Private career colleges and universities have a long heritage that is

Transcription

Private career colleges and universities have a long heritage
that is undeniably resilient but moreover as history shows,
they have proven to be vital to higher education in the United
States. From what most estimate to have been founded over one
hundred and sixty five years ago, with the first established private
career school in 1841, is a sector now filled with thousands of
career colleges and universities offering certificate, associate,
bachelor’s, master’s and doctorate degrees in over two hundred
fields to more than two million students each year nationwide.
In the continuation of George Petrello’s In Service to America:
AICS at 75, the Imagine America Foundation’s In Service
to America: Celebrating 165 Years of Career and Professional
Education shares the story of the growth of the sector in the
U.S. as reflected through the development of its representative
associations. While principally a story about the dynamic
internal evolution of its associations, this book also reveals the
phenomenal history of tenacious institutions that have grown
dramatically and continue to provide necessary educational
services to our nation and its economy This publication was developed by the Imagine America Foundation,
in collaboration with the Career College Association, the McGraw-Hill Companies
Career College Division and Studio Montage.
Imagine America Foundation
1101 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Suite 901
Washington, DC 20036
Editor: Kerry Ann Turner
Associate Editor: Jenny Faubert
Production Director: Robert L. Martin
From PlattForm Advertising - Olathe, KS:
Writers: Kevin Kuzma, Michael Mackie, and Erin E. Smith
Copyeditors: Cara L. Howard, Nichole E. Gibbs and Amy K. Lafferty
From JBL Associates-Bethesda, MD - Researchers: Abby Miller and Amy Topper
Find us on the Web at: www.imagineamericafoundation.com
McGraw-Hill Companies Career College Division
James C. Kelly, President
Elizabeth J. Haefele, Vice President, Editor in Chief
John E. Biernat, Vice President, Marketing
Dennis J. Spisak, Vice President, Sales
Studio Montage
7708 Big Bend Boulevard
St. Louis, Missouri 63119-2108
Art Director: Bert Vandermark
Designers: Shawnna Troxel and Josh VanHorsen
Copyright © 2007 Imagine America Foundation
Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the
Imagine America Foundation. For information on getting permission for reprints and
excerpts, contact [email protected]
Table of Contents
From the Chairman.................................................................iv
From the President...................................................................v
From the Publisher..................................................................vi
Chapter 1:
Our Heritage.................................................... 2
Chapter 2:
Founders and Foundations.............................. 16
Chapter 3:
Growth … Is Inevitable.................................. 32
Chapter 4:
Postwar Changes............................................. 50
Chapter 5:
The Inclusion of NATTS................................ 66
Chapter 6:
The Consolidation.......................................... 78
Chapter 7:
Changes in Accreditation................................ 86
Chapter 8:
1992 Reauthorization..................................... 98
Chapter 9:
A Time of Renewal: 1993-2006.................... 108
Chapter 10: The Growth of CCA..................................... 114
Chapter 11: The Foundation Effect – Imagine America.... 128
Chapter 12: Change … Is Inevitable................................ 138
Chapter 13: Future of the Sector...................................... 152
About the Imagine America Foundation.............................. 164
ISBN 978-0-9793862-0-6
Appendix A: Century Club............................................... 165
Notice of Liability
Appendix B: AICS Officials............................................... 168
This book is based on information from sources believed to be reliable, and also includes the subjective opinions
of the editor. We have made every effort to ensure accuracy and completeness based on the information
available at printing. However, completeness and accuracy cannot be guaranteed. This book may contain
mistakes and some information presented as fact may instead be an editor’s judgment and/or opinion. This
book is distributed without warranties of any kind, express or implied, and the publisher, editor, authors, and all
individuals associated with the publication of this book expressly disclaim responsibility for any liability, loss, or
damage resulting from the contents of this book.
Printed and bound in the United States of America.
Appendix C: NATTS Officials........................................... 170
Appendix D: CCA Officials............................................... 171
References........................................................................... 172
Index................................................................................... 176
Picture Credits.................................................................... 180
Letter
from the
Chairman
Two years ago the Imagine America Foundation sat down with various career
education leaders to discuss the significant changes happening in the sector.
Out of that discussion came the feeling that this was the most opportune time
to really capture the history of the sector and its association, and talk about the
energy of the new changes to come.
Joseph Davis, President/CEO MedTech College,
Chairman of the Board,
This book is principally a story about the evolution of the associations of
our sector, but it also reflects the phenomenal history of resilient and tenacious
institutions that have grown dramatically and provide educational services to
the nation and its economy. Career colleges have a heritage that is undeniably
strong but moreover as our history shows, we have proven to be vital to
the higher education sector. It is simply amazing to think that what was
established over one hundred and sixty five years ago is now a sector filled with
thousands of career colleges and universities offering certificates, bachelors,
master’s and doctorate degrees in over two hundred fields to more than 2
million students each year nationwide.
The insights, the technologies, and the infrastructure that are already
emerging from our sector, together with advances in various fields, are among
our most important tools in addressing the needs of the American workforce.
We have a proud tradition of serving our local communities and responding to
changes in the global and local economies.
So, it is with enthusiasm and excitement that the Foundation joins the
entire career college community in sharing and celebrating all the
accomplishments of over a century. However, even as we take pride in how far
our sector has come, we also acknowledge that these are just the first steps of
a much longer journey. In doing what you do each day you have accepted the
greatest challenge of all – educating America’s workforce toward a prosperous
21st century. And we still have much more work to do. In this regard, the
Foundation also accepts this challenge, standing with the Career College
Association and career colleges nationwide, endeavoring to maintain and
uphold the unique role of private career education in the future as we have
done in the past.
– Joseph Davis, President/CEO MedTech College,
Chairman of the Board, Imagine America Foundation
Letter
from the
President
The Imagine America Foundation has spent the last two years chronicling the
story of the career college sector and now we are pleased to be able to share it
with everyone. This is a story that the Foundation, established over 25 years
ago as the official research arm of the career college sector, felt needed to be
told. This book not only tells the story of the thousands of career colleges
that are the backbone of the technical trade industry of America, or just of
the associations created to represent career colleges within higher education
and the government; this is also the story of millions of students which career
colleges have and continue to serve.
The Foundation staff is proud of the effort that has gone into a project of
this magnitude, and endeavor over the next few years to continue sharing more
pieces of history with you about this sector. In the words of George J. Petrello,
author of an earlier volume of this publication, “the research and writing of this
book has been a labor of love.”
Robert L. Martin, President,
Special thanks to the management and staff at McGraw-Hill for their insight
in once again collaborating with career colleges and the Foundation on a
project of this magnitude and vision. I am particularly indebted to Dennis
Spisak and Linda Schreiber of McGraw-Hill, and Ms. Kerry Turner and Jenny
Faubert of my staff. Simply put, this publication wouldn’t have happened had
it not been for these great supporters.
Many thanks to the countless career education leaders, of past, present, and
future, who stepped up to offer their thoughts and suggestions about the content
of this publication. Your wisdom and guidance continues to be immeasurable.
Special recognition to my good friends, Jan and Stephen Friedheim, who saw the
vision and helped me capture the energy needed to complete this project.
Special gratitude is felt as well to the Career College Association who offered
their time, efforts and pages of materials in aid of research for this book.
Thanks also to the many career colleges who have supported the
development of this publication by submitting pictures and content. We hope
that we have told your story with the dignity, pride and passion that has been
descriptive of you and this sector for the last one hundred and sixty-five years.
Finally, special thanks to the many supporters of the Foundation, whose
contributions brought about the creation, development and completion of
this publication.
The future of our sector shines bright, and the Foundation looks forward to
working with you to meet the challenges that lie ahead.
– Robert L. Martin, President, Imagine America Foundation
iv
In Service
to
America
In Service
to
America
From
“The first recorded school
to teach vocational subjects
was probably the Academy
of Philadelphia, founded by
Benjamin Franklin in 1749”
the
Publisher
The McGraw-Hill Companies have been involved in vocational training
and career colleges, directly or indirectly, for over one hundred and twenty
years. As one of the few remaining American-owned educational publishers
in the world, McGraw-Hill continues to serve the needs of students seeking
job skills and better lives for themselves and their families. We are especially
proud to have the opportunity to work with The Imagine America
Foundation in publishing this tribute to the members of CCA. Following
is a brief history of career colleges and McGraw-Hill’s involvement with this
postsecondary educational sector.
The Beginning
Details of the first private schools devoted to training for business are
not clear. However, we are certain that private schools were offering
vocational or business education long before the nation’s public education
system was developed.
The first recorded school to teach vocational subjects was probably the
Academy of Philadelphia, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1749. The
Academy, which later became the University of Pennsylvania, offered
arithmetic, accounts, and the history of commerce, as well as French,
German, and Spanish, to the area merchants. Franklin had wanted the
Academy to teach practical subjects, especially English, but gradually it
became a traditional college. Eventually, it dropped English for Latin and
lost interest in teaching vocational subjects.
John Robert Gregg: The Man and His Work
was written in 1963 by F. Addington Symonds,
John Robert Gregg’s long-standing employee,
protégé, and friend. This prefatory memorial
outlines the early life and struggles, the ultimate
triumph, and the worldwide fame of the author
of Gregg Shorthand.
vi
In Service
to
America
From that time to the present day, we have seen many public institutions
begin as institutions offering vocational training. We have seen existing
institutions start vocational programs to meet the needs of our national
job market. In the majority of cases, however, these institutions eventually
go the way of the Academy of Philadelphia, losing their interest in
teaching vocational subjects and becoming “traditional” colleges.
Only the career college sector has stayed true to the mission of providing
quality vocational training to meet the needs of the national, and now
global, job market.
From the 1830’s to the end of the century, career colleges grew for a
variety of reasons. The entrance of women into the business office, needs
of businesses, and inventions created to meet the needs and productivity of
businesses all influenced the growth of this educational sector. One major
invention that greatly contributed to the growth of career colleges was the
introduction of shorthand.
The Gregg system, invented by Irish-born John Robert Gregg, differed
from other shorthand systems in that it used phonetic alphabet, was based
on the cursive movements of longhand, and utilized brief forms of common
words. Gregg invented his system, which he called Light-Line Phonography,
in Scotland in 1888. Later he founded a publishing company in New York
and a chain of Gregg Schools in London based on his system.
The Gregg Publishing Company was purchased by McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company in 1949 and became the division of McGraw-Hill
devoted to vocational education. Since that time, the Gregg Division of
McGraw-Hill has evolved into the Career College Division of McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, whose sole mission is to serve and publish to the needs of
career colleges and career college students.
Building
the Foundation
The invention of the typewriter in 1868 created another major change in
our workforce. Many male clerical workers refused to give up longhand
and adapt to the new technology, but the tremendous growth of business
paperwork ensured that the time- and labor-saving typewriter was here to
stay. Career colleges began adding courses in typewriting instruction to their
curricula, and women flocked to schools to acquire this valuable job skill.
Thus began the transition from men to women in clerical positions in the
business office. Eventually, typewriting, accounting, and shorthand became
the core courses in the business education curriculum in most career colleges,
and they remained so until the advent of the computer in the business office.
In 1888, James H. McGraw, a teacher in upstate New York, purchased the
American Journal of Railway Appliances. At the same time, John A. Hill was
working as an editor at Locomotive Engineer. Over the next fifteen years,
the two men pursued their separate careers specializing in technical and
trade publications. In 1899, McGraw incorporated his publications under
the heading of “The McGraw Publishing Company.” In 1902, John Hill
followed with “The Hill Publishing Company.” The book departments of the
two companies eventually merged to form the McGraw-Hill Book Company
with John Hill as President and James McGraw as Vice President. Upon the
death of John Hill in 1916, James McGraw became President and, in 1917,
merged the remaining parts of both companies to form the McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, Inc. The McGraw-Hill Publishing Company published
its first vocational textbook in 1919: Mechanical Drawing for High Schools
by French and Svenson. The book is published to this day under the title
Mechanical Drawing: Board and Cad Techniques. This foundation, built
upon the technical and trade publications of both McGraw and Hill,
The Gregg Shorthand Anniversary Edition,
published in 1957, celebrates the fortieth
anniversary of the original work published
in 1916 by The Gregg Publishing Company.
John R. Gregg held the original copyright in 1893.
Rational Typewriting was published by the
Gregg Publishing Company in 1902. It received
its name from the rational idea of stressing the
stronger fingers first; thus, in the first few lessons,
the student learned all of the reaches controlled
by the F and J finger. It became the best-selling
typewriting textbook of its time.
In Service
to
America
vii
proved to be basis of The McGraw-Hill Publishing Company’s dedication
to vocational job training. It is the foundation on which The McGraw-Hill
Companies of today are built.
Opportunities
Words: Their Spelling, Pronunciation,
Definition, Application was originally written
by John Robert Gregg in 1903. This second
revised edition, published in 1929, reflects the
enriched vocabulary of the businessman of that
era, and the subject matter is organized in accord
with the latest pedagogical findings of the time.
Gregg Typing Techniques and Projects was
published by the Gregg Publishing Company in
1932. It introduced photos of “cycles of movement”
to illustrate exactly how expert typists made the
reaches from one key to the next.
viii
In Service
to
America
in
Change
A key trait of the career college sector of postsecondary education is its
ability to react quickly to changes in the workplace. We have seen this over
and over again throughout the history of career colleges. Career colleges
have made the switch from mechanical drawing on the board to CAD, from
typewriters to computers utilizing word processing programs, and from
emphasis on business training and training in electronics to training in
allied health and computer technology. And, they have done so in a timely
fashion that enables their graduates to enter the workplace at a time when
their skills are needed and valued. The ability to recognize and identify
changes in the job market and in the employment needs of business and
industry plus the ability to react quickly to such changes is one of the major
values the career college sector of postsecondary education offers students
and our society overall.
The Career College Division of McGraw-Hill Companies is devoted
to meeting the needs of schools in the career college sector. In order to
meet such needs, the Career College Division of McGraw-Hill has to be
proactive to changes in the curricula of our schools, to changes taking
place in the workplace, and to changes created by advances in technology.
The Career College Division does this in a number of ways. McGrawHill Advisory Boards, made up of instructors and administrators from
career colleges, meet twice a year to discuss issues affecting curricula,
student needs, and other areas that impact these institutions. A Learning
Solutions group was created with the mission of responding quickly to
instructional material and instructional delivery needs of our schools,
colleges, and students by customization of digital and print materials,
development of new programs and curricula, and development of
supportive materials for instructors and materials that aid students in the
learning process. Involvement of Career College Division management
and sales representatives in state associations, CCA, and other professional
groups within the career college sector aid this division in keeping up-todate with developments affecting this important sector of postsecondary
education. Finally, involvement with lobbying efforts of CCA and other
career college organizations by the leadership of the Career College
Division allows us to work side-by-side with these organizations to ensure
a strong and healthy sector.
The Partnership
The career college sector is unique in that its members work together, whenever
possible, for the good of all private career education. Ideas are shared, a
hand is extended in times of need, and together we work hand-in-hand to
overcome obstacles that impede or threaten the growth of the sector. This
atmosphere extends to the students of our career colleges. Career colleges
provide a special “touch” to students who may lack the self-confidence
necessary to be successful in school. These students do not go through their
programs on their own. They have an entire organization behind them.
It’s the special “touch” that makes career colleges unique and so unusual
in postsecondary education. The rewards are great, as there is no greater
satisfaction than attending a career college graduation ceremony and hearing
the obstacles the graduates had to overcome to achieve their goals. In many
cases, their achievements would not have occurred had it not been for the
special “touch” provided by individuals within our schools to their students.
The philosophy of John Robert Gregg centered on the importance
of training teachers to be successful in teaching shorthand and working
with schools to ensure success when using McGraw-Hill products. This
philosophy has extended from the Gregg Division of the McGraw-Hill Book
Company to the Career College Division of McGraw-Hill Companies. We
have always been a proponent of “workshops and seminars” for instructors.
Keeping instructors up-to-date on the latest teaching techniques, technology,
and changes in a given curriculum area has remained a constant in the
partnership between McGraw-Hill and career colleges. Today the Career
College Division offers seminars for Career College State Associations, inservice presentations and programs for individual schools, WebX sessions
to train instructors on McGraw-Hill products, and much more. Our
representatives are given numerous hours of training on new products and
are kept up-to-date on developments that affect our schools, so they become
a resource to our schools rather than a vendor.
In the early 1990’s, federal legislation hurt many private career colleges. It
was a tough time for the sector; many schools were forced to close. It was a
tough time for McGraw-Hill as well, due to the decline in market share we
experienced when they closed. The prevailing philosophy, instituted by our
Vice President of Sales Jerry Hagan, was the importance of standing by our
schools in this time of need. We can’t be fair weather friends and take when
times are good and then turn our backs on our schools when times get tough.
This philosophy has governed McGraw-Hill through decades of working
with career colleges, and it is still practiced today. We grow together in the
good times, and we work together during difficult times.
Typewriting Technique was published by
the Gregg Publishing Company in 1936.
It cautioned instructors not to introduce
production applications until students had
developed sufficient straight-copy skill.
According to its author, “Any attempt to
apply nonexistent skill to practical purposes
is inefficient at best and always cripples the
student’s ultimate capacity as a typist.”
“This foundation, built
upon the technical and trade
publications of both McGraw
and Hill, proved to be basis of
The McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company’s dedication to
vocational job training. It is
the foundation on which The
McGraw-Hill Companies
of today are built.”
In Service
to
America
ix
The Future
“The Career College Division
of McGraw-Hill salutes
Career Colleges for all you
do and the differences you
make! Congratulations!”
Gregg Typewriting for Colleges was published
by the Gregg Division of McGraw-Hill in 1957.
It was the first edition of today’s Gregg College
Keyboarding and Document Processing, 10th
edition, and was coauthored by Alan Lloyd,
John Rowe, and Fred Winger. It was the first
text to use copy controls to ensure that students
proceeded in a simple-to-complex pattern.
In Service
to
America
The future is bright for the career college sector of postsecondary
education. The value of a career college education is being recognized
in many ways, by a number of individuals in education, government,
and the general public, as well. The job market is leaning more and
more toward positions requiring specialized training beyond high school
in specific skill areas versus a general liberal arts education. Distance
learning has opened up new markets for our schools and new
opportunities for students, who otherwise may not have had the
opportunity to obtain the specialized job training needed for a good
job and great career. Technology has created new jobs in the marketplace
requiring specialized training. In addition, technology has been utilized
to address the learning needs of students who are visual learners for the
most part and who are now entering postsecondary education with poor
basic skills. Schools in the career college sector are stronger than at any
time in their history. Career colleges are healthy and positioned to meet
the challenges of tomorrow.
Just as the career college sector is strong, healthy, and positioned
to meet the challenges of the future, so is the Career College Division
of McGraw-Hill Companies. Our value to education, at all levels, is our
content, both print and digital. New technology now allows us to deliver
content in a variety of ways from books, DVDs, CD-ROMS, online,
through iPods, etc. Instructors now have the opportunity to create their
own “learning package” instead of schools settling for what is available
from a publishing company or having publishing companies determine
what instructors receive in a “learning package.” Instructional materials
that meet the specific needs of the instructor and, more important, the
needs of our career college students, can be and are being developed
through the Career College Division of McGraw-Hill. Such cooperative
efforts have only strengthened the bond between career colleges and
McGraw-Hill and enabled both entities to grow and contribute to the
lives of millions of individuals who might otherwise not have been able
to reach their full potential. To take from the school slogan of Indiana
Business Colleges, by working together, “We can change lives, one student
at a time.” What can be more rewarding? The Career College Division
of McGraw-Hill salutes Career Colleges for all you do and the differences
you make! Congratulations!
“When I want to
understand what is
happening today or
try to decide what
will happen tomorrow,
I look back.”
– Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.–
Business Center 1942 Pittsburg, Indiana,Pennsylvania.
Chapter
1
Our Heritage
As America developed from a group of tiny agricultural
colonies to one of the world’s great industrial nations,
private career education kept pace, growing steadily from
one single tutor in the Plymouth Colony to a great modern
network of independent schools and colleges. From its
earliest years, whenever America’s expanding industry and
commerce required trained workers, private vocational
schools always met those needs – first and best.
What we now think of as office or business skills were first taught formally
in Europe during the Renaissance. The earliest vocational teachers were
tutors who taught students in their homes or who traveled from place to
place, teaching subjects such as arithmetic, penmanship and early forms
of accounting. Later, these subjects were taught in academies, schools and
universities. As Europeans began to settle in America, the same kinds of
tutorial systems and schools developed here. These schools continued to grow
and thrive because they were able to keep pace with the Industrial Revolution,
and later with changing social conditions and office methods, as well as with
the inventions of mechanical devices such as typewriters, telephones, steno
machines, calculators and computers.
These early vocational courses were taught not only in Europe, but also in
the American colonies long before the Revolutionary War. They also predate
the teachings of vocational subjects in American public schools by more than
a century and a half. In fact, the very first private career education took place
in the Plymouth Colony in 1635. In that year, the colony hired James Morton
to teach reading, writing and the casting of accounts to the children of New
England. (The National Business Education Association defines “casting
accounts” as a course in practical arithmetic. This would have included many
of the topics covered today in a business math course.)
In Service
to
America
In Service
to America
Although the hiring of Morton marked the beginning of vocational
education in the American colonies, most people learned through an
apprenticeship system. If someone wanted to become a bookkeeper or
surveyor, he or she learned the skills on the job. This system was slow to
change throughout the history of American vocational education and still
exists today in some industrial trades.
Pioneer Schools
and Their
Leaders
Details of the first private schools devoted to training for business are
unclear. However, we are relatively certain that private schools offered
vocational or business education long before the nation’s public education
system was developed.
Bookkeeping at Central Business College
(Indiana Business College). Now Callet
“... private schools were
offering vocational or business
education long before the
nation’s public education
system was developed.”
Accounting class at
Indiana Business
College, Circa 1902
In Service
to
America
As New York and Boston became important trade centers in the colonies,
the art of bookkeeping became formalized. It is probably safe to assume that
tutors offered instruction in bookkeeping in these cities before 1700. We know
for certain that John Green offered it in Boston in 1709, and George Brownell
taught bookkeeping in New York in 1731. In 1729, Isaac Greenwood wrote
the first arithmetic textbook, entitled Arithmetick Vulgar and Decimal; With the
Applications Thereof to a Variety of Cases in Trade and Commerce.
The first school to teach vocational subjects was probably the Academy of
Philadelphia, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1749. The academy, which
later became the University of Pennsylvania, offered arithmetic, accounts
and the history of commerce, as well as French, German and Spanish, to the
area merchants. Franklin had wanted the academy to teach practical subjects,
especially English, but gradually it became a classical school. It dropped
English for Latin and lost interest in teaching vocational subjects.
In 1832, Benjamin Franklin Foster
founded Foster’s Commercial School
of Boston. Although commercial
courses had been available for some
years, most historians identify Foster’s
school as the first established in the
United States to specialize in training
for commerce. Foster opened his school
just as the Industrial Revolution began
generating a greater need for trained
clerical employees. His educational
program emphasized the specific skills
that employers wanted and thus was
able to meet the demands of industry
more efficiently than the lengthy
apprenticeship system. Foster’s school
was, in effect, a time- and labor-saving
device that enabled many students to
acquire training and enter the world
of commerce and industry much more
quickly than ever before.
After Foster opened his school, many others followed between 1825 and the
Civil War. This era witnessed the expansion of foreign and internal commerce,
vast territorial acquisitions, the exploration and settlement of the West, the
rise of steamboats and railroads, and the widespread use of coal and iron,
all of which contributed to the growth of the industry. As a result, many
more people were needed to carry on the detailed work of business offices. A
sudden and unprecedented demand for office workers became obvious to the
entrepreneurial educators of the time.
By the mid-1850s, fifteen to twenty private career schools were teaching
business-related subjects in the States. Most of these were located in the
major trading centers along the Atlantic coast, such as New York, Boston,
Philadelphia and Charleston. With the invention of the steamboat, western
cities, such as St. Louis and New Orleans, became important trading centers,
and schools were established in those cities as well.
A lecture in Business Administration at
Berkeley College in East Orange, NJ.
“A sudden and unprecedented
demand for office workers
became obvious to the
entrepreneurial educators
of the time.”
In Service
to
America
One of these pioneer business schools still exists in the city of its founding.
Established in 1841 by Peter Duff, Duff’s Mercantile College is still in
operation in Pittsburgh. Although its ownership – and name – has changed
several times, Duff’s Business Institute (now called Everest Institute), chartered
by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is recognized as the oldest private
career school in continual operation in the United States.
Because it was a great steel-producing city throughout the nineteenth
century, Pittsburgh had room for more than one business school. Platt Rogers
Spencer founded another important business school in that city in 1852. It was
Spencer who gave us the slanted penmanship known as Spencerian Script. His
skill with a quill pen and his qualities as a public speaker, writer and educator
made him a revered man. Eventually, Spencer and all of his children became
associated with private business schools. His Pittsburgh school, the Spencerian
Commercial Academy, was very successful and was later sold to Duff.
Top: Peter Duff. Center: In 1913, the average
time for graduation in bookkeeping or secretarial
studies program was six months at the Indiana
Business College. Bottom: John Robert Gregg.
The later years
of the nineteenth
century were exciting
ones in the history of
America’s industrial
development. Three
things occurred to
revolutionize the
business office and
change the face of
career education.
New methods of
conducting business
developed. Most
notably, shorthand and laborsaving machines, which increased productivity
and facilitated communication, were invented. In addition, women entered the
business office in greater numbers than ever before.
Early in the century, Thomas Lloyd produced a popular version of
shorthand. Another shorthand system, developed by Isaac Pitman, had a
profound effect on educating American office personnel as they learned to
write in a condensed and rapid form. Shorthand education in private career
schools really escalated late in the century with the introduction of the Gregg
system in 1893. The Gregg system, invented by Irish-born John Robert Gregg,
differed from Pitman and other systems in that it used phonetic alphabet,
was based on the cursive movements of longhand, and utilized brief forms
of common words. Gregg invented his system, which he called Light-Line
Phonography, in Scotland in 1888. Later he founded a publishing company in
New York and a chain of Gregg Schools in London based on his system.
In Service
to
America
A profound impact of the Civil War was the entry of women into
the business office. Before the war, nearly all office workers had been
male. During the war, however, the shortage of male workers was so
severe that women were recruited to replace them. The United States
Treasurer’s office, for example, hired 1,500 women during the war years.
Returning war veterans later reclaimed many of the office jobs
held by women; but women did not relinquish their newfound
employment opportunities for long, thanks to the invention of the
typewriter. Christopher Latham Sholes invented the first successful
typewriter in 1868. Many male clerical workers refused to
give up longhand and adapt to the new technology, but the
tremendous growth of business paperwork ensured that the
time- and laborsaving typewriter was here to stay. In 1880,
Edward F. Underhill wrote the first manual of typewriting, The
Handbook of Instruction for the Typewriter, and many business
schools began to offer courses in typewriting. Women flocked
to the courses and then used their new skill to take over most
of the clerical jobs once held by men. Thus, the invention
of the typewriter expanded employment opportunities for
women, increased the productivity of business offices, and
contributed to the growth of career education.
In addition to the typewriter, other inventions for
improving office workers’ productivity created new
opportunities for private career educators. Frank S. Baldwin invented
the first calculator in 1872. This meant that another new skill needed
to be taught. Four years later, in 1876, John Zachos of New York City
produced the first stenotype machine. Again, private career educators took
the opportunity to train qualified operators.
The private career schools responded quickly to the changes in business
methods, technology and female employment. Curricula soon included
instruction on shorthand and the operation of business machines such
as the typewriter, calculator and stenograph machine. In addition, private
career education developed in other ways. Several years before the Civil War,
H.B. Stratton, a student of P.R. Spencer, teamed with Henry B. Bryant to
establish their first school in Cleveland. By the mid-1860s, an estimated fifty
schools were under their management. Bryant and Stratton were the initiators
of standardized methods in school management and educational activities.
They used uniform textbooks throughout the chain of schools and they held
periodic management meetings at which time they determined the policies and
educational methods to be applied to all of the schools.
Top: Davis College students from the 1930’s
Center: Instructor teaches beginner typewriting
to all Indiana Business College students in the
early 1900’s Bottom: Group work in stenotype
class at Indiana Business College.
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Infant Alliances
Draughon’s College
In the 1800s, many owners did not see the mutual advantages of alliances
necessary for building a common base for the private career industry. Instead,
they practiced what one observer has called the fourth “R” of private career
school educators – reticence. Therefore, strong professional associations were
not formed until the twentieth century.
“Those in it have learned
The competition that marked the early history of private career education
still exists today, but the industry has matured and become more sophisticated.
Those in it have learned that, even within a competitive framework, sharing
and cooperation are necessary for survival.
are necessary for survival.”
Some alliances were formed that were similar to our current concept of
franchising. In 1865, a number of the principals who owned interests in
regional schools in the Bryant and Stratton chain seceded and organized the
“In 1862, the public sector
of higher education entered
the field of postsecondary
vocational education.”
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that, even within a
competitive framework,
sharing and cooperation
Indiana Business College,
Certificate of Scholarship.
Another well-known chain of schools established in the late 1800s was the
Draughon Schools located in the South and Midwest. John F. Draughon, the
founder of these schools, began business in 1889 with an investment of $60.
After the turn of the century, he owned forty-eight schools in eighteen states
that were valued at more than $300,000. Draughon also operated a textbook
company from which most of the texts for his schools were purchased. (This is
the first example of vertical integrations of management in the private school
business.)
In 1862, the public sector of higher education entered the field of
postsecondary vocational education. The Morrill Act, perhaps better known as
the Land-Grant Act, gave each state land that it could use in any way it chose.
The proceeds from the land were to be used to establish “land grant” colleges
to teach agriculture, mechanical arts, engineering and military science. This
act helped establish state university systems in Illinois, California, Minnesota
and Wisconsin. Many believed this legislation would be detrimental to private
career schools, but that fear proved to be unfounded.
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National Union of Business Colleges. Among those in the new organization
were several of the most capable managers. Their independence, however,
was short-lived. Concessions were made by the parent Bryant and Stratton
organization, and, in 1866, they rejoined the fold, forming a new alliance.
“Their growth, in terms of the
The new alliance was known as the International Business College
Association. In many ways, it replaced the old Bryant and Stratton
organization, which had begun to deteriorate even before the death of Mr.
Stratton in 1867. The alliance was formed around an agreement among the
various member institutions to establish uniform minimum tuition rates and
scholarships that were transferable from school to school.
growth trend of the nation.”
From
number of schools and student
populations, paralleled the
the Seeds to Roots
The roots of the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools
were set in place in 1912. Over a period of approximately seventy-five
years, the private career school industry had finally developed. During the
gestation period, the schools devoted themselves primarily to the disciplines
of bookkeeping, accounting, business mathematics, penmanship, shorthand,
typewriting and machine calculating operations. In the beginning, the student
population was largely male; but by the end of the nineteenth century, a
growing percentage of females participated as private career school students and
later as office workers.
The public sector of vocational education gradually began to offer courses on
the postsecondary and secondary levels in the same subject areas covered by the
private schools. Although initially this activity appeared to be a serious threat to
the private sector, it turned into an opportunity for the private schools to meet
the individual instructional needs of students more efficiently and to develop
better methods of placing graduates in skilled positions. Apparently the mission
and strategy of the private career schools were on target. Their growth in terms
of the number of schools and student populations, paralleled the growth trend
of the nation
All students had to take penmanship at
Indiana Business College in the early 1900s.
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Photo
essay: Our Heritage
Students at Erie Business Center, Erie, Pennsylvania.
Davis College graduating class, 1888.
Indiana Business College commencement ceremony in the early 1900’s.
Students attend a general assembly at the Minnesota School of Business, founded in 1877.
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Davis College building from the early 1940’s in Toledo, Ohio.
Central Pennsylvania Business School, 1922
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Photo
essay: Our Heritage
Graduating class of Steven-Henager College, circa 1920
Frank A. Maron founded Globe Business college (now Globe Collge) in 1885.
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Globe Business College (now Globe college) class picture.
First graduating class of Steven-Henager College, circa 1891.
In the spring of 1902, Charles Cring purchased an existing small business
college and established the Marion Business College
(now Indiana Business College).
Marion Business College (now Indiana Business College), 1902.
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Chapter
2
Founders and
Foundations
The year is 1912. In this same year the National
Association of Accredited Commercial Schools (NAACS)
was founded. At the request of Benjamin Franklin
Williams, President of Capital City Commercial College
of Des Moines, Iowa, twenty-two additional school
administrators took time from their hectic schedules and
came to Chicago for a meeting with him at the Hotel
La Salle. At this meeting the twenty-three private career
school leaders entered into an alliance that developed into
the Association of Independent Colleges and Schools.
Although their schools represented only a fraction of the
155,000 men and women studying in private business
schools at the time, these men established the foundation
of an association that would eventually have a tremendous
impact on the private career sector.
The original mission of the National Association of Accredited Commercial
Schools, as set forth by founder Ben Williams, was “to develop and maintain
higher educational, business and ethical standards in commercial education,
and insofar as may be legal, proper and desirable, to protect the interest and
enlarge the usefulness of member schools.”
Although “accredited” appeared in the name of the Association, it did not
have the same meaning it has today. Accreditation in the NAACS sense referred
to the acceptance of an institution’s application for membership, although this
meaning changed later.
Indiana Business College’s English curriculum in the early 1900s consisted of drills in spelling and sentence construction.
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Historical Environment
“The NAACS faced strong
and increasing competition
from the public sector in
the early years.”
Major historical events occurred both within and outside the environment of
vocational education during the first twenty-five years of NAACS’ existence.
World events, including those that involved the United States, were a “mixed
bag” from 1912 through 1937.
By the early 20th century, the United States had established itself as an
industrial and agricultural giant. A spirit of optimism, backed up by large
doses of economic growth and development, prevailed. The great temples
of commerce, such as the Empire State Building in New York City and the
Wrigley Building in Chicago, provided physical evidence of the prosperity
of the times. Management philosophy and practice took on the flavor of a
discipline, and the vocational arts and sciences thrived.
Major events were happening in vocational education as well. In 1911,
shortly before the establishment of the NAACS, Frederick W. Taylor,
considered by many as the “father of scientific management,” wrote the first
scientific management monograph. The work was the culmination of
Taylor’s research and published articles on making the workplace more
efficient and effective.
The NAACS faced strong and increasing competition from the public sector
in the early years. In 1915, just after the formation of NAACS, the National
Education Association appointed a committee to develop business curricula
for public high schools. In 1917, the Smith-Hughes Act made federal funds
available to schools that provided business training on a part-time basis to
employed individuals. And in 1937, the George-Dean Act was passed, allotting
funds to teachers, supervisors and teacher trainers in the area of distributive
education. These actions in the public sector of vocational education created
formidable challenges to private career schools.
Late 1800’s Rockford Business
College publication.
Technological progress also increased rapidly during NAACS’ first
twenty-five years. Electricity became generally available and revolutionized
the way people lived and worked. Radio linked all parts of the nation
together in a network of instant communication. Railroads and automobiles
had made travel faster and more practical. Automatic calculating machines,
mechanically improved typewriters, recording machines and telephones
improved office procedures.
The Early Years
Governors after the proprietor of the school had filed a lengthy application.
This application had to be supported by recommendations furnished by the
other private career school owners, local bankers and pubic school officials.
In addition to the Membership Committee, several other committees
were formed within the framework of the Association. One of the most
important was the Educational Committee. W. B. Elliott, proprietor of the
Elliott Commercial School of Wheeling, West Virginia, was the head of the
Educational Committee during the 1920s and 1930s. Under Elliott’s leadership,
model programs in the shorthand, typewriting and bookkeeping were
developed. The Educational Committee also served as liaison with the North
Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools and the United States
Bureau of Education. (The North Central Association is the agency that grants
accreditation to universities and secondary schools in the north-central states.)
“After almost five years of
existence, the Association
decided to become legally
incorporated.”
The Vigilance Committee was another important committee established
during the early years. This committee closely resembled a modern
accreditation group since it was responsible for ensuring that the membership
complied with the code of ethics regarding business practices and educational
policies. The committee dealt with complaints and visited member schools
from time to time. Several years after the formation of the Vigilance
Committee, its name was changed to the Better Business Bureau (which should
not to be confused with the council that bears that name today).
After almost five years of existence, the Association decided to become legally
incorporated. It seems that the founding fathers may have been reluctant
to take that step until they were confident the infant union would survive.
Acting on behalf of the membership, the Board of Governors incorporated the
NAACS on May 25, 1917, in the District of Columbia.
The entrepreneurial spirit of the membership surfaced with the establishment
of the Accredited Schools Supply Company in 1917. Set up as a cooperative,
this spin-off company’s job was to furnish supplies and publish textbooks
for the member schools. Members of the cooperative were able to purchase
shares of stock in the new company. The Association was also successful in
obtaining educational discounts for the membership from various typewriter
manufacturers. It had discount arrangements with the Royal Typewriter
Company, the Woodstock Typewriter Company, and, later, with the
Remington, Underwood, and L.C. Smith companies. Members viewed these
special rates as a major benefit of membership, especially during the years of
the Great Depression.
Shorthand theory class at Berkeley College in
East Orange, NJ.
After 1914, NAACS membership increased rapidly under the aggressive
leadership of W. N. Watson, Chairman of the Membership Committee.
In those days, an applicant was admitted to membership by the Board of
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Ethics
and Educational
Policies
The benefits of NAACS membership, for commercial schools struggling
to survive and to thrive in a highly competitive environment, were strong
inducements to join the organization in the early days. An important benefit
was affiliation with a group that emphasized its members’ adherence to a strict
code of ethical practices in both educational management and the delivery of
instructional services.
By February of 1921, the Association had grown from its 23 charter
members to a grand total of 228 members. But as membership grew, so
did the problem of internal communications. A solution to this problem
was suggested at the Cleveland Convention in 1920, when the secretary of
the Association, Hubert Porter, was asked to publish a newsletter for
the membership.
By the year 1920, all members were required to subscribe to a code of ethics
and educational policies, which included:
Published in Jamestown, New York, Volume 1, Number 1, of Accredited
News appeared in February 1921. It was described as the “Official Organ
of The National Association of Accredited Commercial Schools.” Below its
letterhead, and centered on the front page, was the Association’s logo, referred
to as the “The Emblem of Efficiency.”
• Employ, at all times, an adequate number of good teachers and
maintain suitable quarters and equipment for the programs and
community to be served;
• Pay legitimate debts promptly and in a businesslike manner;
Instigated by the President
• Avoid exaggeration of every kind and form in advertising;
Ordered by the Membership
• Make no misleading statements or misrepresentations of any kind,
either in person or through any agency;
Edited (reluctantly) by the Secretary
To the right of the emblem were these:
• Cultivate within the school itself, and in its community, the highest
possible moral standards;
Published Intermittently
Contributions solicited, not in cash
but in brain effusion.
• Refuse, either directly or indirectly, to guarantee positions to
prospective students, and refrain from making statements
regarding prospective employment that are not fully corroborated
by the experience of the school;
members were required to
• Report promptly to the proper officer of the Association any
violation of the ethics of the profession, as understood by this
Association, whether these violations occur within or outside the
membership of the Association; and
subscribe to a code of ethics
• Submit disagreements among members to a board of arbitrators.
“By the year 1920, all
and educational policies...”
In addition, the code of ethics demanded that: “Each member of this
Association shall be one whose character and reputation are above reproach,
and who shall so order his general conduct as to entitle him to be regarded
as a suitable person to direct the education and moral development of the
young people of his institution.” The ethical code of practice that served as a
foundation for early private career schools still remains an important part of
the career college sector of higher education today.
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To the left of the emblem were these words:
• Deal honorably in all student-relation matters;
Advertisement for Erie Business College, 1914.
Communications
Minnesota School of Business
Accounting Department.
The newsletter was a great success. It was published and distributed several
times each year until it was replaced by the Business School Executive in 1950.
“The newsletter was a great
The Great Chautauqua Conference
A grandiose plan was formulated by the Board of Governors to hold a
conference for the Association’s members in the summer of 1923. This was
the first attempt to host a major national meeting of the group, apart from
an annual gathering in late December. To entice members to attend, the
organizers chose to hold the summer event at the Chautauqua meeting grounds
in New York state. This was a renowned meeting camp of almost spiritual
proportions at the time.
success. It was published
and distributed several
times each year...”
Woodbridge N. Ferris, United States Senator-elect from Michigan, was
a key speaker. He gave three separate addresses at Chautauqua on the value
of a business education, the importance of education for all, and the need
for master teachers. The Chautauqua event has historic significance because
it reflects the issues and thinking that dominated the early days of the
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Association. In his speeches, Senator-elect Ferris noted “how handicapped the
present generation is in trying to keep pace with the evolution of events; the
automobile, movie pictures, and the multiplicity of entertainment features, all
seeking to undermine stability and continuity of purpose.”
U.S. military recruitment at
Minnesota School of Business.
In addition to focusing on educational concerns, the conference spent time
discussing school management. “Effective Methods of Popularizing the Private
Business School” was one topic of discussion, and three different speakers
presented their points of view. Sessions were held on effective and ethical
advertising. Transfer of course credit was also discussed, and a uniform policy
acknowledging transfer of credit was promoted.
The Art Institute of Pittsburgh
catalogue, circa 1921.
Speakers encouraged the members to consider buying their own facilities
instead of continuing to lease them; if a school building was purchased
intelligently, it would remain a good real estate investment over the years. The
conferees noted, as a matter of interest, that in the transition from renting
property to buying their own buildings, many schools shortened their names
and attached “College” to their title. In Omaha there was Boyles College; in
Davenport, Brown’s College; in Racine, Moore’s College; in Waterloo, Gates
College; and in Trenton, Rider College. The question of whether the addition
of “College” added prestige and dignity to a school was discussed but remained
unanswered. Only the passage of time would answer that question.
Government Relations
“The Board of Governors
of the NAACS offered the
United States Civil Service
Commission the facilities of
member schools throughout the
country for administering civil
service examinations.”
From its inception, the NAACS concerned itself with establishing a good
relationship with the federal government. In 1916, for example, members
of the NAACS met with Dr. Glen Levin Swiggert, specialist in Commercial
Education of the United States Bureau of Education, in order to establish
an understanding about the roles of private and public school education and
to emphasize that quality educational service was the main concern of the
Association. As a result of one such meeting, held at Columbia University, a
study was undertaken to assess the need for bookkeeping and other commercial
courses, to establish the curriculum requirements of these courses, and to find
a way of tailoring courses to the rapidly developing commercial interests of the
times.
During this same time, NAACS also strengthened its relationship with the
federal government by offering the United States Civil Service Commission
the facilities of member schools throughout the country for administering civil
service examinations.
After World War I ended, thousands of disabled soldiers returned from the
conflict, unfit for the type of employment to which they had been accustomed.
The United States government decided to give these veterans the opportunity
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to return to the workforce by facilitating retraining within the range of their
physical limitations. Many of these veterans chose to be trained for office work
or other business-related activity. Although actual figures are unavailable, it
is known that many World War I veterans received their training in NAACS
member schools as part of this joint rehabilitation effort.
During the 1920s, the relationship between the Association and the federal
and state governments grew. Officials and legislators from both federal and
state governments were invited to Association conventions and regional
meetings. In addition, state education officials and members of the United
States Bureau of Education served on NAACS curriculum committees. These
committees designed model courses of study that were eventually offered at
many NAACS schools throughout the country.
“Officials and legislators
from both federal and state
governments were invited to
Association conventions and
regional meetings.”
The 1920s were prosperous for almost everyone, including private career
schools, but the Great Depression brought economic growth to an abrupt halt,
and then into a spiraling decline. These were not years of fond memories for
private sector educators. Many people could not afford tuition. Furthermore,
there was great concern among the membership of the Association when the
Federal Emergency Relief Act was passed in 1933. In Chicago alone, thirty-one
new “free schools” were reported to have opened shortly after the Relief Act
passed. Under the terms of this New Deal legislation, commercial schools had
to offer commercial subjects “free of charge” to those who needed them.
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“... the Association requested
that the federal government
grant “duly inspected” private
career schools the same
privileges that the public
institutions had under the
public assistance program.”
The members of NAACS did not oppose free commercial education for
those who could not afford to pay, but they did want the terms of qualification
to be clearly defined. The Roosevelt administration established a committee
that included officers of the NAACS and Harry Hopkins, Director of the
Federal Emergency Relief Administration. After lengthy discussion, a decision
was reached about who could enroll. On July 2, 1935, Dr. Hopkins specified
that “beginning classes in standard commercial subjects may not enroll anyone
except unemployed adults who are on relief.”
Thus, for the time being, a major threat from the public sector was held off.
Little did the membership realize how much the public sector would eventually
contribute to vocational education in the decades to come. On December 28, 1936, at its annual meeting in Cleveland, the Association
adopted a resolution petitioning the federal government to allow students
applying for government assistance to select the educational institution of their
choice. In addition, the Association requested that the federal government
grant “duly inspected” private career schools the same privileges that the public
institutions had under the public assistance program. Apparently, the issue
was never resolved to the satisfaction of the Association members, and the new
competition from the public sector added to the Association’s woes. Commercial
education by the public sector, which arose in response to the hard times of the
Depression, remains a dominant force in American education today.
Why You Should Attend an Accredited Private
Career School, published by NATTS.
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North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in the hope of
obtaining their services as an accrediting agency for the commercial school
membership of NAACS. The North Central Association was a pioneer in
regional accreditation and had a strong national reputation.
Records show that the North Central Association accredited some of the
NAACS member schools from time to time. But in the long run, the alliance
never really took hold, and the relationship diminished and disolved. While
we do not know why the relationship never developed, it is clear that many
attempts at an alliance did take place.
By 1927, the Association realized that it would need to review and upgrade
its own standards for membership in order to provide quality career education
in a growing business climate. State Supervisor of Trade and Industrial
Education for the Commonwealth of Virginia, B. H. Van Opt, suggested
to the Association that the easiest way to set up standards was to follow
the practices of the “usual accrediting agencies.” Areas evaluated included
qualifications for teachers, minimum course lengths, minimum equipment
requirements, model courses of study and graduation requirements.
Accreditation Activities
Based on Van Opt’s suggestions, a series of “Standards of Practice” was
formulated by the Association in the mid-1920s. The historical record indicates
that standards of practice absorbed a great deal of discussion time among
the members at conventions and regional meetings in the latter part of the
1920s. Standards were numbered and titled, and members were asked to write
position papers to clarify each standard and give examples of schools in or out
of compliance with them.
As noted earlier, “accredited” in the title of the Association referred to a
school’s acceptance for membership and its adherence to a code of ethics and
management policy prescribed by the organization. During its first twenty
years, the Association did not conduct any accrediting activities. However, even
in the early days, the leaders of NAACS clearly understood the need to develop
a system of self-evaluation and inspection for the benefit of all members.
Members in good standing were usually asked to serve on inspection teams.
Because of the burdens of travel, inspection teams were usually composed
of members in the same geographical area as the school to be visited. The
application prepared by the school to be inspected was quite rudimentary
compared with the self-study document later required by the Accrediting
Commission of the Association of Independent Colleges and Schools (AICS).
The Vigilance Committee (renamed the Better Business Bureau in 1923)
was charged with monitoring the activities of the membership to determine
compliance with the Association’s stated ethical and managerial policies. As
time passed, the committee began to send representatives to new schools
applying for membership in order to determine if the schools had the necessary
teachers, staff, equipment and facilities to meet the requirements of an
accredited member. This activity continued to develop informally until the
time of the Great Depression.
Clearly, accreditation had become a very important, although still informal,
activity of the Association as it approached its twenty-fifth birthday. Even as far
back as the first years of the NAACS, members were required to state carefully
the term “fully accredited” and to display the emblem of the NAACS. The
issue of accreditation, however, was not as intense in the 1930s. During the
decade of the Great Depression, few new schools entered the Association, and
many of the older members ceased operations.
“... the Association realized
that it would need to review
and upgrade its own standards
for membership in order
to provide quality career
education in a growing
business climate.”
Students filing photographic cylinders,
early recording devices, at the
Minnesota School of Business.
Since the earliest days of the Association’s founding, many members wanted
the accreditation aspect of membership to become more formalized. It was
finally decided that NAACS should try to develop a relationship with the
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Potpourri
“Opportunities for women
were always an important
concern of Association
members.”
A large number of isolated issues, people stories and humorous happenings
weaved their way through the early history of the Association. Space does
not permit a visit to all of them, but several of the more interesting ones are
included in the following paragraphs:
• When radio joined the newspaper industry as a popular means of
communication in the 1930s, member schools soon began to sponsor local
programs. Various members of the Association suggested to the board that the
organization do some advertising about the benefits of private career schools,
in general, and the advantages to students attending NAACS member
institutions. Some radio spots were purchased by the Association, and at one
point it seriously considered sponsoring a regularly scheduled show. But the
timing was not right, and the Depression halted all efforts in this regard.
• Another project that never got off the ground was the establishment
of a national university owned and operated by NAACS. When the
Association was incorporated in Washington, D.C., in 1917, one of the
powers granted to it was the right to award degrees under the authority
of the national university. The authorization included, “professorships in
mathematics, accounting, law and banking, etc. and to ordain and grant
suitable certificates, diplomas and degrees.” In 1932 a proposal to activate
the university was made, and a plan of action was presented. However, like
other costly projects during the Depression years, this one soon faded away.
Women
Opportunities for women were always an important concern of Association
members. As early as 1926, Hiram N. Rasely of Burdett College in Boston
delivered a radio message on station WEEL in Boston on “Business and Its
Opportunities for Women.” Rasely said, “Most satisfactory progress, in the
world of business, comes to those women who possess a good basic education
… who have mastered the art of writing shorthand; … operate the typewriter
with facility; ... can use the English language correctly and effectively; who
are well versed in the science of accounts; who have learned fundamental
principles of economics, business organization and management; and who have
an appreciation for good literature.”
Working Women: Opportunities for
Women in Trade and Technical Fields,
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The contribution of women to educational services was highlighted in
Accredited News in July 1930. The issue contained a lengthy article entitled
“Brief Sketches of Women Executives.” It contained biographies of seventeen
women who were active in the management of private career schools, from
Seattle, Washington, to Paterson, New Jersey.
Minnesota School of Business transcription, 1942.
The Paradox
The Association not only survived, but thrived, during its twenty-five years.
Paradoxically, stability and change, in combination, were the keys to success.
Stability was reflected in the outstanding leadership of the key players who
founded the alliance and served as its officers for many years. Strong leadership
enabled the Association to deal with change. The NAACS was flexible and
responsive to the rapidly evolving socioeconomic environment and the shifting
trends in private career education. Throughout this time, the NAACS, by
its efforts, remained true to its mission: to promote and maintain quality
educational programs and sound business practices.
“The contribution of women
to educational services was
highlighted in Accredited
News in July 1930.”
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Photo
essay: Founders and Foundations
Typewriting award for speed and accuracy awarded to
Minnesota School of Business student.
Adding Machine, Indiana Business College.
Central Business College (now Indiana Business College), circa 1915.
Lecture classroom at Berkeley College.
Indiana Business College early 1900’s.
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Founder of Indiana Business College,
Charles C. Cring.
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Photo
essay: Founders and Foundations
By the 1930s, Indiana Business enjoyed an unparalleled
reputation in Indiana’s business communities.
Graybar building at Berkeley College,
New York, NY.
A Spanish villa in East Orange, New Jersey, housed the original Berkeley College until 1976.
Brookstone College class at typewriters, circa 1972.
(Formerly Ashmore Business College and Asheboro College)
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Reprinted from the Art Institute of Pittsburgh
Indiana Business College, 1947.
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Chapter
3
Growth …
Is Inevitable
Historical Overview
The period from 1937 to 1962 was one of the most
traumatic times in the history of this nation. World War
II touched the lives of all Americans. The human sacrifices
made by this country are still felt and remembered by
many today.
The postwar recovery years brought welcome changes. People bought
refrigerators and finally discarded leaky iceboxes. New cars became available,
replacing worn-out, old jalopies. Sugar, gasoline, nylons and beef became
plentiful again. Factories stopped manufacturing war products and, instead,
concentrated energy and manpower on fulfilling the seemingly insatiable
demands for new consumer goods. The economic and social woes of the Great
Depression were in the past, and planned housing developments popped up
like crocuses across suburban landscapes.
The optimism and economic prosperity that began after World War II
continued as the Association progressed toward its fiftieth birthday. Of course,
these years were not without setbacks. The Korean War renewed fears of
rationing and sacrifice, and the Cold War was like a dark cloud over American’s
heads. Still, the nation was relatively stable, and Americans took advantage of
educational opportunity ties and moved up the socioeconomic ladder. Through
the G.I. Bill and guaranteed government loans, many veterans were able to
further their educations, buy homes and start businesses. As the demand
for quality education increased, the private career sector played a larger role
in providing educational options. As the job market opened up, so did the
demand for new programs of study, modern equipment and facilities.
Berkeley College, graduating class of 1934 in East Orange, NJ.
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Prewar Issues
Even before World War II, some significant issues had begun to bubble on
the burners of the Association and its member schools. Some were influenced
by the threat of war; others were not. One major issue confronting the
Association concerned the policies for awarding scholarships. Member
schools had previously granted scholarships based on a student’s potential for
academic achievement or on financial need. However, a few schools used these
scholarships to fill vacant seats in classrooms by offering reduced tuition. In
such cases, neither ability nor need was considered.
Furthermore, in order to remain competitive with public schools, private
career schools updated their curricula and expanded their schedules to include
night classes. One especially innovative example was that of Pace Institute in
New York City. Pace administrators recognized the need to provide quality
programs at convenient times by offering special summer day and evening
sessions. They increased the number of evening and Saturday classes during
the regular school year as well. Intensive courses at convenient times became
a Pace specialty, and the idea worked. The response was tremendous, and Pace
Institute continued to grow, despite keen competition from the public sector of
commercial education in New York City.
Military Students in HVAC Lab at
Coyne American Institute, circa 1942.
“Pace administrators
recognized the need to
provide quality programs at
convenient times by offering
special summer day and
evening sessions.”
“... the Association
Association President Edward Hull referred to these practices in his annual
message to the members in December 1939. He said, “It is not the use of
scholarships that is objectionable. It is their misuse – the abuse of them. A
scholarship honestly given, that is given in the right way, to the right person,
and for the right purpose is ethical … On the other hand, any member of
the National Association of Accredited Commercial Schools who misuses the
scholarship feature should be dropped from membership.”
encouraged members
to coordinate their
educational concerns
with public school
educators through
participation in other
recognized educational
organizations.”
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Ad for Saturday morning
classes reprinted from the
Art Institute of Pittsburgh
Another issue of vital importance to the survival and growth of private career
schools was the increased competition from the public school sector. The
board of the Association encouraged members to coordinate their educational
concerns with public school educators through participation in other
recognized educational organizations.
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Delta Nu Omega – Theta Alpha Chi
A plan for a system of fraternities and sororities under the sponsorship of
the Association had been on the drawing board for a number of years. At an
interim meeting of the Association’s Board of Governors in July 1940, the
fraternity and sorority program was finalized. It called for twenty chapters to
be installed by the end of September 1940 – fifty by the end of June 1941. By
August 1940, ten sororities and five fraternities had been granted charters by
NAACS, and applications for ten other chapters were being processed. The
board appointed Hiram N. Rasely, of Burdett College in Boston, as Grand
President of the fraternity/
sorority program. The
fraternities were named
Delta Nu Omega, and the
sororities, Theta Alpha Chi.
“Chapters were expected
to lend assistance to
community projects...”
Although each chapter
had the authority to develop
its own program, the board
established a common
activity program to serve as
a guideline for individual
groups. The program included monthly meeting procedures, educational
activities, a social events calendar and an annual chapter banquet agenda.
Philanthropic and community service activities were emphasized as the key
function of the organizations. Chapters were expected to lend assistance to
community projects, such as helping the poor at Christmas, conducting
food sales for the homeless and hungry, and raising funds for charities and
educational scholarships.
By February 1941, there were thirty-seven chapters in schools across the
country. Several chapters had sent representatives to the annual NAACS
convention in Chicago the previous December. Many of the new chapters
had exciting plans for future social and community activities. It was a spirited
movement. Unfortunately, the entry of the United States into World War II
required a dedication to more serious endeavors.
Stiff
but Friendly Rivalry
Some dissension had begun to grow within the NAACS as early as the 1930s,
and the organization had to struggle to maintain membership numbers and
interest. The country was emerging from the hard times of the Depression, and
the threat of war didn’t make things any better. Many career educators, both
public and private, struggled during these years. Once again, education took a
back seat as the United States became involved in the war.
In 1931 a stiff but friendly competition
began with the establishment of another
business school organization. The Southern
Accredited Business Colleges merged with
the American Association of Vocational
Schools to form the American Association
of Business Schools (AABS), a formidable
alliance whose membership was vibrant and
aggressive. The new organization appointed
C.W. Woodward, of Burlington Business
College in Burlington, Iowa, as its executive
secretary. It also began publishing a newsletter called The Compass.
Eventually, the AABS changed its name to the American Association of
Commercial Colleges (AACC), but the form and structure of the Association
remained unchanged. Like NAACS, it held its conventions during the last
week of the year, and its mission was also to establish high standards of
academics for its members and for the private sector as a whole.
Top: Softball team at Globe Business College.
Bottom: Globe Business College
annual picnic St. Paul, MN.
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The American Association of Commercial Colleges grew in strength and
numbers as 1940 approached. Periodically The Compass published impressive
lists of new member schools. The AACC did not stress accreditation as an
activity and, in fact, questioned the authority of any organization to say that it
was the accreditor of member schools. The AACC was an outstanding vehicle
for communication and fellowship for its members for over thirty years, until
an event in the early ’60s ended its independence.
Brookstone College students, circa 1970’s.
(Formerly Ashmore Business College
and Asheboro College)
The Compass, the official journal of the
Association of Independent Colleges and Schools.
“... its mission was also to
establish high standards of
academics for its members
and for the private sector
as a whole.”
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War Emergency Council
On reflection, it seems bizarre that World War II hit like a tornado since most
of the news releases at the time indicated a country preparing for war. The
nation’s entry into the war brought Americans together with a singleness of
purpose. Americans dedicated themselves to meeting the challenges of war and
to securing freedom for the Allies.
“... the council served as the
voice in Washington for all
private career business
schools on matters related
to the war effort.”
The leaders in the private career schools wanted to help in the war effort as
much as possible, as well as ensure that their schools survived. However, with
two major professional organizations, NAACS and AACC, the private sector
was fragmented and confused. Dr. J.S. Noffsinger, Director of the National
Home Study Council in Washington, D.C., and a spokesman for education,
was asked to help.
Dr. Noffsinger called for a War Emergency Council of private business
schools and invited representatives from NAACS, AACC and nonaffiliated
schools to a meeting in Chicago. The meeting, held on December 30, 1942,
was convenient for both organizations since both were in Chicago at the time
for their annual meetings.
The primary purpose of the council was to make federal and state officials
aware of the private business school facilities that could be utilized during
periods of national emergency. In effect, the council served as the voice in
Washington for all private career business schools on matters related to the war
effort. The council’s concerns extended beyond utilizing private career school
facilities to include programs of study, educational policies and personnel
directed at the war effort.
The War Emergency Council was governed by a board of fifteen members,
which later became known as the Council of Fifteen. Five board members were
elected by the members of the National Association of Accredited Commercial
Schools, five by the members of the American Association of Commercial Colleges,
and five representatives came from non-affiliated private business schools.
President Edward Hull and former President Ben Williams were elected to
represent NAACS on the board. C.W. Woodward of AACC was elected as one
of the representatives for his organization. At the time of the first meeting of
the council, there were approximately 1,800 private business schools located in
all forty-eight states and the District of Columbia.
The council fostered many new insights into private career education.
Among these were a heightened awareness and a broader understanding of
the influence of the private career education sector. Previously private career
educators had traveled to Washington infrequently. With the formation of the
War Emergency Council, however, Washington became the center of activity
and representation for the private career sector.
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The council had some formidable issues to
address. One of the most important of these
was convincing the federal government to
include the private career schools in clerical
training programs for the War and Navy
Departments. Another was the acquisition of
typewriters. The war had created an unusually
high demand for typewriters, both here
and abroad. At the same time the demand
was growing, supplies were dwindling as
manufacturing companies ceased production in
order to concentrate on defense manufacturing
priorities. For schools that were training
workers for defense purposes, the need for
such equipment was even more pronounced,
and the council was their only hope. The
scarcity of typewriters during the war was a
particular hardship for business schools. Next to
teachers, typewriters were their most important
instructional resource. The schools had been
called upon to donate typewriters to the war effort. Association member
schools gave up many machines to the government for military use.
Indiana Business College students
typewriting in class.
The private schools also wanted to be contract trainers for the supplementary
clerical workers program of the United States Office of Education. The
education office had received an appropriation for the training of clerical
personnel to meet the needs on the home front during the war. However, the
contracts were with public schools and colleges. Naturally, the private sector
wanted some of the business and hoped that the War Emergency Council
could facilitate an arrangement.
Although the NAACS did wholeheartedly support and participate in the
war efforts of the council, the Association had its own agenda. NAACS leaders
knew that the war would end eventually, and they wanted the organization
to be as vital a force in private career education in the future as it had been in
the past. In Accredited News in August 1943, the new president of NAACS,
Dr. P.S. Spangler stated: “The work of the Council and that of the Association
are not in conflict at any point; in fact, they dovetail into each other and are
complementary and supplementary rather than antagonistic. With the return
of several million young soldiers and sailors to their home communities, the
problem of further education for useful civilian lives will become acute. It
will be a problem that can and should be solved from the educational side and
belongs therefore to the schools individually and collectively. In this postwar
problem the National Association can serve effectively – and will do so.”
“Association member schools
gave up many machines to the
government for military use.”
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“... there was an increased
demand for secretarial
courses in the medical
and legal fields.”
By the mid 1940’s, the war was coming to an end and it became clear
that the War Emergency Council could not continue under its original
mandate or title. Therefore, in 1945, the organization was restructured and
renamed the National Council of Business Schools. The new association
became a close friend and competitor of NAACS in the postwar era.
Postwar Opportunities
The postwar era saw several new opportunities created in terms of labor
needs. Court reporting became a growing field after the war. There was a great
demand for qualified court reporters, and their availability was limited. Schools
were encouraged to establish programs of study in court reporting and to assist
in the development of professional standards in the field. Many existing schools
added court reporting, and many new schools opened their doors with courses
in court reporting.
Other new and expanded programs were offered by private career schools
in 1946. The Dale Carnegie Public Speaking courses were among the most
popular of these. The Elmer Wheeler Salesmanship course, as well as courses in
charm and personality development, also attracted scores of interested students.
Similarly, there was an increased demand for secretarial courses in the medical
and legal fields.
Business school students in the postwar era seemed more serious about their
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Most of the new breed of students in private career schools were veterans.
Their war experiences left them with a broader perspective on a great many
issues, and they openly expressed their views in the classroom. They had
definite ideas about instruction and passed their ideas on to teachers and
administrators. The schools, in turn, were responsive to their needs, adapting
class procedures and trying new approaches to accommodate the veterans.
The Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944 was one of the most enlightened
pieces of legislation ever enacted by Congress. Known as the G.I. Bill of
Rights, this legislation’s most widely utilized benefits were in the area of
education. Under this bill, veterans who had served at least ninety days in the
military after September 16, 1940, and who were honorably discharged, were
automatically entitled to one year of full-time training plus a period equal to
their time of service. The maximum entitlement was forty-eight months of
educational instruction to be funded by the federal government. Public Laws
268 and 411 further refined and increased benefits in subsequent years.
Private career schools were not included as eligible institutions in the first
draft of the G.I. Bill, even though private career school leaders had worked
so diligently at gaining recognition. However, the private school leaders were
persistent, and after overcoming numerous obstacles, private career schools
were formally recognized as eligible institutions. A great deal of credit goes
to Senator Robert Taft of Ohio for helping advance the cause of the private
career sector. Although Taft was a conservative, he believed that the scope of
education benefits for veterans should be as broad as possible.
Minnesota School of Business
students use stenotype machines in class.
40
academic studies than students had been before the war. Many of these new
students were veterans or older adults seeking reintegration into a consumeroriented, white-collar work force. New standards for courses, teachers and
school facilities were implemented to meet the demands of the new breed of
students. Night schools became popular, and many schools were forced to offer
more than one session to meet the increased demand.
The 1952 Veteran’s Readjustment Assistance Act, the G.I. Bill of Rights
for veterans of the Korean War, provided similar educational opportunities
for veterans. Again, private career schools were included within the scope of
the legislation in order to ensure that veterans had several education
opportunities.
Globe Business College (now Global College)
night school brochure.
“The schools, in turn, were
responsive to their needs,
adapting class procedures
and trying new approaches to
accommodate the veterans.”
Government Interaction
Relations between NAACS and the federal government were at their lowest
point during World War II. It was not a matter of inadequate communication or
willful neglect of the private education sector, but simply the case of a government
besieged with problems far greater than the state of private career education.
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The Association did establish a “Washington Committee” in order to get
legislators to include private career schools in their various funded training
programs. “Short courses” were in demand, and the government had
contracted with public education agencies to be the exclusive providers of these
courses. Naturally, the private sector felt left out. This was especially true for
short courses related to typewriting, shorthand, recordkeeping and accounting.
In addition to feeling overlooked, private school educators expressed concerns
about how much could really be taught in short courses and whether or not
quality was being sacrificed to meet learning productivity quotas.
Shortly after taking office in 1952, President Eisenhower proposed a White
House Conference on Education. This was a welcome action since education
had been at the bottom of the priorities list during the war and the early
recovery years. Public Law 530 (82nd Congress, Second Session) stipulated
that the White House conference be held prior to November 30, 1955, and
that it be “broadly representative of educators and other interested citizens
from all parts of the nation.” Further, it would “consider and report to the
President on significant and pressing problems in the field of education.”
A typing class at Berkeley College.
“Shortly after taking office in
1952, President Eisenhower
proposed a White House
Members of the Association welcomed the conference as an opportunity to
make their voices heard. However, the emphasis of the conference was on the
problems of elementary and secondary public schools and on their general
need for more teachers. In his closing remarks, Neil McElroy, Chairman
of the White House conference and President of the Procter & Gamble
Company, emphasized that Americans believed in competition, but only in fair
competition. This is why education must provide opportunities for all people
with a wide variety of needs. Although few results of the conference affected
the private career school sector, the new focus on education was refreshing.
Conference on Education.
This was a welcome action
since education had been at
the bottom of the priorities
list during the war and the
early recovery years.”
Consolidation
Earlier in this section, we discussed the rivalry between the National Association
of Accredited Commercial Schools and the newer American Association of
Commercial Colleges. After the war ended, the War Emergency Council was
transformed into the National Council of Business Schools, and the competition
became a three-way struggle. It became obvious to most of the school leaders that
something had to be done to eliminate duplication of efforts. Therefore, in 1949,
the three organizations jointly proposed consolidation with a revised structure
and new name.
Although members of NAACS and NCBS were overwhelmingly in favor of
the proposal, AACC rejected it by a three-to-one vote. It was a blow to the plan,
but the effort still went forward. It had been agreed upon before the election that
if only one of the three associations turned down the consolidation proposal, the
other two would still consolidate.
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In August of 1949, the boards of NAACS and the National Council of
Business Schools met to work out the details of consolidation. The suggested
name of the Association was the National Association and Council of
Business Schools. President George Meadows of NAACS and Hiram Rasely
of NCBS gave brief messages and their blessings to consolidation at the
November convention.
The process of consolidation proved that the private career school leaders
could be as flexible in organizational matters as they were in the management
of their schools. They saw the need for change and were able to break old
habits to respond to new exigencies. It was not by any measure an easy thing
to do, but it was the right choice. After almost forty years as the National
Association of Accredited Commercial Schools, they would now be known as
the National Association and Council of Business Schools (NACBS).
The Accrediting Commission
“The word Accredited was
dropped from the title of the
consolidated organization.
This is ironic since
accreditation became the
major item on the agenda...”
The word “Accredited” was dropped from the title of the consolidated
organization. This is ironic since accreditation became the major item on
the agenda for the National Association and Council of Business Schools
in the 1950s.
Almost from the first day of its establishment, the governing board moved
accreditation to the top of its priority list. Many of the Association members
believed that, since the end of World War II, schools had been required to
meet the needs of a much more complex and demanding pool of students.
Therefore, they reasoned it was necessary to
identify more clearly the purposes and goals of
each institution and the resources they had for
accomplishing these goals. Many felt this process
could best be accomplished through a system
of accreditation. Coincidentally, the United
States Office of Education was becoming more
stringent in deciding which institutions it would
recognize for participation in governmentassisted programs. Private business schools
had not been included in government-assisted
programs because of their lack of accreditation
at that time.
Jay W. Miller, President of the NACBS,
wrote to the members in 1951 to solicit ideas
and support for the private career school
accreditation commission. Miller stated in his
Banner Business newspaper article,
More specialized training seen for future.
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message, which was published in Business School Executive: “Any accreditation
plan worthy of the name will involve a selective process. If all schools are to
be accredited, the plan isn’t worth anything; the plan then becomes merely a
mutual admiration society … Any accreditation plan set up entirely within our
own field, and limited to members of our own Association is a form of selfaccreditation. This plan has worked for the high schools and the universities …
In any event, we must set standards with teeth in them.”
An amendment to the NACBS constitution, known as Amendment No.
1, Article IX, established the Accrediting Commission and the accreditation
process as an integral part of the Association. The Amendment stated: “The
name of this organization shall be the Accrediting Commission for Business
Schools (hereafter referred to as the ‘Commission’) … The principal objective
of the Accrediting Commission for Business Schools is the improvement of
education among postsecondary institutions devoted largely, or exclusively, to
business education.”
Accreditation standards were carefully developed and were constantly under
scrutiny by the Commission and the Association. In 1957 these standards
and practices underwent major revision. Among the revised standards was
one classifying schools as junior or senior colleges. The revised standards
also included requirements for new faculty entering the field. The revisions
required that applicants admitted to an accredited school hold a recognized
high school diploma or its equivalent. Published catalogs and minimum
degree requirements were also made part of the revised standards. The revised
standards and practices attempted to achieve higher quality in education,
student services and administration.
into meaningful negotiations between the two organizations. Sweetland stated:
“It appears to me that the outline presents a plan which will result inevitably
in an increased professional stature for all private business schools. It also
provides a medium for the preservation on a permanent basis of the ideals and
objectives of both constituent groups.”
“Accreditation standards
were carefully developed
and were constantly under
scrutiny by the Commission
In 1958, Dean C. Sweetland, President of the Southeastern Business College
Association – a regional organization of private career schools – called for
the unification of the AACC and the NACBS. Sweetland suggested that the
combined organization be named the Federated Business College Association.
He presented his proposed plan for unification to The Compass, the journal
of the AACC, and The Balance Sheet, published for business educators by the
Southwestern Publishing Company, in the hope that publicity might snowball
and the Association.”
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At the time of consolidation, the members of the American Association of
Commercial Colleges decided to remain independent, and the union of the
NCBS and NAACS went ahead without the AACC. This merger left two
major competitors where there had been three. As the NACBS grew stronger in
the 1950s and its Accrediting Commission continued in its quest for renewed
quality, the AACC began having second thoughts.
America
spectrum of “learning to earn”
opportunities exploded, and
Sweetland’s timing was right. The members of the two private business
the rise of new technologies
school associations entered into a unification agreement that took effect on
May 5, 1962. The name of the new unified association was the United Business challenged educators.”
Schools Association (USBA). The Compass became the official voice of the
Association. The Business School Executive ceased operation. The May 1962
issue of The Compass applauded unification: “Two competing associations have
at times created confusion in the minds of the people with whom they would
be educational partners. Others have found in this competition an excuse for
neutrality and non-competition. Now, with one strong association spending
all of its energies working for the good of the industry, private business schools
are, in fact, becoming partners in the nation’s educational programs and in the
planning for the future.”
The consolidation of NAACS and the NCBS in 1950 had paved the
way for the later unification with AACC. The most significant result of the
consolidation was the establishment of the Accrediting Commission and its
subsequent recognition by the United States Commissioner of Education. The
success of the Accrediting Commission was one of the main reasons that the
AACC merged with NACBS.
Inside
Unification
“Inside the classroom, the broad
and Out
Only those who had lived through the period could truly appreciate the
enormous changes that took place on both sides of the school door between
1937 and 1962. Outside, the economy had shifted from depressed, to
government-controlled, to consumer-driven. Moreover, the American
emotional life moved from fear for survival to a thirst for personal growth.
Inside the classroom, the broad spectrum of “learning to earn” opportunities
exploded, and the rise of new technologies challenged educators.
The internal environment of the Association had gone through enormous
changes as well. The difficulties of inadequate representation of the private
career school sector had finally been resolved. The process of accreditation
had become a vital activity, as witnessed by the recognition of the
Accrediting Commission by federal and state agencies. With the turmoil of
the past quarter century finally behind them, the Association’s leaders and
member schools were ready to move on to new frontiers.
Newspaper article, Trade schools
to fill 21 million jobs.
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Photo
essay: Growth...Is Inevitable
Davis College student lounge and bookstore from 1960’s.
Fashion illustration, reprinted from the Art Institute of Pittsburgh, catalogue circa 1946.
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Asheboro College cheerleaders, circa 1960’s. (now Brookstone College)
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Photo
essay: Growth...Is Inevitable
Members of the Research and Educational Standards Committee gather
during 1966 to give the year-old Association direction for its future efforts.
Typewriters, Indiana Business College.
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Class in session at ECPI College of Technology.
Rockford Business College located in Rockford, Illinois traces its roots back to the 1860’s.
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Chapter
4 Postwar
Erie Business Center, Erie, PA,
students outside building
showcasing campus
activities.
Changes
The postwar baby boom resulted in a huge number of
teenagers and young adults by 1962. Many of these young
people grew up in middle-class homes where education was
considered an important part of the maturation process. By
surrounding himself with some of the leading intellectuals
from the nation’s most prestigious universities, President
John F. Kennedy seemed to reinforce this way of thinking.
Kennedy’s “brain trust” helped emphasize the importance
of higher education. At the other end of the spectrum,
though, were many Americans who had little chance and
few opportunities to get education at all, let alone continue
on to collegiate-level studies.
In the 1970s, women became more militant in their quest for equality. They
expressed the need for equal recognition and equal pay in the workplace. The
definition of a family went through a restructuring as a result of the new role
of women in society and work. Average family sizes decreased dramatically
over the next several decades, and today there is a diverse cross-section of living
options and arrangements, which have further redefined families. Such changes
have had a pronounced impact on our society and economy.
In terms of education, these years could best be described as the golden age
of vocational education. In 1962, President Kennedy signed the Manpower
Development Training Act. The act provided new opportunities for high school
dropouts, the unemployed and the underemployed by delegating federal funds
for their training. This was the beginning of a concerted effort by legislators on
Capitol Hill to meet the needs of many forgotten citizens.
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In 1963, Congress passed the Vocational Education Act to extend and
improve on the new programs of vocational education proposed in 1962.
The Office Occupations Program was included in the act, marking the first
time this curriculum was specifically cited in legislation. The Vocational
Education Act was further refined and expanded in 1968 when the government
enacted amendments that focused on rural poverty, manpower shortages
and special areas of unemployment. In short, the vision of the leaders and
lawmakers in the 1960s opened the door to vocational education to everyone,
and that door has remained open.
A Rose
by Any Other Name
…
At the business meeting of the UBSA convention in New Orleans on October
27, 1972, the membership voted to change the name of the organization from
the United Business Schools Association to the Association of Independent
Colleges and Schools. The resolution calling for the name change recognized
that the diversity of members institutions and the variety of programs offered
by these institutions had become so complex that the former name no longer
adequately described the member institutions of the Association.
AICS Compass, the official journal of the
Association of Independent Colleges and Schools.
“... the vision of the leaders
and lawmakers in the 1960s
The resolution also proposed that the title of the Accrediting Commission for
Business Schools (ACBS) be changed to the Accrediting Commission. Again,
the more varied nature of the programs within the schools was the primary
motivation for this action. Both actions were adopted by the membership.
This was the first change in the Association’s name since the UBSA was
formed in 1962 as a result of the merger of the National Association and
Council of Business Schools and the American Association of Commercial
Colleges. It marked the fourth time in its sixty-year history that the Association
had changed its name. On June 1, 1983, AICS moved its offices from the
M Street location to the National Center for Higher Education Building at
Dupont Circle. As was stated in AICS’ The Compass, “this address has become
synonymous with higher education nationally and is perhaps the best known
throughout the educational community.”
opened the door to vocational
education to everyone, and
that door has remained open.”
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On Capitol Hill
An establishment of a Washington, D.C., office became a giant step forward
for the Association. The new D.C. address created a host of opportunities
for continual interaction with Congress, government agencies and affiliated
organizations. The combination of the move to the nation’s capitol and the
addition of a full-time professional staff enabled the Association to become the
dynamic and responsive voice of the membership on Capitol Hill.
In 1964, the Association held the UBSA Capitol Conference to discuss
the Vocational Education Act. Robert W. Sneden, President of UBSA
and Davenport College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, opened the conference
on May 18 by exhorting the delegates to assist Congress by offering their
school facilities to state education officials to train people for jobs. It was
one of the first of many significant events to be hosted by the Association
in Washington.
The UBSA received landmark recognition in 1965 when President Lyndon
B. Johnson invited Robert Sneden and Executive Director Richard Fulton to
the White House to attend the signing of the additional amendments to the
National Defense Education Act. These amendments provided significant
educational benefits to veterans of the Vietnam War. President Johnson gave
Sneden a pen that was used to sign the document into law.
Around this same time, two other federal laws that affected private
career schools were proposed. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
(Public Law 88-452) authorized the expenditure of $950 million for
vocational education by the Job Corps for the 1964 to 1965 fiscal year.
The UBSA was successful in urging that “both local educational agencies
and private vocational educational institutions” be included in the act.
The second piece of legislation of vital importance to the private
career sector was the War Orphans Education Assistance Act (Public
Law 83-361). The act included private career schools among those
schools eligible to provide government grant-funded education to
children of totally and permanently disabled veterans, as well as the
children of war widows.
The UBSA fought hard to be included under the Manpower Development
Training Act (MDTA). In 1967, the Association was invited to participate in
an MDTA demonstration project through a contract with the Department
of Health, Education and Welfare and the Office of Education. Under this
project, funds totaling $300,000 were allocated for the training of about 450
people from eight states. Institutions participating in the program included
trade and technical schools and business schools with trade and technical
divisions. Opportunities for private career schools were further expanded
through this program.
“President Lyndon B. Johnson
invited Robert Sneden and
Executive Director Richard
Fulton to the White House
to attend the signing of the
additional amendments to
the National Defense
Education Act.”
In the mid-1970s, Basic Education Opportunity Grants (later renamed
Pell Grants) became available to postsecondary students. Under this
legislation, an eligible student could receive between $200 and $1,400 per
year to help pay for educational expenses, and the government did not
require repayment of these awards. Student eligibility was based on financial
need, and the grants could apply to tuition in private career schools as well
as academic institutions.
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The Pell Grant, as well as the Guaranteed Student Loan Program, opened
educational doors to many financially disadvantaged students. Because so many
students wanted quick access to quality employment situations, many chose to
enroll in private career schools. These acts prompted a renewed interest in the
learn-to-earn movement.
Another major boost to enrollments came from the influx of veterans who
qualified for the educational benefits under the G.I. Bill. In 1976, a record 2.2
million persons were enrolled under the provisions of the G.I. Bill. From 1966 to
1976, 6.5 million veterans and servicepersons received some form of training as a
result of their service in the armed forces. Although exact figures are not available,
it is believed that several hundred thousand veterans attended private vocational
institutions during this period, and many were enrolled in AICS schools.
Minnesota School of Business accounting class.
“In 1976, a record 2.2 million
persons were enrolled under
the provisions of the G.I. Bill.”
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It is hardly news to most school administrators that an understanding of
complex government regulations is essential to the effective management of
schools. In the 1970s, Congress passed several complicated and important
regulations. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974,
known as the Buckley Amendment, had a significant impact on the way
schools communicate. Another of these, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973,
Section 504, called for access capabilities for the disabled, which resulted in
increased opportunities for facilities management in educational institutions.
Regulations by the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service
regarding foreign student enrollment in U.S. schools also affected private
career school administrators.
Quite a controversy developed between the private career sector and the
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in the mid-1970s. The issues were complex;
basically, the FTC wanted to impose a special set of restrictions on private
career schools regarding refund policies and other consumer practices. Federal
courts heard the issues but never completely resolved the dispute to the
satisfaction of private school administrators.
In 1985, AICS recommended to Congress that legislative changes be
made to the Higher Education Act (a landmark legislation which strengthen
educational resourcest provide financial assistance to postsecondary students.)
The Association called for increased private career school access to federally
sponsored programs. It also encouraged the continued role of federal
government in all postsecondary education. The AICS general counsel,
William Clohan, stated, “Our main concern is to ensure that the final bill
helps provide the opportunities for all Americans to acquire the skills necessary
to obtain steady and productive employment.” This further exemplified
the constant efforts of the Association to lobby Congress in the interests of
member schools and private career education as a whole.
Congress also passed a resolution in 1985, that was signed into law by
President Reagan, which directed the Department of Defense to provide
tuition reimbursements to service personnel attending institutions accredited
by the Secretary of Education and the Council on Postsecondary Education.
This allowed service personnel attending AICS institutions to receive tuition
reimbursements, which resulted in an additional boost in enrollments in
private career schools. Dr. Jerry W. Miller, former president of AICS, noted
that “Most of the skills our institutions teach are directly applicable to military
jobs … We look forward to working with education officials in the military in
implementing the Congressional mandate and are pleased that private career
schools and colleges will now be able to serve all military personnel.”
“We look forward to working
with education officials in the
military in implementing the
Congressional mandate and
are pleased that private career
schools and colleges will now
be able to serve all military
personnel.”
– Dr. Jerry W. Miller
Members
in Service to the Nation
The Association’s new awareness of its role on Capitol Hill led to increased
activity and better visibility. Association representatives, many of whom were
already active in Association affairs, became more confident about participating
in Washington affairs. As a result, they were frequently asked to serve on federal
boards, committees and affiliated national associations. Their recognition
increased the enthusiasm of members and the fine reputation of AICS.
Jay W. Miller, an active member of the Association since the 1930s, was
appointed for several terms to the Veterans Administration Advisory Council.
Miller, former president of Goldey Beacom School of Business in Wilmington,
Delaware (now known as Goldey-Beacom College), participated in the
council’s activities from 1957 to 1966 and became a respected figure on the
Washington education scene as a result of his distinguished service.
In 1966, President Johnson announced the appointments of Minnie L.
Gaston of the Booker T. Washington Business College in Birmingham,
Alabama, and Dr. John E. Binnion, Professor of Education at Texas Tech and
a member of the AICS Accrediting Commission, to an eight-member advisory
council on insured loans for vocational students. The council was established
under the National Vocational Student Loan Insurance Act of 1965 and was
intended to encourage loan insurance programs for students seeking training in
business, trade and technical, and other vocational schools.
In 1968, the National Commission on Accrediting, forerunner of the
Council on Postsecondary Education (COPA), appointed former UBSA
president Harry G. Green to its Council on Occupational Education. Green
was one of fifteen members on the council. Membership consisted of state and
local education officials, state university administrators, and public and private
vocational school educators. Green’s appointment was an important act of
recognition for both him and the Accrediting Commission of UBSA.
Globe Business College (now Globe College) brochure.
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Former AICS president Morris J.W. Gaebe became a member of the board
of directors of the Student Loan Marketing Association in 1973. Gaebe was
one of seven educators named to the twenty-one member board, known as the
Sallie Mae Corporation. Sallie Mae was authorized by Congress to administer
the secondary market for student loans. Gaebe, president of Johnson & Wales
College in Providence, Rhode Island, was subsequently appointed to the
Executive Committee of the board as well.
“The quest for quality
education and student
services has been, and
Advances
continues to be, its
in Accreditation
As the years passed, the accreditation process became more refined. Fortunately,
the Accrediting Commission had strong leadership since its inception in the
early 1950s. This leadership encouraged mutually beneficial relationships with
peer groups in the educational community. Recognition by the Department
of Education, as well as a good working relationship with the Council on
Postsecondary Accreditation, helped the Accrediting Commission achieve
its status. The quest for quality education and student services has been, and
continues to be, its primary mission.
primary mission.”
The Commission enacted major criteria changes in 1970, which
culminated in an eighteen-month effort by the commissioners and the
AICS membership to refine the accreditation process. The basic intent
of the criteria remained unchanged, but certain significant revisions were
made. Perhaps the most significant of these was the restructuring of the
Commission into two councils: the Council on Business Schools and
the Council on Colleges. The restructuring did not, however, change the
authority of the Commission as the accrediting agency in any way. Another
important change involved the weekly teaching load requirements for
business schools, junior colleges and senior colleges. The Commission also
mandated that the evaluation cycle for accredited schools should not exceed
six years and instituted a new rule regarding the size of evaluation teams. By
curriculum areas, the Commission established guidelines for data processing
courses and general education requirements.
Brookstone College student receptionist,
circa 1973.(Formerly Ashmore Business College
and Asheboro College)
The Commission also established guidelines for the form and content of the
financial reports of member schools. The guidelines required initial applicants
and reaccreditation applicants to submit financial reports certified by an
independent certified public accountant (CPA). Further, it was decided that
the CPA would have “no fiduciary or ownership affiliation with the school.”
Another revision was made at the Commission meeting in April 1975
that provided “recognized candidate status” for certain institutions that
were being reclassified. This would pertain to an accredited business school
applying for a change of status from business school to junior college. The
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change in the criteria, Section 3-1-904, read as follows: “If the Commission,
after reevaluating the institution, determines to its satisfaction that there is a
reasonable assurance of reclassification when measured by these criteria, the
Commission may accord the institution the status of Recognized Candidate.”
In 1981, the Commission proposed that the number of commissioners
be increased and asked the membership to amend the bylaws to allow the
appointment of a public commissioner to serve on the accrediting body. This
change increased the number of non-Association commissioners serving on the
Commission, as they came from the traditional sectors of public and private
higher education.
“No history of American
business schools would be
complete without mentioning
the women’s basketball team of
Nashville Business College.”
Student Activities
Most of the fraternities and sororities in member schools had faded away by
the 1950s. Veterans, who comprised a large portion of the student enrollments
after World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War, were not exactly the
fraternity or sorority type. However, a few fraternities and sororities survived
through the 1960s.
Meanwhile, sports had become popular at several AICS schools in the 1960s
and 1970s. Sullivan Business College in Louisville, for example, won its second
straight NLCAA (National Little College Athletic Association) basketball
championship in March 1968 in Youngstown, Ohio. The NLCAA consisted
of business, technical, and two- and four-year colleges throughout the country.
Schools in the NLCAA generally had enrollments under 1,000 students,
with less than 500 male students. It was quite a triumph for the Sullivan
team to win this title two successive years, but they also went on to win an
unprecedented third NLCAA basketball championship in 1969!
Davis College basketball team, 1911.
Sports helped put some career colleges in the history books. For example, no
history of American business schools would be complete without mentioning
the women’s basketball team of Nashville Business College. Playing in a
national collegiate women’s league under the auspice of the United States
Amateur Athletic Union, the Nashville Business College team won several
national and international championships during the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s.
In 1978, Fort Lauderdale College in Florida began its first football season
and, according to National Education magazine, was the first business college
in the country to have a varsity football team. Appropriately, the name of the
team was the Seagulls. They played on the road as well as at home during their
first season. In 1981, Fort Lauderdale College was accepted into the National
Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) and made plans to institute
baseball and soccer teams. Colleges accepted by the NAIA had to be accredited
by COPA-recognized accrediting agencies.
Central Pennslvania Business School
basketball team, 1988.
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Introduction
of
Computers
Automation was the buzz word in the 1950s. Many people talked about
automation; some knew it would be the wave of the future, others feared the
changes, and still more adopted a wait-and-see attitude toward automation. When
computers finally crept into businesses and offices across the country in the late
1970s, keyboarding, word processing and using spreadsheets became important
skills. As a result, the Association and the private career school sector became
closely involved with computer instruction and computer support services.
Early Information Technology class at
ECPI College of Technology.
“The one-day workshops
focused on the latest
trends in the field, as
well as on the functions
and possible applications
of word processing.”
Although word processing was of primary interest, other computer
applications caught the attention of private career educators. As various
software packages flooded the market, private career schools designed courses
to teach their applications. Courses in Lotus, Symphony and a host of other
software programs became popular at many schools. Keyboarding and general
computer techniques also rode the wave of technology to become important
aspects of courses of study in AICS schools by 1985.
“International Telephone and
Telegraph Company (ITT) also
Much was written about word processing in the early 1970s, but little was
known about its possible applications. For example, an article in The Wall
Street Journal stated that “Dividing up the secretary’s world and introducing
new office gadgetry are parts of a broad concept known as word processing.”
This definition certainly didn’t clarify our vague notions about what word
processing really was or how it would evolve. Who would have believed thirty
years ago how specific and functional word processing would someday become?
Corporate Diversification
In 1979 and 1980, AICS sponsored seven word processing institutes in
collaboration with Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing. Various cities from
coast to coast were chosen as sites for the programs. The one-day workshops
focused on the latest trends in the field, as well as on the functions and possible
applications of word processing. These types of events indicated growing
awareness that word processing had arrived as a vital discipline in the age of
technology. It was not long before word processing became a popular course at
many AICS member schools.
In the 1960s, though, a resurgence of chain schools developed with a slightly
different approach to ownership. Many large manufacturing and service
corporations decided that one form of diversification might be to acquire career
schools as part of their holdings. As a result, many publicly held corporations
became holding companies for business, trade and technical schools.
Before the turn of the century, there were several large school chains in the
private career sector. You may recall from previous sections of this book that
two of the most successful chains were the Bryant and Stratton schools and the
Draughon schools. As the twentieth century progressed, however, most of these
large chains fragmented and reverted to independent ownership.
actively pursued diversification
in the early 1960s.”
The LSI Systems and Services Group, a division of the Lear Siegler
Corporation, was one of the first to enter the private school field. In
1968, LSI acquired the Nettleton Colleges’ business training schools
in South Dakota, Nebraska and Iowa. Lear Siegler went on to acquire
schools in Louisiana, Washington, California, Oklahoma and Ohio,
which brought the total number of Lier Siegler acquired schools to thirty
with a total enrollment of 22,000.
International Telephone and Telegraph Company (ITT) also actively
pursued diversification in the early 1960s. Along with acquiring Avis
Rent-A-Car, Sheraton Hotels, Aetna Finance and the Speedwriting
Company, the firm purchased the Temple chain of schools. Temple
owned a number of schools in Virginia, Maryland and the District of
Columbia, and all of them became part of ITT’s Educational Services.
Student working on an early computer at
ECPI College of Technology.
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The LTV Aerospace Corporation also became a buyer of private career
schools. LTV established a special division in 1969, the LTV Education
System Inc., to accommodate its school acquisitions. In 1971, LTV
announced the purchase of five additional business colleges in Texas
and New Mexico. With these newest acquisitions, LTV then had fifteen
business and trade schools since establishing its educational division. LTV
hired G.C. Stewart, a longtime Association member, to serve as General
Operations Manager for the College Division of LTV Education System.
Early office phone at Indiana Business College.
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Life Insurance Company of Virginia entered the private career school sector
through the formation of its Bradford School Corporation. In August 1970,
C. Fred Burdett, who had served as President of Burdett College in Boston for
thirty-five years, announced his retirement and the sale of his ninety-year-old
institution to the Bradford School Corporation. With the purchase of Burdett
College, the Life Insurance Company of Virginia expanded the growing list of
schools and colleges under its corporate umbrella.
“In the late 1970s and
early 1980s, an
interesting phenomenon
began to develop.”
Another formidable corporation entered the private school field in
1971. General Electric Company’s educational affiliate, General Learning
Corporation, began purchasing private career schools. CBS Schools was
another division that developed in the early 1970s, and the Dictaphone
Company also began acquiring schools. Thus, the educational competition
became intensified between several corporate giants of the time.
In 1981. AICS was also accepted as a member in the American Assembly of
Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). The Association joined the AACSB to
demonstrate their common interest in students who wished to pursue a career
in business and to take part in the process of developing academic programs in
business education.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., stated it best: “When I want to understand what
is happening today or try to decide what will happen tomorrow, I look back.”
“When I want to understand
what is happening today or
try to decide what will happen
tomorrow, I look back.”
– Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
Apparently, this avenue of diversification did not work well for many
of the corporations. In hindsight, the private career school business was
simply too specialized and too personalized for their large-scale management
techniques. Little by little, they began selling their own holdings, and many
were no longer associated with the private career schools. Several of these
corporate giants were, themselves, swallowed by bigger fish in subsequent years.
Some new corporate giants entered the field within the next several years.
However, most of these firms were experienced in education-related services.
Two of these were the Macmillan Publishing Company and Jostens. In the
late 1970s and early 1980s, an interesting phenomenon began to develop. The
movement was a sort of rebirth of the early school chain concept in which a
successful private career school owner acquired additional schools. At present,
several large holding companies devoted solely to private school education
exist. Some are operated as publicly held corporations, while others are
privately owned.
Historical Memories
Among the significant memories of the membership are the affiliations
that the Association has made over the decades. The concept of allied
membership within the Association became popular after the UBSA was
formed in 1962. The Compass listed twenty-three allied members in its
January 1963 issue. These allied members included the Baxandall public
relations firm; the Comptometer Corporation; the Gregg Division of
McGraw-Hill Book Company; the IBM Corporation; Prentice-Hall, Inc.;
the H.M. Rowe Company; Stenographic Machines; and the South-Western
Publishing Co., Inc.
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Students in the aviation field repair an early
passenger aircraft..
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Photo
essay:
Postwar Changes
Picture in the 1975 Art Institute of Pittsburgh catalogue
of teacher and art students.
Art Institute of Pittsburgh photography student, 1975.
ECPI College of Technology offers various students services.
Brookstone College students outside of school 1973. (Formerly Ashmore Business College and Asheboro College)
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63
Photo
essay:
Postwar Changes
Student studying Information Technology at Virginia College.
Students use the quiet areas of the library at Virginia College for studying.
Brookstone college student, circa 1969
(formerly Ashmore Business College and Asheboro College)
Faculty and students at ECPI College of Technology.
Erie Business Center, Erie, Pennsylvania.
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65
Minnesota School of Business instructor and student.
Chapter
5
The Inclusion of
NATTS
The original Board of Directors, 1965.
From left (back row): Julian Grouse,
M. Michael Freedland, John Galen,
Carter Elliot, and Whit Weddington;
(front row) Leo Kogan, William Goddard,
Noel Adams, and Harold Dickerson.
History would not be complete without telling the story
of another strong association of the vocational sector
– the National Association of Trade and Technical Schools
(NATTS). During the 1960s, both the proprietary business
and correspondence schools had their own organizations
and accrediting agencies, namely the Association of
Independent Career Schools (AICS) and the National
Home Study Council (NHSC). Many trade and vocational
school owners wanted the same type of recognition, and
they made several attempts at expanding the scope of the
business school organization.
A New Organization
On March 19, 1965, private school educators representing 35 schools met in
Chicago to form an organization that would alter the course of private and
technical education. Discussions at the Chicago conference focused on issues of
standards, accountability and accreditation; accreditation was a priority.
NATTS was officially recognized by the United States Office of Education
(USOE) as an accrediting agency in January 1967. Later that year, NATTS
began accepting applications from data processing/computer schools that were
not served by AICS. During the first round, only two of the fourteen board
members received accreditation. Many denials were due to an overzealous
accrediting commission “getting its feet wet and learning how to do what
it was assigned to do,” according to William Goddard, NATTS’ first fulltime employee. While at first, some members were upset for being denied
accreditation, they soon understood and respected the NATTS Accrediting
Commission’s adherence to high standards.
J. Warren Davies,
NATTS president 1965-1967.
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67
Looking back, Michael Freedland, the first treasurer and vice president of
NATTS, believed “this was the best thing that ever happened” because it made
members more aware of the importance and seriousness of accreditation. NATTS
was recognized again by the Office of Education in 1969, and the number of
accredited schools had grown to 189. During the second petition for recognition,
the USOE’s staff analysis reported that “the NATTS manual of preparations for
site visits and self-evaluation by a school plus team evaluation is one of the most
complete and effective manuals of procedures, which have yet been analyzed.”
Forming an accrediting agency was one of the primary goals of the founding
members. However conroversy soon swirled within the organization and among
legislators. Members complained that the site visits were conducted by members
from other trades; a beauty school might be evaluated by an automotive repair
school owner instead of someone in the same industry. Goddard argued that
“if accreditation truly has the primary goal of making good schools even better,
you’ve got to have cross-fertilization.”
M. Michael Freedland,
NATTS President 1983-1985.
“Consumer rights became
a hot issue in the early
and mid 1970s...”
According to Freedland, the “corporatization” of the sector began in 1967
with ITT and General Electric. The corporations benefited the sector by
bringing national recognition and acceptance, as well as a systematic approach
to education. On the other hand, Freedland felt some corporations thought “the
best way to run the school operation was to bring in someone from Harvard
with an MBA … many of the schools that didn’t survive, didn’t, because of that.”
On two separate occasions in the late 1960s, AICS proposed merging with
NATTS, but NATTS declined both times based on philosophical differences.
According to some, there was always some element of rivalry between NATTS
and AICS, which benefited both organizations when petitioning for time
with legislators.
Birth of the Career Training
Foundation
In 1981, after the death of Jack F. Tolbert, one of NATTS’ Accrediting
Commission’s most highly respected members and president of NATTS from
1977 to 1979, the idea of the Career Training Foundation (CTF) was formed.
CTF served as a memorial to Tolbert’s contributions to the industry and became
an educational research and service foundation for NATTS. The creation of the
Jack Tolbert Memorial Fund was also to begin under the backing of CTF.
Jack Tolbert, NATTS President 1977-1979.
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Bill Goddard, former executive director of NATTS, played a major role in
ensuring that CTF would continue long after the 1980s. Goddard’, aided by
Henry Herzing, president of NATTS, solicited contributions and support
from NATTS’ member organizations, like DeVry Inc., the National Education
Corporation, and Airco Educational Services. The funding provided the path
for the Foundation to begin to prosper and grow as a strong research entity
within the career college sector. CTF’s mission was to:
1.Establish scholarship award and grant programs;
2.Demonstrate the value of specialized career education and improve
public understanding of the role of career colleges and schools;
3.Prepare reports and other up-to-date information on various
aspects of career education for the use of schools, educators,
researchers, government officials and the public;
4.Conduct technical studies and surveys, either directly or by grant,
dealing with the technical, legal, administrative and economic
aspects of career education;
5.Present instructional opportunities for career school staff training
and development; and
6.Recognize individuals and organizations for their outstanding
contributions to the field of career education.
With synergy building, on September 17, 1981, the executive committee of
NATTS voted to proceed with the formation of CTF. The NATTS board gave
CTF permission to generate proposals for commissioned research regarding
the impact of trade and technical schools. Research, training, instructor/staff
development and training, distribution of research reports, and publishing
were just some of the building blocks of CTF. On February 17, 1982, the
Career Training Foundation was officially established.
Several events led to an increased need for technical and vocational education
in the 1970s and 1980s. Employers were in need of workers with computer
training and experience, and the beginnings of job outsourcing left some workers
in need of new employment opportunities. When the Department of Education
published its landmark report, A Nation at Risk, in 1983, it cast attention on the
shortcomings in American higher education “when the demand of highly skilled
workers in new fields is accelerating rapidly.”
Becoming Politically Active
In the mid-1980s, NATTS became aggressively concerned with default rates
and was the first in the sector to discuss the issue of default management with
bankers, lenders, students and schools. NATTS was also the first organization
to design an informational program about loan repayment. Despite its efforts,
tension between traditional postsecondary institutions and the private career
sector increased as more of the financial aid budget was provided to students
attending private career schools.
Career Training, NATTS, February 1989.
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To better serve its constituency, NATTS began several grassroots initiatives
that improved its reputation and strengthened the Association. Through the
Career Training Foundation, NATTS was able to produce quality research
using Department of Education data that supported the efforts of both the
Association and the sector.
NATTS Silver Anniversary Conference
and Exposition program.
“To better serve its
constituency, NATTS
began several grassroots
initiatives that improved
its reputation and
strengthened the Association.”
NATTS Board of Directors in the 1980s.
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NATTS also established a political action committee (PAC), which at one
point became the largest PAC in all of postsecondary education. By building
relationships with congressional leaders, NATTS was able to stop efforts by the
Department of Education and the traditional higher education community to
exclude private career schools from Title IV funding.
From 1985 to 1986, NATTS and AICS banded together to launch the
NATTS/AICS Resource Center for State Affairs. The resource center would
support state proprietary associations in their local efforts to improve public
relations and affect legislative change. In a 1990 NATTS newspaper article,
David Krogseng, executive director of the resource center, discussed how
the center had evolved over the years. In 1989, “the center became the focal
point for the new nationwide partnership” with the goal of “coordinating the
activities of the state and national associations … to ensure fair and equitable
treatment of their students.” Krogseng also challenged state associations to
“become the driving force for preserving the quality education offered by
private career schools.”
A Time
of Transition:
1987
to
1992
The 1980s were marked with economic and political decentralization both
at home and abroad. Under the Reagan administration, the United States
experienced two economic recessions in the early half of the decade, with
unemployment peaking in 1983 at 9.7 percent. It was followed by a recordbreaking peacetime expansion, and by the end of the decade, unemployment
had dropped to 5.5 percent. The bull market of the mid-1980s was fueled
by corporate buyouts and hostile mergers and takeovers. Investors and
corporations were put in check when the stock market crashed on October 19,
1987, dropping a historic 23 percent in one day.
The 1980s were also a time when schools began to ride the wave of
technology—finding themselves transitioning between the industrial and
digital ages. Personal computers, gaming systems, mobile phones, Walkmans,
CDs and the Internet are just a few of the technological developments that
took root in American society in the 1980s. By 1989, 60 percent of American
households with television received cable service.
“From 1985 to 1986,
NATTS and AICS worked
together to launch the
NATTS/AICS Resource
Center for State Affairs.”
The realignment of economic and political forces in the 1980s led to
increasing globalization in the mid-1990s. First-world economies experienced
steady growth, exploding with the dot-com boom. In 1992, however,
unemployment reached a five-year high. Even with these uneven years, the
1990s represented the fastest technological growth in history, which resulted
in the need for better skilled workers to meet the needs of a technologically
enhanced economy. Private career schools were well-positioned to meet these
changing training needs.
The private career school sector acted and reacted to the interlinked changes
in the economy and federal student aid and regulation. The initial growth in
the private career school sector was fueled by new
student aid policies, which in turn were reversed
by the tightening of student aid regulations in
the face of perceived excesses in the sector. This
resulted in a significant response by the sector to
maintain eligibility for student aid. This cycle
meant major change for private career schools and
colleges. Smaller, privately owned, certificategranting institutions shrank as a result of punitive
and restrictive legislation. The shift also created
a more respected secor that was rebuilt with
the help of corporate ownership, larger schools
and an increased number of degree-granting
institutions. This all took place over a 20-year
period beginning in the mid-1980s.
Students using early computers
at ECPI College of Technology.
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Higher Education Climate
Political and legislative decisions made in the early 1980s played an
important role in bringing about the 1992 Higher Education Act
reauthorization, beginning with President Carter’s signing of the Department
of Education Organization Act on October 17, 1979. This controversial law
made the Department of Education an independent department and
cabinet-level position instead of a division of the Department of Health,
Education and Welfare.
Career Training, Journal of the NATTS, 1989.
“From 1980 to 1981 and
1987 to 1988, private career
schools more than doubled
their shares of aid from
Pell Grants....”
Many in the Republican Party opposed the law as another example of
liberal “big government” bureaucracy and oversight. With Ronald Reagan’s
victory in the 1980 presidential election came the threat of dismantling the
fledgling Department of Education. Though its elimination became part of the
Republican Party platform throughout the 1980s, both President Reagan and
President George H. W. Bush opted not to dissolve the department. Reagan
appointed Terrell Bell as Secretary of Education in 1981, but continued to deemphasize the federal government’s role in education. Secretary Bell created the
National Commission on Excellence in Education that same year, which went
on to issue the landmark report, A Nation at Risk, in April of 1983.
checks and balances. In a 1988 Op-ed piece in The Chronicle for Higher
Education, Senator Paul Simon (D-IL) criticized the Department of Education
for failing “in its responsibility to monitor both debt and compliance … [It]
has reduced the number of programs it reviews every year since 1981.” The
number of reviews conducted by the Department dropped from 1,058 to
only 417 between fiscal years 1981 and 1986 – a decrease of 61 percent. The
Department’s oversight during a period of rapid growth contributed to the
fraud and abuse in the student loan program by unprincipled institutions.
“Traditional colleges and
It was of the utmost importance for the private career sector to ensure that its
schools and accrediting agencies were doing their jobs.
enrollment increased and
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at this trend, concerned
that their students would
continue to receive less aid
as private career school
federal monies dwindled.”
Controvery surrounded the commission’s findings, but the administration
continued to cut funding, even as Nation highlighted the need for educational
reform. These cuts resulted in Bell’s resignation in 1984. Appropriations
continued to decrease while the percentage of aid going to private career school
students increased. From 1980 to 1981 and 1987 to 1988, private career schools
more than doubled their shares of aid from Pell Grants, while public and private
not-for-profit institutions saw decreases. About 80 percent of all aid received
by private career school students was from government programs such as the
Stafford Student Loan program (Stafford Loans, Parent Loans for Undergraduate
Students and Supplemental Loans for Students), the Pell Grant program, and,
to a lesser degree, from the Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants
(SEOG), State Student Incentive Grants (SSIG), College Work-Study and
Perkins Loans. Traditional colleges and universities were alarmed at this trend,
concerned that their students would continue to receive less aid as private career
school enrollment increased and federal monies dwindled.
During the same time, laws were passed that provided incentives to states
to establish guarantee agencies and that made it easier and more profitable for
banks to participate in the loan program, which set the stage for rapid program
growth. The use of loans grew substantially, for example, in the mid-1970s,
about 76 percent of federal student aid was awarded in grants and 20 percent
in loans, but by the mid-1980s these numbers were practically reversed, with
67 percent of aid in loans and only 29 percent in grants.
NATTS News and Views, a NATTS
member newspaper, December 15, 1989.
Funding continued to decrease at the Department of Eduation, as did
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universities were alarmed
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Photo
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Career Training, NATTS Journal, November, 1985.
Career Training, Journal of the NATTS, March 1989.
NATTS Accrediting Commission certificate of accreditation.
Sticker of
NATTS Accredited School.
Career Training, Journal of the NATTS, winter 1986.
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Career Training, Journal of the NATTS, summer 1985.
Advertisement to become
a NATTS member.
NATTS News & Views, A monthly newsletter for members providing the latest news from Washington and around the country on
legislation, educational meetings, educational trends, and information on the postsecondary educational community, 1989.
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NATTS Hall of Fame.
NATTS member newspaper, September 1, 1989.
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NATTS, Getting Skilled Getting Ahead:
Your Guide for Choosing a Career and a
Private Career School, publication used on a
media tour to promote the Five Point Action Plan.
Handbook of Private Accredited Trade and
Technical Schools, a NATTS publication 1989.
NATTS News bulletin, NATTS listed by the U.S. Office of Education
as a nationally recognized accrediting agency, August 24, 1967.
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The first Career College Association Newspaper, August 5, 1991.
Chapter
6
The
Consolidation
Both NATTS and AICS had periodically talked about
consolidating since the 1960s. However, it wasn’t until
1989 that both sides agreed that a merger was needed
and could provide potential benefits. The merger was also
explored because AICS had been operating with an acting
president - Dr. Jim Foran. From a logistical standpoint,
if the two organizations consolidated, it was assumed they
could more easily choose one president. John Huston,
Chairman of the Accrediting Commission of Independent
Colleges and Schools between 1991 and 1992, thought the
merger helped bring the organizations “from a defensive
move … to primarily an offensive move” through the
pooling of financial and lobbying efforts.
A New Name
Deciding on a new name was not an easy process. Both organizations had a
long and distinguished history, as well as an evolution of names under which
they functioned. There was a national pride in both names, but recognition as
well that a new name was essential. The nationally renowned marketing firm
Ries and Trout was engaged and given the assignment to recommend a name
for the new organization.
Stephen B. Friedheim, last Chair of AICS and selected to be the first chair
of the new organization remembers, “We briefed Al Ries on our history, our
membership, the characteristics of our curriculum offerings and students; all
of which they reviewed carefully. Four weeks later, they returned to give us
our new name.”
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“We were eager for the selection,” Friedheim recalls, “but they said that they’d
first have to explain how they reached the name they’d picked. They explained
that every organization had to avoid using National, American, International, or
Association of…, at the beginning of the name because by using those words, the
organization would get lost in the phone book or in any listing.”
assignments, finances and fees, accountability, and standards. Both sides recognized
that as their memberships had grown and curricula had been expanded, members of
the two associations had increasingly similar goals. The line between what defined a
“NATTS” school versus an “AICS” school had become blurred, and it made more
sense to pool their lobbying efforts and speak with one unified voice.
“All organizations need to ‘own a word’, they said, a word that no one else
has; that best describes what it represents or what it does. So, after reviewing
everything we gave them and told them, they said our word was Career. It best
described what our members were all about: we all dealt with careers and no
other higher education sector could claim it.”
To respond to questions about the proposed merger, President Stephen Blair
and Chairman Stephen Friedheim toured the country to meet in Town Hall
Sessions with members in San Diego, Seattle, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Miami.
Members expressed normal anxiety about how well a new organization would
function under a combined umbrella. Knowing that the new board would be
represented equally with members from both organizations gave members a
sense of assurance that even though there were many unknowns, things would
work out well. AICS and NATTS approved the bylaws in April 1991 and
then sent them to members for review. About 88 percent of members at both
associations voted in favor of the merger.
“Then they looked at what our members called themselves: schools, colleges,
institutes, universities, academies, etc. Obviously all of those types could not
be incorporated in the name, so they said they had to answer the question,
‘Where do people go after high school? The answer was easy: they went to
College. Even if they went to the state university, parents say, my kids are off
to college.’ So, College became the second word in the name.”
NATTS 27th Annual Conference &
Exposition spouse/guest program, 1991.
“Finally, because we were an organization they determined the most appropriate tag
word was Association. And that’s how the name came about and why it was chosen.”
Though some differences still remain within and outside the sector on the most
appropriate term, many private career schools also describe themselves as “career
colleges” because of their career-oriented, hands-on and customer-focused
curriculum. The primary purpose of these schools has always been to prepare
graduates for jobs or career advancement. Programs in career colleges focus on
development of skills for jobs and they use applied approaches to teaching and
learning also offering a wide array of programs for high-demand occupational or
professional fields.
Two important pieces that the new Career College Association inherited from
the merger were the non-profit Career Training Foundation (CTF) and its Default
Management Initiative (DMI). The CTF originally a part of NATTS, had taken
the lead in addressing the default issue and co-sponsored the Private Career School
Default Management Initiative (DMI) with AICS in 1986. The DMI was the
first default prevention program in the private career sector, and more than 5,500
school administrators attended DMI workshops between 1987 and 1991. CTF
published the Default Management Manual and the student guide, I Own My
Loan, both of which were used extensively by students, school counselors, lenders
and guarantee agencies.
Publication sponsored by the
Career Training Foundation to
assist students with loan management.
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In October 1990, AICS and NATTS formed a Consolidation Study Group to
address the merging of the two associations. Group members from NATTS were:
William Carson, Roger Hess, William Kalaboke, John Freeman, and Dr. Robert
Taylor; and from AICS: Coleman Furr, Stephen B. Friedheim, Waunda Thomas,
Tyler Swanson, and John Houston. Leaders on both sides had concerns about staff
The consolidation officially took place on
August 1, 1991, with the adoption of the
new, inclusive name – the Career College
Association (CCA), which remains to this
day. At the time of the merger, CCA had over
2,000 member schools serving over one million
students, making it the largest organization
representing private career institutions. New
CCA President Stephen Blair aptly described
the merger as “an unusual opportunity to mold
an entirely new organization that could propel
private vocational education into a position of
prominence and respect.” Though the transition
period for these two organizations was
admittedly awkward, and many felt it would
take awhile to get used to, the shared goals
for the development of the community were
pivotal in easing most concerns.
“Between 1982 and the
early 1990s, the Career
Training Foundation
funded over 50 studies
relating to career colleges.”
The 1967 Accrediting Commission with NATTS
legal counsel at a Cleveland Conference.
At the time of the consolidation, the accrediting bodies remained separate but
equal. Each group continued to accredit the schools they had accredited prior
to the merger. The AICS accrediting body changed its name to the Accrediting
Commission for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS). The NATTS
accrediting body changed its name to the Accrediting Commission for Trade and
Technical Schools (ACTTS). An eight-member ACICS/ACTTS Accrediting
Commission Transition Task Force was created during the first board meeting. The
task force was charged with conducting a two-year study to make recommendations
to the CCA Board of Directors for an optimal accrediting process.
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Photo
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Consolidation
Airplane Technician
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Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning.
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning.
Weaving
Brick Laying
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Diver
Flight Attendant
Welding
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Photo
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Consolidation
Interior Design
Reservations and Airfares
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Interior Design
Recording Studio
Travel Agency
Dental
Recording Studio
Dental Assistants
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Chapter
7
Changes in
Accreditation
By 1985, every state and the District of Columbia
established requirements for the licensure of career
colleges. Degree-granting institutions were an anomaly
in the 1980s and early 1990s. In fact, only 10 percent of
private career schools were degree-granting by 1990. In
many states, degree-granting schools were overseen by the
same licensing agency overseeing non-profit institutions,
or by a separate agency.
The process of achieving accreditation and eligibility for federal student aid
are especially laborious for all institutions of higher education. In order to be
eligible for federal student aid, private career schools, like traditional colleges
and universities, must:
• Be legally approved to operate in the state;
• Have accreditation from a private accrediting organization
recognized by the Department of Education; and
• Meet student aid program requirements.
Most private career institutions receive accreditation from national
accrediting bodies. Almost 340 AICS- and NATTS-accredited schools also
had regional accreditation and were degree-granting institutions. In the
1980s, a private career school sued a regional accrediting body, the Middle
States Association (MSA), because its accreditation criteria prohibited private
career members. The court ruled that accrediting agencies could not exclude
private career institutions from applying for accreditation, but also ruled that
regional accrediting agencies can “apply standards differently” to private career
institutions. These differentiated standards were generally applied in the areas
of governance and finance.
ECPI College of Technology has specialized in Technology,
Business, and Health Sciences Education for nearly 40 years.
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At times, the Department of Education and the accrediting agencies
have viewed the purpose of the accrediting process differently. Traditionally,
both the accrediting agencies and the postsecondary sector viewed the
role of all as one of self and institutional improvements. In 1987,The
Department of Education tightened the standards for approval of
accrediting agencies by releasing new regulations, much to the dismay
of the higher education community. Many accrediting agencies began
tightening their standards in response. For instance, NATTS reported that
it turned down 11 percent of
schools seeking accreditation and 5 percent of schools seeking
reaccreditation in 1988.
More issues arose when unethical school operators used accreditation as a
means to temporarily profit from students and not for the intended purposes of
evaluation and improvement. A report issued by the California Postsecondary
Education Commission in 1989, and echoed by the chair of the AICS Board
of Commissioners, warned that unscrupulous schools would search for the
accrediting agency with the weakest standards. Critics also complained of
accreditation “juggling” – keeping eligibility for student aid by switching
accrediting bodies before accreditation could be denied or revoked. Legislation
put a stop to these practices by requiring schools to wait a year after they had
been refused accreditation by one agency before applying for accreditation with
another agency.
Career Training, Journal of the NATTS, 1987.
Lawmakers also expressed doubts about whether schools could really be
held accountable when their accrediting agencies and trade associations were
financially linked. This was addressed in the 1992 reauthorization, which
mandated the separation of accrediting agencies from their trade associations.
As a result of this mandate, the well-known accrediting agency, ACTTS,
changed its name to the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and
Colleges of Technology (ACCSCT) in 1993.
Prior to that, in March 1990, the NATTS Accrediting Commission,
anticipating the 1992 reauthorization of HEA proposed numerous changes to
the accrediting standards. The organization set out to resolve sector-wide issues
in the areas of branching, and Ability-to-Benefit students as a way to bolster
confidence and public opinion in the accrediting process.
“Both the accrediting
agencies and the
postsecondary sector
viewed their role as one
Branching
of self-evaluation and
In general, accrediting agencies required that applicant schools be in
continual operation for two consecutive years. However, branch campuses
institutional improvement.”
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were not held to the same standard. Critics argued that this “double
standard” enabled owners to open new locations, allowing for lapses in
quality, fiscal responsibility and management. The private career sector
was the only sector in higher education that allowed branch campuses to
receive accreditation through their main campus(es). School owners, on
the other hand, argued that requiring branch campuses to go through the
same accreditation process would inhibit their ability to respond to market
demands.
Ability-to-Benefit
Postsecondary college applicants without
a high school diploma or GED were
classified as “Ability-to-Benefit” (ATB)
students if they passed a test approved
by the school’s accrediting commission.
ATB students were then eligible for
federal financial aid. The continued
enrollment of ATB students was
considered “essential to ensure students
job training opportunities,” and it was
the role of the accrediting agency to
make sure “appropriate, fair and valid
testing
measures” were being used.
Despite the imposition of additional
regulations, most executives in
the private career sector agree that the
policies have been beneficial. Michael
Harter, the 2007 Chairman of ACCSCT,
said, “Academic content is evaluated
more stringently by both schools and
accrediting commissions now.” Michale
McComis, Associate Executive Director
of ACCSCT said, “The proliferation of
branch campuses
caused the membership of agencies like
NATTS and AICS to grow at exceptional
and unsustainable rates.”
NATTS Accrediting Commission
summary of criteria and standards.
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Much can be said about the debate regarding accreditation principles; and
some naysayers still view private career schools offering an inferior education
compared to other institutions. However, it is well to remember that both the
National and Regional accrediting bodies meet the same exacting standards
required by the US Department of Education, a point that is sometimes
forgotten when those holding national accreditation are criticized. Still, the
desire and ability of private career schools to meet these same standards has
garnered them a measure of respect with the traditional higher education sector.
Student Aid Trends
Michael Harter, Chair of the Board of the
Career College Association, 2000-2001.
The private career sector was poised for growth when students became
eligible for the Stafford Subsidized Loan program and the Basic Educational
Opportunity Grant (BEOG). The BEOG was created in the 1972
reauthorization and renamed Pell Grant in the 1980 reauthorization. Growth
in the sector throughout the 1970s and 1980s resulted in students at private
career institutions receiving a greater share of the federal financial aid budget.
About half of the increases in total higher education enrollment during the
1980s were in the private career sector.
The increasing share of federal student aid being directed to private career
school students went unrecognized until the mid-1980s. There was general
concern among legislators and those in traditional higher education of
“encroachment” by the private career sector on the federal aid programs.
“About half of the increases
in total higher education
enrollment during the
1980s were in the
private career sector.”
Early Information Technology programs
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The percentage of private career school students participating in these programs
dramatically increased in 1987; private career school students received more
than a quarter of Pell Grants, more than a third of Stafford Loans, and more
than half of Supplemental Student Loans.
The 1987 National Postsecondary Student Aid Survey (NPSAS) reported
that 81 percent of private career school students received some kind of aid,
and 76 percent received federal financial assistance, both of which were twice
the percentage for all postsecondary students. Growth in the Stafford Loan
Program translated into increases in the dollar volume of defaults. Budget
pressures also forced a shift away from grants and toward the guaranteed
student loan programs since they operated at half the cost of the grant
programs. As part of the 1986 reauthorization, Congress extended Pell Grant
eligibility to middle-income families, but the maximum award for the poorest
students continued to lose purchasing power.
In 1987, the Department of Education released its first report on student
loan default rates; many of the institutions with default rates higher than
50 percent were private career schools and colleges. Around the same time,
traditional postsecondary institutions and lobbying associations realized private
career school students were getting an increasingly larger share of the federal
financial aid budget. By 1990, the amount of federal student aid going to
private career school students reached $4 billion, a substantial increase from
virtually nothing in 1972. Congressional outrage over high defaults, coupled
with pressure from traditional higher education, resulted in sanctions on
high-default-rate schools in 1992.
Selling Your Training Programs, a
NATTS publication
Staff Sergeant Joshua Bragg with the
U.S. Army in Afghanistan is study to earn
a degree from Grantham University.
Newsweek and Time magazines featured the loan default
issue in 1990. Newsweek focused on default rates in private
career schools. The Inspector General for the Department
of Education blamed private career schools for problems
with the federal financial aid programs in an article featured
in The Washington Post.
Along with the large federal student aid programs, other aid
programs benefited private career school students – but on a
much smaller scale. For example, the Job Training Partnership Act
(JTPA) was created in the 1982 reauthorization and was designed
to fund programs through the U.S. Department of Labor for
dislocated workers, youth, older workers and the homeless. But
less than two percent of private career school students enrolled in
NATTS schools were trained through the JTPA in 1988. At the
same time, 10 percent of NATTS students received aid through
vocational rehabilitation programs. The G.I. Bill had been the
largest source of financial aid, but funding cuts resulted in a sharp
decrease in veteran enrollment by 1980.
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Restrictions Begin
Defaults were becoming the Achilles’ heel of the private career sector. From 1987
on, Congress began passing laws that restricted access to student aid programs.
Most important were the 1988 Supplemental Loans to Students Reform Bill
and the 1989 and 1990 Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Acts. All of these
tightened loan disbursement and collection procedures, and added restrictions on
students, lenders and institutions to deal with the increase in defaults. The 1989
amendments mandated that schools accepting Ability-to-Benefit students must
have a GED program or demonstrate that students passed an accepted examination
prior to enrollment to remain Title IV eligible. Each of these efforts to curb defaults
had little appreciable effect on the next year’s published rate due to the three-year
lag between when students left the school and when the default rate was reported
to the institution. This delay between effort and outcome fueled additional
crackdowns on the private career sector in the late 1980s.
NATTS News & Views, a NATTS member
newspaper, February 23, 1990 issue.
“NATTS and AICS had
played a critical role in
defeating the Roukema
Amendment to the Equity
and Excellence in
Education Act of 1990...”
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In early 1990, President George H. W. Bush submitted his proposed federal
budget for fiscal year 1991 and devoted two of the three student aid paragraphs to
aid abuses. California Assemblywoman Maxine Waters led the anti-private career
school fight and introduced two bills: the Private Postsecondary and Vocational
Reform Act of 1989 and the Maxine Waters School Reform and Student Protection
Act. These bills were designed to shut down “diploma mills” and protect students
from schools she thought were taking advantage of low-income and at-risk
students. William Carson, Chairman of the NATTS Five Point Action Plan, urged
NATTS schools to communicate the important role of private career institutions in
supporting the nation’s economy to state and federal legislators and the media.
The private career school sector had its congressional defenders during this
time. Sen. Paul Simon (D-IL) was discouraged by the lack of congressional
support for the sector. Simon “lamented the fact that the reputation of these
schools [was] tarnished by the small number of schools that do not serve students
well.” He attempted to include private career institutions in the National Literacy
Act of 1991, telling his fellow senators that “private career schools have reached
[those served by the bill] more effectively than our traditional schools have done.”
Many of the sector’s congressional defenders also believed that federal higher
education laws unfairly treated career school students as second-class citizens
– and that those laws should be reformed without weakening laws that protect
students and taxpayers against fraud. The first priority, they said was, to
provide access and fairness for low and middle-income students and families
struggling with the high price of college, which also meant holding ‘nonprofit’
schools accountable for the role they played in the hyperinflation of college costs.
Perhaps the most damaging blow came from a 1989 study on default rates
released by the Government Accounting Office. The study found that the
annual levels of defaults on loans from nine of the largest guarantee agencies
increased from $14 million in 1987 to $247 million in 1989. At the same
time, the percentage of private career school students defaulting on their
Supplemental Loans for Students increased from 12 percent to 86 percent. As a
result, the Department of Education enacted new requirements for institutions
with high default rates, culminating in the 1992 HEA reauthorization.
Many within the career college sector argued the higher default rates were due
in part to students at career colleges more commonly displaying characteristics
that put them at risk for loan default. Career college students, in comparison to
those at other institutions, are more likely to be independents, have income in
the lowest income quartile, have parents with an education below the high school
level, and be racial or ethnic minorities.
Many private career schools also attributed the problem with defaults to the
concept and poor delivery of the federal loan program. The goal of the federal
government was to put as much money as possible in the hands of needy
students, yet little thought went into the loan repayment process and status
of the borrower. Lenders were often free to sell off the loans to another party
and were not obligated to notify the student/borrower. Thousands of students
were never billed - thus never put into the repayment process. And, these were
students who, for the most part, had never borrowed before. They were the least
knowledgeable about the process. Since private career schools
enrolled countless students like these, it appeared these schools
were taking advantage of the system, which resulted in the
blame being directed toward private career schools.
Student studying early Information Technology
Article on the Five Point Action Plan in NATTS
Newspaper June 21, 1989 issue. In an effort
to dispel negative perceptions about private
career schools, the Five Point Action Plan urged
members to actively promote the industry.
Friedheim, the first CCA chair recalls, “At one point a newspaper
reporter in Dallas was questioning me about the high level of
defaults in students attending our schools. In response I asked
him how many bills do you pay that you don’t get? He looked
at me rather puzzled and said, ‘None.’ That’s right, I added,
most people don’t and when our students aren’t billed for their
student loans they tend to default. He was astonished to learn
that because the banks regularly sold the loans off to another
bank, students often didn’t know who their loan belonged to.
As a result, it was very difficult for them to follow up and
straighten out their payments.”
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Photo
essay:
Changes
in Accreditation
Students studying to be pharmacy technicians at MedTech College, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Nurses
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Auto Technicians
Nursing Students
Students in the Health Care field at High-Tech Institute.
Students at Universal Technical Institute
work on Mercedes-Benz, in their ManufacturerSpecific Advanced Training class.
Auto Technicians
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Photo
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Changes
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Student working under the hood at Automotive Training Center.
Students learn the art of pastry, baking
and confectionery arts at Culinard, the
Culinary Institute of Virginia College.
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Automotive Training Center garage today.
Gene Juarez Academy, cosmetology class.
Hair Stylist
Culinary
Cosmetology
Graduate of the Make-up Designory, in Los Angeles, California being prepared to work as
an entry-level make-up/stylist artist in film/TV, print, advertising and fashion industries.
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Stephen Blair, President of the Career College Association 1991-1996.
Chapter
8
1992
Reauthorization
With the 1992 reauthorization on the horizon, all of
the bad news about private career schools was fueling an
unstoppable political determination to do something to
solve the problem. The sector experienced a further setback
when Sen. Nunn’s subcommittee released its findings in
the spring of 1991. The report stated the GSL program
was “plagued by fraud and abuse at every level” with the
implication that private career schools were largely at fault.
Prepping for the 1992 reauthorization, CCA President Stephen Blair testified
at hearings held by the Department of Education. During his testimony, he
said, “If private career schools are eliminated from federal funding programs,
we may well be creating two societies, separate and unequal.” Blair said,
“The real potential of our society may well depend on our ability to focus on
and provide educational assistance to the forgotten half and the people that
constitute the new demographics in this nation.”
Proposed solutions to the default rate issue included eliminating nondegree institutions from participation, increasing regulatory oversight,
and creating a separate financial aid program for students at private career
institutions. Representative William Ford (D-MI), chair of the House
Labor and Education Committee, described the elimination proposal as
“class warfare” and was instead in favor of strengthening accreditation and
supervision. Given that 30 percent of private career school students attended
a traditional college before enrolling in a private career institution and 19
percent attended after, the suggestion of separate financial programs would
create an unreasonable complication for these students.
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Instructor lends a hand to a student
at Erie Business Center.
Taking aim at private career education, the Higher Education Act was
reauthorized in July of 1992 with restrictions effectively geared toward
restricting the private career sector. Title IV institutions were now expected
to meet strict eligibility requirements, with the private career school
sector feeling the brunt of these regulations. Some of the key changes to
the HEA included:
Cohort Default Rates
Institutions became ineligible for federal loans when default rates exceeded
40 percent for a single year, and if rates exceeded 25 percent for three
consecutive cohorts. McComis said “federal regulations pertaining to default
loan rates weeded out a number of schools.” Despite this, current ACCSCT
Chairman Michael Harter said, “Cohort default rates … have in a way
helped the industry, albeit we didn’t enjoy them, [they] made sure we had
long-term relationships with students and graduates.”
In 1992, CCA took legal action against the Department of Education
for its administration of the default rate system for SLS program eligibility.
Claiming the rate system was riddled with errors, CCA was successful in
its request for institutions to keep SLS eligibility when appealing their
cohort default rates.
The Chairman’s report by Tom Sapienza
in the 1998 Spring issue of The Link.
Accreditation
Only accredited institutions could participate in the federal financial aid
program. In a bill inclusion that would have major and immediate effect on the
association -- accrediting agencies were no longer allowed to be affiliated with
their trade associations.
“Skills 2000 was created
in 1991 as a national
congressional awareness
campaign to assist private
career institutions in building
relationships with state and
national legislators.”
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In response, CCA developed one of several important initiatives to hold
off the significant restrictions threatened in the reauthorization. Skills 2000
was created in 1991 as a national congressional awareness campaign to assist
private career institutions in building relationships with state and national
legislators. CCA members were encouraged to attend local and national
lobbying activities and committee meetings and invite congressional
members to tour their schools. Some Skills 2000 members even testified at
legislative hearings. The lobbying efforts of Skills 2000 members have been
credited with improving the reputation of private career schools and helping
to defeat several restrictive amendments.
Tom Sapienza, former CCA board Chair, said the “separation of
accrediting bodies from the trade associations [was] without a doubt the
most important” change made in the 1992 reauthorization. It was slipped
into the legislation “in the midnight hour,” Sapienza said. On the other
hand, former CCA Chair Friedheim believes, “The idea for the separation
[actually] originated from some of the members who felt that the only
way the national accrediting bodies would ever be completely accepted as
legitimate reviewers of quality education would be for them to be disengaged
from the trade association. This seemed incredulous to other members who
noted that the nationals were organized exactly the same as the regionals
with both a trade and accrediting function. None the less, the members
who supported separation encouraged Congress to include the prohibition
in Reauthorization of the Higher Education Act being debated.” However
this change came about- the repercussions have reverberated within the
Association and the sector for years.
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85/15 Rule (now
“School owners continued
to work with state and
federal legislators, changing
minds and effecting real
legislative change.”
known as
90/10)
Institutions were limited to receiving 85 percent of their revenue from federal
student aid; 15 percent of income had to come from other sources.
Ability-to-Benefit Students
Institutions had to prove ATB students could benefit from their programs
by passing an independently administered, standardized test approved by the
Department of Education. In addition, non-degree-granting institutions had
to have more than 50 percent of students with a high school diploma or GED
in order to continue participation in Title IV programs. Contributing to yet
another seemingly double standard, community colleges were permitted the
aid even though they served similar students.
Fallout
Naturally, with strict new measures in place, private career institutions
moved away from non-degree-granting programs and urban areas with large
populations of at-risk students. Data from the 1996 and 2000 National
Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) reports indicated a trend away
from urban areas. The percentage of private career school students enrolled in
urban fringe areas increased 18 percent. Enrollment in cities decreased
Automotive Training Center,
Exton, Pennsylvania.
11 percent. According to an article published in The
Chronicle of Higher Education, more schools were popping
up in the suburbs as college owners found it too risky
to open new campuses in urban areas. Schools serving
an inner-city population were also serving the poorest
students needing loans. Students from this demographic
had a greater chance of having received a poor secondary
education, and a higher risk of dropping out before
completing a postsecondary program. As a result, there
are fewer inner city private career schools serving this
population even today.
Many private career institutions closed because of the
restrictions imposed by new laws and regulations. One
report estimated 900 institutions shut down as a result of
these legislative changes – other estimates were as high as 1,500. Although the
new regulations helped to protect students from dishonest institutions, some
reputable career colleges were also forced out of business.
Gene Juarez Academy, Seattle, Washington.
After the reauthorization, ACICS and ACCSCT were required to become
independent organizations. Stephen Parker, who was chosen as the new
Executive Director of ACICS in the summer of 1992, said, “This will be a very
demanding time as we go about restructuring and reorganizing the Commission
… we will be reviewing and rewriting criteria … and hopefully developing
a strong working relationship with the new state postsecondary regulatory
entities.” The 1992 reauthorization mandated the separation of ACICS and
ACCSCT from CCA be in effect by July 1, 1993.
Withstanding these setbacks, the efforts of CCA leadership
and members helped change the image of the private career
postsecondary sector. The Skills 2000 program was instrumental in
changing the reputation of career institutions through its congressional
lobbying efforts and work with state legislators. Career colleges have
continued to receive Title IV student aid funding as a result of these
efforts. Skills 2000 defeated several amendments designed to suppress
the sector and was described as one of the most organized groups
on Capitol Hill.
Since then school owners have continued to work with state and
federal legislators, changing minds and effecting real legislative
change. Even President George H. W. Bush took notice of the work
private career institutions accomplished. In August 1992, Bush visited
Lincoln Technical Institute in Union, New Jersey, at the invitation
of CEO Pat Santangelo. Bush’s visit coincided with the unveiling of
his proposed New Century Workforce initiative, which would help
job training programs.
102 In Service
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Career College Times, an exclusive membership
newspaper of the Career College Association,
September 25, 1992 issue.
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Photo
essay:
1992 R eauthorization
Art Students
Art Student
104 In Service
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Art Class
Fashion Design
Art Student
Fashion Models
Fashion Design
Fashion Design
In Service
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Photo
essay:
1992 R eauthorization
Photography
Photography
106 In Service
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Photography
Communications
Technical Field
Photography
Mechanical Operations
Technical Field
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Chapter
9
A Time of Renewal:
1993 to 2006
Historical Overview
While the career college sector began looking forward to
a season of renewal, there were other circumstances that
brought additional turmoil. The sector began recovering
during the early part of the decade from the legislative
onslaught of the previous eight years. This struggle was
complicated further as the nation’s economy went through
a difficult cycle. Fortunately, private career schools were able
to pull through this time with some positive accomplishments.
Following the recession in the early 1990s, the emergence of online
technology and dot-coms led to an economic boom in the latter half of the
decade. Cutting-edge technology changed business practices while introducing
new delivery options for education. This era marked the acceleration of
the knowledge-based and global economy, forcing companies to constantly
upgrade their technological services in order to stay competitive. The
combination of high unemployment rates and rapid changes in the mix of
employment skills in the early 1990s provided an opportunity for private career
institutions to contribute to the education and training needed for the country.
Given that the sector was still reeling from the legislative battles of the late ’80s
and early ’90s, this was a tall challenge for private career schools.
In 2000, George W. Bush was elected President. And, as with each new
presidency, the landscape of the U.S. economy changed. In the midst of these
economic changes, no one could have prepared for the terrorist attacks on 9/11.
The value of individual investors’ portfolios, which had grown significantly
throughout the dot-com era, crashed as the speculative bubble burst. That was
followed by accounting fraud scandals that shook the public’s faith in corporate
America. The economic downturn that followed 9/11 put a brake on the
economy and raised doubts in the potential of online business pursuits. In 2002,
108 In Service
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Career Education, Journal of the Career College Association, October 1992.
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Business Forum
The White House
By 1997, CCA had begun supporting and forwarding the sector’s
revitalized message in full force. The organization launched its Business
and Sector Forum at its annual conference in 1997 and held the first
Allied Member Forum. The purpose of the business forum was to connect
employers with key legislators and media, act as advisors and meet with
congressional members. CCA formed the business forum partially as a
reaction to the changing job market and the shift in required skills – schools
needed to adapt quickly. In addition, the business forum intended to
tackle “welfare policies that push aid recipients directly into low-level
work rather than training” and the Department of Education’s “practice
that discourages [career college] involvement in high-risk communities.”
The business forum attracted more than 200 businesses and sector
representatives, including former Maine Governor John McKernan, who
was also the National School-to-Work Advisory Chair, James Van Erden
of the National Alliance for Business, and Carol D’Amico of the Hudson
Institute and coauthor of Workforce 2020.
Controversy
“You are much more
sensitive than a lot of the
Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which focuses on
accountability and increased student performance in public K-12 schools. There
is some indication that the tenets of NCLB may be expanded to colleges and
universities through the HEA.
traditional institutions are
to the marketplace, where
the opportunities are. Our
economy will truly suffer
without the contributions
you make.”
– Tom Ridge,
Secretary of the Department
of Homeland Security
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Realigning CCA
By 1995, CCA was still dealing with repercussions of the 1992 reauthorization
amendments, which targeted the private career school sector. By then, the
membership had become more optimistic, although government relations
continued attempts to modify 85/15 legislation. CCA continued working to
give its members equal access to federal aid while reducing the limits on schools
that had been codified in federal regulations. CCA focused on the upcoming
1998 reauthorization as the best time to address the issues head-on. The
government relations department of CCA urged members to contact their
representatives to communicate five themes: preserve and expand eligibility for
career colleges, streamline financial aid, increase the choice of postsecondary
institutions, define the role of colleges in the economy, and identify quality
indicators.
Pharmacy Technician student at Virginia College.
The controversy surrounding questionable reporting on the part of
private career institutions has not completely disappeared, even though
the accreditation standards and oversight of the industry have improved
significantly. CCA President Nick Glakas appeared on a 2005 episode of
60 Minutes and later testified before the House Education and Workforce
Committee regarding private career school fraud and abuse. His testimony,
along with the Association’s attempts to improve its standing with
policymakers and to provide members with training and resources on ethics
and compliance, paid off. The fact that the private career school sector still
battles the same controversy, however, underlines how many in the education
world are still not comfortable with an expanding role for private career
schools and colleges – no matter what the educational and placement record
says.
Tom Ridge, Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security, lauded
members at the 2002 CCA convention for their key role in the economy:
“You are much more sensitive than a lot of the traditional institutions are to
the marketplace, where the opportunities are. Our economy will truly suffer
without the contributions you make. The Bush administration recognizes
what you do, [and] how well you do it.” More than a decade of hard work
and active lobbying had paid off. The private career school sector was getting
the positive attention it deserved, which set the stage for future growth.
Nick Glakas, President of the Career College
Association, 1999-2006.
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Photo
essay: A Time of R enewal
Indiana Business College, Indianapolis, Indiana.
1993-2006
Indiana Business College, 1947.
Southern Institute opened in 1976 in Birmingham, Alabama
and became part of Virginia College in 1995.
Coyne American Institute located in Chicago, Illinois, 2005.
112 In Service
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MedTech College, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Coyne American Institute building
located in Chicago, Illinois, circa 1942.
Culinard, the Culinary Institute of Virginia College,
located in Birmingham, Alabama.
From its original two classroom 800 square foot location
in North Hollywood. Make-up Designory has grown to
occupy over 20,000 square feet in Los Angeles, California.
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Chapter
10
The Growth of
CCA
In the fall of 1995, CCA membership was just over 800.
Increasing membership was a financial necessity if the
Association was to continue to play a critical role in the
educational policy issues of the nation. CCA hired a
membership specialist, discussed discounts, and looked closely
at its dues structure. The board considered implementing a new
dues system – one “which fairly spreads the financial burden
among all types of members, whether small independent schools
or large corporate chains.” During this time, some member
schools requested that CCA waive their membership fees
because of expenses resulting from cohort default litigation.
Henry G. Herzing, NATTS President
1981-1983.
CCA also expanded its membership bases internationally. In 2003, CCA
formed an international advisory council, chaired by Hank Herzing, as well
as a Puerto Rico advisory council. In 2005, CCA opened for international
membership. The Australian College of Physical Education and the
International University of Nursing were the first international institutions to
join.
Since its inception, CCA also published a bimonthly newspaper, the CCA
Times, as a way to keep members informed about legislative issues, lobbying
activities, workshops and professional development, and CCA news. The Times
merged with The Link in early 1996 and CCA launched its web site as a more
effective way to communicate CCA’s vision to both its members and the sector
as a whole. With continuing intensive efforts to reach out to school owners and
corporations, CCA saw a dramatic increase in membership to 1,400 schools
and colleges in 2005.
Computer classroom at Berkeley College, New York, NY.
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Workshops
A major focus in the push to increase membership centered on the need
to provide more effective professional development opportunities. CCA
reintroduced its annual one-week Leadership Institute in the summer of 1999.
The first institute sold out and was a tremendous success. Speakers covered
personnel training, goals and planning, leadership, admissions, education,
student services and financial aid. In 2000, CCA offered its first distance
education seminar.
Changes
The Link, a Career College Assocation
publication, summer 1996 issue.
in
Legislation
As career colleges gained more respect, provided high-quality education
programs and reduced default rates, the relationship between CCA and the
Department of Education improved. Even with this progress, many involved
with the Association still feel they are constantly fighting against the negative
press, and felt there is still a need to prove the importance of the sector to the
larger community.
Assistance moved to a performance-based organization (PBO) structure, which
CCA supported. This resulted in a reorganized institutional participation
and oversight service (IPOS), one of six services within the Student Financial
Assistance program responsible for overseeing Title IV institutions and one of
the key offices responsible for policing the implementation of regulations.
Reauthorizations
“The Association developed
The years between 1992 and 2006 saw changes as the control of Congress and
the presidency moved from Democrat to Republican and back. Despite the shift
in political climate, the same legislative and regulatory issues continued to appear.
demonstrate the effectiveness
several strategies to
of career college programs.”
1998 Reauthorization
In early 1996, CCA staff members were busy preparing for the 1998
reauthorization. The components were similar to the ones addressed in the
1992 amendments, with cohort default rates remaining an important issue.
CCA focused on the following as its top priority issues:
• Direct loan program access;
• The mitigating circumstances standard for default appeals;
• Removal of the Gordon amendment, which proposed to exclude
institutions with high default rates from participation in the Pell
Grant program;
• Including only properly serviced loans in cohort default rates;
• 85/15 modification; and
• Financial responsibility and general accounting practice standards.
Students at Indiana Business College,
Indianapolis, Indiana.
“CCA reintroduced its
annual one-week
Leadership Institute in
the summer of 1999.”
The Association, in response, has developed several strategies to demonstrate
the effectiveness of career college programs. For example, as part of the “Bring
ED to School” initiative, an area case director from the Department visited
Katharine Gibbs School in New York for a tour.
In October 1997, new legislation was introduced “to correct deficiencies in
the Education Department’s administration of the student financial assistance
programs.” The Department of Education’s Office for Student Financial
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CCA grouped these issues into four sections: 1) workforce preparation
and opportunities for lifelong learning, 2) individual choice of education
provider without interference from federal or state governments, 3) educational
providers measured on educational effectiveness, and 4) cost effectiveness and
high return on investment for taxpayers, individual and business.
Career school representatives met with then Speaker of the House Newt
Gingrich (R-GA) to express their concerns regarding Department of
Education regulations. He outlined suggestions for fighting and changing
the legislation. CCA was also concerned about preparing for budget
appropriations. Staff members were working with Congressman Ron Klink
(D-PA) on a reform bill, and the Association’s Rapid Response Committee
met on regulatory and legislative issues.
Gary Kay (right) Academy of Medical Art
and Business, Harrisburg, PA, Newt Gingrich
(center) House Speaker, and Congressman Bill
Goodling (left) Chairman House Committee
on Education and the Workforce, regarding the
reauthorization of the Higher Education Act
in the summer 1998 issue of The Link.
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“With over eighty members
participating, Hill Day
activities were expected to help
with efforts to revise the Senate
reauthorization bill.”
CCA created a reauthorization advisory committee, causing then Board
Chairman Thomas Sapienza to state that CCA was “better positioned
for effective advocacy” and more member-driven than during the last
reauthorization. During the hearings, sixty members of Congress issued
statements that supported career college students. Ten members of the House
Education and Labor Committee fought specifically to protect the rights of
students who chose to attend a career education institution. Their work was
rewarded. Thirty-one of the 34 issues that threatened private career schools
and their students were modified or eliminated.
Omer Waddles, then CCA president, described the initial 1998
reauthorization process as very successful with “many of our proposals
included in the House bill.” The Senate, however, was expected to be
more challenging, as its bill included some negative provisions. He
noted that, in comparison with the 1992 reauthorization, the CCA
community was feeling positive and “better educated about handling
problems and is addressing issues as they arise.” With over eighty members
participating, Hill Day activities were expected to help with efforts to
revise the Senate reauthorization bill.
The reauthorization bills (HR 6/S 1882) passed in May 1998, and CCA
cited flawed provisions. CCA stressed the need for a single higher education
institution definition and to count non-Title IV revenue in 85/15 calculations.
In the summer of 1998, CCA worked on changing the final reauthorization
provisions. Pennsylvania Representatives Rick Santorum (R-PA) and Ron
Klink (D-PA) were the first to introduce a stand-alone amendment on behalf
of CCA’s community. Non-degree-granting institutions were now eligible to
participate in the distance learning demonstration, the Department of
Education created a career school liaison position, and changes to the refund
policy were put into place.
Omar Waddles, President of the
Career College Association, 1997-1999.
Many in the sector felt 1998 was a good reauthorization for the
community. Many of the reforms that had taken place were positive for
the career college sector. Some of the issues relevant to the sector were:
Cohort Default Rates
Repercussions of the 1992 reauthorization amendments continued into the
1990s as high default rates caused career colleges to either make appeals or
go out of business. In September 1996, the Department terminated eighty
schools, with 177 appeals remaining. Between fiscal years 1992 and 1994,
approximately 100 institutions were expected to lose loan eligibility based on
their default rates. Luckily, in many cases default calculations depended on
flawed data and could be appealed.
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The Senate version of the 1998 reauthorization bill included provisions
unfavorable to private career institutions, such as requiring a letter of
credit for default appeals and the loss of Pell Grants following three
consecutive years with default rates above 25 percent. Senators Larry Craig
(R-ID) and Patty Murray (D-WA), among others, requested that Senators
Jim Jeffords (R-VT) and Ted Kennedy (D-MA) drop these provisions,
but their request was not granted. CCA was also unable to change the
Pell Grant eligibility language in the final amendments passed in the fall,
which stated that institutions ineligible for Title IV loan aid would also be
ineligible for Pell Grants.
Changes
to
Loan Management
“Many of the reforms that
had taken place were positive
for the career college sector.”
– Michale McComis
The Association continually worked to improve the reporting of loan default
rates. The Department of Education reasoned that institutions should be
responsible for defaults for up to two years after the student left school. The
Association disagreed, pointing out several factors that made this unwarranted.
First, high-risk students are more likely to default no matter where
they attend school. Higher numbers of these students are concentrated in
private career schools, so these schools will naturally have higher defaults.
Second, other participants, not just the school, need to take responsibility
for defaults. Banks and guarantee agencies needed to do more than follow
the minimum due diligence required by the law; they needed to work with
schools to help identify potential default students prior to those students
defaulting on their loans. Members were also concerned about the quality
of the database used to calculate defaults.
Coleman Furr, founder of Coleman College and former Commissioner
of AICS, agreed with many in the sector that the “higher default rates are
a generalization … it’s more a question of who the students are than
quality of education.”
Most private career schools agree that cohort default rates by far
have had the largest impact on the sector of any issue. Though, oddly
enough, this has had an unexpected benefit to the sector, because
tracking for default rates ensured that schools and agencies had
long-term relationships with students and graduates. Still, cohort
default rates (CDR) were difficult to deal with because one must rely
on bankers and guarantors, who were often not as eager to cooperate as
some in the sector would like. Cohort default rates today are at low levels,
which has been in part due to better servicing by lenders and guarantors.
Instructor helping student at
Erie Business Center.
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85/15
to
90/10
In 1998, amendments regarding Title IV income changed, shifting the
eligibility calculation from 85/15 to 90/10. However, there were still
many questions about what factors into Title IV, such as whether tuition
reimbursement is non-federal income. Sapienza noted, “We are still dealing
with 90/10,” which many feel is an arbitrary calculation.
Financial Responsibility
publication, winter 2005 issue.
In the fall of 1995, the Department of Education contracted with the
accounting firm KPMG to develop a set of financial responsibility standards,
using ratios to measure each institution’s financial health. The Department was
concerned that postsecondary institutions participating in Title IV programs,
including those in the private career sector, were not financially stable
enough to provide their services. The Department published these standards
in a notice of proposed rulemaking in September 1996 and then solicited
comments in December. In February 1997, David Longanecker of the
Department of Education held a meeting with twenty members of the higher
education community, including representatives of private career institutions.
CCA’s General Counsel, Nancy Broff, reported that the Department “appeared
to be trying to engage the community in the rulemaking process on the
financial responsibility standard.”
The Department published its final financial responsibility regulation at the
end of 1997, and CCA alerted members of the key provisions. Broff noted that
members had a few questions and concerns, but reactions were generally positive.
Financial Aid
“This would provide assurances
to private career schools that
During the last decade, student loan volume has skyrocketed. Federal
grant aid has increased as well – though at a slower pace. This ignited
concerns about students borrowing large amounts to finish school. Tuition
tax credits have also played an increasing role in helping middle-income
families pay tuition costs.
they would have continuing
Direct Lending
access to student loans.”
One of the concerns in the late 1980s was that many banks did not want to
provide loans to students in private career schools. The high defaults increased
servicing costs, and many lenders thought the returns were not worth the effort.
This forced the Association to consider a lender of last resort.
In 1996, the Department of Education chose 105 institutions, including CCA
members, such as the CAD Institute, to participate in a pilot Federal Direct Loan
Program (FDLP). This program bypassed banks and guarantee agencies, with
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the federal government providing the capital and servicing the loans. This would
provide assurances to private career schools that they would have continuing
access to student loans.
Representative Robert E. Andrews (D-NJ), who authored direct lending,
met with officials at Lincoln Tech and vowed to fight for the program. He
stressed the savings of the FDLP, noting that since its inception, ten million
students saved over $1.9 billion in loan fees, and taxpayers saved over $1
billion per year. Direct lending also reduced insurance premiums levied by
banks and guarantee agencies, reducing the average fee from 6.5 to 4 percent.
An additional 0.6 percent cut in interest is available for students who make
payments while in school. The program also has more flexible repayment
options – graduated, extended and income-contingent – that reduce the risk
of default. Andrews also stressed the program’s simpler application process,
decreased potential for abuse, and ease of use for the government.
Tax Benefits
“This act established a
single definition of higher
education institutions,
supported more fairness in
transfer of credit, repealed
the 50 percent rule, and
positively modified 90/10.”
The budget signed in August 1997 included new adult education tax benefits,
effective on payments starting in 1998. Those benefits include the Hope
Scholarship, which offers 100 percent tax credit on the first $1,000 and
50 percent on the next $1,000 of tuition for college, including vocational
education. Freshmen in 1998 were eligible for up to a $1,500 credit. Another
incentive, the Lifetime Learning tax credit, was set up for adults returning
to school or pursuing job training. Recipients are eligible for a 20 percent
tax credit for the first $5,000 of tuition through 2002 and $10,000 of
tuition onward. Also beginning in 1998, those paying tuition could do so by
withdrawing from an IRA without penalty, and Education IRAs were made
available for children. This opened up new ways for private career school
students to defray the price of attendance
2005 Reauthorization
The next and most recent reauthorization cycle was strung out over several
more years than previous cycles. Michael Harter, the CCA Board Chairman in
2000, was involved in reauthorization efforts throughout this period, though
he pointed out, “you never stop being involved in reauthorizations.” There will
always be additional legislation or negotiated rulemaking.
After completing the first phase of No Child Left Behind in 2002,
the Department of Education shifted its focus to higher education
reauthorization, and three broad issues emerged: education costs,
accreditation and accountability. The Department released a five-year
strategic plan with six ambiguous goals: Create a culture of achievement,
publication, summer 2005 issue.
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improve student achievement, develop safe schools and strong character,
transform education into an evidence-based field, enhance the quality of
and access to postsecondary and adult education, and establish management
excellence. The focus seemed to be on increased accountability, opportunities
and quality at all levels of education.
The Association had specific reauthorization priorities. These included return
of federal funds, a single definition of higher education institutions, provisional
certification, federal investment in postsecondary education, the 90/10 rule,
the 50 percent distance rule, a judicial review of Department of Education
actions, and transfer of credit.
After President Bush was reelected in 2004, Congress went back in session and
reintroduced reauthorization legislation. The bill introduced by Representatives
John Boehner (R-OH) and Howard P. “Buck” McKeon (R-CA) included seven of
CCA’s top ten issues. CCA also expected action in the Senate Health, Education,
Labor and Pensions (HELP) Committee, as Senator Michael Enzi (R-WY), a
supporter of career colleges, replaced Judd Gregg as Chairman (R-NH) and
favored changes to the distance education rule and access to federal aid for career
college students.
Articulation Manual: A Guide for Transfer of
Credit Between Educational Institutions, a
NATTS publication.
The reauthorization process began in earnest in late 2004 when the
House Education and Workforce Committee proposed bills that addressed
broad issues such as access, affordability and accountability. More specific
issues addressed were 90/10, telecommunications, single definition and
transfer of credit.
The College Access and Opportunity Act (HR 609) was introduced in
the spring of 2005 and, as CCA President Nick Glakas stated, “for the
very first time” put a “level playing field within reach.” This bill established
a single definition of higher education institutions, supported more
fairness in transfer of credit, repealed the 50 percent rule, and positively
modified 90/10.
“CCA designed a
Career College Showcase
and Reception that
demonstrated the
results of career
college education.”
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CCA worked with both the House and Senate to revise the legislation.
Kaplan Higher Education and Capella University executives briefed House
staffers on career college issues. CCA’s General Counsel Nancy Broff and
Bill Clohan of US Education Corporation, made presentations on HR 609
components. Arthur Keiser and George Pry, of Keiser Career College and
The Art Institute of Pittsburgh, respectively, took the lead in talking with Hill
staffers about transfers of credit. CCA designed a Career College Showcase
and Reception that demonstrated the results of career college education.
The reception featured celebrity chef Bobby Flay, a graduate of The French
Culinary Institute, New York, NY, who started a scholarship for New York
high school students.
Distance Rules
In October 2001, the House of Representatives passed H.R. 1992, the
Internet Equity and Education Act of 2001, which would allow institutions
to offer more than 50% of their classes by telecommunications or allow
more than 50% of students to participate by telecommunications. This
bill stipulated that any institution seeking a waiver from the 50% rule
must already participate in the student loan programs and have a cohort
default rate under 10% for the last three years. While this bill did not
pass the Senate and get signed into law, it laid the groundwork for the
Higher Education Reconciliation Act (HERA) which was signed into
law in February, 2006. HERA effectively
eliminated the 50% rules limiting
participation in distance education
programs; however, institutions offering
distance education must be accredited by
an accrediting agency that has distance
education within its scope of recognition
in order to retain Title IV eligibility for
those distance education programs
“It has proven time and
again what can be done when
like-minded professionals come
together with a common goal.”
Single Definition
The College Access and Opportunity Act
(HR 609) established a single definition of
higher education institutions and improved
transferability of credit. This provision
has met resistance from public and nonprofit colleges who are fearful of increased
competition from private career schools
With these and other legislative items still
facing the sector, one thing is sure, through
its leadership, increased membership,
as well as considerable work with the
Department of Education, the Senate
and the House of Representatives, the
Career College Association has become
a powerful force in the postsecondary
education industry. It has proven time
and again what can be done when likeminded professionals come together with a
common goal
publication, fall 1997 issue.
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Erie Business Center’s Academic Building opened its doors in 1967.
Three Berkeley College students outside of the New York City campus.
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Erie Business Center’s library offers general studies, program-specific
resources and recreational reading materials to students.
Erie Business Center, founded in 1884 has a long history of educating students.
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Students take a break outside between classes at Erie Business Center.
In 1999, Indiana Business College expanded the degree offerings for information technology programs.
Students at Erie Business Center in Erie, Pennsylvania.
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Chapter
11
The Foundation Effect
Imagine America
Throughout the private career school sector and its
representative bodies many changes, an ever-present aid to
the students, faculty and staff alike has been the Foundation.
Broadening its strategic focus toward the end of the 1990s,
the Career Training Foundation (CTF) added the important
responsibility of providing scholarships to potential career
college students. CTF announced its Imagine America (IA)
Scholarship Program in the fall of 1997. The not-for-profit
organization would provide financial aid to graduating high
school seniors enrolling in career colleges.
The Imagine America scholarship program was initially modeled after an
award program by the Career Colleges and Schools of Texas. The Texas program
had significantly improved the image of the sector in the minds of legislators,
guidance counselors, and state bureaucrats. This annual scholarship provides three
students from each of the 11,000 participating high schools nationwide, a $1,000
deduction from their tuition to attend career colleges. The selection guidelines for
the scholarship are based on GPA, likelihood of completion, financial need and
community service.
At the core of the Imagine America© programs has been the Foundation’s
desire to help students obtain a career education. The Imagine America
scholarship program continues to be a huge success, both in the number of
students for which it has provided opportunities and in the recognition it has
received. One year after the IA scholarship announcement, 300 schools had
signed on to participate and over 2,000 scholarships had been awarded. The
program won the American Society of Association Executives (ASAE) Award of
Excellence and Summit Award in 1998 and 1999, and media outlets made over
800 mentions of the CTF scholarship program in its first two years. By 2000,
over 8,000 students had received IA scholarships to attend career colleges.
College graduates celebrate.
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2006 LDRSHIP award ceremony at the CCA convention
in Las Vegas, Nevada. From left to right: Craig Quigley
of Lockheed Martin, Retired General Barry McCaffrey,
and LDRSHIP recipient Philip Cook (National College)
Harrisonburg, VA.
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benefiting military personnel. With the support of Chris Michel of Military
Advantage, Fred Moosally of Lockheed Martin, and Michael Platt of PlattForm
Advertising, the brainstorming session resulted in the formation of two Imagine
America award programs – the LDRSHIP Award and the Military Award
Program (MAP).
In 2004, the Imagine America Military Award Program was created to
assist active duty, reservist, honorably discharged or retired U.S. military
personnel from any branch of the United States military in receiving $1,000
tuition deduction for attending a participating career college. Also in 2004,
the LDRSHIP Award was created to recognize and honor exceptional career
college students who have served their country honorably in the military and
who are already furthering their education at CCA member institutions. The
LDRSHIP Award, funded by Lockheed Martin, offers up to $5,000 in cash
grants to each recipient.
Chef tastes students gumbo at Culinard, the
Culinary Institute of Virginia College.
“By 2001, the entire
scholarship application
and distribution process
was available online.”
Becoming a magnet for partnerships with other organizations, Imagine America
has significantly boosted its scholarship program. For example, CTF announced
it would be providing 100 new $200 scholarships through the National
Restaurant Association for those enrolling in culinary or hospitality programs at
member schools, in addition to the $1,000 tuition deduction. CTF also teamed
with Colin Powell’s America’s Promise program, formed in 1997, to provide
youth with educational opportunities and community resources.
By 2001, the entire scholarship application and distribution process
was made available online. Together with the scholarship launch, CTF
announced the publication of its 400-page Guide to Careers in America in
partnership with Peterson’s, available in print and online. The publication’s
primary purpose was to help high school guidance counselors identify
appropriate educational opportunities for their vocationally oriented
students and to distribute information on available scholarships. The initial
guide provided information on over 900 CCA members and programs
offered by scholarship participants, as well as information on accrediting
commissions and state associations involved with career schools.
In 2006, Hurricane Katrina took a huge toll on career colleges located in the
Gulf Coast region. In response to the mounting devastation and ongoing relief
efforts in the region, the CCA Board authorized a special fund, taken from
CCA reserves, for relief for CCA colleges in the federally declared disaster
areas who have been affected by the storms. The Foundation created a special
committee to coordinate the relief effort. This committee was charged with
overseeing the disaster relief fund, which provides grants of up to $30,000 to
affected CCA institutions so they can assist career college students through
scholarships, direct aid or student services and reimburse faculty and staff for
extraordinary losses not otherwise covered by insurance or other disaster relief
programs. Over $240,000 in disaster relief grants was given to career colleges.
130 In Service
2006 LDRSHIP award recipients.
Left to right: Craig Quigley of Lockheed
Martin, Retired General Barry McCaffrey,
Tim Boltin (New England Culinary Institute),
Matthew Kwiatkowski (ITT Technical
Institute), Philip Cook (National College),
Darrell Smith (National College), Henry Lopez
(Westwood College), and Margaret Walter (The
Refrigeration School).
Due to the events of 9/11 and military actions in Iraq and Afghanistan , thenCCA President Nick Glakas and Career College Foundation Executive Director
Robert Martin, developed an idea for a new scholarship and award program
to
America
name to the Career College
Foundation (CCF)...”
In 2003, CTF changed its name to the Career College Foundation (CCF)
and also announced the creation of the Imagine America Promise (formerly
Imagine America II) scholarship, which provides additional support to adult
students already attending participating career schools. Imagine America
Promise supporters include Northrup Grumman, Bridgestone Firestone Trust,
Dell, Mercedes-Benz and The Sallie Mae Fund.
Imagine America’s 2007
Guide to Career Colleges.
“In 2003, CTF changed its
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A New Beginning
Under the leadership of Foundation Chairman Joseph Davis, the Board of
Directors met on February 1 and 2, 2006, in Chicago, IL, and approved a
series of changes. These alterations included a new name (the Imagine America
Foundation), new bylaws, new officers (Robert Martin was named President)
and changes to its day-to-day management. With the unanimous agreement of
the Board, the Foundation became an independently governed organization.
The IAF still, however, maintains a close affiliation, working relationship and
vision with CCA.
“In accordance with its
original mission of
conducting sector research,
IAF also publishes the
biannual Fact Book.”
The 2006 changes for IAF also reflected the growing nationwide recognition
of the Imagine America name in the career college sector, with the Foundation
sponsoring five Imagine America scholarship and award programs, including:
•Imagine America, for graduating high school students;
•Imagine America Promise, for adult students;
•LDRSHIP Award, for military servicepersons already attending
CCA member institutions;
•Imagine America Military Award Program, for active duty, reservist,
honorably discharged or retired U.S. military veterans; and
•Imagine America Online, for online/distance learners.
In addition to the Imagine America Scholarship and Award Programs, IAF
also coordinates special award programs like the Gail Benjamin Fellowship,
which offers grants for women and minorities to attend CCA’s Annual
Leadership Institute, and the Pioneer Award, which honors achievements
of career educators in the postsecondary sector. Distinguished recipients of
the Pioneer Award include: Rene Champagne, Chairman of the Board, ITT
Educational Services, Inc. (2006), Bob Knutson, CEO and Chairman of the
Board, Education Management Corporation (2005), David Moore, Founder,
Corinthian Colleges, Inc. (2004), Robert Sweet, Founder, Universal Technical
Institute (2003), Marge Carlson, Founder, Apollo Colleges (2002) and Henry
Herzing, Founder, Herzing Colleges, Inc. (2001) among many others.
Imagine America’s 2007 biannual Fact Book:
Profile of Career Colleges & Universities.
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graduates. Both government and non-government agencies now make use of
the Foundation’s widely distributed publications.
Hundreds of career colleges annually support the programs of the
Foundation. Its activities have also shown many
inside and without the sector, the students of
the career college sector. Students who struggle
with the same issues as all other higher education
students do – and how their colleges are coming
to together to aid them in the completion of
their degrees or diplomas.
The Imagine America Foundation continues to
fulfill its initial charter of providing scholarship
and award programs to thousands of enrolling
and enrolled career college students each year.
IAF, as also considered the research arm of
the private career college sector, continues
to produce many publications showing the
economic impact of career colleges nationwide.
As originally envisioned by its founders, the
effect of the Foundation continues to be strongly felt by the many high
school seniors, adult learners and military veteran scholarship recipients. The
Foundation has also increasingly given credence to the positive attributes of
the career college sector by offering unique programs for career education staff,
faculty and students.
Computer programs at Erie Business Center
include Network Administration and
Computer Science, Programming.
“Hundreds of career colleges
annually support the programs
of the Foundation.”
In accordance with its original mission of conducting sector research,
IAF also publishes the biannual Fact Book: A Profile of Career Colleges and
Universities, which contains important career college statistics and trends
about the postsecondary education sector. It presents a comprehensive look
at the career college sector of higher education, as well as comparison of
public and private two-year and four-year institutions. It also researches and
analyzes the important trends in the sector, specifically data on enrollment,
student benefits and outcomes, career college student profile, default rates,
return on investment statistics and job opportunities for private career school
Students in front of the Student Center at
Berkeley College at the Garret Mountain
Campus in West Paterson, New Jersey.
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Photo
essay: The Foundation Effect Imagine A merica
The 2004 LDRSHIP awardees, left to right: Stan Mays Jr., Herzing College, Juan E. Baustista, Art Institute of California,
Cynthia Bandoy, Remington College, Sherri Weimern, ITT Technical Institute, Richard Calarco, Sullivan University.
Craig Quigley, Lockheed Martin, Larry Gilbert, ATI Career Training
Centers, present the 2005 LDRSHIP Awards to (left to right): Thelma Cross,
Gerardo Murillo, Jeremy Tredway, Sang Kim, Kimberly Atkins, and JD
Hiskett (on projector).
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Students at Coyne American, Institute in Chicago, Illinois, are presented with Imagine America scholarships.
2006 LDRSHIP recipient Tim Boltin, student at the New England
Culinary Institute, in Montpelier, Vermont is presented an award.
An Imagine America scholarship recipient from San Joaquin Valley College proudly displays his award.
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Photo
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2005 Martha Byrne Memorial Scholarship recipient
Emily Taylor with Francis Crigler.
Bob Martin, President of Imagine America Foundation presents plaque to the
principal of Shelbyville Central High School.
Counselors are pampered at the Imagine America Foundation booth by students from Florida College of Natural Health,
at the 2005 American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Conference.
Students from Florida College of Natural Health, Maitland, Florida
at the American School Counselor Association Conference.
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High school counselors at the ASCA Conference, were excited to
hear about the Imagine America Foundation while getting a massage from
Florida College of Natural Health students.
The 2005 Martha Francis Crigler Byrne Memorial Scholarship award ceremony
at Shelbyville Central High School in Shelbyville, Tennessee.
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Chapter
12
Changes
to the Sector
While the association has continued to grow,
there have also been changes in the trends of career
college ownership emerging in the late ‘90s and into
the new millennium. It has been increasingly goodbye, family-owned and operated schools and
hello, influential corporate chains. Career colleges
of all sizes have begun to offer a greater diversity of
advanced degrees from associate to bachelor’s, to
master’s, and beyond. Career colleges know that in
order to stay competitive they must meet the growing
demand for high-tech and healthcare workers.
Between 1990 and 2000, the number of private
career schools offering at least an associate degree
increased a whopping 128 percent, while the number
of schools offering certificates and diplomas decreased
31 percent. Thirty-six percent of private career
school students were enrolled in healthcare and
computer science programs in 2000, up from 24
percent in 1990. Career schools and colleges
comprised thirty-nine percent of the institutions
participating in Title IV programs and enrolled over
two million students in the 2005 -2006 year.
Student at Virginia College learning the proper application of sterile surgical techniques
and state-of-the-art operating room technology in the Surgical Technology program.
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“By 1998, one in every six
By 1998, one in every six new jobs was reported to require technical skills,
and employers were having trouble supplying that demand. This resulted
in the federal Workforce Investment Act (WIA). WIA offered communitybased workforce training to displaced workers and job seekers as an attempt
to increase employment, workplace skills and earnings. CCA offered a WIA
seminar to its members and encouraged member schools to offer training
through WIA. WIA was particularly advantageous to career schools as it
provided additional opportunity for low-income students, helped to reduce
“bad debt,” and satisfied 90-10 requirements.
new jobs was reported to
require technical skills…”
Corporatization
The late 1990s produced a wave of consolidation and corporatization,
repeating a similar cycle of the 1970s. Today, 13 for-profit publicly traded
educational corporations operate 869 campuses, which comprise a significant
share of private career institutions and about half of the sector’s enrollment.
These corporate institutions account for over $40 billion in combined assets
and vary greatly in size and history. For instance, the Apollo Group, which
owns the University of Phoenix, enrolls 315,000 students, or 18 percent of
those in private career education, and owns one-fifth of all private career college
campuses. Strayer University is the oldest of the publicly traded corporations,
founded in 1892. Most are active in the United States and Canada, while
Laureate Education focuses its operations on an international level.
Following Apollo, the Washington Post Company, which owns Kaplan, is
the next largest for-profit education corporation and accounts for almost
$7 billion in stocks. Other major players in the corporate education market
BMW class at Universal Technical Institute.
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(in order of holdings) are Career Education Corporation, owner of American
InterContinental and other colleges; ITT Educational Services; Laureate
(formerly Sylvan and owner of Walden University and a number of International
Universities); Strayer Education; DeVry Inc.; Universal Technical Institute;
Corinthian Colleges; Capella Education; Lincoln Educational Services; and one
of the smallest, EVCI Career Colleges.
ITT Technical Institute Computer Drafting
and Design graduate at his computer.
Former CCA President Omer Waddles adds that the increase in publicly
traded schools has been the “biggest change that impacted the community”
and “has influenced the marketplace over 15 years as much as anything.” He
noted that the latest growth of chains “created a very large positive influence in
the community,” by providing positive press and perception for Congress and
that “smaller schools might have better relationships with Congress” because of
their involvement with the community and one-on-one interactions, but still
they get “positive benefits”
of the larger schools.
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Program Offerings
“...some also say that the
most important thing
career colleges do is provide
opportunities for students
who otherwise would not or
could not get their degrees.”
A question that some continue to ask is, why do students choose a private
career school instead of a public university or community college or nonprofit
private institution? The short answer is, private career colleges meet students’
needs. The career orientation of the programs offered by private career degreegranting institutions is one of the reasons that students are choosing this sector
in increasing numbers. They like the convenience, the schedules and calendars
designed for them, and the services. They also want to learn the skills they need
to get a job. Perhaps the most important reasons students choose these schools
are the extensive academic and personal support services available throughout the
program, and job placement assistance after graduation. Accelerated programs,
flexible schedules and convenient locations also attract students. Finally, some
also say that the most important thing career colleges do is provide opportunities
for students who otherwise would not or could not get their degrees.
The majority of students enroll in office, technology, and personal service
programs. The technical areas are dominated by auto mechanics and computerrelated fields, but courses of study run the gamut from broadcast technology
to architectural engineering. Programs whose students are eligible for federal
aid range from 300 hours to associate, bachelor’s, and master’s and doctoral
degrees. The design of career college programs is also driven by employers’
needs and students’ interests. Success is measured by retention of students,
degree completion, job placement and employer satisfaction with graduates’
performance. As both businesses and schools, they need to meet the quality
standards of both industry and academe, and may be even more sensitive to
quality concerns than traditional institutions.
Bobbi Nathanson notes that “colleges are moving with the needs of
communities and providing the types of education and courses in demand.”
She continues, “[the sector] keeps getting better, programs are becoming
more and more tailored to needs of the work world out there.” She says that
many colleges have very close relationships with the industries that they serve
and they are in constant communication. They are upgrading and improving
programs, and employers are satisfied with the output.
Advanced Degrees
Between 1990 and 2000, the number of private career institutions saw a 12
percent decline while the numbers in other sectors grew. However, this loss is
only accounted for by the number of less-than-two year schools. The number
of degree-granting private career institutions actually increased during that
time period. In fact, although these degree-granting institutions only represent
17 percent of the private career college sector, they increased over the last
decade by 128 percent.
Erie Business Center students getting
hands on experience in the medical field.
Over the last two decades, career colleges have also expanded their
reach beyond short-term certificates to more traditional academic degree
programs. Private career schools offer literally hundreds of programs.
Accounting, allied medical, automotive technology, business administration,
commercial art, criminal justice and law enforcement administration,
culinary and hospitality management, emergency medical technology,
energy management, information technology, interior design, legal
administration, mechanical engineering, radio and television broadcasting,
and visual and performing arts are among the 200 occupational fields for
which career colleges provide programs.
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Bobbi Nathanson, Chair of the Board of the
Career College Association 1994-1995.
Bachelor’s and graduate degrees are becoming increasingly common
along with programs in healthcare, computer science and the humanities.
Meanwhile, certificate programs in trade fields have decreased. Some of the
private career college institutions offering advanced degrees include Johnson
& Wales University, which received doctoral accreditation in 1998. Kaplan
University recently began offering a master’s degree in education and a
bachelor’s degree in nursing, both online and in the classroom. Schools have
also upped the ante on what types of degree programs they offer. This is
mainly because more students enrolled in private career college education
are aspiring to achieve bachelor’s degrees rather than a certificate or even an
associate degree.
“Bachelor’s, graduate degrees
are becoming increasingly
common along with programs
in healthcare, computer
science and the humanities.”
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Diagnostic Medical Sonography
at Virginia College.
Student and instructor at Kaplan Career
Institute - ICM Campus located in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania..
“Career colleges represented
seven of the ten four-year
institutions producing the
largest number of minority
graduates with associates’
degrees in 2004-2005.”
Diversity
Private career schools and colleges also serve a diverse group of students.
They enroll a student population that has attributes in common with those
attending public and private, non-profit institutions, yet they continue to
serve a significant number of minority and lower socioeconomic students.
Career colleges represented seven of the ten four-year institutions producing
the largest number of minority graduates with associate degrees in 20042005. In that same year, six of the top ten institutions producing minority
graduates with bachelor’s degrees in Computer Information Sciences were
also career colleges. They also made up four of the top ten institutions
awarding MBA’s to minorities and half of those producing minority
doctorates in business. And of the top ten institutions awarding doctorates
in business to African-Americans, six were career colleges.
Distance Education
Students at Indiana Business College,
Indianapolis, Indiana.
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The career college sector has also taken a lead in distance and online education
programs. Distance education existed long before the Internet, but it has
become more prevalent and has changed significantly through technological
advances. Distance education’s origination can be traced as far back as the
1800s by a private career school developed by Sir Isaac Pitman for rural
residents in Bath, England. Correspondence classes soon became an alternative
for people needing education or training that were not able to attend or
did not have access to a traditional program. As computers became more
widespread, computer-based training (CBT) distributed on CD-ROMs
became common. Web-based delivery followed in the 1990s.
Online/distance education has gained much credibility in recent years. Many
teachers, students, and their employers who were initially skeptical of the quality
of distance learning in comparison to traditional face-to-face courses are now using
the tools of online learning to gain greater access to higher education. The easy
access to learning via online programs is both convenient and accommodating
for adult learners with busy work and home schedules, military personnel living
abroad, and students with disabilities among many other types of students.
Career schools and colleges, long recognized for their ability to adjust quickly
to the changing needs of the American job market, are now rapidly focusing
on student and workforce demand by offering a large number of online courses
and degree programs. In fact, according to recent studies, a majority of public
higher education institutions, now offer online classes. By comparison, only
about half of private, nonprofit schools offer them.
As more students request these types of courses and programs, more higher
education institutions are realizing the need to provide them. Online education
is no longer considered a passing fad and schools are beginning to prepare their
long-term strategy to utilize this tool. And while many see distance education
as the wave of the future – they are also recognizing career schools and colleges
are at the helm of this development.
While the career college sector serves a relatively small proportion of students
compared to those enrolled in traditional colleges and universities, its remarkable
growth has drawn attention from investors, policymakers and educators.
The high profile of some of these institutions has raised interest and even
consternation among more traditional colleges and universities. At the same
time, some traditional colleges and universities are becoming more marketoriented and entrepreneurial – many adopting customer-oriented services and
some even creating for-profit entities to handle revenue-generating operations.
“... virtually all public
higher education institutions,
as well as a vast majority
of private career institutions,
now offer online classes.”
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Photo
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Changes
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Technology Programs include Information Systems
Students studying Information Technology at Virginia College.
Student at VC Tech spending quality time in the classroom and shop.
Technology student at Erie Business Center.
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The Certified Coding Associate program teaches students to classify
medical data from patient records at MedTech College.
Students working in the Electrical Construction Lab at Coyne American Institute, 2006.
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Photo
essay:
Changes
to the Sector
Student at the Make-up Designory
demonstrating hair styling techniques.
Foils class at Gene Juarez Academy, located in Seattle, Washington.
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Gene Juarez Academy, cosmetology class.
The Community Outreach Program gives Gene Juarez Academy
students the opportunity to provide hair and nail services to those in need.
Gene Juarez Academy student providing foil service.
Students learn facial contouring, highlights,
shadows and base matching in the Beauty Make-up
Artistry Course at Make-up Designory, New York.
Students can learn to work as an entry-level make-up artist for the fashion and cosmetic fields at the Make-up Designory.
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Photo
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Changes
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Training garage of Automotive Training Center,
located in Exton and Warminster, PA.
Collision refinishing at VC Tech.
Students working on hot rods and sport compacts at Universal Technical Institute.
VC Tech’s Industry Management program provides training
focused on the business side of the automotive industry.
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Students studying automotive
technology at VC Tech.
Computer workstations at Automotive Training Center.
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Chapter
13
Future
of the Sector
“The visibility of career education has exploded … the
training and job placement focusing on students as
the consumer will set apart career colleges as a strong
alternative to traditional schools.”
– The Link, Fall 2004
New Millennium, New Hope
As optimism for economic growth returned to the country following
the September 11th terrorist attacks, CCA succeeded in rejuvenating its
membership, and the outlook for the entire sector improved as career colleges
expanded their offerings and enrollment, and gained more respect from the
entire education sector and the general public.
A 2002 survey on the state of career education indicated that 48 percent of
respondents’ enrollments increased during 2001-02. Information technology and
health-related programs increased more than any others. Cohort default rates are at
an all-time low and in 2003, “for the first time since 1989, not a single institution
lost eligibility to participate in the student loan programs due to high default
rates” because of improved loan counseling, flexible repayment programs and low
interest rates, according to the Department of Education. In addition, institutions
are identifying at-risk borrowers earlier. Also, there has been a growth in degreegranting programs, which attract students who are less likely to default than are
those in shorter programs.
CCA Today
CCA membership is continually growing, and boasts 1,450 members. CCA
has launched public relations campaigns to broaden awareness of career college
programs and the pertinent reauthorization issues. Bobbi Nathanson has
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Student Center of Berkeley College,
West Paterson, NJ
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“depended on CCA tremendously, like most of the colleges do, to protect the
rights of our students in Washington, which was a main focus of CCA from its
inception, and also for educational opportunities, for meeting with our peers
from around the country, and for sharing ideas that would enhance our colleges.”
CCA has “fine-tuned their approach to working with our sector and the legislature
and [has made] sure that our students are protected and are able to have a choice
[about] what type of education is really suitable for them as individuals.”
As Associate Director of ACCSCT, Michale McComis states, “One of the
things that makes the career college sector different is the way that we are able
to measure and hold institutions accountable for student achievement, meaning
whether or not they have acceptable rates of graduation and whether or not
their students get jobs. We simply measure that differently than community
colleges, because we are able to, because we have a different mission. Measuring
student achievement holds institutions accountable when they are not able to
demonstrate student achievement. This is something the sector can point to, to
show tangible success and the value-added benefits of career education.”
School/Leader Recognition
Medical health student at High-Tech Institute.
“Corporate America, middle
America and even small-town
America now recognize these
institutions and their leaders
for their contributions.”
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Successes in the career college industry far outweigh any past failures. Unlike
previous years, career colleges can now counteract any lingering negative
press with their crowning achievements. Corporate America, middle America
and even small-town America now recognize these institutions and their
leaders for their contributions. Forbes ranked Corinthian Colleges number
two on their 2003 “Best Small Companies” list (Corinthian was number four
in 2002 and ITT Educational Services was on the list in 2005 and 2006).
High-Tech Institute was named school of the year by the Arizona Private
School Association for the fourth time in 2004.
Meanwhile, career college professionals from around the country are
receiving accolades and recognition. Secretary of Health and Human
Services Tommy Thompson appointed James Agras, CEO of Triangle Tech,
to serve on the national advisory committee on rural health and human
services Ohio Governor Bob Taft appointed RETS Tech Center Director
Ken Miller to the state regulatory board for private career colleges and
schools. Peter Crocitto, president of Keiser College, was elected Chair of
the Florida Department of Education’s seven-member Commission for
Independent Education. Senator Norm Coleman (R-MN) recognized
Henry Herzing in the Congressional Record for his 40th year of providing
career education to diverse students in in-demand fields. Kevin L. Luing,the
chairman of Berkeley College was elected to the board of the New Jersey
Chamber of Commerce. These are just a few examples of industry leaders
who have been recognized by their communities, their states and the nation
for the educational leadership they have
provided.
Institutions have also been recognized across the
country for their high standards and contribution
to their communities. Keiser’s Miami campus was
named College of the Year by the Florida Association
of Postsecondary Schools and Colleges. San Joaquin
Valley College won the city’s Chamber of Commerce
Large Business of the Year Award in 1996.
Other noteworthy achievements continued into
the new millennium. In the summer of 2000,
Representative Dick Armey (R-TX) presented
Career Training Center graduate and POW
Dennis Pham with a Presidential Award. The Food Network aired a “Cooking
School Stories” documentary about a class at Johnson & Wales University
(J&W), and Newsweek featured J&W’s 98 percent job placement rate. Lincoln
Tech in Philadelphia won the auto excellence award of Pennsylvania from a
national automotive foundation. The Art Institute of Pittsburgh received the
Pittsburgh History & Landmarks Foundation 2001 Award of Merit and the
American Museum of Natural History displayed the work of its students through
an NSF grant. In addition, Walden University is “recognized as one of the top
producers of African American doctorates,” according to a survey by Black Issues
in Higher Education.
Eye Toward
“Everybody aspires to
keep improving, and so
do these colleges.”
the Future
According to Nathanson, “[The general public are] more aware of career
colleges; not many people were aware before unless a family member attended.
The public that had knowledge of career colleges was always favorable, [and]
that is why we have always had so many students and such success with
students. We were able to come through and provide them what they needed.
The perception of others … is forever changing depending on items in the
news. There are always detractors and people that would like to latch onto one
single instance or incident and try to paint the entire sector with one brush.”
But, more importantly, the “colleges themselves have always been offering
excellent programs for the needs of their students and have had spectacular
outcomes compared to most other sectors. That hasn’t changed much over the
years. Everybody aspires to keep improving, and so do these colleges. [The
schools] stay on the cutting edge with equipment, programs, and the students
they serve … other sectors have always been well aware of the excellent job that
was done, and in many cases, the reason for their seeming unacceptability of us
is that they knew that in those types of programs, they could not compete.”
Cyndy Marchese, Vice President,
International Division, standing outside
Berkeley College, New York City campus
with two international students.
Student studies to become a Computer Network
Technician, at Indiana Business College.
In Service
to
America 155
In regards to reauthorization issues, Nathanson feels that some legislators
“have had little experience with career colleges. They have been educated in
the traditional manner, and they needed exposure to exactly what happens
at a career college and who selects a career college. Once they do have some
experience in that area, they can see that it’s very effective for certain students.”
Students in Medical and Health programs at
Virginia College.
John Huston notes that “[Career education is] one of the brightest spots
in the educational field today because it trains people for specific jobs. Many
people know what they want to do; they don’t often know how to get there.
Career schools provide a map, how to enter the sector, build confidence, so
once students graduate they can get out there and begin a career and
support their families.”
“Advances in curricula,
Michael Harter is optimistic about the future when he points out that
perceptions “have changed over the years. The sector overall has gotten better.
The quality of education is now there. There is still quite a bit of antagonism
within higher education for career schools; the only way to counter that is with
quality education for the benefit of students.” Medical student gets assistance from her
instructor at Kaplan Career Institute
- ICM campus located in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania
Paralegal library of Berkeley College,
West Paterson, New Jersey.
156 In Service
to
America
Although the mission of career colleges has shifted somewhat from
specialized, short programs to more general degrees, Huston believes that
the future holds “a twofold opportunity for career schools,” and that career
colleges cannot abandon short skill-training programs that provide students
with job opportunities. He sees the major changes occurring in the delivery
methods of private career college education: “I also see more technology being
used, more online interactive training systems in colleges, for quicker feedback
to what students are learning so they can gain more confidence in what they
are learning. Unless students feel they are learning, they won’t leave school
with a lot of confidence. With technology such as electronic classrooms you
can show them on a daily basis they are learning; it will help to build their
confidence as we move forward.”
“Our brightest and most fulfilling days are in the future. We’ve seen an
increase in the number of colleges and the number of students every year. The
broader understanding of how we fit into the educational delivery system and
the leadership we’ve got at the national level has brought more schools into
the association, and we work better together to do great things for schools and
students who attend. It takes a combination of schools, states and national
associations to have a full impact, not just an individual owner, but a group
of people who will make our sector be more widely recognized. What they’ve
done at the CCA level to make inroads with Congress to change laws has
been tremendous, IAF scholarship programs have been important in helping
students through school, [and] now we’re working on making a service
person’s scholarship. We’re continually advancing, having bright people to
make our programs better.”
achievements in the industry,
and a growing respect for
career colleges have helped put
many schools on the map.”
Harter sees the future role of career colleges as growing. He thinks
that “the infrastructure in this country can’t be maintained without the
educational offerings of our schools. Almost all job training offerings (with
the exception of doctors and lawyers) are being done by career schools.”
Liberal arts institutions are “not as concerned with where students end up
after [graduating].”
Waddles sees “potential right now” as we head toward the “next
maturation stage.” Within postsecondary institutions, the private
career college sector has been “more willing to embrace change and
innovation,” such as bringing coursework online at a fast rate, whereas
other higher education sectors are “more tied to the old way of
teaching.” “I only see a positive future” for private career institutions.
Whatever the case, career colleges are granting students with the
power not only to learn but to achieve their career goals. Advances
in curricula, achievements in the industry, and a growing respect for
career colleges have helped put many schools on the map. Recently,
new government legislation has helped strengthen the position of
career colleges in the U.S. by enhancing financial aid, online programs
and more. If one thing is clear, the overall attitude toward career
colleges has seen marked improvement. Career colleges and their Association
continue to flourish and excel because they have been united with one
common goal for over 165 years: improving educational opportunities for
each and every student.
2007 Annual Report cover.
In Service
to
America 157
Photo
essay: Future of the Sector
Student applying the lab and formulation techniques that are
used and required in the creation of today’s film and television
make-up effects at the Make-up Designory in Los Angeles.
Student learning to sculpt, mold, paint and apply prosthetic pieces in
the Special Make-up Effects Course at the Make-up Designory.
Students applying prosthetics in their Character Make-up Artistry Course at the Make-up Designory, located in New York, New York.
158 In Service
to
America
Student learns the fundamental elements of prosthetic application and special make-up effects at the Make-up Designory.
Graduates of the Make-up Designory, in Los Angeles, will be
prepared to work as an entry-level make-up/stylist artist in
film/TV, print, advertising and fashion industries.
Student learns facial contouring, highlights, shadows
and base matching in the Beauty Make-up Artistry Course
at Make-up Designory, New York.
In Service
to America
159
Photo
Chef instructs students at Culinard, the Culinary Institute of Virginia College.
Students at Culinard, the Culinary Institute of
Virginia College, located in Birmingham, Alabama.
160 In Service
to
America
Culinard, the Culinary Institute of Virginia College,
students learning baking and pastry arts.
Students cutting vegetables at Culinard, the Culinary Institute of Virginia College.
In Service
to America
161
Photo
Licensed Practical Nursing Science program at HoHoKus
School of Business and Medical Sciences.
Medical Office Assisting program at The HoHoKus School of Business
and Medical Sciences, located throughout New Jersey.
MedTech located in Indianapolis, prepares students for employment opportunities
in long term care practice in nursing homes, hospitals, or rehabilitation centers.
Students get hands on experience in the medical lab at
Erie Business Center located in Erie, Pennsylvania.
162 In Service
to
America
Instructor helping Surgical Technology student at Virginia College.
Students get hands on experience from instructors in the medical lab at Virginia College.
In Service
to America
163
About
the Imagine America Foundation
Appendix A: Century Club
The Imagine America Foundation (IAF) (Formerly the Career College
Foundation) is the affiliate of the Career College Association. Created in
1982, IAF has been dedicated to providing scholarship programs, conducting
research, elevating public awareness and honoring achievement in career
education. The 1AF has grown to support nearly 450 career college members
across the United States and Puerto Rico.
Following is a list of private career schools who have been in operation
over 100 years, and 50 years, respectively.
1850
Ridley-Lowell School of Business
Binghamton, NY
1851 Duff’s Business Institute (now Everest Institute)*
Pittsburgh, PA**
1854 Bryant and Stratton College
Buffalo, NY
1858 Davis College
Toledo, OH**
1858 Elmira Business Institute
Elmira, NY
1860 Miami-Jacobs College
Dayton, OH
1862 Rockford Business College
Rockford, IL**
1863 Rochester Business Institute*
Rochester, NY
1866 Sanford-Brown College*
Jacksonville, IL
1869 Allentown Business School
Allentown, PA
1877 Minnesota School of Business
Minneapolis, MN**
1879 Draughons Junior College Inc.
Nashville, TN**
1881 Central Pennsylvania College
Summerdale, PA
1881 West Virginia Business College
Wheeling, WV
1882 South College
Knoxville, TN
1883 Drake College of Business
Jersey City, NJ
1884 Erie Business Center
Erie, PA**
1885 Du Bois Business College
Du Bois, PA
1886 National College of Business and
Technology*
Roanoke, VA**
1888 Midstate College
Peoria, IL
1888 Mountain State College
Parkersburg, WV
1888 Santa Barbara Business College
Santa Barbara, CA**
1888 West Tennessee Business College*
Jackson, TN**
Imagine America Scholarship
The award-winning Imagine America scholarship program helps thousands of
high school seniors each year to pursue a postsecondary career education at
career colleges across the United States. In just six years, Imagine America has
become the premier and most recognized high school scholarship program of
its kind. With more than 35,000 scholarships awarded to high school students
in nearly 11,000 high schools, Imagine America has provided more than $35
million in scholarship support.
Imagine America Promise Scholarship
The Imagine America Promise scholarship program was created in 2002 to
address the increasing costs of education and the continued lack of scholarship
aid specifically designed for career college students. Imagine America Promise
provides $500 and $1,000 cash grants for past recipients of the Imagine America
high school scholarship, enrolled at a participating career college, whose
exceptional grades show a continued commitment to their program study.
Imagine America Military Award Program (MAP)
The Imagine America Military Award Program (MAP) is a national aid program
established by the IAF in 2004. Through MAP, active duty, reservist, honorably
discharged or retired U.S. military personnel from any brand of the United
States military can receive $1,000 in tuition support to attend a participating
career college.
Imagine America LDRSHIP
The Foundation established the Imagine America LDRSHIP Award in 2004 to
recognize and honor exceptional career college students who have served their
country honorably in the military and are currently enrolled at CCA member
institutions. LDRSHIP stands for Loyalty, Duty, Respect, Selfless Service,
Honor, Integrity and Personal Courage (LDRSHIP). The LDRSHIP Award
offers up $5,000 in cash grants to its honorees.
Imagine America Online
You don’t have to attend a traditional, brick-and-mortar school to receive quality
career education. Increasing numbers of students are choosing the convenience of
attending classes wherever, whenever, through online career education programs.
Created in 2006, Imagine America Online is a national aid program that offers
$1,000 career education awards to any qualified prospective enrolling online/
distance learner for attendance at an online participating career college.
164
1889
International Business College
Indianapolis, IN
1891 Beal College
Bangor, ME
1891 Duluth Business University, Inc.*
Duluth, MN**
1891 Stevens-Henager College
Ogden, UT**
1892 Spencerian College
Louisville, KY**
1892 Strayer University
Baltimore City, MD
1892 West Virginia Junior College*
Charleston, WV**
1895 Newport Business Institute
Lower Burrell, PA
1895 Parks College*
Denver, CO**
1895 Mcintosh College
Dover, NH**
1896 Utica School of Commerce
Utica, NY
1897 Blair College (now Everest)*
Pueblo, CO
1899 American College of Hairstyling
Des Moines, IA **
1899 Coyne American Institute*
Chicago, IL**
1899 South University
Savannah, GA**
1900 Hesser College
Manchester, NH**
1900 Rasmussen College
St. Paul, MN**
1900 Simmons Institute of Funeral
Service, Inc.
Syracuse, NY
1902 Indiana Business College*
Marion, IN**
1903 Ohio Business College
Lorain, OH
1904 Douglas Education Center
Monessen, PA**
1905 Marinello School of Beauty
Los Angeles, CA
1905 Research College of Nursing
Kansas City, MO
* Participants in the 2007 Imagine America scholarship and award programs
** CCA Members
165
50+ Club
1908 Sparks College
Shelbyville, IL
1909 Technical Career Institutes
New York NY
1910 Butera School of Art
Boston, MA
1911 Worsham College
Wheeling, IL
1915 Franklin Beauty School
San Antonio, TX
1916 Illinois Institute of Art at
Schaumburg
Schaumburg, IL**
1916 Plaza College Long Island, NY
1917 Automotive Training Center*
Philadelphia, PA**
1917 Mildred Elley
Albany, NY**
1918 Lansdale School of Business
North Wales, PA**
1918 Thompson Institute
Harrisburg, PA**
1919 Nashville Auto Diesel
College*
Nashville, TN**
1922 Webster College
Fairmont, West Virginia**
1923 American Academy of Art
Chicago, IL
1923 Iowa School of Beauty
Des Moines, IA
1924 Mandl School
New York, NY**
1924 Virginia Farrell Beauty
School
St. Clair Shores, MI
1926 Business Institute of
Pennsylvania
Sharon, PA**
1928 Alexandria Academy of
Beauty Culture
Alexandria, LA
1930 Tennessee School of Beauty
of Knoxville
Knoxville, TN
1931 Berkeley College
East Orange, NJ
1931 Devry University
Chicago, IL
1931 Harrington College of Design
Chicago, IL**
1932 La James College
of Hairstyling and
Cosmetology
Mason City, IA
1932 Missouri Tech*
St. Louis, MO
1933 Lowell Academy of
Hairdressing
Lowell, MA
1933 Monroe College
Bronx, NY
1934 Dorsey Business Schools
Detroit, MI
1935 National Institute of
Technology* Cross Lanes, WV**
1935 Salon Schools Group
Columbus, OH
1936 Modern Welding School
Schenectady, NY
1938 Hagerstown Business College
Hagerstown, MD**
1938 Vernons Kansas School of
Cosmetology
Wichita, KS
1939 Brookstone College
Greensboro, NC**
1939 Laboratory Institute of
Merchandising
New York, NY
1939 Sanz School
Washington, DC
1939 Velma B’s Beauty Academy
Dallas, TX
1940 New England Institute of
Technology*
Providence, RI**
1940 Berk Trade and Business
School
Brooklyn, NY**
1940 Massachusetts School
of Barbering and Mens
Hairstyling
Quincy, MA
1941 Kee Business College*
Newport News, VA**
1941 National American University
Rapid City, SD**
1941 New York Career Institute
New York, NY
1945 Brooks Institute of
Photography
Santa Barbara, CA**
1946 Art Institute of Seattle*
Seattle, WA**
1946 Brown College
Minneapolis, MN**
1946 Central Texas Beauty College
Waco, TX
1946 Federico Beauty Institute Sacramento, CA
1946 Forrest Junior College
Anderson, SC
1946 Gerber’s Akron Beauty
School
Fairlawn, OH
1946 Lincoln Technical Institute*
Newark, NJ**
1946 Paier College of Art, Inc.
Hamden, CT
1947 Antonelli College
Cincinnati, OH**
1947 Carnegie Institute*
Troy, MI**
1947 Fountainhead College of
Technology*
Knoxville, TN**
1947 Patricia Stevens College
St. Louis, MO
1947 Teterboro School of
Aeronautics, Inc.
Teterboro, NJ**
1948 Herzing College*
Milwaukee, WI**
1949 The Art Institute of Atlanta
Atlanta, GA**
1949 Tulsa Welding School*
Tulsa, OK**
1950 Bancroft School of Massage
Therapy
Worcester, MA
1951 Grantham University
Kansas City, MO**
1952 Art Institute of Colorado
Denver, CO**
1952 Bradley Academy for the
Visual Arts*
York, PA**
** CCA Members
166
1952 Joffrey Ballet School
– American Ballet Center
New York, NY
1953 Ayers Institute Inc.*
Shreveport, LA**
1953 Bradenton Beauty and Barber
Academy
Bradenton, FL
1953 Pinnacle Career Institute*
Kansas City, MO**
1953 Westwood College of
Aviation*
Denver, CO**
1954 Wichita Technical Institute
Wichita, KS**
1955 Lubbock Hair Academy Lubbock, TX
1955 Western Business College
(now Evererst)*
Portland, OR**
1956 Altoona Beauty School, Inc.
Altoona, PA
1956 Pro Way Hair School
Newnan, GA
1956 TESST College of
Technology
Hyattsville, MD**
1957 HoHoKus RETS
Nutley, NJ**
1957 Island Drafting and Technical
Institute
Amityville, NY**
1957 American Commercial
College
Wichita Falls, TX
–The data collection for the Century Club and 50+ Club
was researched during the fall
of 2006. The omission of any
particular information signifies
that the information is either not
applicable to that institution, not
available, or not provided. Please
note errors and omissions are
possible in data collection and
processing endeavors of this scope.
** CCA Members
167
Appendix B: AICS Officials
Chair
of the Board
of the Accrediting
Commission
B. F. Williams .................1912-1937
Robert W. Sneden ...........1963-1964
John R. Humphreys ........1953-1955
George J. Brennan, Jr. .............. 1975
E. M. Hull .......................1938-1942
Walter J. Tribbey .............1964-1965
Jay W. Miller . .................1955-1957
A. R. Sullivan .......................... 1976
P. S. Spangler (NAACS) ................................ 1943
Clarence A. Phillips ........1965-1966
C. H. Husson ...................1957-1959
Coleman T. Furr ....................... 1977
C. D. Rohiffs ...................1966-1967
Charles P. Harhottle ........1959-1961
Jan V. Friedheim ...................... 1978
H. N. Rasely (War Emergency Council) ...... 1943
Harry G. Green ...............1967-1968
William J. Hamilton . ......1961-1962
Prentiss Carnell Ill ................... 1979
H. N. Rasely (NCBS) . ............. 1944
L. Clay Spencer ..............1968-1969
Harold B. Post . ...............1962-1964
Edward M. Shapiro .................. 1980
Sanford L. Fisher (NAACS)........................1945-1947
L. R. Stevens ...................1969-1970
Charles E. Palmer ...........1964-1965
Dean Johnston . ........................ 1981
Harry E. Ryan .................1970-1971
Stuart E. Sears . ........................ 1966
Howard S. Steed ...................... 1982
George A. Spaulding (NCBS) ..........................1946-1947
Morris J. W. Gaebe .........1971-1972
Harold B. Post . ........................ 1967
Robert S. Kline ........................ 1983
Carl W. Durham (AICS) . ..........................1972-1973
Robert W. Sneden .................... 1968
C. Dexter Rohm ....................... 1984
G. C. Stewart . .......................... 1969
F. Jack Henderson, Jr ............... 1985
A. Lauren Rhude . ...........1973-1974
A. Lauren Rhude . .................... 1970
John T. South, III ............1986-1987
Maurice F. Egan ..............1974-1975
Douglas Devaux . ..................... 1971
Donald H. Waldhauer . ....1987-1988
Jay W. Miller . .................1950-1951
Charles W. Davidson ......1975-1976
Jack H. Jones ........................... 1972
Donald C. Jones...............1989-1990
C. I. Blackwood ..............1951-1952
Joe E. Lee . ......................1976-1977
Larry L. Luing ......................... 1973
Libby Guinan...................1990-1991
H. Everett Pope ...............1952-1953
Larry L. Luing ................1977-1978
Ernest E. Roblee ...................... 1974
Alex De Jorge........................... 1991
J. K. Kincaid ...................1953-1954
John W. Hauer . ...............1978-1979
Harold B. Post . ...............1954-1955
Douglas Devaux . ............1979-1980
I. W. Stevens ...................1955-1956
Jan V. Friedheirn .............1980-1981
J. T. Vetter .......................1956-1957
John A. Yena ...................1981-1982
H. O. Balls ......................1957-1958
Frank Paone ....................1982-1983
Charles E. Palmer ...........1958-1959
Charles E. Palmer ...........1983-1984
Robert W. Sneden ...........1959-1960
A. R. Sullivan .................1984-1985
Jack H. Jones ..................1961-1962
Edward M. Shapiro .........1985-1986
G. C. Stewart (UBSA) ..........................1961-1962
John T. South, Jr. . ...........1986-1987
George A. Meadows (NAACS) .......................1948-1950
E. R. Maetzold (NACBS) .......................1948-1950
Weldon L. Strawn (UBSA) ..........................1961-1962
Hugh T. Barnes ...............1962-1963
168
Chair
Mary Ann Lawlor ...........1987-1988
Coleman T. Furr...............1988-1990
Stephen B. Friedheim.......1990-1991
169
Appendix C: NATTS Officials
Appendix D: CCA Officials
Presidents
Presidents
J. Warren Davies .............1965-1967
Marvin Barab ..................1979-1981
Stephen J. Blair ...............1991-1996
Bill Elkins .......................1967-1969
Henry G. Herzing . ..........1981-1983
Omar Waddles . ...............1997-1999 Harris Miller ............................ 2007
Noel Adams ....................1969-1971
M. Michael Freedland . ...1983-1985
Clifford L. Larson ...........1971-1973
Ross L. Alloway . ............1985-1987
Chair
Leo Kogan ......................1973-1975
Bill Carson.......................1987-1989
Stephen B. Friedheim.......1991-1994
Tim Schutz.......................2001-2002
Louis A. Dimasi ..............1975-1977
Roger Hess.......................1989-1991
John Huston.....................1994-1995
Eric Juhlin........................2002-2003
Bill Kalaboke...................1995-1996
Mark Dreyfus...................2003-2004
Tom Sapienza...................1996-1998
Joe Davis..........................2004-2005
Bobbi Nathanson..............1998-2000
Ellis Gedney.....................2005-2006
Michael Harter.................2000-2001
Jim Tolbert................................ 2006
Jack Tolbert .....................1977-1979
Chair
of the Accrediting
Commission
Donald Vale......................1966-1968
John S. Cowan.................1974-1980
Dr. Arthur A. Hitchcock............ 1966
Clifford Larson.................1975-1983
Dr. Homer Kempfer.........1966-1976
Dr. T. Harry McKinney ...1976-1985
Dr. M. D. Mobley.............1966-1967
Nancy Sedlak...................1976-1982
Dr. M. Robert Allen.........1966-1985
Robert Obenhaus..............1977-1979
Harry W. Dickerson.........1966-1970
Richard Fessler.................1978-1984
H.O. Balls .......................1966-1973
Jack F. Tolbert..................1979-1980
Louis Dimasi....................1966-1972
Richard Zaiden.......................... 1980
T.J. Lafeber......................1966-1976
Joseph Thompson...................... 1982
Dr. Ellis White.................1967-1984
Marge Carlson........................... 1982
A.L. Rubinger..................1968-1974
Andrew Edelman...................... 1983
M. Michael Freedland......1970-1976
Edward Connolley.................... 1984
Richard Diggs..................1972-1978
Kenneth Young.......................... 1985
About
Nick Glakas ....................1999-2006
of the Board
the
Career College Association
The Career College Association (CCA) is a voluntary membership
organization of accredited private postsecondary schools, institutes,
colleges and universities that provide career-specific educational programs.
CCA’s 1,450 members educate and support more than a million students
each year for employment in over 200 occupational fields. These schools
and colleges graduate approximately one-half of the technically trained
workers who enter the U.S. workforce each year and also provide retraining
for displaced workers and skills-upgrading for a wide variety of public and
private employers.
Most CCA member institutions participate in federal student financial
assistance programs under Title IV of the Higher Education Act. In order
to participate, they must be licensed by the state in which they are located,
accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting body, and approved by the
U.S. Department of Education. Many CCA member schools and colleges
also participate in other federal, state and local education and workforce
training programs.
For more information about CCA, please visit www.career.org.
Noel Adams......................1973-1979
170
171
References
The Compass, United Business Schools Association, Washington, DC,
May, 1952; August 1952; September 1952; October 1952; November 1952.
Chapter 1: Our Heritage
Directory of Business Schools, United Business Schools Association,
Washington, DC, 1962-1963.
A Chronology of Business Education in the United States, National Business
Education Association, Reston, VA, 1977.
Chapter 4: Postwar Changes
Johnson, Charles A., “Proprietary Vocational Schools,” Developing the Nation’s
Work Force, Yearbook 5, American Vocational Association, Washington, DC.
AICS Handbook, Association of Independent Colleges and Schools,
Washington, DC, 1987.
Miller, J. W., A Critical Analysis of the Organization, Administration and
Function of the Private Business Schools of the United States, South-Western
Publishing Company, Cincinnati, OH, 1939.
The Compass, published by United Business Schools Association and AICS Compass,
published by The Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, Washington,
DC, February, 1963; March 1963; July 1963; May 1964; February 1965; March
1965; April 1965; April 1966; July 1966; April 1967; September 1967; November
1967; January 1968; May 1968; June 1968; December 1968; March 1969; April
1969; May 1969; June 1969; November 1969; February 1970; August 1970;
October 1970; November 1971; February 1972; July 1972; February 1973; March
1973; September 1973; January 1974; May 1974; April 1975; May 1975; October
1975; April 1976; April 1977; June 1977; December 1977; September 1978;
January 1979; May 1979; September 1979; October 1979; January 1980; February
1981; January 1982; March 1982; May 1982; July 1982; June 1983; September
1983; March 1984; May 1984; September 1984; November 1984; April 1985;
October 1985; January 1986; October 1986; February 1987; April 1987.
Miller, J. W., The Independent Business School in American Education,
Gregg Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1964.
Private Career Education—A National Resource in an Ever-Changing Society,
Association of Independent Colleges and Schools, Washington, DC, 1985.
Reigner, Charles G., Beginnings of the Business School, H.M. Rowe Company,
Baltimore, MD, 1938.
Chapter 2: Founders
and Foundations
Accredited News, National Association of Accredited Commercial Schools,
Jamestown, New York, December 1911; May 1922; May 1923; August 1923;
August 1924; June 1925; December 1925; March 1926; May 1926; August 1926;
May 1927; May 1928; October 1928; December 1928; September 1929; October
1929; July 1930; February 1931; July 1931; October 1931; December 1931; May
1932; February 1933; April 1933; September 1934; February 1935; July 1935;
October 1935; November 1936; February 1937; November 1937; February 1938.
Directory of Business Schools, United Business Schools Association,
Washington, DC, 1962.
Chapter 5: The Inclusion
of NATTS
Lee, J. B., & Merisotis, J. P., Proprietary Schools: Programs, Policies and Prospects,
ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 5, 1990.
DECA: The First Thirty Years, American Vocational Association, Alexandria, VA, 1976.
Freedland, Michael, Personal interview, March 2006.
Grun, Bernard, The Timetables of History, Simon & Schuster, New York, NY, 1964.
Masterson, M., & Cooke, C., Trade Schools Luring Students to Get Loan
Funds, The Arizona Republic, December 13, 1987.
Sullivan, Mark, Our Times, Charles Scribners Sons, New York, NY, 1943.
Vocational Education Journal, American Vocational Association, Alexandria,
VA, November, December, 1986.
NATTS: The First Generation, A special issue of The Creative Service:
The Baxandall Company, May 1983.
Proprietary school abuses appear endless-halt them, Chicago-Sun Times,
January 10, 1988.
Chapter 3: Growth…is Inevitable
Accredited News, National Association of Accredited Commercial Schools,
Jamestown, NY, February, 1937; February 1938; February 1939; February
1940; August 1940; May 1941; May 1942; August 1942; February 1943;
August 1943; November 1945; June-August 1946; May 1947; May 1948;
June 1949; August 1949; November 1949; January 1950.
Simon, Paul, Secretary Bennett is Making All Proprietary Schools the Scapegoats for
Loan-Collection Problems of a Few (op. ed.), The Chronicle of Higher Education,
May 25, vol,34, n,37, pB1, 1988.
U.S. Department of Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational
Reform, The National Commission on Excellence in Education, April 1983.
Blackburn, Leo, Letter of April 17, 1987, Chillicothe, OH.
The Business School Executive, National Council of Business Schools,
Washington, DC, 1945, September 1945; September 1946; March 1949;
June 1949; March 1951; December 1952; June 1954; March 1959,
The Compass, American Association of Commercial Colleges, Burlington, IA,
January 1943; January 1959.
172
173
Chapter 6: The Consolidation
December 15, 1989.
Blair, Stephen, Personal interview, March 7, 2006.
Sapienza, Tom, Personal interview, February 28, 2006.
Friedheim, Jan, Personal interview, March 2, 2006.
Furr, Coleman, Personal interview, March 1, 2006.
Texas Guaranteed Student Loan Corporation, Student Loan Defaults in Texas:
Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. Available at
http://www.tgslc.org/publications/reports/defaults_texas/ins_intro.cfm
The Imagine America Foundation gratefully acknowledges the many individuals
and institutions who contributed illustrations for inclusion in this book.
CCA Newspaper, Career College Association, August 5, 1991; September 13, 1991.
Chapter 9: A Time
Friedheim, Stephen B., Personal interview, February 27, 2006.
Friedheim, Stephen B., Personal interview, March 21, 2007.
The Link, Career College Association, October 1991; Fall 2000.
1993-2006
CCA Board of Directors minutes, June 7, 1995.
Nathanson, Bobbi, Personal interview, February 28, 2006.
The Link, Career College Association, Spring 1997; Summer 1997;
Winter 1997; Spring 2001.
Phipps, Harrison, Merisotis, & Bobbitt, Students at Private, For-Profit Institutions,
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,
National Center for Education Statistics, Statistical Analysis Report, Postsecondary
Education Descriptive Analysis Reports, NCES 2000-175, January 2000.
Chapter 7: Changes
of Renewal:
Chapter 10: The Foundation Effect – Imagine America
The Link, Career College Association, Fall 1998; Summer 1999; Winter 1999.
in Accreditation
CCA Board of Directors Executive Committee minutes, December 13, 1995.
Chapter 11: The Growth
Education Commission of the States, Report from the Regions: Accreditors’
Perceptions of the Role and Impact of For-Profit Institutions in Higher Education,
Issue Brief, January 2000.
CCA Board of Directors minutes, October 4-5, 1995; September 20, 1996
“Hot News”; January 10, 1998; May 21, 1997; October 4, 1997;
March 26-27, 1998.
Harter, Mike, Personal interview, March 6, 2006.
The Link, Career College Association, Fall 1996; Spring 2000; Spring 2002;
Fall 2002; Winter 2004.
Longanecker, Blanco, & Long, The impact of Federal Financial Aid Policies
on the Funding, Design, Operation, and Marketing of State and Institutional
Financial Aid Policies and Practices: A Review of the Literature, Commissioned
by The Education Resources Institute, with assistance from the Lumina
Foundation, July 2004.
of
CCA
Chapter 12: Change……Is Inevitable
The Link, Career College Association, Spring 1999; Summer 2002;
Winter 2003; Fall 2004; Winter 2005.
McComis, Michale, Personal interview, February 27, 2006.
Champagne, Rene, Personal interview, March 2, 2006.
Mortenson, Thomas G, Refocusing Student Financial Aid from Grants to Loans,
from Need to Merit, from Poor to Affluent (op. ed.), Postsecondary Education
OPPORTUNITY, n82, April 1999.
Education Management Corporation, Education Management Corporation
Announces Agreement to Be Acquired by Providence Equity Partners and
Goldman Sachs Capital Partners for $43 per Share in $3,4 Billion Transaction,
Press Release, March 6, 2006.
NATTS News & Views, National Association of Technical and Trades Schools,
January 12, 1990; January 20, 1990; January 26, 1990; February 23, 1990;
March 16, 1990; December 7, 1990.
Kinser, Kevin, From Main Street to Wall Street: The Transformation of For-Profit
Higher Education, ASHE Higher Education Report, 31(5), 2006.
NEA Higher Education Research Center Update, Proprietary Education:
Threat, or Not?, 11(1), September 2004.
Chapter 8: 1992 Reauthorization
Building a New Beginning, Career College Association, August 1992.
Pry, George, Personal interview, March 10, 2006.
Burd, Stephen, 1997, “Default Rates on Student Loans Fall for Fifth
Consecutive Year,” Chronicle of Higher Education, November 21, 1997.
Waddles, Omer, Personal interview, March 2, 2006.
Career College Times, Career College Association, July 17, 1992; September 25, 1992.
Chapter 13: Future
of the Sector
JBL Associates, Inc, Report on Proprietary Schools (unpublished), 2005.
Huston, John, Personal interview, February 28, 2006.
NATTS News & Views, National Association of Technical and Trades Schools
174
175
Index
A
Academy of Medical Art and
Business, 117
Alexandria Academy of
Beauty Culture, 166
Allen, M. Robert, 170
Allentown Business School,
165
Alloway, Ross L., 170
Altoona Beauty School, Inc.,
167
American Academy of Art,
166
American College of
Hairstyling, 165
Columbia University, 22
Draughon Schools, 59
Fisher, Sanford L., 168
Brownell, George, 4
Commonwealth International
University, 143
Draughon’s College, 8
Flay, Bobby, 122
Bryant, Henry B., 7, 9–10
Connolley, Edward, 170
Draughons Junior College
Inc., 165
Florida College of Natural
Health, 136
Bryant and Stratton College,
165
Cook, Philip, 129, 131
Dreyfus, Mark, 171
Foran, Jim, 78
Cooke, C., 173
Du Bois Business College,
165
Ford, William, 98
Brown College, 22, 167
B
Baldwin, Frank S., 7
Balls, H. O., 168, 170
Bryant Schools, 59
Burd, Stephen, 174
Bandoy, Cynthia, 134
Burdett College, 26, 36, 60
Coyne American Institute, 34,
112, 135, 147, 165
Barab, Marvin, 170
Burlington Business College,
37
Craig, Larry, 119
Bush, George H. W., 72, 92,
103
Cring, Charles C., 15, 29
Barnes, Hugh T., 168
Baustista, Juan E., 134
Beal College, 165
Bell, Terrell, 72
Berk Trade and Business
School, 166
Burdett, C. Fred, 60
Bush, George W., 108, 122
Business Institute of
Pennsylvania, 166
Butera School of Art, 166
C
American InterContinental,
141
Binnion, John E., 55
Andrews, Robert E., 121
Blackburn, Leo, 172
Calarco, Richard, 134
Blackwood, C. I., 168
Capella Education, 141
Apollo, 141
Blair, Stephen J., 79, 81,
98–99, 171, 174
Capital City Commercial
College, 16
Armey, Dick, 155
Blair College, 165
Carlson, Marge, 170
Art Institute of Atlanta, 167
Boehner, John, 122
Carnegie Institute, 167
Art Institute of California,
134
Boltin, Tim, 131, 134
Carnell, Prentiss, III, 169
Booker T. Washington
Business College, 55
Carson, William, 80, 92, 170
Antonelli College, 167
Art Institute of Colorado, 167
Art Institute of Pittsburgh,
22, 30, 35, 44, 46–47, 62,
122, 155
Boyles College, 22
Art Institute of Seattle, 167
Bradford School Corporation,
60
Asheboro College, 30, 37, 47,
56, 62
Ashmore Business College,
30, 37, 56, 62
ATI Career Training Centers,
134
Atkins, Kimberly, 134
Australian College of Physical
Education, 114
176 In Service
to
Corinthian Colleges, 141, 154
Bancroft School of Massage
Therapy, 167
Berkeley College, 5, 29–31,
42, 115, 124, 133, 153–156,
166
American Commercial
College, 167
Fessler, Richard, 170
Ayers Institute Inc., 167
Adams, Noel, 66, 170
Airco Educational Services, 69
Draughon, John F., 8
Brookstone College, 30, 37,
47, 56, 62, 166
Academy of Philadelphia, vi, 5
Agras, James, 154
Colleman College, 119
Automotive Training Center,
96, 102, 151, 166
Bradenton Beauty and Barber
Academy, 167
Bradley Academy for the
Visual Arts, 167
Carter, Jimmy, 72
CBS Schools, 60
Central Business College, 4,
29
Central Pennsylvania Business
School, 13, 57
Cowan, John S., 170
Crigler, Francis, 137
Crocitto, Peter, 154
Culinary Institute of Virginia
College, 96, 113, 130, 160–
161
D
D’Amico, Carol, 111
Davenport College, 53
Davidson, Charles W., 168
Davies, J. Warren, 66, 170
Davis, Joseph, iv, 132, 171
Davis College, 7, 12–13, 47,
57, 165
De Jorge, Alex, 169
Devaux, Douglas, 168–169
DeVry University, 68, 141,
166
Dickerson, Harold, 66
Dickerson, Harry W., 170
Central Pennsylvania College,
165
Brennan, George J., Jr., 169
Central Texas Beauty College,
167
Dorsey Business Schools, 166
Broff, Nancy, 120, 122
Champagne, Rene, 175
Brooks Institute of
Photography, 167
Clohan, William, 54, 122
America
Coleman, Norm, 154
Duff’s Business Institute, 6,
165
Duff’s Mercantile College, 6
Duluth Business University,
Inc., 165
Durham, Carl W., 168
Cross, Thelma, 134
Diggs, Richard, 170
Bragg, Joshua, 91
Duff, Peter, 6
Dimasi, Louis A., 170
Douglas Education Center,
165
Drake College of Business,
165
m
ECPI College of Technology,
48, 58, 63–65, 71, 87, 90,
93, 147
Edelman, Andrew, 170
Egan, Maurice F., 168
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 42
Forrest Junior College, 167
Fort Lauderdale College, 57
Foster, Benjamin Franklin, 5
Foster’s Commercial School of
Boston, 5
Fountainhead College of
Technology, 167
Furr, Coleman T., 80, 119,
168–169, 174
Elmira Business Institute, 165
g
Erie Business Center, 12, 51,
64, 100, 119, 124–125, 127,
133, 142, 146, 162, 165
Gaebe, Morris J. W., 55–56,
168
Erie Business College, 20
Galen, John, 66
EVCI Career Colleges, 141
Gaston, Minnie L., 55
Everest College, 165, 167
Gates College, 22
Everest Institute, 6
Gedney, Ellis, 171
Federico Beauty Institute, 167
Ferris, Woodbridge N., 21–22
Grantham University, 91, 167
Green, Harry G., 55, 168
Gene Juarez Academy, 97,
102, 148–149
Hull, Edward, 34, 38, 168
Humphreys, John R., 169
Husson, C. H., 169
Green, John, 4
Huston, John, 78, 156, 171,
175
Greenwood, Isaac, 4
Gregg, John Robert, vi–ix
Grun, Bernard, 172
Elliott, W. B., 19
Houston, John, 80
Goodling, Bill, 117
Freedland, M. Michael, 66,
68, 170, 173
Fulton, Richard, 53
Faubert, Jenny, v
Hopkins, Harry, 24
Grouse, Julian, 66
Friedheim, Jan V., v, 168–169,
174
HoHoKus School of Business
and Medical Sciences, 163
Goldey-Beacom School of
Business, 55
Franklin Beauty School, 166
French Culinary Institute, 122
HoHoKus RETS, 167
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr.,
1, 61
Gregg Schools, vii, 6
Freeman, John, 80
Hitchcock, Arthur A., 170
Goldey-Beacom College, 55
Franklin, Benjamin, vi, 5
Elliot, Carter, 66
f
Goddard, William, 66, 68
Gregg, Judd, 122
Elkins, Bill, 170
Enzi, Michael, 122
Globe Business College, 14,
36, 41, 55
Francis, Martha, 137
Friedheim, Stephen B., v, 61,
78–81, 168, 171, 174
Elliott Commercial School, 19
Glakas, Nick, 111, 122, 131,
171
i
Illinois Institute of Art at
Schaumburg, 166
Indiana Business College, 4,
6–7, 9–10, 13, 15, 17, 19,
28–29, 31, 39, 48, 59, 112,
116, 126, 144, 155, 165
Guinan, Libby, 169
h
International Business
College, 165
Hagan, Jerry, ix
Hagerstown Business College,
166
Hamilton, William J., 169
Harhottle, Charles P., 169
Harrington College of Design,
166
Harter, Michael, 89–90, 101,
121, 156, 171, 174
Harvard College, 68
International University, 141
International University of
Nursing, 114
Iowa School of Beauty, 166
Island Drafting and Technical
Institute, 167
ITT Educational Services, 141
ITT Technical Institute, 131,
134, 141
Hauer, John W., 168
j
Henderson, F. Jack, Jr., 169
Herzing, Henry G., 68, 114,
154, 170
Herzing College, 134, 167
Hess, Roger, 80, 170
Jeffors, Jim, 119
Joffrey Ballet School, 167
Johnson, Charles A., 172
Johnson, Lyndon B., 53, 55
Gerber’s Akron Beauty
School, 167
Hesser College, 165
Gilbert, Larry, 134
Hill, John, vii
Gingrich, Newt, 117
Johnson & Wales University,
143, 155
Hiskett, J. D., 134
Johnston, Dean, 169
High-Tech Institute, 94, 154
Johnson & Wales College, 56
In Service
to
America 177
Jones, Donald C., 169
Lincoln Educational Services,
141
Jones, Jack H., 168–169
Lincoln Tech, 121, 155
Juhlin, Eric, 171
Lincoln Technical Institute,
103, 167
k
Lloyd, Alan, x
Kalaboke, William, 80, 171
Kaplan Career Institute, 145,
156
Kaplan Schools, 140
Kaplan University, 143
Katherine Gibbs School, 116
Kay, Gary, 117
Kee Business College, 166
Keiser, Arthur, 122
Lloyd, Thomas, 6
Merisotis, J. P., 173–174
Miami-Jacobs College, 165
Michael, Chris, 131
Midstate College, 165
Mildred Elley, 166
Miller, Harris, 171
Paier College of Art, Inc., 167
Palmer, Charles E., 168–169
LTV Education System, 59
Minnesota School of Business,
12, 21, 23, 25, 27–28, 40,
54–55, 67, 165
Lubbock Hair Academy, 167
Missouri Tech, 166
Luing, Kevin L., 154
Mobley, M. D., 170
Luing, Larry L., 168–169
Modern Welding School, 166
Lowell Academy of
Hairdressing, 166
Monroe College, 166
m
Moore’s College, 22
Moosally, Fred, 131
Mortenson, Thomas G., 174
Kempfer, Homer, 170
Make-up Designory, 97, 113,
148–149, 158–159
Morton, James, 2–3
Mandl School, 166
Marchese, Cyndy, 155
Marinello School of Beauty,
165
Kincaid, J. K., 168
Kline, Robert S., 169
Marion Business College, 15
Klink, Ron, 117–118
Martin, Robert L., v, 131–
132, 137
Kogan, Leo, 66, 170
Krogseng, David, 70
Kwiatkowski, Matthew, 131
Massachusetts School
of Barbering and Men’s
Hairstyling, 166
Masterson, M., 173
l
Mays, Stan, Jr., 134
La James College of
Hairstyling and Cosmetology,
166
McCaffrey, Barry, 129, 131
McComis, Michale, 89, 101,
119, 154, 174
Mountain State College, 165
Murillo, Gerardo, 134
Murray, Patty, 119
n
Nashville Auto Diesel, 166
Nashville Business College, 57
Nathanson, Bobbi, 143, 152,
155–156, 171, 174
National American University,
166
National College of Business
& Technology, 129, 131, 165
Lansdale School of Business,
166
McKeon, Howard P. “Buck,”
122
Larson, Clifford L., 170
McKernan, John, 111
Laureate, 141
McKinney, T. Harry, 170
Lawlor, Mary Ann, 168
Meadows, George A., 43, 168
Newport Business Institute,
165
Lee, J. B., 173
MedTech College, iv, 94, 113,
146, 162
Noffsinger, J. S., 38
America
Patricia Stevens College, 167
Petrello, George J., v
Pham, Dennis, 155
New England Culinary
Institute, 131, 134
Rhude, A. Lauren, 168–169
South College, 165
Rider College, 22
Southern Institute, 113
Ridge, Tom, 110–111
Spangler, P. S., 39, 168
Ridley-Lowell School of
Business, 165
Sparks College, 166
Ries, Al, 78
Roblee, Ernest E., 169
Rochester Business Institute,
165
Rockford Business College,
18, 49, 165
Rohiffs, C. D., 168
Rohm, C. Dexter, 169
Rowe, John, x
Rubinger, A. L., 170
Ryan, Harry E., 168
Phillips, Clarence A., 168
s
Pinnacle Career Institute, 167
Pitman, Isaac, 6, 144
Platt, Michael, 131
Salon Schools Group, 166
Plaza College, 166
San Joaquin Valley College,
135, 155
Pope, H. Everett, 168
Sanford-Brown College, 165
Porter, Hubert, 21
Santa Barbara Business
College, 165
Post, Harold B., 168–169
Powell, Colin, 130
Pro Way Hair School, 167
Pry, George, 122, 175
q
Quigley, Craig, 129, 131, 134
Rasely, Hiram N., 26, 36, 43,
168
Mcintosh College, 165
to
Parks College, 165
Nettleton College, 59
Lafeber, T. J., 170
178 In Service
Parker, Stephen, 103
r
McElroy, Neil, 42
McGraw, James H., vii
Paone, Frank, 168
National Institute of
Technology, 166
Laboratory Institute of
Merchandising, 166
Lee, Joe E., 168
p
Miller, Ken, 154
Lopez, Henry, 131
Maetzold, E. R., 168
Kim, San, 134
Ohil Business College, 165
Pace Institute, 35
Longanecker, David, 120, 174
Keller School of Management,
141
Kennedy, Ted, 119
Obenhaus, Robert, 170
Miller, Jay W., 43, 55, 168–
169, 172
Keiser Career College, 122,
154–155
Kennedy, John F., 50
o
Santangelo, Pat, 103
Santorum, Rick, 118
Sanz School, 166
Sapienza, Thomas, 101, 118,
120, 171, 175
Schreiber, Linda, v
Schultz, Tim, 171
Sears, Stuart E., 169
Sedlak, Nancy, 170
Shapiro, Edward M., 168–
169
Sholes, Christopher Latham, 7
Rasmussen College, 165
Simmons Institute of Funeral
Services, Inc., 165
New England Institute of
Technology, 166
Reagan, Ronald, 54, 71–72
Simon, Paul, 73, 92, 173
New York Career Institute, 167
Refrigeration School, 131
Smith, Darrell, 131
Reigner, Charles G., 172
Remington College, 134
Sneden, Robert W., 53,
168–169
Research College of Nursing,
165
South University, 165
Nunn, Sam, 98
South, John T., Jr., 168–169
w
Tennessee School of Beauty of
Knoxville, 166
TESST College of
Technology, 167
Waddles, Omer, 118, 141,
157, 171, 175
Spaulding, George A., 168
Teterboro School of
Aeronautics, Inc., 167
Walden University, 141, 155
Spencer, L. Clay, 168
Texas Tech, 55
Spencer, Platt Rogers, 6–7
Thomas, Wanda, 80
Spencerian College, 165
Thompson, Joseph, 170
Spencerian Commercial
Academy, 6
Thompson, Tommy, 154
Spisak, Dennis, v
Tolbert, Jack F., 68, 170–171
Steed, Howard S., 169
Stevens, I. W., 168
Stevens, L. R., 168
Stevens-Henager College,
14–15, 165
Stewart, G. C., 59, 168–169
Stratton, H. B., 7, 9–10
Stratton Schools, 59
Strawn, Weldon L., 168
Strayer University, 140–141,
165
Sullivan, A. R., 56, 168–169
Sullivan, Mark, 172
Sullivan Business College, 57
Sullivan Junior College of
Business, 56
Sullivan University, 134
Swanson, Tyler, 80
Technical Career Institutes,
166
Western Business College, 167
Universal Technical Institute,
95, 134, 140–141, 150
University of Pennsylvania,
vi, 5
University of Phoenix, 140
Utica School of Commerce,
165
Westwood College of
Aviation, 131, 167
White, Ellis, 170
Wichita Technical Institute,
167
Williams, Benjamin Franklin,
16, 38, 168
Winger, Fred, x
Woodward, C. W., 37–38
v
VC Tech, 146, 150–151
West Tennessee Business
College, 165
West Virginia Junior College,
165
Underhill, Edward F., 7
Van Opt, B. H., 25
Weddington, Whit, 66
West Virginia Business
College, 165
u
Symonds, F. Addington, vi
Webster College, 166
Weimern, Sherri, 134
Turner, Kerry, v
Van Erden, James, 111
Taylor, Robert, 80
Watson, W. N., 18
Tulsa Welding School, 167
Sylvan, 141
Taylor, Frederick W., 18
Waters, Maxine, 92
Tribbey, Walter J., 168
Vale, Donald, 170
Taylor, Emily, 137
Walter, Margaret, 131
Tredway, Jeremy, 134
Swiggert, Glen Levin, 22
Taft, Robert, 41, 154
Wall Street University, 141
Thompson Institute, 166
Sweetland, Dean C., 44
t
Waldhauer, Donald H., 169
Worsham College, 166
Y
Yena, John A., 168
Velma B’s Beauty Academy,
166
Young, Kenneth, 170
Z
Vernons Kansas School of
Cosmetology, 166
Vetter, J. T., 168
Zachos, John, 7
Virginia College, 64–65, 111,
139, 144, 147, 150, 157,
162–163
Zaiden, Richard, 170
Virginia Farrell Beauty
School, 166
Temple schools, 59
In Service
to
America 179
Picture Credits
Chapter 7: Changes
The Imagine America Foundation gratefully acknowledges the many individuals and institutions who
contributed illustrations for inclusion in this book.
Front Matter
Photo Essay: Growth …Is Inevitable
IV: IAF; V: IAF; VI: McGraw Hill; VII: McGraw Hill; VIII:
McGraw Hill; IX: McGraw Hill; X: McGraw Hill.
46: Art Institute of Pittsburgh; 47 (top): Davis College; 47
(bottom left): Art Institute of Pittsburgh; 47 (bottom right):
Brookstone College of Business; 48 (top): NATTS/IAF; 48
(bottom left): Indiana Business College; 48 (bottom right): ECPI
College of Technology; 49: Rockford Business College.
Chapter 1: Our Heritage
3: Indiana Business College; 4: Indiana Business College; 5:
Berkeley College; 6 (top): reprinted from In Service to America:
AICS at 75; 6 (middle): Indiana Business College; 6
(bottom): reprinted from In Service to America: AICS at 75; 7
(top): Davis College; 7 (middle & bottom): Indiana Business
College; 8: AICS/CCA; 9: Indiana Business College; 10:
Indiana Business College.
Photo Essay: Our Heritage
12 (top left): Erie Business Center; 12 (top right): Davis College;
12 (bottom): Minnesota School of Business; 13 (top):
Indiana Business College; 13 (bottom left): Davis College; 13
(bottom right): Central Pennsylvania Business School; 14 (top):
Stevens-Henager College; 14 (bottom): Globe College; 15 (top):
Stevens-Henager College; 15 (bottom): Indiana Business College.
Chapter 2: Founders
and
Foundations
17: Indiana Business College; 18: Rockford Business College; 19:
Berkeley College; 20: Erie Business Center; 21: Minnesota School
of Business; 22: Art Institute of Pittsburgh; 23: Minnesota School
of Business; 24: NATTS/IAF; 25: Minnesota School of Business;
26: NATTS/IAF; 27: Minnesota School of Business.
Photo Essay: Founders
and
Foundations
28 (top left): Minnesota School of Business; 28 (top right):
Indiana Business College; 28 (bottom): Indiana Business College;
29 (top): Indiana Business College; 29 (bottom left): Berkeley
College; 29 (bottom right): Indiana Business College; 30 (top):
Berkeley College; 30 (bottom left) Brookstone College of
Business; 30 (bottom right): Art Institute of Pittsburgh; 31 (top
right): Indiana Business College; 31 (top left): Berkeley College;
31 (bottom): Indiana Business College.
Chapter 3: Growth … Is Inevitable
33: Berkeley College; 34: Coyne American Institute; 35: Art
Institute of Pittsburgh; 36: Globe College; 37 (top): Brookstone
College of Business; 37 (bottom): AICS/CCA; 39: Indiana
Business College; 40: Minnesota School of Business; 41: Globe
College; 42: Berkeley College; 43: Banner Business; 44: Art
Institute of Pittsburgh; 45: AICS/CCA.
180 In Service
to
America
Chapter 4: Postwar Changes
51: Erie Business Center; 52: AICS/CCA; 53: Art Institute
of Pittsburgh; 54: Minnesota School of Business; 55: Globe
College; 56: Brookstone College of Business; 57 (top) Davis
College; 57 (bottom): Central Pennsylvania Business School; 58:
ECPI College of Technology; 59: Indiana Business College; 61:
AICS/CCA.
Photo Essay: Postwar Changes
62 (top): Art Institute of Pittsburgh; 62 (bottom): Brookstone
College of Business; 63: ECPI College of Technology; 64 (top
left): Virginia College; 64 (top right): Brookstone College of
Business; 64 (bottom): Erie Business Center; 65 (top): Virginia
College; 65: ECPI College of Technology.
Chapter 5: The Inclusion
of NATTS
66: NATTS/IAF; 67: Minnesota School of Business; 68: NATTS/
IAF; 69: Career Training; 70: NATTS/IAF; 71: ECPI College of
Technology; 72: Career Training; 73: NATTS News & Views.
Photo Essay: The Inclusion
of NATTS
74: Career Training; 74 (middle): NATTS/IAF; 75: NATTS/IAF;
75 (bottom): NATTS News & Views; 76: NATTS Newspaper;
77: NATTS/IAF.
Chapter 6: The Consolidation
79: Career College Association Newspaper; 80: NATTS/IAF;
81: NATTS/IAF.
Photo Essay: The Consolidation
82: AICS/CCA; 83: AICS/CCA; 84: AICS/CCA; 85:
AICS/CCA.
in Accreditation
87: ECPI College of Technology; 88: Career Training; 89:
NATTS/IAF; 90 (top): The Link; 90 (bottom); ECPI College
of Technology; 91 (top): NATTS/IAF; 91 (bottom): Grantham
University; 92: NATTS News & Views; 93 (top): ECPI College of
Technology; 93 (bottom): NATTS Newspaper.
Photo Essay: Changes
in Accreditation
94 (top left): MedTech College; 94 (top right): AICS/CCA;
94 (bottom left); AICS/CCA; 94 (bottom right): High-Tech
Institute; 95 (top left): AICS/CCA; 95 (bottom left): Universal
Technical Institute; 95 (bottom right): AICS/CCA; 96 (top):
Automotive Training Center; 96 (bottom left): Culinard, Virginia
College; 96 (bottom right): AICS/CCA; 97 (top left): Gene
Juarez Academy; 97 (top right): AICS/CCA; 97 (bottom left):
AICS/CCA; 97 (bottom right): Make-up Designory.
99: AICS/CCA; 100: Erie Business Center; 101: The Link; 102:
Automotive Training Center; 103 (top): Gene Juarez Academy;
103 (bottom): Career College Times.
Photo Essay: 1992 Reauthorization
104: AICS/CCA; 105: AICS/CCA; 106: AICS/CCA;
107: AICS/CCA.
of Renewal
1993
to
2006
109: Career Education; 110: Jenny Faubert; 111 (top): Virginia
College; 111 (bottom): CCA.
Photo Essay: A Time
1993 to 2006
of Renewal
112 (top): Indiana Business College; 112 (bottom): Coyne
American Institute; 113 (top): Virginia College; 113 (bottom
left): Make-up Designory; 113 (bottom right): MedTech College.
Chapter 10: The Growth
of CCA
114: NATTS/IAF; 115: Berkeley College; 116 (top): The Link;
116 (bottom): Indiana Business College; 117: The Link; 118: The
Link; 119: Erie Business Center; 120: The Link; 121: The Link;
122: NATTS/IAF; 123; The Link.
Photo Essay: The Growth
128: IAF; 129: IAF; 130 (top); Culinard, Virginia College; 130
(bottom): IAF; 131: IAF; 132: IAF; 133 (top): Erie Business
Center; 133 (bottom): Berkeley College.
Photo Essay: The Foundation Effect
Imagine America
134: IAF; 135: IAF; 136: IAF; 137: IAF.
Chapter 12: Changes
to the Sector
139: Virginia College; 140: Universal Technical Institute;
141: ITT Technical Institute; 142: Erie Business Center; 143:
The Link; 144 (top): Virginia College; 144 (bottom): Indiana
Business College; 145: Kaplan Career Institute – ICM campus.
Photo Essay: Changes
Chapter 8: 1992 Reauthorization
Chapter 9: A Time
Chapter 11: The Foundation Effect Imagine America
to the Sector
146 (top): Virginia College; 146 (bottom left): Erie Business
Center; 146 (bottom right): MedTech College; 147 (top left):
ECPI College of Technology (top left); 147 (top right): Virginia
College; 147 (bottom): Coyne American Institute; 148 (top left):
Make-up Designory; 148 (top right): Gene Juarez Academy; 148
(bottom): Gene Juarez Academy; 149 (top left): Gene Juarez
Academy; 149 (top right): Make-up Designory; 149 (bottom);
Make-up Designory; 150: VC Tech, Virginia College; 151 (top
left): Universal Technical Institute; 151 (top right): VC Tech,
Virginia College; 151 (bottom): Automotive Training Center.
Chapter 13: Future
of the Sector
153: Berkeley College; 154: High-Tech Institute; 155 (top):
Berkeley College; 155 (bottom): Indiana Business College; 156
(top): Kaplan Career Institute – ICM Campus; 156 (bottom):
Berkeley College; 157 (top): Virginia College; 157 (bottom): IAF.
Photo Essay: Future
of the Sector
158: Make-up Designory; 159: Make-up Designory; 160:
Culinard, Virginia College; 161: Culinard, Virginia College; 162
(top): MedTech College; 162 (bottom left): Erie Business Center;
162 (bottom right): Virginia College; 163 (top): HoHoKus
School; 163 (bottom): Virginia College.
of CCA
124 (top): Erie Business Center; 124 (bottom left): Berkeley
College; 124 (bottom right): Erie Business Center; 125: Erie
Business Center; 126: Indiana Business College; 127: Erie
Business Center.
In Service
to
America 181

Private career colleges and universities have a long heritage that is

Transcription

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