Student Manual

Transcription

Student Manual

FITNESS ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMME DESIGN FOR THE SKILL RELATED COMPONENTS OF
FITNESS
FITNESS ASSESSMENT
AND
PROGRAMME DESIGN
FOR
THE SKILL RELATED COMPONENTS
OF FITNESS
NCEF Level 3 Project 05/06
Bridget Lawlor
Bridget Lawlor © 2006
FITNESS
Contents
Module
Title
Page
Introduction
1
1
Health Related Components of Fitness,
Principles of Training & Fitness Assessment
2
2
Power
13
3
Speed
35
4
Agility
49
5
Co-ordination
71
6
Balance
80
7
Reaction Time
92
8
Developing Your Own Fitness Tests
101
9
Training Needs Analysis & Advanced
Programme Design
110
Course Assessment Procedures
125
References
126
Index
127
FITNESS
Introduction
Course Title
Fitness Assessment and Programme Design for the Skill Related Components of Fitness.
Aim
To enable the HFI to:
List and define the Skill Related Components of Fitness;
Identify the Skill Related Components of Fitness specific to the team / individual’s sport;
Evaluate the Skill Related Components of Fitness through the selection and conduct of
appropriate fitness assessments;
Prescribe, plan, implement and evaluate exercise programmes for the development of the Skill
Related Components of Fitness.
Overall Course Objectives
By the end of this course students will be able to
1.
List and define the Skill Related Components of Fitness;
2.
Identify the Skill Related Components of Fitness used within team and individual
sports.
3.
Apply the principles of training to the programming of the Skill Related Components
of Fitness.
4.
Describe and administer appropriate tests for assessing the Skill Related Components
of Fitness.
Rationale for Course/Workshop
The Skill Related Components of Fitness are introduced in Module 4 of the NCEF Level 1
Course and are not considered applicable to the general population, however for the HFI who
wants to train sports teams / individuals it is a natural progression in the development of their
knowledge, skills and their professional ability.
In order to develop the specific skills of a team or individual it is important for the HFI to be
able to identify the skills that need to be targeted for assessment and development.
Once the specific SRCF have been identified then the HFI needs to be able to evaluate the
skills through the conduct of suitable fitness assessments and then further develop the level of
ability / efficiency of each skill through the planning, prescription & implementation of an
appropriate training programme which meets the needs of the team and individual.
Introduction
1
FITNESS
Module 1
Health Related Components of Fitness
Principles of Training
Fitness Assessment
Module 1 - Health Related Components of Fitness, Principles of Training, Fitness Assessment
2
FITNESS
Module 1
Fitness Assessment
Duration: 1.5 hrs
Objectives:
The purpose of this module is to revise the student in;
1.
The health related components of fitness.
2.
The Principles of Training.
3.
FITT and its application to the Health Related Components of Fitness.
4.
Fitness Assessment
Learning Outcomes :
At the end of this module the student will be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Define the 5 Health Related Components of fitness.
Define the 7 Principles of Training.
Demonstrate an understanding of the application of the overload principle (FITT) to the 5
Health Related Components of Fitness.
Explain the uses and purposes of fitness assessment.
List the stages of a fitness assessment.
Describe the categories of tests.
Identify the reasons for stopping a fitness test.
Apply a methodology to the administration of fitness tests.
3
FITNESS
Health Related Components of Fitness (NCEF 2005)
There are 5 health related components of fitness :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Body Composition
Cardio-respiratory Endurance
Muscular Endurance
Muscular Strength
Flexibility
1.
Body Composition
The body’s relative amounts of fat and lean body tissue or fat free mass (water, muscle,
bone & other tissues).
2.
The ability of the heart, lungs and circulatory system to supply oxygen and
nutrients efficiently to working muscles.
The ability to continue to perform strenuous tasks involving large muscle groups for
extended periods of time.
The ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to adjust to and recover from the
effects of whole body exercise or work.
3.
Muscular Endurance
The ability of the muscles to apply a sub-maximal force repeatedly or to sustain a
muscular contraction for a certain period of time.
4.
Muscular Strength
The maximal one effort force that can be exerted against a resistance.
The absolute maximum amount of force that one can generate in an isolated
movement of a single muscle group.
The stronger the individual the greater the amount of force he/she can generate.
5.
Flexibility
The functional capacity of the joints to move through a full range of movement.
4
FITNESS
Principles of Training (NCEF 2005)
There are 7 Principles of Training :
1.
Individual Differences
2.
Progression
3.
Specificity
4.
Overload
5.
Adaptation
6.
Placement
7.
Reversibility
1.
Individual Differences
Each person has different capabilities and will adapt in a different manner to an exercise
programme. There is no one for all programme.
2.
Progression
As a person becomes fitter, a higher intensity of exercise is needed to create an overload.
3.
Specificity
The type of exercise performed is specific to both the muscle groups being used and the
energy systems involved.
4.
Overload
In order to improve fitness levels, the particular component must be worked against a
load greater than normal. This is achieved through the application of FITT.
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
-
How often an individual trains.
How hard.
For how long.
Type of training (aerobic, circuits, resistance etc).
5.
Adaptation
The way the body changes as a result of training.
6.
Placement
The scheduling of training both within a week/month and within each
individual session.
7.
Reversibility
Training effects gained are reversible if workouts stop.
5
FITNESS
Overload principle (FITT) & the 5 Health Related Components of
Fitness (NCEF 2005)
Body Composition
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
3 to5 times per week
55% to 65% MHR
20 to 60 Mins (aerobic activity – continuous or intermittent)
Aerobic – primarily, LME using compound exercises
N.B – Studies have shown that during exercise of lower intensity there is greater fatty oxidation
than exercise of higher intensity. However, exercise intensity has been proven to have a greater
effect on post exercise metabolic rate than exercise duration. High intensity exercise has been
shown to maintain fatty oxidation at a higher rate for longer post exercise than low intensity
exercise. (Phelan et al 1997) (Tuominen et al 1997) (Schrauwen et al 1997)
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
3 to 5 times per week
60% to 85% MHR
Min 20 Mins
Aerobic – walking, running, cycling, swimming etc.
Muscular Endurance
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
50% to 70% 1 RM
As long as it takes to do between 12 and 15 reps
Weights, circuits, body resistance etc.
Muscular Strength
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
75% to 95% 1 RM
As long as it takes to do between 2 and 10 reps
Resistance training
Flexibility
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
3 times per week, upwards
To the point of tension
30 to 60 seconds
Stretching – passive, static, active, active assisted, PNF
6
FITNESS
Uses and Purposes of Fitness Assessment (Sports Coach 1997)
Purpose of fitness assessment
Fitness assessment is a means of monitoring performance and progress. Testing and
measurement are the means of collecting information upon which subsequent performance
evaluations and decisions are made.
The benefits of testing
The results from tests can be used to:
Predict future performance
Indicate weaknesses
Measure improvement
Enable the coach to assess the success of his training programme.
Place the athlete in appropriate training group
Motivate the athlete
In addition Tests break up, and add variety to, the training program.
They can also be used to satisfy the athlete's competitive urge out of season and since they
demand maximum effort of the athlete, they are useful at times as a training unit in their own
right.
What is the evaluation process ?
The whole measurement/evaluation process is a six stage cycle, involving:
1.
The selection of characteristics/components to be measured.
2.
The selection of a suitable method of measuring.
3.
The collection of that data.
4.
The analysis of the collected data.
5.
The making of decisions.
6.
The implementation of those decisions.
All of the above stages should be completed with the athlete - especially the analysis and making
decision of appropriate corrective action
7
FITNESS
When conducting tests the following points should be considered:
Each test should measure ONE factor only.
The test should not require any technical competence on the part of the athlete (unless it is being
used to assess technique).
Care should be taken to make sure that the athlete understands exactly what is required of
him/her, what is being measured and why.
The test procedure should be strictly standardised in terms of administration, organisation and
environmental conditions.
The Factors That May Influence Test Results
The following factors may have an impact on the results of a test (test reliability):
The temperature, noise level and humidity.
The amount of sleep the athlete had prior to testing.
The athlete's emotional state.
Medication the athlete may be taking.
The time of day.
The athlete's caffeine intake.
The time since the athlete's last meal.
The test environment - surface (track, grass, road, gym).
The athlete's prior test knowledge/experience.
Accuracy of measurements (times, distances etc.).
Is the athlete actually applying maximum effort in maximal tests.
Inappropriate warm up.
People present.
The personality, knowledge and skill of the tester.
Why Record Information?
For the coach it is important to monitor the programme of work, so as to maintain progression in
terms of the volume of work and its intensity.
Both coach and athlete should keep their own training records.
8
FITNESS
A training diary can give an enormous amount of information about what has happened in the
past and how training has gone in the past. When planning future training cycles, information of
this kind is absolutely invaluable.
What Should Be Recorded ?
The information to be recorded falls into two broad categories: The day-to-day information from training, e.g.
State of the athlete (health).
Physiological data (body weight, resting heart rate, etc.).
The training unit (speed, speed endurance, strength, technique).
The training load (the number of miles, the number of sets and repetitions, the number of
attempts).
The training intensity (kilograms, percentage of maximum, percentage of VO2).
The prevailing conditions (wet, windy, hot etc.).
The response to training (the assignments completed, the resultant heart rate recovery, felt tired,
etc.).
Information that measures status.
This can take the form of a test. If the test is repeated throughout the program, it can then be used
as a measure of progress within the training discipline.
Examples of such tests are:
Time trials - speed, speed endurance, endurance .
Muscular endurance - chins, push ups, dips.
Strength maximum - single repetitions, maximum repetitions.
Explosive strength - power bounding, vertical jump, overhead shot putt.
Mobility - objective measurements of the range of movement.
Event specific
Competition evaluation
Following competition it is important that the coach and athlete get together as soon as possible
in order to evaluate the athlete's performance. Elements to be considered are pre event
preparations, focus and performance plans and achievement of these plans. An evaluation form is
useful to help the athlete and coach conduct this review.
9
FITNESS
The Stages Of A Fitness Assessment (NCEF 2005)
3 x Stages of Fitness Assessment
Screening
Physical Measurements
Fitness Testing
Stage 1 - Screening
Health history
Health behaviours
Risk factors
Informed consent
Why Screen?
Identifies persons who need special attention.
Identifies persons who should exercise in a special way.
Identifies persons who should not be exercising at all.
Helps instructor gain knowledge of physical abilities of client.
Enhances the credibility of the instructor as a professional.
Can help to protect against legal problems
Helps to open the lines of communication between instructors and GPs.
Types of screening
Written
Verbal
Physical measurements (as per Stage 2 of Fitness Assessment)
Stage 2 - Physical Measurements
Resting heart rate
Resting blood pressure
Height
Weight
Cholesterol
Stage 3 - Fitness Testing
Health Related Components of Fitness – select appropriate tests.
Skill Related Components of Fitness – select appropriate tests.
10
FITNESS
Reasons For Stopping A Fitness Test (NCEF 2005)
The subject requests to stop
Injury
Leg cramps or loss of sensation
Dizziness, mental confusion,
Staggering or unsteadiness.
Angina or chest pain.
Nausea
Difficult or laboured breathing (dyspnea)
Pallor (paleness)
Cyanosis – blueness of the lips / face
Severe fatigue
No steady heart rate
HR in excess of 85% maximum HR
Malfunction of equipment.
11
FITNESS
Suggested Methodology For Administration Of Fitness Tests (NCEF 2005)
1.
Name the test.
2.
Name the component of fitness it assesses.
3.
Explain to the client the purpose of the test.
State why the particular component being measured is important for
health/fitness.
To set a baseline measure.
To identify components that might need work.
To identify the correct level of intensity for the programme design.
4.
Mini warm up concentrating on specific areas to be assessed.
5.
Demonstrate the test, giving the key teaching points for good technique.
6.
Have the client practice the technique (1/2 trials)
7.
Follow the test procedures accurately and record the measurement.
8.
Check in with the client during the test.
9.
Provide feedback on the measurements obtained.
12
FITNESS
Module 2
Power
Module 2 - Power
13
FITNESS
Module 2
Power
Duration:1 hr
Learning Outcomes :
At the end of this module the student will be able to :
1.
Define power.
2.
Describe the factors that affect power.
3.
Apply the principles of training to programme design for the development of power.
4.
Demonstrate an understanding of how to apply appropriate techniques for assessing
power.
Module 2 - Power
14
FITNESS
Definition
Power is………………………………
The rate at which work is done. (Collins Dictionary 2004)
The ability to transfer energy into force at a fast rate. (Corbin et al 2006, p.9)
The ability to produce force in a brief amount of time. (Foran et al 2001, p.6)
The rate of doing work, or the product of force and velocity. (Foran et al 2001, p.65)
The rate at which one can perform work. Power = Strength over Time. (NCEF 2005, p.130)
Power is equal to force multiplied by distance divided by time. (Baggett 2006)
Module 2 - Power
15
FITNESS
The Factors That Affect Power
Muscular strength:
As power equals strength over time, muscular strength is required in order to generate the forces
required for the development of power output.
Speed:
As power equals strength over time, the ability to produce movements at a fast rate is vital for
the conversion of strength forces into explosive power.
Genetics:
The greater the number of fast-twitch muscle fibres in the muscle, the higher the power potential
of the athlete.
Muscle Fibres
There are three types of muscle fibre;
Slow-twitch red (type I) – is aerobic and relies on oxygen to produce energy. Develops
force slowly, is fatigue resistant (high endurance), has a low power output, a high aerobic
capacity for energy supply and limited potential for rapid force development and
anaerobic power.
Fast-twitch red (type IIa) – the intermediate fibre type can contribute to both anaerobic
and aerobic activity. Develops force moderately fast and has moderate - fatigability,
power output, aerobic power and anaerobic power.
Fast-twitch white (type IIb) – is anaerobic and does not rely on oxygen to produce
energy. Develops force rapidly and has fatigability (low endurance), high power output
low aerobic power and high anaerobic power.
Muscles with a high percentage of fast-twitch fibres exert quicker more powerful
contractions.
It is suggested that prolonged high intensity training may improve the ratio of fast-twitch fibres
to slow-twitch fibres. (Foran et al 2001)
Functional Flexibility:
The ability to move joints through the relevant functional range of motion is important for the
athlete’s ability to maintain proper mechanics throughout the required movements of the sport.
The inability to do so affects optional functionality and therefore affects the level of potential
power output.
Proper Technique
Proper mechanics/technique enables the athlete to maximise the forces that the muscles are
generating. Good technique also increases neuromuscular efficiency.
Module 2 - Power
16
FITNESS
Anaerobic Endurance
Anaerobic endurance relates to the efficiency of the anaerobic energy systems and the ability of
the athlete to produce the same levels of speed power output repeatedly during competition or to
sustain speed power output for longer durations. It also relates to the anaerobic threshold, the
accumulation of lactic acid and the individual’s ability to tolerate and disperse it. An athlete with
poor anaerobic endurance will fatigue quickly because of lactic acid build up.
Module 2 - Power
17
FITNESS
The Development of Power
Power in sports can be described as “acyclic” and “cyclic”. The acyclic athlete is concerned
with single maximal effort in an event, e.g. jumping or throwing events in the field events. The
cyclic athlete is concerned with the ability to conduct repeat periods of sustained power output
during and event or competition e.g. sprinting, football, martial arts. (Foran et al 2001)
Power is equal to force multiplied by distance divided by time.
Or
Strength multiplied by speed.
Since strength and speed are components of power, increasing one while neglecting the other
limits total power development.
A common mistake in training is when athletes focus too much on one side while neglecting the
other. Because strength and speed have a multiplicative impact on power, athletes can make
greater gains if they develop both components and faster gains if they figure out which one is the
greatest weakness for them and train accordingly.
“For example, if a strength score for an athlete was 2, and the athlete's speed score was
also 2, his power rating would be:
2(speed) x 2(strength) = 4 (power)
Doubling the athletes speed without altering strength would also double his power:
4(speed) x 2(strength) = 8(power)
If the same athlete made a 50 percent gain in both speed and strength his power rating
would be:
3(speed) x 3(strength) = 9 (power)”
(Baggett 2006)
Therefore an increase in power will result if you either increase speed, strength, or both.
An optimal balance is the key because having or training for too much of one (speed or strength)
will tend to cause the other one to decline.
Module 2 - Power
18
FITNESS
Three basic ways to address power development.
Focus on Speed:
Examples are: plyometric exercises, bodyweight exercises, medicine ball tosses, and weight
training using 40% of your max or less performed with great acceleration.
Focus strength:
This could take the form of 2 approaches.
Using 80-90% of your max in a given exercise for multiple sets of low repetitions.
Using 60-80% of your max for higher reps in an effort to induce muscle growth.
Focus on both:
Use exercises that both speed and strength. (a mix of speed and strength)These include common
exercises like the squat and bench press using loads of around 50-65% of max weight performed
with great acceleration, or exercises like the Olympic lifts which inherently require quick
execution to perform correctly with loads around 80% of your max. These also can correctly be
called "power exercises".
The optimal approach requires addressing the athlete’s weak point, whether it is speed or
strength, and focusing on the weak area while mixing in optimal amounts of exercises from the
mixed category that require optimal amounts of both speed and strength.
Plyometric Drills
Plyometrics are an advanced training technique used by athletes. Plyometric movement drills
involve quick eccentric lengthening of the targeted muscle groups followed immediately by a
strong concentric contraction of the same muscle groups in order to produce increased power
output. By repeatedly doing these movements athletes can provide a greater stimulus to their
muscles and improve their body’s ability to perform power movements. Plyometrics are used to
apply the specificity principle to training for certain skills. Because eccentric exercise results in
greater muscular soreness, this type of exercise should be built up gradually.
An example of some plyometric drills are listed below:
Lower Body Power
Barrier Jumps.
Tuck Jumps
Lunge with power jump up
Power Skips
Vertical Jump
Depth Jumps.
Upper Body Power
Wheelbarrow Drill
Plyo Push ups
Medicine Ball Overhead Throws
Medicine Ball Release Push Ups.
Module 2 - Power
19
FITNESS
Safety Guidelines for Plyometrics (Corbin et al 2006)
Progression should be gradual to avoid extreme muscle soreness.
Adequate strength should be developed prior to plyometric training. (as a general rule you should
be able to do a half squat with one and a half times your body weight)
The landing surface should be semiresilient, dry and unobstructed.
Shoes should have good lateral stability, be cushioned, have an arch support and have a non slip
sole.
Obstacles used for jumping over should be padded.
Training should be preceded by a general and specific warm up.
Plyometric training should:
1.
Precede all other workouts (while fresh).
2.
Include at least one spotter.
3.
Be done no more than twice a week with 48 hrs rest between sessions.
4.
Last no more than 30 mins.
5.
For beginners – include 3 or 4 drills with 2 or 3 sets per drill and 10 to 15 reps per set
with 1 to 2 minutes rest between sets.
Module 2 - Power
20
FITNESS
Fitness Assessments for Power
Tests of power
The anaerobic power of a sports performer can be generated from two energy systems: (i)
Creatine Phosphate and (ii) Anaerobic Glycolysis.
As the relative contribution of these systems depends upon the duration of the maximal effort,
the duration of tests for power is important.
In activities lasting less than 6 seconds the energy primarily comes from stored Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP) and Creatine Phosphate.
This would be the case when jumping or putting the shot when there is an almost instantaneous
but brief burst of muscular activity.
In activities that last between 10 and 30 seconds, anaerobic glycolysis becomes increasingly
important. For sustained sprints of around 30 seconds a different aspect of power needs to be
assessed.
In the case of short explosive activities, jumping and throwing tests are popular.
Vertical jump tests are good indicators of explosive leg power and are obviously
important in many sporting contexts.
To assess arm power, standardised throwing tests can be devised. However, as technique will
have a major influence on the distance thrown, a performer’s familiarity with a test will also
affect the results.
To assess glycolytic anaerobic power, sustained maximal sprints can be utilised.
In a laboratory setting the most widely known of these is the 30 second “Wingate” sprint which
uses a cycle machine linked to a computer. However, the use of a cycling exercise may not be
relevant for other forms of activity and a running sprint of 200 - 300m around a pitch could be
used as a more valid alternative for team sports.
Procedures for the following power tests are outlined in this Module;
Standing Long Jump Test
Sergeant Jump Test
Sprint Bound Index
Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlon
300yd Shuttle Test
RAST – Running Based Anaerobic Strength Test
Module 2 - Power
21
FITNESS
Standing Long Jump Test Sports Coach (1997) Standing Long Jump Test [online],
available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/stndjump.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's explosive leg power.
Required Resources
To undertake this test you will require :
Long Jump pit
30 metre tape measure
An assistant
How to conduct the test
The athlete places their feet over the edge of the sandpit. The athlete crouches, leans forward,
swings their arms backwards, the jumps horizontally as far as possible, jumping with both feet
into the sandpit. The Trainer should measure from the edge of the sandpit to the nearest point of
contact. The start of the jump must be from a static position.
Analysis
Analysis of the result is by comparing it with the results of previous tests. It is expected that,
with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would indicate an improvement.
Normative data for the Standing Long Jump Test
The following data has been obtained from the results of tests conducted with world class
athletes.
% Rank
Females
Males
91-100
2.94 - 3.15 metres
3.40 - 3.75 metres
81 – 90
2.80 - 2.93 metres
3.10 - 3.39 metres
71 – 80
2.65 - 2.79 metres
2.95 - 3.09 metres
61 – 70
2.50 - 2.64 metres
2.80 - 2.94 metres
51 – 60
2.35 - 2.49 metres
2.65 - 2.79 metres
41 – 50
2.20 - 2.34 metres
2.50 - 2.64 metres
31 – 40
2.05 - 2.19 metres
2.35 - 2.49 metres
21 – 30
1.90 - 2.04 metres
2.20 - 2.34 metres
11 – 20
1.75 - 1.89 metres
2.05 - 2.19 metres
1 – 10
1.60 - 1.74 metres
1.90 - 2.04 metres
Sports Coach (1997) Standing Long Jump Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/stndjump.htm
[accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
The following table is for 15 to 16 year old athletes:
Gender Excellent Above average
Average
Below average
Poor
Male > 2.01m 2.00 - 1.86m
1.85 - 1.76m 1.75 - 1.65m
< 1.65m
Female >1.66m 1.65 - 1.56
1.55 - 1.46m 1.45 - 1.35m
< 1.35cm
Module 2 - Power
22
FITNESS
The following table is for adults:
Average
Male >3.0m 2.7m
2.5m
Female >2.8m 2.5m
2.2m
Below average
Poor
2.3m
<2.0m
1.9m
<1.7m
Target Group
This test is suitable for active individuals but not for those where the test would be
contraindicated.
Reliability
Reliability would depend upon how strict the test is conducted and the individual's level of
motivation to perform the test.
Validity
There are published tables to relate results to potential level of fitness and the correlation is high.
Advantages
Simple and quick to perform.
Modifications:
The test procedure can be adapted to indoors by using mats instead of a sandpit.
Module 2 - Power
23
FITNESS
Sergeant Jump Test Sports Coach (1997) Sergeant Jump Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/sgtjump.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's explosive leg power.
Required Resources
A wall
1 metre Tape Measure
Chalk
An assistant
The athlete:
chalks the end of his finger tips
stands side onto the wall, keeping both feet remaining on the ground, reaches up as high as
possible with one hand and marks the wall with the tips of the fingers (M1)
from a static position jumps as high as possible and marks the wall with the chalk on his finger
tips (M2)
The Trainer then measures the distance from M1 to M2. The test can be performed as many
times as the athlete wishes
Sports Coach (1997) Sgt Jump Test [online image] available : http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/sgtjump.htm
[accessed – Jan 2006]
Analysis
Module 2 - Power
24
FITNESS
Normative data for the Sergeant Jump Test
The following normative data has been obtained from the results of tests conducted with world
class athletes.
% Rank
Females
Males
91-100
76.20 - 81.30 cm
86.35 - 91.45 cm
81 – 90
71.11 - 76.19 cm
81.30 - 86.34 cm
71 – 80
66.05 - 71.10 cm
76.20 - 81.29 cm
61 – 70
60.95 - 66.04 cm
71.10 - 76.19 cm
51 – 60
55.90 - 60.94 cm
66.05 - 71.09 cm
41 – 50
50.80 - 55.89 cm
60.95 - 66.04 cm
31 – 40
45.71 - 50.79 cm
55.90 - 60.94 cm
21 – 30
40.65 - 45.70 cm
50.80 - 55.89 cm
11 – 20
35.55 - 40.64 cm
45.70 - 50.79 cm
1 – 10
30.50 - 35.54 cm
40.65 - 45.69 cm
Sports Coach (1997) Sgt Jump Test [online] available : http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/sgtjump.htm
The following are national norms for 16 to 19 year olds.
Gender Excellent Above average Average Below average Poor
Male
>65cm
50 - 65cm
40 - 49cm 30 - 39cm
<30cm
Female >58cm
47 - 58cm
36 - 46cm 26 - 35cm
<26cm
The following table is for adults:
Average
Male >65cm 60m
55cm
Female >55cm 50cm
45cm
Below average
Poor
50cm
<46cm
40cm
<36cm
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
Advantages
Simple and quick to perform.
Module 2 - Power
25
FITNESS
Sprint Bound Index Test Sports Coach (1997) Sprint Bound Index Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/sbi.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's elastic leg strength.
Required Resources
400 metre track - 30 metre marked section on the straight
Cones
Stop Watch
Two assistants
Begin with one foot on the start line and place the other foot two to three feet behind you.
Place both of your helpers at the finish line - one to count the number of foot contacts and the
other to time your sprint-bound effort over the 30 metre distance.
On your own command, sprint-bound down the track for the entire 30 metre distance.
The timer should start the watch when the foot on the start line breaks contact with the ground
and then stop the watch when your torso crosses the finish line
The time is recorded by rounding up to the nearest tenth of a second
Your second helper is responsible for counting the number of bounds it takes you to reach the
finish line.
The number of bounds should be rounded down to the nearest half-bound.
Perform three trials, with three to five minutes between each trial.
Record the results of all three trials.
Calculate the 'sprint-bounding index' for each trial using the following formula:
Sprint-bound index (SBI) = (no. of bounds) × (time for 30 metres).
Example:
You've taken 15.5 bounds to cover the 30 metres, in a time of 4.5 seconds.
SBI = 15.5 × 4.5 = 69.75.
Record your best result from the three trials. The lower the index, the better the result.
Analysis
Module 2 - Power
26
FITNESS
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are no published tables to relate results to potential level of fitness.
Module 2 - Power
27
FITNESS
Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlon Sports Coach (1997) Medicine Ball Javelin
Quadrathlon [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/medballquad.htm [accessed –
20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's fitness and upper body strength
Required Resources
1.5kg, 2Kg and a 3Kg medicine ball
30 metre tape measure
An assistant
The test comprises of four medicine ball throws:
Standing throw one (Men 2Kg - Ladies 1.5Kg)
Standing throw two (Men 3Kg - Ladies 2Kg)
3 Step throw one (Men 2Kg - Ladies 1.5Kg)
3 Step throw two (Men 3Kg - Ladies 2Kg)
The athlete performs each throw and the assistance records the distance achieved. Points are then
calculated for each throw from the tables below. Add the 4 sets of points together to give a total
score.
Explanation of the Throws
Standing Throw
Face forward with the medicine ball held overhead in
two hands
Feet should be parallel and toeing the measuring line
Throw the ball for distance
A follow through step is allowed
Distance is measured from the front foot (on release)
to where the ball lands
Sports Coach (1997) Medicine Ball Javelin
Quadrathlon [online image], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/medballquad.htm
Module 2 - Power
28
FITNESS
Three Step Throw
Sports Coach (1997) Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlon [online image], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/medballquad.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Start with both feet together in a stationary position
Take three steps forward with the medicine ball held overhead in two hands
Throw the ball for distance. A follow through step is allowed
Distance is measured from the front foot (on release) to where the ball lands
Points - The world best score for this test is 76 points and the UK best score is 66 points.
Standing Throw One Standing Throw Two 3 Step Throw One 3 Step Throw Two
Points Distance (metres)
Distance (metres)
Distance (metres) Distance (metres)
1
3.00
2.00
4.50
2.75
2
4.50
3.25
6.00
4.00
3
6.00
4.50
7.50
5.25
4
7.50
5.75
9.00
6.50
5
9.00
7.00
10.50
7.75
6
10.50
8.25
12.00
9.00
7
12.00
9.50
13.50
10.25
8
13.50
10.75
15.00
11.50
9
15.00
12.00
16.50
12.75
10
16.00
13.00
17.50
14.00
11
17.00
14.00
18.50
15.25
12
18.00
15.00
19.50
16.50
13
19.00
16.00
20.50
17.75
14
20.00
16.75
21.50
18.50
15
21.00
17.50
22.50
19.25
16
22.00
18.25
23.50
20.00
17
23.00
19.00
24.50
20.75
18
24.00
19.75
25.50
21.50
19
25.00
20.50
26.75
22.25
20
26.00
21.25
28.00
23.00
21
27.00
22.00
28.75
23.75
22
28.00
22.75
29.50
24.50
23
29.00
23.50
30.25
25.25
24
30.00
24.25
31.00
26.00
25
31.00
25.00
31.75
26.75
Sports Coach (1997) Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlon [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/medballquad.htm
Module 2 - Power
29
FITNESS
Analysis
with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would indicate an improvement in the
athlete's fitness and strength
Target Group
This test is suitable for throwers (e.g. javelin, discus) but not for individuals where the test would
be contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are published tables to relate results to potential performance in competition and the
correlation is high.
Module 2 - Power
30
FITNESS
300 yard Shuttle Test Sports Coach (1997) 300 Yard Shuttle Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/300shut.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of this test is to monitor the athlete's intermediate anaerobic power.
Required Resources
To undertake this test you will require:
Two cones placed 25 yard (22.8 metres) apart
Stop watch
An assistant
The athlete starts at one cone
The assistant gives the command to 'Go'
The athlete performs 12 shuttle runs between the cones
At each turn the athlete is to touch the cone
The assistant records the time taken to complete the 12 shuttle runs
Analysis
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are no published tables to relate results to potential performance in competition Sprint test
Module 2 - Power
31
FITNESS
RAST Sports Coach (1997) Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/rast.htm [accessed – 11 Mar 2006]
Objective
The Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST) was developed at the University of
Wolverhampton (United Kingdom) to test an athlete's anaerobic performance. RAST is similar to
the Wingate ANaerobic 30 cycle Test (WANT) in that it provides coaches with measurements of
power and fatigue index. The Wingate test is more specific for cyclists whereas the RAST
provides a test that can be used with athletes where running forms the basis of the movement.
Required Resources
400 metre track - with a 35 metre marked section on the straight
Two cones to mark the 35 metre section
Stop watch
An assistant
The athlete :
Is weighed prior to the test
Undertakes a 10 minute warm session
Has a 5 minute recovery
Completes six 35 metre runs at maximum pace (10 seconds allowed between each sprint for
turnaround)
The assistant
Records the time taken for each 35 metre sprint to the nearest hundredth of a second.
Makes appropriate calculations
Analysis
Calculations
Power output for each sprint is found using the following equations
Velocity = Distance ÷ Time
Acceleration = Velocity ÷ Time
Force = Weight × Acceleration
Power = Force × Velocity
OR
Power = Weight × Distance ² ÷ Time ³
From the six times calculate the power for each run and then determine :
Maximum power - the highest value
Module 2 - Power
32
FITNESS
Minimum power - the lowest value
Average power - sum of all six values ÷ 6
Fatigue Index - (Maximum power - Minimum power) ÷ Total time for the 6 sprints
Example
Athlete weight = 76 Kilograms
Sprint
1
2
3
4
5
6
Time (secs)
4.52
4.75
4.92
5.21
5.46
5.62
Power (watts)
1008
869
782
658
572
525
Sports Coach (1997) Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/rast.htm
[accessed – 11 Mar 2006]
Maximum Power
Minimum Power
Average Power
Fatigue Index
= 1008 watts
= 525 watts
= 736 watts
= 483 ÷ 30.48 = 15.8 watts/sec
Sports Coach (1997) Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/rast.htm
[accessed – 11 Mar 2006]
Interpretation of the results
Maximum Power
Is a measure of the highest power output and provides information about strength and maximal
sprint speed. Research range is 1054 watts to 676 watts.
Minimum Power
Is the lowest power output achieved and is used to calculate the Fatigue Index. Research range is
674 watts to 319 watts.
Average Power
Gives an indication of an athlete's ability to maintain power over time. The higher the score the
better the athlete's ability to maintain anaerobic performance.
Fatigue Index
Indicates the rate at which power declines for the athlete. The lower the value the higher the
ability for the athlete to maintain anaerobic performance. With a high fatigue index value (>10)
the athlete may need to focus on improving their lactate tolerance.
Module 2 - Power
33
FITNESS
How to use
The test is conducted on a regular basis throughout the training program. Results should be
compared with the athlete's previous results to determine if the training programme is achieving
the desired results. Results can then be used to appropriately adjust the athlete's training
program.
When to use
RAST can be used on a regular basis (3 to 6 weeks) throughout the season. The period between
tests will be determined by the training phase and the amount of training being conducted.
Target Group
This test is suitable for sprint and endurance athletes and players of endurance sports (e.g.
football, rugby) but not for individuals where the test would be contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are no published tables to relate results to potential performance in competition
Module 2 - Power
34
FITNESS
Module 3
Speed
Module 3 - Speed
35
FITNESS
Module 3
Speed
Duration: 1 hr
Learning Outcomes :
1.
Define speed.
2.
Describe the factors that affect speed.
3.
Apply the principles of training to programme design for the development of speed.
4.
speed.
Module 3 - Speed
36
FITNESS
Definition
Speed is………………………………..
The ability to perform a movement in a short period of time. (Corbin et al 2006, p.9) (NCEF
2005, p.130)
The point at which athlete can accelerate no more and have reached their maximum rate of
movement. (Foran et al 2001, p.167)
The rate at which something moves or acts. (Collins Dictionary 2004)
The ability to move from one point to another.(Speed=Distance/Time).
Module 3 - Speed
37
FITNESS
The Factors that Affect Speed
Genetics:
The greater the number of fast twitch muscle fibres in the muscle, the higher the speed potential
of the athlete.
Muscle Fibres
There are three types of muscle fibre ;
Slow-twitch red (type I) – is aerobic and relies on oxygen to produce energy. Develops
force slowly, is fatigue resistant (high endurance), has a low power output, a high aerobic
capacity for energy supply and limited potential for rapid force development and
anaerobic power.
Fast-twitch red (type IIa) – the intermediate fibre type can contribute to both anaerobic
and aerobic activity. Develops force moderately fast and has moderate fatigability, power
output, aerobic power and anaerobic power.
Fast-twitch white (type IIb) – is anaerobic and does not rely on oxygen to produce
energy. Develops force rapidly and has fatigability (low endurance), high power output
low aerobic power and high anaerobic power.
Muscles with a high percentage of fast-twitch fibres exert quicker more powerful
contractions.
To get max results from speed training there are numerous factors to consider above and beyond
genetic potential.
(Brown and Ferringo 2005, p18)
It is suggested that prolonged high intensity training may improve the ration of fast-twitch fibres
to slow-twitch fibres. (Foran et al 2001)
Stride Frequency & Length:
The two main factors in running speed are stride frequency and stride length. Increasing one or
both will result in increased speed. However, an increase in one can cause the reduction of the
other, e.g. in an effort to increase stride length an athlete may reach too far forward, overstriding,
resulting in decreased stride frequency and therefore decreased running speed.
Stride Frequency:
Stride frequency is measure by the number of strides taken in a given amount of time or
over a given distance. By using good sprinting technique, stride frequency can be
increased without sacrificing stride length. Increasing stride frequency is important as the
more often the feet touch the ground the faster the potential running speed.
Stride Length
Stride length is measured by the distance covered on a given amount of time. “Research
has shown that optimal stride length at maximum speed is normally 2.3 to 2.5 times the
athletes leg length”(Brown and Ferringo 2005,p19)
Module 3 - Speed
38
FITNESS
Acceleration:
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, and is the most important component of speed
development for most sports. The ability to accelerate quickly means that the athlete can go from
a stationary or near stationary state to their maximum speed in a very short time. Acceleration is
achieved by increasing both stride length and stride frequency.
Strength & Power:
Initial speed improvements seem to be the result of better neural transmission of impulses to the
muscle concerned, but improvements can be made by developing strength and power in the
correct way relating to the sport. Improved strength will enable the athlete to produce greater
amounts of force. Whereas improved power will enable the athlete to utilise the greater amounts
of force while at the same time decreasing the time spent in contact with the ground.
The most powerful athletes spend less time in contact with the ground, have longer strides, and
can take strides more rapidly than their less powerful counterparts.
(Brown and Ferringo 2005,p18)
Functional Flexibility
The ability to move joints through the relevant functional range of motion is important for the
athletes ability to maintain proper mechanics throughout the required movements of the sport.
Specific Function Of Muscles & Joints:
Speed, like flexibility and strength is specific to each muscle group and joint. For instance, a
person who can throw quickly, may not be able to run quickly. By using the limbs in the exact
way that they’re going to be used in the athlete’s sport this causes the stimulation, excitation and
correct firing order of the motor units, composed of a motor nerve (Neuron) and the group of
muscles that it supplies, and makes it possible for high frequency movements to occur. The
complex co-ordination and timing of the motor units and muscles must be rehearsed at high
speeds to implant the correct patterns
Proper Technique
Proper mechanics/technique enables the athlete to maximise the forces that the muscles are
generating, and greatly improves the chances that the athlete will achieve the highest speed
expected of them. Good technique also increases neuromuscular efficiency.
Speed Endurance
Speed endurance relates to the efficiency of the anaerobic energy systems of the athlete and the
ability of the athlete to produce the same levels of speed power output repeatedly during
competition or to sustain speed output for longer durations. It also relates to the anaerobic
threshold, the accumulation of lactic acid and the individual’s ability to tolerate and disperse it.
An athlete with poor speed / anaerobic endurance will fatigue quickly because of lactic acid
build up.
Module 3 - Speed
39
FITNESS
The Development Of Speed
How do we develop Speed?
The technique of sprinting must be rehearsed at slow speeds and then transferred to runs at
maximum speed. This causes the stimulation, excitation and correct firing order of the motor
units, composed of a motor nerve (Neuron) and the group of muscles that it supplies, and makes
it possible for high frequency movements to occur. The whole process is not totally clear but the
complex co-ordination and timing of the motor units and muscles must be rehearsed at high
speeds to implant the correct patterns.
Flexibility training will affect stride length and frequency (strike rate).
Correct warm up will affect stride length and frequency (strike rate).
Stride length can be improved by developing muscular strength, power, strength endurance and
running technique.
The development of speed is highly specific and in order to achieve it ensure that :
Functional flexibility is developed and maintained all year round
Strength and speed are developed in parallel
Technique is pre-learned, rehearsed and perfected before it is done at high speed levels
Speed training is performed by using high velocity for brief intervals. This will ultimately
bring into play the correct neuromuscular pathways and energy systems.
When should speed work be conducted?
It is important to remember that the improvement of running speed is a complex process which is
controlled by the brain and nervous system.
In order for a runner to move more quickly, the leg muscles of course have to contract more
quickly, but the brain and nervous systems also have to learn to control these faster movements
efficiently.
If you maintain some form of speed training throughout the year, your muscles and nervous
system do not lose the feel of moving fast and the brain will not have to re-learn the proper
control patterns at a later date.
In the training week, speed work should be carried out after a period of rest or light training. In a
training session, speed work should be conducted after the warm up and any other training
should be of a low intensity.
Module 3 - Speed
40
FITNESS
Training Tools/Techniques
Fartlek Training:
Fartlek training is an excellent way to work on speed. It is a form of continuous training but with
regular bursts of speed; e.g. five to ten seconds, every 2 minutes or so during a session,
depending on the desired intensity. These sessions increase the involvement of the anaerobic
energy systems, whilst heavily using the aerobic system.
Acceleration Sprints:
Acceleration sprints are conducted for less than five seconds, with the athletes in a variety of
starting positions, e.g. lying, sitting, kneeling, standing - sport depending.
Longer Sprints:
Because acceleration work does not allow enough time for maximum sprinting speed to be
reached, it is necessary to extend the length of the sprint. This can be done in 20-second efforts,
in which maximum speed is held for 5 seconds, after 10 seconds of gradual acceleration.
Technique Training:
Correct technique is an important part of speed. This requires a gradual build-up to maximal
speed after several weeks of learning at submaximal rates. Seniors possessing a long history of
working with a poor technique may take longer than juniors to make the appropriate changes.
Reaction Drills:
Reaction time is an important sub-component in athletic speed. Reaction time is the delay
between sensing the need to move and actually moving. Reacting too late is obviously bad. It can
be improved by practicing reaction to common stimuli, such as sight or sound.
Module 3 - Speed
41
FITNESS
Fitness Assessments for Speed
Speed is the quickness of movement of a limb, whether this is the legs of a runner or the arm of
the shot putter. Speed is an integral part of every sport and can be expressed as any one of, or
combination of, the following:
•
•
•
maximum speed
elastic strength (power) (see Module 2 for power tests)
speed endurance
When assessing speed, the distance used needs to be appropriate to the sport and the trainer must
carefully determine what happens in a game or event.
In a sport such as cricket the test may be conducted over the distance between the wickets which
the batsmen are required to run. A set of tests could involve running singles and twos or even
threes, the latter of these involving the batsmen turning at the wicket and accelerating. In order to
ensure the test is even more specific, the test should be conducted in full cricket clothing with
pads and a bat.
Trainers should also consider whether the participant starts the test from a stationary position or
has a rolling start.
For a hockey goalkeeper rushing out to block a short corner, a stationary starting position is
appropriate, whereas for an 800m runner being assessed for ability to produce a good sprint
finish, a rolling start at 800m race pace leading into a timed 100m sprint is more relevant.
If using a stationary start the Trainer must be aware that the performer’s reaction time will have
an influence on the final time taken to complete a distance. Knowing this, the Trainer may decide
that it is important to cater for this within the test, or alternatively they may decide that reaction
time should not affect the test results.
Procedures for the following speed tests are outlined in this Module;
Stride Frequency
Stride Length
Sprint or Speed Test
30m Acceleration Test
35m Sprint Speed Test
60m Speed Test
Flying 30m Test
Tests for speed endurance / anaerobic endurance are in Module 2 (Power)
Stride Frequency (Brown and Ferringo 2005,p19)
Stride frequency is measured by the number of strides taken in a given amount of time or over a
given distance.
Stride Length(Brown and Ferringo 2005,p19)
Stride length is measured by the distance covered in a given amount of time.
Module 3 - Speed
42
FITNESS
Sprint or Speed Test Rob Woods Complete Guide to Fitness Testing (2006) Sprint or Speed
Test [online], available: http//www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/sprint.htm [accessed – 22 Jan
2006]
Objective
The purpose of this test is to determine maximum running speed.
Required Resources
Measuring tape or marked track
Stopwatch or timing gates
Markers.
It involves running a single maximum sprint over a set distance, with time recorded. The test is
conducted over different distances, such as 10, 20, 40 and/or 50 meters or yards, depending on
the sport and what you are trying to measure. The starting position should be standardised,
starting from a stationary position, with no rocking movements. If you have the equipment (e.g.
timing gates), you can measure the time to run each split distances (e.g. 5, 10, 20m) during the
same run, and then acceleration and peak velocity can also be determined. It is usual to give the
athletes an adequate warm-up and practice first, and some encouragement to continue running
hard past the finish line.
Analysis
Target Group
Sprinters, Team sport athletes
Reliability
motivation to perform the test. Reliability is greatly improved if timing gates are used. Also
weather conditions and running surface can affect the results, and these conditions should be
recorded with the results. If possible, set up the track with a crosswind to minimise the effect of
wind.
Validity
There are published tables to relate results to potential performance in competition (60 metres,
100 metres and 200 metres) and the correlation is high with experienced athletes.
Module 3 - Speed
43
FITNESS
30m Acceleration Test Sports Coach (1997) 30 Metre Acceleration Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/30accel.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's ability to effectively and
efficiently build up acceleration, from a standing start or from starting blocks, to maximum
speed.
Required Resources
400 metre track - with a 30 metre marked section on the straight
Stop watch
An assistant
The test comprises of 3 × 30 metre runs from a standing start or from starting blocks and with a
full recovery between each run. The assistant should record the time for the athlete to complete
the 30 metres.
Analysis
Normative data for the 30 metre test
Gender Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor
Male
<4.0
4.2 - 4.0
4.4 – 4.3 4.6 - 4.5
>4.6
Female <4.5
4.6 - 4.5
4.8 – 4.7 5.0 - 4.9
>5.0
Sports Coach (1997) 30 Metre Acceleration Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/30accel.htm
Target Group
This test is suitable for sprinters but not for individuals where the test would be contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are published tables to relate results to potential performance in competition (60 metres,
100 metres and 200 metres) and the correlation is high with experienced athletes.
Module 3 - Speed
44
FITNESS
35m Sprint Speed Test Sports Coach (1997) 35m Sprint Speed Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/speedtest.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of the sprint speed test is to assess maximum running speed. It involves running a
single maximum sprint over 35 metres.
Required Resources
Measuring tape or marked track
Stopwatch
Markers
Assistant
The athlete undertakes a warm up
A cone/marker is placed at 35 metres from the start line
The athlete sprints the 35 metres from a sprint start
The assistance records the time the athlete takes to complete the 35 metres
The best of 3 x 35 metre sprints is recorded
Analysis
Noramtive Data
Rating Male
Female
Excellent < 4.80
< 5.30
Good
4.80 - 5.09 5.30 - 5.59
Average 5.10 - 5.29 5.60 - 5.89
Fair
5.30 - 5.60 5.90 - 6.20
Poor
> 5.60
> 6.20
Sports Coach (1997) 35m Sprint Speed Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/speedtest.htm
Target Group
This test is suitable for active athletes but not for individuals where the test would be
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are no published tables to relate results to potential performance in competition.
Module 3 - Speed
45
FITNESS
60m Speed Test Sports Coach (1997) 60m Speed Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/speed60.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's acceleration and pick up to full flight
Required Resources
Stop watch
An assistant
The test comprises of 3 × 60 metre runs from a standing start and with a full recovery between
each run. The athlete is to use the first 30 metres to build up to maximum speed and then
maintain speed through to 60 metres. The Trainer should record the time for the athlete to
complete 30 metres and 60 metres. This test can be combined with the flying 30 metre test.
Analysis
Target Group
Reliability
Validity
Module 3 - Speed
46
FITNESS
Flying 30m Test Sports Coach (1997) Flying 30m Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/flying30.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's maximum speed
Required Resources
Cone to mark 30m point
Stop watch
Assistant
The test comprises of 3 × 60 metre runs from a standing start and with a full recovery between
each run. The athlete uses the first 30 metres to build up to maximum speed and then maintains
the speed through to 60 metres. This test can be combined with the 60 metre speed test. The
assistant records the time for the athlete to complete the:
First 30 metres
Whole 60 metres
Analysis
Normative data for the Flying 30 metre test
athletes.
% Rank Females
Males
91-100 2.90 - 2.99 seconds
2.50 - 2.59 seconds
81 - 90 3.00 - 3.09 seconds
2.60 - 2.69 seconds
71 - 80 3.10 - 3.19 seconds
2.70 - 2.79 seconds
61 - 70 3.20 - 3.29 seconds
2.80 - 2.89 seconds
51 - 60 3.30 - 3.39 seconds
2.90 - 2.99 seconds
41 - 50 3.40 - 3.49 seconds
3.00 - 3.09 seconds
31 - 40 3.50 - 3.59 seconds
3.10 - 3.19 seconds
21 - 30 3.60 - 3.69 seconds
3.20 - 3.29 seconds
11 - 20 3.70 - 3.79 seconds
3.30 -3.39 seconds
1 - 10
3.80 - 3.89 seconds
3.40 - 3.49 seconds
Sports Coach (1997) Flying 30m Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/flying30.htm
Target Group
Module 3 - Speed
47
FITNESS
Reliability
Validity
There are published tables to relate results to potential performance in competition and the
correlation is high with experienced athletes.
Module 3 - Speed
48
FITNESS
Module 4
Agility
Module 4 - Agility
49
FITNESS
Module 4
Agility
Duration: 1 hr
Learning Outcomes :
1.
Define agility.
2.
Describe the factors that affect agility.
3.
Apply the principles of training to programme design for the development of agility.
4.
agility.
Module 4 - Agility
50
FITNESS
Definition:
Agility is……………………
The ability to rapidly and accurately change the direction of the movement of the entire body in
space. (Corbin et al 2006, p.9)
The ability to rapidly change the position of the entire body in space, with speed and accuracy.
(NCEF 2005, p.130)
The ability to stop and change direction quickly. (Foran et al 2001, p.7)
Agility is not easy to define because it is the culmination of nearly all the physical abilities that
an athlete possesses. When integrated with a co-ordination system, agility permits an athlete to
react to a stimulus, start quickly and efficiently, move in the correct direction, and be ready to
change direction or stop quickly to make play in a fast, smooth, efficient and repeatable manner.
(Foran et al 2001, p.140)
The relationship between agility and physical abilities.
(Foran et al 201, p141)
Module 4 - Agility
51
FITNESS
The Factors That Affect Agility
An athlete can be compared with a computer system, both demonstrate a lot of power and
Potential. Without agility, however the athlete is as ineffective as a computer that lacks the
appropriate software – i.e. great potential but limited performance.
(Foran et al 2001)
People possess several types of Agility
e.g.
Whole-body horizontal changes of direction, such as faking and avoiding.
Whole-body vertical changes of direction, such as jumping and leaping.
Rapid movements of body parts that control the movement of implements in sports, such
as hurling, hockey and tennis.
Agility refers to two sorts of motor functions: (Brown and Ferringo 2005)
1.
It is integral to the ability to explosively start, decelerate, change direction and
accelerate again quickly while maintaining body control and minimising loss of speed.
Agility in this respect is important in sport because movements are often initiated from
various body positions, so athletes need to be able to react with strength explosiveness
and speed from these different positions in short bursts before a change of direction is
required.
2.
It is the ability to coordinate several sport specific tasks simultaneously, such as when a
player dribbles a football around the mid field defence while looking for an open team
mate to whom (s)he can pass the ball. Studies show that agility in these tasks is the
primary determining factor to predict success in a sport.
Factors Affecting Agility
Genetic Ability
Strength
Power
Acceleration
Deceleration
Co-ordination
Dynamic Balance
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
The Development Of Agility(Brown and Ferringo 2005)
Agility involves neural adaptations that can be developed over time with multiple repetitions.
The key to improving agility is to minimise the loss of speed when shifting the body’s centre of
gravity.
When designing an agility programme for athletic performance enhancement the following
components should be considered:
Strength
The maximal force that a specific muscle or muscle group can generate at a specified velocity.
Research has demonstrated a strong correlation between lower body strength and agility.
Power
Probably the most important aspect of sports specific training. The faster that an athlete can get
from one point to another, the greater his/her power.
Acceleration
Measured by the change in velocity per unit of time, acceleration plays a central role in going
from stationary to top speed and quickly increasing seed again on making a direction change.
Deceleration
The ability to decrease speed or come to a stop from a maximal or near maximal speed. It is key
to slowing down the body to a speed at which one can change direction quickly and then
accelerate again.
Co-ordination
Involves the ability to control and process multiple muscle movements in order to effectively
perform athletic skills.
Dynamic Balance
The ability to maintain control over the body while in motion. Agility is closely aligned with
balance in that it requires athletes to regulate shifts in the body’s centre of gravity while
undergoing postural deviation.
Frequency
Athletes should perform an agility training workout twice per week during off season and once
per week during the season.
Drill Selection
This is based on four factors :
1.
The movement patterns of the sport.
2.
The time and distance of the prescribed work intervals.
3.
How long the subsequent rest intervals are.
4.
Drill complexity.
Sequence
Drills that are highly technical, require the highest power output or are most similar to the
demands of the sport played by the athlete should be performed first.
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Recovery
The period of rest between repetitions should be based on the complexity of the skill and the
metabolic demands of the sport. The work rest intervals of agility drills should be consistent with
the sport.
Intensity
The speed at which the drill is performed, if the drill is timed the intensity can be measured by
the distance covered.
Volume/load
The quantity of the exercise performed e.g the athlete may perform four drills on the ladder,
completing each drill twice.
Equipment
Once the athlete is able to demonstrate proper technique at sport specific speed, the introduction
of other athletes in the field of play as partners or opponents as well as implements such as
exercise balls, resistance bands can be employed to increase the complexity of drills.
The following example of agility drills are included in the module:
60 yard Shuttle Sprint
40 Yard Backpedal-Forward
In addition all of the agility fitness assessments can be conducted as drills and incorporated into
the training programme for the improvement of agility
Module 4 - Agility
54
FITNESS
Agility Drill - 60 Yard Shuttle Sprint - Line Sprints (Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
Purpose
Improve agility and conditioning.
Procedure
Start in a two-point stance.
Sprint forward 5 yards (4.6 meters) to the first line and touch it with either hand. Turn and return
to the start line.
Sprint forward 10 yards (9 meters) to the second line and touch it with either hand. Turn and
return to the start line.
Sprint forward 15 yards (14 meters) to the third line and touch it with either hand. Turn and
return through the start line.
15 yards
1 0 yards
5 yards
6
5
4
3
2
1
Start
(Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
Module 4 - Agility
55
FITNESS
Agility Drill – 40 Yard Backpedal-Forward - Line Sprints (Brown and Ferrigno
2005)
Purpose
Improve agility, ability to change direction, and conditioning
Procedure
Start in a two-point stance with your back to the starting line.
Backpedal 5 yards (4.6 meters) to the first line, touch it with either foot, sprint back to the
starting line, and touch it with either foot.
Backpedal 10 yards (9 meters) to the second line, touch it with either foot, sprint back to the
starting line, and touch it with either foot.
Backpedal 5 yards (4.6 meters) to the first line, touch it with either foot, and sprint back to the
starting line.
10 Yards
5 Yards
< Backpedal <
> Sprint >
< Backpedal <
> Sprint >
< Backpedal <
> Sprint >
Start
(Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Fitness Assessments for Agility
Agility is the ability to change body position or direction of the body rapidly. This ability is
measured with running tests that require the subject to turn or start and stop. Agility is also
influenced by balance, co-ordination, position of centre of gravity, running speed and skill.
Agility is always a difficult area to test. The agility demands for different sports is very specific,
in terms of the speed and direction of turning, and includes extra factors like controlling a ball or
holding a stick. Many tests involve complex movements, what is actually being measured may
not be clear, and a good score may hide deficiencies in some aspect of agility.
When testing you need to decide which aspect of the sport specific testing you want to
investigate. Some research suggest that for example turning at 90 degrees is very different to
turning at 120 degrees, and being good at one doesn't necessarily mean you will be good at the
other. (Sports Coach 1997) It is also possible that turning in one direction, e.g. turning left, will
be worse than turning right.
You have to be careful in the interpretation of agility tests as you need to know what they are
exactly measuring. It is better to break down the agility movements you want to measure into
individual factors and measure each individually, such as turning left versus turning right,
turning at different angles. It is often easier to just make up the tests yourself, as differences in
surfaces used often make comparisons to other norms difficult. Therefore it is important for
consistency in testing and test conditions. Repeat tests should be conducted in the same hall
under the same conditions. All procedures and conditions used for tests that you design yourself
should be accurately recorded to allow exact replication during future testing.
Test procedures for the following agility tests are outlined in this Module;
Hexagonal obstacle test
Lateral Change of Direction Test
505 Agility test
Illinois Agility Run
Quick Feet Test
Shuttle Run test
‘T’ Drill Test
Zig Zag Test
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Hexagonal Obstacle Test Sports Coach (1997) Hexagonal Obstacle Test [online],
available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/hexagonal.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of the Hexagonal
Obstacle test is to monitor the athlete's
agility.
Required Resources
66 cm sided hexagon marked out on
the floor
Stop watch
Assistant
Sports Coach (1997) Hexagonal Obstacle Test [online image], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/hexagonal.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
The Hexagonal Obstacle Test is conducted as follows:
The athlete stands in the middle of the hexagon, facing line A
At all times throughout the test the athlete is to face line A
On the command GO the watch is started and the athlete jumps with both feet over line B and
back to the middle, then over line C and back to the middle, then line D and so on
When the athlete jumps over line A and back to the middle this counts as one circuit
The athlete is to complete three circuits
On completion of three circuits the watch is stopped and the time recorded
The athlete rests and then repeats the test
On completion of the second test determine the average of the two recorded times.
If you jump the wrong line or land on a line then the test is to be restarted.
Analysis
athlete's agility.
Normative data for the Hexagonal Obstacle Test
Gender
Excellent
Male
<11.2 secs
Female
<12.2 secs
Above Average
Average
Below Average
Poor
11.2 - 13.3 secs 13.4 - 15.5 secs 15.6 - 17.8 secs >17.8 secs
12.2 - 15.3 secs 15.4 - 18.5 secs 18.6 - 21.8 secs >21.8 secs
Sports Coach (1997) Hexagonal Obstacle Test [online image], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/hexagonal.htm
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
Advantages
Simple test to perform.
Disadvantages
Only one person can perform the test at a time
Module 4 - Agility
59
FITNESS
Lateral Change of Direction Test Sports Coach (1997) Lateral Change Of Direction Test
[online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/latchang.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's speed with directional change. This test is also
known as the 20 metre shuttle run.
Required Resources
To undertake this test you will require
Flat surface - track
Three cones
Stop watch
Assistant
The three cones are set five metres apart on a straight line.
The athlete starts at the middle cone
The Trainer gives the signal to start and points in a specific direction, right or left
The athlete moves to and touches the first cone, returns past the middle cone (start) to the far
cone and touches that one and then returns to the middle cone, touching that one.
The Trainer starts the stop watch on giving the 'Go' command and stops the watch when the
athlete touches the middle cone. The best of two trails in each starting direction, right and left,
are recorded and the best score in each direction is used for scoring.
Analysis
Normative data for the lateral change of direction test
athletes.
% Rank
Females
Males
91-100 3.22 - 3.37 secs
2.90 - 3.05 secs
81 - 90 3.38 - 3.53 secs
3.06 - 3.21 secs
71 - 80 3.54 - 3.69 secs
3.22 - 3.37 secs
61 - 70 3.70 - 3.85 secs
3.38 - 3.53 secs
51 - 60 3.86 - 4.01 secs
3.54 - 3.69 secs
41 - 50 4.02 - 4.17 secs
3.70 - 3.85 secs
31 - 40 4.18 - 4.33 secs
3.86 - 4.01 secs
21 - 30 4.34 - 4.49 secs
4.02 - 4.17 secs
11 - 20 4.50 - 4.65 secs
4.18 - 4.33 secs
1 - 10
4.66 - 4.81 secs
4.34 - 4.49 secs
Sports Coach (1997) Lateral Change Of Direction Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/latchang.htm
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are published tables to relate results to a potential level of fitness and the correlation is
high.
Module 4 - Agility
61
FITNESS
505 Agility Test Sports Coach (1997) 505 Agility Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/agility505.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's speed and agility
Required Resources
6 cones
Non slip surface
Stop watch
An assistant
Sports Coach (1997) 505 Agility Test [online image], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/agility505.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Mark out the course as per the diagram above. The distance from A to B is 10 metres and the
distance from B to C is 5 metres
The athlete runs from the start line (A) towards the 10 metre line (B) (run in distance to build up
speed)
The assistant starts the stop watch as the athlete passes through the 10 metre line (B).
The athlete runs on to the 15 metre line (C), turns and runs back towards the start line
The assistant stops the stop watch when the athlete passes through the 10 metre line (B) on their
return to the start line
The best of two trails is recorded
Analysis
with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would indicate an improvement
Target Group
contraindicated.
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Reliability
Validity
Comments
This is a test of 180 degree turning ability. This ability may not be applicable to some sports.
Module 4 - Agility
63
FITNESS
Illinois Agility Run Test Sports Coach (1997) Illinois Agility Run Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/illinois.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of the Illinois Agility Run Test is to monitor the development of the athlete's
agility
Required Resources
flat surface - a 400 metre Track
8 cones
Stop watch
Assistant
The Illinois course
The length of the course is 10
metres and the width (distance
between the start and finish points)
is 5 metres.
On the track you could use 5 lanes.
4 cones can be used to mark the
start, finish and the two turning
points.
Each cone in the centre is spaced
3.3 metres apart.
Sports Coach (1997) Illinois Agility Run Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/illinois.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
The Illinois Agility Run Test is conducted as follows:
The athlete lies face down on the floor at the start point
On the assistant's command the athlete jumps to his/her feet and negotiates the course around the
cones to the finish
The assistant records the total time taken from their command to the athlete completing the
course.
Analysis
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Normative data for the Illinois Agility Run Test
Gender
Excellent Above Average
Average
Below Average
Poor
Male
<15.2 secs 15.2 - 16.1 secs 16.2 - 18.1 secs 18.2 - 18.3 secs >18.3 secs
Female
<17.0 secs 17.0 - 17.9 secs 18.0 - 21.7 secs 21.8 - 23.0 secs >23.0 secs
Sports Coach (1997) Illinois Agility Run Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/illinois.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Target Group
This test is suitable for team sports but not for individuals where the test would be
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
high.
Advantages
This is a simple test to administer, requiring little equipment. Can test players ability to turn in
different directions, and different angles.
Disadvantages
Choice of footwear and surface of area can effect times greatly.
Results can be subject to timing inconsistencies, which may be overcome by using timing gates.
Cannot distinguish between left and right turning ability.
Variations
The starting and finishing sides can be swapped, so that turning direction is changed.
Module 4 - Agility
65
FITNESS
Quick Feet Test Sports Coach (1997) Quick Feet Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/qikfeet.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The quick feet test provides information on the presence of fast-twitch muscle fibre in the
muscles involved in sprinting and indicates your potential to execute quick movements.
Hereditary factors such as limb length, muscle attachments, and proportion of fast-twitch fibres
do place a limit on one's maximum potential, but we can improve our speed and quickness with
proper
Required Resources
To undertake this test you will require
Flat surface
20 two-foot long sticks or a 20-rung rope ladder
Stop watch
Assistant
Sports Coach (1997) Agility Ladder [online image],
available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/qikfeet.htm
Place 20 two-foot long sticks 18 inches apart or a 20-rung stride rope ladder on grass or athletics
track.
Athletes should pump their arms vigorously in a sprint-arm motion and use very little knee lift
while running down the ladder without touching the sticks/rungs.
The Trainer starts the stopwatch when the athlete's foot first touches the ground between the first
and second stick/rung and stops the watch when contact is first made with the ground beyond the
last stick/rung. Record the best of two trials.
Analysis
athlete's foot speed.
Normative Data
Speed through a ladder can indicate much about an athlete's quickness. A time of less than 2.8
seconds for males and 3.4 seconds for females for running the length of a 20 rung ladder, one
foot in each rung at a time, is considered as excellent for college athletes.
Males
Time
Jnr High School < 3.8 seconds
Snr High School < 3.3 seconds
College
< 2.8 seconds
Females
Jnr High School
Snr High School
College
Time
< 4.2 seconds
< 3.8 seconds
< 3.4 seconds
Sports Coach (1997) Quick Feet Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/qikfeet.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Module 4 - Agility
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FITNESS
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
high.
Module 4 - Agility
67
FITNESS
Shuttle Run Test Sports Coach (1997) Shuttle Run Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/runtest.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of this test is to assess the athlete's ability to accelerate between marked lines and
to rapidly change direction
Required Resources
Two marked parallel lines 10m apart
Two wooden blocks 5 cm x 5 cm x 10 cm
Stopwatch
Assistant
The athlete is required to sprint from the starting line to pick up a block and then place it on the
ground behind the starting line. The athlete then sprints to pick up the second block and turns to
sprint over the starting line
The stopwatch is started on the command "Go" and stopped when the athlete's chest crosses the
line
An attempt is not counted if the block is dropped rather than placed on the floor. Also the block
must be placed behind and not on the line
Repeat the test 3 times
Record the best time
Analysis
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
The athlete starts at one cone, and runs between the cones a number of times.
The quickest time to run a certain number of shuttles is determined.
Modifications:
The test procedure can be varied by changing the number of shuttles performed, or by just
getting the athlete to run between cones a set number of times without having to pick up the
blocks. The quickest time to run a certain number of shuttles is determined.
Module 4 - Agility
68
FITNESS
'T' Drill Test Sports Coach (1997) ‘T’ Drill Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/tdrill.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's speed with directional change.
Required Resources
Flat surface
Four cones
A stop watch
An assistant
Three cones are set five metres apart on a straight line. A fourth cone is placed 10 metres from
the middle cone so that the cones form a 'T'.
The athlete starts at the cone at the base of the 'T'
The Trainer gives the signal to 'Go' and starts the stop watch
The athlete runs to the middle cone, touches the cone
The athlete then side steps 5 metres to the left cone, touches that cone
The athlete then side steps 10 metres to the far cone and touches that one
The athlete the side steps 5 metres back to the middle cone, touching that one
The athlete then runs 10 metres backwards to the base of the 'T' and touches that cone
The Trainer stops the watch
Analysis
athlete's speed.
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
There are published no tables to relate results to a potential level of fitness.
Module 4 - Agility
69
FITNESS
Zig-Zag Test Sports Coach (1997) Zig Zag Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/zigzag.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's speed and agility.
Required Resources
5 cones
Non slip surface
Stop watch
An assistant
Mark out the course with four cones placed on the corners of a rectangle 10 by 16 feet, with one
more cone placed in the centre
The athlete follows the grey route identified on the diagram
The athlete completes one circuit of the course starting and finishing at the Start & Finish cone
(see diagram)
The assistant records the time to the nearest 0.5 seconds
Sports Coach (1997) Zig Zag Test [online image], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/zigzag.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Analysis
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
Module 4 - Agility
70
FITNESS
Module 5
Co-ordination
Module 5 – Co-ordination
71
FITNESS
Module 5
Co-ordination
Duration: 1 hr
Learning Outcomes :
1.
Define co-ordination.
2..
Apply the principles of training to programme design for the development of coordination.
3.
Demonstrate an understanding of how to apply appropriate techniques for assessing coordination.
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FITNESS
Definition
Co-ordination is………………………..
The ability to use the senses, such as sight and hearing together with body parts in performing
motor tasks smoothly and accurately. (Corbin et al 2006, p.9) (NCEF 2005, p.130)
The working together of various muscles for the production of a certain movement. (Foran et al
2001, p.142)
The ability of the body to organise two or more patterns to achieve a specific movement goal.
(Foran et al 2001, p.142)
Co-ordination involves the ability to control and process multiple muscle movements in order to
effectively perform athletic skills. (Brown and Ferrigno 2005, p.73)
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FITNESS
The Development Of Co-ordination
Co-ordination involves an intricate and complex sequence of activities. These activities
encompass reacting to sensory input (stimulus), choosing and processing the proper motor
programme from learned skills (motor learning) and executing the action.
Information is sent to the brain for prediction, evaluation and adjustment, this entire process
occurs in a matter of milliseconds.
The process of motor learning can be broken into four steps:
1.
Muscle movements stimulate the sensory receptors.
2.
The sensory receptors send information to the central nervous system (CNS), which
acts as a processor for the information.
3.
The CNS executes, adjusts or improves this information.
4.
The CNS sends the information back to the required muscles via the motor pathways.
Because any external or internal stimulus can affect the outcome at any level of the process, the
system is both complex and effective.
The process for motor learning is the systematic change of movement behaviour leading first to
attainment of and later to the perfection of a certain motor skill. (Foran et al 2001, p142)
The vital steps in motor skill learning are as follows:
Stimulus Identification
Athletes receive information through an external (exafferent) pathway and an internal
(reafferent) pathway. The external pathway comes from external stimuli, whereas the internal
pathways receive information relayed to the CNS from ongoing motor behaviour. Information
comes in from one or a combination of our five basic sensory analysers (kinaestethicproprioceptive, tactile, static-dynamic, vestibular, optic, acoustical)
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FITNESS
Response Selection
The incoming information is processed during this stage. After the information has been
processed, the athlete’s library of existing motor programmes is assessed. A selection is then
made to elicit the most suitable response based on the information acquired.
Response Programming
Response programming executes the motor programme that best fits the situation,
simultaneously creating a reference to that choice. This motor programme is then executed by
passing through the CNS to the appropriate muscles, stimulating the correct motor unit
recruitment and synchronisation required to produce movement. At every level of this process
feedback is being sent back and compared with the desired outcome.
Feedback
Several types of feedback occur throughout the execution of this process. The muscles relay
their force and length, the proprioceptors report on joint & body position, the vestibular system
reports on body position, the visual and auditory systems add information about the environment.
All of this information passes back along the response produced feedback motorway. The
information is used to compare the actual programme with the desired programme and to initiate
the error elimination process by which the body starts to suppress actions that might hinder the
desired performance.
The good thing about the development of co-ordination and motor skill learning is that the
athlete learns from each action by trial, error and success.
From the minute coaches start developing athletes they lay down the motor programmes, skills
and habits that will be the basis for all future performance. The athlete’s brain learns these habits
by creating memorised patterns called engrams, these are motor programmes that become
permanent fixtures in the brain when practiced a sufficient number of times, and can be positive
or negative depending on the quality of the input.
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FITNESS
There are three main stages in co-ordination development / refinement
1.
Crude co-ordination – during this stage the athlete attempts to learn a new task and
must consciously comprehend all movements. The athlete must be aware of his/her
body in order to control the new task. (S)He will rely heavily on visual and auditory
input systems because the other senses of the body aren’t ready to give highly
accurate information. This sensory hierarchy will invert itself as the learning process
progresses into fine and superfine refinement.
2.
Fine co-ordination (special) – in this phase the athlete starts to internalise how
movement should feel, relying less on the visual and auditory systems, with the
exception of input from the coach, and relying more on the depth receptors,
proprioceptors and dynamic and static contact receptors. The athlete uses feedback
chain mechanisms that refine the motor skill while inhibiting undesirable reactions
and enhancing the efficiency of the goal outcome skill.
3.
Superfine co-ordination (specific) – this is the final stage of motor learning, when
integration of the automated motor programmes that have been cleaned of
superfluous activity allows the athlete to execute the movement efficiently under a
variety of conditions.
During the co-ordination refinement process the body learns how to improve the efficiency of
desired movements. Efficiency can be increased by improving intramuscular and intermuscular
co-ordination.
Intramuscular co-ordination involves the ability to co-ordinate many neuromuscular units to act
simultaneously to perform a muscular contraction.
Intermuscular co-ordination is the co-operative interaction of several muscles in order to perform
an action.
The saying “Practice makes perfect” is not entirely true, it’s more accurate to say that “Perfect
practice makes perfect.”
(Foran et al 2001)
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FITNESS
Neural Drills
Neural drills are used to develop athlete’s motor learning and co-ordination as well as the elastic
properties of the muscles. Drills should be selected depending on the goal of the training
session. There are four basic drill types :
1.
Rapid Response drills improve various types of co-ordination and lay the foundation
for higher level plyometrics.
2.
Short Response drills improve elastic strength and reaction time.
3.
Long Response drills improve power.
4.
Very Long Response drills improve speed and power.
Rapid Response Drills are the ones most suited to the development of co-ordination. These drills
require high neuromuscular frequency through high velocity and low force (e.g. moving your
limbs like a sewing machine). Rapid response drills improve various types of co-ordination and
lay the foundation for higher level plyometrics used in the short, long and very long response
drills.
Examples of Rapid Response Drills are as follows:
Running or seated fast arm movements.
Skipping (with rope).
SAQ Ladder drills.
77
FITNESS
Fitness Assessments for Co-ordination
Procedures for the following co-ordination tests are outlined in this Module;
The Stick Test of Co-ordination
Hand-eye Co-ordination Test
The Stick Test of Co-ordination (Corbin et al, 2006, p266)
The stick test of co-ordination requires you to juggle three wooden sticks. The sticks are used to
perform a one-half flip and a full flip, as shown in the illustrations.
Resources
3 x 24 inch dowel rods (1/2 inch diameter), score sheet.
Practice the half-flip and full flip several times before taking the test.
When you are ready, attempt a half-flip five times.
Score 1 point for each successful attempt.
Hand position The Stick Test of Co-
When you are ready, attempt the full flip five times.
ordination (Corbin et
al, 2006, p266)
Score 2 points for each successful attempt.
One-half flip- Hold two 24-inch (1/2 inch in diameter) dowel
rods, one in each hand. Support a third rod of the same size across the other
two. Toss the supported rod in the air so that it makes a half turn. Catch the
thrown rod with the two held rods.
Full flip-Perform the preceding task, letting the supported rod turn a full
flip.
Half Flip
The Stick Test of Coordination (Corbin et al, 2006,
p266)
Analysis
Normative Data for the Stick Test of Co-ordination
Compare results with the norms below:
Gender
Men
Women
Poor
0-2
0-1
Fair
3-4
2-3
Good
5-10
4-9
Very Good
11-13
10-12
Excellent
14-15
13-15
The Stick Test of Co-ordination, Co-ordination Rating Scale (Corbin et al, 2006, p266)
78
FITNESS
Test For Hand-Eye Co-ordination
The Science Education Resource Page - SERP (2006) Fit Is It [online], available:
http://serp.la.asu.edu/Health_dir/Health_dir13/FitIsIt.pdf [accessed-24 Mar 06]
Objective
To assess hand eye co-ordination.
Resources
Flat wall (indoors or outdoors), Hand Ball, Record
Sheet.
How to Conduct the Test
Stand approximately 2 meters (about 6 feet) from a
flat wall.
Toss a ball from your right hand (underhanded),
against the wall.
Catch the ball with your left hand and quickly toss it
back against the wall with that same hand.
When the ball comes back, catch it with your right
hand.
The Science Education Resource Page - SERP
(2006) Fit Is It [online], available:
http://serp.la.asu.edu/Health_dir/Health_dir13/FitI
sIt.pdf [accessed-24 Mar 06]
Keep doing this for 30 seconds.
Count the number of times that you catch the ball with
each hand.
Analysis
Normative Data for the Stick Test of Co-ordination
Compare results with the norms below:
Poor
less than 10
Fair
10-14
Good
15-19
Very Good
20-24
Excellent
25 upwards
The Science Education Resource Page - SERP (2006) Fit Is It [online], available:
http://serp.la.asu.edu/Health_dir/Health_dir13/FitIsIt.pdf [accessed-24 Mar 06]
Modifications
This test can be adapted for sports that use implements such as tennis, hurling, hockey,
using the implement to hit the ball and alternating between forehand and backhand hits.
This test can be adapted to Foot-Eye co-ordination by using a football and kicking the ball
against the wall, alternating feet with each kick.
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FITNESS
Module 6
Balance
Module 6 – Balance
80
FITNESS
Module 6
Balance
Duration: 1 hr
Learning Outcomes :
1.
Define balance.
2.
Describe the factors that affect balance.
3.
Apply the principles of training to programme design for the development of balance.
4.
balance.
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FITNESS
Definition
Balance is…………………………
The maintenance of equilibrium while stationary or moving. (Corbin et al 2006, p.9) (NCEF
2005, p.130)
The ability to maintain the centre of body mass over a base of support. (Foran et al 2001, p.145)
Although balance can sometimes be difficult to define and measure, it is basically the ability to
maintain the body’s position over its base of support, whether the base is stationary or moving
(Rogers et al. 2003).
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FITNESS
TheFactors Affecting Balance
The ability to maintain balance requires the successful integration of multiple components.
Among these components are the following sensory systems, which are not typically affected by
resistance training:
Visual system
Vestibular system
Somatosensory system
Visual System
Provides information about a person’s position and movement through the environment and
identifies objects to step around or over
Vestibular System
Located in the inner ear, and provides information about head movement and the body’s position
in space
Somatosensory System
Monitors the body’s position and contact with other objects (including the ground/floor) through
muscle receptors that detect limb and body movement,
and skin receptors that relay information about touch and vibration.
Working Together
Based on input (afferent signals) from the sensory systems, the brain sends messages (efferent
signals) to the muscles, which then make the necessary adjustments to maintain balance.
If any of these systems are impaired, the body’s ability to maintain balance decreases.
Muscular Strength
Muscle strength is another factor that plays a role in balance and mobility. For example, deficits
in leg strength are related to diminished gait velocity, stride length and balance.
Increasing strength may not only offset some of these deficits but also modify other factors—
such as postural control, proprioceptive input, range of motion and confidence.
Based on input (afferent signals) from the sensory systems, the brain sends messages (efferent
signals) to the muscles, which then make the necessary adjustments to maintain balance
Other Factors Affecting Balance
Momentum
Changing Direction
Obstacles
Terrain
Footwear
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FITNESS
The Development Of Balance
Peak Performance (2006) Balance exercise: learn to keep your balance with some simple
balance training drills [Online] http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/balance-exercise.html
[accessed - 15 Feb 2006]
Athletes today use balance training as an integral part of their overall training programmes, both
for injury prevention and performance enhancement.
Balance is needed by runners when negotiating woodland, by tennis players when reaching for a
drop shot and by footballers taking the ball on the volley from slightly behind themselves. Each
of these situations requires the exercise of just the right amount of flexibility and agility at the
right time and from the right areas of the body in order for us to execute the desired task, recover
and then be able to repeat the same or similar tasks without injury.
With balance training, as with most training, the idea is to recreate and manipulate in a controlled
environment what we do in an event or game situation.
Maintaining balance means having the centre of mass within your base of support, ie with your
trunk aligned over your feet. In the past we have tended to believe that perfect balance was best
illustrated by standing on one leg and staying as still as possible for as long as possible.
However, if we were to take a time lapsed photograph of someone performing that activity over
several minutes, even the most skilful mime artist would fail to reproduce it. That’s because,
even when we are trying to remain completely still, our body is constantly oscillating,
transferring energy, loading and unloading in a type of perfect chaos. The point is that the body’s
systems are set up to respond to feedback, and if we were to remain completely still no feedback
could be offered.
Balance is a dynamic process which applies to everything we do, including walking or running,
where we are perpetually losing and regaining our balance, tennis, where we are loading the
system on the forehand, decelerating those forces and exploding out, and football, where we
could be rotating to go one way then suddenly have to change direction. The questions we have
to ask ourselves as athletes are: how far out of the centre can I go? How far and how fast can I
load the system, decelerate those forces and reel myself back in? And am I able to deal with
those forces and those torques in all three planes of movement?
To understand the body’s dynamic balance capabilities you need first to have some grasp of the
‘proprioceptive system’, which feeds back information about position, movement and balance
from the body’s other systems, including the central and peripheral nervous systems.
A recently-published study from America illustrates the synergy of the proprioceptive system,
with key implications for balance training. Eighteen college students were asked to stand on one
leg (the balancing leg held in a crossover position to act as a counter balance) with eyes open for
12 seconds on three different surfaces – firm, foam and sloping. They then repeated the test with
eyes closed on a firm surface. The researchers found that the ankle was the dominant source of
corrective action under all conditions. However, under conditions of greater challenge (as with
the foam surface or with eyes shut), there was more corrective action at the hip and/or knee.
(Physiotherapy, Nov 1, 2002; 88(11): 667-676 ISSN: 00319406)
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FITNESS
This study shows that when training for balance we can use different ‘tweaks’ (such as repeating
the same drill with eyes shut or while shaking the head) to intensify the effects of the training.
Alternating the surface of your balance workout is another good ‘tweak’: work out on grass
every so often or, for gym workouts, simply repeat each balance drill on an exercise mat to get a
different ‘feel’.
Very few sports required the level of instability provided by a wobble board, and as the abovementioned study points out, the more unstable the surface the more compensatory action is
needed further up the chain in the knee, hip, and trunk. Even for ankle rehabilitation, the
effectiveness of wobble boards is limited when compared with what you can do simply by using
your own body to create instability. These pieces of kit are artificial, do not reproduce any tasks
associated with function and suggest a lack of creativity in functional training and rehabilitation.
Balance training for your sport should involve replicating components of function associated
with that sport, and thus the exercises outlined here range from the general to the sport-specific
(tennis and football), with various suggested tweaks for purposes of progression.
For all runners, the general drills will be best suited to your needs
One-leg punches
Stand on one leg, with the other leg next to, but not touching, the supporting leg. Using 1kg hand
weights, alternate punches in the air above the head (10x each arm), keeping the supporting knee
slightly bent, perhaps with a little bounce on each rep. Then repeat, punching out to the side
above shoulder height. Now (still balancing on the same leg) alternate crossover punches above
the head, still 10x each arm (exercise 1, below). Then repeat the whole routine while standing on
the other leg. You then repeat the entire drill once more, this time starting with alternate punches
in front of you at shoulder height (exercise 2, below), moving onto lateral punches (out to the
side) at shoulder height, and finally crossover punches below head height.
Peak Performance (2006) Balance exercise: One-leg punches [Online Image] Available: http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/balance-exercise.html
Suggested variations on this drill are as follows:
Introduce progression by using slightly heavier weights, or repeating the drill with eyes closed,
or on grass or an exercise mat;
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FITNESS
Jump Steps (General) This drill involves a jump step forwards from a standing start onto one
foot, holding for a count of two, then returning to the starting position. (The distance you jump
will depend on your balance threshold.) Repeat on the other side. This forwards-backwards
movement is what’s called working in the saggittal plane. Next we need to work in the frontal
plane (side to side). So, from the starting position, take a jump step out to the left on the left foot,
hold for a count of two, then jump step back to the starting position. Repeat on the other side.
The third plane of movement (perhaps the most important) is the transverse plane, involving a
posterior lateral jump step. Imagine you are standing in the centre of a big clock face, facing 12
o’clock. First take a jump step back to the 8 o’clock position on the left side, making sure your
left foot is pointing to 8 o’clock; hold for two seconds then jump step back to the start. Now
repeat to 4 o’clock on the right side.
Variations are as follows:
For progression, repeat the drill with one or more of the following embellishments to accompany
the jump steps: 1- arms above the head; 2- hands reaching out to touch landing foot;
3 - (in the transverse plane) rotate arms away from the body when jumping out, then into your
body when jumping back; 4 - arms driving in different directions as you jump step – one
forwards, the other out to the side.
Jump Step - Tennis Tweak Take a jump step forwards onto the right foot while taking a
forehand volley (exercise 3, below), then jump step back. Repeat on the left foot with a backhand
volley. Now repeat the routine in the frontal plane, jump stepping to the right on the right foot to
make the forehand volley and to the left for a backhand. Then repeat using the clock face
analogy, jump stepping back to 4 o’clock to make the forehand volley from slightly behind you
then repeating on the left to 8 o’clock for the backhand. If left-handed, do the opposite.
Peak Performance (2006) Balance exercise: One-leg punches [Online Image] Available: http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/balance-exercise.html
Jump Step - Football Tweak
Apply the same principles as the tennis tweak, jump stepping with one foot while a server feeds
you volleys to strike with the other foot (exercise 4, above).
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FITNESS
Football Balance Drill
Stand on the left leg while taking 10 headers from a server 1.5 metres in front of you, heading
them directly back. Then, still standing on the left leg, rotate your head to the left while the
server feeds you 10 headers from the left and you head them down to the server’s feet. The
server then feeds you 10 headers from his original position in front of you, and this time you
direct the balls to a target at 10 o’clock on the left leg or 2 o’clock on the right leg. Repeat the
drills on the other foot, always aiming to keep the free leg off the ground, next to but not
touching the supporting leg.
Tennis Balance Drill
Standing at the net on the right leg, direct five forehand volleys (above shoulder height) straight
down the line and another five cross court. Repeat on the left leg, this time using backhand (if
left-handed do the opposite). Then do five overhead smashes on each leg. Then repeat the entire
drill with volleys delivered at or below shoulder height.
Balance drills can be easily integrated into any current conditioning programme and can be
performed when fresh or fatigued. It is a good strategy to vary the time of day that the drills are
performed as well as the surface used.
Keep balance training task-oriented, and try not to concentrate too hard on just balancing as this
just muddies the waters.
Balance is something we need for life. As we get older we need to train a lot smarter in all
departments, and balance is no exception.
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FITNESS
Fitness Assessments for Balance
2 Types of Balance
Static balance - the ability to maintain balance during quiet standing;
Dynamic balance- the ability to anticipate and react to changes in balance as the body moves.
Why is Balance Important?
Balance allows us to maintain an upright posture i.e. to stand upright.
Balance enables us to maintain an upright position while moving.
Helps to prevent injury by enabling us to maintain upright posture while reacting to unexpected
external forces/ stimuli.
Stability & Balance
Stability describes how difficult it is to disturb equilibrium.
Balance is the process of controlling equilibrium
Equilibrium - An object is said to be in a state of equilibrium when it’s motion is not changing.
Procedures for the following Balance tests are outlined in this Module;
Standing Stork Test
Standing Stork Test – Blind
The Bass Test of Dynamic Balance
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FITNESS
Standing Stork Test Sports Coach (1997) Standing Stork Test [online] , available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/storktst.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's ability to maintain a state of equilibrium (balance) in
a static position.
Required Resources
Warm dry location - gym
Stop watch
An assistant
Stand comfortable on both feet. Hands on hips.
Lift one leg and place the toes of that foot against the knee of the other leg
On command from the Trainer:
Raise the heel and stand on your toes
Trainer starts the stop watch
Balance for as long as possible without letting either the heel touch the ground
or the other foot move away from the knee.
Trainer records the time you were able to maintain the balance.
Repeat the test for the other leg.
Analysis
Analysis of the result is by comparing it with the results of
previous tests. It is expected that, with appropriate training
between each test, the analysis would indicate an improvement.
Normative data for the Stork Test
Gender
Excellent Above Average
Average
Male
>50 secs
50 - 41 secs
40 - 31 secs
Female
>30 secs
30 - 23 secs
22 - 16 secs
Sports Coach (1997) Standing Stork Test
[online image], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/stork
tst.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Below Average
Poor
30 - 20 secs
<20 secs
15 - 10 secs
<10 secs
Sports Coach (1997) Standing Stork Test , available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/storktst.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
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FITNESS
Standing Stork Test – Blind Sports Coach (1997) Standing Stork Test Blind [online],
available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bstorktst.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's ability to maintain a state of equilibrium (balance) in
a static position.
Required Resources
Warm dry location - gym
Stop watch
An assistant
Stand comfortable on both feet. Hands on hips.
Stand on your preferred leg with the foot flat on the ground, lift the other leg and place the toes
of that foot against the knee of the preferred leg.
On command from the assistant:
Close your eyes. Assistant starts the stop watch. Balance for as long as possible
The watch is stopped when you open your eyes or move your hands or take your foot off your
knee or move your standing foot
Assistant records the time you were able to maintain the balance.
Repeat the test three times.
Analysis
Normative Data
Best Time (secs)
Male – Points
Female – Points
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
3
2
1
20
17
14
11
8
4
2
Sports Coach (1997) Standing Stork Test Blind [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bstorktst.htm
Target Group
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
90
FITNESS
The Bass test of Dynamic Balance (Corbin et al 2006, p.265)
Objective
To assess dynamic balance
Resources
Dry flat ground area, indoors or outdoors, Test template, Chalk, protractor or goniometer, record
sheet, stopwatch.
How to conduct the Test
Eleven circles (9 1/2 inch) are
drawn on the floor as shown in
the illustration. The test is
performed as follows:
Stand on the right foot in circle
X. Leap forward to circle 1,
then circle 2 through 10,
alternating feet with each leap.
The feet must leave the floor
on
each leap and the heel may not
touch. Only the ball of the foot
and toes may land on the floor.
Remain in each circle for 5
seconds before leaping to the
next circle. (A count of 5 will
be made for you aloud.)
Practice trials are allowed.
(Corbin et al 2006, p.265)
Analysis
The score is 50, plus the number of seconds taken to complete the test, minus the number of
errors.
For every error, deduct 3 points
each. Errors include touching the heel, moving the supporting foot, touching outside a circle, and
touching any body part to the floor other than the supporting foot.
Compare results to the norms below:
Excellent
90-100
Very Good
80-89
Good
60-79
Fair
30-59
Poor
0-29
(Corbin et al 2006, p.265)
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FITNESS
Module 7
Reaction time
Module 7 – Reaction Time
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FITNESS
Module 7
Reaction time
Duration: 1 hr
Learning Outcomes :
1.
Define reaction time.
2.
Describe the factors that affect reaction time.
3.
Apply the principles of training to programme design for the development of reaction
time.
4.
reaction time.
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FITNESS
Definition
Reaction time is……………………………………
The time elapsed between stimulation and the beginning of a reaction to it. (Corbin et al 2006,
p.9) (NCEF 2005, p.130)
Read – React – Explode.
Reaction time is the interval time between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation of the
muscular response to that stimulus. (Sports Coach 1997)
Reaction time is defined as the length of time it takes to initiate a movement. It includes the
sensation and perception of a stimulus, and the selection of an appropriate response to the
stimulus. (Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
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FITNESS
The Factors That Affect Reaction Time
Genetic Ability
Some people have a natural ability for faster reaction times.
Stimulus Choices (Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
A primary factor affecting reaction time / response time is the number of possible stimulus
choices that are presented at a given time. There are 3 different types of response selections;
Simple Reaction – one signal with only one response, e.g. start gun.
Choice Reaction – more than one signal with more than one possible response.
(as the number of possible signal-response pairs increase the time required to respond to
any one also increases – Hick 1952)
Recognition Reaction – various impending signals but only one correct reaction.
Research has shown that the reaction time increases proportionally to the number of possible
responses until a point at which the response time remains constant despite the increases in
possible responses. (Sports Coach 1997)
Anticipation
Anticipation is when the athlete uses the surrounding signals to anticipate what and when
particular events are likely to occur.
Skill-Specific Practice
Greater amounts of skill specific practice produce shorter processing times and faster choice
reaction times and are affected less by signal-response alternatives.
The implementation of functional training will stimulate the conversion of conscious
programming to unconscious programming (Brown and Ferrigno 2005; Prentice and Voight
1999)
Anxiety
Anxiety slows reaction times by adding conflicting information
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FITNESS
The Development Of Reaction Time
Reaction time is defined as the length of time it takes to initiate a movement but it does not
include the movement itself. Consequently, when describing athletic movement it is more
accurate to describe an athlete’s reaction to a signal in terms of total response time. (Brown and
Ferrigno 2005)
Total response time can be broken down into two components mental processing speed and
movement time. (Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
Mental Processing Speed (Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
This is broken down into 3 stages – sensation, perception and response selection.
Sensation: during this stage an environmental stimulus acts on the athletes body, an
electric impulse is sent to the brain for processing. The interval time that elapses while
the athlete detects the sensory input (light sound touch etc) from an object or the
environment is called the sensation time. The processing of the information received
during the sensation stage begins to give meaning to the situation presented and leads on
to the 2nd stage.
Perception: during this stage the results of the sensation stage are further processed,
resulting in usable patterns of object movement that bring fuller meaning to the situation.
The interval time here is called perception time. This leads onto the 3rd stage.
Response selection: in this stage the athlete decides if a response is necessary to address
the stimulus or not.
Movement Time (Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
Movement time is the time required to initiate and complete a specific movement or task. It
involves the mechanisms of the brain stem and spinal cord that are involved with neuromuscular
organisation, as well as the actual activation of the muscles required for adequate force
production, force reduction, force stabilisation and timing.
Reaction time itself is an inherent ability, but overall response time can be improved by practice.
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FITNESS
Trainer and athletes need to analyse the type of skill and the requirements of their sport
and decide where overall response gains can be made.
Consider the following:
Detecting the cue - in a sprint start, focusing on the starter's voice and the sound of the gun and
separating this from background crowd noise and negative thoughts.
Detecting relevant cues - a goalkeeper learning to analyse body language at penalties.
Decision making - working on set pieces and game situations
Change in attentional focus - being able to switch quickly from concentration on the opponent to
concentration on the field of play in invasion games
Controlling anxiety - which slows reaction times by adding conflicting information
Creating optimum levels of motivation - 'psyching up'
Warm up - to ensure the sense organs and nervous system are ready to transmit information and
the muscles to act upon it .
Anticipation
Anticipation is a strategy used by athletes to reduce the time they take to respond to a stimulus
e.g. the tennis player who anticipates the type of serve the opponent will use (spatial or event
anticipation). In this case the player has learnt to detect certain cues early in the serving sequence
which predicts the potential type of serve. This means the player can start to position him/herself
for the return earlier in the sequence than usual and thus give themselves more time to play the
shot when the ball arrives. Obviously there are dangers for the tennis player in anticipating in
this way but the advantages of getting it right are great.
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FITNESS
Reaction Speed Drills
The objective of reaction speed drills is to improve your reaction time to a stimulus.
The drills can include the control of an object (e.g. football or hockey puck).
The cue for the reaction to take place can be visual (movement of an object) or a specific
command (voice) or sound (starters gun).
The cue should be appropriate to your event or sport - starters gun for a sprinter.
The following are examples of reaction speed drills to an external stimulus.
Applicable to any event or sport where pure speed over the ground is important
Starting position
Lying on the ground on their back or front
Command
Voice or sound
Action
To get up and sprint 20 metre to 30 metre to a designated point
The designated point could be the Trainer who moves from point
to point so that the athletes only have the sound of the command
Notes
to initially determine where the Trainer is positioned
Sports Coach (1997) Reaction Time , available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/reactiontime.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
For sports where a ball is to be controlled by the athlete
Starting position
Easy running controlling the ball
Command
Voice command of left, right, back or forward
To sprint in the direction of the command for a designated
distance, whilst controlling the ball, and then return to easy
Action
running
Drill can be repeated 3 or 4 times bringing the athlete back to
Notes
the starting point to pass the ball to the next athlete.
For sprinters to improve their reaction to the starting gun
Starting position
Standing tall and relaxed
Blow on a whistle or clap of the hands - given from behind the
Command
athlete
The following should all happen together:
The right knee is brought sharply up to a position where the
thigh is parallel with the ground, the lower leg is vertical to the
Action
ground and the foot is dorsi flexed
The arms are brought to the sprint position
The athlete rises up onto the toes of the left foot
It is assumed that the right foot is placed in the rear block of the
starting blocks on a sprint start - if it is the left foot then change
Notes
the leg action above
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FITNESS
Fitness Assessment for Reaction Time
Ruler Drop Test Sports Coach (1997) Ruler Drop Test [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/rulerdrop.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Objective
The objective of this test is to monitor the athlete's reaction time
Required Resources
A one 1 metre ruler
An assistant
The ruler is held by the assistant between the outstretched index finger and thumb of the athlete's
dominant hand, so that the top of the athlete's thumb is level with the zero cm line on the ruler.
The assistant instructs the athlete to catch the ruler as soon as possible after it has been released.
The assistant is to record distance between the bottom of the ruler and the top of the athlete's
thumb where the ruler has been caught.
Analysis
The algorithm to calculate the reaction speed is d = vt + ½at² where
d = distance in metres
v = initial velocity = 0
a = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/s²
t = time in seconds
We need to manipulate d = vt + ½at² to give us an algorithm for t
As v = 0 then vt = 0 therefore the algorithm is t = Sqrt(2d/a)
Example
d = 9cm
t = sqrt(2 × 0.09 ÷ 9.81)
t = sqrt(0.01835)
t = 0.135 seconds
Normative data for the Ruler Drop Test
Excellent
<7.5cm
Above Average
Average
7.5 - 15.9cm
15.9 – 20.4cm
Below Average
Poor
20.4 - 28cm
>28cm
Sports Coach (1997) Ruler Drop Test [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/rulerdrop.htm
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FITNESS
Target Group
This test is suitable for all athletes but not for individuals where the test would be
contraindicated.
Reliability
Validity
100
FITNESS
Module 8
Module 8 – Developing Your Own Fitness Tests
101
FITNESS
Module 8
Duration: 1 hr
Learning Outcomes :
1.
Identify the requirements of a fitness test.
2.
Develop fitness tests for the skill related components of fitness
102
FITNESS
How can fitness testing help you?
The uses and benefits of fitness testing can be listed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Evaluation of a performer’s strengths and weaknesses, relative to the demands of
their sport.
Aiding the prescription of suitable training loads.
Monitoring the effectiveness of training.
Providing short-term fitness goals.
Whilst fitness testing can be a valuable tool for both coach and athlete, it is not the be all and end
all. The following sections identify what makes a good fitness test and how they can be used to
support the athlete.
What makes a good fitness test?
To provide useful information, fitness tests must fulfil certain criteria.
If they don’t they can produce misleading information with undesirable consequences.
In order to generate meaningful information, fitness tests must be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Applicable to the sport
Valid
Reliable
Accurate
Sufficiently sensitive to detect changes in fitness
Making the test specific to the sport
To be relevant to a sport a fitness test must mimic one or a combination of the fitness demands of
that sport.
For example, if a sport requires the participants to run, then the tests should involve running
rather than cycling and the converse is also true.
If players have to sprint and repeatedly change direction then a test should be designed to assess
this, with each sprint being run over the kind of distances experienced in the sport.
In some sports such as badminton, tests may be designed to include running backwards and
sideways.
Sport specificity may also extend to requiring the participant to perform the test in full kit. For
example, it may be appropriate for a cricket batsman to wear a helmet, pads and carry a bat when
being tested for speed between the wickets.
Making the test valid
To be valid, a test must assess what it is intending to.
For example, an assessment of maximal strength must indeed measure maximal strength, not
muscular endurance. So whilst completing as many press-ups a possible may be a good measure
of endurance for those muscles, it is not a valid measure of maximal strength.
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FITNESS
Likewise, if a test lacks sport specificity it is unlikely to be a valid test for that particular sport.
Problems of validity can also arise if other factors have the potential to mask what is being
assessed. For example, if assessing sprinting speed in hockey, it would be inappropriate to
require the player to dribble a ball, as this would be an assessment of dribbling speed not
sprinting speed.
Making the test reliable
Reliability refers to how repeatable a test is, or how consistent the results are. In an ideal
situation if a performer was to repeat a test under exactly the same conditions, with no change in
their fitness they should produce identical results. Of course in reality attaining exactly the same
results is most unlikely due to slight random differences by the performer from one day to the
next. Coaches and athletes need to be aware that a relatively small change in the test scores may
not mean a change in fitness. For example, if a coach knows that test results can vary by 2 - 5%
due to miscellaneous variations from one day to the next, then a test result within this margin
suggests no real change in fitness. If however a test result is substantially different from the
previous result by more than 2 - 5% then this implies a real difference.
Ensuring accuracy
Test accuracy will be incorporated into the test validity and reliability. It covers such aspects as
the accuracy to which measurements can be recorded, such as the stop-watch timing of a sprint.
A highly skilled coach may be able to hand time with an accuracy of + or - 0.1 of a second, but
would not be able to accurately record to + or - 0.01 of a second. This needs to be borne in mind
when using any instrumentation and the results recorded accordingly.
Test sensitivity
A test must be sufficiently sensitive to detect changes in fitness. If it is not, then a considerable
amount of hard training and real gains in fitness could go undetected, which would be severely
de-motivating for the performer and undermine the credibility of the coach. The sensitivity of a
test will depend upon the reliability of the test and accuracy of the measurements.
Types of fitness tests
Fitness tests for each fitness component
Physical fitness is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon, being composed of:
Aerobic power
Anaerobic power and anaerobic capacity
Muscular endurance
Muscular strength
Flexibility and joint mobility
Speed
Other attributes such as the ability to accelerate quickly and rapidly change direction, along with
the ability to perform other sport specific movements can also be considered as fitness
components.
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FITNESS
For effective fitness testing the coach and athlete need to identify the fitness components, which
contribute to performance in their sport, select an appropriate battery of tests and then administer
them.
Since each sport differs in relation to the different fitness components needed, the fitness tests
used for one sport may be very different from those used in another. In team and racquet sports
the picture can be complex and only a detailed analysis of the sport will reveal the fitness
components that require assessment
Laboratory and field based testing
Laboratory testing is only one form of testing and whilst they do have a place in sport and
coaching science they are not always accessible or even the best means of providing the
information the coach needs.
For example, for some sports there is specialised equipment such as treadmills, cycles and
rowing machines, which enable the demands of the sport to be closely simulated and therefore
generate valuable information. However, for team sports, racquet games and many other sporting
activities this equipment may have limited value.
The controlled laboratory environment is also usually quite different from the sporting
environment in which performers compete and therefore, field based fitness tests have a distinct
advantage. Laboratory tests are generally conducted by Sport Scientists.
Field tests are conducted in the sporting environment, such as a sports hall or playing field. This
helps to ensure that the tests are sport specific, the data is collected in context and that the
participants can appreciate the relevance of the tests.
However, to produce meaningful results field based testing requires considerable thought and
care in its administration.
Administering meaningful fitness tests
Standardising tests
As indicated previously, a test must have good reliability in order to produce meaningful results.
To maximise its reliability, as many variables as possible must be standardised, otherwise the
participant may be affected on a particular day, thereby reducing the meaningfulness of any
comparisons. Factors which can affect the results of a test are:
The environment,
The test protocol,
Motivation of the athlete/subject,
The subject’s pre-test physical state,
The subject’s familiarisation with the test itself.
Standardising the environment
There are many environmental factors which need to be considered with field testing, especially
when taking place outdoors due to the effects of the weather. For example, the ground surface
may be firm and dry at one time in the year, yet wet, muddy and slippery at another. The
temperature and weather will also have an influence upon the performance of many tests.
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FITNESS
Therefore when conducting a test the coach should note the conditions when recording the test
scores for later comparison. Also, given the likely intention of wishing to compare the results of
one testing session to those of other occasions it may be necessary to cancel a testing session if
the environment is particularly adverse and likely to have a very significant effect upon the
subjects.
Standardising the test protocol
Unless a test protocol is closely standardised it will not generate meaningful data that can be
compared.
For example, there are a number of variations of the sit-up, including: (i) the participant having
their feet free or held by a partner, (ii) having their knees and hips flexed at different angles and
(iii) having their hands positioned on their thighs, across their chest, or behind their ears. Each of
these variations affect the difficulty of the exercise and consequently the number of repetitions
they are likely to achieve. Therefore, the preferred version needs to be selected, carefully
administered and the details recorded for future test comparisons.
In tests where the number of repetitions completed within a set time limit is being recorded the
quality of the movement must be standardised and must not be sacrificed in the desire for speed.
If conducting a test of speed or agility which requires the use of markers or cones, it is vital that
the position of these is recorded precisely.
Standardising the preparation of participant(s) before tests
Test participants should be fully informed of what is expected of them. Leading up to a test it
may be necessary to ask them to adhere to pre-test behaviour which could otherwise affect the
results. This might include instructions about nutrition, level of training 48 hours pre-test, the
consumption of alcohol and even smoking. Most physical tests are enhanced by a warm-up and
therefore a standard warm up should be performed by the participants. The exact content of the
warm-up will depend upon the sport and test, but is likely to be similar to that used before a
competition.
If conducting a battery of tests, the sequence in which they are performed can be important, as
fatigue from one test can affect the results of another test. Therefore the test sequence and if
appropriate, duration of recovery between tests should be standardised and recorded. When
conducting a set of fitness tests within one session it is generally recommended that they are
performed in the following sequence
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Height, weight and physique measurements;
Aerobic fitness
Muscular strength and endurance
Flexibility.
However, if the aerobic test is maximal it could impact upon the muscular strength and
endurance tests and consequently it is arguable that these should go before aerobic fitness.
Indeed in an ideal situation the tests should be performed on separate days to allow for full
recovery following a maximal effort. When testing a squad or repeating a battery of tests on the
same individual the test sequence and duration of recovery should be identical.
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FITNESS
Enhancing test standardisation through familiarity
Familiarity with test procedures can affect the results and it may be necessary for the participant
to repeat the test several times before a true measurement can be attained. For some nonexhaustive tests, a repeat measurement may take place within a matter of minutes, whereas for
exhaustive tests several hours or even days may be required to fully recover before a second test
can take place.
The basis of checking for familiarisation is that since an improvement in fitness is unlikely to
occur in a matter of days, any observed improvements in the test score are likely to be due to
familiarity. For most field tests the participants are likely to be fully familiarised after 2 - 4
sessions.
If a test requires a particular technique or skill, some familiarisation and practice should be
included in the warm-up preceding the test to ensure that the participant is fully familiar and
practiced at the test requirements.
Analysing tests and providing feedback
After a fitness test the coach should compare the test scores with those they would expect for
participants in their sport and/or against an individual’s previous test results. If this results in
particular fitness components being identified as requiring specific attention, then relevant
training can be prescribed.
Feedback to the athlete is vitally important, as it can show them how the process can help them
to improve. The process of fitness testing does not stop at the end of the test as data
interpretation, feedback and the application of the results are what make the process valuable.
Knowing what the results mean and how they relate to an individual’s performance will help
them to see the relevance of the process, perhaps providing additional motivation.
Feedback must be clear, concise and relevant to the individual’s performance in their sport.
Applying the data to the sporting and training context is essential, otherwise it will appear to be
divorced from what they are really interested in.
What fitness tests cannot do
Fitness tests will not solve all of the coach’s problems or create better athletes. They are a tool
which if used correctly can provide valuable information that the coach can utilise when
designing training programmes. However, they do not tell the coach who is the best player or
who will win the event and should not be used as a selection process. Therefore the coach must
ensure that they use the results in combination with all the other factors that go to make up a
good performer, such as technical skill, tactical awareness and their mental attitude.
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FITNESS
Designing Fitness Tests
When developing a series of fitness tests, the coach should first refer to other coaching and sport
science information, where they may find established tests which are proven for their own sport.
This will obviously greatly reduce the time required to deliver an effective series of tests.
If no sport specific test can be found then the coach should investigate tests used in sports with
similar fitness requirements. This may reveal tests that can be used with or without minor
modifications, and it can also give the coach new ideas on how to test participants in their own
sport.
Investing a little time investigating existing information will almost certainly help in the design
of the tests. At the very least it should provide the coach with reassurance that their ideas are
appropriate and give them confidence in the tests they will use.
“To accurately assess an individual’s fitness status you must select tests which are valid,
reliable and objective.”
(Heyward 2002)
What are the requirements of a test ?
In constructing tests it is important to make sure that they are;
Specific (designed to assess an athlete's fitness for the activity in question),
Valid (test what they propose to test),
Reliable (capable of consistent repetition)
Objective (produce a consistent result irrespective of the tester).
Fitness Test Development
1.
Identify the component of fitness / skill/task to be assessed.
2.
Design a test to assess this, think about;
a. The movement to be performed
b. Joint action
c. Muscles used
d. Energy requirements
3.
Pilot the test.
4.
Identify any problems.
5.
Ensure it measures what it’s supposed to measure.
6.
Record a set of strict procedures.
7.
Assess the individual ensuring strict adherence to procedures.
NB. Remember that because this is a self designed test, there is no reference chart to compare the
results to so the results gained from this test cannot be classified as good, bad or whatever and
they cannot be generalised as they are merely a measurement to be used as a baseline for further
tests for the specific athlete.
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FITNESS
In conducting tests the following points should be considered:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Each test should measure ONE factor only.
The test should not require any technical competence on the part of the athlete (unless
it is being used to assess technique).
Care should be taken to make sure that the athlete understands exactly what is
required of him/her, what is being measured and why.
The test procedure should be strictly standardised in terms of administration,
organisation and environmental conditions.
What should be recorded ?
-Name of athlete.
-State of the athlete (health)
-Physiological data (body weight, resting heart rate, etc. )
-Date of test.
-Time of test
-Name of test
-Component of fitness being assessed
-Where the test was conducted (indoors or outdoors)
-If outdoors - the prevailing conditions (wet, windy, hot etc.)
-Resources required for the conduct of the test – equipment, assistants, record sheets.
-Exact detail of how the test was conducted – instructions for the athlete on how to conduct the
test, practice run, start position, what starts the test, what stops the test, if test is time bases or
repetition based, surface test was conducted on, how many times the test is to be repeated in one
session.
-Test results
-Analysis – comparison to previous or norm reference.
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FITNESS
Module 9
Training Needs Analysis & Advanced
Programme Design
Module 9 – Training Needs Analysis and Advanced Programme Design
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FITNESS
Module 9
Training Needs Analysis & Advanced Programme Design
Duration: 2 hrs
Learning Outcomes :
1.
Analyse a sport and identify the health related and skill related components of fitness
being used.
2.
Conduct a training needs analysis for a team / individual.
3.
Describe advanced programming techniques and apply them to programme design &
implementation.
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FITNESS
Sports Analysis
The purpose of the Sports Analysis is to identify the health and skill related components of
fitness being used.
When designing a training programme for the sportsperson / team it is important to identify what
components of fitness are being utilised within the sport. When the components have been
identified you can then decide what fitness tests need to be conducted in order to target the
specific components. Test results will identify the team and individual strengths and weaknesses
and give you a baseline from where to design the sports specific training programme.
In order to do this it is necessary to conduct an analysis of the requirements of the sport specific
to the team or individual.
How to conduct a Sports Analysis:
Identify the expected duration of the event. e.g Soccer match 90 mins & possible extra time,
400m race – estimated winning time & estimated finish time of athlete.
Observe the sport for the duration of the competition/event.
Record the components of fitness being targeted during the event and how they’re being used.
(see sample record sheet – next page).
Record how long each component of fitness is targeted during the event.
Record if you notice any diminishment in the quality of the components as the event proceeds,
and at what stage during the event this is occurring e.g. slower reaction time in 2nd half of match,
decreased speed, poor co-ordination.
Consolidate the results for the entire event i.e list the components and the total duration during
the event that each component was being used.
From the consolidated results analyse the energy systems being worked, for what duration each
time and the total duration throughout the event.
Identify base fitness requirements i.e health related components of fitness.
If possible, try to video the event, as this will help you conduct a more detailed analysis, post
event, and it will be particularly helpful with team events as it will allow you to follow the
progress of more than one person.
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FITNESS
Sample Sports Analysis Record Sheet
Power
Single Arm
Two arm
Single leg
Two legs
Speed
Acceleration
Sprint 5 – 10m
Sprint 10-20m
Sprint 20-30m
Sprint 30-50m
Sprint 50-100m
Sprint >100m
Agility
Stopping
Turning
Sideways
Balance
Static
Dynamic
Reaction Time
Co-ordination
Hand-eye
Foot-eye
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FITNESS
Skill-Related Requirements for Some Sports (Corbin et al 2006, p259)
Archery
Badminton
Baseball
Basketball
Cycling
Bowling
Canoeing
Fencing
Football
Golf
Gymnastics
Handball
Judo
Karate
Racquetball
Rowing
Running
Skating
Skiing x-cty
Skiing,
downhill
Soccer
Swimming
Table
tennis
Tennis
Volleyball
Legend
Balance
Co-ordination
Agility
Power
Speed
****
****
****
****
**
****
***
****
***
****
****
****
****
****
****
****
**
***
****
****
Reaction
time
*
***
****
****
**
*
**
****
****
*
***
***
****
****
***
*
*
**
*
***
***
**
***
***
****
***
***
***
***
**
****
**
***
***
**
**
**
****
**
****
*
***
***
****
*
**
*
***
****
**
****
****
****
****
****
***
*
***
***
****
*
**
****
****
****
**
***
***
****
***
****
***
****
****
**
****
*
**
****
***
*
***
***
***
****
**
*
****
****
*
**
***
****
****
***
**
***
***
**
*
**
**
**
****
***
***
***
*
***
****
***
**
***
**
**
***
*
**
**
**
***
***
***
***
****
***
***
**
* = minimal needed, ****= a lot needed
***
**
(Corbin et al 2006, p259)
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FITNESS
Training Needs Analysis
A training needs / gap analysis is where you:
Identify the health related and skill related components of fitness required for the sport.
Identify the target level of fitness, in each component, that the individual needs to
achieve.
Conduct the appropriate health related and skill related fitness tests.
Compare the results of the fitness tests with the fitness target.
The gap analysis will assist you in designing the individual’s sports specific training programme
so that each component of fitness can be improved to the required level.
Example of a gap analysis (Sports Coach 1997):
Test
Fitness Component
Current
Target
Multistage Fitness Test
Aerobic
Level 12 Shuttle 2 Level 12 Shuttle 5
30 metre acceleration Test
Speed
4.3 seconds
3.9 seconds
Illinois agility run Test
Agility
20 seconds
<16 seconds
Leg power
2.4 metres
2.8 metres
Over head medicine ball throw Arm power
16.1 metres
16 metres
Sports Coach (1997) Evaluation [online], available: http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/evaluation.htm [accessed – 20 Jan 2006]
Gap Analysis from results
Aerobic fitness and arm power are good and just need to be maintained.
Sprint, agility and leg power tests are below target.
Leg power needs to be improved.
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FITNESS
Advanced Programme Design
The more similar the practice is to the actual activity for which the athlete is training in terms of
movement mechanics, movement velocity, energy metabolism and cardio-respiratory function
the greater the transfer of the training effect. i.e. if a baseball player needs to improve his ability
to hit the ball then the best activity to prescribe is batting practice. (Brown and Ferrigno 2005)
How to develop a Training Program
The process of creating a training programme to help develop an individual's level of fitness
comprises of 6 stages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Gather details about the individual.
Identify the fitness components to develop (Sport Analysis).
Identify appropriate tests to monitor fitness status.
Conduct a gap analysis.
Compile the program.
Monitor progress and adjust program.
Periodisation
“Athletes and coaches have subdivided their training into various sub-periods for many years.
Although micro cycles can be traced back to Phylostratus in 202 BC, the first modern use was in
Germany, used by the coaches who's athletes dominated the 1936 Olympics. The modern
practice of periodised training was largely invented and refined by Eastern-block nations during
the Cold War (1950-1970), when sport became the battlefield for contesting ideologies.”
(YPT 2006)
Periodisation is a modern training concept of manipulating repetition, resistance and exercise
selection so that there are periodic peaks and valleys during the training programme. By
applying periodisation to training, athletes are able to optimise performance and minimise the
risks of overtraining.
The periodised peaks are needed to challenge the body, and the valleys are needed to allow the
body to recover and adapt fully.
Over the course of the season there should be a gradual build up to allow the athlete to peak at
just the right time.
“Training for competition requires careful panning to reach peak performance at the right time
and to avoid overtraining and injuries.”
(Corbin et al 2006)
To accomplish this training begins with an emphasis on base training in which the volume of
training is gradually increased. As the season progresses the focus shifts to an emphasis on the
intensity of training (e.g. going faster or lifting heavier weights), because higher intensity
training requires more time for recovery the volume of training should be reduced during this
stage.
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FITNESS
The key concept of Periodisation is to provide opportunities for the body to fully adapt and
recover prior to competition. Therefore the phase immediately prior to the competition is called
tapering and is characterised by a reduced volume and intensity of training.
“Research comparing periodised to non-periodised resistance training programmes shows that
even though the volume of training is reduced over time, periodised training produces
significantly greater improvements.”
(Heyward 2002, p.140)
The periodised training programme contains macrocycles, mesocycles and microcycles.
Macrocycle – a training cycle usually one year.
Mesocycle – a subdivision of a macrocycle, can be 1 week long or several months long,
that builds the athlete up to a peak, e.g. preparation for a competition.
Microcycle – a subdivision of a mesocycle, can be 1 day or several weeks.
“An effective plan which normally translates into better performance, strongly depends on
periodisation.”
(Brown and Ferrigno 2005, p. 267)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
MACROCYCLE
MESOCYCLE
MICROCYCLE
MESOCYCLE
Periodised programmes can also contain different numbers of peaks within the annual plan.
Mono-cycle – one peak cycle used in most team sports and some individual sports such as
skiing, rowing, triathlon and cycling.
Bi-cycle – two peak cycle or double periodisation used in sports such as swimming and track and
field.
Tri-cycle – three peak cycle or triple periodisation used in sports such as gymnastics, wrestling
and martial arts.
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FITNESS
Different Types of Periodised Programme Models
Traditional
Volume and intensity are systematically manipulated. Training cycle begins with a high-volume,
low-intensity profile, then progresses to low volume, high intensity over time.
Volume
Relative
Level
Intensity
Technique
T
I
M
E
Phase
Preparation
Phase
Competition
Phase
Step wise
Like the traditional model, intensity increases and volume decreases during the training period.
Volume is decreased during the training period. Volume is decreased in a stepwise fashion:
Repetitions are reduced from eight to five, five to three, and so forth, at specific time intervals.
Undulating
Training volume and intensity increase and decrease on a regular basis: but they do not follow
the traditional pattern of increasing intensity and decreasing volume as the mesocycle progresses.
Overreaching
Volume or intensity is increased for a short period of time (one to two weeks), followed by a
return to "normal" training. This method is used primarily with advanced strength trained
athletes.
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FITNESS
Designing the Periodised Training Programme (YPT2006)
Periodisation programming is all about managing the stress-and-rest cycle to optimise
improvement and maximise the overall gain in performance. The kind of periodisation applied to
a particular athlete will be strongly influenced the sport the athlete pursues, the physical
characteristics that are required, and the training age of the athlete.
Annual Training Plan / Macrocycle:
The periodised annual training plan with one peak (mono-cycle) can be divided into the
following eight phases:
General Preparation
Competition season
Relax
Specific Preparation
Taper
Off-season
Pre-competition season
Peak (Main Event)
Each phase can last for many weeks. The characteristics of a phase are that the over all goal of
the training remains the same and that the tendency in the training load (up, down, level) remains
consistent over the phase. (Phases are explained in more detail below).
Phases are in turn, can be subdivided into mesocycles.
The training load, described as volume, is measured in hours, or miles, or weight lifted, or laps or
kilometres, largely at the convenience of the sport. Volume is increased during a phase to
improve training response, at the expense of increasing fatigue levels. Volume is decreased
across a phase to lower fatigue levels, so that improved performance can show through..
Mesocycles are used to control the training load and the fatigue level generated by training. If the
training load is increased continuously over a long phase, say twelve weeks, by the end of the
phase, the athlete will accumulate so much residual fatigue that (s)he will not be able to train
properly.
The wise coach will break the phase into smaller sections (mesocycles) that have weeks of
increasing load followed by a rest period. The length of these mesocycles is governed by the
systems to be trained and the time in the training year.
A typical mesocycle from the General Preparation phase would be three weeks of increasing
load, followed by one week of lower load. This is called a 3-1 mesocycle.
During the pre-competition phase, where these same athletes will be working at much more
intense training, doing intervals on or above the anaerobic threshold, shorter mesocycles, 2-1 or
even 1-1 would be appropriate.
The next level down is the microcycle, which in most sport training coincides with the week. A
3-1 mesocycle, which has four microcycles (3+1), is most often four weeks long.
Microcycles determine how the training load is laid out during the week. Most of the time, the
pattern is a heavy-day followed by a light-day.
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FITNESS
Designing microcycles is almost another art in itself, as the definitions of light and heavy must
take into account both the volume of training, the intensity of the training, and the energy
systems trained. Heavy and light are measured and defined in terms of fatigue level incurred and
recovery opportunities available.
Building The Annual Plan:
1.
First define in general terms what the training year looks like:
When does it start [start date]?
When is your first competition [first race/match]?
When is your most important competition [the peak race/match]?
From this information, we can work out how many weeks there are between each of these
dates, so we can calculate how many weeks are available for each of the phases in our
training plan.
2.
Divide the training year into phases,
a.
b.
c.
Start date to first event includes the first three phases, Gen.Prep, Spec.Prep and
Pre-comp.
First event to peak event includes Competition and Taper phases.
Peak event to year-end, includes Peak, Relax and Off-season.
Decide how many hours to train during each phase.
Adding up the hours in each phase to gives the training load for the year [total hours].
3.
Divide the phases into mesocycles, each with 1-5 microcycles,
4.
Allocate the training load into daily chunks within microcycles,
5.
Allocate the daily training hours to particular training types.
Volume:
Given the total volume, it is possible to calculate the hours per phase, based on a classic annual
volume curve. Where does this "total volume" figure come from?
a.
b.
c.
How many hours did you train last year? Add 10%.
What is the sport norm for your age class?
Ask other athletes/coaches in your sport about total volume;
The volume curve is somewhat sport specific, but in general has a similar shape in all annual
plans.
Volume is adjusted downward by 40-50% for the Competition phase, which assumes a level
volume load.
Volume decreases again in the Taper phase, dropping to perhaps 25% of the maximum volume.
The Peak volume depends on the nature of the competition.
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FITNESS
After this comes the unloading phase called Relax, in which the total volume maybe around 3040% of maximum volume, followed by Off-season, with a further decrease in volume.
Intensity:
The intensity curve is usually a near-reciprocal of the volume curve. As volume increases,
intensity goes down; as volume goes down, intensity increases. This reciprocal arrangement
should result in fatigue loads that are consistent with the athletes training capacity.
Intensity vs Volume
Intensity is a sometimes a hard item to come to grips with. It usually refers to physical intensity
of effort, but doesn't have any consistent measurement across exercise types.
For a track and field athlete who normally runs 3000m races, running 4 x 400m intervals at 90%
race pace is more intense than jogging 1600m at 50% race pace.
As a general guideline, the more fatigue produced per unit time, the more intense the activity.
Other general measurements of intensity are based on perceived effort (1 -10 scale), or on
relative heart rate.
Phase Details:
General Preparation Phase:
Is usually the first phase of any periodised plan. In this phase, training focuses on developing a
foundation for the sport performance. This is where the athlete trains those systems that are slow
to change, for example the aerobic energy systems. Long term changes, such as increasing
muscle mass and strength would also be targeted in this phase. Training is aimed primarily at
overall fitness. Athletes in more technical sports would also use this phase to work on significant
technique changes or to tune new equipment. Volume/load would be increasing throughout.
Specific Preparation Phase:
Is a continuation of the preparation phase, but signals a transition into more sport specific
training.
Example: Cross-country skier who was mostly running and biking in the General Preparation
phase, would begin to include more and more roller skiing into the training programme during
this phase. Also during this phase, the athlete would begin to work on systems that train more
easily than those targeted in Gen. Prep. For example anaerobic energy systems, speed and power.
Volume/load would be increasing throughout, with peak volume (hr./week) higher than in
General Preparation.
Pre-competition Season Phase:
This is the phase where the athlete prepares specifically for competition. The peak volume
(hr./week) in this phase may be less than in the previous phase, or it maybe more depending on
the sport type, training history and the length of the Competition Phase. Generally, if the volume
is less, the intensity of training will be increased. A good rule of thumb is to try to keep the
fatigue level constant as the volume goes down and intensity goes up. Mesocycles during this
phase will be shorter, tending to 3-1, 2-1 and sometimes 1-1.
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FITNESS
Competition Season Phase:
In order to perform well, the athlete should be relatively rested. To accomplish this, the total
volume and the fatigue levels are reduced significantly in this phase. Peak volume may be
reduced to 50% of the highest previous peak volume. In sports where the competition season is
relatively long, the early races will be treated as training races. Racing effort is counted in the
training load. Between races, training will focus on exercises and drills that keep the athlete
tuned up for racing. Significant effort will be put into recovery activities. The slope of the
volume curve may be flat, with many 1-1 or 2-1 microcycles, matched to the competition
schedule.
Taper Phase:
This phase is primarily designed to lower the accumulated fatigue level to as low a value as
possible, while optimising the race-readiness of the athlete. Volume is gradually lowered across
the phase while training focuses on short, intense training efforts followed by mental and
physical recovery activities. Taper length depends on the sport and on training age. Generally
speaking, the older the athlete, the longer the taper; young children and teens have relatively
little endurance, but recover quickly. Another rule of thumb is, the shorter the event, the shorter
the taper needed, probably reflecting the different residual fatigue levels experienced, for
example, by sprinters and marathon runners. A two-week taper phase would use a 1-1
mesocycle, with a decreasing volume. Volume would be about 25-30% of peak volume.
Peak Phase:
This is the peak performance time. It may be only one competition lasting two days, or it maybe
a week or more of play-downs leading to a final competition. Emphasis is on mental preparation,
performance and recovery. Fatigue levels may go well above normal competition levels by the
end of a peak period if recovery is neglected.
Relax Phase:
This is a de-tuning phase, in which the training load and it's intensity is gradually lowered from
the levels experienced in the competition phase. The volume of training at the peak of this phase
may be higher than in the competition phase, but the intensity will be lowered and the focus will
be on recovery. Volume decreases across the phase, which is generally only one mesocycle.
Off-season Phase:
Strictly speaking, this is not a training phase it is a stage in the year devoted to recovery and
regeneration, particularly mental recovery. Rifle shooters put away their rifles and go fishing,
hockey players get out their golf clubs and go walking, cross-country skiers go hiking, etc. It is
also the time to take care of chronic and repetitive strain injuries. No particular volume
constraints, although activity should not drop off suddenly, or fall too far below the beginning
levels anticipated for the first mesocycle of the next general preparation phase.
Preparation phases are usually more than five weeks, sometimes longer than ten. A ten week
phase could be divided into three mesocycles: 4, 4, 2, or two mesocycles: 5, 5.
Preparation phases are normally loading phases, i.e. the volume increases over the duration of
the phase. Working on the principle of "load and recover", loading mesocycles are usually
divided into a loading period, followed by a rest period. For example, a five-week mesocycle is
divided 4-1,i.e. four loading weeks, followed by a lower volume recovery week.
122
FITNESS
Examples of Mesocycles
1-1: High followed by low. Useful in competition phase, especially where athletes compete on
weekends. A repeated pattern of 1-1 cycles gives a sequence of load and taper weeks [micro
cycles]. The 1-1 mesocycle is frequently used in taper phases for unloading. Also used to include
a special training block in a phase.
2-1: Two loading weeks, followed by a recovery week. Useful in phases where intensity is high,
requiring more frequent rest and recovery.
3-1: Three loading weeks, followed by a recovery week. A utility mesocycle, most often used in
preparatory phases.
4-1: Four loading weeks, followed by a recovery week. Used mainly in endurance sports in
preparatory phases where high volumes of low intensity work are required for aerobic training.
Microcycles:
Micro cycles are sub-parts of mesocycles. Generally seven days long, but can be longer or
shorter, but are rarely longer than two weeks. Unlike mesocycles, which have a distinct load recovery pattern, there is no generally agreed model for how to vary volume or intensity within a
single microcycle.
There are some generally applicable rules of thumb for microcycles:
Follow a heavy-volume day with a lighter volume day.
Follow an overload activity with recovery activity.
Avoid training that stresses the same energy system(s) on successive days.
Allow sufficient time for recovery between workouts.
Approximately 50% of training time should be recovery activity.
Put one rest day in every microcycle (over 6 days long)
These generalisations are derived from high performance situations where athletes are training
year round and often seven days a week. They must of course be modified for younger athletes,
recreational and master athletes, fitness exercisers, etc. to allow for their different physiology,
ambitions, practice times, etc.
Examples of microcycles:
a.
b.
c.
Low - high, no days off. Sometimes used in severe overload situations.
High - low, Friday off. Typical for athletes who only have lots of time to train on
weekends.
Low - high, Sunday off. This pattern gives both the athlete and the coach a day off
on the weekend.
123
FITNESS
d.
e.
Race week/Pre-race week: Could be a race week for short duration events. Could
be used in the last week of a taper phase in endurance sports, with races scheduled
for the week afterwards.
Mid-week rest: Used for high intensity low volume micro cycles, for example,
just before a taper - peak sequence.
Daily Training Tasks:
This is the lowest level of the plan - what to do each day.
This is the point where the training volume calculations meet the purposes of the training plan,
the specifics of a particular sport, together with the capabilities and training history of the
trainee.
In addition to the general recommendations that should be applied to a microcycle the following
should be taken into consideration :
Avoid dehydration. If not, re-hydrate as soon as possible.
Eat sufficient calories in a balanced diet.
Sample Outline Periodised Programme For Tennis :
Preparation
Pre-competition
Phase
Phase
Firm Base
Tennis specific
Goal
Fitness level
training
Mostly
Anaerobic/aerobic
Fitness
Aerobic
mix
Training
Strength
Training
2-3 sets; high
reps 12-15
2-4 sets; lower
reps 8-10
Competition
Phase
Physiological
peak
Tennis specific
drills; short
explosive
Circuit Training,
1-2 sets; 12-15
reps
Relax Phase
Recovery
Light fitness
training,
especially
using other
sports
3 sets, 8-10
reps (optional
3-7 day rest
depending on
athletes
needs)
(Foran et al, 2001, p.318)
124
FITNESS
Project – conduct appropriate fitness assessments and design and implement a programme
of training for a sports team / individual.
-
-
-
Client Background & Goals
Fitness Assessment
o Health Related
! What, Why, How & record results.
o Skills Related
! What, why, how & record results.
12 Week Training Programme
o An outline programme
o & Each session in detail, detailing how each element is going to be trained to
include exercises/drills (diagrams can be included where appropriate.)
2000 to 3000 words Typed & include photos (or video) of actual fitness
assessments being conducted on the client(s)
Submit by e-mail.
Original work.
Marking Scheme
Introduction Client Background & Goals
Sport Analysis
Fitness Assessments
12 Week Programme
10%
10%
30%
15%
35%
125
FITNESS
References
Bagget, K. (2006) Power what is it and how to get it [online], available:
http//www.athletes.com/fun/kelly17.htm [accessed – 02 Apr 2006]
Brown, L., Ferrigno, V.(2005) Training For Speed Agility and Quickness, 2nd ed., USA: Human
Kinetics (Book & DVD)
Collins Dictionary (2004) 5th ed. Glasgow: HarperCollins.
Corbin, C., Welk, G., Corbin, W., Welk, K. (2006) Concepts of Physical Fitness, 13th ed., New
York: McGraw Hill
Foran, W. (2001) High Performance Sports Conditioning, USA: Human Kinetics.
Heyward, V. (2002) Advanced Fitness Assessment and Exercise Prescription, 4th ed. USA:
Human Kinetics
Kent County Council (2005) Fitness Testing [online],available:
http://www.kentsport.org/ftest.cfm [accessed - Feb 06]
NCEF Level 1 Manual (2005) 6th ed. Limerick: NCEF
Peak Performance (2006) Balance exercise: learn to keep your balance with some simple
balance training drills [Online] http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/balance-exercise.html
Phelan et al 1997, Tuominen et al 1997, Schrauwen et al 1997 – [In Jackson, D. (2006)
Programming For Weight Loss, Slide Show Presentation Level 2 Personal Training Course]
Rogers, M. E. (2005) ‘Sanding Strong’ IDEA Fitness Journal, June 2005
Rob Woods Complete Guide to Fitness Testing (1997-2006) Fitness Testing Guide [online],
available: http//www.topendsports.com/testing/fittest.htm [accessed – Jan 2006]
Sports Coach (1997) Performance Evaluation Tests [online], available:
http//www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/eval.htm [accessed – Jan 2006]
YPT (2006) Preiodization [online], available : http://www.aball-ypi.com/periodization.htm
[accessed – Mar 06]
References
126
FITNESS
Index
Subject
300 yard Shuttle Test
30m Acceleration Test
35m Sprint Speed Test
505 Agility Test
60m Speed Test
Advanced Programme Design
Agility
Agility – Definition
Agility - Development
Agility - Factors That Affect
Agility - Fitness Assessments
Agility Drill - 40yd Backpedal Forward
Agility Drill - 60yd Shuttle Sprint
Analysing Tests and Providing Feedback
Balance
Balance – Definition
Balance – Development
Balance - Factors That Affect
Balance - Fitness Assessments
Co-ordination
Co-ordination – Definition
Co-ordination – Development
Co-ordination - Fitness Assessments
Designing Fitness Tests
Designing the Periodised Training Programme
Fitness Test Development
Flying 30m Test
Gap Analysis
Health Related Components of Fitness, Principles of Training &
Fitness Assessment
Hexagonal Obstacle Test
How to Develop a Training Programme
Illinois Agility Run Test
Introduction
Lateral Change of Direction Test
Making Test Reliable
Making The Test Specific
Making The Test Valid
Page Number
31
44
45
62
46
116
49
51
53
52
57
56
55
107
80
82
84
83
88
71
73
74
78
108
119
101
108
47
115
4
2
58
116
64
1
60
104
103
103
28
Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlon
Index
127
FITNESS
Subject
Overload principle (FITT) & the 5 Health Related Components of
Fitness
Periodisation
Power
Power – Definition
Power – Development
Power - Factors That Affect
Power - Fitness Assessments
Quick Feet Test
RAST
Reaction Speed Drills
Reaction Time
Reaction Time – Definition
Reaction Time – Development
Reaction Time - Factors That Affect
Reaction Time - Fitness Assessments
Reasons For Stopping A Fitness Test (NCEF 2005)
Ruler Drop Test
Sergeant Jump Test
Shuttle Run Test
Speed
Speed – Definition
Speed – Development
Speed - Factors That Affect
Speed - Fitness Assessments
Sports Analysis
Sprint Bound Index Test
Sprint or Speed Test
Standardising Test Protocol
Standardising Tests
Standardising the Environment
Standing Stork Test
Standing Stork Test – Blind
Suggested Methodology For Administration Of Fitness Tests
T-Drill Test
Test for Hand Eye Co-ordination
Test Sensitivity
The Bass Test of Dynamic Balance
The Requirements of a Test
The Stages Of A Fitness Assessment
The Stick Test of Co-ordination
Page Number
6
116
13
15
18
16
21
5
66
32
98
92
94
96
95
99
11
99
24
68
35
37
40
38
42
112
26
43
106
105
105
22
89
90
12
69
79
104
91
108
10
78
115
Index
128
FITNESS
Subject
Training Needs Analysis & Advanced Programme Design
Types of Fitness Test
Types of Periodised Programme Models
Uses and Purposes of Fitness Assessment
What Makes a Good Fitness Test
Zig-Zag Test
Page Number
109
104
118
7
103
70
Index
129

Student Manual

Transcription

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