The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain

The older history of
the White-tailed Eagle
in Britain
Derek W. Yalden
Richard Johnson www.stitchbird.co.uk
ABSTRACT This short article reviews evidence for the former status of
White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla in Britain, on the basis of place-names
and archaeological findings. It concludes that there is no doubt that
White-tailed Eagles frequented lowland southern Britain during Roman
and Anglo-Saxon times.
he ornithological literature on the
former status of the White-tailed Eagle
Haliaeetus albicilla in Britain has been
admirably summarised by Love (1983), as part
of the background to the reintroduction programme for the species in Scotland. The bird’s
alternative name (the Sea Eagle), as well as its
recent (c. 1700–1900) history here, has tended
to reinforce the notion that it is a maritime
species, associated especially with sea cliffs and
islands. This has led some to question the suggestion, currently under consideration, that it
should also be reintroduced to England, and
moreover not to an especially maritime county,
such as Cornwall, but to Suffolk. Such questioning ignores both its history as a British
species and its ecology in, for instance,
Germany and Poland, where it frequents large
T
© British Birds 100 • August 2007 • 471–480
river valleys, lakes and reservoirs in wooded
areas, nesting sometimes on river cliffs but
often in large trees.
Its ecology elsewhere is well covered in
Cramp & Simmons (1980) and by local sources.
I wish to concentrate here on other evidence of
its former status in Britain, especially England,
which comes from archaeological and placename evidence. This evidence makes clear just
how widespread it once was in lowland Britain.
Place-names
The Old English (OE, otherwise Anglo-Saxon)
name ‘earn’, which became ‘erne’, probably
applied to any large eagle. While the Whitetailed Eagle was certainly recognised as a scavenger, along with the Wolf Canis lupus and
Common Raven Corvus corax, of the battlefield
471
The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain
Table 1. Places named after White-tailed Eagles Haliaeetus albicilla in England. Note that it seems likely that
the Old English (OE) ‘earn’ referred to eagles in general, and that it did not always differentiate Golden Eagle
Aquila chrysaetos from White-tailed Eagle.The distribution of these names, and their frequent association with
woodland and river valleys, strongly hints at White-tailed rather than Golden Eagle. A few Middle English (ME),
Old Norse (ON) and Cornish (C) names are included. County names are the pre-1974 ones traditionally used
in place-name literature. Compiled from Gelling (1987), Whittaker (1998) and Gelling & Cole (2000).
Place
County
Grid Ref.
Old English
Meaning
Arbury Banks
Areley
Arlecdon
Arley
Arley
Arley
Arley
Arley
Arley
Arnberg Scar
Arncliffe
Arnecliff
Arnecliffe
Arnewas
Arnewood
Arngrove
Arnold
Arnold
Ayleford
Burniere
Eagle Crag
Earley
Earlye farm?
Earn Crag
Earnley
Earnshaw
Earnshaw
Earnshaw Bridge
Earnslow
Earnstrey
Earnwood
Easdon
Eglemont
Eridge
Erne Crag
Ernesborough
Ernesdon Wood
Great Early Grove
Hern Clough
Herneshaw
Hernside
Hern Stones
Ingleby Arncliffe
Little Ernesettle
Yarnacombe Cross
Yarnacombe
Yarnbury Castle
Yarncliffe
Yarneford
Yarnfield
Yarninknowle Wood
Hertfordshire
Worcestershire
Cumbria
Warwickshire
Worcestershire
Cheshire
Lancashire
Lancashire
Staffordshire
West Yorkshire
North Yorkshire
North Yorkshire
North Yorkshire
Huntingdon
Hampshire
Buckinghamshire
Nottinghamshire
East Yorkshire
Gloucestershire
Cornwall
Cumbria
Berkshire
Sussex
Westmorland
Sussex
West Yorkshire
Cheshire
Lancashire
Cheshire
Shropshire
Shropshire
Devon
Bedfordshire
Sussex
Westmorland
Devon
Buckinghamshire
Bedfordshire
Derbyshire
Cumbria
Derbyshire
Derbyshire
North Yorkshire
Devon
Devon
Devon
Wiltshire
West Yorkshire
Devon
Wiltshire
Devon
TL2638
SO8070
NY0419
SP2890
SO7680
SJ6780
SD5327
SD6707
SO7680
SD9769
SD9371
NZ7804
SD9356
TL0997
SZ2895
SP6013
SK5945
TA1241
SO6608
SW9873
NY2712
SU7571
TQ5932
NY3608
SZ8196
SK2297
SJ7270
SD5222
SJ6270
SO5788
SO7478
SX7382
SP9821
TQ5535
NY3608
SS6230
SP8745
TL0953
SK0994
NY7270
SK1692
SK0995
NZ4400
SX4559
SX7243
SX6952
SU0340
SK3184?
SX8366
ST7637
SX6150
OE earn, byrig
OE earn, leah
OE earn, lacu, denu
OE earn, leah
OE earn, leah
OE earn, leah
OE earn, leah
OE earn, leah
OE earn, leah
OE earna-beorg, sker
OE earn, clif
OE earn, clif
OE earn, clif
OE earn, waesse
OE earn, wudu
OE earna, graf
OE earn, halh
OE earn, halh
OE earnleah, ford
C bren, er
ME
OE earn, leah
OE earn, leah?
ME earn, cragge
OE earn, leah
OE earna, sceaga
OE earna, sceaga
OE earna, sceaga
OE earnes, leah
OE earnes, treow
OE earn, wudu
OE earnes, dun
ME
OE earn, hrycg
ME erne, cragge
OE earnes, beorgh
OE earna, denu
OE earna, leah
OE earn ON clough
OE earna, sceaga
OE earn, side
OE earn, stan
OE earn, clif
OE earnes, setl
OE earn, cumb
OE earn, cumb
OE earn, burh
OE earn, clif
OE earn, ford
OE earna, feld
OE earna, cnoll
eagle fort banks
eagle clearing
eagle-stream valley
eagle clearing
eagle clearing
eagle clearing
eagle clearing
eagle clearing
eagle clearing
eagles’ hill scar
eagle cliff
eagle cliff
eagle cliff
eagle wetlands
eagle wood
eagles’ grove
eagle nook
eagle nook
eagle-clearing ford
eagle hill
eagle crag
eagle clearing
eagle clearing farm
eagle crag
eagle clearing
eagles’ wood
eagles’ wood
eagles’ wood bridge
eagle’s clearing
eagle’s tree
eagle wood
eagle’s hill
eagle hill
eagle ridge
eagle crag
eagle’s mound
eagles’ valley wood
eagles’ clearing
eagle valley
eagles’ wood
eagle slope
eagle stones
eagle cliff
eagle’s seat
eagle valley cross
eagle valley
eagle fort castle
eagle cliff
eagle ford
eagles’ field
eagle knoll wood
472
British Birds 100 • August 2007 • 471–480
The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain
Table 1. Places named after White-tailed Eagles Haliaeetus albicilla in England (continued).
Yarnscombe
Yarnshaw Hill
Yarns Hill?
Yarner
Yarner
Yarnfield
Yarnold Farm
Yarnspath Law
Yarwoodheath
Yes Tor
Devon
Cheshire
West Yorkshire
Devon
Devon
Staffordshire
Worcestershire
Co. Durham
Cheshire
Devon
SS5523
SJ9870
SD9905
SX7778
SX7762
SJ8632
SO9473
NT8813
SJ7485
SX5890
OE earn, cumb
OE earna, sceaga
OE earn, hyll?
OE earn, ofer
OE earn, ora
OE earn, feld
OE earn, hyll
OE earnes, paeth
OE earn, wudu
OE earna, tor
eagle valley
eagles’ wood hill
eagle hill
eagle ridge
eagle ridge
eagle field
eagle hill farm
eagles’ path
eagle wood heath
eagles’ tor
carrion, the former does so more regularly, but
the more important dietary distinction is that
Golden Eagles hunt mammals and birds, while
White-tailed Eagles, like other Haliaeetus, feed
extensively on fish, both freshwater and marine.
Thus Golden Eagles are more likely to be found
in mountainous areas, with abundant hares
Lepus, marmots Marmota and grouse
(Tetraonidae), while White-tailed Eagles are
usually found near water. Gelling (1987),
reviewing a sample of 34 place-names involving
‘earn’, noted two categories of associated words
making up the place-names, one indicating
open country and the other
woodland. She suggested that
perhaps places in open country,
incorporating elements like field,
ridge, combe, cliff and bank,
referred to Golden Eagles; several
locations in Devon and Yorkshire
are of this type. Places along, for
instance, the Severn, Mersey and
Thames valleys that included
wood or ‘leah’, a clearing in
woodland (e.g. Arley, Earnley),
were more likely to relate to
White-tailed Eagles. Further
searching in the volumes of the
English Place-name Society (see
Boisseau & Yalden 1999 for a full
bibliography of these sources), in
part as a student project by James
Whittaker, has increased the
sample of relevant place-names
to 68. About a third (21) of the
place-names imply woodland or
woodland clearings (table 1).
While it is not possible to insist
that any specific name relates to
the former presence of WhiteFig. 1. Map of place-names including the element ‘earn’ (red circles,
tailed rather than Golden Eagles
data in table 1). A few ‘eagle’ names (yellow circles) and one
at these places, the spread of
Cornish ‘er’ (yellow diamond) are also shown.
dead (‘earn aeftan hwit’, the eagle white behind;
Kitson 1997, 1998), it cannot be certain that
every incorporation of ‘earn’ in a place-name
relates to this species. However, there is an
abundance of such place-names, and they are
widely scattered across lowland Britain. The
ecological distinction between Golden Eagles
Aquila chrysaetos frequenting upland areas and
White-tailed Eagles frequenting lowlands, as
well as coastal areas, is widespread across
Europe, while in North America, Bald Eagles H.
leucocephalus play the equivalent lowland role.
Both White-tailed and Golden Eagles feed on
British Birds 100 • August 2007 • 471–480
473
The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain
Aelfric’s glossary; Wright 1884). Place-names
names across lowland England surely relates to
incorporate one or two other bird names whose
White-tailed Eagles. Gelling’s argument that
modern identity is less certain, notably ‘wrocc’
two species are indicated by the names is
in Wroxall, Wraxall, etc. (12 place-names),
doubted by Kitson (1998), who considered
which Ekwall (1936) suggested to be also a name
them to refer mostly or entirely to White-tailed
for a raptor, perhaps a buzzard. In view of its
Eagles. A cursory examination of the names in
scarcity as a place-name, its southern distribuDevon, for example, finds most of them in
tion, and absence from the glossaries, a rarer
wooded valleys and around, rather than on, the
raptor, perhaps Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus
highest ground, and therefore less likely to be
(my own preference) or Marsh Harrier Circus
Golden Eagle sites. Later (Middle English)
aeruginosus (suggested by Kitson 1998), is indinames and those in northern England related to
cated. Either way, it is clear that the Anglocliffs and crags might more plausibly be related
Saxons had and used a variety of names for
to Golden Eagles, but even that is not certain.
smaller raptors, and it is surely inconceivable
Both Golden and White-tailed Eagles were
that they misused ‘earn’ to refer to them.
recorded in historical times from the Lake District (Love 1983).
Place-names in northern and western areas
Archaeological records
of Britain, incorporating elements such as Scots
Archaeological records are usually unamGaelic ‘iolaire’, Welsh ‘eryr’, Manx ‘urley’ and
biguous to species. Not only are White-tailed
Irish ‘iolar’, as well as the Old Norse ‘orn’, have
Eagle bones generally bigger than those of
also been compiled, but could relate to either
Golden Eagles, even after allowing for the conspecies, and are left out of table 1 and fig. 1.
siderable sexual dimorphism in size between
Given that modern tourists to Scotland are
females and smaller males, but the two species
reputed to misidentify Common
Buzzards Buteo buteo as eagles on
a regular basis, one might ask
how reliable is the attribution of
earn in place-names to what in
modern terms we regard as
eagles? Two arguments present
themselves. One is that a much
?
more rural population had a
much better idea of what they
saw in the countryside than
modern town-dwelling tourists,
even if their concepts of avian
taxonomy were less precise than
now. The other is the wide variety
of other raptors whose names
appear in place-names. A trawl of
place-name literature similar to
that which located the earn place?
names found 170 involving hawk
and 18 ‘hafoc’ (Anglo-Saxon for
hawk), 96 for kite or ‘cyta’ (originally indicating buzzard), 24
‘puttock’ (also kite, originally),
five ‘pyttel’ (buzzard) and 54
‘gleoda’ (glider, either kite or
harrier) (Boisseau 1995). These
are identified with their Latin
equivalents in Anglo-Saxon glossaries (e.g. hafoc = accipiter, cyta
Fig. 2. Map of archaeological records of White-tailed Eagles Haliaeetus
= buteo and gleoda = milvus, in
albicilla (data in table 2).
474
British Birds 100 • August 2007 • 471–480
The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain
it indicates the wealth of Roman archaeological
sites that has been excavated in this country.
However, they do show clearly that it was widespread throughout England during that period.
There are fewer records from later, post-Roman,
periods, and they are mostly from northern
sites. This may be a genuine reflection of
increasing scarcity due to persecution, drainage
and woodland clearance.
Some of these records come from the sort of
maritime, northern sites that match the modern
perception of good White-tailed Eagle habitat,
notably sites such as Viking Age Skail in Orkney
and Medieval Iona in the Inner Hebrides, as
well as the Neolithic and Iron Age Orkney sites
of Isbister, Howe, Links of Notland and Point of
Cott. White-tailed Eagles were remarkably
abundant at Isbister, contributing 641 of a total
of 745 bird bones, and must have had some
symbolic significance there – the site received
the nickname ‘Tomb of the Eagles’ (Bramwell
1983; Hedges 1984). However, the spread of
records across lowland Britain is equally
notable, and registers the species
from the Somerset Levels (Iron
Age lake villages at Meare and
Glastonbury) and the wetlands
of the Humber estuary (Skipsea,
Hornsea, Dragonby) as well as
?
the fenlands of East Anglia
(Burwell Fen, Stonea, Longthorpe).
Not only is the Golden Eagle
much rarer in archaeological
sites, but the 14 available records
come from northern and western
?
Britain (table 3); as befits the
arguments, above, about the
habitat of the two species, none
is further southeast in England
than Stafford and the Peak District (fig. 3). One might expect
more records from Scotland, but
the archaeological record there is
?
poorer than from England, and
the best sites there (the ones with
most wild birds recorded) are
coastal ones, particularly in
Orkney. There is a similar,
though less extreme, disparity in
the Swedish archaeological
record: 18 Golden Eagles but 33
White-tailed Eagles (Ericson &
Fig. 3. Map of archaeological sites for Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos
Tyrberg 2004).
and uncertainly identified eagles (data in table 3).
are not closely related and there are numerous
skeletal differences. For instance, two of the
digital phalanges (toe bones) in the 4th toe are
fused in Haliaeetus, but not in Aquila, and of
course the beak is much deeper. The archaeological record has been collated under a project
financed by the Leverhulme Trust, as a preliminary step to writing a forthcoming book on the
history of British birds. Currently, it includes 57
records (table 2, fig. 2). The same database has
only 15 records of Golden Eagle, and nine of
uncertain ‘eagle sp.’ (table 3, fig. 3). In time, they
range from Ipswichian Interglacial to late
Medieval, but only five pre-date the Late Glacial
period (15,000–11,000 years BP). Records later
than the maximum of the Last (Devensian)
Glaciation, at about 20,000 years BP , can be
taken as indicating native status; that is, the bird
arrived by itself, after the maximum of the Last
Glaciation wiped the biological slate clean (see
Yalden 2003). Most records (19) come from
Roman sites. This does not necessarily mean
that the species was most abundant then; rather,
British Birds 100 • August 2007 • 471–480
475
The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain
Table 2. Archaeological records of White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla in Britain.
Dates/periods are as assigned to these records in the source literature.
Site
Grid ref.
Date/period
Source
Walton, nr Clevedon
Tornewton Cave
Soldier’s Hole, Cheddar
ST4274
SX8167
ST4654
Reynolds (1907); Palmer & Hinton (1928)
Harrison (1980a,b); Harrison (1987)
Harrison (1988)
Cat Hole, Gower
London Basin
Walthamstow, Essex
Soldier’s Hole, Cheddar
Rousay, Orkney
Church Hole Cave
Hornsea
Skipsea
Port Eynon Cave, Gower
Carding Mill Bay
Lough Gur, Co Limerick
Links of Noltland, Orkney
Rousay – Knowe of Ramsay
Isbister
Westray – Point of Cott
Dublin – Dalkey Island
Burwell Fen
Potterne
Coneybury Henge, nr Stonehenge
Dragonby
Meare Lake Village
Glastonbury Lake Village
Deerness – Skail
Howe, Orkney
Puckeridge & Braughing
Carlisle – The Lanes
Leicester – High Street
Stanwick – Redlands Farm
Uley Shrines, Gloucs.
Ower
Stonea, Cambridgeshire
London – Billingsgate Buildings
London – Southwark
Caerleon
Camulodunum
Long Bennington
Dragonby
Tolpuddle Ball
Longthorpe
Binchester
Segontium
SS5390
TQ27
TQ3788
ST4654
HY4030
SK5374
TA2147
TA1655
SS4785
NM8429
R6441
HY4249
HY4028
HY4018
HY4647
O2726
TL5967
ST9959
SU1341
SE9012
ST4442
ST4938
HY5806
HY2710
TL3924
NY3956
SK5804
SP9670
ST7899
SZ0085
TL4493
TQ3280
TQ3179
ST3390
TL9825
SK8247
SE9012
SY8194
TL1597
NZ2131
SH4864
Ipswichian?
Wolstonian
Middle/Early
Late Devensian
Devensian
Upper Devensian
Late Glacial
Late Glacial
Post-Glacial
Flandrian
Holocene
Mesolithic
9,000–6,000 BP
5,000 BP
Neolithic
Neolithic
Neolithic
Neolithic
Neolithic
Neolithic
Bronze Age
Bronze Age
Bronze Age
Iron Age
Iron Age
Iron Age
Iron Age
Iron Age
Late Iron Age
Early Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Roman
Dunstable
Droitwich
Scole-Dickleburgh
York – Minster – SE
Lagore
York – Coppergate
Deerness – Skail
York – Minster – Contubernia
Dublin – Woods Quay
Nantwich
Waterford
Iona – Abbey
Brougham Castle, Cumbria
TL0121
SO8963
TM1680
SE6052
N9852
SE6052
HY5806
SE6052
O1535
SJ6552
S6012
NM2824
NY5328
Roman
Roman
Late Roman
5th–8th C
Sax/Med
Anglo–Scand
Viking
9th–11th C
10th–11th C
Medieval
Medieval
Medieval
14th–16th C
476
Harrison (1980a)
Harrison (1985)
Bell (1922); Harrison & Walker (1977)
Harrison (1988)
Bramwell (1960)
Jenkinson (1984)
Bell (1922)
Sheppard (1922)
Harrison (1987)
Hamilton-Dyer & McCormick (1993)
D’Arcy (1999)
Armour-Chelu (1988)
Davidson & Henshall (1989)
Bramwell (1983)
Harman (1997)
Hatting (1968)
Northcote (1980)
Locker (2000)
Maltby (1990)
Harman (1996)
Gray (1966)
Andrews (1917); Harrison (1980a, 1987)
Allison (1997)
Bramwell (1994)
Ashdown (1979)
Connell & Davis (unpubl.)
Baxter (1993); Mulkeen & O’Connor (1997)
Davis (1997)
Cowles (1993)
Coy (1987)
Stallibrass (1996)
Cowles (1980a); Parker (1988)
Cowles (1980b); Parker (1988)
Hamilton-Dyer (1993)
Luff (1982, 1985); Parker (1988)
Harman (1994)
Harman (1996)
Hamilton-Dyer (1999)
King (1987)
Mulkeen & O’Connor (1997)
O’Connor (1993); Mulkeen & O’Connor
(1997)
Jones & Horne (1981); Parker (1988)
Cowles (1980b); Parker (1988)
Baker (1998)
Rackham (1995)
Stelfox (1938), Hencken (1950)
O’Connor (1989)
Allison (1997)
Rackham (1995)
D’Arcy (1999)
Fisher (1986)
D’Arcy (1999)
Coy & Hamilton-Dyer (1993)
Gidney (1992)
British Birds 100 • August 2007 • 471–480
The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain
Table 3. Archaeological sites for Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos and uncertain eagle Aquila/Haliaeetus sp.,
arranged roughly in date order. Dates/periods are as assigned to these records in the source literature.
Site
Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos
Cat Hole, Gower, Glamorgan
Aveline’s Hole, Somerset
Pinhole Cave, Derbyshire
Robin Hood’s Cave,
Derbyshire
Gough’s Old Cave, Cheddar,
Somerset
Fox Hole Cave, Derbyshire
Howe, Orkney
Meare Lake Village, Somerset
Bainesse Farm, Catterick,
N. Yorkshire
Ossom’s Eyrie Cave,
Staffordshire
Iona Monastery, Argyll
Lough Gur, Co. Limerick
Iona, Argyll
Stafford Castle, Staffordshire
Aquila/Haliaeetus sp.
Langwith Cave, Derbyshire
Little Hoyle, Pembrokeshire
Mount Sandel, nr Coleraine,
Co. Down
Jarlshof, Shetland
Perthichwareu, Llandegla,
Denbighshire
Midhowe, Rousay, Orkney
Caister-on-Sea, Norfolk
High Street, Perth, Perthshire
Castle Park, Dunbar, E. Lothian
Grid ref.
Date/period
Source
SS5390
ST4758
SK5374
SK5374
Devensian
Late Pleistocene
Late Devensian
Late Devensian
Harrison (1980a)
Newton (1921, 1922, 1924); Tyrberg (1998)
Jenkinson (1984)
Jenkinson & Bramwell (1984)
ST4653
Late Palaeolithic
Harrison (1989)
SK1066
HY2710
ST4442
SE2299
Neolithic
Iron Age
Iron Age
Roman
Bramwell (1978)
Bramwell (1994)
Gray (1966)
Meddens (1990); Stallibrass (2002)
SK0955
Roman
Bramwell et al. (1987, 1990)
NM2824
R6441
NM2825
SJ9223
Christian
13th–14th C
Medieval
16th C
Coy & Hamilton-Dyer (1993)
D’Arcy (1999)
Bramwell (1981)
G. Jones pers. comm.
SK5169
SS1199
Mullins (1913)
Bell (1915); Tyrberg (1998)
C8632
Devensian
Late Pleistocene
(22,800 BP)
Mesolithic
van Wijngaarden-Bakker (1985)
HU3909
SJ1854
Bronze Age
Neolithic
Platt (1956)
Bramwell (1960)
HY3730
TG5112
NO1123
NT6679
Neolithic
Roman
Medieval
Medieval
Davidson & Henshall (1989)
Harman (1993)
Smith (1997)
Smith (2000)
Conclusions
For a large and generally scarce bird, Whitetailed Eagle is relatively frequent in the archaeological record, and there is no doubt about the
identity of most of its remains. The nine
records of ‘eagle sp.’ appended to table 3 are as
likely, on distributional or habitat arguments, to
be Golden Eagle as White-tailed Eagle, except
for the record from Caister-on-Sea. Placenames are more ambiguous – they could refer
to either White-tailed or Golden Eagle – but
they supplement the record of bones in
showing that eagles were once widespread in
southern and lowland Britain, not confined to
montane areas. The two sets of data are complementary. By definition, in most archaeological
sites, eagle bones have been transported by
humans, so might derive from some distance
away. Place-names might refer to the other
British Birds 100 • August 2007 • 471–480
species, but they surely relate to the particular
site in question. In combination, there is no
doubt that White-tailed Eagles frequented
lowland, southern Britain through Roman and
Anglo-Saxon times. Historically, there is no
reason to question the propriety of attempting
to reintroduce the species to southern England.
Acknowledgments
The archaeological database on which this ar ticle is
compiled was assembled from the literature by Robert
Carthy, employed on a Leverhulme Research Grant. I am
grateful to both him and the Leverhulme Trust for their
support, which is intended to result in the publication of a
History of British Birds. Numerous correspondents have
helped with both place-name and archaeological literature
and records, including M. Gelling and P. R. Kitson on the
former, Umberto Albarella, Keith Dobney, Sheila HamiltonDyer, Terry O’Connor, Dale Serjeantson and Catherine
Smith on the latter. I thank James Whittaker and Simon
Boisseau for the contributions made by their
undergraduate projects on place-names.
477
Richard Saunders/Natural England
The older history of the White-tailed Eagle in Britain
198. Adult White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla, Hokkaido, Japan, February 2007.
References
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Gelling of the Prehistoric, Pictish,Viking and later
periods, 1963–1981. BAR British Series 260: 247–248.
Andrews, C.W. 1917. Report on the remains of birds. In:
Bulleid, A., & Gray, H. S. G. (eds.), The Glastonbury Lake
Village: a full description of the excavations and the relics
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