitat
Destruction of ecosystems for
transportation infrastructure
III. Economic
Economic
Productivity
Accessibility / Transport of
goods
Economic
Development
Economic and business
development
Affordability
Efficient transport
operation
Insufficient facilities for trading and
transportation of goods
Energy costs
Affordable prices of oil and petrol
All Residents can afford access
to basic (essential) services and
activities
Affordable prices of cars and
regional public transportation
Maintenance costs
High costs of maintenance
Externalities costs (accidents,
pollution)
High costs for accidents
Building of new infrastructure
High costs of new roads and
facilities for cars
Table 10– Transportation performance in regard to sustainability, Source: Author, 2014 (based
on Developing Indicators for Sustainable and Liveable Transportation Planning. Littman, 2008)
101
7.2. SWOT Analysis
The SWOT analysis is a planning method used to assess an environment
considering the internal and external issues (Humphrey, 2005). The internal
issues are the strengths and weaknesses whereas the external issues are the
opportunities and threats. Therefore, in order to implement this method in the
analysis of transportation in Al Buraimi, these issues will be evaluated according
to the findings of this study. Once the analysis is completed, it determines how
transportation planning may improve in order to accomplish the objective of
sustainable transportation.
Strengths
According to the information found through the interviews and meetings with the
ministries in Al Buraimi, there is an increasing awareness about environmental
sustainability among the government institutions. Additionally, the Governorate of
Al Buraimi and ministries are seriously considering the improvement of citizens’
quality of life. The local government is open to new ideas and paradigms for
urban development, protecting the local identity, and cultural value. Another
strength is the high quality national road system of the Sultanate.
Weaknesses
The centralized governance structure of Oman, the inadequate coordination and
integration, and the lack of public participation are weaknesses of the
transportation planning. There is no autonomy in the local government to make
decisions on plans or strategies. Moreover, there is neither integration nor
coordination among ministries which leads to fragmentation in the planning and
implementation process. There is not public participation and the transportation
planning performance indicates that it is disconnected with the principles of good
governance and sustainability. Additionally, road based modes of transportation
and low prices of cars and fuel have lead to automobile dependence, minimizing
the chances of non motorized transportation. Furthermore, there is no diversity of
102
modes of transportation and the public transport system in Al Buraimi has not
been considered. Finally, the transportation facilities have absorbed significant
areas of land, in addition, densities are low and there is a lack of mixed land use.
Opportunities
The strategic geographical position of Al Buraimi provides potential for the
economic and urban development of the city. The closed relationship with Al Ain
and the role that the city plays in the regional and international context provides
unique opportunities. Additionally, the Sultanate of Oman has enough financial
resources from the oil production activities, which could be invested in innovative
sustainable transportation. The implementation of updated available technologies
in addition to the implementation of alternative energies, are opportunities which
may represent significant benefits for the city in terms of sustainability.
Moreover, Al Buraimi is still in process of development. It means that there is still
time for smart growth by reformulating the current planning processes. The city
has just started suffering the typical difficulties of early development and this
gives the opportunity to switch to a more sustainable mode of transportation. Al
Buraimi has potential for economic competitiveness through activities such as
tourism and trading. The cultural value and the strategic location place the city in
a privileged position for development. Lastly, there is an important opportunity to
recover the local identity and sense of pride through sustainability and smart
urban growth.
Threats
The social, environmental, and economic impacts described are threats for the
sustainability in Al Buraimi. Inequality and unfair accessibility for vulnerable
groups are threats for community development and cohesion. In addition, the
public health and security is permanently threatened by the automobile based
mode of transportation. Furthermore, this mode entails ecological threats such as
103
pollution, contamination, high levels of noise, climate instability, and destruction
of the local ecosystems. On the other hand, the threats also include economic
impacts attributed to high costs of operation, externalities, and infrastructure.
Finally, urban sprawl and continuous fast growing may affect the compact and
balanced development.
The SWOT analysis is summarized in the table below
STRENGTHS
• Government awareness regarding environmental
sustainability
• Willingness to improve the life of the citizens
• Local government open to new ideas for urban
development
• Cultural values and sense of identity
• High quality national road system
OPPORTUNITIES
•
•
•
•
•
•
Strategic location of Al Buraimi
Financial resources
Alternative energies for transportation
Implementation of updated technologies
Still in early phase of development process
Potential for economic competitiveness through new
activities such as tourism and trading
• Recovering local identity and pride trough
sustainability
WEAKNESSES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Centralized government hierarchy
Bureaucracy in the planning process
Bad decisions for transportation facilities
Transportation policies and regulations designed for
car use
Lack of community awareness and participation
Bad governance
Lack of coordination among the different government
agencies
Car dependency
Poor facilities for pedestrians
No facilities for biking
Lack of quality public spaces and green areas
No public transportation system
No mixed land uses
Low density land use
Significant urban areas for parking lots
Inefficient regional linkages by public transportation
No railway
THREATS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pollution/Contamination
Cheap prices of cars and oil
High levels of noise
High levels of accidents
High temperatures
Destruction of the local habitat
High costs of infrastructure for cars
Lost of public health
Urban sprawl
Social Segregation / Unfairness
Table 11 – SWOT Analysis, Source: Author, 2014
104
8. RECOMENDATIONS
The research process carried out during this study has provided a broad
panorama of transportation in Al Buraimi, identifying the key issues and
challenges. As a result, the analysis of findings and the review of the theoretical
framework set the bases for the proposals to switch to a more sustainable
transportation mode. Consequently, with the aim of classifying the proposals, this
section is divided into governance / institutional and technical recommendations.
8.1. Governance / Institutional Recommendations
In this part of the section the aim is to provide proposals from the governance
perspective. It includes the reformulation of the current transportation planning
procedure. In addition, the recommendations are given with the purpose of
creating more public inclusiveness and integration into the process.
8.1.1. Integration and coordination in the planning procedure
In order for them to contribute to a more effective planning procedure, it is
essential to integrate and coordinate activities among the ministries and
government
institutions.
Thus,
the
Ministry
of
Transportation
and
Communications, the Ministry of Housing, and the Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources should function using a holistic approach. By
coordinating activities, the urban development would be implemented in a more
balanced and sustainable manner. Consequently, it is needed to establish
efficient mechanisms and instruments for the integration of development
activities. This means that plans and decisions on housing, transportation,
infrastructure, public services, and environment should be taken as an integrative
process. Moreover, it includes establishing a common data base for all ministries
to keep all the needed information readily available. The planning procedure
suggests the coordination among ministries; nevertheless, in practice it does not
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function holistically and it is also necessary to create management tools for a
more efficient implementation stage.
Therefore, the Ministry of Housing in Al Buraimi, which is the responsible for land
use administration, should integrate the land use plan with the responsible for
local transportation network in Al Buraimi in order to ensure more compact
development. Additionally, it is not appropriate that the Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources is the responsible for the local road network
in Al Buraimi. There is a disconnection of the Ministry of Transportation and
Communications at the local level and this is one of the reasons for the failure in
the implementation of transportation regulations. As a result, the Ministry of
Transportation and Communications branch in Al Buraimi should take the
responsibility of the transport network in the urban area.
8.1.2. Change of land distribution system
The national land distribution policy should be reformulated with the aim of using
the land more efficiently and create higher proximity. The current system of
allocating lands randomly has led to patchy developments, wasted land, and
urban fragmentation. The Omani nationals get the land by draw; however, in
many cases those lands are not built on. As a result, the process of distribution
should also enforce the construction on the plot of land and the simultaneous
development of urban facilities and services for those plots. This process should
lead to compact and balanced urbanization, by ensuring useful occupation of
land. It is important to consider mechanisms that compel people who receive
plots by draw to build on them. It would help guarantee a sustainable and
homogeneous urban development process. Therefore, by refocusing the land
allocation on people who are really determined and financially able to build, the
urban areas would have higher densities, better access to services, and quality
of public spaces. It would also increase the accessibility for the local community
as a result of creating proximity and reducing travel times.
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8.1.3. Integration of land use and transportation planning
The integration of land use and transportation planning is a key recommendation
in order to reduce the need of new roads and build infrastructure more efficiently.
Additionally, it would reduce the current sprawl like development of Al Buraimi.
Therefore, the Ministry of Housing should tie land use administration policies with
transportation planning, coordinating the planning process by establishing
strategies addressed to achieving this holistic approach. In addition to the
integration of planning activities, three strategies are proposed:
- Nodal Development: Al Buraimi should concentrate high densities and mixed
land uses in strategic points of the city, providing facilities for biking and walking
as well. The urban areas located between nodes can be used for low densities
and low traffic land uses. This is a key element to reduce distances and improve
accessibility. It would play a main role in the reduction of automobile dependence
and would facilitate non motorized transportation.
- Walkable Communities: Al Buraimi should provide the facilities for nonmotorized transportation which encourage people to adopt a healthier life style. It
is important to reduce car dependence and prioritize pedestrians and bikers.
- Strong leadership: In order to develop and implement new planning tools in Al
Buraimi, it is important to have strong leadership at the institutional and individual
level. Thus, the new ideas can obtain more credibility to be successfully
implemented.
8.1.4. Review of laws and regulations
The overall national policy on transportation should be reviewed and
reformulated in order to convert to a more transit oriented mode. Afterwards, the
Oman Highway Design Manual Standards, the building codes, and the Omani
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Environmental Regulations should be modified in order to adjust to the needs of
sustainable development. Thus, the following proposals are made:
- Review of the Oman Highway Design Manual Standards: As mentioned, the
national policy on road based transportation should be reconsidered. Therefore,
the standards should be developed in more depth for the local transportation
network, defining codes that minimize car dependency by providing facilities for
walking and biking. The regulation should also establish clear responsibilities for
the implementation of the local network and more efficient mechanisms for
monitoring and enforcement.
- Review of the building codes: As a complement of the review of the Oman
Highway Design Manual Standards, the building codes should support the
allocation of the urban spaces for pedestrians. Therefore, the codes should
consider the minimum distance between buildings and local roads and the
obligation to build sidewalks. The building codes should also regulate the number
of parking lots and reduce the occupation of public spaces by cars. In addition,
the regulation should increase the densities in order to have more compact
development with higher proximity and better accessibility.
- Introduction of parking fee: This proposal might work with the aim of regulating
the use of public spaces for parking lots. It would also contribute to reduce car
use due to the fact that it is currently free to park anywhere in the city and there
is no regulation to control the situation. The first attempt to introduce parking fee
could be done in the commercial areas which demand significant parking
facilities, especially those located along the main roads of Al Buraimi. This
initiative has been implemented in Muscat, where there was limitation of parking
lots in the city centre. Thereby, priced parking was successfully established to
reduce the demand of parking lots, discouraging car use, and reducing traffic.
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- Monitoring by the Royal Oman Police: In order to protect the public spaces and
enforce the laws, the police should protect the sidewalks and public spaces from
cars’ invasion. It means that once the parking areas have been clearly
determined and regulated, the Royal Oman Police should monitor that vehicles
are not parked in wrong areas. Thus, this authority would control the use of
parking places.
- Regulations to reduce car use: The affordability of cars generates a challenging
perspective in minimizing automobile dependency. Therefore, in order to reduce
car use, urban hostility, and accidents rates, other actions beyond speed controls
and cameras might be considered. The Royal Oman Police is currently doing
awareness campaigns to encourage consciousness about driving behaviour.
Nevertheless, this action should be complemented by adopting new measures.
For instance, the age groups which can have access to owning a car can be
modified. The statistics show that the younger age group is responsible for the
majority of accidents. Currently, in Al Buraimi is possible to drive at the age of 21.
Thus, the proposal is, that no one under the age of 25 can either own or drive a
car. Furthermore, harder driving tests and procedures to receive a driving license
should be established in Al Buraimi. Only people who demonstrate responsibility,
ability, and good driving behaviour in the tests should be allowed to have a
driving license. Consequently, by implementing these two actions, car usage and
accidents rates may be reduced.
- Review of the Omani Environmental Regulations: This law should encompass
the impacts of roads and transportation infrastructure on the environment. It is
currently focused on emissions and the roads building process; nevertheless the
regulation is not relevant in terms of protecting the ecosystems. Moreover, the
law should limit the range of the extensions of lands that are meant to be
developed, in order to integrate all the environmental issues. Additionally, with
the aim of supporting environmental preservation, it is highly recommended to
establish a branch of the Environment Society of Oman in the city.
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8.1.5. Monitoring and Enforcement
It is essential to establish more efficient and effective instruments and
mechanisms to implement at the local level in order to comply with the national
laws and regulations. Therefore, strict enforcement, controls, and inspections are
needed in order to follow the legal framework. By increasing monitoring and
inspections, compliance will also increase. Thus, the implementation process will
follow the guidelines, standards and codes stated in the transportation legislation.
The proposal is that for all new transportation projects in Al Buraimi, inspections
by the Central Government and the Governorate should be made during the
different stages of the project execution.
Consequently, the transportation implementation agencies are forced to know the
legal framework and operate according to it. In the case of inspectors finding an
abnormality or non conformity, the implementation agency should be made
responsible to take the corrective actions. Furthermore, the proposal includes
two stages in the permits/licenses approval process: the first stage is to get
acceptance of the project proposal; once the project has been approved the
agency can start execution. The second stage is to issue a certificate at the end
of the building process after the authorities have inspected and verified that the
project has fulfilled all the technical standards and codes.
8.1.6. Decentralization
More autonomy, in the Governorate of Al Buraimi to decide on transportation
plans and projects in their city-region, is needed. The local government has more
knowledge regarding the actual needs, priorities, problems, and challenges of its
city-region than the Central Government of Muscat. The Governorate and the
Municipality of Al Buraimi should have certain abilities to decide about local
affairs, which would be more effective in terms of responding to the local needs
in the proper time. The process of decentralization may take a long time due to
the strong centralized structure of the Sultanate. Nevertheless, efforts have to be
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made and there should be more flexibility for the governorates and municipalities
in decision making. In the process of decentralization, it is essential to have
political acceptance from the Central Government to transfer certain powers to
the different levels. Additionally, the transportation legal framework should define
the responsibilities among the different actors involved. The first step of
decentralization was made in 2011 through the creation of the municipalities in
the Sultanate of Oman. Therefore, the next step is that the National level
considers distributing additional administrative, political, and fiscal autonomy to
the regional and local levels with a long term projection. The process must be
gradual in order to not disrupt the current governmental structure. For instance,
the Governorate of Al Buraimi should have the autonomy to decide on regional
new roads and linkages according to the priorities in terms of transportation of
goods, tourism and residents mobility. Moreover, the Municipality of Al Buraimi
should have the autonomy to make decisions on the local level regarding plans
and strategies in the local context. They should also have the power to decide on
new transportation modes in the regional and local context beyond the national
policy based on cars. The proposal is to start transferring larger scale decisions
to the Governorate and Municipality as an evolution of the process. The
Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play an essential role in strengthening the
power in the regional and local level in transportation planning and decisions.
Consequently, when the process takes place, the levels of public engagement
and involvement will increase as well. Decentralization is a key tool to promote
urban sustainable development by focusing more closely in the local community.
8.1.7. Public Involvement
In order to initiate a more integrative and holistic planning approach in Al Buraimi,
it is important to increase the level of public engagement in planning and
sustainability. Therefore, residents in Al Buraimi should get progressively more
involved in urban planning procedures. The residents are a key player in
identifying the real needs and priorities of the community and they should have
the right to express opinions, ideas, and criticisms on the city’s transportation.
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Thus, the decisions would be more inclusive, and effective, in terms of benefiting
the public. However, the local community of Al Buraimi is currently not involved in
the planning process and degrees of engagement should increase by
implementing strategies which make residents feel relevant in the procedure.
This is a long process which could be started by involving the schools and
university students with activities such as student proposals and competitions
regarding transportation. In the beginning, the process might start in the
academy by linking science with planning. Simultaneously, the residents could be
consulted regarding mobility needs and demands. The city is a complex system
that changes constantly and priorities of transport are part of those changes.
Thereby, by uncovering people’s priorities, decisions are more focused on
solving social needs rather than ignoring them. Afterwards, once the students
and academy have got involved in addition to community consultation, the next
step is to involve the society more actively in participatory processes. In the
efforts to involve all groups of society, the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should
play a key role in attracting the residents to participate. As a result, new ideas,
concepts, and proposals can arise from the citizens according to their needs.
Thus, decisions might be more orientated towards improving citizen’s quality of
life. Furthermore, the process should integrate the expatriate residents, which
count for around 50% of the total population in Al Buraimi. The immigrants are
part of the city and need to be included and participate in planning as well. They
also have needs for urban and regional mobility which represents transportation
demand. According to the community surveys, the foreigners are the most
disadvantage group in the city.
Consequently, the process should not
marginalize any group and should be fair and equal by providing the same
conditions for everyone. Therefore, if the participatory process is structured in the
aforementioned steps, it will extend the engagement to all the community at the
end and the planning procedure can switch to a more integrative approach.
Finally, public engagement would be a base for a more sustainable
transportation planning.
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8.1.8. Public/Political Acceptability and Adaptability
In order to convert to a more sustainable mode of transportation it is also
necessary to establish a process which includes: (1) Public and political
acceptability for a new transportation paradigm, and (2) Adaptability for the
implementation of a non car dependant mode. Thereby, these two key stages of
the implementation process are described below:
- Public and political acceptability: The aim of reducing car dependency depends
on the public support. Therefore, the community should be aware of sustainability
and the negative impacts of the current car based mode of Al Buraimi. Firstly, the
concepts of sustainability should be clearly conveyed to the residents through
campaigns and programs. Secondly, creating awareness, consciousness, and
education through campaigns can encourage people to adopt more sustainable
practices. Consequently, such programs may change the current mentality of car
dependency which leads to sedentary life style, high accidents, lack of urban
enjoyment, and poor air quality. The campaigns can be carried out in cooperation
with the media, schools, the Buraimi University College, the Royal Police of
Oman, the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs, and the Environment
Society of Oman. Moreover, such campaigns should be addressed to lead to
new attitudes towards automobile use and the recovery of public spaces to
people. The active involvement of the community can make a difference for the
implementation of new alternatives to the private car (Banister et al., 2007). As a
result, the final outcome of the campaigns, hopefully, will be the general support
and acceptance for new modes of transportation, which include public and nonmotorized. Meanwhile, public support for change will lead to political acceptability
because this is the main way to influence political thinking (Banister et al., 2007).
Thus, policies and the legal framework should be reformulated to switch to a
more sustainable transportation system. Additionally, it would lead to considering
the implementation of alternative fuels and updated technology for transportation
through the establishment of environmental standards.
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- Adaptability: Once public and political acceptability has been achieved, the
implementation of a more sustainable transportation mode in Al Buraimi needs a
complementary process of adaptability. This encompasses the residents and the
government of Al Buraimi. On the one hand, the citizens need time and guidance
to adapt to public transportation, walking or biking. It is challenging to persuade
people to stop using private cars when they offer comfortable transportation at
affordable prices. In addition, cars are a symbol of status and wealth in the
society (Al Gharibi, 2013). Nevertheless, this process of change of behaviour is
based on campaigns and educational programs for raising consciousness. Thus,
people need to learn how to use the public transportation system, the facilities for
non-motorized transportation, and how to respect the reallocation of sidewalks
and public spaces to pedestrians. It is important to emphasize the benefits that
this shift represents for individuals and the community in terms of health,
accessibility, environment, etc. On the other hand, the government of Al Buraimi
needs adaptation as well because it will be necessary to change institutions,
administration, and governance. This is perhaps the most challenging aspect in
the adaptation of sustainable transportation as it does not only depend on the
local government of Al Buraimi, but also on the Central Government in Muscat,
due to the strong centralized structure of the Sultanate of Oman. Nevertheless,
restructuring the institutions and reviewing governance is needed as part of the
process.
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The summary of the governance/institutional recommendations can be visualized in the box below.
PROPOSED GOVERNANCE/INSTITUTIONAL ACTIONS
MINISTRY OF TRASNPORTATION AND
COMMUNICATIONS RESPONSIBLE
FOR THE LOCAL NETWORK
CHANGE OF THE LAND
DISTRIBUTION POLICY
INTEGRATION AND COORDINATION
IN THE PLANNING PROCEDURE
ACTION OUTCOMES
INTEGRATION OF LAND USE
AND TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
THROUGH 3 STRATEGIES:
-NODAL DEVELOPMENT
- WALKING COMMUNITIES
-STRONG LEADERSHIP
MIXED LAND USES, HIGH
DENSITIES, COMPACT
DEVELOPMENT
- BALANCED AND SUSTAINABLE
URBAN DEVELOPMENT.
- EFFICIENCY IN TRANSPORTATION
PLANNING
- NO URBAN SPRAWL
- ACCESIBILITY AND PROXIMITY
REGULATIONS TO REDUCE CAR USE
AND PARKING LOTS
PROHIBITION OF CAR PARKINGS IN
NON AUTHORIZED AREAS
REVIEW OF THE LEGAL
FRAMEWORK
PROTECTION OF PUBLIC SPACES
FOR PEDESTRIANS
MECHANISMS/TOOLS FOR
MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT
- REFORMULATION OF THE LEGAL
FRAMEWORK INTO A MORE
SUSTAINABLE ORIENTED
TRASNPROTATION
- FULFILMENT OF THE LAWS AND
REGULATIONS
- REDUCTION OF ACCIDENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
PROVIDE MORE AUTHONOMY TO
THE GOVERNORATE OF
AL BURAIMI
LINK BETWEEN ACADEMIA AND
URBAN PLANNING
COMMUNITY CAMPAINGS ON
SUSTAINABILITY AWARENESS
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN
URBAN PLANNING
PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE
REDUCING CAR USE
AUTHONOMY IN DECISIONS FOR
PLANS AND STRATEGIES IN
THE GOVERNORATE
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN
DECISION MAKING
ADAPTABILITY TO A MORE
SUSTAINABLE
TRASNPORTATION MODE
- DESCENTRALIZATION OF
DECISIONS
- INCLUSIVE PLANNING
- COMMUNITY ORIENTED
PLANNING
- GOOD GOVERNANCE
SUCCESFUL IMPLEMENTATION
OF NEW IDEAS
POLITICAL ACCEPTANCE
Box 4 - Governance/Institutional Recommendations Summary, Source, Author 2014
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8.2. Technical Recommendations
This part of the section is focused on the technical proposals which would
complement the governance recommendations previously described. The
proposals are made in order to reduce car dependency and provide sustainable
choices of modes of transportation. Additionally, in order to contextualize the
technical recommendations in Al Buraimi, it is necessary to consider the weather
conditions, the local identity, and the local customs. These features will
determine, technically, how to design and implement the facilities and
infrastructure. The familiarization with Al Buraimi was essential to propose
recommendations which take into consideration all issues involved in a more
holistic manner.
8.2.1. Facilities for walking and biking
Al Buraimi should provide the facilities for non motorized transportation such as
walking and biking. This effort aims to improve the local environment and it is
focused on a small scale. The implementation of such facilities would bring
relevant benefits to the community because the residents would have the
opportunity to enjoy their city. Moreover, it would improve the public health, air
quality, security, and overall spatial justice.
As it was proposed before, by
implementing mixed land uses there would be more proximity and reduced
distances. Consequently, the urban activities would be more accessible in the
neighbouring scale. Additionally, by the time public spaces have been reallocated
to people and cars do not invade the pedestrian spaces any longer, the
conditions would be more suitable for the use of non-motorized transportation.
Therefore, the following points are proposed:
- Pedestrian facilities: It is challenging to propose pedestrianization in Al Buraimi
due to the weather conditions and car based culture of the society. Nevertheless,
efforts have to be made in order to provide quality public spaces to the residents,
supported by the transportation and building regulations and guidelines. As it was
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described, walking should be focused on the immediate local level. Thereby,
through mixed land use and the proximity principle, the residents could reach
their activities without using private cars. The benefits of the process of
pedestrianization in Al Buraimi is that it would definitely improve the accessibility
conditions of the community, including the most disadvantage groups such as
people with special needs, children, elderly people, and immigrants as well. As a
result, the city would be more inclusive for all society groups.
On the other hand, taking into account that Al Buraimi has high temperatures
over the year and this condition might discourage walking, it is important to
provide sidewalks and public spaces that are sheltered from direct sunlight. As a
result, it is proposed to consider landscaping in planning and urban design with
the purpose of creating comfortable places for walking. Additionally, the process
of recovering the local identity could be tied with the reallocation of spaces to
pedestrians. Thus, it is proposed that in commercial areas the public spaces can
be reclaimed for pedestrians by introducing street markets which are traditional in
the Omani identity. The street markets could be temporarily installed during the
weekends, contributing to a more active social life and encouraging people to
move around by walking.
- Biking facilities: The proposal of implementing bike lanes is also focused on the
local level. The network of bike lanes could be distributed along the most
important distributor routes of Al Buraimi. It is important to point out that the
Omani society is not used to biking. Nevertheless, there is a significant number
of immigrants who do not own a car and require mobility. Therefore, the
bikeways strategically located in the urban areas may provide the facilities for
this group. Additionally, a pilot project of renting bikes could be implemented. In
many places of the world, renting bikes has been successfully adopted. Al
Buraimi might set up this mode as an experiment at first, in the case that it works,
it can be set up permanently. Additionally, Al Buraimi would become a pioneer as
it would be the first city in the Sultanate of Oman in implementing bikeways. This
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would increase the interest in other cities in the country to also adopt these kinds
of networks. It would also raise the sense of pride of Al Buraimi, which would be
moving forward towards more sustainable transportation practices.
8.2.2. Landscaping
As a complement of the implementation of sidewalks and bike lanes, landscaping
should be considered in order to provide shade, road noise attenuation,
separation between the car lanes and pedestrian paths, improvement of air
quality, and better urban space aesthetics. Additionally, it would be an
opportunity to recover the local identity through restoring the native species of
plants, which are originally from the region and have been ignored and lost in the
development process. Moreover, considering that Al Buraimi is a dry place with
scarce water resources, the proposal focuses on the use of trees requiring less
water which have a significant volume to provide shadows. This proposal would
also complement the current initiative of the Ministry of Environment and Climate
Affairs in Al Buraimi, which has the aim of raising awareness of the importance of
Omani native plants and biodiversity. According to the Environment Society of
Oman (2010), there is a group of native trees proposed in order to conserve the
traditional cultural landscapes. As a result, the proposed species from this group
which meet the functional needs for sidewalks are: Ghaf (Proposis cineraria),
Sidr (Ziziphus spina-christi) and Sherish (Azadirachta indica). The mentioned
trees species are illustrated in the respective order in the photos below.
Figure 51 - Omani Native Trees Species, Source: (Environment Society of Oman, 2010)
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Furthermore, in case there are sidewalks which are not suitable for trees or
plants due to i.e. narrowness, another solution to provide shade is through the
installation of pergolas. This is a traditional Omani architectural element which
could be used for this purpose in addition to the identity value that it contains.
The proposal includes building pergolas with regional materials translating the
values and traditions of the Omani architecture into a modern style. The
suggestion of linking landscape and traditional architecture with facilities for
walking has the intention to improve public spaces quality while retrieving the
sense of identity in Al Buraimi. Thus, the local community could feel more
connection with the new proposals. In order to illustrate the idea of pergolas on
paths and sidewalks, sample photos have been added below.
Figure 52 – Sample of pergolas on paths and sidewalks, Source: Coleman, 2012
8.2.3. Public Transportation
For a city such as Al Buraimi to achieve a real sustainable development, the first
step is to break out of the current automobile dominated mode, and adopt an
efficient public transportation system. In the near future, when the city has
expanded its area and population has risen, the demand of transportation will
rise significantly. As a result, it will be necessary to implement a public
transportation network to avoid congestion, traffic, and pollution. Public transport
systems provide the most efficient means of moving large numbers of people by
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providing a flexible mode of meeting demands at various levels (Al-Rawas,
1989). Thus, the proposal is to implement a pilot project in order to test
performance, evaluate feasibility, costs, and adversities. According to Cohn
(2009), the duration of a pilot project should be between 9 and 12 months. This is
a small scale experiment which would need to be adjusted if it proves functional
during the test period. The pilot experiment proposed is the implementation of
electric buses with dedicated lane. The buses should have specific stops
strategically located in the places with higher volume of people in Al Buraimi.
Additionally, the buses should operate on the main distributor routes of the city
(see figure 32 to visualize the proposed route). The proposal includes that the
buses should operate with electricity which is not a hazardous pollutant threat for
the environment. Meanwhile, the local government should educate the residents
on how and why to use the public transportation system through campaigns and
programs. Furthermore, considering that Oman has traditionally strict rules in the
relation between men and women, it is also proposed to provide separated areas
in the buses for each gender. Thus, people would feel more comfortable when
using the service.
The implementation of the public transport system in Al Buraimi could create
conflicts with the current taxi service. As mentioned before, taxis are the only
available service for local journeys and drivers would loose revenues in the event
of having competition. Consequently, the proposal is to integrate the public
transportation network with the taxi service. Thus, taxis could be rethought as
semi public, sharing the bus stops and lines. The aim of the pilot plan is to
integrate the different modes of transportation without excluding or compromising
the existing services. In addition, the network could be linked with biking by
installing bicycle parking racks in the bus stops. Thereby, people would feel
motivated to bike to and from the stops. The previously proposed rental bike
system could assist in the accessibility to the public transport system. On the
other hand, it would be important to coordinate activities between the
government and the public sector through partnerships in order to manage the
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operation of the bus service. Thus, small and medium enterprises would have the
opportunity to develop businesses with services that are efficient for the city and
support the local economy. Another important aspect to be considered in the
implementation stage is the service pricing. The cheap prices of oil and cars
make private transportation very affordable for people. This would be one of the
main challenges to be faced. Therefore, efforts have to be made in order to
provide the public transportation service with affordable prices as well. The key
point is to create awareness in the citizens on the importance to reduce car use
and the benefits of using the public transport network in terms of efficiency and
cost. Thus, unveiling the various advantages of public transportation, people
would feel attracted to use the service and minimize the use of private
automobiles. Finally, the implementation of the pilot plan should set the stage for
a full scale public transportation network in the future. In other words, it is an
attempt to prove the adequate design and performance of the service.
Box 5 – Public Transportation Plan, Source: Author, 2014
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8.2.4. Transit Oriented Development
The TOD model could be implemented in Al Buraimi as a model for integration of
land use and transportation. According to the experts, the concept of this model
is to concentrate mixed land uses, dense areas, and pedestrian friendly
developments around the main roads to provide walking, biking, and alternatives
to the use of private cars (Cervero et al., 2009). Thus, TOD would be potentially
suitable in the case of Al Buraimi, considering that the city has concentration of
activities and densities in certain points. The current activity centers were
indicated in the analysis of local mobility patterns of this study (See Figure 16 –
Chapter 6). As a result, if these strategic points are focused on creating nuclei by
increasing densities and mixed land use, in addition to the provision of facilities
for non motorized and public transportation, Al Buraimi could adapt and
implement this concept. Therefore, the development process would be more
sustainable by creating a more compact city. It should be seen as a tool to slow
down sprawl and reduce car dependency. Moreover, in these nuclei strategically
located in the city, the bus stops proposed in the public transportation system
should be placed. The concept includes the principle of proximity and
accessibility by increasing densities in the nodes. Meanwhile, the densities
decrease progressively, spreading outward from the centre of the nucleus.
On the other hand, it is essential to set a planning strategy to implement TOD
model which responds to the local priorities. According to Curtis (2013), the
strategy contains key principles that must be fulfilled to guarantee the
implementation success: (1) Make full use of urban land, (2) Plan with
communities, (3) Encourage public over private transport, (4) Strengthen local
sense of place, and (5) Develop strategies to create local jobs. Thus, it is also
relevant to include the concept of “complete neighbourhood”, which provides
choices for housing and employment, as well as retailers, schools, medical
centres, worship, public spaces and public, transportation (Cervero et al., 2009).
Consequently, the TOD model implementation would bring better living
conditions to the city residents by creating green corridors and more accessibility.
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The concept of TOD is schematically visualized in the graph below.
Figure 53 – Transit Oriented Development Concept
Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, 2013 / Modified by: Author, 2014
Consequently, in order to consider the implementation of TOD in Al Buraimi, it is
necessary to identify potentially suitable activity centres in the existing urban
area. Thus, there are currently two areas which concentrate more density and
commercial activities with different land uses. On the one hand, the area where
the market (souk) is located includes commercial corridors, hotels, restaurants
and retailers in addition to heritage sites which will potentially become tourist
attractions. On the other hand, the area located in the main roundabout which
contains the main Mosque, bus terminal, Governorate office, commercial areas,
health care facilities, among others, is another point of the city with densities and
perspectives to become a node in the TOD model. The proposal is to densify
these two areas, providing facilities for walking and biking, integrating residential
use within the area of influence, as well as limiting the occupation of public
spaces for parking lots, and using the node centres for the bus stops.
Furthermore, there is a third area which has low density, but is strategically
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located considering the proximity of different land uses such as commercial,
residential, and recreational. This area contains the Buraimi Park, the Buraimi
Sport Complex, the Buraimi Hospital, the Buraimi Hotel, shops, among others.
Therefore, it could be developed as an activity centre by integrating more varied
land uses and increasing densities, as well as linking it with public transportation.
The three areas mentioned are indicated in the map below.
Figure 54 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi for TOD Implementation
Source: Wikimapia, 2014 / Modified by: Author, 2014
Additionally, these three potential activity centres might articulate the pilot project
for public transportation. The bus routes should operate in the densest areas of
Al Buraimi where there is more compact development. At the same time, the
public service operation should operate mainly along the main distributor routes
and partly on the highway (see Figure 32). The implementation of TOD is
124
envisioned for the medium term if the planning structure is reformulated and
actions are taken in the short term.
On the other hand, considering the projected urbanization growth of Al Buraimi,
which has been planned by the Ministry of Housing, it is proposed to include
activity centres in the new developed areas. The nodes should be located along
the main distributor route, which according to the master plan, is proposed to be
built when the area has been urbanized. Moreover, higher densities with mixed
land use, public transportation network, and non motorized facilities should be
established in the new urbanized areas. Thus, tying up land use with
transportation would convert the current development process to a more smart
growth. It is also important to ensure making more efficient use of land. The plan
of the projected urbanized areas and activities centres is visualized in Figure 33.
8.2.5. Alternative Energies
In the medium and long term, Al Buraimi should implement alternative energies
in the transportation sector. The availability of updated technologies and
renewable sources of energy provide opportunities to reduce emissions and
contamination of the environment. Consequently, the public transportation pilot
project could be also used as the proof of concept for buses operating with
electricity instead of fuel. Additionally, other sources such as solar and wind
energy should be taken into account. These sources could be utilized for bus
stop, road, and street lighting. The Sultanate of Oman has the potential to exploit
these resources due to its advantageous geographical location and climate.
Thus, it would be a big step in order to achieve environmental sustainability and
energy efficiency. Additionally, alternative energies have been seriously
considered by other countries in the region, foreseeing the long term oil depletion
and lack of petrol. It is important that Oman starts taking into account the
consumption of non renewable energies to face the challenges of oil
dependency. On the other hand, the costs of implementing this kind of
technology can be higher in the beginning in comparison with conventional
125
sources. Nevertheless, in the long term vision, the initial economical costs will be
compensated with the reduction of externalities and environmental damage.
8.2.6. Improvement of Regional Public Transportation
The current interregional public transportation system is not operating efficiently
and needs urgent updating. Therefore, the proposal is to improve the regional
linkages by increasing coverage, frequencies, and punctuality through the
operation of new updated buses which also provide better conditions for the
passengers. The Oman National Transport Company should improve the quality
and quantity of the bus fleet operating in the region. Moreover, it is advisable to
improve the bus terminal facilities due to its size not being appropriate for high
volume of passengers. There are no waiting spaces and the process of tickets
purchase is chaotic.
126
AL AIN
2
3
1
Existing Urban Area
Potential Activity Centers in the Existing Urban Area
Potential Activity Centers in the Projected Urban Area
Figure 55 – Potential Activity Centres in Al Buraimi Projected Areas for TOD Implementation, Source: Author,2014 / Based on the Project
Plan of the Ministry of Housing (2014)
127
The summary of the technical recommendations can be visualized in the box below.
PROPOSED TECHNICAL ACTIONS
ACTION OUTCOMES
FACILITIES FOR WALKING AND
BIKING
SIDEWALKS
BIKE LANES
OMANI NATIVE TREES SPECIES
LANDSCAPING
TO CREATE SHADOWS
PILOT PROJECT FOR PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION
PERGOLAS FOR PEDESTRIANS
ELECTRIC BUSES WITH
INDEPENDENT LINE AND
SPECIFIC STOPS
INTEGRATION WITH THE
TAXI SERVICE
FINAL PROJECT FOR PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION
TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY CENTERS (MIXED LAND USE,
HIGH DENSITIES, GREEN CORRIDORS
FOR WALKING AND BIKING
IMPLEMENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE
ENERGIES IN TRASNPORTATION
- NON MOTORIZED TRANSPORTATION
- REDUCTION OF CAR DEPENDENCY
- PHYSICAL FITNESS FOR THE
COMMUNITY
- IMPROVEMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH
- REDUCTION OF POLLUTION
- REDUCTION OF NOISE LEVEL
- BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION
- REDUCTION OF URBAN HOSTILITY
- IMPROVEMENT OF PUBLIC SPACES
- SOCIAL COHESION
- IMPROVEMENT OF COMMUNITY’S
QUALITY OF LIFE
- IDENTITY AND LOCAL VALUES
- CHOICE OF MODE OF
TRASNPORTATION
- ACCESIBILITY
- EFFICIENT MOBILITY
- COMPACT DEVELOPMENT
- PROXIMITY AND ACCESIBILITY
- REDUCTION OF TRAVEL DEMAND
- REDUCTION IN THE ECONOMICAL
COST OF CAR’S INFRASTRUCTURE
- REDUCTION OF ACCIDENTS
- NO OIL DEPENDENCY
- REDUCTION OF EMISSIONS AND
CONTAMINATION
- CLIMATE STABILITY
- ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Box 6 – Technical Recommendations Summary, Source: Author, 2014
128
The recommendations summary divided by levels of government and terms of time is illustrated in the action plan
below.
National Level
COORDINATION IN THE
PLANNING PROCEDURE
INTEGRATION OF LAND USE AND
TRASNPORTATION PLANNING
REVIEW OF THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK
REFORMULATION OF PLANNING
PROCEDURE
PROVIDE MORE AUTHONOMY TO
THE GOVERNORATE AND MUNICIPALITY
OF AL BURAIMI
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN THE
PLANNING PROCEDURE
Regional
Level
ACTIONS TO REDUCE ACCIDENT RATES
LINK BETWEEN ACADEMIA AND
URBAN PLANNING
Local Level
SUSTAINABILITY AWARENESS
REDUCING CAR USE
MINISTRY OF TRASNPORTATION AND
COMMUNICATIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
LOCAL NETWORK
PROTECTION OF PUBLIC SPACES FOR
PEDESTRIANS
PROHIBITION OF CAR PARKINGS IN
NON AUTHORIZED AREAS
Short Term Actions
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN
DECISION MAKING
REGIONAL RAILWAY
(AL BURAIMI-SOHAR-MUSCAT)
IMPLEMENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE
ENERGIES IN TRASNPORTATION
MECHANISMS/TOOLS FOR MONITORING
AND ENFORCEMENT
REGULATIONS TO REDUCE CAR USE
AND PARKING LOTS
DESCENTRALIZATION
IMPROVEMENT OF THE REGIONAL
PUBLIC TRASNPORTATION
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN URBAN
PLANNING
AUTHONOMY IN DECISIONS FOR PLANS AND
STRATEGIES IN THE GOVERNORATE
ADAPTABILITY TO A MORE SUSTAINABLE
TRASNPORTATION MODE
PILOT PROJECT FOR PUBLIC
TRASNPORTATION / ADAPTABILITY
FINAL PROJECT FOR PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION
MIXED LAND USES, HIGH DENSITIES,
COMPACT DEVELOPMENT
WALKING AND BIKING FACILITIES
TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT
FINAL STAGE OF IMPLEMENTATION
LANDSCAPING THROUGH NATIVE SPECIES
AND LOCAL ARCHITECTURE
REDUCTION OF CAR DEPENDENCY
Medium Term Actions
Long Term Actions
Table 12 – Recommendations Action Plan, Source: Author, 2014
129
8.3. Stakeholders
The actors that should be involved, play a role, or have a responsibility in the
proposed action plan to establish a new mode of transportation in Al Buraimi are
listed in the table below
Stakeholder
Responsibility / Recommendation
Central Government
(Ministries)
• Integration and Coordination of the Planning Process in the National
Level.
• Change of the land use distribution policy
• Reformulation of the transportation policy and legal framework
• Decentralization, distribute power to the regional and local level
• Promote public participation and public involvement in decisions
• Establish efficient mechanisms and tools for monitoring and
enforcement
Ministry of
Transportation and
Communication in Al
Buraimi
Ministry of Housing in Al
Buraimi
Ministry of
Municipalities and
Water Resources in
Al Buraimi
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Should be responsible for the transportation local network
Regulate parking lots
Link transportation planning with land use
Discourage car use and reduce accidents through regulations
Implementation of public transportation system in Al Buraimi
Implementation of facilities for walking and biking
Implementation of the national regulation in the local level
Implementation of alternative energies in transportation
Reduction of land use for roads and parking lots
Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on
reducing car use
•
•
•
•
•
Link transportation planning with land use
Reformulate building codes related to car facilities
Increase densities in the urban areas
Encourage mixed land uses
Ensure compact and balanced development through more efficient
use of land
• Allocation of plots of land that will be built
•
•
•
•
Coordinate development activities with the other ministries
Fulfill the legal framework
Inspection and monitoring
Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on
sustainability
and Climate Affairs
• Protection of the local ecosystem from transportation impacts
• Encourage use of alternative energies in transportation
• Campaigns for community awareness and consciousness on
sustainability
• Open a branch of the NGO Environment Society of Oman in Al
Buraimi
Environmental Society
of Oman
• Landscaping and environmental protection
• Should have more autonomy in decisions
• Strong leadership and acceptability of new ideas
Colfuturo Scholarship Holder
2013public involvement
• Establish
• Support public transportation, walking, biking and reduction of car
Governorate of Al
use
130
and Climate Affairs
Environmental Society
of Oman
sustainability
• Open a branch of the NGO Environment Society of Oman in Al
Buraimi
• Landscaping and environmental protection
•
•
•
•
Governorate of Al
Buraimi
Should have more autonomy in decisions
Strong leadership and acceptability of new ideas
Establish public involvement
Support public transportation, walking, biking and reduction of car
use
• Coordinate actions for more sustainable transportation
• Create partnerships with the private sector for transportation
activities
• Support the improvement of inter regional public transportation
system with the Oman National Transportation Company
Municipal Council of Al
Buraimi
• Support the Governor in decision making
• Work closely with the communities
• Public participation and engagement
University of Al Buraimi
• Link academia/science with urban planning
Royal Oman Police
(Department of Transit)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Media
Control parking lots
More strict procedures to get the driving license
Parking pricing
Monitoring and enforcement
Campaigns for community awareness and driving behavior
Campaigns for reducing car use
Integration of taxi service with public transportation
• Campaigns for sustainability and reduction of car use
Private Sector
• Partnership with the Governorate and the Municipality for
implementation and operation of public transportation
• Support the local small and medium enterprises with the new
transportation system
Oman National
Transportation
Company
• Improve the public bus service of regional connections
Local Community /
Residents
•
•
•
•
Engagement to sustainability
Participation
Awareness and consciousness
Acceptance and adaptation to a more sustainable mode of
transportation
Table 13 – Stakeholders of the proposed action plan, Source: Author 2014
131
9. CONCLUSIONS
Sustainable transportation is not about radically stopping car use, it is about
reducing car dependency through the implementation of mixed land use, higher
densities, proximity, accessibility, use of public and non-motorized transportation,
and alternative energy usage. Thus, Al Buraimi should adopt a holistic
transportation approach that provides access to citizens minimizing the social,
environmental, and economic impacts. However, it needs reformulation of
governance, planning procedure, and the legal framework in order to establish
the basis for its implementation. In addition, it is necessary to achieve public and
political acceptance for a new mode of planning and transportation. Moreover,
political will in the different levels of the government could make the difference to
overcome the lack of integration, coordination, and inadequate planning.
Furthermore, the introduction of new proposals can be dramatic and conflictive in
the beginning. Nevertheless, the community needs time to adapt to the new
ideas, the role of the government is essential in guiding the citizens in this
process through campaigns and programs.
Additionally,
achieving
good
governance
is
essential
for
sustainable
transportation. This is an ideal which is difficult to achieve. However, to ensure
sustainable development, actions must be taken with the aim of making it a
reality. Moreover, the aim of the proposals is not only to be more sustainable
through the implementation of foreign concepts, principles, or models, but also to
respect and encourage the cultural values and local identity of Al Buraimi.
Furthermore, the urbanization process of the city has been rapid and
unsustainable over the last years. It is high time the government, agencies and
the whole community took action in order to overcome the challenges that urban
growth presents. Only with the engagement of all stakeholders and the
implementation of more balanced oriented practices, can transportation be
switched to a more sustainable mode. In addition, this study has utilized, what is
132
considered a new approach in Oman, a combination of interviews and,
community surveys. Thus, including the community has contributed greatly to the
quality of the research and the development of the investigation in the field.
Finally, the research establishes criteria and concepts which very well may
contribute to the process of sustainable transportation in Al Buraimi. These ideas
could be applied to other urban areas of the Sultanate of Oman in the event of
successful implementation in Al Buraimi, which could become the first city in the
country to adopt a new approach to transportation.
133
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137
APPENDIX
A - Interview Schedule
Institute
Name
Title
Interview
date
1
Ministry of Housing
Hamad Al Gharibi
Head of Ministry of Housing
Al Buraimi
22/09/2014
2
Al Buraimi Municipality
Yarub Mohammed Al
Yahyaee
Director of Buraimi
Municipality
23/09/2014
3
Municipal Council
Mohammed Al Badi
Member of Municipal Council
23/09/2014
4
Al Buraimi Governorate
5
Al Buraimi Shaikha
Sayyid Ibrahim bin Said
al Busaidy
Shaikha Al Naimi
6
and Climate Affairs
Name not provided
Governor of Buraimi
Municipality
Shaikha
Head of Ministry of
Environment and Climate
Affairs in Al Buraimi
7
Chamber of Commerce
Yousuf Bin Karam
Member of Chamber of
Commerce and Industry
29/09/2014
8
Real State
Jamil Al Thabsi
Broker
29/09/2014
9
Ministry of Transportation
Name not provided
Assistant Ministry of
Transportation
01/10/2014
Municipality Office of
Technical Affairs
Transit Department of the
Police of Al Buraimi
Ministry of Transportation
and Communication in
Muscat
Different groups of the
society
Mohammed Al Japri
Head of Technical Affairs
01/10/2014
Director of Transit
Department
14/10/2014
Salah Al Shikaili
General Director Transport
Design
16-10-2014
N.A
Citizens
10
11
12
13
Hamad Al Rabsi
24/09/2014
24/09/2014
28/09/2014
Sep/14 –
Oct/14
Information
Land use plan, housing regulations
and planning
General plan for Al Buraimi.
Transportation issues and
challenges
Challenges in the development of Al
Buraimi
Planning process in Al Buraimi,
problems and limitations
Heritage and local identity
Guidelines and standards for
environmental protection, link with
transportation
Economical perspective in Al
Buraimi. Needs of better regional
linkages for more efficient
transportation of goods.
Prices of land and buildings in Al
Buraimi
Regional linkages in Al Buraimi
(planning, problems, challenges)
Local mobility in Al Buraimi
(planning, problems, challenges)
Road accidents, emissions, car’s
speed control, statistics
National regulation for
transportation, planning process,
strategies for transportation
Mobility patterns and needs
138
B – Interview Ministry of Transportation and Communications
Al- Buraimi Research
Survey on transportation and mobility
1. Which strategies or plans has the Ministry of Transportation developed?
2. What have you achieved so far?
3. Is the Ministry of Transportation aware of the importance to reduce car
dependency as a mode of transportation?
4. What has the Ministry of Transportation done so far in order to reduce car
dependency?
5. How does the Ministry of Transportation monitor the implementation processes of
the different strategies and plans for transportation?
6. Do you think transportation planning has something to do with land use planning
and policies?
7. What has the Ministry of Transportation done in order to link transportation
planning with land use planning?
8. Do you think transportation planning has something to do with environmental
conservation?
9. How do you coordinate the transportation planning with the policies and
initiatives of the Ministry of Environment And Climate Affairs?
10. Has the Ministry of Transportation considered the implementation of alternatives
fuels, renewable energies and new engine designs, in order to reduce the
emissions and contamination produced by transportation activities in the
country?
11. Which measures has the Ministry of Transportation taken in order to encourage
the non motorized transportation in the urban areas?
139
12. Is there any consideration to update the mobility regulation, in order to switch
into a more sustainable mode of transportation in the urban areas?
13. Is the Ministry of Transportation aware of the public health and the relevance of
ensuring a clean environment free of green house emissions?
14. Which action have you taken to make sure that transportation activities and
infrastructure do not affect public health?
15. Are the citizens in Al-Buraimi informed and educated to engage and adopt more
sustainable mobility practices?
16. Which are the plans and strategies for transportation that you consider for the
short, medium and long term in the urban areas?
17. According to the Oman Highway Design Manual, there is public consultation in
the transportation planning procedure. Please describe briefly the public
consultation process.
18. What do you consider the most urgent problem in transportation in Al-Buraimi?
19. What are the challenges in transportation planning in Al-Buraimi?
20. Which positive aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
21. Which negative aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
140
C- Interview Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
1. Which environmental problems do you consider are the most relevant in the Al
Buraimi?
2. What is the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs doing in order to solve
them?
3. Do you think that environmental policies have something to do with transportation
planning?
4. Are the policies of the Ministry of Environment linked with the policies of the
Ministry of Transportation?
5. According to the Royal Decree 114/2001, the law on conservation of the
environment is addressed to prevent, among others, pollution and contamination.
Which plans and strategies have you developed to avoid pollution in the urban
areas?
6. How this law is related with transportation planning?
7. Are you aware that motorized transportation in urban areas should be reduced to
minimize greenhouse emissions in the environment?
8. Are you considering new technologies and/or renewable sources of energy for
transportation in urban areas as part of the policies of the Ministry of
Environment and Climate Affairs?
9. What is the Ministry of Environment doing in order to reduce the negative
impacts in the environment caused by roads and infrastructure for
transportation?
10. The Environment Society of Oman, which is working with the Ministry of
Environment and Climate Affairs, is also working to raise awareness of
environmental issues by involving the community. Can you describe this process
of participation?
11. Which are the plans and strategies that you consider for the short, medium and
long term related to minimize the transportation environmental impacts in the
urban areas?
12. Which initiatives do you consider in order to create government and public
awareness about the importance of sustainable development?
141
D – Interview with the Governor of Al Buraimi
1. What do you consider the most urgent problem in transportation in Al-Buraimi?
2. What are the challenges in transportation in Al-Buraimi?
3. Which positive aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
4. Which negative aspects do you consider that transportation in Al-Buraimi has?
5. What have you done so far in order to face the problems and challenges of
transportation in Al Buraimi?
6. What is the main potential of Al Buraimi?
7. Is the Al-Buraimi Governorate aware of the importance to reduce car
dependency as a mode of transportation?
8. What has the Al-Buraimi Governorate Department done so far in order to reduce
the transportation impacts in the environment?
9. Is the Al-Buraimi Governorate Department aware of the public health and the
relevance of ensuring a clean environment free of green house emissions?
10. Which action have you taken to make sure that transportation activities and
infrastructure do not affect public health?
142
E - Community Questionnaires
Date:
1. General Information:
Age: under 20
Sex:
female
20-40
40-60
over 60
male
Occupation:
Number of children:
Neighborhood:
Marital Status:
Nationality:
2. Please fill the information in the table below
Rank the activities
where you travel
more (working,
studying, leisure,
shopping, others)
How do you travel for
each activity (private
car, taxi, motorbike,
bus, waking, bike)
Where is this
place located?
(neighborhood)
How long do
you take to
arrive?
(minutes)
How
many
trips per
day?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
143
3. Please locate in the map of Al Buraimi the places listed in the table above and your
residence place
Residence Place
Source: Google maps
4. How long do you walk per week?
Never
Below than 2 hours
Between 2 and 4 hours
More than 4 hours
5. Do you usually bike?
Yes
No
if yes, how long per week?
144
6. If you neither walk nor bike, why don’t you do it?
7. Do you have your own car?
Yes
No
8. Have you ever had an accident traveling by car?
Yes
No
9. Do you think that roads in Al-Buraimi are safe in terms of accidents?
Yes
No
10. How do you consider the air quality in Al-Buraimi?
Clean
Polluted
11. How do you consider the noise level produced by transport in Al-Buraimi?
Low
Medium
High
12. What do you consider as public spaces?
Roads
Sidewalks
Parks
Green Areas
Other:
13. How do you consider the urban public spaces in Al-Buraimi?
Low quality
High quality
14. Which other city (ies) / region (s) in Oman do you travel more?
_____________________________________________________________
145
15. Why you travel there?
Work / Business
Shopping
Tourism
Other: _____________________
16. How do you commute there?
Private Car
Bus
Taxi
Other:_____________________
17. If you take a bus, what do you think about the service?
Efficient
Inefficient
16. How often do you cross the border to Al-Ain?
Daily
Once per week
More than once per week
Once per month
More than once per month
Never
17. How long do you usually take crossing the border to Al Ain?
18. Why do you travel to Al-Ain or other regions in Oman?
Work / Business
Shopping
Tourism
Other: _____________________
19. How do you evaluate the transport network which links Al-Buraimi with other regions
in Oman?
Efficient
Inefficient
146
F - Plans, laws and regulations
Name
Ministry
Omani Environmental
Regulations
International References
Documents
SEU Guidance Notes
Ministry of Environment and Climate
Affairs
Content related to transportation
-
Oman Highway Design Manual
(Volumes I and II)
Ministry of Transport and
Communications
Oman Planning Guidelines
(06/04/2014)
Development Control Plan
Framework
Ministry of Housing
Ministry of Tourism
-
Royal Decree 114/2001 Law on Conservation of the
Environment and Prevention of Pollution
Royal Decree 29/2000 Law of protection of water
resources
MD 187/2001 Issuance of Environmental approvals and
final Environmental Permit
MD 79/1994 Noise pollution control in Public Environment
MD 243/2005 regulation for the control & management of
ozone depleting substances
MECA Guidelines for Obtaining Environmental Permits
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Highway Strategy
Planning Procedures
Road Cross Sections and Capacities
Local Development Access
Design, Structures, Architectural Considerations
Facilities for Pedestrians
Transportation Planning
General Urban Planning
Guidelines for transportation tourism facilities
147
148

Sustainable Transportation in Al

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