Washington Aqueduct - American Water Works Association

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On . . .
AL EX AN D ER S . G O R Z AL S K I AN D AN N E L . S P I ES MAN
Washington Aqueduct: Serving Our
Nation’s Capital for Over 150 Years
T
THROUGHOUT ITS HISTORY,
THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT
HAS RETAINED ITS HISTORIC
CHARACTER, STANDING AS
A TESTAMENT TO THE
LONGEVITY OF GREAT
ENGINEERING WORKS.
40
he US Army Corps of Engineers has played an important role
in the development of water resources in the United States.
Despite that recognition, few know that the Corps’ Washington
Aqueduct has owned and operated raw water conveyance and
treatment systems for Washington, D.C., for more than 150
years. The Washington Aqueduct has a fascinating history and features architecturally stunning infrastructure, three components of which have received
AWWA’s American Water Landmark Award.
ORIENTATION TO THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT
The Washington Aqueduct is a wholesale water utility providing drinking
water to more than one million people in the national capital region. Its customer systems include the D.C. Water and Sewer Authority (DC Water),
Arlington County, and the Fairfax County Water Authority (Fairfax Water).
Washington Aqueduct owns and operates the Dalecarlia and McMillan Water
Treatment Plants. Water flows from the Potomac River to the Dalecarlia
Reservoir and from there to either the Dalecarlia plant or the McMillan plant
via the Georgetown Reservoir, City Tunnel, and McMillan Reservoir. The
Washington Aqueduct’s historic infrastructure, and the icons that shaped it,
are explored in this article.
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2016 © American Water Works Association
Opposite page: The Georgetown Reservoir
Castle Gatehouse, shown in 2015, was
designated an American Water Landmark
by AWWA in 1974 and marks the
connection between the Georgetown
Reservoir and the City Tunnel.
Photo courtesy of Washington Aqueduct.
Above and left: The Union Arch Bridge,
also known as the Cabin John Bridge,
spans Cabin John Creek. The structure
is arguably the most impressive feat
of engineering in the original
Washington Aqueduct. The Union Arch
Bridge uses Roman arch construction
featuring wedge-shaped voussoirs and
a central keystone. The sandstone
walls conceal nine spandrel arches
and a conduit 9 ft in diameter. Photo
credits: (left) National Archives (Brady
1921–1940); (right) courtesy of
Washington Aqueduct.
A FIRE IGNITES CONGRESSIONAL
ACTION
In what might sound like a familiar tune to contemporary observers,
the story of the Washington water
supply involves Congress courting
disaster before taking action. When
the federal government relocated
from Philadelphia to Washington in
1800, it encountered a landscape
with a dearth of infrastructure,
including a lack of water supply.
New development in the District of
Columbia was served by a hodgepodge of wells, springs, and cisterns.
The Franklin Park Spring, for example, was purchased to serve the
White House and Treasury in 1816,
and Smith Spring was purchased in
1833 and fed 12 fire hydrants on its
way to the Capitol. Citizens tapped
connections of varying legality to
the federal supplies, drastically
reducing the flow available to government buildings. Between 1800
and 1852, the District’s population
grew by nearly a factor of 20, putting significant stress on local water
sources (Ways 1993).
The inadequacy of the existing
water supply for the nation’s capital
became clear by the middle of the 19th
century. In his first annual address to
Congress in 1850, President Millard
Fillmore implored his congressional
colleagues to take action, arguing that
because “nothing could contribute
more to the health, comfort and
safety of the city and the security of
the public buildings and records than
an abundant supply of pure water, I
respectfully recommend that you
make such provisions for obtaining
the same . . .” A few months prior,
Congress had appropriated a meager
$500 for the War Department to
study the issue, which enabled only
the consideration of Rock Creek as a
potential supply.
Then, on Christmas Eve in 1851, a
stove sparked a fire in a large hall that
housed the Library of Congress, then
located within the Capitol building.
Fortunately, the fire did not reach the
Capitol’s then-wooden dome. However, nearly two-thirds of the library’s
contents were lost in the blaze, including a majority of the works purchased
from Thomas Jefferson’s collection
decades earlier following the library’s
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will drink the water supplied by
their magnificent aqueducts.
The Great Falls of the Potomac River was selected as the source water for the growing US
capital because it would provide the largest and most reliable supply. Photo courtesy of
Washington Aqueduct.
previous destruction at the hands of
the British during the War of 1812.
Many of the works lost in the fire
proved irreplaceable.
In 1852 Congress appropriated
$5,000 for the “surveys, projects and
estimates for determining the best
means of affording the cities of
Washington and Georgetown an
unfailing and abundant supply of
good and wholesome water.” The
engineer originally placed in charge
of the project died shortly after
reporting for duty. The selection of
his replacement would launch the
career of a controversial figure who
would have a tremendous impact on
the nation’s capital as we know it
today: Montgomery C. Meigs (see
the sidebar on page 43).
SELECTING A SOURCE ON THE
NATION’S RIVER
In 1852, Meigs was tasked with surveying potential water sources for the
capital. Fitting with his industrious
reputation, he submitted his first progress report after nine days on the job
and his final report within three
months. Congress received much more
than it had bargained for in the final
report. In addition to surveying
sources, Meigs had also estimated
future growth in population and
demand, after having counted every
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residence and business in the city by
ward (Ways 1993). In the report,
Meigs discussed water supplies in
major American cities such as
Philadelphia, New York, and Boston,
as well as systems in Paris and
London, and even the ancient city
of Rome. His report proposed three
alternative sources: Rock Creek
(within the District), along with
Great Falls and Little Falls of the
Potomac River, nicknamed “the
Nation’s River.” Meigs advocated for
the Great Falls source (see the photograph on this page), which would provide the largest and most reliable supply but would also incur the greatest
cost and engineering effort. The Great
Falls location also provided the greatest hydraulic head, enabling firefighting throughout the city without the use
of additional pumps. Consistent with
Meigs’ visions of grandeur, the report
included the following proclamation:
Let our Aqueduct be worthy of
the Nation; . . . let us show that the
rulers chosen by the people are not
less careful of the safety, health and
beauty of their capital than the
emperors [of Rome] who . . . by
their great works conferred benefits
upon their city which . . . cause their
names to be remembered with
respect and affection by those who
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The Great Falls site was eventually
chosen. The plan called for a masonry
conduit 9 ft in diameter to carry water
from a diversion dam at Great Falls
to the Receiving (Dalecarlia) Reservoir
straddling the border between
Maryland and Washington along the
Little Falls Branch of the Potomac
River. Maintaining grade required 11
tunnels, 26 culverts, and four stone
bridges between Great Falls and the
Dalecarlia Reservoir. Water was then
to flow via another masonry conduit
of the same size to a Distributing
(Georgetown) Reservoir, from which
cast-iron mains would carry water to
the city. These two large reservoirs
were intended to provide significant
residence time, thereby enabling gravity settling of sediments from the
often turbid Potomac.
THE UNION ARCH BRIDGE
Arguably, the most magnificent
architectural feature of the original
aqueduct is the Union Arch Bridge (see
the photographs on page 41), also
known as the Cabin John Bridge,
which spans Cabin John Creek. As a
result of technical complexity and
funding limitations, the bridge was to
be the last section of the aqueduct
completed in 1863. In his 1853 report,
Meigs described the aqueduct route as
requiring “only one [bridge] large
enough to make its erection an object
of ambition to an engineer.” The Union
Arch, of course, was that bridge.
The bridge’s design was indeed
ambitious. The brainchild of Meigs
and his assistant Alfred L. Rives, the
Union Arch Bridge uses Roman arch
construction featuring wedge-shaped
voussoirs and a central keystone
(Scott 2007). In addition to a conduit
9 ft in diameter, its outer sandstone
walls from nearby Seneca Quarry
conceal nine spandrel arches. The
exterior arch is composed of Quincy
granite from Massachusetts, and the
gneiss abutments were quarried only
300 ft upstream. The bridge deck is
451 ft long and 20.4 ft wide, and it
Montgomery C. Meigs (1816–1892)
Montgomery C.
Meigs was instrumental
in constructing the
Washington, D.C., we
know today, as well as
working to preserve the
Union. Meigs was
responsible for both
studying potential water
sources for the capital
and constructing the
Washington Aqueduct.
Photo source: Library of Congress,
His projects also
Prints & Photographs Division, Civil War
included the extension
Photographs [LC-DIG-cwpb-07054].
of the US Capitol
building and erection of its cast-iron dome, extension of the
US General Post Office building, design of the US National
Museum (now the Smithsonian Arts and Industries building),
as well as design and construction of the Pension Building
(now the National Building Museum). He was a member of
the five-person commission that evaluated the Capitol’s
defenses during the Civil War and more importantly, served
as the Union Army’s quartermaster general.
Long before being challenged with providing water to
the nation’s capital, Meigs displayed the qualities that
would make him both an authoritative leader and
antagonist of many within the federal government. He was
described as “high-tempered, unyielding, tyrannical” by
his own mother at the age of six. Egotistic and vain may
have been apt adjectives as well. After graduating fifth in
his class from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in
1836, one of Meigs’ first assignments in 1837 was the
improvement of navigation along the Mississippi River near
St. Louis. There he paddled the river in a dugout canoe as
an assistant to a man he would befriend and describe as
“the model of a soldier and the beau ideal of a Christian
man,” one Robert E. Lee (O’Harrow 2011). However, Meigs’
admiration for Lee would not endure as the two would be
divided by the Civil War.
Meigs was assigned to construct the Washington
Aqueduct, of which he had been the chief planner, by then
Secretary of War Jefferson Davis. On the day that
construction began at Great Falls in 1853, he made the
following entry in his journal:
Thus quietly and unostentatiously was commenced this
great work—which is destined I trust for the next thousand
years to pour its healthful waters in to the capital of our union.
May I live to complete it & connect my name imperishably
with . . . its great benefits.
Lest his name be forgotten to history, Meigs seized
opportunities to affix his moniker to structural elements of
the aqueduct. This included not only bridges, but also valves
of appreciable size and even the risers of a spiral staircase.
He had a knack for showmanship as well. On the first day
that aqueduct water was introduced to the city’s mains in
January 1859 (from small streams near Dalecarlia Reservoir,
as the Great Falls connection was unfinished), he stood atop
an elaborate fountain and unleashed a jet of water that
spouted 100 ft in the air to cheers from congressmen and
other dignitaries (Ways 1993).
Meigs detested the Confederacy, causing his personal
ties with the leaders of the rebellion, including Lee and
Jefferson Davis, to unravel. In what many interpret as an act
of retribution, in 1864 Meigs proposed that Lee’s Arlington
plantation estate, which the government had occupied since
1861 and purchased legally at auction a few months prior,
be used as a cemetery for Union soldiers. When the site was
approved, Meigs specified that graves be placed as near to
the Lee home as possible, in hopes of making it uninhabitable
after the war (National Park Service 2015). His son brevet
Major John Rodgers Meigs died under disputed
circumstances and was eventually interred at Arlington
Cemetery. A trusted advisor to President Abraham Lincoln,
Meigs was at Lincoln’s bedside for his death in the Peterson
home across from Ford’s theatre. Meigs himself was also
interred at Arlington when he died at the age of 75.
Risers of a spiral staicase in a vault at the Georgetown Reservoir,
as designed by Montgomery C. Meigs. Photo courtesy of
Washington Aqueduct.
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conduit still carries water to our
nation’s capital to this day.
FILTRATION COMES
TO WASHINGTON
A sluice tower structure bears an inscription dating the first service of the Dalecarlia
Reservoir from small streams flowing into the reservoir (1859) and its eventual Great Falls
source (1863). Photo courtesy of Washington Aqueduct.
rests 100 ft above the creek. At the
time of its completion in 1863, the
Union Arch Bridge’s 220-ft span was
the longest masonry arch bridge in
the world, a title it would hold for
another 40 years (Ways 1993).
Although the bridge has remained
largely unchanged for over 150
years, the inscriptions it bears have
undergone notable revisions. On
Mar. 18, 1861, Meigs directed Rives
that the following inscription should
be made to the bridge: “Union
Bridge; Chief Engineer, Montgomery
C. Meigs; U.S. Corps of Engineers;
Assistant Engineer, Alfred L. Rives,
C.E.” (Gasparini & Simmons 2010).
However, on April 17, Rives resigned
his post to join the Confederacy. The
line of the inscription mentioning
Rives was replaced with the Latin
phrase, Esto Perpetua, which roughly
translates to “Let It Stand Forever.”
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Rives would not be the only rebel to
have his name stricken from the
Union Arch Bridge. When Jefferson
Davis, who was secretary of war
when the project began, became
president of the Confederacy,
Secretary of the Interior Caleb
Blood Smith had Davis’ name chiseled from the stone placard at the
bridge abutment in 1861. His name
would not be returned until 1909
following an order by President
Theodore Roosevelt (Ways 1993).
The bridge has been designated a
National Historic Civil Engineering
Landmark by the American Society
of Civil Engineers and an American
Water Landmark by AWWA under
the names “Cabin John Aqueduct”
and “Cabin John Bridge,” respectively. The conduit has been lined
and redundant supply routes have
been constructed, but that same
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With the somewhat grandiose
description of the Washington
Aqueduct presented thus far, one
might expect that the entrance of
Potomac River water to the capital
would be met with similar fanfare.
However, this was not the case. Public
health officials advocated for the consumption of Potomac River water
over polluted wells and springs scattered throughout the city, specifically
because of concerns about typhoid
fever. However, citizens preferred the
aesthetics of frequently contaminated
well and cistern water. The Potomac
River was often turbid and did not set­
tle readily; the reservoir that was in service during this time, the Distributing
(Georgetown) Reservoir, provided
inadequate sedimentation to meet
consumer demands for water quality.
The first attempt to remedy the
issue was to return the idle Receiving
(Dalecarlia) Reservoir to service to
provide additional removal of sediments. Several small streams had fed
the city from 1859 until the completion of the Great Falls conduit in
1863, after which time they mixed
with Potomac River water in the
Dalecarlia Reservoir (see the photograph on this page). The coming
decades brought development in the
streams’ watersheds, and by 1885
the Dalecarlia Reservoir was
bypassed because of the polluted
streams. Plans called for a project to
reroute the streams and return the
reservoir to service, which was completed in 1895. Initially supportive
of the project, the Evening Star
(1894) reported that the project
would make “Our nectar of the
Alleghenies . . . as bright and clean as
a liquid diamond.” The project did
yield significant turbidity improvements, but the same paper had this
to say in 1896 following heavy rains:
A person of cleanly habits, who
knows he is not as dirty as the
contents of his tub, hesitates long
before he takes his dip . . . But when
it comes to using the stuff as a beverage, the matter takes on an even
worse aspect. It is as dark in color as
a glass of bock beer, and not nearly
as translucent, or anything like as
tempting . . . It is all well enough to
say that the water is free from
typhoid and other disease germs . . .
[Plants] grow admirably in it, but the
average mortal would prefer to have
his drink and food in separate dishes.
Evidently, source water protection,
aesthetics, and consumer confidence
were also important to utilities in the
late 19th century.
Turbid water wasn’t the only problem resulting from lack of filtration.
One congressional source noted: “The
placing of screens [at the effluent of
the Georgetown Reservoir] will materially reduce the quantity of small
fish, which, at present, swarm in the
pipes and fountains” (Ways 1993).
To better serve the eastern portion
of the city that experienced low pressure, and also to provide further sedimentation capacity, a second distributing reservoir was constructed near
Howard University. This reservoir was
eventually named the McMillan
Reservoir for James McMillan, the
senator from Michigan who was a
champion of the project and later of
filtration, in addition to his betterknown cause: the National Mall.
To connect the McMillan and
Georgetown reservoirs, a 4-mi-long
conduit known as the City Tunnel was
constructed more than 150 ft below
the streets of Washington. Flow
through the City Tunnel was to be
regulated by sluice gates, with a gatehouse to protect them from the elements. For these particular gates, their
house truly was to be their castle (see
the top photograph on this page).
The Georgetown Castle Gatehouse
was designated an American Water
Landmark by AWWA in 1974 and
marks the connection between the
Georgetown Reservoir and the City
Tunnel. It was built to resemble the
symbol of the US Army Corps of
Top: The Georgetown Reservoir Castle Gatehouse in the early 20th century. Bottom: The McMillan
slow sand filter plant, designed by Lt. Colonel Alexander Miller with assistance from Alan Hazen
and Edward Dana Hardy, included 29 1-acre filter beds with a design capacity of 75 mgd.
Photos courtesy of Washington Aqueduct.
Engineers on all four facades and
was completed in 1902. The Corps
Castle had been an unofficial symbol
since 1840 and was formally adopted
the same year the Georgetown Castle
was completed. Although the City
Tunnel and McMillan Reservoir
improved pressure throughout the
system, turbid water remained, as
did incidence of typhoid fever. Public
demand for clear, healthful water
grew near the end of the 19th century (The Morning Times 1896).
A filtration feasibility report completed in 1900 included evaluations
of both slow sand and rapid sand
filtration. The report concluded that
slow sand filters would provide
unsatisfactory effluent during the
periods of highest turbidity, whereas
the rapid sand filters would be capable of handling higher turbidities at
less than half the cost. However,
rapid sand filtration required the use
of a coagulant (i.e., alum), and the
use of chemicals in water treatment
was met with stiff resistance from
Congress, as well as the surgeon
general of the US Army. To resolve
the issue, medical and engineering
experts assembled at the Waldorf
Astoria hotel in New York City in
January 1901 at the behest of
Senator McMillan. When testimony
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Left: An early view of the McMillan Water Treatment Plant. Right: A closer view of the statues that adorn the McMillan Fountain. Photos courtesy
of Washington Aqueduct.
proved inconclusive, the Senate
appointed a committee of experts to
make a recommendation. That committee consisted of Rudolph Hering,
George Warren Fuller, and Alan
Hazen. Although they believed the
use of coagulant to be safe, the committee recommended the use of slow
sand filtration with periodic coagulation to control high influent turbidities. Congress, in turn, appropriated funds for the slow sand filter
plant, but the House rejected adding
further funds for coagulation. Coagulation facilities would not be added
until 1911 (Ways 1993).
The slow sand filter plant was to be
breathtaking in its footprint. Designed
by Lt. Colonel Alexander Miller with
the assistance of Hazen and Edward
Dana Hardy, the plant included 29
1-acre filter beds (see the bottom photograph on page 45) with a 14-mil-gal
filtered water reservoir for a design
capacity of 75 mgd. The McMillan
slow sand filter plant was completed
and put into service in 1905. The complex functioned not only as a water
treatment plant, but also as a park
(designed by Frederick Law Olmsted
Jr.). A few years later, the McMillan
Fountain by sculptor Herbert Adams
was added to the park honoring the
late senator (see the photographs on
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this page). Public access to the reservoir
and grounds was permitted until
World War II, when fears of sabotage
resulted in the facility being closed to
the public. The McMillan Water
Treatment Plant was named an
American Water Landmark in 1984.
A paper published in Journal
AWWA’s first volume in 1914
showed reductions in typhoid fever
deaths in Washington, D.C., after the
addition of filtration (Gaub 1914).
However, it is unclear how much of
that reduction resulted from purification of the water supply compared
with consumers switching away
from contaminated wells and cisterns after the aesthetics of treated
Potomac water improved.
By 1918, maximum daily consumption exceeded 78 mgd and the
original design capacity of the
McMillan plant. A plan for additional capacity was submitted and
approved by Congress in 1921, and
construction of the Dalecarlia Water
Treatment Plant was complete by
1928 (see the photograph on page
47). This plant included chemical
mixing basins, sedimentation basins,
80 mgd in rapid sand filter capacity,
and a 15-mil-gal clearwell. Expansions of the plant in ensuing years
greatly increased its capacity.
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THE MODERN WASHINGTON
AQUEDUCT
In the nearly 100 years since the
construction of the Dalecarlia treatment plant, the Washington Aqueduct
has undergone numerous expansions
and modernization efforts. Throughout these changes, the aqueduct has
retained its historic character. The
contemporary use of its original
infrastructure stands as a testament
to the longevity of great engineering
works. As the aqueduct’s facilities
have evolved, so too has its business
model. The Washington Aqueduct
remains owned and operated by the
US Army Corps of Engineers but is no
longer dependent on federal appropriations. The aqueduct is funded
solely by the wholesale of water to its
customer systems: DC Water,
Arlington County, and Fairfax Water.
Despite the transformations that
the last century has produced, the
challenges placed before us today
echo those presented to Hering,
Fuller, and Hazen back in 1901: how
do we invest limited resources to meet
future needs in the face of profound
uncertainty? Water quality and reliability expectations for water utilities
have grown substantially since that
early expert panel was convened, as
have the myriad contaminants that
water utilities must consider. To fulfill
the public’s trust that utilities will
serve as good stewards of ratepayer
resources requires thoughtful prioritization. With the help of a modern
expert panel, Washington Aqueduct
has developed a systematic, transparent, risk-based methodology for prioritizing contaminants (Spiesman &
Speight 2014) to guide investments in
treatment upgrades, watershed protection programs, and distribution
system improvements.
Only time can confirm Meigs’
prediction that the Washington
Aqueduct would serve our nation’s
capital for 1,000 years. With more
than 150 years of rich history in the
books, the dedicated, determined
employees of the Washington
Aqueduct stand ready to write the
next chapter of that story.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank Harry Ways,
Pamela Scott, and Robert O’Harrow
Jr., whose referenced works were
invaluable in developing this article.
They would also like to thank the
reference librarians at the Library of
Congress for their assistance in
locating historical resources.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Alexander S.
Gorzalski is an
environmental
engineer with the
US Army Corps of
Engineers, 5900
MacArthur Blvd.
NW, Washington, DC 20016 USA;
[email protected].
mil. He holds a BS degree in civil
engineering from the University of
Wisconsin–Madison and an MS
degree in environmental engineering from the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill. His focus is
on process engineering and water
quality at the Washington Aqueduct.
Anne L. Spiesman is an environmental engineer with the US Army Corps
of Engineers in Washington, D.C.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2016.108.0034
Fall foliage reflects on a sedimentation basin at the Dalecarlia Water Treatment Plant. The plant was
completed in 1928. Photo courtesy of Washington Aqueduct.
REFERENCES
Brady, M., 1921–1940. Cabin John Bridge,
Maryland. Mathew Brady Photographs
of Civil War-Era Personalities and
Scenes, 1921–1940; Record Group 111:
Records of the Office of the Chief Signal
Officer, 1860–1985; National Archives,
ARC Identifier 525152.
Gasparini, D.A. & Simmons, D.A., 2010. Cabin
John Bridge: Role of Alfred L. Rives, C.E.
Journal of Performance of Constructed
Facilities, 24:2:188.
Gaub, J., 1914. Some Relations Between the
Water Supply and Typhoid Fever in
Washington, D.C. Journal AWWA, 1:4:727.
National Park Service, 2015. The Beginnings
of Arlington National Cemetery. www.
nps.gov/arho/learn/historyculture/
cemetery.htm (accessed Aug. 5, 2015).
O’Harrow, R., 2011. Montgomery Meigs’s Vital
Influence on the Civil War—and
Washington. Washington Post, July 1, 2011.
Scott, P., 2007. Capital Engineers: The U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers in the Development of
Washington, D.C., 1790–2004. US Army
Corps of Engineers, Washington.
Spiesman, A.L. & Speight, V.L., 2014. A RiskBased Methodology for Contaminant
Prioritization. Journal AWWA,
106:3:E150. http://dx.doi.org/10.5942/
jawwa.2014.106.0034.
The Evening Star. Chronicling America:
Historic American Newspapers. Feb. 9,
1894. Library of Congress, Washington.
http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/
sn83045462/1894-02-09/ed-1/seq-3
(accessed Aug. 5, 2015).
The Evening Star. Chronicling America:
Historic American Newspapers. Jan. 10,
1896. Library of Congress, Washington.
http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/
sn83045462/1896-01-10/ed-1/seq-12/
(accessed Aug. 5, 2015).
The Morning Times. Chronicling America:
Historic American Newspapers. Feb. 27
1896. Library of Congress, Washington.
http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/
sn84024442/1896-02-27/ed-1/seq-1/
(accessed Aug. 5, 2015).
Ways, H.C., 1993. The Washington Aqueduct:
1852-1992. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Baltimore District, Baltimore, Md.
IN THE SPOTLIGHT
Journal AWWA is seeking
submissions and nominations
for the regular feature series,
“Spotlight On . . . ”. This series
started in April 2015 to
showcase water facilities in
North America that
demonstrate historical
importance, architectural
excellence, and technological
significance. To submit an
article or to nominate a
facility, contact Editor-in-Chief
Mike McGuire at
[email protected].
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