Final Report of Focus Group 7

Transcription

New Technologies
for Rural Applications
Final Report of ITU-D Focus Group 7
“Bridging the digital divide, providing digital opportunities for all”
INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION
Final Report FG 7: New technologies for rural applications
iii
Message from
Sir Donald Maitland
Chairman of the Independent Commission for
World Wide Telecommunications Development
In the early days of cinema an enterprising American company produced a series of documentaries under
the title The March of Time. Each of these short informative films concluded with the resounding
statement of the obvious: “Time marches on”. Yes, of course. And so does mankind.
In 1968, the Canadian academic Marshall McLuhan foresaw the emergence of the global village. In the
autumn of 1973, the Yom Kippur war precipitated a world oil crisis. This in turn led to the demand by the
leaders of the developing world for a new international order. The campaign which followed focused the
attention of the international community on the economic and social gap between industrialized and
developing countries and, in the immediately following years, much effort was devoted to the task of
defining in what way such a new order might be created.
In 1981, the General Assembly of the United Nations drew attention to the “fundamental importance of
communication infrastructures as an essential element in the social and economic development of all
countries”. This prompted the International Telecommunication Union at its Plenipotentiary Conference
at Nairobi in 1982 to decide to set up an Independent Commission with the task of recommending ways
in which the expansion of telecommunications across the world might be stimulated.
Since The Missing Link – the report of the Independent Commission – saw the light of day in January
1985, much valuable work has been done to reduce the telecommunication gap between the industrialized
and developing worlds. The Commission recognized that new technologies could enable developing
countries to replace their outdated and inadequate networks with systems, which would offer opportunities hitherto unavailable to them. At the time, the Commission acknowledged that extending national
networks to rural and remote areas posed a particular challenge. The World Telecommunication
Development Conference at Valetta in March 1998 addressed this challenge when it determined that a
new and more radical approach was needed. The aim would be to identify those new technologies, which
took account of the particular conditions of developing countries. Once identified these could be made
available to the relevant developing countries. In March 1999, a Focus Group was formed to carry out this
task.
The final report of the ITU-D Focus Group 7 is by any standards an impressive document and its
members deserve the gratitude of all those who look forward to the final closing of the telecommunication gap. At the outset, the Group defined rural as including isolated and poorly served areas
where, for a variety of reasons, it is not easy to establish telecommunication services. Having considered
the special characteristics of such areas, the Group set about examining existing projects, which serve the
needs of the inhabitants in such fields as telemedicine, support for small businesses and emergency relief,
among others. Their researches covered the world – from Sri Lanka to Georgia, from Peru to Greenland,
and virtually everywhere in between. In the process the Group have compiled, largely by electronic
means, an extensive library of invaluable information. This, together with their comprehensive recommendations, will constitute an essential element in the programme for the achievement of the goal of
universal access to basic communications set out in the Action Plan adopted at Valetta in 1998. Mankind
marches on.
Sir Donald MAITLAND
Limpley Stoke, Bath (England)
7 September 2000
iv
Foreword by the ITU Secretary-General
In 1998, the World Telecommunication Development Conference at Valleta, Malta, adopted Topic 7, the
study of new technologies for rural and remote applications, as a component of its Action Plan. To
address this directive, TDAG and ITU-D Study Group 2 decided, in the spring of 1999, to create a focus
group to study Topic 7 and report its findings. Focus Group 7 fulfilled its mission and now, one and a half
years after the group was first set up, its Report is available.
How well I recall my own involvement as a delegate of my country in launching the study of this farreaching topic during WTDC98. For this reason I have read the Focus Group 7 Report with particular
interest. As we fully anticipated two years ago, the Report reveals a wide and ever-increasing array of
low-cost information and communication technologies (ICTs) capable of supporting sustainable and
socially beneficial services in rural areas. We also foresaw the complex challenges and strategic choices
that now face developing countries in their efforts to grasp and make full use of these technologies.
The ITU’s “Missing Link” report, issued 15 years ago, set a goal to bring telephone services within easy
reach of all humankind before the 21st Century. Thanks to new technologies and innovative schemes, we
are closing some of the gaps. Access to a telephone will soon be within walking distance of us all. But as
one gap narrows, others are widening. These are the gaps between people who are connected to the global
information infrastructure and those who are not. As I remarked in my opening speech at TELECOM ’99,
we must bring Internet-style services to all humankind within the first decade of the new millennium, and
apply all the new technologies and impulses so that the gaps in connectivity to the Internet can be
reduced.
To meet this goal, solutions for providing services to rural areas are sorely needed. Many existing
solutions, as well as some which are under development, are presented in this Report. Sections 2 and 3 of
the Report describe a range of telecommunication-based applications that are being implemented in rural
and remote areas, such as telemedicine and disaster management. In Section 4, the Report profiles new
noteworthy technologies and technology combinations for establishing access to telecommunications in
rural areas, including satellite-based Internet access and IMT-2000 cellular systems. Section 5 discusses
the need for renewable and off-grid energy systems to support telecommunications in rural areas where
there is no electricity. Finally, Section 6 points towards new directions in the development of information
technology systems for meeting the specific needs of rural areas, such as remote terminal maintenance
and configuration, and shared or communal forms of access to IT services.
All of these considerations must be fully addressed in the development of rural communications services
as we strive to bridge the digital divide. The need for closer integration of information technology and
development programmes in the service of poverty alleviation has been recognized in several global
forums this year, including the G8 Summit in Okinawa and the subsequent UN Millennium Summit in
New York. The ITU is expected to play an important role in furthering the goals established at these
global events and this Report is one of our first contributions towards this end.
Yoshio UTSUMI
Secretary-General, ITU
Geneva, 22 September 2000
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Foreword by
Hamadoun I. Touré
Director, Telecommunication Development Bureau
The developments in communication and information technologies contain both opportunities and
challenges. When properly implemented they offer unique opportunities to leapfrog over traditional
stages of development. On the other hand, if no action is taken, they will give rise to new forms of
exclusion. The possibilities and opportunities surrounding such developments have now been firmly
placed on the global agenda. The issue of digital divide was the focus of attention of the most recent G-8
summit in Okinawa and the theme of the United Nations Millennium Summit. The resulting momentum
should give a further fillip to ITU activities in this area.
The development of telecommunications in rural and remote areas forms an important mission of the ITU
Development Sector as emphasized at the last World Telecommunication Development Conference. The
activities geared to the enhancement of telecommunication systems and services through support for
building of infrastructure, advising on appropriate institutional structures, assisting in mobilizing financial
and human resources, and applications of new technologies, all have the central objective of achieving
universal access to telecommunication and information services.
This report of the Focus Group 7 is a timely and valuable contribution in the context of the current
concerns on digital divide. While addressing the issue of new technologies to meet the needs of rural and
remote areas of developing countries, the Focus Group has enumerated a series of services and technical
solutions specifically suited to the technological, infrastructural, social and economic context of the
developing world. This is an important resource for developing countries and its value can be only
realized by continuous maintenance of the website.
The Focus Group has also come up with a series of concrete and action-oriented recommendations that
can be immediately followed up by the Telecommunication Development Bureau. The recommendations
encompass facilitating development of information appliances for rural use, renewable energy sources for
telecommunication appliances, collaboration with micro-finance organizations, implementation of pilot
projects based on application of new technologies, continued maintenance of the website to gather and
update case studies on technologies suited for rural applications and holding symposia on new
technologies. BDT will endeavour to implement the recommendations and calls on all partners to help in
implementing them.
The work of the Focus Group 7 is a testimony to the innovation adopted at the World Telecommunication
Development Conference (Valletta, 1998) of addressing questions in a short period of time. The BDT has
appealed, in this context, that efforts must be made to complete studies in time for concrete
implementation to be achieved and reported to the subsequent World Telecommunication Development
Conference (2002).
While congratulating the Focus Group 7 and its participants for the work done, particular mention must
be made of the role played by Mr. Yasuhiko Kawasumi who chaired the group with distinction and great
devotion. We also place on record our gratitude to the Administration of Japan whose voluntary
contribution has made the work of the Focus Group 7 possible.
We now call upon all our Members and sector members to work closely with us to ensure that the digital
divide is tackled in a practical and efficient manner.
Hamadoun I. TOURÉ
Director BDT, ITU
Geneva, 21 September 2000
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Acknowledgements
Focus Group 7 gratefully acknowledges the voluntary financial contributions of the Japanese Administration, whose generous assistance enabled this focus group on new technologies for rural and remote
applications. The focus group would like to thank all of the information and resource providers who
furthered the work of Focus Group 7, including the contributors of the case reports, participants in Focus
Group 7 meetings and activities, moderators of the on-line discussion groups, the editorial committee, and
all of the focus group members. The Rapporteur of FG7 would like to express his special thanks to
Ms. Rebecca Mayer, BDT research officer, for her excellent research including collection of the case
library reports and exhaustive report writing; to Mr. Phillip Trotter for his work on web site construction,
technology research and report writing; and to members who contributed to the final report including
Mr. Roberto Bastidas-Buch, ITU-D Zone Administrator for Central America, Mr. Chris Rovero and
Mr. Eberhard Roegner. Finally, the Rapporteur of FG7 would like to express his appreciation for active
cooperation by Mr. Hamadoun I. Touré, Director of BDT, Mr. Nabil Kisrawi, Chairman of Study
Group 2, and the many BDT staff members who furthered the focus group’s progress from time to time.
Rapporteur of Focus Group 7
Mr. Yasuhiko Kawasumi, Japan Telecom Co., Ltd
List of moderators for on-line discussions
Mr. Leonid Androuchko
Mr. Guy Girardet, BDT
Mr. Jacques Rostenne, Perwit International Management Consultants
Dr. Yoshiyori Urano, Global Information and Telecommunication Institute
Mr. Mark Wood, Disaster Relief Communications Foundation
BDT support for Focus Group 7
Ms. Fidelia Akpo
Ms. Petra Bravenboer
Mr. Vishnu Calindi
Mr. Pierre Gagne
Mr. Claude Garnier
Mr. Guy Girardet
Ms. Rebecca Mayer
Ms. Sylvie Pitt-Dunand
Ms. Sylvie Raposo
Mr. Walter Richter
Mr. Phillip Trotter
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Message from Sir Donald Maitland...............................................................................................
iii
Foreword by the ITU Secretary-General .......................................................................................
iv
Foreword by the Director, Telecommunication Development Bureau..........................................
v
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................
vi
Acronyms and abbreviations .........................................................................................................
ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................
1
Section 1 – Background and goals of Focus Group 7 (FG7) ..................................................
1.1
Mission statement ...................................................................................................
1.2
Objectives................................................................................................................
1.3
Definition of rural and remote areas .......................................................................
1.4
FG7 work methodology ..........................................................................................
1.5
Activities 1999-2000...............................................................................................
1.6
Report scope and methodology...............................................................................
5
5
5
5
6
6
7
Section 2 – Trends in rural and remote applications .............................................................
2.1
The role of telecommunications in rural areas........................................................
2.2
Developers of communications-based applications ................................................
2.3
End-user skills and training.....................................................................................
2.4
Installation, operation and maintenance..................................................................
2.5
Information technology and microfinance institutions ...........................................
9
9
10
12
12
13
Section 3 – Application areas....................................................................................................
3.1
Community and small business development .........................................................
3.2
Telemedicine/telehealth ..........................................................................................
3.3
Distance education/tele-education ..........................................................................
3.4
Emergency support and disaster relief ....................................................................
3.5
Environmental monitoring and protection ..............................................................
15
15
15
18
18
20
Access infrastructure .............................................................................................
Narrowband packet radio ........................................................................................
GSM 400.................................................................................................................
Combined point-to-multipoint/wireless local loop systems....................................
CDMA450...............................................................................................................
Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs) ..............................................................
Satellite-based Internet access.................................................................................
Digital satellite radio...............................................................................................
Meteor burst communications.................................................................................
IMT-2000 ................................................................................................................
Wireless routers and voice over IP (VOIP).............................................................
21
21
22
23
28
33
36
39
39
41
43
Section 5 – Renewable and off-grid energy solutions .............................................................
5.1
Introduction.............................................................................................................
5.2
Powering telecommunication and IT systems in rural areas...................................
5.3
Balance of system components ...............................................................................
5.4
Solar power .............................................................................................................
5.5
Wind energy............................................................................................................
5.6
Micro-hydro power .................................................................................................
48
48
48
49
50
51
52
Section 4 –
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
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Page
5.7
5.8
Hybrid power systems.............................................................................................
Clockwork power ....................................................................................................
53
53
Information technology..........................................................................................
Introduction .............................................................................................................
Integrated telephone/e-mail devices........................................................................
E-mail appliances ....................................................................................................
Handheld computers................................................................................................
Internet client appliances.........................................................................................
Internet server appliances........................................................................................
Video game systems................................................................................................
Thin client systems..................................................................................................
Interactive voice response systems .........................................................................
Transaction cards.....................................................................................................
Computer add-ons and accessories .........................................................................
55
55
57
58
59
62
64
65
67
69
73
74
Section 7 – Conclusions and recommendations.......................................................................
7.1
Concluding discussion and remarks ........................................................................
7.2
Recommendations ...................................................................................................
77
77
80
References .....................................................................................................................................
84
Glossary .........................................................................................................................................
87
Annex 1 – Terms of reference of ITU-D Focus Group 7...............................................................
88
Annex 2 – The Open Source Definition (Version 1.7) ..................................................................
91
Annex 3 – Guidelines for Designing ICTs for Rural Areas of Developing Countries ..................
93
Annex 4 – List of Focus Group 7 Members...................................................................................
95
Annex 5 – Outline of proposed BDT training course on information appliances .........................
98
Section 6 –
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AC
Alternating Current
ADPCM
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
ASIC
Application Specific Integrated Circuit
BOS
Balance Of System Components
CPU
Central Processing Unit
CS
Cell Station
DC
Direct Current
DCTS
Digital Cordless Telephone System
DECT
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
EEPROM
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
ETSI
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FG7
Focus Group 7
FT
Fixed Terminal
HSCSD
High Speed Circuit Switched Data
HTTP
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
ICT
Information and Communication Technologies
IMT-2000
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000
IP
Internet Protocol
IRC
Internet Relay Chat
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network
ISP
Internet Service Provider
IT
Information Technology
IVR
Interactive Voice Response
kW
Kilowatt
LAN
Local Area Network
LCD
Liquid Crystal Display
LVD
Low Voltage Disconnect
MBBS
Meteor Burst Base Station
MCT
Multipurpose Community Telecentre
MPPT
Maximum Power Point Tracking
MPTC
Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, Cambodia
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
OS
Operating System
PAD
Packet Assembly and Disassembly
PC
Personal Computer
PHS
Personal Handyphone System
PMP
Point to Multipoint
POTS
Plain Old Telephone Service
PSTN
Public Switched Telephone Network
ix
x
PTP
Point To Point
RAM
Random Access Memory
ROM
Read Only Memory
RU
Repeater Unit
SLIP
Serial Line Internet Protocol
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol
SSL
Secure Socket Layer
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TDAG
Telecommunication Development Advisory Group
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access
TGW
Transit GateWay
TNC
Terminal Node Controller
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VAP
Valetta Action Plan
VMU
Visual Memory Unit
VOIP
Voice Over Internet Protocol
VSAT
Very Small Aperture Terminal (used with satellite systems)
WAN
Wide Area Network
WAP
Wireless Access Protocol
WARC
World Administrative Radio Conference
WLL
Wireless Local Loop
WTDC
World Telecommunication Development Conference
WWW
World Wide Web
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
More than 2.5 billion people – over 40% of the planet’s population – live in rural and remote areas of
developing countries. Of the small fraction that has any access to telecommunications, radio broadcasts
and voice telephony have traditionally been the main services provided. Today, a wide variety of new
telecommunication applications such as e-mail, e-commerce, tele-education, telehealth, and telemedicine,
among others, has made access to interactive multimedia services as important for rural and remote
communities as voice connectivity alone. Since each rural district or community requires a different mix
of voice, text, image, video and audio communications to best meet its needs, today’s telecommunication
network operators must be able to support a wide range of services, applications and bandwidth levels at a
reasonable cost.
The Valetta Action Plan (VAP), formulated at the second ITU World Telecommunication Development
Conference in March 1998, sought to promote universal access to basic telecommunication, broadcasting
and Internet as tools for development in rural and remote areas. Focus Group 7 has spent a year
researching technological developments that have the potential to support telecommunication applications
which are commercially viable, or sustainable through other transparent financing mechanisms, in rural
and remote areas of developing countries.
Rural and remote (or just “rural”) areas exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:
•
scarcity or absence of public facilities such as reliable electricity supply, water, access roads and
regular transport;
•
scarcity of technical personnel;
•
difficult topographical conditions, e.g. lakes, rivers, hills, mountains or deserts, which render the
construction of wire telecommunication networks very costly;
•
severe climatic conditions that make critical demands on the equipment;
•
low level of economic activity mainly based on agriculture, fishing, handicrafts, etc.;
•
low per capita income;
•
underdeveloped social infrastructures (health, education, etc.);
•
low population density;
•
very high calling rates per telephone line, reflecting the scarcity of telephone service and the fact that
large numbers of people rely on a single telephone line.
These characteristics make it difficult to provide public telecommunication services of acceptable quality
by traditional means at affordable prices, while also achieving commercial viability for the service
provider.
Focus Group 7 Findings on Applications
Focus Group 7 found that the Internet is the most widely used platform adopted to deliver multimedia
applications in rural areas of developing countries. While much negative attention in developing countries
has been focused on the use of the Internet as an illegal bypass mechanism in the international traffic
arena, the long-term importance of the Internet for developing countries lies in its potential to improve the
domestic flow of economic and educational resources between isolated rural communities and urban
centers. Areas of application for Internet- and other communication-based applications include telemedicine and public health education, coordinating regional food security efforts, making governmentsponsored agricultural extension services more effective and accessible to rural farmers, and enabling
more rural children, adolescents and post-secondary students to receive an education, among others.
Applications development: Communication-based applications are being designed and implemented in
rural areas of developing countries by a wide variety of actors in addition to public telecommunication
operators (PTOs). A significant portion of the expertise required to develop sustainable, connectivity-
2
enabled applications for rural areas is located within the professional, academic, business and agricultural
sectors, among others. Not only do schools, universities, government departments, international organizations and NGOs routinely design and implement customized applications, they also independently
purchase and set up information technology (IT) equipment. As a result, public telecommunication
operators are increasingly required to support a heterogeneous mixture of networks, protocols and
bandwidth requirements away from urban centers.
The need for basic literacy, computers skills and training in the use of ICT applications remains a
significant challenge for rural areas. Language barriers and the complexity of personal computer (PC)
operation have been shown to hinder Internet diffusion. Many innovative schemes have been devised in
rural areas to overcome these barriers. Although not widely utilized, techniques such as voice mail,
translation of content, and icon-based telephones indicate that foreign languages and illiteracy are not
necessarily barriers to the use of communications services, if the end user’s needs are comprehended and
addressed. Relevant content is extremely critical to the success of any rural application.
Community and business development: A great deal of progress is being made in rural community and
business development through the introduction of telephony, telecenters, e-mail, and radio broadcasts. For
example, an infoDev-sponsored organization named PeopLink has established an e-commerce programme
allowing local artisans in developing countries to bypass middlemen and market their products directly to
first world consumers. Two of the key requirements for the success of community and business
development applications were found to be local language support and the availability of relevant content.
Telemedicine: The motivation and commitment to telemedicine in developing countries is very strong.
This motivation is often backed by a willingness to pay for systems which are expected to improve health
outcomes and lower medical costs in the long run. Telemedicine services may be perceived as more of a
necessity in developing countries than they are in the industrialized countries, resulting in a greater
willingness among the former to change established methods of doctor-patient interaction and health care
administration.
Telemedicine and telehealth applications are not limited exclusively to expensive, high bandwidth
services. As long as the local medical community remains motivated and committed to implementing
telemedicine and telehealth programmes, there are a wide range of health benefits that can be achieved
through remote patient monitoring and diagnosis, multimedia communication links between urban and
remote facilities, and broadcast of health information over radio and television.
Distance Education: Unsurprisingly, the focus group found that university-level distance education
programmes lend themselves to cross-border implementation. Using distribution by satellite or Internet,
the adminstrative costs of running distance education courses can be spread over a very wide potential
student base. A number of existing programmes, such as the African Virtual University (AVU) and the
distance education network of the University of the South Pacific (USPNet), are already based on the
concept of cross-border educational access.
Focus Group 7 Findings on Technologies
Problems with installation and maintenance of wire plant have prompted the widespread use of wireless
systems in rural areas. Nine types of wireless access systems were identified through the case studies and
ITU activities, illustrating existing and emerging access options for reaching rural communities. Given
the trend toward shared facilities such as telecenters, university extension centers, post office kiosks, etc.,
as well as the variety of revenue models associated with social services in the health, educational and ecommerce fields, the focus group considered technologies which expanded the number of supportable
applications as well as those which demonstrated lower per-line costs.
Demand for Internet-based telecommunication applications in rural areas, particularly e-mail, has resulted
in new applications of old technologies, such as VHF radio systems and meteor burst communications,
for non-real time services. In addition, new combinations of existing technologies are extending the reach
and flexibility of wireless access systems, as well as reducing total costs through the integration of shared
3
systems and components. In particular, many rural operators are deploying very small aperture terminals
(VSATs) and point-to-multipoint terrestrial radio systems integrated with wireless local loop systems
based on standards such as PHS and DECT.
Access options on the horizon for rural areas include a number of technologies that are new to the rural
marketplace or still under development.
•
Cdma450 and GSM400 cellular base stations implemented in the 450 MHz range are scheduled for
commercial introduction in 2001. The use of the lower frequency bands will enable each base station
to cover approximately double the area achieved by existing digital cellular base stations operating in
the 800-900 MHz frequency range.
•
Third generation cellular systems, known as IMT-2000, are designed to deliver a wide range of
traffic types and volumes more efficiently and inexpensively than the current generation of wired and
cellular telephony networks.
•
Gateways based on ITU-T Recommendation H.323 support real-time, two-way communications
between local area networks (LANs) and the PSTN. Such gateways offer developing countries the
option of constructing local and wide area networks to deliver telephony and other services in rural
areas, without undermining existing investments in the PSTN.
•
Wireless router networks, integrated with IP telephony software, have the potential to provide
significant cost savings and social benefits as multi-service application platforms for telecenters,
government offices, schools and other organizations in rural areas. Since these technologies are
largely untested in rural areas, Focus Group 7 recommends that BDT conduct pilot projects aimed at
confirming the technologies’ robustness in rural environments and effectiveness in dealing with
multimedia applications such as telemedicine, distance learning and so forth.
Information technology and multimedia terminals: It is of the utmost importance that ITU-D strive to
raise awareness of the rural information and communication needs of developing countries within the
computing and information technology industry. Unlike the telecommunications industry, which has been
doing business in underdeveloped rural areas for several decades, companies in the IT sector are generally
unfamiliar with the environmental and social requirements of rural areas of developing countries.
Multimedia systems profiled by Focus Group 7, some of which were only launched during the period in
which the report was written between June and August 2000, demonstrate many features with potential
lifetime cost savings for rural areas. For example, information appliances supporting e-mail, World Wide
Web (WWW) browsing and e-commerce applications provide simplified user interfaces in packages with
fewer maintenance requirements than traditional PCs. Internet client network solutions can offer Internet
service providers (ISPs) the ability to upgrade their rural customers’ browser and applications software
remotely, reducing the skills requirements for telecenter operators and rural schools. Finally, technical
institutes and R&D organizations in developing countries such as India and Indonesia are developing
their own custom, low cost IT terminals and devices.
Renewable energy solutions: The lack of mains energy supply in many rural and remote areas is a major
obstacle to deploying telecommunication infrastructure. Many governments, agencies, and NGOs are
currently working to support broader or massive use of telecommunications and IT systems in
unelectrified rural areas As a result, Focus Group 7 recommends that governments, administrations and
recognized operating agencies consider closely linking renewable energy specialists with rural telecommunication and ICT initiatives.
In the past two decades, the most important use of renewable energy and hybrid systems in telecommunications has been for off-grid telecom repeaters. Due to the high cost of the repeater equipment, the
critical role the repeaters play in the larger telecom networks, and the unattended nature of the systems,
these power systems have been very carefully sized and designed using highly capable and experienced
engineers. In contrast, the power requirements for user-side installations – such as wireless local loop
terminals, PCs and cellular handsets – are relatively small. For such user-side equipment it will generally
not be possible to rely upon the same approach to power system design as has been used for telecom
repeater systems. Therefore, Focus Group 7 recommends that ITU-D support the efforts of the
international renewable energy community by disseminating practical and useful information on small
4
power systems for rural telecommunication installations to ITU-D members, project partners and other
organizations.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The report of the Maitland Commission, issued seventeen years ago, set a goal to bring telephone services
within easy reach of all humankind before the 21st century. In order to remain consistent with this goal
after a decade of tremendous expansion in the social applications of information and communication
technologies, an update of the target proposed by the Maitland Commission is recommended.
In support of the goal of promoting the development of new telecommunication technologies for rural
applications, FG7 offers the following six recommendations:
1) Promote the development of low-cost information appliances for rural use.
2) Create a renewable energy handbook on small-scale power systems for rural ICTs.
3) Increase collaboration with micro-finance organizations to help develop communication-based rural
businesses and applications.
4) Conduct pilot projects of packet-based wireless access infrastructure for multimedia applications.
5) Maintain and expand the FG7 Web site.
6) Hold a symposium on new technologies for rural applications.
The Focus Group 7 also proposed the creation of a Task Force, consisting of a small group of volunteers
among the ITU-D Study Group members to assist the BDT Director with the implementation of FG7
recommendations. The mandate of the Task Force may include:
•
Monitor implementation progress of all FG7 recommendations;
•
Formulate suggested criteria for the establishment and location of pilot projects;
•
Contribute to cross-communication and coordination efforts among all parties.
Based on extensive research by Focus Group 7, this report concludes that there is a need for robust
telecommunication systems combining low-cost, wireless access technologies with packet-based
networks for the possible delivery of Internet in rural and remote areas. Such systems are deemed likely
to hold various advantages for the provision of information-based applications in rural areas. As the
concept of universal access expands to include services that are more complex than traditional voice and
fax telephony, the development of shared-use, easily maintained multimedia terminals for community
centers must be explored in order to find socially effective solutions for providing Internet in rural areas.
5
Section 1 – Background and goals of Focus Group 7 (FG7)
1.1
Mission statement
“Study various mechanisms by which to promote the development of new
telecommunication technologies for rural applications”
1.2
Objectives
The second World Telecommunication Development Conference (WTDC) at Valetta, Malta, in March
1998, called attention to the need for the development of new technologies designed to meet the needs of
developing countries. Comments from the developing countries had been voiced for many years
regarding the Union’s allocation of resources for standardization activities with primary applicability to
developed countries. It was felt that developing countries were forced to purchase unnecessarily
expensive telecommunications equipment made for the high standards of developed countries. A proposal
for ITU to tackle the problem was adopted in principle as Topic 7 of Chapter 2, Annex 1A, Action Plan of
the Valetta WTDC.
The goal of the proposal was to create a new framework for the development of rural communications by
seeking out new technologies that consider the environments, economic conditions, and needs of
developing nations. These technologies would be standardized and delivered directly by the suppliers to
the developing countries. In March 1999, at the meeting of the ITU-D Telecommunication Development
Advisory Group (TDAG), it was agreed that Topic 7 should be executed as the task of a Focus
Group (FG7). For the Focus Group’s management, the Japanese Administration provided voluntary
financial contributions and an expert to serve as rapporteur for the Focus Group.
The terms of reference approved by TDAG with regard to Focus Group 7 are included in Annex 1.
1.3
Definition of rural and remote areas
Focus Group 7 has based its work on the definition of rural and remote areas stated in the Report on
Question 4/2 of ITU-D Study Group 2, first study period (1995-1998):
Traditionally, the term rural is applied to the countryside or anything related to it. Rural is often used in
opposition to urban. However, this is not the case here. For the purpose of this Report, the expression
“rural and remote” (or just “rural”) refers to rural, isolated and poorly served areas by telecommunication
facilities, where various factors interact to make the establishment of telecommunication services
difficult. A rural area may consist of scattered settlements, villages or small towns, and may be located
several hundreds of kilometres away from an urban or city centre. However, in some cases a suburban
area may also be considered as rural.
A rural area exhibits one or more of the following characteristics:
–
scarcity or absence of public facilities such as reliable electricity supply, water, access roads and
regular transport;
–
scarcity of technical personnel;
–
difficult topographical conditions, e.g. lakes, rivers, hills, mountains or deserts, which render the
construction of wire telecommunication networks very costly;
–
severe climatic conditions that make critical demands on the equipment;
–
low level of economic activity mainly based on agriculture, fishing, handicrafts, etc.;
–
low per capita income;
–
underdeveloped social infrastructures (health, education, etc.);
6
–
low population density;
–
very high calling rates per telephone line, reflecting the scarcity of telephone service and the fact that
large numbers of people rely on a single telephone line.
These characteristics make it difficult to provide public telecommunication services of acceptable quality
by traditional means at affordable prices, while also achieving commercial viability for the service
provider [41].
1.4
FG7 work methodology
The Focus Group created a global case library for the following 3 types of project reports:
a)
Ongoing projects using technologies specially designed for rural and remote areas of developing
countries, including Multipurpose Community Telecenters, Tele-medicine and Tele-education.
b) Planned projects that make new combinations of technologies to meet the needs of rural and remote
areas, such as satellite communications linked with wireless local loop (WLL) networks.
c)
Examples of how equipment has been adapted for use in particular, harsh climatic or other conditions
of rural and remote areas, such as solar-powered telephones.
Based on the data gathered through its homepage, <http://www7.itu.int/itudfg7>, and taking account of
the work of Study Group 2 (SG2), focus group members were requested to:
a)
Select those types of projects or systems that have social or economic importance but limited
commercial profitability, so that the ITU can focus special support upon such projects in helping to
develop technology for rural and remote applications.
b) Recommend new measures to be taken by ITU-D to encourage manufacturers and relevant
organizations to create technology tailored to the needs of developing countries.
c)
1.5
Among those measures, recommend priorities that ITU-D should follow to help achieve the
development of technology for rural and remote applications;
Activities 1999-2000
Three Focus Group 7 meetings were held, on 16 June 1999, 7 September 1999 and 28 February 2000,
respectively. The first meeting dealt with the terms of reference of the Focus Group, its work plan and
work methods as well as the database design. During the second meeting it was announced that the design
of the Website had been completed. The content of the database was discussed in detail, and the Focus
Group members and participants were urged to contribute reports. The third meeting reviewed the Interim
Report of the Focus Group, discussed progress in the collection of case studies and considered topics for
the final report and recommendations to Study Group 2.
Focus Group 7’s activities have been conducted mainly through a virtual forum based on the web site,
<www7.itu.int/itudfg7>. A total of 80 people both from developing and developed countries registered in
the membership of FG7, as listed in Annex 4. Visitors to the Web site generated approximately
10,000 hits per month. FG7 collected over 50 case reports of different technology applications in various
countries.
From November 1999 to May 2000, on-line discussions were carried out on four topics: Community
Development, Telehealth/Telemedicine, Developing Support for Small Businesses, and Emergency
Support & Disaster Mitigation. A planned discussion on Tele-education was unsuccessful due to lack of
participation, and a second planned discussion on Environmental Monitoring & Protection was cancelled
due to the last-minute unavailability of the moderator.
On April 13, 2000 a roundtable on rural communications, established with Focus Group 7 support, was
held at the ITU Americas 2000 Forum in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Focus Group 7 members assisted in the
identification of experts to participate in the roundtable and the FG7 rapporteur acted as the briefing
7
officer for the session. The roundtable discussion provided valuable information to the Focus Group
regarding the profitability of rural and remote telecommunications in Latin American countries.
Based on the various technologies and their applications collected in the case library and discussions,
Focus Group 7 presents its conclusions in this report on the recommended ways to promote the
development of technologies for rural and remote applications, and measures to be considered by the ITU
for the development of telecommunications in rural and remote areas.
1.6
Report scope and methodology
The purpose of this report is to present the essential points of the Focus Group 7 case library; canvas the
technologies that have been used, or are anticipated for use, in rural and remote areas; and recommend
refinements, enhancements and new directions in the development of such technologies.
Access networks and terminal equipment are the network segments most strongly impacted by the
characteristics of rural and remote areas. Therefore, this report focuses on access and end-user equipment
and their interfaces, leaving the issue of core networks to ITU-D Study Group 2, Question 10:
Communications for rural and remote areas; and to ITU-D Study Group 1, Question 13/1: Promotion of
infrastructure and use of the Internet in developing countries. A number of computing terminals are
profiled in this report but, in keeping with the ITU focus on telecommunications, we have included only
those information technologies that are enabled for connectivity.
Methodology
Focus Group 7 chose applications as the starting point for its identification of information and communications technologies used in rural and remote areas. From the list of applications, on the one hand, and the
available technologies, on the other, this report seeks to identify gaps between the information and
communication services needed in rural and remote areas, and the technical solutions offered by existing
technologies at the low end of the cost spectrum (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 – FG7 conceptual approach
The technologies mentioned in this report were identified through the case studies as well as supplemental
research efforts by BDT staff. The inclusion or omission of any specific technology(ies) does not imply
any judgement, either positive or negative, on the part of Focus Group 7 or the ITU. Suggestions for
technologies not covered would be gratefully accepted by the BDT secretariat for consideration in future
updates of this Report.
8
It is an assumption of this report that the selection of technologies for rural applications ought to be based
on criteria weighted according to the needs, culture, budget and physical environment, among other
characteristics, of each planned deployment. The focus group identified a number of criteria along these
lines, including:
Infrastructure
•
Ease of Installation
•
Ease of Operation and Maintenance
•
Tolerance of environmental extremes
Energy
•
Level of power consumption
•
Compatibility with off-grid energy solutions
Social Benefit
•
Variety and flexibility of service applications
•
Support for local language(s)
•
Skills and/or training required by end users (including literacy)
Cost
•
Modularity and scalability
•
Compliance with recognized standards
•
Initial and lifetime costs
•
“Future proof” technology evolution
The affordability of services to the end user, while extremely important to the realization of social benefit,
is not primarily a function of technology, so it is not included among the criteria in the social benefit
category.
9
Section 2 – Trends in rural and remote applications
The Focus Group 7 case library, consisting of some 50 papers, contains examples of the use of
information and communication technologies (ICTs) to support rural economic development, health,
distance education, emergency support, and disaster relief. Although the nature of the case library is
anecdotal, several trends present themselves for possible future study and examination.
2.1
The role of telecommunications in rural areas1
Of more than 3.5 billion inhabitants in the world’s low income countries, approximately 72% live in rural
areas2 [25]. Rural areas can generally be characterised by low population density and long distances
between settlement areas. Due to unfavourable geographic and climatic conditions, access from urban
centres to rural areas, and vice versa, is often difficult.
Further disadvantages of rural areas are:
–
Low educational level, high illiteracy rate.
–
Hardly any job opportunities.
–
Low income per capita and per family.
–
Increasing migration of the young to urban centres.
–
Unreliable and badly functioning (public) transport.
–
Irregular, if any, power supply.
–
Poor health care and medical services.
–
Lack of other government services.
–
Little participation in national affairs.
The basic objectives to which telecommunications services have to contribute are to trigger and sustain
structural and economic development, to minimize the above mentioned disadvantages and to generally
improve the quality of life in rural and remote areas.
The Valetta Action Plan (VAP), formulated at the second World Telecommunication Development
Conference in March 1998, sought to promote universal access to basic telecommunications, broadcasting
and Internet as tools for development in rural and remote areas. Focus Group 7 has spent a year
researching technological developments that have the potential to support rural applications which are
either commercially viable or sustainable through other financing mechanisms.
Annual public expenditure on health and education in the world’s low income countries is estimated at
more than USD 100 billion [25]. Where the cost and/or outcomes of these expenditures can be improved
through the use of telecommunications, access to appropriate infrastructure becomes not only a human
right, but a financial necessity.
New industries and other commercial operations are attracted only to places where telecommunications
are at hand. Unserved rural areas will, therefore, develop only slowly, if at all, thus contributing to the
acceleration of unwanted rural to urban migration. One of several preconditions to reverse this trend is the
availability of telecommunication services and applications.
Other benefits of telecommunications concern security, the elimination of feelings of isolation and
insecurity in rural villages as well as improvement of government administration. Public administration
_______________
1
This section contains excerpts from Benefits of Telecoms in Rural Areas [43], submitted by Eberhard Roegner of
DETECON GmBH.
2
Rural is defined here as total population minus urban population. Urban population refers to the population of all areas
defined as urban in each country, as reported to the United Nations.
10
becomes more effective with telecommunications because it relies heavily on co-ordination between
central headquarters, regional and local offices as well as individual government officers in outlying
districts.
It has turned out, though, that the full impact of improved telecommunications comes only to bear if road
conditions are also improved. Many of the most critical factors that enable rural areas to benefit from
technology lie beyond the network and its elements. Sustainable business models, political will, skills
training and education are just as critical – if not more so – than selecting the most appropriate technology
from among a range of reasonable technology alternatives.
Focus Group 7 recognizes the prime importance of the human factor in economic development, but has
limited the scope of its investigation to the segment in which ITU can provide the greatest contribution:
that of raising awareness about the range and capabilities of information and telecommunication
technologies.
2.2
Developers of communications-based applications
The Focus Group 7 case library indicates that telecommunications-based applications are being designed
and implemented by a wide variety of actors in addition to public telecommunications operators (PTOs).
A significant portion of the expertise required to develop sustainable, communications-based applications
for rural areas is located within the professional, academic, business and agricultural sectors, among
others. The case library contains examples of applications introduced by physicians, educators, community organizations and governments.
Table 2.1 lists over 30 applications of telecommunications services in rural areas, illustrating some of the
specialized applications developed by non-telecommunications organizations. Not only do schools, universities, government departments, international organizations and NGOs routinely design and implement
customized applications, they also independently purchase and set up information technology (IT)
equipment. As a result, public telecommunications operators are increasingly required to support a
hetergeneous mixture of networks, protocols and bandwidth requirements in rural areas.
When telephones are installed in isolated communities outside the context of a third-party project, the
onus falls on the telephone service provider to raise awareness among the rural inhabitants of its potential
applications. Global Village Telecom (GVT), a rural telephone operator, has found that it can take a
substantial amount of time for isolated villages in South America to generate average payphone traffic
levels.
When a rural village receives its first public telephone, the inhabitants often do not have many ones to
call. This is particularly the case when the inhabitants have few commercial or social links outside the
village, or when they believe that those they would wish to call don’t have telephone access. GVT and
other operators have found that both the service provider and local authorities can take steps to encourage
the local population to use the telephone,
Examples of such initiatives include:
•
Posting the phone numbers of frequently-used local vendors in the telephone booth or telecenter.
•
Offering voice mail messaging to residents who cannot afford their own line.
•
Creating a phone-based, interactive voice response (IVR) service providing relevant market
information in a local language.
•
Organizing inter- and intra-regional public fairs, sports events and school championships that require
coordination among a number of villages.
•
Creating a directory of rural telephone numbers to encourage inbound calls from relatives and friends
working abroad and in urban areas.
Only the most isolated communities tend to require such basic encouragement. The opposite problem,
that of demand quickly outstripping network capacity, is common in small towns and rural trading
11
centers. For example, when cellular phone service became available in the northern Ugandan town of
Gulu, which had only 30 telephone lines, more than one thousand subscribers registered for service within
the first six weeks [32].
Table 2.1 – Examples of specialized rural applications
Box 2.1 – Examples of specialized rural applications
Community Development
Small Business Development
Education
• Creation and dissemination of
local content, such as a multilingual web site for children
• Browsing the Internet to explore
new markets and investigate
new suppliers
• Delivery of multimedia content
to remote areas (CD-ROM-type
materials, video)
• Delivery of personal messages
via radio broadcasting in areas
with no telephone service
• E-commerce/tele-boutique for
local artisans
• Live classroom instruction using
videoconferencing facilities
• Dissemination of information
about government programmes,
subsidies and administrative
matters
• Improving logistics, such as prearranging delivery and payment
details before undertaking travel
with goods
• On-line academic database and
bibliographic access
• Enhancing regional cooperation
through information exchange
between local rural radio
stations
• Icon-based telephone sets used
to obtain market information
from an interactive voice
response system
• Professional networking by
educators through e-mail and
online discussion groups
• Group listening to radio
broadcasts: special interests,
sports, entertainment
• Point-of-sale applications in
remote tourist outposts
• Radio broadcasts of educational
content: environment, health,
science
• Keeping in touch with family
and friends working in cities or
abroad
• Recording and sending delivery
confirmations
• Submitting tests via e-mail
• Population registration and
voting
• Transport vehicle fleet tracking
• Undergraduate degree
programmes via distance
education
• Web browsing for teaching and
learning materials
Health and Medicine
Environmental Monitoring
and Protection
Emergency Support and
Disaster Relief
• Delivery of health information
to medical professionals in the
field
• Environmental information
storage and exchange on the
WWW
• Calling police, fire, ambulance
• Delivery of prevention-oriented
health information to rural
communities
• Remote monitoring and alarm
• Emergency assistance following
vehicle breakdown
• Entry of patient data in remote
databases
• Supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA)
• Locating and rescuing victims
during an emergency
• Access to medical specialists
via tele-consultation
• Telemetry (remote data
acquisition and recording)
• Radio broadcasts of urgent
content: disease outbreaks,
disaster warnings, instructions
for refugees
• Teleradiology, remote
ultrasound, ECG cardiac
monitoring, etc.
• Satellite-based tracking of bush
fires
• Restablishing communications
after a disaster
• Remote monitoring to alert of
potential natural disasters
Source:
Collated from the FG7 case library.
12
2.3
End-user skills and training
The need for basic literacy, computers skills and training in the use of information and communication
technologies remains a significant barrier to uptake of telephone, e-mail and Internet-based applications
in rural areas. Language barriers and the complexity of personal computer (PC) operation also hinder
Internet diffusion.
Many innovative schemes have been devised in rural areas to overcome these barriers. Although not
widely utilized, techniques such as voice mail, local translation of content, and icon-based telephones
indicate that foreign languages and illiteracy are not necessarily barriers to the use of communications
services, if the end user’s needs are comprehended and addressed.
For example, radio broadcasters in Sri Lanka regularly search the Internet for interesting information and
broadcast what they find to the community in the local language [26]. RiSTi, the research and
development arm of Telkom Indonesia, developed a simple icon-based telephone set for use with an
interactive voice response (IVR) system providing market and educational information [58].
When telephones are first introduced in very isolated rural and remote communities, villagers may require
some time to become familiar with the basic functions of the telephone and the reasons to use it. Leaving
the phone off the hook is one common error; developing culturally acceptable ways to converse by phone,
with due attention to the need for brevity imposed by costs, is another.
Skills required for Internet access
The use of personal computers (PCs) to provide Internet access for educational, business and telemedicine
applications requires on-site personnel with relatively advanced skill sets in computer operation and
software configuration. A UNESCO-sponsored pilot project at teacher training colleges in Zimbabwe
found that low computer literacy rates, high turnover in computer resource personnel and limited access
to the PCs had a negative impact on use of the Internet for curriculum development, despite training
programmes offered on Windows 95, Internet browsing and e-mail [12].
Computer resource managers involved in the UNESCO pilot project identified PC hardware configuration
as the most difficult task they faced. The absence of local expertise in computer operation and repair in
the areas surrounding the colleges compounded the skills shortage. Given the difficulty with which
computers were obtained, installed and maintained in these academic institutions, where basic literacy is a
foregone conclusion, the problems associated with maintaining PCs in less specialized environments can
be expected to be the same or worse.
2.4
Installation, operation and maintenance
Special shelters and temperature control systems are required to maintain electronic equipment and
batteries in areas where temperatures routinely exceed 40° celsius or drop well below the freezing point.
Inadequate and periodically impassable roads make travel between urban and rural areas for maintenance
visits risky, time consuming and expensive.
The lack of mains energy supply in many rural and remote areas is a major obstacle to deploying
telecommunications infrastructure. In addition to the cost of purchasing and installing an off-grid power
system, the lifetime cost of maintaining the power supply must be absorbed by the telecommunications
operator.
Problems with installation and maintenance of wire plant have prompted the widespread use of wireless
systems in rural areas. Even with the use of wireless technology, however, unexpected logistical details
encountered in the field can be responsible for significant cost overruns and delays of service activation.
13
For example, Telkom South Africa began implementing a large wireless local loop (WLL) rollout in
underserved areas in 1997. A number of logistical challenges delayed the progress of the rollout, such as:
•
Finding the most cost-effective way to survey sites, select appropriate antennas, and construct towers
and masts for a large number of wireless installations.
•
Negotiating rights-of-way with individual communities.
•
Ensuring that customers did not unplug WLL terminal equipment in order to use the outlet for other
purposes.
•
Procuring sufficient solar panels, air conditioning units and equipment shelters from domestic
manufacturers.
•
Assigning coordinates to subscribers to compensate for inaccurate census data and the lack of an
address system.
•
Ensuring that the terminal equipment installed corresponded exactly to the identification numbers
logged on the system.
Operating, powering and maintaining electronic end-user devices such as cellular phones and PCs in rural
areas present additional challenges. Cellular phone batteries must be recharged on a regular basis. PCs
require alternating current (AC) and protection from electricity surges in order to avoid damage to
sensitive components. The facilities and expertise for handling these issues may not be available in rural
areas, or they may be available but not at an affordable price for all but the largest businesses.
2.5
Information technology and microfinance institutions
The support of small business creation in poor areas through microloans – typically small loans of less
than a few hundred dollars, given to poor individuals for the purpose of capitalizing small businesses –
has revolutionized development practices around the world. Grameen Bank, the most widely recognized
progenitor of the microlending approach, has developed a model for village phone businesses in
Bangladesh.
In the FG7 case library, Grameen Telecom reported 950 village phones in service in Bangladesh as of
November 19993 [20]. In its first three years of operation, the Grameen Telecom experiment has been
successful in creating profitable telephone service businesses in poor communities. According to a 1999
study, village phone operators earned a weekly profit ranging from 35 Taka (USD 0.069) to 683 Taka
(USD 13.42), for an average net profit of 277 Taka (USD 5.45) per week [7].
Many microlending institutions look at Grameen as a model for new programmes, and there is little
question that other programme developers in microlending agencies would be interested in the use of
information technology products in conjunction with low-cost connectivity options to help fight poverty.
Dr. Muhammad Yunus, founder of the Grameen Bank microcredit programme, floated a proposal before
the World Bank in November 1999 to establish an “International Center for Information Technology To
Eliminate Global Poverty”. The technology and applications development functions of the proposed
Center included:
•
Creative design and implementation of prototypes of IT infrastructure, information systems and
applications in the service of poverty elimination.
•
Conducting analyses of IT requirements for health, education and anti-poverty efforts.
•
Identification of the interfaces between the informational needs of the poor and IT capabilities, as the
basis for proactive creation of applications.
_______________
3
For a more recent study on Grameen, see “Grameen Telecom’s Village Phone Programme: A Multi-Media Case Study”,
Dr. Don Richardson, et al, TeleCommons Development Group, http://www.telecommons.com/villagephone/index.html
14
Certain needs identified by Dr. Yunus are similar to those identified by Focus Group 7. One of the initial
motivations for the Focus Group was the perception among ITU-D members that studying the technology
was simply not enough to ensure a social benefit in rural and remote areas; one needed access to
grassroots-level data on telecommunications applications and uses in order to design cost-effective
technical solutions to real-world problems. Public telecommunication network operators also require
partners at the local level to design and implement programmes that encourage the beneficial use of the
infrastructure that has been made available. Cooperation between microfinance institutions, the
IT industry and telecommunications operators has the potential to provide significant benefits to all three
parties.
15
Section 3 – Application areas
3.1
Community and small business development
A great deal of progress is being made in rural community and business development through the
introduction of telephony, telecenters, e-mail, and radio broadcasts. Table 3.1 lists the case studies in
the G7 case library which focus primarily on community and business development applications. Case
studies on access infrastructure designed to extend plain old telephone service (POTS) to rural and remote
areas are included in this category.
In addition to the examples profiled in the case library, there are many other cases where the use of
telecommunications has led to quantitative benefits for rural communities. For example, an infoDevsponsored organization named PeopLink has established an e-commerce programme allowing local
artisans in developing countries to bypass middlemen and market their products directly to first world
consumers4 In the 1999 South African elections, electronic transmission of voter registration data and
election results from rural and remote areas helped to reinforce South Africa’s democratic institutions5.
Two of the key requirements for community and business development applications were found to be
local language support and the availability of relevant content. Relevant content, in particular, is
extremely critical to the success of rural communications projects. A number of Internet- and e-mailbased discussion groups focus on the development of local content, such as the African web content
e-mail discussion list6 and other independent discussions. The value of ICT equipment is realized only
when the community is able to use it to achieve social goals.
3.2
Telemedicine/telehealth
Table 3.2 lists the reports in the FG7 case library focusing mainly on telemedicine.
One of the central lessons for the focus group on telemedicine has been that the motivation and
commitment to telemedicine in developing countries is very strong. This motivation is often backed by a
willingness to pay for systems which are expected to improve health outcomes and lower medical costs in
the long run. Telemedicine services may be perceived as more of a necessity in developing countries than
they are in the industrialized countries, resulting in a greater willingness among the former to change
established methods of doctor-patient interaction and health care administration.
Telemedicine and telehealth applications are not limited exclusively to expensive, high bandwidth
services. As long as the local medical community remains motivated and committed to implementing
telemedicine and telehealth programmes, there are a wide range of health benefits that can be achieved
through remote patient monitoring and diagnosis, multimedia communication links between urban and
remote facilities, and broadcast of health information over radio and television.
The telemedicine reports in the FG7 case library describe two national approaches taken to provide
medical care in rural and remote areas. South Africa is developing a national programme of PC-based
telemedicine stations to provide medical services such as ultrasound, pre-natal screening, tele-radiology
and tele-optometry. The stations will contain some mobile components which can be brought into the
field in a radius around the community centers where the telemedicine stations are housed [15].
_______________
4
Source: http://www.peoplink.org
5
“Telkom to provide telecommunications solution for 1999 elections”, Telkom S.A. press release, 3 September 1998.
6
For more information on the Africa web content discussion group,
see http://www.egroups.com/group/africa_web_content_owner
16
Table 3.1 – FG7 case library reports on community and small business development
Application
Description
Case study title
POTS
Field trial of a VSAT-wireless local loop solution to
provide service to remote areas requiring between
20-500 lines.
The Intelsat WLL/VSAT Rural
Telephony Trial in Peru [24]
POTS
Telephone service supplied in underserved areas
using TDMA point-to-point microwave systems with
DECT wireless local loop tails.
Telkom South Africa’s
TDMA/DECT Wireless Local
Loop Deployment [16]
POTS
Income generation for poor rural inhabitants through
small village phone businesses financed by
microloans.
Grameen Telecom in Bangladesh
[20]
POTS
Providing remote industrial sites with telephone
service to attract and keep investors, businesses and
employment.
The MPTC DCTS Pilot Project
(Cambodia) [33]
POTS
Providing telephone services to residents of 5,000
farming villages located throughout Thailand, using
TDMA point-to-multipoint systems with PHS-based
wireless local loop tails.
Rural Public Long Distance
Telephone Project (Thailand) [44]
E-mail
Describes a small rural telecenter based on a solarpowered handheld computer connected to a cellular
handset.
“Type 0” Community Telecenters:
Results of Suriname Case Study
[19]
Telephony
Data circuits
Improving the quality and number of telephone
circuits connecting the capital of Paraguay,
Asunción, with rural areas.
Paraguay: Rural Network Trial
Using VSATs [39]
Data circuits
Trial using wireless local loop systems to speed
provision of international high-speed digital leased
circuits.
Paraguay: Rural High-Speed Data
Transmission Using WLL [38]
Interactive
Voice Response
Telephone-accessed interactive voice response
system providing information on agriculture, fishery,
animal husbandry, health, education, home industry,
tourism, and market prices.
IVR Application as a Voice-based
Information Service for Rural
Communities (Indonesia) [58]
TV, Radio
POTS
TV, radio broadcasting and POTS services supplied
via a cheap, flexible, remotely-controlled satellite
earth station.
Greenland’s Large Remotely
Located Satellite Earth Stations
[31]
Radio
Internet access
Use of community radio broadcasting stations as the
focal point for local Internet access.
Internet Radio in Sri Lanka [26]
Telephony
training
e-commerce
Creation of rural e-businesses in conjunction with
local multi-purpose community telecenters, enabling
local businesses to advertise on the Internet.
Multipurpose community
telecentre (MCT) pilot project
(Honduras) [6]
Telephony,
e-mail, Internet,
IP broadcasting
Voice telephony and multimedia services delivered
to rural and remote communities through a modular,
IP-based wireless access system.
A Wireless IP Phone System for
Rural Applications [45]
Internet access
e-commerce
education
telemedicine
Pilot projects of a business model aimed at
supporting profitable business development by
supplying basic renewable electric power, wireless
communications and micro-finance to carefully
selected villages.
Greenstar Community Centers for
Economic Development [21]
ISDN
Centrex
POTS
Basic and advanced PSTN services provided through
remote line concentrators (RLC) installed close to
the areas of subscriber demand, thus reducing initial
investment and copper loop costs.
Compact Remote Line
Concentrator System for Rural
Applications in China [11]
Source:
FG7 case library.
17
Greenland’s national telemedicine experience highlighted some of the factors that must be weighed when
choosing the communications infrastructure to support a far-flung network. After experimenting with
medical tele-consultations over ISDN lines, Greenland decided to implement a more flexible solution
running on a dedicated IP-based network of routers connected with wireless links (a “routernet”). The
network supports a web-style interface for information and data transmission as well as videoconferencing for live consultations [28].
Table 3.2 – FG7 case library reports on telemedicine/telehealth
Application
Description
Case study title
Dissemination
of health
information
Health-oriented digital satellite radio broadcasting
service designed to assist medical professionals in
Africa, created by the WorldSpace Foundation and
Satellife.
WorldSpace Digital Satellite
Radio and Multimedia Services
[57]
Cardiac
monitoring and
care
Transmission of electro-cardiogram (ECG) data via
a simple telephone line, allowing remote diagnosis
of a patient’s heart condition.
Jordan: Transtelephonic electrocardiogram (ECG) transmission
[59]
Video
consultations
Rural telemedicine services based on low-cost
videophones, sustained without operational subsidies
from the government.
Videophone Telemedicine Project
in Indonesia [56]
Teleradiology
Remote diagnosis of high-quality medical images
transmitted via ISDN lines to experts in major urban
hospitals, nationally and abroad.
Implementation of Telemedicine
in the Republic of Mauritius [47]
Remote access
to medical
specialists
Dedicated IP-based telemedicine network (known
as a “routernet”) connecting isolated towns with a
primary care facility in the capital city. Services
include live video consultations and store-andforward of X-ray and ECG data.
Telemedicine in Greenland [28]
Home-based
monitoring for
the elderly
Regular monitoring of elderly patients in a remote
village through videophone and health monitoring
devices installed in their homes.
ISDN Telemedicine in Japan [27]
Primary and
specialty health
care in rural
areas
Delivery of telemedicine services to the rural and
remote population using mobile telemedicine work
stations based in Multipurpose Community Centers.
Planned services include teleradiology, pre-natal
screening, tele-pathology and tele-opthalmololgy.
The South Africa National
Telemedicine System Pilot Project
[15]
Source:
FG7 case library.
Under the auspices of the ITU, a pilot project using transtelephonic electro-cardiogram (ECG) monitoring
devices was conducted in 1999 by the Guli Cardiological Clinic in Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia. The
device, illustrated in Figure 3.1, typically costs between USD 200 and USD 700 and is used to record a
patient’s cardiac data, which can then be transmitted via a standard telephone line to a medical facility for
evaluation.
The pilot project in Georgia concluded that the ECG records produced in the trials were of sufficient
quality for medical practitioners to interpret, even when transmitted over telephone lines considered by
the users to be of low quality [52]. In Jordan, the use of similar trans-telephonic devices during a threemonth trial resulted in savings of USD 167,500 by reducing unnecessary hospital referrals [59].
18
Figure 3.1 – Trans-telephonic ECG monitoring device
Source:
3.3
“Telemedicine and developing countries – lessons learned”, ITU-D Study Group 2, Document 2/116-E, 27 August 1999.
Distance education/tele-education
Basic literacy, education and vocational training are extremely critical to economic development. The
potential benefits of distance education can hardly be overstated. Table 3.3 lists the case studies in the
FG7 case library focusing primarily on distance education or tele-education.
Two reports in the FG7 case library indicate that degree programmes offered to university-level students
over satellite links lend themselves to cross-border distribution. Twelve island nations in the South Pacific
jointly created a satellite-based university extension programme called USPNet. Meanwhile, the African
Virtual University is able to offer courses developed and taught by leading universities in twelve
sub-Saharan countries.
The ITU uses distance education as a means of providing ongoing training to telecommunications
engineers and regulators around the world. The ITU Human Resources Development programme offers
distance education courses through the Virtual Training Centre and the Global Telecommunication
University/Global Telecommunication Training Institute (GTU/GTTI).
3.4
Emergency support and disaster relief
The moderator of the FG7 discussion group on emergency support and disaster relief, Mark Wood,
highlighted the need for advance planning on how to mitigate communications network overload under
emergency or disaster conditions, such as pre-emption schemes in GSM and fixed wireline networks.
Only one case study in the FG7 case library focused exclusively on disaster relief (see Table 3.4).
However, a number of case studies touched on prevention-oriented communications systems to alert
inhabitants of potential disasters, communications systems that can be rapidly installed or restored after a
natural or man-made disaster, and the basic utility of telecommunications for contacting police, fire,
ambulance and other energency service providers.
19
Table 3.3 – FG7 case library reports on tele-education/distance education
Application
Source
Description
Teacher
training and
curriculum
development
Promoting collaboration and skills development
among the teaching community by electroncially
linking educational planners, researchers, and
teachers to each other and to educational resources
through the Internet.
Creating Learning Networks for
African Teachers [12]
Undergraduate
degree
programmes
Provision of full-credit courses and complete
undergraduate degree programmes through
videotaped and live classroom lectures which are
broadcast from uplink facilities in the U.S. and
distributed by partner institutions in sub-Saharan
Africa.
African Virtual University of the
World Bank [13]
Televised
instruction
Televised instruction accompanied by interaction
with instructors over telephone lines, supplemented
by e-mail and web based materials, for students in
rural and remote areas.
Rural Telecommunications for
Development: Lessons from the
Alaskan Experience [23]
University
extension
programme
Closed satellite communication network
implemented by the University of the South Pacific
to support a full-scale distance education system for
students on 12 islands, scattered over several million
square kilometers in the South Pacific Ocean.
Distance Education System via
Satellite Communication Network
in the South Pacific USPNet [14]
Source:
FG7 case library.
Table 3.4 – FG7 case library reports on emergency support and disaster relief
Application
Description
Case study title
Disaster
communications
A multi-hazard disaster management
communications system based on VSATs and VHF
systems in the Indian state of Maharashtra
Maharashtra Communication
Network For Disaster
Management [10]
Delivering
information to
displaced
victims
Distribution of over 7000 wind-up radios to victims
of massive flooding in Mozambique for receiving
vital information on weather, missing family
members, government policy, location of landmines,
disposal of carcasses, etc.
Emergency Communications in
Mozambique [17]
Source:
FG7 case library.
20
3.5
Environmental monitoring and protection
Due to the last-minute unavailability of the discussion moderator for environmental issues, this online
discussion was cancelled. No contributions on environmental applications were submitted to the case
library. However, Table 3.5 below provides a number of environmental monitoring and protection
applications which either involve or impact rural and remote areas.
Table 3.5 – Examples of environmental monitoring and protection applications
Application
Description
Source
Storage and
distribution of
data on
sustainable
development
Establishment of a terrestrial and space
telecommunication infrastructure supporting a
distributed data system for the “Elbiiâ 21” integrated
information system on the environment and
sustainable development in Tunisia.
ITU/BDT Pilot Project No. 1,
http://www.itu.int/ITU-DProjects/projects/environment/acti
vities.htm
Remote
monitoring of
sea water
quality
Establishment of a satellite-based network for the
remote monitoring of sea water quality
vities.htm
Regional
environmental
information
server
Internet information server on the environment of
the countries of the South Mediterranean, providing
data on water, air quality and solid wastes in each
country.
vities.htm
National
environmental
web site
National environmental information web site to raise
public awareness of environmental issues and
reinforce the participation of civil society in
environmental decision-making.
Consortium for International Earth
Science Information Network
(CIESIN).
http://www.infodev.org/projects/ci
esin.htm
Source:
ITU, Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN).
21
Section 4 – Access infrastructure
Nine types of wireless access systems, identified through the case studies and ITU activities, are
presented in this section. These brief profiles are intended to raise awareness of new or recent
developments in the field of access technologies for rural areas. Some profiles describe new applications
of old technologies, such as using VHF radio or meteor burst communications to transmit e-mail. Others
provide examples of recent technology combinations which have been tested in rural areas, such as very
small aperture terminals (VSATs) integrated with wireless local loop systems. The remaining profiles
introduce a number of technologies that are new to the rural marketplace or still under development, such
as IMT-2000 and wireless router-based access systems. For a comprehensive technical treatment of
wireless access technologies for deployment in rural and remote areas, the reader is invited to refer to the
ITU-R Handbook on Fixed Wireless Access, and other ITU reference materials.
4.1
Narrowband packet radio
VHF and UHF radio systems have a long history of usage for voice communications in rural areas, due to
their low cost and ease of installation. Nowadays, amateur radio clubs use narrowband packet radio
systems to access the Internet in a wireless and inexpensive manner, benefiting from the volume
production of radios specially designed for this purpose. Packet radio nodes are used in several countries
to establish regional networks, such as the Central American Packet Radio Network (CAPRA), a wireless
backbone extending from Guatemala to Panama7.
A packet radio network uses a transceiver, a terminal node controller (TNC), an antenna and a power
source as a basic repeater configuration. The radio transceiver used in packet radio is the same as that
used in voice communication. Instead of a voice grade modem, however, packet radio uses the terminal
node controller to adapt the signals between the personal computer (PC) and the transceiver, and to
perform packet assembly and disassembly (PAD) as defined in the Amateur Packet-Radio Link-Layer
Protocol (AX.25). Several manufacturers now produce TNCs at prices ranging from approximately
USD 50 to USD 400.
A second mode of TNC operation, known as Keep it Short & Simple (KISS), leaves the PAD functions to
software residing in the PC. KISS mode allows the use of protocols such as transmission control
protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP). It is also possible to establish packet radio connection to a server in
serial line Internet protocol (SLIP) mode, and therefore use Internet browsers such as Netscape Navigator.
These possibilities make it feasible to use packet radio for common Internet applications.
The programming and operation of the TNC is quite simple and can be done using a simple terminal
programme or a software application with a graphic user interface and other options that make terminal
station operation much easier. Most of these applications are low in cost, ranging from USD 30 to
USD 60, and are easily downloadable from several Internet sites. For simple terminal stations, several
DOS applications have been developed, allowing old PCs such as a 386 PC to be used as a terminal.
The bandwidth limitations of packet radio networks are inherent to the low frequencies employed and the
channels allocated. For example, a standard 12.5 kHz channel supports a data transmission rate of up to
1200 baud. New TNCs are available which allow users to transmit and receive at higher data rates by
processing multiple frequency channels simultaneously and using faster microprocessors8.
_______________
7
Bastidas-Buch, Roberto http://www.hr1rbb.ampr.org
8
For example, see http:/www.symek.com. Ulf Kumm, SYMEK Datensysteme und Elektronik GmbH, 2000.
22
Example of packet radio use in rural areas
The BDT is designing a pilot packet radio network to extend connectivity in the areas surrounding two
multipurpose community telecenters (MCTs) in Central America. The MCTs, which were deployed under
the Valetta Action Plan (VAP), are located in two small villages
containing 2,000 and 3,500 inhabitants, respectively. These villages are
Box 4.1 – Cost components of
surrounded by smaller villages of less than 300 inhabitants which lack
digital packet radio repeater
for BDT pilot network (USD)
telephone service, electricity and adequate road access.
TNC
Radio
Antenna
Coax cable
Batteries
Solar panel
USD 340.00
USD 730.00
USD 100.00
USD 50.00
USD 140.00
USD 850.00
Total:
USD 2,210.00
The packet radio network will link “mini-MCTs”, consisting of
1-2 personal computers (PCs) in an outlying village, to one of the full
size MCTs. Each mini-MCT will use a 38,400-baud packet radio node
establish a wireless link to a server at the nearest MCT. The miniMCTs will be capable of providing all of the standard Internet-based
services plus a set of customized services developed by the project
partners in the areas of tele-health, tele-education, agriculture,
emergency management and community messaging.
The cost of a basic repeater station for the planned pilot network is
USD 2210. The cost breakdown by component, listed in Box 4.1,
reveals that the communications equipment is responsible for only about half of the cost while the power
source accounts for nearly 45% of the total expense.
Source: ITU.
4.2
GSM 400
The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has established a regional standard9 for the
implementation of the Global System for Mobiles (GSM) in the 400 MHz band. The use of frequencies in
the 400 MHz band, rather than the 900/1800 MHz bands, enables a wider area to be covered by each base
station, as illustrated in Figure 4.2. Wide area coverage is better suited to low density rural populations
spread over a wide area.
Figure 4.1 – Comparitive range of GSM 400/900/1800
Source:
Ericsson.
According to information submitted to the ITU by Ericsson, GSM 400 covers the same area as GSM 900
using approximately half the number of cell sites. A typical cell in the 400 MHz band has a 40 km radius
when using 2-watt mobile phone units. Using higher gain or directional antennas, or with mobile phones
of a higher power class, a longer range can be achieved depending on the geography and propagation
conditions.
_______________
9
Reference GSM/UMTS Release ’99.
23
GSM 400 occupies frequency bands, indicated in Table 4.1, that were formerly allocated also in Europe
and in many places for conventional Nordic mobile telephone (NMT) systems.
Table 4.1 – GSM 400 frequencies
Frequency bands
GSM 450 band:
450.4-457.6 MHz uplink
460.4-467.6 MHz downlink
GSM 480 band:
478.8-486 MHz uplink
488.8-496 MHz downlink
Source:
Frequency spectrum
7 MHz
Duplex separation
10 MHz
Carrier spacing
200 kHz
Coverage
Up to several dozen kilometers
Ericsson.
GSM 400 systems are expected to have the capabilities to extend the range of both voice and high-speed
data coverage in comparison to existing GSM systems. The specifications for GSM 400 include support
for GSM Phase 2+ features such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), as well as Enhanced Data for
GSM Evolution (EDGE). GPRS is the first implementation of packet switching within GSM, allowing
users to send and receive data at rates up to 115 kbit/s. EDGE increases the rate of data throughput over
existing GSM infrastructure up to 384 kbit/s using new modulation techniques. However, distance from
the base station will remain an important factor in the provision of high-speed data services as the
maximum achievable data rate falls the farther a terminal is located from the corresponding base station.
As of July 2000, Ericsson and Nokia had announced plans to produce GSM 400 cellular systems, while
Benefon had announced its intention of producing multi-band handsets. The systems infrastructure is
scheduled to become commercially available in early 2001. Prototypes of tri-band GSM 400/900/1800
handsets, with support for high speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) and wireless application protocol
(WAP), are scheduled for trials in the fourth quarter of 2000. The handsets are expected to be available in
commercial volumes in the second quarter of 2001. Network infrastructure trials are planned for the
fourth quarter of 2000 with commercial availability from the first quarter of 2001 [29].
4.3
Combined point-to-multipoint/wireless local loop systems
The use of TDMA-based point-to-point (PTP) or point-to-multipoint (PMP) radio systems with wireless
local loop tails is a fairly recent phenomenon, having been introduced in rural areas over the past three to
four years. The substitution of wireless systems for copper cables in the local loop helps reduce the
maintenance costs associated with physical plant in rural areas.
The focus group received reports describing the implementation of point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
systems with one of two wireless local loop technologies: Personal Handyphone System (PHS) and
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone (DECT). These technologies have been standardized on either
national or regional bases, the former in Japan and the latter in Europe.
24
Point-to-multipoint/PHS wireless local loop
Two reports submitted to the FG7 case library described the implementation of integrated
point-to-multipoint/wireless local loop (WLL) systems using PHS technology as the WLL component.
The systems provide a completely wireless implementation between the local exchange and the subscriber
telephone over very long distances. PHS was originally designed to offer enhanced wireless telephony
services with limited mobility in urban and suburban areas. In recent years, it has been deployed as a
fixed wireless local loop solution. In fact, there are more than 20 countries which have introduced
PHS-WLL systems serving over half a million telephones, which enable more than 3 millions people to
enjoy telephone, facsimile and Internet services.
According to the PHS MoU, the main features of PMP/PHS-WLL are as follows:
•
end-to-end wireless access solution;
•
large service area of up to 540 km in a chain of repeaters;
•
flexible system capacity expandable to 1,400 subscribers per base station;
•
high-quality service using 32 kbit/s ADPCM;
•
robust against natural disasters;
•
low implementation and maintenance cost;
•
solar cells are available for repeater (80 W) and cell stations (40 W).
The major specifications of PMP/PHS-WLL are summarized in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 – Technical specifications of PMP/PHS-WLL
(1) PMP TDMA System
Frequency band
Voice coding
Access method (modulation)
Interface with local exchange
Transmission capacity
Number of subscriber lines per base
station
Subscriber unit
Radio hop distance
Voice band data rate
User data rate
(2) PHS-WLL System
Frequency band *
Voice coding
Access method (modulation)
Transmission capacity *
Number of subscriber lines per cell
station *
Subscriber unit
Cell Range *
Typical parameters and values
1.5/2.4/3.5 GHz
32 kbit/s ADPCM (ITU-T G.726)
TDM/TDMA (QPSK)
2-wire analogue or V5.2 digital
4 Mbit/s, 120 Time slots
Up to 1,400 subscribers
(for call rate of 0.07 Erlang/sub.)
1/2/16/64 lines
Max. 45 km (Max. 12 hops)
9.6-14.4 kbit/s
Up to 384 kbit/s
1,895-1,918 MHz
TDMA/TDD (π/4 shift QPSK)
4 Time slots/RF (4RF/Cell station)
15 Traffic Channels/Cell station
Max. 128 Lines
1 line
Up to 5 km with 8 dBi directional antenna;
Up to 15 km with adaptive array antenna
Voice band data rate *
Up to 14.4 kbit/s
* These values are up to the manufacturers.
Source:
PHS MoU Group.
25
As described in the FG7 case library, a pilot project of PMP/PHS-WLL was implemented in an industrial
area of Cambodia. In Thailand, the Telephone Organization of Thailand (TOT) began employing
PMP/PHS-WLL systems to provide unserved rural areas with 50,000 telephones in 1999. In the above
examples, PMP/PHS-WLL was found to be an apt system for new residential and industrial areas as well
as rural areas, due to quick implementation, low cost and the system’s flexible network structure.
A PMP/PHS-WLL system generally comprises base stations (BS), repeater units (RU), subscriber units
(SU), cell stations (CS), and 2-wire fixed terminals (2W-FT), as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 – Network Configuration of PMP/PHS-WLL System
Source:
NEC.
As shown in the figure before, the BS can directly access offices and apartments in suburban areas and
the RU also accommodates subscribers in small villages. The combination of PMP and PHS-WLL allows
flexibility in the formation of the access network to serve the requirements of suburban areas, towns and
villages.
The time required for installing PHS-WLL systems is short compared with conventional copper cable
networks, and the cost is relatively low (provided reasonable fees for the wireless spectrum). PHS and
other wireless local loop systems have been shown to correspond with more efficient investment patterns
as compared with regular cable plant (see Figure 4.3) because the modularity of the system allows for
smaller increments of additional investment as the network is expanded.
Point-to-point/DECT wireless local loop
Telkom South Africa reported to Focus Group 7 on its use of point-to-point (PTP) time division multiple
access (TDMA) systems with DECT stations in the local loop. DECT is a cordless access technology that
has also been used as a wireless local loop solution in rural areas.
Telkom discovered several advantages to the use of DECT tails instead of copper on point-to-point
TDMA systems in underserved areas, such as:
•
Speed of deployment is very fast, helping the company to meet annual roll-out targets;
•
Flexible service provisioning;
26
•
Wireless technologies avoid the problem of copper theft in outlying areas and reduce network
exposure to vandalism, thus saving on material and labor costs as well as lost network time;
•
DECT technology is redeployable, which makes it attractive for use in fast-growing areas with
significant levels of subscriber churn (cancellation of service by the subscriber). [16]
•
Low cost: an average of 500 USD per line in urban areas (DECT) [4]
Figure 4.3 – Investment increments of PHS-WLL vs. cable
Investment
& Capacity
Cable
PHS-WLL
Initial Investment
Year
Completed
Implementation Start
As reported in Telkom’s document, as well as in a Telkom WLL case study provided by Pyramid
Research [4], the deployment of a WLL network faces a number of logistical challenges which delay the
progress of the rollout, specially when the operator is unfamiliar with WLL deployments, and independently of the chosen radio technology. However, nowadays, in SouthAfrica more than 140,000 WLL
subscribers have been connected to the PSTN which makes, along with the DECT WLL deployed by
Egypt Telecom (150,000 DECT lines), the first wireless technology used around the world for local loop
applications. The PMP combination with DECT tails provides:
•
End-to-end wireless solution;
•
Large service area of up to 1,000 km, if necessary;
•
Flexible system capacity expandable to over 100,000 subscribers;
•
High-quality voice service using 32 kbit/s ADPCM;
•
“Wired-like” services (voice, fax, voice band data, ISDN BA or internet access using V90 modem at
56 kbit/s).
Furthermore, the DECT standard, initially developed by ETSI, has been recently selected by ITU as one
of the five air interface for IMT-2000, providing data rate up to 2 Mbit/s and thus capable of supporting a
wide range of multimedia applications.
27
Table 4.3 – Technical specifications of PMP/DECT-WLL
Applicable frequency bands
DECT link
1880 MHz-1930 MHz [Note 1]
PMP radio approach link
1.5 GHz (ITU-R Rec. 746 Annex-1)
2.4 GHz (ITU-R Rec. 746 Annex-2)
3.5 GHz (CEPT/ERC/REC 14-03)
Voice coding
Voice band data rate
9.6-56.6 kbit/s
Data transmission
64-512 kbit/s [Note 3]
Interface with local exchange
2-wire analog or V5.2 interface
Cell range
up to 5 km [Note 2]
Service coverage
up to several hundred km
Note 1 – The current DECT bands available are 1880-1900 MHz, 1900-1920 MHz, 1910-1930 MHz and
several 25 MHz sub-bands in the 3,5 GHz band e.g. 3425-3450 MHz.
Note 2 – Certain DECT suppliers are able to provide 16 km DECT WLL coverage around a base station
thus making this solution ideally suited to providing WLL covergae in low subscriber density
areas.
Note 3 – ISDN BRA services (128 kbit/s) services are able to be provided via the DECT WLL solution.
512 kbit/s is the maximum data rate obtained with the standardized DECT Packet Radio Service
(DPRS) with GFSK modulation.
Source:
ETSI Standard.
The planning of DECT WLL systems is supported by mature computer-based tools which facilitate the
planning of DECT networks in terms of the coverage footprint to be achieved, i.e. coverage of all
subscribers indicated by the operator. This planning is required in all WLL networks (independently of
the used radio technology) if the operator is to successfully deliver service to his customers, as Fixed
Wireless Access (FWA) aims to provide an equivalent, or better, service to wireline. It is therefore
necessary to perform the planning to ensure that the required Service Quality is achieved for all of the
subscribers, whether they are 5 km or 16 km away from the DECT base station. Without planning the
FWA service offered would be similar to a mobile one, i.e. service is not guaranteed.
DECT additionally offers the operator the benefit of having no radio channel planning. The same 20 MHz
band is utilised throughout the operator’s entire DECT network. The powerful Dynamic Channel
Allocation (DCA) mechanism, as defined in the ETSI DECT standards, handles the allocation of all the
DECT radio resources internally to the system, without any intervention required from the operator.
As with all systems of this type, i.e. Point-to-Multipoint, the equipment is located in secure, weatherproof
outdoor housings. Power can be supplied either via existing AC supplies or DC powers systems. Some
examples of typical subscriber installations are shown below.
28
Figure 4.4 – DECT Solar Powered Subscriber Installation
Lightning
Solar panel
Regulator & Battery
Antenna
WNT-S
DECT AC powered subscriber Installation
4.4
CDMA45010
Spectrum in the 450 MHz band has long been also allocated for wireless services in several countries
throughout the world, including a number of developing nations located in central and eastern Europe,
Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. The band is currently served with analog (NMT) technology
and is generally underutilized and feature poor.
Figure 4.5 – The 450 MHz Footprint
= CNetz
= NMT on a limited basis
= Similar Band different duplexing
= Licensed
_______________
10 This section contains the case study prepared by Lucent and Qualcom, and submitted to the FG7 case library on 29 September
2000.
29
A trial is currently (4Q 2000) underway to demonstrate the use of CDMA technology in and around the
450 MHz band. This effort is identified as cdma450. The use of frequencies in the 400 MHz band, rather
than 850 MHz or 1900 MHz, provides wider coverage from each base station. The comparative range of
cdma450/850/1900 is shown schematically below.
Figure 4.6 – Relative Range of Cdma450/850/1900
Comparative CDMA
Range (Not to Scale)
BTS
1900
850
450
Specifically, cdma450 covers the same area as a CDMA system at 850 MHz using approximately half the
number of cell sites. In applications where very extensive coverage is required, a software adjustment to
timing parameters permits a range of up to 180 km under favorable conditions.
Importantly, CDMA can be easily accommodated in the current band and license structure that serves this
spectrum. The band plan for cdma450 (shown in the table below) is consistent with the existing
allocations for NMT-450 and provides about 2 × 4.5 MHz to the licensee. This allocation will support
three CDMA 1.25 MHz carriers (with the appropriate guard bands). Accordingly, additional spectrum is
not required and rechannelization is unnecessary. Moreover, the time and expense associated with
reallocating spectrum and clearing bands occupied with other services need not be incurred.
Table 4.4 – IS-2000-2 NMT-450 Band (Band Class 5) Frequency Plan
Transmit frequency band (MHz)
System designator
Band subclass
A
Mobile station
Base station
0
452.500-457.475
462.500-467.475
B
1
452.000-456.475
462.000-466.475
C
2
450.000-454.800
460.000-464.800
D
3
411.675-415.850
421.675-425.850
E
4
415.500-419.975
425.500-429.975
F
5
479.000-483.480
489.000-493.480
G
6
455.230-459.990
465.230-469.990
H
7
451.310-455.730
461.310-465.730
30
The commonality of band plans between NMT and cdma450 technology will allow operators to
gracefully overlay the existing analog technology with cdma450 systems. The transition to cdma450 can
therefore be made consistent with market needs and economic constraints.
The use of CDMA technology is well suited as a wireless air interface for use in this spectrum. CDMA,
which currently serves 65 million subscribers worldwide, will provide operators and their end users with
significant improvements in:
–
capacity;
–
coverage;
–
voice clarity;
–
call quality;
–
privacy and security;
–
power consumption;
–
infrastructure economics;
–
enhanced services/data services;
–
fixed wireless access.
These improvements will allow operators that serve rural areas to provide improved services for their
subscribers. For example, services that support medical care, or offer internet access with the potential for
educational services and global market access for local small businesses, will be available.
Cdma450 will be implemented based on internationally recognized standards that offer packet data
service up to 144 kbit/s, as well as a voice traffic capacity double that of previous generations of CDMA
technology. Further, the use of state of the art technology will provide operators in these environments the
benefits of continuing equipment availability and potential economies of scale derived from global
deployment and common platforms.
Development and testing of cdma450 technology is ongoing. A demonstration trial is now being held in
Hungary, with commercial availability scheduled for the second half of the year 2001.
Further explanation of the use of CDMA technology in the 450 MHz band is provided below.
Operation Within Existing NMT 400 Bands
Cdma450 requires 1.8 MHz, including guard bands, to operate a single CDMA carrier, 3.0 MHz for two
carriers, and 4.3 MHz for three carriers. NMT operators can, thus, operate one or two Cdma450 carriers
in a 4.5 MHz allocation, while reserving spectrum for NMT 450 operation. In an all-digital network, three
CDMA carriers can be operated.
Coverage
Cdma450 significantly exceeds the coverage capabilities of NMT 450. Achievable maximum path loss
values in cdma450 networks operating at rated capacity with 200 mw mobiles are approximately 2-3 dB
greater than those for NMT 450 systems operating under similar conditions with 1 W mobiles. This
translates into 50 to 70% larger cell coverage than those attainable in NMT 450 networks. Those NMT
operators deploying cdma450 networks as overlays on existing NMT 450 networks can do either a 100%
overlay or a fractional overlay. Using a 100% overlay, cdma450 is provisioned in all existing sites in the
overlaid service area, resulting in service quality that is superior to that of the existing analog system.
Using a fractional overlay, cdma450 is deployed in as few as one out of two of the NMT 450 sites. This
results in coverage equivalent to that of the existing NMT 450 network, with capacity relative to that
available in a 100% overlaid network.
These coverage benefits are also available to operators who implement cdma450 systems in spectrum in
which analog NMT 450 has not been deployed and where the spectrum may, therefore, be previously
unused.
31
Radio Performance
The results of extensive performance simulation for typical radio environments demonstrate that the latest
version of CDMA technology can be down-banded to 450 MHz without any loss in performance.
Capacity
Cdma450 capacity, in both full-band (all-digital) and single carrier deployments, substantially exceeds the
typical requirement of 60 Erlangs per site. CDMA capacity with a single carrier will be 79.3 Erlangs per
site; with 2 carriers, the capacity will be 158.4 Erlangs per site; and with three carriers, the available
capacity will be 237.6 Erlangs per site. A comparison of the capacity of cdma450 with that provided by
NMT is shown in the table below.
Table 4.5 – Cdma450 versus NMT capacity
Parameters
Erlangs per Sector per Carrier
Total Erlangs per Sector
Total Erlangs per Site
Subs per Site (30 mE)
Percentage improvement over
Baseline NMT network
Cdma450
NMT Baseline
26
79
237
7900
2100%
NA
3.6
10.8
360
Voice Quality
The voice quality of both the IS-127 8 kbit/s enhanced variable rate codec (EVRC) and the IS-733
13 kbit/s speech codec provide higher quality speech under clean conditions than standard 32 kbit/s
speech. Both speech codecs also provide higher quality speech than 64 kbit/s PCM. Measured delay for
these speech codecs is under 60 ms.
The following figure graphically illustrates the Mean Opinion Scores (MOS) for the Enhanced Variable
Rate Coder (EVRC) that is employed in cdma450 networks compared to the MOS of traditional vocoders
used in wireline networks. The test was performed in the presence of decreasing background noise
volume (from 10 dB to 30 dB). The noise suppression features provided with the EVRC enhance the
perceived voice quality experienced by the listener, allowing the EVRC to consistently score better than
either of the wireline coding standards.
Figure 4.7 – Acoustic Signal to Noise Ratio (dB)
4.0
MOS
“toll quality”
G.711 PCM
3.5
G.726 ADPCM
3.0
10
20
30
32
Service Quality
Service quality is tied closely to both equipment implementation and radio network design and implementation. However, the service quality targets typically stated by operators are quite reasonably supported
by cdma450.
Regulatory Compatibility
There are no known issues with regulatory approval for operating within existing NMT 450 licenses, or
for obtaining type approval.
RF Compatibility
It has been demonstrated that there exist no problems with RF compatibility. In particular, coexistence
between the digital and analog systems is not a problem in systems with 100% digital overlay (digital
sites co-located with analog sites). In systems with fractional overlay, distance guidelines need to be
followed to ensure that terminals do not operate in CDMA mode at too great a distance from CDMA base
stations. In systems with cdma450 coverage over part of the service area, certain guard zone guidelines
need to be followed to ensure that terminals do not operate in CDMA mode too far away from CDMA
base stations. These guard zone guidelines are no more restrictive than those required for any digital
technology.
Roaming and Handover – Infrastructure Support
National roaming and international roaming between cdma450 and other CDMA-based systems operating
in other bands has been considered. This can be done using a Home Location Register (HLR) that is
common between the systems. Current numbering plans can be maintained, and home network services
can be supported in visited networks, to the extent that the services are offered or available in the visited
network. Further, ongoing efforts within the ITU are engaged in the development of standards that will
support network to network interconnection (NNI). These standards will describe the interface that will
permit roaming between systems that support ANSI-41 and GSM-MAP networks.
Minimum Services/Feature Support
The cdma450 solution offers a wide range of features and services substantially exceed the requirements
for bearer services, supplementary services, Wireless Intelligent Network (WIN) services, and other
related services.
Standards Base
Cdma450 is based entirely on an existing standards base. The air interface is based on IS 2000, and the
network on TIA/EIA-41. Standards have been developed that describe the use of IS 2000 with a
GSM-MAP network. Such an arrangement has been considered and could be made available subject to
market demand.
Evolutionary Implementation
Dual-mode deployments could be used to accomplish evolutionary network implementations, which
would allow the operator to deploy cdma450 technology within their existing coverage area, while
providing digital subscribers area-wide service through the use of dual-mode, dual band mobile stations
(MS). This can be accomplished while reusing a substantial portion of existing network infrastructure and
also continuing the use of the existing subscriber directory numbers.
33
Open Standard
The cdma450 product is being built in accordance with ITU recognized standards available to any
manufacturer. Using an open standard will allow operators to realize the benefits associated with a
competitive market for the supply of infrastructure and subscriber equipment.
Handset Functions, Capabilities and Features
Ultimately, plans call for the development of dual mode, dual band cdma450/GSM 900 handsets, thereby
allowing roaming between areas served by these technologies.
Time-to-Market
Cdma450 mobile phones, base stations that operate in the NMT 450 band, base station controllers, and
analog to digital network elements will be commercially available in 2H 2001.
Wireless Local Loop Services
Cdma450 systems also support fixed Wireless Local Loop (WLL) services
Smart Antenna Support
Numerous Smart Antenna technologies currently under development have the potential to enhance the
already superior coverage and capacity of cdma450 systems. However, it is believed that the superior
capacity and coverage attainable by using cdma450 technology without smart antennas will significantly
delay the need to adopt Smart Antenna technology. Switched beam antenna systems can further increase
capacity. In addition, an auxiliary pilot is included to fully support beam forming and smart antenna
applications.
Security and Fraud Prevention
The cdma450 solution offers substantial facilities for security and fraud prevention. The technology
supports comprehensive solutions for validation and authentication of subscribers, as well as signalling
message encryption and voice privacy. Fraud detection and prevention are also supported.
4.5
Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs)
VSATs are playing a growing role in the provision of telephony, distance education and data services in
remote areas. VSATs are small satellite communication earth stations, typically less than 5-6 m in
diameter. They can be installed directly at the user’s premises and left unattended11. Due to falling
equipment prices and the large footprint offered by communications satellites, VSATs are being deployed
in areas where terrestrial telecommunication infrastructure is either uneconomical or too difficult to
install.
Prices for VSATs have fallen rapidly over the past decade, allowing manufacturers to expand sales of
VSAT systems into low-end applications such as rural telephony. In the early 1990s, prices typically
ranged from USD 10,000-USD 12,000 per VSAT. As of the year 2000, entry-level VSAT telephony
stations typically start at USD 3500-USD 4000, although prices can range anywhere between USD 2,000
and USD 8,000, depending on the volume purchased and added features.
_______________
11 For a thorough and comprehensive backgrounder on the technical aspects of VSAT technology, the reader is kindly referred
to the ITU-R Handbook on Satellite Communications.
34
The costs of acquiring and operating VSAT systems continue to be driven down by:
•
economies of scale. Annual VSAT sales have increased five-fold since 1990;
•
falling prices for electronic components, such as application specific integrated circuits (ASICs);
•
efficiency improvements in satellite transmission techniques;
•
lower space segment costs due to increased competition;
•
use of high-power satellite spot beams which allow smaller ground terminals.
In addition to remote terminals, many VSAT network configurations employ a Master Hub, consisting of
a large earth station antenna, network management facilities and associated systems. The cost of a new
Hub station can be as much as USD 500,000 to USD 1 million. According to at least one case study in the
FG7 library, considerable savings can be achieved through the use of existing or refurbished Hub stations.
VSAT-based rural telephony
Peru’s Fund for Investment in Telecommunications (FITEL) submitted a case study to the FG7 library
describing a 1998 tender to award a 20-year, subsidized concession to provide rural payphones in the
remote regions of Tumbes, Piura, Cajamarca and Amazonas. Participants in the tender submitted “bids”
indicating the lowest government subsidy they would be willing to accept in order to build the network.
The solution selected by FITEL was based on VSAT technology. The cost-reducing principles behind the
winning solution, submitted by GVT del Peru, included the following:
•
VSAT-based thin route telephony with up to three voice channels per VSAT;
•
Low power consumption of approximately 40 watts per VSAT, since 90% of sites lacked commercial
electricity supply;
•
Star network topology using 7.6 m Hub station in the capital city and a 1.2 m or 1.8 m remote VSAT
station in each town;
•
Use of simple, rugged payphones with a prepaid system instead of coins, to reduce the number of
field trips to payphone installations;
•
Centralized network management system at the Hub.
Based on this configuration GVT del Peru proposed to cover the costs of building, installing and
operating the network with a government subsidy of USD 4,909,292 over five years. The remaining costs
would be born by the operator and recovered from service revenues. According to FITEL, the subsidy
amounted to public expenditure of USD 11 per inhabitant.
Integrated VSAT/WLL systems
Intelsat provided the Focus Group with a set of general guidelines for selecting the most economically
feasible VSAT solution based on the population distribution, subscriber density and other characteristics
of the rural area being served (see Table 4.6). According to Intelsat’s findings, a VSAT connected directly
to subscribers is most likely to be a viable solution when serving geographically scattered populations
requiring fewer than 20 lines per site.
VSATs with wired or cordless local loop systems are generally feasible for clusters of population
requiring between 20 and 300 lines per site. Finally, Intelsat’s studies showed that VSAT plus macrocellular wireless local loop (up to 30 km radius) could be a feasible solution to serve medium density
populations requiring more than 300 lines per site.
35
Table 4.6 – Comparison of rural VSAT telephony solutions
Variables
VSAT alone
VSAT and wired
loop
VSAT and wireless
loop/cordless
access solution
VSAT and wireless
macrocellular
solution
Population
Distribution
Scattered
Concentrated and
clustered
Clustered
Uniform
Subscriber
Density
Very low
(< 0.1/sq. km)
Low to medium
Low to medium
Medium
(< 0.1/sq. km)
Traffic Capacity
(erlang)
Low
Low to high
Low to high
Low to medium
Applications
Voice, data, fax
Voice, data, fax
Voice, data, fax
Voice, data, fax
Data Rate
Broadband
Broadband
Up to 64 kbit/s
Narrowband, up to
14.4 kbit/s
Mobility
None
None
Limited
Yes
Area of Coverage
< 300 m
< 5 km
< 5 km
< 30 km
Power Supply –
Equipment
Low (< 250 watts)
Medium
(< 600 watts)
Medium
(< 700 watts)
High (~2000 watts)
Power Supply –
User Terminal
None
None
Low (< 5 watts)
Medium
(< 30 watts)
Voice
Compression
Selectable
(4.8 to 32 kbit/s)
Selectable
32 kbit/s
8 to 13 kbit/s
Access to
Switching
Facilities
Required
Not required
Optional
Not required
Terrain
Insensitive
Sensitive
Insensitive (No
tower required)
Insensitive except
tower installation
Installation
Rapid (2-3 days)
Lengthy
(wired network)
Rapid
(2-3 days per site)
Rapid except tower
installation
Maintenance
Very Low
Medium
Low
Low
Security issues
Antennas and
shelter
Wire theft and
shelter
Antennas and
shelter
Antennas, tower
and shelter
Regulatory Issues
VSAT license
(C or Ku band)
VSAT license
Cordless and VSAT
licenses
Cellular and VSAT
licenses
IS-2000-2 NMT-45 Band (Band Class 5) Frequency Plan.
Source:
Intelsat.
After demonstrating the technical feasibility of using wireless local loop to extend VSAT coverage in
Senegal and Peru, Intelsat argued in the FG7 case library that significant cost savings could be achieved
by integrating VSAT and wireless local loop systems. The areas identified by Intelsat for cost savings
included:
•
Integration of the base station controller functionality into the VSAT baseband processing
functionality.
•
Simplification of local switching within the VSAT/WLL terminal to avoid use of the space segment
for local calls.
•
Elimination of channel banks and digital-to-analog signal conversion.
•
Ruggedization of the equipment.
36
Intelsat’s pilot studies and research resulted in the creation of an integrated VSAT/DECT solution12.
According to Intelsat, the integrated product is about 40% less expensive than it would be if all of the
components were purchased off the shelf. A basic system includes a VSAT antenna, RF electronics, voice
channel units, WLL base station, control unit for WLL frequencies and equipment for analog to digital
conversion. The basic integrated system is priced in the range of USD 20,000 to USD 25,000. However,
this price does not include DECT end-user terminals or any of the hub equipment.
4.6
Satellite-based Internet access
Many rural areas lack a terrestrial infrastructure link for dial-up access to the nearest Internet point of
presence. Accessing the Internet via a two-way satellite connection may be a feasible option in these
areas. However, as with all satellite-based applications, the ongoing costs of the space segment can
represent a considerable expense. Therefore it is important to carefully model the lifetime costs of the
total solution for comparison with terrestrial connectivity options.
Space segment pricing is based on complex formulas involving many parameters, which makes it difficult
to generalize about the ongoing costs of two-way, satellite-based Internet access. The sections that follow
are provided as starting points for examining the ongoing costs involved in establishing rural Internet
access via satellite links in various regions of the world.
In the absence of any case studies on the feasibility of a two-way VSAT network for rural Internet access,
two hypothetical scenarios were created with the assistance of an ITU-D Sector Member. Both scenarios
are based on the establishment of a large, two-way VSAT network providing Internet access to rural
telecenters in Southern Africa. This scenario was created for the Focus Group 7 report and does not refer
to any actual network, existing or planned. However, the space segment prices are accurate approximations with respect to the given system specifications and the June 2000 transponder market.
Scenario #1
The hypothetical network for which transponder capacity is being priced in this scenario employs a
7 meter hub station and 1.8 meter dishes at the remote end. When fully operational, it will comprise
between 50 and 200 remotes. Resource-sharing arrangements among the telecenters will result in an even
distribution of users accessing e-mail and web browsing services across the working day. Two to ten
users are expected to be logged on at any one time, a user being defined as a PC attached to any remote
terminal sharing the inroute. In addition to web browsing and e-mail, the satellite-based Internet link will
also be used to deliver video material for distance education classes.
Using a simple cost model, the carrier pricing structure detailed in Box 4.2 is possible.
Three year contract
Real-time video delivery via Internet DVB* carrier
Inroute Carrier (shared by 50-200 remotes)
Outroute Carrier (shared by 50-200 remotes)
International Internet Connection (64/128 kbit/s)
Total (approx.)
2 Mbit/s
64 kbit/s
128 kbit/s
Cost per month (USD)
USD 28,000
USD 4,000
USD 4,500
USD 36,500
Box 4.2 – Carrier pricing structure for satellite Internet access, Scenario #1
*
Digital video broadcasting.
Discussion: Since the backhaul circuits gaining access to the Internet backbone in Europe or the U.S. constitute
international links, the price component associated with these satellite links constitutes a large portion of ongoing
service costs. It is possible to combine the video carrier and the outroute together via correct equipment choice
and save approximately 10% on the combined bandwidth cost. If it is acceptable to stream the video at a slow rate
to a storage device at the remote site (typically at night) for later viewing, the video carrier can be eliminated
altogether and the outroute used to deliver the video data.
_______________
12 http://www.stmi.com/rural-tech.html
37
Scenario #2
An alternative architecture would employ a master hub with direct access to the Internet backbone, in
conjunction with slave hubs in the main cities of the region being covered. All remote terminals would be
capable of talking to both master and slave hubs, and the master hub would manage traffic throughout the
entire network. A typical cost scenario for this type of network, servicing 1,000 heavy users out of a
master hub in Europe, is detailed in Box 4.3.
3-year contract including Teleport and Internet Port
Outroute of 3 Mbit/s
Inroutes 2 × 128 kbit/s
Total (approx.)
Cost per month (USD)
USD 200,000
Box 4.3 – Carrier pricing structure for satellite Internet access, Scenario #2
Discussion: In this case, the international backhaul is reduced to backbone port charges only and ALL remote
terminals will be able to share bandwidth, taking advantage of fewer carriers, staggered time zones (and usage
peaks), and optimized intranetwork routing. A further advantage is that countries wishing to start with less than
50 terminals and no hub can start service using another country’s video material, then grow seamlessly and as
needed from one terminal to a full in-country network. As an alternative to a full national hub, a terminal can be
configured as a local point of presence (POP) and non-real time video delivery system, and service local Internet
traffic and video via the master hub. This choice would depend upon the volume of local traffic to international
traffic.
Two-way satellite Internet access service providers
There are several two-way, satellite-based Internet access providers beginning to offer service in North America,
Europe, and Latin America. Tachyon, a U.S.-based wholesaler of two-way satellite IP links, began offering
service in January 2000. Two digital satellite television networks in the U.S., Hughes (DirecTV) and EchoStar
(DISH network), are also planning to offer two-way satellite Internet service.
The implications of these market developments for rural areas of developing countries are not uniform. Plans by
several of the above operators to offer service in parts of Latin America are well advanced, and some services
will be available in Mexico, Brazil and a few other countries this year. Rollout of similarly priced services in
Africa, the Middle East, and Asia are not guaranteed and may depend on the level of demand perceived by each
service provider.
Brief profiles are provided of two 2-way satellite Internet access providers with actual or expected
commercial availability in the year 2000.
Tachyon
Services:
•
two-way, satellite-based IP communication links;
•
services targeted at ISPs for resale to business market;
•
multiple service levels (downstream/upstream kbit/s): 400/64, 800/128, 2000/256;
•
announced partnership with mPower3, Inc. to jointly market satellite Internet access and Internetbased agricultural data systems in the U.S. and U.K. (March 2000).
Technology:
•
proprietary software optimizes TCP/IP traffic for transport over satellite links (no spoofing);
•
satellite capacity is leased from Ku-band geostationary satellite operators;
•
a customer access point consists of a satellite dish (< 1 m), a satellite modem and an indoor server
with a 10/100BaseT Ethernet interface;
•
all hardware and software components, except the satellite modem, are commercial off-the-shelf
products.
38
Availability:
•
North America and Europe as of January 2000;
•
Mexico and Central America service awaiting regulatory approval as of June 15, 2000;
•
service launch in Brazil and Argentina planned by the end of 2000;
•
other regions: Service rollout will depend on demand.
Retail pricing13:
•
customer access point: approximately USD 5000;
•
installation and setup: between USD 950 and USD 1250;
•
monthly service fees: see Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 – Sample U.S. retail pricing for Tachyon.net satellite IP links
Service Level
Monthly
service fee
(USD)
Downstream/upstream
data rates (kbit/s)
Monthly traffic
cap (GB)
Excess traffic fees
1
USD 300
400/64
1
USD 0.20-USD 0.30 per MB
2
USD 450
800/128
1
3
USD 650
1000/128
2
4
USD 900
2000/256
3
Source:
A Tachyon.net retailer.
Gilat-to-Home (GTH)
Services:
•
two-way satellite-based, broadband, asymmetric Internet access;
•
speed “on par with other broadband offerings such as ADSL and cable delivered service”14;
•
500-channel digital television on same dish.
Technology:
•
24 × 36-inch (approx. 61 × 91cm) VSAT dish equipped with a satellite transmitter and receiver;
•
PC equipped with GTH transmit/receive cards or satellite modem;
•
Cables between roof-mounted dish and PC, TV.
Availability:
•
Scheduled to begin 4Q 2000 in the United States;
•
Latin America commercial launch planned in 2001.
Pricing:
•
Not available
_______________
13 For U.S. customers as of July 2000.
14 Gilat-to-Home FAQ, 6 July 2000. http://www.gilat2home.com/faq/index.html
39
Broadband satellite low earth orbit systems
Anticipated broadband satellite internet operators Skybridge and Teledesic are planning to deliver
broadband, two-way satellite services on a near-global basis. However, these operators are not expected
to launch service until 2003, and therefore no reliable pricing information is available on which to assess
the implications for rural applications.
Skybridge, an Alcatel-backed project, is scheduled for full capacity service in 2003. As of June 2000,
efforts were underway to merge the planned Teledesic system with New ICO, formerly known as ICO
Global Communications. Investor Craig McCaw, a founding partner in Teledesic, announced plans to
combine the two companies. According to Teledesic, New ICO services are expected to begin in 2003.
4.7
Digital satellite radio15
Digital direct-to-receiver satellite audio technology was developed by the WorldSpace Corporation,
founded in 1990 by Chairman and CEO Noah A. Samara. The company delivers digital audio and
multimedia programming directly to listeners using specially manufactured, portable receivers. Since its
inception, WorldSpace has been serving developing countries by making audio broadcasts available
where there are no terrestrial radio stations. In May 2000, the WorldSpace Foundation and Satellife
announced a new health-oriented broadcasting service designed to assist medical professionals in Africa,
beginning with Zimbabwe, Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia.
WorldSpace developed the technologies that lie at the heart of the satellite service in cooperation with
other companies including Alcatel Espace, Fraunhofer Institut Integrierte Schaltungen, Micronas
Intermetall, Matra Marconi Space, and SGS-Thompson Microelectronics. Digital satellite radio-enabled
receiver sets were designed and built by four consumer electronics manufacturers: Hitachi, JVC,
Matsushita (Panasonic) and Sanyo. The receivers are sold by distributors worldwide and typically retail at
prices between USD 200 and USD 400.
Upon completion, the WorldSpace network will consist of three geostationary satellites covering Africa,
Asia and Latin America. The first two, AfriStarTM and AsiaStarTM, were successfully launched in October
1998 and March 2000, respectively. AmeriStarTM is scheduled for launch in 2001. The satellites use onboard processing to enable programme reception from many stations. Content providers can uplink their
programmes via the traditional hub method, sending broadcast signals to a central location for transmission to the satellite. A second mode enables use of smaller, more mobile Feeder Link Stations (FLS).
Onboard processing technology converts these multiple signals at the satellite, combining them into a
single downlink signal before transmitting them back to earth.
The WorldSpace digital satellite system broadcasts in the “L” band frequencies (1467-1492 MHz), which
were allocated for Direct Audio Broadcast Service at the World Administrative Radiocommunication
Conference of 1992.
4.8
Meteor burst communications
Meteor burst communication is a type of wireless transmission based on the reflection of signals off small
meteors entering the Earth’s atmosphere. With the meteors’ angles of incidence, illustrated in Figure 4.8,
large regions can be covered with minimal infrastructure installations. A meteor burst communications
systems manufacturer, MBC Europe BV, described the technology in a contribution to Focus Group 7 as
follows:
Meteor burst or meteor scatter refers to a unique means of long-distance communication via reflections
by ionized gas trails in the upper atmosphere (Figure 4.8). These gas trails are generated by the burn up of
_______________
15 This section contains excerpts from the case study “WorldSpace Digital Satellite Radio and Multimedia Services”, submitted
to the FG7 case library by WorldSpace Corporation on 5 July 2000.
40
small meteors impacting on the Earth’s atmosphere. The typical meteor trail is only available for a few
hundred milliseconds.
As communication is only possible in very short intervals, the term ‘burst’ is introduced. Due to the
nature of the phenomenon used, waiting times are introduced. The delay between the appearance of two
consecutive trails ranges from seconds to minutes, depending on the time of year, the time of day and
design factors of the system.
Figure 4.8 – Radio reflection by ionized meteor gas trail
Source:
MBC Europe BV.
Most meteor scatter applications operate between 30 and 50 MHz. At frequencies below 30 MHz
absorption and noise, both galactic and artificial, increase drastically. Furthermore, the antenna size and
cost increase at lower frequencies. The data communication capacity will decrease when frequencies
above 50 MHz are used, as the average burst length decreases with increasing frequency. Additionally,
radio and television allocations preclude meteor burst operation above 50 MHz.
Using meteor trails, a meteor burst base station (MBBS) can communicate with remote stations, either
mobile or fixed, over distances between 500 and 1500 km. Using meteor burst technology, a few tens of
base stations provide the infrastructure for the pan-European data communication network. The data
exchange between a base station and a remote station is initiated by a test signal (probe) transmitted into
space by the base station. If and when a meteor trail is in the right position and reflects the signal back to
Earth, the remote station answers the call by the base station and data is exchanged. The base stations are
connected directly to the Data Center of the network. [55]
For Europe, the harmonized frequency band for meteor scatter applications is allocated to 39.0-39.2 MHz.
In total, four operators can be assigned within this harmonized band.
Rural applications
Current users of meteor burst technology include the U.S. National Water and Climate Center (NWCC), a
unit of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. NWCC has been using meteor burst communications
since 1975 to collect data on climate and snowpack levels for use in forecasting the water supply.
NWCC’s meteor burst communications network, called SNOTEL, consists of over 600 sites in
41
11 western U.S. states including Alaska. The sites are unattended, solar-powered, and designed to require
maintenance only once per year, since many are located in remote mountain watersheds accessible only
by hiking, skiing or helicopter.
According to MBC Europe, a wide range of rural applications, illustrated in Figure 4.9, are possible using
meteor burst communications. Meteor burst communications can be used to provide short messaging
service (SMS) and mobile e-mail transmission in areas outside GSM coverage. As of July 2000, the first
meteor burst communications network in South Africa was being installed for Marstec, an engineering
and consulting company.
Figure 4.9 – Applications of meteor burst communications
4.9
IMT-2000
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) is the ITU vision of global mobile access in
the 21st century. IMT-2000 is an advanced mobile communications concept intended to provide
telecommunication services worldwide regardless of location, network, or terminal used. The first fully
commercial systems are scheduled to start service in 2001.
IMT-2000 specifies radio (air interface) and core network (CN) technologies while providing for
evolution to the third generation of mobile services by incumbent operators. The frequencies identified
for IMT-2000 systems worldwide are below 3 GHz. At WARC-92, 230 MHz of spectrum was identified
for IMT-2000 in the bands 1885-2025 MHz and 2110-2200 MHz. At WRC-2000, the 806-960 MHz,
1710-1885 MHz and 2500-2690 MHz bands were identified for the terrestrial component of IMT-2000
with the same status as those identified by WARC-92, with some differences between additional boards,
below 1 GHz and between 0-3 GHz.
42
IMT-2000 and Developing Countries
The ITU envisioned IMT-2000 with a number of features that would lower equipment costs by:
•
Specifying a highly modular design enabling incremental network investment;
•
Establishing well-defined radio and network interfaces to allow full interoperability of equipment
from different manufacturers;
•
Creating a global market to realize economies of scale.
In addition, there have been a number of steps taken specifically for the benefit of developing countries.
IMT-2000 features geared for developing countries:
•
Use of bands under 1 GHz
•
High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS)
•
Fixed wireless access
Bands Under 1 GHz
The cellular base stations of the IMT-2000 systems operating around 2 GHz provide a radius of coverage
somewhat comparable to other digital cellular systems in the 1800-1900 MHz range. Supporting the
evolution of first and second generation systems and recognizing that the cost to cover sparsely populated
rural areas would be less expensive with larger cell sizes, WRC-2000 identified additional spectrum for
IMT-2000 under 1 GHz, Region 1 (862-960), Region 2 (806-892/928-960), Region 3 (610-960) MHz
(Resolution 224 WRC-2000).
High Altitude Platform Stations
WRC-2000 approved the use of High Altitude Platforms (HAPS), at an altitude of 20 to 50 km, as base
stations within the terrestrial component of IMT-2000 in the 2 GHz bands (Resolution 221). HAPS, as
they are known, can potentially be used to provide service to a large footprint together with a dense
coverage. The resolution specifies operating parameters to ensure that such base stations do not cause cochannel interference in neighboring countries, as well as the development of appropriate regulatory
provisions for coordination with the countries.
Fixed Wireless Access
The ITU-R Working Group on Developing Countries (WG-Dev) of Working Party 8F (WP8F) is
examining adaptations to IMT-2000 radio technologies for fixed wireless access. WP8F is actively
interested in input from developing countries in this process. WG-Dev is preparing a handbook on the
deployment of IMT-2000 systems.
Timeframe for IMT-2000
The ITU-R Recommendation M.1457 that provides the IMT-2000 radio interface specifications was
approved at the Radiocommunication Assembly 2000 in May 2000. Future updates of this ITU-R Recommendation are expected to be made regularly, and to include support for packet switching and IP
protocols. Commercial IMT-2000 systems are expected to go into operation beginning in the second half
of 2000 in Japan, in Europe in the first part of 2001, and with much of America following in 2002.
43
Implications of IMT-2000 for Rural Areas of Developing Countries
There are many opportunities for the application of IMT-2000 technologies to improve universal access
in rural, remote and underdeveloped areas of developing countries. The cost of IMT technology will
depend on economies of scale resulting from the global market’s acceptance of IMT-2000 systems.
A number of factors make it unlikely that IMT-2000 technologies will be deployed in rural areas of
developing countries until, at least, the year 2005. The first round of commercial IMT-2000 systems are
designed to utilize the 2 GHz band identified at WARC-92, along with the 800 MHz/1900 MHz bands
currently used by some second generation mobile systems. Systems operating in the higher frequency
bands are ill-suited for rural areas due to their small cell sites. Based on anticipated market demand, some
equipment suppliers are planning to provide IMT-2000 base stations for fixed and mobile systems
operating in bands below 1 GHz around mid 2001, which could be used to support service in rural areas.
4.10
Wireless routers and voice over IP (VOIP)
While traditional telephone networks rely on a local exchange to route a call along a set path from its
origin to a destination, packet switched networks such as the Internet break up the data to be transmitted
and send it in the form of packets along various routes to the destination. Whatis.com offers the following
explanation of how a router functions in a packet switched network:
On the Internet, a router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next
network point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. The router is connected to at
least two networks and decides which way to send each information packet based on its current
understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. A router creates or maintains a table of the
available routes and their conditions and uses this information along with distance and cost algorithms to
determine the best route for a given packet.16
It is technologically possible, using available products, to establish an access network in rural and remote
areas using routing technology rather than circuit-switched local exchanges. When combined with
wireless technology in the local loop, such a network may provide an affordable solution for rural areas,
particularly when the primary services delivered over the network will employ multimedia. Router-based
local access networks using TCP/IP in the network and transport layers (OSI layers 3 and 4) can be
interconnected with the public switched telephone network using gateways that comply with
ITU-T Recommendation H.323.
Real-time voice calls can be transmitted at any quality over closed router networks with the use of voice
over IP (VoIP) software. The quality of service can be maintained on a properly configured and managed
network because traffic is controlled from the subscriber to the PSTN gateway by a single service
provider. In this way, a router-based access network using IP is more analogous to a local area network
(LAN) than to the global Internet.
Routers have been installed with wireless access technology in rural areas of developing countries,
typically for the provision of Internet access in schools and businesses where wireline infrastructure is
unavailable. One example is the Manguzi Wireless Internet project in South Africa, which won an award
in the ‘Equal Access’ category of the Stockholm Challenge Award 200017. In the Manguzi project, the
router software was installed at a rural telecenter with a wireless connection to sites approximately 5 km
away.
_______________
16 Definitions copyrighted by and used with the permission of whatis.com (http://whatis.com) and TechTarget.com, Inc.
17 The Stockholm Challenge Award is a worldwide awards programme that focuses on the benefits and changes that information
technology can bring to communities. The awards programme is a non-profit initiative of the City of Stockholm in
partnership with the European Commission.
44
Example of router-based wireless access system
Focus Group 7 received one report, submitted by KDDI, describing the use of a wireless router network
to create an IP-based, wireless local loop option for developing countries. Although this solution has been
implemented in Japan, it had not been field tested in rural areas of developing countries as of the report’s
submission in May 2000.
KDDI’s solution was designed to support basic voice communications (telephony) using standard
telephone sets, with full interconnection to the PSTN. The main features of KDDI’s system are described
below using excerpts from the case library. The inclusion of this material is for instructional purposes
only and does not imply any endorsement or recommendation by ITU of the products described therein.
There are a large number of options in terms of wireless router equipment, wireless access to routers, and
voice over IP (VoIP) software, firmware and hardware. The technical features of KDDI’s system should
not be taken as necessarily representative of all wireless routers or IP telephony systems.
A Wireless IP Phone System for Rural Applications [45]
The wireless IP phone system is based on the integration of two advanced products: the RTB2400
wireless router and the IP Phone 323. The RTB2400 is manufactured by Root, Inc. (www.roothq.com/e/index. html), a Tokyo-based R&D firm founded in 1993, of which KDDI-NS is a shareholder.
IP Phone 323 is a software product of OSI Plus Corporation, a KDDI subsidiary (www.osiplus.co.jp).
The wireless IP phone system consists of multiple Client Stations managed and monitored by computers
located at a Center Station as illustrated in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10 – Minimum configuration of a KDDI wireless IP phone system
At the Client Station, the wireless router equipment consists of an antenna, a main unit, a junction unit,
and interconnection cables. An IP phone gateway (GW) is connected to the router equipment using a
10 Base-T interface. The gateway contains two ports, each of which connects a standard telephone set.
45
The main Center Station houses a management server for the IP phone network and an SNMP server to
monitor the wireless router network. As with a PC-based local area network, an SNMP server is required
for each unit system (comparable to a closed LAN). However, the IP phone management server has the
capacity to serve a large number of unit systems and more than one is unlikely to be needed. Therefore
local Center Stations can be established at appropriate client sites, such as public office buildings, to
house local SNMP servers. A client site is used in order to make the full set of wireless routers available
to support customer lines.
Wireless IP phone concepts
Services
The wireless IP phone system provides voice communication as its basic service. Since the network
system is based on IP technology, however, normal PCs and other electronic devices which use TCP/IP
can easily be operated on the network. With these devices, the network can provide the community with
multimedia communication services including data, video, audio and image transmission as well as open
or closed broadcasts. These multimedia functions may be used to enable rural access to distance
education, health information services, and e-commerce, as well as telephony.
Flat Connectivity
In general, wireless LAN systems form hierarchical connectivity among nodes as shown in Figure 1-a of
Figure 4.11. In contrast, the RTB2400 wireless router, which functions as a receive/transmit terminal as
well as a repeater, creates a LAN system with flat connectivity, as in Figure 1-b. In Figure 1-a, for
example, there is only one path between nodes 1 and 8, namely 1–3–8. In Figure 1-b, there are several
paths between nodes 1 and 8, such as 1–2–7–8, 1–4–3–10–9–8, and so on. The network in Figure 1-b
shows greater resiliency, more flexible node locations, and better traffic distribution than the network in
Figure 1-a. This flexibility is crucial in a rural wireless system, particularly where the radio conditions are
unstable.
Figure 4.11 – Hierarchical vs. Flat Connectivity
Source:
KDDI
Wireless Coverage
The wireless router provides circular coverage with a radius of 3 km (5 km using a uni-directional
antenna) when configured in compliance with Japanese regulations on frequency use and maximum
transmission power. In general, if higher power is allowed the wireless reach can be much longer.
46
Depending on the location of the client and the geographical conditions of the area, users may select the
most suitable types of antennas to achieve the desired coverage. Presently 5 types of antenna are
available. Additional types are under development.
Unit System
In a closed LAN, a maximum of 100 slots are available for registration of the wireless routers. In practice,
however, the number of routers in a closed LAN depends on various factors including traffic volumes,
traffic types, traffic profile, and the locations where routers are set. In the case of IP phone use, it is
generally recommended that the number of client routers be no more than 20 in order to maintain
communication quality. Thus, a system of 20 client routers (supporting up to 40 client handsets) can be
regarded as a unit system for expansion of the network.
PSTN Interconnection
The wireless IP phone system can be easily interconnected with public networks through the use of a
transit gateway (TGW) installed at the local exchange. All necessary signal conversions, including PSTN
signaling, are performed at the TGW. The transit gateway gives rural communities the means to
communicate with the outside world, in addition to its own community members, when connection to the
PSTN or another network is available.
Cost considerations
To estimate the per-line costs of the system, we consider a community that requires 200 telephone lines
for voice communication. Five complete unit systems, each supplying up to 40 telephone lines, would be
required. Based on this rough configuration, the estimated cost per telephone line is shown in Figure 4.12.
Due to the fixed cost of the Center Station, the minimum network size presents a very high cost of
USD 16,085 per line. But if the network is expanded, cost per line is significantly reduced to USD 2644
as network size reaches 198 lines.
Figure 4.12 – Estimated Cost per Line of KDDI’s wireless IP phone system
47
While the Center Station equipment accounts for 40% of the total cost of the first unit system, it
contributes only 16% of the total cost of five unit systems. Based on the current pricing assumptions, the
central management and monitoring stations would account for a lower limit of approximately 9% of total
system cost once the fixed costs are fully distributed, while the Client Station equipment accounts for the
remainder.
The per-line cost of USD 2,644 is higher than that reported by the 1999 APT Handbook2 for most rural
communication systems. The reported cost of various rural communication systems ranges from USD 500
to USD 750 per line. But the lower unit costs are generally based on full utilization of large capacity
networks. If a very small network is proposed, for example 40 client terminals, KDDI considers the
wireless IP phone system to be competitive.
According to Root Corporation, the manufacturer of the wireless router described in the case study
abbreviated above, a new version of the wireless router is scheduled to reach the market in April or June
of 2001. The new version will present a TCP/IP platform allowing transmission speed of 11 Mbit/s at a
shorter range of 1-2 km, as well as the present speed of 2 Mbit/s over 3 km. It will also employ a UNIX
operating system with a view of quality of service (QoS) in the transmission level and Ipv.6.
48
Section 5 – Renewable and off-grid energy solutions
5.1
Introduction
An adequate and reliable energy supply is a prerequisite for the deployment of any modern telecommunication or information technology (IT) system. This is a fundamental problem in rural and remote areas
of developing countries, where approximately two billion people lack electric service. A recent World
Bank report, entitled Meeting the Challenge: Rural Energy and Development for 2 Billion People, found
that even the liberalization of energy markets in developing countries would most likely fail to provide
rural areas with electricity. The expense associated with extending the electricity supply grid into rural
areas is often prohibitive.
Beyond the reach of the electricity grid, most people rely on kerosene or other fuels for lighting needs and
dry cell batteries for low-power appliances such as cassette tape players and small FM, AM, and short
wave radios. Many individuals rely upon privately owned, decentralized power sources such as diesel or
gasoline-fueled generator sets and small solar energy systems. In addition, many communities have
established their own rudimentary electricity generation and distribution systems. Such community
generation and distribution systems are known as mini-grids. To an end user such as a business or
household, a mini-grid serves energy needs in the same way as a regular grid, possibly at times being
subject to voltage fluctuations, power outages or blackouts.
Fuel-powered generator sets, although common, have some drawbacks with regard to electricity provision
in rural areas. Ensuring regular delivery of fuel to rural areas can be difficult, particularly remote and
inaccessible areas. Equipment that is associated with continuous or long operating hours is often
incompatible with affordable use of generator sets, whose operating costs are directly related to the
number of hours of operation. Finally, the power requirements of many small systems are far below the
scale at which generator sets can be cost-effective.
In contrast, renewable power technologies such as solar photovoltaics (PV), small wind-electric turbines,
and micro-hydro systems are often ideal for providing electricity in rural areas, ranging from a few watts
up to thousands of watts. In particular, PV systems can cost-effectively provide modest amounts of
electricity, from a single watt-hour per day to several kilowatt-hours per day, and for lower life-cycle cost
than alternatives such as dry cell batteries and generator sets. Personal power generation technology, such
as clockwork induction motors, can power small devices such as radios.
Each renewable power technology has its own limitations, technical restrictions and maintenance
requirements. Inappropriate designs or overly-standardized system choices, where local resources or
actual usage were not taken into account, have led to some failed systems. However, even when the
restrictions are taken into consideration, renewable energy sources can have significant advantages over
fossil fuels in terms of cost, reliability, and sustainability.
In addition to the above advantages, renewable energy technologies also offer environmental protection
advantages, although these may generally not be readily apparent or deemed important at the local level
in rural areas of developing countries (e.g. certain emmissions such as CO2 are only a problem at the
global level). Increased attention worldwide to environmental concerns including greenhouse gas
emissions and global climate change has led to an increased focus on renewable energy generation
technologies worldwide. For example, the United States, Japan and the European Union have made
political commitments to help over one million homeowners convert to solar energy by 2005. Such
developments can accelerate progress in developing country use of these technologies, by catalyzing
technological improvements and increases in manufacturing capacity, thereby reducing costs.
5.2
Powering telecommunication and IT systems in rural areas
The electricity needed to power remote telecommunication infrastructure sites can range from less than
100 watts to tens of kilowatts. In the past two decades, the most important use of renewable energy and
hybrid systems in telecommunication has been for off-grid telecom repeaters. Due to the high cost of the
49
repeater equipment, the critical role the repeaters play in the larger telecom networks, and the unattended
nature of the systems, these power systems have been very carefuly designed. The organizations
involved – both telecommunication companies and their turnkey power system providers – have paid
great attention to power system design. Using highly capable and experienced engineers, they have
designed and sized power systems for extremely high levels of reliability (99.9%).
In most instances, the power requirements for end-user terminals are much lower, as is the cost of the
power systems. Cellular handsets and cordless telephones typically consume less than five watts of
power. These devices can be powered using dry cell or lithium ion-type batteries. Table 5.1 lists the
power requirements of some other typical communications, video and computing devices.
Table 5.1 – Power requirements of communications, video and computing equipment
Device
Typical power
consumption
(watts)
Typical use per
day (hours)
Black and white TV
12-18
2-6
12V/DC or 110/240V/AC
Colour TV
40-120
2-6
110/240V/AC or 12V/DC
Video casette player
20-40
1-4
110/240V/AC or 12V/DC
Radio cassette player w/speakers
5-80
2-12
6-12V/DC
350-500
4-8
110/240V/AC
Laptop computer
20-40
4-8
Two-way radio (standby)
5-10
12
varies
Two-way radio (transmitting)
40-50
0.5-3
varies
Fax/answering machine
30-60
continuous
110/240V/AC
Desktop computer and monitor
Voltage rating/type
9-18V/DC or 110/240V/AC
Sources: World Bank, Users' Guide to Off-Grid Energy Solutions. (http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/off_grid).
The rest of this section will discuss off-grid or mini-grid power generation technologies and their
potential use to power telecommunication installations in rural and remote areas. Since, in general, the
telecommunication system provider will not be able to determine electrification choices for entire regions
or communities, the focus will be on dedicated off-grid power systems for installations using
telecommunication and/or information technology systems, such as schools, clinics, telecenters,
enterprises, households, community and government buildings.
5.3
Balance of system components
A complete power system may include, in addition to a generator, a battery charge controller; a bank of
batteries; an inverter; safety disconnects; fuses; a grounding circuit; supporting structures; and wiring.
Taken together, these items comprise the balance of system (BOS) components. The combined expense
of the BOS components can often exceed the price of the generator.
Three BOS components, described below, have a particularly strong effect on the life cycle performance
and maintenance requirements of the power system: batteries, charge controllers and inverters. Many
problems associated with renewable energy systems in developing countries can be traced to these
devices. For example, using a low quality square-wave or modifed sine-wave inverter instead of a sinewave inverter may result in alternating current (AC) that generates electrical interference, exhibited as a
buzz on telephone lines or glitches in the operation of information technology (IT) devices.
50
Batteries
A battery stores energy created by a generator. During normal operation, a percentage of a battery’s
capacity is lost in each charge-discharge cycle. The battery’s capacity eventually drops to a level at which
it must be replaced, and costs are incurred to dispose of the battery in an environmentally safe manner.
The costs of environmentally safe disposal must be taken into account in figuring the lifetime costs of any
battery-powered energy system in rural areas.
The battery industry has developed deep-cycle (also known as deep charge) batteries that have a very low
sensitivity to cyclic operation, and are usually guaranteed to last between five and ten years. However,
deep-cycle batteries are expensive and must usually be imported.
According to the FG7 case library, problems with the use of batteries in rural areas include maintenance
issues as well as “unscrupulous” use of battery power by unidentified individuals18. If it is not certain that
routine battery maintenance will be performed, it is advisable to select sealed “maintenance free” batteries
for which it is not necessary to check electrolyte levels and add electrolyte from time to time.
Charger Controllers/Regulators
In order to ensure that battery installations last over several years, a high quality charge controller must be
employed. A charge controller, or regulator as they are also known, protects the battery against
overcharging and deep discharging, either of which can be harmful to the battery’s functional life span.
If a battery is fully charged, the regulator reduces the current delivered by the generator, thus preventing
the battery from overcharging. If the battery has discharged itself to a critical level, an electronic circuit in
the charge regulator known as a low voltage disconnect (LVD) prevents power being supplied to the load
appliances, until the battery has recharged to a pre-set level. Some charge controllers support remote
monitoring or data logging of batteries and overall system performance, enabling the identification of
malfunctions or theft of power.
Inverters
Batteries, solar panels, wind turbines and other off-grid energy sources provide direct current (DC).
Modern office equipment, including personal computers, fax machines and photocopiers, require
alternating current (AC). A device called an inverter is used to convert low voltage DC power into
standard AC power (120 or 240V). Inverters for remote power systems come in various sizes and range
from 100 watts, for powering notebook computers and fax machines, to 11,000 watts, for powering an
entire house or small commercial operation.
5.4
Solar power
The term solar power refers to the production of electricity through photovoltaics (photo = light, voltaic =
electricity). Photovoltaics (PV) are a semiconductor-based technology which convert light energy into
direct current (DC). PV modules, also known as solar panels, contain no moving parts, consume no
conventional fuels and provide electricity without creating pollution at the point of production19.
A PV module, the basic building block of a solar energy system, comprises a number of small
photovoltaic cells that are electrically connected together. PV modules are manufactured with electrical
outputs ranging from a few watts to more than 100 watts. A typical PV module measures about 0.5 square
meters (about 1.5 by 3.5 feet) and produces about 75 watts of DC electricity in full sun. Such a module
has a lifetime of over twenty years, and retails for approximately USD 300-USD 400. In general,
PV systems are most economical when modest levels of electricity – a few watts to hundreds of watts –
are required in an area where grid service is not available.
_______________
18 “Rural Communications in India: Technology Options”, submitted by the Asia-Pacific Telecommunity on 30 September
1999.
19 As with all semiconductor manufacturing, some pollution occurs as part of the fabrication process.
51
Numerous companies are working on developing lower cost PV technology through improved
manufacturing processes, improvements to traditional crystalline silicon technologies, and more recent
innovations such as advanced thin films. Portable solar-powered charging systems such as solar-powered
battery rechargers, folding PV modules and flexible PV modules are now available to power notebook
computers, radios, cellular phones, and other portable electronic devices.
Due to the interest in the U.S., Europe, and Japan in promoting domestic household use of solar power,
several companies, with government R&D support, have developed self-contained solar panels which
combine the PV module, inverter and electricity meter. These panels were designed to supply the AC
power requirements of a domestic household. Products based on this concept are starting to emerge on the
market. In general, however, these are intended for use in buildings connected to electric utility grids.
Installation and maintenance issues
The performance of photovoltaic modules is affected by temperature conditions. Some modern charge
controllers support a feature called maximum power point tracking (MPPT), which can make a
considerable difference to the performance of solar panels in cold weather. Traditional charge controller
designs transfer the current from the solar cell directly to the battery, without taking into account the
change in performance of the solar cell due to environmental conditions20. Charge controllers equipped
with maximum power point tracking are capable of optimising the current transfer and this can account
for significant overall performance improvements.
Pre-assembled systems can reduce the risk and expense associated with sourcing individual components
and installing a custom configuration. They typically comprise a photovoltaic array, deep cycle batteries,
charge controller, sine wave inverter, and remote monitoring capabilities. Factory pre-testing helps ensure
compatibility and reliability of the individual system components, tending to increase overall system
integrity. Pre-assembled power systems range in size from small (100 to 300 watt hours per day) to large
(5 to 20 kilowatt hours per day). Small pre-assembled power systems providing 100 to 200 watt hours per
day are available for less than USD 1000.
5.5
Wind energy
Wind power is based on transformation of the wind’s kinetic energy into electricity. This is achieved
through the use of a wind turbine. As the wind flows against the rotor blades of the turbine, the blades are
forced to spin. As the rotor blades spin they turn a shaft that is attached to an electric generator. Through
a process of induction, the generator converts the physical movement of the rotor shaft into electricity. All
wind systems consist of a wind turbine control system, a tower, wiring, and the “balance of system”
components: controllers, inverters, and/or batteries.
The United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory has estimated that a 1.5-kilowatt (kW) wind
turbine will meet the needs of an installation requiring 300 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per month, in a location
with annual average wind speed of 6.26 meters per second (14 miles per hour).
Wind-based power systems are highly susceptible to location and placement. In many developing
countries national governments have compiled wind resource maps. These maps can show whether wind
speeds in a given area are sufficient to justify investing in a wind power system. Where such maps are not
available, data on the available wind resource must be obtained by measuring wind speeds at the proposed
site over a period of time.
Wind energy systems are non-polluting and help reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Although wind
energy systems involve a significant initial investment, lifetime costs can be competitive with conventional energy sources. In general, wind turbines cost less than their equivalent solar counterparts, though
in terms of electricity generation they are more restricted in where they can be placed.
_______________
20 For a technical discussion on MPPT – please see Homepower Magazines, issue 72, September 1999
<http://www.homepower.com>
52
Unlike solar panels, wind turbines are relatively straightforward in terms of maintenance in case of
failure. With the exception of computer-based turbine management systems, routine maintenance can
generally be accomplished by a skilled mechanic. Most wind turbine manufacturers are small engineering
companies and their warranties range from 3 to 20 years, depending on the size of the turbine.
Wind turbines are normally equipped with automatic speed-governing systems to keep the rotor from
spinning out of control in very high winds. Some systems use computer control to automatically deploy
and retract air brakes in response to changing wind speeds. Older systems may require manual setting of
brakes.
Lightning can also be a problem. Most manufacturers would advise disengaging the system from the
battery installation during lightning storms. In areas where lightning is common this makes wind power
systems less attractive.
5.6
Micro-hydro power
Hydro power systems generate electricity using the same principle as wind turbines. The force of flowing
water is used to turn a propeller or water wheel connected to an induction motor, producing an electric
current. Micro-hydro power systems are generally defined as hydro power systems that produce less than
100 kilowatts (kW) of power. Micro-hydro systems of less than 1 kW are often referred to as pico-hydro
systems.21
Of the numerous factors which affect the capital cost of micro-hydro systems, site selection and basic
layout are among the first to be considered. System configuration is designed according to the available
head of water. Most micro-hydro installations are of the “run-of-river” type, meaning simply that they do
not have any sizeable reservoir (i.e. water is not stored behind a dam) and produce electricity only when
the water provided by the river flow is available. Electricity generation in such cases ceases when the
river dries up.
The environmental impact of micro-hydro power systems is usually small. When water resources with
sufficient head and flow are available, micro-hydro can be a least-cost source of electricity for community
mini-grids and individual facilities. Other advantages of micro-hydro power systems in rural and remote
areas include:
•
Safe and secure investment demonstrated over several decades;
•
Potential for individual, co-operative or communal ownership, requiring only semi-skilled labour and
co-operative administration for maintenance and construction;
•
A short gestation period when local materials and skills are available;
•
Flexibility in adapting to quick load variations;
•
Long lifespan.
Some micro-hydro power systems are more than 70 years old and still in operation. Micro-hydro power
systems are suitable for many rural areas that can not easily support solar or wind energy systems.
Because they are reasonably simple to maintain and cost less to deploy than either solar or wind systems,
micro-hydro systems represent an attractive option for powering rural telecommunication systems.
Micro-hydro systems are not technically complex and can often be implemented and managed by the
local community. However, micro-hydro systems typically require more frequent maintenance than
_______________
21 The distinctions between large hydro, small hydro, mini-hydro, micro-hydro and pico-hydro are not consistent from country
to country or user to user. The most common definition of micro-hydro is that of systems producing less than 100 kW.
53
comparable wind or photovoltaic systems. The bearings and brushes of micro-hydro systems require
regular maintenance and replacement, and the turbine must be kept free of debris.
Because the turbine in a micro hydro installation is generating power all the time, batteries are constantly
recharged. This means that micro-hydro systems are suitable for use with shallow-cycling batteries, such
as automotive batteries, without undue performance constraints. Expensive deep cycle batteries will make
little difference in overall system performance. In a micro-hydro installation it is important that the length
and diameter of the feeder pipe are specified to suit the water situation and the turbine, otherwise the
installation will be inefficient.
5.7
Hybrid power systems
Hybrid power systems use both renewable energy and fossil-fueled electricity generation techniques. A
hybrid power system combines a renewable energy system – typically based on photovoltaics or wind
generation – with battery energy storage, an inverter, and an engine-driven generator set fueled by diesel,
gasoline, or another fuel. For many years the leading application of hybrid systems has been for telecom
repeaters, although they are also used for other industrial applications such as cathodic protection of
pipelines, isolated research stations or facilities, and in some cases for community electrification.
One of the basic concepts behind a hybrid system is that for large power requirements in a remote area,
the size and costs of the renewable energy system and the battery bank can be significantly reduced if one
incorporates modest use of an engine-driven generator. For example, FG7 members have seen how TELE
Greenland has developed a computer-controlled hybrid power system which has been used to power
unmanned radio relay repeater sites in Greenland for the past five years. Using solar panels with output
power of 4800 watts each, batteries with capacity of 4500Ah, and a small diesel generator, TELE
Greenland’s hybrid power concept was designed to support remote telecommunication installations with
power consumption of up to 1.5 kW.
TELE Greenland’s system includes a power distribution board, supervision equipment and a fuel tank.
The batteries are the primary power supply for the telecommunication equipment and are charged from
the solar cells on a daily basis. The size of the batteries and the number of solar panels are dimensioned
according to the power requirements of the equipment. The system elements are combined to minimize
both fuel and maintenance costs: in the FG7 case library, TELE Greenland reports fuel savings of 80%
compared to a permanently running diesel-powered generator, and has reduced maintenance trips to once
per year. Depending on configuration, the price of a complete system as described above generally falls
between USD 215,000 and USD 470,00022. In the case of TELE Greenland, such a system can be
economical due to factors including high transportation cost to very remote areas (both of fuel and
personnel), and the higher savings from reduced maintenance due to higher industrialized country wage
scales.
5.8
Clockwork power
In the early 1990’s, British inventor Trevor Baylis invented a clockwork radio. The radio, now produced
by the Freeplay Energy Group, opened the door for clockwork-based induction motors to be used to
power small devices. Requiring only that a special form of spring be manually wound, clockwork power
has been used by Baygen as a replacement for batteries in small devices such as radios and flashlights.
The Baygen Freeplay radio
The Baygen Freeplay radio marks one of the first commercially successful communication devices to
employ a clockwork mechanism as its power supply. It is sold on a commercial basis for approximately
USD 75 and has been used extensively by a number of non-governmental organisations as a key element
in community education programmes and disaster relief efforts. For instance, Freeplay radios were
_______________
22 TELE Greenland’s Remote Hybrid Power Supply System, submitted by Tele Greenland on 11/04/00.
54
distributed by the National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC) in Mozambique so that flood
victims could receive broadcasts on the weather, health issues, government policy toward the displaced,
missing family members, the activities of the aid community and the location of land mines23. In Ghana,
the government distributed 30,000 Freeplay radios so villagers could follow elections. Rotary International is currently examining the use of Freeplay radios for information broadcasts about child
immunisation in a project in India.
How a clockwork radio works
Image: courtesy of the British Council and Freeplay,
South Africa.
Power is input into the radio by turning the external crank handle. As the handle turns, a spring inside the
radio is wound up tightly on to a spool and in the process converts the mechanical energy gained from
turning the handle into a reservoir of potential energy. The spring itself is a type of tensator, or constant
force spring, which unwinds at a constant rate.
Powering other devices
In 1997, Freeplay publicly demonstrated that it was possible to use the micro-generator part aspects of the
radio to power other devices such as small laptop computers. In the field trails and public demonstrations
in Africa, an Apple Computer E-mate educational computer was used as the test computer system. An
Apple E-mate, though now withdrawn and no longer for sale, corresponds closely with a Jupiter class
handheld in terms of power requirements and overall functionality (for a definition of “Jupiter class,” see
Section III, Part C2). By winding the generator for one minute, the Apple E-mate computer – excluding
the display terminal – was supplied with sufficient power to operate for 30 minutes. While the trials and
public demonstrations publicised the potential of clockwork power to support the operation of small
appliances other than radios, Baygen has neither released nor announced any other clockwork-powered
communications devices.
Spanish inventor Gerardo Alsina Perez demonstrated a small manual current generator for recharging a
mobile phone in Geneva in April 2000. Perez’s micro-generator works on an induction principle but
differs from Baylis’s design and patents. Although at this point in time the generator has yet to find a
manufacturer, its development highlights the continued application of clockwork power supplies to
meeting the power requirements of small devices.
_______________
23 Emergency Communications in Mozambique, submitted by the Freeplay Foundation on 23 June 2000.
55
Section 6 – Information technology
6.1
Introduction
Rural programmes in distance education, e-commerce and telemedicine have begun to exploit the
capabilities of information technology devices to support a wide range of multimedia functions, including
digital image manipulation, voice communications and messaging services. However, as illustrated in the
case library, the personal computers typically installed to support these services are difficult to operate
and maintain in rural areas. Therefore, Section 6 was designed to provide a brief introduction to different
types of information technology devices and applications which, if adapted by manufacturers and systems
integrators, would present fewer obstacles than PCs to effective use in rural areas.
The three interrelated concepts of information appliances, client/server applications, and thin client
systems characterize the devices and applications introduced in this section. Following a brief introduction to these terms, sections 6.2 to 6.11 provide examples of devices in these categories, illustrating the
features of primary interest to rural areas of developing countries. Because many of the devices are likely
to be unfamiliar to ITU-D members, pictures and product descriptions have been included in each section.
The inclusion of product information is purely illustrative and does not represent any form of endorsement by the ITU. In the selection of products to use as illustrations, preference has been given to the
products of ITU-D Sector Members wherever possible.
Information appliances
An appliance is an instrument designed to accomplish a single task simply and efficiently. For example,
kitchen appliances such as food blenders and mixers perform specialized tasks in order to save time and
simplify the cooking process. The term information appliance is increasingly used to describe a diverse
range of IT products and multimedia terminals which help to simplify and reduce the costs of information
processing. Information appliances reduce costs by optimizing design for a particular application and
eliminating unnecessary components from the software and hardware configuration.
The world market for information appliances comprised 11 million units in 1999, according to IDC’s
Review and Forecast of the Worldwide Information Appliance Market, 1999-2004. Worldwide sales are
anticipated to grow rapidly and reach 89 million units in the year 2004 (see Figure 6.1). Information
appliances typically possess features that are well-suited to the needs of rural areas, such as low cost
(often USD 200-USD 300 per unit), battery powered operation and simplified operating systems.
Manufacturers of certain types of information appliances offer software development kits for use with
their products to encourage third parties to develop new end-user applications. These tools can be used to
implement local language-, audio- and icon-based interfaces
Client/server applications
The client/server model of computing describes an approach to organising and distributing resources
within a networked computer environment. Clients are computing terminals or software applications that
send requests in order to access computing resources on a network. Servers are the computer or software
counterparts which respond to client requests and provide the resources. The order of process of
interaction between client and server is governed by a formal set of rules known as a protocol. Normally,
the connection between client and server requires several different protocol suites staked upon one
another.
The client/server approach developed in the 1980s to reduce the costs of deploying and managing
networks of personal computers in corporate environments. In a local area network (LAN), a server is
typically a centralised computer configured for the management of network resources including files,
databases, and software applications. PCs connected to the network act as clients and request access to
resources managed by the server, including physical devices such as printers.
The client/server model is also the design paradigm of the World Wide Web (WWW). In the context of
the WWW, a software application known as a ‘browser’ is the client. Netscape Navigator and Internet
56
Explorer are two examples of Web browsers. As illustrated in Figure 6.2, the browser requests images,
text and other stored information from servers connected to the Internet. The process of submitting and
handling requests is governed by the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Figure 6.1 – Forecast of worldwide information appliance units
Worldwide Information
Appliance Unit Shipments
100
Total IA Shipments
90
Other
80
Internet smart
handhelds
70
11 million in 1999
89 million in 2004
Web terminals
60
Email terminals
50
Internet enabled
game consoles
40
30
20
Internet
screenphones
10
NetTV's
Keys to growth
Awareness and interest
Infrastructure
Applications and services
0
www.idc.com
Figure 6.2 – Client/server interaction in the World Wide Web
Client
Page X is received
ready for display
Web browser requests page X
located on server
www7...itu.int/
in directory itudfg7
Internet
Server responds
by sending page X
Request for page X
Web server
www7...itu.int
Server locates page and
either sends page
or
executes script and sends
result of execution
web pages and
scripts for focus
group 7 website
57
One advantage of the use of client/server applications in rural areas of developing countries is that the
server need not be physically located in a rural area. Instead, the server can be located in an urban area,
domestic or international, where electricity, maintenance and configuration services can be provided at
lower cost.
Thin client systems
When applied to computing devices, the term “thin” generally indicates reduced processing or reduced
overall computing capabilities. In this report, the term ‘thin client system’ is used to refer to specialized
client/server systems in which nearly all processing is executed on the server, and the client terminal
functions mainly as a display device. The concept is similar to the old model of mainframe computing,
which allowed multiple users using “dumb” terminals to share mainframe resources. However, recently
developed thin client systems arose from very different economic motivations than the old mainframe
systems and make use of new protocols.
Most thin client systems available today have been developed as substitutes for PC-based local area
networks (LANs) in order to reduce the ongoing support costs of corporate networks. Thin clients
typically include a monitor, keyboard and mouse but do not have hard disk drives, floppy disk drives or
CD-ROM players. The client terminals use a simplified operating system, while the network servers use a
specially modified operating system that manages the processing tasks and transmission of display
information to each of the clients.
As a result of these features, thin client terminals require less power to operate and are considerably
simpler to maintain than standard PCs. In a PC network, new software applications and upgrade packages
must be installed on each hard drive individually, either by a support technician or by complex network
management software. In thin client systems, new software is installed once on the server and is instantly
available to all users. This feature reduces the support costs associated with software installation,
upgrading and troubleshooting. In addition, manufacturers claim that thin client terminals require fewer
hardware upgrades over their lifetime because most of the upgrades will be done on the server.
Low-power thin clients installed in rural areas as part of a wide area network (WAN) could provide
numerous cost advantages over a comparable PC-based network. The advantages would be increased if
the main server could be installed in a location where technical infrastructure exists. At present, a major
obstacle to this type of deployment is the high bandwidth connection required between the thin client and
the server. Depending on the system, connectivity links equivalent to Ethernet speeds – ranging from
10 to 100 Mbit/s – may be required between the server and the client terminals. There are case studies of
thin client systems that have been deployed on wide area networks, but these have used typically used
dedicated, high-speed leased line connections24. Such networks would be too expensive to provide the
basic communications systems required for the most remote and sparesely populated areas, but they could
potentially address the needs of large-scale distance education, training and telemedicine networks with
end users located in both urban and rural areas.
6.2
Integrated telephone/e-mail devices
A new generation of phones and fax machines support e-mail and limited Web access services along with
traditional telephony applications. Because the form factors and service offerings of these devices are
similar to those of traditional telephones and fax machines, they may lend themselves to use in teleshops
which already offer phone or fax services. Integrated fax/e-mail devices could support the introduction of
e-mail as a low cost messaging service in rural areas as well as expand the service offerings of a teleshop
or telecenter without much additional capital investment.
_______________
24 For example, see the case study “Sun RayTM 1 Enterprise Appliance Links Pennsylvania Library”, Sun Microsystems,
www.sun.com
58
As of July 2000, integrated fax/e-mail machines were not widely available in most developing countries.
This presents a problem because import procedures add expenses, and the manufacturer’s warranty may
not be valid if the product is used outside the country for which it was developed. In addition, when email and limited Web functionality are added to a telephone or fax machine, connection and authentication procedures must be established between the device and an Internet service provider. With these
types of devices, Internet access is usually provided by a designated ISP affiliated with the device
manufacturer or retailer.
Potential rural uses:
E-mail/messaging
Real-time, interactive voice communication (telephony)
Fax
Price range: USD 350-USD 550
Example of an integrated fax/e-mail device
The inclusion of product information below is purely illustrative and does not represent any form of
endorsement by the ITU.
Source: Philips Electronics N.V.
6.3
The Magic Vox E-mail from Philips Electronics N.V., pictured at
left, supports the functions of a plain-paper fax machine, plain
paper copier, digital answering machine, telephone, e-mail station
and web page retrieval device. E-mail accounts, Internet-based fax
transmission and web page retrieval services are provided by an
Internet service provider affiliated with the product on the basis of
a monthly fee. Although users cannot browse web pages on a
screen or follow hyperlinks, they can retrieve and print a web page
by entering its URL (web address) in the fax machine display.
E-mail appliances
E-mail-only appliances allow users to send and receive e-mail, typically without attachments. They often
have the capability of dialing up the e-mail provider at the touch of a button, and automatically
disconnecting once e-mail has been uploaded or downloaded. E-mail appliances could be used in rural
areas where low cost and minimal bandwidth usage are of paramount importance. When limited PC
resources are utilized by a large number of individuals, several e-mail appliances may be installed for less
than the cost of an additional PC in order to accommodate demand for e-mail and free up PC resources
for other tasks.
To set up a pre-configured e-mail appliance, the user is required to insert batteries and plug in a telephone
line. In contrast, setting up e-mail access using a personal computer (PC) requires the user to connect a
hard disk drive, monitor, keyboard and mouse; boot up the hard drive; navigate the file management
system; install e-mail software; configure connectivity options such as dial-up access number, modem
rate and SMTP server; launch the e-mail software; initiate connection to the Internet service provider; and
so on.
59
E-mail/messaging
Example of e-mail-only appliance
Mailstation from CIDCO, Inc.
The MailStation is an e-mail-only appliance designed
for residential use. The product, pictured above, was
launched in the United States on 1 July 2000. The
device retails for approximately USD 100, but requires
a monthly subscription fee of USD 10 for e-mail
connectivity. Power is supplied by two AA batteries.
Each MailStation unit supports the receipt and transmission of e-mail messages for up to five different
e-mail accounts. Each message can be up to 8 kbit/s
Source: CIDCO, Inc. (http://www.mymailstation.com/)
in size, equivalent to approximately 66 lines of text. An
RS4-22 printer port provides connection to an external printer, enabling messages to be printed to hard
copy. The service package sold with the MailStation allows users to subscribe to daily e-mail updates
provided by Yahoo!, a major Internet web portal. The updates provide information on news, sports,
finance, horoscopes, and lottery results. The unit also has an in-built address book, calendar and
calculator.
Mailstation contains an in-built 33.6 kbit/s fax/modem which can be plugged directly into the phone jack
to support dial-up connectivity. However, users are required to subscribe to an Internet service provider
(ISP) affiliated with the product. When a MailStation is purchased, information is collected from the
customer in order to establish e-mail accounts and ascertain the closest dial-up access point. Based on this
information, the device is pre-configured so that it can be used as soon as it is taken out of the box and
plugged into a phone jack.
6.4
Handheld computers
The handheld computers product category has emerged in recent years in the market niche functionally
defined between low cost pocket electronic organizers and laptop computers. Unlike larger desktop
systems, handheld computers are typically battery operated. Early handheld computers were primarily
launched as personal information management systems supporting to-do lists, diary and calender
functions. Increasingly, these capabilities are accompanied by simple e-mail, web browsing and small
application programmes. Third party peripheral devices that can be attached to handheld computers, such
as modems and digital cameras, are further extending the range of applications small handheld devices
can support. The handheld computer marketplace is rapidly evolving and is currently divided along the
lines of form factor, operating system and price. The commercial success of handheld devices has led to
large scale production and falling prices.
Digital image capture
E-mail/messaging
Internet/multimedia information access (WWW, ftp, telnet)
Voice- or text-based database access
Price range: USD 149 to USD 1000
60
Development and testing of handheld computers for rural applications
The application of handheld computers to rural communication needs has been broached by a small, but
growing, number of researchers in developing countries. Two open source25 projects, described below,
have resulted in the availability of royalty-free operating systems, applications and manufacturing
specifications for handheld computer devices. In addition, handheld computers have been tested or used
for a number of applications in rural areas.
The Simputer
A team of professors and students in the Department of Computer Science and Automation at the Indian
Institute of Science, along with a team of software engineers at Encore Software in Bangalore, have
designed a handheld device for Internet access called the Simputer estimated to cost less than USD 200.
A prototype of the device was scheduled to be ready in August 2000. The Simputer, short for simple
computer, was designed to help low-income and illiterate users in India and other developing countries
gain access to resources on the Internet.
The hardware and software on which the Simputer is based have been made available by the academic
team as open source technology, a step which greatly reduces the costs of producing the device as well as
the costs for third-party applications developers. The Simputer is based on Intel’s StrongARM central
processing unit, contains 16 Mbit/s of Flash memory, a Linux-based operating system, and is expected to
support a local language interface. The manufacturing plans will be released to other manufacturers via
the Simputer Trust for a donation of USD 1000.
ITSY
In a similar, though unrelated, development, a research team at PC manufacturer Compaq, Inc. has
released manufacturing plans and an operating system for a handheld sytem known as ITSY. The system
specifications, which can be downloaded over the internet from http://research.compaq.com/wrl/projects/
Itsy/itsy.html, provide the circuit layouts along with an optimised Linux operating system to enable
construction of the device. The ITSY specifications have been released as open source technology.
Type 0 telecenters based on handheld computers
Argentina’s GRUPO DE INVESTIGACIÓN EN TELECOMUNICACIONES RURALES (GTR-UNNE)
developed the concept of a “Type 0” telecenter based on a low-power handheld computer connected to a
cellular subscriber terminal or narrowband VHF radio. “Type 0” telecenters were designed to provide low
cost messaging to small and low income communities (50-250 inhabitants) which could not sustain a
full-sized telecenter.
The configuration of a “Type 0” telecenter was described by Dr. Dario Goussal of GTR-UNNE in the
case study “Type 0” Community Telecentres: Results of Suriname Case Study, as follows:
The core device of Type-0 telecentres is a handheld personal computer with keyboard. These
units are small (3” × 6”) and supplied with a 75-100 MHz processor, 8 to 24 Mbit/s RAM, builtin modem of 14.4 kbit/s to 33.6 kbit/s, and grayscale display of 640 × 240 pixels. They also
feature infrared ports or connectors for a docking station, if a printer or another device is further
required. Battery life is about 15-20 hours, so they are expected to perform well in rural MCTs.
The external link is performed by a narrowband-LEOS VHF communicator, a simple and
inexpensive data terminal. [19]
In addition to rural e-mail services, GTR-UNNE envisioned the use of the handheld computer’s standard
software complement for training and educational purposes, such as courses in word processing, typing,
drawing, graphic design, farm management and tax accounting. The authors expected these educational
_______________
25 See annex 2 for the Open Source Definition.
61
activities to be implemented under agreements with the government, international organizations and
NGOs, thus providing a source of indirect funding support for telecenter-related activities.
Examples of handheld computers
Palm Computing’s Pilot series
Designed as companion products to personal computers, Palm
handheld computers (example pictured at left) enable mobile users
to manage their personal and business information using an
electronic date book, address book, to-do list, expense management
software, calculator, note-taking applications and games. As of
July 2000, the retail prices of Palm Pilots ranged from USD 179 to
USD 799.
Source: Palm Computing, Inc.
The Pilot series handhelds are typified by:
• palm-sized form factor;
• simple graphical user interface;
• data entry through handwriting recognition;
• docking cradle for two-way data synchronisation with a PC.
The data entry system incorporates an enhanced version of Palm Computing’s Graffiti power writing
software, which enables users to enter up to 30 words per minute with 100 percent accuracy. The software
recognizes modified Latin alphabetic characters that users learn how to write with a stylus on the
pressure-sensitive material overlaid on the display panel.
Palm provides open access to developer information. As a result, a number of hardware and software
products have been introduced for the Palm platform by third party developers. These products include
modems, Web browser software and small digital cameras. In 1999, the Palm VII device was launched
with wireless access to the Internet. Accompanying the launch of the Palm VII, a web page summary
technology called ‘web clippings’ was developed in order for Web content providers to offer lowbandwidth versions of their sites designed specifically for download to the Palm.
Palm Computing, Inc. has licensed its operating system (OS) to several manufacturers including
Handspring, IBM and Sony. One of the drawbacks of the Palm platform for rural applications is the fact
that its software and hardware facilities are designed around the availability of a desktop computer for
software updates and data transfer.
Psion’s Organiser series
UK-based technology company Psion launched its first organiser in 1984. The company’s organizers
outwardly resemble a spectacle case whose top flips open to reveal an LCD panel and a 58-key keyboard
inside.
Source: Psion.
In mid-1998 Psion joined forces with Ericsson, Nokia and
Motorola to form a new joint venture called Symbian, with the aim
of establishing Psion’s EPOC 32 operating system as the de facto
operating system for mobile wireless information devices. In late
1999, Psion extended the EPOC operating system to provide
support for color and a complete implementation of the JAVA
programming environment. This resulted in the launch of two
sub-notebook models, the Series 7 (pictured at left) and netBook.
Psion’s organizers typically range in price between USD 275 and
USD 799.
62
Psion organizers were designed to be independent of desktop environments, although they are also
capable of desktop communication and data transfer. The support for Java in recent models means that
custom applications developed for rural areas in the Java programming language can be ported to the
Psion platform fairly easily. However, there are few companies other than Psion who provide compatible
peripherals such as modems.
Windows CE-based handheld computer
Microsoft offers an operating system for the handheld computer
market called Windows CE. Current hardware manufactures
building Windows CE-based handheld devices include Hewlett
Packard, Compaq and CASIO. Handheld computers using
Windows CE typically retail between USD 399 and USD 799.
Windows CE devices are fully functional and are capable of
supporting powerful applications independent of the desktop.
Microsoft currently supports two variants of Windows CE 3.0: the
Handheld PC Pro (H/PC Pro), designed for keyboard-based
handheld computers, and the Pocket PC (P/PC) for Palm-type
devices. Both platforms can support scaled-down versions of
Microsoft’s popular Office applications including Word, Excel,
Access, Outlook (an e-mail client) and Internet Explorer.
Source: Microsoft Europe.
At the launch of Windows CE in 1996, more than 40 companies signalled their support by promising to
develop CE-compatible hardware or software. There is widespread third-party support for the
manufacture of compatible peripheral devices such as modems and digital cameras. Custom software
application development can be undertaken in either the C++ or Visual Basic programming languages on
a desktop PC, and then cross compiled to the CE system. The prevalent use of both programming
languages worldwide makes the production of customized software for Windows CE devices
straightforward. However, Windows CE-based devices have been subject to frequent changes in the
operating system, invalidating older models quickly, and tend to have relatively higher power
requirements compared to other handheld platforms.
6.5
Internet client appliances
Internet client appliances are simplified computers designed primarily to deliver access to Internet-based
services such as Web browsing and on-line shopping. The e-mail stations described in Section 6.3, as well
as the Internet-enabled video game systems described in Section 6.7, could be considered Internet
appliances.
Recently, the Internet appliance market has seen the introduction of customizable, end-to-end solutions
for Internet appliance networks which allow client software to be upgraded remotely by the Internet
service provider (ISP). Such solutions are just beginning to be introduced in the marketplace to support a
model of Internet service provision in which the service provider not only provides access to the Internet
backbone, but also remotely manages the Internet appliances and influences, to a greater or lesser extent,
the content experienced by the end user. It is this type of solution that is addressed in the rest of this
section.
Using a server equipped with an on-line management software package, the service provider has the
ability to create and update the “home page” seen by all appliance users upon connection to the Internet.
The service provider could create a home page with links to the web sites of the national agricultural
extension service, health care services, and local language newspapers. If national Internet infrastructure
existed and there were sufficient local content available, the service provider could restrict, eliminate, or
manage access to foreign Internet sites that require the leasing of expensive international links. The ISP
may also have the ability to modify configuration settings for all clients on the network, individual
63
clients, or certain classes of clients. Security safeguards such as digital certificates and secure socket layer
(SSL) encryption ensure that only designated servers can modify the remote clients.
An important technological development that supports remote client management is the mass production
of ROM chips that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Traditional read only memory chips
were used to store essential system programmes which neither the user nor the computer could erase. The
instructions were incorporated into the design of the memory chip’s circuits, ensuring that the computer
would be able to reboot after the power was turned off. Successive varieties of ROM were developed
which could be programmed or “burned” once at the factory, or programmed and reprogrammed using a
special machine. Finally, memory chips were developed which could be erased and reprogrammed
multiple times using a specially applied electrical current. The last type of memory chip, known as
electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM), can be rewritten without being
removed from the computer.
A special type of EEPROM known as flash memory (or flash ROM) can be erased and reprogrammed
using the normal voltages of a PC. Since there is no need to physically remove the chip, flash memory is
used in many information appliances to allow the system’s basic instructions to be rewritten using
software. The process can as easily be initiated over a remote connection, which has allowed solution
developers to design Internet appliance solutions that exploit this capability. If applied in rural and remote
areas of developing countries, this technology could reduce the need for maintenance trips to rural areas
and skills training of local inhabitants in software installation.
E-mail/messaging
Fax
Real-time interactive audio communication (telephony)
Voice mail
Price range: USD 600 to USD 1000 (Per appliance)
A number of manufacturers, including Intel, Acer and Compaq, either offer or have announced intentions
to offer remotely managed Internet appliance solutions. However, these solutions are typically available
only for large-scale deployments. For instance, Intel requires a minimum order of 100,000 terminals, at a
price per terminal of USD 600 for hardware plus USD 30 for software licensing.
Example of an Internet appliance solution
Merinta’s iBrow Internet appliance solution
Merinta, a subsidiary of New York-based Boundless Corporation,
began shipping a suite of hardware, software and service products
for Internet appliance systems in April 2000. The product line,
called iBrow, targets Internet service providers, financial institutions and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) by providing
customized Internet appliance solutions which the latter can
distribute under their own brand names.
Source: Merinta.
The iBrow software platform was designed to be independent of
both hardware and operating systems. It supports multiple CPU
chip set architectures, including Intel’s Celeron and National
64
Semiconductor’s Geode, and can run on a number of operating systems including Linux, WindRiver’s
VX Works, Microsoft Windows 98 and Microsoft Windows NT. The platform also offers support for
corporate thin client applications via the Citrix ICA networking protocol (for more information on
corporate thin client applications, see Section 6.8). Merinta offers an Internet appliance hardware
solution, pictured above, for customers interested in acquiring a complete end-to-end solution.
The I-Brow Internet appliance comes with a 200 MHz processor, 32 Mbit/s of RAM, 16 Mbit/s of flash
memory, a 56K v.90 modem and a 10-inch LCD backlit display. According to the manufacturer, this
configuration provides sufficient processing power to support Java-based applications and the Linuxbased operating system.
Merinta’s target market includes corporations and ISPs looking to establish themselves in niche markets
by supplying the browsing platform as part of an Internet service package. For example, Virgin Connect,
an ISP in the United States, has purchased an iBrow solution. The iBrow client terminal has been rebranded and marketed as the Virgin Connect WebPlayer. For an annual fee of USD 50, a Webplayer
device and an Internet access connection is provided to the subscriber. After 3 years of using the service,
the WebPlayer becomes the property of the subscriber. This business model, as yet unproven, assumes
that revenue from sources such as advertising, on-line shopping commissions and web browsing data
generated by users will make up for the cost of the hardware subsidy.
6.6
Internet server appliances
Internet server appliances are devices that come pre-configured for the provision of one or more services
provided by Internet servers. Devices marketed as server appliances may support Internet requests,
e-mail, dial-up routing, firewalls, internet servers or network packet routing, among other software
applications. IT industry analysts expect e-mail servers, web servers and e-commerce servers to become
increasingly commoditised over the next 12 to 36 months. Commoditisation of server resources will help
lower the costs of entry for local content producers.
Internet server appliances are produced by a number of companies such as IBM, Oracle, Sun and
GreenComputer International.
Examples of Internet server appliances
Encanto’s E.Go commerce webstation
Source: Encanto Networks, Inc.
The E.Go commerce webstation aims to deliver an “Internet
storefront in a box”. This Internet server appliance arrives with
most of the tools a small business needs to establish a site to sell
products on the Web. The server supports secure transactions, a
template-based Web site builder, e-mail, news, file transfer,
naming, and addressing. In addition, the package comes with a
storefront builder, a built-in payment processing engine and a
relational database to record purchases. The E.Go retails for
USD 1295.
The server system comprises a Java Virtual Machine, a real-time operating system, a four-port Ethernet
hub, and a 56K dial-up modem. Normally, in order to support a permanent web presence, a web server
must be connected to the Internet at all times via a dedicated leased line. Encanto offers a service called
InstantConnect which allows small businesses to connect the E.Go server to the Internet using a standard
65
PSTN telephone line which connects to the Internet only when a Web page is requested. When a request
for an E.Go Web page reaches Encanto’s always-on server, the latter sends a message to the E.Go server
causing it to dial up and connect to the Internet. Therefore, telephone charges are only incurred when the
site is actually accessed. Encanto charges a monthly fee of USD 65 dollars for this service.
Cobalt Networks’ Qube 2 web server
The Cobalt Qube 2 is a small, self-contained Web server suitable
for supporting workgroup and Internet applications. The platform
is typical of the new approach to server appliances. It comes preconfigured and features a specialised set of server functions that
require little, if any, networking knowledge to use.
Source: Cobalt Networks, Inc.
The Qube 2 comes with 16 to 32 Mbit/s of memory and a 2.1 or
6.4 Gigabyte hard disk. A 150 MHz RISC processor running a
variation of the Linux operating system powers the server.
Depending on configuration, the Cobalt Qube 2 costs from
USD 999 to USD 1500.
The Cobalt Qube can be connected via a router to the Internet or be used as an Intranet server or local
content development machine. Adding the server to a network is simply a case of connecting the network
cable and responding to the connection wizard’s queries via a small LCD screen and buttons on the top of
the case. After this point, all administration of the machine can be performed either on site or remotely
via a web browser.
According to its technical specifications, the Cobalt Qube can serve up to 1 million web page requests
and 400,000 e-mails per day. The pre-configured software provides the functionality to:
•
Create and manage a Web site.
•
Support individual e-mail accounts, group mailing lists, and scheduled e-mail deliveries.
•
Perform cross-platform file services for Windows® NT, Windows 95/98, and Mac OS®.
•
Host virtual discussion groups.
Manuals for the Qube 2 are available in Chinese, English, French, German and Japanese.
6.7
Video game systems
A video game console is a dedicated computer system whose main purpose is to support video games. A
wide variety of video games stored on CD-ROMs or Read Only Memory (ROM) cartridges are available
for purchase separately from the main console. Loading a game is simply a matter of placing the
CD-ROM or cartridge in the request slot and turning on the machine. The games are typically displayed
on a television set and controlled via a handheld device such as a joystick or joypad. The degree of
technical knowledge required to operate the system is very low and the operating interface is simple.
While traditional video game consoles were incapable of use for anything but playing video games,
current and next-generation26 game consoles come with an in-built modem and Web browsing software.
This reflects the transformation of the video game console from a restricted, single-function device into
an information appliance capable of delivering graphics, workstation-level computing performance and
Internet connectivity. To utilize all of these capabilities, the console requires connection to a telephone
line, a power supply and a television set.
In terms of graphic displays, game consoles often exceed the capabilities of a state-of-the-art desktop PC.
For instance, some video game systems employ a 128-bit microprocessor as a core CPU as well as
dedicated 64-bit video and audio display circuitry.
_______________
26 Defined as those to be released over the next 12 months.
66
The video game industry has added Internet connectivity and other functionality to new game systems in
order to develop new revenue streams based on services such as on-line games and gaming community
support services. In and of itself, this trend is of no interest to rural communities in developing countries.
However, the size of the video game market means that the consoles are produced in a highly robust and
low cost package. Next-generation video game systems, typically priced around USD 200, are potential
alternatives to PCs for providing e-mail, Internet access and multimedia applications in rural areas. This
transition is most clearly demonstrated in the two leading platforms, described below.
Digital image display
E-mail/messaging
Videoconferencing
Examples of video game systems
Sega Dreamcast
Source: Sega.com.
The Sega Dreamcast, pictured at left, is a game platform capable of
powerful multimedia displays. The Sega Dreamcast was released in
1999 as the first next-generation gaming system to use a 128-bit
microprocessor. It was designed to provide video game enthusiasts,
or “gamers” as they are known, with an enhanced CD-ROM, one
Gigabyte of storage space for application data and on-line access.
The basic unit retails for approximately USD 200.
At its core, the Sega Dreamcast employs a 200 MHz, 128-bit RISC microprocessor and a total of
26 Mbit/s of memory, of which 8 Mbit/s are reserved for storing textures and 2 Mbit/s for audio. Internet
access is supported by an in-built 56 kbit/s v.90 modem. Internet access and web browsing software,
developed by PlanetWeb under license to Sega, come packaged with the console. The browser software
specially alters text to enable it to be easily read when displayed on a standard television set. While the
initial version of the web browsing software was extremely limited, the recently released version provides
support for the most widely used Web browsing applications such as:
•
JavaScript/ECMA Script 1.1;
•
secure socket layer (SSL) 2.0/3.0 56-bit (E-commerce security);
•
frames;
•
HTML 3.2;
•
Internet Relay Chat (IRC);
•
POP3, SMTP-compliant e-mail application.
A keyboard and mouse are sold as optional external peripherals. Information, primarily in the form of
small games, can be downloaded to and uploaded from Sega’s Visual Memory Unit (VMU) flash
memory peripheral. The Sega system is not tied to any specific Internet service provider.
67
Sony Playstation 2
The orginal Sony PlayStation game console shipped over
60 million units worldwide. The Sony Playstation 2 video game
platform, pictured at left, was released in Japan in March 2000. It
will be released in the United States in September 2000 and in
Europe in November 2000. It is included here to indicate the
direction in which video game platforms are heading and the
capabilities to be offered in the near future.
The PlayStation 2 is designed to support digital video discs
(DVDs) and online content. The system specifications include a
Source: Sony Computer Entertainment.
core 128-bit CPU operating at 295 MHz, main memory of
32 Mbit/s and DVD-based storage for applications and content.
The custom graphics chips are capable of generating and DVD-based storage for applications and content.
The custom graphics chips are capable of generating 66 million polygons per second, which is
comparable to the performance of a mid-range graphics workstation such as a Silicon Graphics O2. If
released with the announced specifications, the Playstation 2 will be more powerful for video applications
than most high-end personal computers sold at ten times the price.
The initial PlayStation 2 platform does not ship with a modem or other external connectivity device,
although there is a PCMCIA slot. On June 8th, 2000 Sony Computer Entertainment announced that a
combination hard disk drive/broadband network adapter unit would ship by the end of 2000 in Japan. The
retail pricing of the PlayStation 2, which had not been released outside Japan at the time of writing, is
expected to lie between USD 300 and USD 450.
6.8
Thin client systems
Thin client computing is a model in which software applications are installed and executed on a server
and accessed by a client. Typically, a thin client will have limited local resources and is entirely
dependent on the server for applications, processing time and file storage. The thin client transmits user
mouse clicks and keystrokes to the server for processing and the server processes the user input, executes
the application and sends screen updates back to the client to be displayed.
The transfer of screen display information is achieved using a presentation protocol. Depending on the
presentation protocol employed, screen update information can require large amounts of network
bandwidth. Currently, the two most common presentation protocols are Citrix Corporation’s Independent
Computing Architecture (ICA) and Microsoft Corporations Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). ICA is
rapidly becoming the defacto market standard due to supporting a wider spectrum of client platforms
(such as Java) and network protocols (such as IP, IPX, NETBIOS). In addition, ICA out-performs RDP
on low-bandwidth WAN and dial-up connections due to better data compression.
The server for a thin client network is usually a standard high-end computer server running a modified
operating system. Server operating systems for thin client networks include Citrix WinFrame, which is
itself an implementation of Windows NT under license from Microsoft, and the Java-based Network
Station Manager V2R1 from IBM. Using Citrix’s WinFrame OS, the system can execute Microsoft
Windows applications.
The RDP is based on the ITU T.120 protocol, a telecommunications protocol with enhanced multicasting
and broadcasting capabilities. Using RDP the content of the screen is essentially transferred as a bitmap
from server to client. It is possible to cache font bitmaps on the client side, but no further compression or
optimization is implemented.The protocol is platform independent in addition to being independent of the
underlying network and transport layers. At present, however, RDP supports only TCP/IP as the
underlying network protocol. Regarding the use of WAN connections, PPP is used to tunnel IP.
68
E-mail/messaging
Fax
Videoconferencing
Price range:
Clients: USD 350.00 to USD 1000.00
Servers: USD 2500 upwards
OS:
USD 5000 upwards
On top of this are the costs of applications and physical networking infrastructure. Because the client only
displays pictures, the only aspect of the system which needs to be upgraded is the server. In this sense,
thin client terminals offer a degree of “future proofing” which is higher than the norm for computer
terminals.
Examples of thin client terminals
NeoStation 2300 by Neoware Systems
NeoStation thin client terminals from Neoware Systems can be
used as ICA terminals and can run Windows CE-based appliances.
Using terminal emulation software, one can connect to the Internet,
mainframes, minicomputers and UNIX systems. NeoStations can
also be centrally managed using existing management tools, for
example CA Unicenter, Tivoli, HP OpenView, or Neoware Remote
Manager. Remote management software enables the addition of
new features as necessary.
Source: Neoware Systems, Inc.
Capio 325 by Boundless Technologies
The Capio II series, which includes model 325, is the basic line of
next-generation thin clients produced by Boundless Technologies.
New features include on-board audio, dual USB ports,
10/100 Ethernet support, and expansion options that include serial/
parallel cards and 56k modem cards. Capio II terminals weigh less
than five pounds. The Capio 325 runs the Windows CE operating
system and supports both RDP and ICA protocols. In addition, it
supports simultaneous multiple sessions. Capio II accesses
Windows applications via Citrix WinFrame or MetaFrame servers,
Windows NT 4.0 Terminal server Edition and Windows 2000
servers.
Winterm 3320SE by Wyse Technology
69
Wyse Technology’s Winterm 3320SE Windows CE-based thin
client terminal can be used with servers running Windows NT 4.0
Terminal Server Edition and Windows 2000. This series of thin
terminals offers flexible and seamless implementation of applications via multiple session and multiple protocol access to both
Windows and legacy applications. Winterm 3320SE supports RDP
and ICA through Citrix MetaFrame. The Winterm also comes with
stereo sound capability and 10/100 Base T network support.
Source: Wyse Technology, Inc.
Table 6.1 provides a comparison of the technical specifications and pricing of a number of thin client
terminals in order to illustrate the range of features available in the market. There are many different
options available for thin clients from a wide variety of manufacturers, including manufacturers in
developing countries, such as India.
Table 6.1 – Specifications of selected thin client terminals
Esprit 100TC
NeoStation
2300
ThinStar 200
Capio 325
Winterm
3320SE
COSTS
List price (single unit)
Warranty (standard/optional)
USD 379
3 years
USD 499
1/3 years
USD 421
3 years
USD 602
2/10 years
USD 749
1/3 years
200
8
16
Windows CE
ICA, RDP
66
8
16
Windows CE
ICA, RDP
100
8
8
Windows CE
ICA, RDP
180
8
16
Windows CE
ICA, RDP
166
8
32
Windows CE
ICA, RDP
11.0 × 10.0 ×
2.0
Convection
100-240 V
N/A
5°-40°
20% to 80%
3050 m
9.0 × 7.9 ×
2.1
Convection
100-240 V
8W
10°-40°
10% to 90%
3050 m
9.6 × 10.9 ×
1.8
Convection
N/A
20 W
10°-40°
N/A
N/A
8.75 × 9.75 ×
1.75
Convection
90-264 V
25 W
0°-40°
20% to 80%
6,096 m
8.9 × 6.9 ×
2.4
Convection
90-264 V
COMPUTING RESOURCES
CPU (MHz)
Flash memory (MB)
RAM (MB)
Operating System
Presentation Protocols
PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Dimensions (height × depth × width,
inches)
Cooling
Voltage at 47-63 Hz (AC)
Power consumption
Temperature (Celsius)
Relative Humidity
Maximum Altitude
13.3 W
10°-40°
20% to 80%
3050 m
N/A = Not available.
Sources: Esprit Systems, Neoware Systems, Network Computing Devices, Boundless Technology, Wyse Technology.
6.9
Interactive voice response systems
Interactive voice response (IVR) systems enable telephone users to dial a regular PSTN phone number
and select information to receive in the form of recorded or computer-generated speech. Common uses
of IVR in developed countries include:
•
auto-attendant systems for directory assistance;
•
automated customer service systems;
•
call center forwarding;
70
•
fax-on-demand;
•
information lookup (e.g. movie showings, transportation schedules);
•
message recording;
•
outbound dialing;
•
simple order entry transactions;
•
surveys and polls;
•
telephone banking.
The path of a typical IVR session, illustrated in Figure 6.3, begins with a telephone call that is routed via
a PBX to an IVR system. The telephony engine server runs the menu script and generates responses. As
the customer navigates the menu hierarchy, requested information is extracted from the database server.
The information is extracted in text form, after which text-to-speech actions performed by digital signal
processing (DSP) devices convert the information into audible, spoken words. If the user needs to speak
to a person they can either say a keyword or press a key on the telephone keypad at any time to be
transferred to a live agent.
The IVR platform can be designed to interact with the user through a number of methods including voice
prompts, SMS messages, faxes, e-mails and automatic callback.
Figure 6.3 – Overview of a typical IVR system
Agent Phone Lines
Call Agents
or facilitators
Agent Desktops
Call pop
Computer
Network
Switch (PBX)
Phone Lines
Control Link
Telephony
Exchange
Engine Server Server
Customer Phone
Database
Server
71
IVR applications in developing countries
Focus Group 7 received a submission describing the development of an IVR system specially designed to
provide information to rural villagers from the Research Division of TELKOM Indonesia (RisTI)27.
The IVR system, called Rural Information Riched Community (RIRC), was developed to support special
end-user terminals, the national language, a local language, and other features designed to fulfil the twin
goals of relevant content and ease of access.
RisTI’s system incorporated two particularly innovative features to adapt the IVR service for rural users.
The RIRC implementation model included a person or group of persons who acted as facilitators by
maintaining the information content on the server and responding to recorded inquiries from callers. In
addition, RIRC was designed to recognize calls from a specially designed icon-based telephone terminal
and switch to an access algorithm allowing the least experienced end users in rural areas to navigate by
pressing icons rather than numbers on a keypad. This programme algorithm is illustrated in Figure 6.4.
To differentiate between RIRC terminals telephones and payphones, the IVR server sends a signal (digit)
to the end-user terminal. If that signal is received by the RIRC terminal, it will send a signal response so
that the IVR server knows which algorithm is to be used.
The RIRC terminal was designed to dial automatically to the server when taken off hook or at the touch
of a single button on the keypad. Instead of numbers on the keypad buttons, the terminal uses icons or
symbols that refer to the type of information desired. For example, a symbol of a cow could be used to
indicate animal husbandry information or a question mark button could be used to submit a question.
Future directions in IVR development
Voice eXtensible Markup Language – also known as VoiceXML or vXML – is a mark-up language
developed to ease the development and porting of IVR applications between platforms. The VoiceXML
Forum, originally proposed by Motorola, is an industry organisation founded by AT&T, IBM, Lucent and
Motorola. The VoiceXML forum has been instrumental in developing and promoting VoiceXML as a
vendor-independent computer language designed to make Internet content and information accessible via
speech and telephone. As a language, VoiceXML is designed for creating audio dialogs that feature
synthesized speech, digitized audio, recognition of spoken and DTMF key input, recording of spoken
input, telephony, and mixed-initiative conversations. VoiceXML is expected to radically reduce the
software development costs associated with the deployment of IVR systems.
In addition, new tools have been developed which facilitate the creation of voice-based interfaces for online information repositories. An organization which has already invested in the creation of a database of
text-based information for the Internet can derive additional benefit by adding a text-to-speech engine and
setting up an IVR. In this way, those who do not have direct access to the Internet need not be excluded
entirely from the Information Society. IVR can offer a bridging solution between those with Internet
access and those without.
_______________
27 “IVR Application As A Voice-Based Information Service For Rural Communities”, submitted to the FG7 case library by
RISTI on 9 May 2000.
72
Figure 6.4 – Program algorithm of RisTI’s RIRC IVR system
Source:
RisTI.
6.10
73
Transaction cards
There are two major types of transaction cards: magnetic stripe cards and smart cards. Both are small,
plastic cards used to support a wide variety of applications in banking, security and telecommunications,
some of which are listed in Box 6.1. Of the two types, magnetic stripe cards are less expensive, but they
can store only a small amount of data and are not capable of information processing. The focus in the
following discussion will be on smart cards, and recent developments that are enabling individual smart
cards to be used for multiple applications.
Box 6.1 – Applications of transaction cards
payphones
debit/credit cards
SIM cards
Access/entry
digital set-top boxes
loyalty cards
identification
health information
Smart cards are typically used to store encrypted information for conducting electronic transactions. Also
known as “chip cards,” each card contains an embedded integrated circuit (IC) that supports memory
functions and may contain a microprocessor to carry out processing functions. Like all computers, the
microprocessor requires an operating system, which is stored in the card in some form of Read Only
Memory (ROM).
Smart cards are used for applications such as authenticating users and storing the monetary value of
services purchased by a prepaying customer. In 1996, 805 million smart cards were issued worldwide –
605 million for use with payphones and 20 million for GSM subscribers28. Smart cards allow the use of
cheaper, off-line terminals for PIN verification because the PIN can be encrypted and stored securely on
the card itself. In contrast to magnetic stripe cards, data can be written to the smart card’s memory. The
blank cards are estimated to cost between USD 2.00 and USD 15.00 each, although this varies widely
depending on the supplier, the volume ordered, the type of chip used, and printing options.
Smart card read/write terminals not only manipulate information stored in the cards, but also supply the
power and clock to operate the embedded microprocessor. Since the microprocessing chips are customdesigned for different smart card systems, cards can only be read by compatible readers. There are two
ways that card readers and cards exchange data: through direct contact, and through contactless antennas.
Contact cards require direct electrical contact between the embedded chip and the card reader through a
metallic interface on the surface of the plastic, which is usually made from a thin layer of gold.
Contactless cards contain an embedded antenna which is activated when the card is held in close
proximity to a contactless card reader.
The lack of standardization in the smart card industry, and the resulting lack of interoperability between
cards and readers of different systems, was generally recognized by the industry as a major barrier to
future growth in the second half of the 1990s. Different chips, operating systems, and encryption systems
have typically been adopted in different vertical markets, such as banking and telecommunications. While
a number of ISO standards exist with regard to smart cards and additional ones are under development,
true interoperability between systems has not yet become a reality.
_______________
28 Web site of the Smart Card Industry Association, http://www.scia.org/knowledgebase/default.htm
74
As of the year 2000 there are at least half a dozen open smart card standards being promoted by as many
consortia in the financial, computing and software industries. Two consortia working on frameworks for
multi-application smart cards are described below.
Examples of smart card frameworks
The inclusion of information on industry associations and proposed frameworks below is purely
illustrative and does not represent any form of endorsement by the ITU.
PC/SC Workgroup
The PC/SC workgroup was established by an international group of smart card system developers and
software companies who began working together in May 1996. The workgroup’s main objective is to
establish open standards for the integration of smart cards with personal computing systems by
prescribing interoperability between smart cards, smart card readers and computer equipment.
As of June 2000, PC/SC had issued specifications for the integration of a smart card interface device in a
PS/2 keyboard. PC/SC specification 1.0 was issued in 1997, and the workgroup has announced plans to
publicly release a draft of version 2.0 in the fall of 2000.
The core members of the PC/SC workgroup include Apple Computers, Groupe Bull, Gemplus, Hewlett
Packard, Infineon Technologies, Intel, Microsoft, Schlumberger, Sun Microsystems, and Toshiba. As of
June 2000 there were approximately forty PC/SC 1.0-compliant products in the marketplace from
22 different manufacturers29.
OpenCard Framework and Java Card
Java Card is a stripped-down version of the Java programming language designed to run on smart cards.
The OpenCard Framework (OCF) is a host-side application framework designed to work with Java Card
that resides on the card reader terminal or PC. Java-based programmes running on the host terminal can
use OpenCard to access information on Java Card smart cards. The framework allows programmers to
create applications which are transparent with regard to smartcard operating systems, card terminals, and
card issuers.
OCF 1.0 is the first version developed and released by the OpenCard Consortium. Current members of
the OpenCard Consortium include 3-G International, American Express Travel Related Services, Groupe
Bull, Dallas Semiconductor, Giesecke & Devrient, First Access, Gemplus, IBM, Toshiba Corporation,
TOWITOKO, Schlumberger, Siemens, Sun Microsystems, UbiQ Inc., Visa International and XAC
Automation.
6.11
Computer add-ons and accessories
Cellular phones, handheld computers and personal computers usually contain built-in ports to attach
devices that add or enhance functionality. For example, there are small keyboards that can be attached to
mobile phones for typing SMS and e-mail messages; digital cameras that plug into handheld computers;
medical and scientific sensors that connect to handhelds and laptops; digital voice recorders; and GPS
readers, to name but a few. The number of add-on devices is too large for a comprehensive review in the
context of Focus Group 7. However, a number of products are described below to provide concrete
examples of the functionality that can be added to desktop and portable computing devices.
_______________
29 As listed on the PS/SC workgroup website, http://www.pcscworkgroup.com/
75
Digital image capture
Digital image editing
E-mail/messaging
Receiving radio or TV signals
Videoconferencing
Price range: USD 150-USD 1000
Examples of computer add-ons and accessories
1) Standard analog telephone/cellular phone modems
A variety of modems allow access to dial-up services from laptops, handheld
computers and other devices over the fixed telephone network or mobile cellular
network. The device pictured at left is a battery-operated, 56 kbit/s Psion Travel
Modem which is compatible with handheld computers from Psion, Palm,
Handspring and Windows CE. The modem can plug into a standard telephone line
or a GSM connection.
2) Industrial and educational sensors
Adapters for scientific instruments, such as the Sensor Interface from
ImagiWorks, Inc. (picture, left), allow the attachment of low-voltage industrial
and educational sensors to a handheld computer. Sensors upload readings to the
handheld computer, where the data can be viewed, stored or transmitted to
another device. Sensors which might be used in science education or industrial
applications include barometers, carbon dioxide gas sensors, current and voltage
probes, EKG and heart rate monitors, relative humidity sensors, etc. The module shown at left runs on 2
AAA batteries or an external battery pack.
3) Digital cameras and Webcams
Webcams are digital video cameras, usually attached directly to a computer by a serial, parallel or USB
port. The name originated with devices which were designed to supply
images directly to a web page on a periodic basis. The term live cam is
sometimes used to describe systems that have been configured to send
images regularly over the Internet, either by transmission in rapid succession
or via streaming video. With the advent of low-cost digital cameras and
cheap streaming video compression software, digital picture-taking has
proved popular for home-based applications despite the frequently low
quality of images produced by inexpensive units. The picture at left shows an
Eyemodule digital camera produced by Blocks Products that attaches to a
Handspring Visor handheld computer, also pictured.
76
4) Electronic books and reference materials
Electronic information can be downloaded onto information appliances as files or
attached to them as separate modules. The picture at left shows an add-on module to a
handheld computer containing more than 1,500 monographs from the 2000 Physicians
Desk Reference (PDR®) and the 2000 PDR® for Ophthalmology. This module is a
reference tool for physicians on the indications and usage of prescription drugs.
5) Contactless smart card readers
At least one manufacturer has produced a contactless smart card read/write unit for
use with a handheld computer. The product pictured at left operates at 13.56 MHz
and is produced by Inside TechnologiesTM . The reader works with a family of
contactless chips and an applications developer’s kit provided by the same
manufacturer. Smart cards and RFID cards can be used to support applications
such as prepaid services, identity verification, e-commerce, and secure Internet
access.
77
Section 7 – Conclusions and recommendations
7.1
Concluding discussion and remarks
Application of ICTs for rural economic development
Voice telephony has been the main option for providing access to telecommunications in rural areas.
Today, a wide variety of new applications such as e-mail, e-commerce, tele-education, telehealth, and
telemedicine, among others, has made access to interactive multimedia services as important as – maybe
even more important than – voice connectivity alone. Since each rural district or community requires a
different mix of voice, text, image, video and audio communications to best meet its needs,
telecommunication network operators must be able to support the widest possible range of services and/or
applications and different bandwidth levels at a reasonable cost.
The Internet (with the unavailability of IP network in rural areas) is the most widely used platform used to
deliver multimedia applications in rural areas of developing countries. Satellite broadcasting has also
been widely adopted in distance education programmes and other videoconferencing-based consultations
in remote areas. These two platforms are expected to converge as Internet broadcasting and satellite-based
Internet links continue to be developed. While much negative attention in developing countries has been
focused on the use of the Internet as an illegal bypass mechanism in the international traffic arena, the
long-term importance of the Internet for developing countries lies in its potential to improve the domestic
flow of economic and educational resources between isolated rural communities and urban centers, until
such technology IP networks are provided to the rural areas.
Technologies for rural applications
The following are basic requirements for communications systems deployed in rural areas of developing
countries:
1) implementation and operation is possible at a low cost in areas where population density is low;
2) the system can be easily installed, even in remote and inaccessible locations;
3) system operation and maintenance may be carried out even where qualified technical personnel are
scarce;
4) Implementation is possible even when basic infrastructure such as mains electricity, running water,
paved road networks, etc., are absent.
An increasing number of technologies are available that can meet the above requirements at a reasonable
cost to rural network operators:
1)
Wireless access systems
Wireless communication technologies, such as fixed wireless access (FWA) and very small aperture
terminals (VSATs), are effective means of establishing telecommunication networks in rural areas due to
their advantages over wired telecommunications in terms of cost and ease of installation. For example,
when installing telephones in sparsely populated rural areas, wireless communication technologies such
as PHS, GSM, DECT, and other cellular technologies can be used in conjunction with satellite stations
and point-to-multipoint radio systems to achieve coverage of isolated settlements over long distances.
2)
IP-related technologies
With the Internet becoming internationally widespread, the focus of new network construction around the
world is shifting rapidly from conventional PSTN to IP-based technologies. Emerging packet-based
wireless access technologies, such as IMT-2000 and wireless routers, are being designed to deliver a wide
range of traffic types more efficiently and inexpensively than traditional wired and cellular telephony
networks.
78
Existing satellite operators and planned satellite systems are retrenching in order to serve the global
market for Internet access and broadband communications. These technologies have much potential for
use in rural areas, but they are just beginning to enter the marketplace. In order to lower the risks faced by
network operators in developing countries, new systems offering transitions to packet- and IP-based
network architectures need to be tested and, in all probability, developed further in order to meet the
requirements of rural areas.
Furthermore, the integration of wireless, IP-based routers with voice-over-IP software offers developing
countries the additional technology option of constructing wide area networks to solve the last mile
problem in rural areas. Wide area networks can be configured to share bandwidth between telephony and
Internet efficiently, while taking advantage of the low cost of network servers and the easy installation of
wireless systems.
3)
Multimedia terminals
The installation of inexpensive multimedia user terminals can be an effective way of providing access to
Internet and multimedia services without resorting to costly and complex personal computers. E-mail,
voice and video communications are becoming available through non-traditional devices, such as home
entertainment systems, which cost in the range of USD 300-USD 500 per terminal. These systems can be
installed at multipurpose community telecenters and shared by many users.
E-mail-only stations, Internet client appliances, e-commerce server appliances and cellular telephones that
accommodate wireless protocols such as i-mode and WAP are additional examples of the variety of
devices already available in the marketplace. The proliferation of multimedia devices, and the ability to
custom design and modify them, offers tremendous flexibility in the design of applications for rural areas.
The price of this flexibility, however, is that service providers must understand the unique needs of their
rural customers in order to determine the criteria by which to select technologies and applications.
The wholesale price of a typical Internet appliance unit is estimated to lie in the range of USD 600
to USD 700. This is the same price range as a low-end PC. Although Internet clients contain fewer
components than PCs, their pricing is similar due largely to the much greater scale of PC production.
Deployment of Internet appliances in rural areas of developing countries over the next several years
would be unlikely to lower the initial investment costs of providing Internet access compared to the
deployment of low-end PCs.
Deployment of remotely managed networks of multimedia terminals, such as the Internet appliance
solutions described in Section 6, should be explored in order to make it easier for rural inhabitants to learn
how to use the Internet by doing away with the need for many PC management skills. Another expected
advantage would be lower lifetime maintenance costs and slightly lower power requirements per unit.
Social benefits could be increased by providing a mechanism for service providers to direct relevant
content to rural inhabitants who might be unable to navigate the Internet on their own. Internet appliance
solutions may be able to provide some or all of these benefits at a lifetime cost no higher than that of a
comparable PC-based solution.
Encouraging the development of new technologies
To fulfill its mandate from TDAG to “list new measures to be taken by ITU-D to encourage
manufacturers and relevant organizations to create technology tailored to developing countries,” and
“among those measures, recommend priorities that ITU-D should follow to help achieve the development of technology for rural applications,” Focus Group 7 has prepared six recommendations, listed in
Section 7.3. In addition, the focus group has identified a number of general principles to help private
sector companies design products to address the rural communications and IT markets in developing
countries. These principles are included in the report as Annex 3. In particular, these guidelines are aimed
at companies in the computing and IT industry who may have little familiarity with the disadvantages of
rural areas in developing countries.
79
Legacy of the Maitland Commission
“Dramatic advances in the technology of telecommunications are taking place at a time when the
role telecommunications can play in economic and social development throughout the world is
more important than ever. It is our considered view that henceforward no development programme
of any country should be regarded as balanced, properly integrated or likely to be effective unless
it includes a full and appropriate role for telecommunications, and accords a corresponding
priority to the improvement and expansion of telecommunications.”
“Given the vital role telecommunications play not only in such obvious fields as emergency, health
and other social services, administration and commerce, but also in stimulating economic growth
and enhancing the quality of life, creating effective networks world wide will bring immense
benefits… The increased flow of trade and information will contribute to better international
relationships… We look to governments of industrialised and developing countries alike to give
fuller recognition to this common interest and to join their efforts to redress the present imbalance
in the distribution of telecommunications which the entire international community should
deplore”.30
Fifteen years before the concept of the digital divide was acknowledged, the Independent Commission for
World Wide Telecommunications Development, chaired by Sir Donald Maitland, published these words.
The report of the Maitland Commission, known by the title ‘The Missing Link’, is a core document in the
founding literature of modern telecommunications development activity. The following basic recommendations of the Maitland Commission are worth repeating in the present context:
• Governments, development agencies and financing institutions are to give a higher priority to
investment in the telecommunication sector.
• Developing countries should review their development plans to ensure that sufficient priority is given
to investments in telecommunication.
• Existing networks (specifically rural ones) should be made more effective and commercially viable
and should gradually become self reliant.
• All projects or development activities with economic or social components should have a telecommunication element built in.
FG7 has paid particular attention to the recommendations of the Maitland Commission regarding
technology development and selection:
• We recommend that manufacturers and operators be encouraged to develop systems which will
enable the needs of the more remote areas of developing countries to be met at lower cost.
• Selection of product can be as important as choice of technology. Buyers must know what is
available on the market. We recommend that the ITU, in conjunction with manufacturers of telecommunication equipment and components, consider compiling a comprehensive catalogue of telecommunication suppliers and systems currently in use.
As the world enters the 21st century, many of the conclusions and recommendations of the Missing Link
report remain valid. These conclusions are cited by Focus Group 7 as important and useful guidelines for
the information age, even as we conclude our own study and recommendations to promote the development of new telecommunication technologies for rural applications.
The Focus Group 7 also proposed the creation of a Task Force, consisting of a small group of volunteers
among the ITU-D Study Group members to assist the BDT Director with the implementation of FG7
recommendations. The mandate of the Task Force may include:
• Monitor implementation progress of all FG7 recommendations.
• Formulate suggested criteria for the establishment and location of pilot projects.
• Contribute to cross-communication and coordination efforts among all parties.
_______________
30 The Missing Link, Report of the Independent Commission for World Wide Telecommunications Development. ITU,
December 1984.
80
7.2
Recommendations
Recommendation 1:
Promoting the development of information appliances for rural use
Focus Group 7,
considering
a)
the social and economic benefits of using information and communication technologies (ICTs)
to support rural applications in education, health, economic development and other areas to meet the
needs of the local population;
b)
that for rural ICT programmes to be sustainable, information content must be relevant and
application interfaces must be accessible to rural inhabitants, particularly women and youth who make up
the majority of the population;
recognizing
a)
the difficulty of installing and maintaining ICT devices in areas of developing countries which
lack technical infrastructure;
noting
a)
remote management of systems deployed in rural areas has been shown to reduce the lifetime
costs of equipment operation and maintenance;
b)
speech-based, icon-based and local language interfaces can reduce barriers to the use of ICTs by
inhabitants of rural areas;
c)
an increasing number of software applications, form factors and user interfaces are supported by
information appliances;
noting also
d)
technology start-up companies and systems integrators may not be aware of the special
requirements of rural areas in developing countries, and they may lack contacts in developing countries;
requests BDT
1
to administer a programme whereby developers of information appliance systems
•
are identified and listed in an internal contact database for the purpose of maintaining an up-to-date
electronic mailing list,
•
periodically receive electronic updates from BDT on the special requirements of rural areas with
regard to information technology and its benefits to both women and men,
•
are encouraged to initiate trials of their products and applications in rural areas of developing
countries,
•
are assisted in researching, identifying and contacting potential trial partners in developing countries
through ITU-D members,
•
provide brief, written evaluations of trials whose initiation was facilitated by BDT, to be made
available to all ITU-D members via a Web site,
•
conduct pilot projects in selected developing countries within the BDT regular programmes on
practical applications of information technology in education, health and environmental protection, in
collaboration with relevant organizations.
2
to assess the demand for an introductory training course on information appliances and thin
client technologies, and, if there is demand, develop and implement the course in partnership with private
sector partners.
Recommendation 2:
81
Renewable energy handbook
Focus Group 7,
considering
a)
an adequate and reliable energy supply is a prerequisite for the deployment of any modern
telecommunication or information technology system;
b)
many companies, non-governmental organizations, governments and international agencies,
including ITU-D, are currently working to support broader use of ICT systems in unelectrified rural areas;
recognizing
a)
it is generally not possible to rely upon the same approach to telecom power system design for
end-user equipment as has been used for large telecommunication installations with high power
requirements;
being of the view
a)
it will be necessary to disseminate useful information on renewable energy system selection,
sizing, and design in order to support increased use of ICT equipment at the community and individual
level;
invites
governments, administrations and recognized operating agencies to link renewable energy specialists with
rural telecommunication and ICT initiatives,
recommends
that ITU-D Study Groups:
1
request the preparation of a handbook on renewable energy systems for small end-user
installations such as wireless local loop terminal equipment, cellular handset battery chargers and VHF
radio terminals,
2
disseminate practical and useful information to ITU-D members, project partners and other
organizations on selection, design, sizing, operation, maintenance, and troubleshooting of small power
systems for rural telecommunication installations.
Recommendation 3:
Increasing collaboration with microfinance organizations
Focus Group 7,
acknowledging
a)
the wide variety of actors outside the telecommunication sector who are involved in the design
and implementation of ICT systems for specific rural applications such as tele-education and telemedicine;
b)
the benefits that can accrue to recognized operating agencies from the increased demand for
telecommunication services stimulated by these applications,
82
recognizing
a)
the initial success of Grameen Bank in designing and implementing a microfinancing scheme to
support sustainable village telephone businesses run by the poor,
requests BDT
1
to facilitate links between microfinance organizations, recognized operating agencies, other rural
ICT project initiators and information technology developers in order to encourage the development of
small, economically sustainable, ICT-based service businesses in rural areas,
2
to consider the creation of a special purpose fund based on voluntary contributions to assist and
support pilot testing of low-cost, connectivity-enabled information appliances to help fight poverty in
rural and remote areas of developing countries.
Recommendation 4:
Study of packet-based wireless access infrastructure
Focus Group 7,
considering
a)
that in order to support future ICT applications in rural and remote areas, a small number of
operating agencies in developing countries have expressed interest in packet-based access solutions;
b)
that few packet-based access solutions designed for rural areas of developing countries are
available, although a diverse range exists of wireless data products for LAN and WAN applications;
noting
ITU-T Recommendation H.323 covering the technical requirements for multimedia communications
systems in those situations where the underlying transport is a Packet Based Network (PBN);
recommends ITU-D study group 1
a)
to study economic aspects of packet-based wireless access systems, such as local loop networks
based on wireless routers, among other technologies, as part of its ongoing study of technology options
for rural telecommunication infrastructure,
requests BDT
to conduct, within its relevant programmes, technical pilot projects of packet-based wireless access
networks in rural areas to examine issues such as:
•
provision of basic connectivity for ICT networks;
•
PSTN gateway interconnection;
•
high quality voice-over-packet-data solutions.
as well as to confirm the technology’s effectiveness in dealing with multimedia applications such as
telemedicine, distance learning and so forth in rural areas.
Recommendation 5:
83
Maintenance of Focus Group 7 Web site
Focus Group 7,
considering
the continuing demand for case studies on rural applications, particularly those which identify
technologies that help to improve the sustainability of rural service models,
requests BDT
to maintain and expand the FG7 case library on the Web site as well as look into ways of upgrading the
tool.
Recommendation 6:
Symposium on new technologies for rural applications
Focus Group 7,
requests BDT
to hold a symposium for ITU-D members to learn about new technologies for rural applications, with
particular emphasis on the participation of women and youth, and meet with developers and
manufacturers of systems of the types described in the final report of Focus Group 7.
84
References
[1]
Ansari, Malik Fareed. “Rural Communications in India: Demand Considerations”, submitted by
Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
[2]
Ansari, Malik Fareed. “Rural Communications in India: Technology Options”, submitted by AsiaPacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
[3]
Bagbiegue, Tairou. “TOGO TELECOM: Rural Telephony Project”, submitted by Togo Telecom to
the Focus Group 7 Case Library, October 1999.
[4]
Baker, Nicole. “Telkom South Africa: Case Study in WLL Deployment”, submitted by Pyramid
Research/EIU to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
[5]
Bascor Maturana, Jorge. “The Positive Impact of Universal Access on the Rural Population: Chile,
Two Years On”, submitted by Itay Avital, Global Village Telecom to the Focus Group 7 Case
Library, January 2000.
[6]
Bastidas-Buch, Roberto. “Multipurpose community telecentre (MCT) pilot project (Honduras)”,
Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.
[7]
Bayes, A., von Braun, J., Akhter, R. Village Pay Phones and Poverty Reduction: Insights from a
Grameen Bank Initiative in Bangladesh. Center for Development Research (ZDF), Universitit
Bonn, June 1999.
[8]
Bertolini, Romeo. “Telecommunication Use in Ghana: Research from the Southern Volta Region”,
Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.
[9]
Bonifaz, Luis. “Strategy for the Development of Rural Telecommunications and Universal Access
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Case Library, November 1999.
[10] Chhibber, N.K. “Maharashtra Communication Network For Disaster Management”, Focus Group 7
Case Library, August 2000.
[11] “Compact Remote Line Concentrator System for Rural Applications in China”, submitted by
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November 1999.
[12] “Creating Learning Networks for African Teachers”, submitted by John Rose, UNESCO to the
Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.
[13] Cyranek, Günther. “African Virtual University of the World Bank”, Focus Group 7 Case Library,
January 2000.
[14] “Distance Education System via Satellite Communication Network in the South Pacific”, submitted
by Toru Kizuka, KDDI Engineering and Consulting, Inc. (KEC) to the Focus Group 7 Case
Library, June 2000.
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[16] Dyani, Phindile. “Telkom South Africa’s TDMA/DECT Wireless Local Loop Deployment”,
submitted by Telkom SA Limited to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.
[17] “Emergency Communications in Mozambique”, submitted by Ms. Kristine Pearson, Freeplay
Foundation to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.
[18] Ergderjugder, Jamiyan. “Overview of Rural Telecommunications in Mongolia”, submitted by AsiaPacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
85
[19] Goussal, Darío. “Type 0” Community Telecentres: Results of Suriname Case Study, Focus Group 7
Case Library, August 1999.
[20] “Grameen Telecom in Bangladesh”, submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus
Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
[21] “Greenstar Community Centers for Economic Development”, submitted by Greenstar Corporation
to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.
[22] Hashem, Sherif. “Technology Access Community Centers in Egypt: A Mission for Community
Empowerment”, Focus Group 7 Case Library, October 1999.
[23] Hudson, Heather E. and Pittman, Theda S. “Rural Telecommunications for Development: Lessons
from the Alaskan Experience”, submitted by Pacific Telecommunications Council to the Focus
Group 7 Case Library, April 2000.
[24] “The Intelsat WLL/VSAT Rural Telephony Trial in Peru”, submitted by INTELSAT to the Focus
Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.
[25] The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, World Development
Report 1999/2000. Oxford University Press: New York, NY, 2000.
[26] “Internet Radio in Sri Lanka”, submitted by UNESCO to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January
2000.
[27] “ISDN Telemedicine in Japan”, submitted by Katsurao Village Office to the Focus Group 7 Case
Library, June 2000.
[28] Karlsen, Dr. Karl O. “Telemedicine in Greenland”, submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus
Group 7 Case Library, May 2000.
[29] “Longer-range GSM 400 Systems Anticipated in 2001”, submitted by Alan Hadden, Global Mobile
Suppliers Association to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.
[30] Malmberg, Peter. “Telecommunications in Greenland”, submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus
Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.
[31] Malmberg, Peter. “Greenland’s Large Remotely Located Satellite Earth Stations”, submitted by
TELE Greenland to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.
[32] “MTN’s “Total Wireless” Approach to Telephone Service in Uganda”, submitted by Erik van
Veen, MTN Uganda to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, May 2000.
[33] “The MPTC DCTS Pilot Project”, submitted by Yasuhiro Hoshino, Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunications, Cambodia to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
[34] “Multipurpose Community Telecentres: In Support of People-Centred Development (Mali)”,
submitted by John Rose, UNESCO to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.
[35] “Multipurpose Community Telecentres: In Support of People-Centred Development (Uganda)”,
submitted by John Rose, UNESCO to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.
[36] “Multi-Purpose Telecommunication Networks in Shimobe, Japan”, submitted by Yoshihiro
Yokoyama, World Teleport Association – ASIA to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, July 2000.
[37] “Nepal’s Strategy for Rural Telecommunications”, submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to
the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
[38] “Paraguay: Rural High-Speed Data Transmission Using WLL”, submitted by KDDI Engineering
and Consulting Inc. to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.
86
[39] “Paraguay: Rural Network Trial Using VSATs”, submitted by KDDI Engineering and Consulting
Inc. to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.
[40] Quirroga, Dennis. “Overview of WLL Deployment in the Philippines”, submitted by Asia-Pacific
Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.
[41] Report on Question 2/2: Preparation of handbooks for developing countries: New developments in
rural telecommunications. ITU-D Study Group 2, First study period (1995-1998). ITU, 1998.
[42] Roegner, Eberhard. “A Phased National Rural Network in the Lao PDR”, submitted by DETECON
GmbH to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.
[43] Roegner, Eberhard. “Benefits of Telecoms in Rural Areas”, submitted by DETECON GmbH to the
Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.
[44] “Rural Public Long Distance Telephone Project (Thailand)”, submitted by Mr. Teruaki Onodera,
Japan Radio Co., Ltd to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.
[45] Sasaki, Kazuo. “A Wireless IP Phone System for Rural Applications”, submitted by KDDI
Corporation to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, May 2000.
[46] “Satellite-Based Rural Telephony Trial in Senegal: DAMA VSAT/DECT WLL Configuration”,
submitted by INTELSAT to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.
[47] Seenundun, R. “Implementation of Telemedicine in the Republic of Mauritius”, Focus Group 7
Case Library, November 1999.
[48] Takeichi, Hiroaki. “Developing Flexible Network by Internet-Oriented Switch”, Focus Group 7
Case Library, February 2000.
[49] “The TELE Greenland Modular Container System”, submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus
Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.
[50] “TELE Greenland’s Remote Hybrid Power Supply System”, submitted by TELE Greenland to the
Focus Group 7 Case Library, April 2000.
[51] “The TELE Greenland Tele Service Centre Concept”, submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus
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[52] “Telemedicine and developing countries – lessons learned”, ITU-D Study Group 2, Document
2/116-E, 27 August 1999.
[53] Traore, Mamadou Hady. “Rural Community Radio Stations in Mali”, submitted by Office de
Radiodiffusion Télévision du Mali to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.
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[58] Yanuardi, Andreas W. “IVR Application as a Voice-based Information Service for Rural
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Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.
GLOSSARY
Client
Computer terminal or software application that send requests to access
resources on a network.
Client/server model
An approach to organising and distributing resources among clients within
a networked computer environment. The order of process of interaction
between client and server is governed by a formal set of rules.
Gateway
A switching node that translates data formats, signalling protocols and
sometimes address information in order to permit communication between
two dissimilar networks. In ITU-T H.323, a Gateway is an endpoint on the
network which provides for real-time, two-way communications between
H.323-compliant terminals on the packet based network and other ITU
terminals on a switched circuit network, or another H.323 Gateway.
Information
appliance
An IT terminal or device which is optimized for one primary application by
eliminating unnecessary components from the software and hardware
configuration.
Internet
A global “network of networks” that transmits data, text, image and audio
using protocols defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Internet Protocol
(IP)
An Internet network-layer protocol, defined by the IETF.
Meteor burst
communication
A type of long-distance wireless transmission based on the reflection of
signals off ionized gas trails of small meteors entering the Earth’s
atmosphere.
Packet radio
The transmission by radio of information (i.e. data) arranged in packets.
Public switched
telephone network
(PSTN)
The network facilities owned by PTOs to provide switched telecommunications.
Public
Telecommunication
Operator (PTO)
A telecommunication carrier providing services to the general public.
Router
Within the scope of the communications network for manufacturing
applications: device which allows any individual local area network to be
combined with another to form a simple logical network.
Server
The computer or software application which allocates resources on a
network in response to client requests. In a local area network (LAN), a
server is typically a centralised computer configured for the management of
network resources including files, databases, and software applications.
Thin client
When applied to computing devices, generally indicates a client with
reduced processing or overall computing capabilities.
87
88
ANNEX 1
Terms of reference of ITU-D Focus Group 7
SOURCE:
TELECOMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT BUREAU
TITLE:
TERMS OF REFERENCE OF ITU-D FOCUS GROUP 7
Abstract:
The attached Terms of Reference of Focus Group 7 contain also the work methods and a proposed work
schedule of the Group. These were approved by the Telecommunication Development Advisory Group
(TDAG) during its meeting in Geneva, 8-9 April 1999.
Proposed aims and work methods of ITU-D SG 2 Focus Group on Topic 7:
Study various mechanisms by which to promote the development of new
telecommunication technologies for rural applications
1
Introduction
The second World Telecommunication Development Conference (WTDC) at Valletta, Malta in 1998,
agreed on a list of questions for the study period 1998-2002 to be considered by ITU-D Study Group 2,
including topics for seven focus groups. Based on a Japanese contribution to WTDC, Topic 7 was defined
as “Study various mechanisms by which to promote the development of new telecommunication
technologies for rural applications”. At the first meeting of Study Group 2 on 7-9 September 1998, it was
agreed that this topic should be handled by the BDT Secretariat as part of its operational plan.
In order for Focus Group (Topic 7) to start its work in an effective manner, we believe TDAG should
establish guidelines for the Focus Group’s work. In those guidelines, Japan proposes that the aims and
working methods of Focus Group (Topic 7) should be defined as follows.
2
Aims of Focus Group (Topic 7)
Compared with those in developed countries, telecommunication markets in developing countries are
small and the physical conditions in those countries are often harsh. So it is likely that the efforts of
private manufacturers to develop suitable technology for such markets will be limited without specific
and active encouragement and support from the public sector. To assist an essential purpose of ITU-D to
provide such encouragement, Focus Group (Topic 7) should gather information on projects to develop
technology for rural applications, and identify and recommend priorities for new measures that need to be
taken by ITU-D to help achieve such development. In addition, it should aim to raise public awareness of
problems and solutions in developing technology for rural applications, and provide means through which
information on these topics can be exchanged.
3
89
Work methods of Focus Group (Topic 7)
The aims of Focus Group (Topic 7) expressed above could be achieved through such actions as:
3.1
Collection and dissemination of information
Establishment of an Internet homepage to gather and exchange information on the development of
telecommunication technologies that truly meet the needs of developing countries. The homepage, funded
through ITU Members’ voluntary contributions, would be a means of input for not only the ITU
membership, but also other organizations and individuals connected with developing rural areas through
telecommunication. Through such input, information on efforts in this field could be concentrated into a
database, which should be easily accessible to ITU Members and the public. In addition, provision of a
“virtual conference room” would allow direct contact with the authors of input. Three types of information for the database should be:
a)
ongoing projects using technologies specially designed for rural areas of developing countries,
including Multipurpose Community Telecentre, Telemedicine and Tele-education;
b) planned projects that make new combinations of technologies to meet the needs of rural areas, such
as satellite communications linked with WLL networks;
c)
3.2
examples of how equipment has been adapted for use in particular, harsh climatic or other conditions
of remote and rural areas, such as solar-powered telephones.
Identification of priorities for ITU support and ITU-D measures
Based on the data gathered through the homepage, and taking account of the work of SG 2, Focus Group
members should:
a)
select those types of project or system that have social or economic importance but limited
commercial profitability, so that the ITU can focus special support upon such projects in helping to
develop technology for rural applications;
b) list new measures to be taken by ITU-D to encourage manufacturers and relevant organizations to
create technology tailored to developing countries;
c)
3.3
among those measures, recommend priorities that ITU-D should follow to help achieve the
development of technology for rural applications.
Holding of a symposium
Once input is being successfully gathered for the database, the Focus Group might consider proposing
that BDT hold a symposium at an early stage, involving not only ITU-D and the Focus Group, but also
academics, manufacturers and other relevant participants such as NGOs. The purpose of the symposium
would be to:
a)
encourage input into the work of Focus Group (Topic 7) and further expand its database;
b) enable information and experience to be shared on developing technology for rural applications;
c)
discuss the selection of types of project or system that are most suitable to receive special ITU
support for the development of technology fitted to the needs of rural areas in developing countries;
d) discuss what new measures should be undertaken by ITU-D to promote effectively the development
of technology for rural applications.
90
4
Proposed work schedule of Focus Group (Topic 7)
To achieve the goals described in the previous sections, a possible preliminary schedule for the work of
Focus Group (Topic 7) might be as follows:
April 1999:
(TDAG meeting)
Guideline established on aims and working methods of Focus Group (Topic 7),
and participation invited
May 1999:
First meeting of Focus Group (Topic 7); schedule of group’s activities and
format for database decided
June 1999:
Start data collection for database and open virtual conference room
September 1999:
Interim report to SG 2 on work of Focus Group (Topic 7)
February/March 2000:
Focus Group (Topic 7) to report to TDAG
September 2000:
Final report to SG 2 on work of Focus Group (Topic 7)
_______________
91
ANNEX 2
The Open Source Definition (Version 1.7)
Open source doesn’t just mean access to the source code. The distribution terms of open-source software
must comply with the following criteria:
1
Free Redistribution
The license may not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a component of an
aggregate software distribution containing programmes from several different sources. The license may
not require a royalty or other fee for such sale.
2
Source Code
The programme must include source code, and must allow distribution in source code as well as compiled
form. Where some form of a product is not distributed with source code, there must be a well-publicized
means of obtaining the source code for no more than a reasonable reproduction cost – preferably,
downloading via the Internet without charge. The source code must be the preferred form in which a
programmer would modify the programme. Deliberately obfuscated source code is not allowed.
Intermediate forms such as the output of a preprocessor or translator are not allowed.
3
Derived Works
The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow them to be distributed under the
same terms as the license of the original software.
4
Integrity of The Author’s Source Code
The license may restrict source-code from being distributed in modified form only if the license allows
the distribution of “patch files” with the source code for the purpose of modifying the programme at build
time. The license must explicitly permit distribution of software built from modified source code. The
license may require derived works to carry a different name or version number from the original software.
5
No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups
The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons.
6
No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the programme in a specific field of endeavor.
For example, it may not restrict the programme from being used in a business, or from being used for
genetic research.
92
7
Distribution of License
The rights attached to the programme must apply to all to whom the programme is redistributed without
the need for execution of an additional license by those parties.
8
License Must Not Be Specific to a Product
The rights attached to the programme must not depend on the programme’s being part of a particular
software distribution. If the programme is extracted from that distribution and used or distributed within
the terms of the programme’s license, all parties to whom the programme is redistributed should have the
same rights as those that are granted in conjunction with the original software distribution.
9
License Must Not Contaminate Other Software
The license must not place restrictions on other software that is distributed along with the licensed
software. For example, the license must not insist that all other programmes distributed on the same
medium must be open-source software.
Source: http://www.opensource.org/osd.html
93
ANNEX 3
Guidelines for Designing ICTs for Rural Areas of Developing Countries
1
Use of wireless technologies
Within the access and local loop network – the part of the telecommunications network connecting the
customer to the nearest local exchange or network node – wireless technologies have been recognized as
providing significant lifetime cost benefits in rural areas in cases where cable deployment is found to be
uneconomic. These benefits include ease and speed of installation in harsh terrain and extremely remote
areas, smaller investment increments and avoidance of copper cable theft, among others.
2
Implementation in low frequency bands
When using terrestrial wireless systems in sparsely populated rural areas, the use of low frequency
bands – typically under 1 GHz – is often necessary in order to achieve sufficient coverage to make the
provision of services economically viable. The lower the frequency band, the longer the range will be at a
given power level. For example, a GSM base station operating in the 400 MHz band can cover five times
the area of a GSM base station operating at 1800 or 1900 MHz.
3
Modularity and scalability
Service providers in rural areas often lack sufficient data to accurately assess the demand for services in a
given region. Therefore, modular systems are preferable that allow the network to be built out as needed,
and at the lowest incremental cost. Since rural networks can serve anywhere from a few tens to thousands
of subscribers, scalability is also an extremely important economic consideration.
4
Remote network management
One of the most successful technology strategies for minimizing the operation and maintenance costs of
rural installations has been the shift of network functions to remote management systems. Travel to rural
areas for network configuration, maintenance and repairs increases the risks and expenses for network
operators. To the extent that systems installed in rural areas can be managed from remote facilities,
reducing the need for physical trips to the installation sites, they will have lifetime cost advantages over
systems that require on-site maintenance. Remote fault monitoring, configuration, tariff adjustment and
electronic payment systems have proven so successful in lowering the lifetime costs of rural and remote
payphones that they are now considered the industry standard.
5
Simplified user terminal configuration and operation
Rural communities often lack the technical skills needed to install, configure and upgrade software on a
typical personal computer. This makes it difficult to promote effective, broad-based use of Internet
resources. Computers and thin clients which can be managed over communication lines can help reduce
the costs resulting from poor maintenance as well as the high failure rate associated with training rural
inhabitants in the complexities of PC hardware and software configuration. Information appliances
designed to support one or two specific tasks, such as e-mail or WWW browsing, may also help reduce
ongoing costs by minimizing the number of breakable parts, offering simplified operating systems,
providing one-touch buttons for Internet connection, etc.
94
6
Flexible user interface design
The end users of connectivity-based services in rural areas of developing countries may be unfamiliar
with telephones, computers and technology in general. A certain proportion of potential users will be
illiterate or semi-literate, and they may have cultural behaviors which make it difficult to use certain types
of user interfaces. Input and output mechanisms incorporating icons, voice-based instructions, choice of
language and text may improve usability for rural customers, and hence revenue generation for service
providers.
7
Long life cycles
Unlike business and consumer markets in developed countries, rural markets in developing countries can
not sustain rapid turnover of equipment every two to three years. Most systems will take at least three
years to recover initial investment, some much longer than that. Equipment designed for deployment in
rural areas of developing countries should durable, rugged and “future proof” to the extent possible.
Provisions must also be made for servicing, repairing and providing spare parts for the equipment over at
least five to ten years.
8
Multi-user terminals
The developed country standard of a telephone in every household – and a computer on every desktop –
is much too costly for the income levels in rural areas of developing countries. As a result, many
countries have encouraged the development of local phone shops and multi-purpose community
telecenters (MPCs) where villagers can access telephones, e-mail, educational media, training courses,
telemedicine, and other related services on a pay-as-you-go basis. Telephones and information technology
devices installed in shared facilities may require metering functions, software to manage multiple
accounts or users, and other specialized payment or billing systems.
9
Standards compliance
A wide variety of actors are involved in the design of applications and IT networks in rural areas.
Governmental, educational, international and non-governmental organizations in developing countries
routinely design and implement IT projects to support their own applications. As a result, it is even more
important, now and in the future, that equipment used in rural and remote areas conforms to standards
approved by the ITU and other recognized standards bodies. Software applications should support open
protocols applicable to ISO layers 3 and higher, and should comply fully with relevant ITU recommendations on LAN/PSTN interconnection.
10
Low power requirements
Since many rural areas are not connected to their country’s main power grids, power requirements are a
critical consideration in technology selection for rural areas. Devices should be designed for minimal
power consumption, efficient power management, compatibility with off-grid and renewable energy
systems, and other energy conserving features.
95
ANNEX 4
List of Focus Group 7 Members
First Name
Last Name
Organization
E-mail
Salou
Abdou
Network Planner, SONITEL –
Niger
[email protected]
Lucio
Adame
Comision Federal de
Telecomunicaciones – Mexico
[email protected]
Akuyo Enyonam
Adjafo T.
Togo Telecom
Not available
Fidelia
Akpo
ITU/BDT
[email protected]
Saud
Al-Tiwaniy
Ministry PTT – Oman
[email protected]
Paolo
Amadesi
EUTELSAT
[email protected]
David
Barr
DFB and Associates
[email protected]
Roberto
Bastidas
ITU Regional Office – Honduras
[email protected]
Romeo
Bertolini
Romeo Bertolini, Center for
Development Research (ZEF
Bonn)
[email protected]
Luis
Bonifaz
OSIPTEL – Peru
[email protected]
Jennifer
Bosworth
CompassRose Int.
[email protected]
Rolando
Bottoni
Telecom Italia
[email protected]
Matthew W.
Botwin
PanAmSat Corporation
[email protected]
Vishnu-Mohan
Calindi
ITU – BDT
[email protected]
Guy
Cayla
TRT Lucent Technologies
[email protected]
Claude-Yves
Charron
ORBICOM
[email protected]
Jane
Coffin
AT&T, Legal and Government
Affairs
[email protected]
G.
Cosenza
Telespazio SPA
[email protected]
Alfons
De Weerdt
Alcatel – Belgium
[email protected]
Abdel Wahab
Dembele
ONATEL – Burkina Faso
[email protected]
Dr. C. David
Dow
Westel
[email protected]
Roxana
Dunnette
Worldspace Corporation
[email protected]
Lars
Engvall
ITC-COM3
[email protected]
Jose
Escudero
TC2 International Ltd/USA
[email protected]
Edward
Farell
E Farell Consulting Co. Ltd
[email protected]
Hassan
Fathi Ismael
OPT – Djibouti
Not available
Claude
Garnier
Consultant
[email protected]
96
First Name
Last Name
Organization
E-mail
Maurice
Ghazal
Ministry of PTT – Lebanon
[email protected]
Guy
Girardet
ITU/BDT
[email protected]
Darío
Goussal
Rural Telecommunications
Research Group
[email protected]
Kanti N.
Gunawardana
ITU Regional Office – Asia Pacific
[email protected]
Roger
Harris
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
[email protected]
Muhammad
Javed
Pakistan Telecommunication
Authority
[email protected]
Jean
Jipguep
CTR Group Ltd
[email protected]
Yasuhiko
Kawasumi
Japan Telecom Co. Ltd
[email protected]
Jung Thapa
Kedar
Ministry of Information and
Communication – Nepal
[email protected]
Nabil
Kisrawi
S.T.E – Syria
[email protected]
Toru
Kizuka
KEC
[email protected]
Ken
Lee
GHS
[email protected]
Hong-Lim
Lee
Korea Telecom Geneva Office
[email protected]
Yamashita
Makoto
NTT Geneva Office
[email protected]
Peter
Malmberg
Tele Greenland
[email protected]
Didier
Malnoury
Schlumberger
[email protected]
Rebecca
Mayer
ITU
[email protected]
Nopparat
Maythaveekul
chai
Telephone Org. of Thailand
[email protected]
Claire
Milne
Antelope Consulting
[email protected]
Festo M.
Mpundu
INTELSAT
[email protected]
Isao
Nakajima
Medical Dept. of Todai University
[email protected]
Matano M.
Ndaro
Communications Commission of
Kenya (CCK)
[email protected]
Eric
Nelson
Telecom Industry Association –
USA
[email protected]
K.
Ng'andu
Ministry of Communications and
Transport – Zambia
Not available
Takao
Nitta
Ministry of Posts and Telecom –
Japan
[email protected]
Daniel Duncan
Njiri
Telkom Kenya Ltd
Not available
Richard
Ntaka Bosenge
Congo Telecentre
[email protected]
Sean
O'Siochru
Nexus Research
[email protected]
Debo
Oyebode
Chestrad International – Nigeria
[email protected]
97
First Name
Last Name
Organization
E-mail
J.
Paye Legay
Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunications – Liberia
Not available
Alessandra
Pileri
ITU/BDT
[email protected]
Dr. Kader
Pramanik
Recruit Co. Ltd
[email protected]
V.
Prashanth
Network Admin, Econnect India
Ltd
[email protected]
Eberhard
Roegner
DETECON
[email protected]
Vilmar
Rosa de
Freitas
ANATEL – Brazil
[email protected]
John
Rose
UNESCO
[email protected]
Christopher
Rovero
Winrock International
[email protected]
Kenji
Saga
Asia University/Japan
[email protected]
Yoshito
Sakurai
Telecommunications System
Group Hitachi Ltd. – Japan
[email protected]
Kazuo
Sasaki
KDDI
[email protected]
Bornwell
Siakanomba
Ministry of Communications and
Transport – Zambia
Not available
Sidharth
Sinha
Center for Telecom Policy Studies,
Indian Institute of Management
[email protected]
Milenko
Stojkovic
INTELSAT
[email protected]
Tran
Thanh Ha
Dept. General of Posts and
Telecommunication – Vietnam
[email protected]
Judith
Thom
Caribbean Telecoms Union
[email protected]
Svetoslav
Tintchev
World Bank
[email protected]
Kenichiro
Torigoe
JTEC – Tokyo
[email protected]
Phillip
Trotter
ITU
[email protected]
Andrei
Untila
Ministry of Transportation and
Communications – Moldova
[email protected]
Yoshiyori
Urano
Waseda University
[email protected]
Joost
Van Gestel
MBC Europe BV
[email protected]
Issah
Yahaya
Ministry of Communications –
Ghana
[email protected]
Andreas W.
Yanuardi
RisTI – TELKOM Indonesia
[email protected]
Josue
Yongoro
Ministry PTT – Central African
Republic
[email protected]
Manuel
Zaragoza
ITU/BDT
[email protected]
98
ANNEX 5
Outline of proposed BDT training course on information appliances
Course Topic: Principles of information appliances, thin clients and thin servers
Module 1:
•
Introduction to information appliance and thin client technologies
•
Market assessments and strategic implications of net appliances
Module 2:
Introduction to planning and deploying information services in a network appliance/thin client
environment:
•
Network appliance/Thin client/server fundamentals
•
Network administration and quality of service fundamentals
•
Selecting and evaluating network and thin client technologies
•
Adaptation strategies for co-opting corporate and domestic products for deploying rural information
services
•
Installation, communication and power considerations
•
Developing information service applications
Module 3:
Maintenance and service development:
•
System configurations, protocols, load-balancing
•
Server requirements and implications server based application deployment,
Course Deployment
Course Module 1 would be designed as an executive briefing session delivered, among other methods, via
the ITU Centers of Excellence, helping to create awareness at senior management levels of the
possibilities of adapting network appliances and thin clients. Modules 2 and 3 would be targeted at
management, engineers, ISPs and local applications developers looking to deploy such services within the
field. These courses would be suitable for delivery via among others, the ITU Global Telecommunication
University (GTU), Internet Training Centers, Centres of Excellence as well as national training centres.
Partnering with industry
In order to provide exposure to commercial products, current industry leaders and training bodies should
be approached for their involvement in the course design, financing and delivery. Demonstration of
product ranges as well as exposure to deployment issues relating to emerging standards would be
beneficial to all of the participants involved.
99

Final Report of Focus Group 7

Transcription

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