An Introduction to Interactive Media Theory


An
Introduction
to
Interactive
Media
Theory
Crowdsourced
from
online
resources
Edited
by
Janna
Quitney
Anderson
July
2009
2
1.
Defining
“interactivity”
Researchers, practitioners and scholars have varying views on the very definition of
“interactivity.” There is no single, authoritative definition. People have used the word
to describe a wide range of action. From a sociological perspective it has been defined as
actions conducted between two or more people, and in the field of human-computer
interaction it has been applied to the style of control that exists for humans working with
computers. Various researchers and professionals have begun to isolate its characteristics.
In 2000, Downes and McMillan (http://nms.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/2/2/157) noted that
researchers in the 1990s argued about whether only real-time communication could be
considered to be “interactivity.” For instance, Steur (1992) defined it as “the extent to
which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment
in real time” but Rheingold (1993) wrote that asynchronous tools such as listservs, email and newsgroups are interactive. Downes and McMillan did a thorough review of the
literature on interactivity and found that interactivity exists at varying levels. They
established two categories by which levels of interactivity can be assessed, with three
characteristics identifiable for each: message dimensions (direction, time and place)
and participant dimensions (control, responsiveness and perceived goals). They
wrote: “Something about the computer-mediated communication environment suggests
that interactivity occurs even when the direction of the communication is more one-way
than two-way, when the participant has relatively little control, and so on.” They suggest
that there are “low-values” and “high-values” levels of interactivity and the message and
participant dimensions help identify the interactivity level.
Participant
Dimensions
Message
Dimensions
Time
Control
Place
Responsiveness
Direction
Perceived
Goals
A low-values example is a corporate website with details of use to customers that
requires navigation by selecting and pushing buttons. A high-values site offers users
more control, responsiveness, and so forth.
Over the past 20 years, research has consistently shown that interactivity is a benefit.
Sproull and Kiesler (1991) found that electronic work groups are as efficient or more
efficient than face-to-face work groups. Ang and Cummings (1994) did a study that
found interactivity enhances information-seeking.
3
Well-designed interactivity attracts users and results in higher search rankings.
Search engine tools such as those supplied by Google base results (rankings) of search on
a formula that includes the amount of interactivity, hyperlinking and networking success
of each site cataloged. Trammell and Keshelashvili (2005) found that the most popular
blogs are written by people who manage their overall impressions best and Harp and
Tremayne (2006) found that bloggers’ attention to hyperlinking patterns builds audience
and therefore empowers certain sites more than others – ignored groups can increase
popularity online by offering interactive choices through linking and other methods.
As Koolstra and Bos (2009) report, while research has suggested that communication is
most effective if a high level of interactivity between participants is involved, “there is
neither consensus on how interactivity is defined, nor on how it can be measured.”
Koolstra and Bos worked to develop an operational definition of interactivity that can be
applied in most communications contexts and they offer a checklist of representative
characteristics. They spin their definition from part of one proposed by Liu and Shrum
(2002).
Koolstra
and
Bos
say
interactivity
is
“the
degree
to
which
two
or
more
communication
parties
[human
or
computer]
act
on
each
other
in
an
interrelated
matter.”
Koolstra and Bos selected the elements for their interactivity checklist by studying three
previous research studies that surveyed all earlier research into interactivity, those by
Downes and McMillan in 2000, Kiousis in 2002 and McMillan and Hwang in 2002.
4
The scorecard shown above is an outline of Koolstra and Bos scoring. Each of the eight
elements of interactivity on the K&B checklist can be scored at a level of high (2),
middle (1) or low (0) interactivity. For instance, in the “Synchronicity” element of the
K&B checklist, if no participants react immediately to a processed message the score is 0,
if one participant reacts immediately the score is 1 and if two or more react immediately
the score is 2.
“Control”
is
one
of
the
most
frequently
mentioned
aspects
of
interactivity
in
most
theoretical
and
operational
definitions
of
the
field.
In
the
K&B
scorecard,
control
is
represented
in
two
elements
–
timing
flexibility
and
control
over
content.
Shedroff’s
explanation
of
IxD
in
his
Unified
Field
Theory
Nathan Shedroff’s Information Interaction Design: A Unified Field Theory of Design
(1994, http://www.nathan.com/thoughts/unified/index.html) provides a useful foundation
for interactive media professionals. His explanation of the reasoning behind interaction
design is available free as an online document or downloadable PDF. In his introduction,
he writes, “The most important skills for almost everyone to have in the next decade and
beyond will be those that allow us to create valuable, compelling and empowering
information and experiences for others. To do this, we must learn existing ways of
organizing and presenting data and information and develop new ones.” Shedroff
explains that the process of creating interactivity is roughly the same across all types of
media – you move through overlapping steps he illustrates in this chart. This graphic was
made in 1994, before Web 2.0 and it is dated but has some value. To read in more
Shedroff’s work in full form, click on the link above. One statement he makes that will
always be true: “If the experience you create is not a compelling one, you will never find
a large audience.” Think: How could this graphic be updated to better reflect today?
5
Shedroff
also
created
what
he
calls
a
Continuum
of
Interactivity
in
which
he
stacks
interactive
experiences.
His
chart
is
here;
for
more
detail,
consult
the
full
paper.
Manovich’s
explanation
in
his
five
principles
of
new
media
In The Language of New Media (2001), Lev Manovich (http://www.manovich.net/)
proposed five principles of new media: numerical representation, modularity, automation,
variability, transcoding. Two-way+ use can be said to represent interactive digital media.
Numerical
representation
• All
new
media
objects
are
programmable
digital
code,
image
and
text
are
programmed.
It
can
be
described
and
manipulated
mathematically.
Modularity
• Independent
elements
(pixels,
sound,
frames,
code)
are
combined
to
form
a
new
media
object.
They
can
be
modified
and
used
in
other
works.
Automation
• Powerful
functions
built
into
software
allow
the
creative
energy
of
the
author
to
be
focused
on
the
selection
and
sequencing
of
elements.
Variability
• A
new
media
object
is
not
something
fixed
once
and
for
all,
but
can
exist
in
potentially
infinite
versions.
Transcoding
• Media
&
culture
are
reshaped
and
transformed
by
the
logic
of
the
computer
‐
computerization
of
culture
is
a
process
of
transcoding.
6
Defining
interaction
design
Interaction design (IxD) is noted in Wikipedia as the “discipline of defining the
behavior of products and systems that a user can interact with…[It] centers around
software, mobile devices and other electronic devices, however it can also apply to other
types of products and services and even to organizations themselves.”
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_design)
The term “interaction design” was proposed by Bill Verplank and Bill Moggridge in the
late 1980s. Interaction designers work with the Internet, environments, physical
products, services, interfaces and systems that combine some or all of these. They often
work in interdisciplinary teams that include IxD specialists in graphic design,
programming, psychology, user testing and product design.
Most interaction designers apply theories from many fields, especially principles of
cognitive psychology, including (keywords have hyperlinks to Wikipedia explanations)
mental models, mapping, interface metaphors, and affordances. Many of these are laid
out in Donald Norman's influential book The Psychology of Everyday Things. Academic
research in Human Computer Interaction (HCI) includes methods for describing and
testing the usability of interacting with an interface, such as cognitive dimensions and the
cognitive walkthrough. (Moggridge video on interactions:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVkQYvN4_HA)
Interaction
design
methods
and
approaches
Wikipedia’s crowdsourced section on interaction design methodologies and approaches is
a good basic introduction, and we include a segment of it here for your convenience:
Interaction designers often follow similar processes to create a solution (not the solution)
to a known interface design problem. Designers build rapid prototypes and test them with
the users to validate or rebut the idea.
There are six major steps in interaction design. Based on user feedback, several
iteration cycles of any set of steps may occur.
1. Design research
Using design research techniques (observations, interviews, questionnaires, and related
activities) interaction designers investigate users and their environment in order to learn
more about them and thus be better able to design for them.
2. Research analysis and concept generation
Drawing on a combination of user research, technological possibilities, and business
opportunities, designers create concepts for new software, products, services or systems.
This process may involve multiple rounds of brainstorming, discussion and refinement.
To help designers realize user requirements, they may use tools such as personas or user
profiles that are reflective of their targeted user group. From these personae, and the
patterns of behavior observed in the research, designers create scenarios (or user stories)
or storyboards, which imagine a future work flow the users will go through using the
product or service.
7
After thorough analysis using various tools and models, designers create a high-level
summary spanning across all levels of user requirements. This includes a vision statement
regarding the current and future goals of a project.
3. Alternative design and evaluation
Once a clear view of the problem space exists, designers will develop alternative
solutions with crude prototypes to help convey concepts and ideas. Proposed solutions
are evaluated and perhaps even merged. The end result should be a design that solves as
many of the user requirements as possible.
Some tools that may be used for this process are wireframing and flow diagrams. The
features and functionality of a product or service are often outlined in a document
known as a wireframe ("schematics" is an alternate term). Wireframes are a page-bypage or screen-by-screen detail of the system, which include notes ("annotations") as to
how the system will operate. Flow Diagrams outline the logic and steps of the system
or an individual feature.
4. Prototyping and usability testing
Interaction designers use a variety of prototyping techniques to test aspects of design
ideas. These can be roughly divided into three classes: those that test the role of an
artifact, those that test its look and feel and those that test its implementation.
Sometimes, these are called experience prototypes to emphasize their interactive nature.
Prototypes can be physical or digital, high- or low-fidelity.
5. Implementation
Interaction designers need to be involved during the development of the product or
service to ensure that what was designed is implemented correctly. Often, changes need
to be made during the building process, and interaction designers should be involved with
any of the on-the-fly modifications to the design.
6. System testing
Once the system is built, often another round of testing, for both usability and errors
("bug catching") is performed. Ideally, the designer will be involved here as well, to
make any modifications to the system that are required.
Two
key
aspects
of
interaction
design
–
social
and
affective
Social
interaction
design
‐
SxD
Social interaction design (SxD) is emerging in the era of Web 2.0 because our
computing devices networked and have begun to offer integrated communication
capabilities. Phones, digital assistants and myriad connected devices from computers to
games facilitate talk and social interaction. Social interaction design accounts for
interactions among users as well as between users and their devices. The dynamics of
interpersonal communication, speech and writing, the pragmatics of talk and
interaction - are critical factors in interaction design. They are factors described less
8
by an approach steeped in the rational choice approach taken by cognitive science than
that by sociology, psychology, and anthropology.
Affective
(emotional)
response
in
interaction
design
Throughout the process of interaction design, designers must be aware of key aspects in
their designs that influence emotional responses in target users. The need for products
to convey positive emotions and avoid negative ones is critical to product success.
These aspects include positive, negative, motivational, learning, creative, social and
persuasive influences to name a few. One method that can help convey such aspects is the
use of expressive interfaces. In software, for example, the use of dynamic icons,
animations and sound can help communicate a state of operation, creating a sense of
interactivity and feedback. Interface aspects such as fonts, color pallet, and graphical
layouts can also influence an interface's perceived effectiveness. Studies have shown that
affective aspects can affect a user's perception of usability.
Emotional and pleasure theories exist to explain people’s responses to the use of
interactive products. These include Don Norman’s emotional design model, Patrick
Jordan's human factors model and McCarthy and Wright's Technology as Experience
framework.
The emotional design model recognizes humans’ tendency to equate good design with
intrinsic quality in any product, person or place. Aesthetically pleasing things are
perceived in a positive light. Norman applies three dimensions to his model: visceral,
behavioral and reflective. He notes that most objects are perceived at all three levels, thus
an effective design addresses all three. He proposed this model in his book Emotional
Design (2005).
In his book Designing Pleasurable Products (2002), Patrick Jordan proposes that
successful design looks beyond usability to see how people’s values, aspirations, hopes,
fears and dreams (he calls these “human factors”) can be studied and implemented.
John McCarthy and Peter Wright argue in the book Technology as Experience (2004)
that to successfully understand the “felt experience of technology” we must consider the
sensual, emotional and intellectual aspects of our interactions with technology tools.
Characteristics
of
an
effective
interaction
designer
An interaction designer is someone who can communicate and create compelling
interactions to meet specific needs. Longtime professional Robert Reimann says the
number-one skill of an interaction professional “is the ability to invent and visualize a
coherent solution and be able to effectively communicate it to others.”
In a discussion on the IxDA listserv, the following qualities of an interaction designer
were agreed upon by many professionals; they also noted that most IxD professionals
only possess a few of these qualities:
•
•
•
the
skills
to
conduct
user
research/ethnographic
research
the
skills
to
deliver
high‐level
visual
design/graphic
design/brand
design
the
skills
to
develop
interaction
solutions
(wireframes,
prototypes,
work
flows)
9
•
•
•
•
•
•
the
skills
to
test
and
refine
the
design
the
skills
to
lead
a
team
through
a
complete
process
ability
to
communicate
a
vision
of
their
design
to
business
stakeholders,
project
team
members
and
executives
ability
to
prioritize
risks
to
the
user
experience
as
a
result
of
business
decisions
that
reduce
an
interactive
design
ability
to
gather
and
prioritize
stakeholder
requirements
alongside
design
decisions
to
arrive
at
a
solution
that
is
satisfying
to
both
users
and
the
needs
of
the
business
ability
to
translate
requirements
into
functional
specifications
for
use
by
developers
ability
to
understand
complexities
of
code
languages
•
This is the ideal, as one participant in the conversation wrote, “Does anyone know
anyone with all those skills? … I'm more interested in the ability to work in a team
environment, manage expectations, talk to clients, and provide good criticism to the
design team. I suppose these are called "soft skills" but they're... harder to come by.”
Another participant wrote that if you could find these qualities in a four-person design
team you would have what you need to get the job done. And one other participant added
at the end of the discussion that he thinks the three most important skills are 1. Ability to
conceive ideas (through deconstruction of previous work of a similar nature or through
new-idea generation). 2. Ability to communicate the ideas so more than one person can
understand it and buy it – this is related to collaboration and generally leads to a product
you make by use of sketching, using Photoshop, etc. 3. Ability to critique, analyze and
judge, because you must know what is good and what is not and what is right and what is
wrong. “Bit thinking and sensemaking are most important,” he wrote.
Former IxDA president Reimann contributed the following list to the discussion:
INTERACTION
DESIGN
SKILLS/KNOWLEDGE
Core
Skills
Research
techniques
Ethnography
and
discovery
(user
goals,
motivations,
work
patterns)
User
modeling
(persona
and
scenario
creation;
role‐playing)
Product
design
(product‐level
interaction
principles
and
concepts)
Interaction
design
(function‐level
interaction
principles
and
concepts)
Interface
design
(component‐level
interaction
principles
and
concepts)
Information
architecture/design
(content
structure/presentation
principles)
Business
Skills
Project
management
Time
management
Stakeholder/client
management
Basic
business
writing
(letters,
email,
meeting
notes,
summaries)
Communications
Skills
Rhetoric/persuasive
writing
Expository
writing
and
composition
Technical
10
writing
Public
speaking/presenting
Visual
communication
Interpersonal
Skills
Mediation
&
facilitation
Active
listening
Interviewing/observation
Team‐
building/collaboration
Usability
Skills
Knowledge
of
user
testing
methods
and
principles
Knowledge
of
cognitive
psychology
principles
Media
Skills
Handling
bit‐depth,
pixel
density,
and
resolution
issues
Managing
color
palettes
Icon
(pixel‐level)
design
GUI/screen
layout
and
composition
Page
layout
and
composition
Animation
Sound
design
Prototyping
(Paper,
Visual
Basic,
HTML,
Director,
Flash,
Acrobat,
Maya,
PowerPoint
and
the
newer
design
tools
now
out
or
on
the
way)
Knowledge
of
file
formats
and
tradeoffs
Technical
Skills
Understanding
of
basic
computer/programming
principles,
tools,
technologies
GUI
development
principles,
tools,
technologies,
Database
principles,
tools,
technologies
Understanding
of
software/hw
development
processes
(specs,
coding,
testing)
Knowledge
of
existing/new
technologies
and
constraints
Knowledge
of
mechanical
engineering
and
manufacturing
(for
HW
devices)
Personal
Skills
Empathy
Passion
Humor
Skepticism
Analytical
thinking
Ability
to
synthesize
information
(identify
salient
points)
Ability
to
visualize
solutions
(before
they
are
built).
Reimann also wrote the following article to introduce people to the IxD field.
Excerpts from
“So You Want to be an Interaction Designer”
by Robert Reimann, June 1, 2001
http://www.cooper.com/journal/2001/06/so_you_want_to_be_an_interacti.html
Interaction design as a discipline borrows theory and technique from traditional design,
psychology, and technical disciplines. It is a synthesis, however—more than a sum of its
parts, with its own unique methods and practices. It is also very much a design discipline,
with a different approach than that of scientific and engineering disciplines. In an effort
to clarify this, I offer the following definitions for interaction design.
Interaction Design is a design discipline dedicated to:
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o Defining the behavior of artifacts, environments, and systems (i.e., products)
…and therefore concerned with:
o Defining the form of products as they relate to their behavior and use
o Anticipating how the use of products will mediate human relationships and
affect human understanding
o Exploring the dialogue between products, people, and contexts (physical,
cultural, historical)
Interaction design is also a perspective that approaches the design of products in several
different ways:
•
From an understanding of how and why people desire to use them
•
As an advocate for the users and their goals
•
As gestalts, not simply as sets of features and attributes
•
By looking to the future-seeing things as they might be, not necessarily as they
currently are
Given these definitions, interaction designers must:
•
Learn new domains quickly
•
Solve problems both analytically and creatively
•
Be able to visualize and simplify complex systems
•
Empathize with users, their needs, and their aspirations
•
Understand the strengths and limitations of both humans and technology
•
Share a passion for making the world a better place through ethical, purposeful,
pragmatic, and elegant design solutions
Some things, as in any discipline, can't easily be taught. Empathy with users and the
ability to conceptualize working solutions (and then refine them ruthlessly) are
difficult skills to teach. At Cooper, we look for people with these talents, regardless of
their formal education. Some come from traditional design backgrounds (industrial
design and graphic design), but most have an eclectic education in the humanities,
technology, or both. Many have had significant experience in software development
organizations, working as technical writers, project managers, customer or technical
support staff, and even programmers, where they created interaction designs out of pure
concern for users being ill-served by technology. If you are considering interaction
design, here are a few things to keep in mind:
•
Designers seldom code—if you are attached to programming, all power to
you: the world needs more design-sensitive programmers. But unless you
have complete control over your projects, you will be short-changing your
users by trying to design and develop at the same time—it's a conflict of
interest. So, if you can't stomach the thought of abandoning programming,
interaction design may not be for you.
12
•
Usability research is tremendously important, but it isn't design. It
identifies problems, but doesn't (except at the most detailed level) suggest
solutions. Can you envision and refine broad and detailed solutions, or are
you more comfortable extracting facts from known situations? If the latter,
then usability may be a better focus for your interests.
•
Temperament is important. The best interaction designers I know are
interested in everything, and willing (even eager) to immerse themselves
in unfamiliar territories to learn and absorb. They are also very concerned
about people as individuals and the human condition in general.
•
Designers all need some basic skills; interaction designers should be able
to draw or write well (doing both is rare and valued), and must be able to
communicate excellently with both their colleagues and their clients. The
toughest skill to acquire is that combination of creative insight and
analytical thinking that is the hallmark of a great interaction
designer.
2.
Theories
and
interactivity
Theories are analytic structures designed to explain observations, often classifying or
categorizing these observations and making assertions about the underlying causes. They
are used to construct a model of reality related to facts. They can sometimes be proven by
experimental evidence and they generate fresh viewpoints and many arguments when
they cannot be empirically verified. Established theories and market research into uses
and users of media are the result of quantitative and qualitative studies. Sophisticated
interactive media professionals understand that research makes a difference in creating
successful communications products. An understanding of the theories of communication
and methods for assessing audiences adds a layer of expertise and value to your skills set.
Quantitative research is a systematic scientific examination employing mathematical
models, theories or hypotheses, and specific measurement is its fundamental basis.
Statistics is the most-used mathematical method in this research. A combination of
quantitative and qualitative approaches is often used in market research; this is known as
the mixed-methods approach. Qualitative research is the investigation of underlying
meanings and the patterns of relationships – it is focused on language, symbols, signs and
meaning. It is not completely based on mathematical models. Interviewing, content study
and observation are key forms of this type of data collection. Some common types
include: ethnography – the study of a culture (bikers, 12-year-old boys, video gamers)
through direct observation; content analysis of recorded material such as books,
magazines, online chat, e-mails or video and an assessment of the content; focus group –
a small group of people from a larger set are asked to gather and give feedback on a
product, idea, etc.; case study – an in-depth and extended study of a single group, issue,
incident. This research does not always result in a statistically based analysis.
13
There are so many hundreds of theories, models and approaches to communications
studies that we can’t touch on them all. Various disciplines, including
communications, psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, business
marketing and other fields have various, often conflicting multifaceted ways of
looking at the same things. In addition, professionals in the fields of user experience
(UX), interaction design (IxD), user-centered design (UCD) and usability,
information architecture (IA), the human-computer interface (HCI, also known as
CHI for computer-human interface, and as interface design, see
http://www.hcibib.org/) and other areas also have been establishing models and
theories. Like living species, theories evolve and sometimes become extinct.
Fun
with
models
Harold Lasswell (1948) described the field of communications theory as the study of
“who says what to whom in what channel with what effect.”
Davis Foulger’s 2004 model shows some of today’s complexities in simple form.
In a critique and comparison of various scholars’ approaches to studying communications
and effects Robert Craig (1999) categorized seven “traditions” of communication
theory: Rhetorical – the practical art of discourse; Semiotic – communication by signs;
Phenomenological – experiencing “otherness”; Cybernetic – the information systems
approach; Sociopsychological –expression, interaction and influence; Sociocultural –
the reflection of social order. He constructed a chart to illustrate the ways in which the
theories can be described and a chart critiquing each theory…
http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta‐
discourses/Bibliography/Craig%20(1999)/tables.html#Table1
14
15
16
Nathan Crilly, Anja Maier and P. John Clarkson conducted a study of all previous
communications models and published their analysis in 2008 in the International Journal
of Design. (http://www.ijdesign.org/ojs/index.php/IJDesign/article/view/429/220)
17
Information
theory
–
from
the
field
of
engineering
Those who want understand the realm of interactive media, should understand the basics
of information theory, a branch of electrical engineering and applied mathematics.
Bell Labs scientist Claude Shannon’s (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon)
founding of this field took place when he published “A Mathematical Theory of
Communication” in 1948 (http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html).
It focused on how “the fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at
one point, either exactly or approximately, a message selected at another point.”
He applied tools in probability theory that had just been proposed by “Cybernetics”
originator Norbert Weiner and presented answers by introducing a quantitative and
qualitative model of communication as a statistical process underlying information
theory.
In this work, Shannon covered information entropy, redundancy of a source, the channel
capacity of a noisy channel, and the “bit” – a new way of seeing the most fundamental
unit of information.
Shannon’s
information
theory
established
the
source‐encoder‐channel‐
decoder‐destination
pattern
basic
to
communication.
Shannon’s theory inspired scientists and engineers to design more efficient
communications and storage systems by demonstrating the gains achievable by coding
and by providing the intuition for the correct design of the coding systems. The theoretic
concepts introduced by Shannon – “entropy” of a random variable, source and channel
coding and the establishment of fundamental natural limits on communication – are
intrinsic in the success of today’s digital information explosion. It is sometimes called the
Shannon-Weaver model because Warren Weaver co-authored a more accessible booklength version of Shannon’s original scientific paper on the topic.
1948, the year Shannon’s theory was published, was a huge year for information and
communications theories. Laswell published his communications theory definition:
who/says what/in which channel/to whom/with what effect? And in the same year,
18
Wiener published "Cybernetics: Control and Communication in the Animal and the
Machine," the foundational document for systems science and one that emphasized two
important concepts: the statistical foundation of communication and the idea of
"feedback."
The Shannon model is based on the statistical concept of signal transmission, first
emphasized by Weiner. In speaking, for instance, the information source is the brain, the
transmitter is the voice producing the signal, the channel is the air the receiver and
destination for the message is the person listening. Also important were Shannon’s
concepts of entropy and redundancy and the necessary balance between them for efficient
communication while offsetting noise in a channel. The more noise in a channel, the
greater the need for redundancy, which reduces the relative entropy of the message.
As defined by Weaver, the term "information" is used in a special way. He said it "relates
not so much to what you do say as to what you could say." Information is similar to
entropy in the physical sciences - it is a measure of the degree of randomness in that
there's a freedom of choice in constructing a message. Noise is anything added to the
signal that is not intended by the information source. It increases uncertainty.
"Redundancy" is that part of the message that is unneccesary - if it were missing, the
message would be essentially complete. Redundancy is used to offset noise in a
communication channel. The more redundant the message, the less information it is
carrying, yet increased redundancy can sometimes increase the efficiency of a
communication system.
Communicators
generally
try
to
reduce
noise
and
expect
noise.
Noise
can
be
offset
with
redundancy.
The
art
of
the
right
balance
between
entropy
and
redundancy
is
much
of
what
makes
a
good
communications
initiator
–
a
great
communicator
defines
what
people
want,
what
they
can
utilize,
what
they
should
have.
Human communication consists of a series of systems coupled into chains. A system is
defined as any part of an information chain that is capable of existing in one or more
states or in which one or more events can occur (Schramm, 1955). A communication
system can be the air, wire or the human optic nerve. Systems include channels of
information but also include sources, transmitters, receivers and destinations. They must
19
be coupled with one another to transfer information, and each link is vital. The interface
between two systems is a gatekeeper point. Human communication systems are
functional systems - not structural. They can learn.
Communication systems can be corresponding (these can exist in identical states - a
telegraph receiver always puts out dots and dashes the same way) or noncorresponding
(these can't exist in identical states - the information given to a telegraph operator does
not correspond to the message transmitted).
In Information Theory terms, communication takes place "when two corresponding
systems, coupled together through one or more noncorresponding systems, assume
identical states as a result of signal transfer along a chain" (Schramm, 1955).
Communication networks must be established and maintained if a group is to function.
Schramm cites a number of measures derived from information theory that suggest ways
of studying communication activity in small groups, including: Traffic - who does most
of the talking/writing/communicating and how of it is done; Closure - how open the
group is to outsiders and ideas from the outside; Congruence - the question of whether
members are equal participants in group communication or whether some are primarily
originators of communications while others are primarily receivers.
In this course, we will not go further into the details of information theory – much more
deep background is available online for those who have an interest. Other aspects of
information theory include coding theory (source coding or data compression – lossy and
lossless; channel coding – error correcting codes), source theory, channel capacity and
the application of concepts to cryptography and cryptanalysis.
Activity
theory
–
from
the
realm
of
human‐computer
interaction
Activity theory (AT) can be traced to the work of German philosophers Kant, Hegel,
Marx and Engels and even earlier, and it began to gain focus through the writings of
Russian cultural-historical psychologists Vygotsky, Leont’ev and Luria.
It
originated
as
a
way
to
assess
the
developmental
processes
by
which
a
person
is
shaped
by
and
shapes
experiences
through
his
or
her
actions.
It is based on the fact that people work to achieve their expectations, ideals or utopian
visions by taking actions and transforming the social and material world in which they
exist. Vygotsky, heavily influenced by Soviet Marxism, began defining the theory in the
1920s, proposing that all human activities are mediated by culturally created tools or
signs and through this the psychology of the individual is transformed.
It wasn’t until the 1990s that human-computer interaction (HCI) researchers began to
implement activity theory in research and design. They found that work previous to this
failed to take into account the role of personal motivation of the individual, the specific
setting or the role of the community.
20
Researchers such as Henderson (1991) urged that all of the circumstances and influences
that may impact HCI should be included in research parameters. Activity theory offers a
way to classify and understand the larger social processes that shape and influence how
tools are created, used and accepted/rejected. Many traditional concepts of HCI research,
including iterative design, participatory design and cognitive modeling fit within the
framework of HCI (Kuutti, 1995, credit for this line and the diagram below).
Tyler Waite has written a comprehensive study of AT (2005) that can be found here:
http://www.slis.indiana.edu/faculty/yrogers/act_theory2/ This Web page has additional
links to more useful information about activity theory. For those interested in AT,
XMCA is the e-mail list for discussion of Mind, Culture and Activity, and the
University of California-San Diego also publishes an online MCA Journal http://lchc.ucsd.edu/mca/
You can apply activity theory in the way that best fits the assessment you are trying to achieve.
Another graphic depiction of AT, as applied by teachers to learners:
Today, human-computer interaction (HCI) professionals use activity theory to understand
and classify the social, physical and cognitive processes involved in performing tasks and
how those tasks fit into a bigger picture.
21
Activity
theory
reveals
how
actions
and
processes
are
divided
and
shaped
by
the
community
as
it
is
involved
in
accomplishing
a
goal;
it
shows
how
knowledge
and
human
artifacts
are
refined
and
automated
in
a
repeating
loop
of
interaction
and
assessment;
it
illustrates
the
importance
of
involving
individuals
from
a
target
community
in
the
act
of
designing
any
computer‐mediated
artifact.
Researchers
assess
each
action
as
it
takes
place
and
subdivide
it
into
operations.
In activity theory, researchers create “rules” about the object that is the focus of activity
and “tools” can be physical (computer program, hammer, toothbrush) or a tool can be an
idea, a language, even a theoretical framework.
In an AT example by Waite, he lists the following AT research queries in a scenario in
which he wishes to design a mobile device offering interactivity for a blind person going
to a museum:
What is the activity we are trying to support?
Who are the individuals we are designing the tool for?
What tools will they need?
What are the objects they are working on?
What is the transformational outcome they are working toward?
Who is the community?
What is the division of labor in the community?
What are the rules of the community?
What are the motives for this activity?
What are the contradictions inherent in this activity?
What are some of the actions the device could support?
What are some of the goals that vision-impaired patrons have?
What are some of the conditions the patron may encounter?
What are some of the operations the patron may need to perform?
What activity level support is the device going to provide?
What action level support is the device going to provide?
What operation level support is the device going to provide?
What are the contradictions that may create barriers for implementing this
solution?
Symbolic
interactionism
–
from
sociology,
information
science
People are now applying the sociological perspective of symbolic interactionism to
study of human implementation of the Internet and this new tool’s influence on human
behavior. This approach was developed out of the work of George Herbert Mead and
Charles Cooley, who argued that people’s selves are social products and these selves are
purposive and creative.
Herbert Blumer (1969), who coined the term "symbolic interactionism" for this theory
set out three basic premises of the perspective:
22
1. "Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to
those things."
2. "The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social
interaction that one has with others and the society."
3. "These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process
used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters."
Blumer, following Mead, claimed that people interact with each and other by interpreting
or defining each other's actions instead of merely reacting to each other's actions. Their
response is not made directly to the actions of one another but instead is based on the
meaning which they attach to such actions.
Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols and signification, by
interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of one another's actions (Blumer 1962).
Blumer contrasted this process, which he called "symbolic interaction," with behaviorist
explanations of human behavior.
Symbolic
interactionist
researchers
investigate
how
people
create
meaning
during
social
interaction,
how
they
present
and
construct
the
self
(or
"identity"),
and
how
they
define
situations
of
co‐presence
with
others.
One
of
the
perspective's
central
ideas
is
that
people
act
as
they
do
because
of
how
they
define
situations.
The work of another symbolic interactionist, sociologist Erving Goffman, and the
concept of "the presentation of self" has become foundational to much scholarly
understanding of online identity in chat, email, game environments, blogs, and social
networks.
Researchers are just now starting to apply SI approaches to studying computer-mediated
interactions between individuals and within communities online, that utilize other lines of
thought by Goffman, or the works of George H. Mead, Charles Cooley, Herbert Blumer,
James Carey, Carl Couch, Norman Denzin or other theorists in the interactionist tradition.
Definitions of the social situation, negotiation of meanings, social processes, framing,
and other interactionist principles are possible theoretical foundations.
Social
network
theory
–
from
sociology,
information
science
Simply described, a network is a collection of things that have a connection of some sort.
The phrase “social network” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network) has been in
existence for more than a century as used to describe sets of relationships between
members of social systems. J.A. Barnes and other scholars began using it to denote
patterns of ties that cut across categories in the 1950s. There are many ways to study
social networks.
23
Researcher Mark Granovetter found that smaller, closer networks with strong ties can
often be less useful to their members than networks with many weak-ties connections to
individuals outside the main network (1973). Today online, open networks (such as
Facebook) offering many weak ties are more likely to introduce new ideas and
opportunities to members than closed networks with strong connections among members.
While there are many applications for social network research offline, the opportunities
for a more controlled look at such connections are booming online. Social network
analysis is becoming precise thanks to approaches and software developed to study online
communities and relationships.
This
field
assesses
how
the
structure
of
ties
influences
individuals,
their
relationships
and
the
results
of
these
relationships.
Social
network
analysis
attempts
to
expose
how
ties
develop
and
illuminate
the
ways
in
which
structure
and
composition
of
ties
affect
norms.
Today, Barry Wellman, danah
boyd and other top Internet
researchers are studying online social
networks of various types.
Students of social networks—that
includes most of us, since we’re all
tied up personally in uncountable
such multilayered networks—have
probably heard of “Six Degrees of
Kevin Bacon,” based on the play
“Six Degrees of Separation” by John
Guare. When people play this
amusing game, they try to show off
their knowledge of pop culture by
explaining the interweave of social
connections between well-known
figures. The game is based on the
“small-world phenomenon” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-world_network - this is
the theory that every human is somehow socially networked with everyone else through a
short chain of connections.
The first researcher to formally propose the theory was Ithiel de Sola Pool
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithiel_de_Sola_Pool), in a work he completed in the
1950s with mathematician Manfred Kochen. The two men didn’t have computers on
which to run models of their social-networks concept, but years later Harvard social
psychologist Stanley Milgram (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Milgram) decided
to develop it further. Milgram wound up publishing a study that popularized the idea of
social networks in a May 1967 Psychology Today article that brought it to the attention of
playwright Guare.
24
Building off the ideas of Pool, Milgram, and even Guare, mathematicians Duncan Watts
and Steven Strogatz built a mathematical model and proposed in 1998 that small-world
networks exist throughout the universe – and not simply in human relationships. As
Watts explains in his 2003 book Six Degrees, they assessed examples ranging from
power grids to the neural networks of the earth-dwelling nematode C. Elegans.
They
proved
that
the
addition
of
a
small
number
of
random
links
can
transform
a
disconnected
network,
making
it
highly
connected.
They
found
that
any
network
can
be
a
small‐world
network
“so
long
as
it
has
some
way
of
embodying
order
and
yet
retains
a
small
amount
of
disorder.”
Watts and his adviser Strogatz developed a mathematical model to explain the smallworld phenomenon. They tested it in many ways, including a mathematical look at Kevin
Bacon and other actors. At the time, the total database of actors numbered 225,000. Watts
and Strogatz found that every actor could be connected to every other actor in an average
of less than four steps.
After Watts and Strogatz published their first paper on the work, Notre Dame physicist
Albert-Laszlo Barabasi asked them to share their data sets. He and an assistant had
decided to update Milgram’s study, refine it, and enlarge it into a study of the Web. They
found that any 1999 Web document was only nineteen clicks away from every other
document. A few months later, Barabasi published a breakthrough paper in the journal
Science that answered more “small world” questions. In it, Barabasi coined the term
scale-free to describe a network in which connectivity is uneven. Most scale-free
networks are large. The Internet is an example, and so are the world’s power grid and
sexually transmitted diseases.
Scale-free networks have a few highly connected “super nodes” or “hubs,” but most
nodes are weakly connected. For instance, new pages are being created all the time on the
World Wide Web, and as they are created most of them will likely provide links to other
popular pages—hubs. The less popular pages are weakly connected; the popular pages
are hubs. This phenomenon can be seen in human relationships—popular people who
connect in a number of cultural groups are hubs. There are many scale-free networks in
the world (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barabási–Albert_model).
Barabasi explains in his 2002 book, Linked, that the six- and 19-degrees answers mislead
people into thinking that things are easy to find in a small world. He said, “Not only is the
desired person or document six/19 links away, but so are all the people or documents. . . .
Since the average number of links on any given Web document was around seven, this
means that while we can follow only seven links from the first page, there are 49
documents two clicks away, 343 three clicks away, and so on. By the time we reach the
nodes that are exactly 19 degrees away, in principle we would have checked 10 to the 16th
power documents, 10 million times more than the total number of pages on the Web (at
that time). The contradiction has an easy resolution: Some of the links we meet along the
road will point back to pages we have seen before. But even if it only takes one second to
25
check a document it would still take over 300 million years to get to all the documents
that are 19 clicks away!” (If you would like to do so, you can read more here:
http://www.nd.edu/~networks/Publication%20Categories/publications.htm#anchorallpub0001.)
Watts, Barabasi, and many other scientists from various disciplines have now come
together to study the similarities and differences of networks of every type and size.
“Networks share resources and distribute loads, and they also spread disease and transmit
failure,” Watts wrote in Six Degrees. “By specifying precisely how connected systems
are connected, and by drawing explicit relationships between the structure of real
networks and the behavior of the systems they connect—like epidemics, fads, and
organizational robustness—the science of networks can help us understand our world.”
Everett Rogers’ (1962) and other researchers’ work on the diffusion of innovations also
falls under the category of social network theory. Rogers defines diffusion as “the process
by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the
members of a social system.” Diffusion of innovations is a theory of how, why and at
what rate new concepts and tools are adopted and implemented. In diffusion theory,
change agents and opinion leaders play major roles in spurring the adoption of new tools,
ideas and so forth. You will read more on this in a section to come.
Memes: British zoologist Richard Dawkins argued in his 1976 book The Selfish Gene
that the world’s networks follow a code, replicating and effecting change in achieving
their evolution and survival. He proposed the evolutionary transfer of culture in his
theory. His work inspired scientists such as Hillis and others who hope to create digital
ecosystems in which software is spawned. Dawkins originated the term meme (rhymes
with seem) to describe a self-propagating unit of cultural evolution. Analogous to
the gene, it is a unit of information that is passed along to the next generation.
Dawkins said cultures evolve in the same way that physical constructs do. And just
as genes may mutate over time, memes can undergo alterations.
Today’s science of memetics applies the concepts of population genetics to a group’s
culture. It is one of the ways in which networks are now being studied. In pop culture
today, a meme can be a concept that spreads rapidly: Rickrolling, lolcats. For more, see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme and
http://www.dipity.com/user/tatercakes/timeline/Internet_Memes
Analysis: One of the world’s foremost experts on the Internet and sociology, Barry
Wellman, wrote the following piece as a review of the book The Development of Social
Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science, by Linton C. Freeman. These
excerpts of Wellman’s review include solid information on the social network theory.
“If you don’t belong to some kind of social network, you soon may not belong
anywhere,” warns cyberpundit Daniel Tynan (2007)… There was a time when
the only networks Americans knew were ABC, CBS, and NBC. Now, many
people are enmeshed in multiple social networks. They get their information from
the Internet, itself the product of multiple organizational and interpersonal
26
networks… In 2007, journalist Malcolm Gladwell won the American Sociological
Association’s first Award for Excellence in the Reporting of Social Issues, in part
for his discussion of social network phenomena in The Tipping Point (2000).
How the world has changed! Thirty years ago, I could not even sell the
term “social network” to sociologists. On the one hand, survey research was
individualizing people as discrete respondents; on the other hand, Parsonian
theory emphasized bounded groups socializing people through the injection of
norms. Now the network metaphor is in the air. Linton Freeman tells the story
well of the social network paradigm’s development… Freeman pays special
attention to the field’s origins, starting with Simmel’s “web of group affiliations”
… He dedicates his book to two pioneers: (1) J.L. Moreno, the 1930s eccentric
original “sociometrician” who started the tradition of systematically observing
interpersonal relations in small groups that so influenced James Coleman and
others; (2) Harrison White who has seduced doctoral students since the 1960s into
thinking structurally and using nifty mathematical and statistical techniques to
tease out social structure. Freeman describes how the social network cults before
the 1960s coalesced into a sect by the 1976 founding of the International Network
for Social Network Analysis, and blossomed…
He makes a persuasive argument that social network analysis is
peculiarly both a theory—a way of looking at the world—and a methodology—a
set of techniques for making sense of it that goes beyond the 1960s’ simplifying
assumptions of individual and group. It was the advent of widespread computer
use in the 1970s, he suggests, that afforded analysts the ability to tease out social
structural complexities. What is so special about the social network paradigm? …
In sum, a network consists of one or more nodes (persons, organizations,
websites, etc.) connected by one or more ties (which may contain multiple
relations such as financial aid or discussing important matters) that form
analyzable patterns whose emergent structural properties are more than the sum of
the ties and nodes. The approach allows thinking about engaging in multiple
relations at once, with multiple sets of others, and makes the discovery of densely
knit groups an empirical question. Hence, social network analysis is more than
a method; it is a perspective on the world armed with tools and a body of
applications ranging from questions of social isolation (and inclusion) to the
structure of international relations and the web. It is a rapidly proliferating and
institutionalizing paradigm… Where people used to think they ran in groups, they
now maneuver in networks. To network has become a verb as well as a noun.
Online
communities
theory
Research into online communities is directly related to social networks. The term
“online community” predates the use of “social networks” in reference to online groups.
Virtual online communities are groups that communicate primarily through media
such as blogs, e-mail lists, synthetic online worlds such as Second Life and other
digital forms rather than face-to-face. In the spirit of the crowd-sourcing of this
document, this section is an excerpt from Wikipedia’s entry on online participation
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_participation) and more information not included
27
here can be found in the Wikipedia entry on “virtual community”:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_community
Several researchers have investigated motivation in virtual communities. Studies show
that over the long term users gain a greater insight into the material that is being
discussed and a sense of connection to the world at large.
Peter Kollock (1998) researched motivations for contributing to online communities. In
"The Economies of Online Cooperation: Gifts and Public Goods in Cyberspace", he
outlines three motivations that do not rely on altruistic behavior on the part of the
contributor: anticipated reciprocity; increased recognition; and sense of efficacy.
Anticipated
reciprocity
• A
person
is
motivated
to
contribute
valuable
information
to
the
group
in
exchange
for
useful
information
and
help
in
return.
Increased
recognition
• The
desire
for
prestige
is
one
of
the
key
motivations
of
individuals'
contributions
to
an
online
group.
Recognition
of
contributions
leads
to
more
posting.
Sense
of
efficacy
Sense
of
cmmunity
• Individuals
enjoy
feeling
as
if
they
have
an
influence
on
the
environment
in
which
they
operate.
It
supports
their
self‐
image.
• The
interactivity
of
a
community
encourages
more
interactivity.
It
is
motivating
for
individuals
to
receive
feedback,
if
it
is
positive
feedback.
Anticipated
reciprocity. A person is motivated to contribute valuable information to
the group in the expectation that one will receive useful help and information in
return. Indeed, there is evidence that active participants in online communities get more
responses faster to questions than unknown participants (Kollock).
Increased
recognition. Recognition is important to online contributors such that, in
general, individuals want recognition for their contributions. It is an ego boost, which is
sometimes referred to with the slang term “egoboo.” Kollock outlines the importance of
reputation online: “Howard Rheingold (1993) in his discussion of the WELL (an early
online community) lists the desire for prestige as one of the key motivations of
individuals’ contributions to the group. To the extent this is the concern of an
individual, contributions will likely be increased to the degree that the contribution
28
is visible to the community as a whole and to the extent there is some recognition of
the person’s contributions. … the powerful effects of seemingly trivial markers of
recognition (e.g. being designated as an “official helper”) has been commented on in a
number of online communities…”
Even anonymous contributors like to be well known in their communities. Meyers’ 1989
study of the computer underground noted that computer hackers who protect their
personal identities are reluctant to change their pseudonyms regularly because the status
associated with a particular nickname would be lost. They use the same nicknames
repeatedly even though this can help the authorities to trace them.
Profiles and reputation are clearly evident in online communities today. Contributors are
encouraged to create personal profiles and as their contributions are measured by the
community, their reputation increases. Facebook encourages elaborate profiles for
members. In addition to this, many communities give incentives for contributing. For
example, many forums award Members points for posting. Members can spend these
points in a virtual store. eBay is an example of an online community where reputation is
very important because it is used to measure the trustworthiness of someone you
potentially will do business with. With eBay, you have the opportunity to rate your
experience with someone and they, likewise, can rate you. This has an effect on the
reputation score. Due to all of this information sharing, user privacy concerns are a
key issue in interactive design.
Sense
of
efficacy. Individuals may contribute valuable information because the act results
in a sense of efficacy, that is, a sense that they have had some effect on this
environment. There is well-developed research literature that has shown how important
a sense of efficacy is (e.g. Bandura 1995), and making regular and high quality
contributions to the group can help individuals believe that they have an impact on the
group and support their own self-image as an efficacious person.
Wikipedia is a good example of an online community that gives contributors a sense of
efficacy. Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia that uses online software to enable anyone
to create new articles and change any article in the encyclopedia. The changes you make
are immediate, obvious and available to the world.
Sense
of
community. There is another motivation, implicit in the above, which Marc
Smith mentions in his 1992 thesis Voices from the WELL: The Logic of the Virtual
Commons, "sense of community," as it is referred to in social psychology. People, in
general, are fairly social beings and it is motivating to many people to receive direct
responses to their contributions. Most online communities enable this by allowing
people to reply back to contributions (i.e. Blogs allow comments from readers, one can
reply back to forum posts, and so forth).
Many other points tied to networks are being developed. One is Pareto’s Law – 20
percent of the people do 80 percent of the posting in online discussion lists. You may find
it interesting to do research in the field of communities and networks.
29
Why
people
in
communities
“lurk”
In addition to participants that actively contribute to online discussions, many people join
virtual community spaces and do not post, a concept referred to as lurking. There are
several reasons why people who belong to a community choose not to participate
online, and chief among them are: getting what they needed without having to
participate actively, thinking that they were being helpful by not posting, wanting to
learn more about the community before diving in, not being able to use the software
because of poor usability and not liking the dynamics that they observed within the
group (Preece, Nonnecke & Andrews 2004) (Bishop 2007).
REFERENCES
(I
include
this
list
so
you
can
consult
some
of
the
research
studies)
Ames,
Morgan;
Mor,
Naaman
(2007),
"Why
We
Tag:
Motivations
for
Annotation
in
Mobile
and
Online
Media",
Proceedings
of
the
SIGCHI
conference
on
Human
Factors
in
computing
systems
(CHI
2007),
San
Jose,
CA,
USA,
2007
Benbunan‐Fich,
Raquel;
Koufaris,
Marios
(2008),
"Motivations
and
Contribution
Behaviour
in
Social
Bookmarking
Systems:
An
Empirical
Investigation",
Electronic
Markets
18
(2):
150‐160,
doi:10.1080/10196780802044933
Bishop,
J.
(2007),
"Increasing
participation
in
online
communities:
A
framework
for
human–
computer
interaction",
Computers
in
Human
Behavior
23
(4):
1881‐1893,
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.11.004
Kollock,
Peter.
1999.
"The
Economies
of
Online
Cooperation:
Gifts
and
Public
Goods
in
Cyberspace,"
in
Communities
in
Cyberspace.
Marc
Smith
and
Peter
Kollock
(editors).
London:
Routledge.
The
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3.
Other
major
theories
from
communications
scholars
Scholars in communications theory come from various academic backgrounds. This is a
look at just a few of the most commonly cited and used theories. Each of these models
emphasizes certain points relevant to the communication process or structure.
A
model
is
a
simplified
representation
of
the
real
world.
No
one
model
can
cover
everything.
Most existing academic models of communications theory were built to describe oneway, push communications of the 20th century. Scholars and communications
professionals are just now trying to assess how new forms of interactivity that allow
people to participate, create and publish, directly respond, interact and mash up
information may alter or eliminate old theories and inspire new ones.
31
Uses
and
gratifications
theory
The uses and gratifications (U&G) approach focuses on the study of what people do
with particular media and why they do it. Because interactivity allows people to give and
take information in so many ways, this theory is highly applicable for interactive media
professionals. Established in the 1930s and ’40s, U&G addresses the ways in which
audiences leverage these tools for personal goals (Cantril, 1942).
U&G
theory
identifies
how
people
are
motivated
to
use
particular
communications
tools
to
meet
particular
needs.
In contrast to the concern of “media effects” research, which deals with what media do to
people (which assumes a fairly homogeneous mass audience and "hypodermic" view of
media), U&G looks at the possible functions mass communications serves for people,
allowing for a variety of responses and interpretations. Uses and gratifications theory
stresses the potential of the individual to use communications to serve human needs and
even to reach out to achieve self-actualization.
In fact, the U&G approach is tied to a functionalist paradigm in the social sciences –
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem
and self-actualization - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs).
32
It presents the use of media in terms of the gratification of social or psychological needs
of the individual.
The mass media compete with other sources of gratification, but gratifications can be
obtained from a medium's content (watching a particular video on YouTube), from
familiarity with a genre within the medium (watching TED videos on YouTube), from
general exposure to the medium (accessing online videos), and from the social context in
which it is used (interacting with others through YouTube).
In 1974, Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch wrote that most uses and gratification studies up to
that time were most concerned with: 1. The social and psychological origins of 2.
needs which generate 3. expectations of 4. media or other sources, which lead to 5.
differential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities), resulting
in 6. need gratifications and 7. other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones.
The earliest U&G research studies assessed motives and selection patterns of audiences
for radio (Cantril and Allport, 1935), reading (Waples, Berelson & Bradshaw, 1940),
serious music (Suchman, 1942), radio daytime serials (Herzog, 1944), voters during the
1940 election between Roosevelt and Wilkie (Lazarfeld et al., 1948) children’s interest in
comics (Wolfe and Fiske, 1949).
These researchers tried to classify audience motivations into meaningful categories. In
1948, Lasswell introduced a four-function interpretation of the media on a macrosociological level. Media served the functions of surveillance, correlation,
entertainment and cultural transmission for both society and individuals.
Mendelsohn (1964) identified several functions of radio listening, including
counteracting loneliness or boredom, providing useful news and information, allowing
participation in events, companionship, bracketing the day and aiding social interaction.
As later researchers who studied previous U&G studies noted, the functions served by
communications included, “to match one’s wits against others, to get information and
advice for daily living, to provide a framework for one’s day, to prepare oneself
culturally for the demands of upward mobility, or to be reassured about the dignity and
usefulness of one’s role” (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1972).
According to Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas (1973) all media users have essentially the same
five categories of needs:
1) Cognitive Needs: Needs related to strengthening of information knowledge, and
understanding of our environment. 2) Affective needs: Needs related to strengthening
aesthetic, pleasurable, and emotional experiences. 3) Personal integrative needs: Needs
related to strengthening credibility, confidence, stability, and status of the individual. 4)
Social integrative needs: Needs related to strengthening contact with family, friends,
and the world. 5) Escapist needs: Needs related to escape, tension release, and desire for
diversion.
33
Cognitive
Needs
• Related
to
strengthening
of
knowledge,
understanding
our
environment.
Affective
Needs
• Related
to
strengthening
aesthetic,
pleasurable
and
emotional
experiences.
Personal
Integrative
Social
Integrative
Escapist
Needs
• Relating
to
strengthening
credibility,
confidence,
stability
and
status
of
the
individual.
• Relating
to
strengthening
contact
with
family,
friends
and
the
world.
• Relating
to
escape,
tension
release
and
desire
for
diversion.
Exercise:
List
your
own
primary
use
for
each
of
the
following
–
talking/listening
face‐to‐face,
radio,
television,
newspapers,
magazines,
books,
billboards
and
other
public
displays,
your
computer,
your
cell
phone
–
and
then
find
where
that
use
belongs
in
the
Katz,
Gurevitch
and
Haas
categories.
Do
your
communications
actions
fulfill
all
needs?
Which
media
do
you
use
in
most
categories
and
why?
Or
you
can
reverse
this
exercise
–
look
at
the
categories
and
then
list
the
one
communications
format
that
best
fulfills
each
need
category
for
you
…
and
next
list
all
of
the
communications
tools
you
use
in
each
category.
Studies in U&G continue, with examination of many media categories, including cable
television, TV soap operas, Internet listservs, DVR use and so on. Of all of the theories
that deal with communications effects and uses, this is the only one that attempts most
directly to consider the actions of the active audience. It posits that all communications
are open to a number of uses and interpretations. For instance, people use television to
babysit their dogs, cats and children; they use it as background noise or for
companionship; they use it as a burglary-prevention system (leaving the TV on in an
unoccupied hotel room in hopes that it will stop a break-in), oh, and they also use it for
entertainment and information.
It
is
important
for
interactive
communicators
to
understand
the
various
and
changing
uses
and
gratifications
of
people
they
reach
out
to
with
their
work.
Uses and gratifications theorists argue that people's needs influence how they use and
respond to a medium. Bryant and Zillman (1984) have shown the influence of mood on
media choice. In their study of television program selection, boredom encouraged the
choice of exciting content and stress encouraged a choice of relaxing content. The same
media selection gratifies different needs for different individuals at different times.
Different needs are associated with individual personalities, stages of maturation,
backgrounds and social roles.
An empirical study in the uses and gratifications tradition might typically involve
audience members completing a questionnaire about why they access and use a particular
communications approach. Denis McQuail offered (1987) the following typology of
34
common reasons for use of a television program (remember that this was before people
could participate in the communication, so the list only covers accessing static content):
Information
•
•
•
•
•
Finding
out
about
relevant
events
and
conditions
in
immediate
surroundings,
society
and
the
world.
Seeking
advice
on
practical
matters
or
opinion
and
decision
choices.
Satisfying
curiosity
and
general
interest.
Learning;
self‐education.
Gaining
a
sense
of
security
through
knowledge.
Personal
Identity
•
•
•
•
Finding
reinforcement
for
personal
values.
Finding
models
of
behavior.
Identifying
with
valued
other
(in
the
media).
Gaining
insight
into
one's
self.
Integration
and
Social
Interaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gaining
insight
into
circumstances
of
others;
social
empathy.
Identifying
with
others
and
gaining
a
sense
of
belonging.
Finding
a
basis
for
conversation
and
social
interaction.
Having
a
substitute
for
real‐life
companionship.
Helping
to
carry
out
social
roles.
Enabling
one
to
connect
with
family,
friends
and
society.
Entertainment
•
•
•
•
•
•
Escaping,
or
being
diverted,
from
problems.
Relaxing.
Getting
intrinsic
cultural
or
aesthetic
enjoyment.
Filling
time.
Emotional
release.
Sexual
arousal.
Uses and gratifications theory is key to those working in interactive communications,
because any communicator who wishes to reach an audience must begin with study of the
potential participant and the questions that person is attempting to answer in order to
make sense of the world.
In her research, Jane Singer (1998) established that interactive communications obscures
the line between sender and receiver of mediated messages.
New media possess new attributes, including demassification (control by individual over
the medium), asynchroneity (ability to access/participate at any convenient time) and
interactivity – “the degree to which participants in the communication process have
control over and can exchange roles in their mutual discourse” (Williams, Rice & Rogers,
1988). Communications theory literature offers a number of user-oriented dimensions
of interactivity that are part of the U&G approach: involvement (Trevino & Webster,
35
1992); benefits (S. Ang& Cummings, 1994); threats (Markus, 1994); inconvenience
(Soltz, 1995; Thomas, 1995); sociability (Fulk, Flanagin, Kalman, Monge & Ryan,
1996); and isolation (Dorsher, 1996).
It is important to remember that options offered by Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 and other new
digital display technologies were not considered when these studies were conducted. For
instance, today “isolation” is in the eye of the beholder as more young people immerse
themselves in highly active and participative online communities and social networks,
sometimes at the cost of some face-to-face interaction. To a person who is not highly
engaged online, it would seem that these young people are isolated but to many of these
young people being social online is even more compelling, motivating and gratifying
than being together with their friends face-to-face.
U&G scholars have found that uses, gratifications and the amount of participation by
audience members given choices for interactivity differ from person to person and
sometimes also from day to day for any given person. For instance, there are days or
times when interaction is goal-oriented and days when it is oriented toward random
curiosity and sometimes users mix these two choices throughout their online experience.
It has also been found that experienced users of a social network, site, search engine, etc.,
interact and make choices in different ways than do novices (Sundar, 1998). Interactive
communicators have to keep that in mind.
Multimedia
options
presented
by
digital
devices
allow
for
a
wide
variability
in
uses
and
gratifications
as
individuals
are
presented
with
an
array
of
choices,
they
approach
things
in
different
ways
at
different
times,
and
they
have
a
certain
amount
of
control
by
the
very
nature
of
the
fact
that
they
are
operating
in
an
interactive
realm.
In 1998, Ha and James listed five dimensions of interactivity – playfulness, choice,
connectedness, information collection and reciprocal communication.
Playfulness
Reciprocal
Communications
Information
Collection
Choice
Connectedness
They broke their user
typology down this
way: “self-indulgers”
and “Web surfers”
find their fulfillment
of selfcommunication and
entertainment needs
in the playfulness
and choice
dimensions of
interactivity; “taskoriented” users find
the connectedness
dimension fulfills
their information
36
needs; and “expressive” users find that the information collection and reciprocal
communication dimensions of online interactivity allow them to communicate with
others who have common interests.
Ha and James found that information collection and reciprocal communication are higher
levels of interactivity, and they classified playfulness, choice and connectedness as lower
levels of interactivity. All of this happened before Web 2.0, and now social networks
have changed the scene.
Today, for some people, “connectedness” is a high-level interactivity use online. This is a
great example of how accelerating change in information technologies today forces
audience analysis into a flux state that must be continually monitored.
U&G
can
be
assessed
by
different
methods
of
analysis
in
different
levels
including
individual,
small
group,
organizational,
societal
and
cultural,
and
it
is
often
accomplished
through
the
use
of
multiple
methods
in
a
single
study.
U&G
research
continues
to
typologize
motivations
for
media
use
in
terms
of
diversion
(as
escape
from
routines
or
for
emotional
release),
social
utility
(to
acquire
information
for
conversations),
personal
identity
(to
reinforce
attitudes,
beliefs
and
values),
and
surveillance
(to
learn
about
one’s
community,
political
affairs
and
events).
U&G researchers generally focus on choice, reception and the manner of response of the
individual consuming the media. They study why people choose the information and
communication technologies (ICTs) they use and ascertain what benefits they derive
from them.
In a 2001 study of college-age Internet users in the U.S.
(http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.23.413), Janna Anderson and
Byung Lee found and identified three groups: Assimilators (who absorbed the Internet
into their lives), Hoppers (popping on and off the Internet) and Sensors (who preferred
the real over the virtual and tend not to use the Internet).
By 2007 more people were going online for gratification of more different needs and
finding more ways to gratify those needs, and John Horrigan of the Pew Internet and
American Life Project established an updated typology of Internet users
(http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2009/5-The-Mobile-Difference-Typology.aspx?r=1).
He found that people who did not use the Internet or cell phones at all constituted 14
percent of U.S. adults. The following groups constituted the rest of his typology – all
users:
37
Digital
Collaborators
8%
Roving
Nodes
9%
Drifting
Surfers
14%
Ambivilant
Networkers
7%
Mobile
Newbies
8%
Information
Encumbered
10%
Media
Movers
7%
Desktop
Veterans
13%
The
Tech
Indifferent
10%
Horrigan discovered:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
8 percent of adults use information gadgets to collaborate with others and share
their creativity with the world;
7 percent of adults heavily use mobile devices to connect with others and
entertain themselves, but they don’t always like it when the cell phone rings;
7 percent of adults use online access to seek out information nuggets, and these
nuggets make their way through these users social networks via desktop and
mobile access;
9 percent of adults use their mobile devices to connect with others and share
information with them;
8 percent of adults lack robust access to the Internet, but they like their cell
phones;
13 percent of adults are dedicated to wireline access to digital information;
14 percent of adults are light users despite having access to the Internet, and they
say they could do without modern gadgets and services;
10 percent of adults feel overwhelmed by information and inadequate to
troubleshoot modern devices;
10 percent of adult users are unenthusiastic about the Internet and cell phones.
Media planners must be conscious of potential audiences and the gratifications they
are trying to obtain. U&G theory, although it has critics, is a basis for audience research
and is key to continued communication success in this accelerating age of digital media.
The media uses and effects horizon is increasingly complex and requires continuous
monitoring and adjustment and careful attention to antecedent, mediating and consequent
conditions (Rubin, 1994). As new technologies present people with more choices,
motivation and satisfaction become more crucial components of user analysis.
Following are just two of the many examples of visualizations of U&G made available by
strategic communications firms in 2008-09. All firms involved with engaging audiences
are constantly assessing U&G and coming up with models to study current trends.
38
The
Conversation
Prism
by
Brian
Solis
and
Jess3.
–
Click
here
to
get
a
larger
image.
The
Ruder
Finn
Intent
Index.
–
Click
here
to
get
a
larger
image.
39
Knowledge
gap
theory
This hypothesis was first stated by Tichenor, Donohue and Olien in 1970 in an article
titled "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge." It proposes that with
each new medium, the gap between the information-rich and information-poor widens
because of differences in access to the new medium and the individuals’ capacity to use it
effectively. They said, "As the infusion of mass media information into a social system
increases, segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire
the information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in
knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease." The
hypothesis predicts that people of both low and high socioeconomic status gain in
knowledge with the passage of time and the infusion of additional information. But
people with higher status gain more, and the gap between the two groups grows larger
and larger. This hypothesis suggests that planners of information campaigns should
choose different media to reach different audience sectors or present their information in
such a way that it is seen as arousing a key, basic social concern – this type of message is
more likely to spread from people to people and across platforms. Information sometimes
causes knowledge gaps in audiences to widen and sometimes causes them to narrow. In
discussions of the Internet, the gap is often called the “digital divide,” and people are
encouraged to work for “digital inclusion.”
Social
construction
vs.
technological
determinism
Two competing camps in theory are the “constructivists” and the “determinists.”
Social
construction
of
reality
Theorists who subscribe to social constructionism
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructionism) assume that social factors and the
features of technology tools are intertwined and influence the use of ICTs together. Adoni
and Mane (1984) propose a three-part model: 1) Objective reality (reality experienced in
the objective world existing outside the individual and made up of facts); 2) Symbolic
reality (any form of symbolic expression of objective reality, including art, literature and
media contents); 3) Subjective reality (the reality constructed by the individual on the
basis of objective and subjective reality). Elliott et al. developed a model of the possible
effects of the film "JFK" on individuals' subjective reality. The film blended documentary
and fiction footage, combining facts with invented material that is not consistent with
widely accepted accounts of the events of that time. Researchers said people attempt to
construct a "subjective reality" based on information from objective and symbolic reality.
Information used to construct a subjective reality is evaluated in terms of its perceived
reality. The greater the perceived reality, the greater the likelihood that the information
will be incorporated into an individual's world view.
Cultivation theory is one of many approaches to empirical research on the social
construction of reality. Developed by George Gerbner et al. at the Annenberg School of
Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, cultivation theory was introduced in a
1969 article urging a closer look at cumulative effects of media exposure. Gerbner
40
studied the influence of television as the central cultural arm of American society. The
effect of audience exposure from the 1950 to 1990 (pre-cable and satellite and rise in
number of networks and channel options) to the same messages produced what he called
a "cultivation" or the long-term teaching of a common worldview, common roles and
common values as a result of exposure to the media. In some studies, viewers of local TV
newscasts with a high percentage of crime reporting had the impression that the level of
crime was much higher than it really was in their localities. Researchers also divided
cultivation effects into two types – first-order beliefs (referring to beliefs concerning facts
about the real world, such as annual number of victims of violent crime) and secondorder beliefs (referring to extrapolation from these facts to expectations or orientations,
such as a belief that the world is a safe or dangerous place).
Technological
determinism
Technological determinists (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism) generally believe
that technological advances are a central causal element in processes of social change. In
1964 Marshall McLuhan (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McLuhan) said, "the medium is
the message." In his classic book "Understanding Media" (1965), he said, "The effects of
technology do not occur at the level of opinions or concepts, but alter sense ratios or
patterns of perceptions steadily and without resistance." He said the technologies we use
affect our habits of perception and thinking.
Proof of some of his concepts may be showing in other ways, for instance, all the way
back in the 1970s when television became the dominant medium in most people’s homes,
the National Assessment of Educational Progress report on the deterioration of writing
skills stated that "the culture is increasingly less print-oriented" (1975). If you were to
say, “The Internet is making people read and write less,” a social constructivist would say
that society helps shape its tools and your statement is technological determinism and it is
not completely accurate. Neil Postman (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Postman)
explained – in his role as a technological determinist – that “the uses made of technology
are largely determined by the structure of the technology itself, that is, its functions
follow from its form.” McLuhan wrote that new technologies alter our perceptual habits
and influence social action. He wrote that the invention of print technology – cause-effect
– made possible most of the trends of the 19th and 20th centuries in the Western world,
including democracy, Protestantism, capitalism, nationalism and individualism.
Diffusion
of
innovations
theory
A multi-step flow model is used in diffusion research – the study of the social process
of how innovations become known throughout a social system. This is different from
what has been known in communications research as the two-step flow, which is only
concerned with how each individual receives information and passes it along to others.
The diffusion process is an assessment of processes in the final stage of the adoption or
rejection of an innovation.
Everett Rogers is the best-known researcher in this area. His book, "Diffusion of
Innovations," (2003) examines thousands of research reports and publications. He defines
41
innovation as "an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or
another unit of adoption."
Ryan and Gross (1943) did a study of the diffusion of hybrid seed corn among Iowa
farmers - one of the most influential studies of diffusion of all time. Their investigation
included the four main elements of diffusion:
1) an innovation; 2) communicated through certain channels; 3) over time; and 4)
among the members of a social system.
Rogers says an innovation generates a kind of uncertainty in that it provides an
alternative to present methods or ideas. He categorizes the characteristics of an
innovation that affect their rate of adoption as follows: 1) Relative advantage - the
degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supercedes; 2)
Compatibility - the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with
the existing values, past experiences and needs of potential adopters; 3) Complexity - the
degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use; 4)
Observability - the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.
Rogers
says
that
generally
innovations
that
are
perceived
by
receivers
as
having
a
greater
relative
advantage,
compatibility,
trialability,
observability
and
less
complexity
will
be
adopted
more
rapidly
than
other
innovations.
Rosenberg (1995) listed constraints on an innovator's ability to forsee the impact of an
innovation. They include: its initial, primitive form; its potential specialized uses;
complementary and competitive relationships among technologies; and the economic
value of the innovation.
The
innovation
decision
process
This is a mental process through which a unit making a decision passes. Rogers says it
has five stages: 1) Knowledge - exposure to the innovation and some understanding of
how it works; 2) Persuasion - formation of an attitude toward an innovation; 3) Decision
- activity resulting in a choice to adopt or reject the innovation; 4) Implementation putting the innovation to use; 5) Confirmation - reinforcement or reversal of the
innovation decision made.
Rogers also specifies five adopter categories, classifying those making a decision in their
rate of adoption of an innovation: 1) Innovators - venturesome, eager to try new ideas; 2)
Early adopters - respectable, usually highest degree of opinion leadership in a social
system; 3) Early majority - deliberate, interact frequently with peers but seldom in
leadership positions; 4) Late majority - skeptical, often adopt innovation out of
necessity; 5) Laggards - traditionals, many near-isolates whose point of reference is the
past. Rogers noted that “opinion leaders” have significant influence over adoption. In
today’s Internet terms, it is advised that you “ignite your core-brand evangelists.”
“Consequences” are the changes that occur to an individual or a social system as a result
of the adoption or rejection of an innovation. Rogers' list of three classifications of
consequences: 1) Desirable v. undesirable consequences - depending on whether
42
effects of innovation are functional or dysfunctional; 2) Direct v. indirect - depending on
whether the changes occur in immediate response to an innovation or as a second-order
result of the direct consequences of an innovation. 3) Anticipated v. unanticipated depending on whether or not the changes are recognized and intended by the members of
a social system.
Not all innovations bring desirable results – for instance, the Internet brings everyone,
including terrorists and criminals, the same opportunities to communicate quickly and
efficiently. All technologies have positive and negative effects.
The
spiral
of
silence
theory
This is the idea that peoples' willingness to speak out on issues is influenced largely by
their perception of the climate of opinion. When a person’s opinion appears to him or her
to be out of favor, he or she will usually remain silent. The theory was developed by
Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann (1973, 1980). She said that three characteristics of mass
media – its ubiquity, cumulation and consonance (the unified picture of an event or issue
often shared by most or all media) – combine to produce powerful effects on public
opinion and sometimes inspire individuals to contain their opinion for fear of social
isolation or reprisal. The spiral of silence theory posits that on any controversial issue
people form impressions about general public opinion, seeking to ascertain whether they
are in the majority. If they feel they are in the minority, they remain silent on the issue.
The media are the source the audience looks to find the distribution of public opinion,
thus they can affect the spiral three ways: 1) by shaping impressions about which
opinions are dominant; 2) by shaping opinions about which opinions are on the increase;
3) by shaping impressions about which opinions one can utter in public without fear of
becoming isolated. In the online realm, people who remain silent may sometimes be
influenced by “flaming” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaming_(Internet)) – hostile
replies in exchanges by online users.
Powerful
effects
theory
This was first presented by Noelle-Neumann in her article "Return to the Concept of
Powerful Mass Media" (1973); her spiral of silence fits here. Three other studies also
supporting powerful effects of the media were done by Mendelsohn (1973), Maccoby and
Farquhar (1975) and Ball-Rokeach, Rokeach and Grube (1984). Mendelsohn described
his work on three campaigns: The CBS "National Drivers Test" (1965 program which
inspired 35,000 drivers to enroll in improvement programs); a six-minute film about
drinking and driving; and an informational soap opera series aimed at MexicanAmericans in Los Angeles. Testing indicated that about half or less of the target
audiences were affected by these award-winning messages, yet this was seen as a success
in all three cases. He said campaigns that are successful in changing an audience 1)
Spell out extremely specific, reasonable campaign objectives clearly; 2) Pinpoint the
target audience; 3) Work to overcome indifference of the audience to the particular
issue; 4) Find relevant themes to stress in the messages.
43
Maccoby and Farquhar did a study of the use of mass communication to reduce heart
disease. Three towns were targeted, one was a control which received no special
communication; one received an eight-month media campaign; one received the same
media campaign plus intensive group instruction for a sample of high-risk adults. People
in both towns in which media campaigns were conducted exhibited behavior changes.
Predictably, the town in which was given additional instruction benefitted most. BallRokeach et al. developed a model for changing people's values. Their model states that an
audience changes values and attitudes – and even behavior – when it is forced to face
inconsistencies in its basic values. People who are forced to recognize inconsistencies in
their belief systems may reassess them and change. The researchers produced a 30minute television program titled "The Great American Values Test." Viewers of the
program donated more money to the charitable organizations. Viewers who watched
uninterrupted gave more money than those who did not see the entire program. Viewers
also changed their value rankings and attitudes relating to those values.
Media effects are most powerful when they reach communications participants on
multiple levels. Findings in powerful effects research, if extrapolated, indicate that
multiple interactive layers can be used to reach participants, teach them and
reinforce key messages at a high level of success.
Power
law
effect
What is a power law effect? It’s when a system drives activity to reinforce
unnaturally the behavior that caused something to be there in the first place.
For example, if one of the metrics of an Internet filter counts the number of people
clicking on a top search, then the more clicks, the longer the item will stay at the
top of the list of searches, even if naturally it would have fallen off the list earlier.
Conversely if a metric for a filter involves a spontaneous act, driven by
imagination, like writing a Twitter tweet, then exposing those items at the top of
the filter might be less likely to drive up activity.
Users are influenced by seeing the “most-clicked-on” items and they click on them
thus driving the effect ahead – if you show results to the users, upon seeing a
popular topic, they might begin tweeting about that topic without having thought
of it before seeing it as a popular topic. In other words, by revealing the metrics
you focus on, you can push users to change their behavior.
By driving behavior, power-law distributions keep things with some power at the
top because they are at the top and this can even drive them higher. It becomes a
loop. Agenda‐setting
and
media
framing
theories
Max McCombs and Donald Shaw published key work in the 1970s, ’80s and ’90s on
this theory by researching the ways in which “mass media exert a significant influence,”
44
establishing the prominent issues and defining the images that represent those issues in
the minds of the public. McCombs wrote in 1997, “the news media can influence how a
community regards itself, including priorities and the factors that guide its views on
particular issues; against this background, all news organizations must give close
attention to their role in building community consensus.”
This theory says that the media we consume tell us what to think about, and how to
think about it. “Agenda setting” transfers the salience of items of established
communicators’ news agendas to our agenda. “Framing” transfers the salience of selected
attributes to prominence among the pictures in our heads.
A
frame
can
be
defined
as
"a
central
organizing
idea
for
news
content
that
supplies
a
context
and
suggests
what
the
issue
is
through
the
use
of
selection,
emphasis,
exclusion
and
elaboration"
(Tankard
et
al.
1991).
This
is
one
way
to
study
objectivity
and
bias.
Framing has more subtle and powerful influences on audiences than bias. Frames can be
defined by a newsmaker, then picked up by the media – for example, during the George
W. Bush administration much of the news from Iraq and Iran was framed in terms of a
terrorist threat to the United States. Framing can help us understand how audiences
process news. Some ways of framing information may hook up better than others
with existing schemas people have in their minds, thus communicating more clearly.
Framing can be suggested by visual imagery, headlines, leads, pull quotes and nut
graphs. These are sometimes described as “advanced organizers.” Research has
shown that framing can have an effect on the way audience members end up interpreting
an issue. Iyengar (1991) argued some of the most important framing done by the media
has to do with suggesting who is responsible for a problem and who can help provide a
remedy. His research shows that much TV news content, by focusing on discrete events
out of context, causes viewers to assign responsibility for social problems to individuals
rather than to society as a whole. Again, a good example of this is George W. Bush.
Wanta and Roy (1995) looked at how long an agenda-setting effect will last before it
disappears due to memory decay. They suggest that memory plays a role in agendasetting effects. The Lang and Lang six-step description of agenda building suggests that
the way the media frame an issue and the code words they use to describe it can have an
impact. In addition, the role of well-known individuals commenting on the issue can have
a significant impact. McCombs and Weaver have suggested that agenda setting may not
take place to the same extent and in the same way for all individuals. The "need for
orientation" may differ. This is based on two factors: the relevance of the information to
the individual and the degree of uncertainty concerning the subject of the message. The
greater the relevance of the information and the greater the uncertainty, the greater the
need for orientation.
Since 1987 the phenomenon of “intermedia agenda-setting” – how media reports
influence and set the agenda for other media reports – has been studied. The Internet
and online tools like Twitter, with which people share links and ideas become “viral,”
take intermedia agenda-setting to new heights of complexity. In the 1990s, the
45
mainstream media influenced online discussions, for instance, Roberts, Wanta and Dzwo
(2002) found that the New York Times, Reuters, the Associated Press, CNN and Time all
had agenda-setting effects on the discussions on online chats. Today, the mainstream
media may be following up on news that breaks first online in a blog post or on Twitter.
It doesn’t take a research study to show that the tables have turned. The first news of
protests after the 2009 Iran election was shared by Iranians themselves, writing from the
scene of the protests in Twitter feeds that soon became the talk of television network
news programs and made the headlines in the New York Times, Time and the AP.
We still don't fully understand how agenda setting works online, in a world where
interactivity allows the public to have some influence over content. It is a moving
target, with influence on ideas now originating in cyberspaces such as YouTube,
blogs and Twitter. No matter where they get their information, people evaluate it from
their own perspective, which includes many other influences, and this may result in
agenda-setting effects for some messages but not for others. The processes of selective
perception and retention come into play to influence the agenda-setting process.
Professional communicators have the responsibility to do what it takes to help identify
key issues and set the proper, vital agenda.
Perception
theory
How do people make sense of the words and images they receive? The starting point
for processing messages is the individual act of perception.
Perceptual theory shows us that the process of interpreting messages is complex.
Communicators may often have a difficult time getting audiences to pay attention to their
messages, learn the contents of them and make the desired behavioral responses to them.
Berelson and Steiner define perception as "the complex process by which people select,
analyze and interpret sensory stimulation into a meaningful and coherent picture of the
world." Lahlry defines perception as the process by which we interpret sensory data.
These come to us through the five senses.
The
two
types
of
influences
on
our
perception
are
structural
‐
those
that
come
from
the
physical
aspects
of
the
stimuli
to
which
we're
being
exposed
‐
and
functional
‐
psychological
factors
that
influence
how
we
see
things,
introducing
subjectivity
to
the
process.
"Decoding" is the process of receiving and interpreting a message. The process
involves perception and the subsequent processing of the message. Perception involves
making inferences that are not always valid.
Influences on Perception:
A number of psychological factors come into play in an individual's perception of a
communication, including assumptions based on past experiences; cultural expectations;
motivations; moods and attitudes.
46
Vidmar and Rokeach (1974) did a study of the TV sitcom "All in the Family" to
determine how the program – targeted at bringing bigotry out in the open, exposing it and
showing it to be illogical – was being perceived by viewers. In the test group, those who
were low in prejudice were most likely to say that the bigot, Archie, was the one who lost
at the end of the program, but those who were high in prejudice said Archie won. This
shows “selective perception,” one of four processes identified by researchers.
Selective perception is the term applied to the tendency for people to be
influenced by wants, attitudes, needs and other psychological factors. It plays
a vital role in all communication. Different people react to the same message in
different ways. No communicator can assume that a message will have the
intended meaning or the same meaning for all receivers. This complicates our
models for mass communication. The message can hit the target and still fail
because it is subject to the perception of the receiver.
Selective exposure is the tendency for individuals to expose themselves to those
communications that are in agreement with their existing attitudes and to avoid
those that are not.
Selective attention is the tendency for individuals to pay attention to those parts
of a message that are consonant with strongly held attitudes, beliefs or behaviors,
avoiding those that go against these attitudes, beliefs or behaviors.
Selective retention is the tendency for the recall of information to be influenced
by wants, needs, attitudes and other psychological factors. Evidence comes from
several studies, including one of rumor transmission by Allport and Postman
(1947), in which they found details were often left out when people passed on
stories or descriptions of pictures.
The selective processes can be thought of as four rings of defenses, with selective
exposure on the outside, followed by selective attention, selective perception and
selective retention.
It's impossible to separate the process of perception from the process of information
processing. Human information processing appears to take place in stages, and a number
of models have been suggested to identify them. Many are based on the workings of the
computer. Thus far, perception has not been distinguished from information processing,
which is an operation involving stages with various types of cognitive work being done at
each of the stages. Some of these involve pattern matching and inferences, with room for
various types of errors. Schema theory and image-perception theory are influential in
information and communications design.
Schema theory
A schema, according to Graber (1988), is "a cognitive structure consisting of
organized knowledge about situations and individuals that has been abstracted from
prior experiences. It is used for processing new information and retrieving stored
47
information." The concept of schema is useful in understanding how people process
information.
Fiske and Kinder (1981) suggest that people are "cognitive misers" whose limited
ability to deal with information forces them to practice "cognitive economy" by forming
simplified mental models. This is a vital concept for interactive media professionals to
keep in mind in an age of infoglut and audience perception of information overload.
Graber (1988) has done research that indicates that people use schemas to process
news stories from papers or broadcasts. People processing such stories choose from
a number of strategies, including straight matching of a news story to a schema
(interpreting a political candidate as another Nixon), processing through inferences
(deducing that a cease-fire won't work in Lebanon because it didn't work in Northern
Ireland) and multiple integration of a story with several schemas or schema dimensions (a
story on school busing can be related to schemas about political participation, the
disruption of public education or the achieving of a multicultural society).
Graber found that people tend to store conclusions drawn from evidence, rather
than storing the evidence itself or retaining an understanding of the reason that they
formed this idea. She said processing news through schemas is an effective means of
dealing with information overload. She also said the matching of news stories with
schemas is influenced by cueing and that the mass media are a major source of cueing
information. The notion of schema can help us understand how people can process many
news stories using matching strategies.
Image‐perception
theory
Linda Scott (1994) has argued that we need a theory of visual rhetoric to help us
understand how people process pictures. She says visual elements can represent
abstractions, actions, concepts, metaphors and modifiers and that they can be assembled
into complex arguments.
Scott identifies three ways of thinking about pictures in the mass media: as
transparent representations of reality; as conveyors of affective or emotional
appeal; and as complex combinations of symbols put together to make up rhetorical
arguments.
In rhetoric, an argument presented in figurative form is called a "trope." The function of a
trope is to present a proposition in a fresh way to break through boredom, habituated
perception or resistance. Many ads \are "visual tropes," arguments presented in a
figurative form in order to break through a viewer’s skepticism, boredom or
resistance. These can require complex information processing on the part of the
perceiver, often forcing him or her to reject the literal message of the image to understand
the intended message.
Scott says that images are not simply analogues to visual perception, but symbolic
artifacts constructed from cultural conventions.
48
The theory of visual rhetoric suggests that pictures and images can be used to construct
subtle and complicated arguments, adding a powerful dimension to communication
through the mass media.
Propaganda
theory
In the era of World Wars I and II, propaganda was mistakenly thought to have great
power. However, it’s real significance in a historical context is that the fear of the powers
of propaganda triggered some of the first theoretical thinking about the effects of mass
communication. Two important areas of communication have their roots here. One is
attitude change, the second is theoretical thinking about the general effects of mass
communication.
Harold Lasswell's "Propaganda Technique in the World War" (1927) presented one of
the first careful attempts to define propaganda. By 1937, his definition had changed, and
he wrote: "Propaganda in the broadest sense is the technique of influencing human
action by the manipulation of representations." Lasswell said the 4 major goals of
propaganda are: mobilize hatred against the enemy; preserve the friendship of allies;
preserve friendship of and possibly procure the cooperation of neutrals; demoralize the
enemy.
Roger Brown (1958) made a distinction between propaganda (which he said is "when
the goal of the persuasive effort would be to the benefit of the persuader but not in the
best interests of the persuadee") and persuasion (which he said is "symbol-manipulation
designed to produce action in others").
In the war years, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis was established. It's most famous
publication, "The Fine Art of Propaganda," by Alfred McClung Lee and Elizabeth
Briant Lee (1939), presented seven common devices of propaganda: name calling;
glittering generality; transfer, testimonial; card stacking and band wagon.
1. Name calling is simply giving an idea a negative label. Terrorist and terrorism are
two current examples. One person's terrorist is another person's freedom fighter.
2. A glittering generality is the act of associating something with a virtue in order to
"make us accept and approve the thing without examining the evidence," according to
Lee and Lee (1939). Wonder bread, Gold Medal flour. Saying a product has "natural
ingredients. Instead of saying "capitalism," say "private enterprise."
3. Transfer carries "authority, sanction and prestige of something respected and
revered over to something else in order to make the latter more acceptible,"
according to Lee and Lee (1939). It works through "admiration by association."
Campaigning for office in an Uncle Sam suit. Rugged Marlboro Man. Betty Crocker.
4. Testimonial - having a respected or hated person say a given thing or person is good
49
or bad. A common technique. Tiger Woods, Michael Jordan.
5. "Plain folks is the method by which the speaker attempts to convince his audience that
he and his ideas are good because they are 'of the people,' the 'plain folks.'" (Lee & Lee,
1939) Many CEOs and all politicians do this in TV and online promotions.
6. "Card stacking" involves the selection and use of facts or falsehoods, illustrations
or distractions and logical or illogical statements in order to give the best or worst
possible case for an idea, program, person or product," according to Lee and Lee (1939).
Identical to slanting. Presenting a selective argument. Movie ads that show partial
quotes pulled from reviews are a good example. Also TV ads with "man-on-the-street"
interviews of people using products, leaving out those who didn't like them. Another
method of card-stacking is the controlling of news - governments suppress the release
of information by stopping it through jamming, filtering and blocking the Internet, etc.
7. Band wagon is a technique of convincing people that "everyone's doing it." As long as
everyone else is on the program, we should be, too. Ad slogan "the people's choice."
"Nobody doesn't like Sara Lee." "Join the People Who've Joined the Army." "Pepsi
Generation."
Scientific research on the effectiveness of these seven methods has shown: that cardstacking works best on those lower in education and those who generally agree already
with the message; in testimonial use, a high-credibility source produces the most attitude
change, but still changes the attitudes of fewer than half of the audience; the band wagon
effect is strongest when there is a unanimous majority against one person, and even then
one-third of the people maintained their independent opinion. This research shows that, in
general, the devices can be effective, but only on some people. Roger Brown sums this up
by saying (1958) propaganda devices are "contingently rather than invariably effective."
The seven devices can be effectively used to reach some people some of the time. They
are important because they are an early attempt to state a theory of attitude change.
Persuasion
theories
Persuasion has been defined by Olson & Zanna (1993) as "attitude change resulting from
exposure to information from others." The Institute for Propaganda Analysis, with its
identification of seven techniques of propaganda, did much of the early work in this area.
During WW II, Carl Hovland and his associates did work for the U.S. Army's
Information and Education Division that has been called the most vital material on
attitude change. Attitude has been defined as "an enduring system of positive or negative
evaluations, emotional feelings and pro or con action tendencies with response to a social
object." (Krech, Crutchfield & Ballachey, 1962) Hovland believed attitudes were learned
and that they were changed through the same processes that occurred when learning took
place. Hovland's work included the evaluation of the impact of educational films such as
the "Why We Fight" series. "The Battle of Britain" was shown to increase soldiers'
motivation. But it also became part of the growing body of research (along with the
50
Cooper & Jahoda look at prejudicial cartoons and work by Lazarsfeld, et. al. on political
campaigns) indicating that a single mass communication message is unlikely to change
strongly held attitudes.
Fear
appeal
The use of a threat used to arouse fear in an audience was examined in an experiment
by Janis and Feshbach (1953). They selected three different messages about dental
hygiene with three levels of fear appeal and presented them to three groups of high
school freshmen, leaving a fourth group uninformed (they got a lecture on the human
eye). The results showed that minimal fear appeal was most effective. Strong fear appeal
was least effective. It showed fear appeal can be too strong and evoke some sort of
interference that reduces the effectiveness of the communication. This was the first of
many studies of fear appeal. Not all the studies have agreed with J&F result.
Janis formulated a model suggesting the relationship between fear appeal and attitutude
change is curvilinear: low and high levels of fear produce little change and moderate
amounts of fear produce the most change. This was the dominant view of fear and
attitude change for many years. In 1975, Rogers developed an alternative model that
provides a clearer prescription for how to present messages to influence behavior. The
model summarizes three key elements in the operation of a fear appeal: 1) the
magnitude of noxiousness of a depicted event; 2) the probability of that event's
occurrence; and 3) the efficacy of a recommended response. This is called the PM
(protection motivation) theory of fear appeals and attitude change.
Rogers (1989) suggested media messages about AIDS aimed at teens should emphasize
the immediate consequences of the disease. The effectiveness of fear appeals in
condom ads stressing the prevention of AIDS was studied by Hill. He found subjects
had more positive attitudes toward a moderate fear appeal ad than a non-fear appeal ad or
high-fear appeal.
Functional
approach
to
attitude
change
Hovland is associated with learning theory. The other major theoretical approach to
attitude change is the consistency theory associated with Festinger, Newcomb, Heider
and Osgood and Tannenbaum. But Daniel Katz and his associates reconciled the two
in developing the functional approach to attitude change.
This approach brings together the rational model (suggests humans are intelligent beings
and critical thinkers who can make wise decisions when given ample information) and
the irrational model (suggests humans are easily influenced by people around them and
that their perception of reality is influenced by their own desires). How can both be true?
Katz suggests humans are both rational and irrational, depending the situation. This
has important implications for understanding attitude change. As the functions that
attitudes serve for the personality differ, so will the conditions and techniques of attitude
change. Katz says "unless we know the psychological need which is met by the holding
of an attitude, we are in a poor position to predict when and how it will change." (1960)
51
Katz identifies the following four major functions attitudes can serve for the personality:
1) Instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian function - attitudes held because people are
striving to maximize the rewards in their external environments and minimize penalties
(supporting a candidate who will cut taxes). 2) Ego-defensive function - attitudes held
because people are protecting their egos from their own unacceptable impulses or from
threatening forces without (deeming a minority group inferior as a means of bolstering
ego). 3) The value-expressive function - attitudes held because they allow a person to
give positive expression to central values and to the kind of person one feels he or she is
(country music fan). 4) The knowledge function - attitudes held because they satisfy a
desire for knowledge or provide structure and meaning in a chaotic world (religion).
Katz says an attempt to change an attitude may backfire if it is not based on an
understanding of the functions the attitude is serving.
Techniques
of
persuasion
Four commonly used techniques of persuasion are use of visual images and symbols,
appeal to humor, appeal to sex and extensive repetition.
•
Visuals help attract attention to a message; they can enhance learning of a
message's content; a positive emotional response to the image could transfer to
other aspects of the message. This is a complicated communications process. One
important aspect of the cognitive state of the individual is the level of
involvement in processing the message. Miniard et al. (1991) found that relevant
pictures have their greatest impact when receiver involvement is high.
•
The use of humor can create a positive mood when attempting to communicate
about a serious topic. When attitude change is the dependent variable of interest,
most studies have not found a significant effect due to humor. It has more of an
effect on lower-order communication effects than on higher-order effects - humor
is more effective in attracting attention than it is in producing attitude change or
changes in behavior.
•
Sexual appeals are common in advertising. Does sex really sell? Gould (1994)
suggests it could have an impact on persuasion in at least three ways: 1) Could
increase attention to the message; 2) Could lead to arousal and the pleasantness of
this condition could transfer to message; 3) product, institution or
recommendations in the message could pick up a sexual charge through
association, possibly making it more acceptable. Less controversial and equally
pleasing are appeals to the need for affectionate human contact.
•
Repetition can reach audience members on a wider basis. It can be a reminder for
an audience. It can help the learning of the audience. Zielske (1959) showed that
advertising is quickly forgotten if not continuously exposed. Too much repetition
can have a negative effect (Cacioppo & Petty, 1979).
Process
models
of
persuasion
theory
McGuire's information-processing theory is an eight-step theory: exposure;
52
perception; comprehension; agreement; retention; retrieval; decision making; and action.
Then, later, came up with 12 steps in the output of the persuasion process. McGuire's
work deals reminds us of the difficulty of attitude change. Most of the attitude-change
literature has focused on the step of yielding or agreement. Many independent variables
tend to cancel themselves out in their overall effects. To have success, we need to
accomplish the desired effects specified by each of the various steps.
Anderson's information integration theory - A general theory developed by Norman
Anderson to explain how humans bring together different pieces of information (1981).
It's a kind of "cognitive algebra" and can be represented mathematically. It describes
attitude change as a process of integrating new information (a persuasive message) with
old information (present attitude). Each piece of information comes with a scale value
(the favorability rating assigned by the receiver to the piece of information) and a weight
(the importance or relevance of the info). These can be combined by the person
processing the information in several ways. The process involves averaging the scale
values and the weights.
Media
richness
theory
This is a framework by which communications types are organized according to their
ability to reproduce information sent through it. Based on information processing theory,
media richness theory shows that richer, more personal means of communication
are generally the most effective
way to share messages. The
theory was developed by Richard
Daft and Robert Lengel (1986,
http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?
id=8433).
Senders generally want their
messages to be seen by as many
people as possible, thus they
should use the richest possible
medium to communicate. Rich
media
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rich
_media) are most effective in
terms of feedback, multiple cues,
message tailoring and emotional
response. As an example, video conferencing is richer than texting or an audio-only
phone call because communication participants have visual cues that can help them
distinguish, for instance, between information that is serious and information that is
sarcastic.
Communications that can promote understanding in the most timely manner possible are
considered more rich. Although some researchers have been critical of this theory, the
53
term “rich media” is still in common use, in fact in its section on multimedia Wikipedia
notes “the term ‘rich media’ is synonymous with interactive multimedia.” It has become
known as describing technology that integrates audio, video and high-resolution graphics
to inform.
Human
action
cycle
model
The human action cycle is a model developed by Don Norman, a top scholar in humancomputer interaction, in his classic book The Design of Everyday Things (1988). It is
used to evaluate user interfaces, thus it employs UI design principles, including
affordance, feedback, visibility and tolerance. The cycle involves the ways humans
pursue goals through a series of steps to achieve that goal through the use of computing,
thus it includes both physical and cognitive activities.
The stages of the HAC include: goal formation; translation of goals into a set of
unordered tasks required to achieve goals; sequencing the tasks to create the action
sequence; executing the action sequence; perceiving the results; interpreting the actual
outcomes based on the expected outcomes; comparing what happened with what the user
wished to happen.
A user interface evaluator will typically establish a series of relevant questions to tie to
each step of the user experience. An example posted on Wikipedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_action_cycle):
Step
1,
Forming
a
goal:
Do
the
users
have
sufficient
domain
and
task
knowledge
and
sufficient
understanding
of
their
work
to
form
goals?
Does
the
UI
help
the
users
form
these
goals?
Step
2,
Translating
the
goal
into
a
task
or
a
set
of
tasks:
Do
the
users
have
sufficient
domain
and
task
knowledge
and
sufficient
understanding
of
their
work
to
formulate
the
tasks?
Does
the
UI
help
the
users
formulate
these
tasks?
Step
3,
Planning
an
action
sequence:
Do
the
users
have
sufficient
domain
and
task
knowledge
and
sufficient
understanding
of
their
work
to
formulate
the
action
sequence?
Does
the
UI
help
the
users
formulate
the
action
sequence?
Step
4,
Executing
the
action
sequence:
Can
typical
users
easily
learn
and
use
the
UI?
Do
the
actions
provided
by
the
system
match
those
required
by
the
users?
54
Are
the
affordance
and
visibility
of
the
actions
good?
Do
the
users
have
an
accurate
mental
model
of
the
system?
Does
the
system
support
the
development
of
an
accurate
mental
model?
Step
5,
Perceiving
what
happened:
Can
the
users
perceive
the
system’s
state?
Does
the
UI
provide
the
users
with
sufficient
feedback
about
the
effects
of
their
actions?
Step
6,
Interpreting
the
outcome
according
to
the
users’
expectations:
Are
the
users
able
to
make
sense
of
the
feedback?
Does
the
UI
provide
enough
feedback
for
this
interpretation?
Step
7,
Evaluating
what
happened
against
what
was
intended:
Can
the
users
compare
what
happened
with
what
they
were
hoping
to
achieve?
Media
Ecology
–
an
approach
embraced
by
media
philosophers
Neil Postman, one of the foremost critics of media influences, described this area of study
this way: “Media Ecology looks into the matter of how media of communication effect
human perception, understanding, feeling and value and how our interaction with media
facilitates or impedes our chances of survival.” Christine Nystrom said, “It is the study of
complex communication systems as environments.”
The Media Ecology Association site - http://www.media-ecology.org/ - has extensive
information about this division of media studies. Marshall McLuhan’s ideas were the
inspiration behind the founding of this area of interest by Postman at New York
University in 1971. McLuhan noted that media ecology “means arranging various media
to help each other so they won’t cancel each other out, to buttress one medium with
another.” And Postman said, “The word ‘ecology’ implies the study of environments:
their structure, content and impact on people.”
Media ecology authors include Harold Innis, Lewis Mumford, Jacques Ellul, Susanne
Langer, Walter Ong, Eric Havelock, Erving Goffman, Edward T. Hall, Margaret Mead,
Benjamin Lee Whorf and Gregory Bateson.
Useful
links:
McLuhan
Articles
from
"Wired"
Magazine:
Links
to
four
articles
‐
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/people/marshall_mcluhan/
Marshall
McLuhan
Official
Site:
Maintained
by
Eric
McLuhan,
Marshall
McLuhan's
son
‐
http://www.marshallmcluhan.com
55
In the chart below, more than 100 different media are identified from the media
taxonomies of Bretz (1971), Ciampa (1989), Foulger (1992), Hoffman and Novak (1996).
Conclusion
You can read about many more theories by searching online. One good place to start is
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology. All communications theories are
just that, theories. They have not been elevated to the status of laws regarding audiences
and media because none of them can conclusively be proven. One could hypothesize that
none of these theories could ever become "laws" of media because there are far too many
variable factors in the way humans perceive things.
Communications theory is also intrinsic in the work of many other fine writers whose
theories you should read, including Barthes, Baudrillard, Chomsky, Derrida, Deleuze,
Fiske, Foucault, Gibson, Gramsci, Landow, Lyotard, Turkle and even the early
philosopher Plato. As researchers Werner Severin and James Tankard have pointed out,
"it depends" is an accurate description of the answer to many questions about
communications uses and influences. Selective perception and interpersonal relations, as
sociologist Elihu Katz has noted, are two key variables. Due to accelerating change, the
theory of communications is a moving target. The rapid evolution of audiences and tools
require communicators to continually monitor change.
56
4.
New
Media
Timeline
(1969‐2008)
By
David
Shedden
Poynter
Institute
http://poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=75953&sid=26
1969
TECHNOLOGY
• An
experimental
network
of
four
computers
called
ARPANET
is
commissioned
by
the
U.S.
government.
The
four
computers
are
located
at
Stanford,
UCLA,
UC
Santa
Barbara,
and
the
University
of
Utah.
The
first
tests
are
run
at
the
UCLA
facility
in
September
1969.
In
October,
the
second
ARPANET
node
is
connected
at
Stanford.
UC
Santa
Barbara
is
connected
in
November
and
the
University
of
Utah
comes
online
in
December.
(ARPANET
will
evolve
during
the
1970s
into
a
network
of
computer
networks
commonly
known
as
the
Internet.)
The
Bolt,
Beranek
and
Newman
company
(BBN)
modifies
a
group
of
Honeywell
computers
to
act
as
interface
message
processors
(IMPs)
for
the
ARPANET
network.
• The
Micro
Instrumentation
and
Telemetry
systems
company
(MITS)
is
established.
This
small
electronics
hobby‐kit
company
will
eventually
offer
computer
calculator
kits,
and
in
1975
the
Altair
8080,
the
first
successful
personal
computer.
• "Part
one
of
a
1969
British
film
about
computers."
Posted
on
YouTube.
(See
also:
Part
2
and
Part
3
of
the
film.)
• The
Intel
company,
which
was
founded
in
1968,
produces
a
1,024‐bit
RAM
computer
memory
chip.
• October
17,
1969
‐‐
Honeywell's
$10,000
"Kitchen
Computer"
(H316
Pedestal
model)
is
scheduled
to
be
introduced
on
the
NBC
Today
Show.
However,
the
segment
is
replaced
by
a
story
about
the
New
York
Mets,
who
had
just
won
the
World
Series.
Additional
Resources
• "Internet
Predecessor
Turns
30."
CNN,
September
1999.
• "How
Internet
Infrastructure
Works."
Howstuffworks,
2007.
• "1969
film
predicting
the
future
of
personal
computers
and
online
shopping."
Posted
on
YouTube,
Sept.
2007.
1969
THE
MEDIA
• The
British
Broadcasting
Corporation
(BBC)
tests
a
new
interactive
media
format
called
videotex.
This
computerized,
interactive
system
transmits
text
and
graphics.
The
British
system
requires
the
use
of
a
telephone,
a
modified
television
set
and
keyboard.
The
generic
term
videotex
includes
computer
communications
services
such
as
teletext
and
viewdata.
(During
the
1970s
and
early
1980s
videotex
will
develop
into
an
unsuccessful
new
media
and
online
journalism
format.
Although
videotex
will
ultimately
fail,
it
lays
the
foundation
for
new
media
ventures
of
the
1990s.)
• The
CompuServe
computer
time‐sharing
service
is
founded.
(CompuServe
will
play
an
important
role
in
the
development
of
online
communication.)
• The
New
York
Times
Information
Bank
is
created.
Infobank
is
an
electronic
collection
of
New
York
Times
story
abstracts.
(During
the
1970s
Infobank
will
grow
into
a
full‐text
commercial
online
database
service.
It
is
from
early
newspaper
database
services
like
Infobank
that
online
library
archives
will
develop
in
the
1990s.)
News
Example:
July
21,
1969
‐‐
"Men
Walk
on
Moon,"
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
57
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
Additional
Resources
• See
Also:
New
Media
Bibliography
1970
TECHNOLOGY
• The
name
for
the
ARPANET
computer
network
comes
from
DARPA,
the
U.S.
Department
of
Defense's
Advanced
Research
Project
Agency,
which
commissioned
the
computer
network.
Bob
Taylor
was
the
director
of
ARPA's
Information
Processing
Techniques
Office
(IPTO)
when
the
project
began
in
the
1960s.
J.C.R.
Licklider
was
the
first
director
of
IPTO.
• Alohanet,
the
first
wireless
computer
networking
system,
is
developed
by
Norm
Abramson
at
the
University
of
Hawaii.
Alohanet
is
a
packet
radio
network
system.
• IBM
announces
its
new
System/370
computer
series.
These
new
machines
support
time‐
sharing
and
online
computing.
IBM
controls
3/4
of
the
market
for
mainframe
computers.
1970
THE
MEDIA
• News
Example:
May
5,
1970
‐‐
"4
Kent
State
Students
Killed
by
Troops,"
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
• Nov.
8,
1970
‐‐
News
copy
is
sent
from
a
computer
terminal
at
the
Associated
Press
bureau
in
Columbia,
South
Carolina,
to
a
computer
in
Atlanta.
This
is
reportedly
the
first
use
of
a
computer
terminal
for
writing,
editing,
and
transmitting
a
story
to
a
news
service.
1971
TECHNOLOGY
• The
Intel
4004
microprocessor
is
introduced.
(During
the
1970s
microprocessors
allow
engineers
to
build
smaller
and
more
powerful
computers.)
• ARPANET
is
connected
to
23
university
and
government
network
computers.
• The
Bowmar
901B
becomes
one
of
the
first
commerical
pocket
calculators.
Commodore
markets
a
similar
model
called
the
Commodore
C110.
• IBM
introduces
8‐inch
computer
floppy
or
memory
disks.
• Ray
Tomlinson
sends
one
of
the
first
ARPANET
electronic
mail
messages.
He
creates
a
program
that
takes
existing
computer
time‐share
e‐mail
technology
and
adapts
it
to
ARPANET
networked
computers.
Tomlinson's
new
e‐mail
program
uses
the
"
@
"
symbol
to
separate
the
user's
log‐in
name
and
the
host
computer's
name.
E‐mail
quickly
becomes
the
most
popular
application
for
ARPANET.
1971
THE
MEDIA
• Newspapers
are
changing
from
mechanical
to
computer
production
systems.
The
introduction
of
computers
in
the
production
process
is
a
crucial
step
in
the
evolution
of
new
media
and
online
journalism.
• The
Mitre
corporation
begins
testing
a
videotex
system
funded
by
the
National
Science
Foundation.
It
lasts
until
1973.
• The
Project
Gutenberg
electronic
book
collection
begins
on
a
mainframe
computer
at
the
Materials
Research
Lab
at
the
University
of
Illinois.
• News
Example:
July
1,
1971
‐‐
"Supreme
Court,
6‐3,
Upholds
Newspapers
on
Publication
of
Pentagon
Report,"
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1972
TECHNOLOGY
• The
first
public
demonstration
of
ARPANET
takes
place
during
the
International
Conference
on
Computer
Communications
in
Washington,
DC.
Two
of
the
organizers
of
the
58
demonstration
are
Robert
Kahn
from
BBN
and
Larry
Roberts,
director
of
ARPA's
Information
Processing
Techniques
Office
(IPTO).
Researchers
from
around
the
world
leave
the
conference
excited
about
the
network's
possibilities.
• In
1972
many
of
the
key
people
involved
with
the
development
of
computer
networks
participate
in
a
film
called,
"Computer
Networks:
The
Herald
of
Resource
Sharing."
(See
also:
"Computer
Networks."
Posted
on
Google
Video.)
• The
software
for
PLATO,
an
early
computer
time‐sharing
system
at
the
University
of
Illinois
at
Urbana,
is
ported
to
a
more
powerful
mainframe
platform
that
will
allow
support
for
hundreds
of
simultaneous
users.
• A
group
is
formed
to
develop
standards
for
the
growing
ARPANET
computer
network.
The
International
Network
Working
Group
(INWG)
creates
various
Internet
protocol
documents.
They
appoint
Vinton
Cerf
as
their
chairman.
• The
Texas
Instruments
TI‐2500
Datamath
calculator
is
formally
introduced.
It
performs
addition,
subtraction,
multiplication
and
division.
• The
Atari
company
introduces
PONG,
one
of
the
first
coin‐operated
computerized
arcade
games.
(See
also:
"History
of
Video
Games,
1972‐2007."
Posted
on
YouTube.)
1972
THE
MEDIA
• During
the
early
1970s
newspaper
newsrooms
begin
replacing
their
typewriters
with
computer
front‐end
systems
that
include
video
display
terminals
(VDTs)
and
cathode
ray
tubes
(CRTs).
Among
the
first
newspapers
to
use
front‐end
systems
in
the
early
1970s
are
(Cocoa)
Today
and
the
Daytona
Beach
Journal.
Other
papers
that
soon
added
computers
include:
The
Detroit
News,
St.
Petersburg
Times,
and
the
Richmond
Times‐Dispatch.
• Two
reporters
from
The
Philadelphia
Inquirer
create
a
computer
database
for
a
news
story
they
are
researching
about
the
Philadelphia
Court
of
Common
Pleas.
Donald
Barlett
and
James
Steele's
computer‐assisted
database
uses
IBM
punch
cards
and
a
mainframe
computer.
Phil
Meyer
from
the
Knight
Newspapers
Washington
bureau
designs
and
writes
the
database
coding
scheme
and
analysis
program.
(The
final
story
is
published
in
February
1973.)
• The
commercial
version
of
the
Dialog
database
service
is
started.
(Source:
2003
Searcher
history
article:
part
one
and
two)
Also
in
1972,
the
System
Development
Corporation,
which
created
the
National
Library
of
Medicine's
ELHILL
database
retrieval
program
in
1969,
launches
a
commercial
version
of
the
ORBIT
online
service.
• News
Example:
Sept.
6,
1972
‐‐
"9
Israelis
on
Olympic
Team
Killed",
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
Additional
Resources
• "The
Development
of
the
Video
Display
Terminal:
A
Two‐Part
Effort."
Ray
Laakaniemi,
AEJMC
paper,
March
1992.
1973
TECHNOLOGY
• A
computer
at
the
University
College
of
London
and
another
at
the
Royal
Radar
Establishment
59
in
Norway
connect
to
ARPANET.
These
are
the
first
European
host
computers
on
the
network.
Also
in
1973,
DARPA
begins
the
Atlantic
Packet
Satellite
Experiment
(SATNET).
• Bob
Metcalfe,
a
researcher
at
the
Xerox
Palo
Alto
Research
Center
(PARC),
writes
a
memo
about
the
potential
of
a
local
network
technology
called
Ethernet.
In
1976
Metcalfe
and
David
Boggs
publish
a
paper
called,
"Ethernet:
Distributed
Packet‐Switching
For
Local
Computer
Networks."
• The
Alto
minicomputer,
one
of
the
first
PC
prototypes,
is
developed
at
the
Xerox
Palo
Alto
Research
Center.
Although
it
would
never
be
marketed
commercially,
many
of
its
features
would
later
be
found
on
computers
such
as
Apple's
Lisa
(1983)
and
Macintosh
(1984).
1973
THE
MEDIA
• United
Press
International
(UPI)
announces
that
it
will
begin
installing
computer
terminals
in
all
of
its
100
United
States
bureaus.
• The
Associated
Press
(AP)
announces
that
it
plans
to
develop
electronic
darkrooms.
By
1973
AP
is
using
computer
terminals
throughout
its
domestic
system.
• News
Example:
Feb.
13,
1973
‐‐
"First
(Vietnam
War
American)
Prisoner
Release
Completed",
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1974
TECHNOLOGY
• A
commercial
version
of
ARPANET,
called
Telenet,
is
offered
through
the
Bolt,
Beranek
and
Newman
company.
It
is
through
services
such
as
Telenet,
and
later
Tymnet,
that
computer
database
vender
services
such
as
BRS
can
be
accessed.
• A
scientific
paper
called
"A
Protocol
for
Packet
Network
Intercommunication"
is
written
by
Vinton
Cerf
and
Robert
Kahn.
This
paper
leads
to
the
common
internet
protocol
TCP/IP.
Cerf
and
Kahn
are
sometimes
refered
to
as
the
"fathers
of
the
Internet"
for
implementing
the
common
protocol
TCP/IP.
(One
of
the
first
reports
on
the
theoretical
possibilities
of
packet
switching
was
written
by
Len
Kleinrock
in
the
early
1960s.
Kleinrock
played
an
instrumental
role
in
the
creation
of
the
ARPANET
at
UCLA.)
• July
1974
‐‐
Jonathan
Titus
describes
his
homemade
Intel
8008‐based
minicomputer
in
a
four
page
article
for
the
computer
hobbyist
magazine
Radio‐Electronics.
For
$5.50
you
can
send
away
for
his
forty‐eight
page
instruction
manual
and
learn
how
to
build
your
own
Mark‐8.
• Beginning
in
the
early
1970s,
computer
hobbyists
design
and
experiment
with
microprocessor‐based
personal
computers.
Informal
computer
clubs
and
groups
form
around
the
country
to
share
technical
information.
1974
THE
MEDIA
• Part
of
The
Wall
Street
Journal
eastern
edition
is
successfully
transmitted
by
satellite
from
Massachusetts
to
New
Jersey.
This
is
one
of
the
first
successful
newspaper
and
satellite
tests.
• An
early
version
of
the
Dow
Jones
News/Retrieval
database
is
marketed
to
brokers
and
investors.
The
regular
online
service
will
be
available
in
1977.
• The
British
teletext
service
Ceefax
is
launched
on
Sept.
23,
1974.
(See
also:
"Ceefax
marks
30
years
of
service."
BBC,
Sept.
22,
2004.)
"Pages
Of
Ceefax."
Posted
on
YouTube.
• Dec.
1974
‐‐
The
New
York
Times
begins
adding
computer
terminals
to
their
newsroom.
(Source:
New
York
Times
Timeline.)
Also
in
1974
the
Times
offers
a
commercial
version
of
its
Information
Bank
(Infobank)
abstract
service
via
the
BRS
database
system.
60
• News
Example:
Aug.
9,
1974
‐‐
"Nixon
Resigns",
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1975
TECHNOLOGY
• In
the
January
1975
issue
of
Popular
Electronics,
the
cover
story
describes
the
Altair
8800,
the
first
successful
personal
computer.
For
$395
you
can
order
a
kit
to
build
the
Altair
yourself
or
you
can
buy
it
assembled
for
$495.
The
Altair
8800
comes
with
256
bytes
of
computer
memory
and
uses
Intel's
8080
processor.
• Excerpt
from
the
January
1975
Popular
Electronics
column
that
introduced
the
Altair:
"For
many
years,
we've
been
reading
and
hearing
about
how
computers
will
one
day
be
a
household
item.
Therefore,
we're
especially
proud
to
present
in
this
issue
the
first
commercial
type
of
minicomputer
project
ever
published
that's
priced
within
reach
of
many
households
‐‐
the
Alair
8800...."
• Ed
Roberts,
the
creator
of
the
Altair
personal
computer,
works
with
Bill
Gates
and
Paul
Allen
to
develop
Altair's
first
programming
language.
Their
program
is
a
version
of
the
BASIC
computer
language.
The
partnership
between
Gates
and
Allen
is
the
beginning
of
the
Microsoft
company.
(See
also:
"Microsoft
@
30."
History
Timeline,
Microsoft,
2005.)
• The
ARPANET
computer
network
is
taken
over
by
the
U.S.
Defense
Information
Systems
Agency.
1975
THE
MEDIA
• French
television
begins
testing
its
Antiope
teletext
service.
Teletext
is
a
text‐only
system
without
the
interactivity
and
graphics
of
viewdata.
The
French
viewdata
system
is
called
Minitel.
• The
Manhattan
Cable
Television
service
begins
using
a
videotex
and
teletext
Reuters
news
system.
A
consumer
version
of
The
Reuters
Monitor
is
carried
on
two
New
York
cable
channels.
• The
CompuServe
dial‐up
service
becomes
an
independent,
publicly
held
company.
• News
Example:
April/May
1975
‐‐
The
Fall
of
Saigon,
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1976
TECHNOLOGY
• The
Apple
I
personal
computer
is
introduced
by
Steve
Jobs
and
Steve
Wozniak.
Also
in
1976,
Jobs
and
Wozniak
leave
their
jobs
at
Atari
and
Hewlett‐Packard
to
form
the
Apple
computer
company.
• Cray
Research
produces
the
Cray‐1
supercomputer.
"The
first
Cray
1
system
was
installed
at
Los
Alamos
National
Laboratory
in
1976
for
$8.8
million.
It
boasted
a
world‐record
speed
of
160
million
floating‐point
operations
per
second
(160
megaflops)
and
an
8
megabyte
(1
million
word)
main
memory."
(Source:
Cray
History)
• Although
for
most
people
it
was
just
a
fad,
during
the
middle
and
late
1970s
the
CB
(Citizens
Band)
radio
was
a
popular
personal
communication
device.
Short‐distance
CB
radios
were
considered
a
cutting‐edge
technology
of
their
day.
• Wang
Laboratories
introduces
a
CRT‐based
word
processor
system.
During
1976
Wang
also
develops
5
1/4"
floppy
disks.
1976
THE
MEDIA
61
• A
British
teletext
standard
is
developed
that
is
different
from
earlier
BBC
and
Independent
Broadcasting
Authority
(IBA)
services.
(During
the
1970s
both
the
Ceefax
and
Oracle
British
teletext
services
are
launched.
See
also:
"Ceefax
marks
30
years
of
service."
BBC,
Sept.
22,
2004.)
• News
Examples:
July
4,
1976
‐‐
Bicentennial,
Nov.
3,
1976
‐‐
Presidential
Election,
New
York
Times.
(Abstracts
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1977
TECHNOLOGY
• The
TRS‐80
Model
1
microcomputer
is
released
by
Tandy
and
Radio
Shack.
• The
Commodore
PET
personal
computer
is
introduced.
The
PET
(Personal
Electonic
Transactor)
comes
with
two
built‐in
cassette
drives
and
4K
to
8K
of
memory.
• The
Apple
II
personal
computer
is
introduced.
It
comes
with
4K
of
memory
and
is
one
of
the
first
PCs
to
use
color
graphics
and
floppy
disks.
• The
Atari
2600
video
game
console
is
released
in
October
1977.
• An
electronic
mail
system
is
developed
at
the
University
of
Wisconsin
that
provides
e‐mail
to
over
100
computer
science
researchers.
Additional
Resources
• "Steve
Wozniak
Remembers
the
Apple
II."
Fox
News,
June
6,
2007.
1977
THE
MEDIA
• The
Toronto
Globe
and
Mail
begins
offering
Info‐Globe,
the
first
commercially
available
full‐
text
newspaper
database.
• In
December
1977
Warner
Communications
starts
an
interactive
cable
system
in
Columbus,
Ohio,
called
QUBE.
(By
the
early
1980s
QUBE
had
expanded
to
other
cities
around
the
country,
but
the
innovative
cable
system
began
phasing
out
in
1984.)
• News
Examples:
July
14,
1977
‐‐
"Power
Failure
Blacks
Out
New
York,"
August
17,
1977
‐‐
"Elvis
Presley
Dies,"
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1978
TECHNOLOGY
• The
first
bulletin
board
software
is
written
by
Ward
Christensen
and
Randy
Suess.
They
call
it
CBBS
or
Computer
Bulletin
Board
System.
• An
important
step
in
the
development
of
the
Internet
takes
place
when
IP
(Internet
Protocol)
is
added
to
TCP
(Transmission
Control
Protocol).
Vinton
Cerf
and
Robert
Kahn
designed
these
important
network
communication
protocols.
Between
1978
and
1983
several
prototypes
of
TCP/IP
are
developed
to
test
its
ability
to
unify
different
computer
network
systems.
On
Jan.
1,
1983,
TCP/IP
is
accepted
as
the
standard
protocol
for
ARPANET
and
other
networks.
• Intel
introduces
its
16‐bit
8086
processor.
• The
first
computer
spreadsheet,
VisiCalc,
is
developed
by
Daniel
Bricklin
and
Robert
Frankston.
It
runs
on
Apple
II
personal
computers.
1978
THE
MEDIA
• The
Bonneville
International
Corporation
receives
permission
from
the
FCC
to
test
over‐the‐
air
teletext
services.
Salt
Lake
City
station
KSL‐TV
uses
British
Ceefax
software
to
broadcast
62
teletext
news
stories.
• Britain's
Independent
Broadcasting
Authority
continues
to
develop
and
support
a
videotex
/
teletext
system
called
Oracle.
This
ITV
service
lasts
until
1992.
• The
Source,
an
early
online
service
designed
for
the
general
public,
is
started.
• News
Example:
October
17,
1978
‐‐
Polish
Cardinal
Elected
Pope,
New
York
Times.
(Abstract
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1979
TECHNOLOGY
• The
USENET
service
is
established
by
three
graduate
students
at
the
University
of
North
Carolina
and
Duke
University.
• Motorola
releases
its
68000
microprocessor.
Apple
will
use
this
powerful
processor
for
its
Lisa
and
early
Macintosh
computers.
• In
1979
the
first
Japanese
commercial
cellular
network
is
started.
U.S.
cellular
telephone
networks
began
a
few
years
later.
However,
until
the
early
1990s
cell
phones
were
so
large
that
they
were
used
primarily
as
car
phones.
• WordStar,
one
of
the
first
commercially
successful
word
processing
software
programs
for
personal
computers,
is
released
by
Micropro
International.
• July
1,
1979
‐‐
The
first
Sony
Walkman
is
sold.
(You
might
say
the
audio
cassette
Walkman
and
the
first
commercial
transistor
radio
(1954)
were
the
iPods
of
their
generations.)
• The
Atari
company
introduces
its
400
and
800
computers.
This
is
the
beginning
of
the
"Atari
8‐bit"
series.
1979
THE
MEDIA
• British
Telecom
introduces
an
interactive
videotex
system
called
Prestel.
• News
Examples:
March
27,
1979
‐‐
"Egypt
and
Israel
Sign
Formal
Treaty,"
March
29,
1979
‐‐
"Radiation
Is
Released
in
Accident
at
Nuclear
Plant
in
Pennsylvania,"
New
York
Times.
(Abstracts
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1980
TECHNOLOGY
• Tandy
releases
its
TRS‐80
videotex
terminal
for
$399.
Installation
requires
connecting
a
telephone
to
the
modem
interface
and
attaching
the
TRS‐80
to
the
antenna
terminals
of
your
television
set.
• It
is
announced
that
local
area
network
software
will
be
developed
by
Novell.
(Another
network
company
is
3Com.
The
founder
of
3Com
is
Robert
Metcalfe,
the
coinventor
of
Ethernet.)
• During
1980
IBM
continues
to
develop
its
first
successful
personal
computer.
They
hire
Microsoft
to
create
the
new
computer's
operating
system.
Microsoft's
system
is
based
on
QDOS
software,
written
by
Tim
Paterson
of
Seattle
Computer
Products.
His
work
was
influenced
by
CP/M
software
written
by
Gary
Kildall
of
Digital
Research.
Bill
Gates
and
Microsoft
will
hold
the
marketing
and
licensing
rights
for
the
new
MS‐DOS
(or
PC‐DOS)
operating
system.
• The
Apple
computer
company
goes
public.
The
initial
public
offering
of
4.6
million
shares
of
common
stock
sells
immediately.
• Oct.
27,
1980
‐‐
A
computer
virus
spreads
throughout
the
ARPANET
network.
Although
it
was
an
accident,
this
early
Internet
virus
showed
the
importance
of
network
security.
(In
1980,
approximately
20,000
people
had
access
to
the
Internet
by
way
of
200
university,
military,
and
government
host
computers
around
the
world.)
63
• "Fiber
optics
technology
has
developed
rapidly
in
the
past
few
years
because
of
its
value
as
a
medium
of
information
transfer...Digital
signals
lend
themselves
nicely
to
a
fiber
optics
system;
and
with
most
of
our
information
transfer
signals
‐
whether
by
telephone
or
computer
‐
becoming
digital,
the
fiber
optics
system
is
well‐suited
to
our
current
and
future
technology."
(Source:
Presstime,
Nov.
1980)
Additional
Resources
• "Early
1980s
TV
commercial
for
Commodore
VIC‐20
computer,
starring
William
Shatner."
Posted
on
YouTube.
1980
THE
MEDIA
• A
commercial
videotex
service
is
started
by
Belo
Information
Systems,
the
publisher
of
the
Dallas
Morning
News.
• The
Knight‐Ridder
company
and
AT&T
run
a
test
of
their
experimental
videotex
system
in
Coral
Cables,
Florida.
(They
will
officially
launch
their
Viewtron
videotex
system
in
1983.)
• The
Corporation
for
Public
Broadcasting
conducts
teletext
trials
at
PBS
television
station
WETA.
These
tests
are
managed
by
the
Alternative
Media
Center
of
New
York
University.
• Database
vender
BRS
begins
offering
the
Dow
Jones
News/Retrieval
system,
which
includes
the
Dow
Jones
newswire
and
abstracts
of
Wall
Street
Journal
stories.
• The
CompuServe
dial‐up
service
begins
working
with
11
Associated
Press
member
newspapers.
The
first
newspaper
to
go
online
was
The
Columbus
Dispatch
on
July
1,
1980.
The
other
papers
included:
The
Washington
Post,
The
New
York
Times,
The
Minneapolis
Star
Tribune,
The
San
Francisco
Chronicle,
The
San
Francisco
Examiner,
the
Los
Angeles
Times,
The
Virginian‐Pilot
/
Ledger
Star,
The
Middlesex
News,
the
St.
Louis
Post‐Dispatch,
and
the
Atlanta
Journal‐Constitution.
(The
CompuServe/AP
collaboration
would
end
in
1982.)
• The
New
York
Times
Infobank
database
system
begins
offering
its
stories
in
full‐text
form.
• News
Example:
Nov.
5,
1980
‐‐
"Reagan
Easily
Beats
Carter,"
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
1981
TECHNOLOGY
• IBM
introduces
its
first
successful
personal
computer.
The
IBM
5150
quickly
becomes
the
industry
standard.
(In
1973
IBM
developed
a
PC
prototype
called
the
"Special
Computer,
APL
Machine
Portable"
or
SCAMP.
IBM
sold
an
expensive
portable
computer
in
1975
called
the
Model
5100.)
• The
PC‐DOS
operating
system
designed
for
the
IBM
PC
is
also
marketed
separately
by
Microsoft
as
MS‐DOS.
Microsoft's
ability
to
retain
the
marketing
and
licensing
rights
for
MS‐
DOS
transforms
Bill
Gates'
small
Seattle
company.
• The
BITNET
computer
network
is
created
at
the
City
University
of
New
York.
BITNET
is
an
educational
network
that
connects
university
mainframe
computers
around
the
world.
• The
Hayes
Smartmodem
is
introduced.
This
new
modem
can
transfer
data
at
300
bps
(the
average
speed
in
1981)
and
it
doesn't
need
an
acoustic
coupler.
1981
THE
MEDIA
• British
Telecom
introduces
an
electronic
mail
service
that
uses
Prestel
videotex
technology.
• The
London
(Ontario)
Free
Press
offers
videopress
machines
with
touchscreen
capabilities.
64
These
advertising
videotex
machines
are
located
at
local
malls.
• "1981
KRON‐TV
Story
about
Online
Newspapers."
Posted
on
YouTube.
• News
Example:
Jan.
21,
1981
‐‐
Reagan
Takes
Oath
/
U.S.
Hostages
in
Iran
Fly
to
Freedom,
New
York
Times.
1982
TECHNOLOGY
• The
Sun
Microsystems
company
is
founded
and
their
Sun
I
workstation
is
introduced.
The
workstation
connects
to
other
networked
computers
with
software
based
on
UNIX.
• An
electronic
spreadsheet
for
the
IBM
PC,
called
Lotus
1‐2‐3,
is
released.
• Various
computer
manufacturers,
such
as
Compaq,
begin
selling
IBM
clones.
• Database
management
software
dBase
II
is
introduced
by
the
Ashton
Tate
company.
• The
Adobe
Systems
software
company
is
founded.
• "Living
With
a
Computer."
James
Fallows,
Atlantic,
July
1982.
• An
early
personal
computer
virus
called
Elk
Cloner
is
spread
by
Apple
II
computer
floppy
disks.
(Hear
also:
"25
Years
of
Computer
Viruses."
NPR,
July
13,
2007.)
• The
Commodore
64
computer
is
introduced
in
August
1982.
It
comes
with
64K
of
memory
and
a
5
1/2"
disk
drive
or
cassette
tape.
(See
also:
"Commodore
64
TV
commercial."
Posted
on
YouTube.)
• Although
compact
disc
(CD)
technology
had
been
around
for
a
number
of
years,
the
Sony
and
Philips
companies
make
the
mass
production
of
CDs
possible
during
the
1980s.
(See
also:
"Compact
disc
hits
25th
birthday."
BBC,
August
17,
2007.)
• The
Osborne
Computer
Company
announces
the
successor
to
its
popular
1981
Osborne
1
model.
Osborne
computers
were
among
the
first
portable
PC
computers.
• Sept.
19,
1982
‐‐
Carnegie
Mellon
University
professor
Scott
E.
Fahlman
is
perhaps
the
first
to
use
a
sideways
smiley
face
emoticon.
:‐)
As
personal
computers
become
more
popular,
emoticons
such
as
the
smiley
face
will
be
commonly
used
with
newsgroup
posts,
e‐mail
messages
and
text
messaging.
• There
are
more
than
5.5
million
personal
computers
in
offices
and
homes.
(Source:
InfoCulture:
The
Smithsonian
Book)
1982
THE
MEDIA
• The
Times
Mirror
company
begins
testing
its
Gateway
videotex
service.
• Newsweek
is
one
of
the
content
providers
for
the
British
Prestel
videotex
system.
• Field
Enterprises,
which
owns
WFLD‐TV
and
the
Chicago
Sun‐Times,
produces
a
videotex
magazine
called
Keyfax.
(The
project
ends
in
1985.)
• Seattle
station
KIRO‐TV
tests
an
over‐the‐air
teletext
news
system.
• On
May
3,
1982,
the
Fort
Worth
Star‐Telegram
officially
launches
its
StarText
BBS
(Bulletin
Board
System).
• Examples
of
U.S.
companies
testing
videotex
systems
in
1982:
Bonneville
International
/
KSL‐
TV;
Field
Electronic
Publishing
/WFLD‐TV
/
Keyfax;
CBS
/
KNXT
/
Extravision;
PBS
/
KCET
/
Now;
Time
Video
Services;
Louisville
Courier‐Journal
&
Times
• News
Example:
June
15,
1982
‐‐
Britain's
Falkland
Islands
War,
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
the
Infobank
database
service.)
Additional
Resources
• "StarText
‐‐
a
capsule
history."
Internet
Archive,
1997.
• "StarText:
Farewell
To
A
Good
Friend."
March
14,
1997.
65
See
Also:
New
Media
Bibliography
1983
TECHNOLOGY
• Jan.
1,
1983
‐‐
Transmission
Control
Protocol
(TCP)
and
Internet
Protocol
(IP)
are
accepted
as
the
standard
protocols
for
the
ARPANET
and
other
computer
networks.
For
many,
the
acceptance
of
TCP/IP
as
a
common
network
communication
language
is
considered
the
beginning
of
the
Internet
we
know
today.
• Jan.
1983
‐‐
Time
magazine
names
the
personal
computer
as
its
Man
of
the
Year.
• Apple
introduces
the
Lisa.
It
uses
a
mouse
and
a
graphical
user
interface.
• Due
to
the
growth
of
ARPANET,
the
Department
of
Defense
divides
the
computer
network
into
two
separate
networks.
MILNET
will
deal
with
military
projects
and
ARPANET
will
serve
civilian
needs.
• A
technical
advisory
group
called
the
Internet
Activities
Board
(IAB)
is
founded
to
help
define
the
structure
of
the
Internet.
One
of
the
early
members
of
the
IAB
is
Jon
Postel,
who
also
served
as
an
editor
for
the
influencial
Request
for
Comments
(RFC)
series
and
as
the
director
of
the
Internet
Assigned
Numbers
Authority
(IANA).
• Tandy
introduces
one
of
the
first
laptop
computers.
The
Radio
Shack
Model
100
quickly
becomes
a
popular
computer
for
journalists.
The
Model
100's
built‐in
telephone
modem
allows
reporters
to
write
on
location
and
send
their
stories
back
to
the
newsroom.
(But
no
one
ever
called
it
the
Model
100,
to
reporters
it
was
the
"Trash
80".)
Additional
Resources
• "Computer
Chronicles
TV
Program."
Videos
from
1983‐2002.
Internet
Archives.
1983
THE
MEDIA
• Oct.
1983
‐‐
Knight‐Ridder
officially
starts
its
Viewtron
videotex
system
in
Miami
with
approximately
2,500
subscribers.
AT&T
develops
a
special
Viewtron
console
unit
that
is
placed
in
homes.
• (See
also:
"Before
the
Web,
There
Was
Viewtron"
and
"Viewtron
Remembered
Roundtable"
by
Howard
Finberg,
Poynter
Online,
2003.
• "Viewtron
TV
Ad."
Posted
on
YouTube.
• The
Nexis
database
service
begins
offering
exclusive
access
to
The
New
York
Times.
Nexis
is
a
full‐text
information
service
with
material
from
newspapers,
magazines,
and
many
other
sources.
Nexis's
parent
company,
Mead
Data
Central,
also
purchases
the
Times
Infobank
service.
• News
Example:
Oct.
24,
1983
‐‐
Suicide
Truck‐Bombing
at
Beirut
International
Airport
in
Lebanon,
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
1984
TECHNOLOGY
• The
Macintosh
personal
computer
is
introduced
by
Apple.
The
Mac
is
one
of
the
first
popular
computers
to
use
a
3
1/2"
disk
drive,
a
mouse,
and
a
graphical
user
interface.
• Jan.
22,
1984
‐‐
During
the
1984
Super
Bowl,
Apple
introduces
its
new
Macintosh
computer
with
what
has
become
one
of
the
most
famous
television
commercials
of
all
time.
The
ad
features
Orwellian
images
from
the
book
1984
and
is
directed
by
Blade
Runner
director
Ridley
Scott.
It
ends
with
the
voice‐over:
"On
January
24th,
Apple
Computer
will
introduce
the
Macintosh.
And
you'll
see
why
1984
won't
be
like
1984."
(See
also:
"1984
Macintosh
TV
commercial."
Posted
on
YouTube.)
66
• The
Internet
Domain
name
system
(DNS)
is
established.
DNS
allows
the
use
of
domain
names
rather
than
corresponding
internet
protocol
numbers.
• "10
People
and
Computers
in
Commerce:
A
Spreadsheet
Way
of
Knowledge."
Steven
Levy,
Harpers,
Nov.
1984.
Additional
Resources
• "Making
the
Macintosh."
Stanford
University,
2000.
• "Apple
Ads."
(1984‐2004)
Posted
on
YouTube.
1984
THE
MEDIA
• The
ExtraVision
teletext
system
is
tested
at
various
CBS
affiliated
television
stations.
• The
Times
Mirror
company
offers
its
Gateway
videotex
service
to
selected
communities
in
California.
The
Gateway
service
uses
both
telephone
and
two‐way
cable
distribution.
• The
Dow
Jones
News/Retrieval
service
offers
full‐text
versions
of
The
Wall
Street
Journal.
• The
Knight‐Ridder
Vu/Text
database
service
is
started
with
full‐text
editions
of
The
Philadelphia
Inquirer,
Philadelphia
Daily
News,
the
Detroit
Free‐Press,
and
The
Miami
Herald.
• There
are
15
newspapers
that
offer
full‐text
database
versions
of
their
stories
through
vendors
such
as
Nexis,
Vu/Text,
Dialog,
or
DataTimes.
(Source:
News
Media
Libraries:
A
Management
Handbook)
1985
TECHNOLOGY
• The
Windows
operating
system
is
released
by
Microsoft.
(Windows
had
been
announced
in
1983.)
Windows
1.0
provides
a
graphical
operating
environment
for
IBM
compatible
computers.
• The
average
modem
can
transfer
data
at
2400
bps.
• Affordable
desktop
publishing
begins
with
the
introduction
of
the
Apple
LaserWriter,
the
HP
LaserJet,
and
software
programs
such
as
Aldus
PageMaker.
• Nintendo
releases
the
Nintendo
entertainment
(video
game)
system.
• The
80386,
a
32‐bit
microprocessor
with
275,000
transistors
on
each
chip,
is
produced
by
Intel.
(The
chip
will
give
the
next
generation
of
personal
computers
increased
power
and
speed.)
Additional
Resources
• "Windows
Products
and
Technologies
History:
Windows
Overview
&
History."
Microsoft,
2003.
1985
THE
MEDIA
• Steve
Case
and
others
create
the
Quantum
Computer
Services
company
out
of
an
earlier
company
called
Control
Video.
On
November
5,
1985
they
launch
the
Quantum
Link
(or
Q‐Link)
online
service
for
Commodore
64
and
128
computers.
(The
Quantum
company
will
later
start
America
Online.)
• "Q‐Link
Promotional
Video."
Posted
on
YouTube.
• The
online
discussion
community,
The
WELL
(Whole
Earth
'Lectronic
Link),
is
started
by
Stewart
Brand
and
Larry
Brilliant.
• The
PressLink
service
is
founded
by
Knight
Ridder.
At
first
PressLink
only
distributes
informational
graphics
and
photos
to
Knight
Ridders
papers,
but
by
1989
the
online
67
service
is
available
to
other
subscribers.
• There
are
50
newspapers
offering
full‐text
database
versions
of
their
stories
through
vendors
such
as
Nexis,
Vu/Text,
Dialog,
or
DataTimes.
(Source:
News
Media
Libraries:
A
Management
Handbook)
• News
Example:
March
11,
1985
‐‐
"Chernenko
Is
Dead
in
Moscow
at
73;
Gorbachev
Succeeds
Him",
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
1986
TECHNOLOGY
• Jan.
1986
‐‐
The
National
Center
for
Supercomputing
Applications
(NCSA),
at
the
University
of
Illinois
at
Urbana‐Champaign,
opens.
(In
1993,
the
center
will
release
Mosaic,
the
first
graphical
Web
browser.)
• March
13,
1986
‐‐
Microsoft
Corporation's
initial
public
stock
offering.
• A
commercial
mailing
list
program
called
LISTSERV
is
developed
by
Eric
Thomas
for
BITNET.
• The
Internet
Engineering
Task
Force
is
formed.
IETF
is
an
international
technical
organization
concerned
with
the
evolution
of
the
Internet.
1986
THE
MEDIA
• March
1986
‐‐
The
Knight
Ridder
Company
ends
its
Viewtron
videotex
project.
(See
also:
"Before
the
Web,
There
Was
Viewtron"
and
"Viewtron
Remembered
Roundtable."
By
Howard
Finberg,
Poynter
Online,
Oct.
2003.)
• The
Times
Mirror
company
ends
its
Gateway
videotex
project.
• "Videotex
Players
Seek
a
Workable
Formula."
New
York
Times,
March
25,
1986.
• July
16,
1986
‐‐
The
first
Free‐net
is
launched
in
Cleveland,
Ohio,
at
Case
Western
Reserve
University.
• The
Hamilton
(Ontario)
Spectator
launches
a
BBS
new
media
site
during
1986.
• News
Example:
Jan.
28,
1986
‐‐
Challenger
Space
Shuttle
Explosion,
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
1987
TECHNOLOGY
• NSFNET
is
funded
by
the
National
Science
Foundation
to
connect
five
supercomputer
research
centers.
It
is
called
the
backbone
of
the
Internet
and
will
eventually
take
the
place
of
ARPANET.
NSFNET
will
help
guide
and
manage
the
Internet's
incredible
growth
until
it
is
decommissioned
in
April
1995.
• "For
something
as
complex
as
the
modern
computer,
it
is
difficult
to
assign
credit
for
invention
to
a
single
person.
The
computer
is
not
so
much
a
thing
as
a
set
of
ideas...."
(Source:
"A
Long,
Fast
Drive
into
Computer
History."
Chet
Raymo,
Boston
Globe,
April
20,
1987.)
• HyperCard,
a
commercial
hypertext
authoring
system,
is
introduced
by
Apple.
The
HyperCard
application
is
included
with
all
Macintosh
machines.
Additional
Resources
• "Mid
to
late
1980s
Compac
TV
commercial
with
John
Cleese."
Posted
on
YouTube.
(Internal
promo
for
Compac
dealers.)
1987
THE
MEDIA
• Videotex
operators
see
regional
Bell
telephone
companies
as
a
threat
to
the
U.S.
videotex
68
industry.
They
are
concerned
about
the
possible
dual
role
of
telephone
companies
as
information
gateways
and
content
providers.
• The
Middlesex
(Mass.)
News
launches
a
BBS
new
media
site
during
1987.
• News
Example:
Oct.
20,
1987
‐‐
"Stocks
Plunge
508
Points",
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
1988
TECHNOLOGY
• Oct.
1988
‐‐
The
NeXT
Cube
is
introduced.
(After
leaving
Apple,
Steve
Jobs
started
a
new
computer
company
called
NeXT.
In
1986
Jobs
purchased
the
computer
graphics
division
of
Lucasfilm
and
started
Pixar
Animation
Studios.)
• During
1988
the
Moving
Picture
Experts
Group
(MPEG)
is
established.
This
working
group
develops
the
MP3
digitization
format
that
will
play
a
crucial
role
in
music
audio
file
sharing
beginning
in
the
late
1990s.
(See
also:
"The
Story
of
MP3."
Fraunhofer
Institute,
2007.)
• Nov.
1988
‐‐
An
Internet
Worm
disables
approximately
6,000
Internet
host
computers.
A
group
called
the
Computer
Emergency
Response
Team
(CERT)
is
created
to
look
at
the
problem
of
hackers
and
electronic
crimes.
Additional
Resources
• "Timeline:
A
40‐year
history
of
hacking."
PC
World
/
CNN,
Nov.
19,
2001.
1988
THE
MEDIA
• The
Prodigy
dial‐up
service
is
launched.
Prodigy
evolved
from
an
unsuccessful
videotex
program
called
Trintex,
which
started
in
1984.
Prodigy
offers
news
updates
as
part
of
its
service.
From
an
historical
standpoint,
Prodigy
serves
as
a
bridge
from
videotex
to
the
new
media
projects
of
the
1990s.
• "Prodigy
TV
Ad."
Posted
on
YouTube.
• News
Example:
• Dec.
21,
1988
‐‐
• "Bombing
of
Pan
Am
103."
• (Story
available
from
• database
vendor
services.)
(BBC
Historical
Report)
1989
TECHNOLOGY
• The
U.S.
Department
of
Defense
sponsored
ARPANET
computer
network,
which
began
as
an
experimental
network
of
four
computers
in
1969,
is
decommissioned
and
replaced
by
the
faster
NSFNET
network.
(NSFNET
will
continue
until
1995.)
• Tim
Berners‐Lee
writes
his
original
proposal
for
the
the
World
Wide
Web.
• Intel
introduces
its
486
microprocessor.
• Nintendo
releases
its
Game
Boy
handheld
game
console.
• The
Corporation
for
Research
and
Education
Networking
(CREN)
is
started.
It
supports
low‐
cost
access
to
worldwide
electronic
networking.
(The
BITNET
and
CSNET
networks
helped
develop
CREN.)
Additional
Resources
• "A
Brief
History
of
the
Internet."
The
Internet
Society,
2003.
69
1989
THE
MEDIA
• Newspapers
continue
to
experiment
with
audiotex
technologies.
Audiotex
customers
use
their
telephone
to
dial
a
local
number,
then
enter
a
four‐digit
code
for
news,
stock
quotes,
weather,
sports,
and
other
content.
• The
Source,
an
early
online
service
designed
for
the
general
public,
is
purchased
by
CompuServe.
The
Source
is
soon
discontinued.
CompuServe
is
one
of
the
largest
dial‐up
systems
for
electronic
bulletin
board
(BBS)
access.
• In
1989
an
online
service
which
was
launched
a
year
earlier
by
the
Quantum
company
is
renamed
America
Online.
(The
history
of
Steve
Case's
AOL
can
be
traced
back
to
the
beginning
of
the
Quantum
Computer
Services
company
and
an
online
service
called
Quantum
Link.)
• News
Example:
June
5,
1989
‐‐
"Beijing
Death
Toll
at
Least
300;
Army
Tightens
Control
of
City
But
Angry
Resistance
Goes
On",
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
1990
TECHNOLOGY
• The
World
Wide
Web
(WWW)
prototype
is
created
at
the
European
Laboratory
for
Particle
Physics.
The
lab
is
also
known
as
CERN,
or
Conseil
European
Pour
La
Recherche
Nucleaire.
(The
original
WWW
proposal
came
in
1989.
Tim
Berners‐Lee's
proposal
merged
the
techniques
of
networked
information
and
hypertext.)
• The
National
Science
Foundation
begins
allowing
commercial
use
of
its
NSFNET
computer
network.
• The
Windows
3.0
operating
system
is
released
by
Microsoft.
Additional
Resources
• "The
Father
of
the
Web:
• Tim
Berners‐Lee
thinks
the
Web
can
bridge
local
interests
and
universal
value.
Then
again,
he
invented
it."
Wired,
March
1997.
• One
of
the
first
articles
about
hypertext,
or
the
concept
of
linked
words
and
images,
was
written
by
Vannevar
Bush
in
July
1945.
His
Atlantic
Monthly
article
was
called
"As
We
May
Think.")
1990
THE
MEDIA
• "The
emergence
of
the
electronically
stored
newspaper
library
has
publishers
wondering
whether
they
have
a
new
revenue
producer
in
their
midst....About
165
U.S.
and
Canadian
daily
newspaper
companies
currently
have
their
news
libraries
electronically
available
on
commercial
databases
or
on
in‐house
customized
systems...."
(Source:
Presstime,
July
1990)
(SLA
News
Division
Web
archive
examples)
• The
Albuquerque
Tribune
launches
the
"Electronic
Trib"
BBS
service
during
1990.
News
Example:
Oct.
3,
1990
‐‐
"Two
Germanys
Unite
After
45
Years
With
Jubilation
and
a
Vow
of
Peace",
New
York
Times.
(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
1991
TECHNOLOGY
• The
Gopher
Internet
navigation
system
is
released
by
researchers
at
the
University
of
Minnesota.
Gopher
inventor
Mark
MaCahill
is
reported
to
have
called
it
"the
first
Internet
application
my
mom
can
use."
• An
early
Internet
search
program
called
WAIS
is
introduced.
WAIS
(Wide‐Area
Information
70
Server)
was
originally
started
as
a
project
by
Dow
Jones,
Apple,
and
the
Thinking
Machines
Corporation.
• Tim
Berners‐Lee
and
CERN
release
the
World
Wide
Web
program.
CERN
originally
developed
the
Web
for
physics
researchers.
• "For
Shakespeare,
Just
Log
On."
New
York
Times,
July
3,
1991.
• An
early
version
of
Linux
is
released
on
the
Internet
in
September
1991.
1991
THE
MEDIA
• Feb.
1991
‐‐
A
DOS
version
of
America
Online
is
launched.
(The
history
of
Steve
Case's
AOL
can
be
traced
back
to
the
beginning
of
the
Quantum
Computer
Services
company
and
an
online
service
called
Quantum
Link.)
• News
Example:
Feb.
28,
1991
‐‐
"Bush
Halts
Offensive
Combat;
Kuwait
Freed,
Iraqis
Crushed",
New
York
Times.(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
• "Newspapers
and
Magazines
Dial
900
for
New
Revenues."
Randall
Rothenberg,
New
York
Times,
April
22,
1991.
• "Who
will
rewire
America."
CJR,
May/June
1991.
• There
are
still
a
few
videotex
journalism
projects
operating,
but
most
media
companies
are
leaving
videotex
and
moving
to
BBS
or
dial‐up
services
such
as
Prodigy,
Compuserve,
and
America
Online.
1992
TECHNOLOGY
• Jan.
1992
‐‐
The
Internet
Society,
an
international
organization
for
coordination
of
the
Internet,
is
founded.
• Jan.
12,
1992
‐‐
The
fictional
HAL
9000
computer
becomes
operational
at
the
H.A.L.
plant
in
Urbana,
Illinois.
(The
movie
2001:
A
Space
Odyssey
says
that
HAL
was
created
in
1992,
but
the
book
writes
that
it
was
in
1997.)
• The
U.S.
Senate
approves
a
program
to
fund
the
National
Research
and
Education
Network
(NREN).
• March
8,
1992
‐‐
A
computer
virus
called
Michelangelo
threatens
to
damage
computers
around
the
world.
• "The
Little
Virus
That
Didn't:
The
press
couldn't
get
enough
of
Michelangelo.
But
did
it
fall
prey
or
save
the
day?"
AJR,
May
1992.
• An
early
ebook
called
the
Sony
Bookman
is
introduced.
(See
also:
"Now
the
Plot
Thickens:
Digital
reading?
What
the
Dickens
is
that?"
Stuart
Whitmore,
AsiaWeek.com,
Nov.
6.
1998.)
• There
are
65
million
personal
computers
in
offices
and
homes.
(Source:
InfoCulture:
The
Smithsonian
Book)
• Dec.
1992
‐‐
A
mobile
phone
in
the
United
Kingdom
receives
one
of
the
first
SMS
messages.
The
text
message
was
sent
from
a
computer
on
the
UK's
Vodafone
GSM
network.
1992
THE
MEDIA
 "Reinventing
the
Media."
CJR,
March/April
1992.
 "Plugging
Into
Cyberspace."
CJR,
May/June
1992.
 News
Example:
Aug.
24,
1992
‐‐
Hurricane
Andrew.
(Stories
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
 "What
Are
We
So
Afraid
Of?"
Roger
Fidler,
AJR,
Oct.
1992
 Dec.
1992
‐‐
It
is
announced
that
the
Delphi
dial‐up
service
is
offering
full
access
to
the
Internet.
Delphi
is
one
of
the
first
to
provide
the
general
public
with
easy‐to‐use,
text‐only
71
access
to
the
Internet.
 A
few
examples
of
new
media
sites
launched
during
1992
(Source:
E&P
and
Alexa):
 St.
Louis
Post‐Dispatch,
Post‐Link,
Jan.
1992
Service:
BBS
 CNN,
CNN
Newsroom,
Oct.
1992
Service:
America
Online
 Chicago
Tribune,
Chicago
Online,
1992
Service:
America
Online
(1994
AJR
article)
 Charlotte
Observer,
Observer
Online,
1992
Service:
BBS
Statistics
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
200,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
• There
are
150
newspapers
that
offer
full‐text
database
versions
of
their
stories
through
vendors
such
as
Nexis,
Vu/Text,
Dialog,
or
DataTimes.
(Source:
News
Media
Libraries:
A
Management
Handbook)
1993
TECHNOLOGY
• April
1993
‐‐
Mosaic,
the
first
graphical
Web
browser,
is
released
by
the
National
Center
for
Supercomputing
Applications
(NCSA)
at
the
University
of
Illinois
at
Urbana‐Champaign.
Marc
Andreessen
leads
the
group
of
computer
programmers
who
developed
this
browser.
(See
also:
"How
the
Mosaic
browser
triggered
a
digital
revolution."
CNET
News,
April
17,
2003.)
• The
Internet
Network
Information
Center
(InterNIC)
is
started
and
a
new
arrangement
for
managing
the
Internet
begins.
InterNIC
is
supported
by
the
National
Science
Foundation
along
with
commercial
companies
such
as
AT&T.
One
of
InterNIC's
responsibilities
is
the
registration
of
domain
names
for
the
Internet.
(Examples:
.com,
.org,
.net,
.edu,
and
.gov)
• Intel
introduces
its
Pentium
computer
chip.
• "Ted
Nelson
and
Xanadu."
The
Electronic
Labyrinth,
1993.
• The
first
Microsoft
Internet
site
is
launched.
It
was
designed
to
support
FTP
services
and
limited
text‐only
Internet
browsing.
• "The
man
who
made
computers
personal:
Alan
Kay
may
not
be
a
household
name
but
he
has
revolutionised
our
lifestyles."
New
Scientist,
June
19,
1993.
• "Where
Is
the
Digital
Highway
Really
Heading?"
Wired,
July/Aug.
1993.
• "Home‐grown
BB$."
Wired,
Sept./Oct.
1993.
• November
1993
‐‐
A
camera
recording
the
image
of
the
Trojan
Room
coffee
pot
at
Cambridge
University
becomes
one
of
the
first
Web
cams.
(See
also:
"Story
of
the
Trojan
Room
Coffee
Pot:
A
Timeline."
and
"First
Web
Cam."
Quentin
Stafford‐Fraser,
2001.)
The
Web
cam
was
turned
off
on
Aug.
22,
2001.
• "A
Free
and
Simple
Computer
Link."
New
York
Times,
Dec.
8,
1993.
Additional
Resources
• "'The
Little
Browser
That
Could'
and
the
New
Media
Revolution."
Poynter
Online,
Feb.
23,
2004.
1993
THE
MEDIA
• "Casting
the
Internet:
A
New
Tool
for
Electronic
Newsgathering."
CJR,
Jan./Feb.
1993.
• News
Example:
April
19,
1993
‐‐
"Waco
Cult
Siege."
(Story
available
from
database
vendor
services.)
(BBC
Historical
Report)
• "Papers
Will
Survive
Newest
Technology."
AJR,
June
1993.
• "Digital
Journalism."
Video
from
Computer
Chronicles
TV
Program.
Internet
Archive,
1993.
• "The
Future
is
Now:
Newspapers
are
overcoming
their
fears
of
technology
and
launching
a
wide
array
of
electronic
products."
AJR,
Oct.
1993.
72
• "Future
Tense:
The
Anxious
Journey
of
a
Technophobe."
CJR,
Dec.
1993.
• A
few
examples
of
new
media
sites
launched
during
1993:
(Source:
E&P
and
Alexa):
Florida
Today,
FlaToday,
Feb.
1993,
Service:
CompuServe;
San
Jose
Mercury
News,
Mercury
Center,
May
1993,
Service:
America
Online;
Forbes
Magazine,
June
1993;
Time
Online,
Sept.
1993
(1994
IPA
Review)
Service:
America
Online;
Arizona
Republic,
Oct.
1993,
Service:
BBS;
NPR,
Dec.
1993;
U.S.
News
&
World
Report,
Dec.
1993
1994
TECHNOLOGY
• February
1994
‐‐
Yahoo
is
started
as
a
personal
list
of
sites
by
David
Filo
and
Jerry
Yang,
Ph.D.
candidates
in
electrical
engineering
at
Stanford.
Yahoo
stands
for
"Yet
Another
Hierarchical
Officious
Oracle."
• April
4,
1994
‐‐
The
Netscape
Communications
Corporation
is
founded
by
Marc
Andreessen
and
Jim
Clark.
• "The
Magic
Box:
Time
Warner
is
testing
its
futuristic
vision
of
services
that
will
be
available
from
the
TV.
But
how
much
interaction
do
Americans
really
want?"
The
New
Yorker,
April
11,
1994.
• The
JPEG
standard
is
officially
approved.
(JPEG
images
will
play
an
important
part
in
the
future
use
of
digital
photographs
and
graphics
on
the
Web.)
• Although
professional
photographers
began
experimenting
with
digital
photography
in
1979,
the
Associated
Press
and
Kodak
introduce
the
NC2000,
the
first
digital
camera
specifically
designed
for
photojournalists,
in
1994.
Early
digital
cameras
were
very
expensive.
It
would
be
a
number
of
years
before
they
became
popular
with
the
general
public.
(See
also:
"A
Bird's
View
of
History:
The
Digital
Camera
and
the
Ever‐Changing
Landscape
of
Photojournalism."
The
Digital
Journalist,
Feb.
2006.)
• Sept.
12,
1994
‐‐
Netscape
releases
the
beta
version
of
its
Navigator
Web
browser.
(See
also:
"A
Sad
Milestone:
AOL
To
Discontinue
Netscape
Browser
Development."
Michael
Arrington,
TechCrunch,
Dec.
28,
2007.)
• Oct.
1994
‐‐
The
World
Wide
Web
Consortium
(W3C)
is
created
to
develop
common
protocols
for
the
Internet.
• Oct.
21,
1994
‐‐
The
official
White
House
Website
is
launched.
(See
also:
"Archived
Image
of
Website"
and
the
article,
"Clinton
White
House
Web
Site"
from
About.com)
• "1994
video
about
the
Web
from
Digital
Equipment
Corporation."
Posted
on
YouTube,
Feb.
13,
2007.
• According
to
the
Times
Mirror
Center,
nearly
one
in
three
U.S.
households
contains
a
personal
computer,
and
approximately
23
million
adults
use
a
home
computer
every
day.
A
majority
of
employed
people
use
a
computer
at
the
workplace.
(The
Times
Mirror
Center
will
later
change
its
name
to
the
Pew
Research
Center.)
• Sony
introduces
its
PlayStation
video
game
console.
• "The
(Second
Phase
of
the)
Revolution
Has
Begun:
Don't
look
now,
but
Prodigy,
AOL,
and
CompuServe
are
all
suddenly
obsolete
‐
and
Mosaic
is
well
on
its
way
to
becoming
the
world's
standard
interface."
Wired,
Oct.
1994.
1994
THE
MEDIA
• News
Example:
Jan.
17,
1994
‐‐
"Southern
California
Earthquake."
(This
is
an
early
example
of
a
news
event
reported
and
discussed
by
Internet,
BBS,
and
dial‐up
service
users.)
"In
San
Jose,
Knight‐Ridder
Tests
a
Newspaper
Frontier."
William
Glaberson,
The
New
York
Times,
Feb.
7,
1994.
73
• "The
Videotex
Debacle."
AJR,
Nov.
1994.
• A
few
examples
of
new
media
sites
launched
during
1994
(Source:
E&P
and
Alexa):
Salt
Lake
Tribune,
Utah
Online,
Jan.
1994,
Service:
BBS;
Detroit
Free
Press,
Jan.
1994,
Service:
CompuServe;
Raleigh
News
&
Observer,
Nando.Net,
Feb.
1994,
Service:
Gopher
‐
Internet
/
BBS;
Atlanta
Journal
and
Constitution,
Access
Atlanta,
March
1994,
Service:
Prodigy;
CNET,
March
1994,
Service:
Internet;
BBC
April
13,
1994
Service:
Internet;
The
New
York
Times,
@
Times,
June
1994,
Service:
America
Online;
ESPN,
July
1994;
Tampa
Tribune,
Tampa
Bay
Online,
Aug.
1994,
(1994
IPA
Review)
Service:
Prodigy;
Wired
Magazine,
Hot
Wired,
Oct.
1994,
(1994
IPA
Review)
Service:
Internet;
Los
Angeles
Times,
TimesLink,
Oct.
26,
1994,
(1994
IPA
Review)
Service:
Prodigy.
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
1,000,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
1995
SERVICES
&
TECH
• April
1995
‐‐
A
major
step
in
the
growth
of
the
commercial
Internet
takes
place
when
the
NSFNET
computer
network
is
successfully
transitioned
to
a
new
network
architecture.
• "Oral
History:
Steve
Jobs."
Smithsonian
Institution,
April
1995.
• May
1995
‐‐
The
Java
Web
authoring
language
is
introduced
by
Sun
Microsystems.
• Oral
History:
Marc
Andreessen."
Smithsonian
Institution,
June
1995.
• June
1995
‐‐
WebTV,
an
early
proponent
of
Internet
television,
is
founded.
(Microsoft
will
purchase
the
company
in
1997.)
• July
1995
‐‐
The
Amazon.com
e‐commerce
Web
site
begins
service.
It
was
founded
by
Jeff
Bezo
a
year
earlier.
• Aug.
1995
‐‐
The
Windows
95
operating
system
is
released
by
Microsoft.
This
includes
software
for
MSN
and
the
Explorer
Web
browser.
• Sept.
1995
‐‐
The
Navigator
2.0
Web
browser
is
released
by
Netscape.
• Sept.
3,
2005
‐‐
The
eBay
online
auction
Web
site
is
founded
by
Pierre
Omidyar.
• "1995
AOL
TV
commercial."
Posted
on
YouTube.
• "Celebrating
60
Years
of
Computing."
ENIAC
Museum,
Univ.
of
Penn.,
Sept.
1995.
• Oct.
24,
1995
‐‐
The
Federal
Networking
Council
unanimously
passes
a
resolution
defining
the
term
Internet.
• Specifications
for
the
production
of
DVDs
are
finalized.
1995
THE
MEDIA
• "A
Journalist's
Guide
to
the
Internet."
AJR,
Jan./Feb.1995.
• News
Example:
April
19,
1995
‐‐
"Oklahoma
City
Bombing."
The
potential
of
online
journalism
is
observed
when
the
world
turns
to
the
Internet
for
current
information
on
the
Oklahoma
City
bombing.
Web
sources
include
statements
from
the
White
House,
photos
of
the
damage,
victim
lists,
and
updated
reports
about
the
disaster.
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• April
1995
‐‐
A
consortium
of
newspaper
companies
is
formed.
New
Century
Network
is
a
joint
venture
of
Advance
Publications,
Cox,
Gannett,
Hearst
Corporation,
Knight‐Ridder,
Times
Mirror,
Tribune
Company,
The
New
York
Times
Company,
and
the
Washington
Post
Company.
(New
Century
Network
will
close
in
March
1998.)
• "Getting
on
Boards:
Some
Papers
Choose
a
Time‐Tested
Alternative
to
the
Internet
and
Big
Online
Services."
Presstime,
May
1995.
• "The
Evolution
of
the
Newspaper
of
the
Future."
CMC
Magazine,
July
1,
1995.
74
• A
few
examples
of
new
media
sites
launched
during
1995
(Source:
E&P
and
Alexa):
Slate
Magazine,
Feb.
1995,
Service:
Internet;
USA
Today,
USA
Today
Online,
April
1995,
Service:
Internet;
ZDNet,
April
1995,
Service:
Internet;
The
Guardian,
(London)
April
1995;
Philadelphia
Inquirer,
Philadelphia
Online,
April
1995,
Service:
Internet;
The
Age,
(Australia)
April
1995,
Service:
Internet;
Washington
Post,
Digital
Ink,
July
1995,
Service:
Interchange;
Boston
Globe,
Boston.com,
Oct.
1995,
Service:
Internet;
Salon
Magazine
Nov.
1995
Service:
Internet;
The
Times
of
London,
(England)
1995,
Service:
Delphi;
ABC,
1995;
CNN,
1995;
CBS,
1995;
FOX,
1995;
NBC,
1995.
1995
Awards
• AJR
NewsLink
readers
rated
the
following
websites
the
best
in
1995:
CNN
Interactive;
CNET
Online;
USA
Today;
Boston.com;
Nando
Times;
HotWired;
Electronic
Telegraph;
Reuters
New
Media;
TimesFax;
Mercury
Center
1995
Statistics
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
3,000,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
• There
are
approximately
60
North
American
newspapers
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
NAA)
1996
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• Feb.
8,
1996
‐‐
Photographers
all
around
the
world
take
part
in
the
"24
Hours
in
Cyberspace"
online
project.
• Aug.
1996
‐‐
A
report
from
CommerceNet
and
Nielsen
Media
Research
announces
that
Internet
access
numbers
in
the
U.S.
and
Canada
are
up
by
50
percent
from
September
1995
to
April
1996.
• Aug.
1996
‐‐
The
Explorer
3.0
Web
browser
is
released
by
Microsoft.
• Aug.
1996
‐‐
Netscape
launches
its
Navigator
3.0
Web
browser.
• The
first
personal
digital
assistant
(PDA)
to
achieve
popular
success
is
introduced.
Earlier
PDAs,
such
as
the
British
Psion
Organiser
or
the
Apple
Newton
were
too
complicated
or
expensive
for
consumers.
However,
in
1996
the
Palm
Pilot
1000
sparks
interest
in
the
handheld
computer
market.
• October‐November
1996
‐‐
"The
Yahoo!
Time
Capsule:
One
World.
Many
Voices."
• November
1996
‐‐
The
popularity
of
e‐mail
instant
messaging
increases
when
the
Mirablis
company
introduces
ICQ,
a
free
instant
messaging
utility.
• The
average
modem
can
transfer
data
at
14,400
bps.
(Within
a
year
28,800
bps
will
be
the
standard
modem
speed.)
• Nintendo
releases
its
Nintendo
64
video
game
console.
• During
the
middle
and
late
1990s,
software
programs
such
as
Macromedia
Dreamweaver,
Flash,
and
Adobe
Acrobat
are
introduced.
These
programs,
and
others,
like
Director
and
its
Shockwave
player,
help
Web
designers
develop
more
sophisticated
sites
and
applications.
• The
Internet
Archive
is
"founded
to
build
an
"Internet
library,"
with
the
purpose
of
offering
permanent
access
for
researchers,
historians,
and
scholars
to
historical
collections
that
exist
in
digital
format."
The
Archive
receives
data
donations
from
Alexa
Internet
and
others.
Additional
Resources
• "Internet
Archive
Wayback
Machine:
Web
Pioneers."
Internet
Archive.
75
• "Net
Cafe
TV
Program."
Videos
from
1996‐2002.
Internet
Archive.
1996
THE
MEDIA
• News
Example:
Feb.
8,
1996
‐‐
After
President
Clinton
signs
the
Telecommunications
Act,
a
48‐
hour
protest
is
staged
against
a
controversial
section
of
the
act
that
limits
Internet
access
to
minors.
Bow‐shaped
blue
ribbons
are
posted
on
Internet
sites
and
many
webmasters
color
their
homepages
black
in
protest
against
the
Communications
Decency
Act.
• "A
Tour
of
Our
Uncertain
Future."
CJR,
March/April
1996.
• News
Example:
April
3,
1996
‐‐
"Unabomber
Suspect
Arrested."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• New
Media
Project.
ASNE,
1996.
• Aug.
7,
1996
‐‐
America
Online
goes
offline
for
18
hours.
Customers
around
the
world
are
left
without
news,
e‐mail,
and
other
services.
• "From
Videotex
to
the
Internet:
Lessons
from
Online
Services
1981‐1996."
La
Trobe
University,
Aug.
1996.
• News
Example:
"Presidential
Campaign."
(Source:
1996
CJR
article)
• Newspaper
Web
archives
continue
to
grow.
Beginning
in
1969
with
The
New
York
Times
Information
Bank,
newspapers
across
the
country
started
saving
their
abstracts
and
stories
in
electronic
database
form.
These
archives
were
first
used
by
database
vendors,
but
now,
in
the
middle
1990s,
newspaper
websites
begin
tapping
into
these
database
archives
and
start
selling
copies
of
old
articles.
• "News
Attracts
Most
Internet
Users."
Pew
Research
Center,
Dec.
16,
1996.
1996
Awards
• AJR
NewsLink
readers
rated
the
following
websites
the
best
in
1996:
CNN
Interactive;
Washington
Post;
USA
Today;
The
New
York
Times;
Nando
Times;
The
Wall
Street
Journal;
Los
Angeles
Times;
San
Jose
Mercury
News;
Jerusalem
Post;
Washington
Times.
1996
Statistics
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
5,000,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
• There
are
approximately
230
North
American
newspapers
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
NAA)
1997
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• April
1997
‐‐
A
report
from
CommerceNet
and
Nielsen
Media
Research
announces
that
the
number
of
Internet
users
in
the
U.S.
and
Canada
is
more
than
50
million.
• April
1,
1997
‐‐
One
of
the
first
blogs,
Dave
Winer's
Scripting
News,
is
started.
Another
early
blog
is
Jorn
Barger's
Robot
Wisdom,
which
is
the
first
to
call
itself
a
Weblog.
(See
also:
2007
anniversary
stories
about
the
history
of
blogs.)
• August
1997
‐‐
Netscape
launches
its
Navigator
4.0
Web
browser.
• August
4,
1997
‐‐
The
TiVo
digital
video
recorder
company
is
incorporated.
• Sept.
1997
‐‐
Microsoft
releases
its
Explorer
4.0
Web
browser.
• The
Netscape
and
Microsoft
companies
pledge
to
improve
their
push
technology.
Many
Web
users
were
introduced
to
push
technology
by
the
PointCast
company's
screen
saver
and
personal
information
retrieval
system.
• A
study
from
the
National
Center
for
Educational
Statistics
finds
that
78%
of
U.S.
public
76
schools
are
connected
to
the
Internet.
• "The
Godfather:
The
Manhattan
Project,
Silicon
Valley,
The
World
Wide
Web.
Wherever
you
look
in
the
information
age,
Vannevar
Bush
was
there
first."
Wired,
Nov.
1997.
• Dec.
1997
‐‐
A
survey
from
DataQuest
reports
that
43%
of
U.S.
households
own
personal
computers.
1997
THE
MEDIA
• News
Example:
March
27,
1997
‐‐
"Heaven's
Gate."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• "The
Future
of
Online
Journalism."
CJR,
July/Aug.
1997.
• News
Example:
Aug.
31,
1997
‐‐
"England
Mourns
Princess
Diana."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• Sept.
1997
‐‐
The
CompuServe
service
is
sold
to
America
Online
as
part
of
a
deal
involving
telecommunications
provider
WorldCom.
• "Competing
for
Cyberturf."
Presstime,
Sept.
1997.
• "Sidewalk
scares
newspapers.
Does
Microsoft
pose
a
threat
to
print
ad
revenues?"
SFGate.com,
Oct.
12,
1997.
• "So
You
Want
to
Be
An
Online
Journalist?"
AJR,
Nov.
1997.
1997
Awards
• AJR
NewsLink
readers
rated
the
following
websites
the
best
in
1997:
The
New
York
Times;
USA
Today;
CNN;
The
Washington
Post;
Los
Angeles
Times;
Jerusalem
Post;
Times
of
London;
New
Jersey
Online;
Washington
Times;
The
Philadelphia
Inquirer.
• 1997
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
1997
Statistics
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
10,000,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
• There
are
approximately
1,200
television
stations
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
Editor
&
Publisher)
• There
are
approximately
2,600
newspapers
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
Editor
&
Publisher)
1998
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• Feb.10,
1998
‐‐
XML
(Extensible
Markup
Language)
is
recommended
by
the
W3C
(World
Wide
Web
Consortium)
as
a
general‐purpose
markup
language.
• April
1998
‐‐
It
is
announced
that
$500
million
in
industry
support
has
been
pledged
for
the
development
of
the
next‐generation
Internet,
called
Internet
2.
• April
1998
‐‐
A
study
in
the
journal
Science
reports
that
even
the
best
search
engines
index
no
more
than
34%
of
the
320
million
available
webpages.
NEC
Research
Institute
scientists
report
that
search
engines
index
the
following
percentages
of
the
Web:
Hotbot
‐‐
34%;
AltaVista
‐‐
28%;
Northern
Light
‐‐
20%;
Excite
‐‐
14%;
Infoseek
‐‐
10%
• May
1998
‐‐
The
U.S.
Justice
Department
sues
Microsoft,
accusing
it
of
monopolistic
practices
against
competitors.
• May
20,
1998
‐‐
The
Bluetooth
Special
Interest
Group
is
announced.
Bluetooth
is
an
industrial
specification
for
wireless
personal
area
networks.
"Bluetooth
provides
a
way
to
exchange
information
between
wireless
devices
such
as
personal
digital
assistants
(PDAs),
mobile
phones,
laptops,
computers,
printers,
digital
cameras
via
a
secure,
low‐
cost,
globally
available
short‐range
radio
frequency
band."
77
• June
1998
‐‐
The
Windows
98
operating
system
is
released
by
Microsoft.
• June
1998
‐‐
A
report
from
CommerceNet
and
Nielsen
Media
Research
announces
that
the
number
of
Internet
users
over
the
age
of
16
in
the
U.S.
and
Canada
has
reached
79
million.
• "Will
Net
appliances
edge
out
PCs?"
PC
World
/
CNN,
June
22,
1998.
• "The
joys
of
curling
up
with
a
good
digital
reading
device."
Steve
Silberman,
Wired,
July
1998.
• "A
History
of
List
Servers."
John
Buckman,
1998.
• Aug.
1998
‐‐
Apple
computer
begins
selling
its
new
iMac
(Internet
Mac)
computer.
• Sept.
1998
‐‐The
Google
company
opens
its
office
in
Menlo
Park,
California.
Google.com
was
still
in
beta.
• When
We
Were
Young:
In
the
Golden
Age
of
ASCII,
Kids
could
be
King."
Wired,
Sept.
1998.
• The
Internet
Corporation
for
Assigned
Names
and
Numbers
(ICANN)
is
founded.
ICANN
is
responsible
for
the
global
coordination
of
the
Internet's
system
of
unique
identifiers.
• Oct.
1998
‐‐
The
Alexa
company,
which
has
been
preserving
Web
pages
since
1996,
donates
two
terabytes
of
historical
Web
content
to
the
Library
of
Congress.
The
donation
is
in
the
form
of
an
interactive
digital
sculpture
that
includes
text,
images,
and
audio
files
from
the
Web.
• Fifty
percent
of
U.S.
homes
have
personal
computers.
In
1995
the
number
was
just
27
percent.
The
change
was
driven
by
strong
sales
of
lower
priced
computers.
(Source:
Dataquest
market
research)
• Nov.
24,
1998
‐‐
America
Online
announces
that
it
will
acquire
Netscape
Communications
Corporation
in
a
stock
deal
valued
at
$4.2
billion.
AOL
will
also
enter
into
a
strategic
alliance
with
Sun
Microsystems.
• "Connecting
with
Intranets."
Presstime,
Dec.
1998.
1998
THE
MEDIA
• News
Example:
Jan.
1998
‐‐
The
story
of
President
Clinton
and
Monica
Lewinsky
demonstrates
how
the
Web
is
changing
journalism.
After
the
Drudge
Report
breaks
the
news,
a
media
frenzy
follows
in
both
the
online
and
traditional
press.
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• "Video
Comes
to
The
World
Wide
Web."
AJR,
Jan./Feb.
1998.
• March
1998
‐‐
The
New
Century
Network
and
its
NewsWorks
search
engine
are
closed
down.
This
consortium
of
newspaper
companies
was
founded
in
1995.
• "New‐Media
Meltdown
at
New
Century.
How
a
big
online
newspaper
venture
bit
the
dust."
I.
Jeanne
Dugan,
BusinessWeek,
Mar.
12,
1998.
• "Internet
News
Takes
Off."
Pew
Research
Center,
June
8,
1998.
• News
Example:
Aug.
26‐28
‐‐
The
Charlotte
Observer
uses
a
weblog
to
report
the
story
of
Hurricane
Bonnie.
(Source:
"Dispatches
from
Along
the
Coast."
and
"Blogging
Bonnie",
Chip
Scanlan
and
Jonathan
Dube,
Poynter
Online,
Sept.
18,
2003.)
• Sept.
13,
1998
‐‐
The
New
York
Times
website
is
attacked
by
hackers
calling
for
the
release
of
Kevin
Mitnick,
an
imprisoned
computer
criminal.
Times
officials
shut
down
the
site
after
the
break‐in
is
discovered,
and
they
restore
most
of
their
site
within
nine
hours.
• A
variety
of
meta
news
search
engines
such
as
TotalNews
and
NewsTrawler
are
available
on
the
Web
in
1998.
These
services
regularly
index
current
content
from
Web
news
sources.
A
few
of
these
search
engines
also
serve
as
archives.
• Nov.
18,
1998
‐‐
The
AvantGo
mobile
information
company
announces
that
it
will
provide
news
from
Knight‐Ridder's
Real
Cities
network
to
handheld
devices
such
as
the
PalmPilot.
Additional
news
providers
include
The
New
York
Times,
C/NET,
and
the
Wall
78
Street
Journal.
• "Finally,
A
Peek
at
Profits:
Some
News
Sites
Find
the
Formula."
CJR,
Nov./Dec.
1998.
1998
Awards
• The
1998
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
1998
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 1998
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
1998
Statistics
• Nov.
1998
‐‐
A
Jupiter
Communications
survey
reports
that
more
than
80%
of
U.S.
online
consumers
trust
online
news
as
much
as
they
trust
newspapers,
broadcast
television,
and
cable
news
outlets.
• Dec.
1998
‐‐
The
Pew
Center
reports
that
the
number
of
people
who
get
news
online
at
least
weekly
continues
to
grow,
starting
from
4%
in
1995
to
between
15%
to
26%
in
1998.
Statistics
fluctuate
related
to
what
is
happening
in
the
news.
There
are
approximately
74
million
Internet
users
in
the
United
States.
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
15,000,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
• There
are
approximately
1,280
television
stations
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
Editor
&
Publisher)
• There
are
approximately
3,250
newspapers
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
Editor
&
Publisher)
1999
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• March
1999
‐‐
The
Melissa
computer
virus
spreads
via
e‐mail
attachments.
• "Tim
Berners‐Lee:
From
the
thousands
of
interconnected
threads
of
the
Internet,
he
wove
the
World
Wide
Web
and
created
a
mass
medium
for
the
21st
century."
Time
Magazine,
March
29,
1999.
• The
top
ten
wired
cities
in
the
U.S.
are:
San
Francisco,
Austin,
Seattle,
Washington,
Boston,
San
Jose,
San
Diego,
Minneapolis‐St.
Paul,
Atlanta
and
Dallas‐Fort
Worth.
(Source:
Yahoo!
Internet
Life)
• Final
Cut
Pro,
a
non‐linear
editing
system
is
introduced
at
a
NAB
meeting
during
1999.
(Final
Cut
Pro
will
later
play
a
role
in
the
development
of
multimedia
production
on
the
Web.)
• Craigslist,
a
centralized
network
of
online
communities
featuring
free
classified
advertisements
and
forums
sorted
by
various
topics,
is
incorporated.
It
was
founded
in
1995
by
Craig
Newmark.
• The
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce
begins
tracking
Internet
sales.
They
call
e‐commerce
"a
major
indicator
of
the
nation's
economic
health."
In
1999
the
four
leading
e‐commerce
brands
are
amazon.com,
priceline.com,
eBay
and
E‐trade.
• "The
Spam
That
Started
It
All."
Wired,
April
13,
1999.
• June
1,
1999
‐‐
The
original
version
of
the
Napster
file
sharing
service
is
released
by
Shawn
Fanning
and
Sean
Parker.
• August
1999
‐‐
The
blog
publishing
tool,
Blogger,
is
launched
by
Pyra
Labs.
(In
2003
Pyra
Labs
is
purchased
by
Google.)
• Sept.
1999
‐‐
Beta
testing
of
the
Google
search
engine
is
finished.
(Source:
Google
History)
• "Internet
Predecessor
Turns
30."
CNN,
Sept.
1999.
• "Divide
and
Conquer?:
IPO
Deliberations
Prolong
the
Suspense."
Presstime,
Dec.
1999.
• "The
Digital
Century:
We
remember
100
computing
events
(crucial,
improbable,
or
downright
79
absurd)
that
changed
our
lives,
opened
our
eyes,
or
made
us
smile."
PC
World,
Dec.
1999.
1999
THE
MEDIA
• "The
Internet
audience
is
not
only
growing,
it
is
getting
decidedly
mainstream.
Two
years
ago,
when
just
23%
of
Americans
were
going
online,
stories
about
technology
were
the
top
news
draw.
Today,
with
41%
of
adults
using
the
Internet,
the
weather
is
the
most
popular
online
news
attraction."
(Source:
"The
Internet
News
Audience
Goes
Ordinary."
Pew
Research
Center,
Jan.
1999.)
• "Prodigy
Legacy
Lives
On."
New
York
Times,
Jan.
1999.
• "After
the
Hack:
Questions
Follow
the
Times
Attack."
CJR,
Jan./Feb.
1999.
• News
Example:
April
20,
1999
‐‐
"Columbine
School
Shooting."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• May
1999
‐‐
The
Online
News
Association
(ONA)
is
established
and
launches
a
website.
• "Fear.com:
Newspapers
are
on
the
Web
because
they
have
to
be,
but
they're
still
trying
to
figure
out
what
to
do
there."
Chip
Brown,
AJR,
June
1999.
• News
Example:
July
18,
1999
‐‐
"JFK,
Jr.
Plane
Crash."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• Oct.
1999
‐‐
Jim
Romenesko's
popular
website,
"Mediagossip.com,"
moves
to
Poynter
Online
with
the
new
name
"Romenesko's
Medianews."
(The
name
is
changed
to
"Romenesko"
in
2003.)
• News
Example:
Dec.
31,
1999
‐‐
"The
Y2K
Problem."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
1999
Awards
• The
1999
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
1999
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 1999
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
1999
Statistics
• The
number
of
radio
stations
that
broadcast
their
signal
on
the
Internet
is
more
than
2,200.
This
number
is
up
from
56
stations
three
years
ago.
(Source:
BRS
Media)
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
20,000,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
• "More
than
950
North
American
daily
newspapers
have
launched
online
services."
"Worldwide,
there
are
more
than
2,800
daily,
weekly
and
other
newspapers
online."
(Source:
NAA)
There
are
approximately
1,311
television
stations
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
Editor
&
Publisher)
2000
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
There
is
a
major
denial
of
service
attack
against
high
profile
Web
sites
in
February
2000.
• The
Love
Letter
worm
infects
computers
around
the
world
during
May
2000.
• There
will
be
approximately
3.6
million
high
speed
cable
Internet
users
by
the
end
of
the
year.
(Source:
Cahners
In‐Stat
Group)
• "The
Love
Bug:
Few
Take
an
Online
Sick
Day
Due
to
Virus."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
May
19,
2000.
• "Wireless:
The
Next
Wave?"
Presstime,
June
2000.
• On
June
30,
2000,
"President
Clinton
used
an
electronic
card
and
his
dog's
name
as
a
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
80
password
to
'e‐sign'
into
law
a
bill
that
makes
electronic
signatures
as
valid
as
their
ink
counterparts....The
act,
approved
overwhelmingly
earlier
in
June
by
both
houses
of
the
U.S.
Congress,
eliminates
legal
barriers
to
using
electronic
technology
to
form
and
sign
contracts."
(Sources:
Reuters,
CNN)
Ads
with
barcodes
for
the
CueCat
reader
begin
appearing
in
major
publications
such
as
Forbes,
Time,
and
The
Dallas
Morning
News.
The
small
plastic
CueCat,
which
is
shaped
like
a
cat,
connects
to
computers
and
allows
readers
to
link
to
an
Internet
URL
by
scanning
a
barcode
appearing
in
a
print
ad
or
article.
(CueCat
is
a
commercial
failure.)
Sony
releases
its
PlayStation2
video
game
console.
"Wired
Workers:
Who
They
Are
and
What
They're
Doing
Online."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Sept.
3,
2000.
"Weblogs:
A
History
and
Perspective."
Rebecca's
Pocket,
Sept.
7,
2000.
"Worry
About
the
Worm:
Cousins
to
computer
viruses,
worms
can
cause
more
problems."
PC
World,
Sept.
22,
2000.
"New
Internet
Users:
What
They
Do
Online,
What
They
Don't
and
Implications
for
the
Net's
Future."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Sept.
25,
2000.
"Usenet
Sale:
Sounds
to
Silence?"
Wired,
Oct.
25,
2000.
The
number
of
American
adults
with
Internet
access
grew
from
about
88
million
to
more
than
104
million
in
the
second
half
of
2000.
The
average
American
Internet
user
spends
4.2
hours
a
week
on
the
Internet.
(Source:
Pew
Internet
Project)
"Dot‐Com
Is
Dead;
Long
Live
Dot‐Com!"
TheStreet.com,
Nov.
3,
2000.
"Invasion
of
the
'Blog':
A
Parallel
Web
of
Personal
Journals."
The
New
York
Times,
Dec.
28,
2000.
2000
THE
MEDIA
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
News
Example:
Jan.
1,
2000
‐‐
"The
New
Millennium."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
"AOL
and
Time
Warner
to
Merge."
CNN,
Jan.
10,
2000.
"Rupert
Discovers
the
Internet."
Wired,
March
2000.
"Cyber
News."
Video
of
Net
Cafe
TV
show.
Internet
Archive,
March
3,
2000.
News
Example:
April
22,
2000
‐‐
"Elian
Gonzalez
Case."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
In
May
2000
Stanford
University
and
the
Poynter
Institute
release
results
from
their
Eyetrack
study
on
Internet
news‐reading
behavior.
"Internet
Sapping
Broadcast
News
Audience."
Pew
Research
Center,
June
11,
2000.
"Enjoy
the
Ride
While
It
Lasts."
CJR,
July/August
2000.
"Surviving
in
Cyberspace:
With
the
old
euphoria
a
distant
memory,
what
lessons
have
emerged
to
help
shape
the
future
of
online
journalism?"
AJR,
Sept.
2000.
"E‐Commerce:
The
Glitter
Fades."
Presstime,
Nov.
2000.
"Election
Day
was
the
Internet's
time
fo
shine,
a
chance
for
the
medium
to
enlighten
Americans
in
ways
television
could
not.
But
ultimately,
the
Net
faced
the
same
pitfalls
as
television:
Web
sites
could
not
say
for
sure
who
will
be
the
next
president."
(Source:
"Millions
Online
for
Gore,
Bush
Race."
AP,
Nov.
8,
2000.)
(2000
Poynter
project
‐
1)
(2000
Poynter
project
‐
2)
(Internet
Archive
Report)
(CJR
stories)
"Internet
Election
News
Audience
Seeks
Convenience,
Familiar
Names."
Pew
Research
Center,
Dec.
3,
2000.
2000
Awards
• The
2000
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
81
• The
2000
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
2000
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2000
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
2000
Statistics
• The
America
Online
dial‐up
service
has
25,000,000
subscribers.
(Source:
AOL)
• "More
than
1,200
North
American
daily
newspapers
have
launched
online
services."
"Worldwide,
there
are
more
than
4,000
daily,
weekly
and
other
newspapers
online."
(Source:
NAA's
2000
Facts
about
Newspapers)
There
are
approximately
1,305
television
stations
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
Editor
&
Publisher)
2001
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• Wikipedia
formally
begins
on
January
15,
2001.
(Source:
History
of
Wikipedia)
• 51
percent
of
all
U.S.
households
have
at
least
one
mobile
phone.
40
percent
of
U.S.
adults
use
their
cell
phones
regularly.
(Source:
Dataquest
Inc.,
Feb.
2001.)
• 54
percent
of
the
U.S.
population
uses
the
Internet
(143
million
people).
This
figure
is
up
26
percent
from
2000.
(Source:
U.S.
Commerce
Department)
• In
July
2001
the
Napster
file
sharing
service
shuts
down
after
being
sued
and
losing
a
court
case
for
copyright
infringement.
• "The
Microsoft
Verdict."
The
New
Yorker,
July
9,
2001.
• On
July
16,
2001,
anti‐virus
experts
begin
hearing
reports
about
the
Code
Red
worm
and
SirCam
virus.
• Internet
users
find
it
easier
to
access
free
wireless
connections
at
libraries,
schools,
restaurants,
and
many
other
locations.
• "Wireless:
The
Strategies."
Presstime,
July/August
2001.
• "The
PC
at
20:
The
road
from
1981's
IBM
PC
to
today's
systems
‐‐
and
all
the
revolutions,
evolutions,
and
stumbles
in
between."
PC
World,
Aug.
2001.
• The
Trojan
Room
coffee
pot
Web
cam
is
turned
off
on
August
22,
2001.
(See
also:
"Farewell,
Seminal
Coffee
Cam."
Reuters/Wired,
March
7,
2001.
"Story
of
the
Trojan
Room
Coffee
Pot:
A
Timeline."
and
"First
Web
Cam."
Quentin
Stafford‐Fraser,
2001.)
The
Web
cam
image
was
first
posted
on
the
Internet
in
1993.
• On
October
23,
2001,
the
iPod,
Apple's
hard
drive‐based
digital
audio
player
is
introduced.
The
Apple
iTunes
music
store
opens
for
Mac
users
on
April
28,
2003.
(You
might
say
Sony's
audio
cassette
Walkman
(1979)
and
the
first
commercial
transistor
radio
(1954)
were
the
iPods
of
their
generations.)
• "Leviathan:
How
much
bigger
can
AOL
get?"
The
New
Yorker,
Oct.
29,
2001.
• There
are
more
than
21
million
broadband
Internet
home
users
in
the
United
States.
(Source:
Nielsen/NetRatings,
Nov.
2001.)
• Microsoft
introduces
its
Xbox
video
game
console.
• "The
dot‐com
meltdown
and
the
Web:
12%
of
Internet
users
have
lost
a
favorite
Web
site,
17%
have
been
asked
to
pay
for
something
that
used
to
be
free
online,
yet
most
online
Americans
adjust
easily."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Nov.
14,
2001.
• "20
Year
Usenet
Timeline."
Google,
Dec.
2001.
• "The
30‐Year
Path
of
E‐Mail"
New
York
Times,
Dec.
6,
2001.
82
2001
THE
MEDIA
• "Five
Years
on
the
Web."
New
York
Times,
Jan.
20,
2001.
• "When
the
Internet
stock
bubble
burst
last
year,
the
Wall
Street
funding
spigot
was
quickly
turned
off....
Much
of
the
reporting
on
the
dot‐com
decline
focuses
on
the
business
side:
stock
slides,
cutbacks,
layoffs.
And
indeed,
there
is
no
shortage
of
financial
woe."
(Source:"Web
Sites
Struggle
Financially
Despite
Millions
of
Visitors."
Washington
Post,
Feb.
21,
2001.)
• The
Online
Publishers
Association
(OPA)
is
organized
during
June
2001.
• News
Example:
Sept.
11,
2001
‐‐
"9/11
Terrorist
Attacks."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• "In
the
days
immediately
following
the
September
11
terror
strikes
on
the
World
Trade
Center
and
the
Pentagon
the
number
of
Americans
online
dropped.
But
there
were
signs
by
the
end
of
September
that
online
activity
was
returning
to
the
usual
levels.
At
the
same
time,
there
were
conspicuously
more
Internet
users
getting
news
online
after
Spetember
11
than
in
previous
periods."
(Source:
"The
Commons
of
the
Tragedy."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Oct.
10,
2001.)
2001
Awards
• The
2001
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
2001
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
2001
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2001
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
2001
Statistics
• "More
than
1,300
North
American
daily
newspapers
have
launched
online
services."
"Worldwide,
there
are
more
than
4,500
daily,
weekly
and
other
newspapers
online."
(Source:
NAA's
2001
Facts
about
Newspapers)
• There
are
approximately
1,418
television
stations
with
sites
on
the
Internet
or
dial‐up
services.
(Source:
Editor
&
Publisher)
2002
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• The
first
public
demonstration
of
the
Second
Life
virtual
online
world
takes
place
in
February
2002.
(Second
Life's
developer,
the
Linden
Lab
company,
started
in
1999.)
• "The
Nielsen/NetRatings
firm
estimated
that
the
Internet
population
had
risen
from
a
mere
2,000
or
so
privileged
researchers
in
1973
to
428
million
people
worldwide
by
April
2002.
That
number
can
be
expected
to
continue
growing
in
the
coming
decade,
especially
as
newer,
more
inexpensive
technologies
emerge
that
allow
people
to
carry
the
Internet
with
them
wherever
they
go,
using
cell
phones,
pagers,
Internet
appliances,
laptops,
and
PDAs."
(Source:
Encyclopedia
of
New
Media)
• The
Friendster
social
networking
site
is
founded.
(In
2003
Google
offers
to
purchase
the
company
for
$30
million.
Friendster
turns
down
the
offer.)
• "Search
Engines:
A
Pew
Internet
Project
Data
Memo."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
July
3,
2002.
• "One
Year
Later:
September
11
and
the
Internet."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Sept.
5,
2002.
• "The
Internet
Goes
to
College:
How
Students
are
Living
in
the
Future
with
Today's
83
Technology."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Sept.
15,
2002.
• Eleven
percent
of
U.S.
higher
education
students
took
at
least
one
online
course.
Eighty‐one
percent
of
all
higher
learning
institutions
offer
at
least
one
online
course,
and
34
percent
offer
complete
online
degree
programs.
(Source:
Sloan
Consortium)
• "Children
in
the
U.S.
experienced
the
equivalent
of
an
adolescent
growth
spurt
in
their
use
of
the
Internet
between
2000
and
2002.
Stretching
their
digital
limbs,
65
percent
of
American
children
ages
2‐17
now
use
the
Internet
from
home,
school,
or
some
other
location
‐‐
a
59
percent
growth
rate
since
2000,
when
41
percent
of
children
went
online
from
any
location."
(Source:
CPB
Report)
• "Email
at
work:
Few
feel
overwhelmed
and
most
are
pleased
with
the
way
email
helps
them
do
their
jobs."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Dec.
8,
2002.
Additional
Resources
• Tablet
Timeline.
PC
Magazine,
2002.
• "Computer
Chronicles
TV
Program."
Videos
from
1983‐2002.
Internet
Archives.
2002
THE
MEDIA
• News
Example:
Jan.
10,
2002
‐‐
"The
Enron
Scandal."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• News
Example:
Feb.
22,
2002
‐‐
"Remembering
Daniel
Pearl."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• Google
introduces
a
beta
version
of
its
Google
News
service
in
April
2002.
• "The
Third
Wave
of
Online
Journalism."
OJR
/
Web
Archive,
April
2002.
• The
number
of
online
users
being
asked
to
register
and
pay
for
Internet
content
continues
to
increase.
(Source:
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project)
• News
Example:
Oct.
28,
2002
‐‐
"Serial
Sniper
Attacks."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
News)
2002
Awards
• The
2002
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
2002
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
2002
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2002
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
2002
Statistics
• "More
than
1,300
North
American
daily
newspapers
have
launched
online
services."
"Worldwide,
there
are
more
than
5,000
daily,
weekly
and
other
newspapers
online."
(Source:
NAA's
2002
Facts
about
Newspapers)
2003
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• Google
purchases
blogging
software
company
Pyra
Labs,
creator
of
Blogger,
in
February
2003.
• "An
international
team
set
new
Internet2
land
speed
records
by
transferring
6.7
gigabytes
of
data
across
10,978
kilometers
(more
than
6,800
miles)
of
network
in
less
than
one
minute."
(Source:
Archives
for
I2‐News)
• The
MySpace
social
networking
Web
site
is
officially
launched
in
March
2003.
• Skype,
a
peer‐to‐peer
Internet
telephony
network,
is
founded.
(In
2005
Skype
is
acquired
by
eBay.)
• "The
Internet
and
the
Iraq
war."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
April
1,
2003.
84
• The
Apple
iTunes
music
store
opens
for
Mac
users
on
April
28,
2003.
iTunes
and
the
iTunes
music
store
are
available
for
Windows
users
in
October
2003.
(The
first
iPod
was
introduced
on
October
23,
2001.)
• "Spam
Celebrates
Silver
Jubilee."
BBC,
May
4,
2003.
• "Conference
Panelists
See
Bright
Future
for
Mobile
Publishing."
OJR,
July
23,
2003.
• Sobig.F
worm
infects
computers
around
the
world
in
August
2003.
• The
Technorati
blog
search
engine
is
launched.
• The
popularity
of
RRS
(Rich
Site
Summary)
continues
to
grow.
RRS
was
developed
to
help
work
around
e‐mail
distribution
problems
caused
by
spam.
• The
Furl
social
bookmarking
site
is
founded
in
2003.
• "The
growing
power
of
Weblogs,
or
'blogs',
has
hardly
gone
unnoticed.
Bloggers
have
been
credited
with
helping
to
topple
Trent
Lott
and
Howell
Raines,
with
inflaming
debate
over
the
Iraq
war,
and
with
boosting
presidential
hopeful
Howard
Dean."
(Source:
"A
Brief
History
of
Weblogs."
CJR,
Sept./Oct.
2003.)
• LinkedIn
social
/
professional
networking
site
is
launched.
• "Introduction
to
Mobile
Blogging."
Sun
Microsystems,
Oct.
2003.
• "Spam:
How
it
is
Hurting
Email
and
Degrading
Life
on
the
Internet."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Oct.
22,
2003.
• "America's
Online
Pursuits:
The
Changing
Picture
of
Who's
Online
and
What
They
Do."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Dec.
22,
2003.
2003
THE
MEDIA
• "Here
Comes
'We
Media':
Tech‐Savvy
Readers
Want
In
on
Conversation."
CJR,
Jan./Feb.
2003.
• News
Example:
Feb.
1,
2003
‐‐
"Space
Shuttle
Columbia
Disaster."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• News
Example:
March
19,
2003
‐‐
"Reporting
on
the
Iraq
War."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• "We
Media:
How
Audiences
are
Shaping
the
Future
of
News
and
Information."
The
Media
Center
at
API,
2003.
• "At
a
time
when
access
to
the
high‐speed
Internet
is
getting
easier
and
do‐it‐yourself
publishing
software
abounds,
Weblogs
are
cyberspace's
quick‐moving,
multilinked,
interactive
venues
of
choice
for
millions
of
people
wanting
to
share
information
and
opinions,
commentary
and
news."
(Source:
"Weblogs
and
Journalism."
Nieman
Reports,
July
2003,
pages
59‐98.)
• "Online
News
Pioneers
See
Changes
in
the
First
10
Years."
OJR,
Sept.
9,
2003.
"Part
Two."
2003
Awards
• The
2003
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
2003
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
2003
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2003
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
2003
Statistics
"Nearly
1,500
North
American
daily
newspapers
have
launched
web
sites."
"Worldwide,
there
are
more
than
5,000
daily,
weekly
and
other
newspapers
online."
(Source:
NAA's
2003
Facts
about
Newspapers)
85
2004
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• "Google
Releases
Orkut
Social
Networking
Service."
Danny
Sullivan,
Search
Engine
Watch,
Jan.
22,
2004.
(See
also:
Google's
Orkut
Web
site.)
• The
Flickr
photo
sharing
Web
site
is
launched
by
the
Ludicorp
company
in
February
2004.
(Yahoo!
will
purchase
Ludicorp
and
Flickr
in
March
2005.)
• The
Facebook
social
networking
site
is
started
by
Harvard
University
student
Mark
Zuckerberg
during
February
2004.
• "Googlemania!"
Wired,
March
2004.
• "ICANN
President
Wants
Group
to
Focus
on
Internet
Basics."
Computerworld,
March
8,
2004.
• "Sixty‐three
percent
of
e‐mail
users
who
responded
to
the
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
survey
said
that
the
increase
in
junk
e‐mail
has
made
them
less
trusting
of
e‐mail
as
a
communications
tool,
and
more
than
three‐quarters
of
respondents
‐‐
77
percent
‐‐
said
that
spam
makes
being
online
unpleasant
and
annoying."
(Source:
Washingtonpost.com
special
section
on
Spam,
March
17,
2004.)
• "Who
Should
Govern
the
Net?"
CNET,
March
18,
2004.
• On
April
29,
2004,
Google
Inc.
announces
that
it
has
filed
a
registration
statement
with
the
Securities
and
Exchange
Commission
for
a
proposed
initial
public
offering
of
its
Class
A
common
stock.
• "Worldwide
shipments
of
mobile
phones
grew
in
the
first
quarter
of
2004
compared
with
the
same
period
last
year,
buoyed
by
strong
demand
for
camera
phones
and
color
screens."
(Source:
ZDNet
News,
May
6,
2004)
• Competitors
for
the
growing
smart
phone
market
include
PalmOne,
RIM
(maker
of
the
Blackberry),
Samsung,
Sony
Ericsson,
Motorola,
HP,
and
Nokia.
• Internet
podcasts
become
more
popular
and
easier
to
find
during
2004.
• "Data
Memo
on
Search
Engines."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
Aug.
12,
2004.
• "The
Digital
Future
Report:
Year
Four."
Center
for
the
Digital
Future,
Sept.
2004.
• The
Center
for
History
&
New
Media,
in
partnership
with
colleagues
at
the
University
of
Maryland
and
the
Internet
Archive,
receive
an
award
from
the
Library
of
Congress's
National
Digital
Information
Infrastructure
and
Preservation
Program
to
build
upon
work
done
in
connection
with
CHNM's
Business
Plan
Archive,
a
two‐year‐old
initiative
to
preserve
records
from
the
historic
dot‐com
era
of
the
late
1990s.
• The
October
2004
Web
2.0
Conference
focuses
on
emerging
business
and
technology
developments
on
the
Web.
• "Podcasts:
New
Twist
on
Net
Audio."
Wired,
Oct.
8,
2004.
• The
FCC
takes
steps
to
encourage
deployment
of
fiber
optic
broadband
networks
capable
of
delivering
advanced
data,
video
and
voice
service
to
the
mass
market
by
local
telephone
companies.
• The
Mozilla
Firefox
Web
browser
is
officially
released
in
November
2004.
It
is
marketed
as
a
secure
alternative
to
Microsoft's
Internet
Explorer
browser.
• "Merriam‐Webster's
Words
of
the
Year
2004:
Based
on
your
online
lookups,
the
#1
Word
of
the
Year
for
2004
was
Blog."
Merriam‐Webster
Online,
Nov.
2004.
• "Should
Your
PC
Be
Your
Telephone?"
New
York
Times,
Dec.
2,
2004.
• On
December
7,
2004,
IBM
announces
that
it
is
selling
its
PC
business
to
China's
Lenovo
Group.
(IBM's
dominate
role
in
the
history
of
personal
computers
can
be
traced
back
to
1981
and
the
introduction
of
their
first
successful
PC.)
• "Google
to
Scan
Famous
Libraries."
BBC,
Dec.
14,
2004.
86
Additional
Resources
• Imagining
the
Internet
‐
Predictions
Database.
Elon
University/Pew
Internet
and
American
Life
Project.
(Additional
survey
material
added
in
2004.)
• "Apple
Ads."
(1984‐2004)
Posted
on
YouTube.
2004
THE
MEDIA
• "Although
the
economics
are
still
evolving,
the
Internet
has
now
become
a
major
source
of
news
in
America.
In
September
2003,
over
half
of
the
people
in
the
United
States
‐
150
million
‐
went
online,
a
record
for
Web
use.
And
half
to
two‐thirds
of
those
who
go
online
use
it
at
least
some
of
the
time
to
get
news.
Whether
the
new
medium
is
replacing
the
old,
however,
at
this
point
is
less
clear."
(Source:
"The
State
of
the
News
Media:
Online
Section."
Project
for
Excellence
in
Journalism,
March
2004.)
• News
Example:
June
5,
2004
‐‐
"Remembering
Reagan."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• "Significant
numbers
of
Americans
are
turning
to
the
Internet
for
news
coverage
and
images
they
cannot
find
in
the
mainstream
media.
Over
the
last
few
months,
war
images
have
begun
appearing
online
that
were
deemed
too
graphic
and
disturbing
to
be
carried
by
the
mainstream
press.
A
significant
number
of
Internet
users,
many
of
whom
have
explicitly
gone
looking
for
them,
have
seen
these
images
online."
(Source:
"The
Internet
as
a
Unique
News
Source."
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project,
July
8,
2004.)
• "We're
All
Journalists
Now."
Wired,
August
11,
2004.
• In
September
2004
the
Poynter
Institute,
the
Estlow
Center
for
Journalism
&
New
Media,
and
Eyetools
release
their
results
from
the
Eyetrack
III
study
on
Internet
news‐reading
behavior.
(Source:
Eyetrack
III,
Poynter
Online)
• "Ceefax
marks
30
years
of
service."
BBC,
Sept.
22,
2004.
• "
'With
more
events
like
the
CBS
document
scandal,
bloggers
could
have
the
effect
of
forcing
a
closer
look
at
journalistic
integrity
and
a
much
wider
line
of
separation
between
commentary
and
news
reporting,'
said
Chad
Shue
of
Everett,
Washington."
(Source:
"Readers
Speak:
Online
columns
viewed
cautiously,
but
are
a
vital
new
medium."
Ryan
Pitts,
APME
/
Spokane
Spokesman‐Review,
Oct.
13,
2004)
• The
Media
Bloggers
Association
(MBA)
is
founded
in
November
2004.
• The
Online
Publishers
Association
(OPA)
announces
that
for
the
first
time
ever,
content
surpassed
communications
to
become
the
leading
online
activity
as
measured
by
share
of
time
spent
online.
(Source:
Results
from
the
IAI
or
Internet
Activity
Index)
• "Milestones
in
Online
Journalism."
dotjournalism,
Dec.
16,
2004.
• "Bloggers,
Citizen
Media
and
Rather's
Fall
‐‐
Little
People
Rise
Up
in
2004."
OJR,
Dec.
21,
2004.
• News
Example:
December
26,
2004
‐‐
"South
Asia
Earthquake
and
Tsunami."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
2004
Awards
• The
2004
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
2004
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
2004
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• 2004
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
87
2004
Statistics
• "More
than
1,500
North
American
daily
newspapers
have
launched
web
sites."
• "Worldwide,
there
are
more
than
5,000
daily,
weekly
and
other
newspapers
online."
• (Source:
NAA's
2004
• Facts
about
Newspapers)
• "The
Blogosphere
By
the
Numbers."
(Source:
ClickZ
Stats,
Nov.
22,
2004.)
2005
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
• EPIC
2015,
the
updated
version
of
the
flash
movie,
EPIC
2014,
is
released
by
Robin
Sloan
and
Matt
Thompson
in
Jan.
2005.
• "Guest
Writer
Simon
Waldman:
The
Importance
of
Being
Permanent."
PressThink,
Jan.
7,
2005.
• "Chill,
blogophiles;
you're
not
the
first
to
do
what
you're
doing."
USA
Today,
Jan.
26,
2005.
• "Personal
Radio
Via
Podcasting
Grows
More
Popular."
NPR,
Jan.
31,
2005.
• YouTube
is
founded
by
Chad
Hurley,
Steve
Chen,
and
Jawed
Karim
on
Feb.
15,
2005.
• "Microsoft
@
30."
History
Timeline,
Microsoft,
2005.
• "A
short
history
of
blogging."
The
Blog
Herald,
March
6,
2005.
• Chicagocrime.org,
one
of
the
original
map
mashups,
is
started
by
Adrian
Holovaty
in
May
2005.
(See
also:
"In
memory
of
chicagocrime.org."
Adrian
Holovaty.com,
January
31,
2008.)
• "Dazzle,
Yes.
But
Can
They
Blog?
For
Arianna
Huffington,
The
Stars
Come
Out
to
Post."
Washington
Post,
May
9,
2005.
• The
NowPublic
user‐generated
participatory
news
network
is
founded
during
2005.
• Google
Earth
is
launched
on
June
28,
2005.
• "What
MySpace
means
to
Murdoch."
BBC,
July
19,
2005.
• "Mix,
Match,
And
Mutate:
Mash‐ups
‐‐
homespun
combinations
of
mainstream
services
‐‐
are
altering
the
Net."
BusinessWeek,
July
25,
2005.
• Soundslides,
a
multimedia
program
created
by
Joe
Weiss
is
released
during
2005.
• "Yahoo!
Netrospective:
10
years,
100
moments
of
the
Web."
Yahoo!,
2005.
• "We
Are
the
Web."
Kevin
Kelly,
Wired,
August
2005.
• "Craig
Newmark:
The
Net's
Free
Force."
BusinessWeek,
Aug.
15,
2005.
• "Personal
Computer
Museum
Ontario
Canada
Opening."
Rogers
Television,
Sept.
2005.
Posted
on
YouTube.
• "Flash
journalism:
Professional
practice
today."
Mindy
McAdams,
OJR,
Sept.
22,
2005.
• "What
Is
Web
2.0."
O'Reilly,
Sept.
30,
2005.
• The
Apple
iTunes
store
begins
offering
videos
and
TV
shows
in
October
2005.
(The
iTunes
music
store
opened
for
Mac
users
on
April
28,
2003.)
• Ning
is
launched
in
October
2005.
Ning
helps
users
create
their
own
social
networks.
The
company
was
founded
a
year
earlier
in
October
2004
by
Marc
Andreessen
and
Gina
Bianchini.
(In
1993
Andreessen
lead
the
group
of
computer
programmers
who
developed
the
Mosaic
browser.)
• "The
Trend
Spotter."
(Profile
of
Tim
O'Reilly.)
Steven
Levy,
Wired,
October
2005.
• "CNET
News.com's
Blog
100."
CNET
News,
Oct.
5,
2005.
• "Forget
Blogs,
Print
Needs
Its
Own
IPod."
New
York
Times,
Oct.
10,
2005.
• "An
Evening
with
Ivan
Sutherland
at
the
Computer
History
Museum."
Online
Video
and
transcript,
Computer
History
Museum,
October
19,
2005.
• Yahoo!
purchases
the
social
bookmarking
service,
del.icio.us,
in
December
2005.
88
• "The
50
Greatest
Gadgets
of
the
Past
50
Years."
PC
World,
Dec.
24,
2005.
• "The
Year
of
the
Podcast."
Slate,
Dec.
30,
2005
Additional
Resources
• Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project
Reports:
"The
State
of
Blogging."
Jan.
2,
2005.
"The
Future
of
the
Internet."
Jan.
9,
2005.
"A
decade
of
adoption:
How
the
internet
has
woven
itself
into
American
life."
Jan.
25,
2005.
"
Public
Awareness
of
Internet
Terms."
July
20,
2005.
"Broadband
Adoption
in
the
United
States:
Growing
but
Slowing."
Sept.
21,
2005.
"Digital
Divisions."
Oct.
5,
2005.
2005
THE
MEDIA
• "Look
into
cyberspace
and
the
picture
for
journalism
seems
fractured.
There
is
real
hope
in
the
numbers
of
people
who
seek
news
online,
particularly
the
young,
a
group
that
shows
scant
interest
in
traditional
media.
The
capability
of
people
to
get
what
they
want
when
they
want
it,
and
to
manipulate
it,
edit
it
and
seek
more
depth,
could
bring
a
needed
revival
to
journalism.
The
economic
numbers
are
also
growing
‐
and
dramatically
‐
each
year."
(Source:
"The
State
of
the
News
Media:
Online
Section."
Project
for
Excellence
in
Journalism,
2005.)
• "Blog‐Gate."
CJR,
Jan./Feb.
2005.
• "Generation
M:
Media
in
the
Lives
of
8‐18
Year‐olds."
Kaiser
Foundation,
March
2005.
• "Nando
Name
Fades
Away."
Bob
Stepno's
Other
Journalism
Weblog,
March
1,
2005.
• "New
News'
Retrospective:
Is
Online
News
Reaching
its
Potential?."
OJR,
March
24,
2005.
• "Online
to
the
future."
Ten
year
anniversary
of
the
Australian
newspaper
Web
site,
"The
Age."
April
19,
2005.
• "Papers
Turn
to
'Podcasting'
In
Bid
to
Draw
More
Readers."
Wall
Street
Journal,
May
13,
2005.
• NBC
News
anchor
Brian
Williams
begins
his
new
blog,
The
Daily
Nightly
on
May
31,
2005.
• News
Example:
July
7,
2005
‐‐
"London
Bombing."
(Source:
Poynter's
Links
to
the
News)
• News
Example:
August/September
2005
‐‐
"Hurricane
Katrina."
(Source:
Poynter's
Page
One
Today)
• CBS
News
begins
its
new
blog,
Public
Eye
on
Sept.
12,
2005.
(Later,
on
Jan.
3,
2006,
ABC
World
News
Tonight
anchors
Elizabeth
Vargas
and
Bob
Woodruff
will
begin
their
new
blog,
The
World
Newser.
Charles
Gibson,
when
he
becomes
the
new
anchor,
contributes
to
the
blog.)
• "Ten
Years
of
Salon"
Salon,
Nov.
14,
2005
2005
Awards
• The
2005
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
2005
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
2005
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• 2005
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
2005
Statistics
• "In
2005,
unique
visitors
to
newspaper
Web
sites
represented
on
average
more
than
one‐
third
(46
million)
of
all
Internet
users
over
the
course
of
a
month.
Unique
visitors
jumped
21
percent
from
January
2005
to
December
2005,
and
page
views
increased
by
43
percent
over
that
period."
(Source:
NAA's
The
Source)
89
2006
SERVICES
&
TECHNOLOGY
•
•
•
•
•
The
Twitter
social
networking
and
microblogging
service
is
founded
in
March
2006.
Newsvine
is
officially
launched
in
March
2006.
"Web
2.0:
The
new
Internet
'boom'
doesn't
live
up
to
its
name."
Slate,
March
29,
2006.
"Legal
Guide
for
Bloggers."
Electronic
Frontier
Foundation,
April
20,
2006.
"The
Video
Camera
Revised."
Walter
S.
Mossberg
and
Katherine
Boehret,
Mossberg
Solution,
May
3,
2006.
(An
early
version
of
the
Flip
Video
camera
is
released
by
Pure
Digital
Technologies
in
2006.)
"The
25
Worst
Tech
Products
of
All
Time."
PC
World,
May
26,
2006.
"Study
Finds
Computer
Usage
Trails
Only
Television
Viewing."
Aug.
11,
2006.
"Websites
that
changed
the
world."
Guardian
Unlimited,
August
13,
2006.
Publishing
company
Conde
Nast
acquires
the
Reddit
social
bookmark
site
in
October
2006.
"Google
To
Acquire
YouTube
for
$1.65
Billion
in
Stock."
Google
press
release,
Oct.
9.
2006.
Nintento
launches
its
Wii
video
game
console.
"Web
Inventor
Fears
for
the
Future."
BBC
News,
Nov.
2,
2006.
"CNBC
Special:
A
history
of
video
game
industry."
CNBC,
Nov.
30,
2006.
"Ethan
Zuckerman
History
of
the
Internet."
Posted
on
YouTube,
Dec.
2006.
"Social
Bookmarking
2006
‐‐
A
Year
In
Review."
The
Blog
Herald,
Dec.
26,
2006.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Additional
Resources
• Imagining
the
Internet
‐
Predictions
Database.
Elon
University/Pew
Internet
and
American
Life
Project.
(Additional
survey
material
added
in
2006.)
• Mozilla
Digital
Memory
Bank.
Center
for
History
and
New
Media,
2006.
• Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project
Reports:
• "Online
News:
For
many
home
broadband
users,
the
internet
is
a
primary
news
source."
March
22,
2006.
"How
Americans
use
their
cell
phones."
April
3,
2006.
"The
Internet's
Growing
Role
in
Life's
Major
Moments."
April
19,
2006.
"Home
Broadband
Adoption
2006."
May
28,
2006.
"Bloggers:
A
portrait
of
the
internet's
new
storytellers."
July
19,
2006.
"The
Future
of
the
Internet
II."
(with
Elon
University)
Sept.
24,
2006.
"Riding
the
Waves
of
Web
2.0."
Oct.
5,
2006.
"The
Internet
as
a
Resource
for
News
and
Information
about
Science."
Nov.
20,
2006.
"Podcast
Downloading."
Nov.
22,
2006.
2006
THE
MEDIA
• "...The
appeal
of
the
Web
is
its
convenience,
interactivity,
diversity
and
control....The
biggest
questions
remain
those
that
touch
the
bottom
line.
Online
journalism,
in
2006,
is
still
young.
Like
an
adolescent,
it
is
learning
what
it
can
do.
It
is
even
making
a
little
money.
But
it
is
still
not
really
paying
its
own
way.
And
it
isn't
entirely
sure
what
it
will
be
doing
when
it
grows
up."
"The
State
of
the
News
Media:
Online
Section."
Project
for
Excellence
in
Journalism,
2006.
• "The
Best
Blogging
Newspapers
in
the
U.S.*"
NYU,
March
2006.
• "WSJ.com's
10th
Anniversary:
Beginning
a
Second
Decade."
WSJ.com,
May
1,
2006.
(See
also:
"Evolution:
The
front
page,
from
prototype
to
today.")
• The
Christian
Science
Monitor
Web
site
celebrates
its
tenth
anniversary.
June
2006.
• "How
online
journalism
got
its
UK
start."
Press
Gazette,
June
2,
2006.
• "Slate's
10th
Anniversary."
Slate,
June
18,
2006.
• "A
Brief
History
of
washingtonpost.com."
The
Washington
Post,
June
19,
2006.
• "Adapt
or
Die."
AJR,
June/July
2006.
90
"10
Years
of
CBC.ca"
CBC.ca,
July
2006.
"MSNBC
@
10."
MSNBC,
July
15,
2006.
"Fifteen
years
of
the
web"
BBC,
Aug.
5,
2006.
"Amateur
Hour:
Journalism
without
Journalists."
Nicholas
Lemann,
The
New
Yorker,
Aug.
7,
2006.
• "BBC
News
on
the
History
of
the
Web."
Posted
on
YouTube,
Aug.
10,
2006.
• The
CBS
News
with
Katie
Couric
begins
simulcasting
its
program
on
the
Web
and
creates
a
new
blog
on
Sept.
5,
2006.
(Starting
at
the
end
of
2005,
broadcasts
of
the
NBC
Nightly
News
with
Brian
Williams
were
posted
on
the
Web
after
10
pm.
At
ABC
News,
World
News
began
streaming
a
shorter,
mid‐afternoon
version
on
the
Internet.)
• "Newspaper
Next:
Blueprint
for
Transformation."
American
Press
Institute,
Sept.
2006.
• "A
fundamental
way
newspaper
sites
need
to
change."
Adrian
Holovaty,
Holovaty.com,
Sept.
6,
2006.
• "Charting
the
Online
Revolution."
A
PEJ
Roundtable,
Sept.
8,
2006.
• "Reuters
has
opened
a
virtual
news
agency
in
the
Second
Life
online
world."
BBC
News,
Oct.
16,
2006.
(See
also:
"Reuters/Second
Life."
The
first
public
demonstration
of
Second
Life
took
place
in
2002.)
• "The
Roles
of
Journalists
in
Online
Newsrooms."
Medill
School
of
Journalism/ONA,
Nov.
2006.
• "Now
and
Then."
History
of
Dallas
Morning
News
Web
site,
Nov.
3,
2006.
• "Time's
Person
of
the
Year:
You."
Time,
Dec.
13,
2006.
(Intro
excerpt:
"....for
seizing
the
reins
of
the
global
media,
for
founding
and
framing
the
new
digital
democracy,
for
working
for
nothing
and
beating
the
pros
at
their
own
game,
TIME's
Person
of
the
Year
for
2006
is
you.")
• "Coverage
of
the
Saddam
Hussein
Execution
and
its
Aftermath."
Poynter
Online,
Dec.
29,
2006.
• "Goodbye
Gutenberg."
Nieman
Reports
issue
about
online
journalism
and
the
Web,
Winter
2006.
• 2006
News
Examples:
Poynter's
"Page
One
Today":
January;
February;
March;
April;
May;
June;
July;
August;
September;
October;
November;
December.
2006
Awards
• The
2006
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
2006
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• The
2006
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
• 2006
NPPA
Best
of
Photojournalism:
Web
Site
Winners
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2006
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
2006
Statistics
• "More
than
1,500
North
American
dailies
have
their
own
Web
site.
Worldwide,
the
number
is
5,000."
(NAA's
The
Source,
2006)
•
•
•
•
2007
SERVICES,
TECHNOLOGY
&
SOCIAL
•
•
•
•
"Web
2.0
...
The
Machine
is
Us/ing
Us."
Mike
Wesch,
Posted
on
YouTube,
Jan.
31,
2007.
"How
the
Internet
Took
Over."
USA
Today,
2007.
We
Media
Miami
Converence.
Feb.
7‐9,
2007.
"Blog
History."
Liz
Donovan,
Behind
the
News,
April
9,
2007.
(See
also:
"Blogs
turn
10
‐‐
who's
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
91
the
father?"
Declan
McCullagh
and
Anne
Broache,
CNET
News,
March
20,
2007,
and
Wikipedia's
"History
of
Blogging
Timeline.")
"Saving
Our
Digital
Heritage."
Jim
Barksdale
and
Francine
Berman,
Washington
Post,
May
16,
2007.
"Knight
News
Challenge
First‐Year
Winners
Announced."
Knight
Foundation,
May
23,
2007.
(See
also:
list
of
winners
from
newschallenge.org
and
E‐Media
Tidbits
series
index.)
"Fiftieth
Anniversary
of
First
Digital
Image
Marked."
National
Institute
of
Standards
and
Technology,
May
24,
2007.
(See
also:
a
copy
of
the
1957
first
digital
image.)
Although
professional
photographers
began
experimenting
with
digital
photography
in
1979,
the
Associated
Press
and
Kodak
introduced
the
NC2000,
the
first
digital
camera
specifically
designed
for
photojournalists,
in
1994.
"VIDEO:
Steve
Jobs
and
Bill
Gates
Interview."
All
Things
Digital
conference,
May
31,
2007.
The
Seesmic
video
discussion
site
is
founded
by
Loic
Le
Meur.
The
Apple
iPhone
is
released
on
June
29,
2007.
(The
first
iPod
was
introduced
in
2001.)
"The
Evolution
of
Web
Widgets."
Alex
Iskold,
Read/WriteWeb,
July
11,
2007.
"Happy
Blogiversary."
Tunku
Varadarajan,
Wall
Street
Journal,
July
14,
2007.
(See
also:
"Slideshow:
Blogs:
Then
and
Now.")
"The
history
of
blogging
founding‐myths
‐‐
based
solely
on
what
I
can
remember
off
the
top
of
my
head."
Rex
Hammock,
Rexblog.com,
July
15,
2007.
"The
E
Decade:
Was
I
right
about
the
dangers
of
the
Internet
in
1997?"
David
Shenk,
Slate,
July
25,
2007.
"Albuquerque
extols
its
role
in
PC
revolution."
Daniel
Terdiman,
CNET
News,
July
31,
2007.
"See
Who's
Editing
Wikipedia
‐
Diebold,
the
CIA,
a
Campaign."
John
Borland,
Wired,
August
14,
2007.
"Compact
disc
hits
25th
birthday."
BBC,
August
17,
2007.
"Google
News
Becomes
A
Publisher."
Thomas
Claburn,
InformationWeek,
August
31,
2007.
(See
also:
Google
News
Blog)
"Found
in
(My)Space.
Social
networking
sites
like
MySpace
and
Facebook
are
valuable
sources
of
information
for
journalists."
Jason
Spencer,
AJR,
Aug./Sept.
2007.
"Citizen
Media
Milestones."
J.D.
Lasica,
Social
Media,
Sept.
10,
2007.
In
an
online‐only
presidential
debate
and
mashup
presented
by
Yahoo!
News
(in
partnership
with
The
Huffington
Post
and
Slate)
the
eight
Democratic
candidates
field
users'
questions.
Phase
one
of
the
online
debate
was
completed
on
Sept.
12,
2007.
"The
Latest
News
Headlines
‐‐
Your
Vote
Counts."
"What
would
a
world
in
which
citizens
set
the
news
agenda
rather
than
editors
look
like?
A
new
PEJ
study
comparing
user‐news
sites,
like
Digg,
Del.icio.us,
and
Reddit,
with
mainstream
news
outlets
provides
some
initial
answers."
Sept.
12,
2007.
"Digital
'Smiley
Face'
Turns
25."
MSNBC/AP,
Sept.
18,
2007.
(See
also:
"Smiley:
25
Years
Old
and
Never
Looked
Happier!"
Carnegie
Mellon
University,
Sept.
2007)
"Looking
ahead
to
the
'iPod
moment'
for
newspapers."
Mindy
McAdams,
Teaching
Online
Journalism,
Sept.
21,
2007.
(See
also:
"Meme:
The
iPod
Moment.")
"One
Web
Day
and
Tim
Berners‐Lee."
Posted
on
YouTube,
Sept.
24,
2007.
(See
also:
"Welcome
to
One
Web
Day.")
"Bloggers
in
Burma
keep
world
informed
during
military
crackdown."
Richard
S.
Ehrlich,
San
Francisco
Chronicle,
Sept.
28,
2007.
(See
also:
e‐mail
reports
sent
to
the
BBC.)
"Information
R/evolution."
Mike
Wesch,
Posted
on
YouTube,
Oct.
12,
2007.
"2007
Web
2.0
Summit
Review:
How
the
Web
2.0
Conference
Has
Evolved
Over
2
Years."
Richard
MacManus,
Read/WriteWeb,
Oct.
23,
2007.
92
• "Google
Tech
Talks:
The
Web
That
Wasn't."
Alex
Wright,
Posted
on
YouTube,
Oct.
23,
2007.
• "Facebook
and
Microsoft
Expand
Strategic
Alliance:
Two
companies
expand
advertising
deal
to
cover
international
markets,
Microsoft
to
take
equity
stake
in
Facebook."
Microsoft,
Oct.
24,
2007.
• "ICANN
Community
Thanks
Vint
Cerf
for
Extraordinary
Efforts."
ICANN,
Oct.
31,
2007.
("ICANN
is
responsible
for
the
global
coordination
of
the
Internet's
system
of
unique
identifiers.)
• "MySpace
Joins
Google's
OpenSocial."
Mike
Shields,
Mediaweek,
Nov.
5,
2007.
(See
also:
Google's
OpenSocial
and
Fox
Interactive
Media's
Myspace.)
• "24
from
94,
How
Far
We've
Come."
CollegeHumor.com
video.
Posted
on
TechCrunch,
Nov.
10,
2007.
• "The
Best
Inventions
of
the
Year:
Computers."
Time
Magazine,
Nov.
12,
2007.
• The
Amazon
Kindle
reading
device
is
introduced
on
Nov.
19,
2007.
(See
also:
"Amazon
Kindle
Review:
Igniting
Interest
in
E‐Books?"
Melissa
J.
Perenson,
PC
World,
Nov.
20,
2007
and
"The
joys
of
curling
up
with
a
good
digital
reading
device."
Steve
Silberman,
Wired,
July
1998.)
• "Giant
Global
Graph."
Tim
Berners‐Lee,
DIG
(Decentralized
Information
Group),
Nov.
21,
2007.
(See
also:
November
2007
CNET
video
of
Berners‐Lee,
who
created
the
Web
prototype
in
1990.)
• "Laptops
Offer
High‐tech
Hope
in
Developing
Countries."
Jeffrey
Brown,
PBS
Online
NewsHour,
Nov.
22,
2007.
(See
also:
One
Laptop
per
Child
Web
site)
• "Silicon
Valley
celebrates
Commodore
64
at
25."
Daniel
Terdiman,
CNET
News.
Dec.
10,
2007.
(The
Commodore
64
computer
was
introduced
in
August
1982.
See
also:
CNET
video.)
• "Here
Comes
Another
Bubble
v1.1."
The
Richter
Scales,
Posted
on
YouTube,
Dec.
17,
2007.
• "How
the
Queen
became
very
well
connected.
In
a
bid
to
appeal
to
the
internet
generation,
the
royals
launch
their
own
YouTube
channel."
Caroline
Davies,
Guardian,
Dec.
23,
2007.
• "Blogs
Celebrate
10th
Anniversary."
NPR,
Dec.
24,
2007.
• "A
Sad
Milestone:
AOL
To
Discontinue
Netscape
Browser
Development."
Michael
Arrington,
TechCrunch,
Dec.
28,
2007.
(See
also:
New
Media
Timeline
1994)
• "Kevin
Kelly:
Predicting
the
next
5,000
days
of
the
web."
Dec.
2007.
(Video
posted
on
TED.com.)
• Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project
Reports:
"Tagging."
Jan.
31,
2007.
"Online
Video."
July
25,
2007.
"Parent
and
Teen
Internet
Use."
Oct.
24,
2007.
"Why
We
Don't
Know
Enough
About
Broadband
in
the
U.S."
Nov.
14,
2007.
"Digital
Footprints."
Dec.
16,
2007.
"Teens
and
Social
Media."
Dec.
19.
2007.
2007
THE
MEDIA
• "....the
Internet
as
a
platform
for
news
continued
to
expand
and
mature,
with
more
options
offered
to
citizens
than
ever
before.
But
with
that
have
come
nuances,
some
shaking
out,
and
signs
that
not
all
elements
of
online
news
are
growing
equally."
(Source:
"The
State
of
the
News
Media:
Online
Section."
Project
for
Excellence
in
Journalism,
2007.)
• "Bloggers
in
the
Courtroom
a
New
Twist
in
Coverage."
NPR,
Jan.
14,
2007.
• "Apple
Pro
Profile:
Washington
Post.com."
Apple,
Feb.
2007.
• The
Poynter
Institute
releases
some
of
the
results
from
its
EyeTrack07
research
study
on
print
and
online
news
reading.
March
2007.
• "The
future
of
newspapers?
Asking
the
past."
Jeff
Jarvis,
BuzzMachine,
March
29,
2007.
• "In
tragedy,
digital
media
came
into
its
own:
Cell
phone
cameras,
blogs,
text
messages
key
in
early
(Va.
Tech
Shooting)
reporting."
Mackenzie
Carpenter,
Post‐Gazette,
April
18,
2007.
(See
also:
Poynter's
Page
One
Today)
• "Journalism
isn't
dying,
it's
reviving."
Dan
Gillmor,
San
Francisco
Chronicle,
June
7,
2007.
93
• "The
Point
/
Journalism's
future
is
in
global
dialogue."
Mark
Bowden,
The
Philadelphia
Inquirer,
June
17,
2007.
• "Playing
on
TV's
Turf:
Newspapers
are
ramping
up
their
online
video
offerings.
Will
that
endanger
local
TV
news?"
Deborah
Potter,
AJR,
June/July
2007.
• "The
Daily
Telegraph
Case:
Multimedia
Newsroom
Integration."
London,
June
26,
2007.
Posted
on
YouTube.
• CNN
and
YouTube
host
their
first
presidential
candidates
debate
together.
July
23,
2007.
• "The
iPhone
will
impact
mobile
journalism,
news
consumption."
Mark
Briggs,
Journalism
2.0,
July
29,
2007.
(See
also:
"The
iPhone
Is
a
Breakthrough
Handheld
Computer."
Walter
Mossberg
and
Katherine
Boehret,
Wall
Street
Journal,
June
26,
2007)
• "Creative
Destruction:
An
Exploratory
Look
at
News
on
the
Internet."
Harvard's
Joan
Shorenstein
Center,
August
2007.
• "Traditional
Journalism
Job
Cuts
Countered
by
Digital
Additions."
Mark
Glaser,
MediaShift,
August
24,
2007.
• "Consent
Decree
with
the
Open
Web
Shuts
Down
Times
Select."
Jay
Rosen,
PressThink,
Sept.
18,
2007.
• "Don't
blame
the
Internet,
or
the
owners."
Steve
Yelvington,
Yelvington.com,
Sept.
28,
2007.
• "MarketWatch:
Celebrating
10
Years
Online."
David
Callaway,
MarketWatch,
Oct.
2007.
• "Is
This
the
End
of
News?"
Vanity
Fair,
Michael
Wolff,
Oct.
2007.
• "Your
Duty
to
Read
the
Paper:
If
we
believe
in
a
future
of
journalism,
we've
got
to
pitch
in."
Roy
Peter
Clark,
Poynter
Online,
Oct.
10,
2007.
• Online
News
Association
Conference,
Oct.
17‐19,
2007.
• "Tracking
Fire
Coverage."
Julie
Moos,
Poynter
Online,
Oct.
24,
2007.
(See
also:
"CA
Wildfires:
Watershed
Moment
for
Collaborative
Online
News?"
Amy
Gahran,
Contentious.com)
• "Teaching
Journalism
in
the
Digital
Age."
Nieman
Reports,
Fall
2007.
• "Remarks
by
Tom
Curley,
President
of
AP."
Knight‐Bagehot
Dinner,
Nov.
1,
2007.
• "A
Cautionary
Tale
for
Old
Media."
Steve
Hamm,
BusinessWeek,
Nov.
5,
2007.
(See
also:
Reporter's
Journal
slide
show.)
• "Multimedia
News."
Peter
Horrocks,
BBC
News:
The
Editors,
Nov.
12,
2007.
(Linked
to
from:
"BBC
News
reorganizes
into
multimedia
newsroom."
Jonathan
Dube,
CyberJournalist,
Nov.
15,
2007.)
• "A
Look
Back
from
2018."
Howard
Finberg,
Poynter
Online,
Nov.
14,
2007.
• "Shocker:
A
Few
Students
Still
Read
Print
Newspapers."
Steve
Outing,
E‐Media
Tidbits,
Nov.
14,
2007.
• "Data
as
journalism,
journalism
as
data."
Rich
Gordon,
Readership
Institute,
Nov.
14,
2007.
• "Doonesbury
takes
aim
at
MSM
political
reporters
who
blog."
Romenesko,
Nov.
19,
2007.
(Links
to
Howard
Kurtz's
"Media
Backtalk"
and
Doonesbury@Slate.)
• "ABC
News
Joins
Forces
With
Facebook.
New
Facebook
Application
Includes
2008
Presidential
Campaign
Reporting,
Forums."
ABC
News,
Nov.
26,
2007.
• "10
MediaShifting
Moments
of
2007."
Mark
Glaser,
MediaShift,
Dec.
21,
2007.
• "Read
All
About
It:
How
newspapers
got
into
such
a
fix,
and
where
they
go
from
here."
Paul
E.
Steiger,
Wall
Street
Journal,
Dec.
29,
2007.
• 2007
News
Examples:
Poynter's
Page
One
Today
‐
January;
February;
March;
April;
May;
June;
July;
August;
September;
October;
November‐December.
2007
Awards
• The
2007
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• The
2007
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
94
• The
2007
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2007
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
winners)
• 2007
APME
Online
Convergence
Awards
–
Washington
Post,
Roanoke
Times,
Lawrence
Journal‐World
• 2007
SND.ies
Awards
(Press
release
PDF)
2008
SERVICES,
TECHNOLOGY
&
SOCIAL
• "15
Years
of
Wired:
A
Look
Back."
Wired,
Jan.
1,
2008.
(The
magazine
was
started
in
1993
and
the
Web
site
in
1994.)
• "Iowa
Caucuses
Blanketed
by
Twitter,
Blogs,
Video."
Mark
Glaser,
MediaShift,
Jan.
3,
2008.
• "Consumer
Electronics
Show
2008."
PC
Magazine,
Jan.
6,
2008.
(See
also:
"Bill
Gates
Keynote."
Microsoft,
Jan.
6.
2008.)
(Gates
and
Paul
Allen
founded
Microsoft
in
1975.)
• "Campaign
Coverage
for
the
Digerati."
2008
Technology
Voters'
Guide.
News.com
Special
Coverage.
• The
White
House
begins
its
first
blog.
Jan.
2008.
(See
also:
Jan.
16
post
from
President
George
W.
Bush.)
(The
White
House
Web
site
started
in
1994.)
• MacWorld
Keynote
by
Steve
Jobs,
Apple,
Jan.
15,
2008.
(Jobs
and
Steve
Wozniak
introduced
their
first
computer
in
1976.)
• "Launching
EveryBlock."
(Interview
with
Adrian
Holovaty)
Al
Tompkins,
Jan.
23,
2008.
(See
also:
"In
memory
of
chicagocrime.org."
Adrian
Holovaty.com,
January
31,
2008.)
• "Microsoft
Offers
to
Buy
Yahoo
for
$44.6
Billion."
Ari
Levy
and
Dina
Bass,
Bloomberg.com,
Feb.
1,
2008.
(See
also:
"Microsoft's
$44.6
Billion
Offer
to
Yahoo."
CNBC.com,
Feb.
1,
2008.)
(David
Filo
and
Jerry
Yang
started
Yahoo
in
1994.)
• "Feb
5,
2008:
the
day
Super
Tuesday
became
the
'Mashup
Election'."
Paul
Bradshaw,
Online
Journalism
Blog,
Feb.
6,
2008.
(Radio
was
the
new
wireless
technology
in
the
1924
presidential
election.)
• "A
Heartfelt,
YouTube‐Based
Wake
for
Polaroid
Photography."
PC
World,
Feb.
8,
2008.
• "The
Coming
Ad
Revolution."
Esther
Dyson,
Wall
Street
Journal,
Feb.
11,
2008.
(Dyson
was
founding
chair
of
the
Internet
Corporation
for
Assigned
Names
and
Numbers
in
1998.)
• "Online
Tributes
Memorialize
Northern
Illinois
University
Shooting
Victims."
Jenna
Wortham,
Underwire,
Feb.
15,
2008.
(See
also:
"School
Shootings
1997‐2008")
• "HD
DVD:
Just
another
brick
in
the
wall
of
defunct
formats."
Steve
Guttenberg,
C/Net
Audiophiliac,
Feb.
19,
2008.
• "Twitter."
Jeff
Jarvis,
BuzzMachine,
Feb.
25,
2008.
(The
Twitter
microblogging
service
was
founded
in
2006.)
• "Electric
Minds
‐‐
the
future
of
the
Web
(circa
1996)."
Howard
Rheingold,
Smart
Mobs,
March
17,
2008.
• "Camcorder
Brings
Zen
to
the
Shoot."
David
Pogue,
The
New
York
Times,
March
20,
2008.
(Pure
Digital
Technologies
released
an
early
version
of
the
Flip
Video
camera
in
2006.)
• "2008
is
the
year
of
gaming."
Don
Reisinger,
CNET
News,
April
15,
2008.
• "Web
2.0
debates
internet's
future."
Maggie
Shiels,
BBC
News,
April
26,
2008.
• "Craig
(of
the
List)
Looks
Beyond
the
Web."
Noam
Cohen,
The
New
York
Times,
May
12,
2008.
• "China's
Earthquake:
The
Twitter
Story."
Fons
Tuinstra,
E‐Media
Tidbits,
May
12,
2008.
• "Knight
News
Challenge
2008
Winners."
May
14,
2008.
• "Spielberg
pops
up
on
Seesmic."
Jemima
Kiss,
PDA:
The
Digital
Content
Blog,
May
17,
2008.
(Loic
Le
Meur
founded
the
Seesmic
video
discussion
site
in
2007.)
• "News
unfiltered:
YouTube
embraces
citizen
journalism."
David
Chartier,
ars
technica,
May
95
20,
2008.
• "D:
All
Things
Digital"
Media
and
Technology
Conference.
Hosted
by
The
Wall
Street
Journal's
Walt
Mossberg
and
Kara
Swisher.
May
27‐29,
2008.
• "Who
Will
Rule
The
New
Internet?"
Josh
Quittner,
Time
Magazine,
June
4,
2008.
• "How
new
media
affected
Clinton
campaign."
Joe
Garofili,
San
Francisco
Chronicle,
June
6,
2008.
• "Will
you
read
Microsoft's
obit
here?"
Bill
Virgin,
Seattle
Post‐Intelligencer,
June
9,
2008.
• "Tech's
15
turning
points."
Neil
McAllister,
InfoWorld,
June
10,
2008.
• "Will
3G
iPhone
Help
Push
Geo‐Based
News?"
Paul
Lamb,
Idea
Lab,
June
10,
2008.
• "The
Web
Time
Forgot."
Alex
Wright,
The
New
York
Times,
June
17,
2008.
• "From
ARPANET
to
Blogging."
The
Newseum's
Paul
Sparrow
gives
a
brief
history
of
the
Internet.
(Video
posted
on
the
Newseum's
Web
site.)
• "Mobile
Web
Reaches
Critical
Mass."
BBC
News,
July
10,
2008.
• "Is
Google
Making
Us
Stupid?"
Nicholas
Carr,
Atlantic
Monthly,
July/August
2008.
• "Do
Social
Networks
Bring
the
End
of
Privacy?"
By
Daniel
J.
Solove,
Scientific
American,
August
2008.
• "Dems'
Convention
will
be
Online
Media's
Party."
By
Richard
Siklos,
Fortune,
August
22,
2008.
• "Facebook
Hits
100
Million
Users."
By
Marshall
Kirkpatrick,
ReadWriteWeb,
August
25,
2008.
• "The
Best
2008
Political
Convention
Coverage
Online."
By
Mark
Glaser,
MediaShift,
August
28,
2008.
• "Palin's
Wikipedia
Entry
Gets
Overhaul."
By
Yuki
Noguchi,
NPR,
August
29,
2008.
• "Chrome:
It's
not
a
browser,
it's
the
first
web
OS."
By
Steve
Yelvington,
Yelvington.com,
Sept.
2,
2008.
• "Tag
Clouding
the
RNC."
By
Al
Tompkins,
Al's
Morning
Meeting,
Sept.
4,
2008.
(See
also:
Video
about
building
a
Tag
Cloud.)
• "Google:
You've
Come
a
Long
Way,
Baby!"
By
Lance
Ulanoff,
PC
Magazine,
Sept.
7,
2008.
In
September
1998
the
Google
company
opened
its
office
in
Menlo
Park,
California.
Google.com
was
still
in
beta.
(See
also:
Google
Milestones
and
Google
10th
Birthday.)
• "Blog
History
101:
Scott
Rosenberg
Traces
the
Blogosphere's
Origins."
By
Simon
Owens,
MediaShift,
Sept.
22,
2008.
• "RNC
08
Report
Preserving
Tweets
for
History's
Sake."
By
Maryn
McKenna,
E‐Media
Tidbits,
Oct.
15,
2008.
• Web
2.0
Summit
2008.
Nov.
5‐7,
2008.
• "Barack
Obama's
use
of
social
media."
By
JD
Lasica,
Social
Media,
Nov.
15,
2008.
• "IBM
Study
Shows
Consumers
Will
Accept
New
Forms
of
Advertising
If
Companies
Follow
Their
Rules."
IBM,
Nov.
17,
2008.
• "Breaking
News
Online:
A
Short
History
and
Timeline."
By
Mindy
McAdams,
Nov.
29,
2008.
• "The
mouse
hits
40‐year
milestone."
By
Mark
Ward,
BBC
News,
Dec.
9,
2008.
• Pew
Reports:
"Increased
use
of
video‐sharing
sites."
Jan.
9,
2008.
"A
Portrait
of
Early
Adopters."
Feb.
21,
2008.
"Mobile
Access
to
Data
and
Information."
March
5,
2008.
"Writing,
Technology
and
Teens."
April
24,
2008.
"The
Internet
and
the
2008
Election."
June
15,
2008.
"Key
News
Audiences
Now
Blend
Online
and
Traditional
Sources."
August
17,
2008.
"Podcast
Downloading
2008."
August
28,
2008.
"Networked
Workers."
Sept.
24,
2008.
"Networked
Families."
Oct.
19,
2008.
"When
Technology
Fails."
Nov.
16,
2008.
"Obama's
Online
Opportunities."
Dec.
4,
2008.
"The
Future
of
the
Internet
III."
(with
Elon
University)
Dec.,
2008.
"The
Internet's
Role
in
Campaign
2008."
Apr.
15,
2009
(See
also:
Full
Report)
96
2008
THE
MEDIA
• "After
a
decade
of
high
hopes,
there
are
increasing
concerns
about
the
Web's
ability
to
meet
the
news
industry's
financial
challenges."
(Source:
"The
State
of
the
News
Media:
Online
Section."
Project
for
Excellence
in
Journalism,
2008.)
• ABC
News
and
Facebook
sponsor
the
Republican
and
Democratic
New
Hampshire
presidential
primary
debates
on
Jan.
5,
2008.
• "Introducing...
the
new
nightly.msnbc.com."
Brian
Williams
introduces
the
redesigned
NBC
Nightly
News
Web
site.
Jan.
9,
2008.
(NBC
created
their
first
Web
site
in
1995.)
• 'Getting
Smart
About
News
Podcasts.'
Amy
Gahran,
Contentious.com,
Jan.
23,
2008.
• "Anatomy
of
a
local
breaking
news
story."
(Las
Vegas
Sun
online
coverage
of
the
Monte
Carlo
hotel
fire)
Rob
Curley,
Jan.
26,
2008.
• CBS
News
anchor
Katie
Couric
introduces
a
new
CBS
YouTube
channel.
Posted
on
YouTube,
Feb.
1,
2008.
(A
CBS
station
tested
a
videotex
interactive
system
in
1982.)
• "Facebook:
The
rival
to
newswire
services
everywhere?"
Helen
Walters,
Next/BusinessWeek.com,
Feb.
6,
2008.
(Mark
Zuckerberg
launched
Facebook
in
2004.)
• The
Tribune,
Gannett,
Hearst
and
New
York
Times
companies
announce
the
creation
of
the
quadrantONE
online
ad
network
on
Feb.
15,
2008.
(In
1995
a
consortium
of
newspaper
companies
called
the
New
Century
Network
was
formed.
It
closed
in
1998.)
• "Newspaper
Next
2.0
‐‐
Making
the
Leap
Beyond
Newspaper
Companies."
American
Press
Institute,
Feb.
2008.
• "We
Media/Zogby
Interactive
poll."
"...the
online
survey
documented
the
shift
away
from
traditional
sources
of
news,
such
as
newspapers
and
TV,
to
the
Internet."
Feb.
27,
2008.
• "Wikipedia
in
the
Newsroom."
Donna
Shaw,
AJR,
Feb./March
2008.
(Wikipedia
formally
began
in
2001.)
• "Where's
the
Innovation
in
Business
Models?"
Chris
O'Brien,
Idea
Lab,
March
13,
2008.
• "Dusting
Off
the
Archive
for
the
Web."
Richard
Perez‐Pena,
The
New
York
Times,
March
17,
2008.
• "Out
of
Print:
The
Death
and
Life
of
the
American
Newspaper."
Eric
Alterman,
The
New
Yorker,
March
31,
2008.
• "Google
Earth,
New
York
Times
Team
Up."
Leslie
Rule,
Idea
Lab,
April
13,
2008.
• "Can
Newspaper
Classifieds
Really
Be
Saved?"
Steve
Outing,
ReinventingClassifieds.com,
April
18,
2008.
• "CBS
Corporation
to
Acquire
CNET."
CBS,
May
15,
2008.
• "The
Newspapers:
Rating
The
Top
25
Newspaper
Websites."
Douglas
A.
McIntyre,
24/7
Wall
St,
June
3,
2008.
• "Sad
News
About
Tim
Russert
Broken
By
Wikipedia?"
Jon
Fine,
BusinessWeek,
June
13,
2008.
(See
also:
NBC/MSNBC
coverage
about
Tim
Russert)
• "Murky
Boundaries:
What
are
the
guidelines
for
the
personal
blogs
of
journalists
who
work
for
mainstream
news
organizations?"
Kevin
Rector,
AJR,
June/July
2008.
• "Guardian
Media
Group
Buys
paidContent
for
$30
Million."
Kara
Swisher,
All
Things
Digital,
July
11,
2008.
• "Some
thoughts
on
the
Twitter/iPhone
reporting
experiment."
Etan
Horowitz,
OrlandoSentinel.com,
July
14,
2008.
• "Moving
to
Mobile."
NAA,
July
2008.
• "TV
Networks
Rewrite
the
Definition
of
a
News
Bureau."
Brian
Stelter,
The
New
York
Times,
August
12,
2008.
• "Politics
and
the
New
Media."
Nieman
Reports,
Summer
2008.
97
• "Handheld
Headlines:
News
organizations
are
embracing
content
aimed
at
cell
phones
and
other
mobile
devices
as
part
of
their
survival
strategy
in
the
digital
age."
Arielle
Emmett,
AJR,
August/Sept.
2008.
• "Bringing
history
online,
one
newspaper
at
a
time."
By
Punit
Soni,
Official
Google
Blog,
Sept.
8,
2008.
(See
also:
"Google
raising
newspaper
morgues
from
the
dead."
By
Stephen
Shankland,
CNET
News,
Sept.
8,
2008.)
• Online
News
Association
Conference,
Sept.
11‐13,
2008.
• "A
No‐Paper
Newspaper."
By
Daniel
McGinn,
Newsweek,
Sept.
15,
2008.
• "Train
Crash
Leads
LA
Times
to
Create
Django
Database
on
Deadline."
By
Chip
Scanlan,
Chip
on
Your
Shoulder,
Sept.
18,
2008.
• "Newspapers'
Web
Revenue
Is
Stalling."
By
Stephanie
Clifford,
The
New
York
Times,
Oct.
12,
2008.
• "Blogging
journalists:
survey
results
pt.1:
context
and
methodology."
By
Paul
Bradshaw,
Online
Journalism
Blog,
Oct.
14,
2008.
• Video:
"The
Future
of
Journalism"
Panel
Discussion.
Christian
Science
Monitor,
Nov.
6,
2008.
(See
also:
"Monitor
shifts
from
print
to
Web‐based
strategy."
CSM,
Oct.
28,
2008.)
• "Election
Day
Homepage
Highlights."
By
Howard
Finberg,
Poynter
Online,
Nov.
5,
2008.
• "SAJA
Coverage
of
Mumbai
Attacks."
SAJA
Forum,
Nov.
27,
2008.
• "Pulitzer
Prizes
Broadened
to
Include
Online‐Only
Publications."
Pulitzer.org,
Dec.
8,
2008.
(See
also:
"Pulitzers
Open
to
Online‐Only
Entrants
‐‐
But
Who
Qualifies?"
By
Simon
Owens,
MediaShift,
Dec.
12,
2008.
• "Following
Blagojevich
Arrest
on
Twitter,
News
Sites."
By
Ellyn
Angelotti,
Poynter
Online,
Dec.
9,
2008.
• "Online
news
is
immediate
and
exciting."
By
Mike
Wendland,
Detroit
Free
Press,
Dec.
17,
2008.
• 2008
News
Examples:
Poynter's
Page
One
Today
‐
January;
February;
March‐April;
May‐June;
July‐August;
Sept.‐Oct.;
Nov.‐Dec.
2008
Awards
• 2008
NAA
Digital
Edge
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• Sigma
Delta
Chi
Award
Winners
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2008
Editor
&
Publisher
EPpy
awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
• 2008
Webby
Awards
(Archived
list
winners)
• 2008
Online
News
Association's
Online
Journalism
Awards
(Archived
list
of
winners)
(Archived
list
of
finalists)
5.
People
to
know
This selection of “people to know” will give you a starting point from which to build
your own set of thought leaders whose advice you follow daily through the monitoring of
social media and other sources. They may discuss new theories or propose new “laws.”
This sample startup list includes big names and “small” ones. You will come to know
whose wisdom best fits your needs and you will add many names and drop some from
this group. Becoming active on microblogging networks and then “following” the people
98
who the people you respect are following is a great way to become more informed. The
point is to get started now. Jump into the mindstreaming and enjoy expanding your own.
Chris
Anderson
–
Wired
editor,
author
of
The
Long
Tail
and
Free:
The
Future
of
a
Radical
Price.
(It
is
Time
to
Manage
for
Abundance,
Not
Scarcity
–
Chris
Anderson
in
Wired:
http://www.wired.com/techbiz/it/magazine/17‐07/mf_freer).
Seth
Godin
–
Popularized
the
idea
of
“permission
marketing”
–
well
known
speaker
and
writer
on
uses
of
interactive
media
in
strategic
communications.
Brian
Solis
–
Principal
of
FutureWorks,
a
PR
and
New
Media
agency
in
Silicon
Valley.
Bill
Buxton
–
Pioneer
in
human‐computer
interfaces
and
author
of
Sketching
User
Experiences:
Getting
the
Design
Right
and
the
Right
Design.
Jesse
James
Garrett
–
The
co‐founder
of
Adaptive
Path,
a
user
experience
and
strategy
firm,
he
co‐founded
the
Information
Architecture
Institute
and
coined
the
term
“Ajax.”
Ben
Shneiderman
–
HCI
expert
and
author
of
Designing
the
User
Interface:
Strategies
for
Effective
Human‐Computer
Interaction
(5th
ed.
2009)
http://www.awl.com/DTUI/
Steve
Rubel
–
PR
executive
and
blogger,
see
http://www.steverubel.com/why‐a‐
lifestream‐and‐not‐a‐blog‐1‐in‐a‐stream
‐
his
views
on
scanning
horizon
for
next
thing.
Richard
MacManus
–
The
founder
of
ReadWriteWeb,
among
the
top
20
blogs
worldwide.
Chris
Carfi
–
The
founder
of
Cerado
Inc.,
a
customer
strategies
company.
His
blog,
The
Social
Customer
Manifesto,
has
the
slogan
“Participate,
there
are
no
spectators
any
more.”
BL
Ochman
–
Social
media
strategist
whose
WhatsNextBlog
tracks
some
trends.
Garr
Reynolds
–
Creator
of
Presentation
Zen
and
a
leading
advocate
of
the
“BrandYou”
movement
underway
since
the
late
1990s.
Edward
Tufte
–
A
preeminent
evangelist
for
information
visualization.
A
professor
emeritus
at
Yale,
his
site
is
http://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/.
Stephen
Few
–
The
man
behind
the
agency
Perceptual
Edge,
he
is
an
expert
on
information
visualization.
Henry
Jenkins
–
Expert
on
media
and
culture.
Formerly
of
MIT,
now
at
University
of
Southern
California.
Author
of
Convergence
Culture.
Lev
Manovich
–
A
new
media
theorist
best
known
for
the
book
The
Language
of
New
Media.
Howard
Rheingold
–
Expert
on
online
communities
and
author
of
Smart
Mobs.
Donald
A.
Norman
–
Expert
of
cognitive
and
computer
science
who
coined
the
three
levels
of
processing
experience:
Reflective;
Behavioral;
Visceral
–
about
initial
impact.
99
Cindy
Chastain
proposed
the
New
Elements
of
User
Experience:
“tangible”
elements
‐
function,
performance
and
ease
of
use,
and
“intangible”
elements
‐
beauty,
emotion
and
meaning.
She
says
the
“Story
Frame”
should
define
the
product,
service
or
system.
Dana
Chisnell
writes
Usability
Testing
blog:
http://usabilitytestinghowto.blogspot.com/
Tim
O’Reilly
–
Founder
of
O’Reilly
media,
originated
the
term
Web
2.0,
supporter
of
free
software
and
open
source
movements.
Jonathan
Harris
–
Internet
artist
and
designer
who
has
been
honored
as
a
“young
global
leader”
by
the
World
Economic
Forum.
Work
aims
to
“explain
the
human
world.”
http://www.ted.com/talks/jonathan_harris_tells_the_web_s_secret_stories.html
John
Maeda
–
Graphic
designer
and
computer
scientist
named
one
of
the
21
most
important
people
in
the
21st
century
by
Esquire
magazine.
Working
on
SIMPLICITY,
a
research
project
to
help
people
in
an
age
of
complexity.
Author
of
Simplicity.
Nicholas
Negroponte
–
Founder
of
MIT’s
Media
Lab
and
the
One
Laptop
Per
Child
project.
Former
columnist
for
Wired
and
author
of
Being
Digital.
To
follow
theories,
also
seek
out
industry
and
research
groups
Communications organizations create their own networks of practitioners who pursue and
test theories. These organizations hold conferences showcasing the latest research in each
field and they publish peer-reviewed and cutting-edge content about theories and tactics.
Two
of
the
finest
resources
for
academic‐style
research
about
the
online
world
are
the
Association
of
Internet
Researchers
(AoIR
‐
http://aoir.org/)
and
the
Social
Science
Research
Network
(SSRN
‐
http://www.ssrn.com/).
In
addition,
the
Pew
Internet
&
American
Life
Project
is
a
top
go‐to
research
site
for
statistics
on
US
use
and
trends
(http://www.pewinternet.org).
Other
individuals
are
working
to
compile
outstanding
research
link
sets
–
an
example
is
danah
boyd’s
social
networking
research
list
and
her
microblogging
list
‐
http://www.danah.org/SNSResearch.html
http://www.danah.org/TwitterResearch.html.
Smart interactive media professionals make it a habit to scope out all of the
organizations tied to their interests in the realms of communications, computation,
digital art, digital media, user experience, human-computer interaction and
interactive design to find and get active in those most likely to offer them valuable
information and personal networking opportunities.
New opportunities are popping up all the time. Who knows? Maybe you will found
such an organization yourself this year or very soon in this time of perpetual change
and opportunity for innovation.
100
5.
Resources
for
interactive
communications
thinking…
Great
online
glossary
http://www.netlingo.com/
Top
interaction
design
must‐reads
–
a
list
from
the
professionals
http://web‐design.alltop.com/
news
search‐aggregator
site
can
glean
fresh
reads
for
you
daily
–
also
use
other
search
terms,
such
as
interactive,
etc.
to
get
other
results,
go
to
http://alltop.com
to
start
Johnny
Holland
magazine
online
http://johnnyholland.org/
an
open
collective
exploring
the
interactions
of
experience
design
Smashing
Magazine
more
amazing
content
on
design
OMMA:
The
Magazine
of
Online
Media,
Marketing
&
Advertising
OMMA’s
top
online
publishers
list
is
figured
by
using
RPUU,
annual
revenue
and
share
divided
by
number
of
unique
users
–
PDF
with
Top
Online
Publishers
list
‐
http://www.mediapost.com/images/chart_onlinepublishers.pdf
Observing
the
User
Experience
by
Mike
Kuniavsky.
He
works
at
Adaptive
Path.
At
the
Heart
of
Interaction
Design
by
Lauralee
Alben
http://www.albenfaris.com/publications/pub_heart.shtml
Interaction
Design
History
in
a
Teeny
Little
Nutshell
by
Marc
Rettig
http://www.slideshare.net/mrettig/interaction‐design‐history
http://gettingreal.37signals.com/toc.php
First
Principles
of
Interaction
Design,
Bruce
Tognazzini
http://www.asktog.com/basics/firstPrinciples.html
A
Software
Design
Manifesto,
Mitch
Kapor
http://hci.stanford.edu/bds/1‐kapor.html
Affordances
and
Design,
Don
Norman
http://jnd.org/dn.mss/affordances_and_design.html
Good
Design
in
the
Digital
Age,
Richard
Buchanan
http://id.bobulate.com/readings/gooddesign.pdf
The
Computer
for
the
21st
Century,
Mark
Weiser
101
http://www.ubiq.com/hypertext/weiser/SciAmDraft3.html
UX
Zeitgeist:
http://www.rosenfeldmedia.com/zeitgeist/
Observing
the
User
Experience
by
Mike
Kuniavsky.
He
works
at
Adaptive
Path.
On
the
ground
running:
Lessons
from
experience
design,
Adam
Greenfield
http://speedbird.wordpress.com/2007
/06
/22
/on
‐the
‐ground
‐running
‐lessons
‐from
‐experience
‐design
/
Insanely
Great,
Or
Just
Good
Enough?
by
Dan
Hill
http://www.cityofsound.com/blog/2004/02/insanely_great_.html
This
is
My
Process,
Michael
Bierut
http://www.designobserver.com/archives/entry.html?id=17485
The
Tug
of
the
Newfangled
Slot
Machines,
Gary
Rivlin
http://www.nytimes.com/2004
/05
/09
/magazine
/09SLOTS.html?pagewanted=all
&position=
Jensen
Harris'
Office
2007
Blog
(treat
it
as
one
long
article)
http://blogs.msdn.com/jensenh/default.aspx
http://www.uigarden.net/english
/crafting
‐a
‐user
‐research
‐plan
http://www.uigarden.net/english
/crafting
‐a
‐user
‐research
‐plan
‐part
‐ii
Ten
Ways
to
Kill
Good
Design
by
Kim
Goodwin
http://www.cooper.com/journal
/2004
/12
/ten
_ways
_to
_kill
_good
_design.html
The
Design
of
Everyday
Things,
by
Don
Norman:
http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog
/item
/default.asp?tid=5393
&ttype=2
The
Inmates
Are
Running
the
Asylum,
by
Alan
Cooper:
http://books.google.com/books?id=04cFCVXC_AUC&dq=the
Information
Visualization,
by
Colin
Ware:
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en
&lr=
&id=2ZlORD5hX7QC
&oi=fnd
&pg=PR15
&dq=
"Ware
"
Books
or
articles
(printed,
journals,
blogs,
online
magazines)
that
provide
good
coverage
of
analysis
of
research
data.
The
references
received
to‐date
have
been
compiled
here:
http://www.meld.com.au/2009
/04
/analysis
‐of
‐design
‐research
‐data
‐resource
‐list
102
Helpful
article
from
the
online
publication
Johnny
Holland:
http://johnnyholland.org/magazine
/2009
/02
/deconstructing
‐analysis
‐techniques
/
Foundations
of
Interaction
Design,
David
Malouf
http://www.boxesandarrows.com/view/foundations‐of
"Bringing
More
Science
to
Persona
Creation."
http://www.uxmatters.com/mt
/archives
/2006
/04
/my
‐ia
‐summit
‐2006
‐experience
‐
part
‐3
‐the
‐conference
‐day
‐2.php
Michael
Hawley's
column,
Research
That
Works.
You'll
find
a
list
of
all
UXmatters
articles
on
user
research
here:
http://www.uxmatters.com/topics/user‐research/
The
CHI
2007
Workshop
"Beyond
Current
User
Research:
Designing
Methods
for
New
Users,
Technologies,
and
Design
Processes"
includes
a
good
bibliography:
http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1241097
Laurel,
Brenda.
Design
Research:
Methods
and
Perspectives.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xVeFdy44qMEC
‐
A
great
selection
of
articles
on
design
research,
not
all
of
them
on
data
analysis.
Nice
overview
of
Ubiquitous
Computing
(with
PDFs).
http://www.ics.uci.edu/~jpd/ubicomp/
Understanding
“everyware.”
http://www.studies‐observations.com/everyware/
Another
list
of
top
information…
Axis
Maps
Blog
http://www.axismaps.com/blog/feed/
Ben
Fry’s
Processing
http://www.processing.org/
Bestica
Blog:
http://bestica.com/blog.aspx
IxD,
UX,
AI
and
HCI
Calendar
http://www.interaction‐design.org/calendar/printerfriendly.html
Chart
Porn
http://chartporn.org/feed/
Check
Facebook
http://www.checkfacebook.com/
103
Cool
Infographics
http://coolinfographics.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default
Dataspora
Blog
http://dataspora.com/blog/feed/
DataViz
http://dataviz.tumblr.com/rss
DensityDesign
|
Communication
Design
&
Complexity
http://www.densitydesign.org/feed/
Digital
Buzz
http://www.digitalbuzzblog.com/
Diseño
de
información
http://disenodeinformacion.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default
dMultimedia
http://dmultimedia.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default
EagerEyes.org
http://eagereyes.org/atom/feed
FlowingData
http://feeds.feedburner.com/FlowingData
Golden
Section
Graphics
News
http://goldensectiongraphics.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default
IBM’s
Many
Eyes
https://manyeyes.alphaworks.ibm.com/manyeyes/
iGraphics
explained
http://igraphicsexplained.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default
Impact
Visuel
http://www.impactvisuel.net/feed
InfoDesign:
Understanding
by
Design
http://www.informationdesign.org/index.rdf
Infographics
news
http://infographicsnews.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default
information
aesthetics
http://infosthetics.com/atom.xml
Innovative
Interactivity
http://www.innovativeinteractivity.com/feed/
Internaction‐design.org
http://www.interaction‐design.org/
Interactions
magazine,
by
ACM
http://interactions.acm.org/
Interfaces
Magazine
http://www.bcs‐hci.org.uk/about/interfaces
InteractiveNarratives.org
http://interactivenarratives.org/?option=rss
Jorge
Camoes’
Charts
http://charts.jorgecamoes.com/feed/
Junk
Charts
http://junkcharts.typepad.com/junk_charts/atom.xml
Kelso’s
Corner
http://kelsocartography.com/blog/?feed=rss2
Making
Maps:
DIY
Cartography
http://makingmaps.net/feed/
nicolasrapp.com
http://nicolasrapp.com/?feed=rss2
Pointy
Haired
Dilbert
Charting
and
Excel
Tips
‐
http://chandoo.org/wp/management‐dashboards‐excel/
Sankey
Diagrams
http://www.sankey‐diagrams.com/feed/
Serial
Consign
http://serialconsign.com/rss.xml
Simple
Complexity
http://simplecomplexity.net/feed/
Stat.
Graphics
Data
Visualization
http://statisticalgraphics.blog.com/atom/
Statistical
Graphics
and
more
http://www.theusrus.de/blog/?feed=rss2
Statistical
Modeling,
Causal
Inference,
and
Social
Science
http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~cook/movabletype/mlm/atom.xml
Strange
Maps
http://strangemaps.wordpress.com/feed/
Subtraction.com
http://feeds.feedburner.com/subtraction
vi.sualize.us/jvetrau
http://vi.sualize.us/rss/jvetrau/
Visual
Think
Map
http://feeds.feedburner.com/VisualThinkMap
visualcomplexity.com
http://feeds2.feedburner.com/visualcomplexity
VisualMente
http://visualmente.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default
VizThink
Blog
http://feeds2.feedburner.com/VizthinkBlog
WallStats.com
The
Art
of
Information
http://www.wallstats.com/blog/feed/
Well‐formed
data
http://feeds.feedburner.com/well‐formed_data
WSJ
Graphics
http://infographics.tumblr.com/
Website
award
sites
http://www.website-awards.net/
104
http://www.webaward.org/
http://www.standoutawards.com/
http://www.worldbestwebsites.com/
http://www.dopeawards.com/
http://websitedesignawards.com/
http://www.creativewebsiteawards.com/
http://www.designlicks.com/
http://styleboost.com/
http://www.designmeltdown.com/
http://www.thebestdesigns.com/
http://www.thefwa.com/
http://www.webbyawards.com/
General
research
links
Advertising
Age
Magazine
All
About
Market
Research
Alltop
(All
the
top
Market
Research
news)
‐
Guy
Kawasaki's
weblink
site
Brandweek
Electronic
Statistics
Textbook
eMarketer
–
Research
and
statistics
on
digital
marketing
and
media
Federal
Reserve
Economic
Research
&
Data
FedStats
–
Links
to
statistics
from
100+
federal
agencies
FTC
‐
Federal
Trade
Commission
GreenBook
Research
Directory
Harvard
University's
Joint
Center
for
Housing
Studies
Marketing
Charts
Market
Research
Space
Market
Research
World
Melissa
Data
MRWeb
‐
The
Marketing
Research
Industry
Online
PR
Newswire
105
Quirk’s
Marketing
Research
Review
ResearchInfo.com
‐
Includes
active
MR
discussion
board
Research
Talk
Roper
Center
for
Public
Opinion
Research
Statistics
Canada
The
Pew
Research
Center
Wharton
School
of
Business
marketing
research
publications
Universal
Currency
Converter
Demographics
links
CIA
World
FactbooK
City
Population
‐
Population
information
on
cities
of
the
world
Ersys.com
‐
Information
on
over
2,600
U.S.
cities
(including
demographics,
economics,
housing,
media)
Hispanic
Magazine
Hispanic
PR
Wire
MPA
(Magazine
Publishers
of
America)
‐
Profiles
of
several
demographic
subgroups
(African
American,
Hispanic
American,
Asian
American,
teens)
U.S.
Census
Bureau
Research/marketing
organizations
AAF
(American
Advertising
Federation)
AAPC
(The
American
Association
of
Political
Consultants)
AAPOR
(American
Association
for
Public
Opinion
Research)
AIR
(Association
for
Institutional
Research)
AMA
(American
Marketing
Association)
AMAI
(Asociacion
Mexicana
de
Agencies
de
Investigacion)
ARF
(Advertising
Research
Foundation)
CAMRO
(Canadian
Association
of
Marketing
Research
Organizations)
CASRO
(The
Council
of
American
Survey
Research
Organizations)
CMOR
(Council
For
Marketing
and
Opinion
Research)
‐
Merged
with
MRA
ESOMAR
(The
World
Association
of
Research
Professionals)
IAB
(Interactive
Advertising
Bureau)
‐
http://www.iab.net/
IIR
(Institute
for
International
Research)
MRA
(Marketing
Research
Association)
MRGA
(Market
Research
Global
Alliance)
106
107
MRS
(The
Market
Research
Society)
MRSA
(Market
Research
Society
of
Australia)
NCPP
(National
Council
on
Public
Polls)
QRCA
(Qualitative
Research
Consultants
Association)
WAPOR
(World
Association
for
Public
Opinion
Research)
B2B
statistics
groups
EDGAR
‐
The
U.S.
Securities
and
Exchange
Commission’s
database
of
company
filings
SBA
(U.S.
Small
Business
Administration)
The
Conference
Board
‐
Business
statistics,
economic
forecasting
U.S.
Department
of
Labor’s
Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics
Yet
another
list
of
top
information…
BOOKS
UX
Primer
The
Design
of
Everyday
Things
by
Don
Norman
Don’t
Make
Me
Think
by
Steve
Krug
Design
Thinking
Sketching
User
Experiences
by
Bill
Buxton
Emotional
Design:
Why
We
Love
(or
Hate)
Everyday
Things
by
Don
Norman
The
Inmates
Are
Running
the
Asylum
by
Alan
Cooper
Strategy
Subject
To
Change
by
Peter
Merholz,
Todd
Wilkens,
Brandon
Schauer,
and
David
Verba
Process
The
Elements
of
User
Experience
by
Jesse
James
Garrett
About
Face
3
by
Alan
Cooper,
Robert
Reimann,
and
David
Cronin
A
Project
Guide
to
UX
Design
by
Russ
Unger
and
Carolyn
Chandler
108
Principles
Designing
for
the
Social
Web
by
Joshua
Porter
Designing
Interfaces
by
Jenifer
Tidwell
Designing
Visual
Interfaces
by
Kevin
Mullet
Information
Architecture
for
the
World
Wide
Web
(the
Polar
Bear
book)
by
Louis
Rosenfeld
and
Peter
Morville
Information
Architecture:
Blueprints
for
the
Web
by
Christina
Wodtke
and
Austin
Govella
Designing
Web
Navigation
by
James
Kalbach
Web
Form
Design
by
Luke
Wroblewski
Activities
Usability
Engineering
by
Jakob
Nielsen
Handbook
of
Usability
Testing
by
Jeffrey
Rubin
and
Dana
Chisnell
Observing
the
User
Experience
by
Mike
Kuniavsky
Documentation
Communicating
Design
by
Dan
Brown
Extra
Credit
Set
Phasers
on
Stun:
And
Other
True
Tales
of
Design,
Technology,
and
Human
Error
by
S.
M.
Casey
User‐experience
blogs
Konigi
by
Michael
Angeles
Tips,
tools
and
techniques
for
being
a
better
user
experience
designer
Disambiguity
by
Leisa
Reichelt
The
ins
and
outs
of
designing
a
product
with
an
existing,
and
passionate,
community
EverydayUX
by
Alex
Rainert
A
fresh
look
at
the
world
around
us
through
UX‐tinted
glasses
109
Graphpaper
by
Christopher
Fahey
Critical
analysis
of
some
of
the
toughest
issues
facing
UX
designers
today
inspireUX
by
Catriona
Cornett
Cubical‐wall
worthy
quotations
from
a
variety
of
practitioners
on
how
and
why
to
create
positive
user
experiences
Bokardo
–
Social
Design
by
Joshua
Porter
For
everything
you
need
to
consider
when
designing
socially‐focused
stuff
Logic
+
Emotion
by
David
Armano
Reusable
visualizations
and
valuable
synthesis
at
the
intersection
of
user
experience
design,
marketing
and
business
Putting
People
First
by
Experientia
A
great
resource
for
all
things
UX
from
around
the
globe
Brain
Sparks
by
User
Interface
Engineering
(UIE)
Inside
the
brilliant
minds
of
user
research
pioneer
Jared
Spool
and
his
team
Design
for
Service
by
Jeff
Howard
Insights
into
all
the
ways
companies
need
to
be
communicating
with
their
customers,
outside
of
their
websites
UX
Booth
by
Redd
Horrocks,
Matthew
Kammerer,
David
Leggett,
and
Andrew
Maier
A
group
blog
written
by
up‐and‐coming
designers
and
developers
with
fresh
perspectives
on
user
experience
design.
They
represent
the
next
generation
of
our
community
RF
Voices,
Left
Brain,
Right
Brain,
Ethics
Blog
four
different
blogs
by
folks
at
Ruder
Finn
People
at
a
top‐notch
full‐service
agency
offer
insights
on
its
four
streams
of
blogging.
Conversation
Agent
by
Valeria
Maltoni
Connecting
ideas
and
people
–
how
talk
can
change
our
lives
–
highly
connected
–
check
out
all
of
the
right‐side
links
to
find
a
lot
of
good
information
from
others
as
well.
110
User‐experience
publications
Boxes
and
Arrows
Journal
dedicated
to
discussing,
improving
and
promoting
the
work
of
the
information
architecture
community
interactions
Magazine
including
timely
articles,
stories,
and
content
related
to
the
interactions
between
experiences,
people,
and
technology,
published
by
the
Association
for
Computing
Machinery
UXmatters
Insights
and
inspiration
for
the
user
experience
community
written
by
many
distinguished
practitioners
Core77
Industrial
Design
content
and
community
site
–
articles,
discussions,
interviews
and
resources
Events
UX
Book
Club
IxDA
chapters
UPA
chapters
IAI
Local
Groups
SIGCHI
chapters
User
Experience
Meetups
Information
Architecture
Meetups
Lots
more
events
listed
at
UXnet.org
Organizations
Information
Architecture
Institute
(IAI)
Interaction
Design
Association
(IxDA)
Usability
Professionals
Association
(UPA)
111
User
Experience
Network
(UXnet)
Special
Interest
Group
–
Computer
Human
Interaction
(ACM/SIGCHI)
Mailing
lists
IxDA
mailing
list
IAI
mailing
list
NYCCHI
mailing
list
SIGCHI
in
other
cities
Webinars
UIE’s
Virtual
Seminars
A
monthly
series
of
online
seminars
giving
you
the
chance
to
hear
the
latest
perspectives
in
the
world
of
design
from
the
field’s
premier
experts.
$129
each.
90
minutes.
Rosenfeld
Media’s
Future
Practice
Webinars
The
cutting
edge
of
contemporary
user
experience
research
and
design
methods
and
practices.
$99
each.
60
minutes.
Adaptive
Path’s
Virtual
Seminars
$129
each.
75
minutes.
Smart
Experience
online
material
Workshops
UIE
Roadshow
In
this
full‐day,
in‐depth
seminar
you’ll
discover
the
key
experience‐design
factors,
analyze
your
team’s
strengths
and
weaknesses,
create
an
experience
vision,
and
learn
the
role
of
delight.
AdaptivePath’s
UX
Intensive
This
four‐day
workshop
series
is
for
experienced
professionals
wanting
to
take
their
112
practice
to
the
next
level.
Cooper
U
A
practical
collection
of
courses
that
help
product
team
members
improve
their
effectiveness
from
early
planning
all
the
way
through
implementation.
Conferences
Inspirational
Good
Experience
Live
(GEL)
A
conference
and
community
exploring
good
experience
in
all
its
forms
—
in
business,
art,
society,
technology,
and
life.
IDEA
Conference
The
world’s
foremost
thinkers
and
practitioners
sharing
the
big
ideas
that
inspire,
along
with
practical
solutions
for
the
ways
people’s
lives
and
systems
are
converging
to
affect
society.
Adaptive
Path’s
Managing
Experience
(Mx)
Thought
leaders
from
major
corporations
show
you
how
smart
and
visionary
management
will
help
you
successfully
compete
in
a
difficult
economy.
Practical
UIE’s
User
Interface
Conference
Examining
the
biggest
issues
in
the
world
of
web
design,
information
architecture,
and
usability.
NN/g’s
Usability
Week
A
three‐day
usability
camp,
a
three‐day
intensive
session
on
interaction
design,
and
several
specialized,
day‐long
tutorials
on
core
usability
topics.
Come
for
as
few
or
as
many
days
as
you
want.
UPA
Tutorials,
workshops,
Experienced
Practitioners
program,
then
two
and
a
half
days
packed
with
presentations,
Idea
Markets,
and
opportunities
to
network
with
other
user
113
experience
professionals.
Mixed
IxDA
Interaction
Conference
Three
days
of
inspirational
and
tactical
sessions
geared
at
anyone
who
practices
Interaction
Design,
as
well
as
a
day
of
pre‐conference
workshops.
IA
Summit
The
premier
gathering
place
for
information
architects
and
other
user
experience
professionals.
Two
days
of
pre‐conference
sessions,
two
keynotes
and
over
50
presentations.
Adaptive
Path’s
UX
Week
A
mix
of
inspiring
talks
from
recognized
thought
leaders
and
hands‐on
workshops
delivering
takeaway
skills,
this
event
delivers
for
user
experience
professionals
at
all
levels
—
directors,
managers,
and
practitioners.
UIE’s
Web
App
Summit
The
four‐day
Summit
includes
two
days
of
intensive
full‐day
workshops
and
two
more
days
of
featured
presentations
from
world‐renown
experts,
to
give
you
fresh
perspectives
and
new
insights
on
today’s
web
app
design
challenges.
UX
Australia
3‐day
user
experience
design
conference,
with
inspiring
and
practical
presentations,
covering
a
range
of
topics
about
how
to
design
great
experiences
for
people.
UX
London
A
unique
three‐day
event
combining
inspirational
talks
with
in‐depth
workshops
presented
by
some
of
the
industry’s
biggest
names.
Academic
ACM’s
CHI
The
premier
international
conference
for
the
field
of
human‐computer
interaction.
114
Schooling
Human
Computer
Interaction
Human
Computer
Interaction
Institute
at
Carnegie
Mellon
University
Master
of
Science
in
Information
–
HCI
Specialization
at
University
of
Michigan
Interaction
Design
Master
of
Design
in
Interaction
Design
at
Carnegie
Mellon
University
Master
of
Fine
Arts
in
Interaction
Design
at
School
of
Visual
Arts
Undergraduate
minor
in
Interaction
Design
at
Savannah
College
of
Art
and
Design
Misc
Interactive
Telecommunications
Program
at
NYU’s
Tisch
School
of
the
Arts
Institute
of
Design
at
Illinois
Institute
of
Technology
Master’s
in
Interactive
Media
at
Elon
University
MORE
INCREDIBLY
USEFUL
LINKS
Great
resources
‐
http://www.reencoded.com/2008/04/01/42‐must‐bookmark‐
resources‐for‐web‐designers/
On
Web
usability:
http://www.usability.gov/templates/
Also
check:
http://www.slideshare.net/fransmayra/p2‐lecture‐1?src=embed
Theory
of
the
role
of
design:
http://www.boingboing.net/2009/07/05/matt‐webb‐on‐the‐
rol.html
Matt
Webb
(part
of
the
Schulze
and
Webb
design
consultancy)
addressing
Copenhagen's
Reboot
conference
on
what
the
role
of
a
designer
was
and
is
in
the
21st
century.
David
Gauntlett
(http://www.makingisconnecting.org/)
says
“the
work
of
old‐style
audience
studies
is
largely
done
and
the
notion
of
audience
is
collapsing
as
people
become
producers
as
well
as
consumers
of
media.
Human‐computer
interface
links:
•
•
•
•
Gary
Perlman's
HCI
Bibliography
HCIBIB
links
to
HCI
sites
The
HCI
Bibliography:
Most
Frequent
Authors
Hans
de
Graaff's
HCI
index
115
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
HCI
Education:
Courses
and
Programs
The
Alert
Box:
Current
Issues
in
User
Interface
Design
(Jakob
Nielsen)
An
Introduction
to
HCI
and
Design
at
IBM
Google's
edited
list
of
links
for
HCI
Wikipedia
on
HCI
Open
Directory
on
Human‐Computer_Interaction
Diamond
Bullet
Design
News
Site
Usability.Gov
ACM
SIGCHI
British
Computer
Society
HCI
Group
Usability
News
Design
goals
and
guidelines
and
serving
diverse
audiences
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Surveys
and
Statistics
University
of
Maryland
Human‐Computer
Interaction
Lab
∙Federal
Aviation
Administration,
The
Human
Factors
Design
Standard
∙Guide
for
developing
websites
∙World
Usability
Day
∙Microsoft
Windows
Vista
User
Experience
Guidelines
∙NASA
Web
Standards
and
Guidelines
∙National
Cancer
Institute,
Research‐based
Web
Design
and
Usability
Guidelines
∙World
Wide
Web
Consortium’s
Web
Accessibility
Initiative,
Web
Content
Accessibility
∙World
Wide
Web
Consortium’s
Web
Accessibility
Initiative,
Web
Accessibility
Evaluation
Tools
∙Handicapped
Access
‐
Trace
Institute
∙Cornell
University
Ergonomics
Web
CHI
Proceedings
Tutorial:
Global
Interface
Design
Designing
international
icons
‐
advice
from
IBM
∙Google's
edited
links
on
accessibility
∙Project
EASI
–
Equal
Access
to
Software
and
Information
∙UCLA
Disabilities
and
Computing
Program
∙Center
for
Information
Technology
Accommodation
(includes
links
to
information
about
access
to
persons
with
disabilities
and
about
general
usability)
∙Section
508
∙Access
Board
for
Section
508
The
Human
Factors
and
Ergonomics
Society
Sample
Organizations/Companies
that
Conduct
Usability
Assessments
• NN/g
• Convergent
Design,
Inc.
• Human
Factors
International
116
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Interaction
Design
Usability
Sciences
Corporation
UserWorks,
Inc.
XEODesign,
Inc.
UsabilityOne
Noldus
UserWorks
System
Concepts
Ovo
Studios
Experience
Dynamics
General
• HFES
Virtual
Environments
Technical
Group
• ACM
SIGGRAPH
(some
VR
content)
• The
Importance
of
the
Sense
of
Touch
in
Virtual
and
Real
Environments
• Presence
(MIT
Press
Journal)
• IEEE
Transactions
on
Visualization
&
Computer
Graphics
• IEEE
Conference
on
Virtual
Reality
2009
• IEEE
International
Conference
on
Systems,
Man,
and
Cybernetics
• Virtual
Reality
Society
(UK)
• Demonstrational
Programming
• Alice:
3D
Interactive
Graphics
Programming
Environment
• Web
3D
Consortium
• Second
Life
• Google
Earth
• EveryScape
‐
seeing
the
real
world
online
Other
Interesting
Links
• Fifth
Dimension
Technologies
• SensAble
Technologies
LI>Wayfinding
Strategies
and
Behaviors
in
Large
Virtual
Worlds
• "In
a
Strange
Land
modeling
and
understanding
cyberspace"
paper
by
Alan
Dix.
• What
is
Virtual
Reality?
• Virtual
Reality:
A
Short
Introduction
• Visualization
and
Virtual
Reality
for
Manufacturing
• Virtual
Reality
Monitoring:
How
Real
is
Virtual
Reality?
• Human
Interfacing
Issues
of
Virtual
Reality
• X11
in
Virtual
Environments:
Combining
Computer
Interaction
Methodologies
• Virtual
Reality
at
EVL
• A
Conceptual
Method
for
Interacting
with
Information
in
a
Three‐Dimensional
Virtual
Environment
• Virtual
Retinal
Display
Group
• Ship
Motion
Simulation
• Virtual
Prototyping
of
Automotive
Interiors
117
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Virtual
Simulation
of
Ship
Production
Processes
The
Virtual
Study
Tour
Accident
Simulation
Image
Based
Virtual
Reality
The
Effects
of
Immersion
Navigating
Through
Information
via
Virtual
Reality
Virtual
Reality
Moon
Phase
Pictures
The
Google
list
of
annotated
links
for
Virtual
Reality
Hardware
Virtual
Reality
Controllers
Cybermind
Head
Mounted
Displays
Data
Gloves
Mashup
‐
Twitter
and
Google
Earth
Methods
of
Interaction
lecture
slides
from
Staffordshire
University
Collection
of
Websites
on
Human
Computer
Interaction
WAI
Accessibility
Guidelines
Interaction
Resources:
Guidelines
and
Standards
FAA
Human
Factors
Design
Standard
Human
and
Machine
Dimensions
of
3D
Interfaces
for
VE
Multimodal
Interaction
and
VR
Designing
Forms,
Reports
and
Screens
presentation
from
Southern
Illinois
University
Windows
layout:
Cures
for
cryptovision
article
from
Human
Factors
International
UI
design
guidelines
for
Palm
PDA
Handheld
usability
Asynchronous
Distributed
Interfaces:
Different
Time,
Different
Places
• Reference
Guide
to
Email
Newsletters
and
Discussion
Groups
• CataList,
the
Official
Catalog
of
LISTSERV
Lists
• Tips
for
Overcoming
Email
Overload
• Email
Overload:
Exploring
Personal
Information
Management
of
Email
• Hypercam
Screen
Capture
to
Video
Shareware
• The
Impact
of
Communications
Mode
on
Asynchronous
Collaboration
in
the
NAS
presentation
• Mashup
‐
Twitter
and
Google
Earth
Synchronous
Distributed
Interfaces:
Different
Places,
Same
Time
• A
Comparison
of
Face‐To‐Face
and
Distributed
Presentations
• Aptima's
Web
Conferencing
Facility
• Polycom
• Hewlett
Packard
(HP)
Halo
• GoTo
Meeting
from
Citrix
• WebEx
from
Cisco
• Tandberg
Conferencing
118
•
•
Windows
Meeting
Space
Windows
Live
Messenger
‐
Yahoo
Messenger
‐
mIRC
Shareware
Face‐to‐Face
Interfaces:
Same
Time,
Same
Place
• Group
Systems
Think
Tank
Solutions
• Numonics
Interactive
White
Boards
• mimio
• Smart
Technologies
• Learning
to
Write
Together
Using
Groupware
• A
Collaborative
Approach
to
Developing
Style
Guides
• ∙
An
Introduction
to
Response
Time
and
Display
Rate
• ∙
Internet
Delay
Effects:
How
Users
Perceive
Quality,
Organization
and
Ease
of
Use
of
Information/A>
• ∙
Temporal
Usability
and
Disturbance
Management
in
Interaction
• ∙
Is
Time
Out
to
Be
the
Big
Issue?
• ∙
Time
and
the
Web
Collected
Abstracts
• ∙
What's
the
Web
Worth?
The
Impact
of
Retrieval
Delays
on
the
Value
of
Distributed
Information
• ∙
New
Computing
website
• ∙
Global
Land
Cover
Facility
• ∙
Sample
industry
Quality
of
Service
concept
Web
Page
Design
• Complete
guide
to
web
design
• Web
bloopers
• Web
style
guide
• Research‐Based
Web
Design
and
Usability
Guidelines
(U.S.
Dept
of
HHS)
• "Killer"
web
sites
Information
visualization
links
Edward
Tufte
is
known
as
the
preeminent
evangelist
for
information
visualization.
A
professor
emeritus
at
Yale,
he
travels
the
world
lecturing
on
ways
to
present
information
as
explanatory
design.
You
can
find
a
lot
to
look
at
on
his
site
‐
http://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/
‐
and
in
his
books.
Following
are
links
to
examples
of
data
visualization
and
information
about
it.
Examples
• 10×10
is
“100
words
and
pictures
that
define
time.”
• 3D
Animation
of
Linux
Code
Development
• 7
Nights
of
Bright
Eyes
article
and
accompanying
visual
analysis
of
Conor
Oberst.
119
• AInews.org:
Simple
news
headlines
appear
in
different
sizes.
Mouse
over
one
for
a
summary
or
click
the
+
to
save
it
(up
to
10).
• AntarcticAnimation:
“Reveals
the
profound
human
connections
that
some
have
made
with
Antarctica’s
changing
landscape.”
Animations
and
map.
• Archival
Maps
from
Library
of
Congress
• Atlas
of
Cyberspaces
“is
atlas
of
maps
and
graphic
representations
of
the
geographies
of
the
new
electronic
territories
of
the
Internet,
the
World‐Wide
Web
and
other
emerging
Cyberspaces.”
• BabyNameVoyager
by
Martin
Wattenberg.
• Baseball
Teams:
Salary
vs.
Performance
[Link:
Lauren's
Blog]
• Ben
Fry’s
archive
of
past
work
at
MIT
that
blended
computer
science,
graphical
design,
and
data
visualization.
Zipdecode
shows
how
zip
code
numbering
works
and
Salary
vs.
Performance
looks
at
baseball
teams
and
spending.
Learn
how
to
do
these
with
Fry’s
book,
Processing:
A
Handbook
for
Visual
Designers
and
Artists.
• Books
That
Make
You
Dumb:
Of
course,
reading
them
won’t
lower
your
IQ
—
little
humor,
y’know?
This
chart
comes
from
data
based
on
books
read
in
college
and
comparing
that
to
SAT
scores.
The
higher
a
book
scores,
the
smarter
it
is.
• Business
Planet
interactive
map
that
shows
how
hard
or
easy
it
is
to
do
business
in
many
economies.
• Candidate
Match
Game:
USA
Today
info
tool
to
help
you
see
which
candidates
share
your
opinions
on
big
issues.
It’s
the
chart
that
appears
after
you
complete
the
questions
that
amazes.
• Cartifact
interactive
maps
and
animations.
Explore
the
company’s
site
for
more
examples
(commercial).
• Charteo.us:
Uses
charts
to
track
book
sales
rankings.
More
charts
coming.
• Chris
Harrison’s
Projects
Page:
Man,
this
is
incredible.
It
includes
Visualizing
the
Bible,
which
visualizes
cross‐references
in
the
Bible
and
others
I’ve
already
mentioned
in
here
before
finding
this.
• CityVisions:
Maps
of
cities
• Civilization
Maps
video
• Corporate
Connection
• Dashboard
By
Example
has
examples
of
actual
business
dashboards
that
started
as
part
of
the
Dashboard
Spy.
Also,
Dashboard
Spy’s
Big
List
of
Experts,
Dashboard.TV
(videos),
and
Dashboard
By
Example.
Busy
spy!
• Data360:
Maps
and
charts
of
issues
ranging
from
local
and
international
to
arts
and
business.
120
• Data
Visualization
of
a
Social
Network
is
the
result
of
a
school
project.
• Death
and
Taxes
2008:
See
where
your
federal
tax
dollars
are
heading.
• Digg
Labs
using
visualization
for
managing
the
latest
news.
• Dream
Ether:
Create
a
dream
or
see
other
dreams
and
other
experiments.
• Duarte
Design
work
examples
(commercial).
Nancy
Duarte
is
the
author
of
slide:ology.
• The
Dumpster
is
a
visualization
of
romantic
breakups.
• Ear
Studio
timeline.
• Etsy
takes
a
creative
approach
in
helping
people
find
products
with
tools
such
as
the
Time
Machine
and
Geolocator.
• Feltron
Annual
Report
2005,
2006,
and
2007
• Flickrvision
• FlowingData
and
its
archives
have
many
visualization
examples.
• Formwerks,
architectual
firm
using
infovis
on
its
site.
Not
sure
this
is
effective
as
it
may
be
difficult
for
prospects
to
figure
out.
• Gapminder
World
• Geopictorial
Maps
(commercial)
• Grokker:
Dynamic
search
‐
try
it
out.
• HCIL
Visualization
houses
past
and
present
visualizations
projects.
• Historic
Cities
contains
maps
relating
to
past,
present
and
future
of
historic
cities.
• Brief
History
of
Visual
Aids
HistoryShots
information
graphics
prints
for
sale,
but
it’s
an
experience
to
look
at
each
one
and
read
about
them
(commercial).
• Human
Flows
visually
and
interactively
maps
global
migrations.
• Idea
Line
by
Martin
Wattenberg
• Idea
Mapping
Success:
Book
idea
maps
• Internet
Memes
provides
an
interactive
timeline
along
with
a
description
of
each
meme.
• Imagini:
Find
your
visual
DNA.
• John
Grimwade’s
index
of
diagrams
and
maps.
• Jon’s
Excel
and
Charting
Pages
contains
many
examples
of
using
Excel
for
charts.
• Jorge
Camoes’
Charts
• Juice
Analytics’
writings
includes
many
visualization
examples.
Check
out
the
apps
and
tools
especially
the
Chart
Chooser.
They
recreated
the
NY
Times
Cancer
chart.
• knowledge‐communication.org
gallery
contains
visuals
for
faciliating
knowledge
121
communications
between
experts
and
decision
makers.
• LinuxDistribution
Timeline
• LivesConnected
through
Hurricane
Katrina
and
its
aftermath.
• Many
Eyes
from
IBM
contains
many
visualizations.
• MapEcos:
Map
of
US
facilities
with
information
on
pollution
and
improvement
efforts.
• Mark
Lombardi
works:
An
abstract
artist
who
researched
scandals.
• Martin
Wattenberg
research
projects
list
includes
History
Wired
is
a
visual
exploration
of
the
Smithsonian
National
Museum
of
American
History’s
holdings
that
seeks
to
reproduce
the
serendipity
experienced
when
browsing
in
a
physical
museum,
History
Flow,
QuerySketch,
and
Map
of
the
Market.
• Materials
Research
Center
Interactive
Directory
• MedMaps:
MindMaps
for
doctors
and
medical
students.
• MindMap
Library:
Collection
of
1000s
of
mindmaps.
• MindMapPedia:
Collection
of
mindmaps
that
welcomes
submissions.
• mindServe
Group:
Example
diagrams
and
templates
(commercial)
• Moluv:
World’s
best
web
design
• MyMap
e‐mail
relational
map.
• MySociety
Travel
Time
Maps
and
other
projects.
Comments
on
travel
time
maps
from
co‐creator
Tom
Carden.
• Newsmap
• Nigel
Holmes
Explanation
Graphics
charts,
diagrams
,
and
motion
graphics.
• Panorama‐Maps
• Perceptual
Edge
has
examples
of
turning
data
into
visual
information
and
before
and
after
examples
to
show
how
to
better
tell
the
story
behind
the
data.
Participants
in
its
forums
discuss
good
and
bad
examples.
• Places
and
Spaces:
Mapping
science.
• Prefuse
Gallery
• Processing
examples
including
Inequality
of
CEO
salaries.
• R
Graph
Gallery
shows
graphs
created
with
programming
environment
R.
• RoomforMilk:
“Fresh
skimmed
Slashdot
headlines.”
• Sesame
Street
on
visual
thinking.
An
old
video
teaching
visualizing
shapes.
• Small
Business
Blogging
Map:
Get
the
big
picture
on
how
blogging
helps
small
businesses
gain
more
customers.
122
• Social
Networks
around
the
World:
Which
social
network
does
your
country
use
the
most?
• Stef
Crowley
portfolio
and
cool
video
of
her
creating
a
historical
timeline
for
the
University
of
Buffalo
(commercial).
• The
Story
of
Stuff
(commercial)
• Swivel:
Explore,
share
and
upload
data.
Check
out
the
Swivel
Bar
for
Excel.
• Tell
Me
a
Story
provides
tips
on
telling
stories
through
presentations.
• They
Rule
lets
you
“create
maps
of
the
interlocking
directories
of
the
top
companies
in
the
US
in
2004.”
• TopicScape
Mindmaps
Directory
• TouchGraph
Google
Browser
explores
connections
between
related
Web
sites.
Also
available:
TouchGraph
Amazon
and
TouchGraph
Facebook.
• Tracking
the
threat
looks
at
data
relating
to
terrorism.
• Twittervision,
TwitterMap,
TwitterSearch
• Understanding
USA
by
Richard
Saul
Wurman
• US
Demographics
Visualizer:
Filter
and
use
color
codes
to
review
US
census
data
by
population,
age,
ethnicity,
political,
and
income.
• Usenet
Newsgroups
hierarchies
treemap
• The
Virus
Lab:
Get
your
own
Social
Virus
• VisualComplexity
looks
at
visualization
of
complex
networks.
It
also
has
a
wealth
of
related
links.
• • Visual
Dictionary
Online
• Visual
Insight
murals
that
illustrate
information.
• Visual
Literacy,
an
e‐learning
course,
has
maps
and
demos.
• Visual
Think
Map’s
Photostream:
Flickr
page
of
visual
maps.
• Visuwords
online
graphical
dictionary
and
thesaurus
• Washington
DC
Metro
Maps
helped
me
get
around
Washington,
DC
for
six
years.
The
hardest
part
was
figuring
out
the
end
of
the
route
so
I
could
ensure
I
got
on
the
right
train.
• We
Feel
Fine:
An
exploration
of
human
emotions
in
six
movements.
• Wikipedia
visualizations:
Clusterball,
WikiViz,
First
Monday,
A
Beautiful
WWW,
and
Wikipedia
Top
50.
• WikipediaVision
shows
anonymous
edits
in
realtime.
123
• Wikipedia
Diagrams,
Drawings,
and
Maps
page
and
this
shows
the
definition
of
Pi.
• Winner
of
the
personal
visualization
project
as
well
as
other
entries.
• WorldMapper
has
over
366
maps
for
exploring.
• WorldProcessor
uses
globes
to
show
distribution
of
different
world
parameters.
• You
Are
Not
Alone
Here
and
other
projects
by
Steven
Baughman
and
Michael
Tabtabai
• Zen
Garden:
The
beauty
of
CSS
design
Information
visualization
blogs
• Beyond
Bullet
Points
Blog
covers
ways
to
use
media
to
communicate.
Author
Cliff
Atkinson’s
Sociable
Media
has
more
resources.
• BldgBlog
focuses
on
architecture,
but
talks
a
lot
about
great
visuals
and
illustrations.
• The
Center
for
Graphic
Facilitation
• CommonCraft:
Folks
behind
the
great
presentations
that
explain
stuff
like
RSS
and
Wikis.
• Cool
Infographics
has
a
collection
of
many
amazing
posters.
• Creating
Passionate
Users
uses
many
nice
visual
images
in
its
entries
as
support.
• David
Sibbet
discusses
visualization
and
graphic
facilitation.
• Dataisnature
• Data
Mining:
Text
mining,
visualization,
and
social
media
has
a
neat
map
of
the
blogosphere.
• Digital
Roam
blog
by
The
Back
of
the
Napkin
author
David
Roam
—
about
solving
problems
with
pictures
—
check
out
the
presentation
on
the
book’s
site.
Two
maps
from
the
book.
• EagerEyes
• emo+beer
=
busted
career
…
seriously,
it
has
visualizations.
• Forest
and
the
Trees:
Flash
and
data
visualization
• Found
in
Translation
• Future
Feeder:
Discusses
impact
of
information
and
computation
on
architecture.
• Indexed
:
“This
site
is
a
little
project
that
lets
me
make
fun
of
some
things
and
sense
of
others.
I
use
it
to
think
a
little
more
relationally
without
resorting
to
doing
actual
math.”
124
• InfoDesign
• Information
Design
Watch
• Infographics
News
• Information
Aesthetics:
Data
visualization
and
visual
communication.
• Idea
Mapping
by
the
author
of
Idea
Mapping,
Jamie
Nast
• Information
Visualization
• JunkCharts:
Blog
dedicated
to
recycling
bad
charts
into
junk
art.
• Karl
Gude
• The
Mind
Mapping
Software
Weblog
• Mindserve
Clipper
• Neoformix
• Networked
Performance
on
Visualization
• NiXLOG
Infographics
• Nooface:
Searching
for
the
post‐PC
interface
• Point
by
Fascinating
Point
• ProcessingBlogs
and
ProcessingHacks:
Processing
is
an
open
source
programming
language
and
environment
for
people
who
want
to
program
images,
animation,
and
sound.
• Random
Etc.
• Serial
Consign
on
Infographics
• Strange
Maps
• Street
Anatomy
is
a
blog
on
medical
visualization.
• The
Underlying
Blog
• Peace
of
Mind
• Visual
Business
Intelligence
by
Stephen
Few
• Visual
Linguists
is
a
blog
by
Neil
Cohn
on
visual
language
of
comics.
• Visual
Methods
• VisualSpeak
Blog
• Visual
Thinking
School
• VizThink
Blog
• Writing
on
the
Walls
by
Visual
Thinking:
Tools
for
Mapping
Your
Ideas
co‐author
Christine
Valenza
125
Information
visualization
resources
• 70+
Excel
Tips
and
Shortcuts
to
Help
You
Make
Excel
Magic
is
a
list
similar
to
this
one
with
a
focus
on
Excel.
• 70+
PowerPoint
Presentation
Resources
would
benefit
from
these
resources
and
you
can
see
how
some
people
used
infovis
in
their
presentations.
• Accessible
Data
Visualization
with
Web
Standards:
How
to
include
data
visualization
as
an
important
part
of
a
web
site
not
as
a
lone
figure
or
chart.
• The
Art
of
Visual
Thinking:
Guy
Kawasaki
shares
a
drawing
of
his
own
based
on
Alltop.
• Beyond
Bullet
Points
teaches
how
to
tell
a
story
with
PowerPoint
without
resorting
to
useless
templates.
Think
of
it
as
presentation
turned
into
visuals.
• Bob
Horn
is
an
expert
on
visual
argumentation
mapping
and
his
site
posts
speeches,
articles,
and
examples
including
the
cool
home
page.
• Communicating
Concepts
through
Comics:
Presentation
• Data
Visualization:
Modern
Approaches
from
Smashing
Magazine
has
tons
of
examples,
articles,
tools,
and
resources.
• Dataesthetics:
Power
and
Beauty
of
Data
Visualization
by
Eric
Blue
who
has
more
entries
on
infovis,
visualization,
and
mindmap.
• Dave
Gray
Info
• Drawing
Together
Online:
Presentation
• Eager
Eyes
–
Putting
Visualization
on
the
Web
• ExcelUser
has
articles
on
plotting
with
Excel
such
as
Comparing
Metrics
by
Category
and
tips
for
dashboarding
with
Excel.
• Flowing
Data
–
Rise
of
information
Visualization
• Gapminder
is
a
non‐profit
organization
that
uses
data
visualization
to
get
its
message
across.
Hans
Rosling,
co‐founder
of
the
organization,
turns
boring
numbers
into
animation
to
help
us
make
sense
of
the
world
especially
in
Gapminder
World.
• generator.x
:
Examines
role
of
software
and
generative
strategies
in
art
and
design.
Associated
blog.
• GTD
for
Mindmanager:
Getthing
Things
Done
on
Mindmanager,
software
for
• History
of
Cartography
tutorials
• How
to
Create
MindMaps
with
Mindomo
• Infosthetics
–
Information
Aesthetics,
where
form
follows
data
126
• InfoVis
Wiki
• Inf@Vis!
InfoVis.net
Digital
Magazine
• InstantAtlas:
Software
for
visually
analyzing
statistical
data.
Examples.
• Introduction
to
Sketchcasting,
a
way
to
combine
podcasting
with
sketching.
Arclabs
has
other
experiments
and
resources
of
interest.
• An
Introduction
to
Visual
Thinking:
Presentation
• Jerry
Isdale’s
Big
List
of
Infovis
Links.
Just
like
it
sounds.
• John
Grimwade
Information
Graphics
has
cool
diagrams
and
maps.
• Logic+Emotion:
Visual
Thinking
Archive:
Presentation
• Mapping
History
with
art
and
images
• Mapstraction:
“Library
that
provides
a
common
API
for
various
javascript
mapping
APIs
to
enable
switching
from
one
to
another
as
smoothly
as
possible.
• Map
Your
Mind:
Mindmapping
resource.
• Mentegrafica
is
a
blog
by
Daniele
Galiffa
on
information
visualization.
His
site
also
has
infovis
projects
and
presentations
posted.
• OLIVE:
Online
library
of
visualization
envrionments.
• Pictorial
Maps
from
Wikipedia
• ProcessTrends
covers
Data
Analysis
and
Visualization
with
Excel
Tools
and
Charts.
• Proximity
Graphs
is
a
tool
that
connects
actors
based
on
movies
and
authors
by
papers
in
computer
science
journals.
• RadicalCartography:
Does
map
visualizations
and
also
includes
resources.
Click
the
menu
items
to
see
samples.
• Rico
Clusters:
An
Alternative
to
Mind
Mapping
• Sketchcasting
=
podcasting
+
doodling
• SPSS
Viz
Designer:
Software
that
provides
visual
clarity
to
predictive
analytics
analysis.
• Squidoo
page
on
Visual
Maps
• TED
(Technology,
Entertainment,
Design):
Provides
visualization
as
an
option
for
viewing
the
information.
• TextArc:
Visual
representation
of
text.
• Toxi:
Interactive
works
include
base26
(all
four‐letter
words
in
English)
• Treemaps
for
space‐constrained
visualization
of
hierarchies
• UNO
(UNiversal
Organizer):
Mind
mapping
tool.
No
software.
Just
plain
paper.
• Visual
and
Creative
Thinking:
What
We
Learned
from
Peter
Pan
and
Willy
Wonka:
127
Presentation
• The
Visual
Dictionary
serves
as
an
academic
resource
where
images
replace
words.
• Visual
Editors
“is
the
online
classroom
and
meeting
hall
where
student
and
working
journalists
from
newsrooms
around
the
world
come
to
study
the
latest
reporting,
editing
and
design
techniques,
story
forms,
media
trends,
and
interactive
strategies.”
• Visual
Literacy:
eLearning
tutorial
on
visualization
that
also
has
a
periodic
table
of
visualization
methods
in
its
maps
section.
• Visualizing
Information:
An
Introduction
to
Information
Design
[pdf
file]:
Booklet
with
a
basic
introduction
to
information
design
for
non‐governmental
and
advocacy
organizations.
• Visual
Thinking
Squidoo
page
by
Xplane’s
Dave
Gray.
And
his
Visual
Thinking
Art.
• VizThink:
Conference
focused
on
visual
thinking.
• Walk2We:
Visualizes
connections
between
web
sites.
• We
Make
Money
Not
Art
on
visualizing
• What
Ordinary
People
Need
Most
from
Information
Visualization
Today
[pdf
file]
by
Stephen
Few.
• York
University
Gallery
of
Data
Visualization
shows
contains
many
resources,
data
visualization
timeline,
and
examples.
Information
visualization
portals
•
•
•
•
•
InfoVis:
Wiki
‐
The
Information
Visualization
community
wiki
Flowingdata
‐
RSS
feed
of
news
and
examples
of
visualization
Martin
Graham's
Page
of
Links
‐
Lots
of
academic
resources
Jorge
Camoes'
Charts
‐
Examples
of
charts
and
business
information
visualization
Google's
edited
list
of
links
on
"Information
Visualization"
under
Knowledge
Discovery
Infovisualization
conferences,
journals,
and
societies
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
IEEE
Infovis
‐
The
most
important
conference
on
the
topic
Infovis.org
‐
associated
with
Infovis
conferences
IV09
‐
Large
European
conference
on
Visualization
IEEE
Transactions
on
Visualization
and
Computer
Graphics
The
IEEE
Symposium
on
Information
Visualization
Information
Visualization
Journal
American
Statistical
Association
‐
section
on
statistical
graphics
Infovis
benchmarks
and
competitions
•
Infovis
benchmark
repository
128
•
•
Visual
Analytic
VAST
2009
challenge
SEMIVAST
project:
Scientific
Evaluation
Methods
for
Visual
Analytics
Science
and
Technology
Infovis
tools
to
try
or
related
software
tools
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Many
Eyes
‐
To
upload
your
own
data
and
try
several
visualizations,
then
others
can
comment
on
views
of
the
data
SmartMoney
‐
Treemap
map
of
the
stock
market
Treemap
‐
University
of
Maryland
implementation,see
alsoTreemap
history
Baby
Name
Voyager
visualization
TextArc
Wordle
Cancer
mortality
atlas
SpaceTree
Life
Lines:
Visualizing
Personal
Histories
‐
see
also
the
video
Infovis
commercial
products
(often
with
demos
or
test
versions)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
TIBCO
Spotfire
Tableau
software
SAP
Business
Objects
Gapminder
IBM
Cognos
ILOG
Macrofocus
SPIRE
at
PNNL
Other
infovis
tools
and
toolkits
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Prefuse
visualization
toolkit
GeoVISTA
Studio
Common
GIS
Fekete's
InfoVis
Toolkit
Piccolo
toolkit
for
zooming
user
interfaces
InfoVis
CyberInfrastructures
‐
at
the
University
of
Indiana
GGobi
R
project
for
statistical
graphics
Google
Visualization
API
Additional
interesting
reads
Many
of
these
resources
were
created
by
professionals,
but
also
note
that
many
blogs
on
interactive
media
are
written
by
undergrads
or
grad
students.
Nathan
Shedroff’s
Unified
Field
Theory
of
Interaction
Design
(1994):
http://www.nathan.com/thoughts/unified/
(be
sure
to
look
all
over
his
site
for
many
interesting
documents!
Including
‐
http://www.nathan.com/thoughts/index.html#presentations)
Econsultancy’s
list
of
10
Superb
Social
Media
Presentations:
http://econsultancy.com/blog/3982‐10‐superb‐social‐media‐presentations
A
student
portfolio
by
Roulen
Zarin:
http://www.fighterfish.com/
Putting
People
First
–
people‐centered
innovation:
http://www.experientia.com/blog/
Natural
User
Interface
(NUI)
Group:
http://www.nuigroup.com/
Seth
Sandler’s
Interactive
Media
blog:
http://sethsandler.com/
Jonathan
Brill’s
collection
of
NUI
video
clips:
http://www.pointanddo.com/
Joshua
Blake
on
natural
and
gestural
interfaces:
http://nui.joshland.org/
Natural
Interaction
Project
–
Multitouch
Barcelona:
http://www.multitouch‐barcelona.com/
(play
with
it)
Inspiring
User
Experience
(UX)
Quotes:
http://www.inspireux.com/gallery/
Kiosk
and
Digital
Signage
News:
http://kiosknews.blogspot.com/
Ideum
–
About
interactive
displays:
http://www.ideum.com/blog/
Ideas,
blogs
and
reports
from
Adaptive
Path:
http://adaptivepath.com/ideas/
Boxes
and
Arrows
–
User
Experience:
http://www.boxesandarrows.com/
129
IXDA
–
Interaction
Design
Association
(Free
membership
and
listserv):
http://www.ixda.org/
MIT’s
Media
Lab
–
where
they
invent
the
future:
http://www.media.mit.edu/
MIT
Social
Media
Group:
http://smg.media.mit.edu/
SIGCHI
–
Special
Interest
Group
on
Computer‐Human
Interface
of
ACM:
http://www.sigchi.org/
(also
info
links
here:
http://www.hcibib.org/)
SIGGRAPH
–
Special
Interest
Group
in
Computer
Graphics
of
ACM:
http://www.siggraph.org/
Usability
Professionals
Association
(UX
–
user
experience):
http://www.usabilityprofessionals.org/
Nielsen
Norman
Group
–
usability
experts:
http://www.nngroup.com/
Gamasutra
–
Art
and
Science
of
Making
Games:
http://www.gamasutra.com/
Digital
Games
Research
Association:
http://www.digra.org/
Game
Research:
http://www.game‐research.com/
Interaction
Design
–
textbook
links
of
interest:
http://www.id‐book.com/
Book
“Designing
Interactions”
by
Bill
Moggridge:
http://www.designinginteractions.com/book
Loop
‐
AIGA
Journal
of
Interactive
Design
Education:
http://loop.aiga.org/
ACM
Interactions
–
experiences,
people,
technology:
http://interactions.acm.org/
Xplane
–
Visual
Thinking
Weblog:
http://www.xplane.com/xblog/
130
131
Interaction
Design
at
Digital
Web
magazine:
http://www.digital‐web.com/topics/interaction_design
Journal
of
Information
Architecture:
http://journalofia.org/
Information
Architecture
Institute:
http://iainstitute.org/
Information
Architecture
at
Digital
Web
magazine:
http://www.digital‐web.com/topics/information_architecture/
Findability.org
–
you
can’t
use
what
you
can’t
find:
http://www.findability.org/archives/cat_findability.php
Future‐Making
Serious
Games:
http://elianealhadeff.blogspot.com/
Lost
Garden
–
About
Game
Design:
http://www.lostgarden.com/
Flash
Gordon
–
Interactive
Mediagician:
http://flashgordonmedia.blogspot.com/
Listing
of
blogs
about
multitouch
interactivity:
http://www.multitouchblogs.com/
Digital
tables:
http://paradynexus.blogspot.com/2007/08/digital‐tables‐as‐disruptive‐technology.html
Multitouch
+
NUI
blog:
http://theclevermonkey.blogspot.com/
Interactive
IO
&
More:
http://mtaha.wordpress.com/
Touch
Interface
news:
http://www.touchuserinterface.com/
27
–
the
work
of
Jonathan
Harris:
http://www.number27.org/index.html
Tools
to
check
out
Voice
Thread:
http://voicethread.com/#home
132
Animoto:
http://education.animoto.com/
Search
Cube:
http://www.search‐cube.com/
FreeTech4Teachers:
http://freetech4teachers.pbworks.com/General+Technology+‐
+Content+Creation
Lulu:
http://www.lulu.com/
Issuu
‐
http://issuu.com/
RIT
magazine
‐
http://issuu.com/reportermag/docs/04‐10‐
2009?documentId=090409210733‐b13226f60ce948b192c1822b7f024226
MagCloud
‐
http://magcloud.com/
More
readings
in
interactivity
Introductory
material
Berland,
Judy
(2000)
'Cultural
Technologies
and
the
"Evolution"
of
Technological
Cultures
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A
and
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T
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and
Contemporary
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Theory.
New
York:
Routledge.
Darley,
Andrew
(2000),
Visual
Digital
Culture.
Routledge,
London
(see
A
back
story:
Realism,
simulation,
interaction,
p11‐
36)
Hess,
John
and
Zimmerman,
Patricia
(1999)
'Transnational
Digital
Imaginaries'
by
John
Hess
and
Patricia
R.
Zimmermann,
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WIDE
ANGLE,
No.
1
Vol.
21
(January
1999),
pp.
149‐167.
Jenkins,
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the
Altar
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Convergence":
A
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New
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York
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Kelly
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technology
nature
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Maeda,
John
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Creative
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and
Computation,
Thames
and
Hudson,
London
Manovich,
Lev
(2001)
The
Language
of
New
Media.
Cambridge:
MIT
Press,
2001
々
see
the
introductory
chapter
in
particular.
Marvin,
Carolyn
(1988)
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0ld
Technologies
Were
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the
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Nineteenth
Century.
New
York:
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133
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Issue
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20/21
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1988‐89)
(On
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Technology)
Sterling,
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Historiography
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back
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simulation,
interaction,
p11‐
36)
Druckery,
Peter
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London
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2001
々
see
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chapter
in
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MIT
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112).
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Come
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Age:
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as
Popular
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Digiplay:
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research:
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A
selection
of
communications
research
journals
Among the academic communication journals that emphasize theory are these:
• Argumentation
• Behaviour
and
Information
Technology
• Communication
and
Critical/Cultural
Studies
• Communication
Quarterly
• Communication
Research
Reports
• Communication
Research
• Communication
Studies
• Communication
Theory
• Continuum
‐
Journal
of
Media
and
Cultural
Studies
• Critical
Discourse
Studies
• Critical
Studies
in
Media
Communication
• Discourse
Studies
• First
Monday
• Game
Studies:
The
International
Journal
of
Computer
Game
Research
• Human
Communication
Research
• Human
Factors
• Information,
Communication
&
Society
• International
Communication
Gazette
• International
Journal
of
Human‐Computer
Interaction
• Journal
of
Communication
• Journal
of
Information
Architecture
147
• Journal
of
Public
Relations
Research
• Journal
of
Usability
Studies
• Mass
Communication
and
Society
• Media,
Culture
and
Society
• New
Media
and
Society
• Online
Journalism
Review
• Political
Communication
• PR
Reporter
• Public
Relations
Quarterly
• Qualitative
Research
Reports
in
Communication
• Review
of
Communication
• Rhetorica
• Studies
in
Communication
Sciences
• Technical
Communication
• Word
and
Image
Other online and offline publications tied to computation, digital art, digital media, user
experience, human-computer interaction and interactive design also offer valuable
information and personal networking opportunities for professionals in the field of
interactivity. Deeper in this text is a collection of useful links to many organizations and
publications that allow interactive media professionals to network and share information.
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Published under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License
WEB 2.0 Definitions
TECHNOLOGIES
Aggregation
Bringing multiple content sources together into one interface or application.
CHARACTERISTICS
AJAX
Participation
Every aspect of Web 2.0 is driven by participation. The transition to
Web 2.0 was enabled by the emergence of platforms such as blogging,
social networks, and free image and video uploading, that collectively
allowed extremely easy content creation and sharing by anyone.
The business revolution in
the computer industry caused by
the move to the internet as platform, and
an attempt to understand the rules for success
on that new platform. Chief among those rules
is this: Build applications that harness network
effects to get better the more people use them.
“Teaching
“Don’t fight
(…”harnessing collective intelligence.”)
the machine.”
the Internet.”
- Tim O’Reilly
- Michael Wesch
- Eric Schmidt
Standards
Standards provide an essential platform for Web 2.0. Common
interfaces for accessing content and applications are the
glue that allow integration across the many elements of
the emergent web.
Decentralization
Web 2.0 is decentralized in its architecture,
participation, and usage. Power and flexibility emerges
from distributing applications and content over many
computers and systems, rather than maintaining
them on centralized systems.
Openness
The world of Web 2.0 has only become possible
through a spirit of openness whereby developers
and companies provide open, transparent access
to their applications and content.
Modularity
Web 2.0 is the antithesis of the monolothic. It emerges
from many, many components or modules that are
designed to link and integrate with others, together
building a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts.
“The Web as platform”
- Richard MacManus
“The participatory Web.”
- Brad Decrem
“An emerging networkcentric platform to
support distributed,
collaborative and
cumulative creation
by its users.”
“Distributed technologies
built to integrate, that
collectively transform mass
participation into valuable
emergent outcomes.”
- Ross Dawson,
Future Exploration Network
- John Hagel
User Control
A primary direction of Web 2.0 is for users to control
the content they create, the data captured about their web
activities, and their identity. This powerful trend is driven by
the clear desires of participants.
Identity
Identity is a critical element of both Web 2.0 and the future direction
of the internet. We can increasingly choose to represent our identities
however we please, across interactions, virtual worlds, and social networks.
We can also own and verify our real identities in transactions if we choose.
Embedding
Integrating content or an application into a web page, while the
original format is maintained.
Folksonomy
Rich categorization of information that is collectively created
by users, through tagging and other actions. (cf. taxonomy)
“Web 2.0...is about
making the Internet
useful for
computers”
- Jeff Bezos
“A collection of technologies - be it VoIP,
Digital Media, XML, RSS, Google Maps…
whatever …. that leverage the power of
always on, high speed connections and treat
broadband as a platform, and not just a
pipe to connect.”
- Om Malik
The entire space of the World Wide Web open to anyone to access and participate. This has been
the initial domain in which Web 2.0 technologies, applications, and attitudes have developed.
Mashups
Combination of different types of content or data, usually
from different sources, to create something new.
Remixing
Extracting and combining samples of content to create a
new output. The term was originally used in music but is
now also applied to video and other content.
RSS
- Wikipedia
Open web
Enterprise
API
(Application Programming Interface) A defined interface to a computer
application or database that allows access by other applications.
“Ongoing transition
of the World Wide Web
from a collection of
websites to a full-fledged
computing platform
serving web applications
to end users”
DOMAINS
www.futureexploration.net
(Asynchronous Javascript and XML) A combination of technologies that
enables highly interactive web applications.
(Really Simple Syndication) A group of formats to publish
(syndicate) content on the internet so that users or
applications automatically receive any updates.
Ruby on Rails
An open source web application framework that
is frequently used in Web 2.0 website development.
Tag cloud
A visual depiction of tags that have been used to describe a
piece of content, with higher frequency tags emphasized to assist
content comprehension and navigation.
Tagging
Attaching descriptions to information or content.
Virtual architecture
The creation of avatars (alternative representations of people), buildings,
objects, and other artefacts inside virtual spaces.
Widget
Small, portable web application that can be embedded into any web page.
XML
(eXtensible Markup Language) An open standard for describing data, which
enables easy exchange of information between applications and organizations.
Inside the firewalls of organizations and their business partners. The power of Web 2.0 technologies,
originally developed on the open web, are now being applied within enterprises to enhance
performance and achieve business outcomes. This domain is sometimes termed Enterprise 2.0.
Published under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License
WEB 2.0 Landscape
WEB APPLICATION
Widget/
component
Aggregation/
recombination
CONTENT
SHARING
RECOMMENDATIONS/
FILTERING
Rating/
Tagging
Collaborative
filtering
SOCIAL NETWORK
Note: Each of these Web 2.0 applications has multiple functionality – for each service the primary positioning has been used
www.futureexploration.net
Published under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License
Future Exploration Network
ABOUT FUTURE EXPLORATION NETWORK
FUTURE OF MEDIA SUMMIT 2007
Future Exploration Network (FEN) assists major organizations globally to gain insights into the future
and develop strategies that create competitive advantage. Its unique services are delivered from its
deep in-house expertise, complemented by its network of global best-of-breed experts.
Following the striking success of the inaugural Future of Media Summit in 2006, the Future of Media Summit
2007 will be held simultaneously on July 18 in Sydney and July 17 in Silicon Valley. This unique half-day
(Australia) / evening (US) event explores the critical issues confronting the current and emerging worlds of media.
Clients of FEN’s key executives include AXA, CNET, Coca-Cola, Deutsche Telekom, Ernst & Young,
Macquarie Bank, Microsoft, Morgan Stanley, News Corporation, SAP, Toyota, Unilever, and Virgin.
Review of Future of Media Summit 2006
FEN applies a range of tools and approaches to assist its clients to develop clear, actionable strategies
in highly uncertain environments. We have deep expertise in applying scenario planning to build
robust strategies.
The Future of Media Summit 2006 was the first conference globally to use video links to join panels on different
continents in a simultaneous discussion of key issues. Participating thought leaders included Chris Anderson,
editor-in-chief of Wired magazine and author of the bestselling The Long Tail, John Hagel, author of Net Worth,
Craig Newmark, founder of Craigslist, David Sifry, CEO of Technorati, Jack Matthews, CEO of Fairfax Digital,
Ray Kotcher, Global CEO of Ketchum PR, and many other media leaders. The Future of Media Report 2006 has
been downloaded over 45,000 times, generated commentary in seven languages across 20 countries, and been
reprinted in several magazines globally.
Research
Future of Media Summit 2007: Themes and Speakers
SERVICES
Strategy consulting
Deep research into technological, social, and business trends supports clients’ strategic thinking,
decisions, and implementation. Technology landscapes help organizations to plan long-term positioning,
product development, and technology strategies.
Thought leadership content
FEN creates content for leading organizations that will reach and engage attention-poor senior
executives and support key messages on technology and business trends. These can be delivered in
a wide variety of content formats, including print, presentations, documents, audio, video, and flash,
and delivered so they reach target audiences.
Summit themes include:
• Michael Birch, CEO, Bebo
• Exploring new business models
• Gabe Rivera, CEO, Techmeme
• Tapping the power of influence networks
• Jeremy Liew, Partner, Lightspeed Ventures
• Global strategies for media
• Ian Smith, CEO, Yahoo!7
• Mobility, shifting, and new media channels
Keynote speeches and executive workshops can be delivered by key FEN executives Ross Dawson,
Richard Watson, or other world-class presenters from our network to stimulate, provoke, entertain,
and provide input into specific strategic decisions.
• Foad Fadaghi, Technology Editor, BRW
• Damian Smith, General Manager – Digital, Channel 10
• Harold Mitchell, Chairman, Mitchells & Partners
Events
CONTACT US
Future Exploration Network
Level 14, 309 Kent St
Sydney NSW 2000
[email protected]
Sydney: +61-2 9994 8011
San Francisco: +1 (415) 315 9566
London: +44 (0)20 8133 3688
www.futureexploration.net
• Wendy Hogan, Managing Director, CNET Australia
• Senator Stephen Conroy, Shadow Minister
for Telecommunications and IT
Presentations and workshops
FEN creates focused, relevant, highly interactive conferences and events that bring together the best
minds in the field. FEN organizes both public events, and custom-designed events for key sponsors.
Confirmed speakers include:
• User generated content meets mainstream media
Future of Media Summit 2007: Content
• Ross Dawson, Chairman, Future Exploration Network
The Future of Media Summit is as much about generating freely available quality content on the
future of media, as it is a physical and virtual event. Content created for the Summit will include the
Future of Media Report 2007, incorporating contributions from our research partners, a Future of Media
podcast/ videocast series, and multimedia “Thought Pieces” by speakers and event partners.
For registration, Future of Media research, and partnership opportunities:
www.futureexploration.net/fom07
Future of Media Summit 2007: Partners
page
Pages are the fundamental unit of presentation on the Web, not
(necessarily) a unit of implementation -- one page in your diagram may
correspond to multiple HTML files (as in a frameset interface) or multiple
units of code (as in a server-side include or database-driven
implementation).
file
Files are parcels of data without navigational properties. They are
delivered to the user for use outside a Web browser environment (such
as audio or video files, stand-alone documents like PDFs, or
executables).
conditional
area
A conditional area is used when one or more conditions applies to a
group of pages. Conditional areas are applied most commonly in
situations involving access permissions, such as when a valid login or
encrypted (SSL) connection is required. Conditional areas are associated
with a result generated in the event that the condition(s) are not fulfilled.
page stack
A page stack indicates a group of functionally identical pages whose
navigational properties are immaterial to the macrostructure of the site.
flow
area
A flow area encloses a sequence of steps (like a login procedure, for
instance) that will appear repeatedly in different contexts throughout the
design, analogous to a programming procedure. Flow areas require the
use of two special types of continuation points: entry points and exit
points.
file stack
A file stack represents a group of files that receive identical navigational
treatment and can be classified as a single entity (such as a collection of
downloadable games or a library of PDF instruction manuals).
flow
reference
A flow reference serves as a sort of "placeholder" for a flow in every
context in which it is repeated. Both the flow area and flow reference
elements have the same basic shape, a rectangle with the corners
clipped off.
continuation
Continuation points allow us to separate our diagrams into easily
digestible sections, we use continuation points to bridge the gaps
between sections. A single continuation point may list one or more
sources or destinations as needed. The choice of orientation is a matter
of the architect's aesthetic judgment.
concurrent
set
A concurrent set is used in cases where a user action generates multiple,
simultaneous results (such as spawning a pop-up window at the same
time a page is loaded in the main window, or displaying a page while a
file is being downloaded). Upstream elements connect to the curved side;
downstream elements connect to the flat side.
connectors
Relationships between elements are depicted with simple lines.
Connectors use arrows to convey directionality, indicating how the user
will move through the system. We use a crossbar on the opposite end of
the arrow to prohibit upstream movement.
decision
point
A decision point is used to model when one user action may generate
one of a number of results, and the system must make a decision about
which result is to be presented. Note that arrows must be used in
conjunction with decision points to clarify whether associated elements
are upstream or downstream from the decision point.
conditonal
connectors
A conditional connector is used when a path may or may not be
presented to the user depending upon whether one or more conditions
are met. Conditional connectors use arrows to convey directionality,
indicating how the user will move through the system. We use a crossbar
on the opposite end of the arrow to prohibit upstream movement.
conditional
branch
A conditional branch is when the system (not based on user action) must
select one path among a number of mutually exclusive options to be
presented to the user. Upstream elements connect to one point of the
triangle; downstream elements connect to the opposite side.
area
An area is used to identify a group of pages that share one or more
common attributes (such as appearing in a pop-up window, or having
some unique design treatment). Use labels to identify these attributes or
(as with connectors), refer to notes elsewhere in the document if you
have a lot to say.
conditonal
selector
Conditional selectors function much like the conditional branch, with one
important difference: with the selector, the various downstream paths are
not mutually exclusive. Any number of the paths that fulfill the
condition(s) may be presented to the user (e.g. search results.)
iterative
area
Iterative areas are used to represent architectures that involve repeating
the same basic structure as it is applied to a number of functionally
identical information elements. For example, you may have a product
catalog in which each product has a number of pages associated with it.
cluster
A cluster is used when a system can present more than one path based
upon certain conditions. The cluster can appear downstream from either
a conditional branch or a conditional selector. For example if the attribute
being evaluated has value x, the user sees a path to page B; but if the
attribute has value y, the user sees paths to both page C and page D.
Visual Vocabulary Quick Reference
http://www.jjg.net/ia/visvocab/
IA Visual Vocabulary
Cheat Sheet
Conditional Elements
Conditional elements are useful for showing how the information architecture varies depending on conditional logic (system
evaluates attributes such as user type, login status or subject matter in order to create user paths).
Conditional Connector:
System may or may not provide
path to user (based on preexisting conditions)
Web page
Web page
Web page
Conditional Area:
One or more conditions applies
to a group of pages. These
areas are associated with a
result generated if conditions not
fulfilled.
Decision Point:
User action may generate one
of a number of results for a
given path.
JavaScript required
Web page
Error page
Web page
Error page
Login
Member
page
Concurrent Set:
User action generates multiple,
simultaneous results.
File
download
Web page
Install
instructions
Conditional Branch:
Same as decision point, but
system decides result previous
to user action (a single path is
presented to user).
Conditional Selector:
Same as branch, but paths are
not mutually exclusive.
For members
Web page
For new
users
Result 1
Search
results
Result 2
Cluster:
System allows more than one
path for certain conditions.
Appears downstream from
conditional.
For members
Web page
For new
users 1
For new
users 2
Created by Scott Larson ([email protected]). Based on work by Jesse James Garrett <http://www.jjg.net/ia/visvocab/>
metafilter.com
page 1
logout
(1f)
home
customize
login
new user
post topic
(1a)
search
archive index
results
archive by
month
(1b)
edit user
prefs
login/register
post new
topic
continue to:
about
changelog
metatalk
revise
prefs
new prefs
confirmed
preview post
NOTES
(1a) If user is logged in, return edit user prefs. If user is
not logged in, return login.
(1b) If user is logged in, return post new topic. If user is
not logged in, return login.
(1c) Display links to topics posted in the last n days, where
n is defined in user prefs. For users not logged in, n=7.
(1d) Display links to topics matching search criteria.
(1e) Display links to topics posted in selected month.
(1f) If user is logged in, logout function is available.
(1c)
(1d)
(1e)
continue to:
thread
Jesse James Garrett
http://www.jjg.net/ia/visvocab/
metafilter.com
page 2
entry points:
home
decision (1a)
decision (1b)
login/register
login
entry point:
home
register
(2a)
registration
confirmed
exit point:
edit user prefs
NOTES
(2a) If login info is valid, return login confirmed. If login
info is invalid, return login.
login
confirmed
exit point:
home
Jesse James Garrett
http://www.jjg.net/ia/visvocab/
metafilter.com
page 3
continue from:
selector (1c)
selector (1d)
selector (1e)
continue from:
home
post comment
about
changelog
thread
metatalk
(3a)
pop-up window
posting
guidelines
spellcheck
report
check
spelling
on comment
approve comment
revise comment
preview
comment
NOTES
(3a) Functionality for the MetaTalk area is not
documented in this diagram.
Jesse James Garrett
http://www.jjg.net/ia/visvocab/
The Nine Pillars
of Successful Web Teams
project management
Jesse James Garrett <[email protected]>
9 July 2003
The most successful Web teams build their team structures and their
processes on these nine essential competencies:
Project Management: The hub that binds all the tactical competencies
together as well as the engine that drives the project forward to completion,
project management requires a highly specialized set of skills all its own.
Neglecting this area often results in missed deadlines and cost overruns.
Concrete Design: Before the abstract design can become a fully realized
user experience, you must determine the specific details of interfaces,
navigation, information design, and visual design. This realm of concrete
design is essential to creating the final product.
technology
implementation
Content Production: Knowing what content you need isn't enough. You also
need to know how you'll produce it. Gathering raw information, writing and
editing, and defining editorial workflows and approvals are all part of content
production.
Technology Implementation: Building technical systems involves a lot of
hard work and specialized knowledge: languages and protocols, coding and
debugging, testing and refactoring. The more complex your site, the more
important a competency in technology implementation becomes.
Content Strategy: Content is often the reason users come to your site. But
what content can you offer to meet your users' expectations? How much
content is appropriate, and what form should it take? What style or tone
should it have? Before you can produce that content, you need to answer
fundamental content strategy questions such as these.
Technology Strategy: Web sites are technologically complex, and getting
more intricate all the time. Identifying the technology strategy for the site –
platforms, standards, technologies, and how they can all interoperate – is
essential to avoiding costly mistakes.
Site Strategy: Defining your own goals for the site can be surprisingly
tricky. Arriving at a common understanding of the site's purpose for your
organization, how you'll prioritize the site's various goals, and the means by
which you'll measure the site's success are all matters of site strategy.
User Research: User-centered design means understanding what your
users need, how they think, and how they behave – and incorporating that
understanding into every aspect of your process. User research provides the
raw observations that fuel this insight into the people your site must serve.
adaptive path
http://www.jjg.net/ia/pillars/
http://www.adaptivepath.com/
strategic
Abstract Design: Information architecture and interaction design translate
strategic objectives into a conceptual framework for the final user
experience. These emerging disciplines addressing abstract design are
increasingly recognized for their value in the Web development process.
content
production
abstract
bstra
design
d
technology
strategy
content
strategy
site
strategy
trateg
user research
tactical
concrete
design
d
i
THE CHARACTERISTICS & PRINCIPLES OF USER EXPERIENCE
Richard Dalton, July 22nd, 2009
mauvyrusset.com
In his closing plenary at the 2009 IA Summit in Memphis, Jesse James Garrett challenged the attendees to develop a language of critique for user experience. “Useful, Usable and Desirable” have long been touted as the signs of a “good”
user experience, however, they’re too abstract to be useful criteria. This - the first in a three-part diagram - introduces the concepts of characteristics and principles, while the second and third parts provide definitions and examples.
CHARACTERISTICS
PRINCIPLES
char-ac-ter-is-tic: adj. A feature that helps to
distinguish a person or thing; distinctive
prin-ci-ple: n. A fundamental, primary, or general
law or truth from which others are derived
These characteristics define what a user experience
is trying to be (think of the chemical bases of DNA).
These principles define how an experience is
constructed (think of the double helix of DNA).
The extent to which an experience leverages each
of these characteristics is entirely dependent on the
user needs and business goals.
An experience must consider and excel at each of
these principles to be useful, usable and desirable.
INFORMATIONAL
CONNECTED
ACTIONABLE
SOCIAL
CONTROLLABLE
PERSONAL
SCOPED
LEARNABLE
RELEVANT
COMPREHENSIBLE
AESTHETIC
CONFIGURABLE
ADAPTIVE
PLAYFUL
IMPARTIAL
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 License.
THE CHARACTERISTICS* OF USER EXPERIENCE
Richard Dalton, July 22nd, 2009
mauvyrusset.com
*char-ac-ter-is-tic: adj. A feature that helps to distinguish a person or thing; distinctive
In his closing plenary at the 2009 IA Summit in Memphis, Jesse James Garrett challenged the attendees to develop a language of critique for user experience. “Useful, Usable and Desirable” have long been touted as the signs of a “good”
user experience, however, they’re too abstract to be useful criteria. This - the second in a three-part diagram - defines the characteristcs that describe the building blocks of an experience, its DNA. The extent to which an experience
chooses to leverage each of these characteristics is entirely dependent on the user needs and business goals.
Google chooses to be very brief
in their search results. Only a page
title, brief sentence and URL are
shown.
A research / educational experience
like Wikipedia is mostly passive. The
actions available are limited to editing,
changing language, contacting, etc.
Performing a search on Google is a
totally individual experience. No
capabilities are provided to interact
with other users.
Wikipedia entries are generic. They
are identical to all users and show no
personal data.
Basecamp tries to be the “best product
possible with the least number of
features”. Its narrow scope intentionally
does “less than the competition”.
flickr’s organizer tool is optimized for
repeated, expert, use by self-directed
users.
CNN.com is a fixed experience.
The contents and layout cannot be
changed by the user (the single
exception is the U.S. vs Int’l edition)
Most sites on the web are static and
non-adaptive, even those that offer
personalized content (see above) like
Facebook, Myspace and YouTube.
The New York Times is a very serious
experience with very limited use of
gaming principles or techniques.
Edmunds.com strives to be unbiased
in its reviews of cars and related
products and services.
BRIEF
PASSIVE
INDIVIDUAL
GENERIC
NARROW
SELF DIRECTED
FIXED
STATIC
SERIOUS
UNBIASED
INFORMATIONAL
What degree of information does the experience provide?
ACTIONABLE
To what degree does the experience support taking action?
SOCIAL
To what degree does the experience support interaction between users?
PERSONAL
To what degree does the experience provide data specific to a single user?
SCOPED
What degree of functionality does the experience provide?
LEARNABLE
To what degree does the experience help inexperienced users?
CONFIGURABLE
To what degree is the experience customizable by a user?
ADAPTIVE
To what degree does the experience adapt itself for time, context or users?
PLAYFUL
To what degree does the experience encourage play?
IMPARTIAL
To what degree does the experience seek to influence the user?
THOROUGH
Wikipedia chooses to be very
thorough with their entries.
Their mission, after all, is to be
encyclopedic.
ACTIVE
The goal of an e-commerce experience
like Amazon is to actively encourage
users to take action. Almost any action
related to a product is supported.
GROUP
A social networking experience like
Facebook is full of capabilities to allow
users to communicate with each other
through groups.
SPECIFIC
Gmail’s “content” is personal and
specific to each user - their email,
contact lists, etc.
BROAD
Microsoft Project’s “robust” approach
to project management includes
a broad range of almost every
PM feature in existance.
HELPFUL
TurboTax is optimized for infrequent
use. It is designed to offer extensive
help for users not familiar with the
process or terminology.
CHANGEABLE
DYNAMIC
FUN
INFLUENTIAL
BBC.com allows the user to change
the contents and layout of the
experience to suit their needs and
preferences.
There are very few examples of highly
adaptive, dynamic online experiences.
Stephen Anderson, however, talks
about it extensively, http://is.gd/1FwiG
Facebook engages users with many
fun games, quizes and activities.
E-commerce experiences like
fordvehicles.com seek to influence
their users in a certain direction
(buying the product!)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 License.
THE PRINCIPLES* OF USER EXPERIENCE
Richard Dalton, July 22nd, 2009
mauvyrusset.com
*prin-ci-ple: n. A fundamental, primary, or general law or truth from which others are derived
In his closing plenary at the 2009 IA Summit in Memphis, Jesse James Garrett challenged the attendees to develop a language of critique for user experience. “Useful, Usable and Desirable” have long been touted as the signs of a “good”
user experience, however, they’re too abstract to be useful criteria. This - the third in a three-part diagram - defines the principles that drive how experiences are constructed, those things all user experiences must consider and excel at to
be useful, usable and desirable.
Google maps is more than “just
a map”. It has connections to
user generated maps, photos,
restaurant reviews and more.
Google Maps is an excellent
example of immediate feedback
as you control the position and
zoom level of the map.
maps.google.com
CONNECTED
maps.google.com
A good user experience satisfies by supporting expected connections between
objects and activities and delights by revealing unexpected ones.
Netflix successfully connects pieces
of its experience across channels
(web, email, mail) to create a
coherent system.
PicLens’ image browsing
experience provides intuitive
ways to control the motion and
zooming of the “wall” .
www.piclens.com
netflix.com
CONTROLLABLE
A good user experience provides an appropriate
and intuitive degree of control.
RELEVANT
A good user experience is relevant to user needs,
business goals, the date/time and the environment.
COMPREHENSIBLE
A good user experience allows a user to perceive
what is meant and grasp the information conveyed.
AESTHETIC
A good user experience is aesthetically appropriate,
encouraging enjoyable sensations and emotions.
Google’s sparse homepage maintains
its focus on search, the thing most
relevant to its users. Their holiday
logos also add a sense of timeliness.
google.com
The Crisis of Credit video makes
a complicated topic
comprehensible by using simple
language, analogies and humor.
www.crisisofcredit.com
mint.com’s soothing and refreshing
aesthetic implies a new, credible
method of easily managing your
finances without stress.
mint.com
Wikipedia entries are sometimes updated
within seconds of an event happening,
providing highly detailed, relevant (and
ad free) information to users.
TurboTax’s use of progressive
disclosure, simple language and
embedded help makes the tax
system easier to comprehend.
turbotax.com
The iPhone’s sleek aesthetic with
Apple’s iconic “rounded corners”
permeating the casing and interface
implies “simple yet sophisticed”.
apple.com/iphone
wikipedia.org
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 License.