Guest Speaker - 12 November 2015 Arya Duta Manado Indonesia

Transcription

Proceedings of the 1th International
Seminar on
Quality and Affordable Education
(ISQAE -2012):
“Developing Qualified and Affordable
Education System For All”
21 – 23 May, 2012
Grand Sahid Jaya Hotel, Jakarta
INDONESIA
Organized by:
STATE UNIVERSITY
OF JAKARTA
Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, MS –Deputy Minister of Education and
Culture, Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd. – Head of Educational Resource
Development and Education Quality Assurance,
Ministry of Education and Culture Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto., M.Pd - Rector of State University of Jakarta,
Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Djaali - Director of Graduate Program,
State University of Jakarta, Indonesia
Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D- Andalas University, Padang,
West Sumatera, Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Saedah Siraj - University of Malaya, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Noor Azlan Ahmad Zanzali – University Technology Malaysia,
Malaysia
Ir. Isran Noor, M.Si - General Chief of Indonesian
Local Government Association, Indonesia
Dr. Ir. Willy M. Yoseph, MM - The Regent of Murung Raya,
Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
Prof. Dr. H. Djaali
Prof. Dr. Mukhlis R. Luddin
Prof. Dr. Saedah Siraj
Prof. Dr. Mohamad Bilal Ali
Pof. Dr. Yetti Supriyati
Prof. Dr. H. Emzir, M.Pd.
Dr. Wardhani Rahayu, M.Si.
Dr. Yuliatri Sastrawijaya, M.Pd.
Dr. Endry Boeriswati, M.Pd.
Foreword
On behalf of the organizing committee please allow me to welcome
you, guest speakers and participants to this seminar. We also render our
gratitute and appreciation for your attendance. This seminar is truly
internasional seminar, since it is hosted by three universities, namely: the
State University of Jakarta, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia, and Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. The guest speakers also come from several countries
such as Indonesia, Malaysia and other countries, and attended by
participants from various countries, such as: Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand,
the United Arab Emirate, India, the United States of America, Iran, and the
Philippines.
To improve social welfare and alleviate poverty, the government of
Indonesia has established a policy in the field of eduactional system to fulfill
the increasing demands of science and technology and labor market. The
objective of the policy is to increase participation rate 100% for elementary
education and 96% for secondary education. Even the target has been
achieved 94,6% in 2009, it is far from the whole objective.
Based on the data of Education Development Index (EDI), several
countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar
and Cambodia are in the category of middle level in the EDI countries, while
other countries such as Brunei Darussalam is in the higher level. In other
words, quality education is still a problem in those countries.
The effort to expand the access to affordable education in terms of
geographical and economic development, improving the quality and
relevance of education, strengthening governance and accountability of
educational services must be realized to accelerate the achievement of
universal primary education by 2015. Such an effort should be implemented
to include: (i) education and competence of tachers; (ii) teachers
professionalism; (iii) financial education management and human resource
management; (iv) politics of education; (v) the paradigm and politics of
education; (vi) development of organizational education; (vii) quality
assurance of education; (viii) education and gender equality; and
(ix) education for all.
Regarding those above issues, the seminar is aimed to produce
strategic formulas to solve such a problem, particularly to find a solution how
to develop a qualified and affordable education system. In line with that aim,
the theme of this seminar is “Developing a Qualified and Affordable
Education System for All”.
i
This international seminar would not be possible without the
contributions and support from our sponsors, partners, and supporters, for
which we give our heartflet thanks. We hope our collaboration would
contribute a great merit to the development of education in our societies.
Committee Chairman
Ir. Syaiful Anwar, M.Bus., MA
State University of Jakarta
ii
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword
i
Contents
iii
Message from State University of Jakarta, Indonesia
vii
Message from University of Malaya, Malaysia
ix
Message from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
x
Keynote Speaker
Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, M.S.
xi
Guest Speaker
Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd
xii
Guest Speaker
Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto, M.Pd
xiii
Guest Speaker
Prof. Dr. Djaali
xiv
Guest Speaker
Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D
xv
Guest Speaker
xvi
Guest Speaker
Prof. Dr. Noor Azlan Bin Ahmad Zanzali
xvii
Guest Speaker
Ir. Isran Noor, M.Si
xviii
iii
Guest Speaker
Dr. Ir. Willy M. Yoseph, M.M
xix
The 1th International Seminar on Quality And Affordable Education
(ISQAE 2012)
xx
Reliabilitas Multidimensi Instrumen Tingkat Kepuasan Mahasiswa
sebagai Pelanggan Internal
Gaguk Margono
1-16
Evaluation of Knowledge Structure of Students in Some Chemistry
Topics after Process Workshop Activities
Carmencita G. Palanca
17-26
The Correlation among Students’ English Achievement, Students’
Grades, Gender, Parents’ Profession and Parents’ Involvement
of State Senior High Schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency
Silfi Sanda
27-42
Assessing Quality Assurance for Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education in Malaysia: Reflecting on Its Policy and Processes
Abu Bakar Nordin, Saedah Siraj, Norlidah Alias
43-64
Penerapan Penskalaan PCM pada Pengukuran Persepsi Mahasiswa
terhadap Dosen Matematika
Wardani Rahayu
65-82
Evaluasi Program Supervisi Pembelajaran IPA SMP
di Kota Gorontalo
Astin Lukum
83-102
Research and Trends in The Studies of Native and Non-Native
Speaker Teachers of Languages:
A Review on Selected Researches and Thesis
Fathen Suriati Jusoh, Saedah Siraj, Norlidah Alias, Ghazali
Darusalam
103-122
Validating Personality as Determinant Factors of Elementary
School Principals Performance
I Made Putrawan, Francis Tantri, Sr. Jeanne Marie
123-148
iv
Using an Authentic Asessment and Effect to Student
Metacognitive in Biology
Marheny Lukitasari, Akhmad Sukri, Nasrul Rofiah, Anik Dwi
Handayani
149-156
Research and Trends in The Studies of School-Based Oral English
Assessment from 2003 to 2011: A Review on Selected Journals
Nur Diana Mohd Kamal, Saedah Siraj, Norlidah Alias,
Mohammad Attaran
157-172
Inappropriateness Index Reviewed from Scoring Techniques
Yuliatri Sastrawijaya, Naro Prasetyo
173-184
Designing A Useful Grammar Test at University Level
Abid
185-200
Kemahiran Pembelajaran Abad Ke 21: Teknik Pembelajaran
Berpenyertaan
Mohd. Nazri, Abdul Rahman, Norlidah Binti Alias, Saedah Binti
Siraj
201-220
Quality Education: Evaluating Bilingual Program in Piloting School
of International Standard
Muchlas Suseno
221-228
Test of Item Validity of Performance Test in Pattern Making of
Vocational High School Students (SMK) in Denpasar Bali
Ni Ketut Widiartini
229-240
Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Tersembunyi dalam Kalangan Pelajar
Sekolah Menengah
Abdul Rahim Hamdan PM, Mohamad Najib Ghaffar, Ahmad
Johari Sihes, Hj Zainuddin Hassan, Nani Herlin binti Jamin Pn.
241-248
Pengembangan Bahan Ajar Perkuliahan Penilaian Pembelajaran
Fisika FMIPA UNJ
Yetti Supriyati
249-262
The Correlation between Anamnesis Skills Lab, Creative Thinking
and Ability to Solve Problem on Students of Medicine Faculty
at Krida Wacana Christian University Jakarta
Rina Priastini, Budiman Hartono
263-278
v
The Problem Solving for Paragraph Writing for Academic
Purposes Based on Cohesion and Coherence
Widjono Hs.
279-292
Language Acquisition in Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing
and Publishing Skills
Zalzulifa
293-304
A Policy in Elevating The Educational Qualification in Indonesia 305-312
through The Application of Good University Governance
Paradigms
Theresia Kristianty
Penerapan Asesmen Portofolio dengan Model Pembelajaran
Berbasis Produksi
Jufrina Mandulangi
vi
313-324
The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012)
Message from State University of Jakarta, Indonesia
Assalamu’alaikum Wr.Wb.
First of all let us pray praise and gratitude the presence of Almighty
God, because with God permits we are still in good health so that we can all
attend an international seminar on this day.
I think this forum is important, because this kind of academic forum,
built and operated by three leading universities are neighboring each other.
These three universities (Universiti Malaya, State University of Jakarta, and
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia) has long been cooperating in various fields of
activities (academic, student exchange, faculty exchange, goodwill visits and
so on) to improve the knowledge, skills and friendship to build an academic
community.
On this day, one of the forms of cooperation that, in the form of an
international seminar organized jointly between the three universities of this,
we can follow and watch. I warmly welcome and feel optimistic that the
model of this kind of concrete cooperation can improve the quality of
academic life.
Indeed, we are now, we should not sit back and feel of its own.
Moreover, such feelings, often, not accompanied by an increase and
continual updating of knowledge. And we also understand that the
development of science is so very quickly. And often precede the
development of science is a growing aspirations of our community in mind (in
Asia or ASEAN). We recognize that developments in science that we must
grasp with more systematic and continuously, because we also require that
what we understand today can help us provide a new understanding of
behavior change our lives in times to come.
I consider that the issues which was raised at an international
seminar this time is very precise and strategic. Important because the issue
relates to the real problems being faced by our society, especially those who
live in ASIAN region or ASIA. Issues to be discussed at this conference is very
compatible with the development aspirations of our society, let alone a
region, and of course ASEAN, is expected to make greater contributions to
the resolution of societal problems being faced by the world community. Asia
and ASEAN become the foundation of an alternative solution to the problem
of human life.
One of the most important attention on the problems of life are in
the area of education. We still have a big homework-completing the disparity
between on the one hand there is a tremendous leap in the advancement of
science and technology, so that urban communities enjoy more access to
vii
(service) of modern life; on the other hand we also have to still deal with
many of our communities not yet covered by the quality of education
services, especially in people residing in remote areas (remote areas).
Therefore, the international seminar organized jointly by some of the
best universities in the region will give a significant meaning to the
emergence of a model 'academic relationship' between members of the
education community. In this kind of forum, we can exchange ideas, share
understanding, developing academic discourse, so that we will gain a new
understanding of what is being developed and what is being shared attention
in our efforts to improve the quality of our lives together.
I hope that the activities of this international seminar may be
maintained and held in rotation, from one university to another. From one
country to another. From one city to another. Thus, in addition we can
improve the knowledge and skills of each of us, we also can build a more
comprehensive understanding of the cultural richness, diversity of life
models, thus further enhancing mutual understanding and strengthen ties
the oneness of origin in this region.
Finally, I extend a welcome to all participants, especially those
coming from our friendly countries, hopefully you all can enjoy this kind of
academic activity. I also hope that we all can meet, discuss and exchange
knowledge on the other occasion with new hope and new inspiration. Once
again, I congratulate to held seminar, thank you.
Wassalamu'alaikum Wr.Wb.
Jakarta, May 21th, 2012
Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto, M.Pd.
Rector of the State University of Jakarta
viii
Message from University of Malaya, Malaysia
First of all, I would like to congratulate the State University of Jakarta
for organizing the First International Seminar on “Quality and Affordable
Education 2012” or ISQAE 2012 and also for inviting the Faculty of Education
of the University of Malaya as co-organizer.With the theme of ‘Developing a
Qualified and Affordable Education System for All" this seminar is timely and
important because quality and affordability will ensure both success and
access in education.
I am pleased that this cooperative effort between the Faculty of
Education of Universiti Malaya and State University of Jakarta will strengthen
the ties between our institutions, lead to publication of scholarly works of
practical value and usefulness and also provide the basis for further
collaborative research in future.
I also hope that the next three days (May 21-23) will enable us to
explore in depth the issues related to ensuring quality in education and ways
to maintain affordability without sacrificing quality. Because in the
challenging and competitive globalized world today, education – especially
higher education -- is no longer a luxury but a necessity to maintain national
competitiveness and population well-being.
The Faculty of Education of UM appreciates being given a role to play
on this auspicious occasion. Thank you for allowing us to participate and
exchange ideas and I hope this is only the beginning of a strong, fruitful and
lasting collaboration.
Terima kasih dan selamat maju jaya.
Prof . Dr. Saedah Siraj
Dean Faculty of Education, University of Malaya
ix
Message from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Assalamualaikum warahmatullah hi wabarakatuh
Excellency’s, Distinguished Delegates, Ladies
and Gentlemen.
It gives me great pleasure and privilege to
extend to you all a very warm welcome on behalf of
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) to this
International Educational Seminar which also cohosted together with Universiti Malaya (UM) and
Universitas Negeri Jakarta (UNJ). A special thanks goes to the Government of
Republic of Indonesia and UNJ for hosting this seminar and for all the
facilities which will undoubtedly highly contribute to the success of this
Seminar,
It is gratifying to note that the agenda of this Seminar covers a wide
range of very interesting topics relating to the educational fields. One of the
purposes of this seminar is to exchange ideas and I personally think that this
is high an opportune time to create and establish contacts and discuss
problems of mutual interest among participants with different background
and experiences as delegates for this seminar coming from different
countries. This is a good start to develop and strengthen capacities of
individuals and institution in a joint collaboration. I believe that this seminar
will help in building the progress and set an ambitious new version for the
future in taking the leap in advanced academic setting. I hope this seminar
will provide an opportunity to share our unique perspectives and experiences
with other and renew commitment to an important step in strengthening the
cooperative network among the institutions.
In conclusion, I wish you every success in your deliberations and a
very pleasant stay in Jakarta and enjoy the seminars. Hopefully this event is
not the last and we may see each other in the next similar seminar.
Associate Prof. Dr. Mohamad Bilal Ali
Dean Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
x
Keynote Speaker
Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, MS started his
career as Secretary of the Research Institute of the
University of Andalas, Chairman of the Institute for
Community Service University of Andalas, Vice Rector
for Administration and finance of University of
Andalas, Rector of the University of Andalas, Inspector
General of the Ministry of National Education, the
Deputy Minister of Education and Culture Education.
He received his doctorate from the University of the
Philippines at Los Banos in 1992 and had attended Training Administration
Management for Higher Education in Saga University in Japan. Prof. Dr. Ir. H.
Musliar Kasim, MS. Also actively researching and developing SRI Cultivation
(The System of Rice Intensification) for Indonesia. He is also initiator and
Research Team trial planting of wheat Cooperation between the University of
Andalas with Slovakia. The award that has been received are the best
graduates student in faculty of agriculture, cumlaude for his master and the
best lecturer of Andalas University (1994) and Runner up of The Best National
Lecturer Indonesia.
Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, M.S.
Vice Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia
xi
Guest Speaker
Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd is a professor
in State University of Medan. His educational
background are: Doctor degree at educational
management , State University of Jakarta. Magister
degree was completed at Educational Research and
Evaluation, IKIP Yogyakarta. Between 2003 – 2007,
Syawal Gultom had been Vice Rector II, State
University of Medan. Some of his research are
Relationship Between Mathematics and Physics
Ability High School Students In accordance with
Curriculum 1984 in municipality, Skills Analysis of High School Students To
Apply Mathematics in Physics in the municipality of Yogyakarta, Evaluation
Research. Reasoning Ability, Numerical Ability and Control Materials
Mathematics And Its Relation With the ability to use mathematics in physics,
Media Effectiveness Concept Map Functions On The Teaching Calculus I
Lectures in the Department of Mathematics Faculty State University of
Medan. Beside of, he has participated in SEMINAR, upgrading, WORKSHOPS,
and scientific meeting: Experimental Design, Testing relationships:
correlation and regression analysis, accuracy of Research Data Processing,
Data Analysis Package Using Various Research, Problem Formulation
Research: Theory and Applications, World Development Education
Technology Education, Development and Implementation of CompetencyBased Curriculum in UNIMED Environment, Development And
implementation of Competency-Based Curriculum.
Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd
Head of Educational Resource Development and Education Quality
Assurance, Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia
xii
Guest Speaker
Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto, M.Pd. is a rector of
State University of Jakarta. He received his doctoral
degree in State University of Jakarta (IKIP Jakarta) and
his master in State University of Padang (IKIP Padang).
His specialization is in Educational Management. He
joined some training such as National Defense
Institute, Internal Management Improvement and
Integrated Quality Management. His started his
carrer as education consultant in Jakarta Office of
Education in some project and research such as
Supervisors, School Principals and Teachers Recruitment in Local Autonomy
Era Project, Basic Education Development Project, Secondary Education
Development Project, Compulsory Education Pilot Project, Subject Matter
Teachers Need Analysis Project and Junior Secondary Education Quality
Improvement Project and DKI Jakarta Dezentralised Baisc Education Project.
Before become the rector he was Vice Dean, Faculty of Education for
Academic Affair and Head of Institute for Community Service in State
University of Jakarta.
Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto., M.Pd
Rector of State University of Jakarta, Indonesia
Email: [email protected]
xiii
Guest Speaker
Prof. Dr. H. Djaali is Director of Graduate
Program in State University of Jakarta, kind a precious
University in East Jakarta. He is concurrently a
Professor of Education at the State University of Jakarta
and also a member of National Standards Bodies of
Education. He has 15 years experience at State
University of Jakarta. He was the Head of Educational
Research and Evaluation Studies Graduate Program,
State University of Jakarta and also Chairman of the
College of Management Sciences Budi Bakti. Previous to this position he was
the Chief Secretary cum Development Program Doctoral Program Graduate
State University of Jakarta. He was also a Consultant for The World Bank's
Strategic Plan for Development of National Education Ministry, Partnership
for Governance Reform in Indonesia UNDP, the Evaluation Team Leader
duties Sisdik Police, Police Officer Education Curriculum Development,
cosecutively for almost a decade. He received his Professor from State
University of Jakarta in 1999. He achieved his Doctoral directly without any
Master degree after his graduation in 4 years after. He devoted his life to
teaching since graduated in Makassar until now in Jakarta. In addition to
teaching at State University of Jakarta, he also taught as a lecturer at several
universities flew home and abroad, such as High School of Accounting
Sciences Administration of State Institutions, College Police Science,
Bhayangkara University Center, Moestopo University, Pakuan University,
Northern University Malaysia, Jayabaya University, State University of
Makassar and became a member of the Senate of few of the university.
Prof. Dr. Djaali
Director of Graduate Program
State University of Jakarta, Indonesia
xiv
Guest Speaker
Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D received his Ph.D.
from Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA at
1991 in the field Science of Community Nutrition
with a Minorin Epidemiology and Southeast Asia
Studies Program. He was a Deputy Minister of
Education, Ministry of National Education Republic of
Indonesia during 2010-2011. Before that position, he
was Director General of Higher Education, Ministry
of National Education (2007-2010), Director General
for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education
Personnel, Ministry of National Education (2005-2007), Director General of
School Education and Youth, Ministry of National Education (2001-2005),
Advisor to the Ministerof National Education Sector Education Resource
(2000-2001).He was a delegation leader in Internasional forum to USA,
Canada, Italy, Norwegia, Mexico, Chille, Mesir, Brunei Darussalam, Singapore,
Jerman, Belanda, Inggris, Australia, Jepang, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia,
Philippina, Sri Lanka, India, Jordania, and China. Fasli Jalal ia also Keynote
Speaker at:
E-9 Senior Officers Meeting “ Programs Offered for
Collaboration” Jakarta 24 Oktober 2008, International Conference on Higher
Education “ The Role of Higher Education Institution in Empowering
Community in Indonesia” Malaysia 24 August 2008, The International
Education Workshop "Quality Teacher Education" Jakarta 20 - 22 Agustus
2008. Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D is an author and editor for:
"Poverty
Reduction Strategy Paper-Based Capacity Building of Human Resources of
Poor Families", Chairman of the Task Force III TKP3 Commission, the
Coordinating Ministry for People's Welfare, May 2004., "Indonesia Human
Development Report 2004",
Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D
Professor of Andalas University, Indonesia
xv
Guest Speaker
Professor Dr Saedah Siraj is Dean of Faculty of
Education, University of Malaya. Her specialization
areas are Curriculum Development, Curriculum Design,
Curriculum Evaluation, Curriculum Management,
Curriculum and Instruction, Comparative Curriculum,
Future Curriculum, mLearning Curriculum, Family and
Children Education. She achieved some awards: Silver
Medal Award, International Exposition of Research and
Invention of Institutions of Higher Learning (PECIPTA
2009), Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre (KLCC), Oct 8-10, 2009.
(Group Research: Mirroring your teaching style through student’s learning style).
As a frofessor in Curriculum and Instructional Technology has contributed in
education world: Member of The Council of National Central Curriculum
[Malaysia] (July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2011), Evaluator of University of Malaya
Research Grant Scheme (UMRG) (2008-2011), Committee of Humanities and
Ethics Research Cluster University of Malaya (Jan 2009-Dec 2010), Expert and
Main Speaker in the Committee Meeting of Curriculum Design for the Training
Institute of Statistics Malaysia, Department of Statistics Malaysia (Dec 26, 2009).
[Online] http://www.statistics.gov.my. Professor Dr Saedah Siraj is also author of
Kurikulum masa depan (Future curriculum) (1st ed.)., Learning: a new dimension
of Curriculum advancement. Pendidikan anak-anak (Children education,
Perkembangan kurikulum: teori dan amalan (Curriculum development: theory
and practice) (2nd ed.)., Cognition and learning: issues and strategies, Buku teks
guru prasekolah komponen Bahasa Melayu (Preschool Teacher’s textbook of
Malay Language component, Kurikulum Baru Prasekolah Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia: buku kerja 1 komponen Bahasa Melayu (Preschool New
Curriculum Ministry of Education Malaysia: Malay Language component
workbook 1, Kurikulum Baru Prasekolah Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia: buku
kerja 2 komponen Bahasa Melayu (Preschool New Curriculum Ministry of
Education Malaysia: Malay Language component workbook 2). , Kurikulum Baru
Prasekolah Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia: buku kerja 3 komponen Bahasa
Melayu (Preschool New Curriculum Ministry of Education Malaysia: Malay
Language component workbook 3).
Dean of Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Contact no: +6(03) 7967 5000; Email: [email protected]
xvi
Guest Speaker
Noor Azlan Bin Ahmad Zanzali is Head of
Department Science and Mathematics Education
Department, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. He received his Ph.D. at
University of Wisconsin, Mdison, United State of
America in1987. He has taught at Fakulti
Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia since
1982. Several his works are Managing the holistic
assessment system, The continuing issues of
mathematics
education:
The
Malaysian
experience, Issues in designing an authentic
assessment in mathematics education. Plenary Paper in Proceedings of the
4th East Asia Regional Conference in Mathematics Education, Perkembangan
dan cabaran pendidikan matematik dalam kurun ke-21. Ceramah Perdana
Profesor, Problem posing abilities of primary school children, Evaluating The
Levels of Problem Solving Skills Of Secondary School Students,
Implementation of the Mathematics Curriculum: Teachers’ beliefs about
problem solving, Managing Education for Future Citizenship Proceedings of
the 1st Regional Conference on Educational Leadership and Management,
Developments and trends in mathematics education, Assessment from the
Islamic Perspectice. Holistic Student Assessment System in IKRAM-MUSLEH
Schools, The role of Holistic Assessment in IKRAM-MUSLEH schools in the
process of Tarbiah (character building), Educational Management from
MUSLEH’s perspectives, Improving the quality of mathematics education:
Malaysian Experience, Comprehensive indicators of mathematics
understanding among secondary schools stduenst, Engineering Elements
Profile among First- and Final-Year Engineering Students in Malaysia.
Prof. Dr. Noor Azlan Bin Ahmad Zanzali
Head of Department Science and Mathematics Education Department,
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
xvii
Guest Speaker
Ir. H. Isran Noor, M. Si. received a
master's degree of Development Communication
from the University Dr. Soetomo Surabaya. He is
also active as a Board of the Association of Muslim
Scholars of Indonesia (ICMI) East Kalimantan
Region, and had been Secretary of Daily BruneiIndonesia-Malaysia-Phillipines East ASEAN Growth
The Area (BIMP-EAGA), Chairman of the
Agricultural Extension Society of Indonesia
(PERHIPTANI) Province of East Kalimantan, board
member of Kosgoro in East Kalimantan, Board Member of Coordination of
Student Affairs (BKK) Mulawarman University and Chairman of the Student
Representative (BPM) Faculty of Agriculture Mulawarman University. Ir. Isran
Noor, M. Si. is also fluent in three foreign languages are active (English,
French, and German).
Ir. Isran Noor, M. Si.
General Chief of Indonesian Local Government Association of
Regency all over Indonesia (APKASI)
The Regent of Kutai Timur, East Kalimantan, Indonesia
xviii
Guest Speaker
Willy M. Joseph received a Doctor of
Educational Management, State University of
Jakarta in 2011. A master's degree obtained from
STM PPM Jakarta 1995. In addition to formal
education, he also had to follow: EIA course of
1987 in Ambon, Personal Management Training
Workshop in 1990 in Jakarta, the National
Seminar on Wages in 1990 in Jakarta, the
National Seminar on K-3 in 1990 in Jakarta, and
Workshops employment Rules work in 1996 in
Jakarta. In addition to the Regent of Murung
Raya, Willy M. Yoseph also as General Manager of PT. Austral Byna of in
Muara Teweh and Managing Director of PT. Stars grace Itah of 1999 in
Palangkaraya. Also been involved in several companies, including PT. Surya
Alam Lestari, Managing Director of PT. Lumber Mighty Jaya, PT. Abaditama
embankment, PT. Hargas Industries, PT. Kayu Lapis Indonesia Group, PT.
Mangole Timber Producers (Barito Group) and PT. Binareksa Alam Lestari
(Barito Group). Until recently he also was Vice Chairman of the Association of
Indonesian Regency Governments and Chairman of the Regional Indigenous
Council of the District Joyless Raya. Signs Services / Awards ever received by
him include: Certificate of UNEP Finance Initiatives Top Participation
Roundtable UNEP Finance Initiatives In Tokyo (2003), Memory of Climbing
the Great Wall provided the Government of the Republic of China to the
Regent Murung Raya at the time of executing visits and cultural promotion in
Beijing, China (2004), Certificate in Leadership Award given by the
Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indonesia to the people of Willy M.
Yoseph Murung Raya as Regent for the participation in decision Socialization
Indonesia People's Consultative Assembly (Year 2009), Charter Mark
Satyalancana Wira Karya Honorary President of the Republic of Indonesia
which, given the Regents Murung Raya To Top Services - Services to support
the Great Development of the National Family Planning Program in the
District of Murung Raya (July of 2010), Signs Award Primary Service Star
honor by the President in Jakarta to the Regent Murung Raya's commitment
in developing education in the District of Murung Raya(August of 2010).
Dr. Ir. Willy M. Yoseph., MM
The Regent of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
xix
The 1th International Seminar on Quality And
Affordable Education (ISQAE 2012):
Developing Qualified And Afforadable Education System For All
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rational
To improve social welfare and alleviate poverty, government of Indonesia has
established a policy in the field of educational system shown by effort of
development and relevance of education to comply with the increasing
demands of science and technology and labor market needs. For that
purpose, participant rate 100% for elementary education and 96% for
secondary education has been set up. Such a target has been fulfilled 94,6%
in 2009. But the success hasn’t been able to answer the target of MDG’s,
because the quality of education can’t be achieved if only viewed from the
aspect of enrollment rate.
Based on data of Education Development Index (EDI) Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar dan Cambodia are in the category of middle
EDI countries while Brunei Darussalam is the highest. In other words, those
countries are facing problems related to the quality improvement in
education. The effort to expand the access to affordable education in terms
of geographical and economic development, improving the quality and
relevance of education, strengthening governance and accountability of
educational services must be realized to accelerate the achievement of
universal primary education by 2015. The program should be implemented to
include: (1)education and competence of teachers, (2)professionalism of
teachers, (3)financial education management and human resource
management, (4)politics of education, (5)the paradigm of education,
(6)development of organizational education, (7)quality assurance of
education, (8)education and gender equality. In order to implement the
program, the seminar is aimed at producing strategic formulas to solve such a
problem, particularly to find a solution how to develop a qualified and
affordable education system.
Theme
A. Main Theme : Developing Qualified And Afforadable Education
System For All
B. Sub-theme:
1. Education Quality Improvement Policy
2. Critical Issues in Expanding Access to Education
xx
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Education Evaluation System
Education Partnership Program
Education Management
Teacher Professionalism
Teacher Education System
Remote Area Education
Early Childhood Education
Formal and Informal Education
Education Facilities and Infrastructures
Place
Grand Sahid Hotel, Jakarta, Indonesia
Date
21-23 May, 2012
Call for Papers and Presentation Guidelines
ISQAE 2012 welcomes research papers in all fields related to stakeholders of
education
including policy-makers,
administrators, educationists,
government representatives, academics, and concerned NGOs. Applicants
are invited to participate in the seminar and contribute to the dialogue by
presenting papers on the sub-themes mentioned above.
The abstract should not be longer than 300 words and be either an MS Word
or PDF file sent via email to [email protected]. Paper format can be
downloaded on the ISQAE website.
(http//isqae2012. ppsunj.org)
Each accepted paper will be assigned to a parallel session with relevance
theme to be presented by the author. Each paper will presented in 15
minutes followed by group discussion in the panel.
xxi
xxii
RELIABILITAS MULTIDIMENSI INSTRUMEN TINGKAT
KEPUASAN MAHASISWA SEBAGAI PELANGGAN INTERNAL
Gaguk Margono
Graduate Program, State University of Jakarta, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Reliability is consistency of the instrument in measurement
whatever it measures. Multidimensional measurements of internal
consistency reliability are rarely use dasstratified alpha reliability.
Measurement and computation are described using a measuring
instrument is the level of student satisfaction. Students’ satisfaction
is the level of a student’s felt state resulting from comparing a
product’s perceived performance (outcome) in relations to the
student’s expectation. Level of student satisfaction with five
dimensions consists of tangible, reliability, responsiveness,
assurance, and empathy. The method in this study used simple
random sampling. This instrument has been tested to103 students
of Educational Research and Evaluation Study (PEP), the Graduate
Program, State University of Jakarta (PPs UNJ). It can be concluded
that the level of student satisfaction measuring instrument using
alpha stratified reliability coefficien thas high accuracy when
compared with Cronbach alpha. Expected in advanced research
used other multidimensional reliability formulas.
Keywords: multidimensional
reliability
(alpha
stratified
coefficient), students’ satisfaction as an internal
customer
PENDAHULUAN
Menurut Lewis dan Smith (1994), pelanggan pendidikan tinggi terdiri
dari: (1) pelanggan internal akademik (mahasiswa, fakultas, program
studi/jurusan), (2) pelanggan internal administratif (mahasiswa, pegawai,
unit/divisi pelayanan), (3) pelanggan eksternal langsung (sekolah, industri,
universitas lain), dan (4) pelanggan eksternal tidak langsung (parlemen,
masyarakat luas, badan akreditasi, alumni, donor). Di dalam sistem
pendidikan tinggi (baik PTN maupun PTS), pelanggan adalah entitas atau
1
pribadi paling penting dalam organisasi. Di sini dibahas tentang kepuasan
pelanggan internal yakni mahasiswa. Kepuasan mahasiswa adalah
pemenuhan kebutuhan dan harapan mahasiswa.
Kepuasan itu relatif, tergantung apa kebutuhan dan harapan
mahasiswa. Semakin tinggi kebutuhan dan harapan mahasiswa maka
semakin sulit untuk mencapai kepuasan mahasiswa. Misalnya, Jurusan Teknik
Mesin segmen pasarnya adalah orang yang berminat menjadi mahasiswa
Teknik Mesin, sedangkan pelanggan yang harus dilayani oleh Jurusan Teknik
Mesin adalah mahasiswa teknik mesin sebagai pelanggan internal. Setelah
minat terpenuhi menjadi mahasiswa, maka pelanggan internal punya
harapan dan kebutuhan untuk belajar mengenai Teknik Mesin dengan baik,
selanjutnya pelanggan eksternalpun akan mempunyai harapan yang sama.
Kepuasan mahasiswa adalah suatu keadaan dimana keinginan,
harapan dan kebutuhan mahasiswa dipenuhi. Sedangkan suatu pelayanan
dinilai memuaskan bila pelayanan tersebut dapat memenuhi kebutuhan dan
harapan mahasiswa. Jadi keterkaitan antara kepuasan mahasiswa dengan
mutu pelayanan adalah bila mutu pelayanan berkualitas atau tinggi maka
kepuasan mahasiswa akan meningkat atau tinggi dengan kata lain mahasiswa
akan puas atau sangat puas bila kualitas atau mutu pelayanan dapat
dipercaya, diandalkan, dan teruji. Kepuasan mahasiswa dan kualitas
pelayanan seolah-olah merupakan sekeping mata uang yang tak terpisahkan
diantara keduanya. Kepuasan mahasiswa merupakan faktor esensial dalam
Total Quality Management (TQM), karena itu Perguruan Tinggi (PT) harus
mengidentifikasi kebutuhan para pelanggan secara cermat dan berusaha
memuaskan dengan memandang mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan utama yang
harus dilayani.
Di dalam mengukur kepuasan mahasiswa digunakan suatu ukuran
subyektif atau soft measures sebagai indikator mutu atau kualitas. Ukuran ini
disebut lunak (soft), sebab ukuran-ukuran ini berfokus pada persepsi dan
sikap daripada hal-hal yang konkret yang disebut kriteria obyektif. Oleh
karena berfokus pada persepsi dan sikap maka alat pengukur yang digunakan
dapat berupa kuesioner tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa yang dapat diukur
melalui mutu atau kualitas pelayanan dari institusi pendidikan tinggi
tersebut.
Mutu atau kualitas (quality) merupakan suatu istilah yang dinamis
yang terus bergerak; jika bergerak maju dikatakan mutunya bertambah baik,
sebaliknya jika bergerak mundur dikatakan mutunya merosot. Mutu berarti
dapat berarti superiority atau excellence yaitu melebihi standar umum yang
berlaku. Sesuatu dikatakan bermutu jika terdapat kecocokan antara syaratsyarat yang dimiliki oleh benda atau jasa yang dikehendaki dengan maksud
dari orang yeng menghendakinya. Menurut Idrus et al. (2000) “…the fitness
2
purpose as perceived by the custome.” Misalnya, mutu proses belajar cocok
dengan apa yang diharapkan oleh mahasiswa; makin jauh melampaui apa
yang diharapkan makin bermutu, jika terjadi sebaliknya, makin tidak
bermutu.
Langkah pertama mengukur kualitas pelayanan adalah
mengidentifikasi karakteristik kualitas pelayanan. Daftar karakteristik ini
dapat digeneralisasi dalam berbagai cara dengan menggunakan berbagai
sumber informasi. Salah satu cara adalah mencari literatur seperti jurnal yang
mungkin memuat dimensi mutu jasa. Peneliti-peneliti seperti Parasuraman,
Zeithaml, dan Berry (1985) telah menyimpulkan bahwa mutu jasa dapat
diuraikan dengan dasar 10 dimensi. Mencoba untuk mengukur sepuluh
dimensi, ternyata pelanggan hanya dapat membedakan 5 dimensi yang
disebut ServQual (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, dan Berry, 1988) memberi kesan
bahwa dimensi 10 yang asli saling tumpang-tindih satu sama lain. Lima
dimensi mutu pelayanan adalah sesuatu yang terwujud (tangible),
kehandalan (reliability), daya tanggap (responsiveness), jaminan (assurance),
dan empati (empathy). Lebih lanjut tentang dimensi ini dapat dibaca dari
publikasi pada kualitas pelayanan jasa oleh Zeithaml, Parasuraman dan Berry
(1990).
Dimensi pertama dari kualitas pelayanan menurut konsep ServQual
ini adalah tangible karena suatu jasa tidak dapat dicium dan tidak dapat
diraba, maka tangible menjadi penting sebagai ukuran terhadap pelayanan.
Tangible merupakan kemampuan untuk memberi fasilitas fisik kampus dan
perlengkapan perkuliahan yeng memadai menyangkut penampilan
karyawan/dosen dan pejabat serta sarana umum. Misalnya: ketersediaan
ruang menyangkut kelengkapan dan ketersediaan peralatan, kenyamanan
dan kecanggihan kampus, fasilitas komputer dan internet, perpustakaan,
ruang kuliah, ruang seminar, ruang dosen, media perkuliahan, laboratorium,
unit produksi, kantin, pusat bimbingan karir, layanan kesehatan, tempat
ibadah, tempat istirahat dan tempat parkir, serta sarana transportasi.
Mahasiswa akan menggunakan indra penglihatan untuk menilai suatu
kualitas pelayanan dari segala sarana dan fasilitas yang ada.
Kedua, dimensi reliability yaitu dimensi yang mengukur kehandalan
dari pendidikan tinggi dalam memberikan pelayanan kepada mahasiswanya.
Ada dua aspek dari dimensi ini yakni: (1) kemampuan perguruan tinggi untuk
memberikan pelayanan seperti yang dijanjikan, dan (2)seberapa jauh
perguruan tinggi memberikan pelayanan yang akurat atau tidak error.
Dengan kata lain reliability merupakan kemampuan pejabat, karyawan/dosen
dalam memberikan pelayanan sesuai dengan yang dijanjikan (tepat waktu),
dengan segera, relevan, dan akurat sehingga memuaskan mahasiswa.
Contoh: pengembangan administrasi, kurikulum dan penawaran mata kuliah
3
sesuai tuntutan keterampilan, profesi dan dunia kerja, perkuliahan
berlangsung lancar sesuai jadwal, penilaian hasil studi obyektif, fair, dan
tepat waktu.
Ketiga, responsiveness adalah dimensi kualitas pelayanan yang
dinamis. Harapan mahasiswa terhadap kecepatan pelayanan hampir dapat
dipastikan akan berubah dengan kecenderungan naik dari waktu ke waktu.
Responsiveness merupakan kesediaan para pejabat, dosen/karyawan untuk
membantu dan memberikan pelayanan sesuai kebutuhan mahasiswa.
Contoh: pejabat mudah ditemui untuk diminta bantuan, dosen mudah
ditemui untuk keperluan konsultasi, proses belajar mengajar berlangsung
interaktif dan variatif serta memungkinkan para mahasiswa mengembangkan
kapasitas dan kreativitas, pengelola memberi fasilitas yang memadai sesuai
dengan kebutuhan mahasiswa dan dunia kerja.
Dimensi keempat dari 5 dimensi kualitas pelayanan yang
menentukan kepuasan pelanggan adalah assurance, yaitu dimensi jaminan
kualitas yang berhubungan dengan kemampuan institusi dan perilaku frontline staf dalam menanamkan rasa percaya dan keyakinan kepada para
mahasiswa. Assurance mencakup kompetensi, pengetahuan, keterampilan,
kesopanan, hormat terhadap setiap orang, dan sifat percaya yang dimiliki
para staf. Contoh: para dosen menyampaikan kuliah sesuai dengan bidang
keahlian/pengalamannya, dosen selalu berusaha menambah wawasan
dengan membaca, menghadiri seminar, mengikuti pelatihan, studi lanjut,
melakukan penelitian, memiliki sikap dan perilaku baik, serta seluruh jajaran,
dan organisasi mencerminkan profesionalisme sesuai dengan yang diatur
dalam standar. Berdasarkan banyak riset, ada 4 aspek dari dimensi ini, yaitu
keramahan, kompetensi, kredibilitas, dan keamanan.
Kelima, empati adalah kemampuan pejabat, karyawan/dosen
sehingga memberi pelayanan sepenuh hati, antara lain kemudahan dalam
berkomunikasi, perhatian secara pribadi dan pemahaman akan kebutuhan
spesifik individual mahasiswa. Contoh: dosen berusaha mengenal nama
mahasiswanya, dosen penasehat akademis sungguh-sungguh berperan
sebagai konselor, dan sebagai supervisor bukan sekedar editor bahasa, dan
pejabat mudah dihubungi baik di ruang kerja, via telepon, email dan
sebagainya. Empati ini berkaitan dengan teori perkembangan kebutuhan
manusia dari Maslow. Pada tingkat semakin tinggi, kebutuhan manusia tidak
lagi dengan hal-hal yang primer seperti kebutuhan fisik, keamanan dan sosial
terpenuhi, maka dua kebutuhan lagi akan dikejar oleh manusia yaitu
kebutuhan akan ego dan aktualisasi diri. Dua kebutuhan terakhir inilah yang
banyak berhubungan dengan dimensi empati.
Di bidang ekonomi, bisnis maupun manajemen, penilaian yang baik
memerlukan pengukuran yang dapat diandalkan atau dipercaya. Demikian
4
juga pada bidang pendidikan dan psikologi. Menurut Naga (1992) untuk
pengukuran pendidikan dan psikologi mencakup beberapa hlm. Pertama,
mengukur ciri terpendam yang tak terlihat yang ada pada responden. Kedua,
untuk mengukur ciri terpendam tersebut responden diberi stimulus berupa
kuesioner atau alat ukur yang tepat. Ketiga, stimulus direspons oleh
responden dengan harapan respons mencerminkan dengan benar ciri
terpendam yang ingin diukur. Keempat, respons diskor dan dapat ditafsirkan
secara memadai. Kemudian, perlu dipertanyakan sejauh manakah skor yang
diperoleh dapat mencerminkan secara tepat ciri terpendam yang hendak
diukur? Apakah instrumen yang dipakai sebagai stimulus itu mampu
mengungkap secara benar ciri terpendam yang tak tampak itu? Kedua
pertanyaan tersebut berkenaan dengan validitas. Sedang yang berkaitan
dengan reliabilitas, apakah tanggapan yang diberikan oleh para peserta
sudah dapat dipercaya untuk digunakan sebagai bahan penskoran bagi
atribut psikologis itu?
Menurut Wiersma (1986), reliabilitas ialah konsistensi suatu
instrumen mengukur sesuatu yang hendak diukur. Reliabilitas menunjukkan
sejauh mana hasil pengukuran dengan alat tersebut dapat dipercaya. Oleh
karena itu reliabilitas merupakan indeks yang menunjukkan sejauh mana
suatu alat pengukur dapat dipercaya atau dapat diandalkan. Bila suatu
instrumen dipakai berulang-ulang untuk mengukur gejala yang sama dan
hasil yang diperoleh relatif stabil atau konsisten, maka instrumen tersebut
terpercaya. Dengan kata lain hasil pengukuran itu diharapkan sama apabila
pengukuran diulang.
Dengan pendekatan varians, Kerlinger (2000) menyusun dua definisi
tentang reliabilitas: (1) adalah proporsi varians “yang sebenarnya” terhadap
varians total yang diperoleh untuk data yang didapatkan dengan suatu
instrumen pengukur dan dapat dituliskan dalam persamaan rtt  v vt
dengan catatan v adalah varians murni dan vt adalah varians total, dan (2)
adalah proporsi varians keliru yang dihasilkan dengan suatu instrumen
pengukur yang dikurangkan pada 1.00, dengan indeks 1.00 menunjukkan
koefisien reliabilitas sempurna, dan dapat ditulis denganpersamaan
rtt  1  ve vt , di mana ve adalah varians keliru dan vt adalah varians total.
Oleh karena itu reliabilitas merupakan indeks yang menunjukkan sejauh
mana suatu alat pengukur dapat dipercaya atau dapat diandalkan.
Secara garis besar ada tiga kategori besar dalam pengukuran
reliabilitas: (1) tipe stabilitas (misalnya: tes ulang, bentuk paralel, dan bentuk
alternatif), (2) tipe homogenitas atau internal konsistensi (misalnya: belah
dua, Kuder-Richardson, alpha Cronbach, theta dan omega), dan (3) tipe
ekuivalen (misalnya: butir-butir paralel pada bentuk alternatif dan reliabilitas
5
antar penilai (inter-rater reliabiliy)). Selanjutnya instrumen yang baik dan cara
pengujiannya ditunjukkan oleh skema pada Gambar 1.
Instrumen diberikan kepada sekelompok subjek satu kali lalu dengan
cara tertentu dihitung estimasi reliabilitasnya. Pendekatan pengukuran satu
kali ini menghasilkan informasi mengenai konsitensi internal instrumen.
Konsistensi internal merupakan pernyataan-pernyataan tersebut mengukur
aspek yang sama atau merefleksikan homogenitas butir-butir pernyataan.
Makin tinggi koefisien reliabilitas, makin dekat nilai skor amatan
dengan skor yang sesungguhnya, sehingga nilai skor amatan dapat digunakan
sebagai pengganti komponen skor yang sesungguhnya. Ukuran tinggi atau
rendahnya koefisien reliabilitas tidak hanya ditentukan oleh nilai koefisien.
Tafsiran tinggi rendahnya nilai koefisien diperoleh melalui perhitungan,
ditentukan juga oleh standar pada cabang ilmu yang terlibat di dalam
pengukuran itu. Makin tinggi koefisien reliabilitas suatu instrumen, maka
kemungkinan kesalahan yang terjadi akan makin kecil kalau orang membuat
keputusan berdasarkan skor yang diperoleh dalam instrumen tersebut.
Pada umumnya pengukuran karakteristik afektif memberikan
koefisien reliabilitas yang lebih rendah daripada pengukuran ranah kognitif,
karena karakteristik kognitif cenderung lebih stabil daripada karakteristik
afektif. Menurut Gable (1986) koefisien reliabilitas instrumen ranah kognitif
biasanya kira-kira 0,90 atau lebih, sedangkan koefisien reliabilitas instrumen
ranah afektif kurang dari 0,70.Koefisien reliabilitas pada taraf 0,70 atau lebih
biasanya dapat diterima sebagai reliabilitas yang baik (Litwin, 1995),
sedangkan menurut Naga (1992) koefisien reliabilitas yang memadai
sebaiknya terletak di atas 0,75.
Pada setiap penelitian yang menggunakan pengukuran psikologis
selalu menerapkan pengujian validitas dan reliabilitas. Namun dalam
perjalanannya di bidang psikometri, para ahli belum ada kesepakatan tentang
koefisien reliabilitas atau rumus yang mana untuk reliabilitas antar peneliti.
Pertama, masih banyak peneliti yang dinilai cukup kompeten masih banyak
yang kurang tepat dalam melaporkan reliabilitas hasil pengukuran mereka
(Thompson, 1994).
6
VALIDITAS
KONSTRUK
UJI VALIDITAS
Dengan
Disusun
berdasarkan teori
yang relevan
Validitas
internal
rasional
VALID
mengukur apa
yang
hendak
diukur
(ketepatan)
Konsultasi ahli
Analisis faktor
VALIDITAS ISI
UJI VALIDITAS
Disusun
berdasarkan
rancangan/
program
yang
telah ada
Dengan
membandingkan
program
yang
ada Konsultasi
ahli
UJI VALIDITAS
Instrumen
yang baik
Validita
s
ekstern
al
Disusun
berdasarkan fakta
empirik yang telah
Dibandingkan
dengan standar
yang telah terjadi
RELIABEL
Tes Ulang
Digunakan untuk
mengukur berkalikali menghasilkan
data yang sama
(konsisten)
Eksternal
STABILITAS
Kelompok
sama
waktu
berbeda
Tes Beda tetapi
ekuivalen
EKUIVALEN
Dicobakan dalam
waktu yang sama
Gabungan
atas
Dianalisis
dengan
korelasi
setelah
diuji coba
di
Diuji dengan
Konsistensi
Internal
Splithalf,-KR20,
KR21,-Anova
Hoyt, , , Ω
Gambar 1. Skema tentang Instrumen dan Cara-cara Pengujian Validitas dan
Reliabilitas(adaptasi dari Sugiyono, 2002)
7
Kedua, masalah yang muncul adalah penggunaan koefisien reliabilitas
oleh para peneliti secara monoton tanpa mempertimbangan asumsi yang
mendasari koefisien tersebut. Para peneliti tanpa sadarmenggunakan
koefisien alpha yang juga dengan tanpa sadar bahwa untuk koefisien ini
memerlukan asumsi yang sulit dipenuhi. Jika asumsi tidak dipenuhi maka
koefisien alpha yang dihasilkan adalah nilai di batas estimasi terendah.
Banyak peneliti hanya terpaku pada penggunaan koefisien alpha dalam
mengestimasi reliabilitas. Popularitas koefisien alpha Cronbach ini lahir
karena faktor: 1) teknik komputasi relatif mudah, karena hanya memerlukan
informasi berupa varians skor total, dan 2) distribusi sampling sudah
diketahui sehingga penentuan interval kepercayaan pada populasi sangat
dimungkinkan (Feld et.al, 1987).
Ketiga, permasalahan yang berhubungan dengan asumsi yang
menjadi syarat dalam mengestimasi reliabilitas. Pada ranah empiris selain
persyaratan adanya sifat paralel, persyaratan tau-equivalent merupakan
tantangan yang cukup berat bagi peneliti dalam menyusun instrumen
pengukuran. Hal ini didukung oleh Kamata dan kawan-kawan (2003) yang
menemukan bahwa asumsi kesetaraan, daya diskriminasi antar komponen
tes dan unidimensionalitas pengukuran merupakan hal relatif sulit dicapai.
Jika asumsi essentially tau-equvalent tidak dapat dipenuhi maka koefisien
alpha menghasilkan nilai reliabilitas yang sangat kecil, sehingga koefisien
tersebut di bawah estimasi.
Keempat, wacana pengukuran adalah masalah unidimensionalitas
pengukuran. Unidimensionalitas adalah aspek penting dalam mengestimasi
reliabilitas. Hasil pengukuran psikologis yang bersifat unidimensi sangat sulit
dicapai, terutama dalam konteks domain kepribadian yang kebanyakan
memuat area varians-varians traits yang luas. Socan (2000) menulis bahwa
analisis faktor yang dilakukan dari beberapa penelitian banyak kasus
multidimensi dibanding dengan unidimensi.
Masalah asumsi bukan menjadi masalah utama dalam menyusun
model konsistensi internal, namun masalah ini menjadi bahan kajian banyak
peneliti dalam pengkajian reliabilitas. Seperti penelitian Vehkahlati (2000)
yang menyimpulkan bahwa asumsi yang tidak cukup realistis pada teori skor
murni klasik adalah asumsi unidimensionalitas skor murni yang secara praktis
sulit dibuktikan. Jadi kajian multidimensionalitas pengukuran muncul ke
permukaan karena banyak kasus ditemui bahwa juga adanya korelasi antar
butir di dalam dimensi tersebut kadang-kadang lebih tinggi dibanding dengan
korelasi antar butir dalam tes.
Pada pengembangan instrumen pengukuran dalam bidang
pendidikan banyak mengasumsikan penggunaan pengukuran yang bersifat
unidimensi yang secara konseptual dirumuskan bahwa hanya ada satu jenis
8
faktor kemampuan, kepribadian, sifat, maupun sikap yang diukur oleh satu
instrumen pengukuran. Tetapi, banyak penelitian menunjukkan bahwa
asumsi unidimensi tersebut sulit dipenuhi dengan ditemukannya beberapa
faktor baru yang ikut diukur dalam satu instrumen. Dengan kata lain,
instrumen yang bersifat psikologis yang sering dipakai peneliti cenderung
bersifat multidimensi.
Beberapa alasan pentingnya pengukuran reliabilitas yang bersifat
multidimensi seperti dikemukan oleh Widhiarso (2010) dengan uraian
sebagai berikut: pertama, karakteristik konstruk psikologis yang umumnya
bersifat multidimensi. Kedua, adanya pelibatan aspek-aspek dalam
penyusunan instrumen psikologis biasanya diawali dengan penurunan butirbutir dari beberapa aspek teoretis dan kecenderungannya bersifat
multidimensi. Ketiga, jumlah butir di dalam instrumen. Jumlah butir yang
terlalu banyak dapat menambah potensi penambahan varians error dalam
butir sehingga memunculkan dimensi baru dari dimensi yang ditetapkan
semula. Jumlah butir dan juga bentuk skala mempengaruhi sikap responden
terhadap butir yang kemudian mempengaruhi tanggapan mereka terhadap
instrumen. Keempat, teknik penulisan butir. Spector dan kawan-kawan
(1997) menemukan bahwa teknik penulisan butir yang memiliki arah yang
terbalik antara positif (favorable) dan negatif (unfavorable) dapat
membentuk dimensi ukur baru padahal dalam pengambilan data banyak
skala psikologi menggunakan teknik penulisan butir yang berbeda
arah.Kelima, satuan pengukuran yang berbeda. Pengukuran bidang psikologis
cenderung memiliki satuan ukur yang berbeda antara butir satu dengan butir
lainnya memiliki kapabiltas yang berbeda sebagai indikator konstruk ukur.
Kondisi ini akan menyebabkan hasil pengukuran cenderung bersifat
multidimensi.
Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengukuran psikologis,
baik mengukur konstruk kognitif maupun nonkognitif sangat rentan terhadap
kemajemukan atribut yang diukur (multidimensi). Selanjutnya dengan
memahami kecenderungan pengukuran psikologis lebih pada model
pengukuran multidimensi dibandingkan dengan model unidimensi, maka
diharapkan proses pengukuran psikometris juga melibatkan teknik analisis
yang menggunakan model multidimensi.
Oleh karena itu dalam penelitian ini penggunaan koefisien alpha
terstratifikasi (stratified alpha coefficient) yang diperkenalkan oleh Cronbach,
Sconeman, dan McKie (1965) diperlukan untuk mengestimasi reliabilitas
instrumen yang terdiri dari beberapa dimensi (subtes). Sama seperti koefisien
alpha Cronbach (untuk unidimensi), koefisien alpha terstratifikasi (untuk
multidimesi) adalah pengukuran internal konsistensi dengan melibatkan
9
komponen-komponen instrumen. Formula untuk mendapatkan besarnya
reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi ( s ) adalah sebagai berikut:
k
s  1

Keterangan:
2
i

i 1
2
i
(1   i )
 x2
(1)
= varians butir pada komponen ke –i
 i = reliabilitas komponen ke-i
 x2 = varians butir skor total
Permasalahan yang telah diuraikan di atas menunjukkan adanya kebutuhan
bagi penyusun tes untuk mengetahui ketepatan estimasi antar formula
reliabilitas sehingga peneliti dalam penelitiannya dapat memilih formula
mana yang paling tepat dan akurat. Seperti juga dalam penelitian ini akan
menggunakan koefisien alpha Cronbach dan alpha terstratifikasi.
Adapun rumus reliabilitas konsistensi internal alpha Cronbach adalah
sebagai berikut:
 k 
 s2 
i

1  2 

sx 
 k  1 
(2)
Keterangan: 
= koefisien reliabilitas alpha Cronbach
k = banyaknya butir dalam instrumen
s
2
i
s
2
x
= jumlah varians skor butir, dan
= varians skor-skor pada semua butir soal/pertanyaan
Berdasarkan uraian di atas maka untuk organisasi pendidikan seperti
Program Studi (Prodi) Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan (PEP) Program
Pascasarjana, Universitas Negeri Jakarta (PPS UNJ) dimunculkan berbagai
pertanyaan seperti: Bagaimanakah reliabilitas internal konsistensi
multidimensi dari instrumen pengukur tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai
pelanggan internal? Bagaimanakah komparasi antara reliabilitas alpha
Cronbach dan alpha terstratifikasi? Manakah yang lebih akurat sebagai
pengukur reliabilitas?
METODE PENELITIAN
Metode yang dipergunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode
survei. Survei digunakan di dalam pengumpulan data dan tidak dibuat
10
perlakuan (treatment) atau pengkondisian terhadap variabel yang diteliti,
namun hanya mengungkap fakta berdasarkan gejala yang ada pada
mahasiswa ataupun responden yang lainnya. Survei sampel di dalam
penelitian ini merupakan survei sampel terhadap hal-hal yang tidak nyata
(intangible) yakni bila survei menyangkut pengukuran konstruk psikologis
atau sosiologis dan membandingkan anggota-anggota populasi yang besar
dimana variabelnya tidak dapat langsung diamati. Oleh karena penelitian ini
mengukur konstruk psikologis secara tidak langsung dari sampel populasi,
maka jelas penelitian ini disebut survei sampel terhadap hal-hal yang tidak
nyata (sample survey of intangibles).
Instrumen dalam penelitian skala dibuat dua kolom dengan rincian,
untuk kolom pertama ini merupakan kenyataan (realitas) atau fakta yang ada
dan dipersepsi oleh mahasiswa terhadap kualitas pelayanan yang
memuaskannya dengan lima alternatif jawaban mulai dari sangat tidak puas
(STPs) nilai 1, tidak puas (TPs) nilai 2, netral (N) nilai 3, puas (Ps) nilai 4, dan
sangat puas (SPs) nilai 5. Penskalaan ini untuk instrumen kinerja.
Untuk kolom kedua, harapan mahasiswa terhadap institusi dengan
skala lima alternatif berdasarkan tingkat kepentingan mahasiswa dengan
jawaban mulai dari sangat tidak penting (STPt) nilai 1, tidak penting (TPt) nilai
2, Biasa-biasa (Bb) nilai 3, penting (Pt) nilai 4, dan sangat penting (SPt) nilai 5.
Sedangkan ini untuk penskalaan instrumen harapan.
Populasi target adalah seluruh mahasiswa UNJ, sedangkan populasi
terjangkau adalah seluruh mahasiswa PPs UNJ, namun yang dijadikan sampel
dalam penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa Prodi PEP PPs UNJ. Sampel diambil
dengan cara pengambilan sampel acak sederhana (simple random sampling)
dan dari 200 instrumen yang disebar, diperoleh kembali atau yang kembali
sebanyak 103. Penelitian dilaksanakan pada bulan Oktober 2010 sampai
bulan November 2010.
HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN PENELITIAN
Reliabilitas Multidimensi Untuk Instrumen Kinerja
Instrumen kinerja ini terdiri atas 32 butir pernyataan kuesioner
tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal. Ketiga puluh dua
butir instrumen ini merupakan hasil penelitian dari peneliti sendiri yang
semula 33 butir dan gugur 1 butir. Instrumen yang terdiri dari 32 butir ini
dapat dirinci sebagai berikut: 7 butir untuk dimensi tangible, 7 butir
reliability, 6 butir responsiveness, 7 butir assurance, dan 5 butir empathy.
Untuk reliabilitas konsistensi internal alpha Cronbach diperoleh langsung
menggunakan program SPSS sebesar 0,951.
Bila diestimasi menggunakan rumus alpha terstratifikasi dapat
disajikan pada Tabel berikut ini:
11
Tabel 1. Perhitungan Koefisien Alpha Terstratifikasi Instrumen Kinerja
DIMENSI
Varians
Reliabilitas
Tangible
23,582
Reliability
24,045
Responsiveness 18,327
Assurance
23,664
Empathy
14,894
Total
374,466
0,804
0,866
0,86
0,872
0,845
k
s  1

i 1
2
i
(1   i )

2
x
 1
1–
Reliabilitas
0,196
0,134
0,14
0,128
0,155
Varians x
(1 – Reliabilitas)
4,622
3,222
2,566
3,029
2,309
15,747
15, 747
 0,958
374, 466
Koefisien reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi sebesar 0,958, sehingga
dapat dikatakan bahwa estimasi koefisien alpha terstratifikasi memiliki
koefisien yang lebih besar bila dibandingkan dengan koefisien alpha
Cronbach yaitu 0,951.
Reliabilitas Multidimensi untuk Instrumen Harapan
Instrumen harapan ini terdiri atas 32 butir pernyataan kuesioner
tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal. Ketiga puluh dua
butir ini merupakan hasil penelitian dari peneliti sendiri yang semula 33 butir
dan gugur 1 butir. Instrumen yang terdiri dari 32 butir ini dapat dirinci
sebagai berikut: 7 butir untuk dimensi tangible, 7 butir reliability, 6 butir
responsiveness, 7 butir assurance, dan 5 butir empathy. Sama persisi dengan
instrumen kinerja di atas. Untuk reliabilitas konsistensi internal alpha
Cronbah diperoleh langsung menggunakan program SPSS sebesar 0,974.
Bila diestimasi menggunakan rumus alpha terstratifikasi dapat
disajikan pada Tabel 2 berikut ini:
Tabel 2. Perhitungan Koefisien Alpha Terstratifikasi Instrumen Harapan
Dimensi
Varians
Reliabilitas
Tangible
Reliability
Responsiveness
Assurance
Empathy
Total
18,533
16,332
14,971
15,685
9,815
309,461
0,898
0,901
0,915
0,921
0,906
12
1–
Reliabilitas
0,102
0,099
0,085
0,079
0,094
Varians x
(1 – Reliabilitas)
1,890
1,617
1,273
1,239
0,923
6,941
k
s  1

i 1
2
i
(1   i )

2
x
 1
6,941
 0,978
309, 461
Koefisien reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi sebesar 0,978, sehingga dapat
dikatakan bahwa estimasi koefisien alpha terstratifikasi memiliki koefisien
yang lebih besar bila dibandingkan dengan alpha Cronbach yaitu 0,974.
Dari uraian hasil penelitian di atas dapat disusun rangkuman sebagai
berikut:
Tabel 3. Rangkuman Hasil Penelitian
Instrumen
Kinerja
Harapan
Koefisien Reliabilitas
Alpha Cronbach
Alpha Terstratifikasi
0,951
0,958
0,974
0,978
Perhitungan untuk dua buah instrumen di atas diperoleh koefisien
alpha terstratifikasi lebih besar bila dibandingkan dengan alpha Cronbach.
Dengan selisih 0,07 dan 0,04. Namun selisih tersebut apakah mencerminkan
keakuratan? Hal ini belum ada kesepakatan antar ahli psikometri. Namun kita
di kalangan peneliti di Indonesia sebaiknya setelah mengetahui alat mana
yang paling tepat sebaiknya kita mulai memakai/menggunakan alat tersebut
secara benar dan memadai.
Memang sebagian besar peneliti di kalangan dosen maupun
mahasiswa S2 maupun S3 belum mengetahui formula untuk menghitung
koefisien alpha terstratifikasi tersebut, jadi kali ini saatnya
untuk
mengenalkan dan juga menggunakan formula tersebut. Dengan alasan sudah
tahu rumusnya dan kebanyakan konstruk psikologis, kepribadian, pendidikan,
dan sosial adalah multidimensi, sehingga seluruh peneliti baik mahasiswa
maupun dosen berkembang dan makin berkembang untuk menggali lebih
dalam lagi tentang koefisien reliabilitas yang lainnya.
KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN
Berdasarkan hasil uji yang diperoleh di dalam penelitian dapat
disimpulkan beberapa hal sebagai berikut: pertama, tingkat kepuasan
mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal memiliki 5 dimensi yaitu: (a)sesuatu
yang terwujud (tangible), (b)kehandalan (reliability), (c)daya tanggap
(responsiveness), (d)jaminan (assurance), dan (e)empati (empathy). Oleh
karena memiliki 5 dimensi tersebut penelitin mencoba menghitung koefisien
reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi yang memang sudah seharusnya bila
13
multidimensi koefisien reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi. Dengan kata lain
pengukuran yang lebih tepat menggunakan koefisien alpha terstratifikasi.
Kedua, reliabilitas instrumen untuk keduanya yaitu instrumen tingkat
kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal yakni kinerja dan harapan
mendapatkan koefisien yang lebih besar (0,958 dan 0,978) bila dibandingkan
dengan alpha Cronbach (0,951 dan 0,974).
Saran yang dapat diajukan adalah sebagai berikut: pertama, estimasi
instrumen ini perlu diuji lebih lanjut dengan menggunakan teori pengukuran
modern seperti teori respons butir (item respons theory) atau rumus lainnya
yang peneliti kira masih banyak dan belum diterapkan di institusi PPs UNJ.
Oleh karena penelitian ini menggunakan skala lima maka bila perlu
dilanjutkan menggunakan berbagai skala lain, misalnya skala diferensial
semantik, skala dikotomi, skala Thurstone, dan sebagainya.
Kedua, instrumen ini perlu diuji dengan menggunakan sampel yang
lebih besar dengan populasi dan setting yang lebih luas serta melibatkan
beberapa propinsi sekaligus, juga dengan jenjang sekolah dan jenis
universitas atau perguruan tinggi yang berbeda.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Cronbach, L.J., Schoneman, P., & McKie, D. (1965). Alpha coefficient for
stratified parallel test. Educational and Psychological Measurement,
25, 291 – 312.
Feld, I. S., Woodruff, D. J., & Salih, F. A. (1987). Statistical inference for
coefficient alpha. Applied Psychological Measurement, II, 93 – 103.
Gable, R. K. (1986). Instrument development in the affective domain.
Amsterdam:Kluwer Nijhoff Publishing.
Idrus, N. et al. (2000). Quality assurance. Jakarta: Directorate General of
Higher Education.
Kamata, A., Turhan, A., & E. Darandari, E. (April 2003). Estimating reliability
for multidimensional composite scales scores. Paper presented in
Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Association at
Chicago.
Kerlinger, F. N. (2000). Asas-asas penelitian behavioral, terjemahan Landung
Simatupang. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.
14
Lewis, R. G., & Smith, D. H. (1994).Total quality in higher education. Florida:
St. Lucie Press.
Litwin, M. S. (1995). How to measure survey reliabity and validity.
London:Sage Publications.
Naga, D. S. (1992). Teori sekor. Jakarta: Gunadarma Press.
Parasuraman, A. (1988). Servqual: Amulti-item scale for measuring consumer
perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(1).
Parasuraman, A., Zeinthaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985).A conceptual model of
service quality and its iimplications for future research. Journal of
Marketing, 49.
Socan, G. (2000). Assessment of reliability when test items are not essentially
t-equivalent. In Development in survey methodology, Anuska
Feligoj and Andrej Mrvar (Eds.). Ljubljana: FDV.
Spector, P., Brannick, P., & Chen, P. (1997). When two factors don’t reflect
two constructs: how item characteristics can produce artifictual
factors. Journal of Management, 23 (5).
Sugiyono. (2002).Statistika untuk penelitian. Bandung: CV Alfabeta.
Thompson, B. (1994). Guidelines for author. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 54.
Vehkalahti, K. (2000). Reliability of measurement scales tarkkonnen’s general
method supersedes cronbach’s alpha. Academic Dissertation.
Finland: University of Helsinki, Finland.
Widhiarso, W., & Mardapi, D. (2010). Komparasi ketepatan estimasi koefisien
reliabilitas teori skor murni klasik. Jurnal Penelitian dan Evaluasi
Pendidikan, 14 (1).
Wiersma, W. (1986). Research methods in education: An introduction.
London:Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
15
Zeinthaml, V. A., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L. L. (1990). Delivering quality
service: Balancing customer perceptions and expectations. New
York: The Free Press.
16
EVALUATION OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURE
OF STUDENTS IN SOME CHEMISTRY TOPICS
AFTER PROCESS WORKSHOP ACTIVITIES
Carmencita G. Palanca
Palawan State University, Palawan, Philippines
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study focused on the evaluation of the changes in the knowledge
structure of students based on their pre- and post-concept map scores.
The students were grouped according on their scores in the Inventory
of Learning Process (ILP). The study also explored to determine if
changes in knowledge structure is affected by learning mode of
students.The study is an intervention type of study using the pre- and
post- design involving twenty students. The ILP and the pre- and postintervention concept maps served as the instruments for gathering
data. There were 7 process workshop activities, two in chemical
equilibrium, three in oxidation-reduction and two in electrochemistry.
The study revealed that Group A (10 highest ILP scorers) and
Group B (10 lowest scorers in ILP) have comparable knowledge
structure based on the pre-intervention concept map scores. The
study also shows that both Group A and Group B improved their
knowledge level after process workshop activities. But Group A
improved their knowledge structure far better than Group B. Group
A has a more complex knowledge structure than Group B. Tuning and
restructuring were the predominant nature of structural changes in
both Group A and Group B. In tuning, the earlier knowledge
framework was completely revamped/changed by the addition of an
introduced concept, resulting to construction of an entirely new
knowledge framework. In restructuring, the earlier framework was
simply modified and rearranged because of the addition or deletion of
a concept in the first one or two hierarchies of the concept map. The
process workshop activities in the selected topics helped improved
knowledge structure of both Group A and Group B, although the
improvement in the former is greater.
Keywords: evaluation, knowledge structure, workshop
17
INTRODUCTION
The focus of majority of science educators today is to evaluate how
students understand scientific concepts because students rarely express
correct learning output. This is evidenced by the poor results of
examinations and minimal student participation in class discussion as
observed by many teachers. These are attributed by student’s difficulty in
understanding scientific concepts and poor knowledge restructuring
according to some studies. Ogude and Bradley (1994) found that although
many students can solve quantitative electrochemical problems in
examinations, few are able to answer qualitative questions requiring a
deeper conceptual knowledge of electrochemistry. Traditional method of
instruction appears to be one of the causes that foster some
misconceptions. This study indicates that it is necessary to alter/vary
traditional method of teaching. Hanson and Wolfskill (2000) of State
University of New York relates that many of their faculty perceive that
traditional teaching methods have become less effective at the tertiary
level and students are not engaged in their course work as much as in the
past. They also believe that more and more students have difficulty in
applying concepts when solving problems.
Novak (2002) stated that group learning facilitates meaningful
learning and new knowledge construction. This also suggests that once
students achieve meaningful learning, misconceptions can be avoided. Thus
this study used the process workshop approach, a type of group learning that
is expected to facilitate and encourage meaningful learning. The proposition
is that, if meaningful learning will be achieved, then correct knowledge
structuring will be enhanced; as a result, misconceptions will be eliminated.
Statement of the Problem
This study was concerned with evaluation of changes in structural
complexity of knowledge using concept maps before and after intervention the process workshop activities. The study specifically sought to answer the
following questions:
1. What are the predominant learning practices employed by students?
2. What are the knowledge structure of the Group A and Group B
before and after process workshop activities in the selected topics?
3. Which of the following nature of structural changes accounts for the
change in the complexity of students’ knowledge framework after
intervention (a) accretion (b) tuning (c) restructuring?
18
METHODOLOGY
The chemistry topics chosen were chemical equilibrium, oxidationreduction and electrochemistry. The process workshop approach is a
student-centered method of teaching. It allows students to initially work
independently in performing the activities, then working in small groups
to discuss activities, answers to questions, exercises and problems. Fast
learners are expected to share their ideas with the group members, and
slow learners have the opportunity to ask questions about concepts they
find difficult to comprehend. Group outputs are then reported in class
followed by class deliberation of the correct answers to questions, exercises
and problems. It is in this part of the process workshop that students are
given the opportunity to check the different group outputs.
In the process workshop, the teacher acts as a facilitator to ensure
that students stay on task. It provides students with opportunities to work
on time-phased activities that rely on team learning. These in turn promote
information processing, critical thinking, communication skills and problem
solving abilities needed to boost or improve their knowledge framework.
The progressive changes in students’ knowledge structure were
determined using the preintervention concept maps and postintervention concept maps. The study also determined the difference in
knowledge structuring of Group A and Group B.
This study made use of an intervention with pre-and–post test
design. The sample of the study consisted of twenty BS Environmental
Science freshmen from Palawan State University in Puerto Princesa City.
They were taken from one intact section in Chemistry 18 where the whole
class was exposed to the process workshop activities. Selection of the
sample was based on the students’ scores in the ILP. The sample consisted
of the 10 highest scorers in ILP and 10 lowest ILP scorers.
The instruments used in the study were Inventory of Learning
Process; process workshop activities in chemical equilibrium, oxidationreduction and electrochemistry; and concept maps.
DATA ANALYSIS
1. The basis for scoring structural complexity of the concept maps was
based on Novak and Simpson’s (1984) procedure, simplified by
Markham, Mintzes and Jones (1994). Scoring complexity of knowledge
structure of concept maps was based on the following criteria:
a. One point was awarded for each correct nonredundant
concept, for every valid and scientifically acceptable proposition
and for every instance of first correct branching.
19
b. Three points was awarded for each additional instance of
scientifically correct branching.
c. Five points for each correct level of hierarchy.
d. Ten points for each valid, scientifically acceptable cross-link.
Cross-link scores provide a measure of integration in the
knowledge structure. Interconnectedness which offers a more
meaningful indicator of the cohesiveness of the knowledge
structure was computed using the formula:
(1)
Concept map scores in all scoring category (identification of concepts,
relationships, hierarchies, branching and cross-links) was prepared
separately for each student. The sum scores for each sample were also
determined.
2. The following were the basis for acknowledging the nature of
structural change:
a. Accretion is acknowledged when at least 3 concept labels are
added to a prior concept map as compared to post intervention
concept maps. This then results to a different elaboration of
the concept.
Occurrence of accretion indicates weak
restructuring of knowledge after intervention.
b. Tuning is recognized when any change to the prior concept
maps resulted in modification of each concept map meaning by
the addition of constraining or constraint variables pictured in
post-intervention concept maps. This affects the accuracy and
applicability of the original knowledge framework of the prior
concept maps. Tuning accounts for a strong or radical
restructuring of knowledge after intervention.
c. Restructuring of knowledge is recognized whenever a change
occurs in the prior knowledge structure as seen in postintervention concept that involves the addition or deletion of
one or more concepts to the first hierarchical level of the
concept map. This change in knowledge structure after
intervention necessitates the construction of a substantially new
conceptual framework.
The basis for scoring accretion, tuning and restructuring was
patterned after the simple dichotomous scoring implemented by
Pearsall, Skipper and Mintzes (1997). This involves assigning”0” or “1”.
Recording of scores involves independent instance of accretion, tuning
20
and restructuring. A “0” was recorded for no instance of an event, a
“1” was recorded for every instance of accretion, tuning and
restructuring. This was documented by simple frequency analysis. It is
necessary to describe the change in structural complexity of the
concept map; hence, the concept maps were compared to determine
the trend in change of the frequencies of accretion, tuning and
restructuring.
3. The Inventory of Learning Process of the subjects was rated. This was
used to identify the predominant learning mode employed by the
students. The ten (10) highest scores in ILP are categorized as
meaningful learners while the ten (10) lowest scorers are categorized
as rote learners. The mean and standard deviation of their ILP scores
was computed to determine the predominant learning mode of
meaningful learners and rote learners. Predominant learning mode was
characterized by a mean score of “1”.
4. Differences in concept map scores, as a function of time, was
documented in a series of one-way univariate analyses of variance to
determine if there is a significant difference in the concept map cores in
all concept map scoring category at 0.05 level of significance.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Based on the Inventory of Learning Process (ILP), the predominant
practices of Group A learners in their potential for verbal and visual
encoding mechanism are: summarizing a unit material they learn in their
own words; attempting to find answers to questions they have in mind;
learning new words or ideas by visualizing a situation in which it occurs; and
learning new words or ideas by ssociating them with words or ideas they
already know. Their predominant practices for organizational processing
are: accomplishing extremely well written reports indicated by high grades
in term papers and individual laboratory reports; and resolving conflicts
between information obtained from different sources.
Group B learner’s predominant learning practices in verbal and
visual encoding mechanism are: devising a system for recalling the material
they have studied; and learning new words or ideas by visualizing a situation
in which they occur.
21
Pre- and Post-Intervention Knowledge Structure
Chemical equilibrium
Group A
Group A demonstrated all the cognitive skills in their preintervention concept map in chemical equilibrium. There is an
improvement in their knowledge structure after the intervention in all the
cognitive skills except for interconnectedness.
Group B
The knowledge structure of Group B before the intervention is
only based on cognitive skills: (a)concept identification and (b)showing
relationship of the identified concepts. The intervention improved the
knowledge structure of Group B as indicated by the increase in their mean
scores on concept identification and showing relationships of concepts
and also by the addition two more cognitive skills (forming hierarchy of
concepts and showing branching of concepts) in their knowledge
framework.
Oxidation-reduction
Group A
Group A demonstrated all the cognitive skills in their preintervention concept map in oxidation- reduction. There is an improvement
in their knowledge structure after the intervention in all the cognitive skills
except for interconnectedness.
Group B
The knowledge structure of Group B in oxidation-reduction before
and after intervention is only in terms of four cognitive skills: (a)concept
identification, (b)showing relationships of concepts, (c)forming hierarchies
of concepts and (d)showing branching o f concepts. The knowledge
structure of the Group B improved after intervention in the identified
cognitive skills.
Electrochemistry
Group A and Group B
The knowledge structure of Group A and of Group B in
electrochemistry before and after intervention is only in terms of four
cognitive skills: (a)concept identification, (b)showing relationships of
concepts, (c)forming hierarchies of concepts and (d)showing branching of
concepts. Their knowledge structure improved after intervention in the
identified cognitive skills. The increase in the mean scores of Group A is
higher than that of Group B.
22
Figure 1. Example of a Concept Map (Pre-intervention Concept Map in
Chemical Equilibrium) of One of the Learners
In Figure 1, the learner identified concepts in her pre-intervention
concept map in chemical equilibrium, but was not able to give correct
relations between concepts. The most acceptable relational word between
concepts are: “involves” that connects “Chemical Equilibrium” with “ Law
of Chemical Equilibrium” but not an acceptable link between concept
label “ Chemical Equilibrium” and Le Chatelier’s Principle” to concept label
“equilibrium expression”, addition of the word describes to the existing
relationship in the concept labels- factors affecting chemical equilibrium is a
more acceptable relational phrase that connects concept label “Le
Chatelier’s Principle with concept labels “change in concentration”,
“change in temperature” and change in pressure” excluding “Haber
process”. There is a need to rearrange these concepts labels in branched
form. The complexity of the learner’s pre-knowledge structure in chemical
equilibrium reveals that she only identified concepts and linked her
identified concept labels with another concept.
23
Table 1. t-test of the Pre- and Post-intervention Overall Concept Map Score
of Group A per Cognitive Skill in the Selected Topics
p< 0.05 (two-tailed), s – significant
Table 1 showed that when the three concept maps were put
together, the Group A realized that the sub-concepts under the three topics
could be integrated even better after the intervention. Very large values of
standard deviation for each cognitive skill after intervention implies that
Group A have extreme concept map scores
Table 2. t-test Result of the Pre- and Post-intervention Overall Concept Map
Score of GroupB per Cognitive Skill in the Selected Topics
p< 0.05 (two-tailed) s – significant, ns - not significant
The t-test result in Table 2 indicates significant difference in
identifying concepts and showing relationships of Group B after
intervention. The process workshop activities did not significantly improve
the cohesiveness of their knowledge structure. This indicates rote learning.
24
Nature of Structural Change
Figure 2. Summary of Frequencies of the Nature of Structural Changes of
Group A and Group B
Legend: PKS- Pre-intervention concept map , KS – post-intervention concept
map, 2 – chem’l equil, 3- oxid-red, 4- electrochemistry, OKS1 preintervention concept map, OKS2- post-intervention concept map
According to Figure 2, the nature of structural change for both
Group A and Group B after intervention in chemical equilibrium is
restructuring; in oxidation-reduction, restructuring and tuning; and in
electrochemistry and the overall knowledge framework, accretion,
restructuring and tuning. The activities in the intervention were not able to
foster deeper conceptual understanding in the selected topics.
REFERENCES
Bojczuk (1982). Electrochemistry Misconception. School Science Review.
V.64,545-551.
Garnet, et al. (1990). Implications and Research on Student Understanding of
Electrochemistry. International Journal of Science Education. V 12
no.2, 147-156.Hanson et al. (1998). Improving Teaching and
Learning Process in General Chemistry. Journal of Chemical
Education. V 75 no. 2, 143-147.
Mintzes J. and et al. (2000). Restructuring knowledge in Biology: cogniyive
processes and metacognitive recflections. International Journal of
Science Education. Vol. 22 No. 3, 303-323.
25
Novak (2002). Meaningful Learning. Science Education . 548-571.
Novak et al. (1984). Learning How to Learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Ogude et al. (1994). Ionic Conduction in Electrochemical Cells. Journal of
Chemical Education. V 71 no.1 29-34.
Posner et al. (1982). Accomodation of a Scientific Conception: Toward a
Theory of Conceptual Change. Science Education. V 66, 211-227.
26
THE CORRELATION AMONG STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
ACHIEVEMENT,STUDENTS’ GRADES, GENDER,
PARENTS’ PROFESSION AND PARENTS’ INVOLVEMENT
OF STATE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS
IN OGAN KOMERING ULU REGENCY
Silfi Sanda
Baturaja University, Baturaja, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Parents’ profession (PP) and parents’ involvement (PI) are very
important in improving children’s education, including English as one
of the compulsory subjects at school. These factors may enhance the
quality of English language teaching if they are used appropriately. The
main objective of this study was to find out whether or not there was a
statistically
significant
correlation
amongstudents’
grades,
gender,parents profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI) (independent
variables) andthe students’ English achievement(SEA) (dependent
variable) of the state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu
Regency. If there was, then the second objective was to find out the
contribution of each independent variable on the students’ English
achievement (SEA). This study applied a quantitative correlational
research design. The sample consisted of 266 OKU State Senior-HighSchool students, 131 boys and 135 girls. The data were collected using
a questionnaire and a test. The results showed that the 12th graders’
achievement was higher than those of the 11th and 10th graders’. All
the variables except gender had a positive significant correlation with
the SEA with parents’ involvement had the highest significant influence
on the SEA followed by students’ grades and parents’ professions. In
terms of what grades were the most influenced by PI, it was found that
the parents’ involvement had the highest influence on the 12th graders’
achievement (18.9%) followed by the 10th graders’ achievement
(16.1%), and then that of the 11th graders’ (7.9 %).
Keywords:students’ English achievement, students’grades, gender,
parents’ profession, parents’ involvement, state-seniorhigh schools, Ogan Komering Ulu Regency.
27
INTRODUCTION
In this part of the introduction, the discussion is related to the
reasons why English achievement became the main focus of this study. Some
reasons in terms of students’ grades, gender, parents’ profession and
parents’ involvement had led the writer to conduct this present study on that
topic.
English is taught as a compulsory subject at the elementary schools,
junior high schools, senior high schools and even higher education. However,
particularly at the senior high school level, English is one of the subjects to be
examined in national examination (Ujian Nasiona/UN), held by the Ministry
of National Education in addition to Indonesian, Math, Physics, Chemistry,
and Biology (for science program) and Economics, Sociology and Geography
(for social program). The English score that must be gained by the students in
the national examination is at least 5.5. From year to year it is expected that
the students’ English achievement is getting better and better, not only for
passing the UN but also for real communication purposes.
The result of teaching and learning process can be seen from the
student academic achievement. In other words, the purpose of English
teaching in senior high schools is to reach communication target. It refers to
discourse competences including comprehension and production
competences which cover written as well as spoken.
The students have to attend 2 X 45 minutes a week ofEnglish
teaching and learning process at the Senior High School (SMU) level based on
the content of the national education curriculum. In Ogan Komering Ulu
RegencyEnglish is taught by English teachers whose educational background
is from state and/or private universities in Indonesia. They are either civil
servantsor volunteer teachers who have experiences in teaching English
(Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten OKU: 2009).
There are fifteen state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu
Regency. They are located in eleven regencies. In general, the students’
English achievements in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency is not really good yet in
every status and major. The average English score of the UN of both state
and private senior high schools (SMA Negeri dan Swasta) in academic year
2008/2009, for science program (IPA) was in the sixth rank and in the twelfth
rank for social program (IPS) out of 11 regencies and 4 municipal cities in
South Sumatera Province (Dinas Pendidikan Propinsi Sumatera Selatan:
2009).
In terms of gender, Eraikhuemen (2003) found out that there is a
significant influence of gender on the academic achievement of students.
Gender in his research findings showed that male students perform better
than female students in senior secondary mathematics. In contrast, Donahue
28
et al’s study (1999) revealed that females outperformed males in 4th, 8th, and
12th grades on the same subject in 1992 and 1994. At the 4th-grade level,
however, the males had significant gain scores over those of 1994 while the
females remained the same.
Furthermore, some studies found out that involving parents in the
teaching and learning process can help teachers reach the objectives of
teaching and learning. Parents play an important role in the development of
education of the children. Parents as the first educator for their children may
cause the high or low achievement of the students’ achievement (Alvaera:
2009). The same is true for parents’ profession. Parents whose profession isa
teacher have possibility to have more positive attitudesthan thosewhose
profession is non-teacher. According to Alvaera(2009), parents’involvement
is the most important influence in children’s life outside of school. It is known
that parents have important roles in educating their children since early years
long before they send them to school to have formal education.Parents also
continue to play a key role in shaping and providing direct supports to their
children.
In relation to other studies, the study done by Diem (2004) revealed
that parents’ profession made a different in students’ achievement. That’s
why this present study intended to see whether students whose parents are
teachers have better achievement than those whose parents are nonteachers.
In Indonesia, there are two other related studies done on parents
involvement. First, Indrajaya (2007) found the correlation between parents
involvement and young learners academic achievement. Then, Yaumi
(2008:53) did the study at the university level. She found good correlation
between the following factors (parents attention, self concept, independent
learning),and the English achievement of Makasar’s students (see also Noble,
2006:4).
Finally, many traditional strategies were offered to promote Parents
Involvement (PI) based on parents' willingness to visit their child's school
(Lunts, 2003:2) because most school meetings and other events are
correlated with parents and teachers in the school. Unfortunately, many
families have no time to attend Parents Teacher Association (PTA) meeting.
Therefore face-to-face communication becomes rare. Actually in this global
era such communication is easy to do. Lunts (2003:1) examined new
telecommunication technologies, such as voice messaging system, e-mail,
internet and web sites, have demonstrated their potentials to support familyschool connection. He argued that effective classroom and school Regency
web sites have a positive impact not only on student learning, but also on
Parent Involvement (PI).
29
Based on the facts found in the studies above, the writer was
interested in finding out the correlation among students’ English
achievement, students’ grades, gender, parents profession and parents
involvement of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu (OKU)
Regency.
The Problems of the Study
The problems of this study were formulated in the following
questions:
1. Was there any correlation among students’ grades, gender, parents’
profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI) and students’ English
achievement(SEA) of state senior high schoolsin Ogan Komering Ulu
Regency?
2. Was there any contribution of students’ grades, gender, parents’
profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI) on the students’ English
achievement (SEA) of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu
Regency?
The Objectives of the Study
Based on the problems above, theobjectives of this study were (1) to
find out whether or not there was a statistically significant correlation among
students’ grades, gender,parents’ profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI)
(independent variables) andthe students’ English achievement(SEA)
(dependent variable) of the state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu
Regency and (2) to find out the contribution of each independent variable on
the students’ English achievement (SEA).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Someone who has done a job of course hopes to get a result from
his/her activities. Learning is enduring change in living individual that is not
heralded by his/her genetic inheritance. It may be considered a change in
insight, behavior, perception, attitudes, motivation or combination of them.
Learning always refers to some systematic change in behavior or behavioral
disposition that occurs as consequence of experience in some specified
situation (Estes in Bigge, 1982:1).
Dealing with learning achievement, it is the learner’s proficiency in a
second language or foreign language as the result of what has been taught or
learned after a period of instruction.
Tinambuan (1987:7) states that achievement means that the degree
of success in some past learning activities. So students’ achievement here
30
means students English scores the test that they took before and after having
the treatment during study.
Someone believes that the higher the students’ grade the higher
achievement they will get. Xiao, et al (2009) found out that as for beliefs
about math, there are significant differences between grades 1, 2, and 3
which follow in a descending order. In detail, statistically significant
differences in grades exist on the dimensions of knowledge structure,
learning ability and learning style except knowledge ability. Beliefs on the
learning ability of students in 1st grade are more positive than those of
students in 2nd and 3rd grades.
In line with that, Yusfardiyah (2010) also found out that the 6th
graders who were just about to have final examination had higher
achievement than the lower graders (5th and 4th graders’).
There have been a number of studies conducted by educational
researchers as regards to the students’ achievement factors. Two of them
show that gender is also a factor which causes a gap on students’
achievement. Some correlation appears to exist between gender and
parents’ involvement in Math.
Deal (2003), at the college level, female expectations neither
matched nor surpassed male expectations for achieving the highest level of
Mathematical success. It is clear that in fact females’ full potential in
Mathematics has not been reached at all ages. Even though many females
reported being confident in their Mathematical abilities, others did not.
While doubt is still being housed in the minds of many who have yet to
overcome the belief that females are inferior in their abilities to perform
Mathematics at the same level of success as their male counterparts,
expectations will continue to favor male students and be a disadvantage to
female students.
Based on the human nature which is born in the same status every
human being is influenced by his/her environment. Therefore, in accordance
with the reality, every human being who becomes a citizen of a society,
he/she always has the status or position and role. There are several factors
that can determine the level of socio-economic status of parents in the
community, including education levels, occupations, income levels,
environmental conditions where their live, property ownership, and
participation in the community activities.
According to Vandergrift & Greene (1992) cited in Jesse (1996),
parents involvement has two independent components: parents as
supporters and parents as active partners. Focusing on one of these
components alone is not a sufficient approach to parent involvement.
Parents can be active, yet not supportive of the education process. They also
31
can be supportive but not active at the school. The ideal one is the parents
who are both supportive and active; but this often is difficult when both
parents work outside the home, or when there is an only single parent at
home.
The writer adapted Epstein’s typology of parents involvement as a
framework to organize the findings on this issue of parents involvement and
student achievement (Epstein, 1995). This framework assists educators in
developing school and family partnership programs. It includes six categories
and is described below:
1. Parenting. This category includes the basic responsibilities of familiessuch as providing housing, health care, nutrition, clothing, and safety,
and creating home conditions that support children's learning (e.g.,
purchasing necessary books and other school supplies, providing a place
to study, etc.). Parenting also implies that parents are warm and
responsive to their children, communicate with them and support their
development.
2. Communicating. This type of involvement concerns the basic
responsibilities of schools, including establishing two-way
communication between family and school. This type of involvement
assumes that schools keep parents informed about school matters by
sending newsletters or report cards, calling, e-mailing or visiting parents,
etc. In addition, parents can also address their concerns to the teacher
or school administration either through contacting them directly or
through correspondence.
3. Volunteering. According to Brent (2000) cited in Lunts (2003), the term
"volunteer" usually refers to persons who devote their spare time to
work on a routine basis without monetary compensation, usually under
the direction of a school employee, in support of educational activities
and school operations. He clarifies, however, that parental engagement
in Parent Teacher Association, Parent-Teacher Organization or other
types of decision-making organizations involving parents, teachers and,
perhaps students and other community members, is not volunteering.
4. Learning at home. This type of involvement suggests that parents are
involved in curriculum-related activities occurring at home (e.g.,
assisting with homework, discussing books with their child,
brainstorming ideas for school projects).
5. Decision making. Parents who are involved at this level advocate
children's interests. These parents often participate in Parent Teacher
Association (PTA), Parent Teacher Student Association (PTSA), advisory
councils and committees.
32
6. Collaborating with the community. This type of involvement relies on
the community understanding helping which the community is the best
investment (National PTA, 1998 cited in Lunts (2003)). It assumes that
different types of community organizations contribute to schools,
students, and families (Epstein et al, 1995).
METHOD OF RESEARCH
Research Design
This study applied a quantitative correlational study. Itdescribed the
correlation among students’ English achievement, students’ grades, gender,
parents’profession and parents’ involvement of state senior high schoolsin
Ogan Komering UluRegency.
Subjects of the Study
The subjects of this study was the students of state senior high
schools in Ogan Komering Ulu (OKU) Regency. Specifically, a total of 4375
students of the first, second and third grade from fifteen state senior high
schools in OKU Regency in academic year 2009/2010.There were266 students
used as the sample of this study. In order to get the sample of this study, the
writer used proportioned stratified random sampling technique. The
population from whom the data and information collected were all state
senior high schools students in Ogan Komering Ulu Regencybased on grades
(10th, 11thand 12th), genders and parents’ profession in academic year
2009/2010.
Techniques for Data Collection
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used in order to
collect the data. The data were taken by using three kinds of instruments.
The main data were collected by a questionnaire and a test. An interview was
done to support the information found from the instruments.
In this study, the writer used questionnaire, test and qualitative
interview as the instruments in order to investigate the correlation among
students’ English achievement, students’ grades, gender, parents’ profession
and parents’ involvement of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu
Regency.
Listening and Reading Test
The test was tried out by the writer to 40 students of non-sample
(SMA Negeri 5 OKU’s students). The writer found the reliability coefficient of
listening test 0.745 which was higher than the standard score (0.70). It means
that this questionnaire was reliable.
33
Writing Test
In other to estimate the reliability of combined ratings, the writer
used alpha coefficient. The result of calculating for writing test gave
information about reliability value of writing test was 0.948, which means it
was higher than alpha standard score (0.70), thus writing test was reliable.
Speaking Test
To estimate the reliability of combined ratings, the writer used alpha
coefficient. The result of calculating for speaking test was 0.947 which was
higher than the standard score (0.70). It means that this questionnaire was
reliable.
Technique for Analyzing Data
After conducting the tests, the writer checked manually the results of
the questionnaires on the demographic data and parents’ involvement. In
this study, data analysis was conducted in descriptive and statistical analysis.
Stage 1: The descriptive analysis
The descriptive stage was used to describe the score of the research
data. It dealt with the result of the students’ questionnaires, students’ test
and parents/teachers interview.
Stage 2: The statistical analysis
To see the correlation among students grades, gender, and parents
profession, and parents involvement (independent) variablesand students’
English achievement (dependent variable). The statistical analysis of
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation coefficient was used. Multiple
regressionanalysis was used to see the influences of those factors on
students’ English achievement. To run the analysis, SPSS (Statistical Package
for Social Sciences) 17.0 package windows was used.
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
Students’ English Achievement (SEA) Total
In this study, Students’ English Achievement (SEA) was grouped into
four categories; excellent, good, average, and poor. Based on the analysis of
Students’ English Achievement (SEA), it was found that 40 (15%) students got
SEA in poor category, 149 (56%) students got SEA in average category, 77
(29%) students got SEA in good category, and nobody got SEA in excellent
category.
Parents Involvement
Based on the analysis of questionnaires on PI, it was found that 80
(30.1%) parents had involvement in poor qualification, 160 (60.2%) had
34
involvement in average qualification, 25 (9.4%) parents had involvement in
good qualification, and 1 (0.4%) parents had involvement in excellent
qualification. Figure 3 below describes about parents’ involvement of their
children schooling.
Students’ English Achievement (Total) Based on Students’ Grades
It was found that 22 students (25.58%) of 10th grade had SEA in poor
category, 53 students (61.62%) had SEA in average category, and 11 students
(12.79%) had SEA in good category.
In 11th grade, it was found that 11 students (11.45%) had SEA in poor
category, 61 students (63.54%) had SEA in average category, and 24 students
(25%) had SEA in good category.
On the other hand, the result of 12thgrade showed that 7 students
(8.33%) of had SEA in poor category, 35 students (41.66%) had SEA in average
category, and 42 students (50%) had SEA in good category.
Students’ English Achievement (SEA) Based on Gender (Total)
Having calculated the result of the Students’ English Achievement, it
was found that out of 266 students, the highest poor achievement was
obtained by 20 female students (51.3%) and 19 male students (48.7%). The
highest percentage of SEA in average category was obtained by 76 male
students (50.7%) and followed by 74 female students (49.3%). There were 40
female students (51.9%) and 37 male students (48.1%) categorized as good.
Students’ English Achievement (SEA) Total Based on Parents’ Profession
(PP)
Having calculated Students’ English Achievement (SEA) based on the
Parents’ Profession (PP), it was found that out of 134 students whose parents
are teachers: 13 students (9.7%) had English achievement in poor category,
79 students (58.95%) had English achievement in average category, and 42
students (31.34%) had English achievement in good category.
On the other hand, out of 132 students whose parents are non
teacher: 27 students (20.45%) had English achievement in poor category, 70
students (53.03%) had English achievement in average category, and 35
students (26.51%) had English achievement in good category.
Additionally, the Students’ English Achievement (SEA) based on
students’ grades and gender indicates that the mean score of 12th grade
(69.79) was highest than 11th (64.18) and 10th grade (61.74). For SEA (total),
the mean score for male students was 65.61 and for the female students
were 64.73. The descriptive analysis indicates that the mean score of
teachers (66.67) was higher than non-teachers (63.63). For SEA (total), the
35
standard deviation score for non-teachers was 10.440 higher than teachers
(8.812).
This study also analyzed the mean score and standard deviation for
students’ English achievement based on grades, gender,parents’ profession
and parents’ involvement.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of SEA Based on Grades, Gender, Parents’
Profession and Parents’ Involvement
Independent
Variables
Grades
Gender
Parents’
Profession
Parents’
Involvement
10th
11th
12th
Males
Females
Teachers
Non-teachers
Poor
Average
Good
Excellent
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
61.74
64.18
69.79
65.61
64.37
66.67
63.63
61.44
65.26
75.80
81.00
86
96
84
131
135
134
132
80
160
25
1
9.631
9.029
8.985
9.192
10.289
8.812
10.440
9.631
8.400
8.539
.
Additionally, this study was also analyzed to see the mean score and
standard deviation of Students’ English Achievement (SEA) based on
students’ grades and gender indicates that the mean score of 12th grade
(69.79) was highest than 11th (64.18) and 10th grade (61.74). For SEA (total),
the mean score for male students was 65.61 and for the female students
were 64.73.
The descriptive analysis in Table 2 indicates that the mean score of
teachers (66.67) was higher than non-teachers (63.63). For SEA (total), the
standard deviation score for non-teachers was 10.440 higher than teachers
(8.812).
The Correlation among Dependent Variable and Independent Variables
The correlation between students’ grades and SEA was 0.330 with
the significance at the level of 0.000. It means that there was a significant
36
correlation since the p-value (0.000) was lower than 0.05, then the null
hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Based on the statistical analysis of genderand SEA that the
correlation was -0.045 with significance at the level of 0.461. It means that
there was no significant correlation since the p-value (0.461) was higher than
0.05, then the alternative hypothesis was rejected and the null hypothesis
was accepted.
Additionally, there was also found the correlation between parents’
profession and SEA was -0.156. It means that there was significant correlation
since the p -value (0.025) was lower than 0.05, then the null hypothesis was
rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Based on the results, the correlation between parents’ involvement
and students’ English achievement was 0.459 with the significance at the
level of 0.000. It means that there was positive significant correlation since
the p-value (0.000) was lower than 0.05 and then the null hypothesis was
rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Interpretation
Students’ grades
The 12th graders’ achievement is also higher than those of the 11th
th
and 10 graders’. This is reasonable because the students of twelfth grades
has had longer learning experience which may influence their English
achievement. Based on that experience they are better than those of 11th
and 10th graders’ who have less learning experience. This can also be caused
by their thought and ideas concerning the way of thinking. In line with this
fact, Yusfardiyah (2010) found out that the highest grades students who were
just about to have final examination had higher motivation than the lower
graders.
Gender
This study also shows that gender has significant influence on the
students’ English achievement. Males have been reported to have
significantly higher English achievement than females. This finding is in
agreement with Yusfardiyah’s (2010), which reported that there is a
significant difference between gender in terms of academic achievement. In
her studies found out that male pupils’ achievement was better than female
pupils’ achievement.
However, this study shows that female students in the excellent level
were less than the male students. The writer believes that there are indirect
effects of grades and parents’ profession on the students’ English
achievement.
37
Parents’ profession
The findings show that 70 % of the teachers’ children are on the
average to good category. Parents whose profession is teachers have
possibility to have different attitude from those who are not teachers. In line
with this fact, Slavin (2007: 114) also found one important way in which
students differ from one another that is in social class. He said that
sociologist defines social class in terms of an individual’s income, occupation,
education, and prestige in society. The occupation attained by the parents in
this study, teachers, is strongly related to the students’ achievement in all
state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency.
In line with this fact, Diem (2004) found out thatalthough there is no
correlation between age and the students' EFL achievement, she found
negative significant correlation between the students' achievement and
teacher education level and also between the students' achievement and
socio-economic status.
Parents’ involvement
The fact that most of the students’ were having the average level of
their parents’ involvement. However, the parents’ involvement was more on
the 12th graders than that on the 11th and 10th graders in terms of their
achievement. This indicates that most parents tend to have more attention
to their children in the 12th grades since these children will follow the
national examination soon. Their parents are worried about their children’s
failure.
This result support Houtenville & Conway’s (2008) study who found
that parental involvement has a strong, positive effect on student
achievement. They argued that parental effort is consistently associated with
higher levels of achievement, and the magnitude of the effect of parental
effort is substantial.
From those four variables, parents’ involvement had the highest
significant influence on the students’ English achievement followed by grades
and parents’ profession. Therefore, it suggests that by involving parents in
the teaching and learning process can help teachers reach the objective to
make the students learn, especially related to their academic life outside of
school. Long after direct learning from parents in a child's early years gives
the way to formal education, parents continue to play a key role in student
success through the activities they do to shape the direct supports of their
children. In line with this present study, Halawah (2006) found that low
achievement has been associated with students having parents who are less
involved in their school work.
38
Based on the indicators of each part of the questionnaire, parenting
and learning at home have strong influence on the students’ English
achievement. Since the highest influence is about the parenting part, it can
be concluded that some aspects have strongest effect to the children for
example by preparing the facilities, such as books, dictionaries, and
computers at home.
In fact, only few parents who have time to ask about the students’
English achievement directly to the teacher (school). Parents also have no
collaboration with other association to support the English activities. Most
state senior high school parents in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency have less
attention with the parents’ association. They attended the PTA (Parent
Teacher Association) meeting only to know about the results of the parents’
meeting with the school not to give suggestion to increase their children’s
achievement.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This study was proposed to answer whether or not there was a
significant correlation among students’ English achievement, grades, gender,
parents profession and parents involvement of state senior high schools in
Ogan Komering Ulu Regency.
Based on the results of the present study and their interpretation, it
is clear that from the four variables, students’ grades and parents
involvement had a significant correlation with the students’ English
achievement but gender and parents’ profession not. However, the
correlation is still in the average level. Therefore, the SEA is also not that
high. Additionally, the stepwise regression analysis shows that grades (7.9%)
and parents involvement (21%) do significantly (p<.050) influence the
dependent variable, students’ English achievement (SEA).
From the conclusions above, this study leads to the suggestions to
some parties as follows.The parents should give maximize their supports to
all the activities at school to help improve the students’ English achievement.
It is suggests that by involving parents maximally in the teaching and learning
process parents can help teachers reach the objective to make the students
learn, especially in relation to their academic life outside of school.
Considering the importance of applying the parents involvement, the
teacher will be able to understand the needs of their students and to
promote parents’ involvement either directly or through PTA in order to
increase their students’ achievement in learning English.
Furthermore, since there still many other problems appear in relation
to this study,the teachers may do their own analysis of the performance of
their own students on behalf of the ministry of education, South Sumatra
39
province. The researcher had a difficulty in analyzing the data and making the
generalization because of the total sample of this study.
The researcher admits the limitations of this study due to the fact
that the data were only collected in state senior high schools in Ogan
Komering Ulu Regency including only 11 schools. Therefore, a future study
should include more samples and focus on how parents encourage the
learning outcomes of their children by randomly interviewing them based on
Regency in South Sumatra.
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42
ASSESSING QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR TEACHING
AND LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA:
REFLECTING ON ITS POLICY AND PROCESSES
Abu Bakar Nordin1, Saedah Siraj2, Norlidah Alias3
Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia
[email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Owing to a number of reasons among which are the rapid
expansion of higher education systems with a diverse range of
providers both public and private, and cross-borders; globalization
with the demand for trustworthy organizations that can establish
confidence due to economic constraints and a shift in priorities
from advanced levels to basic education; emphasizing on the need
for more effective mechanisms for the professional recognition of
higher education credentials and encouraging of professional
mobility through a growing number of regional and international
integration processes has led many Governments in most parts of
the world to focus their attention and their agenda for higher
education on issues of quality assurance and quality enhancement .
Despite differences in the size and stage of development of their
higher education sectors, many governments have decided that
traditional academic controls are inadequate to face today's
challenges and thus explicit assurances about quality are needed.
Organizations such as the European Commission (OECD) for
example, have reinforced this trend by their own calls for new
structures and new approaches to quality assurance. Malaysia, not
to be left has embarked on a number of quality assurance initiatives
such as in placing of Malaysian Qualification Framework,
encouraging institutions of higher learning to implement ISO 9001
Standard and intensifying collaboration with professional bodies. At
the heart of the QA is the issue of the quality of teaching and
learning. In the Code of Practice of Institutional Audit (COPIA) and
Code of Practice of Program Accreditation as implemented by
Malaysia Qualification Agency, the issue of teaching and learning as
43
reflected in Curriculum Design and Delivery, and Student
Assessment has been dealt extensively. This paper reviewed and
examined the current status of national policy and processes for
QA in teaching and learning, the extent to which the policy was in
place and the process implemented, the nature and the variations
of the process implemented in instruction and other academic
activities including assessment practices, recent trends and areas of
emerging consensus as well as issues likely to shape policy over the
next decade, and finally offered recommendations for ways that the
Government and institutions of higher learning might embark to
hasten the pace of improvement and change in teaching and
learning.
Keywords :assessing quality assurance, higher education in
Malaysia, quality assurance policy and processes, quality
assurance for teaching and learning.
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world there has been a move to mass higher
education, and cross border education involving greater diversity of
programs. This expansion of higher education has prompted the rise of a
varietyof modes of course delivery hence poses challenges for the efficacy of
institutional quality controls. Traditionally, academia has largely been left
independent - this largely is in the interests of freedom to provide the
environment for scholarship in research and writing. But times are changing.
The external pressures for change in universities and colleges are increasing
notdecreasing. Public funds are being reduced in many systems, competition
is up, studentsare becoming more forthright about getting value for the
money paid, government rutiny is increasing and external quality audits are
more common. Businesses are critical not only about the skills and
knowledge of graduates but abouthow universities and colleges
operate. They feel that faculty have an outmoded view of teaching that has
failed to keep up with advancing understanding of how to teach effectively.
What business leaders say is needed most is assessment of learning as a first
step. This leads to the development of a more uniform and systematic
approach towards quality assurance in both private and public institutions of
higher learning (HEIs). The resultant code of practiceis a design which is
hoped to promote public confidence that thequality of higher education is
being maintained.
44
In Malaysia, in view of achieving the country's aspiration of making
the country a centre of excellence for education, a fresh impetus and
direction were emplaced emphasising on private sector of the higher
education industry including that of transnational sector which was expanded
at a rapid phase since 2002. Currently there are 20 public universities, 24
polytechnics, 37 public community colleges, 33 private universities, 4 foreign
university branch campuses and about 500 private colleges. In 2010, there
were 80,000 international students studying in the country. Many of these
private HEIs have established twining arrangements with universities abroad
and therefore use the curriculum and materials in the original programs.
Since the programs are foreign based but offered locally in Malaysia, they
need to undergo stringent quality assurance measures by the agencies from
the home country. In addition, they have to undergo theprocesses of
validation and accreditation. In carrying out the process a number of related
problems such avision and mission statement is insufficiently translated as
the strategic plans of the faculty, lack of clarity in stating objectives and
measures of performance, incoherence in the programs offered as there is in
no clear articulation of goals or students' learning outcomes, and the
programs are not getting inputs from research done by the faculty as shown
by many developed countries, and all these pointed to a lack of pedagogical
skills among the faculty members (Hasan, 2009).
QUALITY ASSURANCE FRAMEWORKS
Most countries recognize the importance of quality assurance for
both their HEIs and their respective programs. Consequently, many of these
countries have put in place policies on HEI quality assurance and drew clear
frameworks for guidelines to be prepared and enforced. In Great Britain, the
country’s Quality Assurance Agency’s (QAA's) academic infrastructure
consists of a series of documents covering the Framework for Higher
Education Qualifications (FHEQ), Subject Benchmarks, the Code of Practice,
the
use
of
Program
Specifications
and
Progress
Files
(www.ond.vlaanderen.be; Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in
the European Countries, 2005; http://www.qaa.ac.uk). While HEIs are not
required to conform to every element, the infrastructure provides useful
guidelines on what needs to be done to ensure that standards and the quality
of the student learning experience are maintained and enhanced. Subject
benchmark statements set out broad expectations about degree standards in
specific subject areas. HEIs are responsible for setting their own curricula but
these benchmark statements are used at subject level to inform course
design, delivery and review. They describe what can be expected of a
45
graduate in terms of broad subject coverage and the techniques and skills
gained on completion of a degree. Program specifications give information
about the specific content of a program of study (such as the curriculum
structure, delivery methods and assessment), and what knowledge,
understanding, skills and other attributes a student taking the program will
develop. Code of practice for the assurance of academic quality and
standards has ten sections and provides guidelines for institutions on good
practice in the management of academic standards and quality (for example,
the sections cover; assessment, admissions and external examining). Basically
the framework employed covers two parts, quality assurance of the
respective HEIs and quality assurance of their programs.
In Australia, since 1998 funded institutions have been required
tosubmit an Institutional Quality Assurance and Improvement Plan to the
Commonwealthas part of the educational profiles process (Higher Education
in Australia, 2000). The plans outline the HEI’s goals andaims in the key areas
of teaching and learning, research, management and communityservice. Each
HEI is required to provide detail of the strategies that have been adopted to
achieve the goals and the indicators used to assess the success. In recent
years the Government funded the development of a benchmarking manual.
The manual provides sixty-seven benchmarks that HEIs canuse to assess
themselves against like HEIs. The benchmarks cover the spectrum of HEI
activities from teaching and learning to research, finances, internal
management and internationalization. In offering programs authorization by
law to award higher education qualifications across a range of fieldsand
standards set for those qualifications to be equivalent to Australian
andinternational standards; teaching and learning that engages with
advanced knowledge and inquiry; a culture of sustained scholarship
extending from that which informs inquiry and basic teaching and learning, to
the creation of new knowledge through research, and original creative
endeavour; commitment of teachers, researchers, course designers and
assessors, and to free inquiry and the systematic advancement of knowledge.
Similar requirements were called for in many other HEIs throughout
the world such as at the University of Missouri which moved through this
phase and are now taking stock of the effectiveness of quality assurance
measures and their impact on academic quality and productivity. In Europe
quality assurance policies and procedures underpin framework for all levels
of the European Qualifications (Standards and Guidelines for Quality
Assurance in the European Countries, 2005). In teaching and learning, quality
assurance should include regular evaluation of HEIs, and their programs and
subject to regular review of context, input, process and output dimensions,
while giving emphasis to outputs and learning outcomes. In the University of
46
Auckland it was reported that major features of the quality system for
teaching and learning in the long term planning were establishing procedures
and practices both periodic and continuous quality assurance at
Departmental, Faculty and University levels, review and assure the quality
ofteaching and learning, setting up of committees at various levels
responsible for monitoring and suggesting improvement for teaching and
learning (Ako Aotearoa Regional Seminars, April 2008).These are embodied in
the policy of which some of the features are:
1. All undergraduate courses and teaching are evaluated by
students at least once every three years. Postgraduate courses
of a significant size (e.g., 10 students or more) are evaluated by
students at least once every three years.
2. Each teaching unit maintains a rolling 3-year Student Evaluation
Plan, updated annually, for the conduct of course and teaching
evaluations.
3. Summative evaluations are conducted using standardized
instruments and supplementary questions approved by Teaching
and Learning Quality Committee.
4. Student evaluations of courses and teaching are conducted in a
way that enables students to provide anonymous feedback.
5. The results of course and teaching evaluations commissioned
under Student Evaluation Plans are processed centrally in a
timely manner and made available to the relevant teaching staff,
Academic Heads and Faculty Deans as appropriate.
6. Teaching and Learning Quality Committee and Deans of Faculties
receive annually an aggregate report on evaluation results.
7. Students are informed of any changes to courses and teaching
that are made as a result of prior evaluations.
Reference (Ako Aotearoa Regional Seminars, April 2008) states that
in implementing the policy the following activities and mechanism were
emplaced in the processes. Firstly, in the evaluations and reviews of course
quality these procedures were adapted. Student evaluations (using the
University Course Questionnaire); regular discussions and feedback sessions
among contributing staff; processes of program accreditation and
departmental reviews and annual performance review of staff by Head of
Department were employed. These were done through the following
mechanisms. Evaluations of teaching staff by students and peer review – at
least once every 3 years of which the results were reported to and monitored
by Head of Department, and the academics can commission student
evaluations (formative and/or summative) more frequently for their own
47
quality assurance and improvement purposes. The tools used to gather the
relevant information are the University Lecturing Questionnaire, University
Tutoring Questionnaire, Annual Performance Review of Academic Staff.
Similarly in Europe for teaching and learning specific criteria used to assess
quality are: quality of curriculum design and content: quality of instruction
and teaching; quality of faculty – student relationship: quality of learning
facility and quality of infrastructure.
STRATEGIC APPROACH TO QUALITY
Reference (Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the
European Countries, 2005) notes that in enforcing quality the European
standards and guidelines for internal quality assurance within higher
education institutions approval, monitoring and periodic review of programs
and awards, Institutions should have formal mechanisms for the approval,
periodic review and monitoring of their programs and awards. Specific
guidelines were developed in order to maintain through effective quality
assurance activities which ensure that programs are well-designed, regularly
monitored and periodically reviewed, there by securing their continuing
relevance and currency. The quality assurance of programs and awards are
expected to include: development and publication of explicit intended
learning outcomes; careful attention to curriculum and program design and
content; specific needs of different modes of delivery (e.g. full time, parttime, distance-learning, e-learning); availability of appropriate learning
resources; formal program approval procedures by a body other than that
teaching the program; monitoring of the progress and achievements of
students; regular periodic reviews of programs (including external panel
members); regular feedback from employers, labour market representatives
and other relevant organizations; and participation of students in quality
assurance activities. In the area of assessment of students the standard set
was that students should be assessed using published criteria, regulations
and procedures which are applied consistently. The outcomes of assessment
have a profound effect on students’ future careers. It is the refore important
that assessment emphasized on the learning outcomes.
The MQA is committed to the continuous enhancement of quality.
Rather than establishing a separate quality and enhancement strategy, MQA
has developed an overarching Teaching, Learning and research Strategy.
Teaching, Learning and Research Strategy has been developed as a result of a
wide consultative process. This Strategy is seen as the main driver for change
and for systematic enhancement. Hence the policies in place seek to identify
the minimum institution-wide requirements with which all departments and
48
centres are expected to comply to a common framework as to ensure
consistency of standards, consistency and equivalence in the student
experience and to assure a high quality education whilst enabling appropriate
diversity in local practices.
Institution policies and procedures for developing and maintaining
academic standards and for assessing and enhancing the quality of learning
opportunities are determined through its deliberative structures.
Departments are responsible for their implementation. Schools/
faculties/centres of Studies are expected to monitor and ensure that their
constituent departments do this effectively. Schools report on the outcomes
of this activity to institution -level committees in order to inform
consideration of institution -wide issues or provision, to identify areas of
good and effective practice which might be disseminated to other areas of
the institution and to identify areas of potential weakness where there may
be scope for improvement. It also allows the institution to identify generic
trends or themes which may require attention and/or wider dissemination.
The key quality assurance and enhancement procedures benefit from the
participation of external peer reviewers. Policies and procedures take
account of appropriate external reference points and national and
international good practice. There is a management framework for the
development and support of quality assurance and enhancement, for
fostering a climate of review and reflection, and for leading and setting
targets for enhancement.
MALAYSIAN QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK (MQF)
Traditionally in Malaysia, higher education institutions (HEIs),
through their senates and councils working in conjunction with the Public
Service Department, took the responsibility in ensuring the quality of their
programs (Quality Assurance Division, 2005). However, as the practice of
quality assurance evolves a much more systematic and rigorous quality
assurance system was adapted, devised and put in place. The system will
keep on evolving to ensure that the education provided is globally
competitive.
Left on their own each public HEIs took the initiatives to improve the
quality of their institutions. As quality assurance and Total Quality
Management (TQM) gain popularity particularly in the private sector and had
a major influence on the thinking of the management in industry, many of
the public HEIs began to adopt TQM (Shuib at.al., 2008). In many years of trial
it is found that its application has been generally more successful when
related to administrative processes and service activities, rather than to
49
academic functions. Questions were raised with the applications of TQM to
improve the quality and standards of HEIs and both in their degree awards
and research activities led to the adoption of MS ISO 9000. This development
is accelerated as Malaysia opened its door to overseas degrees in the form of
twinning programs; and after the passing of Education Act 1996 which
opened up the country for the establishments of both overseas and local
private HEIs. To complement the issues on quality, ISO 9000 becomes
extremely relevant and useful. The standard provides the HEIs with a
framework, platform, and a system for the construction of a quality
management system that serves the varied interests of the stakeholders.
Thus with ISO 9000 certification, the reputation of the HEIs had been
enhanced.
As after 1996 with the establishment of private HEIs offering
transnational programs, issues related to program quality and standards,
comparability of quality of education, faculty staff, and facilities need to be
resolved and the answer lies in the in the formulation and implementation of
quality assurance policy.Through Education Act 1996, The National
Accreditation Board (LAN) was established with the mandate to formulate
policies on standards and criteria for quality assurance, accreditation of
programs and providing advice and making recommendations to the Minister
of Education for approval of programs for the private HEIs only. Its objectives
are to ensure provision of education in the private HEIs is of high quality and
able to meet international standard. This leads to initiatives being taken to
study various frameworks of quality assurance from thr different parts of the
world including Europe and Japan and particularly those being enforced in
New Zealand, Australia and England. Finally five critical areas were selected
to be focused and they were general prescription of type of program and its
objectives and outcomes, quality of curriculum and assessments; academic
and support staff; facilities and resources and quality management systems.
A program which fails to meet minimum standards will be recommended for
revocation approval which requires necessary actions taken, and the
institution monitored by Ministry and LAN to ensure corrective actions are
carried out. This is a critical step in which further improvement of the system
is undertaken.
Standards and quality criteria were developed based on national and
international best practices, and also in consultation with stakeholders. An
important step taken in ensuring quality of professional programs is the
establishment a number of joint technical accreditation committees. This
arrangement is highly effective in ensuring quality of professional courses
particularly in dealing with recognition issues, reducing cost, duplication and
wastage of manpower whilst maintaining standards of professional
50
programs. Other challenges some of which are solved through improving the
quality system include ensuring that the students get good education,
equality of access, funding, strengthening internationalization initiatives and
dealing effectively with issues of cross-border recognition. This is witnessed
in forms of admission into graduate programs in foreign universities in such
countries as in the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States and Egypt;
research collaboration with foreign universities, staff and student exchange
and formulation of joint degrees. The consolidation of the quality assurance
system came out with the formulation and issuing of Malaysian Qualifications
Framework (MQF) (Shuib, 2008).
In the Framework nine areas were proposed for quality assurance
and enhancement. These nine areas were: vision, mission goals and learning
outcomes; design of the educational program and teaching-learning
methodology; student assessment; student selection and support system;
academic staff/faculty; educational resources; program evaluation;
leadership and governance and; continuous quality improvement. These
prescribed areas formed the basis for the formulation the Code of Practice
for Quality Assurance which functioned as program standards of many
disciplines, post graduate standards, procedures, and reports of bench
marking outcomes, good practices, and training.
Mustaffa et.al.(2008) mentions that the principle under pinning the
MQF revolves around the anticipation, and thus, avoidance of faults, and the
improvement of learning management and the products. Basically, it involves
setting of standards, organizing of working procedures and reviewing the
attainment for further improvement. In Malaysia Education Summit 2005, in
the discussion on the findings of thequality assurance processes in public
HEIs as in (Hasan, 2009) mooted the idea that self-motivation for quality is
the answer, not compliance with thousands ofbureaucratic laws and
regulations. Institutional self-evaluation is the key to qualitybecause only
then one can be sure that quality is continuously maintained, improved and
enhanced. The Codes of Practice for Program Audit (COPPA) and the Codes
of Practice for Institutional Audit (COPIA) thus provide comprehensive
guidelines on general requirements in the nine areas mentioned. For each of
these areas criteria or indicators were developed and standards set.
Standards are defined as the expected level of attainment for each
criterionand served as a performance indicator. Standards are specified at
two levels of attainment: benchmarked standards and enhanced standards.
Benchmarked standards are standards that must be met while enhanced
standards are standards which are deemed desirable.
51
TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE MQF
Under pinning quality assurance is a great concern with the quality of
teaching and learning. This is true of all the quality assurance systems as
practiced in most parts of the world as stated earlier. Hence the emphasis on
the program of studies and each course within it as offered by a respective
HEI should have clear statement of program aims, objectives and learning
outcomes. These will also be indicated in each of the courses offered within
the program. The quality of a program is ultimately assessed by the ability of
the learner tocarry out their expected roles and responsibilities in society. As
mentioned earlier for each criterion in the main quality areas and in their
sub-areas benchmarked standards and enhanced standards were set.
In determining objectives and learning outcomes for both the
program and the courses some of the requirements stated in COPPA are that
the program and courses must define aims, objectives and learning outcomes
and make them known to the internal and external stakeholders. The
program and course objectives must reflect the key elements of the
outcomes ofhigher education that are in line with national and global
developments. For academic autonomy it is expected that an academic
institution to have sufficient autonomy over academic matters, and such
autonomy should be reflected at the departmental level where the program
and courses are being offered.Consequently, the benchmarked standards set
are that the department must have sufficient autonomy to design the
curriculum and to allocate the resources necessary for its implementation to
ensure the achievement of learning outcomes. The academic staff must be
given sufficient autonomy to focus on areas of theirexpertise, such as
curriculum development and implementation, academic supervision of
students, research and writing, scholarly activities, and academically-related
administrative duties and community engagement. For the enhanced
standards it is hoped that the HEIsinvolved having a clearly stated policy on
conflict of interest, particularly inthe area of private practice and part-time
employment. Mean while the boundaries of academic autonomy for the
department and the academic staff should continue to expand reflecting the
intellectual maturity of the HEIs.
In the area of curriculum design and delivery five sub-areas were
given due attention and they are academic autonomy, program design and
teaching-learning methods, curriculum content and structure, management
of the program, and linkages with external stakeholders.In an area of
academic autonomy an institution is expected to have sufficient autonomy
over academic matters. Such autonomy should be reflected at the
departmental level where the program is being offered. The benchmarked
standards set are that the department must have sufficient autonomy to
52
design the curriculum and toallocate the resources necessary for its
implementation to ensure the achievement of learning outcomes. The
academic staff must be given sufficient autonomy to focus on areas of his
expertise, such as curriculum development and implementation, academic
supervision of students, research and writing, scholarly activities, and
academically-related administrative duties and community engagement.
In program design and teaching-learning methods, the benchmarked
standards are that the department must have a defined process by which the
curriculum isestablished, reviewed and evaluated. The process must involve
the academic and administrative staff of the department. The program must
be considered only after a needs assessment hasindicated that there is a
need for the program to be conducted. The program must be considered only
after the resources to support the program have been identified. The
program content, approach, and teaching-learning methods must
beappropriate and consistent, and supports the achievement of the program
learning outcomes. There must be a variety of teaching-learning methods in
order to achieve the eight domains of the learning outcomes and to ensure
that students take responsibility for their own learning.For the enhanced
standards some of the hopes deemed achievable are that the curriculum
should encourage multi-disciplinary approaches to enhance personal
development of the student through electives, study pathways and
othermeans, which should be monitored and appraised, and the needs
analysis for the program should involve feedback from externalsources
including market, students, alumni, peers, and international experts whose
commentaries should be utilized for purposes of curriculum improvement.
In curriculum content and structure it is expected that a teachinglearning environment can only be effective when the curriculum contentand
structure of a program continually keeps abreast with the most current
development in the field of study. Thus the benchmarked standards set are
that the program must incorporate the core subject matter essential for
theunderstanding of the concepts, principles and methods that support the
program outcomes. And also the program must fulfill the requirements of the
discipline taking into accountthe appropriate discipline standards and
international best practices for the field.
In the area student assessment it is crucial that the procedure in
quality assurance is able to drivestudents towards learning. Convincing and
reliable evidence is in the measures of student learning outcomes in the
forms of examination results, assignments, research works, and experience
acquired and competencies displayed during industrial training. The result of
assessment also forms the basis in awarding qualifications. Hence, methods
of student assessment have to be clear, consistent,effective, reliable and in
53
line with current practices and must clearly support the achievement of
learning outcomes. Particular attention is addressed in assessment principles,
methods and practices, and aligned with program content and outcomes.
This is translated into benchmarked standards that the assessment must be
consistent with the levels defined in the MQF, the eight domains of learning
outcomes and the program standards. For the assessment methods the
benchmarked standards are set in terms of the frequency, methods, and
criteria of student assessment -- including the grading criteria whichmust be
documented and communicated to students on the commencement of the
program, while assessment must be summative and formative, a variety of
methods and tools must be used appropriately to assess the
learningoutcomes and competencies, mechanisms must be installed to
ensure the validity, reliability, consistency,currency and fairness of the
assessment methods, and the assessment system must be reviewed at
appropriate scheduled intervals. Other requirements set in the benchmarked
standardsare that student assessment results must be communicated to the
student with in reasonable time, changes to student assessment methods
must follow established proceduresand regulations and communicated to the
student prior to their implementation, there must be mechanisms to ensure
the security of assessment documentsand records. Lastly, the program
grading, assessment, and appeal policies and practices must be publicized.
Questions raised on the implementation of MQF in teaching and
learning. As MQF is being implemented particularly in teaching and learning
a number of macro-level issues were raised. For this paper these macro-level
issues are issues related to:
1. What are quality assurance initiatives undertaken by HEIs?
2. To what degree quality assurance specifications based on MQF
being pursued at the faculty and department levels (program and
course levels)?
3. What are the mechanisms employed by HEIs to determine and to
ensure compliance on the parts of sthe academicians?
4. What is the overall reaction by the academic staff with regards to
the implementation of the quality assurance using MQF?
METHOD
A survey was undertaken for this study. Ten public HEIs and private
HEIs were selected to provide the data. Information sources are from the
documents such as those found in course files, minutes of meetings and
circulars; and interviews with academic staff. In gathering the data four
trained researchers were employed, and they were specifically instructed to
54
gather specific information. In doing this they were given interview protocol
and guide on what information to look for from the available documents.The
data gathered are mainly descriptive and hence they were presented
descriptively in the findings.
FINDINGS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MQF IN TEACHING AND
LEARNING
Renewed quality assurance initiatives were undertaken through a
number of phases. Many HEIs such as Universiti Utara Malaysia, University of
Malaya and Universiti Teknologi MARA in the early phase started emplacing
MS ISO9001: 2000 framework. In 2002 for example, the certification of
MSISO9001: 2000 was bestowed uponUniversity of Malaya which then
verified that it hasfulfilled the requirements of the said standard and is
endorsed to practice aquality management system. University of Malaya
Quality Management System (QMS) encompasses all the core processes at
the University which includes, teaching and learning, research and
consultancies, and their supporting services.
Internal qualityassessmentinvolves self-studybestowed upon each of
the faculties or schools. In the first instance, program review or assessment
rests on the self-appraisal by the program committee or staff involved.
Legitimate self-appraisal processes are guided by the mission and strategic
plan of the university, department and the learning outcomes of the program
under review. It was observed that a necessary part of theself-appraisal is the
collection, presentation and analysis of relevant data about the program.
Specifically, a self study process involves collection and revision of dataabout
the faculty and its educational program, identification of strengths, areas of
concern and opportunities, discussion of strategic planning to ensure
sustainability ofthe strengths and ways of addressing problems and lastly,
making recommendations for further quality enhancement.
To facilitate the implementation of the academic Quality Assurance
all public HEIs, and some private ones have established quality assurance
units or centres with the functions of planning and implementing quality
assurance systems, liaising with Malaysian Qualification Agencies (MQA) and
departments within each respective HEI, and providing training and guidance
to the HEIs staff. A brief survey of a number of HEIs indicates that there are
various degrees of compliance to the requirements set in the MQF. Evidence
of the compliance is found in various forms of documentations such as
minutes of the meetings within each HEI and also with external stakeholders,
letters corresponded to relevant persons and agencies, course files of the
academics, student course assessments and assignments, examination
55
results, and course assessments by various parties. Other evidence of
compliance is found in the experience recorded and competencies of the
academic staff displayed in the forms of their researches and writing
activities, involvement in consultancy works and also in administrative
capacities such as heads of departments, deans and others.
One clear indication of the degree of compliance can be witnessed in
staff course files. Many HEIs formulated various forms in an attempt to
capture teaching and learning for courses offered. The number of forms
issued varied and some even have as much as nine. They include course proforma, course outline, student learning time, program objectives or learning
outcomes by domains and levels, course objective or learning outcomes by
domains and levels, and student assessment-by domains and levels. In the
pro-forma, for example the form must state a number of basic information
such as learning outcomes, course summary and modes of assessment. The
learning outcomes have to cover a number of prescribed domains. These
domains are knowledge, practical skills, social skills and responsibilities,
values, attitudes and professionalism, communication, leadership and team
skills, problem solving and scientific skills, information management and
lifelong learning skills, and managerial and entrepreneurial skills.
In trying to adhere to the set of procedures and comply with the
standards set, UMhas improved its QA procedures tremendously. Newton
(2000:153-162) realizes that QA can improve quality assurance procedures in
universities. The danger is that it notnecessarily improves the quality of
student learning. In the present quality assurance systems, quality is defined
and monitored by those outside the university. Commonly,it is quantity not
quality that is measured. In teaching among others, the reviewers tend to pay
attention to the number of graduating students, the grades they attain,
theteacher to student ratio and student to computer ratios. In research,
concerned is onthe number of refereed journal articles and the size of
research grants. This in turn steers the sort of assessments that are used in
universities. The danger of this is that those within the university might
abrogate their responsibility for defining and assuring the quality of
assessment.
The process of ensuring compliance of quality assurance activities
involved both internal and external auditing. In the internal quality auditing
The institution’s internal quality assurance auditing begins with the process
of preparing the database of the self-study analysis of each program. The
committee sets up by the HEI allocating the task of writing each section in the
database to the most appropriate andknowledgeable person in the
committee. A coordinator, a person who is familiar with the nine areas
ofstandards as outlined in the COPPAand Guidelines on Standard of Specific
56
Disciplines at Bachelor Degree will ensure that:all specific criteria in each nine
area of standards are answered; sufficient reliable data and information are
provided; the accuracy and consistency of data across sections of the
database; the write-up is done and arranged according to the sections and
sub-sections; required in the COPPA and wherever necessary, related quality
document in the Quality Management. In some HEIs SIRIM’scertification MS
ISO 9001: 2000, is also included in the database. Other forms of feedback
from students, staff and stakeholders were obtained as to provide inputfor
continuous quality improvement and self-study analysis. At the end of this
process a team of internal auditors was than appointed by the HEI to study
the documents prepared and conduct site visit to ensure compliance of the
system.
In the external quality assurance the HEI must first conduct a selfreview and produces self-study report which is not just anevaluation but
which includes the institution’s proposed quality improvement plans. The
self-study report and database cover nine areas of standards in which each
area is divided into several criteria which cover input and performance or
management indicators. The panel of external assessors or auditors
constituting mainly of peerswho will study the self-review report and other
documents provided, and conducts a site visit would at the end of the
process provide recommendations to be used by HEI to implement its own
continuous improvement plans.
In the past most academicians believed that they were sole experts in
their field and hence they were the best teachers in their fields. It is true if
one refers to the mastery of the content knowledge; however, teaching also
involves pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical skills and suitable
personal disposition apart from having a conducive learning environment. In
the quality assurance program all those factors were reviewed and made
known to those concerned in order for the teaching and learning process to
be improved. There is no doubt that many of the academicians today are
aware of this benefit, but some perceive the exercise to be burden some.
An overall view of the academic staff on the Quality assurance review
processes was quite positive. For many of them the Quality assurance review
provided an opportunity for HEIs to be aware of the status of quality of the
programs in the faculties. Most agreed that engaging in QA program reviews
have them to gauge the quality of their courses and program. In the process
of preparing the documents and in executing them these academicians have
interact and engaged among themselves and also with experts outside which
helps to improve their collegiality and professionalism among them. The
process improved programs by pointing out the strong and weak points and
areas for improvement. Program reviews promote program self knowledge
57
because it involved critical self evaluation by program groups. The outcomes
of program reviews help to improve program planning. The internal self
evaluation reports provided a baseline for continual improvement processes.
There is no doubt that quality audits can improve the quality of teaching and
learning. Nevertheless, certain academicians and students sometimes feel
disempowered by external quality assurance. Researchers, teachers and
students in universities should be given a chance to comply with intrinsic
standards of excellence rather than withthose imposed from outside. In
quality assurance one has to adhere to a set ofprocedure and comply with a
set of standards. The most common objection is that it promotes a ‘culture of
compliance’ within the university. As pointed by Harvey and Knight (1996),
the demands on teaching staff to respond to external monitoring can
adversely affect efforts to enhance the student learning experience.
The evaluation process contributed to the build-up of a selfevaluation culturein UM. The evaluation has further assisted UM in becoming
more reflexive about their practice, and the institutions have made their
education programs more transparent to the public and students. Program
reviews identified gaps in programs that were already integrated and offered.
Provided a platform of inculcating the culture of peer review system in UM.
Inculcated quality practices at faculty and program level, where quality is
seen as an integral part of teaching and learning processes.
CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In reviewing the findings of this brief survey it is found that a number
of challenges have to be faced particularly in implementation at the faculty
and department levels, and new initiatives have to be undertaken in order to
improve the system. Setting up of quality assurance units or centres is an
important prerequisite step forward; however translating of the policy and
the processes into action poses a problem. Lacking of clear empirical
evidence of the positive effect of quality assurance exercise or review on
either teaching or learning creates doubt of the usefulness of such an
exercise among the academicians. In many case studies (Brennan and Shah,
2000) reported that the introduction of teaching quality assessmentthat is
more attention given to the teaching function within the institution – to
talking about teaching, and to monitoring teaching, led to more time devoted
to the monitoring of teaching at the expense of time dedicated to teaching
itself. To overcome these problems perhaps quality assurance review needs
to be sensitive to the work load faced by the academicians by being critical
and selective in exacting them to the quality assurance exercise as
insensitivity to the task performed by the academicians may lead to the
58
defacement of their status as academicians. Perhaps the number of forms
they have to fill may need to be reduced and details of information required
may need to be less duplicative. For the sake of meeting the criteria and
standards many of the specifications which lack flexibility have to revise so
that teaching would be able to accommodate reflection and freedom to
propose, enact or even to choose from many of one’s own ideas. In other
words teaching should be a combination of both science and art.
In actual fact, academic auditing renders great potentials. Brennan, &
Shah (2000) draws on studies on the outcomes of academic audit procedures
in the UK, New Zealand, Hong Kong and Sweden argues that academic audits
have placed attention to enhancing teachingand learning on institutional
agendas. They have also helped to clarify responsibility for improving quality
in teaching and learning at the individual, academic unit, faculty, and
institutional level. Quality assessment can also affect the relative powers
between students and academics. Students can be empowered by
contributing their views and experiences to the assessment process and by
using the public reports produced by the quality assurance system in making
decisions about what and where to study (Harvey and Knight, 1993:9–34). On
the other hand, Dill (2000: 187-207) point out that most studies reinforce
the view that quality is about compliance and accountability and has
contributed little to the improvement of the student learning experience.
They argued that, in most countries, external quality monitoring makes no
attempt to encourage quality in learning, but tends to be driven by
accountability requirements. Newton (2000) reports that in his case study,
there was little support among staff for the view that student learning
experience perse had been improved. Rather academic staff associated the
quality assurance system with improved‘discipline’ and ‘technology’ for
validation, monitoring, and external scrutiny. Furthermore, it is argued that
changes in learning outcomes are not necessarily linked to quality assurance
mechanisms. Where positive changes to the student learning experience
have taken place, theseare not necessarily directly attributable to the
existence of a quality assurance system as in Newton (2000) and ,it is argued,
the existence of external quality arrangements provides, at the best, a
legitimation for internally-driven innovation (Dill 2000: 187-207). It is argued
that other factors completely outweigh the impact of external quality
monitoring on student learning.
Although teaching is often an idiosyncratic and individualistic activity
there are fundamental pedagogical elements which each academic staff
should master before teaching is able to be improvised and be artistic. Time
management, clarity about the outcomes of learning, sensitivity to
monitoring, assessment and feedback at the right time and parts of learning,
59
and ability to motivate students at the right time are some of these
fundamental elements. Quality assurance as a system is able to provide clear
and coherent guides particularly for the novice academic staff. For HEIs
encouraging teachers to share their practice would help not only impact on
outcomes for learners but also would help in enhancing teaching skills across
the academic staff, young and old. In order to achieve this, HEIs need to help
the academic staff overcoming their inhibition about sharing the information
on teaching and learning.
HEIs also have to hold and cultivate a culture of a curriculum meeting
of the highest standards so that none of the academic staff is left unaware of
what is taking place in the process of improving the teaching and learning
process and in accepting quality assurance as an integral part of the process.
Information on the process, whether it is about the strength or the
weaknesses would be useful in program or course improvement as well as in
staff development. Many unintended or collateral outcomes are found as
quality assurance exercise is enforced. Some academic staff have the
tendency to shift to a defensive mode due to the intensity of the program
review criteria, thus resulting in staff not being honest about the quality of
their provision. Some succumbed to the circumstancesand resulting in not
really being committed or convinced of what they asked to do, but do not
display objection to what is asked of them to do. Some dishonestly take the
opportunity to display their best performance in order to gain rewards while
some others openly air their grievances at the system and at the university. It
is also sometimes true that quality assurance exercise and review findings
were wrongly used as information to rationalizeand confirm academic staff
promotion or demotion or even redeployment. Of course program review
findings are also used as a tool to promote personal agendas of those who
managed the HEIs. For whatever purpose the quality assurance review is
intended to be used and used, one must try to ensure that teaching and
learning should benefit from the exercise carried out.
Program and course review undertaken at department and HEI level,
is a source where academic staff look at the way a course was taught and for
them to decide on any improvements or changes to be made. In this process
a number of reliable sources of feedbacks were used and hence the
feedbacks are much more helpful as they reflect the needs from different
stakeholders, both immediate and long term. However, to carry this exercise
demands the cooperation and good will of all those from which information
is necessary. The pressure of time constraint needs to be taken into
consideration. To do it yearly may pose a burden to those who are already
overburden, even for the students. Therefore programs or courses with large
60
enrolments or of strategic importance may employ a five or a ten-year cycle
under the HEI’s program review.
Many of the earlier issues on implementation of quality assurance
relate to the lack of trust among key players in the system. It is often
mentioned in literatures as in (Harvey and Newton, 2004) notes that in order
for academicians to accept and implement changes, they must trust andown
the process in which the problems are defined and the solutions are
designed. This is certainly the case in quality assurance exercise. Only if the
academicians accept quality assurance astheir own activity, will the system
be successful. Thus emplacing of the self-evaluation and self-report can be
useful in getting and building the trust of the academic staff. Recognising the
importance of creating this trust the new systems of quality assurance that
have emerged internationally include both intrinsic and extrinsicelements
providing elements of self-study or self-evaluation, and review by peers. Selfstudy has the advantage of being cost-effective, providing a high sense of
ownership by the institution or unit being reviewed, and increasing the
likelihood of improvements to follow from evaluation.
Despite the issues raised and challenges faced, it is important that
HEIs and their academic staff be involved with the exercise in a positive way.
A study should be undertaken to explore the impact of quality assurance
practices on teaching and learning. In such study good indicators of success in
teaching and learning should be both in the forms of process and the
products. For the process the indicators may be in terms of type of learning
activities, degree of student participation, active learning time etc. While
product indicators one can refer to the number of students who have
successfully completed all components required for a qualification compared
to the total number enrolled, student progression to higher level study,
student retention in the program and even student marketability.
CONCLUSION
Owing to a number of reasons among which are the rapid expansion
of higher education systems with a diverse range of providers both public
and private, and cross-borders; globalization with the demand for
trustworthy organizations that can establish confidence due to economic
constraints and a shift in priorities from advanced levels to basic education;
emphasizing on the need for more effective mechanisms for the professional
recognition of higher education credentials and encouraging of professional
mobility through a growing number of regional and international integration
processes has led many Governments in most parts of the world to focus
their attention and their agenda for higher education on issues of quality
61
assurance and quality enhancement . Despite differences in the size and
stage of development of their higher education
sectors, many governments have decided that traditional academic controls
are inadequate to face today's challenges and thus explicit assurances about
quality are needed. Organizations such as the European Commission (OECD)
for example, have reinforced this trend by their own calls for new structures
and new approaches to quality assurance. Malaysia, not to be left has
embarked on a number of quality assurance initiatives such as in placing of
Malaysian Qualification Framework, encouraging institutions of higher
learning to implement ISO 9001 Standard and intensifying collaboration with
professional bodies. At the heart of the quality assurance is the issue of the
quality of teaching and learning. In Code of Practice of Program Accreditation
as implemented by Malaysia Qualification Agency, the issue of teaching and
learning as reflected in Curriculum Design and Delivery, and Student
Assessment has been dealt extensively. This paper reviewed and examined
the current status of national policy and processes for QA in teaching and
learning, the extent to which the policy was in place and the process
implemented, the nature and the variations of the process implemented in
instruction and other academic activities including assessment practices,
recent trends and areas of emerging consensus as well as issues likely to
shape policy over the next decade, and finally offered recommendations for
ways that the Government and institutions of higher learning might embark
to hasten the pace of improvement and change in teaching and learning.
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International Perspective on Institutional Assessment and Change.
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64
PENERAPAN PENSKALAAN PCM PADA PENGUKURAN
PERSEPSI MAHASISWA TERHADAP DOSEN MATEMATIKA
Wardani Rahayu
State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This research was held to learn about: (a) points of good quality
perception as a result of PCM application survey,(b)student’s
perception towards lecturer, (c) different perception towards man
lecturer and woman lecturer and d. different perception toward
lecturer on mathematic subject based on education program’s type.
This research was held on UNJ’s Faculty of Mathematics and Science
2010/2011. The perception instrument towards lecturer content 25
item which the validity has been analyze using IRT measurement. The
sampling analysis used Quest, SPSS, and LISREL. The outcome of this
research shows that (a) man and female students have different
perception on their mathematic lecturer (b) there are significantly
different perception toward their mathematic lecturer based on the
type of their education’s program. Student’s perception on regular
education’s program and non regular education program, each has
significantly different perception on pure mathematic program’s
student. But, perceptions on mathematic lecturer regular and non
regular education program has no different.
Keywords: PCM, student’s perception
PENDAHULUAN
Dunia pendidikan di Indonesia telah mengalami berbagai
pembaharuan selaras dengan kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi.
Pada jenjang pendidikan tinggi, pembaharuan tersebut meliputi, antara lain
penyem-purnaan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi, peningkatan kualitas dosen,
terutama pemberian kesempatan yang seluas-luasnya kepada dosen untuk
melanjutkan studi ke jenjang strata yang lebih tinggi. Selain itu, juga
diperkuat dengan lahirnya (a) Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia
Nomor 30 Tahun 1990 tentang Pendidikan Tinggi (dalam Grasindo, 1991);
(b) Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang
Sistem Pendidikan Nasional (Depdiknas, 2003); dan (c) Undang-Undang
65
Republik Indonesia Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 tentang Guru dan Dosen (dalam
BP. Karya Mandiri, 2006). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa peran guru dan dosen
dalam dunia pendidikan di Indonesia memiliki peran dan kedudukan yang
sangat penting sehingga mendapat perhatian khusus dari negara.
Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia nomor 30 tahun
1990 tugas dosen dalam menentukan kelulusan mahasiswa, sebagai berikut:
“Terhadap kegiatan dan kemajuan belajar mahasiswa dilakukan penilaian
secara berkala yang dapat berbentuk ujian, pelaksanaan tugas, dan
pengamatan oleh dosen” (Bab V, pasal 15, ayat 1). Tugas seorang dosen di
perguruan tinggi identik dengan tugas seorang guru di sekolah. Tana’
Renggina Saronggalo (1983) pernah mengungkapkan bahwa ada guru yang:
(a) masih kurang menyadari tanggung-jawabnya yang mulia (manusiawi),
yang dipercayakan kepadanya (b) sikap dan perilakunya belum berpedoman
pada kode etik profesinya; bahkan sebagian besar guru di Indonesia masih
belum memenuhi syarat ciri-ciri profesi. Bahkan, ada dosen yang tega
membunuh mahasiswinya gara-gara hubungan gelap (Republika, 27 April
1995). Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat seseorang pengajar yang
belum mampu melaksanakan tugas dan berperilaku sebagaimana
persyaratan yang ditentukan ketika melamar sebagai guru atau dosen.
Berkenaan dengan kode etik guru, Gibson (dalam Sardiman, 1993)
mengungkapkan bahwa kode etik guru itu sebagai suatu pernyataan formal
yang mengatur tingkah laku guru. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kode etik guru
merupakan semacam penangkal dari kecenderungan prilaku manusiawi
seseorang guru sekolah atau dosen perguruan tinggi yang ingin
menyeleweng, agar tidak jadi berbuat yang demikian.
Kismanto (1993) pernah mengungkapkan bahwa dosen di perguruan
tinggi merupakan sebuah korps palang pintu kemapanan lintas generasi
bangsa, yang ketika berhadap-hadapan dengan tugas kewajibannya selaku
pengajar, terkadang mudah melakukan “manipulasi” terhadap hal-hal yang
berkaitan
dengan perkuliahan mahasiswa dengan mengatasnamakan
“kekuasaan mutlak“ yang bersangkutan. Ungkapan ini terkesan memojokkan
keberadaan dosen dalam melaksanakan tugasnya, namun hal ini justru
memberikan rambu-rambu tentang sepak terjang dosen secara objektif.
Berkenaan dengan keberhasilan mahasiswa menyelesaikan
perkuliahan, diungkapkan oleh Aminuddin (Manuntung, edisi 10 Maret
1993), bahwa sebanyak 39 mahasiswa Universitas Negeri mendapat sanksi
“drop out” sebagai akibat mereka tidak mampu menyelesaikan studinya
hingga batas yang ditentukan. Kondisi ini mengisyaratkan bahwa antara lain,
mereka belum berhasil lulus untuk satu atau berberapa mata kuliah yang
diprogramkan. Kelulusan perkuliahan ditentukan oleh dosen yang membina.
66
Situasi demikian dapat menimbulkan berbagai kesan berkaitan dengan peran
dosen yang membina, baik bersifat subjektif maupun objektif.
Pemahaman seseorang terhadap suatu hal berperan dalam
pemunculan persepsi seseorang tentang hal tersebut. Kedalaman
pemahaman yang dimiliki seseorang terhadap sesuatu hal cenderung
berbeda. Menurut Thoha (2007), persepsi adalah proses kognitif yang dialami
oleh setiap orang di dalam memahami informasi tentang lingkungannya baik
lewat penglihatan, pendengaran, penghayatan, perasaan dan penciuman.
Walgito (2009) faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh dalam memepersepsi sesuatu
adalah apa yang ada dalam diri individu yang disebut dengan faktor internal
dan apa yang ada di luar diri individu yang disebut faktor eksternal, meliputi
stimulus dan lingkungan. Uraian tersebut menujukkan bahwa keberadaan
sosok staf pengajar dalam menjalankan tugasnya tidaklah semua dari mereka
dapat bekerja dan berperilaku dengan sempurna seperti yang diharapkan
oleh pemerintah. Hal demikian dapat menimbulkan berbagai kesan atau
persepsi yang bersifat positif ataupun bersifat negatif
Hambleton, Swaminathan, & Rogers (1991) mengungkapkan bahwa
dalam teori pengukuran terdapat dua pendekatan, yaitu teori tes klasik dan
teori tes modern (teori respons butir). Teori respons butir berusaha
mengatasi kelemahan yang muncul pada teori tes klasik. The Partial Credit
Model (PCM) merupakan bagian dari model IRT, sebagai model pengukuran
yang digunakan untuk menskala soal-soal bentuk respons terkonstruk
(Fitzpatrick, et al., 1996); sebagai jenis penskalaan, bersama-sama the graded
respons model (GRM), untuk penskalaan pada perangkat tes dengan item
campuran (Sykes & Yen, 2000); dan sebagai salah satu model pengukuran
lanjut yang memiliki ketelitian dan efisiensi dalam praktik pengukuran (Baker,
Rounds, & Zevon, 2000). Kondisi di atas menunjukkan bahwa PCM
merupakan model pengukuran dengan pendekatan IRT yang digunakan
dalam penskalaan instrumen.
Program studi di FMIPAUniversitas Negeri Jakarta (UNJ) diantaranya
Pendidikan Matematika dan Matematika. Selain itu, UNJ menyelenggarakan
jenis program pendidikan Reguler, pendidikan Non-Reguler dan program
Murni. Keberadaan dosen Matematika bagi mahasiswa di lingkungan
program studi Matematika khususnya, dan mahasiswa UNJ di samping
merupakan penentu bagi keberhasilan atau kegagalannya dalam menempuh
program kuliah, juga di mata mahasiswa keberadaan para dosen dapat
menimbulkan berbagai persepsi terhadapnya. Namun demikian, persepsi
tersebut belum tentu sama di antara masing-masing mahasiswa, baik
mahasiswa laki-laki maupun perempuan, dan juga bagi mahasiswa program
pendidikan Reguler, pendidikan Non-reguler, ataupun program Murni.
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Secara psikologis, laki-laki berbeda dengan perempuan. Beberapa
perilaku menunjukkan perbedaan, antara lain anak laki-laki cenderung
antisosial, lebih agresif; sedangkan perempuan lebih bersifat menahan diri
(dependency dan passivity) namun lebih mampu secara verbal (Mischel,
1976). Selain itu, kaum perempuan (wanita) memiliki ciri yang “besorged”
open, dan bersifat lebih hetero-sentris; sedangkan kaum laki-laki bersifat
lebih egosentris, lebih “zakelijk” dan lebih banyak menggunakan pikirannya
(Kartono, 1986).
Keberadaan mahasiswa dapat dibedakan menurut jenis kelaminnya,
yaitu laki-laki dan perempuan. Keikutsertaannya pada kegiatan belajarmengajar, mereka mempunyai hak dan kewajiban yang sama, baik dari pihak
lembaga maupun dosennya. Selama perkuliahan berlangsung secara
bersama-sama mereka dapat mengamati segala aksi atau atribut staf
pengajarnya. Oleh karena adanya hubungan timbal balik, mereka akan
memberikan perhatian yang lebih terhadap dosen yang memberikan
perkuliahan daripada dosen lainnya. Berarti, perilaku dosen yang teramati
oleh mereka, gerak-gerik selama memberikan perkuliahan, dan lainnya akan
memberikan kesan atau persepsi khusus.
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui: (a) butir-butir
persepsi yang berkualitas sebagai hasil aplikasi penskalaan PCM, (b) persepsi
mahasiswa terhadap dosen Matematika, (c) perbedaan persepsi terhadap
dosen Matematika antara mahasiswa laki-laki dan perempuan, dan
(d) perbedaan mahasiswa terhadap dosen Matematika menurut jenis
program pendidikan.
METODE PENELITIAN
Penelitian ini merupakan jenis ex post facto. Sampel dipilih terutama
mahasiswa program studi pada FMIPA UNJ. Penentuan sampel secara
proporsional, yakni program studi yang menyelenggarakan program
pendidikan Reguler, Non-reguler, dan Murni.
Data dikumpulkan menggunakan instrument yang disusundengan
menerapkan penskalaan PCM, yakni setiap butir persepsi disediakan
sejumlah alternatif pilihan jawaban. Alternatif pilihan jawaban tersebut
adalah sangat tidak setuju, tidak setuju, kurang setuju, antara setuju dan
tidak setuju (ragu-ragu), agak setuju, setuju, sangat setuju. Instrumen
persepsi Instrumen Persepsi Persepsi tersusun atas factor (a) ilusi,
(b) pemilikan karakter, dan (c) kapasitas ingatan terhadap objek. Masingmasing faktor persepsi mencakup (a) keahlian bidang studi matematika,
(b)pribadi sebagai dosen, (c) keahlian mengajar, (d) wawasan nasionalisme
(kebangsaan),. Penyusunan instrument persepsi menggunakan kisi-kisi,
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menurut Sumadi Suryabrata (2000) memuat: (a) rekaan teoretis, faktor, (b)
komponen, (c) indikator, dan (d) pernyataan.
Gambar 1. Model Pengujian Konstruk Psikologis Persepsi
terhadap Matematika dengan SEM
Keterangan:
ξ1
:Variable laten Persepsi (eksogen)
η1, η2, η3
:Variable laten komponen (sub komponen) persepsi
(Endogen)
yi(i=1, 2, 3, …) :Indikator-indikator persepsi
Analisis data penskalaan PCM menggunakan bantuan Program QUEST
untuk mendapatkan estimasi parameter person, yaitu persepsi terhadap staf
pengajar matematika setiap responden. Persepsi terhadap Matematika tidak
dapat diukur secara langsung. Oleh karena itu, pengukuran persepsi terhadap
Matematika menggunakan langkah berikut:
a. Aplikasi Partial Credit Model pada setiap butir pernyataan persepsi.
b. Pengujian konstruk psikologis melalui pengujian validitas konstruk
dengan SEM (Structural Equation Model) menggunakan Program LISREL.
HASIL PENELITIAN
Penentuan Person-Fit
Data penelitian dikumpulkan dengan melibatkan person sebanyak
408 mahasiswa. Data penelitian berupa respons yang diberikan oleh setiap
mahasiswa terhadap masing-masing butir instrument persepsi. Respons69
respons yang berhasil dikumpulkan, selanjutnya digunakan sebagai landasan
untuk memilih person yang fit terhadap model. Mahasiswa yang memiliki
Infit MNSQ dan Outfit MNSQ besar dikeluarkan dari kelompok mahasiswa.
Dari 408 mahasiswa terdapat lima mahasiswa yang dikeluarkan sehingga
terdapat 403 yang dilibatkan dalam analisis lebih lanjut. Hasil selengkapnya
terlihat pada tabel 1.
Tabel 1. Hasil Analisis Person-Fit
Penentuan Item-Fit
Pemilihan butir-butir yang fit terhadap model pengukuran dilakukan
berdasarkan hasil analisis pada opsi Fitmap. Pemilihan butir melibatkan
keseluruhan sampel yang berhasil dikumpulkan. Hasil pemilihan dipilah
menjadi dua kelompok, yaitu butir persepsi yang tidak atau kurang fit dan
butir yang fit terhadap model. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa dari 30 butir
persepsi, terdapat 5 butir yang tidak atau kurang fit, yaitu butir 1, 9, 23, 28,
dan 30. Dengan demikian, terdapat 25 butir persepsi yang fit terhadap model
PCM, yaitu butir 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 24, 25, 26, 27, dan 29.Semua butir persepsi merupakan bagian dari kelima
aspek penyusun persepsi, yaitu keahlian bidang studi, keahlian mengajar,
pribadi sebagi dosen, wawasan nasional, dan wawasan terhadap mahasiswa.
Berdasarkan hasil analisis di atas, setelah dikelompokkan diperoleh
butir-butir persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika yang sesuai
dengan model pengukuran, yaitu sebanyak empat butir untuk kelompok KBS;
enam butir untukkelompok KM; lima butir untukkelompok PD; lima butir
untuk kelompok WN; dan lima butir untuk kelompok WM.
Pengujian Validitas Konstruk
Validitas konstruk berkenaan dengan validitas alat ukur yang
digunakan dalam pengumpulan data. Pengujian validitas konstruk instrument
persepsi dimaksudkan untuk menunjukkan bahwa butir-butir persepsi
70
disusun berdasarkan teori yang mendasarinya. Selain itu, pengujian
persyaratan terhadap instrument persepsi ini dimaksudkan untuk
membuktikan bahwa instrumen tersebut hanya mengukur satu jenis trait
latent.Pengujian dilakukan dengan menggunakan Stuctural Equation
Modeling (SEM), yang melibatkan seluruh sampel penelitian dengan
menggunakan bantuan Program LISREL. Operasionalisasi pada SEM
menggunakan metode estimasi WLS. Sampel yang dilibatkan berukuran 403
mahasiswa. Hasil analisis SEM dengan LISREL dalam bentuk estimasi, dapat
dilihat pada Gambar 2.
Berdasarkan hasil analisis SEM, pada uji Goodness of fit untuk uji
model overall diperoleh harga indicator Root Mean Square Residual, RMR =
0,40; Goodness of Fit Index, GFI = 0,93; Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index, AGFI =
0,91; dan Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI = 0.77.Selain itu, uji Goodness
of fit model berdasarkan uji parameter hasil estimasi dalam Uji-t
menunjukkan hasil yang signifikan untuk keseluruhannya. Hasil analisis SEM
dengan LISREL dalam bentuk T-value yang berkenaan dengan variabel
Persepsi, diperoleh pada tabel 2.
Tabel 2. Koefisien Estimasi Parameter Gamma
pada Variable KBS, KM, PD, WN, WM
Variabel
KBS
KM
PD
WN
WM
Persepsi
Γ
T
Signifikansi
0,78
1,03
0,62
0,70
0,74
69,61
81,98
42,03
49,56
59,65
Sangat signifikan
Sangat signifikan
Sangat signifikan
Sangat signifikan
Sangat signifikan
71
.
Gambar 2. Hasil Analisis SEM dengan Program LISREL dalam Estimasi
72
Keterangan:
ξ1
η1, η2, η3
: Variable laten Persepsi (eksogen)
:Variable laten komponen (subkomponen)
(Endogen)
yi(i=1, 2, 3, …) : Indikator-indikator persepsi
persepsi
Hasil Aplikasi pada Instrumen Persepsi
Kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler (204 orang) memiliki mode
gradasi persepsi adalah cenderung pada kategori/gradasi 6, kecuali butir
persepsi V5 dan V8 yang memiliki mode 5. Frekuensi terbanyak untuk
masing-masing butir pernyataan persepsi adalah cenderung ke
kategori/gradasi 6, yaitu V2 (116), V3 (128), V4 (81), V6 (137), V7 (111), V10
(127), V11 (82), V12 (85), V13 (84), V14 (131), V15 (109), V16 (91), V17 (97),
V18 (98), V19 (57), V20 (80), V21 (133), V22 (140), V24 (119), V25 (125), v26
(124), V27 (88), dan V29 (140). Namun demikian, terdapat butir persepsi
yang frekuensi terbanyaknya bukan 6, yaitu butir V5 (75), dan butir V8 (70).
Dengan demikian, dapat diperoleh gambaran bahwa kelompok mahasiswa
Pendidikan Reguler memiliki persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju)
terhadap staf pengajar matematika.
Kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler (55 orang) memiliki
mode gradasi persepsi adalah cenderung pada kategori/gradasi 6, kecuali
butir persepsi V8 yang memiliki mode 5 dan V18 dengan mode 7. Frekuensi
terbanyak untuk masing-masing butir pernyataan persepsi adalah cenderung
ke kategori/gradasi 6, yaitu V2 (31), V3 (33), V4 (25), V5 (18), V6 (28), V7 (29),
V10 (30), V11 (18), V12 (22), V13 (21), V14 (30), V15 (32), V16 (22), V17 (22),
V19 (22), V20 (21), V21 (31), V22 (33), V24 (31), V25 (32), v26 (32), V27 (25),
dan V29 (31). Namun demikian, terdapat butir persepsi yang frekuensi
terbanyaknya bukan 6, yaitu butir V8 (22) untuk mode 5, dan butir V18 (19 )
untuk mode 7. Dengan demikian, dapat diperoleh gambaran bahwa
kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler memiliki persepsi yang positif
(cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap staf pengajar matematika.
Pemilikan persepsi mahasiswa program Murni terhadap staf pengajar
matematika pada kategori/gradasi 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, dan 7. Dari kelompok
mahasiswa program Murni (144 orang) memiliki mode gradasi persepsi
adalah cenderung pada kategori/gradasi 6, kecuali butir persepsi V8, V16,
V17, dan V19 yang masing-masing memiliki mode 5; serta V20 dengan mode
4. Frekuensi terbanyak untuk masing-masing butir pernyataan persepsi
adalah cenderung ke kategori/gradasi 6, yaitu V2 (75), V3 (71), V4 (54), V5
(50), V6 (85), V7 (81), V10 (78), V11 (49), V12 (50), V13 (47), V14 (87), V15
(84), V18 (52), V21 (95), V22 (79), V24 (68), V25 (86), v26 (79), V27 (51), dan
V29 (110). Namun demikian, terdapat butir persepsi yang frekuensi
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terbanyaknya bukan 6, yaitu butir V8, V16, V17, dan V19; masing-masing
memiliki mode 5, serta V20 dengan mode 4. Dengan demikian, dapat
diperoleh gambaran bahwa kelompok mahasiswa Murni memiliki persepsi
yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap staf pengajar matematika.
Hipotesis penelitian 1, yaitu ada perbedaan persepsimahasiswa lakilaki dan mahasiswa perempuan terhadap dosen matematika, diuji dengan
data empiris persepsi mahasiswa laki-laki (NL=130) dan data persepsi
mahasiswa perempuan (NP=273). Analisis dilakukan dengan bantuan program
SPSS. Pada tabel 3, diperoleh hasil analisis yang menunjukkan bahwa untuk
statistik F=9,444 memiliki Sig.=0,002. Berarti hipotesis penelitian diterima (H0
ditolak atau H1 diterima). Dengan demikian, hasil uji hipotesis menunjukkan
bahwa mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan memiliki persepsi
yang berbeda.
Tabel 3. Tabel Analisis Varians Persepsi
Mahasiswa Laki-Laki dan Perempuan
PrLaki *Kode Between
Group (Combined)
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Square
df
Mean
Square
F
Sig.
1869,68
1
1869,68
9,444
0,002
79392,06
81261,75
401
402
197,98
Hipotesis penelitian 2, yaitu ada perbedaan persepsi mahasiswa
terhadap staf pengajar matematika menurut jenis program pendidikan, diuji
dengan data empiris persepsi mahasiswa untuk kategori Pendidikan Reguler
(NPR=204); Pendidikan Non-Reguler (NPNR=55); dan Murni (NM=144),
menggunakan analsis varians satu jalur. Analisis dilakukan dengan bantuan
program SPSS. Pada tabel 4 diperoleh untuk statistik F=11,325 memiliki
Sig.=0,000. Berarti hipotesis penelitian diterima (H0 ditolak atau H1 diterima).
Dengan demikian, hasil uji hipotesis menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan
persepsi mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler, Pendidikan Non-reguler; dan Murni
terhadap staf pengajar matematika.
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Tabel 4. Hasil Analisis Varians Persepsi Mahasiswa
Menurut Jenis Program Pendidikan
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Square
4505,072
79557.692
402
Df
2
400
Mean
F
Square
2252,536 11,325
198.894
Sig.
.000
Hasil analisis Hoc Tests Persepsi Mahasiswa menurut Jenis Program
Pendidikan menunjukkan bahwa (a) antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler
dan Murni memiliki Mean Difference 6,057 dengan Sig.=0,000; dan (b) antara
mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-reguler dan Murni memiliki Mean Difference
8,996; Sig.=0,000. Namun, antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan
Pendidikan Non-reguler memiliki Mean Difference 2,143 dengan Sig.=0,171.
PEMBAHASAN
Butir-butir pernyataan persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen
matematika ini menggunakan skala Likert. Alternatif pilihan jawaban setiap
butir pernyataan berupa tingkat kesetujuan atau ketidaksetujuan, terdiri atas
tujuh kategori pilihan yaitu sangat setuju, setuju, cukup setuju, ragu-ragu,
kurang setuju, tidak setuju, dan sangat tidak setuju. Butir persepsi tersebut
dituangkan dalam bentuk pernyataan dengan memuat salah satu kondisi,
yaitu (a)kondisi yang positif, dan (b)kondisi yang negatif. Penentuan skala
untuk setiap butir pernyataan persepsi dengan kondisi positif berkebalikan
terhadap skala yang diterapkan pada pernyataan persepsi dengan kondisi
negatif.
Berdasarkan hasil analisis untuk person-fit diperoleh bahwa terdapat
5mahasiswa yang dinyatakan sebagai person tidak fit, sehingga mahasiswa
yang dilibatkan dalam analisis lanjut berjumlah 403 orang dari 408 orang.
Berarti, hanya sebagian kecil dari anggota sampel yang tidak memenuhi
kecocokan terhadap model. Dari 30 butir pernyataan persepsi, terdapat 5
butir pernyataan persepsi yang dinyatakan tidak fit terhadap model. Dengan
demikian, terdapat 25 butir (83,33%) pernyataan persepsiyang dianalisis
lebih lanjut. Di samping itu, ke-25 butir pernyataan persepsi terdistribui
menurut lima variabel, yaitu sebanyak empat butir untuk variabel keahlian
bidang studi; enam butir untuk variabel keahlian mengajar; lima butir untuk
variabel pribadi sebagai dosen; lima butir untuk variabel wawasan nasional;
dan lima butir untuk variabel wawasan terhadap mahasiswa.
Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa terdapat kecenderungan
kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler (204 orang) memiliki persepsi yang
75
positif (cenderung ke arah Setuju) terhadap dosen matematika. Persepsi
mahasiswa tersebut ditunjukkan pada 23 (atau 92%) butir dari 25 butir
pernyataan yang cenderung memilih kategori pilihan 6 (Setuju) daripada
pilihan lainnya. Namun demikian, terdapat dua butir pernyataan persepsi (V5
dan V8) yang memiliki mode 5 sebagai mayoritas pilihan kedua. Butir V5
berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya memiliki wawasan kebangsaan
yang luas”; sedangkan butir V8 tentang “Dosen matematika saya sering
menggugah semangat kebangsaan”. Kedua butir persepsi tersebut ditanggapi
mahasiswa hanya sebatas “Cukup setuju”. Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa
dosen pengajar matematika hanya dianggap “cukup” oleh mahasiswa dalam
kedua hal di atas. Oleh karenanya, wawasan kebangsaan dan semangat
kebangsaan perlu ada upaya untuk lebih memperlihatkannya (ditingkatkan)
sehingga oleh mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler tidak lagi dianggap “cukup”.
Pada kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler (55 orang)
terdapat kecenderunganmemiliki persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah
setuju) terhadap dosen matematika.Persepsi mahasiswa tersebut
ditunjukkan pada 23 (atau 92%) butir dari 25 butir pernyataan yang
cenderung memilih kategori pilihan 6 (Setuju) daripada pilihan lainnya.
Namun demikian, terdapat dua butir pernyataan persepsi, yaitu V8 (memiliki
mode 5), dan V18 (memiliki mode 7) sebagai mayoritas pilihan kedua. Butir
V8 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya sering menggugah semangat
kebangsaan”; sedangkan butir V18 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika
saya, senang jika mahasiswanya sedikit yang lulus dalam ujian mata kuliah”.
Butir persepsi V8 tersebut ditanggapi mahasiswa hanya sebatas “Cukup
setuju”, sebagaimana tanggapan mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler. Oleh
karenanya, semangat kebangsaan perlu lebih diperlihatkan (ditingkatkan)
sehingga oleh maha-siswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler tidak lagi dianggap
“cukup”. Terhadap butir V18, ternyata 19 (atau 34,54%) dari 55 mahasiswa
memiliki persepsi bahwa terdapat dosen yang senang jika mahasiswanya
sedikit yang lulus dalam ujian mata kuliah. Kondisi ini menunjukkan adanya
kesenjangan antara harapan mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-reguler dan harapan
dosen matematika berkenaan dengan ujian mata kuliah.
Kelompok mahasiswa Murni (144 orang) memiliki kecenderungan
persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap dosen
matematika.Persepsi mahasiswa tersebut ditunjukkan pada 20 (atau 80%)
butir dari 25 butir pernyataan yang cenderung memilih kategori pilihan 6
(Setuju) daripada pilihan lainnya. Namun demikian, terdapat lima butir
pernyataan persepsi, yaitu V8, V16, V17, dan V19 yang masing-masing
memiliki mode 5; serta V20 dengan mode 4.
Butir persepsi V8 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya sering
menggugah semangat kebangsaan”; butir V16 berkenaan dengan “Dosen
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matematika saya, memiliki pengetahuan matematika sebatas buku tertentu”;
butir V17 tentang “Dosen matematika saya, rencana mengajarnya hanya
mengacu pada satu buku sumber”; butir V19 berkenaan dengan “Dosen
matematika saya, keterampilan mengajarnya monoton”; sedangkan butir
persepsi V20 tentang “Dosen matematika saya, menilai hasil ujian tidak
memperdulikan sejumlah tugas yang diberikan”. Butir persepsi V8, V16, V17,
dan V19tersebut, masing-masing ditanggapi mahasiswa hanya sebatas
“Cukup setuju”. Terutama butir V8, mahasiswa Murni (39 dari 144 orang,
atau 27,08%) memiliki persepsi sebagaimana persepsi mahasiswa Pendidikan
Reguler dan mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler. Mahasiswa Murni 36 (atau
25%) dari 144 orang meragukan akan kepedulian dosen matematika
berkenaan dengan tugas-tugas yang diberikan terhadap penilaian hasil ujian.
Adapun persepsi mahasiswa berkenaan dengan (a) pemilikan pengetahuan
matematika yang hanya sebatas buku tertentu (oleh 67 dari 144 orang, atau
46,52%), (b) rencana mengajarnya hanya mengacu pada satu buku sumber
(52 dari 144 orang, atau 36,11%), dan (c) keterampilan mengajarnya
monoton (32 dari 144 orang, atau 22,22%),berada pada kategori “Cukup
setuju”. Namun demikian, secara keseluruhan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler, Pendidikan Non-Reguler, dan Murni
memiliki persepsi yang positif terhadap dosen matematika.
Validitas konstruk instrumen persepsi dibuktikan dengan analisis
SEM. Secara keseluruhan dikatakan pengujian hipotetik validitas konstruk
terbukti. Kondisi ini ditunjukkan hasil uji Goodness of fit untuk uji model
overall diperoleh harga indicator Root Mean Square Residual, RMR = 0,40;
Goodness of Fit Index, GFI = 0,93; Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index, AGFI = 0,91;
dan Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI = 0.77.Selain itu, uji Goodness of fit
model berdasarkan uji parameter hasil estimasi dalam Uji-t menunjukkan
hasil yang signifikan untuk keseluruhannya. Koefisien estimasi parameter
pada variabel KBS (γ=0,78; t=68,61); Km (γ=1,03; t=81,98); PD (γ=0,62;
t=42,03); WN (γ=0,70; t=49,56); dan Wm (γ=0,74; t=59,65); masing-masing
menunjukkan harga yang sangat signifikan. Dengan terpenuhinya persyaratan
pengukuran bagi butir-butir instrumen persepsi, termasuk validitas konstruk
untuk instrument persepsiterhadap dosen matematika maka instrument
tersebut dapat digunakan lebih lanjut dalam praktik pengukuran.
Penerapan instrument persepsi terhadap dosen matematika dalam
praktik pengukuran melibatkan 403 mahasiswa terpilih, terdiri atas 130
mahasiswa laki-laki dan 273 mahasiswa perempuan lingkungan Universitas
Negeri
Jakarta. Instrument persepsi terhadap dosen matematika
diaplikasikan untuk memperoleh jawaban terhadap masing-masing
pernyataan butir persepsi guna memecahkan permasalahan penelitian,
terutama melalui pengujian hipotesis penelitian.
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Hasil pengujian hipotesis perta-ma menunjukkan bahwa terdapat
perbedaan persepsi mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan terhadap
dosen matematika secara signifikan. Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa
mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan lingkungan UNJ Jakarta
memiliki persepsi yang tidak sama (berbeda) terhadap dosen matematika,
meskipun mereka sama-sama memiliki persepsi positif terhadap dosen.
Dengan adanya persepsi yang berbeda, namun sama-sama positif, bagi
kelompok mahasiswa laki-laki akan lebih terpacu untuk selalu aktif dalam
perkuliahan daripada mahasiswa perempuan, atau sebaliknya. Kondisi
mendukung dalam keberhasilan perkuliahan mahasiawa, terutama mata
kuliah bidang matematika.
Selain itu, kondisi demilkian secara tidak langsung akan membantu
kelancaran proses perkuliahan matematika di lingkungan perguruan tinggi
yang bersangkutan sehingga pencapaian tujuan (seperti usaha peningkatan
indeks prestasi bidang matematika, atau peningkatan kualitas perkuliahan
matematika) lebih dapat tercapai, jika dibandingkan mahasiswa yang
memiliki persepsi negatif terhadap staf pengajar matematika. Dampak
lainnya adalah setiap kegiatan yang berkenaan dengan perkuliahan
matematika akan didukung oleh maha-siswa, namun juga dapat sebaliknya.
Hasil pengujian hipotesis kedua menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan
persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika menurut jenjang program
studi. Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa dari masing-masing jenjang
programstudi (Reguler, Non-reguler, Murni) memiliki persepsi berbeda
terhadap dosen matematika. Mahasiswa pada program Murni, mempelajari
materi matematika yang cenderung berbeda dengan materi yang dipelajari
program pendidikan Reguler ataupun program pendidikan Non-reguler,
terutama pada kedalaman dan ragam materi. Hal demikian, mengakibatkan
adanya perbedaan dalam penyajian materi matematika oleh dosen sehingga
memunculkan kesan berbeda. Demikian juga antara mahasiswa program
pendidikan Reguler terhadap program pendidikan Non-Reguler, materi yang
dipelajari sama, alokasi waktu kuliah materi Matematika adalah sama, namun
waktu pelaksanaan ataupun perlakuan pembe-lajaran yang mereka terima
tentu ada perbedaannya, meskipun sedikit. Kondisi demikian dapat
menimbulkan kesan yang tidak seragam, meskipun relatif sedikit, terhadap
dosen pembina kuliah bidang matematika.
Kondisi tersebut terlihat pada hasil analisis yang menunjukkan bahwa
(a)antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan Murni memiliki Mean
Difference 6,057 dengan Sig.=0,000; dan (b)antara mahasiswa Pendidikan
Non-reguler dan Murni memiliki Mean Difference 8,996; Sig.=0,000. Namun,
antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan Pendidikan Non-reguler memiliki
Mean Difference 2,143 dengan Sig.=0,171.
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SIMPULAN
Mahasiswa (Jurusan Matematika, Kimia, Biologi di lingkungan UNJ)
yang memenuhi syarat person-fit sebanyak 98,77%, dan dilibatkan dalam
analisis pengukuran lebih lanjut. Butir-butir persepsimahasiswa terhadap
dosen matematika memuat komponen ilusi, pemilikan karakter dan kapasitas
ingatan yang masing-masing tersusun atas keahlian bidang studi, keahlian
mengajar, pribadi sebagi dosen, wawasan nasional, dan wawasan terhadap
mahasiswa. Terdapat 25 butir persepsi yang fit dari 30 butir persepsi, dan
digunakan untuk analisis pengukuran lebih lanjut. Hasil pengujian SEM
menunjukkan bahwa instrumen persepsi terhadap dosen matematika telah
memenuhi kriteria uji Goodnees of fit. Dengan demikian, instrument persepsi
terhadap dosen matematika telah memenuhi persyaratan alat ukur sehingga
dapat digunakan lebih lanjut. Pengukuran persepsi terhadap dosen
matematika melibatkan mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan yang
berasal dari tiga kategori program pendidikan berbeda, yaitu kategori
Pendidikan Reguler; Pendidikan Non-Reguler, dan Murni. Mahasiswa laki-laki
dan mahasiswa perempuan memiliki persepsi yang berbeda terhadap dosen
matematika secara signifikan. Selain itu, terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan
persepsi terhadap matematika siswa menurut jenjang program studi.
Persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika program Pendidikan
Reguler dan Pendidikan Non-reguler, masing-masing berbeda secara
signifikan terhadap persepsimahasiswa program Murni. Akan tetapi, persepsi
terhadap dosen matematika mahasiswa program pendidikan Reguler dan
pendidikan Non-Reguler tidak berbeda.
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Jakarta: P.T. Raja Grafindo Persada.
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Corporation.
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EVALUASI PROGRAM SUPERVISI
PEMBELAJARAN IPA SMP DI KOTA GORONTALO
Astin Lukum
State University of Gorontalo, Gorontalo, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This research aims were to obtain information about (1) the support
of the policy, (2)the resources, and (3)the implementation of science
teaching supervision program, and (4) the performance of science
teachers of secondary school in Gorontalo city. This research
concludes were (1)the implementation of science teaching
supervision program is based on laws of national regulations, as
well as the regulations of the Head of Education and Culture Office
in Gorontalo City. The decision makers not focused on the
implementation of that yet. (2)Science teachers perception on
concept of science teaching supervision based on their experiences
in that implementation, whereas the understanding of supervisors
and school principals towards of that focused on the schools and
classrooms visit, their characteristics is in accordance with the SNP,
and they are potentially to be develop. The relevant resources has
met the MMS. (3)The implementation of science teaching
supervision has been executed but has not met the MMS. and
(4)Best performance science teachers 16%, Good 43%, and Fair 5%,
while the remaining 36% are reluctant to be supervisid in teaching.
Keywords: science teaching supervision, CIPP models
PENDAHULUAN
Keberhasilan pembelajaran IPA di kelas merupakan ujung tombak
pencapaian tujuan pendidikan nasional. Untuk itu diperlukan komitmen guru
IPA dan kepala sekolah untuk selalu meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di
kelas dan untuk menjamin proses pembelajaran IPA yang berkualitas maka
diperlukan supervisi pembelajaran IPA, karena supervisi merupakan kegiatan
yang berhubungan dengan usaha-usaha perbaikan dan peningkatan kualitas
pembelajaran yang mencakup kualitas proses dan kualitas hasil pembelajaran.
Kualitas pelaksanaan supervisi sangat bergantung pada kompetensi
dan profesionalisme supervisor. Supervisi pembelajaran IPA dalam sistem
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persekolahan di Indonesia masih terbatas pada aspek-aspek fisik dan aspekaspek administrasi. Kurangnya perhatian terhadap aspek penyelenggaraan
supervisi pembelajaran ditunjukkan oleh kurangnya bahkan pada daerah
tertentu tidak ada supervisi mata pelajaran yang dilaksanakan oleh
supervisor yang berlatar belakang mata pelajaran yang disupervisinya.
Supervisor untuk pembelajaran IPA di propinsi Gorontalo masih kurang yang
memiliki keahlian di bidang kompetensi yang disupervisinya, Kabupaten
Gorontalo memiliki tiga orang supervisor IPA untuk 131 SMP, Kota Gorontalo
hanya ada tiga orang supervisor IPA untuk 21 SMP, Boalemo satu orang
supervisor IPA untuk 40 SMP, dan Pohuwato 1 orang supervisor IPA untuk 38
SMP. Data tersebut tidak seluruhnya berlatarbelakang pendidikan IPA tetapi
rumpun IPA. Padahal mutu pembelajaran IPA sangat bergantung pada
keprofesionalan guru IPA. Guru IPA perlu mendapat bantuan untuk
menumbuhkan profesionalitasnya. Salah satu bantuan profesional ini adalah
supervisi pembelajaran. Supervisi pembelajaran IPA perlu dilakukan sebagai
upaya terus‐menerus untuk menumbuhkan keprofesionalan guru IPA.
Kecenderungan pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA sekarang ini
hanya terfokus pada salah satu teknik supervisi saja, yaitu supervisi
kunjungan kelas hanya untuk mengamati pembelajaran di kelas apa sudah
sesuai dengan RPP atau tidak, tanpa membimbing penguasaan materi sekaligus
pendalaman materimateri yang sulit yang diajarkan kepada siswa, serta
hubungan materi yang diajarkan dengan hakekat pendidikan IPA itu sendiri. Ada
juga supervisor yang hanya terfokus pada supervisi administrasi pembelajaran
saja, memeriksa daftar hadir guru, biasanya mereka datang ke sekolah satu
semester dua kali yaitu pada awal dan pada saat ujian semester dilaksanakan.
Padahal supervisor adalah mitranya guru, dalam mengembangkan kualitas
pembelajaran IPA di kelas.
Rendahnya aktivitas, minat, dan hasil belajar IPA disebabkan oleh
beberapa faktor antara lain penyampaian materi pembelajaran IPA yang
membuat siswa jenuh, siswa jarang diberi pengalaman langsung dalam
pembelajaran IPA, metode mengajar yang digunakan guru kurang bervariasi
dan tidak inovatif. Hal ini menunjukkan keprofesionalan guru IPA yang masih
perlu ditingkatkan, dan ini menjadi tantangan bagi supervisor pembelajaran
IPA.
Supervisi pembelajaran IPA harus diarahkan pada penciptaan guru
IPA yang profesional dalam mengelola proses pembelajaran karena supervisi
pembelajaran IPA sebagai serangkaian usaha pemberian bantuan profesional
kepada guru IPA dalam bentuk layanan profesional yang diberikan oleh
supervisor. Itulah sebabnya supervisor pembelajaran IPA perlu belajar terus
menerus, membaca informasi terbaru dan mengembangkan ideide kreatif
dalam pembelajaran agar dapat didesiminasikan kepada guru IPA, dan
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supervisi dalam proses pembelajaran IPA sebaiknya dilakukan oleh supervisor
yang memahami konsep IPA.
Program supervisi pembelajaran IPA berkaitan erat dengan dukungan
kebijakan, sumber daya yang menunjang pelaksanaannya, pelaksanaan supervisi
itu sendiri dan produk yang dihasilkan adalah kinerja guru IPA SMP di Kota
Gorontalo yang diharapkan akan berdampak terhadap hasil belajar siswa.
Oleh karena itu jenis penelitian yang tepat untuk meneliti program supervisi
pembelajaran IPA adalah penelitian evaluasi program. Penelitian evaluasi
program adalah penelitian yang menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dan
pendekatan kuantitatif. Salah satu model penelitian evaluasi program
sebagaimana yang dikemukakan oleh Stufflebeam adalah evaluasi Context,
Input, Process, Product (CIPP). Keunggulan model CIPP memberikan suatu format
evaluasi yang komprehensif pada setiap tahapan evaluasi yaitu tahap konteks,
masukkan, proses, dan produk (Van Fuddin Batavia, 2008).
Evaluasi konteks menyediakan dasar awal berupa arah, tujuan dan
pedoman operasional pelaksanaan suatu program yang merupakan daya
dukung utama dalam pencapaian tujuan program tersebut. Program supervisi
pembelajaran IPA merupakan salah satu bagian dari fungsi pengelolaan
pendidikan memiliki dasar pelaksanaan berupa kebijakan yang hirarkis dari pusat
sampai ke daerah. Dasar kebijakan yang dimaksud berupa Undang–Undang
nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, yang dijabarkan
dalam berbagai peraturan dan keputusan pemerintah atau menteri sampai pada
peraturan daerah, dan keputusan ataupun edaran kepala dinas Kabupaten/Kota.
Konteks dalam penelitian ini berupa dukungan kebijakan supervisi pembelajaran
IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo.
Untuk dapat mewujudkan tujuan suatu program, maka diperlukan
sumber daya yang merupakan modal dasar dalam mengimplementasikan
kebijakan sebagaimana dikemukakan pada evaluasi konteks. Oleh karena itu,
sumber daya merupakan bagian dari evaluasi input.
Evaluasi input berhubungan dengan pemanfaatan sumber daya yang
tersedia yang digunakan untuk pencapaian tujuan suatu program yang telah
dirumuskan dalam kebijakan-kebijakan yang mendasarinya. Implementasi
suatu program yang telah diatur dalam berbagai kebijakan sebagaimana di
atas yang didukung oleh sumber daya yang tersedia merupakan suatu proses
dalam pencapaian tujuan.Oleh karena itu implementasi suatu program
disebut juga tahapan proses. Untuk melihat keberhasilan tahapan ini maka
perlu dilakukan evaluasi proses. Evaluasi proses menyediakan informasi
tentang pelaksanaan program dan menyediakan data untuk keputusan dalam
implementasi program yang telah ditrumuskan dalam kebijakan di atas, serta
menentukan bagaimana penggunaan sumber daya untuk mencapai tujuan
program tersebut.
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Keberhasilan suatu program dapat dilihat dari produk yang dihasilkan
pada akhir suatu kegiatan. Jika produk program sesuai dengan apa yang
diharapkan sebagaimana telah dijabarkan dalam kebijakan-kebijakan di atas
dan didukung oleh sumber daya yang tersedia yang terlibat dalam proses
implementasi maka program tersebut dikatakan berhasil. Evaluasi produk
menjadi bagian penting dalam suatu evaluasi program dan bahkan menjadi
grand conclusion. Berdasarkan uraian di atas evaluasi produk digunakan
untuk mengukur pencapaian program pada setiap akhir program. Dalam
penelitian ini yang menjadi fokus evaluasi produk adalah kinerja guru IPA
dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran di kelas. Pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA
di kelas erat kaitannya dengan keberhasilan pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA oleh supervisor atau kepala sekolah yang didukung oleh
komitmen guru dan sarana serta prasarana yang cukup tersedia.
METODOLOGI PENELITIAN
Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di Dinas Pendidikan Nasional dan SMP di
Kota Gorontalo Provinsi Gorontalo yang dilaksanakan selama 9 bulan yaitu mulai
dari Januari sampai dengan September 2011. Teknik yang digunakan dalam
penelitian ini adalah wawancara, observasi dan dokumentasi. Wawancara
digunakan untuk memperoleh informasi tentang kebijakan, pemahaman
pengambil kebijakan, pemahaman guru IPA, supervisor, kepala sekolah
terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran
IPA, pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA, upaya supervisor dan kepala sekolah dalam meningkatkan
kompetensinya. Sedangkan dokumentasi dilakukan untuk memperoleh data
tentang karakteristik guru IPA, karakteristik supervisor IPA SMP di Kota
Gorontalo, sarana dan prasarana, kinerja guru IPA dalam proses pembelajaran
IPA. Observasi dilakukan untuk memperoleh data tentang pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo termasuk pada pembelajarannya.
Analisis data dalam penelitian ini dilaksanakan secara deskriptif kualitatif.
Disamping itu data kualitatif dianalisis menggunakan analisis tematik.
HASIL PENELITIAN
Pengambil kebijakan Dinas Pendidikan Kota Gorontalo mengemukakan
bahwa aturan pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA diatur berdasarkan
peraturan menteri, surat keputusan, edaran, rapat koordinasi dengan
pengawas dan kepala sekolah, ada juga program pemantauan bersama yang
dilakukan oleh dinas bersama supervisor. Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran
IPA SMP di kota Gorontalo telah didasarkan pada peraturan perundangundangan yang berlaku dan juga telah dihasilkan beberapa kebijakan kepala
dinas, seperti forum Musyawarah Kerja Pengawas Sekolah (MKPS), forum
Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran (MGMP), Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS), dan
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Kontrak kinerja untuk memperkuat dan menunjang implementasi pelaksanaan
peraturan perundang-undangan tentang supervisi pembelajaran IPA.
Pengambil kebijakan dalam melaksanakan supervisi mengacu kepada
Permendiknas No 12 Tahun 2007 yang melandasi pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran. Pelaksanaan supervisi di SMP Kota Gorontalo dilakukan secara
terprogram yang melekat pada tugas pokok pengawas dan ada juga program
supervisi bersama antara pengawas dengan pihak dinas pendidikan untuk
memantau kegiatan pelaksanaan pembelajaran di sekolah. Penilaian Kinerja
pelaksanaan supervisi dilakukan secara terprogram sekali setahun melalui rapat
koordinasi antara pengawas sekolah, kepala sekolah dan pihak pengambil
kebijakan. Kondisi pelaksanaan supervisi ini bertujuan meningkatkan mutu
pendidikan, dalam hal ini hasil belajar siswa. Berdasarkan uraian di atas
pengambil kebijakan memahami pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih
terbatas pada aturan atau program, implementasi pelaksanaan supervisi belum
sampai pada upaya peningkatan kualitas pengawas, kepala sekolah, maupun
guru IPA.
Aspek yang menjadi indikator dalam evaluasi input kaitannya dengan
sumber daya program supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP Kota Gorontalo
difokuskan pada 6 aspek yaitu; (1)pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep
supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo. (2)pemahaman supervisor
terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo.
(3)pemahaman kepala sekolah terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP
di Kota Gorontalo. (4)karakteristik supervisor pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota
Gorontalo (5)karakteristik guru IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo, (6) sarana dan
prasarana pembelajaran IPA.
Pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo bahwa pembimbingan guru IPA
dilaksanakan melalui workshop yang diawali supervisi sekolah melalui wadah
Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS). Setelah itu dilanjutkan dengan pembimbingan guru
IPA mulai dari persiapan pembelajaran, analisis konsep pembelajaran sampai
pada evaluasi. Secara rutin pengawas berkunjung untuk membimbing guru
dan melakukan pemantauan langsung dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di
kelas.
Mengenai pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep pembelajaran IPA
secara menyeluruh menyebutkan hal yang sama bahwa konsep pembelajaran
IPA dilaksanakan secara kontekstual, bahkan para guru IPA menjelaskan
hakekat pembelajaran IPA di SMP untuk memahami gejala alam dan sadar
akan kekuasaan Sang Pencipta serta menumbuhkan kecintaan terhadap Sang
Pencipta.
Pembimbingan guru dalam merencanakan pembelajaran IPA oleh
supervisor semua guru menyebutkan memperoleh bimbingan, mulai dari
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pembuatan perangkat pembelajaran, materi, model pembelajaran, evaluasi,
pemanfaatan sumber belajar, dan media. Demikian juga untuk penguatan
delapan keterampilan dasar mengajar. Informasi lain yang diperoleh dari guru
IPA adalah pembimbingan guru dalam hal mengembangkan pembelajaran IPA
yang inofatif dan menyenangkan. Frekuensi pembimbingan guru yang dilakukan
oleh supervisor dalam satu semester bervariasi. Keikutsertaan guru IPA dalam
MGMP atau KKG semua guru menyebutkan aktif. Berdasarkan uraian di atas,
guru pada dasarnya memahami konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA berdasarkan
apa yang mereka alami dari pelaksanaan supervisi yang dilaksanakan oleh
pengawas dan kepala sekolah.
Pemahaman supervisor terhadap konsep pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo dilaksanakan menggunakan teknik
supervisi administrasi, proses dan klinis. Supervisi pembelajaran
menggunakan teknik supervisi akademik, berupa kunjungan kelas dan
selanjutnya dilakukan umpan balik. Pembinaan terhadap guru dilakukan secara
individualdan kelompok tergantung permasalahan. Metode yang tepat
pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA yakni menggunakan pendekatan
humanistik, pendekatan kompetensi dan pendekatan klinis serta dilakukan
teknik kunjungan kelas.
Pembelajaran IPA di SMP dilaksanakan secara kontekstual dengan
pembelajaran aktif dan menyenangkan, yang ditujukan pada ranah kognitif,
afektif dan psikomotor. Pembelajaran IPA adalah mempelajari gejala alam,
sampai pada akhirnya akan meningkatkan keterampilan konsep
pembelajaran IPA, mengembangkan rasa ingin tahu, meningkatkan keyakinan
terhadap Tuhan Yang maha Esa. Penilaian proses pembelajaran IPA dilakukan
berkelanjutan dan terus menerus, berdasarkan pada ketercapaian indikator, dan
berfokus pada kegiatan pembelajaran meliputi pendahuluan, kegiatan inti
dan penutup.Penelitian tindakan kelas merupakan solusi untuk memperbaiki
pembelajaran IPA di kelas yang disesuaikan dengan permasalahan yang ada di
kelas.
Berdasarkan data penelitian di atas, para supervisor telah memahami
konsep pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA pada tataran teknis,
sedangkan pada tataran konsep dan teori belum sepenuhnya mereka pahami
sehinga hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA sebagai upaya professional untuk
membantu guru menjadi seorang guru yang professional belum nampak,
yang ada masih terbatas pada masalah teknis supervisi.
Supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo mengacu pada
Permendiknas no 41 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Proses, serta edaran Dinas,
sedangkan konsep pembelajaran IPA SMP dilaksanakan menggunakan konsep
IPA terpadu secara kontekstual, hakikat pembelajaran IPA SMP bertujuan
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memahami hakikat alam dan penciptaNya, lebih bersifat aplikatif dan
membentuk karakter siswa.
Sistem koordinasi pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di kelas
dilaksanakan dengan cara membentuk tim supervisi tingkat sekolah yang
selalu berkoordinasi dengan kepala sekolah dan pengawas. Pemantauan
pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA di kelas dilakukan dengan cara pemantauan
langsung oleh kepala sekolah, wakil kepala sekolah dan ketua IGS.
Pemanfaatan teknologi informasi untuk menunjang proses pembelajaran IPA
di kelas semua guru IPA sudah menggunakan IT tapi belum maksimal. Kepala
sekolah mengemukakan cara untuk memotivasi guru dalam merefleksikan
hasil yang dicapai dilakukan melalui pembimbingan dan penilaian kinerja.
Berdasarkan datadi atas, para kepala sekolah telah memahami
konsep pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA hanya sebatas tataran teknis,
sedangkan pada tataran konsep dan teori belum sepenuhnya mereka pahami
sehinga hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA sebagai upaya professional untuk
membantu guru menjadi seorang guru yang professional belum nampak.
Jumlah supervisor pembelajaran IPA 3 orang, dengan jenjang S1
Pendidikan Fisika 2 orang, dengan latar belakang pendidikan S2 PKLH dan
Manajemen Pendidikan dan yang 1 orang lagi berasal dari S1 Pendidikan
Kimia dengan latar belakang pendidikan S2 PKLH. Semuanya berpangkat
golongan IVa. Para supervisor dibagi dalam wilayah kepengawasan yang
mencakup SMP/MTs, SMA/MA. Berdasarkan data tersebut supervisor IPA di
Kota Gorontalo semua berusia produktif dan berpotensi masih dapat
dikembangkan.
Jumlah guru IPA di Kota Gorontalo 94 orang, yang terdiri dari 32 orang
S1 Pendidikan Biologi, 35 orang S1 Pendidikan Fisika, 21 orang S1 Pendidikan
IPA, 2 orang S2 Manajemen Pendidikan, 3 orang S2 Pendidikan Biologi, 1 orang
D3 Biologi. Masa kerja guru IPA dibawah 10 tahun berjumlah 30 orang, 44 orang
di atas 10 tahun serta 10 orang di atas 20 tahun. Golongan III berjumlah 47
orang dan golongan IV berjumlah 45 orang. Guru IPA yang telah disertifikasi
81 orang dan yang belum disertifikasi 13 orang. Mereka yang belum disertifikasi
adalah mereka yang belum memenuhi pengalaman kerjanya. Dengan demikian
karakteristik guru tersebut secara keseluruhan memungkinkan untuk
dikembangkan kinerjanya dalam pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA melalui
supervisi pembelajaran IPA.
Sarana dan prasarana pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo
ditinjau dari beberapa aspek yakni jumlah siswa per kelas, meja dan kursi
siswa per kelas, ruang guru dan kepala sekolah, laboratorium serta perangkat
praktikum sesuai standard minimal. Jumlah buku IPA yang layak, buku
pengayaan serta jumlah buku referensi. Secara umum jumlah siswa perkelas di
atas 36 orang perkelas, meja kursi siswa sesuai dengan jumlah siswa, tersedia
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ruang guru dan kepala sekolah yang memiliki meja dan kursi sesuai jumlah guru,
semua sekolah ada laboratorium, perangkat praktikum sesuai standard minimal.
Jumlah buku IPA, buku pengayaan, dan buku referensi sesuai dengan standard
minimal. Berdasarkan data sarana dan prasarana di atas pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo memungkinkan untuk meningkatan
kinerja guru dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran IPA di kelas.
Pelaksanaan kunjungan kelas oleh supervisor dilaksanakan 2 kali
dalam satu semester untuk setiap orang guru, jawaban dari supervisor
lainnya 3 kali terdiri dari pembinaan, pemantauan dan penilaian. Proses
pembimbingan dilaksanakan bimbingan awal dalam kelompok, bimbingan
individualsecara klinis. Pertemuan pribadi dilakukan sampai 3 kali, kondisi ini
terjadi apabila perangkat yang dibuat guru belum memenuhi syarat sehingga
butuh bimbingan berkelanjutan. Supervisor membimbing guru dalam memilih
dan menggunakan metode/strategi pembelajaran IPA sesuai karakteristik
materi, kesiapan guru dan sarana penunjang. Supervisor membimbing dan
mendampingi guru menyusun RPP mulai pendahuluan sampai penutup, dengan
cara mempelajari dan mengecek kekurangan sekaligus mereviuw, sehingga guru
mengetahui kelemahan RPP. Pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA di kelas pengawas
membimbing guru bertolak dari hasil supervisi sebelumnya.
Pembimbingan media pembelajaran difokuskan pada guru-guru yang
belum memiliki kemampuan dalam menggunakan media, ditindak lanjuti dengan
diklat penggunaan alatIPA. Pembimbingan pemanfaatan teknologi Informasi
difokuskan pada guru IPA yang belum memiliki kemampuan IT. Pengawas
melakukan pembimbingan penilaian kegiatan pembelajaran. Keikut sertaan
supervisor dalam rapat guru dilakukan pada rapat yang membicarakan
kompetensi guru atau evaluasi hasil supervisi maupun program pembelajaran.
Supervisor telah melaksanakan supevisi pembelajaran IPA sebatas
memenuhi frekwensi kunjungan yang ditetapkan oleh Dikbud 2 sampai 3 kali
dalam satu semester, sehingga belum nampak pembimbingan guru IPA secara
terus menerus dan berkelanjutan ataupun memenuhi SPM yaitu 2 kali dalam
sebulan dan setiap kunjungan dilakukan selama 3 jam.Kunjungan kelas
dilakukan oleh kepala sekolah 2 kali persemester yakni secara internal
sekolah dan secara supervisi terpadu bersama pengawas, kunjungan kelas
dilakukan setiap hari. Pertemuan pribadi kaitannya dengan kegiatan supervisi
dijadwalkan 2 kali persemester yaitu awal pembelajaran dan menjelang
supervisi terpadu. Pelaksanaan rapat guru dilakukan setiap semester 3 kali yaitu
awal, pertengahan dan akhir semester. Pelaksanaan kunjungan ke sekolah
lain sudah terjadwal dalam MGMP, kepala sekolah hanya menerima laporan
kunjungan guru ke sekolah tertentu. Kepala sekolah lainnya menyebutkan
belum ada kunjungan rutin ke sekolah lain. Kunjungan antarkelas menurut
kepala sekolah sudah dilaksanakan, dilakukan untuk membina
guru
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memperbaiki mutu pembelajaran di kelas, sedangkan yang lainnya menyebutkan
belum pernah dilaksanakan bersama guru.
Menurut kepala sekolah KKG IPA terprogram dalam kegiatan MGMP.
Publikasi karya inovatif dalam bulletin ilmiah belum dilaksanakan kalaupun ada
belum optimal, hanya sebagian kecil guru yang melaksanakan dan yang lainnya
menyebutkan belum ada publikasi karya ilmiah untuk sekolah. Penilaian kinerja
guru berpedoman pada instrument tetapi instrumennya hanya ada pada
pengawas sekolah. Kepala sekolah telah melaksanakan supevisi pembelajaran
IPA sebatas melihat proses pembelajaran di kelas, nampaknya belum melakukan
pembimbingan guru IPA secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan ataupun
memenuhi kriteria dalam standar pelayanan minimal yaitu 2 kali dalam sebulan
dan setiap kunjungan dilakukan selama 3 jam.
Pembimbingan guru IPA dilaksanakan melalui workshop yang diawali
dengan supervisi sekolah melalui wadah Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS).
Pembimbingan oleh supervisor kepada guru IPA mulai dari analisis konsep
pembelajaran, menyusun Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran (RPP) yang
mengacu pada silabus, menentukan indikator berdasarkan standard kompetensi
dan kompetensi dasar, memilih metode pembelajaran, mengembangkan media
pembelajaran, pemanfaatanIT dalam pembelajaran sampai pada evaluasi.
Pembimbingan supervisor dalam pemanfaatan IT seperti pembuatan power
point, penggunaan LCD, ataupun mendownload sumber belajar, meskipun
beberapa sekolah belum memiliki fasilitas IT. Semua guru mengemukakan
bahwa pembimbingan penyusunan bahan ajar telah dilakukan, sedangkan
pembimbingan PTK belum banyak disentuh oleh supervisor, dari 9 responden
hanya 3 responden yang mengemukakan mengalaminya, demikian halnya
pembimbingan dalam penulisan karya ilmiah termasuk belum ada upaya untuk
mempublikasikan karya inovatif pembelajaran IPA dalam bulletin ilmiah.
Pengawas berkunjung untuk membimbing guru IPA dan melakukan
pemantauan dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di kelas. Kunjungan kelas
dilaksanakan oleh supervisor ada yang menyebutkan 1 kali, 2 kali dan 3 kali
dalam satu semester, sedangkan kepala sekolah melaksanakan supervisi setiap
hari. Pertemuan pribadi dilakukan supervisor dengan guru IPA 1 sampai 2 kali
dalam satu semester, guru lainnya mengemukakan bimbingan pribadi tidak
pernah dilakukan tapi bimbingan secara kelompok. Guru IPA mengemukakan
bahwa konsep pembelajaran IPA dilaksanakan secara kontekstual. Hakekat
pembelajaran IPA di SMP adalah untuk memahami gejala alam dan sadar akan
kekuasaan Sang Pencipta serta menumbuhkan kecintaan terhadap Sang
Pencipta.
Supervisor memperkenalkan pembelajaran Aktif, Kreatif, Efisien, dan
Menyenangkan (PAKEM), dan mengamati proses pembelajaran di kelas mulai
dari awal pembelajaran sampai dengan akhir pembelajaran, yang dilanjutkan
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dengan refleksi berdasarkan temuan selama proses pembelajaran. Pelaksanaan
supervisi pembelajaran IPA belum secara maksimal dilaksanakan oleh para
supervisor, sehingga menyebabkan masih banyak guru yang perlu dikembangkan
kemampuan profesionalnya yang tercermin pada kinerja guru yang belum
maksimal pula.
Pengawas terlibat langsung sebagai peserta diklat, seminar maupun
workshop, melakukan koordinasi sesama anggota dalam wadah MKPS,
memanfaatkan IT seperti internet untuk mencari informasi yang berhubungan
dengan kegiatan supervisi. Para pengawas mengemukakan belum terbentuk
asosiasi supervisor di tingkat Kota, koordinasi dengan LPMP hanya sebatas
individual, terutama yang berhubungan dengan mutu kepengawasan, supervisor
lainnya mengemukakan bahwa koordinasinya hanya sebatas memberikan
informasi kepada pihak LPMP. Informasi ini dalam bentuk hubungan kerja
kegiatan bermutu. Berdasarkan data tersebut nampaknya para supervisor telah
melakukan sebagian upaya untuk meningkatkan kompetensinya.
Kepala sekolah berusaha untuk mencapai delapan standar kompetensi
kepala sekolah, dan mereka banyak mengikuti pelatihan, seminar, dan
workshop untuk mengembangkan diri. Upaya kepala sekolah dalam
meningkatkan kompetensinya antara lain memahami penyusunan
perencanaan sekolah, pendayagunaan sumber daya sekolah, pengembangan
sekolah menuju organisasi pembelajar yang efektif, penciptaan budaya dan iklim
sekolah yang kondusif dan inovatif bagi pembelajaran, pengelolaan guru dan
staf, pengelolaan sarana dan prasarana sekolah, pengelolaan hubungan
sekolah/madrasah dan masyarakat dalam rangka pencarian dukungan sumber
belajar, pengembangan kapasitas peserta didik, pengembangan kurikulum dan
kegiatan pembelajaran sesuai dengan arah dan tujuan pendidikan nasional.
Guru IPA yang memiliki kinerja amat baik atau yang memiliki skor
lebih besar 90 berjumlah 10 orang atau sekitar 16%, guru IPA yang memiliki
kinerja baik atau yang memiliki skor antara 75 dan 90 berjumlah 26 orang atau
sekitar 43%, dan guru IPA yang memiliki kinerja cukup atau yang memiliki
skor antara 56 – 74 berjumlah 3 orang atau sekitar 5%, sedangkan masih adanya
guru IPA yang belum bersedia disupervisi, ini berarti prinsip kemitraan belum
maksimal pada pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di SMP Kota Gorontalo.
Di samping itu peneliti juga telah melakukan observasi terhadap proses
pembelajaran IPA yang dilaksanakan oleh beberapa guru IPA, guru IPA telah
melaksanakan kegiatan pendahuluan berupa menyiapkan peserta didik,
melakukan apersepsi, menjelaskan KD dan tujuan yang ingin di capai, kegiatan
inti yang terdiri dari eksplorasi, elaborasi, konfirmasi dan penutup. Nampak pada
observasi bahwa beberapa guru IPA ini telah menggunakan media pembelajaran
baik berupa macromedia, maupun alam sebagai sumber belajar, juga mereka
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sudah menggunakan model pembelajaran kooperatif, namun pembelajaran
masih didominasi oleh guru, dan siswa masih pasif.
PEMBAHASAN
Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo telah
dilaksanakan berdasarkan UU Sistem Pendidikan Nasional No 20 Tahun 2003,
PP No 19 Tahun 2005 tentang SNP, Pemen No 12 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar
Pengawas Sekolah/Madrasah, Peraturan Menteri No 15 Tahun 2010 tentang
SPM Pendidikan Dasar, keputusan dan edaran kepala dinas, hanya saja beberapa
aspek belum bersesuaian dengan kebijakan di atas.
Beberapa kebijakan Dinas Pendidikan Nasional Kota Gorontalo banyak
yang menunjang pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo
antara lain pembagian wilayah binaan, mengaktifkan MKPS, MKKS, MGMP, dan
IGS, membuat kontrak kinerja antara kepala dinas dan pengawas, pengawas dan
kepala sekolah, kepala sekolah dan guru dengan indikatornya adalah Kriteria
Ketuntasan Minimal (KKM), mutasi guru, supervisi terpadu, workshop, seminar
dan pelatihan. Kebijakan tersebut di atas dibuat dalam rangka peningkatan
kompetensi pengawas, kepala sekolah dan guru yang bermuara pada
peningkatan prestasi belajar siswa khususnya dan kualitas pendidikan pada
umumnya.
Kebijakan pemerintah yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih perlu dioptimalkan, terutama
dalam tataran implementasi. Pengambil kebijakan memahami pelaksanaan
supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih terbatas pada aturan. Program implementasi
pelaksanaan supervisi, yang dilaksanakan oleh supervisor di sekolah seharusnya
diketahui oleh pengambil kebijakan dalam hal ini unsur Dinas Pendidikan Kota
Gorontalo. Oleh karena itu pengambil kebijakan belum sampai pada upaya
peningkatan kualitas pengawas, kepala sekolah, maupun guru IPA.
Berdasarkan uraian di atas pengambil kebijakan hendaknya memahami
pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA merupakan layanan profesional bagi
guru IPA yang dilakukan secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan oleh
supervisor yang bertujuan untuk memperbaiki dan meningkatkan mutu proses
dan hasil pembelajaran IPA yang dilakukan melalui supervisi akademik dan
supervisi manajerial.
Pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA akan
membantu para pengawas dan kepala sekolah untuk mencapai tujuan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA. Oleh karena itu para supervisor hendaknya memberikan
pemahaman kepada guru IPA tentang hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Hal
ini akan terwujud apabila ada kerjasama yang harmonis antara guru IPA dan
supervisor. Harmonis dalam pengertian terjadi pemahaman yang sama dalam
mewujudkan tujuan supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Guru IPA pada dasarnya
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memahami konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA berdasarkan apa yang mereka
alami dari pelaksanaan supervisi yang dilaksanakan oleh pengawas dan kepala
sekolah. Seandainya mereka memahami hakekat konsep supervisi maka mereka
selalu mengharapkan bantuan profesional dari supervisor. Oleh karena itu,
pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA merupakan
cerminan dari pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA selama ini.
Pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA tidak
sekedar supervisor membimbing guru IPA melalui workshop, membimbing mulai
dari persiapan pembelajaran, analisis konsep pembelajaran sampai pada
evaluasi, dan melakukan pemantauan dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di kelas,
melainkan supervisor memberikan bantuan professional kepada guru IPA, di
mana pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA dilaksanakan secara terus
menerus dan berkelanjutan atas dasar kepentingan keduabelah pihak
berdasarkan kemitraan.
Pemahaman supervisor terhadap konsep supervisi masih terbatas pada
kunjungan ke sekolah melihat persiapan guru, melihat guru mengajar, tanya
jawab atau umpan balik tentang hasil pengamatan. Sedangkan teknik yang
digunakan teknik supervisi administrasi, supervisi proses dan supervisi klinis yaitu
pembinaan terhadap guru dilakukan secara individual dan secara kelompok
tergantung permasalahan.
Supervisor seharusnya memahami bahwa supervisi pembelajaran
merupakan pemberian bantuan profesional kepada guru sehingga dapat
meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran mereka yang muaranya pada peningkatan
hasil belajar siswa khususnya dan peningkatan kualitas pendidikan pada
umumnya dan dapat meningkatkan kualitas diri bagi guru.
Pemahaman kepala sekolah terhadap konsep pembelajaran IPA SMP sudah
seperti yang diharapkan yaitu dilaksanakan secara kontekstual bertujuan untuk
memahami hakikat alam dan penciptanya, lebih bersifat aplikatif dan
membentuk karakter siswa. Namun hendaknya kepala sekolah perlu memahami
bahwa pembelajaran IPA diawali dengan observasi terhadap fenomena alam dan
menghasilkan produk seperti pengetahuan ilmiah, fakta atau teori.
Pengawas supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo memiliki
kualifikasi pendidikan minimum magister kependidikan dan berbasis sarjana S1
dalam rumpun mata pelajaran yang relevan, memiliki pangkat pembina dan
golongan ruang IVa, serta berusia produktif di bawah 50 tahun, ini sudah sesuai
dengan aturan kebijakan yang dikemukakan pada bagian konteks yang
membahas tentang dukungan kebijakan. Berdasarkan potensi pengawas di atas,
memungkinkan untuk dikembangkan menjadi pengawas yang professional.
Jumlah siswa per kelas SMP di kota Gorontalo rata-rata berjumlah 28
sampai 35 orang, sudah memenuhi Permendiknas nomor 15 tahun 2010
tentang SPM Pendidikan Dasar tetapi Permendiknas nomor 19 tahun 2005
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tentang SNP belum terpenuhi. Dalam SPM disebutkan bahwa jumlah siswa per
kelas maksium 36 orang sedangkan menurut SNP disebutkan jumlah siswa per
kelas maksimum 32 orang. Hal ini memberikan pengaruh yang berarti pada
pelaksanaan proses pembalajaran IPA, sehingga pembelajaran dapat dirancang
menjadi pembelajaran yang siswanya aktif, kreatif, dan senang dalam belajar
sehingga efektif dalam pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran.
Rata-rata SMP di kota Gorontalo telah memiliki ruang laboratorium yang
menjadi syarat utama pelaksanaan proses pembelajaran IPA yang bermutu,
karena melalui laboratorium IPA yang didukung dengan kelengkapannya sangat
membantu transfer informasi dan pengetahuan dari guru ke siswa dan
membawa mereka ke hal yang kontekstual baik melalui demonstrasi maupun
eksperimen di laboratorium.
Konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA hendaknya dipahami guru IPA,
supervisor dan kepala sekolah sebagai suatu bantuan professional yang terus
menerus dan berkelanjutan untuk mewujudkan hakekat IPA menjadi bagian dari
cara berpikir peserta didik yang merupakan tujuan pembelajaran IPA. Di samping
itu guru IPA, supervisor dan kepala sekolah perlu mengembangkan diri dalam
kapasitasnya sebagai pendidik dan pemimpin yang bertanggung jawab terhadap
perwujudan sumber daya manusia yang berkualitas tinggi bagi peserrta didiknya
sesuai tujuan pendidikan.
Pelaksanaan supervsi pembelajaran IPA oleh supervisor dan kepala
sekolah akan membentuk pandangan dan perilaku guru IPA terhadap
pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Oleh karena itu guru IPA memandang
supervsi pembelajaran IPA itu adalah kegiatan yang dilaksanakan oleh supervisor
dan kepala sekolah untuk memeriksa RPP, mengobservasi proses pembelajaran
dan memberikan umpan balik setelah proses pembelajaran berlangsung. Inilah
yang mereka persepsikan sebagai supervisi pembelajaran IPA selama ini. Guru
IPA belum memperoleh gambaran RPP yang baik kalaupun ada masih terbatas
pada copypaste, bagaimana proses pembelajaran yang baik, itupun mereka
hanya memperoleh saran dan rekomendasi pada saat umpan balik, dan mereka
belum ada gambaran bagaimana pelaksanaan pembelajarannya terutama yang
berkaitan dengan pemilihan media, penggunaan metode, pemilihan model
pembelajaran sampai pada penilaian.
Guru IPA merasakan kegiatan pengembangan kompetensi mereka yang
berkaitan dengan PTK dan penulisan dalam jurnal merupakan hal yang sulit
dilaksanakan oleh guru IPA. Hal ini disebabkan pengalaman mereka tentang
kedua hal tersebut sangat minim, yaitu hanya pada saat menulis skripsi ataupun
tesis. Kalaupun ada guru yang melakukan penelitian, itu karena “upaya
mandirinya” dalam rangka pengurusan kenaikan pangkat.
Upaya supervisor dan kepala sekolah meningkatkan kompetensinya dalam
melaksanakan supervisi pembelajaran IPA dilakukan melalui pendidikan dan
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pelatihan, seminar maupun workshop, melakukan koordinasi sesama pengawas
dan kepala sekolah dalam wadah MKPS dan MKKS. Disamping itu adanya
program bermutu pengawas diwajibkan melaksanakan PTK, hal ini seharusnya
akan menjadi modal mereka dalam meningkatkan kompetensinya untuk
digunakan dalam membimbing guru IPA.
Supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo belum dilaksanakan
secara optimal oleh para supervisor dan kepala sekolah karena masih
terbatasnya jumlah supervisor pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo dan belum
adanya pengawasan terhadap para supervisor yang memang selama ini yang
secara langsung belum ada yang membina para supervisor, yang ada hanya garis
koordinasi dengan kepala dinas. Oleh karena itu perlunya penambahan
supervisor pembelajaran IPA dan perlu mengevaluasi struktur organisasi yang
ada pada Dinas Pendidikan Kota Gorontalo. Di samping itu supervisor dan kepala
sekolah hendaknya mengembangkan diri dan meningkatkan kompetensi secara
berkelanjutan melalui telaah literatur secara mandiri, melaksanakan kegiatan
pendidikan dan pelatihan, mendatangkan nara sumber dari LPTK atau LPMP,
mengikuti asosiasi kepengawasan dan kepala sekolah baik tingkat pusat,dan
daerah.
Kinerja guru IPA adalah kemampuan dan usaha guru untuk
melaksanakan tugas pembelajaran sebaik-baiknya dalam perencanaan
program pengajaran IPA, pelaksanaan kegiatan pembelajaran IPA dan
evaluasi hasil pembelajaran IPA. Kinerja guru IPA yang dicapai harus
berdasarkan standar kemampuan profesional selama melaksanakan
kewajiban sebagai guru di sekolah. Oleh karena itu, perhatian terhadap
kinerja guru oleh supervisor dan kepala sekolah
hendaknya terus
ditingkatkan dan menjadi hal yang amat mendesak, apalagi memperhatikan
tuntutan masyarakat yang terus meningkat berkaitan dengan kualitas
pendidikan, dan hal ini tentu saja akan berimplikasi pada makin perlunya
peningkatan kualitas kinerja guru.
Kinerja guru IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo sangat menentukan daya
serap siswa untuk mata pelajaran IPA. Hal ini tergambar pada hasil Ujian
Nasional di Kota Gorontalo, masih ada Kompetensi Dasar (KD) yang daya
serapnya dibawah 60% bahkan ada yang 15,08%. Hal ini perlu mendapat
perhatian yang serius dari supervisor pembelajaran IPA, perlu diberi
pendampingan bagi guru IPA dalam merancang pembelajaran yang
menggunakan berbagai potensi yang tersedia dan berorientasi pembelajaran
aktif, kreatif, efektif, dan menyenangkan. Disamping itu supervisor dan
kepala sekolah, disarankan agar melaksanakan tugas dan fungsinya sesuai
dengan pedoman yang ada sehingga dapat meningkatkan kinerja guru IPA.
Kebijakan-kebijakan pemerintah yang berhubungan dengan program
supervisi pada dasarnya telah memberikan gambaran yang jelas tentang
96
hakekat pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Namun yang perlu
memperoleh perhatian adalah pemahaman pengambil kebijakan di tingkat
bawah, seperti Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten/Kota, dan pengawas itu sendiri
tentang hakekat tersebut yang masih harus perlu dioptimalkan. Demikian
halnya di Kota Gorontalo dalam pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA,
Kepala Dinas Pendidikan Kota seharusnya memahami permasalahan yang
berhubungan dengan supervisi pembelajaran IPA pada tingkat
imlementasinya di sekolah.
Pemahaman pengambil kebijakan terhadap hakekat supervisi
pembelajaran IPA sampai pada implementasinya di sekolah, akan menjadi
dasar pertimbangan bagi mereka untuk menetukan sumber daya yang di
perlukan dalam pelaksanaan program supervisi pembelajaran IPA yang
kondusif, terutama dalam rekrutmen sumber daya manusia dan pengadaan
sarana prasarana.
Sumber daya manusia seperti supervisor, kepala sekolah dan guru
yang profesional dan di tunjang oleh sarana prasarana yang memadai akan
memberikan kontribusi pada pelakasanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP
di Kota Gorontalo. Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota
Gorontalo hanya akan berhasil apabila sumber daya manusianya memahami
hakekat supervisi itu sendiri, juga memahami hakekat pembelajaran IPA.
Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA yang berhasil ditunjukan oleh
peningkatan kinerja guru IPA dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di sekolah.
KESIMPULAN
Dukungan kebijakan program supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota
Gorontalo didasarkan pada UndangUndang No 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem
Pendidikan Nasional, Peraturan Pemerintah No 19 Tahun 2005 tentang Standar
Nasional Pendidikan, Peraturan Menteri No, 12 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar
Pengawas Sekolah/Madrasah, Peraturan Menteri No 13 Tahun 2007 tentang
Standar Kepala Sekolah/ Madrasah, Peraturan Menteri No 15 Tahun 2010
tentang Sistem Pelayanan Minimal Pendidikan Dasar. Sebagai implementasi
dukungan kebijakan Dinas Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Kota Gorontalo pada
program supervisi pembelajaran IPA yang dilakukan adalah pembagian wilayah
binaan, mengaktifkan Musyawarah Kerja Kepala Sekolah (MKKS), Musyawarah
Kerja Pengawas Sekolah (MKPS), Kelompok Kerja Pengawas Sekolah (KKPS),
Kelompok Kerja Kepala Sekolah (KKKS), Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran
(MGMP), dan Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS), membuat kontrak kinerja antara Kepala
Dinas dan pengawas, pengawas dan kepala sekolah, kepala sekolah dan guru,
supervisi terpadu, workshop, seminar dan pelatihan. Di samping itu, pemahaman
pengambil kebijakan terhadap pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih
97
terbatas pada pemahaman aturan dan belum sampai pada implementasinya di
lapangan.
Sumber daya program supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota
Gorontalo meliputi guru IPA, kepala sekolah, supervisor, serta sarana prasarana.
Guru IPA memahami konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA berdasarkan apa yang
mereka alami dari pelaksanaan supervisi yang dilaksanakan oleh pengawas dan
kepala sekolah. Selanjutnya, pemahaman kepala sekolah dan supervisor
terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih terbatas pada kunjungan ke
sekolah dan kunjungan kelas untuk melihat RPP dan guru mengajar serta
memberikan umpan balik, sedangkan pada tataran konsep dan teori belum
sepenuhnya mereka pahami sehinga hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA sebagai
upaya professional untuk membantu guru IPA menjadi seorang guru yang
professional belum nampak. Karakteristik supervisor dan guru IPA di Kota
Gorontalo sudah sesuai dengan Standard Nasional Pendidikan dan masih
potensial untuk dikembangkan kemampuan profesionalnya. Sarana dan
prasarana yang menunjang supervisi pembelajaran IPA telah memenuhi Standar
Pelayanan Minimal Pendidikan Dasar.
Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo oleh
supervisor dan kepala sekolah telah dilaksanakan tetapi belum memenuhi
frekuensi sebagaimana dipersyaratkan pada Standar Pelayanan Minimal
Pendidikan Dasar karena belum sampai pada kriteria dua kali dalam sebulan dan
setiap kunjungan kelas dilakukan dalam tiga jam. Guruguru IPA di Kota Gorontalo
belum seluruhnya mengikuti kegiatankegiatan ilmiah seperti mengikuti
pertemuan MGMP, mengikuti seminar, pelatihan dan workshop, melaksanakan
penelitian tindakan kelas, maupun menulis dalam jurnal ilmiah. Persepsi guru
IPA terhadap pelaksaanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA bahwa supervisi
dilaksanakan dalam rangka perbaikan dan peningkatan kualitas pembelajaran
IPA, memperbaiki proses, mencari solusi untuk masalah pembelajaran demi
pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran secara maksimal, tetapi masih ada guru IPA
yang takut untuk di supervisi. Upaya supervisor dan kepala sekolah dalam
meningkatkan kompetensinya telah dilakukan melalui pendidikan dan pelatihan
fungsional, seminar maupun workshop, melakukan koordinasi sesama pengawas
dan kepala sekolah dalam wadah MKPS dan MKKS, memanfaatkan IT untuk
mencari informasi tetapi belum memanfaatkan guru IPA yang memiliki
kompetensi yang lebih dalam pelaksanaan supervisi.
Kinerja guru IPA kategori amat baik 16%, baik 43%, dan cukup 5%,
sedangkan sisanya 36% belum bersedia disupervisi pada proses pembelajaran.
Hal ini berarti prinsip kemitraan dan komitmen yang kuat antara supervisor,
kepala sekolah dan guru IPA belum maksimal pada pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo.
98
REKOMENDASI
Kebijakan pemerintah yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan supervisi
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih perlu dioptimalkan, terutama
dalam tataran implementasi. Hasil supervisi perlu ditindaklanjuti, dianalisis dan
dievaluasi. Pengambil kebijakan juga perlu memahami konsep pelaksanaan
supervisi pembelajaran IPA yaitu berupa bantuan professional kepada guru IPA
dan dilakukan secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan.
Konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA hendaknya dipahami guru IPA,
supervisor, dan kepala sekolah sebagai bantuan professional secara terus
menerus kepada guru IPA sehingga dapat meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran
di kelas yang bermuara pada peningkatan hasil belajar siswa untuk mewujudkan
hakekat IPA menjadi bagian dari cara berpikir peserta didik. Jumlah supervisor
pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih sangat kurang dan belum ada
supervisor yang berlatar belakang S1 pendidikan IPA, sehingga perlu
mempertimbangkan penambahan jumlah supervisor dan bidang ilmu yang
direkrut serta disesuaikan dengan peraturan yang berlaku. Rekruitmen guru IPA
hendaknya memperhatikan latar belakang pendidikan terutama S1 Pendidikan
IPA. SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih memerlukan penambahan ruang kelas baru
dan penambahan peralatan laboratotium IPA.
Hendaknya dalam pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota
Gorontalo kepala sekolah bekerjasama dengan supervisor pembelajaran IPA
untuk merencanakan serta memfasilitasi kegiatan supervisi pembelajaran IPA
melalui kegiatan ilmiah seperti MGMP, seminar, pelatihan dan workshop,
penelitian tindakan kelas, maupun menulis dalam jurnal ilmiah secara
berkelanjutan dan mengupayakan keikutsertaan para guru IPA dalam
kegiatankegiatan tersebut, oleh karena itu kepala sekolah dan supervisor perlu
meningkatkan kompetensinya melalui pengembangan diri dengan mengikuti
pendidikan dan pelatihan, mengintesifkan kegiatan MKPS dan MKKS serta aktif
dalam asosiasi kepengawasan secara terus menerus dan juga meningkatkan
kompetensinya dalam penelitian tindakan kelas, penelitian tindakan sekolah,
jurnal ilmiah, internet dan elearning.
Untuk meningkatkan kinerja guru IPA maka supervisi pembelajaran IPA
hendaknya dilaksanakan secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan atas dasar
kemitraan dan pendampingan oleh seorang supervisor dan kepala sekolah
terhadap guru IPA, dan juga pengambil kebijakan hendaknya memberikan
reward bagi supervisor, kepala sekolah dan guru IPA yang berprestasi, dan bagi
guru yang belum berprestasi diberi pembimbingan yang mendidik.
99
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101
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RESEARCH AND TRENDS IN THE STUDIES OF NATIVE AND
NON-NATIVE SPEAKER TEACHERS OF LANGUAGES:
A REVIEW ON SELECTED RESEARCHES AND THESIS
Fathen Suriati Jusoh1, Saedah Siraj2,
Norlidah Alias3, Ghazali Darusalam4
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1,2,3,4
[email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Recruiting and employing native speaker teachers of English
Language (NST) in non-native speakers’ context are widely practised
in countries which learn and use the target language taught by the
native speaker teachers (NST) as either as a second or a foreign
language. This paper reviews selected journals and thesis on the
issues of Native and Non-native Speaker Teachers (NST & NNST). It
covers on students’, as well as the Native and Non-Native Speaker
Teachers’ (NNST) self-perceptions and attitudes. This review finds
out almost the same pattern of students’ attitudes and perceptions
towards native speaker teachers. Most studies reviewed indicate
that most of the non-native learners of the target language have
positive attitude towards their native speaker teachers. They view
the native speaker teachers as the model of the target language
learnt and believe that the native speaker teachers could provide a
great example in learning pronunciation and speaking skill. In
addition, this review also identifies that learners believe that their
non-native teachers are compatible in teaching the language as
they have experienced in being the second language learners
before. As such, they are more empathic and are able to apply the
suitable teaching methodologies for the learners in learning the
language. In contrast, the learners view their non-native speaker
teachers are weak in teaching oral communication skills as they
believe that in order to learn communication skills, native speaker
models are required. However, the learners still prefer the
collaborative teaching of native and non-native speaker teachers of
the language when learning the target language. This is because
they take the native speaker teachers as their model to learn the
103
language and the non-native speaker teachers as their interpreter.
Nonetheless, this review also finds that the learners value both
native and non-native teachers of the language.
Keywords:native speaker teacher, non-native teachers, students’
perceptions, language learning
INTRODUCTION
Employing and hiring Native Speaker Teachers (NST) of any particular
language to teach the target language as either as a second or foreign
language is so common in many countries which value the target language as
much as their first language (L1). English is one of the languages which is
taught as a second language (ESL) or a foreign language (EFL) across the
globe. With the growing demand of the importance of English language in
various fields has influenced the employment of the Native Speaker Teachers
(NST) by some countries. In contrast, a fact has shown that the majority of
English teachers in the world are not native speakers of English and almost
eighty percent of the world’s English language teachers are Non-Native
Speaker Teachers (NNST) (Matsuda and Matsuda, 2001: 109-121). As such,
there are numerous studies have been conducted regarding the issues on
Natives Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST).
The researchers have high interests to determine the issues on Natives
Speaker Teachers’ (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) teaching
effectiveness, roles, students’ preferences as well as teachers’ selfperception.
This part will review sixteen articles on the issues of Natives Speaker
Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) across the world.
This review will be covered on the topics of students’ perceptions and
attitudes and Natives Speaker Teachers’ (NSTs) and Non-Native Speaker
Teachers’ (NNST) attitudes and self-perception.
Research Purpose
The purpose of this study was to learn and review the research
trends in Native and Non Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST&NNST) issues.
Sixteen related journal articles and unpublished theses which were published
from the year 2002 until 2011 were selected in this study. The articles and
theses were then analysed according to their publication year, participants,
research design, research methods, research analysis, research setting and
their issues discussed. The results of the analysis might outline the research
trends and patterns of the journal articles and theses which were related to
Native and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST&NNST) issues. It is hoped that
104
the results of this study can provide Native Speaker Teacher (NST)
programme organisers, administrators, teachers and researchers with some
insightful ideas about the publishing trends, patterns and issues studied on
Native and Non- Native Speaker Teachers (NST&NNST). In addition, learning
and knowing the trends of the current studies will assist the policy makers to
promote further studies to fill in the gaps of the research field in the future.
The research questions addressed by this study were therefore:
1. Which research setting had high rate of studies on Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) between the
year 2002 to the year 2011 in these sixteen selected journal articles and
theses?
2. What was the data collection method that was commonly used in Native
Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) studies
in these sixteen selected journal articles and theses?
3. What was the most common issue of Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and
Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) studied in these sixteen selected
journal articles and theses?
4. What were the similar and different findings found in these sixteen
selected journal articles and theses?
METHOD
Research Papers for Analysis
This study used sixteen selected articles which were taken from
various educational journals and unpublished theses. Educational journals
that were used were Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, TESOL
Journal, Arizona Working Papers in SLA and Teaching, JALT Conference 2002
Proceedings Academic Journal, English Language Teaching Journal, Language
Awareness Journal, ABAC Journal, Asian EFL Journal, ARECLS Journal, PORTA
LINGUARUM Journal, WoPaLP Journal and TESL-EJ (Teaching English as a
Second or Foreign Language) Journal. These selected journal articles and
theses were published from the year 2002 to the year 2011.
These journal articles and theses were then analysed according to
their publication year, participants, research designs, research methods,
research analysis and research settings. The gathered data on research
methods and research settings were then analysed statistically in order to
answer research questions 1 and 2. As for the research settings, the countries
where the studies were conducted were categorised according to their
salient continents such as America, Western Asia, Eastern Asia and Europe
(refer to Tab. 1).
105
Additionally, a content analysis was carried out by analysing their
abstracts, research questions and findings. Descriptive statistics were used to
analyse and report the data.
Table 1: Research Settings and Their Salient Continents
Research settings
Japan
China
Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Hungary
Spain
Iran
Turkey
Midwest, USA
Southwest, USA
Indiana, USA
West Texas, USA
Salient continents
Eastern Asia
Europe
Western Asia
America
Research Issue Analysis
Based on the methodology of content analysis, the research
questions and their findings were categorised into some issues of Native
Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) studies.
The final analysis results consisted of the following issues:
1) Students’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers
(NST).
2) Students’ perceptions and attitude towards Non-Native Speaker Teachers
(NNST).
3) Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) perception towards students.
4) Other teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker
Teachers (NST).
5) Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) perceptions and attitudes towards
themselves.
6) Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) perceptions and attitudes towards
themselves
7) Administrators’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST).
106
It should be noted that many articles addressed more than one issue in their
studies (refer Table 2 for further information). The findings of the studies
which were categorised according to their issues were studied to find their
similarity and differences and ultimately answer research question 4. The
percentages of the related issues were statistically analysed in order to
answer research question 3
Table 2: An Analysis of 16 Studies According to Their Issues
Study
(author,
year)
Miyazato
(2002)
Participants
13 Japanese
freshmen in
the
Department of
Business and
Communication (BC) and
junior students
in the
Department
of Business
(DB)
Research
design/
type
Descriptive
Data
analysis
Research
setting
Issues
discussed
Interview
Interpretative
Japan
Students
towards
NST
Data collection
Lasagabaste
r & Sierra
(2002)
76
undergraduates
Descriptive
Questionnaire
Descriptive
(mean)
Spain
Students
towards
NST&NNST
Mahboob
(2004)
37 students
who enrolled in
an Intensive
English
Program at a
large
Midwestern
ESL program
Descriptive
Students’ essay
Discourse
analysis,
Interpretative
Midwest,
USA
Students
towards
NST&NNST
Madrid
&Cañado
(2004)
459 students
from various
level
of
education and
35 NNST
Descriptive,
Developme
ntal
Questionnaire
Interpretative,Descrip
tive (mean,
SD),Statistic
al analysis
(ANOVA)
Spain
Students &
teachers
towards
NST&NNST
Sahin
(2005)
1076
school
students
Descriptive,
Developme
ntal
Questionnaire
Descriptive
(mean,SD),
Statistical
analysis(ttest)
Turkey
Students
towards
NST
high
107
Study
(author,
year)
Koksal
(2006)
Research
design/
type
Descriptive
Questionnaire
Descriptive
(percentage),
Statistical
analysis (r)
Turkey
Students
towards
NST&NNST
1040
ESL
students,
18
NNST,
78NST,21
Administrators
Descriptive
Questionnaire
Descriptive
(mean,
mode,
median,
SD)
Indiana,
i)Students
towards
NST&NNST.
ii)NST
towards
themselvesi
ii)NNST
towards
themselvesi
v)Administr
ators
towards
NST&NNST.
Wong
(2006)
8 undergraduates who have
no experience
teaching
language and
teaching
training but
require to
teach English
as a second
language (a
part of their
studies
requirements)
Descriptive
NSTs’ reflective
and
teaching
journal,
Interview
&
Observation
Interpretative,
Discourse
analysis
West
Texas,
USA
NST
towards
themselves
Liu & Zhang
(2007)
65 third year
college
students
Descriptive
Questionnaire
& Interview
Descriptive
(mean),
Interpretative
China
Students
towards
NST&NNST
Meadows &
Muramatsu
(2007)
187 American
University
students
Descriptive
Questionnaire
& Interview
Statistical
analysis
(ANOVA),
Interpretative
Southwe
st, USA
Students
towards
NST&NNST
Sureepong
&
Kasma
(2008)
36 Thai English
lecturers
Descriptive,
Developmental
Questionnaire&
Semi-structured
interview
Interpretative,
Descriptive
Thailand
NNST
towards
themselves
&NST
Moussu
(2006)
108
Participants
216 high school
and
college
students
Data collection
Data
analysis
Research
setting
USA
Issues
discussed
Study
(author,
year)
Eslami &
Azizullah
(2008)
Wu &
Chung Ke
(2009)
Participants
40 Iranian EFL
teachers
107 students, 3
NST
Research
design/
type
Descriptive
Descriptive
Data collection
Data
analysis
Research
setting
Issues
discussed
Questionnaire
& Interview
Descriptive
(mean, SD)
Iran
NNST
towards
themselves
Questionnaire
& Interview
Interpretati
ve
Taiwan
i)Students
towards
NST.
ii)NST
towards
Students.
Devrin &
Bayyurt
(2010)
385 senior high
school
students
Descriptive
Questionnaire
Descriptive,
Interpretative
Turkey
Students
towards
NST
Ha Nam
(2010)
6 students in
two separate
schools and 4
NST
Descriptive,
Developme
ntal
Interview
&
Classroom
Observation
Interpretative
Korea
Students
towards
NST&NNST
Juhasz
(2011)
18 NST who
work
in
different
institutions in
Budapest.
Descriptive
Questionnaire
&
Semistructured
interview
Descriptive,
Interpretative
Hungary
NST
towards
themselves
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Percentage of Studies Conducted According to Their Research Settings
The result of this study revealed that Eastern Asia was the highest
countries which conducted the studies on Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and
Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) among the sixteen selected journal
articles and theses. The percentage of studies according to the research
settings is presented in Fig.1
From the result shown in Fig. 1, it indicated that Eastern Asia had the
highest number of studies on Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native
Speaker Teachers (NNST) with the percentage of 31.25%. On the other hand,
America and Western Asia had the same number of studies which were 25%
respectively. Whereas, Europe had the least number of the related studies
with the percentage of 18.75%.
109
Figure 1. Percentage of Studies Conducted According
to Their Research Settings
Data Collection Method that Commonly Used in The Selected Journal
Articles and Theses
The most common collection method used in the selected sixteen
journals was the combination of questionnaire and interview which were the
mixed methods. There were 7 studies which applied the mixed methods in
collecting the data with the percentage of 43.75%. The second common data
collection method used was the questionnaire with the percentage of 31.25%
followed by the interview with the percentage of 12.5%. The least used data
collection method was through students’ essay and observation, journal and
interview with the percentage of 6.25% respectively. The result is presented
in Table 3 below.
Reference (Meadows and Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) claimed that
questionnaire was used to investigate the general attitudes quantitatively
and whereas interview was used to allow participants to provide reasons
behind their expressed attitudes in the questionnaire based on their personal
experiences in the related studies. In addition, as in (Creswell, 2012) stated
that mixed methods were used to provide better understanding of a research
finding and these methods were able to explain results of the first phase in
more details.
110
Table 3. Frequency and Percentage of Data Collection Methods
Research type
Quantitative
Data collection methods
Frequency
Percentage
(%)
31.25
Questionnaire
5
Questionnaire and
*Mixed methods
7
43.75
Interview
Qualitative
Interview
2
12.5
Qualitative
Students’ Essay
1
6.25
Observation, Journal and
Qualitative
1
6.25
Interview
TOTAL (n)
16
100
*The most common data collection methods used in these sixteen articles.
In addition, when all the data collection methods were categorised
according to their research type, mixed methods which were the use of
questionnaire and interview was still the most common method applied
among the sixteen reviewed articles. The result is presented in Table 4 below.
Table 4. Frequency and Percentage of Research Type
Research type
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Quantitative
5
31.25
*Mixed methods
7
43.75
Qualitative
4
25.0
TOTAL (n)
16
100
*The most common data collection methods used in these sixteen articles.
The Most Common Issue Studied on Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and
Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST)
The most common issue studied in this field was the Students’
Perceptions and Attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) with the
percentage of 40.0%. It was followed by the issue on Students’ Perceptions
and Attitudes towards Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) with the
percentage of 26.67%. In addition, there were three issues which were the
least studied in these sixteen selected articles. They were the issues on
Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) Perceptions and Attitudes towards Students,
Other Teachers’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers
(NST) and the issue on Administrators’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards
Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST).
These issues were raised once each with the percentage of 3.33%
respectively. The result of this finding is shown in the Table 5 below.
111
Table 5. Frequency and Percentage of Issues Studied
in Sixteen Reviewed Articles
Issues
*Students’ perception and attitudes
towards Native Speaker Teachers
(NST).
Students’ perceptions and attitudes
towards
Non-Native
Speaker
Teachers (NNST).
Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST)
perceptions and attitudes towards
students.
Other teachers’ perceptions and
attitudes towards Native Speaker
Teachers (NST).
Frequency
Percentage (%)
12
40.0
8
26.67
1
3.33
1
3.33
Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST)
perceptions and attitudes towards
4
themselves.
Non-Native
Speaker
Teachers’
(NNST) perceptions and attitudes
3
towards themselves
Administrators’ perceptions and
attitudes towards Native Speaker
1
Teachers (NST) and Non-Native
Speaker Teachers (NNST).
*The most common issue studied in these sixteen articles.
13.33
10.0
3.33
The Similar and Different Findings Found in These Sixteen Selected Journal
Articles and Theses
Students’ perceptions and attitudes
Exposure to Native Speaker Teachers (NST)
A study in (Sahih, 2005) found that the learners who were exposed
to native speaker teachers of English had more positive attitudes towards the
target language and they were more successful in English lesson compared to
those who were not exposed to native speaker teachers. Reference (Sahih,
2005) further added, even the expos ure to a Native Speaker Teachers (NST)
did not cause any difference on achievement; there were statistically
differences on attitudes on language and language community.
112
A near similar case study on 13 Japanese university students as in
(Miyazato, 2002) found that the students were “fear” of Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) who did not share the their linguistic and cultural background.
Nonetheless, (Miyazato, 2002) added that this “fear” was converted into joy
when they succeeded in communicating with the Native Speaker Teachers
(NST). Furthermore, a study as in (Ha Nam, 2010) also showed that the
students confirmed that they learnt, understood and improved a lot on the
western culture through the regular exposure to the Native Speaker Teachers
(NST).
Hence, these three studies showed that students who had exposure
to Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) classroom would gradually develop their
self-confidence in using English Language. It was due to their prior experience
with the native teachers and indirectly made them to have positive attitude
towards the English language and its culture. Interestingly, a study as in
(Moussu, 2006) on 1040 ESL students in the States reported that the students
had more positive attitudes towards the Native Speaker Teachers (NST)
although they were taught by Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST). It
showed that the exposure towards the Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) was
not the only reason to attract students to have positive attitude towards the
teaching of a language by the Native Speaker Teachers (NST).
Native speaker teachers (NST) as the model of the language.
Additionally, a study on 187 American university students as in
(Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) indicated that students preferred to
have Native Speaker Teachers (NST) as the model of the language. Reference
(Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) also found that students needed the
Native Speaker Teachers (NST) to be the model to provide immersion culture,
accent and grammar of the language. The similar finding was found in
(Mahbob, 2004) on 37 second language learners in the States who enrolled in
an Intensive English Program at a large Midwestern ESL program.
Reference (Mahboob, 2004) stated that the students believed that
the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were considered as the forte in teaching
oral skills and they were the good models to learn pronunciation. These
findings in both studies as in (Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) and
(Mahboob, 2004) ad the correlation with a study in (Lasagabaster & Sierra,
2002: 132-142) and a study in (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) Reference
(Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2002: 132-142) mentioned that students preferred to
have Native Speaker Teachers (NST) in the areas of pronunciation, speaking,
vocabulary, culture and civilisation. Whereas a study in (Wu & Chung Ke,
2009: 44-54) found that the students viewed the Native Speaker Teachers
113
(NST) mainly as the model of the language and corrected their pronunciation
instead of being a traditional teacher.
Hence, it portrayed that, students valued the Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) as they needed them as the model of imitation on the target
language they learnt. Generally, Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were their
models in learning pronunciation, accent, culture and speaking.
Non-native speaker teachers (NNST) are good in teaching grammar
As stated in (Mahboob, 2004), it indicated that the students believed
the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) were good in teaching reading,
grammar and listening. It was similar to a study in (Ha Nam, 2010) which
found that the students to be best improved in reading and grammar skills in
Non-native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) classroom. It was also supported in
(Lasagabaster& Sierra, 2002) which indicated that the students were slightly
negative towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) on grammar teaching.
It was contrast to the finding in (Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95109) which showed students learnt grammar better in Native Speaker
Teachers’ (NST) classroom. Nonetheless, more supported findings found in
(Mahboob, 2004) which showed that Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were
perceived to be best in teaching oral skills, stronger in their ability to teach
vocabulary and culture and weak in their ability to teach grammar. It was
because the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) did not have experience learning
English as a second language like the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST)
(Mahboob, 2004). In contrast to Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) who
had an experience of learning the language as a second or a foreign language,
were more empathic towards the ESL or EFL learners’ needs (Koksal, 2006).
Reference (Koksal, 2006) further added, the Non-native Speaker
Teachers (NNST) could provide a good learning model for imitation and
learning strategies to the learners. It was also supported in (Ha Nam, 2010)
which found out that the Non- native Speaker Teachers (NNST) effectively
used code-switching from learners’ first language (L1) to learners’ second
language (L2) and as a result it allowed students to understand and
participate in communicative activities better. Similarly, (Madrid & Cañado,
2004) also stated in their study that the students preferred Non-native
Speaker Teachers (NNST) as they understood the students’ first language
(L1).
Briefly, students believed that Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST)
were more competent in teaching grammar rather than the Native Speaker
Teachers (NST). This could be due to the experience of the Non-native
Speaker Teachers (NNST) of being second language learners themselves and
114
their strength of sharing the same cultures and language background as the
learners and made them able to understand the needs of the learners more.
Team-teaching by both native and non-native teachers
Interestingly, a study as in (Miyazato, 2002) also identified that the
students also preferred team-teaching of native and non-native teachers of
the language. This finding was similar to (Lasagabaster& Sierra, 2002) which
indicated that the students preferred both native and non-native teachers to
teach them the target language. It was because they believed that the Native
Speaker Teachers (NST) provided them a model of the language whereas the
Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) were the interpreter of the language.
This statement supported the finding as in (Moussu, 2006) which reported
that the Non-native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) language experience was an
asset for ESL learners.
Thus, it portrayed that the collaborative model of language teaching
or team-teaching of both native and non-native teachers would create a
perfect and positive language learning atmosphere for the second or foreign
language learners as both teachers would complete each other and fill in the
gaps of each other’s weaknesses. In addition, these findings supported the
finding of a study as in (Devrin Bayyurt, 2010) which indicated that the
students valued both native and non-native speakers as their language
teachers.
Teaching methodologies and approaches
Additionally, a study as in (Liu & Zhang, 2007) on 65 third Year
College students in a university in South China reported that Native Speaker
Teachers’ (NST) approaches in teaching were more varied compared to Nonnative Speaker Teachers (NNST) who used considerably more flexible media,
power point presentation and internet in class instruction. Reference (Liu &
Zhang, 2007) added that Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) used more
conventional media to assist their teaching. A similar finding as in (Wong,
2006) on eight untrained Native Speaker Teachers at a university in West
Texas stated that the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) employed authentic
materials over traditional grammar textbook.
Reference (Juhász, 2011) mentioned in a study on 18 Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) in Budapest, Hungary also reported that the Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) used the materials which they believed to be relevant and
interesting for the learners and tried to get the students out of the textbook.
On the contrary, a study as in (Koksal, 2006) on 216 on Turkish students in
Turkey stated that the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) were dependent
too much on course books. Reference (Koksal, 2006) also added that the
115
students believed that the Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) attracted students
to speak and communicate the language effectively, whereas the Non-native
Speaker Teachers (NNST) encouraged students to practise the language.
Shortly, the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were seen to be more
independent and flexible in their teaching approaches and materials used
and they did not stick to the use of textbook in teaching the language
compared to the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST). In addition, the Native
Speaker Teachers (NST) were also reported to be able to promote and attract
the students to use and communicate the language effectively compared to
the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) who were more likely to train the
students to practise the language through selected topics in textbook. This
could be due to the advantages of being born with the language and make
them to be privileged in acquiring the language compared to Non-native
Speakers Teachers (NNST) who had to learn the language as a second or
foreign language.
Other unique findings
Nevertheless, a study as in (Ha Nam, 2010) found that class
interaction in a Native Speaker Teacher (NST) in her study was limited due to
lack of students’ motivation during the communicative activities, pressure for
good test scores, very large classroom size and varied level of English
language skills. Similarly, a finding as in (Ha Nam, 2010) also identified the
same pattern in Non-native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) classroom where the
students were also not actively engaged in the classroom communication.
The finding also indicated that the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were
mostly teacher-fronted and lacked in the development of extended
responses (Ha Nam, 2010).
In a study as in (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) stated that the
students complained the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were not flexible and
used much of lecturing styles and too few activities. Reference (Wu & Chung
Ke, 2009: 44-54) reported that the students expected the Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) to have more activities than lectures, correct their
pronunciation, assign little homework or no homework at all and rarely test
them. On the other hand, students preferred to have fun activities in the
class while improving their English language.
Briefly, these findings as in (Ha Nam, 2010) and (Wu & Chung Ke,
2009: 44-54) suggested that students were not motivated to learn the target
language due to some factors such as lack of self-motivation, teacher-centred
activities, un-meet learning language expectations, exam-oriented school
system as well as due to the large classroom size.
116
Native speaker teachers’ (NST) and non-native speaker teachers’ (NNST)
attitude and self-perception.
Native speaker teachers’ (NST) attitudes and self-perceptions
In a study as in (Juhász, 2011) on 18 Native Speaker Teachers (NST)
reported that 17 of the native teachers admitted their reason to come to the
other countries was not solely to teach but they wished to travel and only
one of them stated he was interested to become a teacher. In addition, the
Native Speaker Teachers (NST) agreed their weak points were to explain and
teach grammar. They also noted that this could be because they did not
understand the students’ first language (L1) and the way they had been
taught grammar in English lesson during their primary and secondary school
years was completely different from what would be expected from them in
the foreign language classroom (Juhász, 2011).
A similar finding was reported in a study as in (Wong, 2006) which
indicated that the untrained Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were concerned
about the length of the class and being incapable in explaining grammar and
vocabulary. Nonetheless, the study had shown that the native teachers’
confidence level gained immensely in a short period of time. Briefly, these
findings supported the finding of a study as in (Lasagabaster& Sierra, 2002)
which had shown that the students were slightly negative towards Native
Speaker Teachers (NST) on grammar teaching. On the other hands, Native
Speaker Teachers (NST) had problem in teaching grammar as they did not
share the same mother tongue as the students which made them hard to
explain the grammatical rules and due to their different experience of
learning grammar themselves.
In addition, a study as in (Juhász, 2011) also reported that the Native
Speaker Teachers’ aim when teaching the language was to make the students
to communicate the language effectively, feel confident to speak to
foreigners, gain wider impression of world though the use of the English
language, equip students with a level of proficiency that they need to
function successfully in their chosen academic fields. In contrast, a study as in
(Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) revealed the satisfaction of the Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) towards the students’ passiveness and lack of responsiveness
in their language classroom. Shortly, the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) had
their aims and expectation in teaching the target language to the students.
Nonetheless, due to some negative responses by the students on the
language lesson dissatisfied the Native Speakers Teachers (NST).
Non-native speaker teachers’ (NNST) attitudes and self-perceptions
Furthermore, a study as in (Moussu, 2006) showed that the Nonnative Speaker Teachers (NNST) revealed that they lacked of confidence in
117
their linguistic and teaching skills but they believed that their experience as
the former second language learners themselves would benefit their ESL
learners. Hence, it showed that even the Non-native Speaker Teachers
(NNST) might have slightly a negative perception towards their ability in
teaching the target language; nonetheless, they believed they could be a
model to help the ESL learners to learn the target language through their
previous experience.
Additionally, a study as in (Sureepong & Kasma, 2008) on 36 Thai
English Teachers (TET) had shown that the Non-native Speaker Teachers
(NNST) perceived themselves could teach better than the Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) if they had good preparations. Furthermore, the Non-native
Speaker Teachers (NNST) also viewed themselves as bilingual as they were
able to understand two languages and as such made them privileged to use
the first language (L1) to facilitate the learning of the second language (L2)
among the students. The Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) also note that
their ability to understand students’ first language (L1) also attributed them
to be more understanding and sensitive to the students’ needs. Briefly, these
findings indicated that the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) had positive
perception towards themselves and their language teaching.
On the other hand, a study as in (Eslami & Azizullah, 2008) on 40
Iranian English Foreign Language (EFL) teachers found that the more
proficient the Iranian EFL teachers perceived themselves in speaking English,
the higher their sense of efficacy in managing their lesson. Secondly, the
study also noted that the more proficient the teachers perceived themselves
in acquiring the language skills; the more efficacious they felt in designing
effective instructional strategies in the foreign language classroom.
Interestingly, finding as in (Eslami & Azizullah, 2008) also revealed the higher
the teachers' sense of self- efficacy, the more tendency they used
communicative-based strategies in their classes rather than focusing on
language accuracy. Therefore, these findings concluded that the better
language proficiency and fluency of the Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST)
would contribute them to be more positive and creative in teaching the
target language.
CONCLUSION
Based on the review on these sixteen researches and theses above, it
illustrated that the Eastern Asia countries had the highest rate of conducting
studies in this field. On the other hand, the European countries were the
least research settings which conducted the studies on native and non-native
speaker teachers.
118
In addition, this review also identified that the most common method
used in collecting data in these sixteen selected articles was the combination
of both questionnaire and interview. Thus, it showed that most researchers
in the selected articles applied the mixed methods in collecting their data.
Furthermore, the most common issue studied in these selected
articles was the issue on students’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native
Speaker Teachers (NST). This issue is the most common issue studied out of
all seven issues on native and non-native speaker teachers found in these
sixteen articles.
In terms of similarity and differences of the findings, this review
identified some common or similar findings among the selected articles. The
first general common finding found was regarding students’ perceptions
towards the Native Speaker Teachers (NST). Overall, students viewed Native
Speaker Teachers (NST) as the model of the target language. Students also
viewed Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) as the interpreter of the target
language. Nonetheless, students valued both Native and Non-Native Speaker
Teachers as their language teachers. Interestingly, students believed that the
collaborative teaching of Native and Non-Native Speaker Teachers would
make their language learning to be more effective.
This review also revealed that students believed the Native Speaker
Teachers (NST) were good in teaching communication and they had varied
teaching approaches. On the other hand, students believed that the NonNative Speaker Teachers (NNST) were good in teaching grammar compared
to Native Speaker Teachers (NST). This finding was supported by the findings
on which stated that the Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) had
experience learning the target language as a second (ESL) or as a foreign
language (EFL) and thus made them to be more empathic towards the
students’ needs.
Additionally, this review also found that Native Speaker Teachers
(NST) in the selected articles agreed that they had problem in explaining and
teaching grammar as they learnt it differently and it was also because they
did not share the same mother tongue as the students. Whereas the NonNative Speaker Teachers (NNST) stated that they sometimes lacked of
confidence in their linguistics and teaching skill. Nonetheless, their
experience of being the second language learners themselves benefited their
ESL or EFL learners to learn the language. In addition, due to the same
language the Non- Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) shared with the students
would make them privileged to understand the students’ needs.
In conclusion, there were various studies had been conducted on the
issues of both native and non-native speaker teachers. The findings of each
study could be correlated or totally different from each other. The findings
119
could be affected by the setting of the studies, both native and non-native
speaker teachers, or students themselves. Nonetheless, there will never be a
fit finding on the same issue researched and further studies always need to
be done to fill in the gaps of the previous and the current studies. Since, this
study only reviewed sixteen selected journal articles and theses, thus, the
findings could not be generalizable to all the studies in the related field. It
could only provide some insightful ideas on the issues of Native and NonNative Speaker Teachers (NST & NNST). This study also did not provide the
reasons on every finding, and as such, further studies are recommended to
understand and learn why such certain patterns or result are found.
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122
VALIDATING PERSONALITY AS DETERMINANT FACTORS OF
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERFORMANCE
I Made Putrawan1, Francis Tantri2, Sr. Jeanne Marie3
Professor at State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia1
Senior Lecturer at Trisakti School of Transportation, Jakarta, Indonesia2
Principal of Marie Joseph High School, Jakarta, Indonesia3
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
All school teachers and of course school principals should have four
competencies, i.e. pedagogy, social, professional and personality
competencies (UU No. 14/2005). One of the important
competencies is personality competence. Therefore, this study is
aim at verifying whether “big five personality” could be
implemented to measure teachers personality. Beside, which
personality factors could be the best as a determinant factor for
principals performance, in this case performance indicated by
“citizenship behavior (CB)” has been verified. A survey has been
conducted on January 2010, in province of Lampung, Indonesia and
involved 34 elementary school male teachers and around 340
female teachers, and also 60 primary male teachers followed by 276
female teachers, and finally 56 secondary male teachers and 183
female teachers. The data has been collected by administering an
instrument of personality based on big-five personality profile
(Colquit, et.al.,2011; Ivancevich, 2011; Robbin & Judge, 2012, and
Gibson, 2012, George & Jones, 2012, Certo & Certo, 2012) which is
commonly used in organizational behavior research. Then this
instrument was modifiedto be implemented in finding out the best
determinant factor in influencing elementary school principals CB.
For this purpose, around 54 principals has been selected randomly.
Afactoranalysis with varimax rotation and regression and
correlational study have been applied. Personality instrument
consist of five dimensions (factors) i.e. Conscientiousness (A),
Agreeableness (B), Neuroticism (N/emotional stability is C),
Openness (D) and Extraversion (E), it is called big-five personality
profile. Each of those factors has four variables, so there are 20
variables (items) included in this instrument to be rotated. In
correlational study, it has been developed an instrument for
123
measuring elementary school principals personality around 68
items (3 was not valid) with reliability 0.826 and it was around 30
items (2 was not valid) for measuring CB with reliability 0.94.
Reliability agreement among rater (2 rater) in measuring CB was
0.63. The analysis result shows that most of the factors “loading”
on those variables across sexual and level of school teachers
differences, except for one of the factor from Extraversion is not
loading (negative) when using the criteria >0.399. It is found also
that there is a correlation among variables which indicated by
communalities values and only variables code A13 & D05
(elementary school male teachers) and C14 (primary school male
teacher) has >80% could be explained by all factors variances.
Fortunately, most of the variables have high factor loading which
means that these findings confirm theoretical dimensions in
measuring teachers personality. Another finding reveals that there
is a positive and significant correlation (0.59) found between
personality with principals CB (represent for performance).
Moreover, it is found also that emotional stability has the highest
and highly significant correlation to principals CB (0.455,
contribution around 20.7%) after all 4 the rest of personality factors
has been controlled (conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness,
and extravert). It is followed by openness, agreeableness, extravert
and then conscientiousness. Based on these findings, it could be
recommended that in selecting elementary school principals which
expected would be have a good and high CB as part of
performance, emotional stability of the candidates should be taken
into account, and other personality factors, specifically. In general,
however, personality factors could not be neglected in selecting
school principal as a good leader and manager in improving the
quality of school management.
Keywords : personality, behavior, school performance
INTRODUCTION
Education is one of the important sectors for every country in the
world. The process of education is inevitable process due to its role in
changing human mindset to be more rational person. Some countries,
however, in implementing its development policy mostly focusing on other
sectors such as economic, political, or communications, etc., which they think
is more important rather than focusing on educational sector. The balancing
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of development focus should be mostly taken into consideration, especially
between education and other sectors.
In this context, the government attention should be put more
emphasizing on developing and improving teachers programs, since logically
presumed that the quality of education is mostly rely on teachers
performances. Fortunately, Indonesian Government was becoming suddenly
conscious about teachers development which indicated by the establishing of
Government Laws, no. 14/2005 about Teacher and Lecturer. It was too late
for prioritizing the development which focusing on teachers themselves since
we all acknowledge that after more than 60 year as an independent Nation,
the development of teacher had been more neglected comparing with other
sectors. Nevertheless, according to this Government Laws, Indonesian
teachers should be more glad and happier because they begun to improve
their own competence otherwise they will not get compensation due to they
do not pass at the certificate examination which conducted through teachers’
portfolio evaluation.
Those competencies are pedagogic, social, professional, and
personality competence. And this personality competence will contribute
around 14 items used in measuring it in order to pass educator certificate
examination, especially in measuring teachers performance. This is the
problem when those items or indicators for measuring personality are
analyzed theoretically, most of the items do not have strong foundations that
being used to measure what actually to be measured. In this case, those
items are not related to what the definition of personality is. This is the
reason why this research is implemented due to unclearness theoretically
what the government need to measure in term of personality competence
which to my opinion, this competence is the most important competence
which should be taken into consideration.
That is why it is still required a study (scientific study) in developing a
personality instrument, particularly for teachers at all schools level in order
to find out some factors that are fix with the variables by confirming through
factor analysis between theoretical base with empirical verification.
Therefore, on this occasion, research problems might be well formulated as
follows (1) which variables (each factor has 4 variables) has communality and
significant factor loading on its factor empirically based on teachers sexual
and school level differences;? (2) Is there relationship between personality
with principals citizenship behavior (CB);? (3) which factor of big-five
personality has the highest contribution to principals CB?
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Concepts of Personality
According to Moorhead & Griffin (2010, p. 61), personality is a set
psychological traits which relatively stable thatis able to distinguish someone
from another. Even still debatable, those traits inherent from his/her parents
which is called “the nature argument”, or has been influenced by their
environment which is called “the nurture argument”.
In reality, it indicates that both either biological factors or
environmental factors pays important role in determining personality. A
psychologist has identified a thousand of human personality traits which
distinguish someone with the others. There are five traits which is related to
the organizational behavior called “big five personality traits” which define as
a set of basic characteristics relevant to the organization (Moorhead &
Griffin, 2010, pp. 61-62).
Those “Big five” is as follows
1. Agreeableness: ability to understand others.
2. Conscientiousness: related to several goals which every one focus on.
3. Negative emotionality: low in this trait characterized by “relatively poised,
calm, resilient, dan secure,” but when it is high it is more “excitable,”
unsecure, reactive, not mood. So, for those who has “less negative
emotionality” would be enable for managing stress, pressure and work
tension.
4. Extraversion reflected by one’ trait which is sociable), talkative, asertive,
and easier to communicate. The opposite is Introvert.
5. Openness reflected by the strength in believing and posses the range of
interest. These traits consist of intention to accept new ideas, change
his/her own ideas, trust, and attitude in responding new information.
126
Figure 1. The “Big Five” Personality Framework
(Moorhead& Griffin, 2010)
In addition to this, McShane & Glinow (2010, pp. 38-39) stated that
personality is “the relatively enduring pattern of thought, emotions, and
behaviors that characterize a person, along with psychological processes
behind those characteristics.” This definition is more depth because it talked
about thought, besides emotion and behavior as well. Almost all of
definitions tend to describe personality which distinguishes ones with the
others.
Another definition which is almost the same was given by Andre
(2008, pp. 32-34), but Andre involves one of the personality concepts called
locus of control (LOC). LOC, according to Andre is measuring about to what
extend each of individual believe that they are able to control some events
that influence them. There are two type of LOC, first is internal LOC which
tend to believe that all events facing human being as a result of his/her own
behavior and actions, whereas external LOC depicts the tendency to believe
127
the faith, chance and other powerful things will be determined by those
events.
Personality, as defined by Greenberg (2010, pp.68-69), is pattern of
behavior, thought and emotion which relatively unique and stable that
reflected by individual that differentiate with other and this characteristic is
very important for job (p.68). Greenberg illustrated some factors influence
personality as seen on the following figure.
Figure 2. Is Personality the Result of Nature or Nurture?
(Greenberg,2010)
Personality is also presumably as one of determinant factors which
affect behavior, according to Greenberg this process called “interactionist
perspective,” and it can be illustrated as follows,
Figure 3. The Interactionist Perspective
(Greenberg, 2010)
128
Related to the concept of “big five” described by Moorhead & Griffin
(2010), Greenberg (2010) applied the same name as well, but with a different
term i.e. “big five dimensions of personality”. On the other hand, Andre
(2008 p. 37) called by using another term “big five personality profile” and
the name of all dimensions are still the same. However, Greenberg (2010)
called “emotional stability” instead of “negative emotionality” just like what
has been proposed by Moorhead & Griffin above.
Other term given by Mc. Shane & Glinow (2010, p. 39) which called
“five factor model of personality” or “FFM,” yang which completely described
those indicators for each dimension as illustrated as follows;
Figure 4. Five-Factor Model’s Big Five Personality Dimensions
(McShane & Glinow, 2010& George & Jone, 2012).
On the other occasion, Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson (2011)
stated that personality is related to a set of person’ feeling and behavior that
is relatively stable which significantly formed by genetic factorsand
environment. They, then, stated that personality as a result of natural factors
(nature) and environmental factors (nurture). They illustrated some factors
that affect individual personality as can be seen on figure as follow.
129
Figure 5. Some Major Forces Influencing Personality
(Ivancevich, et.al., 2011; Gibson, et.al., 2012)
Moreover, Colquitt, LePine & Wesson (2011) described more detail
and complete about personality which according to them that personality is
closely related to the structure and traits (propensities) belong to each
person that depicts the pattern of human characteristic such as thought,
emotion and behavior. Personality creates person’ social reputation for
example, the way a person behave which could be perceived by his/her
family, friends, employees and even by supervisor.
Therefore, Colquitt et.al.admitted; by that way personality “captures
what people are like”, so on the other hand, ability “which captures what
people can do.” Besides, Colquitt, et.al.define“traits” as a regular tendency
of each person in responding the environment such as “traits”. In this case,
Colquitt, et.al.vstated that environmental factor could be called as “cultural
values” which defined as sharing trust that will determine a person’ behavior
at a certain culture.In related to the concept of “big five”, they have
described those indicators on each dimensions as illustrated at this figure
below.
C
Conscientiousness
 Dependable
 Organized
 Reliable
 Ambitious
 Hardworking
 Persevering
130
A
Agreeableness
N
Neuroticism
O
Openness
E
Extraversion
























Kind
Cooperative
Sympathetic
Helpful
Courteous
Warm
Nervous
Moody
Emotional
Insecure
Jealous
Unstable
Curious
Imaginative
Creative
Complex
Refined
Sophisticated
Talkative
Sociable
Passionate
Assertive
Bold
Dominant
NOT
 Careless
 Sloppy
 Inefficient
 Negligent
 Lazy
 Irresonsible
NOT
 Critical
 Antagonistic
 Callous
 Selfish
 Rude
 Cold
NOT
 Calm
 Steady
 Relaxed
 At ease
 Secure
 Contented
NOT
 Uniquisitive
 Conventional
 Conforming
 Simple
 Unartistic
 Traditional
NOT
 Quite
 Shy
 Inhibited
 Bashful
 Reserved
 Submissive
Figure 6. Traits Adjectives Associated with Big Five
(Colquit,et.al., 2011; Robbin & Judge, 2012)
Some Definitions about Citizenship Behavior
Citizenship Behavior (CB) is a term used to identify employees
behavior and as part of job performance (Colquit, et.at., 2011). As a social
being, in this case, employees behavior tend to be seen not as an
individualistic human being but employees should also be able to help and
give support to the others. That is why Colquit, et.al. (2011) defines “CB as
voluntary employee activities some specific examples that may or may not be
rewarded but that contribute to the organization by improving it.”
Theoretically, CB consists of two dimensions, interpersonal and
organizational citizenship behavior as figure it out as follows.
For employee with interpersonal CB could be characterized by three
dimensions, helping (like to help others which face the job problems),
courtesy (to keep informing friends about organizational new policies), and
sportmanship (try to maintain good work-attitude). On the other hand,
organizational CB is also determined by three characteristic, voice (always
talk about goodness of organization), civic virtue (high involve in
organizational activities and operation and boosterism (helping the
organization to protect from bad issues attack).
Figure 7. Types of Citizenship Behaviors
131
According to Organ (Luthans, 2011; George & Jones, 2012), defines
“Organizational citizanship behavior (ICB or CB) as individual behavior that is
discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward
system, and that in the aggragate promotes the effective functioning of the
organization.” Kinicki & Kreitner (2010) stated that “organizational citizenship
behavior consist of employee behaviors that are beyond the call of duty.”
This means that employees behavior who are not in duty will not be
influenced by their position, job or their role at the organization but by their
peronal choice.
Some indicators are such as their behavior in helping others, not
egoistic, more active, and most of them try to hinder from conflict, more
patient and always try to do the best in achieving the target. McShane &
Glinow (2010) and also Certo & Certo (2012) more specifically said that
“employees help others without selfish intent are actively involved in
organizational activities, avoid unnecessary conflict, perform task beyond
normal role requirements, and gracefully tolerate impositions.
On other occasion, Robbins & Judge (2012) commented that
“Organizational Citizenship Behavior is discretionary behavior is not part of
an employee’s formal job requirements but nevertheless promotor the
effective functioning of the organization. Moreover they stated that “it
seems logical to assume job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an
employee’s CB.”
Luthans (2011), admitted that “the personality foundation for these
organizational CB reflects the employee’s predispositional traits to be
cooperative, helpful, caring and conscientious.” He continued by saying that
“more important to organizational CB, however, is that employees must
perceive that they are being treated fairly, that the procedures and outcomes
are fair.”
Luthans (2011) also mentioned concern with some dimensions of
organizational CB sich as Altruism (helping others wihtout pressure dealing
with their job or even non job, for instance, helping friends when they are
getting sick. Conscientious is another dimension which followed respectively
by civic virtue, sportmanship, and courtesy. According to Ivancevich, et.al.
(2011) “the company’s success and reputation were built by its leaders and
employees who constantly pushed the limits to achieve higher level of
performance.
Almost all of definitions above are regarding a good behavior or
character that reflect employees performance at the organization. Therefore
when it is returned again to the original view of what actually CB means and
its effects, it should be wise when Colquit, et.al. (2011) model show up as
follows.
132
Figure 8. Integrative Model of Behavior
From what it has been seen the model above, it could be said that job
performance, in this study represented by CB, influenced indirectly by
individual characteristics, i.e. personality. This personality which later called
big-five personality assumed to be as determinant factor to job
performance. To make sure that the originality of CB is theoretically from job
performance, it can be examined below figure.
Job performance defined by Colquit, et.al. (2011) as value of a set of
employees behavior which positively or negatively contribute to the
acheivement of organizational goals. And then one part of job performance is
CB which could be seen as follows.
133
Figure 9. Job Performance
So when we are talking about job performance, we are talking about
employees CB, in this study we are discussing about Citizenship Behavior.
Theorethically, therefore, based on two models above it could be stated that
job performance has been determined by task performance, Citizenship
Behavior (CB) and counter productive behavior (CPB). Therefore when we are
studying CB mean that we are studying about job performance (Colquit,
et.at., 2011).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Since the objective of this research is aiming at obtaining information
concerning with personality factors that loading on to each factors and which
one of those factors has the highest contribution to principals CB, research
method that was suitable to this research was survey and correlational study.
A factor analysis using varimax approach has been applied. This approach
used because all factors dimensionally build a concept of personality basically
supported by theories. For the second research, a simple regression and
partial correlation has been choosen in analysing data.
The population, in this first research, are all of teachers in Lampung
Province, South Sumatra. It is around 2500 teachers from all level of
134
education are to be sampling frame. Sample has been selected randomly, by
simple random sampling after instrument have been administered to all
teachers. It was found that final size of sample involved 34 elementary school
male teachers and around 340 female teachers, and also 60 primary school
male teachers followed by 276 female teachers, and finally 56 secondary
school male teachers and 183 female teachers. Besides, for second study,
population is all elementary school principals in Jakarta Timur and around 54
sample has been randomly selected with standar error 1.03 which is
interpreted to be homogen.
The data has been collected by administering an instrument of
personality based on big-five personality profile (Colquit, et.al., 2011;
Ivancevich, 2011; Robbin & Judge, 2012; Gibson, et.at.,2012; George & Jones,
2012; Certo & Certo, 2012) which is used to use in organizational behavior
research. The contents of this instrument consist of five dimensions (factors)
i.e. Conscientiousness (C), Agreeableness (A), Neuroticism (N/emotional
stability), Openness (O) and Extraversion (E), that is why called big-five
personality profile. Each of those factors has four variables, so there are 20
variables (items) included in this instrument (for the first study)
Each of item has 5 options categories from most accurate until least
accurate in term of how respondents describe his/herself related to
statement given to him/her, so scoring should be respectively as follows for
positive item; very accurate = 5; moderately accurate 4; neither inaccuarte or
accurate 3, moderately inaccurate 2, and veryinaccurate 1; conversely for
negative statements.Instrument reliability was found 0.596 after calculated
by Alpha Cronbach formula through SPSS PC ver.18.
In correlational study, it has been developed an instrument
measuring elementary school principals personality around 68 items (3 was
not valid) with reliability 0.826 and it was around 30 items (2 was not valid)
for measuring CB with reliability 0.94. Reliability agreement among rater (2
rater) in measuring CB was 0.63
Finally the data has been analyzed by applying SPSS PC, factor
analysis separately conducted for teachers from elementary, primary and
secondary school and for male and female teachers from each school level. In
this case, varimax rotation has been adopted due to all factors being
analyzed are basically based on theoretical framework which most expert
called it as a “big five personality.” For second study, simple regression and
partial correlation have been applied for test the hypothesis.
135
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Big-five Personality Instrument Validating Results
From the above tables, it could be interpreted that the
variables/items code A13 and D05 has highest percentage of communalities,
far above the criteria used for factor analysis, > 0.500, but on table 1.2. it is
found that item code E16 has a negative factor loading which means that this
variable/item could not be explained by its factor and suggested to be
omitted from the scale.
Comparing with the table 2.2. below, it is found the same result
where two variables have a negative factor loading i.e.; A13 and C14,
however fortunately item code A13 could still be retained since it has high
percentage of communality, 0.800, which means around 80 % this item can
share a correlation to other variables. Another finding is found on table 2.1
where only one item has lowest communality, 0.346 which far below the
criteria, therefore needed to be taken into account, whether it might be
omitted or revised.
136
The same result also found on table 3 .2 where there is only an item
is not loading positively i.e. D10, but communality for C14 is highest on table
3.1, in this case for primary school male teachers.
137
However, on table 4.1, it is again found which communality below
the criteria, especially for item code C14 and on table 4.2 only item code E 16
has negative factor loading, so those items might no be in accordance to the
scale what really scale want to measure, in term of construct validity.
138
It is surprisingly, among the table 5.1; 6.1 and 6.2, found that all variables fix
with the criteria of factor analysis, from communalities or factor loading
point of view, where all the items have high value of communalities and
positive and above the criteria for factor loading, but again 2 items found on
table 5.2 which have a negative factor loading, i.e. D15 and E06.
Based on those findings, it could be summarized all those findings by
including statement or phrase especially for items or variables which
extremely show either positive or negative contribution to the scale through
out of five factors unidimensionally. Those findings are as follow;
1. Communalities found > 0.800 or > 80%
1.1. A13 = I LIKE ORDER (CONSCIENTIOUSNESS)
1.2. C19 = I SELDOM FEEL BLUE (NEUROTICISM)
1.3. D05 = I HAVE A VIVID IMAGINATION (OPENNESS)
Those three items are all found from elementary school male
teachers which means that in answering or responding the instruments, male
teachers were probably more consistent than female teachers at different
school level. It is logic when phrases of these items are considered to be a
result of teachers personal description that they do like an order, never feel
get nervous because they are male teachers and eager to be more curious as
an indicator of openness variable.
139
That is why those items have high communalities due to those
respondents felt that they have been accurately described by those
items/variables.
1.4. C14 = I GET UPSET EASILY (NEUROTICISM)
This is also happen for item C14 which for primary school male
teachers honestly were easily described accurately by this item statement
since male teachers were more easier to get upset rather than female
teachers in a given situation.
Communalities < 0.400
2.1 D 15 ; I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEAS
(OPENNESS)
For elementary school female teachers who got lower value in
communality, especially for this item, is surprisingly because this item has not
been accurately described teachers personally since most of female teachers,
in general, do not have difficulty to imagine an abstract ideas. That is why this
item has low communality values.
2.2. C 14, I GET UPSET EASILY (NEUROTICISM)
This item actually is not fix to measure neuroticism since most of
respondents, to be honest, do not like to be described accurately that their
emotion are unstable. That is why this item has low communality as well.
2. Bad Factor Loading ( < 0.400)
3.2. D20; I DON’T HAVE A GOOD IMAGINATION (OPENNESS)
This is a controversial findings since elementary school female this
item should produce high factor loading on a given factor namely
Agreeableness, however it has lower factor loading than statistical criteria for
being good factor loading. For item code D20 is consistent with personality of
female teachers because they have psychologically good imagination,
therefore, this item is not able to be perceived by female teachers for being
described accurately, then factor loading positive but still below the criteria.
3.3.D15; I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEAS
(OPENNESS)
This finding is not different with item code D20, because it was a
negative statement from this item, therefore, the reason is the same
eventhough it is positive.
140
3. Negative factor loadings
4.1.E16; I KEEP IN BACKGROUND (EXTRAVERSION)
(from elementary school male teachers and primary female teachers)
4.2. A13 ; I LIKE ORDER (CONSCIENTIOUSNESS)
4.3. C14 ; I GET UPSET EASILY (NEUROTICISM)
4.4. D10 ; I AM NOT INTERESTED IN ABSTRACT IDEAS (OPENNESS)
(all are from elementary school female teachers)
4.5. D15;
I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEAS
(OPENNESS)
4.6. E06; I DON’T TALK A LOT (EXTRAVERSION)
(both from primary school male teachers).
In this case, negative factor loading means that items or variables do
not have a consistency in what is actually factor want to measure, therefore
the amount of variances belong to those variables could not be explained by
a given factor/s, even it will be rotated by varimax or oblique, it would not
change this findings. It is probably brought about by the phrases which are
not actually able to describe respondents accurately, while on the other hand
most of respondents choose reversely.
Let’s take an example item E16, since most of male teachers at
elementary school never get silent due to their personality are closely to
sociable, one of the indicators being extravert, so they gave an answer
accurate for negative statement given by the item. Finally, factor loading
might be negative, even though the value is high.
Personality Factors Contribute to School Pincipals CB
Second research emphasized on relationship between personality
with CB. It is found that regression model Y = 44.08 + 0.28 X is very highly
significant (F-cal = 25.99 > F-tab = 12.22) at 0.001, where Y is predicted CB
and X is personality. Between two variable is found to be linear, therefore all
analysis requirement have been fulled fill in. In detail it can be seen at
ANOVA table below. By this result, coefficient correlation can be calculated
by "pearson product moment" and it is found that the correlation between
elementary school principals personality with CB 0.59 (highly significant at
.001).
141
Table 7. ANOVA for Significance of
Regression Model Ŷ = 44.08 + 0.28X and Liniearity
Source of
Variances
Total
Regression (a)
Regression (b/a)
Residual
Within Group
Error
Ftable
df
SS
MSS
Fcal
54
1
1
52
35
17
688078
685013.41
1021.18
2043.41
1547.74
495.67
1021.18
39.30
44.22
29.16
25.99***
4.03
7.17
ns
2.14
2.96
1.52
α = 0.05
α=
0.01
α=
0 .001
12.22
*** p< .001 ; ns: non significance (linier)
Figure 10. Diagram of Linearity for Regression Ŷ = 44.08 +0.28X
This result means that the more accurate they describe their own
personality, the better principals citizenship behavior (CB). It is around
34.81% principals CB might be explained by variation occured at their
personality. However, the question is since personality consists of 5 factors
which of these factors would give a highest contribution to CB. Therefore, it
has been analyzed a matrix correlation among Conscientiousness (X1),
Agreeableness (X2), Extraversion (X3), Emotional stability (X4), Openness to
experience (X5) with CB. The detail result can be seen at table below.
142
Table 8. Zero-Order Correlation of Each Personality Factors
with Citizenship Behavior
ttable
Personality Factors
Citizenship
Behavior
tcal
Emotional Stability (X4)
Oppeness to Experience (X5)
Agreebleness (X2)
Extraversion (X3)
Conscientiouness (X1)
0.05
0.46
0.44
0.43
0.40
4.17**
3.77**
3.54**
3.41**
3.11**
α=
0.05
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
Contribution
(%)
α=
0.01
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
25.00
21.16
19.36
18.49
16.00
** p <0.01
Table 9. First-Order Correlation Matrix between X and Y
Control
X1
Partial
Correlation
ry1
ry2
ry3
ry4
ry5

X2
X3
X4
X5
ttable
R
tcal
r
tcal
r
tcal
R
tcal
r
tcal
α=
0.05
α=
0.01
0.277
0.258
0.406
0.344
2.06*
1.91*
3.17**
2.62**
0.184
0.259
0.423
0.373
1.34ns
1.91*
3.33**
2.87**
0.193
0.255
0.350
0.275
1.40ns
1.88*
2.67**
2.04*
.250
.307
.290
.414
1.85*
2.30*
2.16
3.25*
.232
.288
.271
.455
-
1.70*
2.15*
2.01*
3.65*
-
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
2.42
2.42
2.42
2.42
2.42
P < 0.05; ** p <0.01
Table 10. First-Order Correlation between X1 and Y,
ifEach of X2, X3, X4 and X5is controlled
Partial
Correlation
n
r
Coeffecient
ry1.2
54
0.184
ry1.3
54
0.193
ry1.4
54
0.250
ry1.5
54
0.232
* p< 0.05 ; ns = non significant
ttable
tcal
1.34ns
1.40ns
1.85*
1.70*
α=0.05
α=0.01
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
2.42
2.42
2.42
2.42
if Each of X1, X3, X4 and X5is controlled
Partial
Correlation
Coeffecient
ry2.1
ry2.3
ry2.4
ry2.5
ttable
n
r
tcal
54
54
54
54
0.277
0.255
0.307
0.288
2.06*
1.88*
2.30*
2.15*
α=0.05
α=0.01
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
2.42
2.42
2.42
2.42
143
* p<0.05
When Each of X1, X2, X4 and X5is controlled
Partial
Correlation
Coeffecient
ry3.1
ry3.2
ry3.4
ry3.5
* p< 0.05
ttable
n
r
tcal
54
54
54
54
0.258
0.259
0.290
0.271
1.91*
1.91*
2.16*
2.01*
α=0.05
α=0.01
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
2.42
2.42
2.42
2.42
Table13. First-Order Correlation between X4 and Y,
If Each of X1, X2, X3 and X5is controlled
Partial
Correlation
Coeffecient
ry4.1
ry4.2
ry4.3
ry4.5
** p< 0.01
ttable
n
r
tcal
54
54
54
54
0.406
0.423
0.350
0.455
3.17**
3.33**
2.67**
3.65**
α=0.05
α=0.01
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
2.42
2.42
2.42
2.42
When Each of X1, X2, X3 and X4 is controlled
Partial
Correlation
Coeffecient
ry5.1
ry5.2
ry5.3
ry5.4
* p<0.05 ; ** p < .01
ttable
n
r
tcal
54
54
54
54
0.344
0.373
0.275
0.414
2.62**
2.87**
2.04*
3.25**
α=0.05
α=0.01
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
2.42
2.42
2.42
2.42
Based on those tables, it could be stated that emotional stability has
the highest and highly significant correlation to principals CB (.455,
contribution around 20.7%) after all 4 the rest of personality factors has been
controlled (conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness, and extravert). It is
followed by openness, agreeableness, extravert and then conscientiousness.
144
CONCLUSION
On this occasion there are some conclusions could be drawn from
these findings as follow;
1. There are three items (variables) may not be consistent to across
Teachers sexual different and school level. Those items are C 14; D 15;
AND E 16.
2. Consistency is only found at the data revealed by secondary school female
teachers due to they produce good communalities and fix factor loading
as well.
Based on these conclusions, it could be recommended that “big five
personality” which actually derived from instrument for measuring
employees personality at work-place, in organizational behavior and
management, could might be implemented also for measuring teachers
personality competence as required by Government Regulation No. 74/2008
about Teachers.
Needless to say, this primarily research could be utilized as a supporting tool
for objectively measuring one of the most unique competences comparing
with pedagogy, social, professional competences, PERSONALITY. However, it
is still required next continuing research by selecting more sample and workplace backgrounds.
Based on those findings, for second study, some conclusions could
be formulated as follow
1. In determining elementary principals citizenship behavior as part of
principals
2. performance, emotional stability or neuroticism could be seriously taken
into consideration. Respectively, other factors such as conscientiousness,
agreeableness, openness, extraversion are alsoneeded to be taken into
account.
3. in general as a holistic conclusion, it could be stated that personality of
elementary
4. principals as one of other determinant factors to their performance which
is in this case it is really measure their citizenship behavior instead.
Therefore, it might be concluded also thatprincipals performance would
determine high quality of school management. Needless to say, these
conclusions will invite the interest group to continue this study by
involving others relevant variables which would lead to study about
citizenship behavior, especial for school principals.
145
REFERENCES
Certo, Samuel C. & S. Trevis Certo. (2012). Modern Management, PEARSON.
Colquitt, et.al (2011), Organizational Behavior: Improving Performance and
Commitment at the Work Place, PEARSON.
George, J.M. & Gareth R. Jones (2012), Understanding and Managing
Organizational behavior,Pearson.
Gibson, James L. (2012). Organization: Behavior, Structure, Process. Boston:
McGraw-Hill
Greenberg, Jerald (2010), Managing Behavior in Organization, Boston:
PEARSON
Ivancevich, John M., Robert Konopaske, M.T.Matteson, (2011),
Organizational Behavior and Management, Irwin: McGraw Hill
Kreitner, Robert & Angelo Kinicki (2011), Organizational Behavior, Irwin:
McGraw Hill.
Luthans, Fred (2011), Organizational Behavior, New York: McGraw-Hill.
McShane, Stevan L. & Mary Ann Von Glinow.(2010). zOrganizational
Behavior. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Moorhead, Gregory & Ricky W. Griffin. (2010). Organizational Behavior:
Managing People and Organization. Australia: Cengage Learning.
Mullins, Laurie J. (2010). Management and Organizational Behavior. London:
Prentice Hall.
Newstrom, John W. (2011). Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at
Work. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Putrawan, I Made. (2010). A FactorAnalysis of Teachers Personality Based on
Sexual Differences and School Level. “East Asian International
Conference of Education Research”. Hongkong Institute of
Education, December.
146
------------------. (2011). The Effect of Sexual Difference and School Level on
Teachers Personality: An Expost Facto Study in Lampung Provinze.
“The 1St International Conference on World-Class Education”.
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, December.
Robbins, Stephen P & Timothy A. Judge. (2012.)
USA: Prentice Hall.
Organizational behavior.
Schermerhorn, John R., et.al. (2011). Organizational Behavior. John Wiley &
Sons.
APPENDIX: Instrument Measuring Personality (for First Study) based on
Colquitt, et.al. (2011, P 295).
Listed below are phrase describing peoples behaviors. Please write a number
next to each statement that indicates the extend to which it ACCURATELY
describes you.
Very moderately neither inaccurate nor moderately very inaccurate (1)
inaccurate (2)
accurate (3)
accurate (4)
accurate (5)
A03. I GOT CHORES DONE RIGHT AWAY
A08. I OFTEN FORGET TO PUT THINGS BACK IN THEIR PROPER PLACE
A13. I LIKE ORDER
A18. I MAKE A MES OF THINGS
B02. I SYMPHATIZE WITH OTHERS’ FEELINGS
B07 I AM NOT INTERESTED IN OTHER PEOPLE’S PROBLEMS
B12. I FEEL OTHERS’ EMOTIONS
B17. I AM NOT REALLY INTERESTED IN OTHERS
C04. I HAVE FREQUENT MOOD SWINGS
C09. I AM RELAXED MOST OF THE TIME
C14. I GET UPSET EASILY
C19. I SELDOM FEEL BLUE
D05. I HAVE A VIVID IMAGINATION
D10. I AM NOT INTERESTED IN ABSTRACT IDEA
D15. I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEA
D20. I DO NOT HAVE A GOOD IMAGINATION
E01. I AM THE LIFE OF THE PARTY
E06. I DO NOT TALK A LOT
E11. I TALK TO A LOT OF DIFFERENT PEOPLE AT PARTIERS
147
E16. I KEEP IN THE BACKGROUND
NOTES: A = CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
B = AGREEABLENESS
C = NEUROTICISM
D = OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
E = EXTRAVERSION
148
USING AN AUTHENTIC ASESSMENT AND EFFECT TO
STUDENT METACOGNITIVE IN BIOLOGY
Marheny Lukitasari1, Akhmad Sukri2, Nasrul Rofiah3,
Anik Dwi Handayani4
IKIP PGRI Madiun, Madiun, Indonesia1,3
IKIP Mataram, Indonesia2, Teacher of SMA 1 Madiun, Indonesia4
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Authentic assessment is one alternative that is used to evaluate
students’ learning outcomes believed to explore students’ ability.
The Implementation of it has been appliedat the senior high school
level (SMA) since the KTSP began. However, the teachers still find
difficulties to use it in the teaching-learning process. Some factors
like times, the appropriate of authentic assessment in supporting
the learning activities, and determining the essential components
needed to accommodate and to explore the students’ capabilities
particularly in the biology class on biodiversity topic. This current
research aims at knowing the effect of using authentic assessment
to the students’ metacognitive skills in biology class at SMA. The
design of this research was a quasi-experimental with
nonequivalent pre test-post test control group design in factorial
2X1. The Experimental group was treated using authentic
assessment however the control group was not treated using
authentic assessment. The results showed that there was not
significance effect of using authentic assessment for metacognitive
skills in biology class at SMA. This result might caused by the
uncommunicative questionnaire, the time is too short for
implementing authentic assessment, the teachers and the students
were not acustomized to design and to use authentic assessment in
the learning process.
Keywords: authentic assessment, metacognitive skills
INTRODUCTION
The development of education is shifted from teacher center
paradigm to the student center, that aims to make the students active in the
learning activities. In the whole learning activities through student center, the
149
teachers act as the facilitator. The important thing that may not be forgotten
is how to evaluate the learning process and result that was done and
accomplished by the students. One alternative to do the evaluation of the
student learning result andare believed to be able to explore students’
awareness is to use the authentic assessment.
It was expressed by Hart (1994) in Corebima (2011) that an
assessment is considered as authentic if it can involve the learning
participants to the useful, important, and meaningful tasks. With the right
form of authentic assessment, students will be able to do the authentic tasks,
i.e. the tasks that demand the students to integrate the knowledge and
awareness that has become one with their condition and may also be found
in the daily life of the students.
The authentic assessment measuring target is the competence
measurement that directly done and given into the real situation. The
authentic assessment is the assessment form by giving opportunities to the
students to show the tasks related to the daily life (real-world task) through
some various meaningful application from their knowledge and skills
(authentic assessment tool homepage). In the authentic assessment, the
assessment is often based on the students’ performance, where the students
are asked to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, or awareness in any
kind of appropriate situations they faced (Widhiarso, 2004). The other effects
by applying authentic assessment according to Hammond and Snyder (2000)
are that students will have their self-confidence of their work because they
found some new facts to support it, and also have some resiprocal effects in
learning so the teacher become more familiar to the learning condition that
has been conducted.
The implementation of the learning evaluation by assessing the
learning process with authentic assessment istruments has begun to be
applied in the senior high school since the enactment of kurikulum tingkat
satuan pendidikan (KTSP). However, in fact the teachers are often have
difficulties in applying the authentic assessment in the learning. The limiting
factor proved to cause trouble are the time factor, the authentic assessment
form, and the important component of authentic assessment that can
accomodate and explore the students’ awareness. It is important to the
teacher to pay attention, that despite the cognitive factor is the most noted,
but it is more principal to make the students have the high thinking
awareness and also to teach how to make that high thinking awareness. This
awareness is metacognitive awareness, i.e. the awareness to recognize and
realize the possessed learning process and progress. Thus, students will
aware their thinking process and it will indirectly make them become
independent learner.
150
The learning process will essentially generate 3 teaching thinking;
teaching of thinking, teaching for thinking, and teaching about thinking. In
teaching of thinking, the learning process is directed to the specific mental
skills formation, such as critical skills, creative thinking, and metacognitive
skills. In teaching for thinking, the learning process is directed to the efforts
to create a learning environment empowering cognitive development, such
as creating an atmosphere of democratic openness, creating a climate of fun
learning so the students can optimally developed. For teaching about
thinking, the learning process is directed to the efforts to help students to
become more aware about their thinking process. The stage to help the
students develop their metacognitive awareness is not something that easily
done by teachers. Until now, in applying the learning of biology, teachers still
insist on increasing the cognitive awareness by using Bloom taxonomy
orientations from the C1-C6 awareness and still not teach about the thinking
itself yet. This condition makes many students rely on the subject given by
the teacher and they become less understand the advantages and
disadvantages in their learning.
Along with the cognitive psychologic development, then also
developed the way teacher evaluate the learning result achievement,
especially for the cognitive domain. Currently, in evaluating, the teachers
tend to emphasize only the cognitive purposes without observing the
cognitive process dimension, especially the metacognitive awareness. As a
result, the efforts to introduce the metacognition in solving biological
problems to the students have not been much explored. The metacognitive
awareness is the interaction between metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive skills. The metacognitive knowledge can be seen when the
students aware with their own cognitive awareness and do the monitoring of
the cognitives they have in the learning process (Anderson et al., 2001). The
metacognitive skills will help the students to become self-regulated learners
who are responsible for their learning progress and adapt their learning
strategy to achieve the purpose (Corebima, 2006). For example the students
know that they have memory for the subject matter of biology. To assess
their achievement, students make some notes about their achievements, and
based on that achievement notes or monitoring they can do a self-reflection
on their flaws and merits. With the controlling and monitoring that cognitive
process, it will be easy to evaluate their cognitive achievements. Thus, the
use of authentic assessment in learning biology will make the students aware
the learning process so they can improve their learning result. Therefore, it is
important to know how authentic assessment can affect the metacognitive
awareness of the students.The purpose of the research is to determine the
151
influence of the use of Authentic Assessment to the Metacognitive
Awareness in the Subject Matter of Biology of Senior High School Students.
METHODS
The research is conducted with quasi experiment to know the
influence of the use of authentic assessment to the metacognitive awareness
of senior high school students in the subject matter of biology. The authentic
awareness treatment is given as the independent variable to determine the
dependent variable, i.e. the metacognitive awareness. The research design
used is the nonequivalent Pratest-Post Test Control Group Design with
factorial 2x1. The research is conducted at SMAN 1 Madiun, with the
population of 8 classes and samples of two classes, i.e. XF and XH taken
randomly. The metacognitive awareness data is captured by Metacognitive
Awareness Inventory (MAI) instrument with three options of answers; the
answer yes got 3 points, the answer undecided got 2 points, and the answer
no got 1 point. The data analysis used is Anacova with 5% significance level. If
the analysis result shows the value of F count significant then it will
continued to a different test of Least Significance Difference (LSD). The whole
analysis is helped with SPSS 16 for windows program, that begin with the
covariant test, the homogenity test, and the data normality.
DISCUSSION
Anakova test results show that there is no influence of the authentic
assessment implication to the students’ metacognitive awareness (score
p>0,05 i.e. 0,315). It indicates that the class using authentic assessment and
the class that are not using authentic assessment give the same influence
towards the students’ metacognitive awareness. The research results was
reinforced with the average score of the students’ metacognitive awareness
that are not a far cry between the class treated with authentic assessment
and the class that are not treated. The average score without assessment is
85,59, whereas the authentic assessment is 88,08). Some factors that
estimated to affect the research result are the research instrument, the
model of authentic assessment using, the teachers, the students’ internal
factors, and the authentic assessment implication that is too short.
The instruments to measure the metacognitive awareness is using
the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) scoring guidelines, which each
choice that answered yes got 3 points, undecided got 2 points, and no got 1
point. Next, the obtained points from each category are being added based
on the number of questions items i.e. 52 items. From the insignificant results
it seems that MAI instrument is less appropriate with the culture of the
senior high school students in Madiun. It is seen from the way the students
152
answer and fill the instrument which tend to not mean it. Without reading
the meaning of the sentences asked in the questionnaire carefully, the
students straightly make some marks in the ‘yes’ column that impressed so
hurried. Beside seen from the way the students answer, it can also seen from
the suitability the students do with the given answer. In addition, some of the
things that causes MAI less appropriate for students particularly in Madiun
are the instrument characters that are not much enough, the instrument
language that are not communicative enough, and the instrument answers
that give students no opportunities to give some explanations. These results
are confirmed by the research of Murni (2008) that explained that MAI
questionnaire is not suitable for the condition of students in Indonesia
generally.
The model of using authentic assessment type in experiment class is
estimated to cause the authentic assessment has no effect on the
metacognitive consciousness. This is because the authentic assessment used
as practical activity report about biodiversity does not emphasize the
students to review andreevaluate the results of their works. The application
of such authentic assessment makes the students do not realize what is
needed to complete the lack of material that has not been mastered yet.
Whereas, the reviewing and reevaluating process is urgently needed in
increasing the metacognitive awareness according to Hanten et al. (2004),
that the consciousness to observe, evaluate, and use the control awareness
are the mental processes belong to a person as a unique character of human
as the metacognitive consciousness.
Although the use of authentic assessment emphasize on the
students’ active learning activities, in the preparating, the writing, and the
reporting it still need the teacher guidance. The under optimum of the
students’ activity monitoring process makes the use of authentic assessment
still only on the obligation stage for the students. This is appropriate with
Sideridis et al. (2006) has expressed that the metacognition can be done with
the strategy that applied to students by knowing the way of certain moments
such as: a) training, by repeating the readings or looking back on the specific
parts of the reading texts, b) planning, c) monitoring, and d) controlling
themselves. The supports from teachers and the planned monitoring will
optimize the use of authentic assessment and also as feedback for the
learning process which is already done.
The other factors that cause the authentic assessment has no effects
to the students’ metacognitive consciousness are the psychological factors in
the students themselves. Researcherexpect that students are tend to less
consentrate while filling the MAI, that most students fill the answers with no
based on their metacognitive consciousness yet. The students assume that
153
filling MAI is only as an obligation that should be done and not as a form of
evaluation ofthe metacognitive awareness that will be able to help the
development of their learning. This results that the answer given is not
appropriate to the conditions and circumstances of the students themselves
truly are. In fact, if the students get an understanding about their
metacognitive consciousness and understanding it will really help them to
develop their cognitive potentials. These conditions are also appropriate with
the opinion of Murni (2008), that letting the students learn with
metacognitive strategies can encourage them to be independent, it can
foster the honest attitudes, and they can be bold to admit mistakes that
ultimately will lead the students into the obvious increasing of the learning
results.
The next factor that cause the authentic assessment has no effects to
the metacognitive consciousness are the time of authentic assessment
implications that is too short, i.e. a KD of biodiversity with the face to face
allocation of 3 times. The teachers’ initial planning has already delivered the
kind of authentic assessment as the temporary practical reports, and the
learning summary as the plain learning journals for students. In doing so, the
compiling of journals is delivered by less than 50% of students, and even the
others are not even compile it. It is impressed that the students do not
consider the learning journals as some significant parts to support the
learning process. In addition, a learning journal does not the instrument that
they usually use in their learning activities. Observing these conditions, the
adjustments and habits for teachers and students to use the authentic
assessment does seems requiring times and conditioning continuously. The
teacher will accustomed to get feedback of learning process and the students
will have the metacognitive awareness that help to raise their learning
results.
CONCLUSIONS
The results showed that there is no effects between the use of
Authentic Assessment to the Metacognitive Awareness in the Subject Matter
of Biology of Senior High School Students. Some of the things causing it are
the less communicative questionnaire, the students’ psychological
conditions, the time of authentic assessment implication that is too short,
and the teachers and students who are not used to organize and use the
authentic assessment in learning. Therefore, the use of the authentic
assessment as a tool of developing the students’ metacognitive awareness
requires planning, monitoring, and conditioning continuously. Basically, the
use of the authentic assessment needs to be always used as an instrument to
154
help students evaluate themselves, to support assessment, and to feedback
the learning process for teachers.
SUGGESTIONS
Any further researches about the form of the Metacognitive
Awareness Inventory (MAI) appropriate with the learning, character, and
psychologic conditions of the students in Indonesia are still needed.
Researches concerning the use, the shape, and the selection of the right type
of authentic assessment to support the learning also still needs to be done.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L.W. (Ed).at.al. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and
Assesing: a Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
New York: Longman.
Corebima, A.D. (2006). Metakognisi: Suatu Ringkasan Kajian. Makalah
disampaikan pada Pelatihan Strategi Metakognisi pada
Pembelajaran Biologi untuk Guru-guru Biologi SMA di Palangkaraya.
Corebima,
A.D.
(2011).
Asessmen
Autentik:
Gambaran
Penerapannya.Makalah disampaikan pada Workhop Penulisan
Karya Ilmiah.Universitas Negeri Malang.
Hammond, L.D., and Snyder, J. (2000). Authentic Asessment of Teaching in
Context.Teaching and Teacher Education, 16: 523-545 (Online),
retrieved
from
http://www.jcu.edu/education/Authentic_
assessment.pdf.
Hanten, G., at. al. (2004). Childhood Head Injury and Metacognitive
Processes
in
Language
and
Memory.
Developmental
Neuropsychology, 25(1&2):85-105.
Murni, S. (2008). Pengaruh Penggunaan Jurnal Belajar dalam Pembelajaran
Multistrategi Terhadap Kesadaran Kognitif dan Metakognitif Siswa
SMA Negeri 9 Malang. Tesis. Malang: Universitas Negeri Malang.
Sideridis, G.D., at.al. (2006).Predicting LD on the Basis of Motivation,
Metacognition, and Psychopathology: An ROC Analysis.Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 39(3):215-229.
155
Widhiarso,W. (2004). Penerapan Asessmen dalam Pengukuran Kompetensi
Mahasiswa dalam Melakukan Asessmen Psikologi. Fakultas
Psikologi UGM. Yogyakarta (Online), retrieved fromhttp://
widhiarso.staff.ugm.ac.id.pdf
156
RESEARCH AND TRENDS IN THE STUDIES OF SCHOOL-BASED
ORAL ENGLISH ASSESSMENT FROM 2003 TO 2011:
A REVIEW ON SELECTED JOURNALS
Nur Diana Mohd Kamal1, Saedah Siraj2, Norlidah Alias3,
Mohammad Attaran4
Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia1,2,3,4
[email protected], attaran @um.edu.my4
ABSTRACT
Assessing oral proficiency is a real challenge for English language
practitioners. Throughout the process of assessing, many features
of oral competence are worth given attention by teachers as the
assessors. As such, Malaysian Ministry of Education has urged on
another alternative for oral assessment in 2002 with the intention
of revamping and improvising the existing system. This new
assessment is none other than School-Based Oral English
Assessment (SBOEA). Therefore, this paper intends to review the
studies done on the implementation of School-Based Oral English
Assessment (SBOEA). Among the 15 articles selected from 2003 to
2011, 7 of them focused closely on Malaysian school context. The
rest of articles revolve on School-Based Assessment in other
context and speaking test as a whole. Based on this review, it is now
possible to postulate that most studies were conducted to
investigate respondents’ attitude and perception towards this type
of assessment. At this juncture, it is also obvious that mixed
methods which involve the use of both quantitative and qualitative
study are the most preferred method in the studies of School-Based
Oral Assessment. Although the use of questionnaire is fairly
dominant in these journals articles, it is noted that other
instruments such as semi-structured interview, observation and
document analysis were also employed for data analysis. In
addition, the insight and the data gained from these studies could
be beneficial for future reference in reviewing and modifying the
implementation of School-Based English Oral Assessment in
157
Malaysia. As such, the findings drawn from the studies can shed
some light for better implementation in Malaysia.
Keywords: school-based assessment, studies, review, research
purpose, trend
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the years, it is universally acknowledged that assessment
has played an integral part in teaching and learning at any learning institution
around the world. The word ‘assessment’ itself may have been interpreted
distinctively by concerning parties. To exemplify, (Sidhu, Chan, Sidhu, 2011:
300-327) states that five different parties which include policy maker,
administrator, teacher, parent and student may hold different perceptions
and conceptions on assessment. According to Sidhu, Chan, and Sidhu (2011:
300-327), policy makers define assessment as standards to monitor the
quality of education. Administrators view assessment as a means to monitor
the strengths and weaknesses of a programme whereas teachers use
assessment as a tool to monitor a student’s progress and performance. By
contrast, students perceive assessment as an indicator of their ongoing
progress and performance. Instead, parents regard assessment as a kind of
feedback on their child’s progress as well as the gaugeto indicate school’s
accountability in offering effective teaching and learning. In this sense,
assessment system does not only affect the teaching and learning but it does
affect the society at large. Hence, a study by (Akiyama, 2003: 2-11) concur
that new approaches to assessment are certainly necessaryfor educational
reform.
Traditionally, assessment in Malaysian school was centralised on
national examination. Students were required to sit for three main public
examinations as a prerequisite to the next level of education. In a study
conducted by (Omar and Sinnasamy, 2009: 13-29), these principal
examinations have been generally known to Malaysian as the Primary School
Assessment (UPSR), the Lower Secondary Assessment Examination (PMR)
and the Malaysian Certificate of Examination (SPM). Nevertheless, SchoolBased Assessment was introduced in 2002 as a move away from traditional
teaching to keeping abreast with changing trends of assessment. In other
words,this initiative which was also a directive from our Ministry of Education
aimed to suit the global trend of decentralisation of assessment.One of the
reasons for this implementation is to help to improve students’
communicative competence which is parallel to the learning outcomes
outlined in the English Language Syllabus for Malaysian Secondary Schools
(Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysian, 2002).
158
To meet this need, School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA) was
integrated for the teachers to promote the improvement of English
communication skills.
According to Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad (2011: 93-115), the
rationale of integrating School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA) into
School-Based Assessment component is due to the power of this alternative
assessment as an authentic form in assessing students’ actual speaking
activity. In comparison, the conventional Oral English Test which was
administered before the year 2002 failed to offer true reflection of students’
actual communication skill (Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115).In
addition, (Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115) believes that SBOEA
mandatesboth teaching and testing to be integrated in the English classroom.
In this respect, these ongoing oral assessments can also promote teaching
and learning in the English classroom as they are conducted three times
throughout two years of upper Secondary level. In gaining more insightful
information of the implementation of School-Based Oral English Assessment
(SBOEA), a review has been done on selected journals from different
educational publications. This review of published articles in academic
journals has seenvarious areas of studies conducted. This variance comprises
the perception, perspectivesand attitude, similarities and differences,
influencing factors, knowledge and understanding and the concerns on the
implementation of School-Based Assessment. Therefore, the following
sections will engulf the review divided by research purpose, method, results
and discussion, implications and conclusions as well as limitations of the
research.
Research Purpose
This paper intended to investigate the research and trends in the
studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA). The articles
published by 13 different educational journalssuch as Journal of Malaysian
English Language Teaching Association (MELTA), Journal of English Language
Teaching, Asian EFL Journal, Journal of the English Teacher, The International
Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, Procedia Social and
Behavioural Sciences, Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, Journal
of US-China Education Review, International Education Studies, Language
Testing, Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, JALT
Testing and Evaluation and Educational Studies between the years 2003 and
2011 were reviewed by research topic, journal, publication year, research
purpose and trend.
The review of selected journals might outline the research trends and
patterns of the articles related to School-Based Oral English Assessment
159
(SBOEA) in recent years. The trend may encompass the methodology used
(whether it is qualitative or quantitative)and the instruments used in
gathering data. As such, it is hoped that this review can help the school
administrators, English Head of Panel as well as English teachersin Malaysia
to gain some better insight of the publishing trends of School-Based Oral
Assessment studies. At a larger extent, this review could be somehow
beneficial for Teacher Education Division (BahagianPendidikan Guru) and
Malaysian Examination Syndicate (Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia) to
improvise the existing assessment and to promote further study on the
subject matter. In addition, the insight offered by this review could be useful
for future reference in reviewing and modifying the implementation of
School-Based English Oral Assessment especially in Malaysia.
Hence, three research questions were developed to guide this
review. They were as follows:
1. Which context shows the highest percentage of conducting studies
on School-Based Oral English Assessment?
2. How much categories can be generated based on research topics?
3. What was the trend of the studies conducted on School-Based Oral
English Assessment in these eight years?
METHOD
Research Papers for Review
This paper used articles published by 13different educational journals
which include Journal of Malaysian English Language Teaching Association
(MELTA), Journal of English Language Teaching, Asian EFL Journal, Journal of
the English Teacher, The International Journal of Educational and
Psychological Assessment, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences,
Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, Journal of US-China Education
Review, International Education Studies, Language Testing, Journal of
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, JALT Testing and
Evaluation and Educational Studies.
It is worth to be informed that this paper only provides a review on
selected journal articles. Any other research documents such as book review
and unpublished theses are not included for this review. Based on the
selected journal articles which consisted 15 of them, the review was done by
analysing abstracts and other significant sections such as method and data
collection in order to determine the publishing trends of School-Based Oral
Assessment studies.
160
Research Topic Analysis
The purpose of analysing the research topic is to determine the
number of studies which were closely related on School-Based Oral English
Assessment. In reviewing 15 selected articles from 13 different educational
journals, the research topics were first categorised intoseven different
categories based on the research topics themselves. In relation to the studies
of School-Based Oral English Assessment, these respective categories include:
perception, similarities and differences, analysing factors, knowledge and
understanding, concerns, washback effects and miscellaneous. The following
table will further explain the content of the articles based on different
categories:
Table 1:Research Topic Analysis
No.
Categories
Description
No. of
articles
5
1.
Perception
Articles in this research category generally
discuss about perceptions, reactions,
perspectives and views on School-Based
Oral English Assessment from different
parties. The data was obtained from
different groups of respondents which have
covered teachers, students and parents.
2.
Similarities
and
Differences
This topic of research touches on
similarities and differences in teachers’ and
students’ perception on School-Based Oral
English Assessment. However, this article is
hardly categorised under ‘Perception’
category because of the absence of such
word in the research topic.
1
3.
Analysing
factors
This category explores the influencing
factors which associated with oral
performance.
1
4.
Knowledge
and
understanding
This topic category generally focuses on
teachers’ knowledge and understanding of
School-Based Oral English Assessment in
Malaysia as a whole.
1
5.
Concerns
This topic of research includes the concerns
expressed
by
teachers
on
the
implementation of School-Based Oral
English Assessment in Malaysia.
1
161
No.
Categories
Description
6.
Washback
effects
This category includes a study which aimed
to determine the washback effects of an
oral assessment among EFL learners.
7.
Miscellaneous
Articles that fall under this category are
quite general in nature (somehow related
to School-Based Assessment and Oral
Assessment) and hardly categorised under
aforementioned categories. The following
includes the research topic for these
articles:
No. of
articles
1
5
 School-Based Assessment: Will it really
change the Education Scenario in
Bangladesh (Mariam Begum dan Sabrin
Farooqui, 2008: 45-53)
 Oral Examination Assessment Practices:
Effectiveness and Change with a First
Year Undergraduate Cohort (B. Oakley
and C. Hencken, 2005: 3-14)
 Assessing speaking in Japanese junior
high schools: Issues for the senior high
school entrance examinations (T.
Akiyama, 2003: 2-11)
 Interaction in group oral assessment: A
case study of higher and lower scoring
students (G. Zhendong, 2010: 586-602)
 Rating criteria for the three speaking
test format: Monologue, Dialogue and
Multilogue (Y. Nakamura, 2009: 133141)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Percentage forcontexts related to the studies of School-Based Oral English
Assessment
By reviewing these 15 journals articles from 2003 to 2011, it is noted
that seven of these articles were closely related to the studies of SchoolBased Oral English Assessment in Malaysia. The analysis can be further
explained as presented in the following table.
162
Table 2. Number of articles related to the studies of School-Based Oral
English Assessment for different contexts
Contexts
Related articles
Msia
7
HK
2
Japan
2
Bdesh
1
UK
1
S’pore
1
Cbia
1
First, the review has identified that 7 of selected articles were closely
related to Msia (Malaysia). As for HK (Hong Kong) and Japan, 2 articles were
closely related to each country respectively. By contrast, the review has
revealed that only 1 article was related to the following countries:Bdesh
(Bangladesh), UK, S’pore (Singapore) and Cbia (Columbia).Based on the
information presented in Tab. 2 above, pie chart was generated to provide a
clear picture of percentagefor contexts related to the studies of School-Based
Oral English Assessment.
Graph 1.Percentage for Contexts Related to the Studies
of School-Based Oral English Assessment
From the above analysis, it can be seen that almost half (46%) of 15
articles published in 13 educational journals between the year 2003 to 2011
were related to School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia. As for
Hong Kong and Japan context, the articles analysed represent 13% of the
overall percentage. Also, Fig. 1 above has proved that other countries such as
Bangladesh, UK, Singapore and Columbia only constitute 1% of the
percentage of the related articles. Therefore, based on this analysis, it is
feasible to conjecture that most studies on School-Based Oral English
Assessment have been conducted in Malaysia.
163
Research Purpose Analysis
After reviewing 15 selected articles from 13 different educational
journals, it is now possible to categorise the articles into six different
categories based on various research purposes. These respective categories
include: perception, analysing factors, knowledge and understanding,
concerns, washback effects and miscellaneous. The rationale of this is to find
the most common purpose related to the studies on School-Based Oral
English Assessment. The following table will provide further elaboration of
the area of studies based on different categories:
Table 3. Research Purpose Analysis
Purpose
1.
Perception
Articles in this research category generally aim to
find out perceptions, reactions, perspectives and
views
on
the
following
matters:
the
implementation of SBOEA, challenges and
problems arise, its effectiveness as an accurate
gauge, impact and consequences of SBOEA.
Instead, two articles among these eight focus on
the similarities and differences as well as the
relationship in perceptions between different
parties. Those parties included teachers, students
and parents.
2.
Analysing
factors
This topic of research generally hopes to identify
factors associated to students’ oral performance.
Besides that, study was also done on the
relationship between these factors and students’
oral scores.
1
3.
Knowledge
and
understanding
This category investigates teachers’ knowledge and
understanding of SBOEA in Malaysia. The subject
matters
comprise
of
objectives,
the
implementation
(pre,
while
and
post
administration) and challenges faced.
1
4.
Concerns
This topic category investigates the concerns of the
teachers on School-Based Assessment at 5 stages
using model from Hall, George and Rutherford
(1977).
1
5.
Washback
effects
This topic of research was conducted to determine
the washback effects of an oral assessment
between experimental and comparison group.
1
164
Description
No. of
articles
8
No
No
Purpose
Description
6.
Miscellaneous
Articles that fall under this category touch on Oral
Assessment in general and still considered to
havelittle
connection
with
School-Based
Assessment. These three articles do not share the
same purpose.

(G. Zhendong, 2010: 586-602) – identify
the
interactional
features
that
characterise a group of higher-scoring
and lower-scoring students’ participation
in group oral assessment

(Y. Nakamura, 2009: 133-141) – Rating
criteria for the three speaking test
format: Monologue, Dialogue and
Multilogue

(T. Akiyama, 2003: 2-11) – discuss how
high school teachers in Tokyo assess
speaking skill
No. of
articles
3
As can be seen from Tab. 3, it is noted that 8 articles fall under
‘Perception’ category. Articles that fall under this category were written by
Sidhu, Chan, and Sidhu, 2011: 300-327; Liying, Andrews, and Ying, 2011: 221249; Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115; Noor, Muniandy, Krishnan,
and Mathai, 2010: 142-151; Malakolunthu and Sim, 2010: 1170-1176; Omar
and Sinnasamy, 2009: 13-29; Begum and Farooqui, 2008: 45-53; Oakley and
Hencken, 2005: 3-14. In comparison, only 1 article can be categorised into
respective groups: Analysing factors (Chan, Sidhu, Rani, Azi, 2011: 27-47),
Knowledge and Understanding (Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115),
Concerns (Majid, 2011: 1-15), and Washback Effects (Sidhu, Chan, and
Mohamad, 2011: 93-115). Under ‘Miscellaneous’ category, 3 articles
(Zhendong, 2010: 586-602; Nakamura, 2009: 133-141; Akiyama, 2003: 2-11)
were considered to fit into this category.
165
Graph 2. Percentage of research purpose analysis
The published percentage of related purpose in each category for 15
selected journal articles between the years 2003 to 2011 are presented in Fig.
2.Fig. 2 above has revealed that ‘Perception’ has made up more than half
(53%) of overall percentage.That is to say, “Perception” is the most common
category among all. In addition, it is also worth noting that many researchers
were interested to study respondents’ perception and view on School-Based
Oral English Assessment based on this analysis.This highest percentage is
then followed by ‘Miscellaneous’ (20%), Washback effects, Concerns and
Knowledge and Understanding which respectively has 7%. It is also
interesting to note that ‘Analysing factors’ had 1% less than the second
lowest even theyshare the same number of article.
Trends of the Studies Conducted on School-Based Oral English Assessment
in Malaysia
In determining the trend of the studies conducted on School-Based
Oral English Assessment for the past eight years (2003 - 2011),it is worth
giving attention to the methodology employed and the instruments used in
gathering data.In terms of methodology employed, the articles from selected
educational journals can be categorised into threecategories: quantitative,
qualitativeand both quantitative and qualitative. Reference Muñoz and
Álvarez (2010: 33-49) defines quantitative study as a studyinvolves the
prospect of analysing numerical data. By contrast, (Muñoz and Álvarez, 2010:
33-49) defines qualitative study as data analysis which involves organising,
accounting for and explaining the data and often largely lieson interpretation.
The following Tab. 4 summarises the methodology employed and instrument
used in the studies of selected journal articles.
166
Table 4. Trends of the studies conducted
on School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia
No.
1.
Title
Between the Ideal and
Reality:
Teacher’s
perception
of
the
implementation of SchoolBased
Oral
English
Assessment (SBOEA)
Author
Hamzah Md
Omar,
Paramasivan
Sinnasamy (2009)
Methodology
Quantitative
study
Instrument
Self-constructed
questionnaire
2.
School-Based Assessment
in Malaysian Schools: The
Concerns of the English
teachers
Faizah A Majid
(2011)
Quantitative
study
Questionnaire
3.
Impact and consequences
of
School-Based
assessment
(SBA):
Students’ and parents’
views of SBA in Hong Kong
Liying Cheng,
Stephen Andrews,
Ying Yu (2011)
Quantitative
study
(Questionnaire)
-1 for Students
(SQ) and 1 for
Parents (PQ)
4.
Assessing
speaking
in
Japanese
junior
high
schools: Issues for the
senior high school entrance
examinations
Tomoyasu
Akiyama (2003)
Quantitative
study
Questionnaire
and test result
analysis
5.
Rating criteria for the three
speaking
test
format:
Monologue, Dialogue and
Multilogue
Nakamura Yuji
(2009)
Quantitative
study
Questionnaire
6.
Upper Primary Teacher’s
perception of PSLE English
Oral Assessment
Norashikin
Mohamed Noor,
Mohan K.
Muniandy, Shashi
Kumar
Shanmugan,
Emily Jothee
Mathai (2010)
Qualitative
study
Semi
structured
interview
7.
The School-Based Oral
English Test: Similarities
and Differences
Zaitun Abdul
Majid, Arshad
Abd Samad,
Mazanah
Muhammad,
Malachi Edwin
Vethamani
(2011)
Qualitative
study
Interview and
observation
–
167
No.
8.
Title
Teacher perspectives of
school-based assessment in
a secondary school in Kuala
Lumpur
Author
SuseelaMalakolun
thu and Sim Kwan
Hoon (2010)
Methodology
Qualitative
study
Instrument
Semi-structured
interviews,
Observation of
Oral
Assessment
session
9.
Interaction in group oral
assessment: A case study of
higher and lower scoring
students
Zhendong Gan
(2010)
Qualitative
study
Observation
(based on group
oral
assessment)
10.
Students’ Reactions to
School – Based Oral
Assessment: Bridging the
Gap in Malaysia
Gurnam Kaur
Sidhu, Chan Yuen
Fook, Sarjit Kaur
Sidhu (2011)
Quantitative
and
qualitative
study
Questionnaire
and Focus
Group Interview
11.
Analyzing factors
associated with students’
oral test performance
Chan Yuen Fook,
Gurnam Kaur
Sidhu,
Norhamimah
Rani, Norazah
Abdul Aziz (2011)
Quantitative
and
qualitative
study
Questionnaire,
A set of Oral
Test Paper,
Semi –
structured
interview
12.
Teachers’ Knowledge and
Understanding of the
Malaysian School-Based
Oral English Assessment
Gurnam Kaur
Sidhu, Chan Yuen
Fook, Azleena
Mohamad (2011)
Quantitative
and
qualitative
study
13.
School-Based Assessment:
Will it Really Change the
Education Scenario in
Bangladesh
Mariam Begum
and
SabrinFarooqui
(2008)
Quantitative
and
qualitative
study
Questionnaire,
Semi-structured
interviews and
document
analysis
Questionnaire,
interview and
document
analysis
14.
Washback of an oral
assessment system in the
EFL classroom
Ana P. Muñoz and
Marta E. Álvarez
(2010)
Quantitative
and
qualitative
study
Surveys for
students and
teachers, class
observations
and external
evaluations)
15.
Oral examination
Assessment Practices:
Effectiveness and Change
with a First Year
Undergraduate Cohort
Ben Oakley and
Clare Hencken
(2005)
Quantitative
and
qualitative
study
Questionnaire,
observation
168
First, the results of this analysis revealed that mixed methods which
involve both quantitative and qualitative study are the most favoured
methodology used for the studies on School-Based Oral Assessment. This
may due to the notion that mixed method can enable rich data to be
collected which later affords triangulation of the findings (Muñoz and
Álvarez, 2010: 33-49).It can be seen that 6 articles out of 15 starting from
Article No. 10 to 15 have employed this mixed method. The result is then
followed by the use of quantitative study which includes 5 articles starting
from No.1 to 5 and 4 articles on qualitative study starting from No.6 to 9.
As presented in Tab. 4, it can also be concluded that more than half
of the studies (11 articles) have employed questionnaire as a main tool in
gathering data. Reference (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2011) believes that
employing a questionnaire in an educational research is very beneficial as it
offers unbiased representation of population of interests. This claim may
somehow explain the highest number of the use of questionnaire as a
primary data collection method. Nonetheless, some other methods were also
used in these articles and they involved the use of interview (7 articles),
observation (5 articles) and document analysis (3 articles). Although a variety
of methods used does exist, the questionnaire remains the most prevalent
among all.
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
As mentioned in the previous section, there were three research
questions posed as a guide for this review. Hence, this section will
elucidatethe findingsas well as implications that can be derived from each
research question. The first research question referred to the percentage for
contextswhich were related to the studies of School-Based Oral English
Assessment.This review has indicated that almost half of 15 journals articles
from 2003 to 2011 were closely related to the studies of School-Based Oral
English Assessment in Malaysia. For instance, the review has identified that 7
of selected articles were closely related to Malaysian context.
When the data was analysed into a percentage form, it can be seen
that 46% of these 15 articles were related to School-Based Oral English
Assessment in Malaysia. As such, it is possible to claim that substantial
amount of studies has been conducted on the subject matter in Malaysia. As
well, this may somehow imply that many different parties in Malaysia were
interested to study the implementation of this School-Based Oral English
Assessment as a whole. Nonetheless, it would be interesting if more studies
on such subject are also conducted in other countries.
The second research question concerned the research purposes
related to School-Based Oral English Assessment which were published in the
169
selected journals for the past 8 years. After reviewing 15 selected articles
from 13 different educational journals, it is now possible to categorise the
articles into six different categories based on various research purposes.
These respective categories include: perception, analysing factors, knowledge
and understanding, concerns, washback effects and miscellaneous.The review
has shown that 8 out of 15 articles fall under ‘Perception’ category. In
addition, Fig. 2 has reported that ‘Perception’ has made up more than half
(53%) of overall percentage.In this respect, there were indications that most
of researchers were interested to investigate the respondents’ perceptions,
perspectives, views as well as attitudes towards School-Based Oral English
Assessment.Therefore, the insight offered by this review which comes in
form of feedback could be beneficial for future reference in reviewing and
modifying the implementation of School-Based English Oral Assessment
especially in Malaysia. Nevertheless, more in-depth investigation on other
areas which may include teachers’ and students’ readiness,impact and
consequences and the futureof School-Based Oral English Assessment are
also deemed worth giving attention to.
Additionally, the third research question investigated the trend of the
studies conducted on School-Based Oral English Assessment in these eight
years. At this juncture, it is obvious that mixed methods which involve both
quantitative and qualitative study are the most preferred method used for
the studies on School-Based Oral Assessment. As presented in Tab. 4, itis
noted that 6 articles out of 15have employed mixed method. Besides that,
this review has also indicated that the use of questionnaire appears to be a
primary data resource as more than half of the studies (11 articles) have
employed questionnaire as a main tool in gathering data.Inadvertently, this
paper has disclosed that these two predominant trends are most preferable
among recent researches. As such, it can also shed some light on the best
selection of method and instrument in extending similar studies at a larger
extent.
LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH
Taking all the results from journals, we have now gained a better
insight of the research and trends in the studies of School-Based Oral
Assessment. Nevertheless, it is worth addressing a few limitations of the
studies in order to ensure precise interpretation of the findings. First, it is not
too much to postulate that a limitation of this content analysis lies in the
generalisation of the findings.Althoughalmost half of the articles centred on
Malaysian context (7 articles), it is still hard to determine that most studies
on School-Based Oral English Assessment have been conducted in
Malaysia.Under such circumstances, the results only offer us a snapshot of
170
the studies in particular context. As well, the findings offered by each study
could not simply be generalised to other countries in the world. To exemplify,
purpose of conducting studies on School-Based Oral English Assessment may
vary from one place to another even in the same country, considering many
other external factors.
Second, it is obvious that the use of mixed method and questionnaire
is the most prevalent among recent researchers throughout this review.
Nevertheless, it is also worth noting that the small number of selected
articles (15 articles) can hardly represent the research trend around the
globe. As well, it is also recommendedthat the studies to be repeated in the
next few years in other different contexts in order to get a precise picture of
pattern and trend in the studies of the subject matter.
REFERENCES
Akiyama, T. (2003).“Assessing speaking in Japanese junior high schools: Issues
for the senior high school entrance examinations”.JALT Testing and
Evaluation, 7(2), 2-11.
Chan, Y. F., Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Norhamimah Rani and Norazah Abdul Aziz.
(2011). “Analysing Factors Associated with Students’ Oral Test
Performance”. The International Journal of Educational and
Psychological Assessment, 9 (11), 27-47.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in Education
(7thed.). New York: Routledge.
Faizah A Majid (2011). “School-Based Assessment in Malaysian Schools: The
Concerns of the English teachers”. Journal of US-China Education
Review, 8(10), 1-15.
Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Chan, Y. F., and Azleena Mohamad.(2011). “Teachers’
Knowledge and Understanding of the Malaysian School-Based Oral
English Assessment”. Malaysian
Journal of Learning and
Instruction, 8, 93-115.
Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Chan, Y.F. and Sarjit Kaur Sidhu. (2011). “Students’
reactions to school – based oral assessment: bridging the gap in
Malaysia”. Asian EFL Journal, 13 (4).300-327.
Hamzah Md. Omar and ParamasivanSinnasamy. (2009). “Between the ideal
and reality: teacher’s perception of the implementation of schoolbased oral english assessment”. A Journal of the Malaysian English
Language Teaching Association,38(2), 13-29.
171
Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysian. (2002).
“Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia”. Pengendalian Ujian Lisan Berasaskan
Sekolah (ULBS).
Liying, C., Andrews, S. and Ying, Y. (2011). “Impact and consequences of
School-Based Assessment (SBA): Students’ and parents’ views of
SBA in Hong Kong”. Language Testing, 28 (2), 221-249.
Mariam Begum and SabrinFarooqui (2008). “School-Based Assessment: Will it
Really Change the Education Scenario in Bangladesh”. International
Education Studies, 1(2), 45-53.
Muñoz, A.P. and Álvarez, M.E. (2010). “Washback of an oral assessment
system in the EFL classroom”. Language Testing, 27(1), 33-49.
Nakamura, Y. (2009). “Rating criteria for the three speaking test format:
Monologue, Dialogue and Multilogue”. Educational Studies, 51,
133-141.
Norashikin Mohamed Noor, Mohan K. Muniandy, Shashi Kumar Krishnan and
Emily JotheeMathai (2010). “Upper Primary Teachers’ Perception
of PSLE English Oral Assessment”. English Language Teaching, 3 (4),
142-151.
Oakley, B. and Hencken, C. (2005). “Oral examination assessment practices:
effectiveness and change with a first year undergraduate cohort”.
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education. 4(1), 314.
Owens, L.K. (2002). “Introduction to survey research design”. Seminar
Series.SRL Fall, (1-18).
Suseela Malakolunthu and Sim, K. H. (2010). “Teacher perspectives of schoolbased assessment in a secondary school in Kuala Lumpur”.Procedia
Social and Behavioural Sciences, 9, 1170-1176.
Zaitun Abdul Majid, Arshad Abd. Samad, Mazanah Muhamad and Malachi
Edwin Vethamani (2011). “The school-based oral english test:
similarities and differences in opinion between teachers and
students”. The English Teacher, 10, 113-128.
Zhendong, G. (2010). “Interaction in group oral assessment: A case study of
higher and lower scoring students”. Language Testing, 27 (4), 586602.
172
INAPPROPRIATENESS INDEX REVIEWED FROM
SCORING TECHNIQUES
Yuliatri Sastrawijaya1, Naro Prasetyo2
State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia1,2
ABSTRACT
A measurement in the field of education is usage to measure latent
trait that cannot be seen from the learner. The measurement of
learners’ latent traits can be done by providing stimulus in the form of
tests or questionnaires. The response of the learner is expected can
reflect the true latent trait, and then the result is given a score that can
be interpreted correctly. The reality on the ground, sometimes, the
score as a result does not provide correct information about the
students. It may be caused by individual or one by one student, this
inappropriateness is called the inappropriateness scores.
Inappropriateness score can be caused by carelessness or reckless,
anxious, guessing or any other. Inappropriateness index is expressed in
a number of ways, classical and modern. The classical approach is
simply and can be applied for the small sample. Sato modification
Harnisch and Linn method or SHL stated the appropriate pattern into a
caution index. It is a method to find the number of incorrect answers in
easy items, and the number of correct answers in the difficult one, the
answers from all students’ disparity results can be expressed by the
caution index. If the caution index more than 0.3, it means that the
pattern of the answers is not appropriate. One way to overcome the
irregularities are using scoring techniques such as penalty technique;
this technique will make students answer the test more carefully. The
purpose of this study is to see the effect of scoring techniques in
caution index. The research was conducted at the senior high school in
South Tangerang with a total of sample are 106 students. The
instrument used was the Test of English consists of 30 items. The
results of this study describe the group using conventional scoring
techniques get 13.5% students obtained aberrant patterns and the
group using penalty technique have 3.7% students obtained aberrant
patterns. The result of hypothesis test shows that penalty technique
affects the caution index.
Keywords:inappropriateness index,
conventional, guessing
caution
index,
penalty,
173
INTRODUCTION
A measurement in the field of education is to measure the latent trait
that does not appear from the learner. To measure the latent traits of the
learner is by providing stimulus in the form of tests or questionnaires. The
response of the learner is expected can reflect the true latent trait, and then
the response is given a score that can be interpreted correctly. The test is a
set of questions answered or statements that must be selected / taken, or
tasks that must be done by the examinee. Test according Cangelosi (1990:21)
is "the planned measurement used by evaluators trying to create the
opportunities for students to demonstrate their achievement in relation with
its intended purpose. "Mc Donald (1999: 55) argues the measure is the
provision of number based on the students’ responses with specific rules.
Naga (1992:435) states that the reality on the ground, sometimes,
the score as a result does not provide correct information about the
students. It may be caused by information that does not reach down to the
amount or dimension that will be measured. Or perhaps, the score is mixed
with the amount or other dimensions that are not intended to be measured
so that the score becomes ambiguous or there is inappropriate score. One
source that causes inappropriateness is individuals or one by one students,
this inequality is called the inappropriateness index. The real shape of
inappropriateness index is the students’ scores do not suit with the students’
ability, it can be obtained by the scores are lower than the ability or the
opposite. Inappropriateness students in answering test item can be caused
by carelessness or reckless, for example, someone can answer the difficult
item correctly, but otherwise cannot answer easy items. Inappropriateness
score can also occur due to the students’ anxious and worried feeling during
the test, so he or she cannot answer properly, which cause the scores
obtained under capacity. In other condition, may also occur, the learners who
have low ability can answer the test through a simply guess or conjecture,
but due to luck, the guessing can answer items correctly, and this affects
scores obtained at the top of his ability. It is necessary to detect
inappropriateness score, by comparing the results of easy answers to difficult
items.
Inappropriateness index is expressed in a number of ways, classical
and modern. The detection of modern approach using a large sample and
requires complex requirements, while the classical approach is simpler and
can be applied in the small sample. There are many methods to calculate the
inappropriate score in classically, one of them is Sato- Harnisch - Linn method
or SHL.
Caution index was first proposed in 1975 by Takahiro Sato, therefore,
is given the name of Sato Caution Index. Scales used in the calculation of Sato
174
caution index is Guttman scale. Guttman scale is a scale that assumes that if
students can answer the difficult items, meaning items that would easily be
answered with ease. Sato caution index focuses on two things: the index in
the index beyond the ability of the student and the student's ability. index in
the ability of students (within his / her ability index) was obtained from the
pattern of incorrect answers on the easy items and the index beyond the
capabilities (beyond his / her ability index) was obtained from the correct
answers on difficult points. Determination of the easy and difficult items is
strongly influenced by the ability of the group. Index of learners in one group
will be different from other groups who have different capabilities, although
the patterns of the same answer. Indices within and beyond ability is
determined by the total score of the students. In other words, the numbers
of students’ correct answers become the basic separation between hard and
easy items. If students are among the items that the students really easy or
difficult the item, the index precautionary Sato became a big heart even
more than one. Sato caution index gives the index limit at 0.5 as a sign that
the scores obtained by students are still in the acceptable limit, and be
careful if prudence index above 0.5 indicates that there is no reasonable
aberrant pattern in students' responses. The core of the Sato caution index is
to measure the extent to which patterns of students' answers according to
the student's ability to answer items on a test.
Formula untuk Indeks kehati-hatian Sato adalah:
ni .
c 
(1  u
j 1
ni
ij
.
n
j 1
.j
) n. j 


 j 
i. 


J
 u n
j
ni.1
J
n
j 1
J
.j
ij
.j






Note:
= Sato caution index
c
i
= 1,2,……I, indexes for students
j
= 1,2, …J, indexes for items
= 1 if student i answer item j correctly, 0 if student i answer item j
wrongly
.
= total correct score for student i, and
= total correct answer for item j
175
Limits of normality for the Sato caution index is 0.5. Students who
have Sato caution index greater than 0.5 indicate the pattern of students'
answers is inappropriateness so that teachers need to be careful in
interpreting the scores obtained by this student. Inappropriateness score
raises some questions, like: do students cheat?, do students guess the
answer?, are students concerned?, do students understand the language in
question?, and whether the student has a broad knowledge but not
interested in the lesson?. With the Sato’s caution index the detection of
inappropriateness can be done and can help a teacher find an exact solution
to make better learning process.
Sato caution index has the disadvantage that the results can be more
than 1. This will complicate the situation when measuring the irregularities
that occur. To overcome the weakness of the Sato caution index, Harnisch
and Linn (1981) and then modify the formula. Sato modification Harnisch and
Linn caution index (SHL) has a range of values between 0-1.
They claimed the appropriate scores into a caution index. SHL method
search the number of incorrect answers on the easy items, and the number
of correct answers in difficult items, and express their differences in the
caution index in the proportion of correct answers from all examinee.
Examinees who are carefully answer the question will answer easy items
correctly and difficult items wrongly. Among the easy items and difficult
items are given the line limit, behind the line the focus is the wrong answers
and above the line the focus is correct answer. Wrong answer under the line
and correct answer above the line is inappropriateness index. The further
away of the position from the line will increase the SHL caution index.
Here is a combination of answers pattern from 10 items (ordered
from easy to difficult) and the students all get score 6. If the participant is
carefully answered in the test, the line will be in sixth item, below the sixth
number is right and above the sixth number is wrong.
Table 1. Combination of Answer’s Pattern
Student
A
B
C
D
E
176
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
0
4
1
1
1
0
1
Item
5 6
1 1
1 0
0 1
1 1
1 1
7
0
1
0
0
0
8
0
0
1
0
0
9
0
0
0
1
0
Information
10
0 Careful
0
0
0 Less careful
1 Very less careful
To calculate the SHL caution index, Harnich and Linn used the
following formula (1981: 135)
ni .
(1  u
C
*
1

j 1
) n. j 
ij
ni .
n
j 1
.j

J
 u n
j
ij
ni.1
.j
J

j  J 1
n
.j
ni .
Note:
C
i
j
*
1
= Harnisch and Linn Sato caution index
= 1,2,……I, indexes for students
= 1,2, …J, indexes for item
= 1 if student i answer the item j correctly, 0 if student i answer
the item j
.
= total correct score for student i
= total correct answer for item j
Criteria if
0,3 means the pattern is not appropriate
Below is table 2 is a Student Problem Table to calculate the index of
prudence SHL. The horizontal line is the order of items from easy to difficult,
while the vertical line is the highest student score to lowest score.
Table 2. Student-Problem Table
177
Example:
The index of student 1
)
(
)
(
A= (
B=
=2
C=
= 28
D=
= 19
=
)
(
)
)
(
)
(
)
)
(
)
= 0.50
)
(
)
(
A= (
B=
=4
C=
= 23
D=
= 14
=
(
= 0.37
)
(
)
(
A= (
B=
=5
C=
= 28
D=
= 19
=
)
= 0.11
Harnisch (1983:198) makes four criteria, namely the ability of
learners
(1) A high score (50% of items answered correctly) and SHL caution index is
low (less than or equal to 0.3),
(2) B score high (50% of items answered correctly) and the index of
prudential caution SHL high (greater than 0.3),
(3) C score low (less than or equal to 50% of items answered correctly) and
SHL caution index is low (less than or equal to 0.3), and
(4) D score low (less than 50% of items answered correctly) and SHL caution
index is high (greater than 0.3).
To reduce the guessing habit, the penalty technique can be used,
below is the formula of penalty technique:
178
=∑
-
∑
Note:
∑
∑
n
= Students’ score
= Correct score
= Total score that an
= Total of answer choice
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study is to see a scoring technique which
produces a smaller proportion in detecting irregularities score. Research
done by providing two different treatment, such treatment is the technique
of scoring. A group was given conventional scoring techniques while group B
was given a penalty scoring techniques. The second group is working on the
same test B. England by 30 points. Scoring techniques are informed to the
students in writing, on the instructions of workmanship tests.
Accessible population of this study is science students from 2 high
school student in public school South Tangerang. The research sample
consisted of two classes taken at random by the number of students is 106.
Experiment design used in this study is the difference of two
proportions. Instruments used in this study are the English Test consists of 30
items with reliability of 0.72. Item about the use has been tested and
validated by the experts that have a value sufficient validity and reliability.
Data analysis is the analysis of test requirements and test for normality and
homogeneity test of the hypothesis test is continued difference of two
proportions.
Here is the formula of Sudjana (1999:246) to test the difference of
two proportions:
Z=
(
√
{(
) (
)
) (
)}
Note:
= total student in group A who has caution index more than 0.3
= total student in group B who has caution index more than 0.3
= total sample in group A
= total sample in group B
p = total proportion in
q =1–p
179
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results of this study are as follows as descriptive the group using
conventional scoring techniques as much as 13.5% obtained abnormal scores
whereas those who use the technique gained 3.7% scoring penalty score is
not fair. The result of hypothesis testing shows that penalty scoring
technique affects the caution index, with a significance level of 5%.
The analysis of the caution index can be used to examine the ability
of individual teachers who lead a reasonable person does not answer the
item. For highly capable learners and are considered not reasonable because
there are items that are not easily managed to answer, the teacher should
look at re-formulation of grain, there may be errors in the option or the
other. As for the children of low ability and is considered reasonable as it can
be difficult to correctly answer the item in general is caused by guessing.
Learners will do anything to guess, if there is a chance to guess, such as
scoring techniques used are conventional. For learners who are always
worried about the exam or test needs to follow-up to guidance counseling
teacher.
Penalty scoring technique is one technique that can be used to
prepare students to be careful to answer the test items. But this technique
does not apply in formal schools, the technique is widely used for its rigorous
selection admission tests such as public universities. This penalty is
appropriate techniques were attempted in formal schools, so that learners
obtained scores is reasonable according to his ability scores.
From the table 3,1. below, can be seen that a high score still has a
aberrant pattern. From the review of students' responses pattern of
conventional group, we can find that there are 7 students who have an SHL
caution index more than 0.3 SHL, There are student in no. 15, 18, 25, 30, 33,
51, 54. In penalty group there are two students who get caution index more
than 0.3, there are student no 50 and 51. Scores with high SHL caution index
show that there is a gap between student’s ability and his or her score. For
score with SHL caution index below 0.3 indicates the pattern from the answer
is still at the below of normal limit.
The values in column A is obtained from the total of the students’
wrong answers in all easy items. The values in column B are obtained from
the students’ correct answers from all difficult items. The values in column C
are derived from the total of students who answered item easily. Values in
column D are obtained from the total of students who answered difficult
items.
180
Table 3.1. The result of SHL caution index
for Conventional and Penalty technique
Conventional
Penalty
St.
Scr
A
B
C
D
SHL
St
scr
A
B
C
D
SHL
1
22
77
20
637
380
0.22179
1
24
90
21
762
514
0.278226
2
21
111
34
623
349
0.281022
2
22
71
26
739
430
0.145631
3
19
89
32
586
287
0.190635
3
21
55
25
723
392
0.090634
4
18
110
59
567
256
0.163987
4
20
64
28
707
356
0.102564
5
18
49
19
567
256
0.096463
5
20
88
44
707
356
0.125356
6
18
79
50
567
256
0.093248
6
19
79
44
688
320
0.095109
7
18
107
50
567
256
0.18328
7
19
76
41
688
320
0.095109
8
18
59
32
567
256
0.086817
8
19
110
51
688
320
0.160326
9
18
67
32
567
256
0.11254
9
19
27
19
688
320
0.021739
10
17
89
40
546
228
0.154088
10
18
140
67
665
287
0.193122
11
17
58
33
546
228
0.078616
11
18
129
67
665
287
0.164021
12
16
78
48
524
201
0.092879
12
17
85
50
640
255
0.090909
13
16
77
55
524
201
0.068111
13
17
53
37
640
255
0.041558
14
16
93
55
524
201
0.117647
14
17
59
44
640
255
0.038961
15
16
204
91
524
201
0.307065
15
17
101
57
640
255
0.114286
16
16
93
55
524
201
0.117647
16
17
105
67
640
255
0.098701
17
16
125
68
524
201
0.176471
17
17
59
44
640
255
0.038961
18
16
221
111
503
178
0.332326
18
17
91
67
640
255
0.062338
19
15
117
48
502
178
0.212963
19
16
64
41
615
227
0.059278
20
15
150
81
502
178
0.212963
20
16
61
48
615
227
0.033505
21
15
155
93
502
178
0.191358
21
16
96
51
615
227
0.115979
22
14
98
53
479
156
0.139319
22
16
69
48
615
227
0.054124
23
14
125
68
479
156
0.176471
23
16
96
51
615
227
0.115979
24
14
121
71
479
156
0.154799
24
16
69
48
615
227
0.054124
25
13
261
154
452
134
0.336478
25
16
91
62
615
227
0.074742
26
13
127
76
452
134
0.160377
26
16
141
51
615
227
0.231959
27
13
167
80
452
134
0.273585
27
16
123
62
615
227
0.157216
28
12
175
105
424
113
0.22508
28
15
143
84
588
199
0.151671
29
12
162
108
424
113
0.173633
29
15
149
74
588
199
0.192802
30
11
196
81
393
94
0.384615
30
15
97
75
588
199
0.056555
31
11
133
101
393
94
0.107023
31
15
60
44
588
199
0.041131
181
Conventional
Penalty
32
10
178
106
362
75
0.250871
32
15
124
67
588
199
0.14653
33
10
209
91
362
75
0.41115
33
14
136
75
560
172
0.157216
34
10
66
29
362
75
0.12892
34
14
112
78
560
172
0.087629
35
10
165
115
362
75
0.174216
35
14
69
30
560
172
0.100515
36
10
65
40
362
75
0.087108
36
14
64
34
560
172
0.07732
37
10
65
40
362
75
0.087108
37
13
205
95
532
147
0.285714
38
10
141
111
362
75
0.10453
38
13
89
28
532
147
0.158442
39
9
170
112
331
57
0.211679
39
13
286
119
532
147
0.433766
40
9
141
110
331
57
0.113139
40
13
159
92
532
147
0.174026
41
9
100
71
331
57
0.105839
41
12
205
89
500
122
0.306878
42
8
148
103
300
43
0.175097
42
11
127
76
452
120
0.160377
43
8
89
53
300
43
0.140078
43
11
156
95
467
99
0.165761
44
8
99
42
300
43
0.22179
44
11
199
123
467
99
0.206522
45
8
101
94
300
43
0.027237
45
11
134
60
467
99
0.201087
46
8
65
48
300
43
0.066148
46
11
122
41
467
99
0.220109
47
7
191
133
268
31
0.244726
47
10
164
95
431
80
0.196581
48
7
67
62
268
31
0.021097
48
10
83
63
431
80
0.05698
49
7
141
87
268
31
0.227848
49
10
169
100
431
80
0.196581
50
7
108
84
268
31
0.101266
50
9
221
111
395
64
0.332326
51
7
215
140
268
31
0.316456
51
9
219
108
395
64
0.335347
52
7
110
93
268
31
0.07173
52
7
179
124
316
36
0.196429
53
5
36
31
201
13
0.026596
54
3
77
29
130
4
0.380952
From the results of this research, we can conclude that the scoring
with penalty manner is better than conventional manner and a test with four
answer choices is better than the test with five answer choices.
This research is done to find the usefulness of SHL caution index.
Students’ ability is really abstract; therefore we propose this index to be used
by teacher. This index can identify the weakness of the students. The
information from the index can show the matching between the materials
which students learn with the test. When teacher can know the discrepancy
between the learning process and the result then teacher can find the exact
key to make learning process better. Without using SHL caution index, need
much time and much money to can solve the problem in teaching learning
process. We really hope that this research can encourage or inspiring another
182
researcher to investigate evaluation in education which can make the people
around the world live sufficiency.
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Cronbach, Lee J. (1984). Essential of Psychology Testing. New York: Harper
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D'Costa, Aryes. (1993). Estending the Sato Caution Indes To Define the Within
and Beyond Ability Caution Indexes. Atlanta: Paper Presented at the
Annual Meeting of the National Council for Measurement in
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Harnisch, Delwyn L. (1983). Item Response Pattern: Application for
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Harnisch, Delwyn L. dan Robert L. Linn. (1981). Identification of Abbarent
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Murphy, Kevin R. dan Charles O. Devidshofer. (1995). Psychological Testing,
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184
DESIGNING A USEFUL GRAMMAR TEST
AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL
Abid
State University of Gorontalo, Gorontalo, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Testing and assessment are two significant parts of teaching practices
in the sense that they can assist teachers, in particular, to decide
on and design future teaching improvements where necessary, and
help students view their study progress. Yet, designing an
innovative and practical test is considered a laborious work. It requires
a number of procedures prior to administering the actual test, such
as careful test design, trial, evaluation and revision. To illustrate the
procedures, this paper presents a proto test for grammar and discusses
its process which includes the test design, the trial, the discussion
of the results, and the revisions. Designing such grammar test is
believed to contribute a significant role in language teaching, especially
for the intended students in the department of primary school teacher
education in Gorontalo. Tomlinson (2005) argues that a useful
grammar test should provide an opportunity for students to reflect
on the knowledge they have learnt and to recognise whether or not
they are able to use the knowledge for communicative purposes.
Therefore, this test is expected to enable the intended students to
reflect on their learning progress and to predict how they can deal with
teaching English in primary schools in the future. In sum, this progress
test measures a range of grammatical features, such as S-V agreement,
prepositions and interrogatives. It consists of four parts, ranging from
selected response tasks to extended-production tasks. Part one and
three test the students’ grammatical knowledge through discourse
activity completion and errors identification, whereas part two and
four require the students to demonstrate their grammatical ability
through writing. The selection of these four parts or tasks is due to
the fact that the students may teach English to primary school
students in the future. Thus, having good understanding on
grammatical knowledge and ability is essential in order to meet their
prospective primary school students’ needs
Keywords: grammatical knowledge, grammatical ability
185
INTRODUCTION
Testing and assessment are two significant parts of teaching
practices in the sense that they can assist teachers, in particular, to decide
on and design future teaching improvements where necessary, and help
students view their study progress. Good tests can help to measure test
takers’ language ability, show evidences of learners’ achievement toward
the objectives of a course, point out their strengths and weaknesses as well
as set a beneficial backwash for teaching and learning. It is after such testing
that important decisions related to test takers are made. Due to the
emphasis on language skills for communication over the formal linguistic
system in language teaching and learning, language testing has paid
much attention to students’ performance not only in the four skills, but also
grammatical structures.
However, designing an effective and a useful test is considered a
laborious work. It requires a number of procedures prior to administering
the actual test, such as careful test design, trial, evaluation and revision. To
illustrate the procedures, this paper presents a proto test for grammar and
discusses its process which includes the test design, the trial, the discussion
of the results, and the revisions. In this article, I am going to present a test of
grammar for students at a non-English Department at my workplace (a
university in Gorontalo). Following it are the trialling on a group of 10
students with similar characteristics and a discussion of some criteria related
to testing theories.
Stage 1 A Proto Test for Grammar
Learning context
This test is designed for non-English major university students who
are enrolled in General English (GE) 1, a prerequisite for General English 2
unit, in Indonesia. The majority of them are 17-18 years old and have
studied English as a non-major subject for six years. The level of English
proficiency that these students have achieved is pre-intermediate level.
Yet, the content of syllabus of this level is slightly different from those in
pre-intermediate level books which are mainly used in English institution
overseas. The syllabus of this unit covers limited areas of grammar, such as
simple present tense, preposition of places, singular/plural, and present
progressive in the first half of the semester, whereas simple past tense is
taught later in the second semester. This GE 1 unit is delivered using a
structural syllabus and the handbook that that the teachers use is mostly
created materials.
186
The purpose of the test
This is a progress test, namely the mid-term examination, which is
formally intended to measure the students’ grammatical ability. The
reason for testing the grammatical ability is based on the fact that the
students may teach English as a foreign language in primary schools.
Thus, designing a test that measures this ability (e.g. through writing)
enables the students to reflect on their learning progress and to predict
how they can deal with teaching English in primary schools in the future.
This test has considerable weight (30%) in the assessment of the
unit, which indicates that it possesses a high- stake criterion and, thereby,
contributes significantly to whether the students can pass this GE 1 unit or
not. It is also utilised as a tool to examine whether or not the objectives of
this course have been successfully achieved. In addition, administering the
test enables the teachers to identify areas of grammar that need to be
retaught which can bring beneficial backwash in the future.
Test features
In sum, this progress test measures a range of grammatical features,
such as S-V agreement, prepositions and interrogatives. It consists of four
parts, ranging from selected response tasks to extended-production tasks.
Part one and three test the students’ grammatical knowledge through
discourse activity completion and errors identification, whereas part two
and four require the students to demonstrate their grammatical ability
through writing.
The selection of these four parts or tasks is due to the fact that the
students may teach English to primary school students in the future. Thus,
having good understanding on grammatical knowledge and ability is
essential in order to meet their prospective primary school students’ needs.
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) suggest that sufficient
understanding in grammar assists teachers to be prepared to meet their
students’ learning expectations. Therefore, accuracy and communicative
purposes which are highlighted in this test are considered significant. CelceMurcia (1991) claims that if a student’s purpose of learning grammar is to
function as an academic, accuracy is essential. Accordingly, Purpura
(2004) argues that grammar should not only be viewed as a single
object in teaching, but as an integral part of communicative ability.
Marking cheme
Regarding the scoring, a partial-credit scoring is used. To pass this
test, the students must achieve 50% of the overall score. The overall score
for this test is 40 marks. There is one important thing to point out
187
about the scoring. In part four (writing), task fulfilment is included as
one of the features assessed. The reason for including task fulfilment
is to measure the students’ ability to express ideas into a writing task. It is
not intended to test the students’ writing skills, but to test how they can
produce a text as a means of communication using the grammar that they
have learnt.
The ability to express ideas is part of the grammatical ability that the
students need to possess. Purpura (2004) suggests that when learning
grammar, it is necessary to ensure that the students can eventually
express their ideas in the target language. Thus, the ability to convey
messages through writing is highly appreciated. In sum, if all of the features
can be found in the students’ writing and are all grammatically correct, 10
marks is awarded for part two and 15 marks for part four.
For part one of this test, the students get 0.5 mark for each correct
answer and 0 mark for an incorrect answer. Similarly, in part three, both a
correct answer and a correct revision are awarded with 1 mark, whereas an
incorrect answer and a wrong revision are given 0 mark. In these two parts,
accuracy is highly appreciated in order to measure the students’
grammatical knowledge.
In part two and four, the scoring is determined by a number of features.
First, for part 2, the students are tested on the use of simple present tense
which includes the following features:
1. Subject-verb agreement with be and auxiliary verbs (2 marks)
2. Possessive adjective (1 mark)
3. Preposition of place/time (1 mark)
4. Negation (1 mark)
5. Sentence connectors ( 1 mark)
6. Task fulfilment (4 marks)
For part four, the students are scored for the use of present progressive
form which includes the below features:
1. Subject verb agreement (2 marks)
2. Non-referential there (2 marks)
3. Preposition of place (1 mark)
4. Negation (1 mark)
5. Sentence connectors (1 mark)
6. Task fulfilment (8 marks)
Test features
This test reflects communicativeness, innovativeness and
potential beneficial backwash. First, communicativeness lies in each part of
the test. The reason is that the students are presented with input that they
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have to process, for example describing routines (part two) and classroom
activities (part four). This input encourages the students to manage their
grammatical knowledge and to use it appropriately. In other words, the
students are tested for their productive ability, not only their grammar
recognition. Since the audience (the primary school students and the
principal) of this test is identifiable, the students can address their responses
meaningfully. A clear relationship between input and response, according to
Purpura (2004), accounts for a communicative test design.
Second, the common type of GE 1 test in this institution only
measures the students’ grammatical knowledge, such as through multiple
choice items and gap filling. Conversely, this test measures both the
students’ grammatical knowledge (as evidenced in part one and three)
and ability (as shown in part two and four). Thus, this test is considered
innovative since it is the pioneer of the grammar test in this institution
which enables the students to demonstrate both the grammatical
knowledge and ability. Third, the potential backwash of this test is
primarily associated with the communicative value that the students can
grasp and the practice of examining a piece of a student’s written work (in
part 3), as well as a clear correspondence between the grammatical features
areas measured in the test and grammatical features covered in the syllabus.
The theoretical rationale
It has been acknowledged that testing grammatical ability plays a
significant role in language teaching. Hughes (2003) claims that since
grammar serves as ‘the core of language ability’, its testing determines to
what extent skills performance can be achieved. In fact, Tomlinson (2005)
argues that a useful grammar test should provide an opportunity for
students to reflect on the knowledge they have learnt and to recognise
whether or not they are able to use the knowledge for communicative
purposes. Similarly, Purpura (2004) claims that ‘ the goal of every
grammar test is to obtain and provide information on how well a student
knows or can use grammar to convey meaning in some situation where the
target language is used’. Therefore, the design of this test is believed to be
significant and useful, particularly for the intended students in the
department of primary school teacher education in Indonesia.
Stage 2 The Test Trial, The Results, and The Discussion
Test trial and the results
This test was trialled to ten students from the intended institution
(Department of Primary School Teacher Education) in Gorontalo. These
students were selected randomly out of thirty students in one class. They
189
took the test in a classroom setting within the allocated time (sixty minutes).
Yet, not all students were able to complete all parts of the test. For example,
as it is seen in figure 1 below, there are two students who dismally fail
to complete part four (writing). Similarly, some other students cannot
satisfactorily identify the ten errors in part three. Further discussion of the
results are presented below.
Figure 1. Distribution of the test candidates’ scores
Part One (Gap filling)
The distribution of scores in this part ranges from 1 to 4.5 on the
scale of 5 marks. There are 50% of the students who score 2.5 or above,
while the remaining 50% score lower. The common errors associated with
the students’ answers are the students’ inability to make interrogatives. For
instance, some students do not use auxiliary verbs, such as does and do, to
fill the blanks number four, six and eight. In addition, some of them write
affirmative sentences to fill out the blank number 7 with, for example, He
high and He is high. What they are expected to write is Is he taller.
Part Two (Writing)
All of the students score relatively above the average level in this
part, ranging from 5 to 9 on the scale of 10 marks. In other words, the
students are able to pass this particular part. Yet, a number of grammatical
errors that they produce are identified, such as S-V agreement (e.g. ...
because I has something trouble in my eyes), plural (e.g. I have two brother
and two sister) and infinitive (e.g. I always to clean my home with family).
These errors are not penalised, considering that testing the students’
grammatical ability is one of the major purposes of this part.
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Part Three (Errors identification)
In this part, most of the students score lower than 50%
which means that they are unsuccessful to pass this test. There are only
one student who obtain 5 marks out of 10, one student scores 4, one
student scores 3.5, two students score 2, two students score 1, and the
remaining 3 students receive 0 mark. Many of these students are not able to
identify the errors and to provide accurate corrections.
Part Four (Writing)
The scores that the students achieve in this part are low. All of the
students score lower than the average level 7.5 marks on the scale of 15
marks. Most of them fail to demonstrate their ability in using the present
progressive correctly. Instead, they prefer describing the picture using
simple present tense which is definitely not the major part of the features
assessed.
In sum, as it is shown in figure 2, there are only four students (A, B,
H, I) who succeed to pass this test. Student A and B score 50%, whereas H
and I are able to achieve higher scores than the others (approximately 60%).
On the other hand, six students (C, D, E, F, G, J) fail to pass this test. The
scores of students C, F, G, J hover at around 40 %, while the scores of
students D and E fall by approximately 20%.
Figure 2. The Students Score Result
191
DISCUSSION THE TEST DESIGN
Merits of The Test Design
The overall percentage of scores as presented in figure 2 above
indicates that this progress test can group the test candidates into the
strong and the weak students. This grouping is significant for both the
students and the teachers of the institution where this test was
administered. Pan (2009) suggests that a useful test should be able to
affect both the test takers and the professionals who administer the test.
He maintains that if the test cannot provide important consequences, the
test lacks of positive backwash.
Backwash, according to Hughes (2003, p.1), is ‘the effect of testing
on teaching and learning’. He argues that backwash can be harmful or
beneficial. It is harmful, Hughes maintains, if the content of the test and its
techniques are different with the objectives of the course. For example,
students are attending an English course that is meant to train them in the
language skills (including writing) for studying in a university in an English
speaking country, but the test delivered at the end of the course only
substantially contain multiple choice items which, of course, denies the
practice of writing skill. However, Hughes also claims that backwash can
be potentially positive. An example of this, Hughes states, would be a test in
an English institution where Hughes was once involved. This test had a direct
impact on the institution in which the syllabus was redesigned and the
classes were conducted in different ways.
Reflecting on the overall scores that the students obtain, it is
believed that this test has a potential backwash, i.e. encouraging the
unsuccessful test candidates to review their learning progress. Those
students who obtain unsatisfactory results need to review their
learning. Some of them do relatively well in part two in the sense that they
can apply the grammatical knowledge they have studied in order to
communicate (regardless of some minor errors they made). Yet, they still
cannot perform better in part one and three. In fact, there are three
students who receive no mark for part three.
This test results also need to be taken into consideration by the
teachers. The fact that many of the students fail to demonstrate their
understanding on the use of present progressive, making interrogative and
identifying grammatical errors call for future teaching improvements. Bailey
(1996) (cited in Pan, 2009) posits that to overcome such failure, teachers
may assist students to be prepared for high stake test by engaging the
students into relevant activities during the class, such as job interview and
analysing errors from students’ samples of writing.
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Another merit of this test is associated with its communicativeness.
This test is designed to meet one of the objectives of the syllabus, i.e. to
enable the students to apply the grammatical knowledge in the context of
communication. Thus, topical tasks are selected as part of the test. Since
the students are prospective teachers of English, it is helpful and important
to provide them with a test that measures their grammatical knowledge
and ability. Although not all part of the test can be considered
communicative, the students still have the opportunity to communicate
their ideas in part two, three and four towards the perceived audience (the
principal and the students of a primary school). In part two and four, they
struggle to apply the grammatical knowledge they have studied to express
their ideas, while in part three they pretend as if they are correcting their
future primary school students’ writing. Yet, it is inevitably true that most of
the candidates do part three and four unsatisfactorily.
Defects of The Test Design
It is essential to point out the defects of this test for future test
design improvements. First, in part one, there is one of the students who fill
the blank number five with your brother’s. This student’s answer is correct
although the answer key actually suggests that the students should fill the
blank with his. The student writes his answer due to the fact the previous
sentence in the dialog might affect his choice of answer, as it is seen in the
excerpt below.
S
: Yes, I do. I have one brother. I don’t have any sisters.
T
: What is .... (5) name?
Second, the response for blank number seven is also misleading.
One of the students filled this blank with Is he shorter which is
grammatically correct, but semantically incorrect (the correct answer is Is he
taller). Third, as it is shown in figure 2, part four provides the students with a
more strenuous work. All of them fail to complete this part. Yet, their ability
to convey messages is still taken into consideration. What is considered
crucial to point out here is that the test direction in this part causes some
students to simply write what they see in the picture. They begin their
writing with, for example, At the picture... . What they are actually expected
to do is to describe the situation to the imagined principal. In other words,
they are expected to communicate their ideas through written medium of
communication.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
For a better and a more effective test design in the future, this
progress test calls for some improvements. For part one, it is helpful for the
students to provide them with a response or a prompt that does not reflect
ambiguity. For part four, the test direction needs to be adjusted. By doing
it, the students know they are not simply expected to explain what they see
in the picture, but they are required to communicate the situation in the
classroom with their imagined principal. Also, it is necessary to put a mark in
each part of the test to help the students predict to what extent their works
are successful.
Stage 3 Test Revision
There are some areas in this test that need to be revised according
to the recommendations. First, in part one, to avoid the ambiguity of answer
for the blank number five, or sisters? and I don’t have any sisters are crossed
out (see the except below). Thus, his is much more appropriate to complete
this blank.
You: ................(4) any brothers or sisters?
S : Yes, I do. I have one brother. I don’t have any sisters.
You: What is ...... (5) name?
Second, the response for the blank number seven Yes, I am shorter
than he is also has to be changed. To enable the students to fill the blank
with the most correct answer, Yes, he is taller than I am is selected. Third, it
is also significant to adjust the test direction in part four, so that the
students can address their writing appropriately and meaningfully. The
revised version of this direction is
Your principal is coming to your class to see how things are going.
The picture below represents your classroom setting. Look at it
carefully and describe what you see in at least 50 words to your
principal.
In addition, to help the students recognise to what extent their
answers are correct, each part of this test is given a mark
Conclusion
Admittedly, designing a test requires strenuous efforts. It
involves some careful and thoughtful procedures to ensure that the test
can be useful and appropriately measures what it is intended to measure.
This proto test, regardless of its defects, is believed to provide the test
candidates with a reflection of their learning progress. In addition, it also
194
allows the teacher to examine whether or not the teaching process is
successful. Although the majority of the test candidates fail to pass this test,
the perceived innovative and communicative test have already been
introduced to the institution. It is expected that this test can provide
positive backwash for all related parties in the institution for a better testing
and assessment in the future.
REFERENCES
Bailey, K. M. (1996). Working for washback: A review of the washback
concept in language testing. Language Testing, 13(3), 257-279.
Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The copula and subjectverb agreement (Ch. 4). In The grammar book: an ESL/EFL
teacher’s course, pp. 53-77. Heinle & Heinle.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Grammar pedagogy in second and foreign language
teaching. Tesol Quarterly, 25(3), pp. 459-480.
Hughes,
A. (2003). Testing for Language
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Teachers.
2nd
Ed.
Pan, Y.C. (2009). Do test always work? International Journal of
Educational & Psychological Assessment, 2, pp. 74-88.
Purpura, J. E. (2004). Differing notions of ‘grammar’ for assessment (Ch. 1).
In assessing grammar (pp. 1-23). Cambridge: University Press
Tomlinson, B. (2005). Testing to learn: a personal view of language
testing. ELT Journal, 59(1), pp. 39-46.
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Appendix 1 Test Paper
Mid-term Examination
General English 1
Date : November 2010
Time : 60 minutes
Instructions
1. This test consists of four parts, i.e. Part 1, 2, 3 and 4. Read all the
directions in each part before you begin.
2. Write all the answers in the answer sheet.
3. The use of dictionary and or any other books are not permitted.
Part 1
You should spend about 10 minutes on this part
Directions: This is the first day of your teaching practice in a primary school.
You are in a classroom and are talking to one of your students. Fill in the
blanks below to complete the dialog. Write no more than three words.
You
: Hi, ........ (1) name?
Student (S): Hi, I am Lisa.
You
: It’s a nice name, Lisa. ........ (2) you?
S
: I am 10 years old.
You
: .............(3) live?
S
: I live in Limboto.
You
: ................(4) any brothers or sisters?
S
: Yes, I do. I have one brother. I don’t have any sisters.
You
: What is ...... (5) name?
S
: His name is Randi.
You
: .......... (6) look like?
S
: He has brown hair and a sharp nose.
You
: .......... (7) than you?
S
: Yes, I am shorter than he is.
You
: ........... (8) like to do?
S
: He likes to swim and play basketball.
You
: ......... (9) swimming and playing basketball, too?
S
: No, I don’t.
You
: So, what is ..... (10) hobby?
S
: My hobby is reading comics.
You
: Well, nice to meet you, Lisa.
S
: Nice to meet you, too.
196
Part 2
Directions: The topic that you are going to discuss on your first meeting is
‘Introducing yourself’. Before you begin, you show the students how to do it
by describing yourself in at least 50 words. In your paragraph, include what
you like and do not like to do on weekends and anything else about
yourself.
Part 3
Directions: You are now checking an assignment from one of the groups of
students. Below is their writing, but there are ten errors. Your task is to
identify the errors and to suggest the correct forms.
Kuta Beach
Kuta beach is at Bali. It is very popular. Many people visit this beach
every holiday, for example on June and Desember. It have white sand and
beautiful view.
Kuta beach is more good than Bumbulan beach in Gorontalo because it does
not far from the airport. Also Kuta beach has the more beautiful sunset.
People come to this beach to see the sunset at the evening.
In Kuta beach, there is many trees. Also, many people sells things and foods.
You can to spend your holiday in this beach with your family.
Part 4
Directions: Your principal is coming to your class to see how things are going
and you are describing the situation of your classroom. This picture below
represents your classroom setting. Look at it carefully and describe what you
see in at least 50 words.
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Appendix 2
Answer key
Part One
1. What is your
2. How old are
3. Where do you
4. Do you have
5. His
6. What does he
7. Is he taller
8. What does he
9. Do you like
10. Your
Part Two
Sample of writing
Hi, my name is Abid. I am 27 years old. I live in Pulubala. I have two
brothers, but I do not have any sisters. I like playing volleyball. I usually
play volleyball with my friends on Saturday. After playing volleyball, my
friends and I sometimes go to a restaurant and have dinner together. On
Sunday, I seldom go out. I wash my car, then I watch TV in my bedroom.
Part Three
Error
1. At Kuta beach
2. On June
3. It has
4. More good
5. It does not far
6. The more beautiful
7. At the evening
8. There is many trees
9. Many people sells
10. You can to spend
Correction
In Kuta beach
In June
It have
Better
It is not far
The most beautiful
In the evening
There are many trees
Many people sell
You can spend
Part Four
Sample of writing
This is my classroom. It is not big. There are only fifteen students in this
classroom. They are all female. They are sitting in groups. Now, they are
doing their assignments, but some of them are not doing the assignments
seriously. They are talking and laughing. On the wall, there are many
colourful images. Some of the images are units list and class schedule.
198
Appendix 5 The revised test version
Mid-term Examination
General English 1
Date :
November 2010
Time : 60 minutes
Instructions
1. This test consists of four parts, i.e. Part 1, 2, 3 and 4. Read all the directions
in each part before you begin.
2. Write all the answers in the answer sheet.
3. The use of dictionary and or any other books are not permitted.
Part 1
Directions: This is the first day of your teaching practice in a primary
school. You are in a classroom and are talking to one of your students.
Fill in the blanks below to complete the dialog. Write no more than three
words. (5 marks)
You
: Hi, ........ (1) name?
Student (S): Hi, I am Lisa.
You
: It’s a nice name, Lisa. ........ (2) you?
S
: I am 10 years old.
You
: .............(3) live?
S
: I live in Limboto.
You
: ................(4) any brothers?
S
: Yes, I do. I have one brother.
You
: What is ...... (5) name?
S
: His name is Randi.
You
: .......... (6) look like?
S
: He has brown hair and a sharp nose.
You
: .......... (7) than you?
S
: Yes, he is taller than I am.
You
: ........... (8) like to do?
S
: He likes to swim and play basketball.
You
: ......... (9) swimming and playing basketball, too?
S
: No, I don’t.
You
: So, what is ..... (10) hobby?
S
: My hobby is reading comics.
You
: Well, nice to meet you, Lisa.
S
: Nice to meet you, too.
199
Part 2
Directions: The topic that you are going to discuss on your first meeting is
‘Introducing yourself’. Before you begin, you show the students how to do
it by describing yourself in at least 50 words. In your paragraph, include
what you like and do not like to do on weekends and anything else about
yourself. (10 marks)
Part 3
Directions: You are now checking an assignment from one of the groups
of students. Below is their writing, but there are ten errors. Your task is to
identify the errors and to suggest the correct forms. (10 marks)
Kuta Beach
Kuta beach is at Bali. It is very popular. Many people visit this beach
every holiday, for example on June and Desember. It have white sand and
beautiful view.
Kuta beach is more good than Bumbulan beach in Gorontalo because it
does not far from the airport. Also Kuta beach has the more beautiful
sunset. People come to this beach to see the sunset at the evening.
In Kuta beach, there is many trees. Also, many people sells things and
foods. You can to spend your holiday in this beach with your family.
Part 4
Directions: Your principal is coming to your class to see how things are
going. The picture below represents your classroom setting. Look at it
carefully and describe what you see in at least 50 words to your principal.
(15 marks).
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KEMAHIRAN PEMBELAJARAN ABAD KE 21:
TEKNIK PEMBELAJARAN BERPENYERTAAN
Mohd. Nazri1, Abdul Rahman2,
Norlidah Binti Alias3, Saedah Binti Siraj4
Faculty of Education, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1,2,3,4
ABSTRAK
Modal insan adalah harta yang boleh disuntik nilai tambahnya,
diinjak nilai inteleknya serta diperbanyak modal budayanya”
[Standard Guru Malaysia, 2009. Maka, penggunaan kaedah dan
teknik yang pelbagai akan menjadikan sesuatu pengajaran itu
menarik dan seterusnya meningkatkan kemahiran pelajar dalam
mengaplikasikan apa yang dipelajari dalam bilik darjah ke dalam
kehidupan seharian. Kertas kerja ini memaparkan kupasan
kepentingan guru meningkatkan Kemahiran Pembelajaran Abad ke21 dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran menggunakan pendekatan
Pembelajaran Melalui Pengalaman. Seterusnya mengetengahkan
projek inovasi yang telah memenangi Anugerah Emas Inovasi
Pedagogi Kebangsaan serta implikasinya terhadap pengajaran dan
pembelajaran. Ini merupakan contoh perlaksanaan Teknik
Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan: Pembelajaran Melalui Pengalaman
yang telah diaplikasikan dalam bilik darjah iaitu 3H Hand-On;
Hearts-On and Head-On. Kertas kerja ini merupakan satu refleksi
tindakan penambahbaikkan yang dilakukan dari semasa ke semasa
untuk memantapkan kualiti pengajaran dan pembelajaran oleh guru
melalui kreativiti dan inovasi guru khususnya kepada guru pelatih
yang dalam latihan keguruan.
Kata Kunci: pendidikan guru, inovasi pendidikan, model pengajaran
PENGENALAN
Tinjauan Literatur
“Bacalah wahai Muhammad dengan nama Tuhanmu yang
menciptakan”. Al-Quran, Al-Alaq 96:1. Wahyu pertama yang diturunkan
kepada junjungan besar Nabi Muhammad SAW ini jelas menggesa setiap
201
umat untuk menuntut ilmu. Justeru pendidikan berperanan penting sebagai
pemangkin bagi melahirkan umat yang terpilih al-Khiar dan adil ibn Kathir
1991; Muhammad Said 1989; Al-Sabuni 1981; Tafsir Pimpinan Ar-Rahman
1992 mempunyai keseimbangan Abdullah Yusuf 1938; umat yang mempunyai
ketrampilan yang disertai dengan akhlak mulia, keseimbangan antara jasmani
dan rohani serta meliputi soal-soal dunia dan akhirat Hamidi Ishak 2011.
Menurut Atan Long 1984, pendidikan adalah salah satu proses
pemasyarakatan. Ini memberi konotasi bahawa pendidikan merupakan
wadah melanjutkan kebijaksanaan yang diwarisi sejak zaman berzaman
kepada generasi baru sambil membentuk generasi itu untuk menghadapi
cabaran-cabaran masa hadapan.
Dalam era globalisasi, sesebuah sistem pendidikan berkualiti mampu
melahirkan tenaga kerja yang boleh menjadi pemain global dengan
menampilkan ciri keperibadian yang unggul seperti berpengetahuan tinggi,
kental jati diri, inovatif, keaslian idea Nazrin 2004, Mohd Nazri, 2010
berkemahiran, berdaya saing, kreatif dan berkemampuan untuk menangani
cabaran gelombang dunia tanpa sempadan Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
2001. Justeru dalam abad ke 21 ini, pembangunan tenaga manusia
seharusnya dapat memenuhi keperluan semasa yang berada dalam situasi
yang mencabar iaitu pembinaan insan yang seimbang dari segi Jasmani,
emosi, rohani dan intelek selaras dengan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan.
Maka, bagi merealisasikan agenda pembangunan pendidikan ini, institusi
pendidikan memerlukan tenaga guru yang berkualiti dan kompeten. Guru
seharusnya menguasai pelbagai kemahiran dalam amalan pedagoginya dan
keutamaan adalah ‘the what’ atau apakah kandungan atau isi pengajaran dan
‘the how’ atau bagaimanakah melaksanakan proses pengajarannya Razali
Ismail 2004.
Kecemerlangan pendidikan sesebuah negara sangat bergantung
kepada kualiti guru yang menerima latihan dan mengamalkannya dalam bilik
darjah. Faktor guru sangat dominan untuk menjayakan misi dan matlamat
Falsafah Pendidikan Negara Di samping faktor insfrastruktur yang baik dan
peralatan bertaraf antarabangsa Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia 2000.
Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam abad ke 21 ini perlulah berubah
dari bercorak tradisional, yang memberi penekanan kepada aktiviti latih tubi,
hafalan, ‘chalk and talk’ Bennet & George, 2004; Becker & Watts, 2001;
Benzing & Chirst, 1997; Siegfried J.J, Saunders P., Stinar E. & Zang H. 1996;
Mc Nally 1973 kepada bentuk pengajaran yang bersifat latih amal dan
pembelajaran melalui pengalaman Brunner 1966. Peranan guru yang efektif
antara lain digambarkan sebagai individu yang berupaya menganalisis
keperluan pelajar untuk mengoptimumkan tahap intelektual yang optima
serta memperkembang dan menstabilkan kemahiran sosial dan emosi Mc
202
Nally 1973. Di samping itu juga penggunaan teknik ‘chalk and talk’ dan ‘test
and drill’ secara berlebihan telah dibuktikan menjadi punca pelajar bosan dan
‘burn-out’ Lea, 2003; Sam, 2004.
Pelan Induk Pembangunan Pendidikan 2006-2010 turut menekankan
kepentingan guru untuk melaksanakan inovasi dalam pengajaran dan
pembelajaran selain kesediaan menghadapi perubahan-perubahan
kemahiran pedagogi abad ke 21 dalam mewujudkan pendidikan bertaraf
dunia Nik Azis 1999. Robiah Sidin 2007 menyarankan aplikasi kepelbagaian
kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi menghasilkan pelajar yang
berminda kritikal, maka pengajaran dan pembelajaran perlu menjangkau di
luar silibus supaya pelajar memberikan idea dan memperoleh pengetahuan
selain daripada buku teks. Guru juga berperanan memadankan bahan bantu
mengajar serta aktiviti-aktiviti dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran
yang dapat membantu usaha mencapai hasil pembelajaran Mohd Nazri dan
Salina 2011; Moreno, 2008; Cole dan Chan 1994.
Selain membantu pelajar untuk belajar, guru perlu meningkatkan
kemahiran mereka sendiri. Dalam erti kata lain, guru mesti berbekalkan ilmu,
kemahiran, kecekapan serta nilai supaya berupaya mengaplikasikan
pendekatan pengajaran yang terkini Mohd Nazri 2011; Juriah, Nik Rahimi,
Raja Mohd Fauzi & Siti Fatimah 2001. Kesediaan dan kemampuan guru untuk
melaksanakan perubahan kurikulum serta perubahan dalam strategi
pengajaran memungkinkan fungsi guru sebagai penyampai maklumat
daripada buku kepada pelajar Salemi & Siegfried, 1999 telah mula lenyap
kerana guru kini diperlihatkan sebagai fasilitator dalam proses pengajaran
iaitu berperanan sebagai ‘constructivist leader’ yang inovatif dan kreatif serta
bertanggungjawab untuk memupuk nilai, norma, menguasai ilmu serta
mempunyai cara penyampaian yang baik serta berupaya mengintergrasikan
kemahiran teknologi maklumat dalam proses pengajaran Norlidah & Saedah
2010; Arniza 2001; Ibrahim Saad 1992; Mohd Nazri & Salina, 2011.
Maka, dalam latihan perguruan yang diikuti oleh kebanyakan guru
baik di Institut Pendidikan Tinggi Awam IPTA mahupun Institut Pendidikan
Guru Malaysia IPGM mereka perlu didedahkan dengan pelbagai pengetahuan
dan kemahiran berkaitan pengajaran dan pembelajaran supaya kualiti kualiti
guru yang dihasilkan terjamin. Antara intipati utama dalam latihan keguruan
adalah amalan nilai profesionalisme keguruan, pengetahuan dan kefahaman
pedagogi serta kemahiran pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Pengetahuan
pedagogi merupakan pengetahuan yang kompleks yang meliputi
pengetahuan isi kandungan, kepercayaan dan kemahiran pedagogi iaitu
pendekatan menyampaikan pengetahuan isi kandungan dengan berkesan
Shulman, 1987.
203
Walaupun begitu, kajian-kajian yang pernah dilakukan terhadap
artribut guru Teacher Artribute terhadap amalan pengajaran dan
pembelajaran guru dalam bilik darjah mendapati guru kurang memahami dan
mengaplikasikannya Hamedi Ishak, 2011; Abdul Said Ambotang, 2011; Suria
Baba, 2007; Eric Hanushek, 1971 sehingga mempengaruhi pencapaian
akademik, penguasaan bahasa, kesalahan struktur ayat, kelemahan dalam
penulisan dan sebagainya dalam kalangan pelajarnya Sharul Arba’iah, 2007;
Abdullah Yusuf & Che Rabiah, 2004; Liana Gan, 1997; Mohd Hanafi, 2005.
Maka, keperluan paling utama bagi memastikan pengajaran dan
pembelajaran guru dapat berjalan dengan sempurna adalah proses
transformasi ilmu kepada pelajar yang bersesuaian dengan tugas guru iaitu
memudahkan pembelajaran pelajarnya Salina Liew Fui Byn & Mohd Nazri
2007. Sesungguhnya pembelajaran yang bermakna seharusnya mengarap
tiga domain utama iaitu kognitif akal, psikomotor fizikal serta afektif jiwa
Mohd Nazri 2010; Saedah Siraj 2008; Muniswari, Saedah Siraj, Zul Fikri &
Sharifah Nor Atifah, 2011. Walau bagaimanapun, kini amalan pengajaran dan
pembelajaran lebih mengutamakan domain kognitif Abdullah Hassan, 2009
sehingga membudayakan pembelajaran yang berorientasikan peperiksaan.
Ketidakseimbangan teknik pengajaran yang digunapakai oleh guru pada hari
ini pastinya akan memberi impak besar dalam pembentukan masyarakat
pada masa hadapan. Untuk menganagi cabaran kini, kita harus membina
sikap keterbukaan untuk membolehkan perubahan dan penyesuaian berlaku
dalam sistem pendidikan Wan Mohd Zahid 1993.
Pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang cuba diketengahkan
melalui kajian tindakan ini bukan sahaja melibatkan pelajar melalui domain
kognitif Head-on malahan merangkumi domain psikomotor Hands-on dan
juga domain afektif Hearts-on. Teknik ini dikenali sebagai Teknik
Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H Hand-on, Hearts-On dan Head-On.
Iamerupakan pendekatan pembelajaran dan pengajaran berasaskan
Discovery Learning dan Pembelajaran melalui pengalaman. Ia diolah
sedemikian bagi memastikan tahap penguasaan murid dalam komponen
pedagogi, psikologi dan profesionalisme keguruan mencapai tahap
semaksima yang mungkin. Projek ini dijalankan untuk meningkatkan
kemahiran guru pelatih mengaplikasi teori-teori pembelajaran dan
pengajaran yang dipelajari dalam situasi sebenar dan seterusnya memacu
prestasi guru pelatih.
Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran teori–teori pendidikan
menggunakan teknik Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan: “3H” adalah
denganmengadaptasi program-program realiti televesyen. Sesungguhnya kini
terdapat beberapa genre dalam program realiti TV antaranya Pertandingan
Bakat Malaysia Idol, Akademik Fantasia, Imam Muda, Mentor, Master Chef,
204
The Apperentice; Rancangan Pembangunan Diri Impian Malaysia, Audition,
Gadis Melayu, Malaysian Top Hos; Rancangan Sukan dan Rekreasi The
Amazing Race, KL Rapid Race, Kids Race, Survivor, Explore Race dan
Rancangan rencah kehidupan Charity Show; Bersamamu. Guru boleh
menggunakan rancangan-rancangan TV ini sebagai pedagogi dalam
pengajaran dan pembelajaran di dalam kelas.
Justeru, kertas kerja ini akan mengetengahkan kajian tindakan yang
dijalankan menggunakan pendekatan 3H hand-on, head-on dan hearts-on
sebagai inspirasi pengajaran dan seterusnya mengemukakan satu model
strategi pedagogi pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi bidang sains sosial
berteraskan Kemahiran Pembelajaran Adad ke-21 : Teknik Pembelajaran
Berpenyertaan.
ISU KAJIAN
Coretan Rasa Pelajar
Setiap kali kami bertanyakan sesuatu kepada guru, kami akan disogok
dengan jawapan yang tidak pasti. Ada saja alasan yang diberikan. Cikgu
mengatakan:
"Kami tidak menumpukan perhatian dalam kelas."
"Kami memang malas belajar,tak mengulangkaji pelajaran, itu sebab
tak faham."
"Kami pelajar yang dah dewasa, sepatutnya boleh mencari sendiri
maklumat-maklumat tersebut dan bukannya bergantung kepada guru
sahaja!”
Kami jadi buntu. Tiap kali peperiksaan menjelang tiba, kami akan
disogok dengan pelbagai bentuk ulangkaji dan latih tubi. Adakah apa
yang kami pelajari sekadar untuk lulus peperiksaan? Terlintas juga
difikitran kami, segala yang kami pelajari didalam bilik kuliah sama
sekali tiada kaitan dengan profesion kami. Kami boleh membaca sendiri
tapi bagaimanakah kami boleh mempraktikkan teori yang dipelajari ini
dengan baik? Apakah permintaan kami ini amat sukar dipenuhi?
Demikianlah keluhan sebahagian pelajar yang telah dinafikan haknya
untuk belajar di dalam kelas secara sedar atau tidak oleh seorang
guru.Meneliti cetusan rasa ini, saya dapati sebahagian besar guru pelatih
menganggap Kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku
adalah mata pelajaran yang sukaruntuk dikuasai dan dipraktikkan dalam
situasi sebenar. Ini menjadi satu cabaran besar kepada guru untuk memupuk
serta menanam minat belajar dalam kalangan guru pelatih Program Ijazah
205
Sarjana Muda Pendidikan PISMP.Tambahan pula,kursus EDU3104
Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku merentasi kemahiran pedagogi,
psikologi dan profesionalisme keguruan serta melibatkan banyak teori, model
dan konsep yang boleh diaplikasikan dalam bilik darjah. Namun sebahagian
besar guru pelatih bertanggapan, ia hanya teori dalam buku dan tidak dapat
dipraktikkan semasa berada disekolah kelak. Ini kerana apa yang diperlukan
di sekolah dalam mengendalikan aktiviti bilik darjah adalah suatu yang jauh
berbeza daripada apa yang dipelajari di bilik kuliah.
Tinjauan awal yang dijalankan melalui temubual mendapati 95% guru
pelatih mempercayai bahawa pengurusan bilik darjah serta aktiviti
pembelajaran dan pengajaran boleh dikendalikan oleh guru mengikut
kebolehan dan kreativiti masing-masing. Manakala 80% beranggapan apa
yang dipelajari dalam kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah
laku tidak dapat dipraktikkan oleh mereka semasa menjalankan aktiviti bilik
darjah sebaliknya ia sekadar teori pembelajaran.
REFLEKSI ISU KAJIAN
Sesungguhnya“.. modal insan adalah harta yang boleh disuntik nilai
tambahnya, diinjak nilai inteleknya serta diperbanyak modal budayanya.”
[Standard Guru Malaysia,2009], maka sebagai sebuah institut yang
menjalankan Latihan Keguruan, adalah menjadi nadi utama untuk
memastikan latihan serta kemahiran yang diberikan kepada bakal guru
mencukupi serta mampu meningkatkan daya saingnya dalam dunia
pendidikan.
Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab utama seorang guru untuk
mentrasformasikan pengajaran dan pembelajaran dari buku teks kepada
teori dan aplikasi. Ini menjadi satu kekangan bagi seorang guru untuk
menjelaskan konsep dan teori-teori pembelajaran pengurusan bilik darjah
dan tingkah laku yang berbentuk abstrak kepada amalan dan praktikal dalam
dunia sebenar akibat kekangan masa dan kurang pengalaman. Tambah
menyulitkan lagi apabila teori-teori yang dipelajari dalam bilik darjah ini
perludiintergrasikan
dengan kemahiran pedagogi, psikologi
dan
profesionalisme keguruan dalam situasi sebenar.
Semasa Guru Pelatih menjalani latihan praktikum disekolah-sekolah,
tinjauan melalui semakan borang penilaian praktikum LAM PT14-03 oleh guru
penyelia mendapati hampir 80% guru pelatih gagal menguasai konsep serta
teori dengan baik seterusnya mereka tidak dapat mempraktikkan apa yang
dipelajari dalam bilik darjah ke dalam situasi sebenar; 92% guru pelatih tidak
mengaplikasi teori-teori pembelajaran yang dipelajari kerana bertanggapan
apa yang dipelajari dalam kelas adalah berbeza dengan apa yang perlu
dilaksanakan semasa dalam aktiviti bilik darjah.
206
Di samping itu juga, pemerhatian telah dijalankan ke atas guru-guru
pelatih PISMP Jan 2010 yang menjalani latihan praktikum I, 92% tidak dapat
mempraktikkan strategi-strategi pengajaran yang dipelajari semasa
menjalankan aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Sesi
temubual tak berstruktur yang dijalankan kepada 12 orang guru pelatih
semasa menyelia latihan praktikum mendapati bahawa:
a) 15% guru pelatih beranggapan bahawa teori-teori yang dipelajari dalam
bilik darjah membantu mereka menangani masalah disiplin semasa
mengendalikan aktiviti pembelajaran dan pengajaran.
b) 95% guru pelatih menyatakan pelaksanaan aktiviti pembelajaran dan
pengajaran adalah mengikut logik akal dan kesesuaian pelajar dan ia sama
sekali tidak mempunyai perkaitan dengan apa yang telah dipelajari dalam
bilik darjah.
c) 90% guru pelatih mengetahui strategi dan teknik pembelajaran dan
pengajaran tetapi tidak dapat mengaplikasikannya semasa menjalankan
aktiviti pembelajaran dan pengajaran Latihan Praktikum disebabkan
kekurangan masa dan kemahiran untuk melaksanakannya.
Maka, disebabkan masalah ini, satu tindakan penambahbaikan dalam
sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru perlu dilaksanakan.
OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Tujuan kajian ini dijalankan adalah untuk menambahbaik sistem
penyampaian pengajaran dan pembelajaran oleh guru. Secara khususnya,
menghasilkan satu kaedah inovasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi
mengabungjalinkan isi pengajaran dan pembelajaran pengurusan bilik darjah
serta pengurusan tingkah laku menggunakan pendekatan “Belajar Melalui
Pengalaman”, “Discovery Learning” dan “Problem-Base Learning”dengan
pendekatan 3H hand-on, head-on dan hearts-on.
LANGKAH-LANGKAH TINDAKAN
Maka, kajian ini menggunakan kerangka teoritikal yang direkabentuk
oleh Kemmis dan Mc Taggart 1982 seperti kitaran di dalam rajah berikut:
207
Rajah 1. Kitaran Kajian Tindakan Model Kemmis dan Mc Tanggart 1982
dirujuk daripada Lily Bellel 1992, An Action Research Model for In-Service
Training
TINJAUAN AWAL : LATAR BELAKANG RESPONDEN
Secara umumnya, kumpulan sasaran kajian ini adalah guru pelatih
PISMP Ambilan Januari 2010 yang mengambil kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan
Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku. Seramai 20 orang pelajar responden telah
dipilih daripada populasi pelajar Program Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perguruan
Semester 3 yang mengambil Kursus Teras EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah
dan Tingkah Laku. Mereka kemudiannya dibahagikan kepada 5 kumpulan.
Setiap kumpulan terdiri daripada pelajar pelbagai tahap pencapaian serta
berlainan jantina. Satu soal selidik telah dijalankan bagi menentukan tahap
pencapaian pelajar dalam Kursus Teras EDU3101 Falsafah dan Pendidikan di
Malaysia, EDU3102 Perkembangan Kanak-kanak dan EDU 3103 Murid dan
Alam Belajar yang mereka ikuti semasa Semester 1 dan Semester 2. Ini
bertujuan bagi memastikan tahap kecekapan pelajar setiap kumpulan adalah
seimbang.
208
Jadual 1. Latar Belakang Responden Mengikut Gred Pencapaian
bagi 3 Kursus Teras
Gred Markah
A 80-100
A- 75-79
B+ 70-74
B 65-69
B-60-64
C+50-59
C 40-49
C- 35-39
D+ 30-34
D 25-29
F 0-24
Jumlah
EDU3101
Bil
3
1
4
5
6
1
0
0
0
0
0
20
EDU3102
Bil
2
4
3
7
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
EDU3103
Bil
4
6
5
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
PERANCANGAN TINDAKAN
Pendekatan 3H
merupakan satu projek pengajaran dan
pembelajaran di dalam dan luar bilik darjah. Ia merupakan satu alternatif
pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik darjah
dan Tingkah laku dengan mengabungjalinkan komponen Pedagogi, Psikologi
Pendidikan dan Profesionalisme keguruan.
Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H Hands-On, Heart-on
dan Heads On yang didasari oleh 6 teori pembelajaran utama. Hand-on
mempraktikkan Teori Pelbagai Kecerdasan dan Teori Behaviouris. Manakala
Teori Sosial Bandura dan Teori Humanis menjadi asas pendekatan Hearts-On
dan Head-on pula berasaskan Teori Konstruktivisme dan Teori kognitif.
PENGUMPULAN MAKLUMAT
Instrumen yang digunakan dalam kajian ini terdiri daripada:
a. Borang soal selidik telah digunakan untuk menilai latar belakang murid
dari aspek kecekapan pelajar dalam ilmu pedagogi, motivasi belajar serta
minat mereka terhadap Kursus Teras Pedagogi
b. Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca: terdiri daripda 20 soalan aneka pilihan, 2 soalan
struktur dan 2 soalan esei yang diubahsuai daripada soalan-soalan
peperiksaan semester lepas bagi kertas EDU3104 Pengurusan bilik Darjah
dan Tingkah Laku bagi memastikan tahap kesahihannya
209
c. Semakan Dokumen Borang Penyeliaan Latihan Praktikum dan Borang
Maklumbalas pelajar. Rekod dijalankan kepada kumpulan pelajar ini
semasa menjalani latihan Praktikum I
MELAKSANAKAN TINDAKAN
Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H merupakan adaptasi
program realiti TV iaitu ‘The Apprentice’ yang mendapat sambutan ramai.
Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dijalankan melalui aktiviti pembelajaran
”Problem-Base Learning”, ”Discovery Learning” dan ”Learning by Doing’
Projek Rintis The Best Teacher dijalankan pada April 2010 dengan
satu topik bersama pelajar PISMP Pemulihan Ambilan Januari 2009 bagi
mendapat maklum balas serta penambahbaikan yang diperlukan: Kad
tugasan perlu diperjelaskan maksud serta tugasan yang diperlukan; Tugasan
memerlukan masa yang terlalu panjang untuk diselesaikan dan memerlukan
pemantauan berterusan.
Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H dijalankan sepenuhnya
pada April 2011 dengan menambahbaik dapatan dalam projek rintis bagi
kumpulan pelajar PISMP Pemulihan Januari 2010. Pelaksanaan sepenuhnya
Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H merentasi keseluruhan topik dalam
EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik darjah dan Tingkah Laku. Pemantauan serta
perbincangan telah dijalankan melalui Forum online/email/yahoo massager
untuk murid berkongsi masalah dan topik perbincangan bersama pensyarah
setiap masa serta Laman Sesawang IPG Mykent LMS.
Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H ini merupakan aktiviti
pengajaran dan pembelajaran di luar dan di dalam bilik darjah yang disusuli
aktiviti pengayaan dan pemulihan kepada guru pelatih setelah pensyarah
selesai mengajar sesuatu topik. Guru pelatih dibahagikan mengikut kumpulan
5 orang satu kumpulan yang mempunyai pelbagai aras kebolehan. Guru
pelatih diedarkan kad tugasan yang dikenali sebagai “Excellence Teacher”
mengikut kumpulan mengikut topik mingguan.
Kumpulan akan berbincang serta menyelesaikan projek mengikut
tarikh yang ditetapkan dan membentangkan dapatannya untuk penilaian
pada minggu berikutnya. Pembentangan bagi setiap kumpulan akan dinilai
dan pemarkahan akan menentukan kumpulan yang berjaya mendapat
markah tertinggi untuk menjadi pemenang. Majlis Anugerah “Excellence
Teacher” sebagai satu pengiktirafan kepada kumpulan yang berjaya akan
diadakan pada penghujung semester.
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REFLEKSI TINDAKAN
Analisis Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca
Dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, pelajar akan diuji
melalui Ujian Pasca yang antara lain bertujuan untuk menilai pencapaian
projek yang dijalankan. Satu set soalan Ujian Pasca soalan yang telah diuji
kebolehpercayaan dan keesahannya dan berdasarkan jadual spesifikasi ujian
yang sama dengan Ujian Pra telah diberikan kepada pelajar yang menjalani
projek pendekatan pembelajaran berpenyertaan 3H. Seramai 20 0rang
Responden terlibat dalam ujian ini dan berikut adalah analisisnya.
Jadual 1. Perbandingan Markah Pencapaian Ujian Pra dan ujian Pasca
Gred Markah
A 80-100
A- 75-79
B+ 70-74
B 65-69
B-60-64
C+50-59
C 40-49
C- 35-39
D+ 30-34
D 25-29
F 0-24
Jumlah
Ujian Pra
Bil
0
0
0
0
3
2
6
5
1
3
0
20
%
0
0
0
0
15
10
30
25
5
15
0
100
Ujian Pasca
Bil
5
5
2
5
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
20
%
25
25
10
25
5
10
0
0
0
0
0
100
Analisis ujian pra dan pasca menunjukkan tiada seorang pelajar yang
gagal selepas menjalani projek Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H. Ini bererti
bahawa pelajar berjaya menguasai kemahiran serta pengetahuan berkaitan
pedagogi serta teori yang dipelajari dengan baik. Walaupun begitu masih
terdapat 2 10% orang pelajar yang hanya memperoleh gred C+. Ini
disebabkan pelajar ini tidak mengikuti program sepenuhnya atas masalah
kesihatan ketidakhadiran ke kelas semasa projek dijalankan
Penguasaan Kemahiran dan Aplikasi Teori
Projek Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H ini adalah alternatif terbaik
untuk meningkatkan penguasaan kemahiran mengaplikasi teori, memahami
kaedah/teknik P&P berkesan dan interaksi dalam kumpulan. Ini kerana
berdasarkan tinjauan yang dilakukan secara kualitatif dan pemerhatian
mendapati Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H mengandungi beberapa ciri
yang dapat menarik minat guru pelatih untuk belajar antaranya:
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 projek ini memberi motivasi kepada guru pelatih untuk terus berusaha
dan mencuba yang terbaik bagi memperoleh ganjaran dan pujian HeartsOn
 projek ini memberi ruang kepada guru pelatih untuk mengalami sendiri
pengalaman berpraktikal selepas mengikuti p&p pensyarah di dalam kelas
Hand-On
 projek ini membentuk tingkah laku positif dalam pembentukan kemahiran
berfikir di luar kotak dalam menyelesaikan tugasan Hand-On
 projek ini mampu menyeimbangkan kehendak fitrah manasia yang
mengingini pembelajaran seimbang secara kognitif, psikomotor dan
afektif 3H
 projek ini juga berjaya meningkatkan kemahiran interpersonal dan
intrapersonal di samping komunikasi berkesan Hearts-On
 projek ini mampu menjana pemahaman guru pelatih menjadi ingatan
kekal melalui perlakuan melaksanakan sendiri projek sehingga
penghasilan hasil Head-On
Di samping itu juga penggunaan email dan ’yahoo messenger” ini
memberi peluang kepada guru pelatih untuk berinteraksi dan berkomunkasi
bersama rakan di samping menjalankan aktiviti pengajaran dan
pembelajaran. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini lebih
berpusatkan guru pelatih berbanding dengan kaedah tradisional yang lebih
berpusatkan pensyarah.
Penjimatan Masa
Masa untuk pensyarah menjelaskan, menghurai dan menerangkan
kepada guru pelatih dapat dijimatkan. Ini kerana guru pelatih bekerja dalam
kumpulan. Guru pelatih dalam kumpulan yang memahami konsep tertentu
akan membantu pensyarah menerangkan kepada rakan. Justeru, ia
menjimatkan masa pensyarah untuk memberi perhatian kepada kumpulan
yang memerlukan bimbingan khusus. Maka melalui kaedah ini juga,
pembelajaran Peer Coachingdan Kolaboratif diaplikasikan oleh pensyarah. Ini
secara tidak langsung memberi contoh aplikasi sebenar sesuatu pendekatan
atau teknik pengajaran dalam bilik darjah sebenar.
Masa untuk membuat latih-tubi dan ulang kaji dijimatkan kerana ia
dilakukan serentak bagi keseluruhan sesuatu bab, diakhirnya guru pelatih
didedahkan dengan soalan yang mencabar minda melalui Lembaran kerja
atau kuiz. Proses pengajaran menjadi lebih cepat kerana satu topik
merentasi beberapa topik lain malah boleh merentasi subjek lain. Ini
membolehkan lebih banyak masa diberikan kepda sesi perbincangan dan
percambahan minda berkaitan sesuatu topik setelah guru pelatih
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mengalaminya sendiri sesuatu situasi sebenar yang ditugaskan dalam kad
tugasan. Pembelajaran secara pengalamian membuatkan sesuatu
pembelajaran itu menjadi lebih bermakna.
Peningkatan Keberkesanan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran
Tahap pencapaian guru pelatih secara keseluruhannya dalam ujian
adalah seimbang. Bilangan guru pelatih lemah dalam sesuatu topikberjaya
dikurangkan, Sebaliknya guru pelatih yang pintar boleh terus mengasah
kebolehan Di samping membimbing rakan yang lain. Jadual 1: Analisis Ujian
Pra dan Ujian Pasca
Sesi pengajaran menjadi lebih menarik, mudah dan penguasaan guru
pelatih lebih menyeluruh. Ini kerana diakhir sesuatu sesi pembentangan, guru
pelatih berpeluang untuk berkongsi masalah serta cabaran dalam
mengendalikan sesuatu tugasan. Ini pastinya akan menambahkan lagi
keceriaan P&P guru dan seterusnya tumpuan guru pelatih terhadap P&P
adalah sepenuhnya. Melalui kaedah ini juga, didapati penglibatan guru
pelatih dalam aktiviti lebih aktif dan menyeluruh. Semua guru pelatih
mengambil bahagian: guru pelatih pasif tidak disisihkan. Tambahan pula,
kaedah penyingkiran yang dilaksanakan membolehkan guru pelatih
menambah kemahirannya apabila dilantik menjadi penilai dalam projek
berikutnya. Dari sini, pendekatan pemantauan bersama dipraktikan sebagai
satu pendedahan awal kepada guru pelatih.
Peningkatan Dalam Tahap Kepuasan Hati Guru/Murid
Pensyarah berpuas hati dengan komen dan maklum balas yang
diberikan oleh pelajar. Guru pelatih lebih mahir dalam penguasaan dan
penghayatan teori-teori pembelajaran dan pengursan bilik darjah dan tingkah
laku. Penilaian Pelajar terhadap perlaksanaan aktiviti pengajaran dan
pembelajaran oleh pensyarah [LAM-PT09-03] mencatatkan min tertinggi iaitu
3.99. Antara komen guru pelatih:
213
Rajah 2. Komen Guru Pelatih
Cadangan Untuk Tindakan Seterusnya
Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H merentasi beberapa
topik dan kursus dalam pedagogi. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan
3H juga berjaya menerapkan tiga komponen penting dalam membina
pengajaran & pembelajaran yang berkesan iaitu kognitif, psikomotor dan
afektif.
Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H telah membantu guru
pelatih yang tidak berminat dan kurang berkeyakinan untuk menjawab
soalan dengan lebih yakin kerana ia berteraskan pembelajaran
aktif.Pengajaran berdasarkan modul dan tugasan yang dibina menjadikan
kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku lebih menarik, dan
pembelajaran kendiri lebih terarah di kalangan guru pelatih.
Walau bagaimanapun Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H
ini memerlukan bimbingan pensyarah sepenuhnya bagi memastikan
pembelajaran nilai serta sahsiah dapat digarapkan sewaktu guru pelatih
menjalankan aktiviti. Di samping itu, pendyarah perlu menyediakan lebih
banyak kad tugasan terarah bagi memastikan aplikasi nilai dapat praktikan
semasa guru pelatih menjalani projek.
Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini juga lebih memberi
peluang kepada guru pelatih membina kemahiran langsung dari segi
psikomotor dan afektif. Malahan guru pelatih dapat marasai ganjaran dalam
bentuk penghargaan sebagai balasan dari penat lelah mereka sendiri. Ini
secara tidak langsung membina motivasi diri untuk terus menguasai ilmu dari
segi pedagogi dan psikologi.
Corak pembelajaran ini berpadanan dengan FPK yang mahukan
pembentukan individu yang seimbang dari segi jasmani, emosi, rohani,
214
intelek dan tidak dilupakan kemahiran sosial bagi memenuhi wawasan 2020
akan datang. Sepanjang tempoh pelaksanaan Pendekatan Pembelajaran
Berpenyertaan 3H” ini dapat dilihat kesusahan sebahagian besar guru pelatih
yang berusaha melaksanakan kad tugasan terutama pada tugasan pertama
Membina Model Kelas Berkesan. Tanpa pengalaman terutamanya dalam ilmu
pendidikan pedagogi mereka mula belajar dan mendapatkan maklumat untuk
membina model kelas berkesan. Kesusahan dan keperitan mereka
menghadapi beban kerja merupakan pahit manis dalam hidup seorang guru.
Teknik serap dan masuk ahli yang mengalami kekalahan ke dalam kumpulan
yang memperoleh kemenangan turut menimbulkan kontroversi terutama
apabila kerusi ketua yang dipegang sebelum ini bertukar menjadi ahli biasa
dalam kumpulan yang lain. Ketahanan mental dan emosi guru pelatih dapat
dibentuk pada peringkat ini. Begitu juga ketua kumpulan yang menang
menghadapi tekanan sekiranya ahli baru yang diserap masuk mempunyai
masalah disiplin dalam kerja.
Jika sebelum ini, meja saya kurang popular dikerumuni guru pelatih
tetapi selepas Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” dilaksanakan
jumlah guru pelatih pasif yang bertanya dan berbincang dengan saya
berkenaan kad tugasan semakin bertambah. Saya lihat ini merupakan satu
perubahan positif apabila guru pelatih pasif dan lemah sudah mula buka
mulut untuk bertanya dan belajar secara aktif. Kesungguhan mereka lebih
memotivasikan diri saya sendiri untuk membantu mereka menguasai topik
yang melibatkan banyak teori yang perlu diaplikasikan.Walaubagaimanapun,
diawal projek terdapat beberapa kelemahan yang perlu diberi perhatian
terutamanya bahagian kekangan masa. Terdapat pelajar yang tidak amanah
atau jujur dimana nota dan bahan di ’cut & paste’ dari internet atau buku.
Justeru pensyarah perlu mengadakan sistem pemantauan yang berkesan dan
telus. Namun disini pensyarah dapat menerapkan pembelajaran nilai serta
sahsiah di dalam diri murid.Kad tugasan yang diberikan perlukan jelas dan
lengkap. Ini bagi membolehkan murid memahami arah serta tugasan.
SIMPULAN
Berdasarkan dapatan pemerhatian dan kajian secara kualitatif dan
rumusan yang telah dibuat, maka sewajarnya projek seperti ini dapat
diperluaskan lagi supaya guru pelatih dapat belajar sambil berpraktikal. Ini
kerana secara keseluruhan Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini
mampu menarik minat serta mempunyai unsur-unsur pembelajaran yang
sangat berguna kepada pengguna sasaran. Akhirnya, saya harap projek
inovasi Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” dapat diketengahkan
untuk menjadi satu trend penyampaian ilmu secara berpraktikal selain ia
215
mempraktikan pedagogi pembelajaran aktif yang diwawarkan oleh Pusat
Perkembangan Kurikulum.
Secara keseluruhannya Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H”
ini berjaya menghasilkan intervensi yang memberi kesan positif kepada P&P
bagi topik yang dipelajari. Tidak dapat dinafikan Proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran Ilmu Pendidikan menggunakan Pendekatan Pembelajaran
Berpenyertaan 3H” berkesan meningkatkan prestasi pencapaian guru pelatih
dalam topik pedagogi dan psikologi berbanding dengan kaedah pengajaran
dan pembelajaran secara tradisional. Projek ini juga berjaya menerapkan tiga
domain utama iaitu kognitif, psikomotor dan afektif. Di samping membentuk
sahsiah dan keperibadian unggul selaras dengan hasrat Falsafah Pendidikan
Kebangsaan.
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QUALITY EDUCATION: EVALUATING BILINGUAL PROGRAM
IN PILOTING SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARD
Muchlas Suseno
Faculty of Languages and Arts,
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This research was conducted to evaluate bilingual program in piloting
school of International standard, henceforth will be referred to asRSBI,
which stands for Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional. This is limited
to cover Senior High Schools or SMA’s although in some way there
might relate to other RSBI schools, such as Elementary Schools (SD)
and Junior High Schools (SMP).This case study was conducted in an
SMA RSBI ‘Lazuardi’ in Depok using CIPP model consisting of Context,
Input, Process, and Product, as developed by Stufflebeam.
Respondents of research were school head master, teachers and
students of that school. To obtain data various instruments were
developed to comply with the research components and activities,
such as observational sheet, interview protocol, and inventory
checklist.The research reveals the followings (1) the needs to apply
bilingual program in relation to quality improvement in education is
debatable. However all respondents agree that such improvement is
imperative to respond to global demands, (2) negative semantic notion
of globalization is always present in the citation found in almost all
legal documents related to quality improvement, (3) Human resources
of RSBI schools have a good mastery of English for general
communication, which is commonly referred to as Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills (BICS), (4) Most teachers do not have adequate
knowledge and competence to deliver bilingual program, in which
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) is needed, (5)Books,
worksheets and other things related to material of instruction in
bilingual program are available in two languages but the utility is not
effective, (6)Students who are admitted in SMA RSBI are selected from
SMP schools which are mostly non RSBI schools. In other words, there
is no generic link of policy which integrated RSBI schools from
elementary to senior secondary level of education, (7) Teachers find it
difficult to design process of bilingual teaching due to various reasons,
(8) Graduates of RSBI schools do not automatically continue their study
in the higher level of RSBI schools. (9) No guarantee is available for
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graduates of SMA RSBI to be admitted in a certain reputable university
in Indonesia. It is to say that bilingual program in particular and RSBI in
general might improve quality in education, but it applies to individual
context which is subject to change from time to time.
Keywords: evaluating, bilingual, program RSBI school
INTRODUCTION
The urgency of designing bilingual program in RSBI schools in
Indonesia closely relates to demand of improving quality education to
respond to global challenges. Such is clearly stipulated in the guide book of
implementation of RSBI (Depdiknas, Direktorat PSMA, 2009:25). However, the
citation of globalization that underlies concept to improve quality education
in many government legal documents is almost always associated with the
notion of competition, not collaboration. Such is found, among other things,
in the guide book of SMA RSBI (Depdiknas, Direktorat PSMA, 2009:1). And so
it goes on, with the terms ‘globalisation ’ and ‘competitiveness’ repeated time
and again, almost like a mantra or magic word (Coleman, 2009: 34). This
might hinder the activities or programs ofquality improvement in general and
bilingual program in particular.
Responding to global challenges to improve quality of life through
quality improvement in all sectors of education is done by all nations in the
globe. This implies that improvement means change in line with challenges
and demands to which life encounters. This certainly also applies to
Indonesia. In other words, Government of Indonesia (GOI) realizes and is fully
aware that quality education is a must rather than just a need as far as
character and national development is concerned. Such issues are getting
more demanding when educational achievement is compared with that of
other countries regionally or worldwide. Data shows that Indonesia ranks 124
out of 187 in UN human development index (HDI), with score of 0.67. Among
the ASEAN countries, Indonesia is only ahead of Vietnam's HDI of 0.593, Laos'
0.524, Cambodia's 0.523 and Myanmar's 0.483. (Jakarta Post, April 17, 2012).
In order not to be left far behind, therefore, various steps and actions
have been taken by GOI to empower and even to accelerate all potential of all
educational resources, in particular the human resources. National Education
Law 20/2003 is one of important actions that GOI has taken in which it clearly
stipulates not only the very basic reason of promoting education to be world
class but also a compulsion to develop schools of International standard.
In line with the above Law, GOI has also issued related legitimate
documents, such as Law 17/2007 about long term national development
plan, and a Government Regulation 19/2005. Based on the above legal
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documents Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) stipulated and included
the urgency of developing schools of International standard (called RSBI) in its
strategic five year plan that says, “To enhance a global competitive power, it’s
imperative that RSBI schools be developed in each regency/city”. Such is
stipulated in the guide book of implementation of RSBI (Depdiknas, 2009; 1).
Since then a total number of 1,305 schools throughout the country, ranging
from elementary to secondary levels, have been developed to be RSBI schools
(Kompas.com).It is understandable there is a long debate related to the
program of RSBI but, not to mislead, this article is not to evaluate or discuss
what so ever about the RSBI program s in general. Instead, it focuses on the
evaluation of bilingual program, one among other programs in RSBI.
Bilingual program, under a big umbrella of RSBI, is a part in one of
eight components or standards to which RSBI is addressingto, as far as quality
improvement is concerned. It is to say that bilingual program is not the main
content of the eight components of the national standard of education.
Instead, it is the enrichment program in the standard of process, one of the
eight standards of education. This is clearly stipulated in the guide book of
implementation of RSBI in which a generic formula to illustrate the definition
of RSBI might be found. It reads RSBI = SNP + X. (In which SNP stands for
Standar Nasional Pendidikan or National Standard of Education which covers
8 components, such as standards of (1) graduates, (2) evaluation, (3) teachers
and school administrative staffs, (4) curriculum content, (5) learning process,
(6) learning facilities, (7) school management, and (8) finance.
The component ‘X’ refers to additional efforts or enrichment that
RSBI schools must pursue. As clearly stipulated in the document of quality
assurance of RSBI schools, issued by MOEC, one effort made by RSBI schools,
among other things, is the delivery of lesson or material of instruction in
English or, at least, bilingual. This applies to Mathematics, Science subjects
and English (Depdiknas, 2007: 11).
Unfortunately, the guide book of the implementation of bilingual
program issued by Directorate of Secondary Education of MOEC does not give
clear description. Below is the citation genuinely taken from the guide book
of RSBI schools (Depdiknas, 2009: 66 - 68):
Pada tahun pertama, sekolah telah mampu menyelenggarakan
proses pembelajaran sesuai standar minimal pembelajaran di SMA
bertaraf Internasional, antara lain, 20% pembelajaran mata
pelajaran dilakukan secara bilingual.
The guide book mainly discusses the stages and amount of
percentage of delivering material of instruction of math and science subjects.
It does not explain how to conduct the bilingual program in the classroom.
Neither does it guide teachers what is to be delivered in bilingual ways. Is it
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the question answer session or is it the teacher explanation. Is it limited to
first 10 minutes during opening session or does it cover the whole time of
class session? As a result, each RSBI schools creates and develops bilingual
program on their own accord. In some schools teachers implement bilingual
program simply by greeting and opening the class in English and promptly
shifting to Indonesian language to deliver the learning materials. Some other
teachers might code mix the class communication involving two languages
English and Indonesian.(Ardiansyah, 2012).Many people argue that bilingual
program, as far as RSBI school is concerned, might give more burdens on the
hands of math and science teachers (Ambarsari, 2012). Many others even
claim that such a program give a total failure (Coleman, 2009).
In relation to the above description, a very basic question should be
raised to know whether or not RSBI program has run effectively, especially
from the fulfillment of standard process. In particular, questions relates to
bilingual program might focus on the followings, (1) How do RSBI schools run
bilingual programs? (2) Do they implement a particular standardized model of
bilingual program? (3) If they do, which model is it? To answer such questions
an evaluation of bilingual program is, therefore, important to carry out.
Bilingual education has been discussed by many experts from different
angles. Hamers& Blanc (1990: 189) states that bilingual education is any
system of school education in which, at a given moment in time and for a
varying amount of time, simultaneously orconsecutively, instruction is planned
and given in at least two languages. Shorter than Hamers and Blanc (1998)
defines bilingual education as using two languages forinstructional purposes.
Another similar definition came from Christian & Genesee (2001) who assert
that bilingual education is education involving two languages as media of
instruction.
Based on the opinion above, most bilingual education programs follow
one of the following category (1)Instruction is given in both languages
simultaneously, (2)Instruction is given first in first language, and students are
taught until such time as they are able to use the second or foreign language
as a means of learning, (3)The largest proportion of instruction is given
through second language, and first language is introduced at a later stage, first
as a subject and later as a medium of instruction (Hamers& Blanc, 2000).
In United States, bilingual and English as a Second Language (ESL)
programs in education take on many different forms. This is, particularly, true
in the context of American education depending on various factors, such as
state regulations and guidelines, school district policies, and community
context as well as composition of each local school population. Due to that
many program models have been developed under different terms, such as
224
ESL or ESOL (English to speakers of other languages), ESL Pullout, ESL Content
or Sheltered Instruction.
ESL model is designed to promote students who are not proficient in
English to acquire academic proficiency in spoken and written English. In its
implementation ESL model might be carried out using different techniques and
strategies. When it requires students to attend ESL content classes for part of
the school days, separated from the school hours during those days, and go
back to mainstream class it is called ESL content or ESL sheltered class. When it
requires hiring extra resource teachers who are qualified in delivering both
content subjects and ESL, it is called ESL Pullout.
ESL content model is very effective to teach both language and content
subjects when delivered by a trained specialist in second language acquisition
who also master content objectives in each lesson (Ovando Combs, and Collier,
2006: 37). It implies meaning that ESL content class should be carried out by
dual certified teachers or subject-matter specialists who have been trained in
second language acquisition. ESL Pullout, on the other hand, is considered the
least effective model although it is most implemented in US due to several
factors, such as (1) high cost, (2) lost time in students’ access to the full
curriculum, (3) lack of curriculum articulation with grade level classroom
teachers, (4) parents and also students stigma perceiving that it is a remedial
class rather than an enrichment process (Ovando Combs, and Collier, 2006:
36).
In early 1980’s there come newcomer programs which consist of three
models (1) transitional or early bilingual education, (2) maintenance or lateexit or developmental bilingual education, and (3) bilingual immersion, twoway bilingual or dual-language education. (Ovando, Combs, and Collier,, 2006:
39-41). Although all models, “old’ and newcomers, have different names,
backgrounds and purposes, they share similar characteristics in common, such
as (1) the continued development of the student’s primary language or L1,
(2) acquisition of second language (L2) which in the US context for most
minority students is English, (3) instruction in the content areas utilizing both
L1 and L2 (California Department of Education as cited by Ovando Combs, and
Collier, 2006: 9). Thus, the term Bilingual Education is said to be an approach
that encompasses a variety of models, each of which promotes a variety of
distinct goals.
METHODOLOGY
A lot of models in programevaluation have been developed by many
experts, such as (1) Goal Oriented Evaluation Model by Tyler, (2) Goal Free
Evaluation Model by Michael Scriven, (3) Formative-Summative Evaluation
Model by Michael Scriven, (4) Countenance Evaluation Model by Stake,
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(5) CIPP model by Stufflebeam, and (6) CIPPO model by Sax. (Fitzpatrick,
Sanders, and Worthen, 2004). This research is conducted using CIPP model. It
was first developed by Stufflebeamin 1967 to help managers and
administrators in decision making. In this regards, Stufflebeam created a
guide work to facilitate managers to face four kinds of decision making,
related to context evaluation, input evaluation, process evaluation, and
product evaluation. Context evaluation relates to activities of planning the
decision making, determining needs. (Stufflebeam, and Shinkfield, 2007).
In the guide work each component of CIPP is described to see its
purposes by which activities of evaluation could be designed together with
related instruments. Table below illustrates the relationship among such
things.
Table 1. Component, Purpose, Activities, and Instrument CIPP
Component
CONTEXT
INPUT
PROCESS
PRODUCT
Purpose
Assess need and
opportunities as well as
define goals
Activities
Interview and review
of study existing
documents
Instrument
Protocol interview,
and evaluation
rubrics
Assess alternative
approaches of work
plan, including HR
recruitment
Assess implementation
and interpret outcomes
Interview and review
of study existing
documents
Protocol interview,
and evaluation
rubrics
Observation
Observational Sheet
Assess outcomes and
help promote success
Interviews
Protocol interview
Respondents of the research were all human resources in school,
including, head master, teachers, and students. Data collected from them was
analyzed using a-two-stage approach, i.e before and after data collection.
First stage includes preliminary activities and is useful to determine focus of
research activities during the second stage. Second stage comprises various
steps, such as data reduction, data display, and verification. (Miles and
Huberman, as cited by Sugiyono, 2003).
The research reveals the following findings:
1. From the aspect of contextit could be summarized that the needs to
apply bilingual program in relation to quality improvement in education is
debatable. However all respondents agree that such improvement is
imperative to respond to global demands. Negative semantic notion of
globalization is always present in the citation found in almost all legal
documents related to quality improvement. Words having such negative
notion are, for examples; competition, hard, tough, and high technology.
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Teachers’ understanding to bilingual program varies. Therefore, bilingual
program is implemented in many different ways and models. Almost all of
them do not refer to any of standard model of bilingual program in
countries that have been practicing it for years. Legal and operational
guide books and related documents of bilingual program are not
available.
2. From the aspect of input, it could be summarized (a)Human resources of
RSBI schools have a good mastery of English for general communication,
which is commonly referred to as Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills (BICS), (b)most teachers do not have adequate knowledge and
competence to deliver bilingual program, in which Cognitive Academic
Language Proficiency (CALP) is needed, (c)books, worksheets and other
things related to material of instruction in bilingual program are available
in two languages but the utility is not effective. This is possible because
students, and teachers too, prefer to utilize the Indonesian version rather
than English, (d)students who are admitted in SMA RSBI are selected
from SMP schools which are mostly non RSBI schools. In other words,
there is no generic link of policy which integrated RSBI schools from
elementary to senior secondary level of education.
3. From the aspect of process; (a)Teachers find it difficult to design process
of bilingual teaching due to various reasons, such as (1)there is no clear
model of bilingual teaching, (2)when they have to creatively develop
techniques and strategy, they are faced with time constraint. (b)Teachers
feel that bilingual program gives more burden on their hands and heads,
instead of facilitation to effective and efficient teaching.
4. From the aspect of Product, it might be summarized, (1)Graduates of RSBI
schools do not automatically continue their study in the higher level of
RSBI schools. This is true due to various factors, such as (a)there is no
generic policy to guarantee such a thing, (b)students and/or parents have
their personal reasons to/not to continue study in RSBI schools. (2)No
guarantee is available for graduates of SMA RSBI to be admitted in a
certain reputable university in Indonesia. It is to say that bilingual
program in particular and RSBI in general might improve quality in
education, but it applies to individual context which is subject to change
from time to time. (2)Scores of achievement that students in RSBI schools
attain are higher that that of students in non RSBI schools. This applies to
almost all subjects being examined in the national level. However, it does
not simply reveal the success of bilingual or RSBI programs, (3)The
outcomes of bilingual program and/or RSBI program are accepted in
many different perspectives, some pro’s but many other cont/s.
(4)Among others who are contradictory with their counterpart,
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will consider that bilingual program, or RSBI in general, is an expensive
program. In addition, it is against the principles of national constitution,
therefore it must be banned.
REFERENCES
Ambarsari, Septiana. (2012). Difficulties Encountered by Teachers in
Conducting Bilingual Class: A survey at SMP 275, SMP 128 and SMP
49 Jakarta. Thesis.Jakarta: English and Literature Department, State
University Jakarta.
Ardiansyah, Andri. (2012). The Practice of Codeswitching in RSBI school: A
Case Study in SMPN 19 Jakarta. Thesis . Jakarta: English and
Literature Department, State University Jakarta.
Christian, D. & Genesee, F. (2001). Bilingual Education. Alexandria: TESOL,
Inc.
Coleman, Hywel, (2009). Teaching Other Subjects through English in Three
Asian Nations: A Review . Jakarta: British Council.
Depdiknas, Direktorat Pembinaan SMA. (2009). Panduan Penyelenggaraan
Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional (RSBI). (Jakarta, Kegiatan
Perluasan dan Peningkatan Mutu SMA)
Depdiknas, Pedoman Penjaminan Mutu Sekolah/Madrasah Bertaraf
Internasional pada Jenjang Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah.
(2007). Jakarta: Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan.
Fitzpatrick, Jody, L., James R. Sanders, Blaine R. Worthen. (2004). Program
Evaluation: Analitycal Approach and Practical Guidelines. Boston:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Hamers, J. & Blanc, M (1998). Bilinguality and bilingualis. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Hamers,
J.
&Blanc, M (2000). Bilinguality and bilingualism.(2nd
ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ovando, Carlos, Mary CarolComb, and Virginia P. Collier. (2006). Bilingual and
ESL Classroom: Teaching in Multicultural Contexts. Boston: Mcgraw
Hill.
Owen, John, M. (2006). Program Evaluation: Forms and Approach.(3rd
ed).Crows Nest, NSW Australia: Allen and Unwin.
Stufflebeam, Daniel L, and Anthony J. Shinkfield. (2007). Evaluation Theory,
Models, & Applications.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sugiyono. (2008). Memahami Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Alfabeta
228
TEST OF ITEM VALIDITY OF PERFORMANCE TEST
IN PATTERN MAKING OF VOCATIONAL
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (SMK) IN DENPASAR BALI
Ni Ketut Widiartini
Ganesha Education University, Singaraja, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study aims to test the validity of test items of performance test
in pattern makings of vocational high school students in Denpasar
Bali. Performance tests developed by researchers and teachers on
the base of test blue print developed in term of Standard of
Competence and Basic Competence of teaching objectives.
Constructing performance test of pattern making are in three
phases: preparation, production, and finalization. Test items
amount to about 23 items. Implementation of the tests conducted
in 2010. The subject of this study were 40 students grade X of SMK
N 3 and 44 students of grade X of SMK N 4 Denpasar Bali. Data
analysis methods used were: 1)content validation, conducted by
panels, and 2)empirical validation by trying-out of the performance
tests on a number of samples. Validation of the performance test
items in pattern making is calculated by using the formula product
moment correlation, while for the reliability of the test is calculated
by statistic formula of Alpha Cronbach. Based on the results of
testing the validity of the performance test items in pattern making
are 22 items and 1 item is invalid. Reliability coefficient of 0.86 is
obtained. The degree of reliability of the test is very high according
to Guilford and can be used to measure the research data.
Keywords: test validity, performance test of pattern making
INTRODUCTION
Evaluation can be done by observation, questionnaires, interviews,
and a written test or oral test in various forms. Evaluation should be done in
a sustainable manner so that the objectives can attained effectively.
Evaluation in schools in the learning process can be done in formative and
summative. Formative evaluation is one of the phases of the activities carried
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on while learning program is taking place. This is done with the intention to
monitor students' progress and to provide feedback, both to students and
the teacher (Silverus, 1991: 9). This evaluation is conducted to determine the
extent to which the students have grasped the subject matter and also to
know the weaknesses that occur in the learning process, such as the
precision of the method, media, and evaluation systems used in the learning
process. This activity is carried out to obtain the proper feedback to the
learning process and it can be refined and become more effective. While
summative evaluation conducted after all subjects have been completed in
one semester.
One form of evaluation to be applied in this study is evaluating the
use of performance tests on the subjects of fashion practice in Vocational
School (SMK), in the lesson on Pattern Making. Performance test is one of the
ideal form of authentic assessment and it fits the learning objectives of
practice subjects. Performance test is suitable with the needs of teachers and
students of Vocational School (SMK), which provides more practical lessons
than other subjects.
There are several reasons that make this research is feasible and
important to do, among others: lack of interest and motivation of students to
study subjects that lead to the low of the students’ achievement in the
pattern making. Pattern-making skills should be the skill and expertise of the
students after passing through the learning process. Assessment methods
used by teachers were not process oriented but products oriented. As a
result there were no significant changes in students' ability to understand the
process well in producing a product that fits the criteria well.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In relation to the assessment or assessments, tests, evaluations and
measurements, it seems necessary to explain the terms again because they
are often confused. All these terms belong to the same process.
Understanding of assessment is similar to the evaluation, but assessment
emphasis on performance assessment tasks in real and complex types (Linn
and Gronlund, 1995: 5-6). Thus the assessment has a broader sense than the
notion of evaluation, measurement and test. Assessment also has the
objective of identifying weaknesses and strengths of students, monitor
student progress, determine the effectiveness of learning and help teachers
to improve the quality of the learning process. Measurements according to
Kerlinger is giving numbers on the objects or events according to a rule
(Kerlinger, 2000: 687). Similar opinion expressed by Nunnally, who stated
that the measurement consists of the rules to put numbers to objects in such
a manner to indicate the quantity of the object's attributes (Nunnally, 1978:
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3). So, it can be concluded that the measurement is putting numbers to an
object or a certain behavior by certain rules.
In performance tests, students are asked to perform activities that
demonstrate specific skills and or make a particular product. The result, this
test can catch a lot of educational outcomes in complex and can not be catch
in the written exam. Performance tests can be used to assess students as
they work, or check out the product or the work the students make, and can
assess the skills shown. In addition, through performance tests, each student
can recognize their own deficiencies in the learning process so that with this
knowledge the student can go to the effort to develop their skills in any
learning process. On the teacher side, performance test can provide real
information about the level of student achievement in each of the learning
process, including information about students' attitudes toward the tasks
given by the teacher. Based on this information the teacher can assess
students' ability in the achievement aspects of the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor.
Performance tests can be considered as a process of gathering
information through systematic observation in order to make a decision
about an individual student. Performance tests rely on the use of various
types of assessment, not only on a single test or other measuring devices,
and performance test takes place in a long time. The main tool of
performance test performance is direct observation of the students’ behavior
and product. Test performance is an important element of the alternative
assessment, and portfolio is a tool or a place where information of
performance test is stored (Martens, 2005: 369). Performance tests are
usually designed to collect information about the purpose of teaching or the
progress of students which is in direct and continuous observation.
Performance test is used to determine the progress of individual students,
rather than to compare the ability of a student to another.
Performance tests have been used for a long time. In recent years
educators strongly support this form of assessment, because: (1) is an
alternative to pencil and paper assessments, (2) is often more authentic,
which is a representation of the tasks or things that students may encounter
in real life (Popham, 1995: 87). In line with this opinion, the performance test
is a procedure in which teachers use tasks to get the extent of student
learning achievement (Nitko, 1996: 243).
From the above description, it can be concluded that the
performance test is a procedure by giving tasks to obtain information about
how well students have learned. In the performance test, students are
required to apply the knowledge and skills in a way the students demonstrate
their work in accordance with the objectives or learning targets. Therefore, it
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is necessary for teacher to determine the standardized competency targets
to be achieved by learners. Not as well as traditional tests, performance tests
require students to apply their knowledge and skills to demonstrate that they
have achieved the learning targets. With test performance, students are
asked to create something, create reports, and demonstrate. All targets or
learning goals should be assessed with performance tests. Especially when
the target of a learning requires students to be able to make something with
the skills of the students, student learning outcomes must be assessed with
performance tests. But if the goal of learning such as declarative knowledge,
understanding of theory, or compare two concepts may be better measured
or assessed by traditional tests or tests in addition to test performance.
Written test can not measure the number of skills directly and even
indirectly, such as speaking skills, writing, lab work, playing a musical
instrument, gymnastics, and social skills. The only way to measure student
proficiency in these skills is to observe student performance. Such
observation is called performance tests (Oosterhof, 1990: 225).
Although the performance tests are now widely used in schools, but
the performance test has advantages and disadvantages. According to
Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson the advantages of the performance test
are: (1) to measure abilities that can not be measured with other assessment,
(2) the use of performance tests are relevant with modern learning theory,
(3) performance tests make learning more meaningful and motivate
students, (4) allows teachers to assess the performance test as well as
process and product, and (5) the use of performance tests expand teachers'
approach to the assessment. Furthermore, it is said about the weakness of
performance tests are: (1) The reliable performance test is difficult to
implement, (2) Performance tests give a little sample of the subject matter so
it is difficult to generalize about the skills and knowledge of students, (3) The
performance test takes a long time in practice, and difficult to arrange, as
well as the difficulty in giving the score, and (4) In addition there are other
practical reasons that lead to performance assessment difficult to implement,
such as the need for space or place, expensive equipment and materials to
simulate real life (Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson, 2009: 261).
Another opinion suggests the advantages of performance tests,
namely: (1)to find out how students use the information to perform activities
in the situation similar to the students’ real life, (2)performance tests can be
used over and over and over, for different classes and different year, (3)is
diagnostic, and (4)can be up to date with the progress of students from time
to time (Airasian, 1990: 231). In line with the opinions above, Oosterhof said
the advantage of performance tests, namely: (1)to measure or evaluate the
skills that can not be measured or evaluated by the pencil-paper test, and
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(2)can directly measure the skills which the written test can only indirectly
measure these skills. As for the weakness it is said that: (1)takes a lot of time
or longer, (2)should be immediately suspended, can not be delayed, and
(3)inconsistency / unreliable (Oosterhof, 1990 : 270).
To be able to make a good performance, experts or specialists
provide evaluation and measurement solutions. This is done because of the
performance test must be able to truly assess student competence.
According to Airasian right way to develop performance tests are:
(1)formulate clear objectives, (2)identification of aspects that can be
observed, (3)provide an appropriate setting or plan to get the expected
behavior of students, and (4)Prepare guidelines or rubric assessment
(Airasian, 1990: 220). On the other hand Linn and Gronlund said that the
requirement to develop performance tests are as follows: (1)focus on
learning goals that require complex cognitive skills and student performance,
(2)select or develop a task that represents the content and skills that an
important goal of learning objectives, (3)minimize the tasks that depend on
the skills that are not relevant to the purpose of the task, (4)provide key
points for students to be able to perform such tasks as expected, (5)provide
an explanation of how to carry out the task, and (6)give a clear idea of what
should be done by the students and how their performance assessed (Linn
and Grounlond, 1995, 244-245).
From the description of the steps above, it can be concluded that in
order to make a good test performance assessments for skills, there are
things to consider: (1)identification of all critical steps that would affect the
outcome, (2)write specific behavioral skills that are important and necessary
to complete tasks and produce the best outcomes, (3)establish criteria for
the ability to be measured and observed during the students carry out the
task, (4)clearly defined criteria abilities to be measured based on the ability
of students which must be taken or the characteristics of the product,
(5)order the criteria that will be measured on the base of the sequences that
can be observed, and (6)Check the criteria again and compare it with the
criteria that have been made previously by others.
To achieve the above targets, then the performance test must have
three essential components, namely: (1)task performance, (2)performance
rubrics, and (3)scoring guide. Task performance is a task that contains the
topic, the standard task, task descriptions, and condition of task completion.
Performance rubric is a column that contains the components of an ideal
performance, and its descriptor.
Associated with task performance according to experts above, then
the teacher should pay attention to the performance of tasks assigned to
students. The performance task should meet some of the following
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conditions: (1)performance tasks provide a direct measure of assessment of
learning objectives, (2)tasks can maximize the performance of teachers to
generalize assessment results, (3)tasks reflect the important skills, (4)tasks
have more than one learning objective, (5)tasks that focused on process or
product that is very interesting, (6)tasks that provide a level of realization,
(7)tasks that measured skills that can be mastered, (8)tasks that are 'fair' or
equitable for all students, (9)tasks can be implemented in time and resources
available, (10)tasks that can be scored in a way that reliable, and (11) tasks
that reflect the learning objectives that can not be measured with a gauge or
a traditional test.
The performance of tasks often require the complex response from
the students. Thus, it is necessay to make a clear command for the students.
Due to originality and creativity is something that is expected of students, it
needs to be given space to the students for how they perform tasks. It is
advisable that teachers develop systematic procedures, objective and reliable
for evaluating student performance, both for the evaluation procedure or
product or both. The performance test is a test that the response must be
made alone, and usually encountered many problems in the scoring. Scoring
procedure which is applied to test performance is often called a rubric.
Rubric is a written guide that helps teachers to do the scoring. Reynolds,
Livingston, and Willson explained that there are three important things that
must be completed in writing or creating rubrics, namely: (1) select the
essential criteria that will be considered when evaluating student responses,
(2) describe the specific standards that describe different levels of students’
performance, and (3) determine the type of scoring procedure to be used;
holistic or analytic (Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson, 2009: 243).
Broadly speaking, the forms of a performance test can be a product
evaluation and or projects (Linn and Grounlond, 1995: 249). Product
assessment is the assessment of students' work in the form of objects. These
objects can be made of cloth, paper, metal, wood, ceramics and other works
of art such as paintings, drawings and sculpture. Assessment of these
products are used in craft subjects and the arts, drawing, and productive
lesson at vocational school. The purpose of this product evaluation is to
assess students' mastery of skills that are required before the next skill is to
learn, assess the level of competence that have been mastered by the end of
class students, and assess the skills of students who will enter higher
vocational education institutions. Aspects considered in the assessment of
this product is the skill to use tools and work procedures and technical and
aesthetic quality of the work. Furthermore, there are three steps that must
be done to make students' work (product), namely: (1)the planning stage:
designing forms, materials to be used to plan, sketch drawing, drafting costs,
234
etc., (2)the production phase: how to use tools, work procedures in making
work, the attitude of working time, etc., and (3)the final stage: students
evaluate whether their work are working or not, doing finishing work to be
beautiful to look at etc.. The evaluation project is a task that must be
completed within a certain period. Task is an investigation since the
gathering, organizing, evaluating, presenting data to accomplish within the
period for two weeks, one month, a semester or more (Valid Setiadi, 2006:
19-20). Further Setiadi says that the performance tests can be done by three
methods of assessment; holistic, analytic, and anecdotal (Setiadi's Day, 2006:
21).
Of the three types of valuation methods mentioned above, the
method of evaluation with the analytic rubric is much better than a holistic
assessment rubric and anecdotal, because the analytical column in the
preparation of the assessment criteria based on the components that
contribute to a performance as well as the method used to assess at the
stage of planning and the final stage. The rubric enables teachers to assess
student performance based on point in each component which was
determined. In addition, this assessment also allows teachers and students to
determine strengths and weaknesses that exist in the learning process and
finally can be used to improve the students’ performance in the following
tasks.
To conduct performance tests on the subject of pattern making, it is
needed an analytic rubric to assess student performance as a benchmark,
because learning pattern making skills use tools and working procedures,
attention to technical quality and artistic works. While aspects of the
assessed subjects adapted to create a pattern that is producing a product or
work. Aspects of the development of indicators on which to base the
assessment rubric are: (1)the planning stage: take aspects of measurement,
aspects of the manufacture of small patterns, aspect of the design model
analysis, aspects of the burst pattern and material aspects of design and
price, (2)stages of production: aspects of the selecting materials, aspects of
the use of work equipment, work procedures aspects of making the work,
and (3)the final stage: aspects of finishing, and testing aspects of the work. In
essence, the activity of learning to make patterns with more emphasis on the
analysis of the model or information to be able to understand or design
concepts with the appropriate conclusions to be followed in making the
pattern to be the right product according to the design presented.
Thus, it can be said that in order to develop the reasoning power of
students, student capacity for critical thinking, divergent, holistic, creative,
and able to develop the imagination through real work or product, the use of
performance tests will be more effective. Based on the above description of
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the performance test, the characteristics of the test are presented in the
following table.
Table 1. Test Performance Characteristics
Characteristics
Measured aspects
Students’ preparation
Students' responses
Test Performance
Cognitive, affective, psychomotor. Usually
accompanied by the students’ work or
products
Emphasis on the depth of materials and
student’s skills
Organizing students' responses or answers
to produce work products
RESEARCH METHOD
This study aims to test the validity of the test item performance on
the Pattern Making vocational students in Denpasar Bali. Implementation of
the tests conducted in 2010. Subjects in this study are the students of class X
and SMKN 3 SMKN 4 Denpasar Bali as many as 84 students, consisting of 40
students SMK N 3 Denpasar and 44 students at SMK N 4 Denpasar.
Conceptual Definition
Learning outcomes of Pattern Making are the abilities in the field of
Pattern Making owned by the students after the students participate in the
learning process of pattern making based on the predetermined learning
objectives and within a certain time.
Operational Definition
Learning outcomes of pattern makings is the score of the students in
pattern makings owned by the students after attending the learning process
pattern making for the first semester based on the predetermined learning
objectives, which can be measured through subjects: basic pattern, pattern
making, and change the pattern that match the model.
Test Blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes
Test blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes is as in
the table below.
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Table 2. Test blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes
in the cognitive domain with performance test.
Behavior measured
Materials
1. Basic pattern
2. Pattern making
3. Changing patterns so that fit the model
Total
Item number
C2
C4
1
2
3
1
2
Total
1
1
1
3
Remarks: C2= understanding C4= analysis
Table 3. Test blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes
in the psychomotor domain with performance test
Behavior measured
Materials
1. Basic pattern
2. Pattern making
3. Changing patterns so that fit the model
Total
Item number
C5
1
2
3
3
Total
1
1
1
3
Remarks: C5= psychomotor skill
Validating Test Instrument of Pattern Making
Instrument test items of pattern making should be tried out in order
to have some level of reliability. The validation process is carried out in two
stages: (1) validation of the concept in order to examine the provisions of the
instrument items reviewed from three aspects including contents, constructs,
and language, based on expert judgments, and (2) empirical validation is
carried out in order to test the accuracy of items and the reliability of the
items based on a sample of the study population.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Validating Test Item of Pattern Making
The validation process of the contents of each item was done by
expert judgments. The assessment process was conducted by five experts
consisting of; 1 Professor of measurement, 2 lecturers in the subjects of
fashion, and 2 teachers teaching vocational of fashion. Assessment
conducted by the experts was to match between instrument items in the
syllabus, materials, and the grille which has been made by the researcher.
Then, the experts judged the items by writing R (for relevant items) and (TR)
(for irrelevant items).
Based on the results of expert assessment of the instrument,
amounting to about 22 items there are several points to note regarding the
237
suitability of indicators, the suitability of the material grains. Furthermore the
assessment results are analyzed and summarized as follows: (1) if 1-2 experts
who claimed that the items are relevant, then the item instrument is not
valid in terms of content, these items should be reviewed again in
accordance with the material, indicator and test blueprint (items should be
corrected according to the other three experts who claimed that items were
not relevant), whereas if 3-5 experts claimed points in question were
relevant, then the items were claimed to be valid in terms of contents, or the
items have been in accordance with the material, indicators and test
blueprint.
Having analyzed the five expert assessments, it was found out that all
the items of pattern making were Valid.
Empirical Validation of the test items of Pattern Making
The test tried out was carried out toward a number of subjects
(sample of the study). There were 84 students.
Because of the data were in form of politomy, Product Moment
correlation formula was applied to calculate the empirical validity (validity of
test items) (Sutrisno Hadi, 2000: 294).
Formula:
rxy 
Description:
N
=
X
=
Y
=
ΣX
=
ΣY
=
rxy
=
N  XY   X  Y 
N  X
2

  X  N  Y 2   Y 
2
2

number of cases or samples
score of the test items
total score
sum of X
number of Y
the product moment correlation coefficient
To determine whether a test item is valid or not, then the coefficient
rxy observed was consulted with the r table. The criterion are: an item is said
to be "valid" if the value of rxy = rxy r-observed is bigger than r-tables with
standard error or significance level of 5% (rxy-observed ≥ rxy -table with the
significant level 5%), and "invalid" if the value of rxy = rxy observed is bigger
than rxy -table with standard error or significance level of 5% (rxyobserved<rxy-table with the significance level 5%).
Based on the calculation of product moment correlation coefficient
to find out the validity of the items, it is found that rxy = 0.539, while rxy238
table with the significance level of 5% and n = 30 is 0.213. Apparently rxyobserved is greater than the rxy-table table, then the number of score item 1
had a significant correlation with the total score. It can therefore be
interpreted that the test item number 1 is valid. The formula of product
moment was also applied to find validity of item 3. It was found that rxy =
0.468 price, while rxy-table in the significance level of 5% and n = 30 is 0.213.
Apparently rxy-observed is bigger than rxy-table, then the number of score
points for-3 has a significant correlation with the total score. It can therefore
be interpreted that the test item number 3 is valid.
The calculation of test results of pattern making using Microsoft Excel
2007 program is obtained that the 22 items are valid and 1 item is invalid. So,
in this study the instruments used to measure the learning outcomes of
pattern making are the 22 items..
Test Reliability of Pattern Making
Having obtained a valid instrument with 22 items, then the
reliability coefficient of the test was calculated. Instrument reliability
coefficient was analyzed using the formula of Alpha-Cronbach, as follows
(Gregory, 2000: 128).
Alpha-Cronbach:
2
2
 k  SDt   SDi 
r1.1  

2

k

1
SDt



Description:
r1.1
= reliability coefficient of the test device
k
= a lot of test items
2
SDi = Variance of scores of each item (item)
2
SDtot
= Variance of total score
Based on the calculation of the reliability of test results on pattern
makings using the program Microsoft Excel 2007, the reliability coefficient
obtained r1.1 = 0.86. To determine the degree of reliability tests, it was used
the criteria proposed by Guilford as follows (Guilford, 1956: 213).
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
≤ 0.20
≤ 0.40
≤ 0.60
≤ 0.80
≤ 1.00
: very low
: low
: medium
: high
: very high
239
Thus, the test results show the coefficient of reliability of the test on
making patterns is very high and can be used to measure the research data.
REFERENCES
Airasian, Peter W. (1990). Classroom Assessment, New York: McGraw-Hill,
Inc.
Guilford, J. P., Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New York:
McGraw-Hill Company, Inc., 1956.
Gregory. Robert J. (2000). Psychological Testing: History, Principles, and
Applications, Third Edition, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc.
Hadi, Sutrisno. (2000).Statistics, London: Andi.
Kerlinger, Fred N. (2000). Principles of Behavioral Research, translation
Landung L. Simatupang, Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.
Linn, Robert L. and Norman E. Gronlund. (1990). Measurement and
Evaluation in Teaching, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Martens, Donna M. (2005). Research and Evaluation in Education and
Psychology: Diversity Integrating with Quantitative, Qualitative,
and Mix Methods, London: Sage Publications.
Nitko, Anthony J. (1996). Educational Assessment, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Nunnally on Friday, C. (1978). Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
Oosterhof, Albert. (1990).Classroom Application of Educational
Measurement, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Popham, W. James. (1995). Classroom Assessment What Teachers Need to
Know, USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Reynolds, Cecil R., Ronald B. Livingston and Victor Willson. (2009).
Measurement and Assessment in Education, New Jersey: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Setiadi,
Day. (2006). Classroom-Based Assessment: Assessment of
Performance, New York: Center for Educational Assessment
Research and Development Ministry of Education.
[
Silverius, Suke. (1991). Learning and Evaluation Feedback, Jakarta: PT
Grasindo.
240
PELAKSANAAN KURIKULUM TERSEMBUNYI
DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR SEKOLAH MENENGAH
Abdul Rahim Hamdan PM1, Mohamad Najib Ghaffar2,
Ahmad Johari Sihes3, Hj Zainuddin Hassan4,
Nani Herlin binti Jamin Pn.5
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia1
[email protected]
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini membincangkan pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi
dalam kalangan pelajar Sekolah Menengah. Objektif kajian ialah
hendak meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi yang dilihat
melalui lima aspek iaitu kandungan subjek menurut interpretasi
pelajar, iklim sekolah, perlakuan guru, proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran dan aktiviti kokurikulum. Seramai 588 orang pelajar
Tingkatan 4 dari 6 buah sekolah menengah di sekitar daerah
Pontian, Johor telah dipilih untuk terlibat dalam kajian ini. Kajian ini
menggunakan borang soal selidik yang mengandungi 50 item soalan
untuk mendapatkan maklumat tentang tahap pelaksanaan
kurikulum tersembunyi dalam memupuk integrasi kaum. Data yang
diperolehi dianalisis secara kuantitatif menggunakan perisian
Statistical Package for The Social Science (SPSS) 16.0. Dapatan
kajian menunjukkan tahap pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi
adalah tinggi melalui kandungan subjek menurut interpretasi
pelajar dan perlakuan guru. Namun dari segi pelaksanaan kurikulum
tersembunyi melalui iklim sekolah dilihat berada pada tahap yang
rendah. Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji mencadangkan agar pelaksanaan
kurikulum tersembunyi ini perlu dipandang serius dan diberi
penekanan oleh pihak sekolah.
Kata
Kunci
:pelaksanaan, kurikulum tersembunyi,
menengah, integrasi kaum
sekolah
PENGENALAN
Kurikulum dan sekolah adalah dua elemen yang saling melengkapi
satu sama lain. Setiap sekolah di Malaysia mengikuti satu corak kurikulum
yang sama iaitu dirancang oleh Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum (BPK) dan
seterusnya diimplementasikan oleh pihak sekolah khususnya guru dalam
241
usaha membekalkan ilmu dan pengalaman kepada pelajar. Kurikulum telah
menjadi aspek teras dalam bidang pendidikan. Tanpa kurikulum sistem
pendidikan sukar dilaksanakan (Ishak Ramly, 2005).
Kurikulum dilihat lebih kepada proses pencapaian pendidikan bukan
sahaja berbentuk akademik semata bahkan melibatkan unsur-unsur tidak
formal seperti proses sosialisasi dan interaksi. Objektif kurikulum pula dilihat
menjurus kepada pembentukan potensi individu secara menyeluruh untuk
diadaptasikan dalam proses sosialisasi dan interaksi pada masa hadapan. Tiga
dimensi itu ialah kurikulum formal (semua aktiviti yang berlaku secara nyata
di sekolah), kurikulum ideal (melibatkan keseluruhan prinsip-prinsip dalam
kurikulum) dan kurikulum tersembunyi (pengalaman pembelajaran yang
dipelajari secara tidak langsung)
Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi sering menimbulkan persoalan
dalam kalangan masyarakat sekolah sama ada pihak pentadbir, guru, staf
sekolah dan pelajar. Persoalan yang timbul ialah dari manakah datangnya
kurikulum tersembunyi ini, adakah dari pelajar, guru atau orang-orang yang
berkepentingan seperti PIBG misalnya. Masalah mula timbul apabila
kurikulum tersembunyi tidak jelas dinyatakan secara bertulis dan
persoalannya bagaimana kurikulum ini boleh dimulakan dan dinilai.
Pelbagai cara dan situasi yang berlaku dalam sistem persekolahan
yang menghasilkan kurikulum tersembunyi dan cuba dinilai permasalahannya
seperti melihat pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui interpretasi
pelajar terhadap kandungan subjek yang melihat kepada asas kandungan
mata pelajaran yang telah ditetapkan dalam sesuatu kandungan subjek dan
juga melalui iklim dan budaya sekolah yang melihat kepada aspek faktor
luaran dan dalaman yang mempengaruhi iklim sekolah
Selain itu, pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi turut ditinjau melalui
perlakuan guru yang menjurus kepada konsep pemerolehan pelbagai
pengetahuan oleh guru. Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang
berasaskan kepada kualiti pengajaran dan gaya pembelajaran juga dilihat
berpotensi untuk menghasilkan kurikulum tersembunyi. Kurikulum
tersembunyi juga boleh meliputi aktiviti kokurikulum yang dijalankan di
sekolah menjurus kepada hubungan konsep, pelaksanaan dan nilai yang
terkandung dalam aktiviti.
OBJEKTIF KAJIAN
Kajian yang dijalankan ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji pelaksanaan
kurikulum tersembunyi di sekolah dalam memupuk integrasi kaum di
kalangan pelajar yang berbilang kaum. Secara khususnya, objektif kajian ini
adalah untuk :
242
1) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui kandungan subjek
menurut interpretasi pelajar
2) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui iklim sekolah
3) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui perlakuan guru
4) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui proses pengajaran
dan pembelajaran dalam memupuk integrasi kaum
5) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui aktiviti
kokurikulum dalam
McNeil (1990) berpendapat kurikulum tersembunyi adalah faktor
penentu integrasi. Integrasi ini berlaku secara sehala, dua hala ataupun
timbal balik. Tanpa amalan integrasi yang sihat, sekolah menjadi rencat dan
tidak stabil. Di Malaysia, konsep kurikulum tersembunyi dilihat memainkan
peranan yang penting. Secara umumnya, kurikulum tersembunyi tidak
dianggap sesuatu yang negatif. Kurikulum tersembunyi mempunyai fungsi
untuk mencapai kestabilan masyarakat. Contoh seperti usaha-usaha
melakukan keceriaan sekolah, mencantikkan bangunan, mengadakan hari
terbuka, sistem pengawas sekolah dan sebagainya merupakan antara cara
pelaksanaan yang dilihat dapat mempengaruhi terhadap kurikulum
tersembunyi.
Kepelbagaian kurikulum tersembunyi yang berlaku secara tidak
disedari dalam sistem pendidikan telah membawa pelbagai implikasi serta
perubahan dalam mewariskan tradisi bagi mengekalkan struktur sosial
masyarakat. Sekolah, kurikulum dan masyarakat mempunyai hubungan
perkaitan yang relatif antara satu sama lain. Menurut Zais (1976), salah satu
perkara asas dalam kurikulum ialah masyarakat dan budaya. Di Malaysia,
kepelbagaian sosio-budaya dalam sistem masyarakat majmuk yang terdiri
daripada kaum Melayu, Cina, India dan pelbagai suku ektnik seperi Kadazan,
Bajau dan Murut (masyarakat Sabah dan Sarawak) telah memberi kesan
secara langsung kepada perkembangan sistem pendidikan secara umumnya
dan suasana pembelajaran secara khususnya.
Iklim sekolah ialah situasi atau keadaan yang wujud dan diamalkan di
sekolah. Iklim sekolah merupakan suasana sekolah dalam proses peningkatan
ilmu. Iklim sekolah juga merupakan persekitaran sekolah yang wujud di
sesebuah sekolah. Menurut Abdul Rahim dan Johar Othman (2001), iklim
sekolah yang baik ialah bersifat terbuka kepada pembaharuan dan
perubahan, interaksi yang harmoni dan mesra antara guru besar, guru dan
murid (tiada jurang yang keterlaluan) dan stail kepimpinan yang demokratik.
Kruse dan Louis (2009) menyatakan kepercayaan merupakan
pengikat kepada jaringan sosial dan hubungan bersama dalam organisasi. Di
sekolah, kepercayaan dikira sebagai hasil kecenderungan kepada beberapa
siri kerja. Ianya termasuklah nilai integriti (kejujuran dan keterbukaan),
243
berminat (keinginan berbuat baik dan memberi perhatian kepada orang lain),
berkebolehan dan konsisten. Nilai kepercayaan di sekolah dikatakan kurang
apabila sentiasa terganggu dengan anasir-anasir luar yang berbentuk negatif.
Transformasi dan penguasaan kurikulum yang efektif berdasarkan
pelaksanaan oleh guru yang mempunyai pengetahuan, kemahiran dan
tingkahlaku yang diperlukan untuk membantu pelajar memahami bagaimana
sesuatu pengetahuan itu dibina dan digunakan untuk menyokong hubungan
kukuh dalam masyarakat. Guru merupakan insan yang membawa perspektif
budaya, nilai, harapan dan impian dalam bilik darjah. Justeru, guru perlu
mempunyai perlakuan positif terhadap budaya dalam menangani isu
perbezaan kaum, etnik dan jantina.
Abdul Razak (2001) menyatakan peranan guru sebagai agen
sosialisasi. Sosialisasi ialah proses interaksi yang membolehkan manusia
hidup dalam masyarakat secara harmoni. Sosialisasi juga bermaksud proses
mendisiplinkan individu supaya sesuai dengan norma dan nilai masyarakat.
Oleh itu guru berperanan untuk mentarbiahkan pelajar-pelajarnya, memberi
ilmu, membentuk masyarakat modani, menjadi ‘role model’ kepada murid
dan masyarakat, berkhidmat dan berinteraksi dengan masyarakat serta
menjadi penghubung antara guru, kerajaan, ibu bapa dan masyarakat.
Dalam KBSM, program kokurikulum diberi tumpuan bagi
memperkukuhkan dan memperluaskan lagi pembelajaran di bilik darjah.
Aktiviti-aktiviti lanjutan dirancang melalui gerak kerja kokurikulum yang
merangkumi aspek-aspek khidmat masyarakat, rekreasi dan pengayaan.
Aktiviti ini boleh dilakukan melalui persatuan, unit berpakain seragam, kelabkelab, projek-projek tertentu serta permainan olahraga. Tujuannya adalah
untuk memperkukuhkan dan memperluaskan kurikulum formal terutama
dari segi pemupukan nilai-nilai dan pengalaman amali (Pusat Perkembangan
Kurikulum, 1989).
METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Kajian ini dijalankan di sekolah menengah harian di daerah Pontian,
Johor. Responden kajian terdiri daripada 588 orang pelajar. Responden
dipilih secara rawak lapis/strata di mana ianya berdasarkan ciri populasi.
Responden terdiri daripada 318 orang pelajar Melayu, 254 orang pelajar Cina
dan 16 orang pelajar India. Sampel ini dipilih dari kalangan 2699 pelajar
tingkatan 4 dari enam buah sekolah menengah dalam daerah Pontian.
Kajian ini dijalankan menggunakan instrumen soal selidik yang telah
dibina sendiri oleh pengkaji dan diedarkan kepada 650 orang responden dari
sekolah-sekolah terbabit dan 588 borang telah dikembalikan dengan
maklumat yang lengkap. Item-item yang terdapat dalam soal selidik ini terdiri
daripada item yang berkaitan dengan faktor demografi iaitu jantina, kaum,
244
prestasi akademik terkini (PMR) dan aliran pelajar. Selain itu, item-item yang
terdiri daripada pembolehubah iaitu meninjau kepada interpretasi
kandungan subjek 10 item, iklim sekolah 10 item, perlakuan guru 10 item,
proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran 10 item dan aktiviti kokurikulum 10
item dibina dan diukur dengan menggunakan skala Likert 5 mata.
DAPATAN KAJIAN
Berdasarkan Jadual 1 didapati pencapaian akademik responden
berdasarkan gred keputusan PMR mendapati pencapaian responden adalah
tinggi bagi subjek Sains dan pencapaian yang rendah dalam subjek Bahasa
Inggeris. Pencapaian ini dilihat bertujuan mengenalpasti tahap pencapaian
responden dan cuba mengaitkan dengan pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi
yang berlaku.
Jadual 1. Taburan kekerapan dan peratus responden mengikut gred
keputusan PMR Bahasa Melayu, Bahasa Inggeris, Sains,
Matematik dan Sejarah
Jadual 2, menunjukkan tahap pelaksanaan berdasarkan objektif
kajian yang dijalankan. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui
kandungan subjek menurut interpretasi pelajar berada pada tahap tinggi
dengan nilai min 3.80. Bagi pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui iklim
sekolah menunjukkan tahap sederhana dengan nilai min 3.60.
Seterusnya, pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui perlakuan
guru menunjukkan tahap tinggi dengan nilai min 3.80. Pelaksanaan kurikulum
tersembunyi melalui proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran telah berlaku pada
tahap tinggidengan nilai min 3.74. Selain itu, pelaksanaan kurikulum
tersembunyi melalui aktiviti kokurikulum menunjukkan tahap sederhana
dengan nilai min 3.67.
245
Jadual 2. Tahap Pelakasanaan Berdasarkan Objektif Kajian
Objektif Kajian
Min
Tahap
1. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi
melalui kandungan subjek
3.80
Tahap Tinggi
melalui iklim sekolah
3.60
Tahap Sederhana
melalui perlakuan guru
3.80
Tahap Tinggi
melalui proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran
3.74
Tahap Tinggi
melalui aktiviti kurikulum
3.67
Tahap Sederhana
RUMUSAN KAJIAN
Pelbagai interpretasi pelajar mengenai kandungan subjek dapat
dilihat dan dianalisis. Kebanyakan pelajar bersetuju menyatakan subjek
Bahasa Melayu adalah penting untuk semua pelajar berbilang kaum.
Walaupun kepentingan mempelajarinya telah tersurat dalam Huraian
Sukatan Kebangsaan namun pengkaji melihat kebanyakan pelajar melihat
kepentingannya secara tersirat berbanding tersurat. Bagi Wan Azmi Ramli
(1993) beliau melihat mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu sebagai satu alat untuk
mencapai perpaduan rakyat.
Pengkaji juga mendapati kebanyakan responden tidak bersetuju
bahawa konsep perpaduan kaum hanya jelas dalam subjek Sejarah sahaja.
Pelajar mula menyedari kehadiran konsep perpaduan juga jelas
dipersembahkan dalam subjek lain juga. Menurut Nik Azis Nik Pa dan Noraini
(2008), kategori nilai murni sesuai dikembangkan melalui mata pelajaran
Matematik, Sains, Agama, Bahasa, Sejarah dan Pendidikan Jasmani. Justeru,
pengkaji berpendapat kurikulum tersembunyi boleh wujud dalam mata
pelajaran tersebut berdasarkan kewujudan nilai murni yang dikembangkan
dalam mata pelajaran itu.
Dapatan kajian mendapati pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi agak
lemah dalam situasi iklim sekolah. Kebanyakan responden bersetuju dengan
menyatakan perasaan bangga menjadi warga sekolah yang terdiri daripada
246
pelbagai kaum. Menurut Abdullah Sani Yahya (2007) iklim persekolahan yang
terbuka dan positif adalah iklim persekolahan yang demokratik, dan iklim ini
dapat membantu sekolah mencapai aspirasinya seperti membimbing pelajar
supaya rajin berusaha, berdisiplin, berinisiatif, rela bekerjasama, ramah dan
mesra, spontan, kreatif serta tinggi motivasinya. Justeru, responden melihat
kewujudan pelbagai kaum di sekolah merupakan satu bentuk iklim yang
positif dan demokratik.
Dapatan kajian juga mendapati, guru bukan orang pertama yang
ditemui sekiranya mempunyai masalah interaksi antara rakan-rakan
berbilang kaum. Menurut Ang Jit Eng (2007) nilai kendiri seseorang sedikit
sebanyak dipengaruhi oleh layanan yang diterimanya dari orang lain. Dalam
hal ini, ia banyak dipengaruhi oleh bentuk layanan yang diberikan oleh guru
kepada pelajar. Perlakuan guru juga turut dilihat memberi kesan kepada
pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi. Hasil kajian mendapati guru yang baik
ialah guru yang mempunyai pengetahuan yang luas dalam semua aspek.
Persepsi pelajar melihat guru yang berpengetahuan luas ini mampu
membawa mereka kepada pemupukan ilmu pengetahuan dan sekaligus
pengetahuan berbentuk psikologi dan sosiologi. Kepemimpinan guru yang
mengamalkan budaya beretika adalah mereka yang menjaga perpaduan,
penyayang, kerja berpasukan, bersopan santun, berdisiplin, hidup sihat, jujur
dan ikhlas (Abdullah Sani et.al, 2007).
Gaya pembelajaran yang dipilih pelajar menjurus kepada
keseronokan pelajar dalam usaha memperoleh pengetahuan dan kemahiran.
Dapatan kajian melihat pelajar gemar mempelajari sesuatu yang bermakna
melalui aktiviti berkumpulan. Ini menunjukkan pembelajaran yang bermakna
selalunya berpusatkan pelajar, tidak lagi berpusatkan guru. Sejajar dengan
pendapat Raiff(1992) menyatakan, memahami pelajar akan mengurangkan
kekecewaan yang dihadapi pelajar. Dalam konteks memahami sifat pelajar,
gaya pembelajaran menjadi indikator bagaimana seseorang pelajar belajar
dan cara belajar yang digemarinya. Menurut Tengku Sarina Aini dan Yusmini
Yusof (2006), kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran yang dipilih oleh guru
menghasilkan beberapa tahap motivasi yang berbeza kepada pelajar.
KESIMPULAN
Pelaksanaan kurikulum di sekolah melihat kepada keberkesanan hasil
daripada pembinaan kurikulum itu sendiri. Pembinaan kurikulum secara
nyata ini sebenarnya telah memberi kewujudan kepada satu bentuk fahaman
baru yang berlaku secara tersirat iaitu kurikulum tersembunyi. Ramai yang
sedar bahawa impak kurikulum tersembunyi jika diamati selalunya lebih
247
besar dan memberi kesan jangka panjang berbanding kurikulum nyata yang
telah dimaktubkan.
Kewujudan kurikulum tersembunyi ini perlu diberi perhatian dan
diambil berat sama seperti kurikulum formal yang lain kerana matlamat dan
hasilnya tetap sama iaitu sebagai fungsi dalam pendidikan. Kurikulum dan
pendidikan merupakan komponen teras dalam usaha melahirkan bangsa
yang maju, bersatu padu, demokratik, progresif dan berdaya saing.
Kewujudan masyarakat pelbagai kaum ini harus disatukan dalam satu
bumbung yang bernama pendidikan. Secara tidak langsung, apa yang berlaku
di sekolah sama ada nyata atau tersembunyi mampu memberikan hasil dan
impak ke arah pembentukan negara yang positif.
RUJUKAN
Aini, Tengku Sarina, Tengku Kasim dan Yusmini Mohd Yusoff (2006). Kaedah
Mengajar dan Kemahiran Interpersonal Guru. Kuala Lumpur : PTS
Professional Publishing Sdn.Bhd.
Ali, Abdul Rahim M. dan Johar Othman (2001). Sekolah sebagai satu
organisasi. Ilmu Pendidikan DPM, Pendidikan di Malaysia dan
Psikologi Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur ; Utusan Publications and
Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Ang Jit Eng (2007). Pengurusan Disiplin Murid. Kuala Lumpur : PTS
Professional Publishing.
Kruse, S.D. dan Louis, K.S. (2009). Building Strong School Cultures. United
States: Corwin Press.
Nik Azis Nik Pa dan Noraini Idris (2008). Perjuangan Memperkasakan
Pendidikan di Malaysia : Pengalaman 50 Tahun Merdeka. Utusan
Publications and Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (1989). Falsafah Pendidikan Negara. Kuala
Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Said, Abdul Razak (2011). Guru dan alam pendidikan. Ilmu Pendidikan DPM :
Pendidikan di Malaysia dan Psikologi Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur ;
Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Yahaya, Abdullah Sani, Abdul Ghani Abdullah dan Abdul Rashid Mohamed
(2007). Guru sebagai Pemimpin. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Professional
Publishing Sdn. Bhd.
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PENGEMBANGAN BAHAN AJAR
PERKULIAHAN PENILAIAN PEMBELAJARAN FISIKA
FMIPA UNJ
Yetti Supriyati
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study aims to develop teaching materials of Physics Learning
Assessment as a reference for students majoring in physical
education to be used in lectures. The specific objective is the
development of teaching materials in order to obtain materials
which consider the characteristics of physics as a science and based
on the standards of judgment according to Government Instruction
No. 20 of 2007.Methodology of the study is a research and
development through the stages of introduction, development and
implementation. To obtain a valid teaching materials and reliable
content the research validated by experts in physics learning, and
educational evaluation. Further validation of the content carried by
physics teachers through Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Finally
implementation test is performed by teachers to students majoring
in physical education at Physics Learning Assessment subject.The
result of the study concluded that teaching materials Physics
Learning Assessment which has been developed and validated by
content includes assessment of objective tests and descriptions,
non-test assessment, assessment of affective, psychomotor
assessment and alternative assessment. Assessment of learning
physics as a teaching material for students majoring in physical
education who will teach at the level of SMP / MTs and SMA/ MA so
it must consider the physical characteristics and in accordance with
valuation standards.
Keywords: teaching materials, assessment, physics, tests, non test,
alternative test
LATAR BELAKANG
Hasil penilaian pembelajaran merupakan informasi hasil belajar
seorang siswa yang sangat diperlukan bagi siswa, guru, sekolah, departemen
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pendidikan dan orang tua untuk melihat perkembangan kemajuan belajar
seorang siswa. Selain itu penilaian belajar dapat digunakan sebagai umpan
balik yang selanjutnya dapat digunakan sebagai landasan untuk mengambil
keputusan bagi perbaikan–perbaikan pendidikan dan pembelajaran.
Dilihat dari manfaat hasil belajar, maka diperlukan sistem penilaian
keberhasilan suatu program pembelajaran yang tepat sehingga mampu
memberikan informasi yang akurat sebagai bahan pertimbangan dalam
membuat keputusan. Ketepatan keputusan yang diambil sangat bergantung
pada kualitas informasi yang diperoleh dan sangat bergantung pada
bagaimana prosedur penilaian dilakukan serta alat ukur yang digunakan
dalam memperoleh informasi tersebut.
Pada pelaksanaan tes hasil belajar sering terjadi ketidakadilan
pengukuran hasil belajar, baik dari alat ukur yang digunakan maupun
penyelenggaraannya. Kesalahan pengukuran ini mengakibatkan kekeliruan
dalam pengambilan keputusan. Dengan demikian dalam melaksanakan
penilaian pembelajaran, diperlukan alat ukur yang dapat mengukur dengan
tepat keberhasilan siswa dalam pembelajaran. Hasil tes yang diperoleh
dengan cara yang tidak adil, tidak dapat memberikan informasi untuk
mengetahui prestasi siswa yang sebenarnya, dan hasil tes seperti itu dapat
memberikan informasi yang keliru mengenai keberhasilan belajar siswa. Oleh
karena itu, harus dipersiapkan alat ukur berupa perangkat tes yang sahih dan
terandal, serta berlaku adil dalam mengpenilaian keberhasilan belajar para
siswa. Adil di sini mempunyai arti tidak terjadi kesalahan pengukuran
kemampuan siswa yang diakibatkan oleh kesalahan alat ukur yang digunakan
serta cara penyelenggaraannya.
Untuk mendapatkan informasi yang adil bagi setiap siswa maka
diperlukan alat ukur yang adil pula. Perangkat tes yang baik adalah perangkat
tes yang dapat mengestimasi kemampuan seseorang dengan kesalahan
pengukuran yang sekecil-kecilnya.Oleh karena itu diperlukan sistem tes yang
adil yang memberikan perlakuan yang mempertimbangkan kompetensi untuk
semua siswa, sehingga siswa yang mempunyai kompetensi yang sama akan
memperoleh sekor tes yang sama, pada skala ukur yang sama. Siswa yang
pandai akan mempunyai sekor yang lebih tinggi daripada siswa yang kurang
pandai. Dengan demikian variasi sekor yang diperoleh menggambarkan
variasi kemampuan siswa dalam menguasai materi pelajaran yang telah
diajarkan, sehingga diperlukan suatu teknik penyelenggaraan tes dengan
mempertimbangkan sistem tes yang adil.
Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) adalah kurikulum
berbasis kompetensi yang merupakan seperangkat rencana dan pengaturan
tentang kompetensi yang harus dicapai siswa setelah melakukan
pembelajaran. Orientasi KTSP lebih menekankan pada hasil dan dampak yang
250
diharapkan muncul pada diri siswa melalui serangkaian pengalaman
bermakna dan beragam yang dimanifestasikan sesuai dengan kebutuhan.
Dasar pemikiran KTSP menggunakan konsep penguasaan kompetensi adalah
kemampuan siswa dalam melakukan berbagai konteks, menjelaskan
pengalaman belajar yang dilalui siswa untuk menjadi kompeten, hasil belajar
(learning outcomes) yang menjelaskan hal-hal yang dilakukan siswa setelah
melalui proses pembelajaran, kehandalan kemampuan siswa melakukan
sesuatu harus didefinisikan secara jelas dan luas dalam suatu standar yang
dapat dicapai melalui kinerja yang dapat diukur.
Mutu lulusan tidak cukup bila diukur dengan standar lokal saja, sebab
perubahan global telah sangat besar mempengaruhi ekonomi suatu bangsa.
Industri baru dikembangkan dengan berbasis kompetensi,
maka bangsa
yang berhasil adalah bangsa yang berpendidikan dengan standar mutu yang
tinggi. Untuk meningkatkan mutu penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang tinggi
diperlukan guru-guru yang mampu mengpenilaian pembelajaran fisika
dengan adil. Dengan demikian diperlukan pengetahuan tentang teori-teori
penilaian pembelajaran fisika bagi panduan guru dalam melaksanakan
penilaian pembelajaran.
Mengacu pada isu-isu sebagaimana dikemukakan pada latar belakang
dan sejalan dengan implementasi Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan
(KTSP) mata pelajaran fisika yang menekankan pada pembelajaran berbasis
kompetensi, dan penilaian belajar berbasis kelas, maka dirasakan perlu
penelitian bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika bagi calon guru dan/atau
guru terkait dengan kegiatan penilaian pembelajaran fisika. Bahan ajar ini ini
disusun dengan tujuan agar setelah mempelajari
secara seksama,
diharapkan para calon guru dan/atau guru fisika dapat:
1. Menyelenggarakan kegiatan penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang sejalan
dengan hakikat fisika sebagai proses dan produk
2. Mengembangkan dan mengimplementasikan berbagai teknik penilaian
pembelajaran fisika yang bervariasi.
3. Mengembangkan bahan penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang relevan
dengan tuntutan kurikulum KTSP dan standar penilaian sesuai permen
no 20 tahun 2007.
Kehadiran bahan ajar ini diharapkan dapat menjadi acuan bagi calon
guru dan/atau guru dalam mengembangkan penilaian pembelajaran fisika
yang sejalan dengan hakikat fisika, dan berbasis pada penilaian kelas.
Berdasarkan uraian di atas maka dapat dirumuskan masalah pada
penelitian ini adalah:
1. Bagaimana mengembangkan bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran fisika
sesuai Karakteristik pelajaran fisika di SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA?
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2. Bagaimana penilaian pelajaran fisika pada tingkat SMP?MTs dan SMA/MA
dengan cara penilaian berbasis kelas sesuai dengan standar penilaian?
3. Bagaimana mengembangkan penilaian kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik
dalam pembelajaran fisika?
Manfaat Penelitian
Pertama, penelitian ini diharapkan dapat bermanfaat bagi mahasiswa
sebagai calon guru SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA yang mengikuti perkuliahan
penilaian pembelajaran fisika untuk menambah referenceserta meningkatkan
profesionalitas calon guru fisika. Kedua, hasil penelitian ini berguna pula bagi
guru fisika pada tingkat SMP/MTs dan SMA/MAsebagai acuan dalam
penilaian berbasis kelas dan telah memenuhi standar penilaian sesuai
permen no 20 tahun 2007. Ketiga, hasil penelitian bahan ajar Penilaian
Pembelajaran Fisika ini dapat menjadi menambah kumpulan buku-buku
perpustakaan jurusan fisika sehingga dapat menjadi reference para dosen
pengajar di jurusan fisika serta dosen FMIPA pada umumnya. Keempat, buku
bahan ajar ini dapat lebih disempurnakan menjadi bahan penelitian
selanjutnya untuk dikembangkan kembali sehingga dapat digunakan oleh
masyarakat yang lebih luas.
LANDASAN TEORI
Pengertian Penilaian
Penilaian adalah prosedur yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan
informasi tentang prestasi atau kinerja peserta didik. Hasil penilaian
digunakan untuk melakukan penilaianterhadap ketuntasan belajar peserta
didik dan efektivitas proses pembelajaran. Informasi tersebut merupakan
hasil pengolahan data yang diperoleh melalui kegiatan pengukuran dan
nonpengukuran.
Pengukuran dan nonpengukuran adalah proses untuk memperoleh
data tentang karakteristik peserta didik dengan aturan tertentu. Hasil
pengukuran berupa data numerik atau kuantitatif, sedangkan hasil
nonpengukuran berupa data kualitatif.
Informasi tersebut digunakan oleh pendidik untuk (a) menilai
kompetensi peserta didik, (b) bahan penyusunan pelaporan hasil belajar, dan
(c) memperbaiki proses pembelajaran. Oleh satuan pendidikan, informasi
tersebut digunakan untuk menilai pencapaian kompetensi lulusan yang akan
digunakan untuk menentukan kenaikan kelas dan kelulusan peserta didik dari
satuan pendidikan.
Dengan demikian penulisan bahan ajar tidak terlepas dari bagaimana
seharusnya memberikan penilaian kepada peserta didik sesuai dengan
pengertian penilaian.
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Prinsip-prinsip Penilaian
Pelaksanaan penilaian hasil belajar peserta didik didasarkan pada
data sahih yang diperoleh melalui prosedur dan instrumen yang memenuhi
persyaratan.
Penilaian hasil belajar peserta didik didasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip
sebagai berikut.
1. Mendidik, yakni mampu memberikan sumbangan positif terhadap
peningkatan pencapaian belajar peserta didik. Hasil penilaian harus dapat
memberikan umpan balik dan memotivasi peserta didik untuk lebih giat
belajar.
2. Terbuka/transparan, yakni prosedur penilaian, kriteria penilaian, dan
dasar pengambilan keputusan diketahui oleh pihak yang terkait.
3. Menyeluruh, yakni menyangkut berbagai aspek kompetensi yang akan
dinilai. Penilaian yang menyeluruh adalah meliputi ranah pengetahuan
(kognitif), keterampilan, (psikomotor), sikap dan nilai (afektif) yang
direfleksikan dalam kebiasaan berfikir dan bertindak.
4. Terpadu dengan pembelajaran, yakni menilai semua yang dikerjakan
peserta didik dalam proses pembelajaran itu dinilai, baik yang berkait
dengan ranah kognitif, psikomotorik dan afektif. Dengan demikian,
penilaian tidak hanya dilakukan setelah peserta didik menyelesaikan
kompetensi tertentu melainkan saat mereka sedang melakukan proses
pembelajaran.
5. Objektif, yakni tidak terpengaruh oleh pertimbangan subjektif penilai.
6. Sistematis, yakni penilaian dilakukan secara berencana dan bertahap
untuk memperoleh gambaran tentang perkembangan belajar peserta
didik sebagai hasil kegiatan belajarnya.
7. Berkesinambungan, yakni dilakukan secara terus menerus sepanjang
berlangsungnya kegiatan pembelajaran.
8. Adil, yakni tidak ada peserta didik yang diuntungkan atau dirugikan
berdasarkan latar belakang sosial-ekonomi, budaya, agama, bahasa, suku
bangsa, warna kulit, dan jender.
9. Menggunakan acuan kriteria dalam menentukan kelulusan peserta didik.
Teknik Penilaian
Dalam memperoleh data, pendidik dapat menggunakan berbagai
teknik penilaian secara komplementer (saling melengkapi) sesuai dengan
kompetensi yang dinilai, sebagaimana diuraikan dalam panduan penilaian
masing-masing kelompok mata pelajaran. Berdasarkan PP Nomor 19 Tahun
2005 Pasal 19 ayat (3) dinyatakan bahwa setiap satuan pendidikan
melakukan perencanaan proses pembelajaran, pelaksanaan proses
pembelajaran, penilaian hasil pembelajaran, dan pengawasan proses
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pembelajaran untuk terlaksananya proses pembelajaran yang efektif dan
efisien. Selanjutnya dalam Pasal 22 ayat (1) dinyatakan bahwa penilaian hasil
pembelajaran sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 19 ayat (3) pada jenjang
pendidikan dasar dan menengah menggunakan berbagai teknik penilaian
sesuai dengan kompetensi dasar yang harus dikuasai. Pada Pasal 22 ayat
(2) dinyatakan bahwa teknik penilaian sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat
(1) dapat berupa tes tertulis, observasi, tes praktik, dan penugasan
perseorangan atau kelompok. Dengan demikian, pendidik dapat
menggunakan teknik yang lain sepanjang masih relevan, seperti tes lisan,
wawancara, pemberian angket, penilaian portofolio, jurnal, inventori,
penilaian diri, dan penilaian antarteman
Berdasarkan uraian di atas maka dalam penulisan buku ajar penilaian
pembelajaran fisika harus memuat penilaian bagi peserta didik dengan tes
tertulis, observasi, tes praktik, dan penugasan perseorangan atau kelompok,
serta menggunakan teknik yang lain sepanjang masih relevan, seperti tes
lisan, wawancara, pemberian angket, penilaian portofolio, jurnal, inventori,
penilaian diri, dan penilaian antarteman.
Karakteristik Bidang Studi Fisika
Karakteristik fisika menjadi acuan dalam penulisan bahan ajar
penilaian pembelajaran fisika. Mahasiswa dalam belajar penilaiantidak dapat
dipisahkan dengan karakteristik fisika agar diperoleh hasil penilaian yang
komprehensif. Sehingga karakteristik fisika ini menjadi amat penting karena
dalam pelaksanaan penilaian pembelajaran.
Fisika merupakan suatu pembelajaran yang terakumulasi dan
sistimatik tentang fenomena alam. Kemajuan fisika ditandai bukan hanya
oleh suatu akumulasi fakta, tetapi oleh berkembangnya metode ilmiah dan
sikap ilmiah. Jadi, fisika merupakan proses belajar yang dilakukan manusia
untuk mempelajari fenomena-fenomena alam sehingga menghasilkan
sekumpulan fakta yang menuntun pada penemuan berbagai konsep, prinsip,
generalisasi, teori, dan hukum tentang alam sebagai wujud dari produk fisika.
Pengumpulan fakta dilakukan melalui proses yaitu metode ilmiah dan sikap
ilmiah yang memungkinkan keduanya berkembang seiring dengan
perkembangan pemahaman manusia tentang alam.Fisika merupakan
serangkaian skema konsep-konsep dan konseptual yang telah dikembangkan
sebagai suatu hasil eksperimen dan pengamatan yang mendorong
dilakukannya eksperimen dan pengamatan lebih lanjut. Selain itu fisika
menekankan bukan hanya pada produk tetapi juga pada proses yaitu
eksperimen dan pengamatan sebagai suatu bentuk metode ilmiah yang juga
di dalamnya terkandung sikap ilmiah. Produk fisika yang telah ditemukan
mendorong untuk dilakukan eksperimen dan pengamatan lebih lanjut
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sehingga memungkinkan berkembangnya metode ilmiah, sikap ilmiah, dan
produk fisika itu sendiri.
Karakteristik fisika ini harus tercermin dalam bahan ajar yang
menyatu dalam pembahasan serta tertuang dalam contoh-contoh yang dapat
dipraktekan oleh mahasiswa. Diharapkan dengan memperhatikan
karakteristik fisika dapat membentuk mahasiswa yang memiliki kompetensi
dalam memberikan penilaian kepada peserta didik.
Keterampilan Proses Sains
Observasi
Keterampilan melakukan observasi adalah suatu kemampuan dalam
mengamati suatu obyek dan fenomena dan melalui panca indera, yaitu:
melihat, menyentuh, mengecap, mendengar, dan membau. Informasi yang
diperoleh dapat merangsang keingintahuan, bertanya, berpikir, membuat
interprestasi tentang lingkungan dan merangsang melakukan penyelidikan
lanjutan. Keterampilan mengobservasi merupakan hal yang paling penting
untuk mengembangkan keterampilan yang lain.
Klasifikasi
Keterampilan
mengklasifikasi
adalah
kemampuan
dalam
menggolongkan atau mengelompokkan sejumlah objek, peristiwa, dan
makhluk hidup yang berada di sekitar lingkungannya. Klasifikasi dapat
diperoleh melalui observasi mencari kesamaan, perbedaan dan hubungan
satu dengan lainnya. Keterampilan mengklasifikasikan merupakan
kemampuan yang sangat penting untuk dikembangkan, karena dapat
meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir.
Komunikasi
Keterampilan
komunikasi
adalah
suatu
kemampuan
mengkomunikasikan sesuatu secara jelas, tepat dan tidak ambigu melalui
tulisan maupun lisan. Misalnya mengkomunikasikan grafik, peta, simbol,
diagram, persamaan matematis dan demontrasi visual.
Pengukuran Metrik
Keterampilan pengukuran metrik adalah suatu kemampuan
mengkuantifikasi, membandingkan serta mengkomunikasikan sesuatu.
Misalnya untuk menjawab pertanyaan: Berapa banyak? Berapa jauh? Berapa
panjang? Berapa kecepatannya? Pertanyaan ini merupakan hal yang sering
ditemui dan digunakan jika berhubungan dengan pengukuran metrik.
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Prediksi dan Peramalan
Keterampilan memprediksi adalah kemampuan menduga atau
meramalkan apa yang akan terjadi di masa yang akan datang berdasarkan
pada pola dari hasil observasi dan inferensi. Kejadian atau fenomena di alam
memiliki keteraturan dalam prosesnya. Fenomena yang teratur ini dikatakan
pola. Kejadian ini dapat diobservasi berdasarkan pola tadi, sehingga
kemungkinan yang terjadi di masa yang akan datang dapat diprediksi.
Inferensi atau Penafsiran
Keterampilan inferensi atau penafsiran adalah kemampuan apresiasi
dalam menginterprestasikan sesuatu yang terjadi di lingkungannya. Sebagian
besar dalam perilaku sehari-hari berdasarkan pada inferensi yang dibuat
terhadap suatu peristiwa. Ahli sains membuat hipotesis berdasarkan
inferensinya untuk selanjutnya diselidiki, belajar mengenai pola dan
memperkirakan pola yang akan terjadi lagi pada kondisi yang sama.
METODOLOGI PENELITIAN
Tujuan Penelitian
Penelitian ini dilakukan memiliki tujuan diantaranya:
1. Pengembangkan bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran fisika sesuai
Karakteristik pelajaran fisika di SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA
2. Tersusunnya bahan ajar penilaian pelajaran fisika pada tingkat SMP?MTs
dan SMA/MA dengan cara penilaian berbasis kelas sesuai dengan standar
penilaian.
3. Mengembangkan penilaian kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik dalam
pembelajaran fisika.
Waktu dan Tempat Kegiatan
Tempat penelitian di jurusan pendidikan fisika FMIPA UNJ dan waktu
penelitian selama 6 bulan dari januari 2011 sampai dengan juni 2011.
Metode Penelitian
Penelitian ini dikembangkan melalui penelitian pengembangan
(research and development). Desain penelitian yang digunakan dapat dilihat
pada table dibawah ini.
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Tabel 1. Design Penelitian
No.
1.
TAHAPAN
Studi pendahuluan



2.
Studi
Pengembangan


3.
Implementasi





KEGIATAN
Analisis kebutuhan tentang materi bahan ajar
PenilaianPembelajaran Fisika
Studi
deskripsi perkuliahan Penilaian
pembelajaran fisika
Studi bahan ajar pelajaran fisika di SMA/MA
dan SMP/MTs
Mendesain dan mengembangkan bahan ajar
Penilaian Pembelajara Fisika
Validasi expert yang terdiri dari dosen
pendidikan fisika dan guru-guru SMA/MA
serta SMP/MTs
Draft bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajara Fisika
Uji
implementasi
terhadap mahasiswa
jurusan pendidikan fisika
Deskripsi hasil penelitian
Pembahasan hasil penelitian
Bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika siap
untuk digunakan
Studi Pendahuluan dilakukan dengan menganalisis kebutuhan
tentang materi bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika. kegiatan Studi ini
mempelajari deskripsi perkuliahan penilaian pembelajaran fisika pada
jurusan pendidikan fisika. Dilanjutkan dengan studi pengembangan bahan
ajar dengan menulis bahan ajar dan dilanjutkan dengan validasi ahli.
Selanjutnya studi implementasi yang dilakukan terhadap mahasiswa.
PEMBAHASAN DAN HASIL PENELITIAN
Pembahasan
Studi pendahuluan
Salah satu tahapan pengembangan bahan ajar adalah analisis
kebutuhan tentang materi bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika. Pertama
menganalisis kurikulum pelajaran fisika tingkat SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA
terutama tentang standar kompetensi dan kompetensi dasar. Selain itu
mempelajari indikator pencapaian KD yang telah dikembangkan oleh guru.
Selanjutnya mempelajari penyusunan indikator soal yang dikembangkan
guru untuk menjadi masukan bahan ajar apa yang diperlukan mahasiswa
untuk menyusun silabus dan penilaian. Hal ini dilakukan karena saat
penyusunan silabus masalah penilaian harus sudah direncanakan sesuai
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dengan proses pembelajaran berlangsung. Sebagai hasil analisis dalam
penyusunan silabus diperlukan kompetensi untuk memahami enam
komponen utama, yaitu (1) standar kompetensi, (2) kompetensi dasar,
(3) materi pokok, dan (4) indikator pencapaian, (5) indikator penilaian, (6)
alokasi waktu, dan (7 )sumber bahan. Penjabaran standar kompetensi
menjadi sejumlah kompetensi dasar telah dibuat oleh BSNP sedang
penjabaran kompetensi dasar menjadi indikator dan materi pokok, dan
kemudian menjadi dilakukan oleh sekolah atau daerah/kota.
Analisis tentang karakteristik fisika dilakukan untuk keperluan
penulisan bahan ajar agar sesuai kebutuhan penilaian pelajaran fisika di
sekolah. Karakteristik fisika disebutkan bahwa fisika mengandung makna
pengajuan pertanyaan, pencarian jawaban, pemahaman jawaban,
penyempurnaan jawaban baik tentang gejala maupun tentang karaktersitik
alam sekitar melalui cara-cara yang sistematis. Belajar fisika seharusnya
diawali dengan menunjukan fakta/fenomena sains dan memfokuskan pada
pemberian pengalaman secara langsung (hands on activity)
atau
memanfaatkan dan menerapkan konsep dan prinsip. Untuk memahami
prilaku/gejala alam
perlu dilatih berpikir secara inkuiri serta
mengembangkan sejumlah keterampilan ilmiah, yang disebut juga sebagai
keterampilan proses sains. Selajutnya denga tuntutan pembelajaran fisika
harus sesuai dengan karakteristik fisika maka penilainnya harus bagaimana.
Keterampilan itu antara lain, keterampilan proses dasar dan keterampilan
proses terpadu. Dengan demikian bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika
harus mampu bagaimana menilai keterampilan proses sains diantaranya
bagaimana menilai keterampilan proses dasar yaitu melakukan observasi,
klasifikasi, komunikasi, pengukuran metrik, prediksi dan peramalan, inferensi
atau penafsiran. Dan bagaimana menilai keterampilan terpadu yaitu
identifikasi variabel, penyusunan tabel data, penyusunan Grafik, Penjelasan
Hubungan antar variabel, Pencarian dan Pemrosesan Data, Analisis
Penyelidikan, Penyusunan Hipotesis, Penentuan variabel Operasional, Disain
Penyelidikan, Eksperimen.
Selain itu dalam penulisan bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika
memperhatikan deskripsi perkuliahan. Dibawah ini dijelaskan deskripsi
perkuliahan penilaian pembelajaran.
Studi pengembangan
Pada tahap pengembangan bahan ajar evaluasi pembelajaran fisika
dilakukan penulisan bahan ajar dengan memperhatikan deskripsi
perkuliahan, karakteristik fisika dan kurikulum sekolah. Bahan ajar evaluasi
pembelajaran disusun sebagai berikut:
BAB 1. Penilaian Pembelajaran Bidang Studi Fisika
258
BAB II. Penilaian bentuk tes pada bidang studi fisika
BAB III. Penilaian bentuk non tes pada Bidang Studi Fisika
BAB IV. Penilaian afektif pada bidang studi fisika
BAB V. Penilaian psikomotorik pada bidang studi fisika
Setelah tersusun bahan ajar, maka dilakukan validasi konten oleh tiga
orang dosen ahli pendidikan fisika dan penilaian pendidikan. Dilanjutkan
dengan panel oleh 10 orang guru fisika SMA/MA dan SMP/MTs. Validasi ini
ditinjau dari kesesuaian konsep yakni sesuai dengan deskripsi perkuliahan,
karakteristik fisika dan kurikulum sekolah, standar penilaian
serta
keterbacaan bahan ajar ditinjau dari bahasa. Sebagai hasil validasi diperoleh:
Tabel 2. Validasi Konten
BAB
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
BAHAN AJAR
Karakteristik fisika
serta Penilaian
Pembelajaran Fisika
Penilaian bentuk tes
objektif dan uraian
Penilaian bentuk
nontes
Penilaian bentuk
afektif
KONSEP
Valid
BAHASA
Ada
perbaikan
valid
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Penilaian
psikomotorik
Penilaian Bentuk Tes
Alternatif
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Valid
KET
Selesai validasi ahli dilakukan revisi bahan ajar dengan
memperhatikan saran para ahli dan dikembalikan kepada para ahli untuk
dikoreksi kembali. Setelah ada persetujuan para ahli maka dilakukan uji
empiris pada mahasiswa yang mengikuti perkuliahan.
Studi implementasi
Studi implementasi dilakukan selama perkuliahan berlangsung.
Mahasiswa dalam mengikuti perkuliahan diberi bahan ajar untuk dipelajari,
dibaca dan didiskusikan. Hasil implementasi pada perkuliahan PPEP tidak ada
masalah yang berarti, hanya terdapat beberapa istilah yang tidak difahami
untuk diperjelas. Dari sisi bahasa masih ada perbaikan dan masukan dari
mahasiswa cukup bagus.
259
Keunggulan materi ajar ini, saat didiskusikan dapat membuka
wawasan mahasiswa terutama dalam teknik penilaian bagi peserta didik
yang bervariasi dan berbasis kelas serta sesuai dengan karakteristik fisika.
Selain itu disesuaikan pula dengan materi fisika di SMA dan SMP sehingga
dapat menjadi pengalaman bagi mahasiswa dalam penilaian pembelajaran
fisika di sekolah. Sebagai hasil uji implementasi sebagai berikut:
Tabel 3. Hasil Uji Implementasi Pengembangan Bahan Ajar
BAB
BAHAN AJAR
I
Karakteristik fisika
serta Penilaian
Pembelajaran Fisika
II
Penilaian bentuk tes
objektif dan uraian
III
Penilaian bentuk
nontes
IV
Penilaian bentuk
afektif
V
Penilaian
psikomotorik
VI
Penilaian Bentuk Tes
Alternatif
KONSEP
Dapat difahami
secara konsep dan
dipraktekan
Dapat difahami
secara konsep dan
dipraktekan
Dapat difahami
secara konsep dan
dipraktekan
Dapat difahami
secara konsep dan
dipraktekan
Dapat difahami
secara konsep dan
dipraktekan
Dapat difahami
secara konsep dan
dipraktekan
BAHASA
Ada
perbaikan
KET
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Ada
perbaikan
Hasil implementasi dari mahasiswa dijadikan acuan untuk perbaikan
bahan ajar ditinjau dari kemudahan pemahaman, kemudahan untuk
mempraktekan dalam menevaluasi pembelajaran fisika, dan keterbacaan.
Berdasarkan karakteristik pelajaran fisika, kurikulum fisika di sekolah,
dan deskripsi perkuliahan ini maka dikembangkan bahan ajar evaluasi
pembelajaran fisika.
HASIL PENELITIAN
Sebagai hasil penelitian diperoleh seperangkat bahan ajar penilaian
Pembelajaran Fisika yang telah divalidasi ahli dan uji implementasi pada
mahasiswa yang mengikuti perkuliahan. Bahan ajar disusun dalam 6 BAB
sebagai berikut:
260
BAB 1. Karakteristik fisika serta Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika
BAB II. Penilaian bentuk tes objektif dan uraian
BAB III. Penilaian bentuk nontes
BAB IV. Penilaian bentuk afektif
BAB V . Penilaian psikomotorik
BAB VI . Penilaian Bentuk Tes Alternatif
Untuk lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat dalam lampiran seperangkat
bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika.
KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN
Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan hasil pengembangan bahan ajar maka diperoleh
kesimpulan sebagai berikut:
a. Bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang dikembangkan melalui
tahapan studi pendahuluan, studi pengembangan dan studi empirik
menghasilkan enam bab meliputi penilaian tes objektif dan uraian,
penilaian afektif, enilaian psikomotorik, dan penilaian alternatif.
b. Bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika ini dapat digunakan bagi
mahasiswa pendidikan fisika sebagai calon guru fisika pada tingkat
SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA.
c. Bahan ajar pembelajaran fisika yang dikembangkan dapat memenuhi
standar penilaian.
Saran
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dengan segala keterbatasan waktu,
sarana dan prasarana di sarankan:
a. Agar bahan ajar
Evaluasi Pembelajaran Fisika terus dikembangkan
kembali dengan menambah materi bahan ajar sesuai dengan
perkembangan teknologi pendidikan.
b. Agar Bahan ajar Evaluasi Pembelajaran Fisika dapat dikembangkan dengan
perangkat pembelajaran lainnya misalnya VCD pembelajaran yang
dilengkapi dengan evaluasi pembelajaran.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Azwar S. (2001). Reliabilitas dan Validitas. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Dirjen Dikdasmen. (2003). Pedoman Pengembangan Silabus dan Penilaian,
Jakarta.
261
Dirjen Dikmenum. (2004). Pengembangan Sistem Penilaian Kurikulum
Berbasis Kompetensi 2004, Jakarta.
Gronlund, Norman E. (1993). How to Make Achievement Test and
Assessment, USA.
Hopkins, C. D and Richard L. Antes. (1990). Classroom Measurment and
Evaluation. Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
Naga, Dali S. (1992). Pengantar Teori Skor Pada Pegukuran Pendidikan,
Jakarta: Gunadarma.
Purwanto N. (2001). Prinsip dan Teknik Evaluasi Pengajaran, Bandung: Rosda
Karya.
Puskur. (2007). Pengembangan Sistem Penilaian. Jakarta.
Sudjana, N. (2010). Penilaian Hasil proses Belajar Mengajar. Bandung: Rosda
Karya.
Surapranata, Sumarna. (2004). Analisis, Validitas, Realibilitas, dan
Intrepretasi Hasil Tes Implementasi Kurikulum 2004. Bandung:
Rosda Karya.
262
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN ANAMNESIS SKILLS LAB,
CREATIVE THINKING AND ABILITY TO SOLVE
PROBLEM ON STUDENTS OF MEDICINE FACULTY
AT KRIDA WACANA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY JAKARTA
Rina Priastini1, Budiman Hartono2
Faculty of Medicine, Krida Wacana Christian University, Jakarta 1,2
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Anamnesis was a step to explain his illness was based on the
quality, the quantity, the background, the location of anatomy and
his spreading, time including when his illness was felt, factors what
made his illness improve, worsened, continue to, the constant
complaint, intermitten. Information must in the chronological
composition, including test diagnostics that were carried out before
the patient's visit. The objective of this study is to find out
relationship between anamnesis skills lab, the student’s creative
thinking and ability to solve problems on medicinal science. A
sample of 130 respondents was selected randomly from students in
the Faculty of Medicine (50 male and 80 female), KridaWacana
Christian University, Jakarta. Data on anamnesis skills lab, creative
thinking and problem solving ability were taken through objective
test and an essay test. The data was analyses by simple regression
analysis, partial correlation and multiple regression techniques. The
findings are as follows: (1) there is a positive correlation between
students anamnesis skills lab and problem solving ability (r = 0,614),
and there is a significant relation between creative thinking and
problem solving ability (r = 0,630).This study also reveals that the
mean score of student’s ability on problem solving, creative
thinking and anamnesis skills lab were higher than their theoretical
mean score. The conclusion of the study shows that doing
anamnesis skills lab significantly contributed to student’s ability in
problem solving.
Keywords:anamnesis skills lab, creative thinking, problem solving
ability
263
INTRODUCTION
In the educational field, the reality showed many people were
talented that was not identified and trained to put forward the creative
achievements as the expression talented that was optimal, so as the
development of knowledge in Indonesia still more often was marked by the
use of the knowledge than the significant discovery that was the contribution
towards the development of ilmu (Semiawan, 1992). Beside that the
research longitudinal while 20 years proved that the capacity thought
creative could predict the success someone in achieving the success through
the creative activity in the period of datang (Cropley, 2001). The truth is this
indicated that to answer the development of fast knowledge the activity that
must be carried out including being to prepare the student who could think
creative in solving the problem in order to be able to develop the scientific
discovery. However, to the student of medicine faculty Krida Wacana
Christian University (FK UKRIDA) the wish brought about the above matter
apparently still had various hindrances. The hindrance that was meant among
them to be the number of eyes taught and big credit (160 SKS) to complete
education. With this burden, the task that must be carried out apart from the
hour terstruktur became big, so as the opportunity to develop it became
limited.
The competition that was increasingly sharp in the economic field
and science that happened at this time resulted in the requirement for the
quality of human resources being increasingly tall. This development showed
this demand necessary followed up through various efforts in the educational
field, including medical education the public. Because of that the policy of the
curriculum also followed the development that happened. In the academic
year of 2006/2007 Faculty of Medicine Krida Wacana Christian University of
the Jakarta discourse applied the new curriculum that was acknowledged as
the curriculum based on the competence (KBK) that more stressed the
problem based learning method (PBL).
Since 2006 the UKRIDA School of Medicine began the new curriculum
that is the curriculum based on the competence (KBK). The achievement of
competence with KBK FK UKRIDA more structured and was measured. With
system KBK the doctor's education in FK UKRIDA that beforehand with the
long curriculum 6 years, now FK UKRIDA could yield to the doctor in time 5
years. During 2008 the student of FK UKRIDA with the old curriculum system
(KurLa) inseminated into several KBK modules to KurLa including the doctor's
communication and the patient, empathy and medical skills.
This explanation showed that there are several internal factors that
were related to the capacity to solve the problem. This internal factor in part
covered the ability todo anamnesis skills lab and student’s creative thinking
264
to carry out the good and effective illness diagnosis. To increase this ability,
must be carried out by efforts that could show the existence of the
connection between the ability to solve the problem and internal factors
available. These efforts were carried out by paying attention to the
appropriate instrument.
The internal factor that was related to the ability to solve the
problem including being: the ability to do anamnesis the human body
through skills lab and the student’s creative thinking.
With pay attention to the analysis above, several matters that were
questioned were how the picture of the capacity of the second semester that
student of the general in solving the problem of the diagnosis of an illness
through anamnesis? The instrument that was exact to test the student's
ability to do anamnesis skills lab of the human body? The ability to do
anamnesis skills lab was related to the ability to solve the problem? If indeed
was available, how far this connection? Did the ability to solve the problem in
relation to student’s creative thinking? If related, howfar this connection?
The concept himself was related to the ability to solve the problem, if
related, howfar this connection?
This research was carried out to receive the empiric data concerning
the connection between factors internal that covered beginning knowledge
would human body anatomy and student’s creative thinking who differed
and the ability to solve the problem. From this data was expected to be able
to be received the picture concerning the characteristics of the student in
accordance with the condition or the potential for the available student.
Realised the number of conditions that influenced the ability to solve the
problem, then this research was restricted with the data concerning the
connection between the ability to solve the problem and factor internal that
it was estimated had the correlation, including being beginning knowledge to
do the anamnesis skills lab, student’s creative thinkingas well as the
theconcept of that academic manner. Participants educated in this case were
the student who had taken part in the basic lecture of Cell Biology 1 and 2 in
FK UKRIDA in the I semester and II semester.
Was based on the identification and the restriction on the problem,
then operationally the problem that will be researched could be formulated
as follows:
1. Was gotten by relationship between the ability to do anamnesis skills lab
and the ability to solve the problem?
2. Was gotten by relationship between student’s creative thinking and the
ability to solve the problem?
265
3. Was gotten by relationship between the ability to do anamnesis skills lab
and creative thinking in a manner was with the ability to solve the
problem?
The aim of carrying out this research was to receive the empiricdata
concerning the connection between the internal factors that covered the
ability to do anamnesis skills lab and student’s creative thinkingwho differed
and the ability to solve the problem. From this data was expected to be able
to be received the picture concerning the characteristics of the student in
accordance with the condition or the potential for the available student.
The data that was received it was hoped could be used to increase
the knowledge treasury concerning the matter that was related to the grating
of medical education medical the public through the implementation of the
skills lab. Specially, with they learned the connection between the
characteristics of the student and the ability to solve the problem, then this
information could be used to help increased the potential for the student,
especially in pursuing the ability to do anamnesis the human body through
the good skills lab and effective skills lab.
SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND
The success of each process of communication especially personal
communication, really was influenced by was built him continued the feeling
between the patient and the doctor. If the disturbance in the process
happening continued this feeling, that ought to be the beginning stage as
well as the process opener of further communication, then will be found by
several hindrances for example: the patient's reluctance to join the interview,
the patient's mistrust against the doctor and the frightened emergence of the
patient to the doctor (Yasavati, 2010).
This situation will definitely cause the disturbance in the process of
communication, so as the data that was received about this patient also
became inaccurate. Because of this the skills built continued the good feeling
must be trained and cooked really. There is good him was repeated by us for
a moment several important matters that must be paid attention to in built
continued this feeling.
The interviewer/the student/the prospective doctor must pay attention
to:
 Looks like very simple, neat and clean
 At the first meeting, did not forget to give appropriate greetings the
situation and the condition at that time, and used the appropriate
language and could be understood by the patient
266

To showed the friendly face was accompanied by the polite and wellmannered attitude of
 To create the atmosphere of relaxed and pleasant communication of
 To make the note that needed from information that was obtained,
to avoid the impression interrogated
 At the end of conversation did not forget to say thank you and
greetings the separation
In order to be created continued the good feeling, then the interviewer/the
student/the prospective doctor must show the certain view of the
respondent or the patient so that:
 The patient believed that the student/the prospective doctor will not
open the secret of the patient to who of
 The patient understood that results of communication will be used
only in the interest of as well as the patient's goodness
 The patient felt empathy from the student/the prospective doctor
(not the feeling of compassion on his suffering)
 The patient felt that the patient was given by the opportunity to raise
the opinion or information generously
 The patient felt this communication was carried out by the individual
who was equal (not had an interrogation nature)
After the student/the prospective doctor could build continued the
feeling well, then the further step in the student was trained by his skills in
did anamnesa
Anamnesis skills lab will be continued by means of taking information
concerning the main complaint and the story of the illness now (RPS).
However was good his skills that were received in the semester beforehand
concerning the data himself to the patient and the other data that were
linked with the patient also were repeated again to ecpertise the anamnesis
skills. Especially the constructive skill continued the feeling must be with the
patient repeated, so that anamnesis that furthermore will walk with easy
(Yasavati, 2010).
The anamnesis skills lab took about the main complaint and the story
of the illness now the patient needs precision, because lest information that
was given by the patient concerning the main complaint precisely not the
main complaint actual. The definition of the main complaint was the
complaint that pushed the patient came to take medicine to the hospital or
the community health centre/the clinic or to the practice of the doctor
(Yasavati, 2010).
Training in the clinical skills lab is integrated into the curriculum of
the Suez Canal School of Medicine so as to serve the two main educational
267
strategies of the College, which are the community-based education and the
problem-based learning. The link of the clinical skills with either strategy
varies according to the educational phase.
In phase I (pre-pathogenesis), the educational problems are
organized into blocks which address sequential phases of human
development from pre-natal life to senescence. In their community-based
activities in the primary health care centers, students examine patients of the
same phase of life as in the problems in their blocks. They have to perform
certain clinical skills for each age group such as examination of visual acuity
for school children, measuring pulse and blood pressure of the aged subjects,
etc. In the skills lab, they are trained to perform these skills, using the
standard checklists, before practicing on real patients.
In phase II (pathogenesis), the educational problems are grouped
around diseases of the body systems and those problems form the core
around which most other activities are organized. During this phase, medical
problems are utilized to motivate the students to learn mainly basic medical
sciences in addition to clinical sciences. At this level, students are not
requested to make diagnosis or to discuss management plans; instead, they
are supposed to be able to explain underlying basic mechanisms of the
symptoms and signs of various diseases. Thus, the skills on which students
are trained, in the skills lab, are intimately related to the problems they take
in their small-group classes. For example, they are trained on the clinical
examination of the heart during the block of cardiovascular problems.
In phase III (clerkship), students learn clinical interventional skills e.g.
wound suturing, urinary catheterization, in order to be more confident and
less liable to commit accidental mistakes as they practice such skills on the
patients in the clerkship.
By using methods that had been studied. The activity that was this
experience contributed with the problem situation that was organised so as
finally the aim that was wanted by accomplished (Ausubel at.al, 1978) but
the situation thought that was needed was different from everyday
behaviour skills. This capacity his characteristics were complex and were not
easy reducted became the certain routine activity. By that, to solve the
problem was needed by the situation critical thinking or in other words “to
solved the problem, was not possible to be carried out in the situation of
empty (Gage and Berliner, 1984). The meaning was needed by beginning
knowledge that was enough to be able to solve the problem well. This
beginning knowledge was one of the elements of the cognitive foundation
that was needed to carry out the conclusion and chose when weighing the
purpose of the achievement (Runco, 1994).
268
Creativity was often mentioned as multi dimentional concept or the
concept that was understood by someone with the point of view different
(McKaechie, 1994).Since really Greece old, in broad outline was gotten by 45
concepts of the theory of creativity. Currently groupedto covered several
concepts of the foundation: 1) creativity as empiric regression, 2) creativity as
the characteristics of the identity, 3) creativity as the mental capacity
product, 4) creativity as the mental process, and the function hemisphere.
To solve the problem (the problem solving) was important rumours in
the learning process, remembered the fast progress continued to happen in
various fields. According to McCall and Kaplan (1985) solved the problem (the
problem) came from two Greek words, for meaning that in the future or
advanced and ballein was throw away or movedp (Rothwell and Kazanas,
1992). Literally solved the problem was the gap between the situation at this
time and the ideal situation that needed the further action. This
understanding afterwards developed by the situation that emerged when
someone realised himself wanted to achieve a target, but not directly knew
how to reach him? (Jung, 1959)
To solve the problem could be seen as the aspect holistik (Gestalt), or
as the simple analysis of the studying response to the stimulus that emerged
(the group behaviorist). This understanding furthermore developed by the
reflection of the processing of information that happened in himas a human
(Briggs, 1979). As indirectly this showed in solving the problem had the
control of the internal process that acted as the rules higher order rules
(thought the high-level). So as for results of receiving maximal results were
needed intellectual skills to sort, used the actual concept, or determined the
rule. This activity could it was considered arrange the student in studying,
thinking and determining the quality and efficiency of study (Tuna, 1980). By
training this capacity, the student could it was considered take the important
and sensitive decision for human knowledge that was related to hope treated
the patient in a comprehensif manner (Catell, 1970).
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The research was carried out in the UKRIDA School of Medicine that
was located in Street Arjuna Utara no. 6 KebunJeruk Jakarta Barat, including
the implementation of the instrument test. Well the test and the
implementation of the research were carried out for 4 months, since
February 2012 till May 2012.
The method that was used in this research was the survey technically
the correlation. With this method, in the data collection was not carried out
by the treatment or the conditional against the variable that was researched,
and only expressed the fact was based on the available sign to the student.
269
The research variable consist of: 1) the predictor variable that
covered the ability to do anamnesis skills lab (X1), and student’s creative
thinking (X2), as well as 2) the response variable, that is the ability to solve
the problem by the student (Y).
This research had a purpose to know was not the correlation
between the ability to anamnesis the human body through the skills and
student’screative thinking with to solve the problem. The method that was
used was survey correlational technique. The sample of the research totally
130 students (50 men, 80 women) was taken from 400 students randomly
simple (simple random sampling). This student had followed the subject of
the topic of Cell Biology 1 and 2 in the level of preclinic Faculty of Medicine
KridaWacana Christian University in Jakarta at the beginning and the end of
second semester. The age of the medical’s student between 18 - 20 years.
Calibration of the implement measured was carried out by paying
attention to the validity of the contents of the test, question compatibility
with lecture material, the appropriateness of the implementation,
compatibility indicator the test was carried out to 130 respondents,
furthermore was carried out by the analysis and the interpretation that were
used as the foundation of the finishing of the instrument.
Before the testing was carried out, was preceded with the condition
test for the analysis that covered the normality test by using KolmogorovSmirnov as well as the homogeneity test through the Bartlett Test. To test
the hypothesis, the analysis statistic that was used was regression and
correlational. The relations model between variable-variable the research,
both separately (linear simple) and together (linear dual) was determined
through the analysis of regression. In the meantime to know the strength of
relations between variable-variable was carried out by the analysis korelasi
(Sudjana, 1989; Tuckman, 1978).
To give the picture concerning results of the grating against the
threevariables that is the capacity solved the problem, the capability of
anamnesis skills lab and creative thinking of academic students was
presented through the descriptive analysis. It was larger that descriptive
statistics in part in general (mean) the middle value (the median), the most
frequency (mode), and the standard intersection (standard deviation).
Nearby that the data of each research variable was put forward in the form
of the normal distribution and the picture of the graph.
The analysis of statistics was carried out with help of the SPSS
program the version 16 for Windows. The analysis of statistics that were used
was regression and correlational. The testing of the hypothesis was carried
out with: a) looked for the linear model simple (the relations model between
270
the variable), b) the calculation and the testing of the correlation coefficient
to see the significance of regression and linearity (Putrawan, 1990).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Realised the number of conditions that influenced the capacity to
solve the problem, then this research was restricted with the data concerning
the connection between the capacity to solve the problem while joining
lectures in the school of medicine and the internal factor that it was
estimated had the correlation, among them the capacity did anamnesis skills
lab and creative thinking. Participants educated in this case was the student
who had taken part in the lecture in the semester 1 and 2 that is the bloc 3
Basic of Cell Biology 1 and the bloc 4 Basic of Cell Biology 2 of general medical
in FK UKRIDA that studied the human body beginning with the level of the
cell up to organ system.
Based on the receipt of the data in an empirik manner, the score of
the ability to do anamnesis the human body skills lab, the ability to solve the
problem, and the student's creative thinking was as follows:
Tabel 1: The Average Data of Teoritic Score and Empiric Score
Variable
The ability to
do the
anamnesis
skills lab (X1)
Creative
thinking (X2)
To solve the
problem (Y)
n
Minimum
Score
Maximum
Score
Average of
teoritic score
130
27
47
19
130
19
54
33
130
54
75
40
Average of
empiric
score
30,62 
4,853
38,82 
6,876
64,09 
5,224
From the instrument that consisted of 19 items with the scale (0-2),
then score extension teoretik was (0-38) and in general the score teoretik
was 19. In the meantime from the data produced by the research was
received by the minimal score 27 and the score of the maximum 47. The
value of the score in general was 37,62 and the standard of the deviation
4,853. From this data showed that the score in general the data empirik was
30,62 higher was compared by the score in general teoritic (19). This meant
the ability to do the anamnesis the human body by skills lab was classified as
high.
271
From the collection of the score data concerning the capacity to
creative thinking of the student by using the instrument that consisted of 33
items with the score of the item 1 to 3. Therefore score extension teoritic
was 33 - 99. In general the score teoritic was 33. The receipt of the minimal
score of the empiric data was 19 and the score of the maximum 54. The value
of the score in general (mean score) the data empirik was 38,82 (the
standard of the deviation was 6,876). From this data showed that the score in
general creative thinking of the student (38.82) higher than the score in
general teoritic (33). Meaning that, creative thinking of the student of FK
UKRIDA of the first semester and second semester of academic years
2010/2011 be classed as relatively high (the score in general empiric on the
score in general teoritic).
From the collection of the score data to solved the problem that was
received by the student after to do the anamnesis skills lab as follows, the
instrument consisted of 20 items with the scale (0-4), then score extension
teoretic was (0-80) and in general the score teoretic was 40. In the meantime
from the data produced by the research was received by the minimal score
54 and the score of the maximum 75. The value of the score in general was
64,09 and the standard of the deviation 5,224. From this data showed that
the score in general the data empiric was 64,09 higher was compared by the
score in general teoritic (42). This meant the capacity to solve the problem
after to do the anamnesis skills lab twice was classified as high.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
X1a X1b X1c X1d X2a X2b X2c X2d
X1
X2
Ya
Yb
Yc
Yd
Y
Graph 1. The graph of empiric data of the score of the ability
Remark: data of score of the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1),
creative thinking (X2) and the capacity to solved the problem (Y), the
minimal score (a), the score of the maximum (b), the average of
teoritic score (c), the average of empiric score (d)
272
Based on the hypothetical test that was raised before hand then was
gotten by the relationships that were positive between the student's ability
to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1) and the ability to solve the problem (Y).
Relationships between the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab and the
ability to solve the problem through the equality of regression of Y = 61,832 +
0,060 X1. Further towards this equality was carried out by the significance
test and linierity relationship. From results of the analysis of the significance
test of linear Y regression upper X1 and the test linierity showed that the
equality of regression of Y = 61,832 + 0,060 X1 was very significant
(Fcalculated<Ftable) and linear (Fcalculated>Ftable). Meaning that each rise in one score
of beginning knowledge will be followed with the increase in the ability to
solve the problem of 0,060 in the constant 61,832. From the significance test
produced by the analysis was received by the strength of relationship
between the ability to solve the problem (Y) and the ability to do the
anamnesis skills lab (X1) and the correlation coefficient 0,614. Further was
known by the price tcalculated was 27,717 bigger than the price ttable that is
2,571. Therefore the correlation coefficient of ry1 = 0,614 were very
significant (α = 0,01). Meaning that increasingly high the student's ability to
do the anamnesis skills lab, will be increasingly positive the ability to solvethe
problem. Results of the analysis also showed the determination coefficient
(r2y1) of 0,3770 or 37,7% of the ability variation to solve the problem (Y) could
be explained through the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1).
Based on the second hypothetical test was gotten by positive
relationship between student’s creative thinking (X2) and the ability to solve
the problem (Y). Relationship between student’s creative thinking and the
ability to solve the problem it was demonstrated through the equality of
regression of Y = 64,236 + 0,004 X2. Further towards this equality was carried
out by the significance test and linierity relationship. From results of the
analysis of the significance test of linear Y regression upper X2 and the
linierity test showed that the equality of regression of Y = 64,236 + 0,004 X 2
was very significant (Fcalculated<Ftable) and linear (Fcalculated>Ftable). Meaning that
each rise in one score student’s creative thinking will be followed with the
increase in the ability to solve the problem of 0,004 in the constant 64,236.
From the significance test produced by the analysis was received by the
strength of relationship between the ability to solve the problem of the age
(Y) and creative thinking (X2) and the correlation coefficient 0,430. Further
was known by the price tcalculated was 27,717 bigger than the price ttable that is
2,571. Therefore the correlation coefficient of ry2 = 0,630 were very
273
significant (α = 0,01). Meaning that increasingly high of student’s creative
thinking, will be increasingly positive the ability to solve the problem. Results
of the analysis also showed the determination coefficient (r2y2) of 0,1849 or
18,49%.
The empiric data that was received from the test concerning the
ability to do the anamnesis skills lab showed the value of the score in general
was 30,62 (the standard of the deviation 4,853), whereas in general the
teoritic score (19). Meaning that the score of the student's ability to do the
anamnesis skills lab relatively high. The height of the score of the ability to do
anamnesis skills lab was supported by the situation where the student in the
semester beforehand had followed learning of concerning human body
anatomy from the level of the cell to the organ system, so as some
information that was accepted possibly was still being kept in the memory.
From the receipt of the score produced by the test of creative
thinking that consisted of 33 items showed the value of the score in general
was 38,82 (the standard of the deviation 6,876). This score was relative was
not different too high from the value in general of teoritic score (33). The
score tended homogeneous, or had the small variation (generally was almost
same). The possibility of this is caused by medical students of FK UKRIDA be
used to think in aactual manner, procedural with certain principles. Nearby
that the hindering factor of the student’s creative thinking was the burden
size of the study that caused time to study limited so as they were used to it
more focussed himself on the resolution of the tasks that was given. The
conditional of this pattern of being one of their reasons became uneasy filled
up the non test questionnaire, so as tended member the answer in the
statement was concrete. Therefore the pattern of this answer was almost
same or not more varying. The assumption about this was supported by what
was raised by Gardner (1993), and Kwang (2001) that culture will give the
influence on someone creative thinking (Gerdner, 1993); Leahey and Harris,
1997). On basically both of them proposed that culture was some factor
important to show someonecreativity, meaning that in the not more
conducive environment will be difficult to show someone who could think
creative.
Literally to solve the problem was the gap between the situation at
this time and the ideal situation that needed the action of next moved.18The
understanding of this afterwards developed by the situation that emerged
when someone realised himself wanted to achieve as a target, but not
directly knew how to reach him? (Leahey and Harris, 1997)
To solve the problem could be seen as the aspect holistic (Gestalt), or
as the simple analysis of the studying response to the stimulus that emerged
(the group behaviorist). This understanding furthermore developed by the
274
reflection of the processing of information that happened in himas a human
(Good and Brophy, 1990). As indirectly this showed in solving the problem
had the control of the internal process that acted as the rules higher order
rules (thinking the high-level). So as for a result of receiving maximal results
was needed intellectual skills to sort, used the actual conceptt, or determined
the rule. This activity could it was considered arrange the student in studying,
thinking and determining the quality and the efficiency of study (Gagne and
Briggs, 1992). By training this ability, the student could it was considered take
the important and sensitive decision for human knowledge that was related
to hope treated the patient in a comprehensive manner (Book, 1986).
From the receipt of the data, the testing of the hypothesis as well as
discussions that were carried out, was found that is gotten by positive
relationship between the ability to the anamnesisskills lab and the ability to
solve the problem. The strength of these relations was shown through the
correlation coefficient (ry1) = 0.614, and the value of the determination
coefficient (r2y1) = 0.3770, or the ability variance to solve the problem 37,7%,
could be explained by variable the ability to solve the problem through
anamnesis skills lab. From these findings, was concluded by the ability to do
anamnesis skills lab was the variable that was decisive enough towards the
ability to solve the problem. Meaning that, the ability to solve the problem
could be increased by means of increasing the student's ability to do
anamnesis skills lab.
discussions that were carried out was found that is gotten by positive
relationship between student’s creative thinking and the ability to solve the
problem. The strength of these relationship was shown through the
correlation coefficient (ry2) = 0.630, and the value of the determination
coefficient (r2y2) = 0.1849, or the variance in the ability to solve the problem
18,49% could be explained by the variable of the student’s creative thinking.
These findings concluded that creative thinking was the variable that had the
contribution increased the ability to solve the problem. Meaning that, the
ability to solve the problem could be increased by means of increasing the
pattern of student’s creativity of thinking.
discussions that were carried out, was found that is gotten by positive
relationship between the ability to do anamnesis skills labandstudent’s
creative thinking in a manner was with the ability to solve the problem.
Results of the correlation coefficient of ry12 = 0.620 as well as the
determination coefficient of r2y12 = 0.3844 Meaning that 38.84 % the ability
variation of to solve the problem could be explained through the ability to do
anamnesis skills lab and student’s creative thinking together. From these
275
findings could be said that if the two variables were increased together, then
the ability to solve the problem could be increased. Increased the two
variables showed results that were better compared with if only one of the
variables that was increased
CONCLUSION
Based on results of this research then could be concluded that in the
based medical curriculum competence, the implementation of anamnesis
skills lab was very supportive the student in understanding and carrying out
the method of the illness diagnosis that was better compared with the last
curriculum that was used beforehand that did not enclose skills lab in that
curriculum. Likewise the student's creative thinking that was high also could
cause the height of the student's ability in solving the problem while joining
lectures.
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278
THE PROBLEM SOLVING FOR PARAGRAPH WRITING
FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES BASED ON COHESION
AND COHERENCE
Widjono Hs.
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The objective of this research is to solve the problem of the teaching
and learning the paragraph writing for academic purposes based on
cohasion and coherence on Indonesian language as general
development subject mater. This research was carried out in Jacarta
State University. In this researsch, method used is action research.
In this research, the conclusion of this research is much better and
suitable to the student activity. (WHS)
Keywords: paragraph, academic writing, cohesion, coherence
PENDAHUUAN
Pembelajaran bahasa Indonesia di Universitas Negeri Jakarta bertujuan
untuk mengembangkan kemampuan akademik. Kemampuan itu terkait
dengan kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotorik. Kemampuan kognitif mencakup:
pengetahuan, pemahaman, pengaplikasian, penganalisisan, penyintesisan,
dan pengevaluasian pembelajaran. Oleh Anderson dan Krathwohl (2001:204)
kemampuan sintesis dapat disetarakan atau diartkan sebagai kemampuan
menciptakan kreativitas baru dan diposisikan pada tahap akhir, setelah
evaluasi. Kemampuan dalam bahasan itu difokuskan pada kognitif level
ketiga, pengaplikasian kohesi dan koherensi dalam penulisan paragraf.
Dalam pembelajaran bahasa, kemampuan itu merupakan tuntutan
kebutuhan yang harus dipenuhi oleh mahasiswa. Kemampuan itu mencakup
berbicara, mendengar, membaca, dan menulis (Widdowson, 1979: 2).
Kemampuan itu merupakan kebutuhan dasar bagi setiap mahasiswa. Untuk
komunikasi akademik, kemampuan itu tidak dapat dilakukan dalam waktu
singkat (instan). Mahasiswa memerlukan bimbingan, arahan, pembinaan, dan
latihan dengan prinsip-prinsip maju berkelanjutan, dan penelitian yang
memadai untuk menghasilkan kemampuan yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa.
Bimbingan dan arahan itu merupakan bagian dari proses belajar.
Proses itu dikembangka melalui metode instruksional, bahan ajar, dan
279
pendekatan yang sesuai dengan kompetensi mahasiswa. Dalam bahasan ini
metode instruksional difokuskan pada kegiatan mendiskusikan,
mendemontrasikan, dansumbang saran. Hal itu didukung oleh kesesuaian
bahan ajar yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa. Untuk itu pembelajaran
didukung oleh kerjasama: kolaboratif, interaktif, dan reflektif. Pewujudannya,
mahasiswa didorong untuk mengembangkan diri secara aktif. Untuk itu,
kajian itu menggunakan penelitian tindakan yang lazim disebut Action
researsch.
Melalui proses itu, pembelajaran menulis diharapkan dapat
mewujudkan kultur akademik, menjalin kerja sama antarmahasiswa, kerja
sama mahasiswa dan dosen. Selain itu proses pembelajaran memungkinkan
terjadinya kondisi belajar yang interaktif, menyenangkan, menantang,
memotivasi mahasiswa untuk berpartisipasi aktif serta memberikan ruang
akademik yang lebih leluasa
bagi pengembangan kreativitas dan
kemandirian sesuai dengan minat dan perkembngan kognitif mereka.
Di sisi lain, kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menulis akademik masih
memprihatinkan. Mereka masih kesulitan mengekspresikan ide dengan
kalimat dan paragraf yang kohesif (Haliday dan Hasan, 1979) dan koherensi
(Renkema, 1984: 35) dan hubungan antarkonsep (Beaugrande, 1981:
95).Terkait dengan upaya itu, penelitian dilakukan melalui tindakan kelas
dalam pembelajaran menulis bahasa Indonesia. Penelitian itu difokuskan
pada pembelajaran menulis paragraf akademik. Selain itu, mereka juga
kurang terlatih dalam mengorganisasi ide dalam sruktur paragraf akademik
yang terdiri atas kalimat topik, kalimat pendukung, dan kalimat konklusi
(Oshima dan Hogue, 2006: 57-57), dan komposisi paragraf yang ditandai oleh
keselarasan hubungan kalimat. Hal itu merupaka indikator bahwa mahasiswa
membutuhkan bahan ajar menulis paragraf akademik berbasis pada kohesi.
Kebutuhan itu mencakup kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik
berbasis pada kohesi dan koherensi, proses menulis paragraf akademik
berbasis kohesi dan koherensi, mengatasi kesulitan menulis akademik
berbasis kohesi dan koherensi. Pemecahkan masalah itu memerlukan
penelitian. Untuk itu penelitian itu difokuskan pada pembelajaran menulis
paragraf akademik ekspositori berbasis pada kohesi dan koherensi. Fokus itu
berupa kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik melalui pemahaman, kaidahkaidah, kohesi dan koherensi kalimat dengan memasalahkan (1) bagaimana
meningkatkan kemampuan menulis itu melalui pendekatan interaktif,
kolaboratif, reflektif; (2) bagaimana kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik
melalui pendekatan tersebut.
Terkait dengan hal itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui:
(1) kemampuan memahami konsep-konsep dalam penulisan paragraf
akademik berbasis pada kohesi, koherensi, dan kombinasi kohesi dan
280
koherensi. (2) Meningkatkan kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik melalui
pendekatan interaktif, kooperatif, dan kolaboratif.
Untuk itu, diperlukan kajian paragraf akademik, kohesi, koherensi,
kompetensi, dan fungsi komunikasi dalam membangun dan merefleksikan
kekuatan hubungan (Wood, 2004: 169) Terkait dengan hal itu, Akmajian,
Demers, Farmer, dan Harnish (1998: 344-346) mencermati kesuksesan
komuniasi yang diperoleh melalui ketepatan kata, keterpahaman pesan,
keterfokusan, kelayakan bahasa, pesan, kesesuaian pesan dengan fakta, dan
penggunaan kata yang bermakna lugas. Selain itu, komunikasi akademik
menuntut kecermatan menggunakan referensi, dan kecermatan menuliskan
spesifikasi pesan.Mereka menegaskan bahwa kesuksesan komunikasi terjadi
jika pembaca memahami dan menerima pesan sepenuhnya dari penulis.
Chomsky menyatakan bahwa kompetensi mengharuskan pemakaian
bahasa untuk komunikasi, penggunaan kalimat sesuai dengan aturan
linguistik atau tata bahasa: ejaan yang disempurnakan, ketepatan dan
kesesuaian kata, frasa, bentuk kata, kalimat, paragraf, dan esai akademik. Hal
ini terkait dengan kemampuan mengaplikasi kaidah bahasa yang merupakan
tuntutan kebutuhan kebahasaan yang terungkap melalui perfomansi,yaitu
kinerja (performansi) untuk menghasilkan abstraksi pengetahuan yang
dimanifestasikan dalam komunikasi.Dalam hubungan itu, Brown menyatakan
bahwa kompetensi merujuk pada pengetahuan dasar seseorang tentang
sistem, kejadian, atau fakta. juga menyatakan bahwa pengetahuan tersebut
tidak teramati dalam melakukan sesuatu. Sedangkan perfomansi adalah
perwujudan konkret yang dapat diamati dan merupakan realisasi atas
kompetensi dalam berbicara, bertanya, dan menulis (Brown, 2007:3839).
Dapat ditegaskan bahwa bahasa untuk komunkasi akademik bersifat
unik. Keunikan itu antara lain hubungan berpikir dan ekspresi pemikiran,
kompetensi bahasa untuk berkomunikasi dan perfomansi untuk
menghasilkan abstraksi pengetahuan yang dimanifestasikan dalam
komunikasi.
Menulis akademik, bagi mahasiswa berupa pembahasan topik yang
berhubungan dengan bahan ajar menulis. Mereka menyebutkan dari
paragraf ke esai, dan kelengkapannya: narasi, deskripsi, ekspositori,
argumentasi, atau persuasi. (McCrimmon,James, Writing With A Purpose Eith
Edition by Joseph F. Trimmer Nancy, Sommers, 1984: 163). Hal serupa
dilakukan oleh Oshima dan Hogue yang menyatakan bahwa produk tulisan
akademik berupa paragraf, dari paragraf ke esai, dan esai (Oshima and
Hogue, 2006: 57). Terkait dengan hal itu, Hyland menyatakan bahwa
mahasiswa tidak hanya menulis wacana akademik, bahan presentasi seminar,
ujian, dan tugas-tugas akademik, mereka juga menulis akademik dengan
ketepatan dan kesesuaian kata serta keakuratan gramatika sehingga
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menghasilkan keterkaitan tulisan akademik dengan keakuratan informasi
yang ditulis. Hyland menambahkan bahwa produk tulisan akademik lebih
terfokus pada kajian ilmu pengetahuan daripada produk praktis.
Dapat disimpulkan bahwa menulis paragraf atau esai akademik
kedalam wacana dapat dilakukan dengan mengaplikasi persyaratan formal,
ragam bahasa akademik, konvensi penulisan ilmiah, bahasan konsisten
dengan konteks, menyajikan informasi akademiki: ilmu pengetahuan
teknologi dan seni, dan memperhatikan harapan pembacanya (pemberi tugas
atau dosen pengujinya).
Peulisan paragraf menuntut persyaratan kohesi dan koherensi.
Terkait dengan hal itu, Haliday dan Hasan menyatakan bahwa kohesi
intrakalimat dan antarkalimat dibangun melalui pemarkah kohesi. Hubungan
kohesi antarkalimat dan antarparagraf menghasilkan strukur teks, struktur
kalimat, dan relasi semantik membentuk keterpaduan elemen-elemen
sebuah teks. Kohesi pada level kalimat, antara lain: kohesi gramatikal
substitusi, elipsis, referensi, dan konjungsi. Kohesi leksikal terdiri atas:
reiterasi, dan kolokasi (Haliday and Hasan, 1976:15).
Sejalan dengan hal itu, menyatakan bahwa menulis menghubungkan
kalimat atau beberapa kalimat. Sekuensi beberapa kalimat dibangun dalam
suatu relasi antarkalimat berdasarkan aturan tertentu, misalnya: relasi
kausal,
mengontraskan,
mempertentangkan,
dan
sebaganya.
Bahasanparagraf mencakup pengertian, struktur, komposisi, kelengkapan,
kesatuan, kohesi, koherensi, dan paragraf sebagai wacana,
Paragraf adalah satuan bahasa tulis yang terdiri dari beberapa kalimat
yang tersusun secara runtut, logis, dalam satu kesatuan ide yang tersusun
secara lengkap, utuh, dan memenuhi syarat keterpaduan (Alwi, editor:
2001:1-2). Ramelan (1993:1-7) memperjelas pengertian paragraf dengan
menyatakan bahwa paragraf adalah bagian dari suatu karangan yang terdiri
dari sejumlah kalimat yang mengungkapkan satuan informasi dengan ide
pokok sebagai pengendalinya dan kalimat penjelas sebagai pendukungnya.
Oshima dan Hogue menyatakan bahwa sebuah paragraf terdiri atas tiga
unsur, yaitu kalimat topik, kalimat pendukung, dan kalimat konklusi. Kalimat
topik terdiri atas subjek yang berfungsi sebagai topik dan predikat berfungsi
sebagai ide pengendali. Seluruh elemen paragraf itu menjelaskan topik yang
dikendalikan oleh ide pengendali. Dengan demikian, paragraf merupakan
kesatuan ide. Itu berarti seluruh kalimat dalam suatu ikatan kesatuan
(Oshima dan Hogue, 2006:2).
Dalam paragraf, kalimat topik dapat ditempatkan pada posisi awal,
tengah, akhir, atau awal dan akhir. Penempatan kalimat topik dalam paragraf
berpengaruh terhadap struktur penalaran. Paragraf ekspositori yang berisi
analisis, klasifikasi, komparasi, atau kausal dengan menempatkan kalimat
282
topik pada awal membantuk penalaran deduktif. Penempatan kalimat topik
pada akhir paragraf membentuk penalaran induktif. Kalimat topik pada
tengah paragaf membentu penalaran induktif-deduktif, Paragraf yang diawali
dan diakhiri kalimat topik membentuk penalaran deduktif-induktif (Widjono,
2007:177-180).
Komposisi paragraf berfungsi untuk mengharmoniskan unsur-unsur
paragraf. Keharmonisan itu dibangun dengan memperhatikan kesesuaian
kalimat topik dengan kelengkapannya. Terkait dengan hal itu, McCrimmon
menyatakan bahwa paragraf yang baik menuntut empat syarat kualifikasi,
yaitu: kelengkapan (completeness), kesatuan (unity), keruntutan (order), dan
koherensinya (coherence). Paragraf merupakan satuan bahasa yang lebih luas
dari kalimat dan lebih kecil daripada esai. Penulisan paragraf memerlukan
pengorganisasian sehingga menghasilkan sebuah komposisi. Komposisi
paragraf dibangun dengan kalimat pertama sebagai kalimat topik. Kalimat
kedua menjelaskan kalimat pertama, yang masih bersifat umum. Kalimat
ketiga memaknai kedua kalimat pertama, dan kalimat pertama paralel
dengan kalimat terakhir. Kalimat terakhir berupa kalimat konklusi berfungsi
menegaskan pikiran pada kalimat pertama McCrimmon (1984: 193-214).
Kesatuan paragraf dapat dibangun dengan sebuah topik yang
dinyatakan dalam kalimat topik. Kalimat tersebut berupa kalmat tunggal,
terdiri dari topik dan sebuah ide pengendali. Bahasan seluruh kalimat
terfokus pada topik dan ide pengendali. Kesatuan paragraf terjadi jika kalimat
pendukung (kalimat penjelas) tidak menyimpang dari topik maupun ide
pengendali. Sebuah kalimat saja keluar dari ide pengendali, paragraf tersebut
tidak memenuhi syarat kesatuan. Terkait dengan kesatuan tersebut,
menyatakan bahwa dalam sebuah paragraf hanya terdapat sebuah pikiran
utama atau sebuah gagasan utama (Oshima dan Hogue, 2006:18).
PEMBAHASAN
Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian tindakan (Action Researsch).
Penelitian itu sebagai upaya mengatasi masalah dalam pembelajaran dan
pengajaran. Hal itu sejalan dengan pandangan Hopkin yang menyatakan
bahwa penelitian tindakan itu menghadirkan perkembangan bidang
penelitian yang berkarakteristik memenuhi kebutuhan pragmatik bidang
pendidikan untuk meningkatkan kualitas pengajaran dan pembelajaran di
kelas. Penelitian itu merupakan suatu proses yang dirancang untuk
memberdayakan partisipan aktif dalam kegiatan penelitian tindakan (Emzir,
2008:233).
Penelitian itu dilakukan di Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Peserta aktif
penelitian itu menggunakan representatif sampel mahasiswa seksi 0946
Semester 096 2011 dan beberapa mahasiswa lain yang bergabung dalam
283
kelas itu untuk mengikuti kuliah bahasa Indonesia.Penelitian bertujuan untuk
meningkatkan kualitas, berefek penguatan, peningkatan pembelajaran
menulis akademik berbasis pada kohesi dalam praktik pengajaran dan
pembelajaran (Gall, Meredith D., Joyce P. Gall, and Walter R. Borg, 2007:597598).
Penelitian kelas itu merupakan upaya memperbaiki pendidikan melalui
perubahan dengan dorongan atas kesadaran peneliti sebagai dosen untuk
memperbaiki pengajarannya. Hal itu dilakukan melalui pemahaman atas
kelebihan dan kekurangannya dalam praktik mengajarnya. Pemikiran dan
tindakan itu bersifat kritis terhadap praktik tersebut dan siap untuk
mengubahnya. Oleh karena itu, penelitian itu bersifat partisipatif (melibatkan
dosen) dan kolaboratif (melibatkan dosen dan mahasiswa).
Perubahan ditekankan pada aktivitas pembelajaran dan pengajaran,
melalui (1) seleksi masalah yang memerlukan perubahan lebih baik;
(2) eksekusi prosedur yang mencakup seleksi bahan ajar dari pengaplikasian
kohesi paragraf yang minim, sebatas kasus kohesi tertntu ke bahan ajar
pararaf kohesif yang bersifat konseptual. Untuk itu, dosen mencermati
masukan kebutuhan mahasiswa (kolaborator) atas bahan ajar yang
dibutuhkannya. (3) Analisis data mencakup pengaplikasian statistik dan
hipotesis untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian. (4) Konklusi berbasis pada
hasil analisis data dengan dukungan uji hipotesis (Gay, L.R.,1981:7).
Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah kualitatif yang bersifat
partisipatif dan kolaboratif. Kualitatif menjelaskan peristiwa yang dilakukan
dalam penelitian itu sehingga mendapat gambaran dan penjelasan yang
lengkap dalam pelaksanaan penelitian tindakan. Kuantitatif digunakan untuk
menganalisis data hasil proses belajar mengajar atau membandingkan nilai
siswa sebelum dan sesudah penelitian tindakan dilakukan. Nilai itu akan diuji
kebenarannya melalui metode tersebut untuk melihat seberapa besar
signifikan nilai sebelum dan sesudah dilakukan tindakan.
Pengumpulan data melalui siklus tindakan. Siklus itu dapat dilakukan
dari pertama sampai dengan keenam untuk pembelajaran dan pengajaran
bahan ajar yang ditargetkan selanjutnya sampai dengan penyajian bahan ajar
terakhir yang telah ditargetkan. (Glanz dalam Gall, Gall,dan Borg, 2007:601).
Teknik pengumpulan data dalakukan secara bertahap (L.R.Gay, 1981:7).
Pretes berfungsi untuk mendata kemampuan awal mahasiswa
sebelum melakukan proses pembelajaran menulis akademik berbasis kohesi
dan koherensi. Data itu dapat dijadikan bahan evaluasi keberhasilan dalam
peelitian tindakan kelas. Sejalan dengan hal itu, pada akhir penelitian
tindakan, mahasiswa diberi postes. Keduanya berfungsi untuk mengetahui
perubahan ke arah peningkatan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam mempelajari
284
menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi sesudah penelitian
dilakukan sebagai hasil penelitian tindakan kelas.
Catatan harian dosen berfungsi untuk mencatat peristiwa yang
terjadi selama proses pembelajaran. Catatan itu berfungsi untuk
menginterpretasikan kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh dosen maupun
mahasiswa, sekaligus berfungsi untuk menginterpretasikan mengapa hal itu
terjadi dan dilakukan sedangkan beberapa hal lain yang seharusnya terjadi
tidak dilakukan. Catatan harian itu ditulis segera setelah berakhirnya proses
belajar mengajar atau selama proses itu berlansung. Hal demikian dilakukan
untuk mencegah ketidakakuratan dokumen yang berfungsi untuk
menentukan ketepatan tindakan atau kesimpulan penelitian.
Jurnal harian berisi catatan harian. Jurnal itu berisi catatan ang dapat
memfasilitasi proses pekembangan berkelanjutan setiap hari. Catatan itu
berisi kejadian yang disusun berkelompok menurut kejadian. Jurnal itu
mendata hal-hal yang terjadi selama proses belajar-mengajar: hal-hal yang
terjadi, proses belajar-mengajar yang sedang berlangsung, dan memberikan
catatan mengenai hal-hal yang perlu dilakukan dalam proses belajarmengajar pada pertemuan berikutnya.
Portofolio mahasiswa berisi evaluasi diri, refleksi diri, dan kesan
terhadap proses belajar-mengajar yang telah berlangsung, dan saran-saran
untuk memperbaiki proses belajar-mengajar pada pertemuan berikutnya.
Instrumen itu digunakan untuk menilai keabsahan data melalui triangulasi
data, yakni dari sudut pandang mahasiswa untuk melakukan evaluasi dan
refleksi diri. Bagi mahasiswa, evaluasi diri berisi tentang perubahanperubahan yang telah mereka rasakan sebagai hasil proses belajar mengajar.
Refleksi berisi gambaran: kesan, bayangan, dan persepsi mahasiswa
terhadap kejadian yang berlangsung selama proses belajar. Refleksi itu berisi
laporan kemajuan belajar hari demi hari. Refleksi dapat berisi kesan
mahasiswa terhadap proses belajar-mengajar yang telah berlangsung
mencakup kesan terhadap peneliti, bahan ajar, kegiatan yang terjadi, dan
sebagainya. Berdasarkan pada kesan-kesan tersebut, mahasiswa diminta
untuk menuliskan saran-sarannya untuk memperbaiki proses belajarmengajar berikutnya.
Wawancara(tanya jawab) dilakukan pada akhir proses belajarmengajar. Hal itu dilakukan dengan beberapa mahasiswa yang dapat
mewakili kelas. Mereka diminta mengomentari hal-hal yang terjadi selama
proses belajar-mengajar dan harapan mereka mengenai yang seharusnya
terjadi tetapi justru tidak terjadi. Hasil wawancara ini juga akan dijadikan
bahan pertimbangan untuk memperbaiki bahan ajar, strategi dan kegiatan
belajar mengajar pada pertemuan berikutnya. Agar dasar pertimbangan
285
tersebut cukup kuat maka siswa juga diminta untuk memberikan argumen
terhadap pendapatnya.
Postes dilakukan pada bagian akhir penelitian. Postes itu berfungsi
untuk mengetahui perubahan kemampuan menulis paragraf sesudah
dilakukan penelitian tindakan. Besama jawaban pretes, postes berfungsi
untuk mengetahui efektivitas pembelajaran dengan penelitian tindakan.
Struktur paragraf dibangun oleh kalimat topik, kalimat pendukung 1,
kalimat pendukung 2, kalimat pendukung 3, kalimat konklusi, kohesi
antarkalimat, dan komposisi. Kohesi yang diteliti mencakup: kohesi
gramatikal konjungsi, kohesi gramatikal elipsis, kohesi gramatikal substitusi,
dan kohesi gramatikal referensi, sedangkan koherensi mencakup: relasi
antarproposisi, dan relasi kausal, relasi kesamaan struktur kalimat.
Keabsahan dilakukan dengan triangulasi, yaitu mengumpulkan data
mengenai situasi pembelajaran dari tiga persepsi sumber data yaitu: peneliti,
mahasiswa, dan pengamat (teman sejawat peneliti). Hal itu senada dengan
pendapat Mc Niff, bahwa pemantauan data dilakukan dengan: (1) Catatan
harian peneliti, untuk mencatat apa yang terjadi dalam selama proses belajarmengajar, (2) Pemantauan dari kolega, sebagai kolaborator untuk mengamati
hal-hal yang menjadi dan dilakukan oleh peneliti dan siswa memberikan kritik
yang membangun demi kemajuan peneliti, (3) Pengamatan dari mahasiswa
karena mungkin mahasiswa mempunyai persepsi yang berbeda terhadap
yang dilakukan oleh peneliti (David Hopkins, 1993:152 dalam Emzir,
2008:233-245).
Penelitian tindakan kelas ini mencakup dapat disederhanakan ke dalam
empat kegiatan, yaitu: perencanaan, tindakan, observasi, dan refleksi.
Keempat langkah tersebut membentuk siklus yang dilakukan secara
berulang-ulang sampai masalah yang menjadi fokus penelitian dapat diatasi.
Untuk dapat menyusun rencana tindakan maka terlebih dahulu harus
diketahui dan dipahami masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh siswa. Oleh
karena itu, langkah awal yang harus dilakukan adalah mengidentifikasi
masalah. Hasil identifikasi masalah digunakan untuk menentukan masalah
yang terjadi fokus utama penelitian dan rencana tindakan.
Sebelum melakukan tindakan untuk memperbaiki proses belajar
mengajar, disusun rencana tindakan (action programe). Rencana tindakan ini
berdasarkan kajian teori dan kesulitan-kesulitan yang masih dialami oleh
siswa. Untuk memperjelas keterkaitan antara masalah penelitian, tujuan
penelitian, dan rencana tindakan yang dilakukan untuk mengatasi masalah
demi tercapainya tujuan penelitian, maka dibuat tabel atau bagan sebagai
berikut:
286
Peta Konsep Rencana Tindakan
Siklus I
Kemampuan
No.
Awal
Masalah
Mahasiswa
1
belum dapat
Mahasiswa
menulis paragraf kurang
akademik
motivasi
Rencana
Tindakan
Dosen
menjelaskan
cara menulis
paragraf
akademik
Tujuan
Mendorong
mahasiswa
aktif
2
belum
mengetahui
struktur paragraf
akademik
Belum
diajarkan
mengajarkan
struktur
paragraf
akademik
Mahasiswa
memahami
dan menulis
paragraf
akademik
3
belum
mengetahui
kaidah-kaidah
kohesi
Dosen belum
mendapatkan
jalan keluar
Menjelaskan
kaidah kohesi
Mahasiswa
memahami
kohesi
paragraf
4
belum
mengetahui
kaidahkoherensi
Mahasiswa
cenderung
diam
Menjelaskan
kaidah
koherensii
Mahasiswa
memahami
koherensi
paragraf
5
kurang aktif, dan
enggan bertanya
Dosen
berupaya
mendorong
belajar secara
aktif
Membiasakan
bertanya
Membiasakan
mahasiswa
bertanya
287
Siklus II
No.
1
Kemampuan
Awal
Mahasiswa
mulai
bergairah
Masalah
Mahasiswa
termotivasi
Rencana
Tindakan
Dosen
memotivasi
Tujuan
Mahasiswa
aktif
2
sudah
mengetahui
struktur
paragraf
Sudah
diperkenalkan
Memberikan
latihan menulis
paragraf
berdasarkan
struktur
Dapat menulis
paragraf
dengan
struktur yang
benar
3
Mulai
mengenal
kohesi
Mulai mengenal
kohesi
Mengenalkan
pemarkah
kohesi
Menulis
paragraf
dengan kohesi
4
Mulai
mengenal
koherensi
Mlai mengenal
koherensi
Mengenalkan
pemarkah
koherensi
Menulis
paragraf
dengan
koherensi
5
Mulai
penasaran
untuk
mengatahui
Mulai
menanyakan
bahasan yang
belum diketahui
Membiasakan
bertanya
Membiasakan
bertanya
ANALISIS DATA DAN TEMUAN
Data yang terkumpul dianalisis secara kualitatif. Analisis itu
berdasarkan proses belajar mengajar, analisis ini mencakup: deskripsi,
interpretasi, dan refleksi terhadap hal-hal yang terjadi dalam proses belajar
mengajar. Keabsahan dilakukan dengan persepsi oleh teman sejawat dan
persepsi oleh mahasiswa.
Temuan
a. Kemampuan tahap awal: mahasiswa cenderung bersikap pasif, diam, dan
menanti penjelasan dosen. Keadaan serupa itu menimbulkan interpretasi
bahwa mahasiswa kurang aktif merespon tugas dosen. Hal itu juga
merupakan indikator bawa mahasiswa belum mengenal konsep menulis
paagraf yang ditugaskan kepada mereka.
288
b. Proses belajar dan mengajar: Selama proses belajar pada tahap awal,
mahasiswa belum meunjukkan motivasi yang tinggi untuk belajar secara
aktif. Kondisi serupa itu, tampaknya, sudah menjadi tradisi atau karakter
yang memerlukan perubahan, baik proses belajar dan mengajarnya,
maupun cara-cara memberikan motivasi agar mahasiswa melakukan
perubahan dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran.
c. Analisis Masalah: Masalah yang dihadapi oleh mahasiswa yaitu kurang
termotivasi untuk belajar menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan
koherensi. Selain itu, sikap tersebut dapat menimbulkan penafsiran
bahwa mereka tidak mengetahui sama sekali bahasan yang dihadapkan
kepada mereka.
d. Tindakan terencana: memberikan kesadaran untuk memotivasi diri dalam
proses belajar. Selain itu, tindakan penelti perlu segera menyampaikan
target penguasaan bahan ajar pada tatap muka tersebut, yaitu dapat
menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi.
Siklus 1: Peneliti melaksanakan Rencana Tindakan dengan mengajarkan
penulisan paragraf berbasis kohesi dan koherensi, memaparkan paragaf
berdasarkan struktur yang benar dan penggunaan kohesi koherensi yang
tepat. pengenalan masalah, dan bahasan yang akan dipelaari, portofolio
tentang pendapat mahsiswa, evaluasi diri, refleksi diri, dan saran kepada
peneliti atau dosen yang mengajarnya. menuliskan kesan terhadap proses
belajar dan mengajar.
Peneliti mewwancarai mahasiswa atas observasi mahaswa, refleksi
peneliti dan pengamat. saran kepada peneliti, pencapaian hasil belajar, serta
saran-saan kepada peneliti. Selain itu, mereka juga diwajibkan menuliskan
potofolio evaluasi diri, refleksi diri, dan kesan terhadap proses belajar
mengajar menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi.
Temuan: (1) Mahasiswa dapat menulis paragraf berdasarkan struktur
yang benar. Selain itu, mahasiswa juga dapat menggunakan kohesi
antarkalimat dalam paragraf. Perubahan secara menyeluruh, mahasiswa
menjadi lebih aktif menulis paragraf kohesif. Selain itu, mereka cenderung
lebih terbuka terhadap paragraf yang ditulisnya. Hal itu terlihat dari
kecenderungan mereka untuk memperlihatkan paragraf tang ditulisnya
kepada temannya.
(2) Ada kecenderungan bahwa mereka belum
sepenuhnya menguasai pemarkah kohesi maupun koherensi. Dalam batas
tertentu mereka sudah mulai berani menunjukkan kinerja penulisannya.
Namun, sesungguhnya mereka masih memerlukan bimbingan lebih lanjut
untuk memahami dan mengaplikasi kohesi dan koherensi dalam penulisan
paragraf.
289
Pengamat (Teman Sejawat): Penelitian Tindakan ini memberikan arah
pada produktivitas mahasiswa terhadap penguasaan bahan ajar. Mereka
tidak saja memahami dan mengaplikasi bahan ajar yang diberikan tetapi juga
memberikan pengalaman untuk belajar secara mandiri atas dorongan
kebutuhan akademiknya.
Portofolio Partisipan: Mahasiswa terkesan dengan pembelajaran ini.
Melalui penelitian tindakan ini. pembelajaran dapat mengubah perilaku
akademik. Dari sikap pasif berhasil memotivasi untuk belajar secara aktif.
Mahasiswa termotivasi untuk belajar secara mandiri.
SIMPULAN
Penelitian tindakan menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan
koherensi berhasil meningkatkan motivasi mahasiswa untuk belajar secara
aktif. Selain itu, penelitian itu juga berhasil meningkatkan kemampuan
belajar secara mandiri. Keberhasilan itu, merupakan indikator bahwa
penelitian tindakan dapat menjawab kebekuan motivasi, aktivitas, dan
kemauan diri untuk berubah dalam setiap proses pembelajaran sehingga
mahasiswa dapat meningkatkan kualitas belajarnya. Peningkatan itu
merupakan indikator pula bahwa mahasiswa itu pada dasarnya
mengharapkan keberhasilan dalam studinya.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
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292
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN PREWRITING, DRAFTING,
REVISING, EDITING AND PUBLISHING SKILLS
Zalzulifa
The State Polythechnic of Creative Media, Jakarta, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This research is back-worded by the pragmatic experiential
learning problems the researcher faces in daily routine activities
of teaching learning from first to fourth semester (2008-2011)
at PoliMedia. It has accumulated into the researcher’s pragmatic
findings that teaching English for publishing students with its basic
skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) should be in line with
the needed basic competencies of language assessment in the
publishing needed skills (pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing,
and publishing). However, in order to assure the pragmatic
findings it is needed to do the academic analysis through the
following academic research methodology, including: setting and
time, research design, population and sample, data collection
instrument, and data analysis. The research uses qualitative
approach through seeing, observing, discussing and studying some
related documents taken from
questioannaire, interview,
simulation and focus group discussion among lecturers. The data
shows various level of students’ needed technical skills to be
supported in learning process, such as: 1) team working skills,
2) oral communication skills, 3) problem solving skills, 4) customer
handling skills, 5) management skills, 6) general IT user skills,
7) technical and practical skills, 8) office administration skills,
9) written communication skills, 10) literacy skills, 11) numeracy
skills, 12) IT professional skills, 13) foreign language skills,
14) grappling with grammar skill, 15) speed reading skills, 16)notetaking skills and 17) negotiating skills. Meanwhile, the design of
English learning materials is dedicated preferable to using the
subject references of publishing activities, such as:
1) Commissioning and Acquisitions, 2) Rights, 3) Contract,
4) Design (visual), 5) Editorial management, 6) Design (structural),
7) Editing, 8) Production, 9) Marketing and Direct Selling. It is
concluded that the design of English learning materials should
293
approach to four basic language competencies (reading, writing,
listening and speaking) in line with the the learning activities ought
to encourage students enjoy learn and practice the activities
of editorial job cycle from prewriting-drafting-revising-editingpublishing.
Keywords:reading, writing, listening, speaking-prewriting-drafting
revising-editing-publishing
INTRODUCTION
The background of the research derived from the wish to solving
gaps between existing condition and ideal prospective portrait of Publishing
Study Program at the State Polytechnic of Creative Media (PoliMedia). It is
widely exposed in printed and in electronic media that the Publishing Study
Program
specially designed to graduate the students which own
competence, knowledge, and skills in preparing various kinds of manuscript
in accordance with the creative industry needs. Referring to the existing
condition of PoliMedia as the only school of creative with Publishing Study
Program, English is strongly recommended to support the teaching learning
process. So forth, this is the essence of the adoption and use of
English as the language of international communication as today a fact
of life. Therefore, the needs of English language competencies should
support the vision of the study program approached to worldwide class
ranging from graduate’s competence, graduate’s profile, career prospect, job
vacancy, learning process and facilities.
In term of graduates’ competencies based of production and
entrepreneurship skills, there are at least two major skills to be achieved,
such as; 1) skilful in editing and writing manuscripts in industries of
publishing, advertising, broadcasting, interactive game, film, video,
performing arts, music, and 2) skilful in planning and managing their
business based on the production and entrepreneurship in the field of
publishing industry. The needed skills of study program are suited for those
who wish to deepen the publishing world starting from prewriting,
drafting, revising, editing and publishing the manuscripts at various forms
like: books, magazines, and newspapers.
Concerning with the graduates’ profiles, the Publishing Study
Program is supposed to graduates the Medium Level of Writer or Author,
Editorial Supervisor, and becoming Self- Entrepreneur of creative
publishing called “Publipreneur”. While the career prospects is dealing
with the professional worker of Proof Reader, Copy Writer, and Writer or
Author. The so called, here are the prospective job vacancies of the
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publishing graduation, such as: 1) Book Publishing Industry, 2) Press
Publishing Industry, 3) Electronic Publishing Industry, 4) Advertising Industry,
5) Television and Film Industry, 6) Broadcasting Industry, 7) Music and
Performing Arts Industry, 8) Public Relations at Private or Government
Office, 9) Literary Agents, and 10) Self-Publishing Entrepreneur1.
In order to approve the goals, it is written to be commitment that
the publishing students have to complete their study within three years (six
semesters) with the comparative learning ratio 40% theory and 60% hands
on learning. At the first year (semester one and two), the students get the
basic theory of publishing, basic practice of writing and editing, and
industrial orientation. At the second years (semester three and four), the
students get a lot of practices in writing, editing, editorial management,
and Industrial apprenticeship. At the third years (semester five and six),
the students get specific writing and editing project, entrepreneurship and
industrial hands on practice as well as presenting their compulsory reported
comprehensive project.
In order to support the learning process, the Publishing Study
Program has comfortable and elegant classrooms equipped with digitalized
communication, language laboratory, publishing laboratory, free Internet,
and fully digitalized library as well as national and international collaboration
scope. This consequently can enhance the students creativity and innovation
of doing creative writing, creative editing, and producing various kinds of hiend publishing products.
Referring to the expected learning output and English is strongly
recommended to support the teaching learning process (four semesters),
the researcher is interested in designing English material approached to
the needs of publishing industry. The appropriate materials for this course is
of course English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) as the branch of English
for Specific Purposes (ESP). To do so, the researcher wishes to provide
English learning materials with three research output, such as basic course
outline, English materials as learning models, and a lecturer’s guide.
Hopefully this research contributes to the right path of Designing
English Material for supporting the achievement of institutional goal through
English learning process for Publishing Students at PoliMedia.
Last but not least, this research is also back-worded by the
pragmatic experiential learning problems the researcher faces in daily
routine activities of teaching learning
from first to fourth semester
(2008-2011). It has accumulated into the researcher’s pragmatic findings that
teaching English for publishing students with its basic skills (reading, writing,
listening, speaking) should be in line with the needed basic competencies of
language assessment in the publishing needed skills (pre-writing, drafting,
295
revising, editing, and publishing). However, in order to assure the pragmatic
findings it is needed to do the academic analysis through the following
academic research methodology, including: setting and time, research
design, population and sample, data collection instrument, and data analysis.
The research result is expected to provide lecturer with the right
model of designing English language learning material used for guiding the
students and lecturer hand-in-hand in the learning process. The most
significant of the research is based on what the PoliMedia’s function to
steer-up the three years diploma program focused on the need for
publishing students as supposed intellectual resources of national Publishing
Industry in Indonesia.
DISCUSSION
Based on the data analysis, the research findings are classified into
three major categories. First category is related to the first research question
“How does the English materials meet the Publishing Students’ needs?”.
Second category is related to the second research question “How does
the English materials meet the Industry needs?”. And the last category is
related to the the last research question “ “How does the English materials
improve students’ proficiency in understanding EOP materials? The data to
answer each research questions are taken from questionaire-, interview-,
simulation and class observation-based data.
To clarify the question research How Does the English Materials
meet the Publishing Students’ Needs? here are the graphic of competence
recorded from respondent’s scaling toward the language aquisition in the
activities of “prewriting-drafting-revising-editingpublishing”. The data
derived from 44 students who filled in the observation sheets as
observed during the class session. The data shows how the language
acquisition correlated with the technical skills needed in publishing industry
approached to it’s production cycles prewriting-drafting-revising-editingpublishing.
Prewriting Need Assessment and Its Language Acquisition
Graph 1 indicates that prewriting competency requires the skill
of reading (36%), writing (28%), speaking (21%) and listening (15%). From
the data it can be stated that language acquisition in prewriting is more
influenced by the skill of reading, and then sequently followed by writing,
speaking and listening. That means the design of material should focus on
the effort of triggering students’ skill in reading habit.
In addition to the language competencies, data also shows the
priority level of technical skills needed in prewriting competency. In
296
general, the language acquisition in prewriting competencies and its
influences to priorities of technical skills can be seen in th following graph.
Graph 1. The Language Acquisition in Prewriting
and its priorities of technical skills
Drafting Need Assessment and Its Language Acquisition
Graph 2 indicates that drafting competency requires the skill of
reading writing (36%), reading (30%), speaking (14%) and listening (20%).
From the data it can be stated that language acquisition in drafting is more
speaking and listening. From the data it can be stated that language
acquisition in drafting is more influenced by the skill of writing, and then
sequently followed by reading, speaking and listening. That means the design
of material should focus on the effort of triggering students’ skill in writing
habit.
priority level of technical skills needed in drafting competency. In general,
the language acquisition in drafting competencies and its influences to
priorities of technical skills can be seen in the following graph.
297
Graph 2. The Language Acquisition in Drafting
and its priorities of technical skills
Revising Need Assessment and its Language Acquisition
Graph 3 indicates that drafting competency requires the skill of
reading (34%), writing (30%), speaking (20%) and listening (16%). From the
data it can be stated that language acquisition in revising is more
speaking and listening. It means that the design of material should focus on
the effort of triggering students’ skill in reading habit.
priority level of technical skills needed in revising competency. In general, the
language acquisition in revising competencies and its influences to priorities
of technical skills can be seen in th following graph.
Graph 3. The Language Acquisition in Revising
its priorities of technical skills.
298
Editing Need Assessment and its Language Acquisition
Graph 4 indicates that editing competency requires the skill of
writing (32%), reading (25%), speaking (23%) and listening (20%). From the
data it can be stated that language acquisition in editing is more influenced
by the skill of writing and then sequently followed by reading, speaking and
listening. It means the design of English material should focus on the effort of
triggering students’ skill in writing habit.
priority level of technical skills needed in editing competency. In general,
the language acquisition in editing competencies and its influences to
priorities of technical skills can be seen in the following graph.
Graph 4. The Language Acquisition in Editing
and its priorities of technical skills.
Publishing Need Assessment and its Language Acquisition
Graph 5 indicates that editing competency requires the skill of
speaking (40%), listening (30%), reading (20%) and writing (10%). From the
data it can be stated that language acquisition in publishing is more
influenced by the skill of of speaking and then sequently followed by
listening, reading and writing. It means the design of English material
should focus on the effort of triggering students’ skill in speaking habit.
priority level of technical skills needed in publishing competency. In
general, the language acquisition in publihsing competencies and its
influences to priorities of technical skills can be seen in th following graph.
299
Graph 5. The Language Acquisition in Publishing
and its priorities of technical skills.
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of data anaysis and the discussion data analysis,
the following conclusions are drawn that in order to meet the publishing
students’ needs, the design of English learning materials for the publishing
students should be formulated according to the level of competencies
approaches to national qualification framework of Indonesia. Hence, the
design of English learning materials should approach to four basic language
competencies, that is: reading, writing, listening and speaking. In accordance
with the basic language competencies, the design of English learning
materials ought to encourage students enjoy learn and practice the
activities of editorial job cycle from prewriting-drafting- revising-editingpublishing.
For the purpose of teaching and learning process and inline with
need of publishing Industry, the design of English learning materials for the
publishing students must be able to promote students in performing various
technical skills needed for industry, such as: 1) Teamworking skills; 2) oral
communication skills; 3) problem solving skills, 4) customer handling skills,
5) management skills, 6) general IT user skills, 7) technical and practical skills,
8) office administration skills, 9) written communication skills, 10) literacy
skills, 11) numeracy skills, 12) IT professional skills, 13) foreign language
skills, 14) grappling with grammar skill, 15) speed reading skills, 16) notetaking skills and 17)negotiationg skills. Moreover, the design of English
learning materials is dedicated preferable to using as the subject
references of publishing activities, as follows : 1) Commissioning and
Acquisitions, 2) Rights, 3) Contract, 4) Design (visual), 5) Editorial
management, 6) Design (structural), 7) Editing, 8) Production, 9) Marketing
and Direct Selling.
300
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304
A POLICY IN ELEVATING THE EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION
IN INDONESIA THROUGH
THE APPLICATION OF GOOD UNIVERSITY GOVERNANCE
PARADIGMS
Theresia Kristianty
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The core meaning of good university governance is that the
university as an open system, reluctantly or not has to follow the
change which happens in the society. In this case, as the paradigm
of how to manage an organization which concerns with mass
society has been changed, so the university has to follow this
change also. They say that university has to implement the
fundamental aspects of good governance namely transparancy,
responsibility, effectiveness, accountability, law enforcement, and
the participation of the stakeholders in decision making process as
well as in policy runs by the university. If it is done, so it is hoped
that mutual beliefs and mutual understanding as well as mutual
honorus will emerge in the whole educational stakeholders sense to
make the quality of the university performances enhance optimally.
Keywords:quality of the univesity, university government paradigm,
good governance
INTRODUCTION
The end result of the aims of education is to produce an educational
products or a quality students. These quality students can only be produced
well by a quality Institution also. A certain Institution can be called qualify if
the whole potency of this institution namely physics, men, finances, energy,
and materials can be used and work optimally. In relations with educational
affairs, quality means that schools or university in Indonesia should fullfill all
the desires, the needs and the hopes of the parents as well as the students
well enough to make them staying still in the schools or the university.
Meanwhile, in the last ten years, many people are talking about a
new concept which is called good governance. This concepts speaks about a
305
complex mechanism which about a process or a relation of an institutional
affairs which is connected to many peoples from much contexs in a whole
process of governance. In other words, it can be said that an institution likes
school and university whisch has an affairs relating much peoples
(stakeholders) has to apply good governance concepts in their institutions so
that the institutions can fulfill the needs of the stakeholders fully satisfy.
These kind of Institutions consider the stakeholders are very important. They
trait the stakeholders like kings.
Concerning what have been talking above, the writer thinks that the
good governance is a very importance concepts to manage in Indonesia right
now, since there are many complains about how bad the performances of
many institutions concerning the services of the stakeholders. Individual’
competence, and skills of the staffs, as well as the working environments do
not satisfy the stakeholders.
DISCUSSIONS
From the statements stating above, it can be inferred that in relation
with education, students output have a positif correlation with an excellent
performances as well as with the concepts of good governance. The quality
of the students are decided by the quality of the performances of the whole
staffs of the institutions. In turn, we also can say that the performance of the
staffs are decided also by the applying the concepts of the good governance.
Definition:
Profesor Bintoro Tjokroamijoyo (2000:34) defines governance as to
govern, to manage, and to operate. These definitionsmeans that the
word governance not only talks about a process but as an activation
also. As an addition knowledge, the concepts of governance can be
considered as a new value which has to be socialized and needs time
to be applied since it concerns with the changes of the behaviours and
the attitudes of the whole human resources. Else, the applications of
the process also have to be supported by the whole staffs of the
institutions, the society, the press and the goverment since the
concepts are every body’s challanges.
The Function of The Doer of The Good Governance:
To take care of the law enforcement, to manage the micro economics
standard, to develop the social and the phyisical infrastructure, to prepare
social seccurity and building the safeguard of the society.
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Private Sectors :
To open a labour working, production, income, earnings, trading, human
resources development, services, standard measurements, and bencmarch.
Community :
To move society’s groups to participate in social and economic affairs, to
facilitate the interaction of social politics, to support the solidarity and social
care, to develop and to take care the climate of the clean governance running
well.
The Global Agreement of the Meaning of Good Governance Principals
UNDP
: Participation, transparance, accountable, effective, efficient,
law enforcement, awareness, fair, strategic visioning,
consensus orientation.
UNCHS
: Idem + subsidiarity (decentralization of authority) and
security.
UNHCHR
: Transparance, responsibility, accountable, participation,
non discriminatif, pay attention to the marginalize people.
UNICEF
: Transparance, responsibility, accountable, participation, pay
attention to the rights’ of the women and children.
UNDESA
: Idem + The strength relationship of the central goverments
and the province with the business affairs.
UNDP, UNCHS, UNHCHR, UNICEF dan UNDESA, agree to unify the whole
principes to be five principes only (Erna Witoelar, 2001)
Fairness
: Sustainable, gender’ equality, fairness between
generation
Effective
: Efficient, decentralisation, power, strategic
visioning.
Accountable
: Transparance, law enforcements, awareness.
Partisipation
: Citizenceship, concessus orientation.
Security
: Conflict resolution, environments’ security.
The consesus of the Boards of PBB is supported by Kofi Anan the general
secretary: “Good governance is perhaps the single most important factor in
eradicating poverty and promoting development”.
GOOD UNIVERSITY GOVERNANCE
Globalization era which is very sophisticated in elevating the
knowledge and technology as well as information around the world in a very
fast way, added with the very fast changes of the community with a complex,
307
dynamic, and colourfull are the main things of the paradigms changes in
managing the university from a traditional one into the good university
governance. Since then, concepts about quasy marketing, finance system,
finance controlling method, accountability, transparancy, fairnes, and
reliability biecome a new paradigms in managing a university. Renate
Maynats (1993) says that what the university should know is not only the
concept of a good governance, but the institution format, policy process,
decision making process, the indication of side effect of a decision, and
suspended process upon the departements also. According to Renate, all the
aspects of the good governance university mentioned above should be
included in managing a university.
Based on the above statements, it is concluded that the paradigm of
the governing bodies of a university, public or private has to be change its
own function. Both governing bodies of a university, public or private, should
elevate their roles in managing, in leadership, and in the relation to the
eksternal stakeholders. Furthermore, it is also believed that the managing of
a university will be more effective if it is supported by three spirit which are
called: first, autonomy university spirit, second: community empowering
spirit, and the third, good university governance spirit.
Autonomy university spirit means that the university can have is own
power to divide its own structural rulal governance and local inisiatif to
manage its university without the intervening of the goverment.
Community empowering spirit is a process which the goverment give
to the public and the private university in Indonesia all the aspect of the
development of the university to the almamater of the university so that all
people concerning the university will be involved emotionally, phisically as
well as the real responsibility concord with the capability from the
almamater.
Meanwhile, to understand better about the meaning of good
university governance, Barch, Scoth and Smith (1996:1,27,41) define the
good university governance as the concerning of the internal and eksternal
stakeholders in making decisions, in constructing the agenda of building the
university and in managing the university.
Concerning theStakeholders, there are four pillar which have to be
build well so that they can make the interactions process well. The four pillar
are: first is the exsecutif which consists of the rector/director with all the
staffs, the second is the legislative which consists of the head of the
foundation with its bodies board, and the third is the community which
consists of the students, the parents, mediator group, civil society, pers,
industries, businessmen etc.
308
To add what have been said above, Bragh, Scott dan Smith
(1996:1,27,41) say that to make the application of the good university works
effectively, there are three aspects which have to be developed by the
university namely:
1. Policy Aspects which concerns which the goverment polliticall will, code
of conduct, and social basics of the interaction of public controlling, and
the involvement of the society in the decision making.
2. Operational Aspects which means how to make the good governance
principals be operational in every day life. These operational aspects are
the rules, the universities interactions, and the unversity performance
indicators,
3. Technical Aspects such asthe support system for the manajerial aspects,
the information system to control whether the process of the good
governance works correctly or not.
Tricker (1984: 6-7) adding some words to fully complete the
statements above:
The governance role is not concerned with running the business of the
company, but with giving overall direction to the enterprise, with
overseeing and controlling the executive actions of management and
with satisfying legitimate expectation for accountability and
regulation by interest beyond corporate boundaries. If management is
about running business, governance is about seeing that it is run
properly.
The statement made by Tricker above can be consider as a development of a
classical model. Tricker names his model as ‘colaborative’. Colaborative
model consists of four dimensions which can be seen downward (1984:174):
Table 1. Colaborative model of good governance
Emphasis on
external issues
Emphasis on internal
issues
Direction
Accountability
Executive
Supervision
Focus on the needs
of business
Focus on the needs of
share holders and
stakeholders
Tricker says that those four dimensions above is the main function of
the board of director of the university or the principals of the foundations.
309
Concerning the two main function called direction and executive
management are often collide each other with the managerial function of the
university. Therefore those two functions should be defined accurately
without doubt.
At last, from all the statements describe above, the writer concludes
that good university governance can be directed to achieve the goals of the
university in some aspects:
1. To elevate the public services and to develop the creativity of the
university stafs and the community.
2. Mutual relationships between the community and the university in
financial power
3. To raise the identity and the standard of livings of all the university
communites.
4. To create a new paradigm to the university to change from the
centralistic paradigm to an autonomy paradigm not only in managing, in
decision making, in finding out the resources as well as in policy making.
5. To optimalize the application of the good governance effectively, it needs
some instruments such as law enforcements, advocative policy,
monitoring policy, reward and appraisal policy and sanction policy.
Besides what have been talked above, from many literacy resources,
the writer can also conclude that the aplication of the good university
governance to run the managerial aspects of the university can construct the
image of that human being should live with other human being because they
belong to one community (belongs to) This Sense of belonging which feel by
the people make him/her feel that he/she is one the things that make the
whole function of the community run properly, In relating to that feelings
mentioned, a people which feels treated well by others in an organization will
have the high sense of integrity. This sense of integrity will make him traits
others well and always pays attention to others’ wellfare and consider them
not as an opponent but as a college. Furthermore, the two senses above will
make another sense comes out. This sense calls the sense of participation in
every tasks. They will work cooperatively, and divide the load of the jobs
with the same volumes. Else, in the sense of cooperative situation, they will
feel that they depend each other and want to share their own problems. The
feeling of dependence wiil make the feeling of respect, thrust, and the feeling
of actualization comes out. This feeling of actualization, at the end will
emerge another feelings such as biology, psycology, and educatif needs to
explore the jobs challenges with high responsibility. With a high responsibility
comes upon their own works, soon will make these peoples productive in
their job’s performances. In the long run, all the four aspects of the senses
will make the university performances elevate highly and qualified.
310
In turns, the qualification of the education standards as well as the
students performance; standards will become highly qualified.
CLOSING REMARKS
It is hoped that the statements written at the above paragraphs
about the good governance concepts can make the university directors and
all the staffs to work efectively and efficiently as well as accountable,
transparance, fairness, and reliabel so that the quality of the university can
be elevated optimally.
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PENERAPAN ASESMEN PORTOFOLIO
DENGAN MODEL PEMBELAJARAN BERBASIS PRODUKSI
Jufrina Mandulangi
Polytechnic of Manado, Manado, Indonesia
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Implementation of portfolio assessment with assignments that
accompanied the presentation can improve learning outcomes. In the
study of applied technology, the model was deemed appropriate to
get closer to the work area directly, in learning in the direct
employment or similar setting with jobs. Therefore in the context of
learning technology, it is important to do research that aimed to
obtain an alternative model of learning which is appropriate to the
particular characteristics of the subjects in applied technology. The
Research shows that learning of the alternative production-based
learning approach to portfolio assessment, which is qualitatively
deliver improved a quality and a meaningfulness of learning,
especially experiences learning that relate to employment or
apprentice student workpiece in accordance with the standards and
specifications of the field. At the context of other results from the
process and product of learning, there is a tendency that the average
of the assessed competence of student-owned portfolio performance,
as well as the final product of the workpiece into the category that
both includes. Several factors determine the successful application of
the model, namely: the competence of lecturers / instructors, student
readiness, availability of equipment and availability of materials and
construction specifications of the financial side.
Keywords:assessment, portfolio, learning, production model
PENDAHULUAN
Kegiatan asesmen pada Proses Belajar Mengajar (PBM) merupakan
mata rantai perbaikan mutu dan penilaian terhadap penguasaan
materi/kompetensi lulusan. Menurut Pasal 1.(4) PP 19 tahun 2005 yang
dimaksud kompetensi lulusan adalah kualifikasi kemampuan yang
menyangkut sikap, pengetahuan, dan keterampilan. Untuk memenuhi target
kompetensi tersebut mau tidak mau PBM harus diselenggarakan secara
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interaktif, inspiratif, menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi peserta didik
untuk berpartisipasi aktif serta memberikan ruang yang cukup bagi prakarsa,
kreatifitas, dan kemandirian sesuai dengan bakat, minat, dan perkembangan
fisik serta psikologis. Selain itu menurut Pasal 19.(3) PP 19 tahun 2005 setiap
satuan pendidikan (bisa pula diartikan program studi prodi) di perguruan
tinggi harus melakukan perencanaan proses pembelajaran, pelaksanaan
proses pembelajaran, penilaian hasil belajar, dan pengawasan proses
pembelajaran untuk terlaksananya proses pembelajaran yang efektif dan
efisien.
Dalam konteks kurikulum pendidikan teknologi dan kejuruan,
implementasi kurikulum berwujud pembelajaran dikembangkan untuk setiap
mata kuliah diarahkan pada kemampuan yang satu aspeknya menekankan
pada aspek keterampilan (technical skill). Dengan demikian, penting
dilakukan reposisi dan upaya-upaya mengembangkan pembelajaran secara
sistematis sesuai dengan tujuan akhir yang diharapkan dari para lulusan,
yakni pencapaian kompetensi teknologi terapan.
Salah satunya adalah dengan mengembangkan pembelajaran yang
lebih mendekatkan pada wilayah pekerjaan secara langsung (direct purposes
learning). Model pembelajaran seperti ini tentunya tidak bisa dilakukan
mengingat akan mensyaratkan keterkaitan dengan dunia kerja langsung.
Untuk itu perlu dicari model-model pembelajaran yang bisa mengkondisikan
seolah-olah dunia kerja, baik di industri maupun lapangan konstruksi ada
dalam wilayah lingkungan belajar.
Intinya adalah perlu dilakukan setting pembelajaran yang
mendekatkan kondisi pembelajaran seperti yang terdapat di lapangan
pekerjaan. Salah satu model pembelajaran yang dikembangkan dalam
konteks pendidikan teknologi adalah pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan
pendekatan asesmen portofolio yakni berupa rekam jejak kemampuan atau
kompetensi yang dicapai oleh mahasiswa untuk setiap tahapan kinerja
produksi.
Penilaian hasil belajar adalah suatu potret ketercapain salah satu
kompetensi dan dapat dijadikan refleksi perencanaan PBM. Penilaian
asesmen bersifat konvensional tampaknya peserta didik dipandang sebagai
objek, bukan subjek, hal ini sungguh tidak adil. Seharusnya peserta didik
diberikan kesempatan untuk ikut terlibat dalam proses penilaiannya,
sehingga mereka diberi kesempatan untuk menentukan apa yang bisa dinilai,
mengapa dia memilihnya, dan yang terpenting mereka diberi kesempatan
untuk menunjukkan hasil terbaiknya untuk dipertimbangkan sbg hasil kerja
yg dapat dinilai/dihargai.
Berdasarkan uraian di atas, dimana perlunya alternatif-alternatif
model dan metode dalam kegiatan pembelajaran teknologi yang dianggap
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tepat dan sesuai dengan tujuan dan karakteristik dari mata kuliah yang
diajarkan, maka tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui model
pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan assesmen portofolio dalam proses
pembelajaran teknologi, tepat dan cocok untuk diterapkan, seberapa besar
kontribusi yang diberikan dengan penerapan model assesmen portofolio
pada proses pembelajaran teknologi terhadap peningkatan kompetensi dan
perolehan nilai kinerja mahasiswa dan kendala-kendala apa saja yang muncul
dari penerapan model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan asesmen
portofolio dalam perkuliahan sehingga bisa dijadikan bahan evaluasi
perbaikan model pembelajaran selanjutnya.
Proses belajar dan pembelajaran yang dilakukan secara garis besar
dilakukan dalam empat tahapan kegiatan, yakni (1) tahap perencanaan
tujuan pembelajaran; (2) pengenalan awal kemampuan dan kesiapan siswa;
(3) proses pembelajaran; dan (4) evaluasi pembelajaran. Keempat tahapan ini
dilakukan biasanya dengan menekankan pada evaluasi akhir sebagai
tingkatan pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran sebagai akhir dari rangkaian
kegiatan pembelajaran yang meliputi aspek kognitif, afektif dan
psikomotorik.
Dalam konteks pembelajaran yang dilaksanakan pada pendidikan
teknologi khususnya pendidikan teknik sipil, penekanannya adalah pada
kemampuan atau kompetensi dalam wilayah metodologi pelaksanaan
konstruksi. Dengan demikian pendekatan lebih pada pembelajaran bersifat
aplikatif atau teknologi terapan pada rekayasa sipil atau konstruksi bangunan
sipil. Berdasarkan metodologi tersebut pembelajaran yang terbaik adalah
pada strategi pembelajaran yang lebih mendekatkan pada pembelajaran
yang dipraktikkan langsung pada lapangan pekerjaan sebenarnya, namun
banyak kendala dengan pola seperti ini karena berkaitan dengan institusi lain.
Untuk itu, pendekatan yang dilakukan adalah dengan membuat skenario
pembelajaran dengan menyetinglingkup pembelajaran di kelas/workshop
sebagaimana yang terdapat di lapangan yang menekankanpada produk akhir
yang dihasilkan.
Dengan demikian, maka model pembelajaran yang dipilih adalah model
pembelajaranberbasis produksi, yakni pembelajaran dengan penekanan pada
perencanaan kerja, prosedur kerjadan produk akhir pembelajaran yang
bernilai jual atau produk sesuai spesifikasi standar konstruksiyang telah
ditentukan. Berikut ini aspek-aspek yang dinilai dalam keterampilan motorik
padapembelajaran teknologi terapan yang dilaksanakan, yakni:
- Langkah atau prosedur kerja
- Teknik penggunaan alat-alat kerja (masinal/manual)
- Sikap kerja (individu/kelompok)
- Penggunaan sumber informasi
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- Kemampuan analisis pekerjaan
- Ketelitian dan keakuratan
- Kerapihan
- Kebersihan
- Waktu capai produk/kecepatan
- Keselamatan kerja
Portofolio diartikan sebagai sekumpulan upaya, kemajuan atau
prestasi peserta didik yang terencanapada area tertentu, selain itu diartikan
sebagai koleksi yang dikhususkan dari setiap pekerjaan pesertadidik yang
mengalami perkembangan dan memungkinkan pendidik dan peserta didik
menentukantingkat kemajuan yang sudah dicapai oleh peserta didik. Mereka
dapat memperbaiki pekerjaannya berdasarkan hasil self assessment nya,
sehingga peserta didik bisa menilai kemampuan dan kemajuan mereka
sendiri.
Pada umumnya portofolio berbentuk produk dokumen seperti tulisan
karyailmiah, rancangan dan gambar desain, dan yang lainnya.Pendekatan
asesmen portofolio berbeda dengan pembelajaran biasa. Menurut
Shaklee(1997:143), portofolio merupakan sesuatu yang berharga dan
merupakan inovasi pendidikan, lengkapnya Shaklee berpendapat: “This is the
most wortwhile educational innovation I have done in along time. After
twenty-seven years in the classroom, I have finally learned how to use my
observations and notes to make better decision for my students. What else
could be more important ?”
Pendekatan asesmen portofolio yang dilaksanakan menekankan pada
kerja sama antarapendidik dalam hal ini dosen dan mahasiswa, dimana
mereka bekerja sebagai sebuah tim. Pendekatan ini memusatkan perhatian
pada mahasiswa sebagai pusat atau sentral dalam proses pembelajaran,
dosen hanya memberi bantuan arahan dan bimbingan. Mahasiswa diberi
peluanguntuk aktif menggunakan waktu belajar dan berlatih serta bertukar
fikiran dengan berpedoman pada konsep pembelajaran pengetahuan bidang
studi yang dipelajari.
Prinsip-prinsip dasar yang harus dipahami pada pembelajaran
berbasis penilaian portofolio adalah sebagai berikut:
- Menekankan pada proses
- Penilaian melibatkan peserta didik (active learner)
- Kemampuan peserta didik diukur berdasarkan peserta didik itu
sendiri
- Pendekatan yang dilakukan bersifat kolaboratif
- Tujuan ditetapkan untuk kepentingan siswa
- Sasaran ditekankan pada perkembangan usaha belajar (pencapaian
belajar)
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Merupakan bagian integral dari praktek pembelajaran
Model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan assesmen portofolio
ini penekanannya adalah pada tahap penilaian kinerja, dimana terdapat tiga
rangkaian kegiatan yang dimulai dari kegiatandiskusi terhadap materi pada
proses pembelajaran, dilanjutkan dengan kegiatan penugasanpenugasansebagai upaya pendalaman dan latihan baik yang bersifat tugastugas parsial maupuntugas akhir. Pada rangkaian kegiatan penilaian ini dosen
dan mahasiswa secara terbuka bisa menilaisampai sejauh manakah tingkatan
kemampuan yang telah dicapai, dan tindakan apa saja yang perludilakukan
bilamana tingkat pemahaman dan penguasaan materi pada setiap tahapan
tidak sesuaidengan tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditentukan.
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KAJIAN PUSTAKA
Evaluasi hasil belajar pada hakekatnya merupakan suatu kegiatan
untuk mengukur perubahan perilaku yang telah terjadi. Pada umumnya hasil
balajar akan memberikan pengaruh dalam dua bentuk : (1) peserta akan
mempunyai persepektif terhadap kekuatan dan kelemahannya atas perilaku
yang diinginkan; (2) peserta mendapatkan perilaku yang diinginkan telah
meningkat, baik setahap atau dua tahap, sehingga muncul lagi kesenjangan
perilaku yang sekarang dengan perilaku yang diinginkan. Kesinambungan
tersebut merupakan dinamika proses belajar sepanjang hayat dan pendidikan
yang berkesinambungan.
Hal tersebut terjadi karena kesenjangan itu akan terus berkembang
sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan perkembangan zaman, dan hal itu harus juga
terus-menerus untuk mengetahui kebutuhan berikutnya. Dalam kaitannya
dengan evaluasi pembelajaran, Moekijat (1992:69) mengemukakan bahwa
teknik evaluasi belajar pengetahuan, ketrampilan, dan sikap sebagai berikut:
Evaluasi belajar pengetahuan, dapat dilakukan dengan ujian tulis, lisan, dan
daftar isian pertanyaan. Evaluasi belajar keterampilan, dapat dilakukan
dengan ujian praktek, analisis keterampilan, analisis tugas, dan evaluasi oleh
peserta didik sendiri. Evaluasi belajar sikap, dapat dilakukan dengan daftar
isian sikap dari diri sendiri, daftar isian sikap yang disesuaikan dengan tujuan
program dan skala deferensial sematik (SDS). Evaluasi pembelajaran biasanya
dilaksanakan dengan cara menyelenggarakan ulangan harian atau ulangan
umum.
Guru bukan harus mengetahui kompetensi peserta didik setelah
pembelajaran dan pembentukkan kompetensi, tetapi harus pula mengetahui
bagaimana perubahan dan kemajuan perilaku peserta didik setelah proses
pembelajaran. Itulah yang disebut evaluasi hasil belajar peserta didik yang
selanjutnya diberi istilah evaluasi atau penilaian.Hamalik (1995: 159)
mengemukakan bahwa evaluasi itu adalah keseluruhan kegiatan pengukuran
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(pengumpulan data dan informasi), pengolahan, penafsiran, dan
pertimbangan untuk membuat keputusan tentang tingkat hasil belajar yang
dicapai peserta didik setelah melakukan kegiatan belajar dalam upaya
mencapai tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditetapkan.Hasil belajar
merupakan prestasi belajar peserta didik secara keseluruhan, yang menjadi
indikator kompetensi dan derajat perubahan perilaku yang bersangkutan.
Ranah afektif dan ranah ketrampilan atau psikomotorik pun tentu saja harus
diamati kemajuannya, karena kedua ranah tersebut tidak mungkin dapat
diketahui hanya dengan tes tertulis pada ulangan, akan tetapi harus dengan
tes perbuatan atau bahkan dalam bentuk nontes, umpamanya dengan
mengadakan observasi, dan angket. Apapun bentuk tes yang akan diberikan
kepada peserta, harus tetap sesuai dengan persyaratan baku, yaitu :
(1) memiliki validitas; (2) memiliki reliabilitas; (3) menunjukkan objektifitas;
(4) efisien dan praktis. Portopolio adalah kumpulan tugas-tugas yang
dikerjakan peserta didik. Dengan demikian dapat dikemukakan bahwa
penilaian portopolio adalah penilaian terhadap keseluruhan tugas yang
dikerjakan peserta didik dalam mata pelajaran tertentu. Penilaian portopolio
dapat dilakukan bersama-sama oleh guru dan peserta didik, melalui suatu
diskusi untuk membahas hasil kenarja peserta didik, kemudian menentukan
hasil penilaian atau skor. Beberapa hal yang harus diperhatikan dalam
melakukan penilaian portopolio (Mardhapi dkk, 2001), sebagai berikut :
1. Karya yang dikumpulkan adalah benar-benar karya yang bersangkutan.
2. Menentukan contoh pekerjaan mana yang harus dikarjakan.
3. Mengumpulkan dan menyiapkan sampel karya.
4. Menentukan kriteria untuk menilai portofolio.
5. Meminta peserta didik untuk menilai secara terus menerus hasil
portopolionya.
6. Merencanakan pertemuan dengan peserta didik yang dinilai.
7. Melibatkan orang tua dan masyarakat dalam menilai portofolio.
Berdasarkan ketentuan Dirjen Dikti, dinyatakan bahwa karakteristik
Asesmen antara lain perlu acuan karakteristik kurikulum berbasis kompetensi
meliputi (Dirjen Dikti, 2005: 15). Hasil belajar mahasiswa dinyatakan dengan
kompetensi atau kemampuan yang dapat ditampilkan atau dapat diobservasi
indikatornya
1. Kecepatan belajar mahasiswa berbeda dlm mencapai ketuntusan belajar
2. Asesmen hasil belajar menggunakan acuan kriteria (Kepmendiknas No.
232/U/2000 tentang Pengembangan kurikulum dan Penilaian Hasil
Belajar, PP No. 19 tahun 2005)
3. Adanya program pembelajaran remidial dan pengayaan.
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PEMBAHASAN
Model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dalam perkuliahan dilakukan
untuk memberi wawasanpraktek bagi mahasiswa pada benda kerja yang
dibuat persis dengan spesifikasi standar padakonstruksi bangunan.Hal ini
dimaksudkan untuk memberi pengalaman praktik mahasiswa. Pembelajaran
berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan asesmen portofolio diimplementasikan
salah satu mata kuliah.Mengingat bahwa ada keterbatasan pada waktu, biaya
dan tenaga.
Berdasarkan pengamatan dan kajian pelaksanaan implementasi
pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan asesmen portofolio pada
perkuliahan teknologi terapan ini, dapat dijelaskan secararinci sebagai
berikut: Pertama, perangkat perkuliahan berupa deskripsi mata kuliah,
silabus, SAP dan job sheet yang diarahkan padapembelajaran berbasis
produksi untuk tugas-tugas perkuliahan pada setiap pertemuan
diarahkandalam pencapaian kompetensi dalam metode pelaksanaan
konstruksi khususnya pada kompetensikerja kayu. Kelengkapan
pembelajaran tersebut mengacu pada standar yang sudah baku dengan
kriteria penilaian/asesmen mendasarkan pada standar kompetensi lulusan.
Instruktur dan mahasiswa secara terbuka bisa menilai capaian akhir dari
setiap kompetensi/sub kompetensi yang sudahdilaluinya dalam bentuk
portofolio pada setiap tahapan pekerjaan konstruksi kayu.
Kedua, kesiapan instruktur dan mahasiswa dalam menerapkan
pembelajaran praktik berbasis produksidengan asesmen portofolio menjadi
sorotan utama. Ketiga, daya dukung fasilitas praktik berupa ketersediaan
peralatan praktik bersifat manual dan masinal serta bahan mentah berupa
material kayu untuk pembelajaran berbasis produksi harus sesuai spesifikasi
peruntukan bahan untuk konstruksi bangunan. Kondisi riil bahwa peralatan
yang tersedia belum memadai untuk keseluruhan individu mahasiswa
praktikan dan material kayu yang disediakan tidak mencukupi untuk
pembelajaran dengan sistem individual learning, karena kalau penekanannya
kompetensi maka pembelajarannya harus dengan pendekatan pembelajaran
individu.Untuk itu dalam implementasi model pembelajaran berbasis
produksi ini, asesmen portofolio dilakukan secara kelompok kerja.
Keempat, penyikapan mahasiswa dalam implementasi pembelajaran
berbasis produksi dengan asesmen portofolio setidaknya terbagi pada
beberapa kelompok, namun kecenderungannya adalah adanya respon yang
baik dilandasi oleh kesadaran sendiri akan penting dan bermanfaatnya
melaksanakan pekerjaan yang konstruksi sebenarnya berdasarkan standar
konstruksi bangunan di lapangan, sehingga wawasan keilmuan pun akan
semakin meningkat. Khususnya dalam meningkatkan pemahaman dan
penguasaan materi perkuliahan praktik yang mengkaitkan dengan wawasan
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kerja lapangan. Kelima,berdasarkan penilaian terhadap portofolio kinerja,
baik pada wawasan, proses dan produk yang dihasilkan berdasar standar dan
spesifikasi produk konstruksi kayu dari setiap kelompok kerja praktik
mahasiswa menunjukkan kecenderungan peningkatan kompetensi yang
semakin baik.
Dampak Implementasi Pembelajaran Berbasis Produksi
1. Perilaku pembelajaran dosen/instruktur
 Membangun persepsi dan sikap positif mahasiswa terhadap
pembelajaran bersifat praktik.
 Menguasai disiplin ilmu dengan keluasan dan kedalaman substansi,
metodologi dasar keilmuan serta kemampuan merencanakan
pembelajaran dan mempresentasikan materi dengan bantuan
teknologi terapan sesuai kebutuhan mahasiswa.
 Memahami secara arif dan rasional akan keunikan mahasiswa sebagai
individu pembelajar dengan segala karakteristik dan latar belakang
serta kemajemukan masyarakat tempat mahasiswa berkembang.
 Menguasai pengelolaan pembelajaran praktik yang mendidik dan
berorientasi pada mahasiswa yang tercermin dalam kegiatan
merencanakan, melaksanakan serta mengevaluasi dan memanfaatkan
hasil evaluasi secara dinamis untuk membentuk kompetensi
mahasiswa.
 Mengembangkan kepribadian dan profesionalitas khususnya dalam
penguasaan bidang teknologi terapan/aplikasi teknologi sebagai
kemampuan untuk dapat mengetahui, mengukur dan mengembangmutakhirkan kemampuannya secara mandiri.
2. Perilaku pembelajaran mahasiswa
 Memiliki persepsi dan sikap positif terhadap pembelajaran praktik,
termasuk di dalamnya persepsi dan sikap terhadap mata kuliah,
dosen/instruktur, media dan fasilitas praktik sertaiklim belajar.
 Mau dan mampu mendapatkan dan mengintegrasikan pengetahuan
dan keterampilan serta membangun sikap kerja.
 Mau dan mampu memperluas serta memperdalam pengetahuan dan
keterampilan serta memantapkan sikap kerja.
 Mau dan mampu menerapkan pengetahuan, keterampilan dan sikap
kerjanya secara lebih bermakna.
 Mau dan mampu membangun kebiasaan berpikir, bersikap dan bekerja
produktif berdasarstandar kompetensi kerja.
 Mampu menguasai substansi dan metodologi dasar keilmuan bidang
studinya
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 Mampu menguasai materi ajar mata pelajaran dalam kurikulum sesuai
dengan bidang studinya khususnya dalam mengembangkan metode
pembelajaran praktik kerja konstruksi.
 Mau dan mampu menguasai penggunaan fasilitas belajar khususnya
teknologi terapan baik peralatan manual maupun masinal sebagai
dukungan dalam pembelajaran dan pemanfaatan sumber belajar.
3. Iklim pembelajaran
 Suasana kelas praktik yang kondusif bagi tumbuh dan berkembangnya
kegiatan pembelajaran yang menarik, menantang, menyenangkan dan
bermakna bagi pembentukan sikap profesionalitas dalam pendidikan.
 Perwujudan nilai dan semangat keteladanan, prakarsa dan kreativitas
dosen/instruktur dalam pembelajaran dengan memberdayakan
teknologi terapan sebagai media pembelajaran.
 Meningkatnya kualitas pembelajaran yang disebabkan oleh inovasi
teknologi dan pendekatan pembelajaran praktik yang mampu memberi
nilai tambah dalam hal penguasaan materi ajardan kebermaknaan
pembelajaran.
4. Materi pembelajaran
 Kesesuaian dengan tujuan pembelajaran dan kompetensi yang harus
dikuasai mahasiswa
 Adanya keseimbangan antara keluasan dan kedalaman materi dengan
waktu yang tersedia pada perkuliahan.
 Materi pembelajaran disusun secara sistematis, kontekstual dan
mengikuti perkembangan keilmuan konstruksi bangunan.
 Mengakomodasi secara aktif dan kemandirian mahasiswa dalam
pembelajaran praktiksecara maksimal.
 Menarik manfaat yang optimal dalam perkembangan dan kemajuan
teknologi terapan sebagai perkuatan terhadap perkayaan sumbersumber materi bahan ajar.
5. Media pembelajaran
 Mampu menciptakan pengelaman belajar yang bermakna (purposeful
and meaningful learning) bagi mahasiswa.
 Mampu memfasilitasi proses interaksi antara dosen dan mahasiswa,
mahasiswa dengan mahasiswa serta mahasiswa dengan semua sumber
belajar yang tersedia pada workshopkerja kayu.
 Memperkaya pengalaman belajar dan pengetahuan mahasiswa pada
wawasan kerja.
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KESIMPULAN
Berdasarkan dari hasil pembahasan tersebut dapat diambil beberapa
kesimpulan tentang penerapan asesmen portopolio dengan penugasan yang
disertai presentasi. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang ada, maka disarankan
untuk meningkatkan prestasi dan meningkatkan penguasaan materi ajar
untuk beberapa mata kuliah dapat diterapkan asesmen portopolio dengan
penugasan berkelompok, apalagi disertai dengan presentasi hasil karya tugas
yang diberikan tersebut, akan berdampak lebih baik. Untuk lebih memperluas
asesmen portopolio dengan penugasan, sebaiknya dilakukan penelitian lebih
lanjut tentang penerapan asesmen tersebut jika tidak berkelompok atau
mandiri tiap mahasiswa, bagaimana dampaknya terhadap penguasaan materi
ajar dan prestasi mahasiswa.
Berdasarkan hasil pembahasan penelitian dapat disimpulkan
beberapa hal yang berkaitan dengan implementasi pembelajaran berbasis
produksi dengan pendekatan asesmen portofolio pada perkuliahan teknologi
terapan pada konstruksi kayu, yakni sebagai berikut:
1. Implementasi pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan
asesmen portofolio pada perkuliahan di workshop secara kualitatif
memberikan peningkatan kualitas dan kebermaknaan pembelajaran,
khususnya pengalaman pembelajaran yang mengkaitkan mahasiswa
praktikan dengan pekerjaan atau benda kerja sebenarnya sesuai dengan
standar dan spesifikasi lapangan. Pembelajaran dengan direct purposes
learning ini memberikan dampak positif bagi berbagai pihak khususnya
mahasiswa yang terlibat dalam kegiatan pembelajaran, sehingga wawasan
kognisi, keterampilan motorik dan sikap dalam bekerja pada segmen
metode pelaksanaan konstruksi terbangun secara integral, dengan
demikian model ini dirasakan tepat digunakan dalam pembelajaran
teknologi terapan.
2. Beberapa faktor yang menentukan dan menjadi kendala keberhasilan
penerapan model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan
asesmen portofolio.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Budianto, D. (1955). Mesin tangan industri kayu. Semarang: PIKA
Burden, P.R.& Byrd, D.M. (1999). Methods for effective teaching. USA: Allyn &
Bacon.
322
Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi [Dirjen Dikti]. (2005). Lokakarya
Sosialisasi dan Persiapan Implementasi KBK Bidang Kependidikan,
Materi Pendukung.
DP2TK& KPT. Lestari, L. A. (2001). Portofolio: Suatu Alternatif untuk
Mengukur Keberhasilan Belajar. Wahana Tridarma Perguruan
Tinggi. Edisi: 40-1/Pebruari 2001/TH XIII, 51-58.
Hamalik, Oemar. (1995). Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.
Isaac, S., Michael, W.B. (1984).Handbook in research and evaluation.
California: Edith Publishers.
Jatmiko, S. (1992). Pengoperasian Mesin Pengerjaan Kayu Dasar. Semarang:
PIKA
Margono, Gaguk. (2006). Implementasi Asesmen Berbasis Portofolio untuk
Meningkatkan Proses dan Hasil Belajar Matematika Mahasiswa
Fakultas Teknik.Prosiding: Konvensi Nasional Aptekindo III dan Temu
Karya XIV FT/FPTK/JPTK Universitas Se-Indonesia. Gorontalo,
Pebruari 2006, 37-47.
Presiden Republik Indonesia.(2005). Peraturan Pemerintah Indonesia Nomor
19 Tahun 2005 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan.
Mardhapi, D. Dkk, 2001, Pola Induk Pengembangan Sistem Pengujian Hasil
Belajar Berbasis Kemampuan Dasar Siswa Sekolah Menengah
Umum, Yogyakarta : Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta.
Sondang, S.M. & Basuki, Ismet. (2005). Pengembangan Metode Proyek
Sebagai Asesmen Berbasis Kompetensi untuk Meningkatkan Hasil
Belajar Elektronika Digital Mahasiswa Pendidikan Teknik Elektro
UNESA. Jurnal PTK. Vol.1 No.2, Oktober 2006, 93-108.
Tim Pelatih Proyek PGSM. (1999). Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (Classroom
Action Research) Bahan Pelatihan Dosen LPTK dan Guru Sekolah
Menengah. Surabaya: UNESA.
323
Uno, Hamzah B. (2007). Model Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.
324

Guest Speaker - 12 November 2015 Arya Duta Manado Indonesia

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