The Origin of Soviet Education for Librarianship: The Role of

Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE)
The Origin of Soviet Education for Librarianship: The Role of Nadezhda Konstantinovna
Krupskaya Lyubov' Borisovna Khavkina-Hamburger, and Genrietta K. Abele-Derman
Author(s): John V. Richardson Jr.
Source: Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, Vol. 41, No. 2 (Spring,
2000), pp. 106-128
Published by: Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE)
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A
The Originof Soviet
Education forLibrarianship
The Role of Nadezhda Konstantinovna
KrupskayaLyubov'BorisovnaKhavkinaHamburger,and Genrietta K.Abele-Derman
JohnV RichardsonJr.
In tracing
theoriginsofearlySovieteducationforlibrarianship
to theearlypart
ofthetwentieth
thisarticlepresents
brief
information
about
century,
biographical
three influentialleaders in the field- the Bolshevik N. K. Krupskaya
L. B. Khavkina
(1869-1939),thepre-Revolutionary
(1871-1949),andcounfigure
theideologicalissues
G. K. Derman(1882-1954).Furthermore,
terrevolutionary
aroundthestateofpubliceducation,
and reading,
theroleof
revolving
literacy
librarians
in Russia
and libraries,
and theprototypic programs
oflibrarianship
arecontrasted
withAmerican
views.
"Withouta book,
withouta library,
withoutthe skillful use of books
there can be no
culturalrevolution
forthereader."
- N. K. Krupskaya
and Derman,drawingfromsignificant
as well as secondary,Russian
primary,
sourcematerial.
Justification
The noted information
scientist,A. Y.
in 1989aboutthe
whilewriting
Chernyak,
ofherdeath,declared
anniversary
ManyWesternscholarsof educationfor fiftieth
that
"A
ofKrupskaya's
and
information
science
full
evaluation
siglibrary
recognize
the name of Nadezhda Konstantinovna nificance
shouldbe undertaken
bylibrary
as thefirst
Krupskaya
personto formalize historianswithoutdelay."2I wish to
argue,however,that Krupskaya'swork
libraryand bibliographicaltrainingin
Russiaduringtheearlypartofthetwen- cannot be fully understood without
tieth century.Unfortunately,
theworkoftwootherRussian
there is
addressing
relatively little information about women- Dermanand Khavkina.Furtherin English,and
contribution
more, despite women's dominancein
Krupskaya's
Westernscholarshave been unable to
Russianas well as in Americanlibrariandrawextensively
upontherichliterature ship,in numerictermsat least,themajorthatis availablein Russian.1In orderto
ity of LIS scholarshave ignoredthese
in partdue to lanfillthisknowledgevoid,thisarticlepro- Russiancontributions,
a
and
access
restrictions.
of
three
Indeed,
poses prosopographical
study
guage
Russianwomen- Knipskaya,Khavkina, many Russian scholars have viewed
106
Volume41, Number2
The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship
107
About the Author
of Information
Studies,
JohnV.Richardson,Jr.is Professor,
Department
of
Los
California,
University
Angeles.
Krupskaya"onlyas Lenin'sspouse and
and politicaloffinotas a revolutionary
recent
cial inherownright."3
Fortunately,
feministscholarship in librarianship,
whichreflects
a largershiftin American
is beginningto make
historiography,
thisworkis
amendsforthisdeficiency;
also an exampleofsuchan effort.4
Finally,
thisarticleexplorestheidea thatwe are
part of an internationalprofession
involvedwiththe promotionof certain
ideals by makingcross-cultural
comparisonsbetweentheRussianand American
approachesto educationand theirunderlyingphilosophicalassumptions.
Goals, Objectives, and Questions
The overallgoal ofthisarticleis to proof earlyRussian
vide an understanding
and subsequentSocialist formaleducationforlibrarianship.
Specificobjectives
and
thecharacteristics
are (1) to identify
of Krupskaya,Khavkina,
contributions
and Derman;(2) to pinpointtheideological ideas and assumptionsunderlying
and (3) to arguethatthehistheirefforts;
of
tory earlySovieteducationforlibrarianship was influenced by those
individualsand theirideologies.These
multilevelobjectivesensurean analytic
approachto thetopicratherthana simple chronologyof events. Three key
researchquestionsinclude: What peras well as organizasonal characteristics
tional and leadership skills did
Khavkina,and Dermanbring
Krupskaya,
to the formative
periodofRussianeducation for librarianship?What were
these women's ideological ideas and
assumptions,which resulted in their
pioneeringwork of organizingformal
educationalprogramsforlibrarianship?
And finally,how much influencedid
the earliergenerationof librarian-bibliographers(includingA. I. Kalishevskiy;
A. A. Petrovskiy;
and B. S. Bodnarskiy)
have on theirprofessional
perspective?
Three Biographical Sketches
In contrastto the "Marxistdisdain for
the role of personalityin
exaggerating
I believethatpeople are oftenhistory,"
than institutions
timesmoreimportant
in shaping the directionof historical
events, at least in the short term.5
thefollowingthreebiographTherefore,
ical sketchespresentthe essentialhistorical facts of Krupskaya,Khavkina,
and Derman's lives.
Nadezhda K. Krupskaya (1869-1939)
A variety
ofEnglishlanguagebiographical
sourcesprovidetheessentialvitalstatislife.6To date,
tics regarding
Krupskaya's
themostcomprehensive
Englishlanguage
studyavailableis BorisRaymond's1979
book.7Based on all ofthesesources,it is
known that she was born Nadezhda
(which means Hope) Konstantinovna
Krupskayaon February14, 1869, to
Konstantin Krupsky,an avant-garde
artillery officer,in St. Petersburg.8
part
Krupskayalived in thesoutheastern
Streetin
on Staro-Neysky
ofSt.Petersburg
neverrecovfather
the1890s.Krupskaya's
false charges(for
ered fromtwenty-two
example,speakingPolish, dancingthe
Mazurka,and not goingto church)and
in
the subsequentdemotionhe suffered
Poland, so one gathersthat Krupskaya
Spring 2000
108
Science
and Information
Journalof Education forLibrary
grew up in a distressed home.9
she dreamedaboutbecomNonetheless,
inga schoolteacherand receiveda decent
(education):
obrazovaniye
Firstat theuninspiring
government
highschool,[andthen]laterat a more
stimulating
privateschool,headedby
Herinitial
father-in-law.
PeterStruve's
but
was tobecomea teacher,
ambition
sincetherewereno jobsavailable,she
enrolled for two months in the
Bestuzhev
courses[classesforwomen
of nobility],leaving because she
themtoo removedfromreal
thought
life(1889).™
Krupskayadiscovered"real life"in
a small Marxistcircle of studentsfrom
the St. Petersburg Technological
From1891 to 1896,she taught
Institute.
Marxistthoughtto workersin herclasses at the Smolenskaya Evening and
Sunday School.11Many of her students
came fromtheheavilyindustrialdistrict
of the citycalled "Beyondthe Nevsky
Gate"(NevskayaZastava).
Having made the acquaintanceof
VladimirI. Ulyanov in January1894,
Krupsskayahelped himorganizetheSt.
PetersburgUnion of Strugglefor the
Class (also
EmancipationoftheWorking
knownas theUnionforthe Strugglefor
the Liberationof the WorkingClass) in
1895.12 Arrestedin August 1896, she
was finallysentencedin 1898 to a threeyear exile in Ufa Province,Bashkiriya.
The government,however,permitted
her to spend her termwith Ulyanov,
who was in exile in Shushenskoye
(EniseyskProvince), 2,300 kilometers
furthersoutheast in western Siberia.
There,theymarriedon July10, 1898,
and theyworkedtogether
reading,translating,and discussingvariousideas. In
otherwords,theyweretrulyrevolutionHe did not adopt the
ary partners.13
Lenin
until1901 and did so
pseudonym
to hide his postexileclandestineactivities. And, between 1898 and 1924,
Krupskaya'sactivitiescloselyparalleled
his. Theylived in Munich(1901-1905),
returnedbrieflybut illegally to St.
fromNovember1905 to the
Petersburg
end of 1907, thenmoved to Kuokkala,
Finland, and later to Repino, Russia.
Thereafter,they lived in Geneva
(1907-1910); in Longjumeau,just south
ofParis(1910-1911);Krakow(1912-13);
and in London(1912-?).14Afterreading
aboutthe Petrogradstreetbattlesin the
Zurichnewspapers,and thena fewdays
lateraboutCzarNicholasIPs abdication,
on April 3, 1917, they returnedto
via theFinlandStation,along
Petrograd
with more than thirty individuals
(including nineteen Bolsheviks, six
JewishBund members,and threeinternationalMensheviks).Duringthe civil
war that followed, they lived in
and in thevillageofRazliv,a
Petrograd
retreatoutsideofthecity.15
Increasinglyinterestedin popular
education as she had seen it abroad,
Krupskayaalso studiedAmericaneducation and published her work
Narodnoyeobrazovaniyei demokratiya
(People's Educationand Democracy)in
1917 (the second and third editions
appearedin 1919 and 1921, respectively) and was electedto theCollegiumof
the Commissariatof Education of the
Russian Federation(RSFSR) in 1917.
While living in Switzerland,she was
influenced
byPestalozzi'sideas on inteleducation.16In
lectual-moral-physical
the
she
1915-16,
Pedagogical
joined
Society. As deputy to Anatoliy V.
the Russian Ministerof
Lunacharskiy,
Education,Krupksayawas positionedto
influenceeducational reform.During
theperiod1917 to 1920,she workedon
Lenin's decree "On Organizing
Librarianship"in the RSFSR, which
oftheSwisscalled fortheintroduction
American system.17Aftera series of
strokes,Lenin died in 1924; Krupskaya
died suddenlyon herbirthdayin 1939.
rumors,the
Accordingto unconfirmed
Volume4L Number2
The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship
Kremlin
poisonedherbecausesheintendas an occasionfor
ed to use herbirthday
making an anti-Staliniststatement.18
Krupskaya's work on librarianship
between1918 and 1938 is discussedat
lengthin a latersection.
109
in
and attheMiddleAsia StateUniversity
Tashkentduringthe springof 1926. In
1920, Khavkinaheaded the Scientific
ResearchOfficeof Librarianship
(OB) in
Moscow.23In 1924, Glavnauka(i.e., the
stateestablishment
forscientificinstituto investitions)appointeda committee
the OB's activities in order to
gate
Lyubov' Borisovno Khavkinawhetherit shouldbecomean
determine
Hamburger (1871-1949)
institute(a more prestigiousarrangeofthatyear,Khavkina
Khavkinawas bornon April12, 1871,in
ment).In February
thetownofKhar'kov(now in thenorth- was firedandreplacedwitha trustworthy
Communist
namedI. P.Pavlovich,a memeasternpartofUkraine)to thefamilyofa
From
to
ber
of
the
committee.In March 1924,
1890
prominentphysician.19
shewas allowedtoreturn
toher
1912, she servedas the librarianof her however,
hometownlibraryand was a memberof post.Based on Glavnauka'srecommendaof
its board startingin 1902.20In 1903, tion,theOB was renamedtheInstitute
Khavkina founded the firstScientific Librarianship
(IB) laterthatyear.24
As directorof the newly renamed
withinthe
of Librarianship
Department
to a recognizedneed, Instituteof Librarianshipat the Lenin
library.
Responding
text- Library,Khavkinataughtfive courses:
in 1904 she authoreda fundamental
in Russia,itsrepublics,
i
ikhorganizatsiya
booktitledBiblioteki:
(1) librarianship
tekhnika(Libraries:Their Organization and abroad;(2) classification;(3) methods of work with readers (notably
and Techniques).She continuedto be a
and subjectcatprolificauthor of descriptiveworks, exhibits);(4) systematic
and
whichwentintomultipleeditions,and
(5)
synthesizingapplied
aloging;
In 1913,she
in the1910s.21
sheflourished
librarianship.She also published the
initiatedlibrarycoursesat Shanyavskiy firstpolyglotdictionaryof libraryterms
in Russian, English, German, and
People's Universityin Moscow and
as well as secre- French (published in Moscow, 1928).
servedas an instructor
whichinvolved During her lifetime,Khavkina made
taryof the coursework,
threetripsabroadto WesternEurope(in
keepingtrackofstudents.
1925), the United States in which she
Krupskayapaid much attentionto
Khavkina'sideas,especiallythosein her visitedfourlibraryschools (1926), and
Canada (1929).25Her death on June2,
1918workentitled
[The
Knigai biblioteka
Book and the Library). Although 1949, in Moscow, was ignoredby the
Americanlibrarypress.
Krupskayathoughtit had value, she
expressedconcernaboutitsCadettendenKhavkinaarguedfor
cies.22In particular,
Genrietta K. Abele-Derman
to
the
access
libraryshelves and
open
(1882-1954)
simpler,easy-to-uselibraries.The most
The
of
howpaucity Englishlanguagematerial
troubling
pointforgood socialists,
is compensatedbysecondary
mateon
Derman
that
believed
Khavkina
is
that
ever,
Russiansources,the best of which is a
rialistic and idealistic theories could
of
on the 110thanniversary
co-exist (see ideological discussions Festschrift
This workcontainsseveral
below). Duringthe 1920s she traveled her birth.26
and bibliograofPublic articles,and a chronology
at theInstitute
widely,lecturing
next
her
works.
The
bestsourceis
of
EducationinTver'from1921to1922,and
phy
E.
V.
an
article
in
1925
in
both
Odessa
seminars
Seglin.27
by
holding
Spring 2000
110
Science
and Information
Journalof EducationforLibrary
The second daughterofKarlAbele,
was bornon
a riverraftdriver,Genrietta
August8, 1882,in Riga,thethirdlargest
cityof Russia (after1918, partof independentLatvia and knownas the Paris
oftheBaltic).In Riga,she studiedat the
Lomonosov Women'sGymnasiumand
graduatedwitha red (Honors)diploma.
Passing the examination for home
teacher(or tutor)in 1903,she movedto
Moscow to avoid being arrested;there,
she enrolledin higherwomen's pedagogicalcourses.Graduatingin the summer of 1905, she returnedto Riga. On
October5, 1905, she marriedanother
public teacherand criticnamed Vilis
Derman- her comrade in partywork.
Arrestedforrevolutionary
they
activity,
were released due to lack of evidence.
to
FromSt. Petersburg,
theyimmigrated
in
1914.
of
Finland
Germanyby way
Expelled fromGermanythatsame year,
to the United
the Dermansimmigrated
Statesbyway ofSweden and Denmark.
In lateautumn1914,theyarrivedin
Boston, Massachusetts. Genrietta
Dermanworkedas a tutorand enrolled
in SimmonsCollegeas a "special condition" admitin 1916, thengraduatedin
the summerof 1917.28From 1918 to
1921, she worked at Harvard
University'sLibraryand then at the
Libraryof Congresswith their Slavic
and YudinCollections.
In late 1921, Derman returnedto
Latvia,stoppingin Moscowtogivea talk
at its LibraryInstituteon "Librarianship
in America." Her speech emphasized
how theLibraryofCongresssubjectcataloging systemcould play a role in
Russian libraries.Back home in Latvia,
she was arrested.As partofan exchange
of politicalprisoners(ofwhichshe was
one) betweenLatviaand Soviet Russia,
she found herselfback in Moscow in
1922.From1922 to 1928,she focusedon
librarianshipand joined the cataloging
committeeof the institute.By 1923,
Derman headed the two foremost
librariesin Moscow: the Libraryof the
SocialistAcademy,theleadingideologiin thecountry(from1923
cal institution
to 1934), and the RumyantsevLibrary,
/Institute
renamedtheV. I. LeninLibrary
(from1923 to 1931).29In 1924, Derman
organizedthe firstAll-RussianLibrary
Congress,givinga talkon thecentralization of cataloging.In August1930, she
became the foundingdirectorof the
Moscow LibraryInstitute(MBI)- the
devoted
firstindependentestablishment
to thehighereducationoflibrarians.
From 1930 to 1937, Dermanpublishednumerousarticlesabouttheorgaand activitiesofthe
nizationalstructure
MBI. Followingher proposal,the MBI
offered
eveningcoursesforlibrariansin
September1931. In thefallof 1933,the
MBI also establisheda departmentto
trainlibrariansforchildren'swork.On
December 13, 1933, the head of
Narkompros(i.e., The People's Commiadded "head of
ssariatofEnlightenment)
the departmentof librarianship"to
Derman's list of responsibilities.On
April26, 1934,theMBI and theIB (a part
of the V. I. Lenin Library)merged;
Dermanbecamehead ofthisnewunified
thattooktheMBI name.
Institute
Library
Dermanrequestedthat
Afterthemerger,
the IB's responsibilitiesfor preparing
post-graduatestudies instructorsin
be continuedin theMBI.
librarianship
Despitethe harshpoliticalclimate,
she
Dermanwas active internationally;
attendedthe FirstInternational
Library
and BibliographicCongressin RomeVenice in 1929.30In mid- to late May
1935, Dermantook partin the Second
International
Libraryand Bibliographic
in
Barcelona and Madrid.
Congress
There,she talkedabout "InformationalWorkof Soviet Libraries"
Bibliographic
and
"Professional Training for
of
Librarians."On the fifthanniversary
Dermanwas appointtheMBI'sfounding,
on the
Committee
ed to theNarkompros'
of ProfessionalStatusof
Determination
Volume4L Number2
The Originof Soviet Education forLibrorianship
In 1936,
Librariansand MBI Instructors.
movedintotheKhimkicamtheprogram
pus on the west side of the Moscow
River,in the northern
part of the city.
Derman asked for,and received from
so
a special trainplatform
Narkompros,
that studentswould be able to attend
school conveniently.During most of
1937, she workedon designinga new
buildingfortheMBI thatincludeda dorflats
mitoryforstudentsand thirty-two
in a separatebuilding.In
forinstructors
earlyDecember1937, her husbandwas
arrestedon thebasis of forgedevidence
for counterrevolutionary
activities;on
January5, 1938, she too was arrested.
Imprisonedin May 1939, her husband
died in a laborcamp at Vorkutaon the
northwesternslopes of the Ural
Mountains (Pechorskiy Basseyn) on
January18, 1955.31Shortlythereafter,
Derman was "rehabilitated,"meaning
thather good reputation(includingher
was restored.
heir'srightsand privileges)
Ideological Assumptions
Consider the socialist struggle. For
example,beforetheturnofthetwentieth
century"The emperorofall theRussias
is an autocraticand unlimitedmonarch.
God himself commands that his
supremepowerbe obeyed,out of conWiththecapitscienceas well as fear."32
ulationof Tsar Nicholas II in February
Russian's task of
1918, the thoughtful
educatingthe masses in the late 1910s
and early1920s was notenviable.
Writingin 1923, Lenin coined the
phrase "cultural revolution," which
meantthe processof spiritualtransformationof an old-fashioned,
backward,
semiliteratesociety that he inherited
For example,
fromthe former
regime.33
this culturalrevolutionimplied such
goalsas movingtheworkingclass outof
"spiritualslaveryand darkness"toward
a socialistsystemby establishing
public
111
education, developing socialist literature,supportingand popularizingscience, re-educating the bourgeoisie
an atheistic
intelligentsia,
strengthening
worldview,and reconstructing
mores.34
The State of Public Education
To appreciate the primitivestate of
affairsin Russia, readersshould know
that the 1897 census found that 73
pecent of the Russian populationnine
With
years or older were illiterate.35
somewhat more hopeful statistics,
Rashinestimated25 percentofthepopulationwere literatein ruralareas and
in urban areas.36
perhapsthree-fourths
the
human
and bibliothecal
1914,
By
populationshad growntoabout160 million people and 76,000libraries(primarilyseminarschool librariesholding46
million books and journals). By the
OctoberRevolutionof 1917, "14 of the
in thecountrywere
17 millionilliterates
women. Illiteracy was essentially a
Not surprisingly,
woman's problem."37
neededto be done aboutthis
something
situation.
Thus,theCommunist
PartyProgram
of 1919 proposed:(1) a preparatory
system of residentialhomes and kindergartensas well as children'scoloniesfor
childrenundertheage offourin orderto
emancipatewomenforproductivework
followedby (2) a free,
and self-culture;
unified,and singleequal, compulsory,
gradatededucationfromsevento sevenofspecialized
teen;and (3) development
vocational trainingin technicumsfor
young adults after age seventeen.38
the programproposed to
Furthermore,
(and other
open theexistinguniversities
institutesof highereducation,such as
schools) to
polytechnicsand laboratory
the workingclass and provideinstruction (thatis, mass adult education)for
others.39
Previously,the Russian (i.e., tsarist
and Kerensky)educationalsystemhad
Spring 2000
112
Journalof Education forLibrary
and Information
Science
Krupskayawas
Fundamentally,
thinkingabout the issue of timetimeforwomento shop as well as
questionsofwhereto shop ifgoods
were in short supply. For many
Russians,livinga lifeofmildpoverbut also
ty was not only difficult
the
rubric
Under
time-consuming.
SovetskoyeVospitaniye(which
meansSovietupbringing)
Krupskaya
believedthat"training
in skillswithout ideological upbringingis a
meanswithoutan end, while ideowithoutmodern
logical upbringing
in skillsis an end devoidof
training
the means for its fulfillment."43
While outlawingreligiousinstrucYoungSovietgirllookingforway out of Lenin's
tion,Krupskayaand Lenin had to
Spiritual
Slaveryand Darkness
(PhotographcourtesyofT.Yu.Valinovskaya)
deal withthe factthatthe Russian
people were highly superstitious
comparedto Westernstandards.44
been open only to the wealthy.Such a
However, there were relatively few
systempreparedthe next generation's "good" schools, so Krupskayathought
class ofcontrollers theeducationalrole dependedupon the
technical-managerial
(thatis, the captainsof industry)who
whichin turnmeantthatliteracy
library,
esteemed wealth, renown, personal was a fundamental
concern.45
comfortand who, most importantly,
could be countedupon to maintainthe
Literacy and Reading
statusquo. Judging
fromtable1, one can
see that the tsaristsystemdepended As part of the first five-yearplan,
upon "popularignoranceto be themain
Krupskaya proposed to reduce the
amountof illiteracyamongeighteen-to
propoftheautocracy."40
Anyproposedsystemof education, thirty-five-year-olds
by 1927, the tenth
the "Woman's anniversary
however,would confront
oftherevolution.Ofcourse,
For Krupskaya,theanswer theyneeded somethingto read- someQuestion."41
- for
had to includeequalitywithmenas well
thingpublishedand disseminated
as a conceptionofwomanas motherand
rolein the
librariesto have a significant
worker.42
educationof an emancipatedpersonor
By institutingdetskiyesady
and yasli (a voluntary
crechesystemfor new society.46There was a dramatic
babiestwomonthsold and upward,fol- growthof interestin reading;in 1919,
lowed by preschoolfor childrenages
based on his firsthandobservations,
threeto seven),parentsweretaughtthat Reed argued that "all of Russia was
- politics,
childrendid not belongto thembut to
learningto read, and reading
- that home schooling was no
- because thepeople
society
economics,history
wantedto know"aboutwhatwas going
longera necessityor superiorto public
education. In school, children were
on around them.47What Krupskaya
taughtrespect for authorityand self- wanted was for these new readersto
reliance.And,perhapsmostimportant- begin readingabout the partyand the
Soviets.
ly,motherswereemancipated.
Volume41, Number2
TheOriginof SovietEducation forLibrarionship
113
Table 1
On PopularEducation,
Comparisonof State Expenditure
Tsarist
Russiaand the SovietRepublic,1891-1919
Year
Rubles
Percentage Increase
1891
22,810,260
N/A
1911
27,883,000
22.2%
1916
195,624,000
601.6%
1917
339,831,687
73.7%
1918
2,914,082,124
757.5%
1919 (half-year)
3,888,000.000
33.4%
Source: Bukharin.
TheABC of Communism,1922;reprinted. 1961.
In Odessa,based on his 1926 survey
of500 women(workersand nonworkers
alike),Koganfound,however,thatworking womenread less because theyhad
less time than nonworkers.48
Furthermore,thesewomenwere not interested
in readingscientific
literature
(as encouraged by theLeninistpartyline) or about
war and revolution;what theywanted
was something
theydid nothave- some- and they complained
thing cheerful
thatlibrariansdid not give themsuch
works. Fiction was the most popular
political
genre,followedbysomehistory,
and economictopics,as well as hygiene,
transand art.Theypreferred
geography,
lated Americanliterature
(such as Jack
Londonand SinclairLewis),followedby
Britishauthors,thenFrench,and finally
theirown indigenousRussianliterature.
Though Kogan primlyconcluded that
people should read propaganda (for
example,realworkerstories),his survey
thatRussians did
clearlydemonstrates
not do so. This philosophicalissue is a
dialecticalone- highculture(whereone
versuslow culreads qualityliterature)
ture(suchas fairytalesortrashfiction).49
One mightarguethathighculturetakesa
whileignorpositionofmoralsuperiority
natureofreading
ingtheemanicipatory
what some mightcall "read the word,
readtheworld."
did notappreciatethesoKrupskaya
called "value free"or bourgeoislibrary
sciencepopularizedin theUnitedStates,
which advocatedselectingbooks of all
politicalperspectivesand makingthem
equallyavailableto readers.In her system,onlythe bestbooks should be recommendedand circulated;transferring,
and evendestroying
removing,
bourgeois
bookswas nota dilemmaor ethicalconsiderationbecause, in her view, they
wereeitherreactionary,
too constrictive,
or so obsolete as to be useless.50
Illustrative
ofherideologicalorientation,
Krupskayaargued: "give everyvillage
books.... We needbooksthat
important
armus,giveus power."51
The philosophical issue is again dialectic- one of
choice(i.e.,a subjectiveapproachwhere
one reads what one wantsforpleasure,
versuscontrol
happiness,orsatisfaction)
(i.e., a "recommendatory"approach
where one reads what someone else
thinks one needs). The well-trained
socialistlibrarianwould argueby analogythatthephysiciandoes notnecessarily give the patientpills thattastegood
but ratherones thathelp the patient.52
The extremeAmericanview would be
quantity(thatis, we will buryyou in
books)overquality(a handfulofthebest
however,earlytwentitles).Admittedly,
tieth-centuryAmerican librarianship
Spring2000
114
Science
and Information
Journalof EducationforLibrary
was stillemphasizinghighcultureover
populartaste,and theissue ofwhatfiction was appropriatewas also hotly
debated.Perhapsthissituationcan best
be summarizedas the tensionbetween
- a
one'sattitudetowardhumanprogress
of
extreme
liberal, permissivesociety
individualism versus a centralized,
restrictivesocialist one (see table 2
below).53As the primarymoralprinciple, Westerncivilizationplaces "respect
where
forpersons"above a collectivism,
number
thegreatest
for
the
good
greatest
ofindividualsexists.
Role of Librariansand Libraries
A March 2, 1909, circularsent to all
libraries by the Societé de la
Bibliotheconomieyields some insight
into the contemporary
Russian situation.54Returnsfrom368 librariansindicate thatthesmallestlibrary(such as an
izba-chital'nya,the cottage or village
readinghall) held 50 to 200 volumes
while the largestreported5,000 volumes; the typicallibraryoffered200 to
thelargerthe
400 volumes.Interestingly,
the
the
books
were
used on
less
library,
As
for
assistance,
average.
government
140 libraries (65 percent) reported
receivingsome assistance,rangingfrom
how10 to 100 rublesa year.Regrettably,
ever,mostlibrarianshad added no new
bookssince 1907,while some even said
they had not done so since 1902.
Workinga wide rangeof two to thirtyfivehoursa weekwithan averageofsix
to twelvehours per day,38 percentof
the librariansalso indicatedthat they
workedforfree,althoughthemaximum
salaryreportedwas 180 rubles a year.
librariansruled or lined
Furthermore,
theirown paper.Givensuch conditions,
it is not surprisingthatmostlibrarians
held a stronginterestin betterlibrary
organization.
In a comparativesurvey of one
regionbetween1916to 1917 and 1924to
1925, Zvezdin reportedactuallyhaving
found fewerlibrariesin villages (i.e.,
235 down to 180) afterthe October
Revolution, although the number
increasedin townsfromsixteento fiftyseven.55In 1914, 76,000libraries,mainly within seminar schools, held 46
million books and journals. Most of
theseworks,however,wouldnotbe considered appropriatetitles forworkers,
soldiers,or peasants.56So, duringthe
revolution, many such books were
fromthebourgeois.In fact,
appropriated
a goal of establishinga networkor web
of 10,000librarieswas instituted
by the
that
villagescould
They hoped
party.57
in this effort
assist
to
the
peasants
get
voluntarily,especially if the people
would only realize how much they
neededa library.58
It seems clear that as much as
Krupskayaand even Lenin may have
admired American libraries for their
technicalachievements,they certainly
believed that socialist librariesshould
be part of the political process.59The
books placed on the shelves of the
library should make the ideological
the
powerofthepast clear;specifically,
and
should
prejureligion
fight
library
dices,idealism,and anysentimentalism.
In fact,"the only questionis how, not
why,but that depends upon selecting
There
theproperbooksand literature."60
could be no such conceptof objective
book selection because no thoughtful
a bookwith
librarianwould recommend
monarchistideas to readerssince the
librarianwould knowthoseideas would
be harmful.61
therole ofthe
Thus,forKrupskaya,
- who mustbe well
children'slibrarian
- is
informedin the party'sobjectives
crucial in the moral and political
ofRussianchildren,because
upbringing
educationtakestenyears;whereasreading books could accomplishthe same
thingin a shorteramountof time.62In
fact,Krupskayaconfessedthattheyhad
Volume4L Number2
TheOriginof SovietEducation forLibrarianship
Table 2
Ideological IssuesinHumanProgress
Liberal
Conservative
Independent
Freedom
Permissive
Dependent
Control
Restrictive
Self-determining
Unorganized
Hyperindividualism
Democraticpluralism
Externally
regulated
Centralized
Communal
Socialist
115
the socialist librarywould
preference,
makeiteasiertoreadonlyapprovedtitles
by placingthemon a special shelfalong
with annotatedcards in the catalog.
Thus,thereader'spathofleastresistance
was to use therecommended
works.The
librarianscompiledtheselistsofrecommendedbooksbecause "a Sovietlibrarian mustbe educatedscientifically
and
politicallyand be a responsibleparticisocialism.65
pantin constructing
Higher Education forLibrarians
Source: JohnV RichardsonJr.
the importanceof the
underestimated
bookin theCulturalRevolution.
As partof the party'sgoal of popularizingscience, Krupskayaenvisioned
an elementaryphysicaland chemistry
laboratoryattached to every library
because it was essentialto understandnatureoftheworld.
ingthematerialistic
Even with the literacy campaign of
1928-29,however,only1 to 5 percentof
theRussianpopulationmightbe considered libraryusers,muchless laboratory
laborers.63
In Krupskaya'sview, the role of
massovyye(mass or public) libraries
could notbe overlooked.The bourgeois
would always have theirown personal
buttheworkercould notafford
libraries,
to own books.Thus,therightbookshad
to be on the libraries'shelves,forshe
believedthat"librariansmustdesireto
makeeverylibraryan ideologicalcenter
which would help build socialism."64
After
all, librariesweremeantto be ideothatbroughtknowllogical institutions
edgeto themassesand helpedformtheir
consciousness and points of view.
Librariesshould servethe vital role to
bringup a new people, for"withouta
withouttheskillbook,withouta library,
fuluse ofbookstherecan be no cultural
forthereader."Whilereaders
revolution
to read books of theirown
wish
might
Proto-Education
forLibrarianship
in
Russia
Pre-Revolutionary
Similar to the American experience,
Russia organizedprofessionalsocieties,
edited learned journals,and offereda
seriesof informal
coursespriorto establishinga formalsystemofhighereducationforlibrarians.
Forinstance,on March
18, 1908, the Russian Bibliological
Society's librarysection became the
Society of Librarianshipsupportedby
thirty paragraphs of organizational
rules.66In 1910,the firstRussianlibrary
journal,Bibliotekar,
appearedwithP. M.
and it conBogdanovas its secretary,
taineda currentawarenessbibliography
ofbooksand journalarticlesofinterest
to
its audience.67The followingyear,the
FirstAll-RussianLibraryCongresswas
held in Moscow,and forseveralyears,
well-heeledRussianlibrarians
traveledto
Londonand OxfordduringEastertideto
meet with a host of other Western
European librariansand to talk about
and theirsituations.68
theirinstitutions
theearliestRussianattempts
Remarkably,
to organizeformalprograms
ofeducation
forlibrarianship
date onlyto the beginningofthetwentieth
century.
1. St. Petersburg/Petrograd/Leningrad
Most notably,however,in the fall of
1912, the St. PetersburgPedagogical
Spring2000
116
Science
and Information
Journalof Education forLibrary
Institutestartedoffering
optionalbook
and librarysciencecourses(called theoreticallibrarianship)
underthedirection
of its librarian,A. M. Belov,who later
becamelibrarianofthe StateDuma and
wrote his own Rules for Alphabetical
SystematicCataloging(1915).69
Table 3
Eearly Topics of Instructionand
of
Instructorsat the University
Shanyavskiy(Moscow)
Course Title
Instructor
of Books
History
Brandt
Professor
2. Moscow
of Libraries
History
Unknown
Also in 1912,N. A. Shakhovgave 2,000
rubles to the Shanyavskiy People's
librarianto offershort-term
University
weeks
courses
three
(about
long)to
ship
about200 to 400 studentsa year.Under
the direction of Khavkina as head
the other facultymembers
instructor,
included A. M. Kalmykova,Professor
Brandt, A. E. Gruzinskiy, A. I.
Kalishevskiy,B. S. Bodnarskiy,S. O.
and A. U.
Seropol'ko,A. A. Didrikhson,
Zelenko(see table3).70
The faculty'sgoal was forstudents
to understandthefourdifferent
typesof
libraries(thatis, public,academic,spethe procial, and children's).Certainly,
attracted
more
gram
applicants than
and
so students
available,
positions
were selectedon thebasis of theirhaving a secondaryeducationand a strong
or knowledge.
need fornew information
In fact,such courseswerequitepopular
because of the low cost of instruction
and the briefduration;many students
came from rural areas where they
workedthe land and could not leave
theirfamiliesforlongperiods.71
During
hoursoftotal
WorldWarI, theninety-six
whichincludedtenhoursof
instruction,
Russian literature,were offeredfrom
April 13 to May 9, 1915.72Duringthis
consistearlyperiod,typicalinstruction
ed of one four-hour
lectureper day (for
twenty-four days), followed by
practicumvisitsto libraries.Instructors
talked about model libraries,which
were mostoftenforeignlibrariesin the
developed (WesternEuropean) countries.One criticismoftheseclasses was
thatinstructors
triedto squeeze so much
ofthe 19th
Literature
and 20thCentury
Unknown
Literature
Children's
A. M. Kalmykova
MethodsofWorkin
Libraries
Children's
inAmerica
Unknown
to
Introduction
Librarianship
Khavkinaor
Kalishevskiy
Whata Librarian
ShouldKnowand Do
Unknown
Location
Library
Equipment
Unknown
to
Introduction
Bibliography
Kalishevskiy
PracticalBibliography
Unknown
Howto Organizea Library
Unknown
(BookSelection)
and Bookselling
Publishing
Unknown
Companies inRussia
ShelfReading
Unknown
to Systems
Introduction
ofClassification
Unknown
MetricSystem
Unknown
Cataloging
Kalishevskiy;
assistedbyA. K.
Pokrovskaya
BookDisinfectation
and Preservation
Unknown
Processing
Organizing,
and the Use of Books;
of
Administration
Reading Halls
Unknown
Statistics
Library
Unknown
Po BibliotechnomuDelu,"Bibliotekar'
SOURCE: "Kursy
3 (Fall 1912):257-58.
Volume41, Number2
The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship
information
into such a shortperiodof
time that some studentsthoughtthe
classes weretoo compressed;almostall,
however, agreed that the instructors
wereinspiring.73
Formal Education
1. An Ideal Educational System
While Leninwas writingaboutcentralizing the practice of librarianship,
Krupskayaworked out her idea for a
two-year
programofindividualdirected
studyforwould-belibrariansat a library
In the firstyearof herideal
seminary.74
would readtwentyto
students
program,
books at home
recommended
thirty
while also attendingone of threelevelappropriate evening courses at the
ProletariatUniversity.
Ideally,students
wouldhavea largelibrary
nearbyto find
these recommended titles. Students
would attendoccasionallectures,while
wouldbe workingpractitioninstructors
ers.Attheend ofthefirstyear,a written
examinationwould cover theoretical
questions.In the second year,students
would workwith librarianswho were
willing to show students how their
libraryworked and the general techniques of librarywork.Krupskayafurther envisioned that only library
seminarystudentswould workin those
librariesthat contributedinstructors.
Krupskayawanted these students to
develop theirskills in writtenand oral
communicationas well. At the end of
thesecondyear,she proposedthatthey
makean oral reporton theirpracticum;
thelibrarianwhomtheyreplacedwould
be presentat theexam.Logicallyspeaking, however,if the librariandid not
want to be replaced,this "in-and-out"
replacementsystemwould not work.
Nonetheless,successfulstudentscould
of eligibility
thenapply fora certificate
in
thoseinterested
toworkas a librarian;
could
becomingpractitioner-instructors
117
do so by studyingmore library-related
subjectsbeyond the second year. The
concreteobjectiveof the libraryseminary-training
programwas forstudents
to analyze books by theirappropriateness to readersand to predictwhattype
of knowledgereaders would need to
possess in orderto benefitfroma particular title.Accordingto Krupskaya,the
was
overarching
goal ofthisinstruction
to understandthepoliticaland economic worldand whatis goingon in nature
and in social life. While Krupskaya's
plan was neverput in operationas laid
out above, Khavkinaand Dermanboth
benefitedfromitsconceptualization.
2. Leningrad Instituteof Culture
By Lenin'spersonaldecree,theInstitute
of Extra-Scholastic Education in
was foundedon November28,
Petrograd
1918, under the Russian Ministryof
Education.75Organizationally,it containeda Book and LibraryDepartment,
and on December20thof that year,it
opened its doors at 35 Ulitsa
Nadezhdinskaya.Initiallyintendingto
fromworkingrecruitstudentsprimarily
class backgrounds,the early student
bodyactuallyincludedmanypetit-bourgeoisie intelligentsiabecause laborers
thenecesand peasantscould notafford
sary time to study.76Nonetheless,
accordingto the institute'sregulations,
its threefoldgoals were (1) to train
and specialistsin extracurinstructors
or leisurericular(thatis, after-school
timeactivitiessuchas clubs,amateurart
parks)education;
groups,and recreation
and
(2) to solve problemsscientifically
answerquestionsrelatedto extracurricular education;and (3) informworkers
educationand selfaboutextracurricular
The "Book-Library"
education.77
department,one offourdivisions,was directed
byV. A. Zelenkoas itshead.78
The institute's
earliestfacultymembers included: M. N. Kufayev(1888in book scienceand
1948),an instructor
Spring 2000
118
Science
and Information
Journalof Education forLibrary
bibliography;N. P. Likhachev (18621936), an academicianof the Academy
of Sciences of the USSR; A. I. Malein
(1869-1938), an incunabalist at the
Academy of Sciences Library,who
and P. K.
taught"ForeignBibliography";
Simoni (1859-1939), a graduateof St.
Petersburg University, who taught
Incidentally,
"Historyof Publishing."79
Simoniwas consideredone ofthethree
in thebookscimostprolificresearchers
ences. Startingin 1919, A. G. Fomin,a
methleadingdeveloperofbibliographic
ods, startedto give lecturesas a profesfrom1920 to 1923,
sor of bibliography;
he servedas prorectorof the institute.
One ofhis colleaguescalled him"a born
who loves and knowshis subinstructor
ject, who is interestedand makes it
forstudents."80
interesting
theLeningradInstitute
had
1924,
By
reorganizedand changedits divisional
name to the LibraryDepartmentwith
Fomin as its new head. The institute
name changeswhen
underwentfurther
on August28, 1924,it becametheN. K.
Krupskaya Pedagogical Institute of
Politico-Educational
Work,and in 1925,
Communist
Political
theN. K. Krupskaya
EducationInstitute.81
Along with these
changes,the studentbody increasingly
recruitedpeasantsand workers,so that
in 1926-27, fully70 percentof the stuand
dentscame fromthesebackgrounds
52 percentwere Communists.One of
theirnotablegraduatesfromthis early
who later
era was O. E. Vol'tsenburg,
becamehead oftheHermitage
Library.
Krupskaya specifically wrote to
these institutestudents,tellingthemto
eradicate illiteracy,work togetheras
groups, and self-administertests to
Anotherstriking
improvethemselves.82
parallel with developments in the
UnitedStateswas Krupskaya's
insistence
the
social
sciences
thanthe
(rather
upon
basis
humanities)as themethodological
fortraininghighlyqualifiedlibrarians.
She wanted studentsexposed to what
or natRussianscall the"humanitarian"
ural sciences as well, because she was
sure that such course work would
enlargethe students'sphereof knowledge and help themwhenworkingwith
books.
readersor when recommending
In fact,Sokov'sanalysisoftheLeningrad
Communist Political Enlightenment
courseofferings
(Educational)Institute's
reveals that theirstudentsdid indeed
include more subjectsconnectedwith
social-politicaltrainingratherthanspecialtycoursesin librarianship.
3. Moscow
Afterthe OctoberRevolutionof 1917,
therewerethreetypesoflibrary-related
course offerings at Shanyavskiy
courseslasting
(1) short-term
University:
threeto fourweeks;(2) one-yearcourses
forpublic librarians;and (3) one-year
courses for scientific librarians.83
Specific topics included cataloging,
to bibliography,
introduction
summary
and forof literatureon librarianship,
as well as trainingfor
eignbibliography
teachingusershow to use the library.84
Prior to 1920, these course offerings,
alongwiththemuseumand thelibrary,
becamea sectionlatercalled the Office
of Librarianship
(OB) withinthe Public
at theuniversity.
EducationDepartment
Afterthe university'sclosure in
1920, the OB reportedto Glavnauka,a
instituforscientific
stateestablishment
tions.In 1922, the OB mergedwiththe
but due to lack of
Library,
Rumyantsev
suswas
course
work
temporarily
space,
did, however,offer
pended. Instructors
one seminar in statisticsto eighteen
auditors in a small readingroom. In
1923, they received enough space to
subofferseminarsin three different
jects. Up until then, the courses had
been free of charge, but startingin
1923-24,studentshad to pay a smallfee
forthesenoncreditseminars.
In November 1924, Glavnauka
restructuredthe OB, naming it the
Volume4L Number2
The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship
119
Institute
ofLibrarianship
(IB),whichthen researchinstitute,and a librarymusecoursesforscien- um. Enrollmentin the Lenin Library
two-year
beganto offer
tific librariansonly. Administratively, Institutepriorto the 1930s was limited
In
Khavkinaheaded the pedagogicalcom- to membersoftheCommunist
Party.85
mitteethat consistedof all instructors theearly1930s,however,theMBI faculas well as
and studentrepresentatives
ty included B. S. Bodnarskiy,K. R.
A.
threesubjectcommittees
(social science Simon (1887-1986),Yu. V. Grigor'ev,
and
D. Eykhengol'ts,L. A. Levin, L. N.
headedbyV.I. Nevskiy;bibliography
Z. N. Ambartsumyan,
and
book science headed by A. D.
Tropovskiy,
headed
O. S. Chubar'yan,some of whom were
and librarianship
Eykhengol'ts;
.86
byG. I. Ivanov).Theyreceivedtwomore non-Communists
stuand
enrolled
101
new
classrooms,
dents, who were clusteredinto three
Criticismsof Higher Education
groupsdue to a lack of space to accommodatethemas one class. Studentsstud- In 1919,Krupskayawroteaboutexisting
to
ied socialscienceand wereintroduced
highereducationforlibrarians,saying:
in
"its workis not organizedin theway it
and library
basicgrammar
terminology
be. What kind of instructor
or
should
which
would
allow
and
German,
English
litera- librariandoes our countryneed? He
themto read foreignprofessional
in 1926,theyhad thirteen mustnot onlyknowhis specialties,but
ture.Starting
also be a propagandist.
all ofwhomhad to
full-time
So, he mustnot
instructors,
know
the
American
oftheIB in ordertoteach.In
be graduates
system of
only
butalso be able to analyze
the 1927-28 academic year, the IB
librarianship,
researchand educa- lifethatsurroundshim. He has to be a
becamea scientific
at the V. I. Lenin politicallyconscious Marxist,a good
tional establishment
as Rumyantsev revolutionary.
known
Then,he will be ofbeneLibrary(formerly
to
our
fit
which
enrolled
country."87
substantially
Apparently,her
Library),
criticisms persisted long afterward,
more studentswho hoped to trainas
who
instructors
(see table4 forlistofcourses). probablydue to manyinstructors
offor- were apatheticor wished to stayout of
Afterthe 1918 establishment
mal educationin thelibrarydepartment politics.
to
at the St. Petersburg Pedagogical
By 1931,thefirstpublishedeffort
Dermanthoughtit was unlike- criticizesuch course workappeared in
Institute,
Bibliotekar'
(Red Librarian).
ly she could create an independent theKrasnyy
establishmentof highereducation for Accordingto an anonymousauthor,of
librariansin Moscow.However,on July the450 to 510 totalhoursofcoursework
coveredduringnine months,therewere
12, 1930,theCommitteeofthePeople's
and
too manycourses on bibliography
Commissars (Sovnarkom) decided to
readers
or
of
of
indethe
an
of
establishment
the
psychological
aspects
approve
of
V.
I.
at
the
institute
Furthermore,
many
generally.
people
pendent library
the textbookswere inadequatebecause
whereDermanbecamethe
LeninLibrary
In
director
oftheMoscowLibrary theywerenotarrangedconveniently.
founding
to place the blame elsewhere,
an effort
Institute(MBI). Openingon October1,
one researcher,
1930,theMBI had two staffmembersto
(possibly,L. R.?) Kogan,
forspendingtoo much
was
out
formal
educational
a
singled
program
develop
for librarians.Its organizationalstruc- timeresearching
peasantand bourgeois
readers.Finally,the anonymousauthor
of Derman's
turewas morereminiscent
Americanexperience,combiningmid- acknowledgedthat a great amount of
these
dle and highereducation,a scientific workhad been putintoorganizing
Spring 2000
120
Science
and Information
Journalof Education forLibrary
Table 4
of Bibliography
First-Year
Coursesat the Moscow Institute
Duringthe 1927/28Academic Year
Hours
Course Titles
Instructor
Social Science
A. State and Social Systemsofthe USSR
B. Historical
Materialism
40
50
VA. Stein
Z.G. Grinberg
General Librarianship
A. Librarianship
inRussia,USSR,and Abroad
B. Scientific
Libraries
30
12
L.B.Khavkina
VA. Stein
AppliedLibrarianship
A. Stacks,Placing,and Preservation
of Books
B. Classification
C. Cataloging (Alphabetical)
D. Workina Reading Roomand Circulation
E. MethodsofWorkwithReaders (Exhibits)
F. BookPropaganda & PoliticoEducationalWork
32
30
100
16
10
Yu.V Grigor'ev
L.B.Khavkinaand A. D. Treskina
G. I.Ivanovand L VTrofimov
VA. Steinand Yu.V Grigor'ev
L.B.Khavkina
20
A.A. Pokrovskiy
BookScience and Bibliography
A. Bibliographical
Methods
& RussianBibliography
B. History
ofWestEuropean& RussianBooks
C. History
of Publishing
40
30
25
A. D. Eykhengol'ts
N.RGarelinand G. P Georgiyevskiy
M.I.Shchelkunov
Languages
A. English
B. German
50
50
N.G. Grinevskaya
S. D. Konshina
3 hourseach)
Excursions
(5 trips,
510
Total Number of Hours
Source: LB. Khavkina Uchebnyy Plan na 1927-1928 god (Program of Lectures forthe 1927/28Academic Year), 1928.
courses,but that the resultswere not
worthsuch effort.88
Krupskayaherself
echoed some of these same criticisms,
sayingthattherewerestilltoomanysubjectstaught,butalmostno reallyperfect
and no educationalor visual
textbooks,
to
supplies supportthe kind of instructionshe envisioned.Despitethesecriticisms,Krupskayavisitedthe Leningrad
Institutein 1932, meetingwith its students.On February4, 1939, just three
weeks beforeshe died, she metwith a
group of formerinstitutestudentsin
Moscow.A. F. Shishkin,who became a
reflected
at theinstitute,
upon
professor
his experience as a student during
1922-1924, when he commentedthat
"The Institute'sstudyplan was multi-
Volume41, Number2
TheOriginof SovietEducation forLibrorianship
However,manyofthediscidisciplinary.
plines were not essential for training
futurelibrariansor were taughtso that
theylost all theirvalue."89Othercriticisms suggestedthatthe lectureswere
over the heads of most students,that
therewas littleinteraction
withinstruchad little
tors,and thatsome instructors
of
libraries.
practicalknowledge public
12 1
cially the children'slibrarian,as a pivotal part of the political process.
Krupskayacertainlyadvancedthenumber of urbanlibraries,but to the detrimentofruralones.
Withouta doubt,subjectcategories
arethebasicconcepts,serving
as thefocal
oftheworld.The risk
pointsforcognition
of creatingideological orientationsas
binaryrelationships,of course, means
thatfundamental
unitymay be missed.
Whileonecan talkabouttherelativemerConclusions
versusnonfiction,
itsoffiction
theunderdiscussion
is
about
and
Khavkina,
lying
readingand its
Together,Krupskaya,
Dermanall seem to have had extraordi- fundamental importance. Khavkina
while
naryvisionand influenceon thegrowth arguedforopen access to libraries,
to
of Russian librarianship.Part of their Dermanpossesseda stronginclination
and
advocate
for
catavisioncamefromtraveling
abroad,espesubject
organize
librarothersystems.More
loging.Herknowledgeof"foreign"
ciallyexperiencing
particularly, Krupskaya envisioned ianshiptheoriesand practices,however,
createdtroubleforherduringtheStalinist
equalitybetweenwomen and men and
seemed to stem
an innovative high-level study-work regime.Her difficulty
of
thosewho were
a
from
Stalin's
distrust
librarians
called
for
trainingprogram
educated before the Revolution. One
libraryseminary,which Derman and
could furtherargue that the subject
Khavkina,indeed, tried to realize in
their own institutes.Throughoutthis approachto catalogingin Sovietlibrariearlyperiod(i.e., thelate 1920s),litera- anshipwas delayedbecause no one else
cy increasedrapidly,especiallyamong wantedto touchit,especiallyafteritwas
labeled "formalistic and harmful."
was
women,evenifthe"best"literature
notbeingread.
Derman,however,stubbornly
persisted.
The parallelsbetweenRussian and
Together,Krupskaya's,Khavkina's,and
strikeone in the Derman'seffortsin librarianshipmade
Americanlibrarianship
possibleforthe
way Russians developed their higher the"CulturalRevolution"
educationforlibrariansand especially reader.
theirawarenessofothersystems,particularlythe Americancatalogingsystem.
Acknowledgements
Although the firstRussian faculties
oriappearrathermorebibliographically
ented than Americanprograms,their Thispaperhas itsoriginin a spring1996
common concerns about quality of
trip to the Russian Federationas an
textbooks,a social science ALISE Teaching Fellow (see my
instruction,
"EducationforLibraryand Information
methodologicalorientation,and what
constitutesworthwhileresearch res- Science in Russia: A Case Studyof the
onate with the Americanexperience. St. Petersburg State Academy of
Russiansopenedhighereducationto the
Culture," Journal of Education for
workingclasses- somethingAmericans Libraryand InformationScience 39
are still strugglingto do. Unlike the
(Winter1998): 14-27); hence, my priAmericansystemperhaps,theRussians marydebtis tothisassociationand tothe
viewed the public librarian,and espegeneroussupportofIREXand theH. W.
Spring2000
122
Science
and Information
Journalof Education forLibrary
Wilson Foundation.Since then,I have
twice returnedto Russia with support
fromUCLA'sCouncilon Research(1997
and 1998) and an ALISE ResearchGrant
(1998) to pursue my researchinterests
relatedtohighereducationforlibrarians.
I particularly
wish to thanka numDr.
ber of individualsand institutions:
Irina Klim, Librarianof the American
CulturalCenter,St. Petersburg
U.S.I.S.,
the
forcoordinating
mythreeinvitations;
St. Petersburg State Academy of
Culture's Faculty of Library and
Information
Studies,especiallyitsDean,
Dr. Yelena Sudarivoka (1996), and
Nadezhda I. Sergeeva,the archivistfor
the Museum of the History of the
Academy(1997 and 1998),who is writing a historyof the entire institute,
includingits scientificand educational
work; Tatyana Kuzmina, Executive
Association
DirectoroftheSt.Petersburg
forInternational
Cooperation(1997);and
the National Library of Russia, St.
Ariadna
notably
Petersburg,
Vladimirovna(1998). In Moscow,I have
benefitedfrominterviewswith Petr S.
Sokov as well as fromresearchin the
libraryof the Moscow StateInstituteof
Culture,Faculty of Librarianship(Dr.
Dean).
YuriyStolyarov,
None ofthisworkwould have been
possible withoutthe superb research
a June
assistanceofElena Valinovskaya,
State
1998 graduateoftheSt. Petersburg
AcademyofCulture,who specializesin
- translation.
Thanksfinallyto
reference
and SallyJ.
thetwoanonymousreferees
Diessner for suggesting additional
to thistext.
improvements
References and Notes
1. A. Y. Chernyak,"N. K. Krupskayai
Nauchnykhi TekhniPopulyarizatsiya
cheskichZnaniy"(N. K. Krupskayaand
andTechnical
ofScientific
Popularization
I Tekhnicheskiye
Knowledge),
Nauchnyye
BibliotekiSSSR 4 (1989): 7; "Krupskaya
(Ul'Yanova[sic]), Nadezhda Konstan-
tinovna,"in WhoWas Whoin theUSSR,
eds. HeinrichE. Schulz,Paul K. Urban,
and AndrewI. Lebed, (Metuchen,N.J.:
ScarecrowPr., 1972), 319-20; N., N.
"Krupskaya,Nadezhda Konstantinovna
(1869-1939),"in The Soviet Union:A
Biographical Dictionary,ed. Archie
Brown (London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson,1990),190-92.An odd first-perto Lenin,
workunflattering
son,fictional
accompanied by semipornographic
has also been pubscenesofKrupskaya,
lished as /, Krupskaya;My Life With
Lenin: a Novel, coveringevents from
December1894toMay 1922.JaneBarnes
MyLifeWithLenin:a
Casey,/,Krupskaya;
Novel(Boston:Houghton
Mifflin,
1974).
2. Chernyak, "N. K. Krupskaya and
Popularization of Scientific and
TechnicalKnowledge,"7.
190-92.
3. Brown,Biographical
Dictionary,
4. RichardStites,The Women'sLiberation
Movement in Russia: Feminism,
Nihilism,and Bolshevism,1860-1930
(Princeton,N.J.: PrincetonUniv. Pr.,
1978); RobertB. McKean,Si. Petersburg
Betweenthe Revolutions:Workersand
Revolutionaries,June 1907-February
1917 (NewHaven,Conn.:Yale Univ.Pr.,
1990); Linda Edmondson,ed., Women
and Societyin Russia and the Soviet
Union(New York:CambridgeUniv.Pr.,
1992).
190-92.
5. Brown,Biographical
Dictionary,
6. See Schulz,Urban,and Lebed,WhoWas
Whoin the USSR, 319-20; GreatSoviet
Nadezhda
s.v."Krupskaia,
Encyclopedia,
Konstantinova (N.D. Ul'anova[sic]);"
Nadezhda
GeorgijFonotov,"Krupskaya,
(1869-1939),"ALA WorldEncyclopedia,
2d ed. (Chicago:ALA, 1986), 429-30;
Jeanne Vronskaya and Vladimir
Chuguev,A BiographicalDictionaryof
theSovietUnion,1917-1988(London:K.
this
G. Saur, 1989), 210; Interestingly,
sourcestatesthatKrupskaya"(m)arried
Lenin there (i.e., Siberia) (her second
husband;the first,a memberof the SR
(Social Revolutionary)
Party,emigrated
aftertheOctoberRevolutionand died in
Argentinia)." Brown, Biographical
190-92.
Dictionary,
7. Boris Raymond,Krupskaiaand Soviet
Russia Librarianship, 1917-1939
Volume4L Number2
TheOriginof SovietEducation forLibrarianship
(Metuchen,N.J.:ScarecrowPr., 1979).
Nevertheless,the book containssome
wrongdatesand incompletenames,and
and secondary
ignoresrelevantprimary
it sufmaterial;butmostfundamentally
fers froma lack of primaryRussian
sources,as well as beingdated.
8. Sokov used the State Archive,which
contained a special collection on
Krupskaya'spoliticalagenda,as well as
the CentralPartyArchivein Moscow
that contains a special file on
Krupskaya.The archival materialon
Krupskayaat the St. PetersburgCity
Archive(Fund 9414, File 1) has been
moved, according to T. Yu.
Valinovskaya, Restaurateur at the
LeningradState Archive of Art and
Literature.
Krupskayalivedin thesouthon Staroeasternpartof St. Petersburg
to
NeyskyStreetin the1890s;According
B. O. Unbegaun, Russian Surnames
(Oxford:ClaredonPr.,1972),"namegiving in Russia was exclusivelyin the
hands of the Churchuntil 1905, when
weresomewhateased."
theregulations
Ludmila
Goncharov and
9. Lev
Kunetskaya,"Nadezhda K. Krupskaya,
Founder of Soviet Public Education,"
School and Society 99 (Apr. 1971):
235-37.
10. Stites, The Women's Liberation
240.
Movement,
11. The schoolwas foundedin 1764 forthe
highereducation of Russian girls of
nobility.
thentheintellectualand
12. St. Petersburg,
politicalcapitalofRussia,withitsheavy
industrialbase especiallyin metalwork40 percentofthe
ing(whichconstituted
working-classpopulation),faced with
rapidgrowth(500,000in 1853to 1.5 million in 1900 to 2.5 millionin 1917),was
ripe forsociopoliticalmovements.See
McKean, St. PetersburgBetween the
Revolutions.
exileto theLena goldmines
13. Bycontrast,
in EasternSiberiawas a trulyhorrible
thing. While in exile, she wrote
Zhenshchica-rabotnitsa{The Woman
Worker) (N.p.: Iskra, 1901), which
describes the sad state of the rural
Russian peasant woman- undernourand unableto assist
ished,overworked,
123
her childrento growup, continuingto
ofthepast- the
perpetuate
superstitions
urban woman workeris no betteroff
because herwages are low and inequitable, makingprostitutiona continual
temptation. Together with Lenin,
Krupskayaalso translatedSidney and
BeatriceWebb's IndustrialDemocracy
intoRussian.
14. Around1916, she was diagnosedwith
Basedow's Disease, a typeof hyperthyroidismmarkedbyeye signs.Laterphotographs of her demonstrate this
condition.Inessa Armand,Lenin'smistress,lived on Rue Rose Marie in Paris
next door to them and Krupskaya's
mother; Armand is buried in the
Kremlin.Some scholarsdoubtthe existence of such a relationship.See, for
example,Stites,The Women'sLiberation
Movementin Russia; Hamilton-Dunn,
Vladimirand Nadya.
15. A good studyof the Red Armyand its
librarysituationcan be foundin Steven
J.Main,"The Creationand Development
of the LibrarySystemin the Red Army
During the Russian Civil War (19181920): A Historical Introduction,"
65 (July1995):319-22.
Quarterly
Library
16. KateSilber,Pestalozzi:TheMan and His
Work,4th ed. (London: Routledgeand
KeganPaul, 1976).
17. Vladimir I. Lenin, "O Postanovke
the
(On
Bibliotechnogo Dela"
OrganizingofLibraryWork),in Polnoye
Sobraniye Sochineniy(The Complete
Collected Works)(Moskva: Izdatel'stvo
1918),422.
Literatury,
Politicheskoy
18. V. A. Kumanev and I. S. Kulikova,
[The
Krupskaya-Stalin
Protivostoyaniye:
Antagonismbetween Krupskaya and
Stalin)(Moskva:Nauka,1994).
thebestEnglishlanguagearticle
19. Probably
about Khavkina to date is Edward
Kasinec's"L. B. Khavikina(1871-1949):
Ideas in Russiaand the
AmericanLibrary
Developmentof Soviet Librarianship,"
Libri37 (1987): 59-71. Thereare some
goodRussiansecondarysourcesofinformationaboutherlifein Russia,such as
Knigovedeniye. Entsiklopedicheskiy
Slovar'[BookScience:An Encyclopedia),
ed. N. M. Sikorskiy
(Moskva:Sovietskaya
1982).
Entsiklopediya,
Spring2000
124
Science
Journalof Education forLibrary
and Information
20. S. B. Sholomova, "L. B. Khavkina i
BiblioKhar'kovskaya
Obshchestvennaya
teka"(L. B. Khavkinaand the Khar'kov
Public Library),Kniga: Issledovaniyai
no. 51 (1985):156-58.
Materialy,
21. Khavkinapublishedon such topics as
catalogs,theirhistory,
library
theoryand
practice;a guidebookto smalland middle-sized libraries;as well as public
librariesin New York,Paris,and Berlin.
22. The ConstitutionalDemocraticParty,
also knownas The Cadets,or by its formal name,the People's FreedomParty,
was a liberalgroupinitiallysupportive
ofa democratic
republicand thena militarydictatorship,but memberswere
declared enemies of the people after
their April 1917 coalition with the
RussianSocial Revolutionary
Partyand
Mensheviks,the "minor"branchof the
Russian Social Democratic Workers
whichcalled forthedissolutionof
Party,
theBolsheviks.
23. Sikorskiy, Book
An
Science:
Encyclopedia,576.
24. A.V. Ruychkov,"K Istorii Dokladnoy
Zapiski L. B. KhavkinoyOb Institute
Bibiottekovedeniya"(Adding to the
ofL. B. Khavkina'sMemorandum
History
on the Institute of Librarianship),
no. 5/6
SovetskoyeBibliotekovedeniye,
(1992):88-96.
25. At each school,she made presentations
on twotopics:"On Libraries
intheUSSR"
and "MethodsofSovietLibrarianship."
26. A.I. Lyuter,ed., GenriettaK. DermanPervyyDirecktorMoskovskogoBibliotechnogoInstituía:MaterialyNauchnoy
Konferentsiik 110-letiyu So Dnia
Rozhdeniya. Stat'i i Vospominaniya
K. Derman-TheFirstDirector
[Genrietta
of the Moscow Library Institute,
Dedicatedto
Proceedings
ofa Conference
the 110thAnniversaryof Her Birth),
(Moskva:MGIK,1994).Besidesthis,there
is notevena singledocumentabouther,
including her personnel file in the
Moscow State University'sscientific
library,
accordingto Stolyarov.
27. E. V. Seglin,"G. K. Derman,"Sovetskoe
no. 5 (1982): 99-104.
Bibliotekovedenie,
28. Henriette[Matilda]DERMAN:Simmons
DegreeandDateReceived,1917,Simmons
SchoolArchives,
Boston.
CollegeLibrary
29. Yu. N. Stolyarov,"G. K. Derman(G.K.Derman
Uchonyyi Rukovoditel'"
Scientist and Head), in GenriettaK.
Derman- PervyyDirektorMoskovskogo
Bibliotechnogo Instituto: Materialy
k 110-letiyuSo
NauchnoyKonferentsii
Dnia Rozhdeniya. Stat'i i VospomiK. Derman- The First
naniya{Genrietta
DirectoroftheMoscowLibrary
Institute,
Dedicated
Proceedingsof a Conference
to the 110thAnniversary
of Her Birth),
ed. A.I. Lyuter(Moskva:MGIK, 1994),
8-16.
- Scientistand
"G. K. Derman
30. Stolyarov,
Head." 8-16.
31. From1948 to 1950,Dermanheaded the
technicallibraryofa chemicallaboratorynearby.
32. "ArticleOne," in FundamentalLaws of
theEmpire(1892).
33. V. I. Lenin, "O Kooperatsii" (On
Cooperation), in Polnoye Sobraniye
Sochineniy [The Complete Collected
Works of Lenin) (Moskva: Foreign
LanguagesPubi.House,1923).
a 1961 Communist
34. Technically,
Partyof
theSovietUnionphrase.
s.v."Cultural
35. GreatSovietEncyclopedia,
Revolution(socialist),"1982.
36. Adolf GrigorevichRashin, Naselenie
Rossii za 100 Let, 1811-1913 gg.
StatisticheskieOcherki (Moskva: Gos.
statisticheskoe
izd-vo,1900).
37. Stites, The Women's Liberation
in Russia.
Movement
Bukharin and E.
38. Nikolai I.
ABC
of
Preobrazhensky, The
a PopularExplanationof
Communism;
theProgramof theCommunist
Partyof
Russia,trans.EdenPaul and CedarPaul,
reprinted. (Ann Arbor,Mich.: Univ.of
MichiganPr.,1922).
to pursuetheir
39. It would be interesting
- znachit
educationalnotionof "boitsya
"if
he
he
fears
me, respects
uvazhayet"
me."
TheABC
40. Bukharinand Preobrazhensky,
ofCommunism.
41. Stites, The Women'sLiberationMovementin Russia.
42. As the only Marxiststatementabout
women'srights,Krupskaya's1901 book
on the woman workercirculatedfor
Russiaunderthepseuyearsthroughout
Volume4L Number2
TheOriginof SovietEducation forLibrorionship
donymofN. Sablin(a);itwentintoa second editionin 1905.
43. Encyclopediaof SovietLife,s.v. "Sovetskoyevospitaniye"(Soviet upbringing),
ed. Il'ya Zemtsov(New Brunswick,
N.J.:
Transaction
Pubi.,1991),342-43.
44. Examples of Russian superstition
includeblackcats crossingin frontof a
person,givingan odd numberofflowers,
believingin the validityof horoscopes,
spillingsaltbutmakingsurenotto pick
it up withyourlefthand,and my perthe numbers
sonal favorite:
partitioning
on a tramticketand summingthe two
- if the numbersadd up, thenone
parts
shouldeatthepaperticketforgoodluck.
45. Both the landed gentryand bourgeois
"can makeuse oftheschoolforthemanand blind slaves of
ufactureof faithful
capital."Bukharinand Preobrazhensky,
TheABC ofCommunism.
46. As the capital of Russia from1732 to
1918,St. Petersburg
encouragedpublishing: the firstprintinghouse opened in
the
1711;in theearlynineteenth
century
firms of Placilshchikov, Slenin,
Glazunov,and Pliushkarwere founded;
theLiterary
and in thetwentieth
century,
and PublishingSectionof the People's
Commissariatfor Education and the
Publishing House of the Petrograd
Soviet,knownas Lenizdat,opened.
47. JohnReed, Ten Days that Shook the
World(New York:Boni and Liveright,
1919).
48. L. Kogan,"ChtoChitayut
Zhenshchiny?"
(What do Women Read?), Krasnyy
no. 5 (June1926):18-29.
Bibliotekar'
49. Fora representative
sampling,see Words
of Wisdom:Russian Folk Tales from
Alexander Afanasiev's Collection
(Moscow:RadugaPubi.,1998).
50. Formoreon theideologicalview,see V.
Polyakov,"RabocheyeYadro'Biblioteki"
(The Heart of the Library),Krasnyy
no. 4-5 (Mar./Apr.1924):
Bibliotekar9
105-08.
51. K. I. Abramov,Naslediye Krupskoyv
OblastiBibliotekovedeniya
[Krupskaya's
Heritagein the Field of Librarianship)
Po Kul'turei
(Moskva:TsentrInformatsii
Problemam
Iskusstva,1979).
52. M. A. Smushkova,"Bibliotekai Uchashchiyesya" (Library and Students),
125
KrasnyyBibliotekar'no. 1 (Sept./Oct.
1923): 22-26.
53. For example,see AynRand,a RussianbornAmericanwriterwho articulateda
philosophyof objectivism"thatall real
achievement
is theproductofindividual
thatlaissez-faire
abilityand effort,
capitalismis mostcongenialto the exercise
oftalent"(accordingtotheEncyclopedia
Britannica).
54. P. M. Bogdanov,"Obzor Deyatel'nosti
SektsiiBibliotekovedeniya
pri Russkom
Bibliologikal Obshchestve za 19031907" (A Reviewof the Activityof the
Library Section of the Russian
BibliologicalSociety),Bibliotekar'no. 1
(1910): 39-47.
55. V. Zvezdin, "Bibliotechnaya Set'
Prezhde i Teper'" (The State of the
Library Network, 1916-1917 and
1924-1925),KrasnyyBibliotekar'no. 2
(Feb. 1925): 95-97.
56. Note that this tripartiteclassification
scheme commonlyused by Lenin and
othersdoes nothaveroomfortheintelligentsia,clerics,bourgeois,or kulaks(literally, fist), the most prosperous
peasants.One reasonforthis inexhausschemelies in Russia's
tiveclassification
a rearguard
past; while it was fighting
action in Asia, keeping the Kipchak
Khanate from overrunningwestern
to fifteenth
Europeduringthethirteenth
centuries, it missed out on the
and ProtestantReformEnlightenment
ation. Hence, the workethic of, say a
JohnWesley,who said,"workas hardas
you can, save as muchas you can, and
give as much as you can," is missing.
Weberadvances this theoryof a work
ethic (including frugality,self-help,
in 1904-05,and it
and efficiency)
thrift,
is further
elaborateduponbyRichardH.
Tawney,in "Religionand the Rise of
Capitalism:A HistoricalStudy,"Holland
FoundationMemorialLectures,March
and April 1922 (New York: Harcourt,
Brace,1924). Thus,it maybe two more
generationsbefore Russia resembles
what the French intellectualsof the
world"country.
1950scalled a "first
a web or
to construct
57. Krupskaya
thought
chain of librariesflowingthroughthe
likea humanbeing
cityand countryside
Spring2000
126
Science
and Information
Journalof EducationforLibrary
is associatedwithveinsofan organism.
Nadezhda K. Krupskaya, "Nashi
Zadachi" (Our Goal), KrasnyyBibliotekar'no. 1 (Sept.1923): 7-9.
58. Smushkova,"Ocherednaya(The Next
Goal)", KrasnyyBibliotekar'no. 1 (Nov.
1923): 25-27.
59. As earlyas 1913,Leninwroteadmiringly aboutthe New YorkPublic Library's
activities. Vladimir I. Lenin, "Chto
Mozhet Byt' Sdelano D'ya Narodnogo
Obrazovaniva?"(WhatCan Be Done for
Public Education?),RabochayaPravda
no. 5 (July1913); Ofcourse,forlibraries
to have any kind of meaningfulrole,
there must be something to read.
in St. Petersburg,
therewas
Fortunately
a publishinginfrastructure
datingfrom
theearly1750s.
60. V. Polyakov,"RabocheyeYadro,Biblioteki"(The HeartoftheLibrary),
Krasnyy
Bibliotekar'no. 4-5 (Mar./Apr.1924):
105-08.
61. A. N. Vaneyev,RazvitiyeBibliotekovedcheskoy Mysli v SSSR (1917-1959)
from
(Historyof Russian Librarianship
1917 to 1959) (Leningrad:
LGIK,1976).
62. Nadezhda K. Krupskaya,"Rol' Detskoy
Biblioteki i Bibliotekaryav Sovremennykh Usloviyakh" (The Role of
Children'sLibrariesand Librariansin
Modern Conditions),KrasnyyBibliotekar'no. 6 (Dec. 1928): 11-19.
63. N. I. Karpova, "N. K. Krupskaya
Pokhoda"
OrganizatorBibliotechnogo
(N. K. Krupskayaas the Organizerof a
LibraryCampaign),SovetskoyeBiblio3 (1978): 82-90.
tekovedeniye
64. K. I. Abramo
v, Naslediye Krupskoyv
OblastiBibliotekovedeniya
(Krupskaya's
Heritagein the Field of Librarianship)
Po Kul'turei
(Moskva:TsentrInformatsii
Problemam
Iskusstva,1979).
65. Alternatively,
see V Pomosh'Biblioteke:
i pabot c chitatelem
prí komplektovanii
(Moscow: MoskovskiyRabochiy,1930),
whichcontainstwo extensivebook lists
(citingauthorssuchas LouisaMayAlcott,
Harriett
BeecherStowe,MaximGorky,
H.
and K. Chukovskiy,
as well
Chukovskiy,
as titles,mostlyfairy
tales)tobe removed
from
thelibrary;
thefirst
listis bookspublishedbetween1926and 1929,whilethe
otheris children'sbookspublishedprior
PetrS. Sokov,"N. K.
to the revolution;
i
Bibliotechnogo
KrupskayaStanovleniye
Obrazovaniya v SSSR" (A Detailed
titledN. K. Krupskaya
Author's
Summary
of LibraryStudiesin
and theFormation
the USSR), Ph. D. dissertation,
MGIK,
6.
1973,paragraph
oftheideal
66. Foran interesting
description
librarian,read A. Ginken's"Ideal'nyi
- Nikolay
Fedorov"
Fedorovich
Bibliotekar'
(NikolayFedorovichFedorov:The Ideal
Librarian)Bibliotekar'no. 2 (Spring
1911): 12-26. NikolayFedorov (18241903) was a foundingmemberof the
RussianBibliologicalSocietyas well as a
teacherof historyand geography.He
thehallsto geta requestrushedthrough
severalotherbooksjust
ed book,brought
in case, and would give the readerthe
name of anotherlibraryif theydid not
own therequestedtitle.Fedorovviewed
the libraryas a living organismand
reveredthe book as a memoryof those
who precededhim.
67. Fora thoughtful
analysisofthejournal's
contentfrom1924 to 1940, see Natalie
Delougaz, "Some Problemsof Soviet
Librarianshipas Reflectedin Russian
Periodicals,"LibraryQuarterly15 (July
1945): 213-23. Startingwith the Fall
1929 issue, KrasnyyBibliotekar'and
Kniga i profsyuzy(Book and Trade
Unions)merged,withthe latterceasing
publication;whileit containsless inforit does increase
mationon librarianship,
itscoverageofsocial issuessuchas alcoholism,juvenile convicts,and agriculturalwork.
68. H. Schoenberg, "Mezhdunarodnyye
BibliotechnyyeKursy" (International
Library Courses), Bibliotekar' no. 4
(Summer1914): 219.
69. "Kursy Po Bibliotechnomu Delu"
no. 3 (Fall
Courses),Bibliotekar'
(Library
1912): 257-58.
70. For a good biographical study of
see V.N.
Kalishevskiy'scontributions,
Ocherk
Stefano
vich,A. I. Kalishevskiy.
Zhiznii DeyateVnosti
(A. I. Kalishevskiy:
His Life and Activities) (Moskva:
InstituíBibliografii,
1962).
Tsentral'nyy
71. Instructioncost three rubles while
the dorm room cost only one;
E. Evdokimovaand Elena K
., "Na
Volume41, Number2
TheOriginof SovietEducation forLibrarionship
Kursakh.Vpechatleniya
Bibliotechnykh
(Library Courses.
Slushateley"
Recollections),Bibliotekar'no. 3 (Fall
1913): 210-19.
72. "Kursy Po Bibliotechnomu Delu"
(LibraryCourses), Bibliotekar'no. 1
(Spring1915): 87-88.
and ElenaK ., "Library
73. E. Evdokimova
210-19.
Courses.Recollections,"
Sem74. N. K. Krupskaya,"Bibliotechnaya
inariya" (A LibrarySeminary),in O
Dele (On LibraryWork)
Bibliotechnom
ÍMnskva:Kniea.19181.40-43.
75. Soyuz Kommun Severnoy Oblasti,
"DekretN13" (Decree N13), Petrograd:
Komissariat
Narodnogo
Prosvechsheniya:
OtdelPo Vneshkol'nomu
Obrasovaniyu,
1918,p. 1; N. K. Skrypnev,
Leningradskiy
GosudarstvennyBibliotechnyInstituí
Imeni N. K Krupskoy (1918-1958)
Named
Institute
StateLibrary
(Leningrad
forN K. Krupskaya)(Leningrad:LGBI,
1958).
76. In 1921-22, 11 percentof the students
were laborersand 34 percentpeasants;
twoyearslater,1923-24,thepercentages
were14 percentlaborersand 26 percent
peasants.
77. N. K. Skrypnev,
LeningradStateLibrary
InstituteNamedforN.K. Krupskaya;Z.
P. Oleneva,"Razvitiyei Sovremennoye
Sostoyaniye VysshegoBibliotechnogo
SSSR"
(The
Obrazovaniya v
Developmentand CurrentConditionof
Higher Education in the Field of
in the USSR). Ph.D. disLibrarianship
MGIK,1963,11.
sertation,
Chart
78. N. I. Sergeyeva,"[Organizational
of the Petrograd-LeningradState
1918GeneralAdministration,
Institute:
1920 and Faculty Structure,1921LGIK,1978).
1925]" (Leningrad:
"Iz
79. A. V. Suvorovaand E. N. Burinskaya,
Istorii Bibliograficheskoy
Podgotovki
Kadrov"(Historyof TrainingforBiblioBibliographers),Istoriyai Perspektivy
technogoObrazovaniyano. 118 (1988):
42-59; "AleksandrIustinovichMalein
(1869-1938)," in Knigovedeniye.
Entsiklopedicheskiy Slovar' [Book
Science: An EncyclopedicDictionary),
ed. N. M. Sikorskiy
(Moskva:Sovetskaya
Entsiklopediya, 1982), 331; "P. K.
Simoni (1859-1939),"in Book Science:
127
An Encyclopedia;Z. P. Oleneva, "Tak
SozdavalsyaInstitut"(How theInstitute
Was Formed), Za Kadry Sovetskoy
no. 36 (433) (Dec. 17, 1965): 2.
Kul'tury
80. P. N. Berkov,A.G. Fomin (1887-1939).
OcherkZhiznii NauchnoyDeyatel'nosti
(A. G. Fomin,1887-1939:A Beviewof
His Life and Scientific Activities)
(Moskva: Izdatel'stvo Vsesoyuznoy
KnizhnoyPalaty,1949).
81. At first,Krupskayadid not want it
namedafterher,but studentsasked her
and she acquiesced (N. I. Sergeevato
author,Sept.3, 1997).
82. A typicalletterdatedMarch29, 1938,to
institutestudentsfromKrupskayais
on page 21 ofZ. P. Oleneva's
reproduced
"The Development and Current
ofHigherEducation"and also
Conditions
museum.
can be foundin theinstitute's
83. "Institut Bibliotekovedeniya i Ego
Deyatel'nost'" (The Institute of
Librarianshipand its Activities), in
Materialy,ed. L. B. Khavkina(Moskva:
Izdaniye InstitutaBibliotekovedeniya,
1928),5-32.
His
A. I. Kalishevskiy:
84. V. N. Stefanovich,
Lifeand Activities.
- Pervyy
85. K. I. Abramov,"G. K. Derman
docMBI Po Neopublikovannyn
Director
umentam"(G. K. Derman:MBI's First
Director,UnpublishedDocuments),in
GenriettaK. Derman- PervyyDirektor
MoskovskogoBibliotechnogoInstituta:
Materialy Nauchnoy Konferenstsiik
So Dina Rozhdeniya.Stat'i i
110-letiyu
K. Derman{Genrietta
Vospominaniya
TheFirstDirectoroftheMoscowLibrary
Institute,Proceedingsof a Conference
Dedicated to the 110thAnniversary
of
Her Birth),ed. A.I. Lyuter(Moskva:
MGIK,1994),17-29.
86. Simonalso taughtcoursesin Leningrad
and servedas a co-editorof a lateredition of Khavkina'sdictionary(Moskva,
1952); see "K. R. Simon(1887-1966)"in
Knigovedeniye. Entsiklopedicheskiy
Slovar' (Book Science: An Encyclopedia), ed. N. M. Sikorskiy(Moskva:
1982), 258,
SovetskayaEntsiklopediya,
483-84. Yu. N. Stolyarov, "G. K.
i Rukovoditel"(G. K.
Derman-Uchonyy
Derman- Scientist and Head), in
GenriettaK. Derman- PervyyDirektor
Spring2000
128
Science
and Information
Journalof Education forLibrary
MoskovskogoBibliotechnogoInstituto:
k 110MaterialyNauchnoyKonferentsii
letiyu So Dnia Rozhdeniya. Stat'i i
K. Derman(Genrietta
Vospominaniya
TheFirstDirectoroftheMoscowLibrary
Institute,Proceedingsof a Conference
Dedicated to the 110thAnniversary
of
Her Birth),ed. A. I. Lyuter(Moskva:
MGIK,1994),8-16.
Dele.
87. N.K. Krupskaya,O Bibliotechnom
(Moskva:Kniga,1924).
88. V. Denis'yev, "Organizatsionnometodicheskoye PostroyeniyeZaochnykh
KursovTsIZPO" (OrganBibliotechnykh
izational-Methodological Work of
Library Correspondence Courses),
KrasnyyBibliotekar'no. 4 (Apr. 1931):
38-45.
Gosudar89. N. K. Skrypnev,
Leningradskiy
InstituíImeniN. K.
Bibliotechny
stuenny
Krupskoy(1918-1958) [LeningradState
Library Institute Named for N.K.
LGBI,1958).
Krupskaya)(Leningrad:
Volume4L Number2