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ABSTRACTION/ABSTRAKTION
(do you smell me?)
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Contents
Articles
Recursion
1
False friend
7
Information theory
12
Newark, New Jersey
23
Abstraction
44
Gravity's Rainbow
50
Rhizome (philosophy)
59
California slang
61
One and Three Chairs
63
Lexical gap
66
Psilocybin mushroom
67
Object-oriented programming
76
Object language
85
Seinfeld
88
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
104
On Kawara
109
Translation
113
References
Article Sources and Contributors
129
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
134
Article Licenses
License
136
Recursion
1
Recursion
Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. For
instance, when the surfaces of two mirrors are exactly parallel with
each other the nested images that occur are a form of infinite recursion.
The term has a variety of meanings specific to a variety of disciplines
ranging from linguistics to logic. The most common application of
recursion is in mathematics and computer science, in which it refers to
a method of defining functions in which the function being defined is
applied within its own definition. Specifically this defines an infinite
number of instances (function values), using a finite expression that for
some instances may refer to other instances, but in such a way that no
loop or infinite chain of references can occur. The term is also used
more generally to describe a process of repeating objects in a
self-similar way.
A visual form of recursion known as the Droste
effect. The woman in this image is holding an
object which contains a smaller image of her
holding the same object, which in turn contains a
smaller image of herself holding the same object,
and so forth.
Formal definitions of recursion
In mathematics and computer science, a class of objects or methods
exhibit recursive behavior when they can be defined by two properties:
1. A simple base case (or cases), and
2. A set of rules which reduce all other cases toward the base case.
For example, the following is a recursive definition of a person's
ancestors:
• One's parents are one's ancestors (base case).
• The parents of one's ancestors are also one's ancestors (recursion
step).
The Fibonacci sequence is a classic example of recursion:
• Fib(0) is 0 [base case]
• Fib(1) is 1 [base case]
Recursion in a screen recording program, where
the smaller window contains a snapshot of the
entire screen.
• For all integers n > 1: Fib(n) is (Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2)) [recursive definition]
Many mathematical axioms are based upon recursive rules. For example, the formal definition of the natural
numbers in set theory follows: 1 is a natural number, and each natural number has a successor, which is also a
natural number. By this base case and recursive rule, one can generate the set of all natural numbers
Recursion
A more humorous illustration goes: "To understand recursion, you must first understand recursion." Or perhaps
more accurate is the following, from Andrew Plotkin: "If you already know what recursion is, just remember the
answer. Otherwise, find someone who is standing closer to Douglas Hofstadter than you are; then ask him or her
what recursion is."
Recursively defined mathematical objects include functions, sets, and especially fractals.
Recursion in language
Linguist Noam Chomsky theorizes that unlimited extension of a language such as English is possible using the
recursive device of embedding phrases within sentences. Thus, a chatty person may say, "Dorothy, who met the
wicked Witch of the West in Munchkin Land where her wicked Witch sister was killed, liquidated her with a pail of
water." Clearly, two simple sentences—"Dorothy met the Wicked Witch of the West in Munchkin Land" and "Her
sister was killed in Munchkin Land"—can be embedded in a third sentence, "Dorothy liquidated her with a pail of
water," to obtain a very verbose sentence.
The idea that recursion is an essential property of human language (as Chomsky suggests) is challenged by linguist
Daniel Everett in his work Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirahã: Another Look at the Design
Features of Human Language, in which he hypothesizes that cultural factors made recursion unnecessary in the
development of the Pirahã language. This concept, which challenges Chomsky's idea that recursion is the only trait
which differentiates human and animal communication, is currently under debate. Andrew Nevins, David Pesetsky
and Cilene Rodrigues provide a debate against this proposal.[1] Indirect proof that Everett's ideas are wrong comes
from works in neurolinguistics where it appears that all human beings are endowed with the very same
neurobiological structures to manage with all and only recursive languages. For a review, see Kaan et al. (2002)
Recursion in linguistics enables 'discrete infinity' by embedding phrases within phrases of the same type in a
hierarchical structure. Without recursion, language does not have 'discrete infinity' and cannot embed sentences into
infinity (with a 'Russian nesting doll' effect). Everett contests that language must have discrete infinity, and that the
Pirahã language - which he claims lacks recursion - is in fact finite. He likens it to the finite game of chess, which
has a finite number of moves but is nevertheless very productive, with novel moves being discovered throughout
history.
Recursion in plain English
Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves invoking the
procedure itself. A procedure that goes through recursion is said to be 'recursive'.
To understand recursion, one must recognize the distinction between a procedure and the running of a procedure. A
procedure is a set of steps that are to be taken based on a set of rules. The running of a procedure involves actually
following the rules and performing the steps. An analogy might be that a procedure is like a cookbook in that it is the
possible steps, while running a procedure is actually preparing the meal.
Recursion is related to, but not the same as, a reference within the specification of a procedure to the execution of
some other procedure. For instance, a recipe might refer to cooking vegetables, which is another procedure that in
turn requires heating water, and so forth. However, a recursive procedure is special in that (at least) one of its steps
calls for a new instance of the very same procedure. This of course immediately creates the danger of an endless
loop; recursion can only be properly used in a definition if the step in question is skipped in certain cases so that the
procedure can complete. Even if properly defined, a recursive procedure is not easy for humans to perform, as it
requires distinguishing the new from the old (partially executed) invocation of the procedure; this requires some
administration of how far various simultaneous instances of the procedures have progressed. For this reason
recursive definitions are very rare in everyday situations. An example could be the following procedure to find a way
through a maze. Proceed forward until reaching either an exit or a branching point (a dead end is considered a
2
Recursion
3
branching point with 0 branches). If the point reached is an exit, terminate. Otherwise try each branch in turn, using
the procedure recursively; if every trial fails by reaching only dead ends, return on the path that led to this branching
point and report failure. Whether this actually defines a terminating procedure depends on the nature of the maze: it
must not allow loops. In any case, executing the procedure requires carefully recording all currently explored
branching points, and which of their branches have already been exhaustively tried.
Recursive humor
A common joke is the following "definition" of recursion.[2]
Recursion
See "Recursion".
A variation on this joke is:
Recursion
If you still don't get it, see: "Recursion".
which actually does terminate, as soon as the reader "gets it".
Another example occurs in an index entry on page 269 of some editions of Kernighan and Ritchie's book "The C
Programming Language":
recursion 86, 139, 141, 182, 202, 269
The earliest version of this joke was in "Software Tools" by Kernighan and Plauger, and also appears in "The UNIX
Programming Environment" by Kernighan and Pike. It did not appear in the first edition of The C Programming
Language.
A Google search for Recursion suggests Did you mean: Recursion [3]
Other examples are recursive acronyms, such as GNU, PHP, YAML, HURD or WINE.
Recursion in mathematics
Recursively defined sets
Example: the natural numbers
The canonical example of a recursively defined set is
given by the natural numbers:
1 is in
if n is in
, then n + 1 is in
The set of natural numbers is the smallest set
satisfying the previous two properties.
Example: The set of true reachable propositions
Another interesting example is the set of all "true
reachable" propositions in an axiomatic system.
A Sierpinski triangle—a confined recursion of triangles to form a
geometric lattice.
• if a proposition is an axiom, it is a true reachable
proposition.
• if a proposition can be obtained from true reachable propositions by means of inference rules, it is a true reachable
proposition.
• The set of true reachable propositions is the smallest set of propositions satisfying these conditions.
Recursion
This set is called 'true reachable propositions' because in non-constructive approaches to the foundations of
mathematics, the set of true propositions may be larger than the set recursively constructed from the axioms and
rules of inference. See also Gödel's incompleteness theorems.
Functional recursion
A function may be partly defined in terms of itself. A familiar example is the Fibonacci number sequence: F(n) =
F(n − 1) + F(n − 2). For such a definition to be useful, it must lead to values which are non-recursively defined, in
this case F(0) = 0 and F(1) = 1.
A famous recursive function is the Ackermann function which, unlike the Fibonacci sequence, cannot easily be
expressed without recursion.
Proofs involving recursive definitions
Applying the standard technique of proof by cases to recursively-defined sets or functions, as in the preceding
sections, yields structural induction, a powerful generalization of mathematical induction which is widely used to
derive proofs in mathematical logic and computer science.
Recursive optimization
Dynamic programming is an approach to optimization which restates a multiperiod or multistep optimization
problem in recursive form. The key result in dynamic programming is the Bellman equation, which writes the value
of the optimization problem at an earlier time (or earlier step) in terms of its value at a later time (or later step).
Recursion in computer science
A common method of simplification is to divide a problem into subproblems of the same type. As a computer
programming technique, this is called divide and conquer and is key to the design of many important algorithms.
Divide and conquer serves as a top-down approach to problem solving, where problems are solved by solving
smaller and smaller instances. A contrary approach is dynamic programming. This approach serves as a bottom-up
approach, where problems are solved by solving larger and larger instances, until the desired size is reached.
A classic example of recursion is the definition of the factorial function, given here in C code:
unsigned int factorial(unsigned int n)
{
if (n <= 1)
return 1;
else
return n * factorial(n-1);
}
The function calls itself recursively on a smaller version of the input (n - 1) and multiplies the result of the recursive
call by n, until reaching the base case, analogously to the mathematical definition of factorial.
Recursion in computer programming is exemplified when a function is defined in terms of simpler, often smaller
versions of itself. The solution to the problem is then devised by combining the solutions obtained from the simpler
versions of the problem. One example application of recursion is in parsers for programming languages. The great
advantage of recursion is that an infinite set of possible sentences, designs or other data can be defined, parsed or
produced by a finite computer program.
Recurrence relations are equations to define one or more sequences recursively. Some specific kinds of recurrence
relation can be "solved" to obtain a non-recursive definition.
4
Recursion
5
Use of recursion in an algorithm has both advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage is usually simplicity.
The main disadvantage is often that the algorithm may require large amounts of memory if the depth of the recursion
is very large.
The recursion theorem
In set theory, this is a theorem guaranteeing that recursively defined functions exist. Given a set X, an element a of X
and a function
, the theorem states that there is a unique function
(where
denotes
the set of natural numbers including zero) such that
for any natural number n.
Proof of uniqueness
Take two functions
and
such that:
where a is an element of X.
It can be proved by mathematical induction that
Base Case:
Inductive
for all natural numbers n:
so the equality holds for
Step:
Suppose
for
Hence F(k) = G(k) implies F(k+1) = G(k+1).
By Induction,
for all
.
.
Examples
Some common recurrence relations are:
•
Factorial:
•
Fibonacci numbers:
•
Catalan numbers:
•
Computing compound interest
•
The Tower of Hanoi
•
Ackermann function
,
some
.
Then
Recursion
Bibliography
•
•
•
•
•
Johnsonbaugh, Richard (2004). Discrete Mathematics. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-117686-2.
Hofstadter, Douglas (1999). Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02656-7.
Shoenfield, Joseph R. (2000). Recursion Theory. A K Peters Ltd. ISBN 1-56881-149-7.
Causey, Robert L. (2001). Logic, Sets, and Recursion. Jones & Bartlett. ISBN 0-7637-1695-2.
Cori, Rene; Lascar, Daniel; Pelletier, Donald H. (2001). Recursion Theory, Godel's Theorems, Set Theory, Model
Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850050-5.
• Barwise, Jon; Moss, Lawrence S. (1996). Vicious Circles. Stanford Univ Center for the Study of Language and
Information. ISBN 0-19-850050-5. - offers a treatment of corecursion.
• Rosen, Kenneth H. (2002). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. McGraw-Hill College.
ISBN 0-07-293033-0.
• Cormen, Thomas H., Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, Clifford Stein (2001). Introduction to Algorithms.
Mit Pr. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.
• Kernighan, B.; Ritchie, D. (1988). The C programming Language. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-110362-8.
• Stokey, Nancy,; Robert Lucas; Edward Prescott (1989). Recursive Methods in Economic Dynamics. Harvard
University Press. ISBN 0674750969.
• Hungerford (1980). Algebra. Springer. ISBN 978-0387905181., first chapter on set theory.
References
[1] Nevins, Andrew; Pesetsky, David; Rodrigues, Cilene (2009). "Evidence and argumentation: A reply to Everett (2009)" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/
linguistics/ people/ faculty/ pesetsky/ Nevins_Pesetsky_Rodrigues_2_Evidence_and_Argumentation_Reply_to_Everett. pdf) (PDF).
Language 85 (3): 671–681. doi:10.1353/lan.0.0140. .
[2] "recursion" (http:/ / catb. org/ ~esr/ jargon/ html/ R/ recursion. html). Catb.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-07.
[3] Google Search for word recursion (http:/ / www. google. com/ search?q=recursion)
External links
• Recursion (http://www.freenetpages.co.uk/hp/alan.gauld/tutrecur.htm) - tutorial by Alan Gauld
• A Primer on Recursion (http://amitksaha.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/recursion-primer.pdf)- contains
pointers to recursion in Formal Languages, Linguistics, Math and Computer Science
• Zip Files All The Way Down (http://research.swtch.com/2010/03/zip-files-all-way-down.html)
• Nevins, Andrew and David Pesetsky and Cilene Rodrigues. Evidence and Argumentation: A Reply to Everett
(2009). Language 85.3: 671--681 (2009) (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/psychlangsci/staff/linguistics-staff/
nevins-publications/npr09b)
• Kaan, E. – Swaab, T. Y. (2002) “The brain circuitry of syntactic comprehension”, Trends in Cognitive Sciences,
vol. 6, Issue 8, 350-356. (http://faculty.washington.edu/losterho/kaan_and_swaab.pdf)
6
False friend
False friend
False friends (French: faux amis) are pairs of words or phrases in two languages or dialects (or letters in two
alphabets) that look or sound similar, but differ in meaning.
The term should be distinguished from "false cognates", which are similar words in different languages that appear
to have a common historical linguistic origin (whatever their current meaning) but actually do not.
As well as complete false friends, use of loanwords often results in the use of a word in a restricted context, which
may then develop new meanings not found in the original language.
Implications
Both false friends and false cognates can cause difficulty for students learning a foreign language, particularly one
that is related to their native language, because students are likely to identify the words wrongly due to linguistic
interference. For this reason, teachers sometimes compile lists of false friends as an aid for their students.
Comedy sometimes includes puns on false friends, which are considered particularly amusing if one of the two
words is obscene; when an obscene meaning is produced in these circumstances, it is called cacemphaton,[1] Greek
for "ill-sounding".[2]
Special case: language varieties
British and American English
One kind of false friend can occur when two speakers speak different varieties of the same language. Speakers of
British English and American English sometimes have this problem, which was alluded to in George Bernard Shaw's
statement "England and America are two countries separated by a common language".[3] For example, in the UK, to
"table" a motion means to place it on the agenda (to bring it to the table for consideration), while in the US it means
exactly the opposite —"to remove it from consideration" (to lay it aside on the table rather than hold it up for
consideration).[4]
Causes
From the etymological point of view, false friends can be created in several ways.
Shared etymology
If Language A borrowed a word from Language B, or both borrowed the word from a third language or inherited it
from a common ancestor, and later the word shifted in meaning or acquired additional meanings in at least one of
these languages, a native speaker of one language will face a false friend when learning the other. Sometimes,
presumably both senses were present in the common ancestor language, but the cognate words got different
restricted senses in Language A and Language B.
For example, the words preservative (English), préservatif (French), Präservativ (German), prezervativ (Romanian,
Czech, Croatian), preservativ (Slovenian), preservativo (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese), prezerwatywa (Polish),
презерватив "prezervativ" (Russian, Serbian) and preservatiu (Catalan) are all derived from the Latin word
praeservativum. But in all of these languages except English, the predominant meaning of the word is now condom.
Actual, which in English is usually a synonym of "real", has a different meaning in other European languages, in
which it means "current" or "up-to-date", and has the logical derivative as a verb, meaning "to make current" or "to
update". "Actualise" (or "actualize") in English means "to make a reality of".[5]
7
False friend
Demand in English and demande in French or domanda in Italian are representative of a particularly treacherous sort
of false friend, in which – despite a common origin – the words have differently shaded meanings. The French and
Italian homologues simply mean "request", not a forceful requirement. This led to several historic
misunderstandings, such as in Canada, the failing of the Meech Lake Accord where Quebec constitutional requests
were interpreted as demands. In Spanish demandar may mean "to request", but its normal meaning is "to sue".
The word friend itself has cognates in the other Germanic languages; but the Scandinavian ones (like Swedish
frände, Danish frænde) mean "relative" and nothing else. The common original word had both the meanings "friend"
and "relative", but lost the first sense completely in the Scandinavian languages, and mostly lost the sense of
"relative" in English. (The plural "friends" still but rarely may be used for "kinsfolk", as in the Scottish proverb
Friends agree best at a distance, quoted in 1721.)
The Italian word magazzino, French magasin, Dutch magazijn, and Russian магазин (magazin), is used for a depot,
store, or warehouse. In English the word magazine has also the meaning of "periodic publication". The word
"magazine" has the same meaning in French. In Serbian, there are two similar words: magacin, representing the
former, and magazin representing the latter meaning. To add confusion, there is an extra meaning of magazine
(firearms) in several languages (with accordingly different spellings). (Note, however, that the term "powder
magazine", a store for gunpowder, as e.g. in the town of Williamsburg, Virginia, restored to its colonial form, would
be well understood by current English speakers, though recognized as an archaicism.
Gift originally had the same meaning in English and German. In Old High German and Middle High German Gift
was the term for an "object that is given". Although it had always included a euphemistic meaning for "poison"
("being given"), over the following centuries it gradually suffered a full semantic change to the sole present German
meaning "poison". It is still reflected in the German term for the English word dowry = Mitgift, das Mitgegebene,
"that which is given" (with the wedding).[6] In Swedish, Norwegian and Danish, gift means "poison" but also
"married". In Dutch, "gift" means a gift, but "gif" and "giftig" mean poison and poisonous respectively. The latter
two meanings also apply for the Afrikaans language, spoken in Southern Africa, which originated from Old Dutch
amongst others.
Cafeteria means "dining hall" in English; but cafetería means "coffeehouse" in Spanish and Portuguese, whereas
cafetéria means "fringe benefit" in Hungarian and cofetărie means "sweetshop" in Romanian.
Sótano means "cellar" in Spanish, but sótão means "attic" in Portuguese.
Normal in French implies technical conformance (to technical standards), it means "It is as it's supposed to be",
while normal in English implies social conformance (to social norms). This is why the now-archaic normal school
(from the French école normale) is so confusing to present-day English speakers; it was a place where people
received standardized training in how to teach children, not an institution where social deviants learned how to
behave normally. The same divergence also presented a problem for the International Organization for
Standardization (Organisation internationale de normalisation) at its founding in 1947; it settled on the short name
ISO as a compromise between IOS and OIN.
The Finnish and Estonian languages are both part of the non-Indo-European Uralic languages; they share a similar
grammar as well as several individual words, though sometimes as false friends: e.g. the Finnish word for 'south',
etelä is close to the Estonian word edel, but the latter means south-west. However, the Estonian word for south,
lõuna, is close to the Finnish word lounas, which means south-west.
8
False friend
Homonyms
In certain cases, false friends evolved separately in the different languages. Words usually change by small shifts in
pronunciation accumulated over long periods and sometimes converge by chance on the same pronunciation or look
despite having come from different roots.
For example, German Rat (pronounced with a long "a") (= "council") is cognate with English "read" and German
and Dutch Rede (= "speech", often religious in nature) (hence Æthelred the 'Unready' would not heed the speech of
his advisors, and the word 'Unready' is cognate with the Dutch word "Onraad" meaning trouble, danger), while
English "rat" for the rodent has its German cognate Ratte.
In another example, the word bra in the Swedish language means "good", as in "a good song." Bra has the same
meaning in Norwegian, where Ha det bra (Good bye) and Bare bra (response to "How are you?") are extremely
common. In English, bra is short for the French brassière, which is an undergarment that supports the breasts. The
full English spelling, brassiere, is now a false friend in and of itself (the modern French term for brassiere is
soutien-gorge).
In Swedish, the word "rolig" means "fun" (as in "It was a fun party"), while in the closely related languages Danish
and Norwegian it means "calm" (as in "he was calm despite all the furore around him"). This can sometimes cause
confusion: a Swede exclaiming "It'll be fun!" will have a Dane thinking "How boring".
Homoglyphs
For example, Latin P came to be written like Greek rho (written Ρ but pronounced [r]), so the Roman letter
equivalent to rho was modified to R to keep it distinct.
An Old and Middle English letter has become a false friend in modern English: the letters thorn (þ) and eth (ð) were
used interchangeably to represent voiced and voiceless dental fricatives now written in English as th (as in "thick"
and "the"). Though the thorn character (whose appearance was usually similar to the modern "p") was most common,
the eth could equally be used. Due to its similarity to an oblique minuscule "y", an actual "Y" is substituted in
modern pseudo-old-fashioned usage as in "Ye Olde Curiositie Shoppe"; the first word means and should be
pronounced "the", not "ye" (archaic form of "you").
Homoglyphs occur also by coincidence. For example, Finnish tie means "road"; the pronunciation is [tie], unlike
English [tai], which in turn means "or" in Finnish.
Pseudo-anglicisms
Pseudo-anglicisms are new words formed from English morphemes independently from an analogous English
construct and with a different intended meaning.
For example, in German: Oldtimer refers to an old car (or antique aircraft) rather than an old person, while Handy
refers to a mobile phone.
Japanese is replete with pseudo-anglicisms, known as wasei-eigo ("Japan-made English").
In the SeSotho group of languages spoken in South Africa pushback refers to a combed back hair style, commonly
worn by black women with chemically straightened hair; and stop-nonsense refers to pre-fabricated concrete slabs
used as fencing.
9
False friend
Semantic change
In bilingual situations, false friends often result in a semantic change—a real new meaning that is then commonly
used in a language. For example, the Portuguese humoroso ("capricious") changed its referent in American
Portuguese to "humorous", owing to the English surface-cognate "humorous."
"Corn" was originally the dominant type of grain in a region (indeed "corn" and "grain" are themselves cognates
from the same Indo-European root). It came to mean usually wheat in the British Isles, but maize in North America.
The American Italian fattoria lost its original meaning "farm" in favour of "factory" owing to the phonetically
similar surface-cognate English "factory" (cf. Standard Italian fabbrica "factory"). Instead of the original fattoria, the
phonetic adaptation American Italian farma (Weinreich 1963: 49) became the new signifier for "farm"—see
"one-to-one correlation between signifiers and referents".[7]
This phenomenon is analysed by Ghil'ad Zuckermann as "(incestuous) phono-semantic matching".
Examples
Since English, German and Dutch have
many of the same etymological
origins, there actually are a great
number of words in both languages
that are very similar and do have the
same meaning (e.g. word/Wort/woord,
book/Buch/boek,
house/Haus/huis,
water/Wasser/water ...). However,
similar words with a different meaning
are also quite common (e.g., German
bekommen means "to get", that is, "to
come by", not "to become", and is thus
False friends in a Dutch advertisement actually meaning "Mummy, that one, that one, that
a false friend, which could lead a
one ..." "Please.", In English this could easily sound as though the child is telling her
mother to die, although the word is not pronounced the same way in the two languages.
German English learner to utter an
embarrassing sentence like: "I want to
become a beefsteak.").[8] Another example is the word gift, which in English and Dutch means a "present" but in
German and the Scandinavian languages means "poison".
English "knight" and German Knecht are clearly related (though pronounced differently), and originally had also a
similar meaning, denoting a person rather low in the social scale. However, the English one underwent a great
upward mobility during the Middle Ages, becoming associated with the aristocracy, while its German equivalent
retained the humble meaning of "servant". (To make the confusion even greater, where Knecht received a military
meaning—in "Landsknecht"—it denoted foot soldiers rather than cavalry). The German word for English "knight" is
Ritter, which is the cognate of English "rider" - but which carries vast social implications absent from the English
word.
The German word Land is the exact cognate of English land but it carries many political, constitutional, and
historical meanings absent from the English term (among other things a constituent state of the German Federal
Republic, historically a principality of the Holy Roman Empire, but also "rural" as opposed to "urban", etc. - most of
these meanings are borne by the Anglo-Norman word country in English).
The title of the well-known Italian novel Il Gattopardo was rendered in English as "The Leopard", in which the
translator was led astray by a false friend; Italian gattopardo, while being the cognate of "leopard", in fact refers to
other felines (the American ocelot, the African serval and an extinct type of Italian wildcat).
10
False friend
False friends can be especially confusing when meanings of words in one language are similar to those in another,
especially when context cannot help in resolving the confusion. For example, German and Scandinavian "Hund" and
Dutch "Hond" are the cognates of English "hound", but whereas hund and hond refer to dogs in general, in English
the sense has been narrowed to dogs used for hunting. Conversely, the German "Dogge" and French "dogue" refer to
a specific kind of dog rather than to dogs in general. And French "librairie" is the cognate of "library" but refers to a
bookshop.
Another Spanish/English false friend is "embarrassed/embarazado". Where "embarrassed" in English means
approximately "ashamed", a similar-sounding Spanish word, "embarazada", means "pregnant". Both derive from old
Castillan-Portuguese "embarazar", meaning impede, hinder, obstruct. In Spanish it was then used as euphemism for
"pregnant" (she was "embarrassed"--hindered—by her pregnancy) and that became the primary meaning. In English,
the meaning was taken from being "embarrassed", ill at ease, hindered, by shame. In Portuguese, "embaraçar" has a
meaning similar to the English. (In medical English, however, "embarrass" retains a meaning much more general
than in the language as a whole: essentially, to diminish.)
In Spanish "substituir" means "replace" so that "substituir A por B" means "replace A with B" or "substitute B for
A", the opposite of what it apparently might look like.
Another example is the English pair of words "assist" and "attend", whose meanings in Spanish are just the opposite.
So, "attending a course" is "asistir un curso" and "assist someone" is "atender a alguien".
A Spanish/Maltese false friend is guapo/a and gwapp/a respectively. While the former means "handsome", the latter
gives an ironic sense of "clumsy".
The Latin root of concur has several meanings; "to meet (in battle)" and "to meet (in agreement)". In many European
languages, words derived from this root take after the first meaning—English being a notable exception (e.g. French
and Dutch concurrent and Russian konkurent translate as "competitor" in English). Additionally, in some languages
a "concourse" (Swedish konkurs, Finnish konkurssi) takes its meaning from "concourse of debtors"; that is, it means
bankruptcy, while in Russian конкурс takes one more meaning and refers to contest .
The French verb attendre means "to wait", yet an English speaker learning French might expect the English
equivalent to be "attend", which means "to participate in" or "to go to". However, the verb "attend" in English is
translated as assister in French and asistir in Spanish, both of which could be further misinterpreted as equivalent to
the English "assist", which means "to help" (which is also another meaning of the Spanish's asistir). In Catholic
literature in English, the term "assist at Mass" has been used to mean "to attend Mass" due to a mistranslation of the
French "assister à la messe" which means "to attend Mass". Despite the above, the noun form in English
("attendant") is someone who waits on another, generally with menial tasks and in a temporary fashion, as on an
airplane or hotel; whereas 'assistant' implies a longer-term, higher level, and often contractual (=employment),
relationship.
References
Notes
[1] Silva Rhetoricae, Cacemphaton (http:/ / rhetoric. byu. edu/ figures/ C/ cacemphaton. htm).
[2] κακέμφατος[[Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek language text (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/
text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=kake/ mfatos)]]. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at Perseus
Project
[3] Quotationspage.com (http:/ / www. quotationspage. com/ quote/ 897. html)
[4] Merriam-Webster definition of verb "table" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ table)
[5] Mollin, Sandra (2006), Euro-English: assessing variety status
[6] Günther Drosdowski, Paul Grebe, editors. 1963. Duden Etymologie Das Herkunftswörterbuch. Series: Das Standardwerk zur deutschen
Sprache. Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim/Wien/Zürich. ISBN 3-411-00907-1
[7] Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003). Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew (http:/ / www. palgrave. com/ products/ title.
aspx?is=140391723X). Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles
Jones). p. 102. ISBN 1-4039-1723-X. .
11
False friend
[8] Geoff Parkes, Alan Cornell, 1992, "NTC's Dictionary of German False Cognates", National Textbook Company, NTC Publishing Group
External links
•
•
•
•
•
An online hypertext bibliography on false friends (http://www.lipczuk.buncic.de/)
German/English false friends (http://german.about.com/library/weekly/aa030199.htm)
Spanish/English false friends (http://spanish.about.com/library/weekly/aa101899.htm)
French/English false friends (http://french.about.com/library/fauxamis/blfauxam_a.htm)
English/Russian false friends (http://falsefriends.ru/ffslovar.htm)
Information theory
Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering involving the quantification of
information. Information theory was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal
processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data. Since its inception
it has broadened to find applications in many other areas, including statistical inference, natural language processing,
cryptography generally, networks other than communication networks — as in neurobiology,[1] the evolution[2] and
function[3] of molecular codes, model selection[4] in ecology, thermal physics,[5] quantum computing, plagiarism
detection[6] and other forms of data analysis.[7]
A key measure of information is known as entropy, which is usually expressed by the average number of bits needed
for storage or communication. Entropy quantifies the uncertainty involved in predicting the value of a random
variable. For example, specifying the outcome of a fair coin flip (two equally likely outcomes) provides less
information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome from a roll of a die (six equally likely outcomes).
Applications of fundamental topics of information theory include lossless data compression (e.g. ZIP files), lossy
data compression (e.g. MP3s and JPGs), and channel coding (e.g. for DSL lines). The field is at the intersection of
mathematics, statistics, computer science, physics, neurobiology, and electrical engineering. Its impact has been
crucial to the success of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention of the compact disc, the feasibility of
mobile phones, the development of the Internet, the study of linguistics and of human perception, the understanding
of black holes, and numerous other fields. Important sub-fields of information theory are source coding, channel
coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, information-theoretic security, and measures
of information.
Overview
The main concepts of information theory can be grasped by considering the most widespread means of human
communication: language. Two important aspects of a concise language are as follows: First, the most common
words (e.g., "a", "the", "I") should be shorter than less common words (e.g., "benefit", "generation", "mediocre"), so
that sentences will not be too long. Such a tradeoff in word length is analogous to data compression and is the
essential aspect of source coding. Second, if part of a sentence is unheard or misheard due to noise — e.g., a passing
car — the listener should still be able to glean the meaning of the underlying message. Such robustness is as
essential for an electronic communication system as it is for a language; properly building such robustness into
communications is done by channel coding. Source coding and channel coding are the fundamental concerns of
information theory.
Note that these concerns have nothing to do with the importance of messages. For example, a platitude such as
"Thank you; come again" takes about as long to say or write as the urgent plea, "Call an ambulance!" while the latter
may be more important and more meaningful in many contexts. Information theory, however, does not consider
message importance or meaning, as these are matters of the quality of data rather than the quantity and readability of
12
Information theory
data, the latter of which is determined solely by probabilities.
Information theory is generally considered to have been founded in 1948 by Claude Shannon in his seminal work, "A
Mathematical Theory of Communication". The central paradigm of classical information theory is the engineering
problem of the transmission of information over a noisy channel. The most fundamental results of this theory are
Shannon's source coding theorem, which establishes that, on average, the number of bits needed to represent the
result of an uncertain event is given by its entropy; and Shannon's noisy-channel coding theorem, which states that
reliable communication is possible over noisy channels provided that the rate of communication is below a certain
threshold, called the channel capacity. The channel capacity can be approached in practice by using appropriate
encoding and decoding systems.
Information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and applied disciplines that have been investigated
and reduced to engineering practice under a variety of rubrics throughout the world over the past half century or
more: adaptive systems, anticipatory systems, artificial intelligence, complex systems, complexity science,
cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along with systems sciences of many descriptions. Information theory is
a broad and deep mathematical theory, with equally broad and deep applications, amongst which is the vital field of
coding theory.
Coding theory is concerned with finding explicit methods, called codes, of increasing the efficiency and reducing the
net error rate of data communication over a noisy channel to near the limit that Shannon proved is the maximum
possible for that channel. These codes can be roughly subdivided into data compression (source coding) and
error-correction (channel coding) techniques. In the latter case, it took many years to find the methods Shannon's
work proved were possible. A third class of information theory codes are cryptographic algorithms (both codes and
ciphers). Concepts, methods and results from coding theory and information theory are widely used in cryptography
and cryptanalysis. See the article ban (information) for a historical application.
Information theory is also used in information retrieval, intelligence gathering, gambling, statistics, and even in
musical composition.
Historical background
The landmark event that established the discipline of information theory, and brought it to immediate worldwide
attention, was the publication of Claude E. Shannon's classic paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" in
the Bell System Technical Journal in July and October 1948.
Prior to this paper, limited information-theoretic ideas had been developed at Bell Labs, all implicitly assuming
events of equal probability. Harry Nyquist's 1924 paper, Certain Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed, contains a
theoretical section quantifying "intelligence" and the "line speed" at which it can be transmitted by a communication
system, giving the relation
, where W is the speed of transmission of intelligence, m is the number
of different voltage levels to choose from at each time step, and K is a constant. Ralph Hartley's 1928 paper,
Transmission of Information, uses the word information as a measurable quantity, reflecting the receiver's ability to
distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other, thus quantifying information as
,
where S was the number of possible symbols, and n the number of symbols in a transmission. The natural unit of
information was therefore the decimal digit, much later renamed the hartley in his honour as a unit or scale or
measure of information. Alan Turing in 1940 used similar ideas as part of the statistical analysis of the breaking of
the German second world war Enigma ciphers.
Much of the mathematics behind information theory with events of different probabilities was developed for the field
of thermodynamics by Ludwig Boltzmann and J. Willard Gibbs. Connections between information-theoretic entropy
and thermodynamic entropy, including the important contributions by Rolf Landauer in the 1960s, are explored in
Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory.
13
Information theory
14
In Shannon's revolutionary and groundbreaking paper, the work for which had been substantially completed at Bell
Labs by the end of 1944, Shannon for the first time introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of
communication as a statistical process underlying information theory, opening with the assertion that
"The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point, either exactly or
approximately, a message selected at another point."
With it came the ideas of
• the information entropy and redundancy of a source, and its relevance through the source coding theorem;
• the mutual information, and the channel capacity of a noisy channel, including the promise of perfect loss-free
communication given by the noisy-channel coding theorem;
• the practical result of the Shannon–Hartley law for the channel capacity of a Gaussian channel; as well as
• the bit—a new way of seeing the most fundamental unit of information.
Quantities of information
Information theory is based on probability theory and statistics. The most important quantities of information are
entropy, the information in a random variable, and mutual information, the amount of information in common
between two random variables. The former quantity indicates how easily message data can be compressed while the
latter can be used to find the communication rate across a channel.
The choice of logarithmic base in the following formulae determines the unit of information entropy that is used. The
most common unit of information is the bit, based on the binary logarithm. Other units include the nat, which is
based on the natural logarithm, and the hartley, which is based on the common logarithm.
In what follows, an expression of the form
This is justified because
is considered by convention to be equal to zero whenever
for any logarithmic base.
Entropy
The entropy,
, of a discrete random variable
is a measure
of the amount of uncertainty associated with the value of
.
Entropy of a Bernoulli trial as a function of success
probability, often called the binary entropy function,
. The entropy is maximized at 1 bit per trial
when the two possible outcomes are equally probable,
as in an unbiased coin toss.
Suppose one transmits 1000 bits (0s and 1s). If these bits are known ahead of transmission (to be a certain value with
absolute probability), logic dictates that no information has been transmitted. If, however, each is equally and
independently likely to be 0 or 1, 1000 bits (in the information theoretic sense) have been transmitted. Between these
Information theory
15
two extremes, information can be quantified as follows. If
probability of
(Here,
given some
is the set of all messages
that
could be, and
is defined:[8]
, then the entropy of
is the self-information, which is the entropy contribution of an individual message, and
is the
expected value.) An important property of entropy is that it is maximized when all the messages in the message
space are equiprobable
,—i.e., most unpredictable—in which case
.
The special case of information entropy for a random variable with two outcomes is the binary entropy function,
usually taken to the logarithmic base 2:
Joint entropy
The joint entropy of two discrete random variables
This implies that if
For example, if
and
and
is merely the entropy of their pairing:
.
are independent, then their joint entropy is the sum of their individual entropies.
represents the position of a chess piece —
the row and
the column, then the joint
entropy of the row of the piece and the column of the piece will be the entropy of the position of the piece.
Despite similar notation, joint entropy should not be confused with cross entropy.
Conditional entropy (equivocation)
The conditional entropy or conditional uncertainty of
of
about
) is the average conditional entropy over
given random variable
(also called the equivocation
[9]
:
Because entropy can be conditioned on a random variable or on that random variable being a certain value, care
should be taken not to confuse these two definitions of conditional entropy, the former of which is in more common
use. A basic property of this form of conditional entropy is that:
Mutual information (transinformation)
Mutual information measures the amount of information that can be obtained about one random variable by
observing another. It is important in communication where it can be used to maximize the amount of information
shared between sent and received signals. The mutual information of
relative to is given by:
where
(Specific mutual Information) is the pointwise mutual information.
A basic property of the mutual information is that
That is, knowing Y, we can save an average of
Mutual information is symmetric:
bits in encoding X compared to not knowing Y.
Information theory
16
Mutual information can be expressed as the average Kullback–Leibler divergence (information gain) of the posterior
probability distribution of X given the value of Y to the prior distribution on X:
In other words, this is a measure of how much, on the average, the probability distribution on X will change if we are
given the value of Y. This is often recalculated as the divergence from the product of the marginal distributions to the
actual joint distribution:
Mutual information is closely related to the log-likelihood ratio test in the context of contingency tables and the
multinomial distribution and to Pearson's χ2 test: mutual information can be considered a statistic for assessing
independence between a pair of variables, and has a well-specified asymptotic distribution.
Kullback–Leibler divergence (information gain)
The Kullback–Leibler divergence (or information divergence, information gain, or relative entropy) is a way of
comparing two distributions: a "true" probability distribution p(X), and an arbitrary probability distribution q(X). If
we compress data in a manner that assumes q(X) is the distribution underlying some data, when, in reality, p(X) is the
correct distribution, the Kullback–Leibler divergence is the number of average additional bits per datum necessary
for compression. It is thus defined
Although it is sometimes used as a 'distance metric', it is not a true metric since it is not symmetric and does not
satisfy the triangle inequality (making it a semi-quasimetric).
Other quantities
Other important information theoretic quantities include Rényi entropy, (a generalization of entropy,) differential
entropy, (a generalization of quantities of information to continuous distributions,) and the conditional mutual
information.
Coding theory
Coding theory is one of the most important and direct applications of
information theory. It can be subdivided into source coding theory and
channel coding theory. Using a statistical description for data,
information theory quantifies the number of bits needed to describe the
data, which is the information entropy of the source.
• Data compression (source coding): There are two formulations for
the compression problem:
1. lossless data compression: the data must be reconstructed exactly;
A picture showing scratches on the readable
surface of a CD-R. Music and data CDs are coded
using error correcting codes and thus can still be
read even if they have minor scratches using error
detection and correction.
2. lossy data compression: allocates bits needed to reconstruct the
data, within a specified fidelity level measured by a distortion
function. This subset of Information theory is called rate–distortion theory.
• Error-correcting codes (channel coding): While data compression removes as much redundancy as possible, an
error correcting code adds just the right kind of redundancy (i.e., error correction) needed to transmit the data
efficiently and faithfully across a noisy channel.
This division of coding theory into compression and transmission is justified by the information transmission
theorems, or source–channel separation theorems that justify the use of bits as the universal currency for information
Information theory
in many contexts. However, these theorems only hold in the situation where one transmitting user wishes to
communicate to one receiving user. In scenarios with more than one transmitter (the multiple-access channel), more
than one receiver (the broadcast channel) or intermediary "helpers" (the relay channel), or more general networks,
compression followed by transmission may no longer be optimal. Network information theory refers to these
multi-agent communication models.
Source theory
Any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information. A memoryless source is
one in which each message is an independent identically-distributed random variable, whereas the properties of
ergodicity and stationarity impose more general constraints. All such sources are stochastic. These terms are well
studied in their own right outside information theory.
Rate
Information rate is the average entropy per symbol. For memoryless sources, this is merely the entropy of each
symbol, while, in the case of a stationary stochastic process, it is
that is, the conditional entropy of a symbol given all the previous symbols generated. For the more general case of a
process that is not necessarily stationary, the average rate is
that is, the limit of the joint entropy per symbol. For stationary sources, these two expressions give the same
result.[10]
It is common in information theory to speak of the "rate" or "entropy" of a language. This is appropriate, for
example, when the source of information is English prose. The rate of a source of information is related to its
redundancy and how well it can be compressed, the subject of source coding.
Channel capacity
Communications over a channel—such as an ethernet cable—is the primary motivation of information theory. As
anyone who's ever used a telephone (mobile or landline) knows, however, such channels often fail to produce exact
reconstruction of a signal; noise, periods of silence, and other forms of signal corruption often degrade quality. How
much information can one hope to communicate over a noisy (or otherwise imperfect) channel?
Consider the communications process over a discrete channel. A simple model of the process is shown below:
Here X represents the space of messages transmitted, and Y the space of messages received during a unit time over
our channel. Let
be the conditional probability distribution function of Y given X. We will consider
to be an inherent fixed property of our communications channel (representing the nature of the noise of our channel).
Then the joint distribution of X and Y is completely determined by our channel and by our choice of
, the
marginal distribution of messages we choose to send over the channel. Under these constraints, we would like to
maximize the rate of information, or the signal, we can communicate over the channel. The appropriate measure for
this is the mutual information, and this maximum mutual information is called the channel capacity and is given by:
17
Information theory
This capacity has the following property related to communicating at information rate R (where R is usually bits per
symbol). For any information rate R < C and coding error ε > 0, for large enough N, there exists a code of length N
and rate ≥ R and a decoding algorithm, such that the maximal probability of block error is ≤ ε; that is, it is always
possible to transmit with arbitrarily small block error. In addition, for any rate R > C, it is impossible to transmit
with arbitrarily small block error.
Channel coding is concerned with finding such nearly optimal codes that can be used to transmit data over a noisy
channel with a small coding error at a rate near the channel capacity.
Capacity of particular channel models
• A continuous-time analog communications channel subject to Gaussian noise — see Shannon–Hartley theorem.
• A binary symmetric channel (BSC) with crossover probability p is a binary input, binary output channel that flips
the input bit with probability p. The BSC has a capacity of
bits per channel use, where
is the
binary entropy function to the base 2 logarithm:
• A binary erasure channel (BEC) with erasure probability p is a binary input, ternary output channel. The possible
channel outputs are 0, 1, and a third symbol 'e' called an erasure. The erasure represents complete loss of
information about an input bit. The capacity of the BEC is 1 - p bits per channel use.
18
Information theory
Applications to other fields
Intelligence uses and secrecy applications
Information theoretic concepts apply to cryptography and cryptanalysis. Turing's information unit, the ban, was used
in the Ultra project, breaking the German Enigma machine code and hastening the end of WWII in Europe. Shannon
himself defined an important concept now called the unicity distance. Based on the redundancy of the plaintext, it
attempts to give a minimum amount of ciphertext necessary to ensure unique decipherability.
Information theory leads us to believe it is much more difficult to keep secrets than it might first appear. A brute
force attack can break systems based on asymmetric key algorithms or on most commonly used methods of
symmetric key algorithms (sometimes called secret key algorithms), such as block ciphers. The security of all such
methods currently comes from the assumption that no known attack can break them in a practical amount of time.
Information theoretic security refers to methods such as the one-time pad that are not vulnerable to such brute force
attacks. In such cases, the positive conditional mutual information between the plaintext and ciphertext (conditioned
on the key) can ensure proper transmission, while the unconditional mutual information between the plaintext and
ciphertext remains zero, resulting in absolutely secure communications. In other words, an eavesdropper would not
be able to improve his or her guess of the plaintext by gaining knowledge of the ciphertext but not of the key.
However, as in any other cryptographic system, care must be used to correctly apply even information-theoretically
secure methods; the Venona project was able to crack the one-time pads of the Soviet Union due to their improper
reuse of key material.
19
Information theory
Pseudorandom number generation
Pseudorandom number generators are widely available in computer language libraries and application programs.
They are, almost universally, unsuited to cryptographic use as they do not evade the deterministic nature of modern
computer equipment and software. A class of improved random number generators is termed cryptographically
secure pseudorandom number generators, but even they require external to the software random seeds to work as
intended. These can be obtained via extractors, if done carefully. The measure of sufficient randomness in extractors
is min-entropy, a value related to Shannon entropy through Rényi entropy; Rényi entropy is also used in evaluating
randomness in cryptographic systems. Although related, the distinctions among these measures mean that a random
variable with high Shannon entropy is not necessarily satisfactory for use in an extractor and so for cryptography
uses.
Seismic exploration
One early commercial application of information theory was in the field seismic oil exploration. Work in this field
made it possible to strip off and separate the unwanted noise from the desired seismic signal. Information theory and
digital signal processing offer a major improvement of resolution and image clarity over previous analog
methods.[11]
Miscellaneous applications
Information theory also has applications in gambling and investing, black holes, bioinformatics, and music.
References
[1] F. Rieke, D. Warland, R Ruyter van Steveninck, W Bialek, Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT press (1997).
[2] cf. Huelsenbeck, J. P., F. Ronquist, R. Nielsen and J. P. Bollback (2001) Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its impact on evolutionary
biology, Science 294:2310-2314
[3] Rando Allikmets, Wyeth W. Wasserman, Amy Hutchinson, Philip Smallwood, Jeremy Nathans, Peter K. Rogan, Thomas D. Schneider (http:/
/ www. lecb. ncifcrf. gov/ ~toms/ ), Michael Dean (1998) Organization of the ABCR gene: analysis of promoter and splice junction sequences,
Gene 215:1, 111-122
[4] Burnham, K. P. and Anderson D. R. (2002) Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: A Practical Information-Theoretic Approach, Second
Edition (Springer Science, New York) ISBN 978-0-387-95364-9.
[5] Jaynes, E. T. (1957) Information Theory and Statistical Mechanics (http:/ / bayes. wustl. edu/ ), Phys. Rev. 106:620
[6] Charles H. Bennett, Ming Li, and Bin Ma (2003) Chain Letters and Evolutionary Histories (http:/ / sciamdigital. com/ index.
cfm?fa=Products. ViewIssuePreview& ARTICLEID_CHAR=08B64096-0772-4904-9D48227D5C9FAC75), Scientific American 288:6,
76-81
[7] David R. Anderson (November 1, 2003). "Some background on why people in the empirical sciences may want to better understand the
information-theoretic methods" (http:/ / aicanderson2. home. comcast. net/ ~aicanderson2/ home. pdf) (pdf). . Retrieved 2010-06-23.
[8] Fazlollah M. Reza (1961, 1994). An Introduction to Information Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RtzpRAiX6OgC& pg=PA8&
dq=intitle:"An+ Introduction+ to+ Information+ Theory"+ + "entropy+ of+ a+ simple+ source"& as_brr=0&
ei=zP79Ro7UBovqoQK4g_nCCw& sig=j3lPgyYrC3-bvn1Td42TZgTzj0Q). Dover Publications, Inc., New York. ISBN 0-486-68210-2. .
[9] Robert B. Ash (1965, 1990). Information Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ngZhvUfF0UIC& pg=PA16&
dq=intitle:information+ intitle:theory+ inauthor:ash+ conditional+ uncertainty& as_brr=0& ei=kKwNR4rbH5mepgKB4d2zBg&
sig=YAsiCEVISjJ484R3uGoXpi-a5rI). Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN 0-486-66521-6. .
[10] Jerry D. Gibson (1998). Digital Compression for Multimedia: Principles and Standards (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=aqQ2Ry6spu0C& pg=PA56& dq=entropy-rate+ conditional& as_brr=3& ei=YGDsRtzGGKjupQKa2L2xDw&
sig=o0UCtf0xZOf11lPIexPrjOKPgNc#PPA57,M1). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558603697. .
[11] The Corporation and Innovation, Haggerty, Patrick, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 2, 97-118 (1981)
20
Information theory
The classic work
• Shannon, C.E. (1948), "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Bell System Technical Journal, 27,
pp. 379–423 & 623–656, July & October, 1948. PDF. (http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/
shannon1948.pdf)
Notes and other formats. (http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html)
• R.V.L. Hartley, "Transmission of Information" (http://www.dotrose.com/etext/90_Miscellaneous/
transmission_of_information_1928b.pdf), Bell System Technical Journal, July 1928
• Andrey Kolmogorov (1968), "Three approaches to the quantitative definition of information" in International
Journal of Computer Mathematics.
Other journal articles
• J. L. Kelly, Jr., Saratoga.ny.us (http://www.racing.saratoga.ny.us/kelly.pdf), "A New Interpretation of
Information Rate" Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 35, July 1956, pp. 917–26.
• R. Landauer, IEEE.org (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/wrapper.jsp?arnumber=615478), "Information is
Physical" Proc. Workshop on Physics and Computation PhysComp'92 (IEEE Comp. Sci.Press, Los Alamitos,
1993) pp. 1–4.
• R. Landauer, IBM.com (http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/441/landauerii.pdf), "Irreversibility and
Heat Generation in the Computing Process" IBM J. Res. Develop. Vol. 5, No. 3, 1961
Textbooks on information theory
• Claude E. Shannon, Warren Weaver. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Univ of Illinois Press, 1949.
ISBN 0-252-72548-4
• Robert Gallager. Information Theory and Reliable Communication. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968. ISBN
0-471-29048-3
• Robert B. Ash. Information Theory. New York: Interscience, 1965. ISBN 0-470-03445-9. New York: Dover
1990. ISBN 0-486-66521-6
• Thomas M. Cover, Joy A. Thomas. Elements of information theory, 1st Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience,
1991. ISBN 0-471-06259-6.
2nd Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2006. ISBN 0-471-24195-4.
• Imre Csiszar, Janos Korner. Information Theory: Coding Theorems for Discrete Memoryless Systems Akademiai
Kiado: 2nd edition, 1997. ISBN 963-05-7440-3
• Raymond W. Yeung. A First Course in Information Theory (http://iest2.ie.cuhk.edu.hk/~whyeung/book/)
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2002. ISBN 0-306-46791-7
• David J. C. MacKay. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms (http://www.inference.phy.cam.
ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1
• Raymond W. Yeung. Information Theory and Network Coding (http://iest2.ie.cuhk.edu.hk/~whyeung/book2/
) Springer 2008, 2002. ISBN 978-0-387-79233-0
• Stanford Goldman. Information Theory. New York: Prentice Hall, 1953. New York: Dover 1968 ISBN
0-486-62209-6, 2005 ISBN 0-486-44271-3
• Fazlollah Reza. An Introduction to Information Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill 1961. New York: Dover 1994.
ISBN 0-486-68210-2
• Masud Mansuripur. Introduction to Information Theory. New York: Prentice Hall, 1987. ISBN 0-13-484668-0
• Christoph Arndt: Information Measures, Information and its Description in Science and Engineering (Springer
Series: Signals and Communication Technology), 2004, ISBN 978-3-540-40855-0
21
Information theory
Other books
• Leon Brillouin, Science and Information Theory, Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, [1956, 1962] 2004. ISBN 0-486-43918-6
• James Gleick, The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood, New York: Pantheon, 2011. ISBN
978-0375423727
• A. I. Khinchin, Mathematical Foundations of Information Theory, New York: Dover, 1957. ISBN 0-486-60434-9
• H. S. Leff and A. F. Rex, Editors, Maxwell's Demon: Entropy, Information, Computing, Princeton University
Press, Princeton, NJ (1990). ISBN 0-691-08727-X
•
•
•
•
Tom Siegfried, The Bit and the Pendulum, Wiley, 2000. ISBN 0-471-32174-5
Charles Seife, Decoding The Universe, Viking, 2006. ISBN 0-670-03441-X
Jeremy Campbell, Grammatical Man, Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1982, ISBN 0-671-44062-4
Henri Theil, Economics and Information Theory, Rand McNally & Company - Chicago, 1967.
External links
• alum.mit.edu (http://alum.mit.edu/www/toms/paper/primer), Eprint, Schneider, T. D., "Information Theory
Primer"
• ND.edu (http://www.nd.edu/~jnl/ee80653/tutorials/sunil.pdf), Srinivasa, S. "A Review on Multivariate
Mutual Information"
• Chem.wisc.edu (http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/1999/Oct/abs1385.html), Journal of
Chemical Education, Shuffled Cards, Messy Desks, and Disorderly Dorm Rooms - Examples of Entropy
Increase? Nonsense!
• ITsoc.org (http://www.itsoc.org/index.html), IEEE Information Theory Society and ITsoc.org (http://www.
itsoc.org/review.html) review articles
• Cam.ac.uk (http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/), On-line textbook: "Information Theory,
Inference, and Learning Algorithms" by David MacKay - giving an entertaining and thorough introduction to
Shannon theory, including state-of-the-art methods from coding theory, such as arithmetic coding, low-density
parity-check codes, and Turbo codes.
• UMBC.edu (http://research.umbc.edu/~erill/Documents/Introduction_Information_Theory.pdf), Eprint, Erill,
I., "A gentle introduction to information content in transcription factor binding sites"
22
Newark, New Jersey
23
Newark, New Jersey
City of Newark
— City —
Part of Downtown Newark skyline
Flag
Seal
Nickname(s): The Brick City
Map of Newark in Essex County. Inset: Location of Essex County highlighted in the State of New Jersey.
Newark, New Jersey
24
Census Bureau map of Newark, New Jersey
Coordinates: 40°44′7″N 74°11′6″W
Country
United States
State
New Jersey
County
Essex
Founded/Incorporated
1666/1836
Government
- Type
Faulkner Act (Mayor-Council)
- Mayor
Cory Booker, term of office 2010–2014
[1]
Area
- City
26.0 sq mi (67.3 km2)
- Land
23.8 sq mi (61.6 km2)
- Water
2.2 sq mi (5.7 km2)
Elevation
30 ft (9 m)
[2]
Population (2010)
- City
277,140 (68th)
- Density
13301/sq mi (5034.8/km2)
- Metro
18,818,536
- Demonym
Newarker
Time zone
Eastern (EST) (UTC-5)
- Summer (DST)
EDT (UTC-4)
ZIP codes
07100-07199
Area code(s)
862, 973
FIPS code
34-51000
GNIS feature ID
0878762
Website
http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/
[3] [4]
[5]
Newark, New Jersey
Newark is the largest city in New Jersey, United States, and the county seat of Essex County. Newark has a
population of 277,140,[2] making it the largest municipality in New Jersey. It is the 68th largest city in the U.S.[6] and
one of the nation's major air, shipping, and rail hubs.
Newark is located in the heart of New Jersey's Gateway Region, approximately 8 miles (13 km) west of Manhattan.
Its location near the Atlantic Ocean on Newark Bay has helped make its port facility, Port Newark, the key container
shipping facility for the New York metropolitan area, and the largest on the East Coast. It is the home of Newark
Liberty International Airport, the first municipal commercial airport in the United States, and one of the busiest
today. Newark is headquarters to numerous corporations such as Prudential Financial and PSEG, as well as several
major universities such as UMDNJ, Rutgers University and New Jersey Institute of Technology, cultural institutions,
and sports venues.
This ethnically diverse city is divided into five wards, and contains a variety of neighborhoods ranging in character
from bustling urban districts to quiet suburban enclaves.
History
Newark was originally founded in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony.
The city saw tremendous industrial and population growth during the 19th century and early 20th century, and
experienced racial tension and urban decline in the second half of the 20th century, exemplified by the 1967 Newark
riots. The city has experienced some revitalization during the 1990s and early 21st century.
Newark was originally formed as a township on October 31, 1693, based on the Newark Tract, which was first
purchased on July 11, 1667. Newark was granted a Royal Charter on April 27, 1713, and was incorporated as one of
New Jersey's initial 104 townships by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21, 1798. During its time as
a township, portions were taken to form Springfield Township (April 14, 1794), Caldwell Township (February 16,
1798, now known as Fairfield Township), Orange Township (November 27, 1806), Bloomfield Township (March
23, 1812) and Clinton Township (April 14, 1834, remainder reabsorbed by Newark on March 5, 1902). Newark was
reincorporated as a city on April 11, 1836, replacing Newark Township, based on the results of a referendum passed
on March 18, 1836. The previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1, 1905. In
1926, South Orange Township, changed its name to Maplewood. As a result of this, a portion of Maplewood known
as Ivy Hill was reannexed to Newark's Vailsburg.[7]
Geography and climate
Geography
25
Newark, New Jersey
26
Located at 40° 44' 14" north and 74° 10' 55" west,
Newark is 24.14 square miles (62.5 km2) in area. It has
Map of the Newark metropolitan area, including adjacent suburbs
the second smallest land area among 100 most
populous cities in the U.S, after neighboring Jersey
City. The city's altitude ranges from 0 to 273.4 feet
(83.3 m) above sea level, with the average being 55 feet
(17 m).[8] Newark is essentially a large basin sloping
towards the Passaic River, with a few valleys formed
by meandering streams. Historically, Newark's high
places have been its wealthier neighborhoods. In the
19th century and early 20th century, the wealthy
congregated on the ridges of Forest Hill, High Street,
and Weequahic.
Until the 20th century, the marshes on Newark Bay
were difficult to develop. The marshes were essentially wilderness, with a few dumps, warehouses, and cemeteries
on their edges. In the 19th century, Newarkers mourned that a fifth of their city could not be used for development.
However, in the 20th century, the Port Authority was able to reclaim much of the marshland for the further
expansion of Newark Airport, as well as the growth of the port lands.
Newark is surrounded by residential suburbs to the west (on the slope of the Watchung Mountains), the Passaic
River and Newark Bay to the east, dense urban areas to the south and southwest, and middle-class residential
suburbs and industrial areas to the north. The city is the center of New Jersey's Gateway Region.
Neighborhoods
Newark is New Jersey's largest and second-most
diverse city, after neighboring Jersey City. Its
neighborhoods are populated with people from
various backgrounds, such as African Americans,
Caucasian Americans, Portuguese, Puerto Ricans,
Dominicans, Cubans, Italians, Albanians, Irish,
Polish, Ukranians, Greeks, Jewish, Spaniards,
Jamaicans, Mexicans, West Africans, Brazilians,
Trinidadians, Haitians, Asians, Ecuadorians,
Peruvians,
Colombians,
Salvadorans,
Guatemalans, Guyanese, East Indians, Nigerians,
Pakistanis, etc.
Map of Downtown Newark and surrounding areas
The city is divided into five political wards, which are often used by residents to identify their place of habitation. In
recent years, residents have begun to identify with specific neighborhood names instead of the larger ward
appellations. Nevertheless, the wards remain relatively distinct. Industrial uses, coupled with the airport and seaport
lands, are concentrated in the East and South Wards, while residential neighborhoods exist primarily in the North,
Central, and West Wards.
The geography of the city is such that only the predominantly poor Central Ward shares an unbroken border with the
downtown area (the North Ward is separated from the downtown by Interstate 280 and the East Ward is separated by
railroad tracks; the South and West Wards do not share a border with the downtown area).
Newark's North Ward is the ridge to the east of Branch Brook Park, and is home to approximately 55,000 residents.
Its neighborhoods include Broadway, Mount Pleasant, and the affluent Forest Hill and Roseville sections. Roseville
Newark, New Jersey
is mainly Latino and Italian American.[9]
The Central Ward also used to be known as the old Third Ward contains much of the city's original history including
the Lincoln Park, Military Park and the James Street Commons Historic Districts. The Ward contains the University
Heights, The Coast/Lincoln Park, Government Center, Springfield/Belmont and Seventh Avenue Neighborhoods. In
the 19th century the Central Ward was inhabited by Germans. The German inhabitants were later replaced by Jews,
who were then replaced by blacks. The increased academic footprint in the University Heights Neighborhood has
produced a gentrification, with landmark buildings seeing new life. Located in the Central Ward is the largest health
sciences university in the nation, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School. It is also home to three other universities –
New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Rutgers University - Newark, and Essex County College. The Central
Ward forms the present-day heart of Newark. It has 26 public schools, two police precincts, four firehouses, and one
branch library.[10]
The West Ward comprises the neighborhoods of Vailsburg, Ivy Hill, West Side, and Fairmount. The West Ward,
once a predominately Irish-American neighborhood, is now home to neighborhoods composed primarily of
African-Americans, Guyanese and Haitians.[11]
The South Ward comprises the Weequahic, Clinton Hill, Dayton, and South Broad Valley neighborhoods. The South
Ward, once home to residents of predominately Jewish descent, now has ethnic neighborhoods made up primarily of
African-Americans, Dominicans and Puerto Ricans. The South Ward is represented by Council Member Ras
Baraka,. The city’s second-largest hospital, Newark Beth Israel Medical Center, can be found in the South Ward, as
can 17 public schools, five daycare centers, three branch libraries, one police precinct, a mini precinct, and three fire
houses.[12]
Finally, the East Ward consists of Newark's downtown commercial district, as well as the heavily Portuguese
Ironbound neighborhood, where much of Newark's industry was located in the 19th century. Today, due to the
enterprise of its immigrant population, the Ironbound (also known as "Down Neck") is a very successful part of
Newark.
Climate
Newark has a humid subtropical climate that borders on humid continental (Köppen Cfa / Dfa), with cold winters
and very warm to hot, humid summers. Its proximity to the ocean has a moderating effect. Also, being near to the
Atlantic Ocean means Newark tends to have warmer winters than cities at a similar latitude or even somewhat
further south, such as Chicago, Columbus, Pittsburgh, and St. Louis. The January average is 31.3 °F (−0.4 °C), and
temperatures down to the 15 °F (−9.4 °C) range are not uncommon, though they rarely fall to 0 °F (−18 °C) or
below. With a seasonal total of 26 inches (66.0 cm), snow cover does not usually remain for long. Spring in the area
is of reasonable length and relatively devoid of temperature extremes. Summers are particularly hot and humid, with
a July average of 77.2 °F (25.1 °C), and highs exceeding 90 °F (32 °C) on an average 25 days per year.[13] Heat
advisories are not uncommon during the summer months, particularly July and August, when temperatures can reach
100 °F (38 °C) with high humidity. The city cools off at a moderate pace during autumn.
The city receives precipitation ranging from 2.9 to 4.7 inches (74 to 119 mm) monthly, usually falling on 8 to 12
days monthly. Measurable snowfall occurs each winter, but in lesser amounts than cities in the Midwest at a similar
latitude. The highest recorded temperature was 108 °F (42 °C) on July 22, 2011.
27
Newark, New Jersey
28
Climate data for Newark, New Jersey
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °F
(°C)
74
(23.3)
76
(24.4)
89
(31.7)
97
(36.1)
99
(37.2)
102
(38.9)
108
(42.2)
105
(40.6)
105
(40.6)
93
(33.9)
85
(29.4)
76
(24.4)
108
(42.2)
Average high °F
(°C)
38.1
(3.39)
41.1
50.1
(5.06) (10.06)
60.8
(16)
71.4
80.2
85.2
83.2
75.7
64.7
53.7
43.0
(21.89) (26.78) (29.56) (28.44) (24.28) (18.17) (12.06) (6.11)
62.3
(16.83)
Average low °F
(°C)
24.4
26.6
34.2
(1.22)
43.7
(6.5)
54.1
(12.28)
63.5
(17.5)
Record low °F
(°C)
−8
−14
6
16
33
(0.6)
41
(5)
Precipitation
inches (mm)
3.98
2.96
4.21
3.92
4.46
(101.1) (75.2) (106.9) (99.6) (113.3)
3.40
(86.4)
69.1
67.7
(20.61) (19.83)
59.9
(15.5)
48.2
(9)
39.1
(3.94)
29.8
46.7
(8.17)
51
(10.6)
35
(1.7)
25
12
−8
−14
3.16
(80.3)
3.88
(98.6)
3.57
46.25
(90.7) (1174.8)
45
(7.2)
4.68
4.02
4.01
(118.9) (102.1) (101.9)
Snowfall inches
(cm)
8.9
(22.6)
8.4
(21.3)
4.3
(10.9)
.8
(2)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
.6
(1.5)
3.0
(7.6)
26.0
(66)
Avg.
precipitation
days (≥ 0.01 in)
10.5
9.9
10.9
10.8
11.7
10.7
10.0
9.6
9.0
8.3
9.5
10.7
121.6
Avg. snowy days
4.9
4.1
2.3
.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
.4
2.3
14.4
(≥ 0.1 in)
Source: NOAA
[13]
Demographics
Newark, New
Jersey
Census
Pop.
%±
1790
1000
—
1800
6000
500.0%
1820
6507
—
1830
10953
68.3%
1840
17290
57.9%
1850
38894
125.0%
1860
71941
85.0%
1870
105059
46.0%
1880
136508
29.9%
1890
181830
33.2%
1900
246070
35.3%
1910
347469
41.2%
1920
414524
19.3%
1930
442337
6.7%
1940
429760
−2.8%
1950
438776
2.1%
Newark, New Jersey
29
1960
405220
−7.6%
1970
381930
−5.7%
1980
329248
−13.8%
1990
275221
−16.4%
2000
273546
−0.6%
2010
277140
1.3%
[14]
As of the census[3] of 2000, there are 273,546 people, 91,382 households, and 61,956 families residing in Newark;
recent census projections show that the population has already increased to around 280,000. The population density
was 11,400/mile² (4,400/km²), or 21,000/mile² (8,100 km²) once airport, railroad, and seaport lands are excluded,
Newark has the eighth highest density in the nation of any city with over 250,000 residents.
The racial makeup of the city was 41.46% Non-Hispanic Black or African American, 27.52% Non-Hispanic White,
1.19% Asian, 0.37% Native American, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 14.05% from other races, and 4.36% from two or
more races. 28.47% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, most of which is made of Puerto Ricans
and Dominicans There is a significant Portuguese-speaking community, made up of Brazilian and Portuguese
ethnicities, concentrated mainly at the Ironbound district.
There were 91,382 households out of which 35.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.0% were
married couples living together, 29.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.2% were
non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65
years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.43.
In the city the population was spread
out with 27.9% under the age of 18,
12.1% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25
to 44, 18.7% from 45 to 64, and 9.3%
who were 65 years of age or older. The
median age was 31 years. For every
100 females, there were 94.2 males.
For every 100 females of age 18 and
over, there were 91.1 males.
Poverty and lack of
investment
Poverty remains a consistent problem
in Newark, despite its revitalization in
Poverty rates, as of 2003
recent years. The 1967 riots resulted in
a significant population loss of both white and black middle classes which continued from the 1970s through to the
1990s. The city lost over 100,000 residents between 1960 and 1990.
According to numbers from 2003, the median income for a household in the city is $26,913, and the median income
for a family is $30,781. Males have a median income of $29,748 versus $25,734 for females. The per capita income
for the city is $13,009. 28.4% of the population and 25.5% of families are below the poverty line. 36.6% of those
under the age of 18 and 24.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. The city's unemployment rate
is 12%.
Newark, New Jersey
Government
Local government
Effective as of July 1, 1954, the voters of the city of Newark, by a referendum held on November 3, 1953 and under
the Optional Municipal Charter Law (commonly known as the Faulkner Act), adopted the Faulkner Act
(Mayor-Council) Plan C as the form of local government.[15]
There are nine council members are elected on a nonpartisan basis at the regular municipal election or at the general
election for terms of four years: one council member from each of five wards and four council members on an
at-large basis. The mayor is also elected for a term of four years.
The Municipal Council is the legislative branch of city government. It enacts by ordinance, resolution or motion the
local laws which govern the people of the city, and is responsible for approval of the municipal budget,
establishment of financial controls, and setting of salaries of elected officials and top appointed administrators. It
may reduce or increase appropriations requested by the Mayor. By these methods the Council decides "what" the city
will do about any particular matter, and then the Mayor and cabinet members decide "how" to do it. It also renders
advice and consent on the Mayor's appointments and policy programs, and may investigate, when necessary, any
branch of municipal government. The Council also authorizes a continuing audit by an outside firm, of all city
financial transactions.
As established by ordinance, regular public meetings of the Municipal Council are held on the first Wednesday of
each month at 1:00 p.m., and the third Wednesday of each month at 7:00 p.m. in the Municipal Council Chamber in
City Hall. Exceptions are made for national or religious holidays. During July and August only one meeting is held
each month. A special meeting of the Municipal Council may be called by the President or a majority of its members
or by the Mayor whenever an emergency requires immediate action.
As of 2010, Newark's Municipal Council include the following members:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Donald M. Payne, Jr. (Council President/Council Member-at-Large) Who is also a Freeholder-at-Large
Augusto Amador (Council Member, East Ward)
Ras J. Baraka (Council Member, South Ward)
Mildred C. Crump (Council Member-at-Large)
Carlos M. Gonzalez (Council Member-at-Large)
Luis A. Quintana (Council Member-at-Large)
Anibal Ramos, Jr. (Council Vice President/Council Member, North Ward)
Ronald C. Rice (Council Member, West Ward)
Darrin S. Sharif (Council Member, Central Ward)
Federal, state and county representation
Newark is split between the 10th and 13th Congressional districts. New Jersey's Tenth Congressional District is
represented by Donald M. Payne (D, Newark). New Jersey's Thirteenth Congressional District is represented by
Albio Sires (D, West New York). New Jersey is represented in the United States Senate by Frank Lautenberg (D,
Cliffside Park) and Bob Menendez (D, Hoboken).
Part of Newark is in the 27th Legislative District of the New Jersey Legislature, which is represented in the New
Jersey Senate by Richard Codey (D, Roseland) and in the New Jersey General Assembly by Mila Jasey (D, South
Orange) and John F. McKeon (D, West Orange).[16] Another part is in the 28th District of the New Jersey
Legislature, which is represented in the New Jersey Senate by Ronald Rice (D, Newark) and in the New Jersey
General Assembly by Ralph R. Caputo (D, Belleville) and Cleopatra Tucker (D, Newark).[17] The remainder is in the
29th District of the New Jersey Legislature, which is represented in the New Jersey Senate by Teresa Ruiz (D,
Newark) and in the New Jersey General Assembly by Alberto Coutinho (D, Newark) and L. Grace Spencer (D,
30
Newark, New Jersey
31
Newark).[18]
Politics
On the national level, Newark leans strongly toward the Democratic Party. In 2008, Democrat Barack Obama
received 91% of the vote.[19]
Political corruption
Newark has been marred with episodes of political corruption throughout the years. Five of the last seven Mayors of
Newark have been indicted on criminal charges, including the last three Mayors: Hugh Addonizio, Kenneth Gibson,
and Sharpe James. As reported by Newsweek:
“
[20]
"... every mayor since 1962 (except the current one, Cory Booker) has been indicted for crimes committed while in office."
”
Addonizio was mayor of Newark from 1962 to 1970. A son of Italian immigrants, a tailor and WWII veteran, he ran
on a reform platform, defeating the incumbent, Leo Carlin, who, ironically, he characterized as corrupt and a part of
the political machine of the era. During the 1967 riots, it was found that Addonizio and other city officials were
taking kickbacks from city contractors. He was convicted of extortion and conspiracy in 1970, and was sentenced to
ten years in federal prison.
His successor was Kenneth Gibson, the city's first African American mayor, elected in 1970. He pleaded guilty to
federal tax evasion in 2002 as part of a plea agreement on fraud and bribery charges. During his tenure as Mayor in
[21]
1980, he was tried and acquitted of giving out no-show jobs by an Essex County jury.
Sharpe James, who defeated Gibson in 1986 and declined to run for a sixth term in 2006, was indicted on 33 counts
of conspiracy, mail fraud, and wire fraud by a federal grand jury sitting in Newark. The grand jury charged that
James illegally used city-owned credit cards for personal gain, illegally spending $58,000, and that James
orchestrated a scheme to sell city-owned land at below-market prices to his companion, who immediately re-sold the
land to developers and gained profit of over $500,000. James had an initial appearance on July 12, 2007 and entered
a plea of not guilty to the 25 counts facing him. However, James was eventually found guilty on fraud charges by a
federal jury on April 17, 2008 for his role in the conspiring to rig land sales at nine city-owned properties. The
former mayor was sentenced to serve up to 27 months in prison.
Crime
In 1996, TIME Magazine ranked Newark "The Most Dangerous City in the Nation."[22] By 2007, however, the city
recorded a total of 99 homicides for the year, representing a significant drop from the record of 161 murders set in
1981.[23] [24] [25] [26] The number of murders in 2008 dropped to 65, a decline of 30% from the previous year and the
lowest in the city since 2002 when there were also 65 murders.[27]
In the 2006 Morgan Quitno survey, Newark was ranked as the 22nd most dangerous city in the United States out of
371 municipalities.[28] In the 2007 rankings, now performed by CQ Press, Newark was the 20th most dangerous city
in America of 378 cities surveyed. In 2008, Newark was ranked as the 24th most dangerous city, and as of 2010,
stands at 23rd.[29] In March, 2010, Newark enjoyed its first month without a homicide since 1966.[30]
Newark, New Jersey
32
Economy
Newark has over 300 types of
business. These include 1,800 retail,
540 wholesale establishments, eight
major bank headquarters (including
those of New Jersey's three largest
banks), and twelve savings and loan
association headquarters. Deposits in
Newark-based banks are over $20 billion.
Panorama of Newark from Harrison
Newark is the third-largest insurance center in United States, after New York City and Hartford. The Prudential
Financial and Mutual Benefit Life companies originated in Newark. The former, one of the largest insurance
companies in the world, is still headquartered in Newark. Many other companies are headquartered in the city,
including International Discount Telecommunications, New Jersey Transit, Public Service Enterprise Group (PSEG),
and Horizon Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey.
Though Newark is not the industrial colossus of the past, the city does have a considerable amount of industry. The
southern portion of the Ironbound, also known as the Industrial Meadowlands, has seen many factories built since
World War II, including a large Anheuser-Busch brewery. The service industry is also growing rapidly, replacing
those in the manufacturing industry, which was once Newark's primary economy. In addition, transportation has
become a growing business in Newark, accounting for 24,000 jobs in 1996.
Newark based companies:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Prudential Financial
Panasonic (starting in 2013)
IDT Corporation
Horizon Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey
Net2Phone
PSEG
McCarter & English, LLP
NJ Transit
The Consulate-General of Ecuador in New Jersey is located on the 4th Floor at 400 Market Street.[31] The
Consulate-General of Portugal is located at the main floor of the Legal Center at One Riverfront Plaza.[32] The Vice
Consulate of Italy is located in Suite 100 at 1 Gateway Center.[33] The Mission of the Central African Republic to the
United Nations is located in Suite 2008 at 51 Clifton Avenue in Newark.[34]
Panasonic will move its North American headquarters to Newark in 2013. At that time, they will leave their longtime
headquarters in nearby Secaucus, New Jersey.
Newark, New Jersey
Port Newark
Port Newark is the part of Port
Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal
and the largest cargo facility in the Port
of New York and New Jersey. Located
on Newark Bay, it is run by the Port
Authority of New York and New
Jersey and serves as the principal
container ship facility for goods
entering and leaving the New York
metropolitan
region
and
the
northeastern quadrant of North
America. The Port is the fifteenth
busiest in the world today, but was
number one as recently as 1985.[35] In
2003 the Port moved over $100 billion
in goods. Plans are underway for
Newark Bay with the New Jersey Turnpike and Newark Bay Bridge visible.
billions of dollars of improvements larger cranes, bigger railyard facilities, deeper channels, and expanded wharves.
Urban Enterprise Zone
Portions of Newark are part of an Urban Enterprise Zone. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment
within the Zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3½% sales tax rate (versus the 7% rate charged
statewide).[36]
Education
Colleges and universities
Newark is the home of the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Rutgers University in Newark, Seton Hall
University School of Law, the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (Newark Campus), Essex County
College, and a Berkeley College campus. Most of Newark's academic institutions are located in the city's University
Heights district. Rutgers-Newark and NJIT are in the midst of major expansion programs, including plans to
purchase, and sometimes raze, surrounding buildings, as well as revitalize current campuses. With more students
requesting to live on campus, the universities have plans to build and expand several dormitories. Such
overcrowding is contributing to the revitalization of nearby apartments. Nearby restaurants primarily serve college
students. Well lit, frequently policed walks have been organized by the colleges to encourage students to venture
downtown.
33
Newark, New Jersey
Public schools
The Newark Public Schools, a
state-operated school district, enrolls
approximately 45,000 students, making
it the largest school system in New
Jersey. The district is one of 31 Abbott
Districts statewide.[37] The city's
public schools are among the
lowest-performing in the state, even
after the state government decided to
take over management of the city's
schools in 1995, which was done under
the presumption that improvement
would follow. The school district
continues to struggle with low high
Educational attainment, as of 2003
school graduation rates and low
standardized test scores. The one
exception to this appears to be Science Park High School, which was ranked among the top seventy five high schools
in the state by New Jersey Monthly Magazine, and has more than ninety-five percent of their grads going on to four
year colleges and universities.[38]
The total school enrollment in Newark city was 75,000 in 2003. Pre-primary school enrollment was 12,000 and
elementary or high school enrollment was 46,000 children. College enrollment was 16,000.
As of 2003, 64% of people 25 years and over had at least graduated from high school and 11% had a bachelor's
degree or higher. Among people 16 to 19 years old, 10% were dropouts; they were not enrolled in school and had not
graduated from high school.[39]
100 Million dollars was just given to the Newark school district donated by Facebook's creator Mark Zuckerberg.
This donation was made on September 24, 2010. Zuckerberg said he chose Newark because he believes in them.[40]
Private schools
Link Community School is a non-denominational coeducational day school located serving approximately 128
students in seventh and eighth grades. Saint Benedict's Preparatory School is an all boys Roman Catholic high school
founded in 1868 and conducted by the Benedictine monks of Newark Abbey. Its campus has grown to encompass
both sides of MLK Jr. Blvd. near Market Street and includes a dormitory for boarding students. Saint Vincent
Academy [41], is an all girls Roman Catholic high school founded and sponsored by the Sisters of Charity of Saint
Elizabeth and operated continuously since 1869. Christ The King Prep, founded in 2007, is part of the Cristo Rey
Community.
34
Newark, New Jersey
35
Culture
Architecture and sculptures
There are several notable Beaux-Arts buildings, such as the Veterans'
Administration building, the Newark Museum, the Newark Public
Library, and the Cass Gilbert-designed Essex County Courthouse.
Notable Art Deco buildings include several 1920s era skyscrapers,
such as the National Newark Building (Newark's tallest building), the
restored Newark Penn Station, and Arts High School. Gothic
architecture can be found at the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart by
Branch Brook Park, which is one of the largest gothic cathedrals in the
United States. It is rumored to have as much stained glass as the
Cathedral of Chartres. Newark also has two public sculpture works by
Gutzon Borglum — Wars of America in Military Park and Seated
Lincoln in front of the Essex County Courthouse. Moorish Revival
buildings include Newark Symphony Hall and the Prince Street
Synagogue, one of the oldest synagogue buildings in New Jersey.
Performing arts
Cathedral of the Sacred Heart, one of the largest
gothic cathedrals in the U.S.
Newark is home to the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, located
near Military Park, which since its opening in 1997 has become one the most visited in the United States.[42] NJPAC
is involved in the construction of One Theater Square, a mixed-use skyscraper in the heart of the cultural district.
The center's programs world renowned national and international music, dance, and theater.
Prior to the opening of the performing arts center, Newark Symphony Hall was home to the New Jersey Symphony,
the New Jersey State Opera, and the Garden State Ballet, which stills maintains an academy there.[43] The 1925
neo-classic building, originally built by the Shriners, has three performance spaces, including the main concert
named in honor of famous Newarker Sarah Vaughn. The venue programs rhythm and blues, rap, hip-hop, and gospel
music concerts, and is part of the modern day Chitlin circuit.
The Newark Boys Chorus founded in 1966, has gained a world-wide reputation, performs regularly in the city. The
Arican Globe Theater Works presents a new works seasonally. The biennal Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival took
place in Newark for the first time in 2010.[44] [45] Venues at the universities in the city are also used to present
professional and semi-professional theater, dance, and music.
Since its opening the Prudential Center in 2007 has presented Bon Jovi, Lady Gaga, Britney Spears, The Eagles,
Hannah Montana/Miley Cyrus, Spice Girls, Jonas Brothers, Metro Station, Metallica, Alicia Keys, Demi Lovato,
David Archuleta, Taylor Swift & American Idol Live!, among others.
Newark, New Jersey
36
Museums, libraries, and galleries
The Newark Museum is the largest in New Jersey. It has a first-class
American art collection and its Tibetan collection is considered one of
the best in the world. The museum also contains science galleries, a
planetarium, a gallery for children's exhibits, a fire museum, a
sculpture garden and an 18th century schoolhouse. Also part of the
museum is the historic John Ballantine House, a restored Victorian
mansion which is a National Historic Landmark. The museum
co-sponsors the Newark Black Film Festival, which has premiered
numerous films since its founding in 1974.[46]
Three buildings of the Newark Museum
The city is also home to the New Jersey Historical Society, which has
rotating exhibits on New Jersey and Newark. The Newark Public
Library, the state's largest system with 11 locations, also produces a series of historical exhibits. The library houses
more than a million volumes and has frequent exhibits on a variety of topics, many featuring items from its Fine
Print and Special Collections.
In February 2004, plans were announced for a new Smithsonian-affiliated Museum of African American Music to be
built in the city's Coast/Lincoln Park neighborhood. The museum will be dedicated to black musical styles, from
gospel to rap. The new museum will incorporate the facade of the old South Park Presbyterian Church, where
Abraham Lincoln once spoke.[47]
On December 9, 2007 the Jewish Museum of New Jersey,[48] located at 145 Broadway in the Broadway
neighborhood held its grand opening. The museum is dedicated to the rich cultural heritage of New Jersey’s Jewish
people. The museum is housed at Ahavas Sholom,[49] the last continually operating synagogue in Newark. At one
time there were fifty synagogues in Newark serving a Jewish population of 70,000, once the sixth largest Jewish
community in the United States.
Newark is also home to numerous art galleries including Aljira, City Without Walls, Gallery Aferro, Rupert Ravens
Contemporary, Sumei Arts Center,[50] and the Paul Robeson Galleries[51] at Rutgers-Newark.
In April 2010 it was announced that a new Children's Museum of New Jersey may be created across from Newark
Penn Station.[52]
Professional sports
Prudential Center
Newark, New Jersey
Club
37
Sport
Founded
League
Venue
New Jersey
Devils
Ice
Hockey
1974 (Moved to Newark in 2007.)
NHL
Prudential
Center
New Jersey
Nets
Basketball
1967 (Moved to Newark in 2010.)
NBA
Prudential
Center
Red Bulls
Soccer
1995 (Moved to Harrison, a suburb adjacent to Newark, in 2010.)
MLS
Red Bull Arena
Newark Bears
Baseball
1998
Can-Am
League
Riverfront
Stadium
New York
Liberty
Basketball
1997 (Will play in Newark from 2011-2013 while Madison Square Garden
undergoes summer renovations.)
WNBA
Prudential
Center
There have been many sports teams in Newark, but the city has spent much of its history without an NBA, NHL, or
NFL team. Although the city has never had an MLB team, they were home to a Federal League team. Newark has a
rich history in baseball as it was one of the first cities with professional baseball teams. Newark had eight National
Association of Baseball Players (NABBP) teams, including the Newark Eurekas and the Newark Adriatics. Newark
was then home to the Newark Indians of the International League and then to the Newark Peppers of the Federal
League, sometimes nicknamed the Newfeds. Newark was also home to the Negro League team the Newark Dodgers
and the Newark Eagles for which the Bears and Eagles Riverfront Stadium is partially named. Although Newark has
had a rich history in baseball and currently has a minor league team, it has never had an MLB team. The current
Newark minor league team, the revived Newark Bears, play at Bears and Eagles Riverfront Stadium, a stop on the
Newark Light Rail. The Bears are part of the independent Atlantic League, which also has teams in Bridgewater
Township and Camden. Newark had a short-lived NFL franchise named the Newark Tornadoes, which folded in
1930. Newark was without a National Hockey League team until Fall of 2007, when the New Jersey Devils took to
the ice for the first time in the Prudential Center. The indoor soccer team New Jersey Ironmen plays in the Prudential
Center. Newark will gain an NBA tenant for the first time when the New Jersey Nets will move to Newark in 2010,
though the move is expected to be temporary until the team completes construction of its own arena (Barclays
Center) in Brooklyn, NY. A professional basketball team in the American Basketball Association, the Newark
Express was introduced to the city in 2005. The team formerly played their home at Essex County College and Drew
University in Madison and now play at East Orange Campus High School. In Harrison, across from the Ironbound
neighborhood, Red Bull Arena serves as the home stadium for the New York Red Bulls soccer team. In the next
couple of months, Newark will begin planning a pedestrian bridge that will link the two cities at Minish Park.
Newark will be the host for the 2011 NBA draft, which was previously held for many years at Madison Square
Garden.
Local media
Newark does not have any major television network affiliates due to its proximity to New York City. However,
WNET, a flagship station of the Public Broadcasting Service, and Spanish-language WFUT-TV, a TeleFutura
owned-and-operated station, are licensed to Newark. The state's leading newspaper, The Star-Ledger, owned by
Advance Publications, is based out of Newark. Radio Station WJZ (now WABC (AM)) made its first broadcast in
1921 from the Westinghouse plant near Lackawanna Station. It moved to New York City in the 1920s. Pioneer radio
station WOR AM was originally licensed to and broadcast from the Bamberger's Department Store in Newark. Radio
Station WNEW-AM (now WBBR) was founded in Newark in 1934. It later moved to New York City. In addition,
WBGO, a National Public Radio affiliate that reaches New York City with a format of standard and contemporary
jazz, is located in downtown Newark. WNSW AM-1430 (formerly WNJR) and WQXR (which was formerly WHBI
and later WCAA) 105.9 FM are also licensed to Newark. A news website, www.localtalknews.com, was launched in
early 2010.
Newark, New Jersey
38
Documentary
In 2009, the Sundance Channel aired Brick City, a 5-part documentary about Newark, focusing on the community's
attempt to become a better and safer place to live, against a history of nearly a half century of violence, poverty and
official corruption. The second season of Brick City premiered on January 30, 2011 on the Sundance Channel.
Transportation
Early history
Innovation and improvements to methods of transportation in
Newark could arguably be traced back to the completion of the
Morris Canal within Newark. With the canal in place, a greater
number of goods and resources were brought in and shipped out
at a much greater rate on a regular basis. This ultimately led to
increased settlement in Newark, vastly increasing the population
for years to come. As the city came to be more and more
congested, further means of transportation were sought;
eventually leading to horse drawn trolleys which eventually
became electric trolleys that ran down the main streets of
Part of the Newark Trolley line running up Market Street
downtown Newark including Broad Street and up Market Street
near the present day courthouse.
near the courthouse. The trolley cars did not last long as the
personal motor vehicle quickly gained popularity and slowly
made the trolley system seem like a burden.[53] The Morris Canal also saw its days come to an end, only to be more
recently used by the Newark City Subway, now known as the Newark Light Rail. Even today, many of the subway
stations still portray the Canal in its original state in the form of mosaic works.
Present day
Newark is a hub of air, road, rail, and ship traffic, making it a
significant gateway into the New York metropolitan area and the
northeastern United States.[54] Newark Liberty International
Airport, the second-busiest airport in the New York region and
the fourteenth-busiest in the United States (in terms of passenger
traffic), saw nearly 32 million travelers in 2004 and processed
nearly 1,000,000 metric tons of freight and mail. Just east of the
airport lies Port Newark, the fifteenth-busiest port in the world
and the largest container port on the eastern seaboard. In 2003,
the port moved over $100 billion in goods.
Newark's Penn Station, a busy commuter and Amtrak hub
Newark is served by numerous highways including the New
designed by McKim, Mead, and White
Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95), Interstate 280, Interstate 78, the
Garden State Parkway, U.S. Route 1/9, U.S. Route 22, and Route 21. Newark is connected to the Holland Tunnel
and Lower Manhattan by the Pulaski Skyway, spanning both the Passaic and Hackensack Rivers.
Newark, New Jersey
39
Local streets in Newark conform to a quasi-grid form, with
major streets radiating outward (like spokes on a wheel) from
the downtown area. Some major roads in the city are named
after the towns to which they lead, including South Orange
Avenue, Springfield Avenue, and Bloomfield Avenue. These are
some of the oldest roads in the city.
Newark is second in the U.S. to New York City in the
proportion of households without an automobile, and is
extensively served by mass transit. Newark Penn Station,
situated just east of downtown, is a major train station,
connecting the interurban PATH system (which links Newark to
Manhattan) with three New Jersey Transit commuter rail lines
and Amtrak service to Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. Only
one mile north, the Newark Broad Street Station is served by
two commuter rail lines. The two train stations are linked by the
Newark Light Rail system, which also provides services from
Newark Penn Station to Newarks's northern communities and
into the neighboring towns of Belleville and Bloomfield. Built
in the bed of the Morris Canal, the light rail cars run
underground in Newark's downtown area. The city's third train
station, Newark Liberty International Airport, connects the
Northeast Corridor and North Jersey Coast Line to the airport
via AirTrain Newark. Bus service in Newark is provided by
New Jersey Transit, CoachUSA contract operators, and DeCamp
in North Newark.
The Pulaski Skyway connects Newark to Jersey City and
New York City (photo 1978)
New York City and Jersey City skylines from Newark
Airport, which is located on the border of Newark and
Elizabeth, New Jersey.
Newark is served by New Jersey Transit bus routes 1, 5, 11, 13,
21, 25, 27, 28, 29, 34, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 59, 62, 65, 66, 67,
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 90, 92, 93, 94, 96, 99, 107, and
108. Bus route 308 is an express bus route to Six Flags Great
Adventure from Newark Penn Station while 319 is an express
service to Atlantic City.[55]
Health and safety
Hospitals and medical care
Newark is home to four hospitals. The University Hospital is the
Newark light rail system
principal teaching hospital of the UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical
School and is the busiest Level I trauma center in the state.
UMDNJ also provides 24/7 emergency medical services to the city. Newark Beth Israel Medical Center is the largest
hospital in the city and is a part of the Saint Barnabas Health Care System, the state's largest system of hospital and
health care facilities. Beth Israel is also one of the oldest hospitals in the city, dating back to 1901. This 669-bed
regional facility is also home to the Children's Hospital of New Jersey. Cathedral Health East operates St. Michael's
Medical Center. Hospitals that have been closed over the past years include the St. James Hospital, Columbus
Hospital, Mount Carmel Guild Hospital, and United Hospitals Medical Center.
Newark, New Jersey
40
Fire department
The City of Newark is protected by the 700 professional firefighters of the City of Newark Fire Department(NFD).
Founded in 1863, the NFD operates out of 17 Fire Stations, located throughout the city in 4 Battalions. The NFD
also operates a front line fire apparatus fleet of 17 Engines, 9 Trucks, 1 Rescue, 2 Haz-Mat. Units, 1 Fire Boat, and
numerous other special, support, and reserve units.
As of 0800hrs. on October 1, 2010, the NFD removed Battalion 1 from service and distributed the command of its
fire stations over the remaining three Battalions.[56] [57] [58]
Truck Company
Rescue Company
Command Unit
Engine Company
Address
Truck 1
Rescue 1
Neighborhood
Battalion 6
191 Orange St.
Downtown
Engine 5
Battalion 5
65 Congress St.
N. Ironbound
Engine 6
Deputy 1
344 Springfield Ave.
Springfield/Belmont
129 Sigourney St.
University Heights
197 Summer Ave.
Mt. Pleasant/Lower Broadway
Engine 7
Engine 9
Battalion 3
Engine 10, Engine
12
Truck 5
360 Clinton Ave.
S. Broad St.
Engine 11
Truck 11
345 S. 9th St.
Fairmount
Engine 13
Truck 6
718 Mt. Prospect Ave.
Forest Hill
71 Vesey St.
S. Ironbound
Engine 14
Engine 15
Truck 7
271 Park Ave.
Lower Roseville
Engine 16
Truck 8
473 Ferry St.
N. Ironbound
Engine 18
Truck 10
395 Avon Ave.
West Side
528 Frelinghuysen
Ave.
Newark/Liberty International
Airport
420 Sanford Ave.
Lower Valisburg
89 Elm Rd.
S. Ironbound
Engine 28
691 N. 6th St.
Upper Roseville
Engine 29
86 Clinton Pl.
Weequahic
Battalion 4
Engine 19
Engine 26
Truck 12
Engine 27
Truck 4
Battalion 5
• Fire Station # 1 is also the headquarters of the department's Special Operations Division and houses Haz-Mat. 1,
Haz-Mat. 2, the Decon. Unit, the Foam Unit, the Mobile Command Unit, and the many other Special Operations
Units. Fire Station # 1 also, like many other stations in the city, houses a fleet of reserve/spare fire apparatus.
Newark, New Jersey
International relations
Twin towns - sister cities
Newark has eleven sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:[59]
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Freeport, Bahamas
Douala, Cameroon
Xuzhou, People's Republic of China
Aveiro, Portugal
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Banjul, Gambia
Kumasi, Ghana
Porto Alegre, Brazil
Monrovia, Liberia
Ganja, Azerbaijan
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Governador Valadares, Brazil
References
Notes
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-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1_CO2& -CONTEXT=gct& -tree_id=4001& -geo_id=05000US34013& -format=CO-2& -_lang=en)
- Geographic comparison table - Essex County
[2] United States Census Bureau. Retrieved April 16, 2011.
[3] "American FactFinder" (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov). United States Census Bureau. . Retrieved 2008-01-31.
[4] A Cure for the Common Codes: New Jersey (http:/ / mcdc2. missouri. edu/ webrepts/ commoncodes/ ccc_nj. html), Missouri Census Data
Center. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
[5] "US Board on Geographic Names" (http:/ / geonames. usgs. gov). United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. . Retrieved 2008-01-31.
[6] "Top 1,000 Nationwide - 2010 Population Data" (http:/ / www. biggestuscities. com/ ). Biggest US Cities. 2010-12-11. . Retrieved
2011-03-16.
[7] "The Story of New Jersey's Civil Boundaries: 1606-1968", John P. Snyder, Bureau of Geology and Topography; Trenton, New Jersey; 1969.
p. 130.
[8] The Official Website of the City of Newark, NJ (http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/ About_Newark/ Fast_Facts/ Geography. htm). Retrieved
January 14, 2006.
[9] "City of Newark, NJ - North Ward" (http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/ residents/ neighborhood_services/ north_ward. php). Ci.newark.nj.us. .
Retrieved 2011-03-16.
[10] "City of Newark, NJ - Central Ward" (http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/ residents/ neighborhood_services/ central_ward. php).
Ci.newark.nj.us. . Retrieved 2011-03-16.
[11] "City of Newark, NJ - West Ward" (http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/ residents/ neighborhood_services/ west_ward. php). Ci.newark.nj.us. .
Retrieved 2011-03-16.
[12] "City of Newark, NJ - South Ward" (http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/ residents/ neighborhood_services/ south_ward. php). Ci.newark.nj.us. .
Retrieved 2011-03-16.
[13] "NCDC: U.S. Climate Normals" (http:/ / cdo. ncdc. noaa. gov/ climatenormals/ clim20/ nj/ 286026. pdf). National Oceanic and Atmospheric
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[14] "U.S. Census Bureau Delivers New Jersey's 2010 Census Population Totals" (http:/ / www. census. gov/ newsroom/ releases/ archives/
2010_census/ cb11-cn15. html). U.S. Census Bureau. 2011-02-03. . Retrieved 2011-02-05.
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p. 125.
[16] "Legislative Roster: 2010-2011 Session" (http:/ / www. njleg. state. nj. us/ members/ roster. asp). New Jersey Legislature. . Retrieved
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[17] "Legislative Roster: 2010-2011 Session" (http:/ / www. njleg. state. nj. us/ members/ roster. asp). New Jersey Legislature. . Retrieved
2010-02-08.
[18] "Legislative Roster: 2010-2011 Session" (http:/ / www. njleg. state. nj. us/ members/ roster. asp). New Jersey Legislature. . Retrieved
2010-02-08.
41
Newark, New Jersey
[19] "New Jersey Division of Elections" (http:/ / www. state. nj. us/ state/ elections/ results_2009_doe. html). State.nj.us. . Retrieved 2009-07-08.
[20] http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ 2010/ 03/ 10/ the-swamps-of-jersey. html
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homicides, far below its record of 161 in 1981, but more than in any other year since 1995."
[24] Murr, Andrew; and Noonoo, Jemimah. "A Return To The Bad Old Days?" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 20320054/ site/ newsweek/
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[25] This link (http:/ / news. surfwax. com/ uscities/ files/ Camden_New_Jersey. html) contains a reference to a June 11, 2007 article in Newsday
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[37] Abbott Districts (http:/ / www. nj. gov/ cgi-bin/ education/ abbotts/ abbotturls. pl?string=code& maxhits=100), New Jersey Department of
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[41] http:/ / www. svanewark. org
[42] NJPAC achieves 180 million fundraising goal for nation's sixth largest performing arts center and the forth largest arts education program of
a performing arts center (http:/ / www. newjerseynewsroom. com/ movies/
njpac-achieves-180-million-fundraising-goal-for-nations-sixth-largest-performing-arts-center) Newjerseynewsroom.com (retrieved November
18, 2009)
[43] Newark Symphony Hall (http:/ / www. newarksymphonyhall. org/ index. php)
[44] GoNewark website (http:/ / www. gonewark. com/ )
[45] "Dodge Poetry Festival Awarded To Newark And New Jersey Performing Arts Center" (http:/ / ws1. njpac. org/ joomla/ images/ PDF/
dpf_final. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-03-16.
[46] Newark Black Film Festival (http:/ / www. newarkmuseum. org/ museum_pages. aspx?id=240)
[47] "Lincoln Park Coast Cultural District/Museum of African American Music" (http:/ / affiliations. si. edu/ AffiliateDetail.
Asp?AffiliateID=143). Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2009-06-14.
[48] Jewish Museum of New Jersey (http:/ / www. jewishmuseumnj. org)
[49] Congregation Ahavas Sholom (http:/ / www. ahavassholom. org)
[50] GoNewark website:Galleries (http:/ / www. gonewark. com/ arts. html)
42
Newark, New Jersey
[51] Paul Robeson Galleries (http:/ / andromeda. rutgers. edu/ artgallery/ current/ index. html)
[52] "Children's Museum of New Jersey will add another gem to Newark's downtown" (http:/ / www. nj. com/ news/ index. ssf/ 2010/ 04/
childrens_museum_of_new_jersey. html). NJ.com. 2010-04-11. . Retrieved 2011-03-16.
[53] Transportation and the Shaping of the Physical Environment In an Urban Place: Newark. Drummond, James O.. NYU Dissertation.
[54] "layout-urban-newark_nj-long-range_003.indd" (http:/ / www. state. nj. us/ transportation/ works/ njchoices/ pdf/ newark. pdf) (PDF). .
Retrieved 2011-03-16.
[55] New Jersey Transit bus schedules (http:/ / www. njtransit. com/ sf/ sf_servlet. srv?hdnPageAction=BusSchedulesTo). Retrieved November
7, 2007.
[56] (http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/ government/ city_departments/ fire_department/ ). Retrieved June 28, 2010.
[57] (http:/ / www. ci. newark. nj. us/ government/ city_departments/ fire_department/ newark_fire_department_stations. php). Retrieved June
28, 2010.
[58] (http:/ / www. newarkfirehistory. com/ ). Retrieved June 28, 2010.
[59] Online Directory: New Jersey, USA (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080101133345/ http:/ / www. sister-cities. org/ icrc/ directory/ usa/
NJ), Sister Cities International, backed up by Internet Archive as of January 1, 2008. Retrieved October 25, 2008.
Further reading
• Ezra Shales. Made in Newark: Cultivating Industrial Arts and Civic Identity in the Progressive Era (Rivergate
Books/Rutgers University Press; 2010) 302 pages
• Stummer, Helen M. (1994). No Easy Walk: Newark, 1980–1993. Temple University Press. ISBN 1-56639-242-X.
• 2005-Newark's land use plan including historical data (http://www.ci.newark.nj.us/userimages/downloads/1.
0 Introduction.pdf)
External links
• The City of Newark, New Jersey (http://www.ci.newark.nj.us/)
• A guide to downtown buildings in Newark (http://www.nj.com/newarkguide/map/downtown/) produced by
The Star-Ledger
• 1911 Britannica article (http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Newark,_New_Jersey)
• Go Newark (http://www.gonewark.com/) - Guide to news, culture, history, and leisure activities in and around
Newark.
• Map of Newark (http://www.gonewark.com/atWork/CityMaps/documents/city_map2003_FP.pdf)
• "The Once and Future Newark" film (http://www.newark.rutgers.edu/newark)
• Revolution '67 (http://www.bongiornoproductions.com/REVOLUTION '67/REVOLUTION '67.html) Documentary about the Newark, New Jersey race riots of 1967
• "Newark: A Brief History" (http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2005/streetfight/special_overview.html) on PBS
website
• "A Walk Through Newark" (http://www.thirteen.org/newark/index.html)
• Newarkology Website (http://www.newarkhistory.com)
• Old Newark (http://www.oldnewark.com/)
• US Census Bureau - Newark - QuickFacts (http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/34/3451000.html)
• The Daily Newarker blog (http://dailynewarker.com/)
• Brazilian Community in New Jersey (http://www.newjerseybrasil.com/)
• Unified Vailsburg Service Organization www.uvso.org (http://www.uvso.org) UVSO is a community
development non-profit serving the Vailsburg section of Newark (West Ward)
• Newark New Jersey Guide (http://www.newarknjguide.com/)
Newark, New Jersey
43
Abstraction
44
Abstraction
Abstraction is a process by which higher concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal ("real" or
"concrete") concepts, first principles, or other methods. An "abstraction" (noun) is a concept that acts as
super-categorical noun for all subordinate concepts, and connects any related concepts as a group, field, or category.
Abstractions may be formed by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon,
typically to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather
soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball retains only the information on general ball attributes and behavior,
eliminating the characteristics of that particular ball.
Origins
The first symbols of abstract thinking in humans can be traced to fossils dating between 50,000 and 100,000 years
ago in Africa.[1] [2] However, language itself, whether spoken or written, involves abstract thinking.
Thought process
In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas[3] are distanced from objects.
Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or
undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience
between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/abstract communication.
For example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on
surfaces (as in picture 1, to the right). The property of redness and the relation
sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual
diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and
their five labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the
scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine
explicit details in the graph.
Cat on Mat (picture 1)
Graph 1 details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For
example the arrow between the agent and CAT:Elsie depicts an example of an is-a relationship, as does the arrow
between the location and the MAT. The arrows between the gerund SITTING and the nouns agent and location
express the diagram's basic relationship; "agent is SITTING on location"; Elsie is an instance of CAT.
Although the description sitting-on (graph 1) is more
abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat
(picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from
concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity
or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus
something as simple as a newspaper might be specified
to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of
Conceptual graph for A Cat sitting on the Mat (graph 1)
that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979):
(1) a publication
(2) a newspaper
(3) The San Francisco Chronicle
(4) the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
Abstraction
45
(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle as it was when I first
picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my
fireplace, burning)
An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective
or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to
solve a crime or a puzzle.
Referents
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer
to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture"
refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim
at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response
in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.
Instantiation
Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or
members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then
said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown above.
It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the
movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone"
abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the
concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not
abstract in the sense of the objects in graph 1 above.
We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract
than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or
monotreme.
Physicality
A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular
individual that occupies a particular place and time.
Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences,
like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which
things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and
goodness are real, abstract, or both.
An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real,
abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. good). Questions about the properties of things are then
propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 above,
the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of
abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows
point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.
Abstraction
Abstraction used in philosophy
Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some
set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction
is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of
universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical
tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.
In the Urantia Book glossary Dr. William S. Sadler commented that "Philosophers commit their gravest error when
they are misled into the fallacy of abstraction, the practice of focusing the attention upon one aspect of reality and
then of pronouncing such an isolated aspect to be the whole truth." (42.6) 2:7.5 [4]
Ontological status
The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract
concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist
differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness
of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not
exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.
Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars. E.g., the
particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.
In linguistics
The relation among syntax, semantics, and pragmatics has also been cashed out in terms of what could be called an
"abstraction hierarchy." For instance, Rudolf Carnap in his Introduction to Semantics (1942, Harvard University
Press) writes:
If… explicit reference is made to the speaker, or, to put it in more general terms, to the user of a
language, then we assign it to the field of pragmatics. (Whether in this case reference to designata is
made or not makes no difference for this classification.) If we abstract from the user of the language and
analyze only the expressions and their designata, we are in the field of semantics. And if, finally, we
abstract from the designata also and analyze only the relations between the expressions, we are in
(logical) syntax. The whole science of language, consisting of the three parts mentioned, is called
semiotic. (p. 9)
A related statement was made a few years earlier by Carnap's fellow American philosopher Charles W. Morris, PhD
student of the sociologist and pragmatist philosopher George Herbert Mead, and heavily influenced by the
pragmatist and founder of (analytical) semiotics, Charles Sanders Peirce:
"Syntactics, as the study of the syntactical relations of signs to one another in abstraction from the
relations of signs to objects [i.e., semantics] or to interpreters [i.e., pragmatics], is the best developed of
all the branches of semiotic." (p. 13)[5]
The relation between abstraction and Morris' influential trichotomy is a matter of ongoing discussion.[6]
Reification, also called hypostatization, might be considered a formal fallacy whenever an abstract concept, such as
"society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object. In linguistics this is called metonymy, in which
abstract concepts are referred to using the same sorts of nouns that signify concrete objects. Metonymy is an aspect
of the English language and of other languages. It can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things:
1805: Horatio Nelson (Battle of Trafalgar) - "England expects that every man will do his duty"
46
Abstraction
Compression
An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of
abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the
abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data,
thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of
abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with
an abstraction (which is itself an object).
For example, picture 1 above illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat".
Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to
basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions
such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed
to "action".
For example, graph 1 above expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location".
This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and
mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.
The neurology of abstraction
A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the
perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit
greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts when
concrete concepts elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal
gyrus.[7]
Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of
abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during
tool usage.[8]
Abstraction in art
Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art
unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world[9] —it can, however, refer to an object or
image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural
world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject
is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in
science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory.[10] Later
still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from objective context, and a
reduction of form to basic geometric designs.[11]
In music, the term abstraction can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may
sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized the exploration
of internal numeric relationships.[12]
47
Abstraction
Abstraction in psychology
Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four
mutually exclusive, opposing complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking.
Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these
opposing functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such
as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of
abstraction is concretism. Abstraction is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types.
There is an abstract thinking, just as there is abstract feeling, sensation and intuition. Abstract thinking
singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I
put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as
opposed to sensuous sensation and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic
intuition. (Jung, [1921] (1971):par. 678).
Abstraction in computer science
Computer scientists use abstraction and communicate their solutions with the computer in some particular computer
language. Abstraction allows program designers to separate categories and concepts from instances of
implementation, so that they do not depend on software or hardware.
Abstraction in mathematics
Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing
any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that
it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.
The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:
• it reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics
• known results in one area can suggest conjectures in a related area
• techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in a related area.
The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree
of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.
Notes
[1] Abstract Engravings Show Modern Behavior Emerged Earlier Than Previously Thought (http:/ / www. scienceinafrica. co. za/ 2002/ january/
ochre. htm)
[2] Ancient Engravings Push Back Origin of Abstract Thought (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article.
cfm?articleID=000629D0-B23F-1CCE-B4A8809EC588EEDF)
[3] But an idea can be symbolized. "A symbol is any device whereby we are enabled to make an abstraction." -- p.xi and chapter 20 of Suzanne
K. Langer (1953), Feeling and Form: a theory of art developed from Philosophy in a New Key: New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 431
pages, index.
[4] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-2-nature-god#U2_7_5
[5] Morris CW. 1938. Foundations of the Theory of Signs. (Volume 1, #2 of Foundations of the Unity of Science. Toward an International
Encyclopedia of Unified Science). University of Chicago Press.
[6] Korta, K, Perry, J, "Pragmatics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/pragmatics/>.
[7] Jing Wang, Julie A. Conder, David N. Blitzer, and Svetlana V. Shinkareva "Neural Representation of Abstract and Concrete Concepts: A
Meta-Analysis of Neuroimaging Studies" Human Brain Mapping (2010). http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ hbm. 20950
[8] James W. Lewis "Cortical Networks Related to Human Use of Tools" 12 (3): 211-231 The Neuroscientist (June 1, 2006).
[9] Encyclopaedia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9003405/ abstract-art)
[10] Catherine de Zegher and Hendel Teicher (eds.), 3 X Abstraction. NY/New Haven: The Drawing Center/Yale University Press. 2005. ISBN
0-300-10826-5
48
Abstraction
[11] National Gallery of Art: Abstraction. (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ education/ american/ abstract. shtm)
[12] Washington State University: Glossary of Abstraction. (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ GLOSSARY/ ABSTRACT. HTM)
Bibliography
• Eugene Raskin, Architecturally Speaking, 2nd edition, a Delta book, Dell (1966), trade paperback, 129 pages
• The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd edition, Houghton Mifflin (1992), hardcover,
2140 pages, ISBN 0-395-44895-6
• Jung, C.G. [1921] (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.
External links
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege (http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/frege.htm)
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abstract Objects (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/)
• Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy (http://originresearch.com/sd/sd1.cfm)
[[pt:Abstração]
49
Gravity's Rainbow
50
Gravity's Rainbow
Gravity's Rainbow
First edition cover design
Author(s)
Thomas Pynchon
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre(s)
Historical novel, Postmodern literature, Hysterical realism, Science Fiction
Publisher
Viking Press (first edition), Penguin Books, Bantam Books
Publication date
February 28, 1973
Media type
Print (clothbound hardcover, paperback)
Pages
760 (Penguin)
ISBN
ISBN 0-14-018859-2 (Penguin)
OCLC Number
32513609
Dewey Decimal
813/.54 20
[1]
LC Classification PS3566.Y55 G7 1995
Preceded by
The Crying of Lot 49
Followed by
Slow Learner
Gravity's Rainbow is a postmodern novel written by Thomas Pynchon and first published on February 28, 1973.
The narrative is set primarily in Europe at the end of World War II and centers on the design, production and
dispatch of V-2 rockets by the German military, and, in particular, the quest undertaken by several characters to
uncover the secret of a mysterious device named the "Schwarzgerät" ("black device") that is to be installed in a
rocket with the serial number "00000."
Gravity's Rainbow is transgressive— as it questions and inverts social standards of deviance and disgust[2] and
transgresses boundaries of Western culture and reason.[3] [4] Frequently digressive, the novel subverts many of the
traditional elements of plot and character development, and traverses detailed, specialist knowledge drawn from a
wide range of disciplines.
The novel has been praised for its innovation and complexity, but criticized by others. In 1974, the three-member
Pulitzer Prize jury on fiction supported Gravity's Rainbow for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. The other eleven
members of the board overturned this decision and no award was given for fiction that year.[5] The novel was
nominated for the 1973 Nebula Award for Best Novel and won the National Book Award in 1974. Since its
publication, Gravity's Rainbow has spawned an enormous amount of literary criticism and commentary, including
two readers' guides and several online concordances, and it is frequently cited as Pynchon's magnum opus.[6]
Gravity's Rainbow
51
TIME included the novel in its "All-Time 100 Greatest Novels," a list of the best English-language novels from 1923
to 2005 [7] and is considered by some critics to be one of the greatest American novels ever written.[8]
Structure and chronology
Quotation
[...] a million bureaucrats are diligently plotting death and some of them even
know it [...]
Thomas Pynchon
The novel's title is a reference to the parabolic trajectory of a V-2 rocket (the 'rainbow-shaped' path described by the
missile as it moves under the influence of gravity, subsequent to its engine's deactivation); it is also thought to refer
to the 'shape' of the plot, which many critics such as Weisenburger have found to be cyclical or circular, like the true
shape of a rainbow. This follows in the literary tradition of Joyce's Finnegans Wake and Melville's The
Confidence-Man.[9]
Gravity's Rainbow is composed of four parts, each of these composed of a number of episodes whose divisions are
marked by a graphical depiction of a series of squares. It has been suggested that these represent sprocket holes as in
a reel of film, although they may also bear some relation to the engineer's graph paper on which the first draft of the
novel was written.[10] One of the book's editors has been quoted as saying that the squares relate to censored
correspondence sent between soldiers and their loved ones during the war. When family and friends received edited
letters, the removed sections would be cut out in squared or rectangular sections. The squares that start each of the
four parts would therefore be indicative of what is not written, or what is removed by an external editor or censor.[11]
The square frames that divide each chapter were the work of the publisher's production department, and were not
suggested by Pynchon.[12] The number of episodes in each part carries with it a numerological significance which is
in keeping with the use of numerology and Tarot symbolism throughout the novel.[13]
Part 1: Beyond the Zero
"Part 1: Beyond the Zero" consists of 21 episodes.[14] The name "Beyond the Zero" refers to lack of total extinction
of a conditioned stimulus; that is, as seen in Part One, Laszlo Jamf decreases to zero the stimulus he conditioned on
Tyrone Slothrop as an infant, but "there can still be a silent extinction beyond the zero." The events of this part occur
primarily during the Christmas Advent season of 1944 from December 18–26. The epigraph is a quotation from a
pamphlet written by Wernher von Braun and first published in 1962: "Nature does not know extinction; all it knows
is transformation. Everything science has taught me, and continues to teach me, strengthens my belief in the
continuity of our spiritual existence after death."[15]
Part 2: Un Perm' au Casino Hermann Goering
"Part 2: Un Perm' au Casino Hermann Goering" (French for "A Furlough at the Hermann Göring Casino") contains
8 episodes.[16] The events of this section span the five months from Christmas 1944 through to Whitsunday the
following year; May 20, 1945. The epigraph is attributed to Merian C. Cooper, speaking to Fay Wray prior to her
starring role in King Kong, as recounted by Wray in the September 21, 1969 issue of the New York Times: "You will
have the tallest, darkest leading man in Hollywood."[17]
Gravity's Rainbow
52
Part 3: In the Zone
"Part 3: In the Zone" comprises 32 episodes.[18] The action of Part 3 is set during the summer of 1945 with
analepses (literary flashbacks) to the time period of Part 2 with most events taking place between May 18 and
August 6; the day of the first atomic bomb attack and also the Feast of the Transfiguration. The epigraph is taken
from The Wizard of Oz, spoken by Dorothy as she arrives in Oz and shows her disorientation with the new
environment: "Toto, I have a feeling we're not in Kansas any more..."
Part 4: The Counterforce
"Part 4: The Counterforce" is made up of 12 episodes. The plot of this part begins shortly after August 6, 1945 and
covers the period up to September 14 of that same year; the day of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, with extended
analepsis to Easter/April Fool's weekend of 1945 and culminating in a prolepsis to 1970. The simple epigraphical
quotation, "What?" is attributed to Richard M. Nixon, and was added after the galleys of the novel had been printed
to insinuate the President's involvement in the unfolding Watergate scandal.[19] The original quotation for this
section (as seen in the advance reading copies of the book) was an excerpt from the lyrics to the Joni Mitchell song
"Cactus Tree," so the change in quote jumped a large cultural divide.
Plot summary
The plot of the novel is complex, containing over 400 characters and
involving many different threads of narrative which intersect and
weave around one another.[20] The recurring themes throughout the
plot are the V-2 rocket, interplay between free will and Calvinistic
predestination, breaking the cycle of nature, behavioral psychology,
sexuality, paranoia and conspiracy theories such as the Phoebus cartel
and the Illuminati. Gravity's Rainbow also draws heavily on themes
that Pynchon had probably encountered at his work as a technical
writer for Boeing, where he edited a support newsletter for the Bomarc
A rocket based on the V-2 design being fired.
Missile Program support unit. The Boeing archives are known to house
a vast library of historical V-2 rocket documents, which were probably
accessible to Pynchon. The novel is narrated by many distinct voices, a technique further developed in Pynchon's
much later novel Against the Day. The style and tone of the voices vary widely: Some narrate the plot in a highly
informal tone, some are more self-referential, and some at times may possibly even break the fourth wall. Some
voices narrate in drastically different formats, ranging from movie-script format to stream of consciousness prose.
The narrative contains numerous descriptions of illicit sexual encounters and drug use by the main characters and
supporting cast, sandwiched between dense dialogues or reveries on historic, artistic, scientific, or philosophical
subjects, interspersed with whimsical nonsense-poems and allusions to obscure facets of 1940s pop culture. Many of
the recurring themes will be familiar to experienced Pynchon readers, including the singing of silly songs, recurring
appearances of kazoos, and extensive discussion of paranoia. According to Richard Locke, megalomaniac paranoia
is the "operative emotion" behind the novel,[21] and an increasingly central motivator for the many main characters.
In many cases, this paranoia proves to be vindicated, as the many plots of the novel become increasingly
interconnected, revolving around the identity and purpose of the elusive 00000 Rocket and Schwarzgerät. The novel
becomes increasingly preoccupied with themes of Tarot, Paranoia, and Sacrifice. All three themes culminate in the
novel's ending, and the epilogue of the many characters. The novel also features the character Pig Bodine, of
Pynchon's novel V.. Pig Bodine would later become a recurring avatar of Pynchon's complex and interconnected
fictional universe, making an appearance in nearly all of Pynchon's novels thereafter.
Gravity's Rainbow
The novel also shares many themes with Pynchon's much later Against the Day; Against The Day becomes
increasingly dark as the plot approaches World War I, and Gravity's Rainbow takes these sentiments to their extreme
in its highly pessimistic culmination of World War II.
The opening pages of the novel follow Pirate Prentice, first in his dreams, and later around his house in wartime
London. Pirate then goes to work at ACHTUNG, a top-secret military branch, with Roger Mexico and Pointsman,
who both worked there at the time. It is here the reader is introduced to the possibly promiscuous US Army
lieutenant named Tyrone Slothrop (at certain points in the book, Pynchon leads the reader to doubt the very existence
of the women Slothrop claims to sleep with), whose erratic story becomes the main plot throughout most of the
novel. In "Beyond The Zero", some of the other characters and organizations of the book note that each of Slothrop's
sexual encounters in London precedes a V-2 rocket hit in the same place by several days. Both Slothrop's encounters
and the rocket sites match the Poisson Distributions calculated by Roger Mexico, leading into reflections on topics as
broad as Determinism, the reverse flow of time, and the sexuality of the rocket itself. Slothrop meets a woman
named Katje, and they fall in love, maintaining a relationship until Slothrop's sudden removal to Germany in part
three. Many characters not significant until later are introduced in "Beyond the Zero", including Franz and Leni
Pökler, Roger Mexico and Jessica, and Thomas Gwenhidwy, some of whom don't appear until the closing pages of
the novel, many of whom don't appear again at all. Indeed, most of the four hundred named characters only make
singular appearances, serving merely to demonstrate the sheer scope of Pynchon's universe. Slothrop is also
submitted to various psychological tests, many involving the drug Sodium Amytal. Pavlovian conditioning is a
recurring topic, mostly explored through the character of Pavlovian researcher Pointsman. One of the more bizarre
Pavlovian episodes involves the conditioning of octopus Grigori to respond to the girl Katje. Early in part two, the
octopus attacks Katje on the beach, and Slothrop is "conveniently" at hand to rescue her. Their romance begins here,
extending into Part Three and the events that follow.
In part two, "Un Perm' au Casino Hermann Goering", Slothrop is studied covertly and sent away by superiors in
mysterious circumstances to the Hermann Göring casino in recently liberated France, in which almost the entirety of
Part Two takes place. There he learns of a rocket, with the irregular serial number 00000 (Slothrop comments that
the numbering system doesn't allow for four zeroes in one serial, let alone five), and a component called the S-Gerät
(short for Schwarzgerät, which translates to black device) which is made out of the hitherto unknown plastic
Imipolex G. Several companions suddenly disappear or re-appear after extended amounts of time, including the two
guards watching Slothrop and Katje. It is hinted at that Slothrop's prescience of rocket hits is due to being
conditioned as an infant by the creator of Imipolex G, Laszlo Jamf. Later, the reality of this story is called into
question in a similar fashion as the existence of Slothrop's original sexual exploits were. After getting this
information, Slothrop escapes from the casino into the coalescing post-war wasteland of Europe, "The Zone",
searching for the 00000 and S-Gerät. In the closing of Part Two, Katje is revealed to be safe in England, enjoying a
day at the beach with Roger Mexico and Jessica, as well as Pointsman, who is in charge of Slothrop's furtive
supervision. While unable to contact Slothrop (or prohibited from contacting him), Katje continues to follow his
actions through Pointsman.
Slothrop's quest continues for some time "In The Zone" as he is chased by other characters. Many of these characters
are referred to as "shadows," and are only partially glimpsed by the protagonist. Much of the plot takes place on
"The Anubis", a ferry on which many different characters travel at various times. Slothrop meets and has an
extended relationship with Margherita Erdman, a pornographic film actress and masochist. Originally meeting her in
an abandoned studio in The Zone, it is she who leads him on to the Anubis. Here, Slothrop later also has extended
encounters with her twelve-year-old daughter Bianca, though it is unclear whether or not he has stopped his casual
relationship with Margherita by this time. Margherita is later shown to know a great deal more about the 00000,
S-Gerät, and Imipolex G than she lets on, even having spent many days in a mysterious and ambiguously described
factory and being clothed in an outfit made from the "erotic" plastic. Towards the end of this section, several
characters not seen since early in the novel make a return, including Pirate Prentice, in his first appearance since the
novel's very start, as well as Roger Mexico. "In The Zone" also contains the longest episode of the book, a lengthy
53
Gravity's Rainbow
tale of Franz Pökler, a rocket engineer unwittingly set to assist on the S-Gerät's production. The story details Pökler's
annual meetings with his daughter Ilse, and his growing paranoia that Ilse is really a series of impostors sent each
year to mollify him. Through this story, we find out sparse details about the S-Gerät, including that it has an
approximate weight of forty-five kilograms. The story ultimately reveals that the 00000 was fired in the spring of
1945, close to the end of the war. Slothrop spends much of the time as his invented alter-ego Rocketman, who wears
a white Zoot Suit and the cone of a rocket-nose. Rocketman completes various tasks for his own and others'
purposes, including retrieving a large stash of hashish from the centre of the Potsdam Conference. This continues
until he leaves the region for northern Germany, continuing his quest for the 00000, as well as answers to his past. It
becomes steadily apparent that Slothrop is somehow connected to Dr. Laszlo Jamf, and a series of experiments
performed on him as a child.
Slothrop later returns to the Anubis to find Bianca dead, a possible trigger for his impending decline. He continues
his pilgrimage through northern Germany, at various stages donning the identities of a Russian colonel and mythical
Pig Hero in turn, in search of more information on his childhood and the 00000. Unfortunately, he is repeatedly
sidetracked until his persona fragments totally in part four, despite the efforts of some to save him. Throughout "The
Counterforce", there are several brief, hallucinatory stories, of superheroes, silly Kamikaze pilots, and immortal
sentient lightbulbs. These are presumed to be the product of Slothrop's finally collapsed mind. The final
identification of him of any certainty is his picture on the cover of an album by obscure English band "The Fool"
(another allusion to Tarot, which becomes increasingly significant), where he is credited as playing the Harmonica
and Kazoo. At the same time, other characters' narratives begin to collapse as well, with some characters taking a
bizarre trip through Hell, and others flying into nothingness on Zeppelins. A variety of interpretations of this fact
exist, including theories that all of the involved characters have a shared consciousness, or even that the other
characters are part of Slothrop's mind, and thus disintegrate along with it. Slothrop's narrative ends a surprisingly
long time before the novel's end, which focuses more on the 00000, and the people associated with its construction
and launch (namely Blicero, Enzian, and Gottfried, amongst others). At this point, the novel also concludes many
characters' stories, including those of Mexico, Pointsman, and Pirate, leaving only the 00000.
As the novel closes, many topics are discussed by the various protagonists around the world, ranging from Tarot
cards to Death itself. Towards the end of "The Counterforce", it transpires that the S-Gerät is actually a capsule
crafted by Blicero to contain a human. The story of the 00000's launch is largely told in flashbacks by the narrator,
while in the present Enzian is constructing and preparing its successor, the 00001 (which isn't fired within the scope
of the novel), though it is unknown who is intended to be sacrificed in this model. In the flashbacks, the maniacal
Captain Blicero prepares to assemble and fire the 00000, and asks Gottfried to sacrifice himself inside the rocket. He
launches the rocket in a pseudo sexual act of sacrifice with his bound adolescent sex slave Gottfried captive within
its S-Gerät. At the end of a final episode, told partially in second person, the rocket descends upon Britain. The text
halts, in the middle of a song composed by Slothrop's ancestor, with a complete obliteration of narrative as the 00000
lands (or is about to land) on a cinema.[22] Thus the novel opens and closes in wartime Britain, and opens and closes
with the landing of a V-2 rocket.
54
Gravity's Rainbow
55
Many facts in the novel are based on technical documents relating to the V-2
rockets. Equations featured in the text are correct. References to the works of
Pavlov, Ouspensky, and Jung are based on Pynchon's research. The firing
command sequence in German that is recited at the end of the novel is also
correct and is probably copied verbatim from the technical report produced by
Operation Backfire.
In reality, a V-2 rocket hit the Rex Cinema in Antwerp, where some 1200 people
were watching the movie The Plainsman, on December 16, 1944, killing
567 people, the most killed by a single rocket during the entire war.
The secret military organizations practicing occult warfare have an historical
backdrop in the Ahnenerbe and other Nazi mysticism, whereas the allied
counterparts were limited to certain individuals such as Louis de Wohls work for
MI5.
This image of Wernher von Braun is
referred to in the narrative, giving a
Additionally, the novel uses many actual events and locations as backdrops to
quite exact timeframe for some
establish chronological order and setting within the complex structure of the
events in the book.
book. Examples include the appearance of a photograph of Wernher Von Braun
in which his arm is in a cast. Historical documents indicate the time and place of an accident which broke Von
Braun's arm, thereby providing crucial structural details around which the reader can reconstruct Slothrop's journey.
Another example is the inclusion of a BBC Radio broadcast of a Benny Goodman performance, the contents of
which, according to historical record, were broadcast only once during the period of the novel and by which the
events immediately surrounding its mention are fixed. Further historical events, such as Allied bombing raids on
Peenemünde and the city of Nordhausen (close to the V-2 producing concentration camp Mittelbau-Dora) also
appear in the novel and help to establish the relation of the work's events to each other.
Style
Poet L. E. Sissman, in his Gravity's Rainbow review for The New Yorker, said of Pynchon: "He is almost a
mathematician of prose, who calculates the least and the greatest stress each word and line, each pun and ambiguity,
can bear, and applies his knowledge accordingly and virtually without lapses, though he takes many scary, bracing
linguistic risks. Thus his remarkably supple diction can first treat of a painful and delicate love scene and then roar,
[23]
without pause, into the sounds and echoes of a drudged and drunken orgy."
Gravity's Rainbow
56
Cultural effect
The novel is regarded by scholars like Guido Almansi as the greatest postmodern
work of 20th century literature.[8]
Though the book won the National Book Award for 1974, Pynchon chose neither
to accept nor acknowledge this award. Thomas Guinzberg of the Viking Press
suggested that the comedian "Professor" Irwin Corey accept the award on his
behalf. Pynchon agreed, which led to one of the most unusual acceptance
speeches of all time,[24] complete with a streaker crossing the stage in the middle
of Corey's musings.
Gravity's Rainbow was translated into German by Nobel laureate Elfriede
Jelinek, and some critics think that it had a big influence on Jelinek's own
writing.[25]
Music
The lyrics of Devo's song "Whip It" were inspired by Gravity's Rainbow parodies
of limericks and poems; Gerald Casale specified:
Penguin Classics Deluxe Edition,
with cover art by Frank Miller,
released October 31, 2006.
The lyrics were written by me as an imitation of Thomas Pynchon's parodies in his book Gravity's
Rainbow. He had parodied limericks and poems of kind of all-American, obsessive, cult of personality
ideas like Horatio Alger and 'You're #1, there's nobody else like you' kind of poems that were very
funny and very clever. I thought, 'I'd like to do one like Thomas Pynchon,' so I wrote down 'Whip It' one
night.[26]
The novel inspired the 1984 song "Gravity's Angel" by Laurie Anderson. In her 2004 autobiographical performance
The End of the Moon, Anderson said she once contacted Pynchon asking permission to adapt Gravity's Rainbow as
an opera. Pynchon replied that he would allow her to do so with one condition: the opera had to be written for a
single instrument: the banjo. Anderson said she took that as a polite "no."
German avant-rock group Cassiber incorporated texts from the novel in their 1990 album A Face We All Know. The
use of the texts was cleared with Pynchon's agent.[27]
The British band Klaxons Released a single called Gravity's Rainbow in 2006.
Art
New York artist Zak Smith created a series of 760 drawings entitled, "One Picture for Every Page of Thomas
Pynchon's Novel Gravity's Rainbow" (also known by the title "Pictures of What Happens on Each Page of Thomas
Pynchon's Novel Gravity's Rainbow").[28] Occupying eleven rows and over eleven meters of wall space, the
drawings attempt to illustrate, as literally as possible, every page of the book. The piece includes palm trees, shoes,
stuffed toys, a lemon meringue pie, Richard Nixon, Sigmund Freud, an iron toad wired to an electric battery, a
dominatrix, and other images from the novel. The series had a successful reception at New York's 2004 Whitney
Biennial event, and was described "as a tour de force of sketching and concept" (Abbe 2004). In November 2006,
Tin House Books published the book Pictures Showing What Happens on Each Page of Thomas Pynchon's Novel
Gravity's Rainbow (ISBN 097731278X).
Gravity's Rainbow
Availability
Gravity's Rainbow is available in paperback under ISBN 0-14-018859-2 (New York: Penguin, 1995), ISBN
0-14-028338-2 (New York: Penguin, 2000), and ISBN 0-14-303994-6 (New York: Penguin, 2006). Steven C.
Weisenburger's produced A Gravity's Rainbow Companion: Sources and Contexts for Pynchon's Novel (ISBN
0-8203-1026-3). A revised and expanded second edition was published in November 2006 (ISBN 0-8203-2807-3).
References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 32513609
[2] Booker, Techniques of Subversion in Modern Literature, p.13 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ksm31ePi3pgC& pg=PA13&
dq="Gravity's+ Rainbow"+ transgressive& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html& cd=6)
[3] G. Schwab, Subjects Without Selves, p. 221 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6MJqGDgUT6YC& pg=PA221& dq="Gravity's+
Rainbow"+ transgressive& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html& cd=4)
[4] Thomas Moore, The Style of Connectedness: Gravity's Rainbow and Thomas Pynchon, p.3 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=U7lX0wPvhocC& pg=PA3& lpg=PP1& dq="Gravity's+ Rainbow"& as_brr=3& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html)
[5] McDowell, Edwin. "Publishing: Pulitzer Controversies." The New York Times, May 11, 1984: C26.
[6] Pynchon, Thomas | Authors | guardian.co.uk Books (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ authors/ author/ 0,,-119,00. html) at
books.guardian.co.uk
[7] "ALL-TIME 100 Novels" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ 2005/ 100books/ ). TIME. . Retrieved 2009-10-15.
[8] Guido Almansi (1994) L'estetica dell'osceno p.226 "piu' importante romanzo americano del secondo dopoguerra, Gravity's Rainbow di
Thomas Pynchon (romanzo mai pubblicato in Italia, con grande vergogna dell'editoria nazionale)." English translation "most important
American novel of the second post-war, Gravity's Rainbow by Thomas Pynchon (a novel never published in Italy, to the great shame of the
national publishing industry)". Almansi's comment is from 1994. Gravity's Rainbow was translated and published in Italy in 1999.
[9] Weisenburger, Steven (1988). "Introduction". A Gravity's Rainbow Companion. University of Georgia Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-8203-1026-3.
"the shape of Gravity's Rainbow is circular. The literary precursors of this design ... are Joyce's Finnegans Wake and Melville's ... The
Confidence Man."
[10] Weisenburger, Steven (1988). "Introduction". A Gravity's Rainbow Companion. University of Georgia Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8203-1026-3.
"The first draft of Gravity's Rainbow was written out in neat, tiny script on engineer's quadrille paper."
[11] Howard, Gerald (2005). "Pynchon from A to V" (http:/ / www. bookforum. com/ archive/ sum_05/ pynchon. html). Bookforum (Summer
2005): 1. .
[12] Mendelson, Edward (1976). "Gravity's Encyclopedia". Mindful Pleasures: Essays on Thomas Pynchon (1976): 193.
[13] Weisenburger, Steven (1988). "Part 1: Beyond the Zero". A Gravity's Rainbow Companion. University of Georgia Press. p. 15.
ISBN 0-8203-1026-3. "Numerological correspondences also shape part 1."
[14] Weisenburger, Steven (1988). "Part 1: Beyond the Zero". A Gravity's Rainbow Companion. University of Georgia Press. p. 15.
ISBN 0-8203-1026-3. ""Numerological correspondences also shape part 1... There are twenty-one episodes in part 1; the Tarot deck has
twenty-one numbered cards, if one omits another — The Fool — which is a ... null card.""
[15] Von Braun, Wernher, 'Why I Believe in Immortality' (http:/ / www. thomaspynchon. com/ gravitys-rainbow/ extra/ von-braun. html), in
William Nichols (ed.), The Third Book of Words to Live By, Simon and Schuster, 1962, pp. 119–120.
[16] Weisenburger, Steven (1988). "Part 2: Un Perm au Casino Hermann Goering". A Gravity's Rainbow Companion. University of Georgia
Press. pp. 86, 105, 125–126, 152, 153, 291. ISBN 0-8203-1026-3. "The number eight has a widespread significance throughout GR: there
were eight episodes in part 2; Slothrop assumes eight different identities; V-E Day, White Lotos Day and Pynchon's birthday all fell on May 8;
the text references Krishna, eighth avatar of Vishnu; and in Judaeo-Christianity eight is the number of letters in the Tetragrammaton."
[17] Weisenburger, Steven (1988). "Part 2: Un Perm au Casino Hermann Goering". A Gravity's Rainbow Companion. University of Georgia
Press. p. 105. ISBN 0-8203-1026-3. "The epigraph derives from a New York Times feature of September 21, 1969, entitled "How Fay Met
Kong..."."
[18] Weisenburger, Steven (1988). "Part 3: In The Zone". A Gravity's Rainbow Companion. University of Georgia Press. p. 105.
ISBN 0-8203-1026-3. "Part 3 of the novel contains thirty-two episodes...because the gravitational pull...is a constant thirty-two feet per second
and...because the number is significant in Kabbalistic mythology."
[19] Pynchon Notes 11 (http:/ / www. ham. muohio. edu/ ~krafftjm/ pn/ pn011. pdf), February 1983, p. 64.
[20] Tanner, T. (1982). "Gravity's Rainbow". Thomas Pynchon. London and New York: Methuen. p. 74. ISBN 0-416-31670-0. "There are over
400 characters ... there are many discernible ... plots ... these plots touch and intersect, or diverge and separate."
[21] Richard Locke, book review (http:/ / www. thomaspynchon. com/ gravitys-rainbow/ reviews. html) for The New York Times Book Review,
March 11, 1973
[22] Pynchon, Thomas (1973). Gravity's Rainbow.
[23] Sissman, L. E. (1973) Hieronymus and Robert Bosch: The Art of Thomas Pynchon. The New Yorker 49, 19 May 1973, pp. 138–40.
[24] The Official Site Of Irwin Corey (http:/ / www. irwincorey. org/ routines. html) at www.irwincorey.org
57
Gravity's Rainbow
[25] Konzett, Elfriede Jelinek, p.16 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r6AUnfnGF8MC& pg=PA16& lpg=PA16& dq="Gravity's+
Rainbow"+ Jelinek& source=bl& ots=-n-nc2bdSh& sig=3UO8xm0ybi58ZOL_FSnxBhMkrC8& hl=en& ei=ZWI_S5iAK4OHlAeGj-CjBw&
sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK)
[26] "Whip It" (http:/ / www. songfacts. com/ detail. php?id=722). Songfacts.com. . Retrieved 2009-05-05.
[27] "Cassiber's use of Gravity's Rainbow texts" (http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ pynchon/ pynchon_music_cassiber. html). The Modern
Word. . Retrieved 2007-05-22.
[28] Title Page (http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ pynchon/ zak_smith/ title. htm) at www.themodernword.com
External links
The following links were last verified September 8, 2008.
• Gravity's Rainbow Web Guide & Concordance @ ThomasPynchon.com (http://www.thomaspynchon.com/
gravitys-rainbow/)
• Gravity's Rainbow Wiki (http://gravitys-rainbow.pynchonwiki.com/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page)
• From The Modern Word:
• More selected Gravity's Rainbow quotes (http://www.themodernword.com/pynchon/pynchon_quotes.
html)
• Discussion of Slothrop's appearance on The Fool album (with pictures) (http://www.themodernword.com/
pynchon/pynchon_music_fool.html)
• Protective Coating: Bearing the Weight of Pynchon Using the Spectrum of Freud's Insight (http://www.
themodernword.com/pynchon/papers_gurnow.html) An analysis of Pynchon's use of parody in relation to
Freudian theory
• Zak Smith's Illustrations For Each Page of Gravity's Rainbow (http://www.themodernword.com/pynchon/
zak_smith/title.htm) (see also Mary Abbe, "Words and pictures; A brilliant new show pairs 755 antic
drawings with a monster novel", Minneapolis Star Tribune December 17, 2004).
• Essay of similarities between Gravity's Rainbow and Catch-22 (http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/lpop/etext/okla/
mccarron24.htm)
• Gravity's Rainbow review by Ted Gioia (Conceptual Fiction) (http://www.conceptualfiction.com/
gravitys_rainbow.html)
• Essay on Chronic Psychoses in Contemporary Metafiction (Gravity's Rainbow and Naked Lunch) (http://www.
sjuannavarro.com/files/conspiracytheory.pdf)
58
Rhizome (philosophy)
59
Rhizome (philosophy)
Rhizome is a philosophical concept developed by Gilles Deleuze and
Félix Guattari in their Capitalism and Schizophrenia (1972–1980)
project. It is what Deleuze calls an "image of thought", based on the
botanical rhizome, that apprehends multiplicities.
Rhizome as a mode of knowledge and model for
society
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari use the term "rhizome" and
"rhizomatic" to describe theory and research that allows for multiple,
non-hierarchical entry and exit points in data representation and
interpretation. In A Thousand Plateaus, they oppose it to an
arborescent conception of knowledge, which works with dualist
categories and binary choices. A rhizome works with planar and
trans-species connections, while an arborescent model works with
vertical and linear connections. Their use of the "orchid and the wasp"
is taken from the biological concept of mutualism, in which two
different species interact together to form a multiplicity (i.e. a unity
that is multiple in itself). Horizontal gene transfer would also be a good
illustration.
Gilles Deleuze
As a model for culture, the rhizome resists the organizational structure
of the root-tree system which charts causality along chronological lines
and looks for the originary source of "things" and looks towards the
pinnacle or conclusion of those "things." A rhizome, on the other hand,
"ceaselessly established connections between semiotic chains,
Félix Guattari
organizations of power, and circumstances relative to the arts, sciences,
and social struggles." Rather than narrativize history and culture, the
rhizome presents history and culture as a map or wide array of attractions and influences with no specific origin or
genesis, for a "rhizome has no beginning or end; it is always in the middle, between things, interbeing, intermezzo."
The planar movement of the rhizome resists chronology and organization, instead favoring a nomadic system of
growth and propagation. In this model, culture spreads like the surface of a body of water, spreading towards
available spaces or trickling downwards towards new spaces through fissures and gaps, eroding what is in its way.
The surface can be interrupted and moved, but these disturbances leave no trace, as the water is charged with
pressure and potential to always seek its equilibrium, and thereby establish smooth space.[1]
Rhizome (philosophy)
Principles of the rhizome
Deleuze and Guattari introduce A Thousand Plateaus by outlining the concept of the rhizome (quoted from A
Thousand Plateaus):
• 1 and 2: Principles of connection and heterogeneity: any point of a rhizome can be connected to anything other,
and must be
• 3. Principle of multiplicity: only when the multiple is effectively treated as a substantive, "multiplicity" that it
ceases to have any relation to the One
• 4. Principle of asignifying rupture: a rhizome may be broken, but it will start up again on one of its old lines, or on
new lines
• 5 and 6: Principle of cartography and decalcomania: a rhizome is not amenable to any structural or generative
model; it is a "map and not a tracing"
References
[1] Rhizomes.net (http:/ / www. rhizomes. net/ issue5/ poke/ glossary. html)
Sources
• Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. 1980. A Thousand Plateaus. Trans. Brian Massumi. London and New York:
Continuum, 2004. Vol. 2 of Capitalism and Schizophrenia. 2 vols. 1972-1980. Trans. of Mille Plateaux. Paris:
Les Editions de Minuit. ISBN 0826476945.
• Guattari, Félix. 1995. Chaosophy. Ed. Sylvère Lotringer. Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents Ser. New York:
Semiotext(e). ISBN 1570270198.
• ---. 1996. Soft Subversions. Ed. Sylvère Lotringer. Trans. David L. Sweet and Chet Wiener. Semiotext(e) Foreign
Agents Ser. New York: Semiotext(e). ISBN 1570270309.
External links
• Rhizomes (http://www.rhizomes.net/)" - Cultural Studies Online Journal.
60
California slang
California slang
California slang is slang used in California English, or which originates in California. The slang heard in California
originates from three different regions: Northern California, the San Francisco Bay Area, and Southern California.
Though some slang is common to the three regions, certain slang terms can help one identify from which part of
California a person is.
Northern California slang
Hella is a slang word usually used by California's Northerners. It still can be heard in other parts of California, yet it
is most commonly used by people in the North of California and not used as much in the other areas other than the
San Francisco Bay Area
San Francisco Bay Area hip-hop culture slang
Bay Area slang consists of words like: ballin, holla, bounce, chillax, coochie, ginormous, hyphy, hella, ripper, cutty,
scraper, perkin and many other words. The word used below, "mobbin" has made the slow transformation towards
"shmobbin" as in "Hey buddy, I'm shmobbin down the hill. I'll be there in a minute."
Bay Area slang is influenced by Hyphy and hip hop music, Mexican, Asian, and Eastern European cultures.
Common in daily speech will be words like ay-yah, alë, garázh,blin, bun-dan and hasta la bye bye.
Central California Slang
Central Californian slang tends to be an amalgamation of both Southern and Northern Californian slang, often siding
toward the surfers. For example some common terms/phrases are sweet, hella, mobbing, trupunx, balls cold, amped
up, intense, you're fucking up, you don't even know, man, dude, bro, or I know how that is. People will often refer to
marijuana as dank, weed, or bud; it is also common to refer to a bowl of cannabis that has been expended as cashed.
Southern California slang
Slang used in Southern California originates from several subcultures:
Beach/Surf Slang
This is often associated with the large population of surfers, skaters, and popular Southern California sports. To be
stoked, or excited about something, is slang that can be traced back to sixties surf culture, glorified in movies such as
The Endless Summer and Big Wednesday. Words such as gnarly, rad, sick, sketch, beast, epic and buzzkill are used
regularly now.
Valspeak
The valley girl stereotype, as depicted in the 1983 film Valley Girl, influenced the speech of Southern California
locals, by popularizing the valley girl sociolect, where the words "like", "and", "so", "whatever", and "totally" are
employed as linguistic fillers.
61
California slang
62
Hip Hop
People say cruise, bounce, or mob when planning on going somewhere (let's bounce/cruise to the store). People call
marijuana trees, chronic, kush, ganja, buds, hydro, purple or skunk marijuana may also be referred to as "dirty m".
Hippy influence
Groovy, far out, and peace (as a farewell) originated from the hippy movement in San Francisco and Los Angeles,
where the free-love movement was in full force during the last few decades.
References
• Bay Area Hip Hop Dictionary. 14 April 2004. Bay Area Dictionary. 30 June 2008.
<http://www.riceplate.com/rap/rap.php>
• “California Slang” Title Forum Project.10 Dec. 2004.
<http://www.tfproject.org/tfp/archive/index.php/t-78326.html>
• Carmichael, Kristin. “Slang is used to Unify the Masses” Cat Bytes. 7 July 2008.
<http://www.csuchico.edu/jour/catbytes/s99/slang.htm>
• Dean, R. Dennis. “Slang is Language too” The English Journal Vol. 51. National Council of Teachers on English.
May 1962. 323-326. <http://www.jstor.org/pss/810008>
• Folsom Slang. 7 July 2008. <http://www.myfolsom.com/folsomslang.shtml>
• “Heard ‘em Say?” The Paisano. 6 Nov. 2006. Popular slang on Campus. 7 July 2008.
<http://media.www.paisanoonline.com/media/storage/paper975/news/2006/11/06/Features/heard.em.Say-2672950.shtml>
• Johnson, Janice. "Slang: A Transitional Language". Planet Papers. 7 July 2008
<http://www.planetpapers.com/Assets/4180.php>
• Morgan, Marcyliena. “Twisted in the Anti-Circle” Department of Anthropology. Annual Review of
Anthropology: 2004. 30 June 2008. <http://language-culture.binghamton.edu/reviews/symposium7/morgan.html>
• “Slang Dictionary to the Rescue” CBS News. 5 Dec. 2003. CBS: 2 July
2008.<http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/12/04/earlyshow/contributors/tracysmith/main586911.shtml>
• “Slang Makes Language Unique” The Orion Online. 16 Feb. 2005. Maria Davalos. 30 June 2008
<http://media.www.theorion.com/media/storage/paper889/news/2005/02/16/Features/Slang.Makes.Language.Unique-1507320.sht
• Slangman, “Surfer Slang” News VOV. 5 Feb. 2002. 2 July 2008.
<http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/archive/2002-02/a-2002-02-05-11-1.cfm>
• “Surfer Slang” Surf Guru. 12 May 2008. 2 July 2008 <http://surfguru.com/forum/forums/t/734.aspx>
• Urban Dictionary.30 June 2008. <http://www.urbandictionary.com>
• “Vox Slang” Vox Communications. 8 Dec. 2007. Slang. 29 June 2008.<http://www.voxcommunications.com/>
• Walker, Robert. “Gangs OR Us” Gang slang.19 May 2008. Slang. 6 July 2008.
<http://www.gangsorus.com/letterso.html>
One and Three Chairs
One and Three Chairs
One and Three Chairs, 1965, is a work by Joseph Kosuth. An example
of conceptual art, the piece consists of a chair, a photograph of this
chair, and an enlarged dictionary definition of the word "chair". The
photograph depicts the chair as it is actually installed in the room, and
thus the work changes each time it is installed in a new venue.
Two elements of the work remain constant: a copy of a dictionary
definition of the word "chair" and a diagram with instructions for
installation. Both bear Kosuth's signature. Under the instructions, the
installer is to choose a chair, place it before a wall, and take a
Joseph Kosuth, One and Three Chairs (1965)
photograph of the chair. This photo is to be enlarged to the size of the
actual chair and placed on the wall to the left of the chair. Finally, a
blow-up of the copy of the dictionary definition is to be hung to the right of the chair, its upper edge aligned with
that of the photograph.[1]
Early conceptual art
Kosuth's concern with the difference between a concept and its mode of presentation was prefigured in the "event
cards" of Fluxus-artists like George Brecht, Dick Higgins and Yoko Ono. These artists also tackled the problem of
presenting "concepts" to an art audience. One and Three Chairs is, perhaps, a step towards a resolution of this
problem. Rather than present the viewer with the bare written instructions for the work, or make a live event of the
realization of the concept (in the manner of the Fluxus artists), Kosuth instead unifies concept and realization. One
and Three Chairs demonstrates how an artwork can embody an idea that remains constant despite changes to its
elements.
Kosuth stresses the difference between concept and presentation in his writings (e.g., "Art after Philosophy", 1969[2]
) and interviews (see the quotation below). He tries to intimately bind the conceptual nature of his work with the
nature of art itself, thus raising his instructions for the presentation of an artwork to the level of a discourse on art. In
1963 Henry Flynt articulated these problems in the article "Concept Art".[3] This was a forerunner to Kosuth's
thematization of "Concept Art" in "Art after Philosophy", the text that made One and Three Chairs famous.[4]
Interpretation
The work One and Three Chairs can be seen to highlight the relation between language, picture and referent. It
problematizes relations between object, visual and verbal references (denotations) plus semantic fields of the term
chosen for the verbal reference. The term of the dictionary includes connotations and possible denotations which are
relevant in the context of the presentation of One and Three Chairs. The meanings of the three elements are
congruent in certain semantic fields and incongruent in other semantic fields: A semantic congruity ("One") and a
threefold incongruity ("One and Three"). Ironically, One and Three Chairs can be looked upon as simple but rather
complex model, of the science of signs. A viewer may ask "what's real here?" and answer that "the definition is real";
Without a definition, one would never know what an actual chair is.
There exist different interpretations of these semantic and ontological aspects. Some refer to Plato´s Republic (Book
X)[5] ; others refer to Ludwig Wittgenstein´s Tractatus[6] or to Charles Sanders Peirce's triad icon-index-symbol. [7]
Dreher discusses the semantic problems of One and Three Chairs as inclusions of circles which represent semantic
fields[8] .
63
One and Three Chairs
The work tends to defy formal analysis because one chair can be substituted for another chair, rendering the
photograph and the chair photographed elusive to description. Nevertheless the particular chair and its accompanying
photograph lend themselves to formal analysis. There are many chairs in the world; thus only those actually used can
be described. Those chairs not used would not be analyzed. The enlarged dictionary definition of the word chair is
also open to formal analysis, as is the diagram containing instructions of the work.
The concept and the theory of art
Kosuth's thematization of semantic congruities and incongruities can be seen as a reflection of the problems which
the relations between concept and presentation pose. Kosuth uses the related questions, "how meanings of signs are
constituted" and "how signs refer to extra-lingual phenomena" as a fundament to discuss the relation between
concept and presentation. Kosuth tries to identify or equate these philosophical problems with the theory of art.
Kosuth changes the art practice from hand-made originals to notations with substitutable realizations, and tries to
exemplify the relevance of this change for the theory of art.
In "Art after Philosophy," Kosuth provoked a confrontation with the formal criticism of Clement Greenberg and
Michael Fried. Both exposed the concept of the art work as a non-substitutable instance realized by an artist who
follows no other criteria than visual ones. They defined this concept as the core of modernism. In the sixties,
Greenberg's and Fried's modernist doctrine dominated the American discussions on art; meanwhile, the artists Allan
Kaprow, Dick Higgins, Henry Flynt, Mel Bochner, Robert Smithson and Joseph Kosuth wrote articles on art
exemplifying a pluralistic anti- and post-modernist tendency which gained more influence at the end of the sixties. In
1968, Greenberg tried to disqualify the new tendencies as "'novelty' art": "The different mediums are
exploding...when everybody is a revolutionary the revolution is over."[9] Sam Hunter offered a more positive view in
1972: "The situation of open possibilities which confronted artists in the first years of the seventies allowed a variety
of means and many fertile idea systems to coexist, reconciling through the poetic imagination apparent
contradictions." [10]
Quote
Joseph Kosuth, WBAI, April 7, 1970:
"I used common, functional objects - such as a chair - and to the left of the object would be a full-scale
photograph of it and to the right of the object would be a photostat of a definition of the object from the
dictionary. Everything you saw when you looked at the object had to be the same that you saw in the
photograph, so each time the work was exhibited the new installation necessitated a new photograph. I liked
that the work itself was something other than simply what you saw. By changing the location, the object, the
photograph and still having it remain the same work was very interesting. It meant you could have an art work
which was that idea of an art work, and its formal components weren't important." [11]
References
[1] Dickel, Hans u.a.: Die Sammlung Paul Maenz. Neues Museum Weimar. Edition Cantz, Ostfildern-Ruit 1998, p. 82s.
[2] Kosuth J., (1969), Art after Philosophy, part 1 (http:/ / www. ubu. com/ papers/ kosuth_philosophy. html)
[3] Flynt, Henry: Concept Art (http:/ / www. henryflynt. org/ aesthetics/ conart. html). In: Mac Low, Jackson/Young: LaMonte (ed.): An
Anthology. New York 1963, unpaginated.
[4] Kosuth, Joseph: Art after Philosophy, Part III. In: Studio International, December 1969, p. 212.
[5] Gerwen, Rob van: Introducing My Philosophical Directions: Plato´s Cave (http:/ / www. phil. uu. nl/ ~rob/ directions/ cave. shtml).
Universiteit Utrecht 2009.
[6] Inboden, Gudrun: Introduction: Joseph Kosuth - Artist and Critic of Modernism. In: Joseph Kosuth: The Making of Meaning. Selected
Writings and Documentation of Investigations on Art Since 1965. Cat. of exhib. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart. Stuttgart 1981, p. 16-19.
[7] Tragatschnig, Ulrich: Konzeptuelle Kunst. Interpretationsparadigmen: Ein Propädeutikum. Reimer, Berlin 1998, p. 116.
[8] Dreher, Thomas: Konzeptuelle Kunst in Amerika und England zwischen 1963 und 1976. Thesis Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität/Peter Lang,
Frankfurt am Main 1992, p. 70-79.
64
One and Three Chairs
[9] Greenberg, Clement: Avant Garde Attitudes (http:/ / www. sharecom. ca/ greenberg/ avantgarde. html), 1968. The Jon Power Lecture in
Contemporary Art, 17 Mai 1968. First published in: In Memory of John Joseph Wardell Power. Power Institute of Fine Arts, University of
Sydney, 1969. Republished in: Greenberg, Clement: The Collected Essays and Criticism. volume 4: Modernism with a Vengeance,
1957-1969. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1993, p. 292, 299.
[10] Hunter, Sam: American Art of the 20th Century. New York 1972, p. 410.
[11] Siegel, Jeanne: Artwords. Discourse on the 60s and 20s. UMI Research Press, Ann Arbour/Michigan 1985; second edition Da Capo Press,
New York 1992, p. 225
Further reading
• Archer, Michael: Art since 1960. Thames and Hudson, London 1997, p. 80.
• Art & Language (Atkinson, Terry/Baldwin, Michael/Pilkington, Philip/Rushton, David): Introduction to a Partial
Problematic. In: Joseph Kosuth: Art Investigations & `Problematics´ since 1965. Cat. of exhib. Kunstmuseum
Luzern. Luzern 1973, vol. 2, p. 12,22.
• Dickel, Hans u.a.: Die Sammlung Paul Maenz. Neues Museum Weimar. Edition Cantz, Ostfildern-Ruit 1998, p.
82s. (with descriptions of the constituents of the German-English version and a bibliography).
• Dreher, Thomas: Konzeptuelle Kunst in Amerika und England zwischen 1963 und 1976. Thesis
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität/Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 1992, p. 70-79.
• Inboden, Gudrun: Introduction: Joseph Kosuth - Artist and Critic of Modernism. In: Joseph Kosuth: The Making
of Meaning. Selected Writings and Documentation of Investigations on Art Since 1965. Cat. of exhib.
Staatsgalerie Stuttgart. Stuttgart 1981, p. 16-19.
• Kosuth, Joseph: Art after Philosophy, Part III. In: Studio International, December 1969, p. 212.
• Maenz, Paul: 1970-1975 Paul Maenz Köln. Gallery Paul Maenz, Cologne 1975, p. 85 (Illustrations of three
different realizations of One and Three Chairs (English/German)).
• Prinz, Jessica: Text and Context: Reading Kosuth's Art. In: Prinz, Jessica: Art Discourse/Discourse in Art. Rutger
U.P., New Brunswick/New Jersey 1991, p. 52,58.
• Rorimer, Anne: New Art in the 60s and 70s. Redefining Reality. Thames & Hudson, London 2001, p. 94.
• Tragatschnig, Ulrich: Konzeptuelle Kunst. Interpretationsparadigmen: Ein Propädeutikum. Reimer, Berlin 1998,
p. 116.
External links
• Thomas Dreher (http://dreher.netzliteratur.net/3_Konzeptkunst_Kosuth_One.html) Intermedia Art:
Konzeptuelle Kunst: illustration "One and Three Chairs", version with English-German definition (blow-up of an
article in a dictionary with an English-to-German translation).
• Centre Georges Pompidou (http://www.cnac-gp.fr/education/ressources/ENS-ArtConcept/image03.htm)
Paris: version with English-French definition (blow-up of an article in a dictionary with an English-to-French
translation).
• Remko Scha/Jochem van der Spek (http://iaaa.nl/cursusAA&AI/concept/tautology.html) Algorithmic Art
and Artificial Intelligence: Conceptual Art: Tautologies (with three examples). Institute of Artificial Art
Amsterdam (IAAA), Course.
65
Lexical gap
Lexical gap
A lexical gap or lacuna is an absence of a word in a particular language. Types of lexical gaps include
untranslatability and missing inflections.
Untranslatability
Often a concept lexicalized in one language does not have a corresponding lexical unit in another language and thus
presents a translation difficulty. Circumlocution, a descriptive phrase, must be used instead, or possibly even
multiple phrases used in varying situations. For example, Romanian lacks the word "shallow". Therefore, "shallow
waters" is mainly translated as "ape puţin adânci" ("not so deep waters") or "apă mică" ("small water") in TV
subtitles.
In most languages, if the missing concept is important or must be cited often, borrowing from one language and
adding to another may occur.
This case should not be confused with translation into a different type of lexical unit. For example, a simple word
may be translated as a compound or a collocation, as in the cases of the Russian word "bosoy", which is translated as
the compound "barefoot" in English, and the English word "private" (in the sense of a military rank), which is
"soldato semplice" in Italian.
An abundant source of lexical gaps used to be a contact of primitive cultures with more advanced civilizations. For
example, the Russian ethnographer Miklukho-Maklai, famous for his study of the aborigines of New Guinea,
recorded that Papuans, who have never seen an ox, gave the animal a name back-translated as "a huge pig with teeth
on the forehead".[1]
Missing inflection
Sometimes a certain inflection of a word produces a word phonetically forbidden or awkward in a given language.
For example the Russian word dno in the meaning of bottom (of a river) does not have a plural form. In the meaning
"the bottom of a barrel" the plural is donya (дно->донья).
Misconceptions
Unlike in French, 'you' in English is used both singularly and plurally.[2] For example, "tu" is an informal use for
friends and family. Plural usage of 'you' formal and informal is "vous".
References
[1] M. Kolesnikov, Miklukho-Maklai (Moscow, Young Guard, 1961), a book from the Life of Prominent People (Жизнь Замечательных Людей)
series (Russian)
[2] http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ you
66
Psilocybin mushroom
67
Psilocybin mushroom
Psilocybin mushrooms (magic mushrooms,[1] teónanácatl,
teotlaquilnanácatl, xochinanácatl) are fungi that contain the
psychoactive compounds psilocybin and psilocin. There are multiple
colloquial terms for psilocybin mushrooms, the most common being
shrooms or magic mushrooms.[1] [2] Biological genera containing
psilocybin mushrooms include Agrocybe, Conocybe, Copelandia,
Galerina, Gerronema, Gymnopilus, Hypholoma, Inocybe, Mycena,
Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Psilocybe. There are approximately 190
species of psilocybin mushrooms and most of them fall in the genus
Psilocybe.
Psilocybe cubensis
History
Early
The writer Terence McKenna speculated
that Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms may
have a history that dates back as far as
100,000 BC (this is when he believed that
Homo sapiens diverged from the Homo
genus), originating in Africa. He suggests
that the transformation from our early
omnivorous ancestors Homo erectus to the
modern human species mainly had to do
World-wide distribution of Psilocybe cubensis
with the addition of this mushroom in our
diet. Once our hunter-gatherer ancestors had
stumbled upon it accidentally, according to McKenna, they would definitely find its potency of making vision more
acute (a fact extensively studied by scientist Roland Fischer in the 70s[3] ) beneficial to them (as it would make it
easier for them to find food) and would have adopted it as a regular part of their diet. In higher doses, McKenna
claims, the mushroom acts as a sexual stimulator, which would make it even more beneficial evolutionary (it would
result to more offspring), and at even higher doses the mushroom would have given humans the ability for
self-reflection, which McKenna believed was unique to humans, and the first truly religious experiences (which, as
he believed, were the basis for the foundation of all subsequent religions to date). Another factor that McKenna
talked about was the mushroom's potency to promote linguistic thinking. This would have promoted vocalisation,
which in turn would have acted in cleansing the brain (based on a scientific theory that vibrations from speaking
cause the precipitation of impurities from the brain to the cerebrospinal fluid), which would further mutate our brain.
All these factors according to McKenna were the most important factors that promoted our evolution towards the
Homo sapiens species. After this transformation took place, our species would have begun moving out of Africa to
populate the rest of the planet [4] Later on, this theory by McKenna was given the name "The "Stoned Ape" Theory
of Human Evolution".[5]
There is some archaeological evidence for their use in ancient times. Several mesolithic rock paintings from Tassili
n'Ajjer (a prehistoric North African site identified with the Capsian culture) have been identified by author Giorgio
Samorini as possibly depicting the shamanic use of mushrooms, possibly Psilocybe.[6] Hallucinogenic species of
Psilocybin mushroom
68
Psilocybe have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and
healing, from pre-Columbian times up to the present day. Mushroom-shaped statuettes found at archaeological sites
seem to indicate that ritual use of hallucinogenic mushrooms is quite ancient.[7] Mushroom stones and motifs have
been found in Mayan temple ruins in Guatemala,[8] though there is considerable controversy as to whether these
objects indicate the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms or whether they had some other significance with the
mushroom shape being simply a coincidence. More concretely, a statuette dating from ca. 200 AD and depicting a
mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in a west Mexican shaft and chamber tomb in the
state of Colima. Hallucinogenic Psilocybe were known to the Aztecs as teonanácatl (literally "divine mushroom" agglutinative form of teó (god, sacred) and nanácatl (mushroom) in Náhuatl) and were reportedly served at the
coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as
genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, when translated into English.[9] Bernardino
de Sahagún reported ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs, when he traveled to Central America after the
expedition of Hernán Cortés.
After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the "pagan idolatry," and as a result the use of
hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms like other pre-Christian traditions was quickly suppressed.[8] The Spanish
believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with "devils". In converting people to
Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from teonanácatl to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite
this history, in some remote areas, the use of teonanácatl has remained.
The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the Western medicinal literature appeared in the London Medical
and Physical Journal in 1799: a man had served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms that he had picked for breakfast
in London's Green Park to his family. The doctor who treated them later described how the youngest child "was
attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."[10]
Modern
In 1955, Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson became the first Westerners
to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The
Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an
article on their experiences in Life in 1957.[11] In 1956 Roger Heim
identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought
back from Mexico as Psilocybe, and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first
identified psilocin and psilocybin as the active compounds in these
mushrooms.
Psilocybe subaeruginascens
Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to
Mexico to experience hallucinogenic mushrooms firsthand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard
Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin and other
hallucinogenic drugs. After Leary and Alpert were dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward
promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.
The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Leary, authors Terence McKenna and Robert Anton Wilson, and
others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic Psilocybe throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a
number of psychoactive Psilocybe species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and
were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating Psilocybe cubensis in large quantities were also
published. The availability of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most
widely used of the hallucinogenic drugs.
At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central
Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs,[12] Zapotecs, and others.
Psilocybin mushroom
69
Effects
To reiterate, the effects of Psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and
psilocin. Psilocybin mushrooms are non-addictive and rarely abused. They do create
short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to abuse them
because the more often they are taken within a short period of time, the weaker the
resultant effects are.[13] Poisonous (sometimes lethal) wild picked mushrooms can
be easily mistaken for psilocybin mushrooms. When psilocybin is ingested, it is
broken down to produce psilocin, which is responsible for the hallucinogenic
effects.[13] [14]
Psilocybin
As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are
subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering
effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last anywhere from 3 to 8 hours depending on dosage,
preparation method, and personal metabolism. However, the effects can seem to last much longer because of
psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.[15] [16]
Some users suffer from Hallucinogen persisting perception
disorder although how many, and why, is unknown. Perceptual
disturbances causing discomfort are rarely reported after using
psylocybin, but they may be more likely if the drug is mixed with
Cannabis[17] . There have been reports of such disturbances lasting
5 years or more[18] . Magic mushrooms have also been
controversially associated with long term effects such as panic
attacks, depression and paranoid delusions.[19] On the other hand,
magic mushrooms were rated as causing some of the least damage
in the UK compared to other recreational drugs by experts in a
study by the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs.[20] Other
researchers have said that the main chemical component
(psilocybin) is "remarkably non-toxic to the body's organ
systems", explaining that the risks are indirect: higher dosages are
more likely to cause fear and may result in dangerous behavior.[21]
Despite risks, mushrooms may do much less damage in
the UK than other recreational drugs - whereas alcohol
was considered to be the most damaging (although
magic mushrooms are also much less readily
available).
One study found that the most desirable results may come from
starting with very low doses first, and trying slightly higher doses
over months. The researchers explain that the peak experiences occur at quantities that are only slightly lower than a
sort of anxiety threshold. Although risks of experiencing fear and anxiety increased somewhat consistently along
with dosage and overall quality of experience, at dosages exceeding the individual's threshold, there was suddenly
greater increases in anxiety than before. In other words, after finding the optimum dose, there are diminishing returns
for using more (since risks of anxiety now increase at a greater rate).[21]
Sensory
Noticeable changes to the audio, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around an hour after ingestion.
These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as
auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe;
complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a
sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds seem to be heard with increased
clarity; music, for example, can often take on a profound sense of cadence and depth. Some users experience
synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.[22]
Psilocybin mushroom
70
Emotional
As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or "trip," is strongly dependent
upon set and setting. A negative environment could likely induce a bad trip, whereas a
comfortable and familiar environment would allow for a pleasant experience. Many
users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends, people they're familiar
with, or people that are also 'tripping', although neither side of this binary is without
exception.[23] [24]
Psilocin
Spiritual and well being
In 2006, the United States government funded a randomized and double-blinded study by Johns Hopkins University,
which studied the spiritual effects of psilocybin in particular. That is, they did not use mushrooms specifically (in
fact, each individual mushroom piece can vary wildly in psilocybin and psilocin content[25] ). The study involved 36
college-educated adults (average age of 46) who had never tried psilocybin nor had a history of drug use, and who
had religious or spiritual interests. The participants were closely observed for eight-hour intervals in a laboratory
while under the influence of psilocybin mushrooms[26] .
One-third of the participants reported that the experience was the single most spiritually significant moment of their
lives and more than two-thirds reported it was among the top five most spiritually significant experiences. Two
months after the study, 79% of the participants reported increased well-being or satisfaction; friends, relatives, and
associates confirmed this. They also reported anxiety and depression symptoms to be decreased or completely gone.
Despite highly controlled conditions to minimize adverse effects, 22% of subjects (8 of 36) had notable experiences
of fear, some with paranoia. The authors, however, reported that all these instances were "readily managed with
reassurance."[26]
See psilocybin for more details
As medicine
For more health related information on the main psycho-active ingredient, see psilocybin
There have been calls for medical investigation of the use of synthetic
and mushroom-derived psilocybin for the development of improved
treatments of various mental conditions, including chronic cluster
headaches,[27] following numerous anecdotal reports of benefits. There
are also several accounts of psilocybin mushrooms sending both
obsessive-compulsive disorders ("OCD") and OCD-related clinical
depression (both being widespread and debilitating mental health
conditions) into complete remission immediately and for up to months
at a time, compared to current medications which often have both
limited efficacy[28] and frequent undesirable side-effects.[29] One such
study states:
Psilocybe villarrealiae, which is only known to a
small area of Mexico
"Developing drugs that are more effective and faster acting for the treatment of OCD is of utmost importance
and until recently, little hope was in hand. A new potential avenue of treatment may exist. There are several
reported cases concerning the beneficial effects of hallucinogenic drugs (psilocybin and LSD), potent
stimulators of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors, in patients with OCD (Brandrup and Vanggaard, 1977,
Rapoport, 1987, Moreno and Delgado, 1997) and related disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder (Hanes,
1996)."[29]
Psilocybin mushroom
71
"[I]f it can be established that this class of drug can indeed lead to rapid and substantial reduction in OCD
symptoms, then it opens the way for a variety of future studies with new drugs that might possibly have the
anti-OCD but not the psychedelic effects. [...] Psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline are extremely potent agonists at
5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors and their binding potency to these receptors is correlated with their human
potency as hallucinogens (Glennon et al., 1984). The acute improvement in symptoms described in the
published case reports (Brandrup and Vanggaard, 1977, Rapoport, 1987, Moreno and Delgado, 1997) suggests
that interactions with 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors may be an essential component of anti-OCD drug action.
The observations that administration of the non-selective 5-HT antagonists metergoline or ritanserin
exacerbate OCD symptoms further supports this view."[29]
Dosage
Dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the potency of the mushroom (the total psilocybin and
psilocin content of the mushrooms), which varies significantly both between species and within the same species, but
is typically around 0.5-2% of the dried weight of the mushroom. A typical dose of the rather common species,
Psilocybe cubensis, is approximately 1 to 2.5 grams,[30] while about 2.5 to 5 grams[30] dried mushroom material is
considered a strong dose. Above 5 dried grams is often considered a heavy dose.
Alkaloid Concentration of Dried Psilocybin Mushrooms[31]
Name
Conocybe cyanopus
Psilocybin [%]
[32]
0.930–0.450
n/a
Psilocin [%]
0.70-0.00
[32]
n/a
Baeocystin [%]
Total [%]
[32]
1.03–0.55
0.030-0.100
0.40–0.80
0.40–0.80+
[32]
Conocybe smithii
0.34%
0.29%
0.05%
0.68%
[33]
Gymnopilus purpuratus
Gymnopilus validipes
[34]
0.12%
[32]
0.150%–0.600
–
0.00%
–
[32]
0.12%+
[32] 0.151%–0.605
0.001%–0.005
Panaeolus cinctulus
1.78
0.38
0.35
2.51
0.85
0.59
0.10
1.54
Psilocybe azurescens
Psilocybe baeocystis
Psilocybin mushroom
72
Psilocybe bohemica
[33]
0.93
–1.34%
[33]
0.63%
[33]
[33]
0.11–0.28
0.02%
1.06–1.47%
[33]
[33]
0.90–1.26%
0.25
–0.60% 0.02
–0.025%
Psilocybe cubensis
0.85
0.36
0.03
1.24
0.21
0.04
n/a
0.25+
Psilocybe hoogshagenii
0.60
0.10
n/a
0.70+
Psilocybe liniformans
0.16
n/a
0.005
0.17+
0.98%
0.02%
0.36%
1.36%
0.36
0.12
0.02
0.5
0.68
0.32
n/a
1.00+
0.61
0.27
0.05
0.93
Psilocybe cyanescens
Psilocybe cyanofibrillosa
Psilocybe semilanceata
Psilocybe stuntzii
Psilocybe tampanensis
Psilocybe weilii
The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies not only from species to species, but also from
mushroom to mushroom inside a given species, subspecies or variety. The same holds true even for different parts of
the same mushroom. In the species Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, the dried cap of the
mushroom contains the most psilocybin at about 0.23%–0.90%.[35] The mycelia contain about 0.24%–0.32%.[35]
Psilocybin mushroom
Legality
Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United
Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.[36] Schedule I
drugs are deemed to have a high potential for abuse and are not
recognized for medical use. However, psilocybin mushrooms are not
covered by UN drug treaties.
From a letter, dated Sept 13, 2001, from Herbert Schaepe, Secretary of
the UN International Narcotics Control Board, to the Dutch Ministry of
Health:[37]
As you are aware, mushrooms containing the above
Psilocybe cyanofriscosa
substances are collected and used for their hallucinogenic
effects. As a matter of international law, no plants (natural material) containing psilocine and psilocybin
are at present controlled under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. Consequently,
preparations made of these plants are not under international control and, therefore, not subject of the
articles of the 1971 Convention. It should be noted, however, that criminal cases are decided with
reference to domestic law, which may otherwise provide for controls over mushrooms containing
psilocine and psilocybin. As the Board can only speak as to the contours of the international drug
conventions, I am unable to provide an opinion on the litigation in question.
Psilocybin mushrooms are regulated or prohibited in many countries, often carrying severe legal penalties (for
example, the U.S. Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and Drugs Act 2005, and the
Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act).
The prohibition of psilocybin mushrooms has come under criticism because psilocybin mushrooms are considered
soft drugs with a low potential for abuse, very low toxicity, and no risk of addiction.
Magic Mushrooms in their fresh form still remain legal in some countries including Spain, Austria, and Canada. On
November 29, 2008, The Netherlands announced it would ban the cultivation and use of psilocybin-containing fungi
beginning December 1, 2008.[38] The UK ban on fresh mushrooms (dried ones were illegal as they were considered a
psilocybin-containing preparation) introduced in 2005 came under much criticism, but was rushed through at the end
of the 2001-2005 Parliament; until then Magic Mushrooms had been sold in the UK.
New Mexico appeals court ruled on June 14, 2005, that growing psilocybin mushrooms for personal consumption
could not be considered "manufacturing a controlled substance" under state law. However it still remains illegal
under federal law.[39] [40]
Notes
[1] Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott and Wilson, Wilkie (1998 & 2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs
from Alcohol to Ecstasy. W.W. Norton & Company Inc. p. 83. ISBN 0-393-32493-1.
[2] "Taking care of ourselves" (http:/ / wrc. dos. cornell. edu/ handbook/ Chapter5. html). Cornell University: Women's Resource Center (http:/ /
wrc. dos. cornell. edu/ ). . Retrieved 2007-04-04.
[3] https:/ / www. erowid. org/ references/ refs. php?S=Fischer_R& SField=Author& A=SearchAll
[4] McKenna, Terrence (1992) [1993]. Food of the Gods: the Search for the original Tree of Knowledge. Bantam. ISBN 0553371304.
[5] "http:/ / www. lycaeum. org/ ~sputnik/ McKenna/ Evolution/
[6] "The oldest Representations of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in the World." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060116104741/ www. samorini.
net/ doc/ sam/ sah_int. htm). www.samorini.net/ (http:/ / www. samorini. net/ ). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. samorini. net/ doc/
sam/ sah_int. htm) on 2006-01-16. . Retrieved 2007-04-04.
[7] John M. Allegro" The Sacred Mushroom And The Cross (http:/ / www. phreak. co. uk/ debespace/
John_Allegro___The_Sacred_Mushroom_And_The_Cross. pdf)"
[8] Stamets, Paul (1996) [1996]. Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Ten Speed Press. p. 11. ISBN 0898158397.
[9] Stamets, Paul (1996) [1996]. Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Ten Speed Press. p. 7. ISBN 0898158397.
73
Psilocybin mushroom
[10] Everard Brande (1799). "On A Poisonous Species of Agaric" (http:/ / www. erowid. org/ references/ refs_view. php?A=ShowDoc1&
ID=6331). London Medical and Physical Journal 11 (November 16): 41–44. .
[11] Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life (May 13): 100–120. article reproduced online (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Jj8EAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA100& source=gbs_toc_r& cad=1& #v=onepage& q& f=false)
[12] Johnson, Jean Bassett (1939). "The Elements of Mazatec Witchcraft". Gothenburg, Sweden: Ethnological Studies, No. 9.
[13] "Psilocybin Fast Facts" (http:/ / www. usdoj. gov/ ndic/ pubs6/ 6038/ index. htm). National Drug Intelligence Center. . Retrieved
2007-04-04.
[14] The Good Drugs Guide. "Magic Mushrooms–Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / www. thegooddrugsguide. com/ mushrooms/ faq.
htm#01). Frequently Asked Questions. The Good Drugs Guide. . Retrieved 2007-01-04.
[15] Erowid and contributors (2006). "Effects of Psilocybin Mushrooms" (http:/ / www. erowid. org/ plants/ mushrooms/ mushrooms_effects.
shtml) (shtml). Erowid. . Retrieved 2006-12-01.
[16] The Good Drugs Guide. "Psychedelic Effects of Magic Mushrooms" (http:/ / www. thegooddrugsguide. com/ mushrooms/ psychedelic.
htm). The Good Drugs Guide. . Retrieved 2006-12-01.
[17] [Espiard et al., 2005 M.L. Espiard, L. Lecardeur, P. Abadie, I. Halbecq and S. Dollfus, Hallucinogen persisting perception disorderafter
psilocybin consumption: a case study, Eur. Psychiatry 20 (2005), pp. 458–460]
[18] [G. Aldurra and J.W. Crayton, Improvement of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder by treatment with a combination offluoxetine
and olanzapine: case report, J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 21 (2001), pp. 343–344.]
[19] University of New South Wales, Faculty of Medicine, Magic Mushrooms fact sheet (http:/ / www. med. unsw. edu. au/ NDARCWeb. nsf/
resources/ NDARCFact_Drugs7/ $file/ Mushroom+ fact+ sheet. pdf)
[20] Cause the Most Harm, in The Economist (http:/ / www. economist. com/ blogs/ dailychart/ 2010/ 11/ drugs_cause_most_harmDrugsthat)
[21] John Hopkins probes "Sacred" Mushroom Chemical, newswise.com (http:/ / www. newswise. com/ articles/ view/ 577702)
[22] D.M. Turner" Psilocybin Mushrooms:The Extraterrestrial Invasion Of Earth (http:/ / www. lavondyss. com/ donut/ guide/ psilocybin. html)"
[23] Stamets, Paul (1996) [1996]. Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0898158397.
[24] Simon G.Powell" The Psilocybin Solution:Prelude To A Paradigm Shift (http:/ / www. b3ta. cr3ation. co. uk/ onsite/ [the psilocybin so/
ebook. drugs. mushrooms. simong. powell. thepsilocybinso)"
[25] Stafford PJ. (1992). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Berkeley, California: Ronin Publishing. ISBN 0-914171-51-8.
[26] "RR Griffiths, WA Richards, U McCann, R Jesse. Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained
personal meaning and spiritual significance" (http:/ / www. csp. org/ psilocybin/ Hopkins-CSP-Psilocybin2006. pdf) (PDF).
Psychopharmacology187(3):268-83. August 2006. . Retrieved 2008-09-25.
[27] Clusterbusters. "Psilocybin Mushrooms" (http:/ / www. clusterbusters. com/ hallucinogens. html). . Retrieved 2006-12-01.
[28] "Effects of Psilocybin in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder" (http:/ / www. sex. org/ research/ psilo/ azproto. html). .:"In spite of the
established efficacy of potent 5-HT reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of OCD ... the length of time required for improvement of patients
undergoing treatment with 5-HT reuptake inhibitors appears to be quite long ... and the percentage of patients having satisfactory responses
may only approach 50 percent, and most patients that do improve only have a 30 to 50% decrease in symptoms (Goodman et al., 1990)"
[29] "Effects of Psilocybin in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder" (http:/ / www. maps. org/ research/ psilo/ azproto. html). .
[30] Erowid (2006). "Dosage Chart for Psychedelic Mushrooms" (http:/ / www. erowid. org/ plants/ mushrooms/ mushrooms_dose. shtml)
(shtml). Erowid. . Retrieved 2006-12-01.
[31] "Approximate Alkaloid Content of selected Psilocybe mushrooms" (http:/ / www. erowid. org/ plants/ mushrooms/ mushrooms_info4.
shtml). www.erowid.org. 2009-03-27. . Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[32] "The Psilocybe Mushroom FAQ, Version 1.2" (http:/ / www. sporelab. com/ faq-psil. htm#Panaeolus subbalteatus). www.sporelab.com. .
Retrieved 2010-01-04.
[33] "Dr. Gartz Series Extraction (www.tacethno.com)" (http:/ / www. tacethno. com/ info/ psilocybe/ gartz1. txt). . Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[34] Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=10HiGVo94FUC& pg=PA183& lpg=PA183&
dq="gymnopilus+ spectabilis"+ psilocybin& source=bl& ots=wZYizsNhrw& sig=_LJY10J4SvD8yfZTzA9_nkVsYwk& hl=en&
ei=zcBbS9HwBI7AsQOgkPSwCg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CAcQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage& q="gymnopilus
spectabilis" psilocybin& f=false). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[35] USA (2010-04-01). "Abstract:J Ethnopharmacol. 1994 Jul 8;43(2):73-80. Ethnomycology, biochemistry, and cultivation of Psilocybe
samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive fungus from Koh Samui, Thailand. Gartz J, Allen JW, Merlin MD" (http:/ /
www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 7967658). Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. . Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[36] "List of psychotropic substances under international control" (http:/ / www. incb. org/ pdf/ e/ list/ green. pdf) (PDF). International Narcotics
Control Board. August 2003. . Retrieved 2007-06-25.
[37] Schaepe, Herbert (2001-09-13). "UN's INCB Psilocybin Mushroom Policy" (http:/ / www. erowid. org/ plants/ mushrooms/
mushrooms_law12. shtml). Erowid.org. . Retrieved 2010-05-30.
[38] "RTÉ News: 'Shrooms to become illegal in Holland" (http:/ / www. rte. ie/ news/ 2008/ 1128/ mushrooms. html). RTÉ News. November
2008. . Retrieved 2008-11-28.
[39] "FindLaw" (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ scripts/ getcase. pl?court=nm& vol=05ca-099& invol=2). caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. . Retrieved
2010-01-03.
[40] "Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault : Legal Status" (http:/ / www. erowid. org/ plants/ mushrooms/ mushrooms_law. shtml).
www.erowid.org. . Retrieved 2010-01-03.
74
Psilocybin mushroom
References
• Allen, John W. (1997). Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Raver Books and John W. Allen.
ISBN 1-58214-026-X.
• Letcher, Andy (2006). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. London: Faber and Faber Limited.
ISBN 0-060-82828-5.
• Nicholas, L. G; Ogame, Kerry (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation.
Quick American Archives. ISBN 0-932551-71-8.
• Stamets, Paul (1993). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press.
ISBN 1-58008-175-4.
• Stamets, Paul; Chilton, J.S. (1983). Mushroom Cultivator, The. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0.
• Stamets, Paul (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0.
• Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott; Wilson, Wilkie (1998 & 2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most
Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc.
•
•
•
•
ISBN 0-393-32493-1.
R. Gordon Wasson, The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica
Alvaro Estrada, Maria Sabina: Her Life and Chants
Terence McKenna, Food of the Gods
Ole Högberg, Flugsvampen och människan. Section concerning the berserker myth is published online (http://
www.carlssonbokforlag.se/humaniora/dox/Korrigeringar Flugsv.pdf) In Swedish and PDF format ISBN
91-7203-555-2
External links
• The Vaults of Erowid - Psilocybin Mushrooms (http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/)
• Jeremy Bigwood: Scientific Publications (http://web.archive.org/web/20060113215908/jeremybigwood.net/
JBsPUBS/JBScientific/JB'sSciencePublications.htm) (archived at Wayback Machine)
• International Legal Status of Psilocybin Mushrooms (http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/
mushrooms_law11.shtml) Ananda Schouten, Erowid, 2004
• UN's INCB Psilocybin Mushroom Policy (http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_law12.
shtml) Herbert Schaepe, 2001
• Hallucinogenic mushrooms (http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index31208EN.html) EMCDDA,
Lisbon, June 2006
• Hallucinogenic mushrooms: the challenge of responding to naturally occurring substances in an electronic age
(http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index36330EN.html) EMCDDA, Drugs in Focus 15
• Psilocybes in Medicine from the "International Journal of Psychoactive Mushrooms" FMRC (http://www.
shroomery.org/forums/showflat.php?Cat=&Board=13&Number=1581935&fpart=1&PHPSESSID=)
75
Object-oriented programming
Object-oriented programming
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of
data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programs.
Programming techniques may include features such as data abstraction, encapsulation, messaging, modularity,
polymorphism, and inheritance. Many modern programming languages now support OOP, at least as an option.
Overview
Simple, non-OOP programs may be one "long" list of statements (or commands). More complex programs will often
group smaller sections of these statements into functions or subroutines each of which might perform a particular
task. With designs of this sort, it is common for some of the program's data to be accessible from any part of the
program. As programs grow in size, allowing any function to modify any piece of data means that bugs can have
wide-reaching effects.
In contrast, the object-oriented approach encourages the programmer to place data where it is not directly accessible
by the rest of the program. Instead, the data is accessed by calling specially written functions, commonly called
methods , which are either bundled in with the data or inherited from "class objects." These functions act as the
intermediaries for retrieving or modifying the data they control. The programming construct that combines data with
a set of methods for accessing and managing those data is called an object. The practice of using subroutines to
examine or modify certain kinds of data, however, was also quite commonly used in non-OOP modular
programming, well before the widespread use of object-oriented programming)
An object-oriented program will usually contain different types of objects, each type corresponding to a particular
kind of complex data to be managed or perhaps to a real-world object or concept such as a bank account, a hockey
player, or a bulldozer. A program might well contain multiple copies of each type of object, one for each of the
real-world objects the program is dealing with. For instance, there could be one bank account object for each
real-world account at a particular bank. Each copy of the bank account object would be alike in the methods it offers
for manipulating or reading its data, but the data inside each object would differ reflecting the different history of
each account.
Objects can be thought of as wrapping their data within a set of functions designed to ensure that the data are used
appropriately, and to assist in that use. The object's methods will typically include checks and safeguards that are
specific to the types of data the object contains. An object can also offer simple-to-use, standardized methods for
performing particular operations on its data, while concealing the specifics of how those tasks are accomplished. In
this way alterations can be made to the internal structure or methods of an object without requiring that the rest of the
program be modified. This approach can also be used to offer standardized methods across different types of objects.
As an example, several different types of objects might offer print methods. Each type of object might implement
that print method in a different way, reflecting the different kinds of data each contains, but all the different print
methods might be called in the same standardized manner from elsewhere in the program. These features become
especially useful when more than one programmer is contributing code to a project or when the goal is to reuse code
between projects.
Object-oriented programming has roots that can be traced to the 1960s. As hardware and software became
increasingly complex, manageability often became a concern. Researchers studied ways to maintain software quality
and developed object-oriented programming in part to address common problems by strongly emphasizing discrete,
reusable units of programming logic. The technology focuses on data rather than processes, with programs composed
of self-sufficient modules ("classes"), each instance of which ("objects") contains all the information needed to
manipulate its own data structure ("members"). This is in contrast to the existing modular programming that had
been dominant for many years that focused on the function of a module, rather than specifically the data, but equally
76
Object-oriented programming
provided for code reuse, and self-sufficient reusable units of programming logic, enabling collaboration through the
use of linked modules (subroutines). This more conventional approach, which still persists, tends to consider data
and behavior separately.
An object-oriented program may thus be viewed as a collection of interacting objects, as opposed to the conventional
model, in which a program is seen as a list of tasks (subroutines) to perform. In OOP, each object is capable of
receiving messages, processing data, and sending messages to other objects. Each object can be viewed as an
independent "machine" with a distinct role or responsibility. The actions (or "methods") on these objects are closely
associated with the object. For example, OOP data structures tend to "carry their own operators around with them"
(or at least "inherit" them from a similar object or class) - except when they have to be serialized.
History
The terms "objects" and "oriented" in something like the modern sense of object-oriented programming seem to
make their first appearance at MIT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the environment of the artificial intelligence
group, as early as 1960, "object" could refer to identified items (LISP atoms) with properties (attributes);[1] [2] Alan
Kay was later to cite a detailed understanding of LISP internals as a strong influence on his thinking in 1966.[3]
Another early MIT example was Sketchpad created by Ivan Sutherland in 1960-61; in the glossary of the 1963
technical report based on his dissertation about Sketchpad, Sutherland defined notions of "object" and "instance"
(with the class concept covered by "master" or "definition"), albeit specialized to graphical interaction.[4] Also, an
MIT ALGOL version, AED-0, linked data structures ("plexes", in that dialect) directly with procedures, prefiguring
what were later termed "messages", "methods" and "member functions".[5] [6]
Objects as a formal concept in programming were introduced in the 1960s in Simula 67, a major revision of Simula
I, a programming language designed for discrete event simulation, created by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard
of the Norwegian Computing Center in Oslo.[7] Simula 67 was influenced by SIMSCRIPT and Hoare's proposed
"record classes".[5] [8] Simula introduced the notion of classes and instances or objects (as well as subclasses, virtual
methods, coroutines, and discrete event simulation) as part of an explicit programming paradigm. The language also
used automatic garbage collection that had been invented earlier for the functional programming language Lisp.
Simula was used for physical modeling, such as models to study and improve the movement of ships and their
content through cargo ports. The ideas of Simula 67 influenced many later languages, including Smalltalk,
derivatives of LISP (CLOS), Object Pascal, and C++.
The Smalltalk language, which was developed at Xerox PARC (by Alan Kay and others) in the 1970s, introduced
the term object-oriented programming to represent the pervasive use of objects and messages as the basis for
computation. Smalltalk creators were influenced by the ideas introduced in Simula 67, but Smalltalk was designed to
be a fully dynamic system in which classes could be created and modified dynamically rather than statically as in
Simula 67.[9] Smalltalk and with it OOP were introduced to a wider audience by the August 1981 issue of Byte
Magazine.
In the 1970s, Kay's Smalltalk work had influenced the Lisp community to incorporate object-based techniques that
were introduced to developers via the Lisp machine. Experimentation with various extensions to Lisp (like LOOPS
and Flavors introducing multiple inheritance and mixins), eventually led to the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS,
a part of the first standardized object-oriented programming language, ANSI Common Lisp), which integrates
functional programming and object-oriented programming and allows extension via a Meta-object protocol. In the
1980s, there were a few attempts to design processor architectures that included hardware support for objects in
memory but these were not successful. Examples include the Intel iAPX 432 and the Linn Smart Rekursiv.
Object-oriented programming developed as the dominant programming methodology in the early and mid 1990s
when programming languages supporting the techniques became widely available. These included Visual FoxPro
3.0,[10] [11] [12] C++, and Delphi. Its dominance was further enhanced by the rising popularity of graphical user
interfaces, which rely heavily upon object-oriented programming techniques. An example of a closely related
77
Object-oriented programming
dynamic GUI library and OOP language can be found in the Cocoa frameworks on Mac OS X, written in
Objective-C, an object-oriented, dynamic messaging extension to C based on Smalltalk. OOP toolkits also enhanced
the popularity of event-driven programming (although this concept is not limited to OOP). Some feel that association
with GUIs (real or perceived) was what propelled OOP into the programming mainstream.
At ETH Zürich, Niklaus Wirth and his colleagues had also been investigating such topics as data abstraction and
modular programming (although this had been in common use in the 1960s or earlier). Modula-2 (1978) included
both, and their succeeding design, Oberon, included a distinctive approach to object orientation, classes, and such.
The approach is unlike Smalltalk, and very unlike C++.
Object-oriented features have been added to many existing languages during that time, including Ada, BASIC,
Fortran, Pascal, and others. Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them often led to
problems with compatibility and maintainability of code.
More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object-oriented yet compatible with
procedural methodology, such as Python and Ruby. Probably the most commercially important recent
object-oriented languages are Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET) and C#, both designed for Microsoft's .NET platform,
and Java, developed by Sun Microsystems. Both frameworks show the benefit of using OOP by creating an
abstraction from implementation in their own way. VB.NET and C# support cross-language inheritance, allowing
classes defined in one language to subclass classes defined in the other language. Developers usually compile Java to
bytecode, allowing Java to run on any operating system for which a Java virtual machine is available. VB.NET and
C# make use of the Strategy pattern to accomplish cross-language inheritance, whereas Java makes use of the
Adapter pattern .
Just as procedural programming led to refinements of techniques such as structured programming, modern
object-oriented software design methods include refinements such as the use of design patterns, design by contract,
and modeling languages (such as UML).
Fundamental concepts and features
A survey by Deborah J. Armstrong of nearly 40 years of computing literature identified a number of "quarks", or
fundamental concepts, found in the strong majority of definitions of OOP.[13]
Not all of these concepts are to be found in all object-oriented programming languages. For example, object-oriented
programming that uses classes is sometimes called class-based programming, while prototype-based programming
does not typically use classes. As a result, a significantly different yet analogous terminology is used to define the
concepts of object and instance.
Benjamin C. Pierce and some other researchers view as futile any attempt to distill OOP to a minimal set of features.
He nonetheless identifies fundamental features that support the OOP programming style in most object-oriented
languages:[14]
• Dynamic dispatch – when a method is invoked on an object, the object itself determines what code gets executed
by looking up the method at run time in a table associated with the object. This feature distinguishes an object
from an abstract data type (or module), which has a fixed (static) implementation of the operations for all
instances. It is a programming methodology that gives modular component development while at the same time
being very efficient.
• Encapsulation (or multi-methods, in which case the state is kept separate)
• Subtype polymorphism
• Object inheritance (or delegation)
• Open recursion – a special variable (syntactically it may be a keyword), usually called this or self, that
allows a method body to invoke another method body of the same object. This variable is late-bound; it allows a
method defined in one class to invoke another method that is defined later, in some subclass thereof.
78
Object-oriented programming
79
Similarly, in his 2003 book, Concepts in programming languages, John C. Mitchell identifies four main features:
dynamic dispatch, abstraction, subtype polymorphism, and inheritance.[15] Michael Lee Scott in Programming
Language Pragmatics considers only encapsulation, inheritance and dynamic dispatch.[16]
Additional concepts used in object-oriented programming include:
•
•
•
•
•
Classes of objects
Instances of classes
Methods which act on the attached objects.
Message passing
Abstraction
Decoupling
Decoupling refers to careful controls that separate code modules from particular use cases, which increases code
re-usability. A common use of decoupling in OOP is to polymorphically decouple the encapsulation (see Bridge
pattern and Adapter pattern) - for example, using a method interface which an encapsulated object must satisfy, as
opposed to using the object's class.
Formal semantics
There have been several attempts at formalizing the concepts used in object-oriented programming. The following
concepts and constructs have been used as interpretations of OOP concepts:
• coalgebraic data types [17]
• abstract data types (which have existential types) allow the definition of modules but these do not support
dynamic dispatch
• recursive types
• encapsulated state
• Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
• records are basis for understanding objects if function literals can be stored in fields (like in functional
programming languages), but the actual calculi need be considerably more complex to incorporate essential
features of OOP. Several extensions of System F that deal with mutable objects have been studied;[18] these
<:
allow both subtype polymorphism and parametric polymorphism (generics)
Attempts to find a consensus definition or theory behind objects have not proven very successful (however, see
Abadi & Cardelli, A Theory of Objects [19][18] for formal definitions of many OOP concepts and constructs), and
often diverge widely. For example, some definitions focus on mental activities, and some on mere program
structuring. One of the simpler definitions is that OOP is the act of using "map" data structures or arrays that can
contain functions and pointers to other maps, all with some syntactic and scoping sugar on top. Inheritance can be
performed by cloning the maps (sometimes called "prototyping"). OBJECT:=>> Objects are the run time entities in
an object-oriented system. They may represent a person, a place, a bank account, a table of data or any item that the
program has to handle.
OOP languages
Simula (1967) is generally accepted as the first language to have the primary features of an object-oriented language.
It was created for making simulation programs, in which what came to be called objects were the most important
information representation. Smalltalk (1972 to 1980) is arguably the canonical example, and the one with which
much of the theory of object-oriented programming was developed. Concerning the degree of object orientation,
following distinction can be made:
Object-oriented programming
• Languages called "pure" OO languages, because everything in them is treated consistently as an object, from
primitives such as characters and punctuation, all the way up to whole classes, prototypes, blocks, modules, etc.
They were designed specifically to facilitate, even enforce, OO methods. Examples: Scala, Smalltalk, Eiffel,
•
•
•
•
Ruby, JADE, Emerald.[20]
Languages designed mainly for OO programming, but with some procedural elements. Examples: C++, C#,
VB.NET, Java, Python. (Note: C# and VB.NET are both exclusively part of Microsoft's .NET Framework
development platform and compile to the same intermediate language (IL). Although there are some construct
differences, they are minimal and in the context of this grouping, some might consider them part of one language
with simply two syntax translation engines).
Languages that are historically procedural languages, but have been extended with some OO features. Examples:
Visual Basic (derived from BASIC), Fortran 2003, Perl, COBOL 2002, PHP, ABAP.
Languages with most of the features of objects (classes, methods, inheritance, reusability), but in a distinctly
original form. Examples: Oberon (Oberon-1 or Oberon-2).
Languages with abstract data type support, but not all features of object-orientation, sometimes called
object-based languages. Examples: Modula-2 (with excellent encapsulation and information hiding), Pliant, CLU.
OOP in dynamic languages
In recent years, object-oriented programming has become especially popular in dynamic programming languages.
Python, Ruby and Groovy are dynamic languages built on OOP principles, while Perl and PHP have been adding
object oriented features since Perl 5 and PHP 4, and ColdFusion since version 6.
The Document Object Model of HTML, XHTML, and XML documents on the Internet have bindings to the popular
JavaScript/ECMAScript language. JavaScript is perhaps the best known prototype-based programming language,
which employs cloning from prototypes rather than inheriting from a class. Another scripting language that takes this
approach is Lua. Earlier versions of ActionScript (a partial superset of the ECMA-262 R3, otherwise known as
ECMAScript) also used a prototype-based object model. Later versions of ActionScript incorporate a combination of
classification and prototype-based object models based largely on the currently incomplete ECMA-262 R4
specification, which has its roots in an early JavaScript 2 Proposal. Microsoft's JScript.NET also includes a mash-up
of object models based on the same proposal, and is also a superset of the ECMA-262 R3 specification.
Design patterns
Challenges of object-oriented design are addressed by several methodologies. Most common is known as the design
patterns codified by Gamma et al.. More broadly, the term "design patterns" can be used to refer to any general,
repeatable solution to a commonly occurring problem in software design. Some of these commonly occurring
problems have implications and solutions particular to object-oriented development.
Inheritance and behavioral subtyping
It is intuitive to assume that inheritance creates a semantic "is a" relationship, and thus to infer that objects
instantiated from subclasses can always be safely used instead of those instantiated from the superclass. This
intuition is unfortunately false in most OOP languages, in particular in all those that allow mutable objects. Subtype
polymorphism as enforced by the type checker in OOP languages (with mutable objects) cannot guarantee
behavioral subtyping in any context. Behavioral subtyping is undecidable in general, so it cannot be implemented by
a program (compiler). Class or object hierarchies need to be carefully designed considering possible incorrect uses
that cannot be detected syntactically. This issue is known as the Liskov substitution principle.
80
Object-oriented programming
Gang of Four design patterns
Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software is an influential book published in 1995 by Erich
Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides, sometimes casually called the "Gang of Four". Along
with exploring the capabilities and pitfalls of object-oriented programming, it describes 23 common programming
problems and patterns for solving them. As of April 2007, the book was in its 36th printing.
The book describes the following patterns:
• Creational patterns (5): Factory Method Pattern, Abstract Factory Pattern, Singleton Pattern, Builder Pattern,
Prototype Pattern
• Structural patterns (7): Adapter Pattern, Bridge Pattern, Composite Pattern, Decorator Pattern, Facade Pattern,
Flyweight Pattern, Proxy Pattern
• Behavioral patterns (11): Chain of Responsibility Pattern, Command Pattern, Interpreter Pattern, Iterator Pattern,
Mediator Pattern, Memento Pattern, Observer Pattern, State Pattern, Strategy Pattern, Template Method Pattern,
Visitor Pattern
Object-orientation and databases
Both object-oriented programming and relational database management systems (RDBMSs) are extremely common
in software today. Since relational databases don't store objects directly (though some RDBMSs have object-oriented
features to approximate this), there is a general need to bridge the two worlds. The problem of bridging
object-oriented programming accesses and data patterns with relational databases is known as Object-Relational
impedance mismatch. There are a number of approaches to cope with this problem, but no general solution without
downsides.[21] One of the most common approaches is object-relational mapping, as found in libraries like Java Data
Objects and Ruby on Rails' ActiveRecord.
There are also object databases that can be used to replace RDBMSs, but these have not been as technically and
commercially successful as RDBMSs.
Real-world Modeling and Relationships
OOP can be used to associate real-world objects and processes with digital counterparts. However, not everyone
agrees that OOP facilitates direct real-world mapping (see Negative Criticism section) or that real-world mapping is
even a worthy goal; Bertrand Meyer argues in Object-Oriented Software Construction[22] that a program is not a
model of the world but a model of some part of the world; "Reality is a cousin twice removed". At the same time,
some principal limitations of OOP had been noted.[23] For example, the Circle-ellipse problem is difficult to handle
using OOP's concept of inheritance.
However, Niklaus Wirth (who popularized the adage now known as Wirth's law: "Software is getting slower more
rapidly than hardware becomes faster") said of OOP in his paper, "Good Ideas through the Looking Glass", "This
paradigm closely reflects the structure of systems 'in the real world', and it is therefore well suited to model complex
systems with complex behaviours" (contrast KISS principle).
Steve Yegge and others noted that natural languages lack the OOP approach of strictly prioritizing things
(objects/nouns) before actions (methods/verbs).[24] This problem may cause OOP to suffer more convoluted
solutions than procedural programming.[25]
81
Object-oriented programming
OOP and control flow
OOP was developed to increase the reusability and maintainability of source code.[26] Transparent representation of
the control flow had no priority and was meant to be handled by a compiler. With the increasing relevance of parallel
hardware and multithreaded coding, developer transparent control flow becomes more important, something hard to
achieve with OOP.[27] [28] [29]
Responsibility vs. data-driven design
Responsibility-driven design defines classes in terms of a contract, that is, a class should be defined around a
responsibility and the information that it shares. This is contrasted by Wirfs-Brock and Wilkerson with data-driven
design, where classes are defined around the data-structures that must be held. The authors hold that
responsibility-driven design is preferable.
Criticism
A number of well-known researchers and programmers have analysed the utility of OOP. Here is an incomplete list:
• Luca Cardelli wrote a paper titled "Bad Engineering Properties of Object-Oriented Languages".[30]
• Richard Stallman wrote in 1995, "Adding OOP to Emacs is not clearly an improvement; I used OOP when
working on the Lisp Machine window systems, and I disagree with the usual view that it is a superior way to
program."[31]
• A study by Potok et al.[32] has shown no significant difference in productivity between OOP and procedural
approaches.
• Christopher J. Date stated that critical comparison of OOP to other technologies, relational in particular, is
difficult because of lack of an agreed-upon and rigorous definition of OOP.[33] Date and Darwen[34] propose a
theoretical foundation on OOP that uses OOP as a kind of customizable type system to support RDBMS.
• Alexander Stepanov suggested that OOP provides a mathematically-limited viewpoint and called it "almost as
much of a hoax as Artificial Intelligence. I have yet to see an interesting piece of code that comes from these OO
people. In a sense, I am unfair to AI: I learned a lot of stuff from the MIT AI Lab crowd, they have done some
really fundamental work....".[35]
• Paul Graham has suggested that the purpose of OOP is to act as a "herding mechanism" that keeps mediocre
programmers in mediocre organizations from "doing too much damage". This is at the expense of slowing down
productive programmers who know how to use more powerful and more compact techniques.[36]
• Joe Armstrong, the principal inventor of Erlang, is quoted as saying "The problem with object-oriented languages
is they've got all this implicit environment that they carry around with them. You wanted a banana but what you
got was a gorilla holding the banana and the entire jungle."[37]
• Richard Mansfield, author and former editor of COMPUTE! magazine, states that "like countless other
intellectual fads over the years ("relevance", communism, "modernism", and so on—history is littered with them),
OOP will be with us until eventually reality asserts itself. But considering how OOP currently pervades both
universities and workplaces, OOP may well prove to be a durable delusion. Entire generations of indoctrinated
programmers continue to march out of the academy, committed to OOP and nothing but OOP for the rest of their
lives."[38] He also is quoted as saying "OOP is to writing a program, what going through airport security is to
flying".[39]
• Rich Hickey, creator of Clojure, described object systems as over simplistic models of the real world. He
emphasized the inability of OOP to model time properly, which is getting increasingly problematic as software
systems become more concurrent.[40]
• Carnegie-Mellon University Professor Robert Harper in March 2011 wrote: "This semester Dan Licata and I are
co-teaching a new course on functional programming for first-year prospective CS majors... Object-oriented
programming is eliminated entirely from the introductory curriculum, because it is both anti-modular and
82
Object-oriented programming
anti-parallel by its very nature, and hence unsuitable for a modern CS curriculum. A proposed new course on
object-oriented design methodology will be offered at the sophomore level for those students who wish to study
this topic."[41]
References
[1] McCarthy, J.; Brayton, R.; Edwards, D.; Fox, P.; Hodes, L.; Luckham, D.; Maling, K.; Park, D. et al. (March 1960). LISP I Programmers
Manual (http:/ / history. siam. org/ sup/ Fox_1960_LISP. pdf). Boston, Massachusetts: Artificial Intelligence Group, M.I.T. Computation
Center and Research Laboratory. p. 88f. . "In the local M.I.T. patois, association lists [of atomic symbols] are also referred to as "property
lists", and atomic symbols are sometimes called "objects"."
[2] McCarthy, John; Abrahams, Paul W.; Edwards, Daniel J.; Hart, swapnil d.; Levin, Michael I. (1962). LISP 1.5 Programmer's Manual (http:/ /
community. computerhistory. org/ scc/ projects/ LISP/ book/ LISP 1. 5 Programmers Manual. pdf). MIT Press. p. 105. ISBN 0262130114. .
"Object - a synonym for atomic symbol"
[3] "Dr. Alan Kay on the Meaning of "Object-Oriented Programming"" (http:/ / userpage. fu-berlin. de/ ~ram/ pub/ pub_jf47ht81Ht/
doc_kay_oop_en). 2003. . Retrieved 2010-02-11.
[4] Sutherland, I. E. (30 January 1963). "Sketchpad: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System" (http:/ / handle. dtic. mil/ 100. 2/
AD404549) (PDF). Technical Report No. 296, Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology via Defense Technical Information
Center (stinet.dtic.mil). . Retrieved 2007-11-03.
[5] The Development of the Simula Languages, Kristen Nygaard, Ole-Johan Dahl, p.254 Uni-kl.ac.at (http:/ / cs-exhibitions. uni-klu. ac. at/
fileadmin/ template/ documents/ text/ The_development_of_the_simula_languages. pdf)
[6] Ross, Doug. "The first software engineering language" (http:/ / www. csail. mit. edu/ timeline/ timeline. php?query=event& id=19). LCS/AI
Lab Timeline:. MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. . Retrieved 13 May 2010.
[7] Holmevik, Jan Rune (1994). "Compiling Simula: A historical study of technological genesis" (http:/ / www. idi. ntnu. no/ grupper/ su/ publ/
simula/ holmevik-simula-ieeeannals94. pdf). IEEE Annals in the History of Computing 16 (4): 25–37. . Retrieved 12 May 2010.
[8] Hoare, C. A. (Nov 1965). "Record Handling". Algol Bulletin (21): 39–69. doi:10.1145/1061032.1061041
[9] Kay, Alan. "The Early History of Smalltalk" (http:/ / gagne. homedns. org/ ~tgagne/ contrib/ EarlyHistoryST. html). . Retrieved 2007-09-13.
[10] 1995 (June) Visual FoxPro 3.0, FoxPro evolves from a procedural language to an object-oriented language. Visual FoxPro 3.0 introduces a
database container, seamless client/server capabilities, support for ActiveX™ technologies, and OLE Automation and null support. Summary
of Fox releases (http:/ / www. foxprohistory. org/ foxprotimeline. htm#summary_of_fox_releases)
[11] FoxPro History web site: Foxprohistory.org (http:/ / www. foxprohistory. org/ tableofcontents. htm)
[12] 1995 Reviewers Guide to Visual FoxPro 3.0: DFpug.de (http:/ / www. dfpug. de/ loseblattsammlung/ migration/ whitepapers/ vfp_rg. htm)
[13] Armstrong, The Quarks of Object-Oriented Development. In descending order of popularity, the "quarks" are: Inheritance, Object, Class,
Encapsulation, Method, Message Passing, Polymorphism, Abstraction
[14] Pierce, Benjamin (2002). Types and Programming Languages. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-16209-1., section 18.1 "What is Object-Oriented
Programming?"
[15] John C. Mitchell, Concepts in programming languages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-78098-5, p.278
[16] Michael Lee Scott, Programming language pragmatics, Edition 2, Morgan Kaufmann, 2006, ISBN 0-12-633951-1, p. 470 vikas
[17] Poll, Erik. "Subtyping and Inheritance for Categorical Datatypes" (http:/ / www. cs. ru. nl/ E. Poll/ papers/ kyoto97. pdf). . Retrieved 5 June
2011.
[18] Abadi, Martin; Cardelli, Luca (1996). A Theory of Objects (http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=547964& dl=ACM& coll=portal).
Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.. ISBN 0387947752. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[19] http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=547964& dl=ACM& coll=portal
[20] "The Emerald Programming Language" (http:/ / www. emeraldprogramminglanguage. org/ ). . Retrieved 2011-02-26.
[21] Neward, Ted (2006-06-26). "The Vietnam of Computer Science" (http:/ / blogs. tedneward. com/ 2006/ 06/ 26/ The+ Vietnam+ Of+
Computer+ Science. aspx). Interoperability Happens. . Retrieved 2010-06-02.
[22] Meyer, Second Edition, p. 230
[23] M.Trofimov, OOOP - The Third "O" Solution: Open OOP. First Class, OMG, 1993, Vol. 3, issue 3, p.14.
[24] Yegge, Steve (2006-03-30). "Execution in the Kingdom of Nouns" (http:/ / steve-yegge. blogspot. com/ 2006/ 03/
execution-in-kingdom-of-nouns. html). steve-yegge.blogspot.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-03.
[25] Boronczyk, Timothy (2009-06-11). "What's Wrong with OOP" (http:/ / zaemis. blogspot. com/ 2009/ 06/ whats-wrong-with-oop. html).
zaemis.blogspot.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-03.
[26] Ambler, Scott (1998-01-01). "A Realistic Look at Object-Oriented Reuse" (http:/ / www. drdobbs. com/ 184415594). www.drdobbs.com. .
Retrieved 2010-07-04.
[27] Shelly, Asaf (2008-08-22). "Flaws of Object Oriented Modeling" (http:/ / software. intel. com/ en-us/ blogs/ 2008/ 08/ 22/
flaws-of-object-oriented-modeling/ ). Intel® Software Network. . Retrieved 2010-07-04.
[28] James, Justin (2007-10-01). "Multithreading is a verb not a noun" (http:/ / blogs. techrepublic. com. com/ programming-and-development/
?p=518). techrepublic.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-04.
83
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[29] Shelly, Asaf (2008-08-22). "HOW TO: Multicore Programming (Multiprocessing) Visual C++ Class Design Guidelines, Member
Functions" (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ ?scid=kb;en-us;558117). support.microsoft.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-04.
[30] Cardelli, Luca (1996). "Bad Engineering Properties of Object-Oriented Languages" (http:/ / lucacardelli. name/ Papers/ BadPropertiesOfOO.
html). ACM Comput. Surv. (ACM) 28: 150. doi:10.1145/242224.242415. ISSN 0360-0300. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[31] Stallman, Richard (1995-01-16). "Mode inheritance, cloning, hooks & OOP" (http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ comp. emacs. xemacs/
browse_thread/ thread/ d0af257a2837640c/ 37f251537fafbb03?lnk=st& q="Richard+ Stallman"+ oop& rnum=5& hl=en#37f251537fafbb03).
Google Groups Discussion. . Retrieved 2008-06-21.
[32] Potok, Thomas; Mladen Vouk, Andy Rindos (1999). "Productivity Analysis of Object-Oriented Software Developed in a Commercial
Environment" (http:/ / www. csm. ornl. gov/ ~v8q/ Homepage/ Papers Old/ spetep- printable. pdf). Software – Practice and Experience 29
(10): 833–847. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-024X(199908)29:10<833::AID-SPE258>3.0.CO;2-P. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[33] C. J. Date, Introduction to Database Systems, 6th-ed., Page 650
[34] C. J. Date, Hugh Darwen. Foundation for Future Database Systems: The Third Manifesto (2nd Edition)
[35] Stepanov, Alexander. "STLport: An Interview with A. Stepanov" (http:/ / www. stlport. org/ resources/ StepanovUSA. html). . Retrieved
2010-04-21.
[36] Graham, Paul. "Why ARC isn't especially Object–Oriented." (http:/ / www. paulgraham. com/ noop. html). PaulGraham.com. . Retrieved 13
November 2009.
[37] Armstrong, Joe. In Coders at Work: Reflections on the Craft of Programming. Peter Seibel, ed. Codersatwork.com (http:/ / www.
codersatwork. com/ ), Accessed 13 November 2009.
[38] Mansfield, Richard. "Has OOP Failed?" 2005. Available at 4JS.com (http:/ / www. 4js. com/ en/ fichiers/ b_genero/ pourquoi/
Has_OOP_Failed_Sept_2005. pdf), Accessed 13 November 2009.
[39] Mansfield, Richard. "OOP Is Much Better in Theory Than in Practice" 2005. Available at Devx.com (http:/ / www. devx. com/ DevX/
Article/ 26776) Accessed 7 January 2010.
[40] Rich Hickey, JVM Languages Summit 2009 keynote, Are We There Yet? (http:/ / www. infoq. com/ presentations/
Are-We-There-Yet-Rich-Hickey) November 2009.
[41] Teaching FP to Freshmen (http:/ / existentialtype. wordpress. com/ 2011/ 03/ 15/ teaching-fp-to-freshmen/ ), from Harper's blog about
teaching introductory computer science. (http:/ / existentialtype. wordpress. com/ 2011/ 03/ 15/ getting-started/ )
Further reading
• Schach, Stephen (2006). Object-Oriented and Classical Software Engineering, Seventh Edition. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-073-19126-4.
• Abadi, Martin; Luca Cardelli (1998). A Theory of Objects. Springer Verlag. ISBN 0-387-94775-2.
• Abelson, Harold; Gerald Jay Sussman, (1997). Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (http://
mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/). MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01153-0.
• Armstrong, Deborah J. (February 2006). "The Quarks of Object-Oriented Development" (http://portal.acm.org/
citation.cfm?id=1113040). Communications of the ACM 49 (2): 123–128. doi:10.1145/1113034.1113040.
ISSN 0001-0782. Retrieved 2006-08-08.
• Booch, Grady (1997). Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications. Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-8053-5340-2.
• Eeles, Peter; Oliver Sims (1998). Building Business Objects. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-19176-0.
• Gamma, Erich; Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, John Vlissides (1995). Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable
Object Oriented Software. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-63361-2.
• Harmon, Paul; William Morrissey (1996). The Object Technology Casebook - Lessons from Award-Winning
Business Applications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-14717-6.
• Jacobson, Ivar (1992). Object-Oriented Software Engineering: A Use Case-Driven Approach. Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-54435-0.
• Kay, Alan. The Early History of Smalltalk (http://gagne.homedns.org/~tgagne/contrib/EarlyHistoryST.html).
• Meyer, Bertrand (1997). Object-Oriented Software Construction. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-629155-4.
• Rumbaugh, James; Michael Blaha, William Premerlani, Frederick Eddy, William Lorensen (1991).
Object-Oriented Modeling and Design. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-629841-9.
• Taylor, David A. (1992). Object-Oriented Information Systems - Planning and Implementation. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 0-471-54364-0.
84
Object-oriented programming
• Schreiner, Axel-Tobias (1993). Object oriented programming with ANSI-C (http://hdl.handle.net/1850/8544).
Hanser. ISBN 3-446-17426-5.
External links
• Object-oriented programming (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Methodologies/
Object-Oriented/) at the Open Directory Project
• Chapter on implementing OOP in the programming language C (http://www.polberger.se/components/read/
demystifying-dynamic-dispatch-wikipedia.html) by David Polberger
• Programming Styles: Procedural, OOP, and AOP (http://www.dreamincode.net/forums/blog/191/
entry-1016-styles-of-programming-managing-your-code/)
• What is OOP? (Tutorial on OOP in PHP) (http://programmersnotes.info/2009/02/28/
what-is-oop-object-oriented-programming/)
• Discussion about the flaws of OOD (http://software.intel.com/en-us/blogs/2008/08/22/
flaws-of-object-oriented-modeling/)
• OOP Concepts (Java Tutorials) (http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/java/concepts/index.html)
• MDS Model Driven C Code Generation (http://www.mytinybreak.com/)
Object language
An object language is a language which is the "object" of study in various fields including logic, linguistics,
mathematics and theoretical computer science. The language being used to talk about an object language is called a
metalanguage. An object language may be a formal or natural language.
Types of object language
Formal languages
Mathematical logic and linguistics make use of metalanguages, which are languages for describing the nature of
other languages. In mathematical logic, the object language is usually a formal language. The language which a
metalanguage is used to describe is the object language. It is called that because that language is the object under
discussion using the metalanguage.
For instance, someone who says "In French, you say Bonjour to greet someone" uses English as a metalanguage to
describe the object language French.
Computer languages
There are two ways the term object language can be used in computing: a language which is the object of formal
specification, and a language which is the object (goal) of a compiler or interpreter.
Formal specification
Computer languages are object languages of the metalanguage in which their specification is written. In computer
science this is referred to as the specification language. Backus-Naur Form was one of the earliest used specification
languages.
When compilers are written using systems like lex and yacc, the rules the programmer writes look much like a
formal specification, but it is considered an implementation instead. Many programming language implementations
are not strictly the same as their specifications, adding features or making implementation-dependent design
decisions.
85
Object language
86
Object Code
At their basic level, computers act on what is given to them through a limited set of instructions which are
understood by their CPUs. In the earliest computers, that meant programmers sometimes typed 1's and 0's to
program. Since this requires considerable programmer training (and patience) to create instructions, later computer
languages have gone to great lengths to simplify the programmer's task. (For example, now it's common for people
with little training to drag-and-drop icons to create a Web page; all the steps to create the actual instructions which
are run by computers are automatically performed, and not visible.)
One common practice for decades is to allow a programmer to use source language (whose use may still require
extensive training), and have that language translated into object code which the computer can immediately use. The
compiling of one into the other varies depending on what CPU is being given the instructions.
Object language in this context means something akin to "the object of what the programmer is trying to achieve". If
the source language and object languages are viewed as formal (logical) languages, what the compiler does is
interpret the source into the target language (this is different from the computer science use of interpreted language
meaning one which is not compiled). Object language should also not be confused with object-oriented language,
which is a type of computer programming language which changes the programmer's environment into convenient
objects which can be used in something similar to a drag-and-drop fashion.
Object language in this context is synonymous with target language. The object language of a translation most often
is a machine language, but can be some other kind of language, such as assembly language.
Because the object language of compilation has usually been machine language, the term object file has come to
mean a file containing machine instructions, and sometimes the translated program itself is simply called an object.
Expressions in an object language
Symbols
A symbol is an idea, abstraction or concept, tokens of which may be marks or a configuration of marks which form a
particular pattern. Although the term "symbol" in common use refers at some times to the idea being symbolized,
and at other times to the marks on a piece of paper or chalkboard which are being used to express that idea; in the
formal languages studied in mathematics and logic, the term "symbol" refers to the idea, and the marks are
considered to be a token instance of the symbol.
Formulas
In the formal languages used in mathematical logic and computer science, a well-formed formula or simply formula
is an idea, abstraction or concept which is expressed using the symbols and formation rules (also called the formal
grammar) of a particular formal language. To say that a string of symbols
grammar
is equivalent to saying that
is a wff with respect to a given formal
belongs to the language generated by
.
Formal systems
A formal system is a formal language together with a deductive system which consists of a set of inference rules
and/or axioms. A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions previously
expressed in the system. These expressions are called axioms, in the case of those previously supposed to be true, or
theorems, in the case of those derived. A formal system may be formulated and studied for its intrinsic properties, or
it may be intended as a description (i.e. a model) of external phenomena.
Object language
Theorems
A theorem is a symbol or string of symbols which is derived by using a formal system. The string of symbols is a
logical consequence of the axioms and rules of the system.
Formal proofs
A formal proof or derivation is a finite sequence of propositions (called well-formed formulas in the case of a formal
language) each of which is an axiom or follows from the preceding sentences in the sequence by a rule of inference.
The last sentence in the sequence is a theorem of a formal system. The concept of natural deduction is a
generalization of the concept of proof.[1]
Theories
A theory is a set of sentences in a formal language.
References
[1] The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, deduction
87
Seinfeld
88
Seinfeld
Seinfeld
Genre
Sitcom
Created by
Larry David
Jerry Seinfeld
Written by
Larry David
Jerry Seinfeld
Directed by
Art Wolff
Tom Cherones
Andy Ackerman
David Steinberg
Starring
Jerry Seinfeld
Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Michael Richards
Jason Alexander
Country of origin
United States
Language(s)
English
No. of seasons
9
No. of episodes
180 (List of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Larry David (Seasons 1–7)
Howard West
George Shapiro
Andrew Scheinman
(Seasons 2–4)
Jerry Seinfeld (Seasons 8–9)
Alec Berg (Season 9)
Jeff Schaffer (Season 9)
Camera setup
Multi-camera
Running time
22 minutes
Production company(s) Castle Rock Entertainment
Distributor
Columbia Pictures Television
(1989–1998)
Columbia TriStar Television (1999–2002)
Sony Pictures Television (2002–present)
Broadcast
Original channel
NBC
Picture format
4:3 SDTV
16:9 HDTV (details)
Original run
July 5, 1989 – May 14, 1998
Seinfeld
89
Status
Ended
Chronology
Related shows
Curb Your Enthusiasm
External links
Website
[1]
Seinfeld is an American television sitcom that originally aired on NBC from July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, lasting
nine seasons, and is now in syndication. It was created by Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld, the latter starring as a
fictionalized version of himself. Set predominantly in an apartment block on Manhattan's Upper West Side (but shot
mainly in Los Angeles), the show features a host of Jerry's friends and acquaintances, in particular best friend
George Costanza, former girlfriend Elaine Benes and next door neighbor, Cosmo Kramer.
Seinfeld was produced by Castle Rock Entertainment and distributed in association with Columbia Pictures
Television and Columbia TriStar Television; Sony Pictures Television has distributed the series since 2002. It was
largely co-written by David and Seinfeld with input from numerous script writers, including Larry Charles, Peter
Mehlman, Gregg Kavet, Andy Robin, Carol Leifer, David Mandel, Jeff Schaffer, Steve Koren, Jennifer Crittenden,
Tom Gammill, Max Pross, Charlie Rubin, Marjorie Gross, Alec Berg, Elaine Pope, and Spike Feresten.
A critical favorite, commercial blockbuster and cultural phenomenon, the show led the Nielsen ratings in its sixth
and ninth seasons and finished among the top two (along with NBC's ER) every year from 1994 to 1998. In 2002, TV
Guide named Seinfeld the greatest television program of all time.[2]
Overview
Seinfeld stood out from the many family and group sitcoms of its time. None of the principal Seinfeld characters
were related by family or work connections but remained distinctively close friends throughout the seasons. The
episodes of most sitcoms like Family Ties, Who's the Boss? and Full House revolve around a central theme or
contrived comic situations, whereas many episodes of Seinfeld focused on minutiae, such as waiting in line at the
movies, going out for dinner, buying a suit and dealing with the petty injustices of life. The view presented in
Seinfeld is arguably consistent with the philosophy of nihilism, the idea that life is meaningless.[3]
The main characters and many recurring characters were based on
Seinfeld's and David's real-life acquaintances. Two prominent
recurring characters were based on well-known people: Jacopo
Peterman of the J. Peterman catalog (based on John Peterman), and
George Steinbrenner, the owner of the New York Yankees.
With every Seinfeld episode, the structure is mainly the way the
principal characters' storyline is set. A story thread is presented at the
beginning of each episode, which involves the characters in separate
Tom's Restaurant, a diner at 112th Street and
and seemingly unrelated situations. Rapid scene-shifts between
Broadway, in Manhattan, was used as the exterior
storylines bring the stories together toward the end of the episode.
image of Monk's Cafe in the show.
Despite the separate plot strands, the narratives reveal the creators'
"consistent efforts to maintain the intimacy" amongst the small cast of characters.[4]
The show kept a strong sense of continuity—characters and plots from past episodes were frequently referenced or
expanded upon. Occasionally, story arcs spanned multiple episodes and even entire seasons. For example, Jerry's
girlfriend appears in "The Stake Out" and he ends the relationship when things do not work out in "The Stock Tip".
Other examples were Kramer getting his jacket back and Elaine heading the "Peterman catalog". Larry David, the
show's head writer and executive producer for the first seven seasons, was praised for keeping a close eye on minor
Seinfeld
details and making sure the main characters' lives remained consistent and believable. Curb Your
Enthusiasm—David's later comedy series—further expanded on this idea by following a specific theme for all but
one season in the series.
The most important difference between Seinfeld and other sitcoms prior to this is that the principal characters never
learned their moral lessons throughout the seasons. In effect, they were indifferent to the outside world and could be
callous towards their guest characters and relatives, indeed sometimes towards each other; a mantra of the show's
producers was: "No hugging, no learning."[5] This leads to very few happy endings, except when they come at
someone else's expense. More often in every episode, situations resolved with characters getting a justly deserved
"comeuppance".
Main characters
• Jerry Seinfeld (Jerry Seinfeld) – Jerry is a "minor celebrity" stand-up comedian who is often portrayed as "the
voice of reason" amidst all the insanity generated by the people in his world. The character is a slight germophobe
and a neat freak, as well as an avid Superman and breakfast cereal fan. Jerry's apartment is the center of a world
visited by his eccentric friends George, Elaine, and Kramer.[6] Plot lines often involve Jerry's romantic
relationships. He typically finds small, silly reasons to stop dating women; some of the reasons for the breakups
include his dislike for a woman because she eats her peas one at a time, a woman having over-sized "man hands"
and a woman having an annoying laugh.
• George Costanza (Jason Alexander) – George is Jerry's best friend. He is cheap, dishonest, petty and often
envious of others' achievements. He is often portrayed as a loser who is insecure about his capabilities. He
frequently complains and lies about his profession, relationships, and almost everything else, which usually
creates trouble for him later. He often uses an alias ("Art Vandelay") when lying or concocting a cover story.
George was once succinctly described by Elaine as a "short, stocky, slow-witted, bald man." Despite these
shortcomings, George manages to date numerous women and achieves a successful career as Assistant to the
Traveling Secretary for the New York Yankees. During the run of the show, he and Jerry work with NBC to
produce a pilot episode of a TV show called Jerry. During this time, he meets Susan Ross who works for NBC.
George has an on-and-off relationship with her. She dies after licking toxic envelopes for their wedding
invitations. He often pretends to be an architect and once pretended to be a marine biologist to impress a woman.
• Elaine Benes (Julia Louis-Dreyfus) – Elaine is Jerry's ex-girlfriend. She is intelligent and assertive, but
superficial. She sometimes has a tendency to be very honest with people, which often gets her into trouble.[7] She
usually gets caught up in her boyfriends' habits, her eccentric employers' unusual demands, and the unkindness of
total strangers. A recurring theme for Elaine is her frustrating inability to find Mr. Right. She regularly has
arguments with almost anyone throughout the series. One of Elaine's trademark moves is her forceful shove while
screaming "Get out!" when she receives good or shocking news. Another is her memorable "Little Kicks" dance
moves.
• Cosmo Kramer (Michael Richards) – Kramer is Jerry's "wacky neighbor". His trademarks include his humorous
upright pompadour hairstyle, vintage clothing and energetic sliding bursts through Jerry's apartment door. At
times, he appears naive, dense, and almost childlike yet he randomly shows astonishing insight into human
behavior. Indeed, his oddities aside, Kramer is often the only main character acting with any sort of apparent
conscience, and is typically the only one to lobby for maintaining social decorum in order to appease
acquaintances. Although he never holds a steady job, he often invents wacky schemes which usually work at first
but then eventually fail. Among these are coffee table books about coffee tables (for which he appeared on Live
with Regis and Kathie Lee), an entrepreneurial venture called Kramerica in which he and an intern proposed
lining an oil tanker with a large rubber bladder, and a brassiere for men called the Bro (or Manssiere suggested by
Frank Costanza).[8]
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Seinfeld
Recurring characters
There are numerous recurring characters in Seinfeld. The most prominent are:
• Newman (portrayed by Wayne Knight) – With his first name never mentioned throughout the series run,
Newman is mainly considered to be Jerry's nemesis. Newman is an overweight and despicable postal carrier,
though curiously well-educated and articulate, who lives in Jerry and Kramer's building. At times, he goes out of
his way to make Jerry's life miserable; he also frequently barges into Jerry's apartment uninvited, usually with
Kramer. Aside from the main four, he is the most frequently recurring character; first appearing off-screen
(voiced by Larry David and later by Knight for syndication purposes) in "The Revenge", he marked his first
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
on-screen appearance in "The Suicide" and carried on until the series' finale
Morty Seinfeld (originally portrayed by Phil Bruns, replaced by Barney Martin) and Helen Seinfeld (portrayed
by Liz Sheridan) – Jerry's parents, who live in Florida. Morty is a retired raincoat salesman, the inventor of a
beltless trenchcoat and famous for obstinately sticking to his convictions; Helen cannot understand why anyone
would not like her son. They always feel that Jerry is not making enough money, frequently belittle his comedy
career, and try to help him out financially by sending him "fifty dollars". These two characters are based on Jerry
Seinfeld's real-life parents.
Frank Costanza (originally portrayed by John Randolph, replaced by Jerry Stiller) and Estelle Costanza
(portrayed by Estelle Harris) – George's eccentric parents, who live in Queens. George usually blames them for
his current mental state and failure to succeed in life. They are known for their violent tempers, often leading to
yelling and constant verbal fights. They make many appearances in seasons 4–9. John Randolph's scenes as Frank
Costanza in the episode "The Handicap Spot" were reshot for syndication with Jerry Stiller in the role.
Uncle Leo (portrayed by Len Lesser) – Jerry's eccentric uncle. He keeps mentioning his son, Jeffrey, who works
in the NYC Parks Department. He is often seen saying "Hello" in his trademark style whenever he sees Jerry. He
appears in several episodes from season 2 to 9.
Susan Ross (played by Heidi Swedberg) – George's fiancée and a former NBC executive. She first appeared in
season 4 as an NBC executive overseeing Jerry and George's pilot. She and George dated for a while until she
broke up with him because he got her fired. She returned in season 7 when she and George get engaged. In the
last episode of this season, she dies as a result of licking toxic envelopes while making invitations to her and
George's wedding. She is the most frequent recurring female character in seasons 4 and 7 and has a brief
appearance again in a flashback sequence in the season 9 episode titled "The Betrayal".
George Steinbrenner (voiced by Larry David, portrayed by Lee Bear, who is only seen from behind, or in
silhouette) – George's boss and owner of the New York Yankees. Steinbrenner's face is never shown on the show.
He is parodied for his arrogance and lack of touch with the realities of running of a baseball team. A recurring gag
is for him to call George into his office, then proceed to ramble on about inane topics as George slowly walks out
the door. He frequently appears from the finale of season 5 to season 9. The real Steinbrenner made an
appearance in an episode, "The Invitations", but the scene was edited out when it was aired on television.
Jacopo Peterman (played by John O'Hurley) – one of Elaine's eccentric bosses. Peterman owns The J. Peterman
Company and Elaine works on the catalog published by the company. Using the florid style of a treasure-hunting
adventurer, he typically announces his journeys to exotic locations in search of unique clothing. In the beginning
of Season 8, he walks out on the company and escapes to Burma, appointing Elaine as the president of the
company. He eventually returns later in the same season. He makes frequent appearances from the finale of
season 6 through season 9.
Kenny Bania (played by Steven Hytner) – Jerry's fellow stand-up comedian. Jerry considers Bania a "hack" and
is usually annoyed by his attempts at humor. Bania is also shown to have a rather obsessive fondness for soup and
Ovaltine, which he likes to frequently include in his stand-up routine. He appears in six episodes from seasons 6
to 9.
• David Puddy (played by Patrick Warburton) – Elaine's on-again, off-again boyfriend. He is a competent auto
mechanic, but also an airhead with numerous quirks, most notably his squinting, staring, and insatiable appetite
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Seinfeld
for high fives. He is known for his curt, unapologetic delivery and unflinching assuredness. His trademark catch
phrase is "Yeah, that's right." He appears in two episodes near the end of season 6 and in eight episodes of season
9.
• Jackie Chiles (played by Phil Morris) – Kramer's lawyer. He has a secretary named Suzy and sets up
appointments for his clients with an unseen "Dr. Bison". He also speaks with a rapid-fire delivery and tends to
overuse adjectives like "preposterous" and "outrageous". Chiles is a caricature of Johnnie Cochran. He appears in
five episodes between seasons 7 to 9.
Notable guest appearances
In addition to its regularly recurring characters, Seinfeld featured numerous celebrities who appeared as themselves
or as girlfriends, boyfriends, bosses and other acquaintances. Many of those who made guest appearances became
household names later in their careers, or were comedians and actors already well known for previous work.
Characteristics
Theme
Seinfeld broke several conventions of mainstream television. The show, often described as being about "nothing",[9]
[10] [11]
became the first television series since Monty Python's Flying Circus to be widely described as
postmodern.[12] Several elements of Seinfeld fit in with a postmodern interpretation. The show is typically driven by
humor interspersed with superficial conflict and characters with strange dispositions. Many episodes revolved
around the characters becoming involved in the lives of others to typically disastrous results. On the set, the notion
that the characters should not develop or improve throughout the series was expressed as the "no hugging, no
learning" rule. Unlike most sitcoms, there are no moments of pathos; the audience is never made to feel sorry for any
of the characters. Even Susan's death in the series elicits no genuine emotions from anyone in the show.
The characters were "thirty-something singles with no roots, vague identities, and conscious indifference to
morals."[13] Usual conventions, such as isolating the characters from the actors playing them and separating the
characters' world from that of the actors and audience, were broken. One such example is the story arc in which the
characters promote a television sitcom series named Jerry. The show within the show, Jerry, was much like Seinfeld
in that it was "about nothing" and Seinfeld played himself. Jerry was launched in the Season 4 finale but unlike
Seinfeld it was not picked up as a series.
Plotlines
Many Seinfeld episodes are based on its writers' real-life experiences. For example, "The Revenge" is based on Larry
David's experience at Saturday Night Live.[14] "The Contest" and "The Phone Message" are also based on David's
experiences.[15] "The Smelly Car" is based on Peter Mehlman's lawyer friend, who could not get a bad smell out of
his car. "The Strike" is based on Dan O'Keefe's dad, who made up his own holiday—Festivus.[16] Other stories take
on a variety of different turns. "The Chinese Restaurant" consists of the main characters (excluding Kramer) simply
waiting for a table throughout the entire episode. "The Boyfriend", revolving around Keith Hernandez, extends
through two episodes.[17] "The Betrayal" is famous for using reverse chronology, and was inspired by a similar plot
device in a Harold Pinter play.[18] Some stories were inspired by headlines and rumors, which are explained in the
DVD features "Notes About Nothing," "Inside Look," and "Audio Commentary." In "The Maestro", Kramer's
lawsuit is roughly similar to the McDonald's coffee case.[19] "The Outing" is based mainly on rumors that Larry
Charles heard about Jerry Seinfeld's sexuality.[20]
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Seinfeld
Catchphrases
Many terms coined, popularized, or repopularized during the series' run have become part of popular culture.[21] [22]
Notable catchphrases include "Yada, yada, yada", "shrinkage", "hellooooo", "These pretzels are making me thirsty",
"master of your domain", "Anti-dentite", "Double dip", "No soup for you!" and "Not that there's anything wrong
with that".
Other popular terms that also made the transition into slang were created by, directed at or about secondary
characters, including: "Festivus", "spongeworthy", "re-gifter", "man hands", "close-talker", "mimbo", "low-talker"
and "high-talker".
As a body, the lexicon of Seinfeldian code words and recurring phrases that evolved around particular episodes is
referred to as Seinlanguage, the title of Jerry Seinfeld's best-selling book on humor.[12]
Progression
Seasons 1–3
The show premiered as The Seinfeld Chronicles on July 5, 1989. After it aired, a pickup by NBC did not seem likely
and the show was actually offered to Fox, which declined to pick it up. However, Rick Ludwin, head of late night
and special events for NBC, diverted money from his budget, and the next four episodes were filmed.[23] These
episodes were highly rated as they followed Cheers on Thursdays at 9:30 p.m., and the series was finally picked up.
At one point, NBC considered airing these episodes on Saturdays at 10:30PM, but instead gave that slot to a
short-lived sitcom, FM. The series was renamed Seinfeld after the failure of short-lived 1990 ABC series The
Marshall Chronicles.[24] For the first three seasons, Jerry's stand-up comedy act would bookend an episode, for a
while even functioning as cut scenes during the show. After airing in the summer of 1990, the series' second season
was bumped off its scheduled premiere of January 16, 1991 due to the start of the Persian Gulf war. It settled in a
regular time slot on Wednesdays at 9:30PM and eventually flipped with veteran series Night Court to 9:00PM.[25]
Seinfeld was championed by television critics in its early seasons, even as it was yet to cultivate a substantial
audience. Early episodes such as "The Chinese Restaurant", "The Pony Remark", "The Parking Garage", and "The
Subway", tended to be more realistic than the later ones, and dealt with the minutiae of daily life, such as getting
stuck on the subway or waiting to be seated at a Chinese restaurant. An episode in Season 2, titled "The Bet" written
by Larry Charles, showed Elaine buying a gun from Kramer's friend. This episode was, however, not filmed because
the content was deemed unacceptable and was hastily replaced by the episode "The Phone Message".[26] An episode
"The Stranded" which was aired in Season 3 was originally intended to air in Season 2. In the beginning of this
episode, Jerry clears up the continuity error over George's real estate job.[27]
Seasons 4–5
Season 4 marked the sitcom's entry into the Nielsen ratings Top 30, coinciding with several popular episodes, such
as "The Bubble Boy", "The Outing", "The Airport", and "The Junior Mint". This was the first season to use a story
arc, in which Jerry and George try to create their own sitcom, Jerry. Also at this time, Jerry's stand-up act slowly
declined with the middle stand-up segment no longer part of the episodes that preceded it.
Much publicity followed the controversial episode, "The Contest", an Emmy Award-winning episode written by
co-creator Larry David, whose subject matter was considered inappropriate for primetime network television. To
circumvent this taboo, the word "masturbation" was never used in the script itself, instead substituted by a variety of
oblique references. Midway through that season, Seinfeld was moved from its original 9:00 P.M. time slot on
Wednesdays to 9:30 P.M. on Thursdays, following Cheers again, which gave the show even more popularity. The
move was also sparked by ratings, as Tim Allen's megahit sitcom Home Improvement on ABC had aired at the same
time and Improvement kept beating Seinfeld in the ratings. NBC moved the series after Ted Danson had announced
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Seinfeld
the end of Cheers and Seinfeld quickly surpassed the ratings of the 9:00 P.M. Cheers reruns that spring.[28] The show
won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993, beating out its family-oriented and time-slot
competitor Home Improvement, which was only in its second season on fellow network ABC.
Season 5 was an even bigger ratings-hit, as it consisted of many popular episodes such as "The Mango", "The Puffy
Shirt", "The Lip Reader" with Marlee Matlin in the title role, "The Marine Biologist", "The Hamptons", and "The
Opposite". Another story arc has George returning to live with his parents. In the midst of the story arc, Kramer
creates and promotes his coffee table book. The show was again nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series, but lost
to the Cheers spin-off Frasier, which was only in its first season. Seinfeld was nominated for the same award every
year for the rest of its run but always lost to Frasier, which went on to win a record 39 Emmy Awards.
Seasons 6–7
With Season 6, Andy Ackerman replaced Tom Cherones as the director of the show. The series remained
well-regarded and produced some of its most famous episodes, such as "The Fusilli Jerry", "The Chinese Woman",
"The Jimmy", "The Face Painter", and "The Switch", when Kramer's mother revealed that his first name is Cosmo.
Story arcs used in this season were Elaine working as a personal assistant to her eccentric boss Justin Pitt as well as
George's parents' temporary separation. This was also the first season in which Seinfeld reached Number 1 in the
Nielsen Ratings. Jerry's stand-up act further declined with the end stand-up segment no longer in use as the storylines
for all four characters got more dense.
In Season 7, a story arc involved George getting engaged to his former girlfriend, Susan Ross, whose last appearance
was in Season 4. He spends most of the season regretting the engagement and trying to get out of it. Garnering its
highest ratings yet, Seinfeld went on to produce some of its most famous episodes—namely "The Soup Nazi", "The
Secret Code", "The Maestro", and "The Rye" among others.
Following the anthrax scare of 2001, the episode, "The Invitations" was temporarily not shown in syndication due to
the concern that it might seem objectionable and insensitive to portray Susan's death due to licking toxic
envelopes.[29]
Seasons 8–9
The show's ratings were still going very strong in its final two seasons (8 and 9), but its critical standing suffered.[30]
Larry David left at the end of Season 7 (although he would continue to voice Steinbrenner), so Seinfeld assumed
David's duties as showrunner, and, under the direction of a new writing staff, Seinfeld became more of a fast-paced
show. The show no longer contained extracts of Jerry performing stand-up comedy, and storylines occasionally
delved into fantasy, slapstick humor. An example being "The Bizarro Jerry", when Elaine is torn between exact
opposites of her friends or when Jerry dates a woman who has the now-famed "man hands." Some notable episodes
from season 8 include "The Little Kicks" showing Elaine's horrible dancing, "The Yada Yada", "The Chicken
Roaster", and "The Comeback". A story arc in this season involves Peterman's trip to Burma and Elaine writing
Peterman's biography which leads to Kramer's parody of Kenny Kramer's Reality Tour seen in "The Muffin Tops".
Season 9 included episodes such as "The Merv Griffin Show", "The Butter Shave", "The Betrayal" (scenes shown in
reverse order chronologically), and "The Frogger" where George pushes a Frogger machine across the street. The
last season included a story arc in which Elaine has an on/off relationship with David Puddy. Despite the enormous
popularity and willingness from the rest of the cast to return for a tenth season, Seinfeld decided he should end the
show after its ninth season in an effort to maintain quality and "go out on top".
A major controversy caused in this final season was the accidental burning of a Puerto Rican flag by Kramer in "The
Puerto Rican Day". This scene caused a furor amongst Puerto Ricans, and as a result, NBC showed this episode only
once.[31]
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Seinfeld
Series finale
After nine years on the air, NBC and Jerry Seinfeld announced on December 25, 1997, that the series would end
production the following spring in 1998. The announcement made the front page of all the major New York
newspapers, including the New York Times. Jerry Seinfeld was even featured on the cover of Time magazine's first
issue of 1998.[32]
The series ended with a 75-minute episode (cut down to 60 minutes in syndication, in two parts) written by
co-creator and former executive producer Larry David, which aired on May 14, 1998. Before the finale, a 45-minute
retrospective clip show, "The Chronicle", was aired. The retrospective was expanded to sixty minutes after its
original airing and aired once more on NBC as an hour-long episode, which has since aired in syndication.
It was also the first episode since the finale of Season 7, "The Invitations", to feature opening and closing stand-up
comedy acts by Jerry Seinfeld. The finale was filmed in front of an audience of NBC executives and additional
friends of the show. The press and the public were shut out of the shoot for the sake of keeping its plot secret, and all
those who attended the shoot of the final episode signed written "vows of silence."[33] The secrecy only seemed to
increase speculation on how the series would end. The producers of the show tweaked the media about the hype,
spreading a false rumor about Newman ending up in the hospital and Jerry and Elaine sitting in a chapel, presumably
to marry.[34]
The episode enjoyed a huge audience, estimated at 76 million viewers (58 percent of all viewers that night) making it
the third most watched finale in television history, behind M*A*S*H and Cheers. However, the finale received
mixed reviews from both critics and fans of the show. The actual finale poked fun at the many rumors that were
circulating, seeming to move into several supposed plots before settling on its true storyline—a lengthy trial in which
Jerry, George, Elaine and Kramer are prosecuted for violating a "Good Samaritan law" and are sentenced to jail. The
last conversation in this final episode repeats the very first conversation from the pilot episode, discussing the
positioning of a button on George's shirt. In the finale, the characters vaguely recall having the conversation before.
According to Forbes magazine, Jerry Seinfeld's annual earning from the show in 2004 was $267 million.[35] He was
reportedly offered $5 million per episode to continue the show into a tenth season but he refused.[36] As of July
2007, he is still the second highest earner in the television industry, earning $60 million a year.[37] The show itself
became the first television series to command more than $1 million a minute for advertising–a mark previously
attained only by the Super Bowl.[38] According to Barry Meyer, chairman of Warner Bros. Entertainment, Seinfeld
has made $2.7 billion through June 2010.[39]
Awards and nominations
Seinfeld has received awards and nominations in various categories throughout the mid-90s. Several magazines and
publications have listed it as the greatest television series of all time.[40] [41] [42] It was awarded the Emmy for
"Outstanding Comedy Series" in 1993, Golden Globe Award for "Best TV-Series (Comedy)" in 1994 and Screen
Actors Guild Award for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series" in 1995, 1997 and 1998.[43]
[44] [45] [46]
Apart from these, the show was also nominated for an Emmy award from 1992 to 1998 for "Outstanding
Comedy series," Golden Globe award from 1994 to 1998 for "Best TV-Series (Comedy)," and Screen Actors Guild
Award for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series" from 1995 to 1998.[47]
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Seinfeld
96
Ratings history
Season
Season finale
TV season Season Viewers
rank (in millions)
June 21, 1990
1989–1990
n/a
June 26, 1991
1990–1991
n/a
1991–1992
#42
May 20, 1993
1992–1993
#25
12.75
September 16, 1993 May 19, 1994
1993–1994
#3
18.27
6
September 22, 1994 May 18, 1995
1994–1995
#1
19.65
7
September 21, 1995 May 16, 1996
1995–1996
#2
20.33
8
September 19, 1996 May 15, 1997
1996–1997
#2
19.89
9
September 25, 1997 May 14, 1998
1997–1998
#1
21.27
1
Timeslot
Season premiere
Wednesday 9:00 PM July 5, 1989
2
January 23, 1991
3
September 18, 1991 May 6, 1992
4
5
Wednesday 9:00 PM August 12, 1992
Thursday 9:30 PM
Thursday 9:00 PM
12.31
[48]
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
After Seinfeld
The Seinfeld curse
Louis-Dreyfus, Alexander and Richards have each attempted to launch new sitcoms as title-role characters. Despite
decent acclaim and even some respectable ratings, almost every show was canceled quickly, usually within the first
season. This gave rise to the term Seinfeld curse: the failure of a sitcom starring one of the three, despite the
conventional wisdom that each person's Seinfeld popularity should almost guarantee a strong, built-in audience for
the actor's new show. Shows specifically cited regarding the Seinfeld curse are Julia Louis-Dreyfus' Watching Ellie,
Jason Alexander's Bob Patterson and Listen Up!, and Michael Richards' The Michael Richards Show. Larry David
once said of the curse, "It's so completely idiotic... It's very hard to have a successful sitcom."[54]
This phenomenon was mentioned throughout the second season of Larry David's HBO program Curb Your
Enthusiasm. However, the Emmy award-winning success of Julia Louis-Dreyfus in the CBS sitcom The New
Adventures of Old Christine led many to believe that she had broken the curse.[55] In her acceptance speech,
Louis-Dreyfus held up her award and exclaimed, "I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this,
baby!"[56] The show was on the air for five seasons before its cancellation on May 18, 2010.[57] The Saturday Night
Live episode guest-hosted by Louis-Dreyfus on May 13, 2006 made several references to the curse.
Another scene
On the November 1, 2007, episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Jerry Seinfeld mentioned the possibility of
shooting one last scene, after they leave prison. He mentioned he is far too busy to do it now, but did not announce
what the scene would entail as it is still a possibility they will do it.[58] In commentary from the final season DVD,
Jerry Seinfeld outlines that he and Jason Alexander spoke about this scene being in Monk's Cafe, with George saying
“That was brutal” in reference to the four's stint in jail.[59]
Seinfeld
Curb Your Enthusiasm 2009 Reunion
Early in March 2009, it was announced that the Seinfeld cast would reunite for the seventh season of Curb Your
Enthusiasm.[60] The entire cast first appeared in the third episode of the season, all playing themselves. The
season-long story is that Larry David tries to initiate a Seinfeld reunion show as a ploy to get his ex-wife, Cheryl,
back. Along with the four main characters, some of Seinfeld's supporting actors such as Wayne Knight, Estelle
Harris and Steve Hytner also appeared in the ninth episode at a table read for the reunion show. Though much of the
dialogue in Curb Your Enthusiasm is improvised, the plot was scripted, and the Seinfeld special that aired within the
show was scripted and directed by Seinfeld regular Andy Ackerman, making this the first time since Seinfeld went
off the air that the central cast appeared together in a scripted show.
Consumer products
A recurring feature of Seinfeld was its use of specific products, especially candy, as plot points. These might be a
central feature of a plot (e.g. Junior Mints, Twix, Jujyfruits, Snickers, Nestlé Chunky, Oh Henry! and Pez), or an
association of a candy with a guest character (e.g. Oh Henry! bars), or simply a conversational aside (e.g. Chuckles,
Clark Bar, Twinkies).
Non-candy products featured in Seinfeld include Rold Gold pretzels (whose advertisements at the time featured
Jason Alexander), Kenny Rogers Roasters (a chicken restaurant chain), Oreo Cookies, Ben & Jerry's, H&H Bagels,
Baskin Robbins, Dockers, bite size Three Musketeers, Drake's Coffee Cakes, Ring Dings, Pepsi, Mello Yello,
Snapple, Clearly Canadian, Bosco Chocolate Syrup, Cadillac, Saab, Ford Escort, Tyler Chicken (a parody of Tyson
Chicken), Specialized Bicycles, Nike, BMW, Volvo, Toyota, Tupperware, Calvin Klein, Klein Bicycles, Ovaltine,
Yoo-hoo, Arby's, TV Guide, Trump Tower, Glide Floss, Gore-Tex, Entenmann's, J. Peterman clothing catalog, and
the board games Risk, Boggle, Trivial Pursuit, Scrabble, and Battleship.
The computers shown in Jerry's apartment are Apple Macintosh and several different models were shown, although
Jerry is only seen using his computer once during the entire show. Also seen throughout the show's run were many
different brands of cereal, e.g. Cheerios. A notable exception to this pattern is the use of a fictional scotch brand
called "Hennigan's" (a portmanteau of "Hennessy" and "Brannigans"). One product placement, for Snapple, was
inserted as a parody of product placement; when offered some by Elaine in the middle of a conversation, the
character Babu Bhatt's (owner of a Pakistani restaurant named as "Dream Cafe") brother declines, calling the drink
"too fruity."
The show's creators claim that they were not engaging in a product placement strategy for commercial gain. One of
the motivations for the use of real-world products, quite unrelated to commercial considerations, is the comedy value
of funny-sounding phrases and words. "I knew I wanted Kramer to think of watching the operation like going to see
a movie," explained Seinfeld writer/producer Andy Robin in an interview published in the Hollywood Reporter. "At
first, I thought maybe a piece of popcorn falls into the patient. I ran that by my brother, and he said, 'No, Junior
Mints are just funnier.'"[61]
Many advertisers capitalized on the popularity of Seinfeld. American Express created a webisode in which Jerry
Seinfeld and an animated Superman (voiced by Patrick Warburton, who played the role of David Puddy) starred in
its commercial. The makers of the Today Sponge created the "Spongeworthy" game, on their website, inspired by the
episode "The Sponge". Another advertisement featured Jason Alexander in a Chrysler commercial. In this,
Alexander behaves much like his character George, and his relationship with Lee Iacocca plays on his George's
relationship with Steinbrenner. Similarly, Michael Richards was the focus of a series of advertisements for Vodafone
which ran in Australia where he dressed and behaved exactly like Kramer, including the trademark bumbling
pratfalls.
97
Seinfeld
Seinfeld in HD
There are two high-definition versions of Seinfeld. The first is that of the network television (unsyndicated) versions
in the original aspect ratio of 4:3 that were downscaled for the DVD releases.[62] Syndicated broadcast stations and
the cable network TBS have begun airing the syndicated version of Seinfeld in HD. Unlike the version used for the
DVD, Sony Pictures cropped out the top and bottom parts of the frame, while restoring previously cropped images
on the sides, from the 35 mm film source, to use the entire 16:9 frame. The TBS airings were edited to reduce
running time (presumably for more advertising space), cutting out certain lines, even rearranging the stand-up scenes
position in the episodes as well as showing the credits during the last scene as opposed to after the end of the
episode.[63] Amazon.com lists season 1 of Seinfeld in Blu-ray, though no release date has been announced.[64]
Media
DVD releases
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released all 9 seasons of Seinfeld on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4 between 2004
and 2007.[65] On November 6, 2007, Seinfeld: The Complete Series was released on DVD. The final season and the
complete series set included a 2007 reunion of the four main cast members and Larry David.
Music
A signature of Seinfeld is its theme music. Composed by Jonathan Wolff, it consists of distinct solo sampled bass
synthesizer riffs which open the show and connect the scenes, often accompanied by a "percussion track" composed
of mouth noises, such as pops and clicks. The bass synthesizer music eventually replaced the original standard
sitcom music by Jep Epstein when it was played again after the first broadcast "The Seinfeld Chronicles".
Seinfeld lacked a traditional title track and the riffs were played over the first moments of dialogue or action. They
vary throughout each episode and are played in an improvised funk style with bass synthesizer. An additional
musical theme with an ensemble, led by a synthesized mid-range brass instrument, ends each episode.
In "The Note", the first episode of Season Three, the bumper music featured a scatting female jazz vocalist who sang
a phrase that sounded like "easy to beat." Jerry Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's
additions, and three episodes were produced with the new style music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC
and Castle Rock of the change, and when the season premiere aired, they were surprised and unimpressed, and
requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving this episode as the
only one with the additional music elements.[66] In the commentary of "The Note", Julia Louis-Dreyfus facetiously
suggests it was removed because the perceived lyric related too closely to the low ratings at the time.[67]
In the final three seasons (7, 8, and 9), the bits were tweaked slightly to give them more frenetic rhythms and the
occasional hint of guitar. Throughout the show, the main theme could be re-styled in different ways depending on
the episode. For instance, in "The Betrayal," in which part of the episode takes place in India, the theme is heard
played on a sitar.
Non-original music featured in the show:
98
Seinfeld
99
Song
Artist
Episode
Notes
"The Jacket"
The chorus is sung repeatedly by George throughout the episode
and is eventually sung by Alton Benes in the closing credits
scene.
"How Do You Solve A Problem Richard Rodgers and
Like Maria?" from The Sound of Oscar Hammerstein
Music
"The Phone
Message"
George suggests that they use the song as an emergency signal.
"Lemon Tree"
Will Holt
"The Phone
Message"
Jerry's suggestion.
"Good Morning" from Babes in
Arms
Arthur Freed and Nacio "The Apartment"
Herb Brown
Elaine sings it to show her happiness over getting the apartment.
"Joltin' Joe DiMaggio"
Les Brown
"The Note"
The episode ends with this song.
Sonata No. 21 Op. 53
("Waldstein")
Ludwig van Beethoven
"The Pez Dispenser" George sings a few measures to let Jerry know what Noel
played for him.
Sonata No. 8 Op. 13
("Pathétique")
Ludwig van Beethoven
"The Pez Dispenser" Elaine laughs during Noel's performance of the music.
"If I Were A Rich Man" from
Fiddler on the Roof
Jerry Bock and Sheldon "The Limo"
Harnick
George whistles the tune once in the episode in front of some
neo-Nazis.
"Side by Side"
Gus Kahn and Harry
M. Woods
"The Watch"
Elaine and Joe Davola sing an impromptu duet outside Dr.
Reston's office.
"This is It" (Bugs Bunny theme) Mack David and Jerry
Livingston
"The Opera"
Jerry sings and dances ("Overture, curtain, lights/This is it, we'll
hit the heights...") when Elaine mentions the Pagliacci overture.
"Vesti la giubba" from
Pagliacci
Ruggero Leoncavallo
"The Opera" and
"The Keys"
It plays close to the opera.
"Parla Più Piano" (The
Godfather theme)
Nino Rota
"The Bris"
The episode ends with this theme.
Selected music from The Barber Gioachino Rossini
of Seville
"The Barber"
The music replaces Seinfeld main bass synthesizer music.
"War"
Norman Whitfield and
Barrett Strong
"The Marine
Biologist"
Jerry connects the song to Tolstoy, and Elaine sings "Absoutely
nothing" in the limo with Lippman and Testikov
"Wouldn't It Be Nice"
The Beach Boys
"The Hamptons"
Cover version performed by another band
"It's a Most Unusual Day"
Harold Adamson and
Jimmy McHugh
"The Chaperone"
At the end of the episode, Miss Rhode Island sings the song in
the talent portion of the Miss America Pageant.
"Entrance of the Gladiators"
Julius Fučík
"The Gymnast"
This is the circus music being played backstage when Jerry and
Katya are visiting Misha.
"Everybody's Talkin'"
Harry Nilsson
"The Mom & Pop
Store"
George sings this song after buying a car supposedly owned by
Jon Voight. Also featured at the end of the episode, when
Kramer and Jerry ride to New Jersey to find Jerry's shoes. The
scene is a reference to the film Midnight Cowboy, which
featured the song (and co-starred Voight).
Superman theme
John Williams
"The Race" and "The Played when Jerry wins the race and during past reflection of
Clip Show"
Seinfeld episodes.
"When You're Smiling"
Shay, Fisher, and
Goodwin
"The Jimmy"
Mel Tormé sings the song to Kramer at a benefit for the Able
Mentally Challenged Adults.
"Wind Beneath My Wings"
Bette Midler
"The Understudy"
We hear the soundtrack as Jerry and Gennice watch Beaches.
"Master of the House" from Les
Misérables
Robert Hossein,
Claude-Michel
Schönberg, and Alain
Boublil
Seinfeld
100
"Final Frontier" (theme from
Mad About You)
Paul Reiser and Don
Was
"The Engagement"
George and Susan are watching Mad About You in bed.
Symphony No. 7, Op. 92 (4th
mvmt.)
Ludwig van Beethoven
"The Maestro"
The Maestro is listening in his car and conducting along as he
drives up.
"La donna è mobile" from
Rigoletto
Giuseppe Verdi
"The Maestro"
Elaine sings it as she gets into the Maestro's car.
"Funiculì, Funiculà"
Luigi Denza
"The Maestro"
Plays in the scene where Elaine jumps into the Maestro's car and
he begins conducting.
"O Mio Babbino Caro" from
Gianni Schicchi
Giacomo Puccini
"The Maestro"
Elaine and the Maestro are listening to it as Jerry and Kramer
arrive at the villa in Tuscany.
Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 23
(1st mvmt.)
Pyotr Ilyich
Tchaikovsky
"The Doll"
When it comes on, the Maestro suspends his pool game with
Frank and Kramer to conduct along.
Overture to The Marriage of
Figaro
Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart
"The Doll"
The Maestro begins to conduct the opening piece of his concert
and finds his baton is broken.
"Downtown"
Petula Clark
"The Bottle Deposit" George looks for clues about his work assignment when
Wilhelm mentions the song to him.
"Morning Train (9 to 5)"
Sheena Easton
"The Bizarro Jerry"
and "The Butter
Kramer and George in separate episodes have brief stints in
going to work.
Shave"
"Shining Star"
Earth, Wind & Fire
"The Little Kicks"
Elaine does the infamous dry heave dance to this song.
and "The Bookstore"
"Adagio for Strings"
Samuel Barber
"The Fatigues"
Frank Costanza has a flashback of his days as a cook in the
Korean War. This scene (and its music) is a reference to
Platoon.
"Desperado" and "Witchy
Woman"
Eagles
"The Checks"
Elaine's boyfriend gets obsessed with "Desperado" while Elaine
tries to offer "Witchy Woman" as "their" song (a doctor later
"zones out" to the latter).
Theme from The Greatest
American Hero
Joey Scarbury
"The Susie"
The message on George's answering machine has him singing
his own words to this song.
"Three Times a Lady"
The Commodores
"The Pothole"
Newman sings this song just before his mail truck catches fire at
the end of the episode.
"Heartbreaker"
Pat Benatar
"The Nap"
Steinbrenner can't get the song out of his mind and keeps trying
to sing it.
"Meet the Mets"
Ruth Roberts and Bill
Katz
"The Millennium"
George sings this song after learning that the New York Mets
would like to hire him, provided he gets himself fired from the
Yankees.
"Hello"
Lionel Richie
"The Voice", "The
Engagement" and
"The Invitations"
The song shows a reflection of their life.
"Mañana (Is Soon Enough For
Me)"
Jackie Davis
"The Blood"
Kramer and Newman listen to a recording of it while making
sausages.
"Slow Ride"
Foghat
"The Slicer"
Elaine tunes into her bedside radio and offers up a few
characteristic dance moves.
"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida"
Iron Butterfly
"The Slicer"
Elaine makes an attempt to phone the locksmith.
"Mexican Radio"
Wall of Voodoo
"The Reverse
Peephole"
Kramer sings this as he is reversing his peephole. It is also
featured at the end of the episode after the credits.
"Good Riddance (Time of Your
Life)"
Green Day
"The Chronicle"
Behind the scenes throughout the series.
Seinfeld
"Don't Stop 'Til You Get
Enough"
101
Michael Jackson
"The Chronicle"
Clips of the gang dancing in the series.
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live-feed/ cbs-cancels-shows-including-ghost-53669). The Hollywood Reporter. .
[58] "Episode dated 1 November 2007". Axler, Rachel; Bleyer, Kevin; Blomquist, Richard; Bodow, Steve; Carvell, Tim; Havlan, J.R.; Scott
Jacobson, Scott; Javerbaum, David; Karlin, Ben; Kutner, Rob; Lieb, Josh; Means, Sam; Reich, Jason; Ross, Jason; Stewart, Jon. The Daily
Show. Comedy Central. 2007-11-01.
[59] Seinfeld Season 9: Notes about Nothing – "The Finale". [DVD]. Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. 2007-11-06.
[60] Rice, Lynette (2009-03-05). "Exclusive: 'Seinfeld' cast to appear on 'Curb Your Enthusiasm'" (http:/ / insidetv. ew. com/ 2009/ 03/ 05/
seinfeld-cast-t/ ). EW.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-05.
[61] Staff (2005-04-28). "A look at some of the biggest hits in movie and TV product placement" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20071011140335rn_2/ www. hollywoodreporter. com/ hr/ search/ article_display. jsp?vnu_content_id=1000901395). The Hollywood
Reporter. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. hollywoodreporter. com/ thr/ film/ feature_display. jsp?vnu_content_id=1000901395) on
October 11, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-10.
102
Seinfeld
[62] "'Seinfeld' in HD on TBS HD! Page 2" (http:/ / www. avsforum. com/ avs-vb/ showthread. php?p=14589923#post14589923). videojanitor. .
Retrieved 2009-09-23.
[63] "Engadget HD" (http:/ / hd. engadget. com/ 2008/ 09/ 03/ seinfeld-goes-hd-on-tbs-hd/ ). Amazon.com. 2008-09-03. . Retrieved 2009-10-28.
[64] "Seinfeld – Season 1 Blu-ray" (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ B000RKBQBU/ ). Amazon.com. . Retrieved 2008-12-13.
[65] "Seinfeld region 1 DVD release dates" (http:/ / www. tvshowsondvd. com/ releaselist. cfm?ShowID=3743). TVShowsOnDVD.com. .
Retrieved 2008-03-23.
[66] Season 3 DVD: Inside Look of 'The Note'
[67] Season 3 DVD: 'The Note' commentary
General references
• Mirzoeff, Nicholas. "Seinfeld." British Film Institute, TV Classics. 2007. ISBN 1-84457-201-3.
• Fretts, Bruce. The Entertainment Weekly Seinfeld Companion. New York: Warner Books. 1993. ISBN
0-446-67036-7.
• Dawson, Ryan (2006). "Seinfeld: a show about something" (http://homepage.ntlworld.com/alan.dawson87/
rd286/rock/seinfeld.html) Cambridge University.
• William Irwin (Ed.). Seinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing. Peru, Illinois: Open Court
Publishing Company. 1999. ISBN 0-8126-9409-0.
• Gantz, Katherine. "Not That There's Anything Wrong with That": Reading the Queer in Seinfeld. In Calvin
Thomas (Ed.). Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality. Champaign. Illinois:
University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06813-0.
• Gattuso, Greg. The Seinfeld Universe: The Entire Domain. New York: Citadel Press. 1996. ISBN 0-8065-2001-9.
• Murphy, Noah. ' 'Seinfeld: A Beginner's Guide. Brisbane: Penguin Books. 2011.
• Seinfeld, Jerry. Sein Language. Bantam. 1993. ISBN 0-553-09606-0.
• Weaver, D.T. & Oliver, M.B. (2000) Summary of the paper, "Television Programs and Advertising: Measuring
the Effectiveness of Product Placement Within Seinfeld." (http://www.psu.edu/dept/medialab/research/
prodplace.html)
External links
•
•
•
•
Official website (http://http://www.sonypictures.com/tv/shows/seinfeld/)
Seinfeld (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098904/) at the Internet Movie Database
Seinfeld (http://www.tv.com/show/112/summary.html) at TV.com
Seinfeld Wikia (http://seinfeld.wikia.com/)
103
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
104
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
Studio album by Ol' Dirty Bastard
Released
March 28, 1995
Recorded
1994–1995
Genre
Hip hop Hardcore hip hop
Length
66:05
Label
Elektra
61659
Producer
RZA, True Master, 4th Disciple, Ol' Dirty Bastard, Ethan Ryman, Big Dore
Professional reviews
•
[1]
Allmusic
[2]
•
Chicago Tribune (favorable)
•
Robert Christgau (A-)
•
Entertainment Weekly (A-)
•
[3]
[4]
[5]
Los Angeles Times
[6]
•
Melody Maker (favorable)
•
[7]
RapReviews (9.0/10)
•
Rolling Stone
•
The Source
[6]
[6]
[6]
•
Vibe (favorable)
Ol' Dirty Bastard chronology
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty
Version
(1995)
Nigga
Please
(1999)
Wu-Tang Clan solo chronology
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
Method
Man:
Tical
(1994)
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty
Version
(1995)
105
Raekwon:
Only Built 4 Cuban
Linx…
(1995)
Singles from Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
1.
"Brooklyn Zoo"
Released: January 4, 1995
2.
"Shimmy Shimmy Ya"
Released: May 9, 1995
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version is the solo debut album of American rapper and Wu-Tang Clan
member Ol' Dirty Bastard, released March 28, 1995 on Elektra Records in the United States. It was the second solo
album to be released from the nine-member Wu-Tang camp, upon the release of their debut album. Return to the 36
Chambers was primarily produced by RZA, with additional production from Ol' Dirty Bastard, and affiliates True
Master, and 4th Disciple. The album features guest appearances from Wu-Tang members GZA, RZA, Method Man,
Raekwon, Ghostface Killah and Masta Killa, as well as several Wu-Tang affiliates, and Brooklyn Zu.
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version peaked at number seven on the Billboard 200 and number two on the
Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The album sold 81,000 copies in its first week,[8] and was certified gold in sales
by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on June 21, 1995.[9] Upon its release, the album received
positive reviews from most music critics, with many complimenting Ol' Dirty Bastard's bizarre lyrical delivery, and
RZA's eerie production. The album was nominated for a Grammy award at the 1996 Grammy's for Best rap album.
Over the years, several music writers and publishers have regarded Return to the 36 Chambers as one of the greatest
albums of the 1990s, as well as one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time.
Background
Drawing on his raving input on Enter the Wu-Tang: 36 Chambers, O.D.B. upped the delirium factor several notches
on his debut; incorporating other members and affiliates heavily, he leaves them to their rhyme structures and goes
off on trademark rants. The beats, mostly by RZA, incorporate the minimalist sound of the group's debut album, but
explore a skewed and discordant sound.
Reception
The Dirty Version was nominated for the 1996 Grammy Award for Best Rap Album, but lost to Naughty by Nature's
Poverty's Paradise.
In 1998, the album was selected as one of The Source's 100 Best Rap Albums.
Rolling Stone (4/20/95, p. 78) - 4 Stars - "With his raspy, lisp-punctuated voice and half-sung, half-rapped style, [Ol'
Dirty Bastard] may well be the most original vocalist in hip-hop history."
Entertainment Weekly (3/31/95, p. 61) - "This solo effort by a second member of the near-platinum Wu-Tang Clan
showcases the raw, innovative talent of their illest member.... The RZA's signature dissonant piano loops [sparkle]
behind Dirty's delirious, reverberating delivery." - Rating: AVibe (5/95, p. 97) - "Ol' Dirty's catchy sing-along...is paired with subtle keyboards and the Rza's typically murky
beats, yielding a mystic's brew, which, like all Wu-related fare, defiantly flies in the face of conventions....the aural
pleasures are...convincing."
The Source (5/95, p. 65) - 4 Stars - "The third shot fired in the Wu-Tang revolution spotlights the crazy drunken flow
of the Ol' Dirty Bastard....a must-have for every real hardcore head....hardcore lyrics kicked live over a non-stop
assault of that addictive Shao-lin funk."
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
106
Melody Maker (4/22/95, p. 35) - "...an hour of cruel hard and frighteningly funny hip hop; the perfect companion
piece to Wu-Tang's 36 Chambers...the songs are driven by a vicious, unstable urgency."
Village Voice (2/20/96) - Ranked #39 in Village Voice's 1995 Pazz & Jop Critics' Poll.
Track listing
No. Title
Producer(s)
Length
1. "Intro"
RZA
4:47
2. "Shimmy Shimmy Ya"
RZA
2:41
3. "Baby, C'mon"
RZA
3:26
4. "Brooklyn Zoo"
True Master, Ol' Dirty Bastard
3:37
5. "Hippa to da Hoppa"
RZA
3:01
6. "Raw Hide" (feat. Raekwon & Method Man)
RZA
4:02
7. "Damage" (feat. GZA)
RZA, 4th Disciple
2:47
8. "Don't U Know" (feat. Killah Priest)
RZA
4:26
9. "The Stomp"
Ol' Dirty Bastard, RZA
2:22
10. "Goin' Down"
RZA
4:19
11. "Drunk Game (Sweet Sugar Pie)"
Ethan Ryman, Ol Dirty
Bastard
4:20
12. "Snakes" (feat. Killah Priest, RZA, Masta Killa & Buddha Monk)
RZA
5:26
13. "Brooklyn Zoo II (Tiger Crane)" (feat. Ghostface Killah)
RZA
7:20
14. "Proteck Ya Neck II The Zoo" (feat. Brooklyn Zu, Prodigal Sunn, Killah Priest, & 60 Second
Assassin)
RZA
4:00
15. "Cuttin' Headz" (feat. RZA)
RZA
2:28
Bonus tracks (CD only)
No. Title
Producer(s) Length
16. "Dirty Dancin'" (feat. Method Man) RZA
2:42
17. "Harlem World"
6:15
Big Dore
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
107
Samples
"Intro"
"Goin' Down"
•
•
•
Samples English-language dialogue from the film The 36th Chamber of
Shaolin
"Shimmy Shimmy Ya"
•
•
•
•
Samples "Hip-Hug-Her" by Booker T. & the MG's
Samples "I Like It" by Emotions
Samples "Knocks Me Off My Feet" by Stevie Wonder
Samples "Have Your Ass Home by – 11:00" by Richard Pryor
Samples "Time without End" by Bel Canto
Interpolates “Over the Rainbow” by Harold Arlen and Yip
Harburg
"Snakes"
"Brooklyn Zoo"
•
•
•
•
•
"Cuttin' Headz"
Interpolates "Protect Ya Neck" by the Wu-Tang Clan
"Hippa to da Hoppa"
•
•
Samples "It's a New Day" by Skull Snaps
Samples "Sing a Simple Song" by Sly & The Family Stone
"Don't U Know"
•
Samples "Ain't No Sunshine" by Lyn Collins
•
•
•
Interpolates "Bad, Bad Leroy Brown" by Jim Croce
Samples "I'll Never Do You Wrong" by Joe Tex
Samples "Papa Was, Too" by Joe Tex
Samples dialogue from the film Five Deadly Venoms
Samples "Synthetic Substitution" by Melvin Bliss
Samples "Ba-Lue Bolivar Ba-Lues-Are" by Thelonious Monk
Samples "House of God" by Dimensional Holofonic Sound
"Harlem World"
•
•
Samples "Here I Come" by Barrington Levy
Interpolates "Hollywood Swinging" by Kool & the Gang
Personnel
Musicians
•
•
•
•
Ol' Dirty Bastard – assistant engineer, mixing, producer, vocals
RZA – producer, mixing, vocals
Ghostface Killah, GZA, Masta Killa, Method Man, Raekwon, Killah Priest, Sunz Of Man, Brooklyn Zu – vocals
Buddha Monk – vocals, mixing
Additional
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Big Dore – producer
True Master – producer
Ethan Ryman – producer, engineer
John Wydrycs, Tim Latham – engineer, mixing
Jimmie Lee, Jack Hersca – engineer, assistant engineer
Deden Sumandani – mixing
Martin Czembor – assistant engineer, mixing
David Sealy, Jay Nicholas – assistant engineer
Alli – art direction
Danny Clinch – photography
Chart history
Album - Billboard (North America)
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
108
Year
[10]
Position
Chart
1995
Billboard 200
7
1995
Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums
2
Accolades
•
•
[11]
The information regarding accolades is adapted from acclaimedmusic.net,
except for lists with additional sources.
(*) signifies unordered lists
Publication
Blender
Country
United States
Ego Trip
Accolade
500 CDs You Must Own Before You Die
Year
Rank
2003
*
Hip Hop's 25 Greatest Albums by Year 1980-98 1999
4
Hip Hop Connection United Kingdom The 100 Greatest Rap Albums 1995-2005
2005
32
Les Inrockuptibles
France
Albums of the Year
1995
*
Muzik
United Kingdom Albums of the Year
1995
15
Ned Raggett
United States
The Top 136 Albums of the Nineties
1999
87
Pop
Sweden
Albums of the Year
1995
14
The Source
United States
The 100 Best Rap Albums of All Time
1998
*
Spex
Germany
The 100 Albums of the Century
1999
67
Albums of the Year
1995
1
Albums of the Year
1995
39
The Village Voice
United States
References
[1] Huey, Steve. Review: Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ album/ r212074). Allmusic. Retrieved
2010-02-26.
[2] Johnson, Martin. Review: Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version. Chicago Tribune. May 4, 1995.
[3] Christgau, Robert. Consumer Guide Review: Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version (http:/ / www. robertchristgau. com/ get_artist.
php?name=Ol'+ Dirty+ Bastard). The Village Voice. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
[4] Mukherjee, Tiarra . Review: Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version (http:/ / www. ew. com/ ew/ article/ 0,,296604,00. html).
Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
[5] Hunt, Dennis. Review: Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version. Los Angeles Times: P. 60. April 16, 1995.
[6] Columnist. Review snipets: Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version (http:/ / www. mymusic. com/ product. asp?curr=0&
myptr=ottawastart& muzenbr=184007). mymusic.com. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
[7] Young, Jayson. Review: Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version (http:/ / www. rapreviews. com/ archive/ BTTL_return36. html).
rapreviews.com. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
[8] Snow, Shauna. MORNING REPORT. Los Angeles Times. April 6, 1995.
[9] RIAA search: Return to the 36 Chambers (http:/ / riaa. org/ goldandplatinumdata. php?table=SEARCH). RIAA. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
[10] Chart Positions (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ album/ r212074). Allmusic. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
[11] Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version Album Accolades (http:/ / www. acclaimedmusic. net/ Current/ A1720. htm).
acclaimedmusic.net. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version
109
External links
• Return To The 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version (http://www.discogs.com/
Ol-Dirty-Bastard-Return-To-The-36-Chambers-The-Dirty-Version/master/61996) at Discogs
On Kawara
On Kawara
Today Series date painting at Art Institute of Chicago.
Birth name Kawara On
Born
[1]
January 12, 1933Kariya, Aichi, Japan
Nationality Japanese
Field
Visual art, Conceptual art
On Kawara (河原温 Kawara On) (born January 2, 1933) is a Japanese conceptual artist living in New York City
since 1965. He has shown in many solo and group exhibitions, including the Venice Biennale in 1976.
Early life
After graduating from Kariya High School in 1951, Kawara moved to Tokyo. Kawara went to Mexico in 1959 and
travelled through Europe, then settled in 1965 in New York City, where he has been an intermittent resident ever
[2]
since.
Work
Today series
Since January 4, 1966 he has made a long series of "Date paintings" (the Today series), which consist entirely of the
date on which the painting was executed in simple white lettering set against a solid background. The date is always
documented in the language and grammatical conventions of the country in which the painting is executed. The
paintings conform to one of eight standard sizes, ranging from 8x10 inches to 61x89 inches, all horizontal in
orientation. The dates on the paintings are always centered on the canvas and painted white, whereas the background
colors vary; the paintings from the early years tend to have bold colors, and the more recent ones tend to be darker in
tone. For example, Kawara briefly used red for several months in 1967 and then returned to darker hues until 1977.
Eschewing stencils in favor of hand-drawn characters, Kawara skillfully renders the script, initially an elongated
version of Gill Sans, later a quintessentially modernist Futura.[3] Each work is carefully executed by hand. Some
days he makes more than one.[4] If Kawara is unable to complete the painting on the day it was started he
immediately destroys it. When a Date Painting is not exhibited, it is placed in a cardboard box custom-made for the
painting, which is lined with a clipping from a local newspaper from the city in which the artist made the painting.
Although the boxes are part of the work, they are rarely exhibited. Each year between 63 and 241 paintings are
made.
On Kawara
Each Date Painting is registered in a journal and marked on a One Hundred Years Calendar. When Kawara finishes
a painting, he applies a swatch of the paint mixture he used to a small rectangle that is then glued onto a chart in the
journal. Under each colour is a number showing the painting's sequence in that year and a letter indicating its size.[5]
The journal therefore records the details of the painting’s size, color and newspaper headline, while the calendar uses
colored dots to indicate the days in which a painting was made, and to record the number of days since the artist’s
birth. Kawara has now created date paintings in more than 112 cities worldwide in a project that is planned to end
only with his death.[6]
Title and postcards
Much like the Today series, Kawara uses the number of days followed by the date the work was executed as his
life-dates. So the piece entitled Title [7] at the National Gallery of Art has Kawara's life-dates as 26,697 (January 27,
2006) which, when calculated, place Kawara's birthdate at December 24, 1932. Other series of works include the I
Went and I Met series of postcards sent to his friends detailing aspects of his life, and a series of telegrams sent to
various people bearing the message "I AM STILL ALIVE". Between 1968 and 1979, On Kawara created his
information series, I Got Up, in which he sent two picture postcards from his location on that morning. All of the
cards list the artist's time of getting up, the date, the place of residence and the name and address of the receiver
another series of postcards, I Got Up At, rubber-stamped with the time he got up that morning.[8]
One Million Years
One Million Years is one of the artist’s best-known works about the passage and marking of time. The first audio
presentation of the reading of One Million Years occurred in 1993 during Kawara’s yearlong solo exhibition “One
Thousand Days One Million Years” at Dia Center for the Arts in New York. Visitors could hear One Million Years
[Future] being read, while viewing One Million Years [Past] and a group of date paintings. The longest public
reading from One Million Years took place at Documenta 11 in 2002, where male and female participants sat
side-by-side in a glass enclosure taking turns reading dates for the duration of the 100-day exhibition, switching
between [Past] and [Future]. In 2004, the project traveled to Trafalgar Square in London for a continuous outdoor
reading lasting 7 days and 7 nights. Since then, readings and recordings have taken place in cities around the world.
Pure Consciousness
In Pure Consciousness, a traveling exhibition initiated in 1998, Kawara lent seven Date paintings (January 1 to
January 7, 1997) to kindergartens and schools in Madagascar, Australia, Bhutan, Ivory Coast, Columbia, Turkey,
Japan, Finland, Iceland, Israel, and the United States. At all schools they hang in classrooms, bearing dates that fall
within the lifespans of the children.[9]
Kawara does not give interviews or comment about his work.
Exhibitions
Kawara's first exhibitions include the first Nippon Exhibition, at the Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum, in 1953, and
at the Takemiya and Hibiya galleries the following year.[10] His work was exhibited at New York's Dwan Gallery in
1967, and his one-person exhibition "One Million Years" was shown in Düsseldorf, Paris, and Milan in 1971.
Kawara's work was included in Documentas 5 (1972), 7 (1982), and 11 (2002), in Kassel, and in the Tokyo Biennale
(1970), the Kyoto Biennale (1976), and the Venice Biennale (1976).
His work has been included in many conceptual art surveys from the seminal Information show at the Museum of
Modern Art, New York in 1970 to Reconsidering the Object of Art: 1965-1975 at the Museum of Contemporary Art,
Los Angeles in 1995. Solo exhibitions of his work have included the Centre Pompidou, Paris in 1977;
Continuity/Discontinuityat the Moderna Museet, Stockholm in 1980; Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam
in 1991; and the Dia Center for the Arts, New York in 1993.
110
On Kawara
On Kawara is represented by David Zwirner, New York and Yvon Lambert Gallery, Paris.[11]
Artist Books
Kawara has created several artist's books:
•
•
•
•
One Million Years, 1999, Editions Micheline Szwajcer & Michèle Didier (2 Volumes)[12]
I MET, 2004, Editions Micheline Szwajcer & Michèle Didier (12 Volumes)
I WENT, 2007, mfc-michèle didier (12 Volumes)
I GOT UP, 2008, mfc-michèle didier (12 Volumes)
Influences on Contemporary Artists
• onKawaraUpdate (v2) (2007) by American art collective MTAA updates and automates (via software) the
process-oriented nature of On Kawara's date paintings.[13]
• American artist Eric Doeringer recreated On Kawara's I Got Up project[14] and created a Today painting with his
own birthday as part of his Bootleg series.[15]
• British artist David Michael Clarke reworked On Kawara's Today series as Today Marriages 1969 - 1999
(2001).[16]
• In Return to Sender (2004) British artist Jonathan Monk co-opts On Kawara's I Got Up At (1968–1979).[17]
• I am Still Alive is an installation piece after On Kawara by European artist Martin John Callanan.[18]
• Start it is a license to practice On Kawara's individual moments by German artist Stefan Hager.[19]
• 891 (2006) by Belgian artist Kurt Duyck is a Blog Art tribute to On Kawara's I Got Up At.[20]
• On Kawara is not Dead (2006) by Belgian artist Danny Devos is a Blog Art tribute to On Kawara's I am Still
Alive.[21]
• The Japanese artist Tatsuo Miyajima's use of numbers is a product of On Kawara's influence on him.[22]
• In his multipart Rwanda Project, executed between 1994 and 2000 in response to the Rwandan genocide, Chilean
artist Alfredo Jaar sent Rwandan tourist postcards to his friends around the world, mailed from neighboring
Uganda, bearing the names of people who he'd encountered while travelling in Rwanda, reversing the
self-referential content of On Kawara's work 'I am Still Alive'; "Jyamiya Muhawenimawa is still alive!", "Caritas
Namazuru is still alive!", "Canisius Nzayisenga is still alive!" etc.
• Rakawa.net is a micro-blogging web-site, which is devoted to honor On Kawara's work and simultaneously offers
users to document and to inform about daily accomplishments, based on the question "What have you achieved
today?" and optionally illustrated by a picture.[23]
• The On Kawara Code (2008) by the Canadian artist Timothy Comeau reproduces Kawara's date paintings and
One Million Years books using web-programming.[24]
• Between 2004 and 2007, Candida Höfer realized the project On Kawara: Date Paintings (2009), which attempts
to document Kawara’s oeuvre at the point where each work is hung in its respective collector’s home.
111
On Kawara
References
[1] "On Kawara - EB online" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 1370737/ On-Kawara). . Retrieved 2009-04-04.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
On Kawara (http:/ / www. moma. org/ collection/ artist. php?artist_id=3030) MoMA Collection. Source: Oxford University Press.
On Kawara (http:/ / www. gms. be/ index. php?content=artist_detail& id_artist=30)] Galerie Micheline Szwajcer, 1987.
On Kawara - Artist Biography (http:/ / www. diacenter. org/ exhibitions/ artistbio/ 86) Dia Art Foundation.
On Kawara (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ liverpool/ exhibitions/ colourchart/ artists/ kawara. shtm) Tate Liverpool, Colour Chart: Reinventing
Colour, 1950 to Today, 29 May – 13 September 2009.
[6] Sculpting Time (http:/ / www. speronewestwater. com/ cgi-bin/ iowa/ articles/ record. html?record=629) Sperone Westwater, 25 July 2008.
[7] http:/ / www. nga. gov/ cgi-bin/ pinfo?Object=131175+ 0+ none
[8] [On Kawara (b. 1933), I Got Up, Sale 8523] Christie's New York, 15 May 2001.
[9] Adrian Searle (3 December 2002), It's a date! (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ artanddesign/ 2002/ dec/ 03/ art. artsfeatures) Guardian.
[10] On Kawara - Artist Biography (http:/ / www. diacenter. org/ exhibitions/ artistbio/ 86) Dia Art Foundation.
[11] Yvon Lambert (http:/ / www. yvon-lambert. com)
[12] "Collection - One Million Years - On Kawara" (http:/ / www. moma. org/ collection/ browse_results. php?object_id=88213). Museum of
Modern Art. . Retrieved 29 June 2010.
[13] M. River & T. Whid, 2007 onKawaraUpdate (v2) (http:/ / www. mteww. com/ update/ onkawara/ ).
[14] Eric Doeringer, 2008-09 (http:/ / www. ericdoeringer. com/ ConArtRec/ Kawara/ Kawara-IGotUp. html).
[15] Eric Doeringer, 2005 (http:/ / www. ericdoeringer. com/ bootlegs2/ BootPages/ btkawara. html).
[16] David Michael Clarke, 2001 David Michael Clarke (http:/ / www. davidmichaelclarke. net/ lang=en/ text-mulholland. html).
[17] Christy Lange, Tate Etc. issue 4, 2005 Bound to Fail (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ tateetc/ issue4/ boundtofail. htm).
[18] Martin John Callanan, 2004 I am Still Alive (http:/ / greyisgood. eu/ stillalive/ ).
[19] Stefan Hager, november 23, 2004 Start it (http:/ / www. transordinator. de/ start_it/ start. html).
[20] Kurt Duyck, 2006 891 (http:/ / my. opera. com/ iland/ blog/ ).
[21] Danny Devos, 2006 On Kawara is not Dead (http:/ / onkawaraisnotdead. blogspot. com).
[22] Aaron Kerner, 2007 The Depth of Memory Part 2: An interview with Katsushige Nakahashi (http:/ / www. sfcamerawork. org/ journals/
journal_src/ nahakashi_interview. pdf).
[23] Rakawa team, 2008 rakawa.net (http:/ / www. rakawa. net).
[24] T. Comeau, 2008 The On Kawara Code (http:/ / timothycomeau. com/ onkawara/ ).
External links
• On Kawara - David Zwirner (http://www.davidzwirner.com/artists/13/)
• Press on the artist by year (http://www.davidzwirner.com/artists/13/press.htm)
• Exhibition "One Million Years" by On Kawara (http://www.davidzwirner.com/exhibitions/185/) David
Zwirner, New York, January 2009
• A piece on Kawara by Adrian Searle from the Guardian (http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/critic/feature/
0,1169,852676,00.html)
• An essay by art critic Lynne Cooke on On Kawara (http://www.diaart.org/exhibitions/introduction/86)
• Consciousness. Meditation. Watcher on the Hills. (http://www.ikon-gallery.co.uk/pastExhibitionsOnKawara.
htm) 20 November 2002 - 26 January 2003 exhibition at Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, UK.
• "On Kawara." Contemporary Artists, 5th ed. St. James Press, 2001.
112
Translation
113
Translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent
target-language text.[1] Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the
appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE)
into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.[2]
Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language
translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have
enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they
have translated.[3]
Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th
century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional
associations.[4]
Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine
translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation).[5] The rise of the Internet has
fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localization.[6]
Etymology
The word translation derives from the Latin translatio (which itself comes from trans- and
fero, together meaning "to carry across" or "to bring across"). The modern Romance
languages use words for translation derived from that source and from the alternative Latin
traduco ("to lead across"). The Germanic (except Dutch) and Slavic languages likewise use
calques of these Latin sources.[7]
The Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has
supplied English with metaphrase (a "literal," or "word-for-word," translation) — as
contrasted with paraphrase ("a saying in other words", from παράφρασις, paraphrasis).[7]
Rosetta Stone
Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence";
and paraphrase, to "dynamic equivalence."[8]
Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase — of "word-for-word translation" — is an imperfect concept, because a
given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may
often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may
be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.[9]
A secular icon for the art of translation is the Rosetta Stone. This trilingual (hieroglyphic-Egyptian,
demotic-Egyptian, ancient-Greek) stele became the translator's key to decryption of Egyptian hieroglyphs by
Thomas Young, Jean-François Champollion and others.[10]
In the United States of America, the Rosetta Stone is incorporated into the crest of the Defense Language Institute.
Translation
114
Theory
Western theory
Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back
into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient
Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and
paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and
translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described translation as
the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when
selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or equivalents, for
the expressions used in the source language:
When [words] appear . . . literally graceful, it were an injury
to the author that they should be changed. But since... what
John Dryden
is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay
sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to
limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: ’tis enough if he choose out some expression
which does not vitiate the sense.[7]
Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation:
“When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and
lineaments..."[8]
This general formulation of the central concept of translation — equivalence — is as
adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace, who, in 1st-century-BCE
Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro
verbo).[8]
Cicero
Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed
since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the
Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have
generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary
— for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical
accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context.[8]
In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the
original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the
actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voice, or
vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages[11] (e.g.
English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages[12] (e.g., Greek, Latin,
Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard.[8] The particular syntax
(sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are adjusted to the
syntactic requirements of the target language.
Samuel Johnson
Translation
115
When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language,
translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks
in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to
their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable"
among the modern European languages.[8] [13]
Martin Luther
Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two
languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of
metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due
to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading
as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused
with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical," "timely,"
"feasible"),[14] the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance") or the Russian актуальный ("urgent",
"topical").
The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since
Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a
passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the
concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing
after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson’s remark
about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.[14]
If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if
a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the
science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do
away with translation and translators altogether.[15]
Johann Gottfried Herder
The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with being the first
European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly
states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one
translates only toward his own language.[16]
Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever
be a fully adequate guide in translating. The British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on
the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more
comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including
listening to the spoken language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and
grammarian Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński.[17]
Ignacy Krasicki
The translator’s special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine", the
Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French
and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki:
Translation
116
“
[T]ranslation . . . is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; [it] should be
[practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own
[18]
works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country.
”
Religious texts
Further information: Bible translations and Translation of the Qur'an
An important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts.
Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese often skewed
their translations to better reflect China's distinct culture, emphasizing notions
such as filial piety.
Saint Jerome, patron saint of
translators and encyclopedists
One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the
rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the 3rd century BCE. The
translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the seventy
translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to
translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. Each translator worked in solitary
confinement in his own cell, and according to legend all seventy versions
proved identical. The Septuagint became the source text for later translations
into many languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian and Georgian.
Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having rendered
the Bible into Latin, is Saint Jerome, the patron saint of translation. For
centuries the Roman Catholic Church used his translation (known as the
Vulgate), though even this translation at first stirred controversy.
The period preceding, and contemporary with, the Protestant Reformation
saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages — a
development that contributed to Western Christianity's split into Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between Catholic and
Protestant versions of crucial words and passages. Lasting effects on the
religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries have been
exerted by such Bible translations as Martin Luther's into German, Jakub
Wujek's into Polish, and the King James Bible's translators' into English.
A famous mistranslation of the Bible is the rendering of the Hebrew word ‫ֶקֶרן‬
(keren), which has several meanings, as "horn" in a context where it actually
means "beam of light". As a result, for centuries artists have depicted Moses
Mistranslation: horned Moses, by
Michelangelo
the Lawgiver with horns growing out of his forehead; an example is
Michelangelo's famous sculpture. Some Christians with anti-Semitic feelings
have used such depictions to spread hatred of the Jews, claiming that they were devils with horns.
Translation
117
Asian theory
Further information: Chinese translation theory
There is a separate tradition of translation in South Asia and East
Asia (primarily modern India and China), especially connected
with the rendering of religious texts — particularly Buddhist texts
— and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical
Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than
the closer translation more commonly found in Europe, and
Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and
limitations in translation.
Diamond Sutra, translated by Kumārajīva
In the East Asia Sinosphere (sphere of Chinese cultural influence),
more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial
influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial borrowings of vocabulary and writing
system. Notable is Japanese Kanbun, which is a system of glossing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers.
Fidelity vs. transparency
Fidelity (or faithfulness) and transparency, dual ideals in translation, are often at odds. A 17th-century French critic
coined the phrase "les belles infidèles" to suggest that translations, like women, can be either faithful or beautiful,
but not both.[19]
Faithfulness is the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the source text, without distortion.
Transparency is the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally
been written in that language, and conforms to its grammar, syntax and idiom.
A translation that meets the first criterion is said to be "faithful"; a translation that meets the second, "idiomatic". The
two qualities are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
The criteria for judging the fidelity of a translation vary according to the subject, type and use of the text, its literary
qualities, its social or historical context, etc.
The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation
"sounds wrong"; and, in the extreme case of word-for-word translations generated by many machine-translation
systems, often results in patent nonsense.
Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously seek to produce a
literal translation. Translators of literary, religious or historic texts often adhere as
closely as possible to the source text, stretching the limits of the target language to
produce an unidiomatic text. A translator may adopt expressions from the source
language in order to provide "local color".
In recent decades, prominent advocates of such "non-transparent" translation have
included the French scholar Antoine Berman, who identified twelve deforming
tendencies inherent in most prose translations,[20] and the American theorist
Lawrence Venuti, who has called upon translators to apply "foreignizing" translation
strategies instead of domesticating ones.[21]
Friedrich Schleiermacher
Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from German
Romanticism, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and
philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he
Translation
distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those
that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text.
Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the
foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature.
Current Western translation practice is dominated by the dual concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency". This has not
always been the case, however; there have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century,
when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm of adaptation.
Adapted translation retains currency in some non-Western traditions. The Indian epic, the Ramayana, appears in
many versions in the various Indian languages, and the stories are different in each. Similar examples are to be found
in medieval Christian literature, which adjusted the text to local customs and mores.
Equivalence
The question of fidelity vs. transparency has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence"
and "dynamic equivalence". The latter two expressions are associated with the translator Eugene Nida and were
originally coined to describe ways of translating the Bible, but the two approaches are applicable to any translation.
"Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase".
"Dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalence") conveys the essential thought expressed in a source text — if
necessary, at the expense of literality, original sememe and word order, the source text's active vs. passive voice, etc.
By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation) attempts to render the text literally, or "word for
word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the classical Latin verbum pro verbo) — if
necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language.
There is, however, no sharp boundary between functional and formal equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a
spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and
at various points within the same text — sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious
blending of functional and formal equivalents.[22]
Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents
such as "false friends" and false cognates.
Back-translation
A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without
reference to the original text.
Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original
translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But
while useful as approximate checks, the results of such reverse operations are not always precisely reliable.[23]
Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often
ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal.
In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation."
When translations are produced of material used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a
back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.[24]
118
Translation
Mark Twain,
119
Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of
back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short
story, “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his
back-translation in a single 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the
French translation, and a “Private History of the 'Jumping Frog’ Story”. The latter included a
synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a
Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, “The Athenian and
the Frog”; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek
precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.[25]
back-translator
When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost,
researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text.
An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who
wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original
French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation
that was made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of
the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on
French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki’s Polish version.[26]
Similarly, when historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation
into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as
idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language.
For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only
when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them)
were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.
Similarly, supporters of Aramaic primacy — of the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were
originally written in the Aramaic language — seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the
existing Greek text of the New Testament make much better sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for
example, some incomprehensible references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek.
Literary translation
Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right.
For example, notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert
Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor General's Awards annually present prizes for the best
English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations.
Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky,
Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller and Haruki Murakami.
History
The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into
Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral
language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.[27]
Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. The 9th-century Alfred the
Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations
of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned
on even partial adaptations of St. Jerome's Vulgate of ca. 384 CE,[28] the standard Latin Bible.
Translation
120
In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years.
The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and
with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally
contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to
translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.
Large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the Arabs. Having conquered the Greek world, they made
Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, some translations of these Arabic
versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain.[29] Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab
works of scholarship and science helped advance the development of European Scholasticism.
The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on
the example of translation into the English language.
The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by
Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his
own Knight's Tale and Troilus and Criseyde; began a translation of the
French-language Roman de la Rose; and completed a translation of Boethius
from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English poetic tradition on adaptations
and translations from those earlier-established literary languages.[29]
Geoffrey Chaucer
The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an
underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation
begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact,
hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament
(1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles
(1523–25).[29]
Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in
Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar
Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453).
A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and
Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the
first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs
depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.[29]
Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. France's Pléiade,
Marsilio Ficino
England's Tudor poets, and the Elizabethan translators adapted themes by Horace, Ovid,
Petrarch and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The
English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a middle class and the
development of printing, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in
England in that day.[29]
Translation
121
The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase
toward an ideal of stylistic equivalence, but even to the end of this period, which actually
reached to the middle of the 17th century, there was no concern for verbal accuracy.[30]
In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make Virgil speak
"in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman".
Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman poet's subtlety and concision.
Similarly, Homer suffered from Alexander Pope's endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's
"wild paradise" to order.[30]
Edward FitzGerald
Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever
they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They
cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be
made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their
predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third
languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James
Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's"
own composition.[30]
Benjamin Jowett
The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the
policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of
copious explanatory footnotes.[31] In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase
(literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An
exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859),
which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew
little of its material from the Persian original.[30]
In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into simple,
straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when
accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.[30]
Poetry
Poetry presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a text's formal
aspects, in addition to its content. In his influential 1959 paper "On Linguistic Aspects of
Translation", the Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson went so far as
to declare that "poetry by definition [is] untranslatable".
In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, "Lost in Translation", which in
part explores this idea. The question was also discussed in Douglas Hofstadter's 1997
book, Le Ton beau de Marot; he argues that a good translation of a poem must convey as
much as possible of not only its literal meaning but also its form and structure (meter,
rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.).[32]
Douglas Hofstadter
In 2008, Taiwanese linguist Grace Hui Chin Lin suggests communication strategies can
be applied by oral translators to translate poetry. Translators with cultural backgrounds can oral translate poetry of
their nations. For example, poetry of Tung dynasty can be introduced to people outside of Chinese communities by
oral translation strategies. Also, several communication strategies for facilitating communicative limitations are
applicable as oral translation strategies for interpreting poetries.
Translation
122
Sung texts
Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another
language — sometimes called "singing translation" — is closely linked to translation of
poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse,
especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical
setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular
music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without
refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such
as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.[33]
Catherine Winkworth
Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry,
because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified
translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing
translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on
the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there
by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse
translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line.
Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests
and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be
more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or
completely different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum.
Translations of sung texts — whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be
read — are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not
known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera
performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal
music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know
well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing.
Translators
Attributes
A competent translator has the following qualities:
•
•
•
•
•
a very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from which he is translating (the source language);
an excellent command of the language into which he is translating (the target language);
familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated;
a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlates between the two languages; and
a finely tuned sense of when to metaphrase ("translate literally") and when to paraphrase, so as to assure true
rather than spurious equivalents between the source- and target-language texts.[34]
Misconception
It is commonly assumed that any bilingual individual is able to produce satisfactory or even high-quality
document translations simply because he is a fluent speaker of a second language. However, this is often not
the case. Because of the very nature of the different skills that each possesses, bilinguals and translators are not
equally prepared to perform document translations. The ability, skill and even the basic mental processes
required for bilingualism are fundamentally different from those required for translation.
Translation
Bilingual individuals are able to take their own thoughts and ideas and express them orally in two different
languages, their native language and a second language, sometimes well enough to pass for native speakers in
their second language. However, some persons will have a native command of two languages but prove inept
at translating even simple sentences.
Translators must be able to read, understand and retain somebody else’s ideas, then render them accurately,
completely and without exclusion, in a way that conveys the original meaning effectively and without
distortion in another language.
In other words, translators must be excellent readers in a source language, for example, in English as their
second language, and excellent writers in a target language, for example, in Spanish as their native
language.[35]
Among translators, it is generally accepted that the best translations are produced by persons who are translating
from their second language into their native language,[17] as it is rare for someone who has learned a second
language to have total fluency in that language.
"In the translation industry, it is considered 'standard procedure' to translate only from an individual's second
language, into their native language; never the other way around. For example, a native Spanish speaker should
always translate English documents into Spanish; however, this fundamental rule is often ignored by amateur
translators, and surprisingly, is often accepted without question by translation buyers.".[36] In China, Japan and
elsewhere, native translators will regularly work into and out of their native tongue.
Moreover, a fully competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural.
Translation has served as a writing school for many prominent writers. Translators, including monks who spread
Buddhist texts in East Asia and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have
shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge
between cultures. Along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages,
loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary.
Accreditation
Unlike medicine or architecture, no law prevents absolutely anyone from practicing translation, however there are
private or parastatal translation organizations which offer accreditation. The accreditation process often includes a
written examination. However, the examination does not cover every field of human endeavor and does not
guarantee the translator is competent in any particular specialization.
Such accreditation often has no legal effect, its marketing value lying in the esteem that the translation organization
enjoys as an independent authority on competent translation. However, in many countries, courts of law will not
admit into evidence a translation by other than a translator they have certified.
For more information, see Translating for legal equivalence
123
Translation
124
Interpreting
Interpreting, or "interpretation," is the facilitation of oral or
sign-language
communication,
either
simultaneously
or
consecutively, between two, or among more, speakers who are not
speaking, or signing, the same language.
The term "interpreting," rather than "interpretation," is preferentially
used for this activity by Anglophone translators, to avoid confusion
with other meanings of the word "interpretation."
Cortés (seated) and La Malinche (beside him) at
Xaltelolco
Unlike English, many languages do not employ two separate words
to denote the activities of written and live-communication (oral or
sign-language) translators.[37] Even English does not always make
the distinction, frequently using "translation" as a synonym for
"interpreting."
Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime
example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and
Doña Marina, an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the
Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya
slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual.
Subsequently given along with other women to the invading
Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of
Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to
Hernán Cortés.[38]
Nearly three centuries later, in the United States, a comparable role
as interpreter was played for the Lewis and Clark Expedition of
Sacagawea with Lewis and Clark
1804–6 by Sacagawea. As a child, the Lemhi Shoshone woman had
been kidnapped by Hidatsa Indians and thus had become bilingual.
Sacagawea facilitated the expedition's traverse of the North American continent to the Pacific Ocean. Four decades
later, in 1846, the Pacific Ocean would become the western border of the United States.
Machine translation
Machine translation (MT) is a process whereby a computer program analyzes a source
text and, in principle, produces a target text without human intervention. In reality,
however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of
pre-editing and post-editing.[39]
With proper terminology work, with preparation of the source text for machine
translation (pre-editing), and with reworking of the machine translation by a human
translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful
results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a
translation-memory or globalization-management system.[40]
Claude Piron
Unedited machine translation is available to a large public through tools on the Internet
such as Babel Fish, Babylon, and StarDict. These produce a rough translation that, under favorable circumstances,
"gives the gist" of the source text. There are also companies like Ectaco which produce pocket translation devices
that utilize MT.
Translation
Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human
language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a
reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error;
therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality
translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.[41]
Claude Piron writes that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and
more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve ambiguities in the source text, which
the grammatical and lexical exigencies of the target language require to be resolved.[42] Such research is a necessary
prelude to the pre-editing necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software, such that the output
will not be meaningless.[39]
CAT
Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation"
(MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with
the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator.
Computer-assisted translation can include standard dictionary and grammar software. The term, however, normally
refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including translation-memory,
terminology-management, concordance, and alignment programs.
With the Internet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand web pages published in
other languages. Whole-page-translation tools are of limited utility, however, since they offer only a limited potential
understanding of the original author's intent and context; translated pages tend to be more humorous and confusing
than enlightening.
Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show one or more possible
equivalents for each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the likeliest equivalent as the mouse
glides over the foreign-language text. Possible equivalents can be grouped by pronunciation.
Internet
Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that seek more accurate translators.
In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translators, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate
form of translation available.[43] With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing, translation-memory
techniques, and internet applications, translation companies and agencies have been able to provide on-demand
human-translation services to SMBs, individuals, and enterprises.
While not instantaneous like its machine counterparts such as Google Translate and Yahoo! Babel Fish, web-based
human translation is becoming increasingly popular as a solution for relatively fast, accurate translation for business
communications, legal documents, medical records, and software localization.[44] This solution also appeals to
private users for websites and blogs through the "string" system that enables websites to localize easily.[45]
125
Translation
Notes
[1] The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Tom McArthur, ed., 1992, pp. 1,051–54.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
J.M. Cohen, "Translation", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 27, p. 12.
Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", The Polish Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 84-87.
Andrew Wilson, Translators on Translating: Inside the Invisible Art, Vancouver, CCSP Press, 2009.
W.J. Hutchins, Early Years in Machine Translation: Memoirs and Biographies of Pioneers, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000.
M. Snell-Hornby, The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints?, Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 2006, p. 133.
Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83.
Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84.
"Ideal concepts" are useful as well in other fields, such as physics and chemistry, which include the concepts of perfectly solid bodies,
perfectly rigid bodies, perfectly plastic bodies, perfectly black bodies, perfect crystals, perfect fluids, and perfect gases. Władysław
Tatarkiewicz, "Perfection in the Sciences. II. Perfection in Physics and Chemistry," Dialectics and Humanism, vol. VII, no. 2 (spring 1980),
pp. 138–39.
[10] The Columbia Encyclopedia, fifth edition, 1994, p. 2,361.
[11] Typically, analytic languages.
[12] Typically, synthetic languages.
[13] A greater problem, however, is translating terms relating to cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language. Some examples
of this are described in the article, "Translating the 17th of May into English and other horror stories" (http:/ / www. noproblem. no/ translate.
html), retrieved 2010-04-15. For full comprehension, such situations require the provision of a gloss.
[14] Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 85.
[15] Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 85-86.
[16] L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86.
[17] Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86.
[18] Cited by Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 87, from Ignacy Krasicki, "O tłumaczeniu ksiąg" ("On Translating Books"), in Dzieła
wierszem i prozą (Works in Verse and Prose), 1803, reprinted in Edward Balcerzan, ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974:
Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), p. 79.
[19] French philosopher and writer Gilles Ménage (1613-92) commented on translations by humanist Perrot Nicolas d'Ablancourt (1606-64):
"Elles me rappellent une femme que j'ai beaucoup aimé à Tours, et qui était belle mais infidèle." ("They remind me of a woman whom I
greatly loved in Tours, who was beautiful but unfaithful.") Quoted in Amparo Hurtado Albir, La notion de fidélité en traduction, (The Idea of
Fidelity in Translation), Paris, Didier Érudition, 1990, p. 231.
[20] Antoine Berman, L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984.
[21] Lawrence Venuti, "Call to Action", in The Translator's Invisibility, 1994.
[22] Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 83-87.
[23] Crystal, Scott. "Back Translation: Same questions – different continent" (http:/ / www. atc. org. uk/ winter2004. pdf) (PDF). Communicate
(London: Association of Translation Companies) (Winter 2004): 5. . Retrieved 2007-11-20.
[24] "Back Translation for Quality Control of Informed Consent Forms" (http:/ / www. gts-translation. com/ medicaltranslationpaper. pdf) (PDF).
Journal of Clinical Research Best Practices. . Retrieved February, 2006.
[25] [[Mark Twain (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& id=ld_3LPm8FKkC& dq=french+ The+ Jumping+ Frog& printsec=frontcover&
source=web& ots=4trjrMcmq3& sig=P23kCS1s9qiu-1hdnJSzWWKvIJc& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=4& ct=result#PPA66,M1)], The
Jumping Frog: In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil,
illustrated by F. Strothman, New York and London, Harper & Brothers, Publishers, MCMIII [1903]].
[26] Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, pp. 193–94.
[27] J.M. Cohen, p. 12.
[28] J.M Cohen, pp. 12-13.
[29] J.M. Cohen, p. 13.
[30] J.M. Cohen, p. 14.
[31] For instance, Henry Benedict Mackey's translation of St. Francis de Sales's " Treatise on the Love of God (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/
desales/ love. html)" consistently omits the saint's analogies comparing God to a nursing mother, references to Bible stories such as the rape of
Tamar, and so forth.
[32] A discussion of Hofstadter's otherwise latitudinarian views on translation is found in Tony Dokoupil, " Translation: Pardon My French: You
Suck at This (http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ id/ 195684)," Newsweek, May 18, 2009, p. 10.
[33] For another example of poetry translation, including translation of sung texts, see Rhymes from Russia (http:/ / vagalecs. narod. ru/ ).
[34] *Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," The Polish Review, vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986), p. 135.
[35] Albert Kadosh, (http:/ / www. k12spanish. com/ Translation & Bilingualism Paper. pdf) Translation & Bilingualism 2007, p. 1.
[36] Albert Kadosh, (http:/ / www. k12spanish. com/ Translation & Bilingualism Paper. pdf) Page 5, Translation & Bilingualism 2007.
[37] For example, in Polish, a "translation" is "przekład" or "tłumaczenie." Both "translator" and "interpreter" are "tłumacz." For a time in the
18th century, however, for "translator," some writers used a word, "przekładowca," that is no longer in use. Edward Balcerzan, Pisarze polscy
o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), 1977, passim.
126
Translation
[38] Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes and the Fall of Old Mexico, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1993, pp. 171-72.
[39] See the annually performed NIST tests since 2001 (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ speech/ tests/ mt/ ) and Bilingual Evaluation Understudy
[40] Vashee, Kirti (2007). "Statistical machine translation and translation memory: An integration made in heaven!" (https:/ / webmailcluster.
perfora. net/ xml/ deref?link=http:/ / rs6. net/ tn. jsp?t=8mtygbcab. 0. ksqvgbcab. ro78ttn6. 33435& ts=S0250& p=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.
clientsidenews. com%2Fdownloads%2FCSNV7I6. zip). ClientSide News Magazine 7 (6): 18–20. .
[41] J.M. Cohen observes (p.14): "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to techniques. It is impossible
however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and
discrimination."
[42] Claude Piron, Le défi des langues (The Language Challenge), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994.
[43] "The many voices of the web" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ node/ 15582327?story_id=15582327& source=hptextfeature). The Economist.
2010-03-04. .
[44] Speaklike offers human-powered translation for blogs | VentureBeat (http:/ / media. venturebeat. com/ 2010/ 03/ 26/
speaklike-offers-human-powered-translation-for-blogs/ )
[45] Toto, Serkan (2010-01-11). "MyGengo Is Mechanical Turk For Translations" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/
2010/ 01/ 11/ AR2010011100701. html). The Washington Post. .
References
• Balcerzan, Edward, ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440-1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of
Translation, 1440-1974: an Anthology), Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1977.
• Berman, Antoine, L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984, excerpted in English in Lawrence Venuti, editor, The
Translation Studies Reader, 2002 (2nd edition, 2004).
• Cohen, J.M., "Translation", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 27, pp. 12–15.
• Darwish, Ali, "Towards a Theory of Constraints in Translation," 1999. ( @turjuman Online (http://www.
at-turjuman.com))
• Galassi, Jonathan et al., "Como Conversazione: On Translation," The Paris Review, 2000, no. 155, ISSN
0031-2037, pp. 255–312. Poets and critics Seamus Heaney, Charles Tomlinson, Tim Parks and others discuss the
theory and practice of translation.
• Gouadec, Daniel, Translation as a Profession, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2007, ISBN 978 90 272 1681 6.
• Kasparek, Christopher, "The Translator's Endless Toil", The Polish Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 83–87.
Includes a discussion of European-language cognates of the term, "translation".
• Kasparek, Christopher, "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," The Polish Review, vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986),
pp. 127–35.
• Kelly, L.G. (1979). The True Interpreter: a History of Translation Theory and Practice in the West. New York,
St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-82057-7.
• Miłosz, Czesław, The History of Polish Literature, 2nd ed., Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983, ISBN
0-520-04477-0.
• Muegge, Uwe (2005). Translation Contract: A Standards-Based Model Solution. AuthorHouse.
ISBN 1-4184-1636-3.
• Parks, Tim, Translating Style: A Literary Approach to Translation—A Translation Approach to Literature,
Manchester, St. Jerome, 2007, ISBN 1-905763-04-2.
• Piron, Claude, Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common
Sense), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994.
• Rose, Marilyn Gaddis, guest editor, Translation: Agent of Communication (a special issue of Pacific Moana
Quarterly, 5:1), 1980.
• Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (2008), ed. Mona Baker, Gabriela Saldanha, Routledge ISBN
978-0-415-36930-5
• Schleiermacher, Friedrich, "Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens", 1813, reprinted as "On the
Different Methods of Translating" in Lawrence Venuti, editor, The Translation Studies Reader, 2002, 2nd edition
2004.
• Simms, Norman, editor (1983). Nimrod's Sin: Treason and Translation in a Multilingual World.
127
Translation
• Tatarkiewicz, Władysław, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by
Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980, ISBN 83-01-00824-5.
• Venuti, Lawrence (1994). The Translator's Invisibility. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11538-8.
• Grace Hui Chin Lin 林慧菁(2008) Oral Translation of Poetry in Tung Dynasty through Communication
Strategies (http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED514039.pdf)
• Grace Hui Chin Lin 林慧菁(2009, Dec. 11) Machine Translation for Academic Purposes, 2009 International
Conference on TESOL & Translation. 2009 學術論文機械翻譯 (http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED513879.
pdf)
• Grace Hui Chin Lin 林慧菁(2010) Machine Translation in Post-contemporary Era,Conference on TESOL &
Translation. 2010, Department of English, Da-yeh University, 機械翻譯唐詩 (http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/
ED514031.pdf)
External links
• Translation (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Translation/) at the Open Directory
Project
• Early Theories of Translation (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/22353) at Project Gutenberg 1920 text by
Flora Ross Amos from the series Columbia University studies in English and comparative literature.
• UNESCO Clearing House for Literary Translation (http://www.unesco.org/culture/lit/)
• Machine Translation’s Past and Future (http://www.ccaps.net/blog/machine-translations-past-and-future/)
• "Machine Translation Development" (http://www.multilingues.eu/)
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