The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in Italy

The 13th and 14th Centuries in Italy
Before we delve into the art of this period, let’s quickly review a few important events and
terms that we will use throughout the entire semester.
Time classifications:
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The term AD is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase Anno Domini which
means in the year of our Lord (referring to after the birth of Christ)
A century refers to a period of 100 years
A millennium refers to a period of 1,000 years
Important events/dates of the late Roman Empire
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While Rome evolved and progressed over centuries, it was at its most powerful state
during the 2nd century AD and collapsed in the 5th century AD. During the 4th
century AD Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire under the
ruler Constantine. The decree that declared it legal to be a Christian was the Edict of
Milan.
After Rome’s collapse it was divided into an Eastern and Western Empire.
Eventually the Western Empire Collapsed and the Eastern Empire became known as
the Byzantine Empire.
A few artistic terms:
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Relief Sculpture- While there are various types of relief sculpture, in general they are
all sculpture that is carved/attached to a surface.
o The various types are: Bas (pronounced bah) is also known as shallow relief
sculpture, High Relief which is deeply carved, and Incised Relief, which has
a raised background and incised design.
Bust- A bust or portrait bust is a sculpture of a person from the chest up.
True Fresco-a painting on fresh wet plaster.
o More to come in later chapters!
In the period just before the Renaissance got under way, there were three traditions operating
in Italian Art. These were the Byzantine, the Classical, and the Gothic.
The Byzantine Tradition
In the middle ages the Byzantine style dominated Italian painting. This style originated in
Constantinople (today Istanbul) in the Byzantine Empire, which was the eastern part of the
old Roman Empire.
Constantinople, known to its occupants as New Rome, had been founded by the Emperor
Constantine in the 4th century as a Christian city. By the middle of the 6th century a painting
style evolved which was quite different from pagan Roman art. Gone was illusionism with its
often very delicate nuances of light and shadow, firmly modeled figures, perspective depth,
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casual compositions and worldly forms. It was replaced with painting that meant to depict the
spiritual realm: just light without the modeling effect of shadow; flat figures firmly outlined
(linearity), no depth at all, and symmetrical, formal compositions.
This style was brought to Italy as early as the 6th century through the Byzantine
establishments in Northeast Italy at Ravenna in the mosaics of the Emperor Justinian and the
Empress Theodora. It spread all over Italy in the Middle Ages.
Eventually the Italian peninsula was divided into various city states, which could be quite
competitive with one another.
During the late Gothic period, the northwestern provinces of Italy were dominated by the
Holy Roman Empire which was made up primarily of the gothic tribes known as the
Germanic peoples. The “Reich” or empire was a monarchy whose emperor was crowned by
the Pope.
In central Italy, the region ruled by the Roman Catholic Church was an area called the Papal
States (referring to the power of the Pope).
In the region of Tuscany the city of Florence dominated. It had a very strong economy
based on banking, wool trade, guilds which trained various skilled crafts much like the trade
unions of today and a very strong middle class. The politics of Florence was unique in that it
was based on the Republican period of Rome.
Tuscany was in a great location because of the pilgrimages made from France to Rome.
During these pilgrimages, the travelers needed shelter and meals which also pumped money
into the economy of the region.
In addition to Florence, Tuscany includes the cities of Arezzo, Lucca, Sienna, and Pisa.
These were also wealthy, powerful cities.
In Florence one family stood above all others and even rivaled the power of the Roman
Catholic Church in its political dominance. That family was the Medici family. The Medici
family was the dominant banking family of Florence.
The Region known as Lombardy in Northern Italy located between the Alps and the Po
River Valley was a powerful region dominated by the city of Milan. As with Florence, one
family stood above others in power; that family was the Visconti family, which ruled Milan
from 1277-1447.
The economic prosperity of the city states which developed in the late Middle Ages was one
of the reasons the Renaissance or rebirth started in Italy. During the period leading up to the
Renaissance a change in philosophy and thought developed. Rather than focusing strictly on
religion as a means of expression, people were concerned with human values and interests,
secular cultures of antiquity, the actual human experience and ancient Roman civic virtues.
These define the term humanism as it existed during the Renaissance. Therefore, it allowed
more freedom for scientific and artistic investigation. In the early Christian and medieval
world it was thought that reason alone could lead to God. During the Renaissance that view
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changed and the path to God could be attained through intuition and experience. This is not
to suggest that religion didn’t maintain control over life in Italy.
St. Francis of Assisi
Francis was born in 1182 in Assisi, Italy and led a rebellious and adventurous life. He was a
soldier, prisoner of war, beggar and eventually a preacher.
During his travels, Francis heard a sermon that changed his life. The sermon was about
Matthew 10:9, in which Christ tells his followers that they should go forth and proclaim that
the Kingdom of Heaven was upon them, that they should take no money with them, nor even
a walking stick or shoes for the road.
He was inspired to devote himself to a life of apostolic poverty. Wearing worn clothing,
barefoot, and, following the scripture, without staff, he began to preach repentance. In his
humility Francis chose never to be ordained a priest, his group became known as "fratres
minores", in Latin, "lesser brothers". The group eventually became known as Franciscans. He
led one of the great humanizing efforts in the Roman Catholic Church which focused on
intense personal experience. He felt that the center of power should not be held only by
monasteries. (too much power corrupts)
The Art of the Pisano’s
Nicola Pisano was a very gifted Italian sculptor of the 13th century, whose work is known for
its Classical Roman style. The name Pisano he took from his home town Pisa, which was a
common practice in Italy. He was the first great Gothic mason and sculptor in Italy. His
sculpture is very much a revival of Roman sculpture. His pulpits are large, elaborate
freestanding structures which include columns in an Italian version of Gothic architecture.
One of his primary patrons was Fredrick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, who showed much
interest in ancient Rome. Of his many masterpieces one stand out is the Baptistery Pulpit,
1260 of Pisa, located in the complex called Campo dei Miracoli or Field of Miracles which
contains the well-known Leaning Tower of Pisa. In this pulpit, Classical influences include
the choice of capital (Corinthian), richly colored marble and the round arches. The relief
panels at the top are similar reliefs to Roman sarcophagi (stone coffins), and it is there that he
appears most progressive in anticipating the Renaissance of the 15th century. The Pulpit is
densely packed with figures in scenes from the life of Christ. The figures clothing and facial
features were clearly inspired by Roman Sculpture
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Above left: Pisa Baptistery which contains the pulpit of Nicola Pisano. Above Right: Pisa
Baptistery Pulpit by Nicola Pisano, Pisa, Italy, 1259-1260. Marble, 15’high.
To see more follow the link: http://www.wga.hu/bio/p/pisano/nicola/biograph.html
Giovanni Pisano
Giovanni Pisano (c. 1250-1314) was an Italian sculptor, painter and architect. Son of the
famous sculptor Nicola Pisano, he received his training in the workshop of his father. Their
work is so similar that it is often hard to tell apart. Giovanni’s work took the style of his
father even further in the slender twisting animation that shows the influence of Gothic art in
Northern Europe. The work of the Pisano’s shows the existence of the two major trends in
13th century Italy, the contact with classical antiquity and the naturalism of the Gothic style.
To see more follow this link: http://www.wga.hu/bio/p/pisano/giovanni/biograph.html
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Above: Close up of a
column of the Pulpit of
Giovanni Pisnao
Above Left: On the Pulpit by
Giovanni Pisano close up of
the crucifixion of Christ.
The pulpit was constructed
1302-1310.
Front view of the Pisa
Duomo (Cathedral)
The Classical Tradition
The classical interest in form and bodily structure never entirely died in Italy. In the 13th
century it was renewed by Pietro Cavallini in his fresco in Rome, the Last Judgment. Here he
represented firmly modeled forms entirely without the harsh linear contouring of Byzantine
art. Although he used light and shadow to make the figures solid, he didn't use a light source.
The light seems to come from straight ahead.
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To view more follow the link below:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/c/cavallin/biograph.html
In Florence, Cenno de Pepi, known as Cimabue (a nickname meaning Ox-Head) also turned
to more solid figures as well as introducing some actual depth, although he retained the
Byzantine formality in composition.
Cimabu, Madonna Enthroned with Angels
and Prophets, ca. 1280-1290. Tempera on
wood, 12’7”X 7’4”. Uffizi gallery, Florence,
Italy.
See the link below for more information and images about Cimabu
http://www.wga.hu/bio/c/cimabue/biograph.html
Review of the Traditions/Styles
Italo-Byzantine/Maniera Greca- This style of painting dominated Italy in the late 13th and
early 14th centuries. It originated in the eastern empire by the middle of the 6th century. Flat,
no space, no modeling with light or shadow, linear with sharp edges, stiff, lack of natural
proportion (main figures larger than others), gold leaf symbolic of the light of heaven
(incorruptible).
Classical: Originated in classical times in ancient Greece and was widely used in ancient
Rome. In painting, illusionism with light and shadow modeling the form, sometimes casting
shadows, figures seem to have weight. Use of perspective (however awkward) to create a
space for the figures; in both painting and sculpture large, ample figures with graceful bodily
movement and gestures, use of contrapposto, harmonious arrangement of figures in
compositions, drapery folds follow the contour of the body. In architecture, use of columns
and entablatures, particularly the Corinthian were preferred.
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Gothic: Originated in France in the middle of the 12th century. Strong emphasis on
naturalism, or observation of the real world was the focus in painting. It Grew out of the
illuminations of medieval manuscripts. Facial expressions become important in some Gothic
work. By the 13th century figures had become exaggerated in positions of the body with
swaying stances and distorted proportions. Drapery is often exaggerated in folds, tending to
be decorative or attractive in itself rather than revealing the structure of the body. Lavish
color, use of gold leaf, ornate carved frames were incorporated into the work. In architecture,
pointed arches, stained glass, and many decorative details taken from plant and animal forms
were included.
The Merging of Traditions in Siena and Florence
Duccio di Buoninsegna (Duccio for short). Maesta. Opera del Duomo, Siena .
This altar piece was commissioned by the city of Siena, Italy for its cathedrals’ high altar. It
was originally 16.5’X16.5’. It was thought to have originally had 21 scenes on the front and
43 on the back.
Above: Duccio di Buoninsegna, Virgin and Child in Majesty, Central Panel from Maestà
Altarpiece, Siena Cathedral. 1308-11. Tempera and gold on wood panel.
In the main scene the subject is the Virgin Mary adored by saints, Mary in Majesty, Mary as
the Queen of Heaven, the patroness of the city of Siena.
Because this painting was an object of devotion itself, the Italo-Byzantine style is still
evident here, especially in its formality and symmetry with a large central figure flanked by
smaller ones. The painting also retains other old-fashioned tendencies: difference of scale,
unconvincing space, the emphasis on contour, repetition, facial types and lavish use of gold
leaf.
But there are new features in this painting which are similar to those found in French Gothic
art such as: the outlines are not so hard; there is a suggestion of space, although it isn't
convincing (the figures look like they are standing on choir risers). The front figures are
shown in three-quarter view instead of being frontal. The drapery is more convincing,
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hanging and swinging in large, soft folds, and this is important because Siena was an
important center of silk trade.
Duccio (back, central panel): The Betrayal by Judas or Betrayal of Jesus (1308-11). In this
panel Duccio didn’t use the typical Italo-Byzantine trait of stiff formalism/frontalism.
Instead the many of the figures are shown in three-quarter view in the midst of motion.
Duccio Di Guonensegna, Betrayal of Jesus, Maesta altarpiece, Siena Cathedral, Siena,
Italy, 1309-1311, Tempera and gold on wood.
To see more of Duccio follow this link:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/d/duccio/buoninse/biograph.html
Giotto
In Florence, an artist with the same skills as narrator as Duccio and who was as bold an
innovator was Giotto di Bondone, known to us simply as Giotto. He was a student of
Cimabue, and the old story is told of him that he was found by Cimabue as a boy shepherd
sketching on a rock. Giotto's style was truly revolutionary, and he was widely credited with
changing the art of the West permanently. Italian artists of the Renaissance all based their art
on his accomplishments and built on them.
Arena Chapel in Padua
Giotto probably designed this chapel and certainly painted the entire interior. It is in Padua,
Italy and was commissioned by a moneylender named Scrovegni who sought to atone for his
father's sin of usury (charging excessive interest on loans). It was built on the site of the
Scrovegni palace, which no longer exists and which itself was built on the site and
incorporating part of an old Roman arena (hence the various name, Arena Chapel, Scrovegni
Chapel).
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The building is a simple barrel vaulted rectangular room with three narrow windows on one
wall matched on the opposite wall by painted decorations. The paintings depict the life of the
Virgin Mary in the upper tier and the life of Christ in the lower two tiers. The vault is a
serene blue studded with gold stars.
Giotto di Bondone,
Lamentation fresco, Arena
Chapel, Padua, Italy. 13051306.
Giotto's depiction of the grief over the death of Christ is demonstrated in the most direct and
effective manner. His boldness in composition is shown by the foreshortened angels and by
the figures in the foreground all directing attention toward the stiff body of Christ. Each
figure is a different depiction of grief, and in the foreground he introduces two figures of
rock-like solidity with their backs toward us, strengthening the sense of depth. The
composition is far from symmetrical, yet has a firm sense of balance. The rock in the
background doesn't distract from the group of figures and the tree looks natural, while we
know it is a symbol of the Tree of Life in the Garden of Eden, dead since the sin of Adam
and Eve.
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Detail from
Giotto’s Kiss of
Judas, Arena
Chapel, Padua
Italy.
Kiss of Judas- In a scene of chaos and noise, with Roman lances and torches clanking and
rattling, Judas identifies Christ by kissing him. He reaches up with his left arm, pulling his
yellow cloak up to Christ's head, creating a calm center in the midst of the confusion. At the
left side of the picture Peter slices off the ear of the high priest’s servant. Giotto suggests a
crowd with only a few people.
http://images.google.com/images?q=Giotto%20kiss%20of%20judas&rls=com.microsoft:enus:IE-SearchBox&oe=UTF-8&sourceid=ie7&rlz=1I7SUNA_en&um=1&ie=UTF8&sa=N&hl=en&tab=wi
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In these and the other scenes one can conclude that Giotto’s figures are sculpturesque,
weighty, simple and very volumetric. His work is monumental because he simplifies his
compositions.
More info about Giotto on this site: http://www.wga.hu/bio/g/giotto/biograph.html
Simone Martini
A student of Duccio in Siena, Martini worked in France during the years that the Papacy was
centered there in Avignon. By incorporating Gothic elements with the more formal
Byzantine tradition from Siena, Simone created a new style known as the International Style
or International Gothic which had repercussions throughout Europe. This style survived well
into the next century. It is decorative, rich in details, fluttering fabrics, fancy costumes,
courtly and aristocratic (as opposed to the more middle class and down-to-earth art of
Giotto).
Simoni Martini, Annunciation, 1333. Panel, 10'x8'9" Gold Leaf, tempera.
The Archangel Gabriel appears suddenly to Mary, who is reading scripture. She is seated on
a chair symbolic of a throne indicating her status as Queen of Heaven. In the room is a vase
of lilies, symbolizing her purity. Gabriel is richly garbed and the beating of his wings pulls
up his plaid robe in arabesques of curving line so typical of the International Gothic. A burst
of cherubim occupy the gold-leafed center of the upper portion. From Gabriel's mouth to
Mary's ear come the words of his greeting engraved across the panel: "Hail, Favored One, the
Lord is with Thee."
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Ambrogio Lorenzetti
Ambrogio Lorenzetti, the brother of Pietro Lorenzetti advanced the concepts of representing
illusionistic space with his series of frescoes in Pallazzo Pubblico, Siena , Italy, 1338-1339.
In Lorenzetti’s fresco, Allegory of Effects of Good Government, Peaceful City, he creates a
panorama of a well-governed city, convincing in its realistic proportions and perspective,
except for the city wall in the foreground, which he distorts to let you see in. The scene is
peaceful and shows the interaction of citizens going about their daily business.
In the Allegory of Effects of Good Government, Peaceful Country, The farmland and
countryside appear prosperous and peaceful. People are very productive.
In The Allegory of Effects of Bad Government, city scene, the city is crumbling and disease
and crime are rampant. In the country scene the landscape appears parched from drought and
non productive. Ironically The Lorenzetti brothers appeared to be victims of the Black Death.
They seemed to disappear from historical records suddenly in their career. Art in general
received a major set back during the second half of the fourteenth century from the Black
Death.
Visit this site for more info about the artist:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/l/lorenzet/ambrogio/biograph.html
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The Fifteenth Century in Italy: The Early
Renaissance
During the 15th century many forms of art were practiced, improved upon and rediscovered.
Some of the terms that we will need to review for the semester are:
Contrapposto-this is a term used to describe the complex bodily movement of the figure at
rest, supporting the weight on one leg while balancing the other. It was developed and used
frequently during classical Greek and Roman times.
Foreshortening- the term which describes the way in which a form seems to shorten when it
recedes into space, essentially creating a 3-d illusion on a 2-d surface much like perspective.
Painting on plaster is classified in a couple of ways. It was commonly done on walls since
ancient times and could be considered a type of mural painting. One type of fresco painting
was buon or “true” fresco. In true fresco the water based paint used for the painting is
applied on wet plaster. In fresco secco or just fresco, the paint is applied to the plaster after it
is dry. Each method has advantages and disadvantages. True fresco is more permanent
because the pigment penetrates into the plaster and becomes part of the plaster. The
disadvantage of true fresco is that the artist must work quickly before the plaster dries. In
fresco secco the artist has much more time to work but the paint is more likely to flake off.
One type of paint used by artists on panel paintings was called egg tempera. With egg
tempera, the pigments were mixed with the egg which served as a binder.
Florence was an old Roman city founded along the Arno River in the first century BC and
Florentines were proud of their heritage. It maintained strong emotional links with history
and identified with the Roman Republic. In the late middle ages, Florence became one of the
banking and trade centers of Italy. In the banking industry, the Medici family was the
dominant name. Florence had a constitution based on a republican form of government, but it
was strongly tied to the guild system. Only guild members could hold office. Gradually the
richest families began to hold power and by the end of the 15th century it was becoming an
oligarchy (government by a few of a ruling class, usually the wealthy) and eventually a semimonarchy.
The competition for the doors of the Baptistery
This octagonal building was built in the Romanesque period. It was used for baptisms and
was dedicated to John the Baptist. It is famous today for its bronze doors by Andrea Pisano
and Lorenzo Ghiberti.
In 140l a competition was announced for designs for a pair of monumental bronze doors for
the east entry of the baptistery in Florence. The Guild of Wool and Cloth Merchants was
responsible for the upkeep of the building. It was the most important guild in Florence. A
set of doors by Andrea Pisano in 1330 was already in place, but they would be moved to the
south.
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The subject was to be the Old Testament, and the specific theme for the competition was the
story of the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. The form of each entry was to follow that of the
existing doors, with figures in relief composed within a gothic quatrefoil, or four-lobed
design superimposed over a diamond.
Seven sculptors entered, but only two entry pieces have been preserved, those of Filippo
Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti, both cast in bronze and gilded.
To see more of Brunelleschi’s work visit this site:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/b/brunelle/biograph.html
Brunelleschi was born in 1377 and had been trained as a goldsmith. His entry shows how he
composed his figures carefully within the quatrefoil shape. Abraham and Isaac occupy the
right center, with Abraham, impossibly long, dramatically lunging toward Isaac with the
knife. The angel comes in from the upper left lobe just in time to stop Abraham, Abraham's
cloak floating up and around a tree in the right. The bottom two lobes are filled with figures.
The figures reach and bend with gothic frenzy, recalling the style of Giovanni Pisano.
Lorenzo Ghiberti
The other preserved entry was by Lorenzo Ghiberti, born in 1370 and also trained as a
goldsmith. He was an admirer of Giotto.
His entry was the winner of the competition. Like Brunelleschi's, the diamond shape is
followed, but to a lesser degree, and the action is more unified. Abraham's pose is still in the
gothic mode, but his figure is more substantial.
Here are even more progressive Renaissance features: the nude body of Isaac is the first
classicizing nude since antiquity. The form is graceful, with an athletic physique, and the
altar on which he kneels is decorated with a Roman rinceau motif.
Ghiberti's doors were to occupy the next 20 or so years of his life and the workshop set up to
make them was an important school for young sculptors. The subject was changed to the
New Testament and when finished, they were installed on the north side and Ghiberti was
given a second commission for the east entry. This time the subject was the Old Testament
and the format was changed to rectangular panels. This project took another twenty years,
from 1425 to 1447.
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Ghiberti, Lorenzo, North Doors of the Baptistery, 1403-1424.
The Gates of Paradise (the
East Doors of the Baptistery
Detail of panels
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More images of Ghiberti’s work can be seen on this link:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/g/ghiberti/biograph.html
Santa Maria del Fiore, (Saint Mary of the Flowers) (The Duomo)
In the middle of the 14th century, the population of Florence was 90,000, reflecting a wave
of immigration because of the jobs available there.
Florence, in contrast to its aristocratic neighbor Siena, was a solidly middle class and
working class town, and its architecture and art reflect its origins in the guilds
Building projects included the third, expanded circle of walls, the Palazzo Vecchio, the Ponte
Vecchio, the cathedral and its campanile (bell tower) (but not yet its dome), the vast churches
of S. Maria Novella and S. Croce, built respectively for the Dominicans and the Franciscans.
Rich merchants bought up farms and built villas for themselves just outside the city.
Dominating the skyline of Florence is the great dome of the cathedral, which has come to
symbolize the Renaissance in that city because of the confidence and imaginative
architecture of its designer.
Baptistry, XI-XII century (Façade, and ceiling)
Brunelleschi and the Dome of the Cathedral
In 1357 the cathedral was largely finished except for the great open space left for a dome at
the east end. The Florentines knew they wanted it to be capped off with a great dome, but
the space planned for it created construction problems that seemed insoluble. The space to
be covered was octagonal, 140 feet across. The traditional method of construction involved
making a centering scaffold, but it would have taken a forest to build such a scaffold here.
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A humorous solution was proposed: that a great mound of earth be built up with gold coins
hidden in it. Then when the dome was finished, the citizens of Florence, who were notorious
for their love of gold, would come and tear out the mound to get the gold. Another factor
that gave the Florentines pause before committing to any large scale construction was the
collapse in 1346 of the great dome of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
In 1417 the Florentines attempted to solve the problem with a method that was typical of
them: they decided to hold a competition. One of the contestants was Filippo Brunelleschi, a
sculptor who had been trained as a goldsmith and whose father was a member of the Operai
Dell' Duomo (the museum housing the works of art created for the cathedral).
Brunelleschi was born in 1377 and by 1420 had already created the Orphanage, and in 1421
the old Sacristry at San Lorenzo. He had turned to architecture when he lost a previous
competition for the set of doors for the Baptistery of Santa Maria del Fiore to Lorenzo
Ghiberti. Brunelleschi devised a new solution to dome construction which he proposed to
the committee in 1417. He aroused much interest, but also many doubts.
He left Florence to go to Rome to study the architecture of the ancient Romans. He studied
the Pantheon, the most famous dome in Italy. In 1419 he was back in Florence. He was
called before the Council where he maintained that the dome could be built without
centering. The discussion became so heated that Brunelleschi was carried out bodily several
times.
Brunelleschi built a chapel in a Florence church (S. Jacopo sopr' Arno) to prove that his
ideas could work. The dome was finally commissioned in 1419. He prepared a program for
the construction of the dome, and was finally appointed capomaestro (master builder),
although he had to accept lower pay and had to share the project with his old sculptural rival,
Ghiberti.
Begun in 1420 and finished in 1436, it was the first major project undertaken by
Brunelleschi. Dimensions: 138 feet wide; 300 feet off pavement. Finally construction
began. Fears and opposition increased. He decided to take sick leave. While he was gone, it
became obvious that Ghiberti could not carry on without him, and that his presence was
indispensable. He nevertheless continued to face opposition, and made more models,
sometimes out of wood, sometimes of mud and even of large turnips cut with a knife. He
refused to pay his membership to the guild. Workers went on strike, and Brunelleschi proved
he could carry on with new workers trained and directed by him. He invented new types of
machinery to construct it. He banned drinking during work hours, a concept foreign to
Florentines.
Brunelleschi's technique of construction was new. Instead of a massive masonry dome,
which would have to be massively buttressed, his dome was really two domes, one inside
another. It proceeded upwards by courses of bricks laid in a herringbone pattern. Typically
the weight of a dome tends to make the lower part of it bulge outward. Brunelleschi
lightened the weight by making two domes with inserted concealed ribs so it would be
lighter. There are two buried ribs in each flat section, 24 altogether, 8 exposed on the
interior, which carry the shape of the octagon at the base all the way to the top. There are
also ribs going laterally. The two shells were used during construction to support one
another. Brunelleschi also invented portable scaffolds which could be used over again. He
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developed a reversible gear to hoist building materials to the top of the site so the animals
powering the lift wouldn’t need to be re-harnessed going the opposite direction. He was
almost as famous for the machines he invented as for the building.
Between the two domes the inner space has a stairway of some 460 stairs which spiral
around and lead up to the lantern on top. This lantern is designed in a classical style which is
of Brunelleschi's mature period, although it was not built until after his death. It serves a
practical purpose as well as an aesthetic one, since its weight helps to counteract the
spreading tendency of the dome.
Florence Cathedral Dome, Florence, Italy
Sculpture of Filippo Brunelleschi, Outside
the Florence Cathedral Dome
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Cathedral Façade
The cathedral was built by Arnolfo di Cambio and others in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, but its facade was decorated with marble in the last decades of the 19th centuries.
The cathedral front has niches built into it which were used for statues designed in the
fifteenth century by Donatello and others and commissioned by various guilds. The entire
piazza, like the Piazza della Signoria, was marked by a strong sense of community. This
ensemble of buildings has a remarkable unity in spite of the long period of its construction.
Portal and façade of Cathedral. 1881 -87
Above: Details of the Cathedral
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Above: Campanile (bell tower), 276’ tall, faced with white, pink and green Tuscan marble.
The bell tower was designed by the painter Giotto, who supervised the first stage of its
construction.
Interior of cathedral
Although the church is a gothic church, it lacks the flying buttresses and great windows
found in French Gothic. On the interior we see pointed arches in rib vaults spanning great
spaces. It is the widest Gothic interior in Italy, but what pulls it together are iron bars, or tiebars, across the nave arches at their base, instead of buttresses on the outside.
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Other buildings by Brunelleschi
Pazzi Chapel 1429. Facade.
Pazzi Chapel, interior c. 1440-61, Santa Croce, Florence .
Filippo Brunelleschi, Pazzi Chappel, The melon dome
Santo Spirito
Spedale degli Innocenti, and Orphanage designed by Filippo Brunelleschi.
In addition to his innovative architecture, Brunelleschi also discovered the mathematical
basis for perspective. Artists, including the ancient Greek and Roman artists, had been aware
of the way parallel lines behaved when they recede into the distance, but there is no evidence
that anyone before Brunelleschi had ever understood that there was a theoretical way in
which these could be shown on a two dimensional surface. We have seen how Duccio had
shown the interior of a room (not in scale) including the ceiling, but it was guesswork based
on observation. Brunelleschi's discovery was a stunning achievement and it added yet
another tool which artists could to more convincingly depict the real world.
Medici
Civic pride was strong in Florence, and the Medici helped to make it the leading cultural
center in Italy. The Medici family amassed great wealth through their banking network,
which eventually became the largest in Europe. The family was the powerhouse in Florence
from 1434-1737, with breaks during tumultuous times when they were exiled. They
produced four Popes: Leo X, Clement VII, Pius IV, Leon XI.
The Medici had sincere interests in learning and art and surrounded themselves with scholars,
poets, historians, painters, and sculptors. They had an impressive collection of art by
contemporary artists as well as art from antiquity.
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Michelozzo and the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi
The fortress-like Midici –Ricardi Palace designed by Michelozzo was home to the Medici. It
was built between 1444 and 1464 and served not only as the Medici family home but also as
the headquarters of their banking empire. It has very distinct architectural features, such as a
large cornice which tops the three stories. It’s stonework on the ground floor is marked by
the powerful style of rustication, which is recognized by deep channeling between courses.
Above: outside view of Palazzo Medici-Riccardi
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Above: example of Rustication on Palazzo Medici-Ricardi
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Donatello (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi; c. 1386 – December 13, 1466)
Donatello's statue outside
of the Uffizi Galleria.
The Medici prided themselves in collecting the work of the most talented artists. Donatello
was selected by the Medici as one of the artists who they chose to give commissions. They
commissioned him to create the statue David for the Palazzo Medici courtyard in about 1428.
This was the first time since antiquity that a free standing nude sculpture was produced in the
Italian art world. It utilized the classical contraposto pose and shows David as an adolescent
boy, rather than appearing warrior like.
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Donatello’s David, ca. 1428-1430. Bronze, 5’2” Florence.
Left: Detail of David’s foot on Goliath’s head.
In 1411 Donatello rediscovered ponderation (weight-shift) and contrapposto as it was used in
classical Greek and Roman sculpture. This was something that he displayed in the piece St.
Mark for a niche in the façade of the church of Orsanmichele. Along with this concept he
experimented with distortion of proportions to fit the angle the piece was to be viewed from.
Another example of his experimentation with proportions is the sculpture Zuccone, done for
the façade of the Florence Cathedral. In this piece he experimented with expression and
psychological insight.
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Far Left: St. Mark, 7’9”, marble, Façade
of Orsanmichelle, Left: Zuccone,
Campanile of the Florence Cathedral,
1423-25. Marble, 6’5”. Both pieces were
done by Donatello
Donatello worked tirelessly as a sculptor and created a huge number of works that were in
very prominent places. Thus he gained the reputation of being not only prolific, but very
innovative in his work.
Donatello, Gattamelata,
Padua, Italy, ca. 1445-1450.
Bronze, 11’x 13’.
In 1443, Donatello revived the concept of a mounted warrior on horseback in his sculpture
Gattamelata. The monument is to commemorate the Venetian condottiere (soldier of fortune)
Erasmo da Nari. Donatello was very innovative in his grand sized sculpture and distorted the
proportions to fit the angle that the piece was to be viewed from. An example of this is the
legs of Gattamelata. If viewed from eye-level they appear too short. If viewed from below
they appear foreshortened and correct.
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Donatello, St. George, from a niche
at Orsanmichelle, Florence, Italy,
ca. 1415-1417. Marble, 6’10”.
Left: Donatello’s Mary Magdalene, 1454-55
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Painting in the first half of the 15th Century in Florence
Masaccio Masaccio (born Tommaso Casser or in some accounts Tommaso di Ser
Giovanni di Mone, 12/ 21, 1401 –1428)
Masaccio is the major painter between Giotto and Michelangelo. He continued the tradition
of solid forms and figures in space, combined with the gravity of religious experience. He
led the painting scene in Florence during the first quarter of the 15th century. In his painting,
The Holy Trinity, He created the illusion of real space that was related to the position of the
viewer. This piece is located in Santa Maria Novella in Florence.
The name Masaccio is a humorous version of Tommaso, meaning "big", "clumsy" or
"messy”. Masaccio died at the end of 1428. According to a legend, he was poisoned by a
jealous rival painter.
Left: Masaccio, Holy Trinity, Santa Maria Novella,
Florence, Italy, ca. 1428. Fresco, 21’ x 10’5”.
Paintings to remember



Expulsion from the Garden, Brancacci Chapel
Holy Trinity, c. 1425, fresco, Santa Maria Novella, Florence .
Frescoes from the life of Peter, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine,
Florence , including the Tribute Money, Peter and John Distributing Alms, and
Peter Baptising the Neophytes
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More about Masaccio is available on this site:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/m/masaccio/biograph.html
Andrea del Castagno (c. 1421-57)
Andrea del Castagno was an important painter of the first half of the 15th century. He was
heavily influenced by Giotto and Masaccio. He gained a name for himself with his
emotional treatment of his subject-matter in painting. One of his earlier pieces was The Last
Supper, Painted for a convent in Florence in 1447. The piece gained notoriety for its
excessive use of perspective.
Andrea Del Castagno, The Last Supper, (top, above, Detail), monastery of Sant’ Apollonia,
Florence, Italy, 1447. Fresco, 15’ x 32’To see this and other Castagno paintings visit the site
below.
http://www.abcgallery.com/C/castagno/castagno6.html
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Painting in the second half of the 15th century
Fra Angelico (c. 1400-1455)
Fra Angelico was a Dominican Friar that eventually settled in San Marco in Florence. While
he was originally given the name Guido di Pietro, he began using the name Giovanni da
Fiesole after he became a friar. He is well known for painting many powerful frescoes and
altar pieces, including a fresco in the Vatican. He was often called 'Beato Angelico' (the
Blessed Angelico), because he was considered by most to be a simple and very holy man.
His work combines Brunelleschi’s architecture and perspective with the forms derived from
International Gothic painting.
Angelico, Fra. c. 1438-45. Fresco, Monastery of San Marco, Florence, Italy. Fresco, 7’1” x
10’ 6”.
To see more about Fra Angelico visit one of the following sites:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/a/angelico/biograph.html
http://www.abcgallery.com/A/angelico/angelico.html
Fra Filippo Lippi (1406-69)
Lippi was born in Florence to Tommaso, a butcher. Both his parents died when he was still a
child. His aunt took charge of him and he was placed in an orphanage at the Monastery of the
Carmine in 1421, where he took his vows as a Friar. He was later tried for fraud, abduction
and subsequent marriage to the nun Lucrezia Buti. Together they had a son Filippino Lippi,
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who grew up to be an artist. Filippo also fathered a daughter Alessandra. Even though the
two were released from their vows and allowed to marry, he still signed his work “Frater
Philippus” His work marked the transition from the monumental gravity and apparent
simplicity of to a lighter, linear, and more overtly complex art of the mid century. He is
often credited with beginning the tradition of lovely young Madonnas in Italian painting.
Fra Filippo Lippi, Madonna and
Child
1440-45, tempera on panel
National Gallery of Art,
Washington, DC.
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For more about Fra Filippo Lippi see the following links:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/l/lippi/filippo/biograph.html
http://www.abcgallery.com/L/lippi/flippi.html
Neo-Platonism
One of the characteristic intellectual features of the age, the movement called Neo-Platonism,
included things ranging from literature to science. It grew out of the belief that the ancient
Greeks and Romans had had a very high civilization: witnessed in their achievements in art
and architecture, law and government. Consequently it was hard to believe that their religion
was entirely invalid. The Neo-Platonist wanted to believe that there was more to paganism
than the mythological stories that had come down through the ages, and that the ancients had
a complicated spiritual side to their religion that anticipated Christianity.
Plato was born in 428 in Athens. He was a student of Socrates and continued to develop
Socrates' philosophy after his master's death in 399, and was in turn the teacher of Aristotle.
Plato was the author of some 30 works including the Republic, the Symposium, Phaedrus,
Phaedo, Philebus, Timaeus, Theataetus and the Laws. Plato's philosophy has a distinctly
otherworldly character, emphasizing the spiritual and non-material aspects of reality. In
contrast to Aristotle, he gave knowledge and philosophy an intuitive and intellectual basis,
not as dependent upon experience as Aristotle. Granted that Plato's work contains many
internal contradictions and is rather unsystematic, it still was read widely and was subjected
to critical analysis and amplification by his earliest followers.
Plotinus was the greatest of his ancient disciples. He amplified, systematized and added to
what Plato had done, turning the tradition to an even more mystical and spiritual direction.
These modifications became the philosophy known as Neo-Platonism.
Only a small proportion of Plato's works was known during the Middle Ages, though indirect
knowledge of Platonic doctrine through many late ancient sources secured a significant place
for this philosophy down to the 15th century. The Florentine poet Petrarch favored Plato over
Aristotle as an authority and set the tone for the great Renaissance revival of interest in
Platonism.
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Around 1400, Greek manuscripts of most of his works came into Italy from Constantinople.
Latin translations of several works were made available in Latin in the early 15th century, but
the first to translate the entire writings of Plato into Latin was made by Marsilio Ficino,
published in 1484. He also translated and made available commentaries by other
philosophers. Ficino thought of Platonic philosophy as a preliminary to, and confirmation of,
Christian faith. He emphasized the close kinship between Platonic philosophy and the
Christian religion, seeing them as parallel to the truth connected at the source. He even
claimed that Plato had access to the first five books of the Old Testament and had absorbed
some ideas from it.
Between 1469 and 1774, Ficino composed a substantial philosophical work of his own
concerning the immortality of the soul. He argued for the independence of the soul from the
body and its immortality on the grounds of its participation in the divine characteristics of
unity, self-sufficiency and reason. He taught that the ultimate goal of human life was the
knowledge of God. This goal could be sought through intellect and the will. Along with this
is the parallel of love of God. The love of God and the knowledge of God are two different
aspects of the contemplative ascent of the soul. This inner ascent of the soul constitutes the
basic task of human existence. Divine worship is therefore natural to the human species. He
believed that all religions aim toward the true God, coming close to the idea of natural
religion.
Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510)
Alessandro was born in 1445 in Florence to Mariano and Smeralda Filipepi who lived on the
Via Nova in the quarter Santa Maria Novella. He was given the name Botticelli (which
means "little keg") from his brother, who was a pawnbroker. Listed by his father as "sickly
and studious" in a tax document, around 1464 he entered the workshop of Fra Filippo Lippi
as a student and stayed until 1467 when he was 22.
In 1469 Fra Filippo Lippi died and Sandro opened his own workshop in Florence. In 1472 he
joined the Compagnia di San Luca and also registered his friend and collaborator, the 15 year
old Filippino Lippi (the son of Fra Filippo Lippi). By 1474 he was associated with the
Medici.
1480 to 1482 he worked in Rome at the Sistine Chapel, where he painted frescoes of Moses,
the Destruction of the Children of Korah; Temptation of Christ and other subjects along with
painters Ghirlandajo, Cosimo Rosselli and Perugino.
At the ascendancy of Savanarola, Botticelli turned to religious subjects and even burned
some of his works on the famous "bonfire of the vanities." During this time, his work became
more visionary and pessimistic.
Botticelli was inactive in his later years and nearly forgotten. He was kept alive by the
generosity of the Medici. He died on 17 May 1510 and was buried in the family tomb at
Ognissanti.
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Above: Sandro Bottocelli, The Birth of Venus, 1482-1486, Tempera on canvas, 68” X 110”,
Uffizi, Florence.
Birth of Venus was one of a pair of large paintings made for the brothers Lorenzo and
Giovanni de' Medici. No one knows for sure the exact meaning of this painting; however, it
is probably based on a neo-platonic concept discussed at the Medici court. It was intended to
celebrate the wedding of Lorenzo's nephew.
Ficino wrote to Lorenzo "Venus, that is to say, Humanitas...is a nymph of excellent
comeliness, born of heaven and more than all others beloved by God all highest. Her soul and
mind are love and charity, her eyes dignity and magnanimity, the hands Liberality and
Magnificence, the feet comeliness and modesty. The whole, then, is Temperance and
Honesty, Charm and Splendor. What exquisite beauty!"
This Venus is an allegory of all moral qualities that a cultivated patrician should possess. His
work is characterized by an adaptation of his master, Fra Filippo Lippi’s style with firmly
modeled forms.
The pose of Botticelli's Venus is taken from a Greek statue by Praxiteles created in the fourth
century BC which was famous throughout the Mediterranean world in antiquity.
To the pagan Greeks and Romans, Venus was a goddess of physical love, originally a
fertility goddess. With the late classical Greeks, she became idealized into a beautiful female.
The Venus de Milo is another example, but without arms. Botticelli's version is clearly based
on antique models. According to mythology, Venus was born out of the sea foam after a
battle between the gods had caused some of their body parts to fall into the sea. Here she
drifts to shore on a scallop shell, blown along by the winds to the Island of Cythera (island of
eternal youth and love) and awaited by a nymph who holds a robe. This takes place in the
Mediterranean, which was sacred to her.
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Botticelli presents a neat trick: he turns the goddess of lust into the perfect symbol of
innocence. Here she probably represents the human soul in its perfect state before it descends
into earthly existence.
The scallop shell was a medieval symbol of pilgrimage. Here it probably represents the
pilgrimage the soul makes throughout its life to find God.
She is blown along by Zephyr, who was one of the four winds, probably here representing
passion, but it is a gentle wind and makes gentle little waves. The wind turns into flowers,
which become her cloak held by one of the Hours, representing time.
For more information and images about Botticelli see these sites:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/b/botticel/biograph.html
http://www.abcgallery.com/B/botticelli/botticelli.html
Ghirlandajo/Ghirlandaio
Domenico Ghirlandajo 1449-1494 (article from the Encyclopedia Britannica Online)
Italian painter Domenico Ghirlandajo (also spelled Ghirlandaio) is known for incorporating
prominent 15th-century citizens and contemporary settings into his biblical scenes. An early
Renaissance artist of the Florentine school, he created paintings and narrative frescoes that
are notable for their realism and detail. Domenico di Tommaso Bigordi was born in 1449 in
Florence. The son of a goldsmith, his nickname “Ghirlandajo” (meaning “garland-maker”)
was derived from his father's skill in making garlands. Domenico probably began as an
apprentice in his father's shop, but little is known about his training as a painter or the
beginnings of his career. Rather than creating small-scale paintings, he preferred to paint
frescoes on large wall surfaces, though he painted wood altarpieces for his major fresco
cycles. Ghirlandajo's earliest works date from the 1470s and show a strong influence from
the frescoes of Andrea del Castagno. One of them portrays members of the important
Vespucci family among the mourners at Jesus' death and reveals his characteristic
combination of portrait figures in contemporary dress with a specifically religious subject.
His first major commissioned works were two frescoes showing scenes from the life of St.
Fina, painted in 1475 in the Chapel of Santa Fina in the Collegiata at San Gimignano, near
Florence. Ghirlandajo's fresco St. Jerome in His Study (1480) probably was influenced by
Flemish painter Jan van Eyck. It is a companion piece to Sandro Botticelli's fresco of St.
Augustine, both painted in the Church of Ognissanti in Florence. The difference between the
two reveals Ghirlandajo's somewhat less-imaginative style and his emphasis on scenes that
suggest a story. In 1481–82 Ghirlandajo painted a fresco in the Sistine Chapel, in the
Vatican, showing the calling of the first apostles, Peter and Andrew. However, the principal
feature of this fresco is the portraits of the Florentine colony in Rome, who are shown
witnessing the biblical event. During his stay in Rome, Ghirlandajo likely studied Roman
artifacts, because many details of triumphal arches, ancient sarcophagi (stone coffins), and
other antique elements occur in his paintings for the rest of his career. Ghirlandajo and his
assistants, including his brothers Davide and Benedetto and his brother-in-law Bastiano
Mainardi, produced two major fresco cycles. The six frescoes of the life of St. Francis of
Assisi (about 1482–85) in the Sassetti Chapel in Santa Trinità in Florence again show details
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of buildings and people, including the Sassetti and Medici families, from Ghirlandajo's own
time. With these frescoes is an altarpiece (1485) showing the “Adoration of the Shepherds”
with a Roman triumphal arch in the background and a Roman sarcophagus in place of the
traditional manger. This painting in tempera was influenced by contemporary Flemish
paintings, especially the work of Hugo van der Goes. Ghirlandajo's last and greatest fresco
cycle represents scenes from the lives of Mary and St. John the Baptist, the patron saint of
Florence, and are in Santa Maria Novella in Florence. These narrative scenes contain a
wealth of detail showing contemporary clothing and late 15th-century Florentine palace
furnishings. His assistants, who probably included a young Michelangelo, completed the
frescoes by about 1490. Following his design, assistants completed the front panel of the
altarpiece soon after his death in 1494. Some of Ghirlandajo's smaller panel paintings,
especially the portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni (1488), have a simplicity that makes them far
more striking than his best frescoes. The portrait of an old man with a strawberry nose and
his grandchild (about 1480–90) is perhaps his finest painting, notable for its tenderness and
humanity. Ghirlandajo died on Jan. 11, 1494, in Florence. Ghirlandaio's son, Ridolfo, also
was a noted painter. Among his best-known works are a pair of scenes from the life of St.
Zenobius (1517). Ghirlandaio- Nascita della Vergine.
Ghirlandaio's Tornabuoni Chapel series on the life of Mary,
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Ghirlandaio, An Old Man and His Grandson, (ca. 1490) Tempera on wood, Louvre, Paris.
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Portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni (née
Giovanna degli Albizzi), 1488,
(Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum;
formerly in the Morgan Library.
For more information about Ghirlandaio see the following sites:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/g/ghirland/domenico/biograph.html
http://www.abcgallery.com/G/ghirlandao/ghirlandaio.html
Savanarola
Savanarola was an overly zealous monk that was well known during the 15th century for
trying to reform the city of Florence and impose his religious views. He is well known for
his event called “the bonfire of the vanities” in which paintings, jewelry, lavish clothing and
many luxury items were piled and publicly burned as a statement against wealth, and luxury.
His views were strictly enforced and caused a setback in the subject matter of paintings, and
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art in general. After Charles VIII of France invaded Florence in 1494, the Medici was
overthrown and exiled then Savonarola emerged as the new leader of the city. After
continual criticism of the Pope and many priests, he was excommunicated and, ironically,
executed (burned on a cross) in the Piazza della Signoria (pictured below), the same place he
conducted the “bonfire of the vanities”
Piazza della Signoria, Florence, Italy
Andrea Mantegna
(article from the Encyclopedia Britannica Online)
born 1431?, near Vicenza , Republic of Venice died Sept. 13, 1506, Mantua .
The son of a woodworker, Andrea Mantegna was adopted by Francesco Squarcione, a tailorturned-painter; Mantegna was one of several pupils who later sued him for exploitation. At
about 17 he established his own workshop and received an important commission for an
altarpiece, now lost. His frescoes in Padua's Eremitani Church (1448–57), with their
monumental figures and detailed treatment of Classical architecture, show that he had fully
mastered perspective and foreshortening and was successfully experimenting with
illusionistic effects, best seen in his frescoes of the Gonzaga family (completed 1474) in the
Palazzo Ducale's Camera degli Sposi (Bridal Chamber) in Mantua, which transform the small
interior room into an open-air pavilion. He was the first artist in northern Italy to work fully
in the Renaissance style. He married a daughter of the Bellini family in 1453 but did not join
the Bellini studio. He later became court painter to Ludovico Gonzaga. His humanistic
approach to antiquity and his spatial illusionism were to have far-reaching influence.
Mantegna brought painting in northern Italy into line with the developments in Florence and
painted the first di sotto in su ceiling (perspective from below looking up) painting.
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One of his most well known paintings was the painting The Dead Christ (pictured below),
with his feet forward toward the viewer showing his mastery of foreshortening.
More information and images are available on this site:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/m/masaccio/biograph.html
Andrea Mantegna, The Lamentation over the Dead Christ, Tempera on canvas, 1490
Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.
Architecture and Sculpture of the 15th Century
Leon Battista Alberti (b. 1404, d. 1472)
Alberti was known to be a mathematician, painter and sculptor. While he is most well
known as an Architect, he generally worked on designing new exteriors for existing
buildings. He is credited with reviving the articulation of the Colosseum in its use of the
Tuscan, Composite and Corinthian order on the various floors of the façade of the Palazzo
Rucellai. He shared the belief with Brunelleschi that true beauty in architecture lay in the
proportions that were based on the human body. A beautiful example of these proportions
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can be seen in the façade of Santa Maria Novella in Florence (see pictures below)
Alberti’s façade of Santa Maria Novella.
Above: this angle shows both the existing church and the redesigned façade.
Alberti used Roman architecture as inspiration for many of his structures. As mentioned
above he used features from the Colosseum. He also used the Roman temple front and the
triumphal arch in his work on Sant’ Andrea. The Basilica of Constantine was also used as a
reference in the interior of the church of Sant’ Andrea.
To see more of Alberti’s work visit this link: http://www.wga.hu/bio/a/alberti/biograph.html
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Santa Maria delle Carceri
Santa Maria delle Carceri is a church in Prato, Tuscany, Italy. It is an example of use of the
Greek cross plan. The Greek cross differs from the Latin cross in that it forms a cross shape
that isn’t rectangular. The nave and transept are generally of equal length. Greek cross plan
buildings are much more compact and were much more popular designs with architects but
not so with clergy.
According to the tradition, in1484 a child saw a painting of the Madonna and Child, on a
wall of the jail of Prato, animate itself. To celebrate the event it was decided that a basilica
would be built on that site to recognize the event. Lorenzo de Medici, a powerful figure in
the Republic of Florence, pushed for a design by the architect, Giuliano da Sangallo.
The façade of the structure stand incomplete even today. Follow the link below
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_delle_Carceri
Andrea Verrocchio
In the second half of the 15th century one of the most important sculptors in Italy was
Andrea Verrocchio. He was a very important teacher that taught the likes of Leonardo da
Vinci, Ghirlandaio and Sandro Botticelli. He was well known not only for his sculpture but
also for his painting and goldsmithing.
One of the most noted sculptures created by Verrocchio was the 13 foot bronze equestrian
statue in Venice, Italy of Bartolomeo Colleoni who was condottieri (mercenary, soldier of
fortune). Interestingly, Colleoni had died three years prior to the beginning of the monument
so Verrocchio was working from his interpretation of him based on descriptions and his
personality.
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Equestrian statue of Colleoni, Verroccchio, 1486-1488, Venice, Italy.
Luca della Robbia
Luca di Simone di Marco della Robbia (1399/1400-1482)
Luca della Robbia was a Florentine born Italian sculptor that was the developer of a
particular style of relief sculpture that was made from terra cotta and then glazed. The work
produced in the della Robia studio gained popularity in its time and was utilized to decorate
the exterior of many public buildings and private residences. Because his work could be
mass produced for all to enjoy it was given the name della Robia ware with negative
connotations. The work however, is exquisitely designed with special attention to the human
form and its emotional expressiveness. One of the structures that his work decorated was
Ospedale degli Innocenti, which was a large public orphanage in Florence. It was paid for by
the Silk Merchant’s Guild. It was designed by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi.
Left. Ospedale degli Innocenti, Florence,
Italy. Designed by Brunelleschi. The
small blue circular shapes are decorative
sculpture by della Robia.
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Left: Glazed, terra cotta roundel
by Luca della Robbia on the
façade of Ospedale degli
Innocenti, Florence, Italy.
For more information about Luca della Robbia follow this link:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/r/robbia/luca/biograph.html
Antonio del Pollaiuolo
Antonio del Pollaiuolo was a late 15th century artist that was skilled in many media. He
worked as an engraver, painter, and sculptor, goldsmith, and embroiderer. He was known for
his attention to the musculature of the human form. He often created action packed images
engaged in conflict.
Antonio del Pollaiuolo,
Battle of the Nudes, c.
1465-70, engraving,
Cincinnati Art Museum
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Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Hercules and Antaeus, c.
1475, Bronze, 18” including base. Museo
Nazionale del Bargello, Florence, Italy.
For more information about Antonio del Pollaiuolo, visit this site:
http://www.wga.hu/bio/p/pollaiol/biograph.html
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