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Bil. 14, DIS. *93
PERBADANAN PRODUKTTVTn NEGARA
ISSN 0127-8223
DOES A MORE RECENT VINTAGE NECESSARILY LEADS TO INCREASING
LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN THE MALAYSIAN FORESTRY SECTOR?
By
Dr. Mohd Shahwahid Haji Othman
and
Dr. Zakariah Abdul Rashid
(Page 5)
DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL
MODEL FOR SERVICE QUALITY
By
Shams-ur Rahman
(University of Dhaka)
(Page 15)
SIMULATION AS A TRAINING TECHNIQUE
ITS CONCEPT AND APPLICATIONS
By
Ibrahim Mamat,
Ph.D
(Page 27)
"TOWARDS MANAGING THE CUSTOMER SERVICE FUNCTION"
By
Ishak Ismail
(Page 35)
PERSEPSI PEKERJA KERANI PELABUHAN TERHADAP KEPUASAN KERJA:
PERBANDINGAN ANTARA SEKTOR AWAM DAN SWASTA
Oleh
Ab. Wahab Saad
(Page 55)
0000053842
Jumal Produktiviti - [Journal].
jurnaC
PRODUKTIVITI
jurnal
PRODUKTIVni
Pnamig
Ir. Haji Anhad Haji Maradi
(Ketua Pengarah)
Penasfliat
Ismall Adam
(Tim. Ketua Pengarah)
Ectu Pengarang
Halimah All
(Pengarah)
Tim. Ketna Pengaraig
Mohd. Zaki Hamzah
(Tun. Pengarah)
Pcoganmg
Snjaidi Dasnki
Sttaog PcBgmraag
Dr. Abd. Wahab Mnbamad
Isa Abu Bakar
Muhamad Saufl Ahmad
Joaeph Paul
Hussin Mat Isa
Annie Thomas
Azlan Kaasim
Jurina Abd. Hamid
Noorunsah Jakkaria
PenerUt
Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara
(National Productivity Corporation)
Peti Surat 64
Jalan Snltan 46904
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
Tel: 7557266
Peacetak/Prfater
Jiwamas Printen Sdn. Bhd.
No. 12. LorongSS 13/3E
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Selangor Darul Ehsan.
Kami mengaln-alnkan mmbangan rencana untnk dimuatkan di dalam juraal ini. 'Jurnal
Produktiviti* diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, menampung •emua acpek ekonomi dan
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Rencana-fencana yang tersiar akan diberi honorarium dan tidak sentestinya merapakan
pendapat NPC.
NPC
Perbadanan Produkdviti Negara
Muraal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara
(Kementerian Perdagangan Antarabangsa dan Indnstri) Peti Surat 64,
Jalan Sultan, 46904 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
Telefon: 7557266 (15 Talian)
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Tesis: Memerlukan Prihatin Para Mtor
Banyak kajian dan penyclidikan yang telah dilakukan untulc tujuan
akadcmik tcrsimpan begitu saja tanpa discbarkan kepada umum. Antara
scbabnya ialah kcrana kckurangan wadah yang bersedia menyiarkan hasilhasil kajian itu. Selain dari itu terdapat juga tesis-tcsis yang terlalu panjang
yang jika disiarkan di dalam juraal akan mcmakan halaman yang panjang
di mana jarak kekerapannya terlalu lama schingga pembaca hilang punca
untuk mengikuti siri-siri yang berikutnya.
Bagi tujuan memanfaatkan ilmu untuk kepentingan sumber manusia,
Jurnal Produktiviti telah mcngambil langkah menyiarkan beberapa tesis
yang kami anggap sesuai dan bolch dilaksanakan di dalam sistem
pengurusan yang kian berkembang. Rcncana "Pcrscpsi Pekerja Kcrani
Pelabuhan Tcrhadap Kepuasan Kerja: Perbandingan Antara Sektor Awarn
dan Swasta" oleh saudara Ab. Wahab Saad adalah merupakan salah satu
tesis yang dilakukan oleh seorang Pegawai Perunding Kanan NPC. Sebelum
ini kami juga telah menyiarkan beberapa sin rencana dari tesis yang telah
ditulis oleh saudara Guok Eng Chai seorang pcgawai NPC yang membuat
kajian untuk memenuhi keperluan akademiknya.
Untuk menyiarkan semua tesis yang tersimpan di setiap institusi ilmu
di negara ini memerlukan perbelanjaan yang besar terutamanya belanja
mencetak dan mengagih-agihkan. Bagaimanapun di dalam usaha-usaha
penyebaran ilmu ini memerlukan kerjasam dari institusi-institusi pengajian
tinggi untuk memajukannya kepada penerbit-penerbit, sementara pihak
penerbitan pula memerlukan prihatin para editor yang sabar menangani
kerenah akademik yang kadang-kadang membosankan tetapi tidak boleh
dibedah begitu saja tanpa memikirkan aspek-aspek akademiknya!
- editor
Biodata
Dr. Mohd Shahwahid Hj. Othman is a lecturer at Department of Natural
Resource Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, UPM. He
obtained his doctorate degree from SUNY university in the field of
Resource Management and Policy in 1989. He has written several articles in
this area which was published in various publications.
Dr. Zakariah Abdul Rashid, lecturer Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, has an
extensive experience in teaching economics at universities as well as other
training institutes. He has particularly related to input-output analysis,
industrialization, and technological change and obsolescence. Apart from
teaching and research, he was a consultant to a few national and
international agencies. He obtained his Ph. D in economics from University
College of Wales, Abersytwyth, Unived Kingdom in 1989.
Does A More Recent Vintage Necessarily Leads
To Increasing Labour Productivity In
The Malaysia Forestry Sector?
Dr. Mohd Shahwahid ffaji Othman*
and
Dr. Zakariah Abdul Rashid*
Faculty of Economics and Management
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
Serdang, Selangor
Abstract
The present paper compares the labour productivity of 1978 and 1983
vintage technologies in the Malaysian forestry sector. By taking into account
the inter-industry transactions within an input-output framework, the number
of labour required for each vintage were determined. The result sets out that
with the exception of logging, labour requirements for the new vintage is less
than those of the older one, supporting the vintage hypothesis. In fogging,
labour requirements actually increase with the younger vintage. Discussions
and suggestions are given to improve the Malaysian forestry industry.
Introduction
Production technique that gives the highest surplus returns in comparison to the others is often adopted by profit maximising producers. The
use of this production technique, formerly called the best-practice technique
by Saltcr (I960), can increase productivity through saving in the cost of
production (Zakariah, 1989 and 1991). This production technique is not
necessarily the latest technique, although the younger technique normally
gives lower production cost than the older ones. In a developing country like
Malaysia where the forestry sector represents a major portion of the
country's economic activities, valuable timber materials can significantly be
saved and productivity can satisfactorily be enhanced if the latest technique
is being used. This paper attempts to look into the labour productivity
differential in the foresty sector due to presumed occurence of technical
change between two different periods. Technical change in an economy is
defined here as the changing from one best-practice technique to another.
*Key to author's names: M. Shahwahid H. O. and Zakariah A. R.
Hypotheses
To introduce new techniques in the forestry sectors such as serial
production in the wood moulding and furniture milk requires stock capital
adjustments which may be associated to certain amount of labour
requirements. The current best-practice technique is associated to the one
with the lowest labour requirements, conversely the outmoded techniques
would used more labour. This implies that the period-to-period changes in
best-practice techniques should allow an absolute saving of labour.
In a given period of time, new plants are constructed and outmoded
plants are discarded. The process of constructing modem plants and
scrapping outmoded plants is a continuous one. The extent of co-existence
between old and new techniques depends upon the earlier technique's ability
to absorb increasing relative factor prices. Competition between the old and
new plants used in production would continue until a production technique
no longer becomes profitable.
It is the contention of this paper that with technical change, as
presumed when production technique from two different periods are
compared, factor input productivity, in particular labour productivity, is
hypothesised to increase in the forestry sector. Included in the forestry
sector analysed are logging, wood-working mills, furniture and fixtures mills
and paper mills.
Methodology
The comparison of labour requirements of each of the four forestry
sectors during the two periods are being used as a yardstick to measure
changes on their productivity or efficiency. It is contended that when a more
recent vintage adopted by a forestry sector is capable of producing a given
output with less labour than an older vintage, or is capable of delivering
greater output with a given labour, then the newer vintage may be judged
technologically superior to the older one.
To this end the input-output model can be used to evaluate the
amount of primary factors required, particularly labour, to deliver the
output from these four sectors. Input-output analysis is a method of
studying quantitative interdependence between individual sectors. An
illustrative three sector input-output model of an economy is shown in
Figure 1. The entries in the table are all in money value terms.
Along each row of a supplying sector i, its gross output is the sum of
the demand for its output by all purchasing sectors and final demand. The
latter component comprises private and government consumptions, gross
capital formation and exports. Whereas along each column of a purchasing
sector j, its gross outlay is the sum of input purchases made from various
1
Purchasing sector (j)
2
3
Final
demand
Gross
output
1
Xn
Xj2
Xi3
fi
x,
2
x2i
xjj
x^
fa
Xj
3
X3i
Xjj
X33
f3
X3
Value added
Vi
V2
V3
V
Gross outlay
Xi
Xj
Xs
F
Supplying
sectors
(0
Figure 1. A three-sector input-output model
supplying sectors and value added (wage and non-wage). If these individual
purchases by each sector] are divided by its gross outlay we will get what are
termed the direct input coefficients. These coefficients show the direct input
requirements from each supplying sector i per unit of output of the
purchasing sector].
The relationship between final demand and total output may be
expressed as:
(I-A)X = F
(1)
where X and F are column vectors of gross output and final demand
respectively, I is an identity matrix and A is the matrix of direct input
coefficients. Under the condition that matrix (I-A) has an inverse, the latter
matrix may in turn be employed to express gross output as a function of
final demand in the following manner:
X=(I-A)-!F
(2)
Each element in the matrix of Leontief inverse, (I — A)~ , represents
direct and indirect requirement of intermediate inputs for one unit increase
in final demand.
Labour coefficient may be defined as the quantity of labour needed to
produce one unit of output and is calculated by dividing the aggregated
salary and wages due to labour by its total output. Thus this coefficient
shows how much should be contributed directly to labour for each MR of
output. It is the most widely used index of labour productivity.
An increase in output of an industry will increase the demand for
labour directly and other industries demand for labour indirectly. The row
vector of labour coefficients by all sectors in the economy is pre-multiplied
by the Leontief inverse matrix to obtain the direct and indirect labour
requirements per unit of output (l t ) using vintage technology t.
it = l t (I-A)" 1
(1 — Ay)"1
:
element in the Leontief inverse matrix which measures the direct and indirect increase in output of
sector i for each increase in final output of sector j.
lt
:
an i* order labour coefficient vector of vintage t. This
vector contains coefficients for the four forestry
sectors only leaving the others as zeros.
li(I-ASij)" 1
:
direct and indirect labour to produce one unit of
forestry sector] output.
These direct and indirect labour requirements per unit of output
produced would provide a comprehensive picture of labour productivity
and efficiency of labour utilisation by one forestry sector over that of
another in the economy.
Now, we can distinguish two concepts of labour productivity. First,
direct labour, l t , measures labour inputs required per unit of output of a
sector using the technology of year t. Secondly, given a complete structural
description of the economy, we can derive the total (direct and indirect)
labour requirements of the four forestry sectors (l t ).
Changes in 1 measure changes in the overall labour requirements of
each of the four forestry sectors in delivering their final outputs. Such
changes are the net result of changes in direct and indirect labour coefficient
of many sectors and of shifting division of labour among sectors in the
economy. This analysis of changes in direct and in total direct and indirect
labour requirements for each of the four forestry sectors gives some notions
of the importance of shifting industrial specialisation in the changing
productivity picture.
Data Collection
The Leontief Inverse Matrices for 1978 and 1983 input-output tables
published by the Department of Statistics were used in this study. The latter
table is the latest input-output table published. The aggregated salary and
wages and output for the above four forestry sectors were available for the
Industrial Surveys of Manufacturing Industries, also published by the same
department.
Results and Discussions
Table 1 shows the direct and total labour requirements per unit of
output for each of the 1978 and 1983 technology. Column (1) and column
(2) of the table compare the direct and indirect labour coefficients for 1978
and 1983 average technologies or vintages. Except for logging, the coefficients of 1983 technology were generally smaller than those of 1978 average
technology. As labour coefficient is the reciprocal of the index of labour
productivity, the difference in the row paired coefficients indicates an
increase in labour productivity over the period. Similarly, comparing
column (3) with column (4) it is found that with the exception of logging, the
direct and indirect requirements of labour per RM million of 1989 output
when using 1978 average technology are larger than that when using 1983
average technology. Also as indicated by the ratios of column (4) to that of
column (3), in order to satisfy the production of the forestry sectors the
economy uses less amount of labour if more current technology is used.
However again the logging sector is an exception.
It appears that of the four forestry sectors, logging actually
experienced a decline in labour productivity while woodworks just barely
improved. Logging is a highly labour intensive operation especially during
harvesting, skidding and loading at the forest landings. During logging
operations, the cutting of trees and, subsequent debranching and crosscutting using mechanical saws are labour intensive. Loading of logs onto
lorries using the self-loading system, which do not require a specialised
mechanical loader, would consume high labour man-hours. When
mechanical loaders are used this aspect is minimised. Further increase in
labour usage occurred with increasing forest exploitation in less accessible
and topographically more difficult areas in the later part of the seventies and
early eighties (Abdul Raof, 1983). Thus for many logging companies labour
intake expanded towards the later part of the study period. The number of
employment per hectare of forest opened grew at an average rate of 16.7%
per annum during 1974-82 period (Mohd. Shahwahid, 1988).
The increasing labour intensity was happening while the state of
logging system appeared to remain unchanged. Owing to lack of data, it is
not possible to directly link declining labour productivity to lack of
mechanisation. But evidence of present logging practices does not allow us
to reject the influence entirely. The state of the art now is still mainly relying
on track tractors for skidding of logs and winch lorries for hauling
(Doraisingham, 1983). Improvements in harvesting system are very slow.
Past observations have shown that logging contractors have attempted to
modify the winch lorries insteads of adopting more modern equipments.
The winch lorry has been continually modified by increasing power through
strengthening of drive shafts and body frames, and together with
improvements on the self-loading techniques have resulted in its continued
usage for log hauling activity (Anon., 1974). The refusal for contractors to
change to modern equipment is understandable as the winch lorry hauling
system has the advantages of low capital cost, mobility and the ability of
forwarding logs to considerable distances over low grade roads. Further-
Table 1: Total Labour Requirement per RM Million of 1989 Total Output
Direct and indirect requirement per
RM million of 1989 total output
Direct and indirect
labour coefficients
1989 total output
using technology
1978
(1)
1978
(3)
Ratio of
direct labour
requirements
1983
(2)
1983
(4)
between 1983
and 1978
technologies
(4) -(3)
Logging
0.023397
0.053095
1917.6
4351.6
2.27
Woodworking
mills
0.159923
0.157376
665.2
654.6
0.98
Furniture &
Fixtures
0.232397
0.197523
91.3
77.6
0.85
Paper &
Printing
0.202442
0.174644
484.3
417.8
0.86
Note: Column (3) -
Column (4) =
I978
(I - A1978)-' Q1988
1983
(I - A1983)'1 Q1989
Q is a diagonal matrix with the output of the four forestry sectors in the
diagonals and zero in all other cells of the matrix. For logging, the output
figure is for Malaysia while for the other three sectors the output figures are
for Peninsular Malaysia only.
more it is observed that in many cases the winch lorry is being used for more
than ten years owing to versatility in replacement of worn moving parts and
ease of maintenance. Such a low capital set-up is very suitable to the
requirements of short-termed logging licences as practised in Malaysi an
forests where the tasks of replenishing the forest is left to the government
(Ellis, 1976).
As for the lack of improvement is labour productivity (and thus high
labour intake) in woodworking mills, particularly sawmills and plywood
mills the underlying reasonings are due to the lack of technological change
brought about by uncertainties of acquiring sufficient quality log intakes
and excess capacity problems (Mohd Shahwahid, 1985 and 1986). Declining
quality and size of log over the years occurred as a consequence of higher
utilisations of the timber resources including smaller diameter and lower
quality logs. Processing of increasingly smaller and irregular shaped logs
would reduce productivity owing to higher time consumption and higher
10
wastage factor. The deteriorating quality of timber intake into domestic
processing mills was caused by the export flow of logs in East Malaysia and
smaller annual coupe in West Malaysia.
Suggestions for productivity improvement
The study has highlighted the performance of the Malaysian forestry
sectors. In logging since its activities are labour intensive, production
through greater utilisation of under-utilised timber species must be increased
to improve labour productivity. It is suggested that to increase output more
mechanisation in harvesting operations is necessary to cope up with the
growing future demand for logs under dwindling annual forest opening.
Among the operations that need looking into are road construction and
maintenance, preparation of skid trails and landings, and log skidding and
handling.
With regard to the woodworking mills, particularly in sawn limber and
plywood industries there are evidence of inadequate growth in factor input
utilisation. Both these industries can be modernised and upgraded in terms
of production efficiency and high quality industrial outturns. The strategy
would be consolidation of existing inefficient mills and diversification of
large individual mills. Experiences from developed countries that had
undergone rationalisation as a result of continuing rise in labour wage and
log cost, together with declining log sizes and concentration, can be
beneficial (Kaiser, 1974). The sawn timber industry in Malaysia is facing
similar problems above and should consolidate into fewer mills. Economic
forces will cause less efficient mills to close down but a few diehard mills will
survive with modernisation. Consolidation can lead to improvements in
plant layouts and increased mechanisation to reduce the impact of steadily
rising wage rates. Extensive handling can be reduced by specialising in a
narrower product mix leading to smooth production flows.
In the sawmill layout the continuing dominant roles of the handsaws
will continue but with support of precision sawing equipments such as
multi-edgers, pony rigs and suitable conveying system. Resawing can be
improved by the introduction of line-bars and infeed apparatus. To speed
the production flow the present contract system of production where each
resaw unit is used as a self-contained production unit, should be replaced by
properly controlled and supervised integrated flow operations. The
emphasis on incentives for quality production can provide similar
inducements as the contract system. A narrower product mix specialising
in standard sizes tailored to re manufacturing requirements of secondary
industries can ensure more efficient use of factor inputs as well as obtain
ready markets. In order to achieve this, sawmilling operations should be
rationalised towards sawing to stock rather than to order.
Diversification of sawmilling operation into secondary processing such
11
as wood seasoning, moulding and furniture-making can improve raw material utilisation. Greater automation is possible as product mix is narrowed
to requirements of secondary processing instead of variable order sizes.
Productivity improvement in the plywood industry can be achieved by
higher production recoveries of present mills. Adoption of more labour
saving devices such as hot presses with automatic charging and unloading
equipment, and a variety of veneer and panel handling equipments can help
to increase output. Other measures that can lead to higher recovery and
production are proper supervision and training for employee, pre-processing
of logs or cants through steaming or boiling, microsharpening of lathe
knives using newer and higher recovery lathe machines and better control of
veneer flow into dryers and glueing operations. Quality control of plywood
panels is essential by ensuring proper control of veneer thickness variation
and laying of core veneers, good joints and display of wood grains, and fine
surface furnishing.
The problem of insufficient log flows to meet the requirements of all
sawntimber and plywood mills in West Malaysia is serious and establish-
ments of new mills are not encouraged. Encouragement of importation of
logs from East Malaysia is important. The abolition on import duties and
surcharge is a step in the right direction. Despite this the government should
provide millers with credit facilities for the importation of logs to enable
them to operate their plants at optimal capacity throughout the year.
Alternatively, funds from the export levies of sawntimber could be used to
subsidise importation of logs from the East Malaysia states.
With the above suggestions of modernization together with diversification of mill layouts, it is felt that logging, and woodworking sectors, at
least for sawntimber and plywood, would be able to accept the challenge of
better productivity results. It is an unavoidable fact that to obtain efficiency
will require more mechanisation and automation. Past experiences with
automated technology in integrated timber complexes had failed because the
machinery and production system are not adapted to local conditions. But
with proper planning and evaluation on choice of machinery and plant
layout together with sound management, better performance is expected.
Conclusions
The paper compares the labour productivity of 1978 and 1983
production technologies in the Malaysian forestry sectors. Since it uses
input-output analysis as its basic framework, the study takes into account
the inter-industry transaction in calculating the amount of labour required
'for each 1978 and 1983 production technology. The result sets out that with
the exception of logging, labour requirements has declined with the
occurence technical changes. In logging, labour requirement actually
increases in 1983 production technology.
12
REFERENCES
ABDUL RAOF. 1983. Employment in the Primary Wood-Based Industries of
Peninsular Malaysia. The Malaysian Forester 46 (1): 20-25.
ANONYMOUS. 1984. Development Strategy for the Forest Sector of Peninsular
Malaysia. The Forestry and Industries Development Project of the F.A.O of the
United Nations. Rome.
DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS, MALAYSIA, 1978-83, Annual Industrial
Surveys.
DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS, MALAYSIA, 1983 and 1988. Input-output
Tables for 1978 and 1983.
DORAJSINGHAM. 1988. Logging Operation ofSyarikat Jengka Sdn. Bhd. A field
Report. Unpublished Report. Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Pertanian
Malaysia, Serdang. Selangor.
ELLIS, W. 1976. An Overview of Logging Methods in Malaysia. Paper presented at
the National Timber Congress. Kuala Lumpur.
KAISER, H.F. 1971. Productivity Gains in Forest Products Industries. For. Prod. 21
(5): 14-16.
KAISER, H.F., 1974. Forest Product Industries Show Advances in Labour
Productivity. For. Ind. 101(11): 32-34.
MOHD. SHAHWAHID H.O., 1985. Production and Input-use Efficiency
in the
Sawntimber Manufacturing Industry of Peninsular Malaysia. PERTANIKA 8(2):
203-214.
MOHD SHAHWAHID H.O., 1986. Production and Input-use Efficiency
in the
Plywood Manufacturing Industry of Peninsular Malaysia. 3. Productivity, 1(1):
41-50.
MOHD SHAHWAHID H.O., 1988. Productivity Growth in Forest Harvesting and in
Selected Wood Using Industries of Peninsular Malaysia, 1971 to 1982. Paper
presented at the Fifth Annual Northeast Graduate Student Conference 4-6
February 1983, State University of New York, Syracuse.
SALTER, W., 1980. Productivity and Technical Change, Lond: Cambridge University
Press.
ZAKARIA A.R., 1989, Price Structure, Technological Obsolescence and Labour
Productivity - A Vintage Approach, The Singapore Economic Review, Vol.
XXXIV No. 1 (April): 50-67
ZAKARIAH, A.R., 1991, Costs of Production and Labour Productivity: 1978 and
1983 Malaysian Vintage Technology, Jumal Elconomi Malaysia, 23 (Disember);
73-90.
13
Biodata
Shams-ur Rahman is an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Business
Administration, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Currently he is at the
Department of Mathematical Statistics & Ope ration an s Research, University of Exater, UK. His research interest include location modeling,
inventory control and ergoeconomics aspect of productivity.
14
DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL
MODEL FOR SERVICE QUALITY
By
Shams-ur Rakman
(University ofDhaka)
INTRODUCTION
The study of quality and quality control has enjoyed a long and rich
history in management literature. The field has enjoyed a revival with strong
interest in Japanese management concept. See for instance Quchi (1981),
Juran (1982) and Ishikawa (1985). However, most published works have
been devoted to managing the quality of manufacturing products. Only over
the last decade, has there been a growing interest in the development of
knowledge about the control and management of service systems, like
banking and finance, hotel and catering, tourism and leisure, insurance
companies, retail activities, advertising, and education. Chase (1981) sees
two reasons for such interest, namely;
1.
The rapid growth of services relative to manufacturing in the last
decade.
2.
The pressure on service operations to become cost efficient in their
production proccesses.
A number of ideas have been proposed in the various studies on
service quality. These ideas can be categorized into three approaches:
Approach I:
Focus has been on adaptation of manufacturing techniques for service
sector to encourage efficient use of resources for increase in productivity.
Writes advocating this idea tend to model service systems by drawing
structural analogies with manufacturing systems; e.g., intermittent,
continuous and project flow in Buffa (1975); and input, transformation
and output in Wild (1977). This idea has been more subjectively addressed
by Levin (1972, 1976). He proposed the "production-line" approach and
suggested that the same rational system of division of labour and
specialization coulde be followed to produce speed, quality, cleanliness
and low prices. As example, fast food restaurants such as McDonalds and
Burger King were cited. Chase (1987) introduced the concept of separating
high and low contact operations and running the no-contact or back-office
15
operation along similar lines of production plant. Dierdonck & 38; Brandt
(1988) advocated the "focused-factory" concept for service organization.
The basic idea behind the concept of "focused-factory" is that it is better to
have different plants, each focused on 'one set of internally consistent noncompromised criteria for success'. All these views attempt to restructure
service systems to make them more like manufacturing processes; none
requires much consumer involvement.
Approach II:
Participation of customers in the production process of the service
systems and thereby achieving productivity gains. Some of the writers
advocating this idea are Fit7simmons (1985), Zeleny (1978) and Lovelock &
Young (1979). Considering the fact that, unlike manufacturing, in service
systems consumers are frequently present when the service is performed, in
effect witnessing its production. Fitzsimmons (1985) views consumer as an
"untapped productive resource". He points out that by shifting some of the
service activities onto the customer, productivity gains could be achieved,
Approach ITT:
De-industrialization fo services. Writers proposing this idea give
greater importance to the "interface". Teboul (1988) for example, argues
that when service is industrialized the centre of interest is less on the service
itself than the product delivered with the service. He believes that for long
term positioning of the service company, strategies like maintenance and
enhancement of the interface is a must.
DEFINITION OF SERVICE, QUALITY AND SERVICE QUALITY:
According to Kotler (1980, p.624)" a service is any activity or benefit
that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not
result in the ownership of anything ..... it may or may not be tied to a
physical product". And delivering a service is dealing directly with the
customers and transforming them from an initial state of non-satisfaction or
need into one of contentment.
A service is made up of two systems; an interface and a support
(Teboul, 1988); a front office and a back office; the dining room in a
restaurant and the kitchen (see figure 1).
Quality means different things to different people. Garvin (1984)
outlined five viewpoints of quality, namely:
1.
Transcend = Beauty
2.
Product = Content
16
Service
1
Customer
————— )
f —————
Interface
Support
1
Source: Adapted from Teboul (1988)
Service Definition
Figure 1
3.
User = Fitness
4.
Value - Cost
5.
Manufacturing = Variability
Maister (1984) and Teboul (1988) consider user-based viewpoint. (The
Juran Concept of "fitness for use" addresses this viewpoint (Juran, 1980,
p.l)) of quality for service operations, i.e. quality is the customer's
perception of the service offer. And perception is experiential state of
mind (Haywood-Farmer, 1988, p. 19), rather than necessarily being real.
Hence, a service is not only 'what' is delivered but also includes 'how' it is
delivered. And the 'how* is the interactions of the customer with the
premises, with the equipment, with the employees and even with the other
customers (see figure 2). With regard to the gradual disappearance of movie
theatres in the USA, Canby's (1982) findings justify this opinion. He points
out 13 complaints including insensitive and undisciplined employees,
underlit and out-of-focus projection, car-splitting sound, cumbersome
refund procedure in the case of power failure. None of these have anthing
to do with the quality of films being shown.
According to Gronroos (1982) service quality can be defined in terms
of 'technical quality* and 'functional quality'. Technical aspects relate to
'what is delivered', e.g., meals in a restaurant and bedrooms in hotels.
Functional aspects of service relate to 'how it is delivered', i.e. attitudes and
behaviour of employees, inter-relationship of customers and servers,
appearance and personality and service-mindedness of service personnel,
their accessibility and approachability. He believes that the 'how* of service
delivery is critical to perceptions of service quality. Lehtinen (1983) views
service quality in terms of 'process quality* and 'output quality*. Process
quality is judged by the customer during the service. Output quality is
judged by the customer after the service is performed. The barber's
17
\
Interaction
equipment
/
1 nleractJon
customer
Interaction
process
/ Interaction
employees
Customer needs
\
Service Offer
Quality = preceived customer satisfaction
Quality as Perceived user Satisfaction
Figure 2
conversation and apparent skill during the haicut involves process quality,
the appearance of the hair after the haircut involves output quality.
WHAT CAUSES SERVICE QUALITY PROBLEMS?
The most frequently mentioned sources of quality problem with the
manufacturing products are related to workmanship, materials and parts,
control systems, product design and maintenance of process equipment
(Leonard & Sasser, 1983). The primary couses of the service quality
problems are quite different and more difficult than in the manufacturing
sector because of the following special nature of service.
Intangibility:
Sometime it is very difficult to distinguish between products and
services. As Shostack (1982) rightly points out, there are very few 'pure*
18
products and services. For instance, a car is a physical product and an
airline is a service, but transport is common to both and each has product
and service elements. She suggested that products and services could be
distinguished with regard to their tangible elements. Services are intangible
in the sense that we consume but do not prossess them or connot store them
e.g., legal services, hairdressing; often cannot see the result of use, e.g.
medical treatment, education; and seldom can we test a service in advance-
thus making it difficult to judge quality in advance of purchase.
Inseparabilty:
Usually goods are produced, then sold and then consumed. But many
services are sold first, then produced and consumed with production and
consumption possibly being simultaneous (see figure 3). In the class room,
the teaching and the learning process go together. The passenger has to be in
the plane in order to be transported. If he misses his plane, the service is lost.
Services
Goods
Production
Production
Traditional
Marketing
Consumption
Buyer seller
interaction
Source: Adapted from Rathmel (1974)
Consumer-Server Interfaces
Figures
19
Customer Involvement in Service Production:
The customer by being physically present at the interface, is able to
participate not only in the design of the service but in production or in
quality control or even in the diffusion of the service. For their active
involvement in the production process of the service, Berry (1984) terms
customers as 'production workers* over whom management has little or no
direct control,
Heterogenety:
Goods can often be described and evaluated by a few well understood
attributes that remain relatively constant over time. Most services, however,
are typified by variability or lack of standardization, in production as a
function of both consumers' need and also of who is providing the service.
Although some organizations try to standardize services, e.g., banks,
variability is the norm with an emphasis on 'people-based service delivery'
and with quality of service delivering from the performance of service based
personnel.
THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL:
The service qualtiy model by Haywood-Farmed (1988) has three
features:
1.
2.
Physical and process components
Behavioural elements
3.
Elements of Professional Judgement
In this model the 'interface' has been included as a component of the
physical process along with the support like, production and delivery
facilities. By doing so the author has oversimplified the importance of
interface in a service organisation. After all it is the interface that makes a
service. Moreover, the third feature of the - professional judgement - which
includes characteristics like, advice, diagnostic ability, motivation to serve has limited scope without substantial size of the interface. For example, in
fast food restaurants, the staff has no scope whatsoever to advise or suggest
the customers in designing their food. Here, showing warmth and
friendliness (behavioural elements) on the part of the servers will serve the
purpose. Whereas, in a Japanese Benihana restaurant (where the size of the
kitchen is reduced and that of the dining area is enlarged), there is sufficient
scope for the staff to advise and mutually design the service. It is therefore,
more justified to have professional judgement, when interface is also a
distinct component of a service quality model. The proposed model (figure
4) is an extention of Hay wood-Farmer's (1988) model.
20
Professional
judgement
(P)
Interface
(P)
Support
Behavioural
system (S)
element (B)
A Model of Service Quality
Figure 4
High
Degree of Contact
and interaction
Low /
/S^i oc
\
4
High 2 2 i'
5
Degree of
labour
intensity
Low ,'\
Low
7
3
7
High
Degree of service customisation
A Three-Dimensional Classification Scheme
FignreS
It consists of the following features:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Interface
Support system
Behavioural elements
Elements of Professional judgement
21
The service organisations are highly diverse. Hence, a particular combination of the components of the model will suit a particular organisation.
It is the responsibility of the service managers to choose that appropriate
combination by asking themselves three questions with respect to their
organization; what exactly is their service? Who are their target group? And
what is the expectation of the target group?
The proposed model can be explained with the help of a threedimensional classification scheme proposed by Haywood-Farmer (1988)
(see fig. 5).
There are two extreme octants in figure 5 - octant 1 and octant 8.
Octant 1 represents the services which are low in all three dimensions. In
such services, there exits no contact or low contact between the customers
and servers; therefore the server's personal behaviour and the interface are
relatively unimportant. The focus for quality control should therefore be
emphasised on work processes and procedures, i.e. near the lower left hand
corner of PSB in figure 4. Quality in such organization is relatively easy to
measure and often may be inspected before the service, is delivered to the
customer. An example of such services could be the back room operations at
a bank. On the other hand, octant 8 represents the services which are high in
all three dimensions. In such organisations interface, support, behavioural
elements, professional judgement are all important. The proper service
quality balance would therefore be at the centre of the pyramid PSBI in
figure 4,
As one moves towards octants 5 - 8 , the contact and interaction
between the customer and the service producing system increases. In services
low both in labour intensity an service customisation (octant 5), support
system is important. Special care must be taken to make sure equipment is
reliable and easy for the customer to use. A 'cash-point system* of a financial
house is an example of such service. As high contact and interaction services
increase in labour intensity (octant 6,8), more attention must be paid to the
behaviour of the staff. A service with high contact, high labour intensity and
low service customisation (octant 6), will be a combination of support and
behavioural elements and therefore proper quality balance will be between
the lower two corners of A ISB in figure 4. A take-away food restaurant is a
good example of such service. In the case of a fast food restaurant, like
McDonalds, interface is also important.
Octant 2 is high in labour intensity but low both in contact and degree
of service customisation. Here personal behaviour, professional judgement
and interface will remain quite unimportant. Delivery service of postal
department is an example of such kind of services.
As one moves towards octants 3,4,7, and 8 of figure 5, degree of
customisation increases. In this case the product must be designed to fit he
22
customer's need and therefore the service producer must advise the
customer, decide what the customer wants and decide how best to produce
the service. These functions require professional judgement on the part of
the server. In labour intensive organisations, the server's personal behaviour
and interface is important. The emphasis in quality control should therefore
be focused on the FBI. Repair and maintenance services, dentist's chamber
and benihana restaurants are some examples of such services. In less labour
intensive services, such as one related to computer, professional judgement
and support systems of the organisations are important.
The service quality model described above is a conceptual one. It is
easy to understand but perhaps deserves further development.
SUMMARY
This article presents insights into some basic concepts of service and
service quality. A number of ideas proposed in different studies on service
quality has been categorized into three approaches. Since service
organisations are highly diverse, no one approach is suitable for all service
activities. Rather, combination of some quality attributes will suit a
particular organisation. In this respect, a service quality model comprising
four qualify attributes such as interface, support, behaviour of the service
personnel and professional judgement, has been proposed. Managers must
carefully choose and balance the appropriate mix of these quality attributes
in order to achieve good service quality.
23
REFERENCE
1.
Berry, L.L. (1984), "Service Marketing is Different", in Lovelock, C.H. (ed.),
Services Marketing, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.. pp. 29 - 36.
2.
Berry, L.L; V.A. Zeithaml; A. Parasuraman 91985), "Quality Counts in Services,
Too", Business Horizons, May-June, pp. 44 - 52.
3.
Bufla, F. (1975), "Operation Management", John Wiley & Sons, London.
4.
Canby, v (1982), "When Movie Theatres and Patrons are Obnoxious", New York
Times, February 7, pp. D19, D24.
5.
Chase, R.B. (1978), "Where Does the Customer Fit in a Service Operation".
Harvard Business Review, Nov.,/Dec., pp. 137 - 142.
6.
Chase, R.B. (1981), "The Customer Contact Approach to Services; Theoretical-
Bases and Practical Extensions", Operations Research, Vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 694 706.
7.
Dierdonck, R.V.; G. Brandt (1988), "The Focused Factory in Service Industry",
in Strategy, Quality and Resource Management in the Service Sector, R.,
Johnston (ed.), International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 31 - 38.
8.
9.
Fitzmmoins, J.A. (1985), "Consumer Participation and Productivity in Service
Operations", Interfaces, May/June, pp. 60 - 67.
Garvin, D.A. (1984), "What Does Product Quality Really Meanr Sloan
Management Review, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 25 - 43.
10. Haywood-Farmer, J. (1988), "A Conceptual Model of Service Quality",
International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 8,
No. 6, pp. 19-29.
11. Ishikawa, K. (1985), What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.
12. Juran, J.M. (1982), Upper Management and Quality, Juran Institute, New York.
13. Juran, J.M. (1980), Quality Planning and Analysis, 2nd. edition, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.
14. Kotler, P (1980), Principles of Marketing, Prentice-Hall, Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.
15. Leonard, F.S.: W.E. Sasser (1982), "The incline of Quality", arvard Business
Review, Sept./Oct., pp. 163 - 171.
16. Levitt, T (1972), "The Production-line Approach to Service", Harvard Business
Review, Sept./Oct., pp. 41 - 52.
24
17. LevittgT (1976), "The Industrialization of Services", Harvard Business Review,
Sept/Oct., pp. 63 - 74.
18. Lovelock, G.H.: R.F. Young (1979), "Look to Customers to Increase
Productivity", Harvard Business Review, may/June, pp. 168 - 178.
19. Maister, D.H. (1984), "Quality Work Does Not Mean Quality Service", The
American Lawyer, April], pp. 6-8.
20. Quchi, W.G. (1981), Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet The Japanese
Challenge, Addision-Wesley Publishing Co. Reading, MA.
21. Rathmell, J. (1974), Marketing in the Service Sector, Winthrop Publishers,
Cambridge.
22. Shostack, G.L. (1982), "How to Design a Service", European Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 49 - 63.
23.
Teboul, J. (1988), "De-Industrialise Service for Quality", in Strategy, Quality
and Resource Management in the service Sector, R. Johnston (ed.)>
International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 8,
No. 3, pp. 39 - 45.
24. Wild. R. (1977), Concept of Operation Management, John Wiley and Sons,
London.
25. Zeleny, M. (1978). Towards Self-Service Society, Columbia University Press.
25
Biodata
Ibrahim bin Mam at earned his B.S degree from the University of California
at Davis in 1976, his M.S from Michigan State University in 1978, and his
Ph.D. in Education and Industrial Labour Relations from Cornell
University in 1982. From the time of his graduation to August 1992 he
has taught at the Center for Extension and Continuing Education,
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. At present he is an Associate Professor of
Human Resource Development at Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
Dr. Ibrahim bin Mamat is an active researcher and is the author and
editor of 3 books on extension strategies, 5 training modules on training
management and 30 seminar papers. He has consulted with a wide variety of
organizations in both the public, private, regional and international agencies
on human resource matters.
Dr. Ibrahim Mamat stays active as a trainer in self-management and
human resource strategies. His experience includes World Bank assignments
in RISDA, SEAMEO in ASEAN Countries, C1DA in Thailand and in-
service training in various development agencies in Malaysia. He also serves
as a chairman of the graduate program for 19 graduate students.
26
SIMULATION AS A TRAINING TECHNIQUE
ITS CONCEPT AND APPLICATIONS
by
Ibrahim Mamat, Ph.D
Introduction
The focus of this paper is on an organizational simulation, one of the
important training techniques to accomplish certain training objectives.
Simulations, also known as structured experiences,, provide trainees with
significant opportunities to experience learning. The learning comes about
by actually undergoing the experience. Although the structured event of the
simulation activity itself is not reality, the learning from it, coming as it does
from one's experience, is very real indeed.
The objectives of this paper are to review the various training
techniques, explores the meaning of simulations and gives a number of
examples of simulations training, explains the pros and cons of simulation
technique, outlines the steps involved in designing and conducting them,
and discussion on how simulation technique can be made useful to promote
learning.
Different Types of Training Methodologies
There are nearly two dozen distinctly different training methods (and
literally hundreds of combinations of them) which have become popular and
used by training agencies. Although some studies have reported the
frequency of use of various methods, the training literature has failed to
produce a clear answer to the questions, "Which training method is most
effective?" The question, of course, has no simple answer for all training
personnel. Unfortunately, some training personnel act as though they knew
the answer and they continue to utilize their "favorite" technique in most of
their programs regardless of its true relevance or adequacy for the objective
at hand.
Whenever training techniques are selected on the basis of illogical or
irrelevant criteria, one has committed an injustice to his trainees, decreased
the probability of training program success, and failed to exercise his
responsibility as a manager charged with the task of human growth and
development. Why have trainers failed to choose the appropriate training
technique? Some possible reasons include the greater cost of alternative
methods, lack of knowledge about the comparative effectiveness of various
27
techniques or even the perception that the trainees like a certain method
best.
The popular training techniques that have been widely discussed over
a period of several years are found in Bass and Vaughan (1966, p. 131).
These are orientation, job-instruction training, apprenticeship.assi slant ship,
job-rotation, coaching, vestibule, lecture, special study, role-play, simulation, programmed instruction and laboratory training which include the TGroup, or sensitivity training and managerial grid. There are many factors
to be considered in the selection of a training technique, but the most critical
independent variables include the nature of the training objective, cost of
developing and administering the program, amount of time required,
optimum size of the class, the trainee's educational and cultural back-
ground, the qualifications of the trainer, and so forth. For this paper, all the
critical independent variables will be simplified and a somewhat arbitrary
dichotomy will be used to describe the pros and cons of simulation as a
training technique, and come to some conclusions as to its general
usefulness as a training device.
Simulation Technique
1.
What is a Simulation?
A simulation is a problem-solving learning activity that attempts to
imitate, or simulate, a real-life situation (Cash, 1977). A form of
drama, it may involve the acting out of a story, the playing of role, or
participating in a game. But unlike a short drama, the simulation has
learning objectives, involves many persons playing roles, and has
unpredictable outcomes. The activity is centered around a problem of
concern to those involved, which becomes clear to them in the course
of their participation.
In short, simulation is a training technique to give the participants an
experience comparable to what they will encounter in real life
(Eitington, 1989). Some examples include:
*
*
Hotel workers receive training in how to calm guests in case of a
fire.
New fast-food store managers operate a 'mock' restaurant. The
many problems of dealing with young workers, food preparation, and cash control.
*
New auditors are given a full range of financial statements to
audit a fictitious company. Interviews with operating officials are
also conducted to ferret out discrepancies in data.
28
2.
The Characteristics of Simulation
The process of simulation is a step-by-step time paths of variable,
starting from a given set of conditions, which may be sharp or
distributed in any of various ways, so that past history as well as the
present situation enters into the relations. As the human element is
introduced into the simulation, the participant in manipulating the
variables by the rules of play begins the activity of simulation. If it is
an organizational decision-making simulation, the participant (e.g.
acting as an assistant director) starts forming the model of how top
management make decisions about organizational problems confront-
ing them. Then as simulaton activities progress, he modifies and
enlarges his model of the organizational system and increases his
general understanding of the real system.
What distinguishes simulation from other training techniques, for
example with games, and what are the unique features of simulation
model? There are subtle differences between simulations and games to
which Raser (1969) refers, "that is the greater the extent to which all
the seemingly salient variables are formally pre-programmed and the
more it is believed that the model is a complete and accurate analogue
to some "referent" system, the more likely it is that the model will be
called a simulation. On the other hand, the more informal and
tentative the model, the more likely it will be called a game. The
activity of a game governed by rules, entailing a competitive situation,
having winners and losers (Eitington, 1989).
The essential properties of organizational simulation used in the
context of this paper can be summarized as 1) its basic elements are
players, each striving to achieve his goal, 2) it is limited to a small,
fixed set of players, e.g 5 persons, 3) its rules limit the range and define
the nature of legitimate actions of player, 4) it establishes the basic
order, sequence, and structure within which the actions takes place,
and S) it is delimited in time as well as extensivity.
3.
Designing a Simulation
The purpose of the simulation must be clear. What problem or
problems to be addressed by this learning activity? The nature of the
activity and the learning outcomes expected must be carefully worked
out. The best way for the trainer to design a simulation based on the
organization's activites is to work with a group of operating officials
on the project. Hindy Schachter (1982) of the New Jersey Institute of
Technology, Newark, provides ten guidelines to design a meaningful
simulation, as follows:
1.
Determine its purpose, listing each ability you wish to develop.
29
2.
Design activities that develop the stated abilities; e.g., if the
group is to learn how to negotiate with an outside group, create
such a learning situation.
3.
Outline the "scenario," deciding on the purpose and name of the
organization involved, nature and number of roles, and so on.
4.
Use a plotline and props (e.g., manuals and contracts if a union
negotiation is involved) that are logical, believable, consistent.
5.
Assign participants appropriate roles; realism, in relation to
objectives, is essential, of course.
6.
As the simulation develops, ask participants to generate
alternatives and to choose a solution or course of action there
from.
7.
Make certain all activities have been assigned enough time for
their completion.
8.
Provide opportunities for the giving of oral feed-back to
participants with particular emphasis on the giving of praise
for good performance. (Positive strokes will encourage greater
participation).
9.
Conduct a dry run to "debug" the simulation.
10.
Arrange for participants to critique the simulation; use the data
to make it more realistic, relevant, and exciting. The feedback
may also improve the clarity of participants' instructions and
eliminate unnecessary detail and dull spots.
In short, details of the simulation activity must be pictured in advance.
The designer should write explicit notes for the trainer and for the
trainees. The trainer should know* how to 1) explain the simulation
activity to the learners, 2) organize the activity and 3) facilitate the
discussion session at the end of the simulation. Whereas the trainees
should know 1) the objectives for this activity, 2) the roles to be played
by each participant, 3) materials needed for the activity and 4) time
allocated for each activity.
4.
The Pros and Cons as a Training Device
Simulation is viewed as a training device to generate motivation,
interest and involvement of the training participants. Stadsklcv (1974,
p. 131) states that, "as the players perceive their successess or failures
as well as those of the other, it adds to the individual's ego
30
involvement and may serve as additional motivation." Simulation
technique is sufficiently rich in content to provide several different
levels of learning simultaneously to students of different abilities (Abt,
1970). Learning is active rather than passive, everyone plays
(Eitington, 1989). The concern of the superficial insight of a general
situation that will be resulted on the learner can be minimized by
incorporating other types of educational activities into the simulation.
Although the simulation technique is an artificial training device, it is
often the most powerful representation of "reality" next to the real
thing. The actions taken by the participants are less threatening than
they would be in real life yet the participant can judge the real-life
effects (Ference, 1977). The simulation enables students to engage in a
potentially high-risk activity under low-risk circumstances.
The simulation technique is able to give participants a real feel for "the
big picture" of a firm's operation and better view of how their own job
meshes with the contributions of other, and vice versa (Ference, 1977).
Simulation technique gives the opportunity to work in groups with
their team members. The group interaction enables students to learn
from each other, and they learn best from their peers. The learning
situation provides the opportunity for immediate feedback concerning
proper and improper actions or decisions. Thus participants can
correct their behavior promptly rather than continuing to err, and they
can be rewarded psychologically for proper performance.
The branching characteristics of the program in simulation technique
make it adaptive to individual differences among students. On the
other hand, the simulation alone per se may be limited in giving the
amount of learning to students. Therefore, it needs to be linked to
other instructional methodologies such as group discussion, so that all
students are reached by one or more approaches which suit their
individual learning styles.
Simulation allows participants to put abstract concepts into practice in
a problem-solving situation. Ference (1977, p. 82) called it as an
"experiential learning impact" and further states that the approach
appears to be less easily forgotten than learning through the
information - discussion technique. According to Stadsklev (1974, p.
32), "the reasons may be that the association which embed it in
memory are associations with concrete actions and events to which
affect was attached, and are not merely associations with abstract
symbols."
The most critical limitations of simulation technique are (Ference,
1977): 1) its requires a specialized expertise to develop the model, 2)
31
requires high design and development cost such as time, energy and
money, and 3) the participants' success depend to a large degree on the
facilitator's expertise in processing individual and group information.
A simulation must be carefully constructed to ensure the achievement
of the learning outcomes.
The unreality of simulation situations is indeed a limitation. On the
other hand, it allows students to make mistakes during manipulation
of its component parts, and gradually, by various kinds of organizing
strategies which he and his teammates contrive. The process of making
mistakes is considered necessary in order to avoid costly errors of
judgement in later real-life situations.
Conclusion
The training profession has, for too long, been a victim of
disorganization, time pressures and myopic viewpoints with regard to the
effective application of training methodologies. As a result, trainers have
chosen instructional techniques and continued their use over considerable
time periods for many inadequate reasons. These problems have severely
hampered the effectiveness of some trainers and tarnished the image of the
training profession in general.
Given the relatively small amount of limitations as compared to the
strengths of simulation technique, the question arises regarding the
usefulness of its usage as a training device. It seem that the simulation
technique could be applicable and effective under certain conditions such as
a small class size, with the help of trained instructor and with incorporation
with other training technique such as group discussion. As for the question
of applicability of simulation technique to the types of subject-matter, the
potential is almost unlimited. The simulation technique can be presented as
a simple or a complex training device by trainers that allow them to adapt
their strategy to fit their trainees, situational and curriculum needs.
A simulation attempts to create a situation that trainees may encounter in real life or on the job. A simulation is a good learning activity
when the trainer would like a high degree of participation or activity from
the trainees. It encourages trainees to focus on the problems at hand and is a
good means of energizing them and creating interest and enthusiasm for the
learning project. Because there is human interaction during a simulation, it
is a good means of getting trainees to relax and to know each other.
The writer's experiences suggest that the pay-off in terms of the effect
gained from simulation class, especially the gain in usable skills immediately
upon the completion of training would appear to be well worth the resources
spent.
32
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abt, dark C. (1970), ''Serious Games," New York, The Viking Press.
Bass, Bernard M. and James A. Vaughan, (1966) "Training in Industry, the
Management of Learning" Wadsworth.
Cash, Kathleen, (1977), "Designing and Using Simulations for Training," Technical
Note No. 20, Center for International Education, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, 37 pages.
Eitington, Julius E (1989), The Winning Trainer: Second Edition, Gulf Publishing
Company; Houston.
Ference, Eugene Andrew, (1977) "A Gaming - Simulation Model For Teaching
Interpersonal Hunan Relations Decision-Making Skills In the Hotel Industry"
Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Unpublished.
Raser, John R., (1969), "Simulation and Society-An exploration of Scientific
Gaming" AUyn and Bacon, Inc. Boston.
Schachter, H.L, (1982) "Role Plays: 10 Rules for Development? Training and
Development Journal, pp 9-10.
Stadsldev, Ron, (1974), "Handbook of Simulation Gaming in Social Education"
Institute of Higher Education Research and Services, The University of
Alabama.
33
Biodata
Ishak Ismail began his career as an Administrative cum Marketing Officer,
at Development Authority of Pahang Tenggara in June, 1978. In October,
1983, he joined the School of Management as a Marketing lecturer.
Beginning December, 1984 till November, 1986, he was seconded to the
MARA Institute of Technology. He was a visiting scholar at the University
of Technology, Sydney, Australia from March, 1987 • May, 1987 under the
auspices of the Australian Government's International Development
Programme. He has taught courses in Entcrpreneurship, Consumer
Behaviour, Business Policy, Sales Management and Product Planning. He
has written a module on Statistics and Production (USM, 1988) and coauthored a book on the Principles and Practice of Management (DBF,
1992). He has also written articles in newspaper (Bcrita Harian/Utusan
Malaysia) Usahawan Malaysia, Perantara USM and the Malaysian
Management Review. Apart from the above activities, Ishak Ismail is also
actively involved in the Executive Development Programme and USM's inhouse training activities. His research interest is in the field of Customer
Service, Entreprcneurship.
34
"TOWARDS MANAGING THE CUSTOMER SERVICE
FUNCTION"
By Ishak Ismail
The recent upsurge of interest in corporate "excellence" has
heightened management's consciousness and awareness of the importance
of customer service as a tool for differentiation. We have come to recognise
that a crucial source of competitive advantage can be achieved through
superior marketplace services. Delivering high quality service has been
related to success in many business (Radie and Wansley 1985; Thompson,
DeSouza and Gale 1985). Delivering superior service quality appears to be a
prerequisite for success, if not survival* of businesses in the 1990s and
beyond.
The service given to customers has always been important. Easy
interpersonal relationship, convenient and rapid delivery, and sympathetic
handling of complaints, for example, have consistently given a competitive
edge to suppliers whose goods were no different from those of their
competitors. But there are reasons to believe today, customer service is not
only more important than ever before, but may become the principal agent
of success or cause of failure for many organizations.
Despite its importance, "customer service" is not an after-thought
matter. It is rarely specified as objectives in corporate plans of companies.
Still more rarely does top management acknowledge and communicate the
necessity for everyone in the operation to appreciate how they personally
contribute to customer satisfaction. It is therefore, necessary for top
management to set policy on customer service, create appropriate
organizational structure for improvement of customer service. It is also
pertinent for top management involvement, particularly so in customer
service research to promote long term customer service plan which includes
basic behavior and attitudes.
2.0 The meaning of customer service
There is no generally accepted definition of customer service. The
concept is often defined by describing the activities which are
considered most important in the interfaces between a company and
its customers. Therefore the definitions tend to be highly sUuational.
Even within a specific company the perceptions can vary from one
person to another. La Londe and Zinszer (1976) found a range of
35
views relating to the definition of customer service. These include:
*
All activities required to accept, process, deliver, and build
customer orders and to follow up on any activity that erred.
*
Timeliness and reliability of getting materials to customers in
accordance with customer's expectation.
A complex of activities involving areas of business which combine to
deliver and invoice the company's products in a fashion that is
perceived as satifactory by the customers and which advances our
company's objectives.
*
Total order entry, all communication with customers, all
shipping, all freight, all invoicing, and total control of repair
of products.
*
Timely and accurate delivery of products ordered by customers
with accurate follow up and enquiry response including timely
delivery of invoice.
The concept of customer service is often associated with a number of
elements. After an extensive study of meaning and measurement of
customer service, La Londe and Zinszer categorised the elements of
customer service into three groups:1.
2.
Pre-transaction elements
Transaction elements
3.
Post-transaction elements (LaLonde and Zinszer, 1976)
The pre-transaction elements of customer service relate to corporate
policies or programmes, e.g. written statements of service policy,
adequacy of organizational structure and system flexibility.
The transaction elements are those customer service variables directly
involved in performing the physical distribution function. The most
commonly quoted elements within this group are:
1.
Product availability
2.
3.
4.
5.
Order Cycle - average and consistency
Order status information
Order preparation
Order size and order frequency
The post-transaction elements of customer service are generally
supportive of the product while in use. For instance, product
warranty, parts and repair service, procedures for complaints, and
36
product replacements.
The different elements of customer service differ from each other in
their importance. In addition, they also vary from situation to
situation. Some are easily measurable (e.g Order cycle time, stock- out
level), while others (e.g organizational structure) are very difficult to
measure. Some elements (e.g written statement of policy, organizational structure, etc) are not even visible to the customer.
2.2 The Dimension of Customer Service
Customer service has often been conceptualized as a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Several researchers have tried to model the
dimensionality of the concept of customer service using empirical
methods.
Senary (1970) has identified the dimensions of physical distribution as
space and time. Later, this was adapted to the customer service
concept by identifying the two dimensions of the concept as product
availability and order cycle time (Senary, 1980). Wagner (1976-77) has
identified two components of customer service: (a) customer service
action (providing desired services), and (b) customer service reaction
(handling the absence of, or inadequacy in services). Levy (1978) has
identified seven function-oriented dimensions of customer service by
factor analysis: (1) general financial aspects of physical distribution
management, (2) sales person's responsibilities, (3) promotion, (4)
general information, (5) package identification, (6) inventory management; and (7) general physical distribution management.
The above review suggests that the different conceptualization of
customer service have not been very consistent with each other. In
spite of the efforts of some researchers, the nature of the
dimensionality of customer service remains unclear.
2.3 Importance of Customer Service to Marketing Strategy
Customer service represents a major portion of the "place" component
of the marketing mix. However, its influence on consumer buying
behavior is not very obvious. Farley (1964) has noted that product
availability is one of the major criteria which influence buyers of retail
organizations in making their selections. Since product availability is
one of the most important aspects of customer service, it can be
concluded that customer service is potentially a very important factor
in determining the final market success of a product.
37
Some empirical research information regarding customer and supplier
perceptions of the relative importance of customer service in the
marketing mix is available in the literature. A survey of industrial
purchasing officers conducted by Perreault and Russ (1976) found that
the distribution service was considered in importance only to product
quality as a deciding criterion for vendor selection. More over, more
than one-third of those purchasing officers indicated that they would
cancel their orders if products were not available for shipment when
ordered.
The findings of a study conducted by Cunningham and Roberts (1974)
further reinforced these results. Delivery reliability (which is a major
element of customer service) was found to be the most important
element, in the opinion of purchasers, for influencing choice of
supplier. It was found to be even more important than technical
advice.
LaLonde and Zinszer (1976) surveyed the opinions of supplying
manufacturers on the relative importance of customer service in the
marketing mix. It was found that customer service was ranked third in
importance behind the marketing elements of product and price.
The results of the above empirical studies indicate that buyers
apparently take the quality of customer service more seriously than
do suppliers. Christopher, Senary, and Skjott-Larsen (1979) conclude
that customer service is a very important strategic weapon in the
struggle to attain and maintain market position, but that it has often
been neglected by suppliers.
2.4
Factors Contributing to the Growing Importance of Careful Planning of
Customer Service.
A number of factors, both internally and externally generated,
contribute to the growing importance of careful planning of customer
service (Michael J. Thomas and W.G. Donaldson 1989).
2.4.1
As organizations increase in size there is a problem of a lack of
understanding of customers* needs and wants and the real
benefits offered by an organization's product/service capability.
2.4.2 As economies are achieved by standardization and increased
scale of production, it becomes difficult to meet individual
customer needs at a reasonable cost.
2.4.3
Where personal contact is important there is variable quality.
38
2.4.4
Communications from sales people or advertising can lead to
differences in expectations of what was expected and can be
delivered. Pressures on sales and profits exacerbate these
problems.
2.4.5 Externally generated reasons for careful planning of customer
may be even more compelling. Increasingly consumers seek
higher order benefits; Maslow's self-actualization needs begin
to predominate as lower needs are satisfied. Consumers are
more demanding and more sophisticated.
2.5 Why Customer Service Fail:
Clearly, superior service can be a competitive weapon but this does not
mean that every attempt to provide superior service can generate a
competitive advantage. Efforts to improve service often fail to produce
such results, for a number of reasons. First and foremost many
managers simply think incorrectly about service issues. They approach
service issues in "warm, fuzzy'* terms, rather than a set of hard
business decisions. They believe superior service is the key to
competitive advantage, but consider it unnecessary to prove whether
this is so in their particular situation, or to define exactly what is
meant by "superior service".
However, even when managers focus their efforts and investment,
service initiatives often fail, because:
2.5.1 The investment may fail to produce the desired service levels.
Much money has been spent in attempts to raise levels without
the change actually being achieved,
2.5.2
The effort may improve service in ways the customer docs not
care about. Probably the most common mistake is incorrectly
assuming that improvements in a particular aspect of service
will necessarily affect customers' overall perception of service.
2.5.3 The efforts to improve service may be made at the expense of
other, more important items. Particularly in business with thin
margins, managers face tradeoffs between investment in service
and investment in upgrading products, extending distributions,
adding promotions and so on. Companies cannot afford
everything - they must make tradeoffs. Customers do not
always place better service among their needs.
2.5.4
The service innovation may be copied quickly.
39
2.5.5 The margin in the business may not support the cost of
additional service. Service costs are insidious. The full cost of
an increase in service due to additional effort per transaction,
for example, is often difficult to detect in advance. Many
companies have initiated new services only to find margins
falling to unacceptable levels. Others have had to drop
traditional services as margins fell.
Can these problems be avoided? Certainly so, but companies should
accept the premise that superior service may provide an important
advantage. They must see service as resource allocations, just as
product decisions and distribution decisions are. Many problems can
be avoided by approaching service investments with the same rigor
used for investment in products. Service investments should be
expected to produce a value cost of investments and a demonstrable
change in consumer behavior. To achieve this result, companies must
first understand how customers perceive service.
3.0
Customer Service As A Perceived Variable
Customer perception of customer service has been recognised as an
important variable mediating the influence of customer service
package on customer response. Ballou (1973) defines customer service
as "a complex collection of demand related factors under the control
of the firm, but whose importance in determining supplier patronage is
ultimately evaluated by the customer receiving the service." Accordingly Zeithaml, Parasuraman and Berry (1990) noted that judgments
of high and low service performance depend on how customers
perceive the actual service performance in the context of what they
expected. Therefore, service quality, as perceived by customers, can be
defined as the extent of discrepancy between customers* expectation or
desires and their perceptions.
Senary (1980) has treated customer service as a perceived variable in
which T. Hirotaka and John Q.A (1983) has written it is contingent
upon the following influencing factors:(i)
Before Purchase
-
Company's Brand Name/Image
Experience
Opinion of friends
Store Reputation
Published Test Results
(ii)
At The Point
of Purchase
- Performance Specification
- Comments of Salespeople
- Warrantly Provisions
40
- Service and Repair Policies
- Support Programs
-• Quoted Price Performance
(iii) After Purchase
- Ease of Installations & Use
- Handling of repairs, claims and
warrantly
- Spare parts availability
- Service Effectiveness
- Reliability
- Comparative Performance
The factors enlisted above is subjected to customer's observation (or
perception) before the customer response occur. Therefore, the
variables above is an intervening variable between the company's
customer service stimuli and the customer's response.
3.1 Factors Influencing Expectation
From a focus group study by Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry (1990)
common themes have emerged, suggesting several key factors that
might shape customers' expectations. First, what customers hear from
other customers - word-of-mouth cummunication - is a potential
determinant of expectations.
Second, expectations varied somewhat depending on the individual
characteristics and circumstances, suggesting thereby that personal
needs of customers might moderate their expectations to a certain
degree.
Third, the extent of past experience with using a service could also
influence customers* expectation levels.
Fourth, external communication from service providers play a key role
in shaping customers' expectations. Under external communication
one factor whose influence on expectations is subsumed under the
general influence of external communication is price. This factor plays
an important role in shaping expectations, particularly those of
prospective customers of a service.
3.2 Dimensions of Service Quality
Lehtinen and Lehtinen's (1982) basic premise is that service quality is
produced in the interaction between a customer and elements in the
service organization. The provision of quality customer service
41
involves understanding what the customer buys and determining how
additional value can be added to the product or service being offered.
Clearly, this linkage is valued; quality is essential to customer
satisfaction.
Interest in the measurement of service quality is thus understandably
high and delivery of higher levels of service quality is the strategy that
is increasingly being offered as a key to service providers to providers
efforts to position themselves more effectively in the marketplace
(Brown and Swartz, 1989; Parasuraman, Zeithmal and Berry 1988;
Rudie and Wansley 1985; Thompson, De Souza and Gale 1985).
Research has also demonstrated the strategic benefits of quality
customer service in contributing to market share and returns on
investment (Aderson and Zeithmal 1984; Philip, Chang and Buzzel
1983) as well as in lowering of the manufacturing costs and improving
productivity (Garvin 1983).
Though some observers have suggested that this trend is "fashionable"
(Cooyne 1989), theoretical and empirical evidence shows that firms
that provide higher service levels reap higher profits than those that do
not (Jacobson and Aaaker 1987; Philip, Chang and Buzzel 1983;
Rogerson 1983; Shapiro 1983).
In recent years, companies have become convinced of the strategic
benefits of quality. As a result many large companies have created
quality measurement programs that attempt to relate product and
service attributes to customer evaluation of quality (Hauser and
Clausing 1988; Zeithmal, Parasuraman and Berry 1990). In many
service industries, companies have created programs that include
surveys to elicit customer's assessment of service quality.
From the focus group interviews by Berry, Zeithaml and Parasuraman
(1985), ten determinants of service quality were identified. Although
the relative importance of the categories would vary from one industry
to the next, the determinants of service quality in most consumer
service industries are as follows:*
Reliability involves consistency of performance and dependability. It means that the firm performs service right the first
time. It also means that the firm honors its promises.
Specifically, it involves:
- accuracy in billing
-
keeping records correctly
performing the service at designated time.
42
Rcsponsivcness concerns the willingness or readiness of employees to provide service. It involves timeliness of service.
- mailing the transaction slip immediately
- calling the customer back quickly
-
giving prompt service
Competence means possession of the required skills and
knowledge to perform the services. It involves:-
- knowledge and skills of the contact personnel
- knowledge and skill of operational support personnel
-
research capability of the organization
Access involves approachability and ease of contact. It means:- the service is easily accessible by telephone
- waiting time to receive service is not extensive
- hours of operation are convenient
- location of service facility is convenient
Courtesy involves politeness, respect, consideration, and friendliness of contact personnel (including receptionists, telephone
operators, and so forth). It includes:- consideration for the consumer's property
- clean and neat appearance of public contact personnel
Communication means keeping customers informed in language
they can understand. It also means listening to customers. It may
mean that the company has to adjust its language for different
consumers - increasingly the level of sophistication with a welleducated customer and speaking simply and plainly with a
novice. It involves:
- explaining the service itself
-
explaining how much the service will cost
-
assuring the consumer that a problem will be handled.
Credibility involves trustworthiness, believability, honesty. It
involves having the customer's best interest at heart. Contributing to credibility are:- company name
- company reputation
-
personal characteristics of the contact personnel
43
-
the degree of hard sell involved in interactions with the
customer.
Security is the freedom from danger, risk or doubt It involves:-
- physical safely (will I get mugged at the automatic teller
- machine?)
- financial security (does the company know where my stock
certificate is?)
- confidentiality (are my dealings with the company private?)
Understanding the customer involves making effort to understand the customer's needs. It involves:
- learning the customer's specific requirements.
- providing individualized attention
- recognizing the regular customer
Tangibles include the physical evidence of the service
-
physical facilities
appearance of personnel
tools or equipment used to provide the service
physical representations of the service, such as a plastic credit
card or a bank statement.
- other customers in the service facility
3.3 Service -Quality Gaps
Executives striving to achieve a distinctive position and a sustainable
advantage in today's increasing competitive business realize the
importance of delivering superior quality service by meeting or
exceeding customers' expectations. However, simply believing in the
importance of providing excellent service quality is not enough,
executives need also to identify the causes of service - quality
shortfalls. Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1985) indicated that
consumers' quality perceptions are influenced by a series of four
distinct gaps occuring in the organizations. Gaps on the service
provider's side, which can impede delivery of services that consumers
perceive to be of high quality are:-
Gap 1: Differences between consumer expectations and management
perceptions of consumer expectations.
Service firm executives may not always understand what features
connote high quality to consumers, what attribute a service must have
44
in order to meet consumer needs, and what levels of performance on
those features are necessary to deliver high quality service (Langeard
et al. 1981; Parasuraman and TeUhnml 1983). Because there are few
clearly defined tangible cues for services, the gap between what
consumers expect and what managers think they expect may be
considerably larger than it is in firms that produce tangible goods
(Gronroo 1982; Zcithaml 1981).
There are three conceptual factors that contribute to Gap 1. These
factors are (1) lack of marketing research orientation - Extent to
which managers make an effort to understand customers* needs and
expectations through formal and informal information - gathering
activities, (2) inadequate upward communication from contact
personnel to management - extent to which to management seeks,
stimulates, and facilitates the flow of information from employees at
lower levels, (3) too many levels of management separating contact
personnel from top management - number of managerial levels
between the top most and bottom most positions.
Gap 2: Management's Perception-Service-Qualtty Specifications Gap
Managers of service firms often experience difficulty in attempting to
match or exceed customer expectations. A variety of factors - resource
constraints, short-term profit orientation, market conditions and
management indifference - may account for the discrepancy between
managers* perception of consumer expectations and the actual
specifications established by management for a service. The magni-
tude of gap 2 is much linked to four major reasons (1) Inadequate
commitment to service quality - Extent to which management view
service quality as a key strategic goal (2) lack of perception of
feasibility - Extent to which managers believe that customer
expectations can be met. (3) inadequate task standardization - Extent
to which hard and soft technology are used to standardize service
tasks, and (4) absence of goal setting - extent to which service quality
goals are based on customer standards and expectations rather than
company standards.
Gap 3: The difference Between Service Quality Specification and
Actual Service Delivered - Service Performance Gap
The service performance gap in actuality is the extent to which service
providers do not perform at the level expected by management The
service performance gap occurs when employees are unable and/or
unwilling to perform the service at the desired level. Willingness to
perform may be described as discretionary effort. Employees who
begin a new job giving 100 percent discretionary effort may be giving
far less within weeks or months. This can happen because they had to
45
deal with too many long lines, too many unreasonable customers, too
many rules and regulations, and too few pats on the back. It can also
happen when they observe that a few of their associates are giving their
jobs at all.
Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1990) have indicated seven key
conceptual factors that contribute to Gap 3, the service performance
gap. These factors are (1) role ambiguity (2) role conflict (3) poor
employee - job fit (4) poor technology - job fit (5) Inappropriate
supervisory control systems (6) lack of perceived control and (6) lack
of teamwork.
Gap 4: Difference Between Service Delivery and External Communications.
Appropriate and accurate communication about services is the
responsibility of both marketing and operations: marketing must
accurately reflect what happens in actual service encounters;
operations, in turn, must deliver what is promised in communications. If advertising, personal selling, or any other external communication sets unrealistic expectations for customers, actual encounters
will disappoint them. This in turn can affect consumers perceptions of
service quality. There are two key conceptual factors that contribute to
Gap 4. These factors are:33.1 Inadequate Horizontal Communication
- inadequate communication between advertising and operations.
- inadequate communication between salespeople and
operations.
-
inadequate communication between human resources,
marketing and operations.
Differences in policies and procedures across branches and
departments.
3.3.2 Propensity to overprombe In commanicjitionfl
-
Extent to which a company's external communications do
not accurately reflect what customers receive in the service
encounter.
4.0 Managing Customer Service
4.1
Conducting a Customer-Service Audit
To determine the appropriate nature and scope of its customer-service
46
function, each organization should conduct a customer-service audit
to determine the current situation. Christopher H.Lovelock (1985) has
outlined the basic format for such an audit:*
Identify customer-contact task, for cxamplc:Information, reservations
Service delivery tasks
Billing and customer-record
transmittal
Problem solving, complain handling
*
Review standard procedure for each task
Written standards for each task
Oral/written instructions
Availability (hours/days/locations)
Interactions with other personnel
*
Identify performance goals by task
Specific qualitative goals
Qualitative goals
Contribution to related activities
Contribution to long-term success of System
*
Identify measures of performance by task
Dollar based
Time based
Management/supervisor evaluations
Customer evaluations.
*
Review and evaluate personnel elements
Recruiting/selection criteria and practices
Nature, content of training
Job definition, career path
Interactions with other employees
Nature of supervision, quality control
Evaluation procedures
Corrective actions available
Employee attitudes, motivation
Hours, extent of paid/unpaid overtime
*
Identify and evaluate support systems
47
Instruction manuals, brochures, form letters
Office facilities, furnishings, layout
Office equipment
Vehicles and equipment for repair/maintenance
Radio communication
Record-keeping materials
The audit begins by identifying all customer-contact tasks and the
standard procedures prescribed for each. It then considers performance goals for each task and current measure of performance. Next
comes a detailed review and evaluation of all personnel elements, and
finally identification and evaluation of support system available to
customer-contact personnel. To determine the current utilization of
customer-service personnel, it is useful to maintain a log of all calls to
customer service. The format for a simple customer-service log should
include space for information on the date and time of the call,
information on the caller, the reason for the call, and the disposition of
that call.
The findings of the audit will establish the current situation and
provide a basis for planning the future scope and quality of the
customer-service function. Since customer service is potentially an
important tool in competitive differentiation, and appraisal should
also be made of competitors* customer-service efforts.
4.2
The Process of Managing Customer Service
The management of the customer service function within an
organization requires consideration across the three dimensions:
strategy, systems and people. Customer service programmes require
effective management and therefore a planned approach is advocated.
MJ. Thomas and W.G Donaldson (1989) has outlined the following:
4.2.1
The strategy of customer service
In today's environment the customer service concept is typified by
what is called "new culture companies" (Normann, 1984). Characteristics of such organizations are:
(a) An orientation towards quality and excellence
(b) Customer orientation
(c) Investment in people orientation
(d) Small is beautiful on a large scale
(e) Strong focus but broad perspective
Customer service is a policy. Great attention need to be paid to this
48
aspect since overstating the level of customer service may lead to
dissatisfaction at unfilled expectations, while under - statement clearly
misses a selling feature.
4.2.2 Assessment of the customer's purchase decision and definition
of the specific elements of customer service.
4.2.3 Design, cost and implement the customer service package
4.2.4 Promotion the package
4.2.5 Performance Evaluation
43
Implementing Customer Service
Once the customer-service program has been designed, it must be
implemented effectively. Careful considerations should be given to
each of the following tasks (Takeuchi and Quelch 1983):
4.3.1
Recruit the Right Employees
Individuals whose jobs require them to interact with customers must
possess both the right technical skills and aptitudes and also
appropriate personal characteristics. Depending on the job, the latter
may include appearance, mannerisms, voice, personality, and so forth.
4.3.2 Train Employees Properly
First, the training must develop the necessary level of technical
proficiency to perform specific tasks properly. Second, employees
must be instructed in personal appearance, and/or telephone manner,
behavior toward customers, and use of correct language. Finally, skills
in handling anticipated situations must be developed, particularly as
these relate to personal interactions under difficult or stressful
situations. The use of role-playing exercises is often very helpful.
4.3.3 Educate the Customers
They should know how to use and how not to use the service. It is
helpful to offer customers information in printed from; good signing is
very important at service delivery sites and self-service equipment. In
large service facilities, customer-service desks or booths should be
available to help customers with queries or problems.
4.3.4 Educate All Employees
49
They should view customers with problems as a source of useful
information for the firm rather than a source of annoyance. Internal
marketing programs may be needed to change negative employee
attitudes and to communicate procedures for effective interactions
with customers who have experienced difficulties.
4.3.5 Be Efficient First, Nice Second
The ultimate objective of customer-service program is to resolve the
problem, not to provide cheerful sympathy. While basic courtesy is
important to convey a caring attitude and to mitigate consumer
confusion or anger, too much friendliness can be inefficient. At busy
times, especially, when other clients may be waiting in line or on hold,
the primary responsibility of a customer-service representative is to
resolve the problem quickly.
4.3.6
Standardize Service Response Systems
Use of a standard form for handling inquiries and complaints.
Facilitate entry of data into a computer system. This not only
expedites follow through, but also facilitates monitoring of changes in
the mix and level of customer initiated contact. Effective response also
requires rapid forwarding to specialist personnel of sophisticated
problems.
4.3.7
Develop a Pricing Policy
Quality customer service does not necessarily mean free service;
consideration should be given to charging certain categories of service
that have traditionally been offered free of charge. This is especially
necessary if delivering the service in question costs the company
money or if customers abuse the service relationship.
4.3.8
Evaluate Customer Service
Quantitative performance standards must set for each element of
customer-service package. Actual performance should be measurable
against those standards and reasons for any variance determined. In
addition, efforts should be made to solicit customers* opinions on
customer-service elements at regular intervals. This may be done by
distributing comment forms to all customers and relying on those who
experience above-average service or below-average service to respond
with compliments or complaints; this is the strategy adopted by most
hotels, which leave guest comment cards in each room. It can also be
used quite inexpensively by firms that have an ongoing relationship
with their customers e.g. by enclosing a short survey questionnaire
together with their monthly statement. Alternatively, a service firm
50
may choose periodiocally to survey a representative cross section of
customers to solicit their appraisals and suggestions.
4.3.9 Affirm Good Work
Superior performance by customer-contact employees should be
recognised. Initiative should be rewarded. Employee feedback and
suggestions should be encouraged. Many service managers are quite
removed from their customers and fail to recognize the insights that
employees may develop from their day-to-day contact with customers.
4.3.10 Take Corrective Action To Improve Defective Customer
Service
Such actions may include retraining employees, reassigning employees
who are not suited to perform customer-contact tasks but are other
wise motivated and proficient, and terminating incorrigibles. It may
also be necessary to revamp support systems, restructure the work
environment, and reassign responsibilities within the customer service
group to improve efficiency. Finally, in order to catch problems before
they become too serious, it may help to develop improved
performance monitors.
N
5.0 Assessing the Customer Service Climate
The external dimension of service - customer perceptions have an
important bearing upon customer service. But the internal dimensions
i.e. how our own people, managers and workforce view service is also
significant. What is their attitude towards customers? Do they share
the same concept and definition of service as our customers?
It would be a truism to suggest that ultimately a company's
performance is limited more by the vision and the quality of its
people than by market factors or competitive forces. Corporate
culture; their shared values that are needed throughout the organization can provide a powerful driving force and focus for all its actions.
The lack of shared values can impact the company in many ways and
particularly its approach to customer service.
One viable way to assess the customer service climate within the firm is
to take the temperature by means of an employee survey. What often
emerges from these internal surveys is that employees hold quite
different views as to what constitute customer service. Similarly, they
may often rate the company's actual performance compared with
customers1 own ratings.
Making such a comparison between customer's perception and the
51
employee's perceptions can provide a powerful means of identifying
customer service problems and their sources.
52
REFERENCES
Kevin Coyne. "Beyond Service Fads • Meaningful Strategies For the Real World"
(1989 - Summer), Sloan Management Review, pp 69 - 77.
Micheal J. Thomas and W.G Donaldson, "Customer Service/customer care" (1989)
Marketing Handbook, Third Edition, Gower Publishing Company Ltd.
England pp 732 - 753.
Nonnann, R (1984) "Service Management: Strategy and Leadership in Service
Business" Wiley, Chicester
Takeuchi, Hirotaka, and John A. Quetch (1983), "Quality Is More than Making a
Good Product" Harvard Business Review 61 (July - August) pp. 139 - 145.
Rammohan Pisharodi (1985), "A Behavioral Process Model of Customer Service: An
Evaluation Based On Supplier • Customer Deferences In Perception" Pbd.
Dissertation, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Valarie A. Zeithaml, Leonard L. Berry and A. Parasuraman, (1988) "Communication
and Control Processes in the Delivery of Service Quality*1 Journal of Marketing
.pp35-48.
53
Biodata
Ab. Wahab bin Saad dilahirkan di Kuala Pilah, Ncgeri Sembilah pada 5hb,
Feb. 1958. Beliau mcndapat pendidikan sekolah rcndah di Sekolah
Kebangsaan Senaling dan mencngah di Sekolah Menengah Zaba, Kuala
Pilah sehingga tingkatan lima. Seterusnya beliau melanjutkan pclajaran kc
tingkatan cnam di Kuala Lumpur.
Pada tahun 1979 beliau melanjutkan pclajaran di Universiti
Kebangsaan dan Kemanusiaan. Beliau tamat pcngajian pada bulan April
tahun 1983 dengan memperolehi Ijazah Sarjana Muda Sastcra (SmSa)
Kepujian Kelas Dua Atas dalam bidang Komunikasi.
Pada bulan Julai 1983 beliau mula bertugas di Pusat Daya
Pengeluaran Ncgara (PDPN) scbagai Pegawai Latihan dan Penyiasatan.
Setelah bertugas selama lima tahun, beliau berpeluang melanjutkan
pelajaran ke UPM di peringkat Master dan sekarang beliau bertugas
sebagai Perunding Kanan di Perbadanan Produlrtiviti Ncgara (NPC).
Antara tugas utama yang dijalankan di NPC ialah mengendalikan latihan
dalam bidang Kemajuan Pengurusan, menjalankan Pcnyclidikan dan
menjalankan kerja-kerja Pcrundingan dan Khidmat Nasihat kepada
organisasi-organisasi sektor awam dan swasta.
Antara penyelidikan yang telah beliau jalankan di NPC ialah bertajuk
Kepuasan Kcrja Kerani Syarikat Kontena Nasiona) Sdn. Bhd. (Julai 1990)
dan Kajian Persepsi Pengguna Terhadap Perkhidmatan Kelang Container
Terminal Sdn. Bhd. (Nov 1991).
54
Persepsi Pekerja Kerani Pelabuhan Terhadap Kepuasan
Kerja: Perbandingan antara Sektor Awam dan Swasta
Oleh : Ab. Wahab Saad
ABSTRAK
Kajian yang dijalankan bertujuan untuk menentukan sama ada
terdapat perbezaan antara kerani sektor awam dengan swasta daripada
scgi kepuasan mereka tcrhadap dimcnsi-dimensi kerja. Di samping itu
kajian juga adalah untuk menentukan perkaitan antara persepsi terhadap
beban kerja dan kemahiran kerja, sifat personaliti kerani kedua-dua sektor
dengan kepuasan mereka terhadap dimensi kerja. Akhirnya kajian ini
adalah bertujuan untuk menentukan angkubah utama dari angkubahangkubah yang dipilih dalam kajian yang mcmpengaruhi kepuasan pekerja
kerani terhadap dimensi kerja pekerja kerani kedua-dua sektor.
Seramai 180 orang pekerja kerani dipilih sebagai sampel kajian yang
terdiri daripada 100 orang kerani Lembaga Pelabuhan Kelang dan 80 orang
kerani Syarikat Kelang Container Terminal Sdn. Bhd. Pemilihan sampel
adalah berdasarkan kaedah persampelan strata melalui senarai nama
populasi dari kedua-dua organisasi.
Data yang telah dikumpulkan dianalisis dengan menggunakan Sistem
Pakej Statistik untuk Sains Social (SPSS PC +). Ujian "t" digunakan untuk
menentukan sama ada terdapat perbezaan kepuasan responden terhadap
dimensi kerja bagi kerani sektor manakala "Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation" digunakan untuk menentukan perkaitan antara angkubah-
angkubah bebas dengan angkubah sandar.
Ujian Analisis Regresi Berganda (Multiple Regression) pula diguna-
kan untuk menentukan angkubah utama yang dianggap penting dari
angkubah-angkubah yang dipilih dalam kajian yang mcmpengaruhi
kepuasan responden terhadap dimensi kerja.
Kajian ini mendapati terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara
kedua-dua sektor daripada segi kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap empat
dimensi kerja iaitu gaji, pangkat, ciri kerja dan rakan sekerja. Sebagai
perbandingan didapati kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap pangkat,
gaji dan ciri kerja, sementara kerani sektor awam lebih puas terhadap rakan
sekerja dan penyeliaan.
Secara keseluruhannya didapati angkubah-angkubah aktiviti membantu pada organisasi, kekemasan struktur organisasi dan persepsi
55
terhadap beban kerja mempunyai perkaitan yang positif dengan kepuasan
pekerja kerani kedua-dua sektor terhadap hampir semua dimcnsi kerja.
Aktiviti membantu pada organisasi dianggap angkubah utama yang
mempengaruhi kepuasan kerja kerani sektor awam, diikuti oleh angkubah
taraf jawatan dan situasi tempat kerja. Kerani sketor swasta menganggap
angkubah kekemasan struktur organisasi adalah faktor utama mempengaruhi kepuasan mcreka terhadap dimcnsi kerja diikuti oleh faktor
aktiviti membantu pada organisasi. Hasil Kajian ini mencadangkan supaya
organisasi-organisasi sektor awam harus mcngambil perhatian yang lebih
terhadap ciri-ciri aktiviti membantu yang terdapat pada organisasi itu
sendiri semcntara organisasi sektor swasta pula haruslah memperkemaskan
struktur organisasi mcreka di samping mengambilkira aktiviti membantu
yang terdapat pada organisasi.
PENGENALAN
Kepuasan kerja merupakan satu isu yang sangat sensitif dan senb'asa
menjadi punca pertikaian antara pihak majikan dengan pekerja dewasa ini.
Kajian-kajian mengenainya menjadi semakin diminati di kalangan pelajarpelajar Universiti dan juga pakar-pakar penyelidilc sosial bagi menyum-
bangkan strategi yang sesuai untuk mengurangkan konflik antara kedua
pihak. Menurut Vroom (1964) dan Steers (1988), kepuasan kerja merupakan salah satu daripada faktor utama yang boleh mempengaruhi prestasi
pekerja dan keberkesanan prestasi organisasi keseluruhannya. Oleh sebab
itulah kita dapati berbagai-bagai kemudahan atau keistimewaan ditawar-
kan oleh majikan kepada pekerja-pekerjanya semata-mata supaya mereka
berpuas hati dan dapat memberikan komitmcn yang diharapkan bagi
menghasilkan produktiviti yang tinggi.
Pareek (1976) pernah menjelaskan hubungan antara organisasi
dengan individu iaitu peranan kedua-duanya adalah merupakan hasil
daripada interaksi dan integrasi di antara struktur dan matlamat organisasi
dengan personal^ dan motivasi individu. Dengan perkataan lain, organisasi perlu mempunyai struktur yang kemas dan berkesan serta matlamat
yang jelas bagi mendorong kepuasan dan pihak pekerja. Pekerja yang
berpuas hati terhadap kerjanya akan bennotivasi tinggi untuk mencapai
objektif organisasi.
Sejak beberapa tahun kebclakangan ini didapati minat untuk melakukan kajian perbandingan kepuasan kerja antara sektor swasta dengan
sektor awam yang bertujuan untuk peningkatan produktiviti di sektor
awam semakin bertambah (Solomon, 1986). Walaupun banyak topik dan
dimensi kepuasan kerja yang boleh dibandingkan antara kedua sektor,
tclapi kajian-kajian terhadapnya agak tcrhad dilaporkan, lebih-lebih lagi di
Malaysia.
56
Akhir-akhir ini banyak rungutan ditimbttlkan mengenai kclembapan
dan rendahnya prestasi pckcrja agcnsi awam di Malaysia dalam menyediakan perkhidmatannya dan juga cara-cara pcngurusan yang diamalkan.
Pihak Berkuasa Kemajuan Pckebun Kecil Perosahaan Getah (RISDA)
misalnya tclah mengalami kerugian sebanyak 10 juta ringgit sejak lima
tahun yang lalu kerana kecuaian dan penyelewengan kakitangannya.
Mcnurut Ketua Pengarah Badan Penccgah Rasuah (BPR), antara
tcmpoh 1985 hingga 1990, BPR telah menerima sebanyak 282 makhimat
dan aduan mengenai kakitangan RISDA dan telah membuka 60 kertas
siasatan yang mcmbabitkan 60 orang pcgawai (Utusan Malaysia, 20hb. Jun,
1990).
Sebagai langkah untuk mcmpcrtingkatkan keberkesanan dan kcce-
kapan pekerja samada di sektor awam mahupun swasta, Perbadanan
Produktiviti Ncgara (NPC) sebagai salah sebuah institusi latihan kerajaan
dipertanggungjawabkan untuk mcnghcbah dan memberi kesedaran mengenai produktiviti dan kualiti dalam kehidupan harian. Dengan kata lain
pcgawai-pegawainya adalah bcrpcranan sebagai mangkin, pcmbantu
proses, penyelesai masalah dan pcnghubung sumber kepada scmua pihak
untuk meningkatkan produktiviti diri dan organisasi. Pcgawai-pcgawai
NPC haruslah mempunyai pengalaman yang luas dan produktiviti diri yang
tinggi bagi memenuhi kehendak pihak kerajaan.
Berbagai usaha yang telah, sedang dan akan dilaksanakan oleh NPC
sebagai agcnsi pengembangan latihan, antaranya tennasuklah memberikan
kesedaran kepada scmua peringkat masyarakat tentang produktiviti,
mcnggalakkan penglibatan aktif dari scmua pihak untuk meningkatkan
produktiviti, memberi atau melengkapkan kemahiran dan kecekapan
golongan pekerja, meningkatkan motivasi pekerja, mendapatkan maklumbalas daripada pihak pekerja, mcnycbarkan inovasi-inovasi dan menyampaikan fikiran dan arahan untuk tujuan yang sama.
Walaupun demikian, di dalam kempcn-kcmpen yang dilaung-laungkan tidak pernah disebut mengenai kepuasan kerja pada pekerja secara jelas
dan khusus. Sebaliknya ia disembunyikan secara tidak langsung, misalnya
dalam cogankata "Anda Produktif Anda Makmur" yang mengatakan bahawa hasil produktiviti yang tinggi akan memberikan kemakmuran kepada
kita. Sepatutnya cara-cara mencapai kepuasan kerja hendaklah diberi
perhatian yang wajar oleh semua pihak di mana organisasi dan majikan
hams memikirkan bersama demi mencapai cita-cita organisasi khasnya dan
kerajaan amnya.
Dari pemerhatian pengkaji sendiri (yang terlibat dalam memberikan
latihan bidang pcngurusan di sektor awam dan swasta) antara alasan-alasan
yang menyebabkan pekerja tidak menunjukkan sikap bersaing atau
menunjukkan dorongan yang tinggi terhadap tugas mereka ialah ketidak57
puasan hati terhadap bcberapa dimcnsi kerja seperti tahap gaji yang
ditcrima, peluang kenaikan pangkat yang tcrhad, tekanan rakan sebaya,
cara penyeliaan, ciri-ciri kerja yang dijalankan dan suasana organisasi yang
tidak menggalakkan wujudnya semangat kerja berpasukan.
Masalah kepuasan kerja bagi sektor awam di negara Malaysia selalu
dikaitkan dengan tahap tangga gaji dan peluang kenaikan pangkat yang
terhad. Kesatuan-kesatuan sekerja mengancam untuk mengadakan piket
sekiranya tidak ditunaikan tuntutan kenaikan gaji. Pihak kerajaan baru
sahaja menambahkan claun khidmat awam kepada pckcrja sektor awam
bagi kategori A, B, C dan D. Ini terpaksa dilakukan walaupun kerajaan
mempunyai beban hutang yang banyak bagi mengelakkan keadaan yang
tidak diingini berlaku. Kerajaan tidak dapat memenuhi tuntutan dan kehendak semua kategori pekerja sekaligus kerana terlalu ramai bilangannya.
Pertikaian mengenai tahap gaji dan claim antara kerajaan dengan
pekerja-pekerja kategori C di lima buah pelabuhan di Malaysia masih
belum selesai lagi sejak tahun 1984. Pekerja kerani merupakan golongan
kategori yang tcrbcsar bilangannya yang bertugas di pelabuhan-pelabuhan
di Malaysia. Baru-baru ini kerajaan telah menyata-kan persetujuan untuk
mengkaji scmula tuntutan tersebut. Pada awal tahun 1988, Kesatuan
Sekerja Pelabuhan Kelang (PASU) yang dianggotai se-bahagian besarnya
oleh pekerja kumpulan pcrkeranian dan teknikal telah mengadakan piket
kerana tidak puas hati dengan kadar pemilikan saham.
Di sektor swasta pula didapati sejak dua tahun kebelakangan ini
industri pembuatan menghadapi masalah kadar berhenti kerja yang agak
tinggi iaitu kira-kira 40% (New Sunday Times, 21hb. Jun, 1992) dan
kesukaran untuk mendapatkan tenaga kerja di bahagian pengeluaran. Ini
dapat dilihat dan iklan-iklan di akhbar-akhbar harian dan pada kain-kain
rentang di kawasan perkilangan yang menawarkan jawatan-jawatan kosong
terutama di bahagian pengeluaran.
Ramai bilangan pekerja mahir telah "lari" ke syarikat lain kerana
mereka tidak berpuas hati dengan kadar gaji yang diterima. Menurut
Menteri Besar Johor sebab-sebab mereka "berpindah" ke syarikat lain
adalah kerana menerima tawaran gaji yang lebih baik (New Sunday Times,
21hb. Jun 1992). Malahan pernah dilaporkan di Johor Bahru tcrdapatnya
syarikat yang "mencuri" pekerja dan syarikat lain dengan menawarkan
berbagai kelebihan untuk mengjsi kekurangan tenaga kerja di syarikatnya
(Utusan Malaysia, 26hb. Jun 1992).
Salah satu dasar kerajaan untuk meningkatkan produktiviti agensi
awam dan menggalakkan persaingan di kalangan pekerja sektor awam ialah
melahii projek penswastaan. Syarikat yang mengambilaHh sebahagian
pengangkutan kontena Lcmbaga Pelabuhan Kelang, Kelang Container
Terminal Sdn. Bhd. yang merupakan projek pertama dalam penswastaan
58
telah memmjukkan prcstasi di mar dugaan sejak bcropcrasi. Prcstasi
pengendalian kontena telah meningkat dari tahun ke tahun, misalnya pada
tahun 1989 pengendalian telah bertambah scbanyak 23.3% bcrbanding
dengan tahun 1988.
Menurut pengerusi syarikat tcrscbut faktor utama yang telah mem-
bawa kepada perkembangan yang pesat ini ialah perlaksanaan dan
prosedur opcrasi yang Icbih berkesan seperti penyusunan kotak kontena
yang Icbih sistematik, penjagaan jentera yang lebih tcliti, stratcgi pemasaran
yang berkesan, perancangan yang rapi dan yang terpenting sekali ialah
motivasi pekerja yang tinggj (Portrait KCT, 1989).
Walau bagaimanapun dari pemerhatian dan tinjauan pengkaji di
Syarikat Kelang Container Terminal Sdn. Bhd. mengenai tahap kepuasan
kerja di kalangan kerani mendapati faktor-faktor kemahiran kerja, cara
penyeliaan dan struktur organisasi adalah faktor-faktor yang sering menimbulkan konflik. Misalnya kekeliruan jenis tugas-tugas yang patut dilaksanajcan antara kerani dengan pembantu kerani. Keadaan ini berlarutan
sehingga menyebabkan ada pekerja melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati.
Kejayaan projek penswastaan yang pertama ini telah membuktikan
bahawa pengurusan secara swasta lebih produktif daripada segi opcrasi
berbanding dengan sektor awam dan ini telah merangsangkan kcrajaan
untuk menswastakan lebih banyak lagi agensi-agensinya. Menurut
Timbalan Menteri di Jabatan Pcrdana Mentcri, Dato' Dr. Siti Zaharah
Sulaiman dalam sidang Dewan Rakyat 20hb. Jun, 1990 yang lain, scbanyak
246 lagi agensi kerajaan telah dikcnalpasti boleh diswastakan (Utusan
Malaysia 20hb. Jun, 1990). Persoalan yang mungkin timbul adalah sama
ada peningkatan prcstasi tersebut adalah dipengaruhi oleh kepuasan kerja
pekerja-pekerjanya seperti dakwaan Steers (1988).
Walaupun fungsi-fungsi pengurusan sama ada di sektor awam mahupun swasta pada asasnya adalah sama, tetapi cara orientasi dan pcrlaksanaannya adalah berbeza. Ini memungkinkan perbezaan persepsi dari
kalangan pekerja terutama daripada kepuasan kerja. Mcngikut Soloman
(1986), keberkesanan pengurusan adalah bergantung kepada penyesuaian
struktur dalaman organisasi dengan permintaan-permintaan persekitaran.
Keberkesanan fungsi organisasi kedua-dua sektor bergantung kepada kriteria yang berbeza sebab sctiap sektor mesti menyesuaikan
persekitaran yang berlainan. Misalnya perbezaan daripada segi sumbcrsumber tabungan, pcmilikan, perundangan dan persekitaran politikal yang
memberi kesan langsung kepada struktur dan amalan kedua-dua jenis
organisasi tersebut. Kedua-dua keadaan ini akan melahirkan budaya kerja
yang berlainan seterusnya memberi kepuasan yang berbeza bagi pekerjapekerja.
59
Kebanyakan kajian tcrhadap kejayaan projck penswastaan yang
pernah dijalankan terhadap syarikat KCT nampaknya Icbih menumpukan
untuk mengctahui hasil daripada segi pulangan kewangan sahaja,
sedangkan kajian mengenai faktor-faktor kcmanusiaan yang membawa
kepada keuntungan tersebut kurang diambil pcrhatian. Misalnya kajian
mengenai kepuasan kerja, tahap penglibatan pekerja, kesan kerja kumpulan
dan lain-lain lagi.
PENYATAAN MASALAH
Scjak akhir-akhir ini kerajaan Malaysia telah banyak memperkenalkan dasar-dasar baru bagi mempertingkatkan kccekapan dan keberkesanan
pekerja sektor awam. Antaranya ialah konsq> Bersih, Cekap dan Amanah,
Sistcm Perakam Waktu, Persyarikatan Malaysia, Dasar Pandang ke Timur
dan yang agak sukar proscsnya ialah Projck Pengswastaan. Keadaan ini
scolah-olah menggambarkan kepada kite bahawa pihak kerajaan menyedari ada sebilangan kakitangannya mempunyai tahap prestasi yang kurang
memuaskan.
Bcbcrapa anggapan umum telah diberikan mengenai kemerosotan
prestasi pekerja sektor awam, tetapi belum banyak kajian dilaporkan
misalnya mereka adalah kurang cckap, tidak kompetitif, kurang kreatif,
komitmen yang rendah, kerja sambil lewa dan lain-lain lagi. Pihak kerajaan
mcndapati salah satu cara untuk meningkatkan prestasi organisasi awam
yang dianggap kurang berkesan ialah dengan menswastakannya.
Sementara di sektor swasta masalah berhcnti kerja dan kekurangan
tenaga kerja telah dilaporkan berlaku sejak kebelakangan ini. Masalah
berhenti kerja dikatakan kerana tidak puas terhadap gaji yang ditcrima dan
melompat ke syarikat lain yang menawarkan gaji yang lebih baik.
Bagaimanapun dari pemerhatian pengkaji mendapati dakwaan yang
string dikemukakan oleh pihak pekerja kedua-dua sektor ialah maw lab
ketidakpuasan terhadap beberapa dimensi kerja termasuklah tahap gaji
yang rendah dan kemudahan-kemudahan sampingan yang ditawarkan.
Benarkah dcmikian? Mengctahui tahap kepuasan kerja, faktor-faktor
utama yang menentukannya,persepsi, personaliti dan membandingkan
tahap kepuasan kerja pekcrja sektor awam dengan swasta boleh mcmbantu
pembentukan stratcgi kempen-kempen produktiviti yang dijalankan.
Antara persoalan yang pcrhi dijawab ialah:
1)
Apakah tahap kepuasan kerja pekerja kerani di sektor awam
dan swasta?
2)
Apakah persepsi pekerja kerani kedua sektor terhadap fungsifungsi organisasi, beban kerja dan kemahiran kerja mereka?
60
3)
Apakah perkaitan di antara faktor-faktor latar belakang pekerja, fungsi organisasi dan personaliti pekerja dengan dimcnsi
kepuasan kerja di kalangan pekerja kerani di kedua-dua scktoft
dan
4)
Apakah faktor-faktor utama yang mcmpcngaruhi kepuasan
kerja pekerja kerani kedua sektcr?
METODOLOGI
Kajian ini cuba untuk mencapai objcktif-objcktif berikut;
Objektif Umum
Objektif umum kajian ini ialah untuk niembandingkan tahap
kepuasan kerja pekerja kerani sektor swasta (Kelang Container Terminal
Sdn. Bhd.) dengan kerani sektor awam (Lembaga Pelabuhan Kelang).
Objektif Khusus
Disamping objcktif umum, kajian ini mempunyai objektif-objektif
knusus seperti berikut:
1.
Untuk mengukur tahap kepuasan pekerja kerani Syarikat
Kelang Container Terminal Sdn. Bhd. (swasta) dan Lembaga
Pelabuhan Kelang (awam) terhadap dimcnsi-dimensi kerja.
2.
Untuk mengukur pcrsepsi pekerja kerani kedua-dua sektor
terhadap beban kerja. kemahiran kerja dan faktor organisasi.
3.
Untuk menentukan si fat personaliti pekerja kerani kedua-dua
sektor iaitu sifat terbuka dan tegas diri.
4.
Untuk menentukan perkaitan di antara angkubah-angkubah
situasi tempat kerja, pcrsepsi dan personaliti pekerja kerani
dengan kepuasan mereka terhadap dimcnsi kerja di kedua-dua
organisasi.
5.
Untuk mengenalpasti angkubah-angkubah utama dan angkubah yang dipilih dalam kajian ini untuk meningkatkan kepuasan
kerja pekerja kerani dari kedua-dua sektor.
PROSEDUR KAJIAN
Kajian ini dilakukan ke atas dua buah organisasi yang sama-sama
61
Jadual 1
Taburan Sampel Menglkut Sektor
Sektor
Populasi
Sampel
%
Awarn
829
100
12%
Swasta
209
80
38%
JaduaJ2
Taburan Responden Menglkut Taraf Jawatan
Sektor Awam
(P)
(S)
Taraf Jawatan
Kerani Tertinggi
(Penyelia/Ketua)
Sektor Swasta
(S)
(P)
8
2
14
5
Kerani Tingkatan Kanan
133
15
21
9
Kerani Tingkatan Biasa
688
83
174
66
JUMLAH
829
100
209
80
(P) Populasi (S) Sampel
Jadual 3
Taburan Responden Menglkut Taraf Jawatan dan
Sltuasl Tempat Kerja
Tingkatan
Tingkatan
Tertinggi
Kanan
Tingkatan
Biasa
Situasi
kerja
Sektor
Awam
1
1
7
8
42
41
Pentadbiran
Operasi
Sektor
Swasta
3
2
7
2
30
36
Pentadbiran
Operasi
Jumlah
7
24
149
mengendalikan perkhidmatan kontena di Pclabuhan Kelang tetapi
mempunyai sistem pengurusan yang berlainan, iaitu secara swasta dan
kerajaan. Populasi kajian adalah terdiri dari 100 orang pekcrja kcrani
Lembaga Pelabuhan Kelang dan 80 prang kerani Kelang Container
Terminal Sdn. Bhd. sementara cara pemilihan sampel adalah jenis per-
sampelan strata.
62
PENGUMPULAN DATA
Pengumpulan data tclah dijalankan dalam bulan Duember 1990
bcrmula dari 6hb. Disember hingga 29hb. Disember 1990 dengan bantuan
enam pcmbantu. Scorang darinya adalah merupakan kakitangan setiap
organisasi berkenaan yang bukan merupakan responden kajian dan
pemilihan tersebut adalah kerana mereka sangat arif tcntang lokari dan
struktur organisasi mereka. Mereka juga telah diberikan penerangan ringkas mengenai soalselidik bagi memudahkan pengedaran dan pemungutan
soalselidik tersebut.
ANALISA DATA
Data yang dipungut dari responden kemudiannya dipindahkan ke
dalam kertas skor (scoring sheets) untuk memudahkan proses memprogramkan ke dalam sistem "Statistical Package for Social Sciences" (SPSS
PC + ). Metod statistik yang telah digunakan semasa mcnganaliris data
adalah sepcrti berikut:
1.
Statistik deskriptif yang menerangkan taburan ulangan, peratusan
dan jumlah skor oleh responden. la juga digunakan untuk menganalisis dan mempersembahkan ciri-ciri latarbelakang responden.
2.
"Crosstabulation" digunakan untuk membandingkan tahap kepuasan
terhadap lima dimcnsi kerja bagi angkubah scktor dan situasi tempat
bekerja. la juga diguna untuk melihat perbandingan skor persepri
antara kedua-dua scktor.
3.
Ujian V digunakan untuk menentukan sama ada tcrdapat perbezaan
yang signifikan antara kedua-dua sektor daripada segi tahap kepuasan
terhadap dimcnsi kerja, persepsi dan sifat pcrsonaliti.
4.
Analisis "Pcarson Product-Moment Correlation** digunakan untuk
menentukan perkaitan antara faktor-faktor demografi yang terpilih,
persepsi dan personaliti dengan tahap lima dimcnsi kepuasan kerja.
Aras keertian yang dipilih bagi semua ujian statistik adalah 0.01.
5.
Analisis Regresi Berganda kaedah "stepwise" digunakan untuk menentukan faktor paling kuat yang mempengaruhi kepuasan responden
lima dimensi kerja.
PERBEVCANGAN
Kepuasan terhadap Ciri Kerja
Responden telah ditanya setakat mana mereka berpuas hati terhadap
63
ciri-ciri kerja (rujuk soalselidik di Lampiran A) perkeranian yang mereka
lakukan sekarang. Sebanyak 18 sifat-sifat kerja yang umum dikemukakan
di dalam soalselidik. Bagi memudahkan pemerihalan jumlah skor dikumpulkan kepada tiga kategori penilaian, iaitu pada tahap rendah, sederhana
dan tinggi. Kajian mendapati secara keseluruhan sebanyak 62% bilangan
responden mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang sederhana terhadap ciri-ciri
kerja dan sebanyak 19% responden mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang
rendah dan tinggi terhadap ciri kerja.
Bagaimanapun bilangan responden dan sektor awam lebih banyak
(24%) mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang rendah terhadap ciri kerja, mana-
Jadual9
Taburan Kepuasan Responden terhadap
Dimensi Kerja Mengikut Sektor
Angkubah
Sandar
(Kepuasan
Sektor
Awam
(n=100)
Sektor
Keseluruhan
Swasta
(n=80)
(n-180)
Kerja)
Ciri Kerja
0-18
19-36
37-54
Gaji
0 - 18
19-36
37-54
24
56
20
14
67
19
19
62
19
Too"
Too"
Too"
49
44
7
32
45
23
42
44
14
Too"
Too"
Too"
84
13
3
38
40
13
68
25
7
100
Too"
100
13
21
54
25
100
45
38
Pangkat
0 - 18
19-36
37-54
Penyeliaan
0-18
19-36
37-54
39
48
Too"
Rakan Sekerja
0-18
19-36
37-54
5
12
54
34
100
33
62
Too"
64
17
100
8
42
50
Too"
kala sektor swasta hanya 14% sahaja. Bilangan responden yang mempunyai
tahap kepuasan yang tinggi tcrhadap ciri-ciri kerja dari kedua-dua organisasi adalah hampir sama, iaitu 19% dan 20%. Ini menunjukkan bahawa
lebih ramai pekerja kerani sektor awam yang tidak puas tcrhadap ciri kerja
berbanding dengan pekerja kerani sektor swasta (Jadual 9).
Kepuasan tcrhadap Gaji
Lebih ramai responden dari sektor swasta yang mempunyai tahap
kepuasan yang tinggi terhadap gaji (23%) berbanding dengan bilangan
responden sektor awam (7%). Sementara itu bilangan responden kedua-dua
sektor yang mempunyai tahap kepuasan sederhana terhadap gaji adalah
hampir sama. Bagaimanapun tahap kepuasan yang rendah terhadap gaji
lebih ramai dimiliki oleh responden sektor awam (49%) berbanding dengan
responden sektor swasta (32%).
Kepuasan terhadap Pangkat
Responden diminta memberikan pendapat mereka berkaitan dengan
pangkat di tempat kerja mereka. Kajian mendapati majoriti responden dari
sektor awam mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang rendah terhadap pangkat
(84%) manakala lebih ramai responden dari sektor swasta yang mempunyai
tahap kepuasan yang sederhana (40%) dan tinggi (13%) terhadap pangkat
berbanding dengan sektor awam (sederhana 13% dan tinggi 3%). Amat
sedikit bilangan responden sektor swasta yang mempunyai tahap kepuasan
yang tinggi (3%) dan sederhana (13%) terhadap pangkat.
Kepuasan terhadap Penyeliaan .
Responden diminta memberikan pendapat mereka terhadap gaya
dan sifat penyeliaan yang dipunyai oleh penyelia atau kctua di organisasi
mereka. Kajian mendapati lebih ramai responden sektor awam (48%)
merasakan tahap kepuasan yang tinggi terhadap penyeliaan berbanding
dengan sektor swasta (25%). Sementara itu sebanyak 54% responden sektor
swasta mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang sederhana terhadap penyeliaan
sedangkan responden sektor awam hanya 39% sahaja.
Kepuasan terhadap Rakan Sekerja
Keseluruhannya didapati sebanyak 50% pekerja kerani yang menjadi
responden kajian mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang tinggi terhadap rakan
sekerja. Bagaimanapun kerani sektor awam lebih ramai yang menganggap
demikian (62%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta iaitu 34% sahaja.
Bilangan responden sektor awam yang mempunyai tahap kepuasan terhadap rakan yang sederhana pula adalah sebanyak 33% manakala bagi
pihak swasta agak lebih sedikit iaitu 54%.
65
Kepuasan Responden terhadap Keselunihan Dimensi Ketja
Apabila dilihat tahap kepuasan kerani kcdua-dua scktor terhadap
keseluruhan dimensi kerja didapati bilangan mereka yang roerasa puas pada
tahap sederhana adalah sama banyaknya iaitu 75%. Bagaimanapun kepuasan mereka pada tahap rendah terhadap keseluruhan dimensi kerja adalah lebih ramai dirasakan oleh kerani sektor awam (15%) berbanding
dengan kerani sektor swasta (12.5%). Sementara mereka yang merasa puas
pada tahap tinggi pula didapati adalah lebih ramai bagi kerani sektor
swasta (12.5%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam iaitu 10% (Jadual
10).
Jadual 10
Kepuasan Responden terhadap
Keseluruhan Dimensi Kerja
Kepuasan Terhadap
Keseluruhan Dimensi
Kerja
Sektor
Awam
(n-100)
%
15
0-90
91 - 180
181 - 270
75
10
Sektor
Swasta
(n-80)
%
12.5
75
12.75
PERSEPSI RESPONDEN
Beban Kerja
Lebih ramai kerani sektor awam yang menganggap tahap beban kerja
mereka adalah rendah (56%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta
(29%). Manakala kerani sektor swasta lebih ramai menganggap tahap
beban kerja mereka adalah sederhana (62%) berbanding dengan kerani
sektor awam (41%). Lebih ramai responden sektor swasta menganggap
tahap beban kerja yang tinggi (9%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam
(3%). Secara keseluruhannya didapati scbanyak 51% pekerja kerani
menganggap tahap beban kerja mereka adalah sederhana* 44% menganggap tahap beban kerja yang rendah dan hanya 5% yang menganggap tahap
beban kerja adalah tinggi (Jadual 11).
Kemahiran Kerja
Majoriti (80%) responden sektor awam menganggap mereka mem-
punyai tahap kemahiran kerja yang tinggi dan sebanyak 59% sahaja responden sektor swasta yang menganggap demikian. Manakala sebanyak
41% responden sektor swasta pula menganggap mereka mempunyai tahap
66
kemahiran yang sederhana bcrbanding dcngan 20% sahaja bagi rcsponden
sektor awarn. Tidak ada respondcn dari kedua-dua sektor yang mengang-
gap tahap kemahiran kerja mereka adalah rendah (Jadual 11).
Kejelasan Objektif Organisasi
Jadual 11 menunjukkan secara keseluruhannya respondcn kajian
menganggap kejclasan objektif organisasi mereka adalah pada tahap sederhana (56%) manakala 42% lag! menganggap kejclasan objektif organisasi
adalah tinggi dan hanya 2% menganggap pada tahap yang rendah. Walaupun demikian bilangan responden sektor swasta adalah lebih ramai yang
menganggap kejelasan objektif organisasi pada tahap sederhana berbanding
dengan responden sektor awam (53%). Manakala bilangan responden sektor awam lebih ramai (45%) yang menganggap kejelasan objektif organisasi
mereka pada tahap yang tinggi berbanding dengan responden sektor
swasta, iaitu 37% sahaja.
Kekemasan Struktur Organisasi
Majoriti responden sektor swasta menganggap organisasi mereka
tnempunyai tahap kekemasan struktur yang sederhana (81%) berbanding
dengan responden sektor awam (77%). Sementara itu seramai 17% responden sektor awam menganggap tahap kekemasan struktur organisasi
pada tahap rendah adalah sama banyaknya (6%).
Aktiviti Membantu Organisasi
Lebih ramai responden sektor swasta (23%) yang menganggap organisasinya mempunyai aktiviti membantu pekerja pada tahap yang tinggi
berbanding dengan sektor awam yang menganggap demikian iaitu hanya
12% sahaja. Hampir sama banyak bilangan responden kedua-dua sektor
yang menganggap tahap aktiviti membantu dipunyai oleh organisasi adalah
sederhana (61% bagi sektor swasta dan 59% bagi sektor awam). Didapati
lebih ramai (29%) responden sektor awam yang menganggap tahap aktiviti
membantu yang dipunyai oleh organisasinya di tahap rendah berbanding
dengan anggapan responden sektor swasta iaitu sebanyak 16% (Jadual 11).
PERSONALITI RESPONDEN
Sifat Terbuka
Secara keseluruhan didapati majoriti (80%) responden yang terpilih
dalam kajian menganggap mereka mempunyai sifat terbuka pada tahap
yang sederhana, manakala 19% menganggap tahap yang rendah dan hanya
1% menganggap tahap sifat terbuka mereka rendah. Bagaimanapun bi-
langan responden sektor awam lebih ramai (87%) berbanding dengan
67
Jadual 11
Taburan Persepsi Responden Mengikut Sektor
Persepsi
Sektor
Terhadap
Awam
(n» 100)
%
Beban kerja
8-18
19-29
30-40
Kemahiran kerja
8-18
19-29
30-40
Kejelasan objektif
organisasi
7 - 16
17-26
27-35
Sektor
Swasta
(n-80)
%
Keseluruhan
(n-180)
%
56
41
3
29
62
9
44
51
5
100
100
100
20
80
41
59
0
29
71
100
100
100
2
53
45
4
59
37
2
56
42
100
100
100
6
17
6
81
13
6
79
25
100
100
100
29
59
12
16
61
23
24
60
16
100
100
100
Kekesanan struktur
organisasi
8 - 18
19-29
30-40
77
Aktiviti membantu
oleh organisasi
9-21
22- 34
35-45
responden sektor swasta (71%) yang menganggap tahap sifat terbuka adalah sederhana. Sebaliknya lebih ramai responden sektor swasta (28%) yang
menganggap sifat terbuka pada tahap yang rend ah berbanding dengan
responden sektor awam iaitu sebanyak 12% (Jadual 12).
68
Jadual 12
Taburan Personaliti Responden Mengikut Sektor
Personaliti
Sifat Terbuka
9-21
22-34
35-45
Sifat Ketegasan
8-18
19-29
30-40
Persepsi Sektor
Sektor
Keseluruhan
Awam
(n - 100)
Swasta
(n - 80)
(n - 180)
12
87
1
28
71
1
19
80
1
100
100
100
12
88
0
12
84
4
12
86
2
100
100
100
Sifat Tegas Diri
Tidak ada seorang pun respondcn dari sektor awam yang menganggap
diri mereka bersifat tegas pada tahap yang tinggi, tctapi tcrdapat scbanyak
4% responden sektor swasta menganggap demikian. Walaupun demikian
majoriti responden kedua-dua sektor menganggap mereka bersifat tegas
pada tahap yang sederhana (88% sektor awam dan 84% sektor swasta).
Sebanyak 12% responden kedua-dua sektor yang menganggap mereka
bersifat tegas pada tahap yang rendah (Jadual 12).
Analisls Statistik dan Perbincangan
Ujian *t' tclah digunakan untuk menentukan sama ada tcrdapat
perbezaan yang nyata di antara sektor daripada segi tahap kepuasan
responden terhadap dimensi kerja, pcrsepsi mereka terhadap beban kerja,
kemahiran bekerja, kejelasan objektif organisasi, kekemasan struktur
organisasi, tahap aktiviti membantu organisasi scrta sifat personaliti para
pekerja. Responden sektor awam dan sektor swasta adalah berbeza apabila
perbezaan di antara varian masing-masing diuji secara bererti daripada segi
statistik oleh nisbah "F". Hasil ujian t bagi semua angkubah di atas adalah
seperti pada Jadual 13.
Jadual 13 menunjukkan wujudnya perbezaan yang nyata antara
sektor awam dengan sektor swasta daripada segi kepuasan pekerja kcrani
mereka terhadap pangkat, gaji, ciri kerja dan rakan sekerja. Dari Jadual
tersebut di dapati bahawa kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap pangkat
69
Jadual 13
Hasil UJian H' bagi Angkubah Terpilih
Darjah
Kebebasan
Angkubah
Nilai t
Pangkat
178
- 5.73**
Beban kerja
178
- 5.23**
Gaji
178
- 3.16*
Aktiviti Membantu
178
- 2.37*
Ciri Kerja
178
- 1.77*
Rakan sekerja
178
3.42**
Kemahiran
178
3.17**
Struktur Organisasi
178
2.19*
Penyeliaan
178
2.14
Objektif Organisasi
178
1.15
Sifat Terbuka
178
.86
Sifat tegas diri
119
-0.24
Situasi tempat kerja
178
0.00
* p < 0.05
** p < 0.01
berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam (t = 5.73). Organisasi sektor swasta
mempunyai sistem gaji terbuka di mana sesiapa yang berprestasi tinggi
boleh mencapai gaji yang lebih tinggi malahan boleh melebihi gaji penyelia
mereka. Ini menyebabkan mereka lebih menumpukan prestasi kerja yang
akan membawa kepada pulangan kewangan yang lebih banyak walaupun
tidak mempunyai pangkat yang lebih tinggi. Perkara ini tidak dialami oleh
kerani sektor awam di mana pangkat akan menentukan pertambahan
kewangan.
Di samping itu kerani sektor swasta menganggap mereka mempunyai
beban kerja yang lebih banyak berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam dan
juga aktiviti mem bantu yang dipunyai oleh organisasi mereka dianggap
adalah lebih baik daripada yang terdapat di orgnaisasi sektor awam.
Manakala kerani sektor awam didapati lebih mahir berbanding dengan
kerani sektor swasta dan struktur organisasi sektor awam adalah lebih baik
berbanding dengan struktur organisasi sektor swasta.
70
Ringkasnya hasil kajian melalui Ujian T mendapati pekerja kerani
sektor swasta lebih puas tcrhadap pangkat, gaji dan ciri kerja bcrhanding
dengan pekerja kerani sektor awam sementara pekerja kerani sektor awam
pula lebih puas terhadap rakan sekerja dan penyeliaan.
Daripada segi kepuasan terhadap gaji didapati kerani sektor swasta
lebih puas berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam (t = 3.16). Kerani sektor
swasta mempunyai skim gaji yang lebih terbuka jika dibandingkan dengan
skim gaji kerani sektor awam di mana sekiranya mutu kerja mereka baik
maka mereka akan berpeluang mendapat kenaikan gaji yang lebih banyak
atau peluang kenaikan pangkat yang lebih cerah. Pekerja kerani sektor
awam terikat kepada kadar kenaikan gaji yang tetap setiap tahun walaupun
bekerja dengan lebih rajin. Pekerja kerani sektor swasta juga diberikan
insentif-insentif kewangan lain seperti bonus setiap tahun dan pemilikan
saham oleh pihak pengurusan mereka dan perkara ini tidak berlaku kepada
kerani sektor awam. Kemungkinan ini merupakan salah satu faktor yang
menyebabkan kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap gaji berbanding
dengan kerani sektor awam.
Kerani sektor swasta juga didapati lebih puas terhadap ciri kerja
berbanding dengan pekerja kerani sektor awam (t = 1.97). Pemerhatian
ringkas pengkaji di tempat kajian mendapati pekerja kerani sektor swasta
menjalankan kerja-kerja yang tidak terlalu spesifik iaitu mereka selalu
bertukar jenis kerja. Keadaan ini mungkin tidak membosankan mereka
semasa melakukan kerja. Misalnya pada bila-bila masa sahaja seseorang
kerani boleh diarah menjalankan kerja selain dari kerja perkeranian
terutama di bahagian operasi. Pengkhususan kerja tidak berlaku sepenuhnya, semua kerja yang terdapat di dalam satu bahagian hams diketahui oleh
kerani walaupun kerja itu bukan tanggungjawabnya dan ini mungkin salah
satu faktor yang menyebabkan seseorang pekerja kerani itu tidak me rasa
terlalu bosan kerana tidak menjalankan satu jenis kerja yang benilangulang. Keadaan ini menyebabkan mereka tidak mudah jemu terhadap ciriciri kerja yang dijalankan.
Sebaliknya amalan sistem kerja bagi kerani sektor awam agak berbeza
iaitu pekerja kerani menjalankan kerja-kerja yang lebih spesifik. Seseorang
kerani tidak melakukan kerja-kerja yang tidak berkaitan dengan tanggungjawab bahagian di mana ia ditempatkan, misalnya kerani kewangan akan
bertanggungjawab kepada hal-hal kewangan sahaja dan ini boleh
mengakibatkan mereka merasa bosan sekiranya terlalu lama menjalankan
kerja tersebut. Temuduga ringkas pengkaji dengan beberapa orang kerani
sektor awam di kawasan kajian mendapati kebanyakan mereka merasa
jemu dengan kerja yang berulang-ulang setelah lebih sepuluh tahun bekerja
dan merasa gembira sekiranya diberi peluang bekerja di bahagian-bahagian
lain pula.
Penemuan kajian juga mendapati kerani sektor awam lebih puas
71
terhadap penyeliaan berbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta (t = 2.14).
Perhubungan antara penyelia dengan kerani tingkatan biasa di sektor awam
biasanya adalah rapat kerana pada kebiasaannya ketua kerani atau penyelia
di sektor awam adalah individu yang umurnya jauh lebih tua dan
mempunyai pengalaman kerja yang lebih lama di satu-satu bahagian. Ada
kalanya perbandingan umur dengan kerani biasa bagaikan bapa dengan
anak. Ini menyebabkan perhubungan antara ketua kerani atau kerani
tingkatan kanan dengan kerani biasa selalunya adalah rapat dan keadaan
ini mungkin juga disebabkan oleh cara arahan yang diberikan oleh ketua
mereka yang lebih berdiplomasi.
Semen tar a di sektor swasta amalannya agak lain sedikit di mana
penyelia atau ketua kerani adalah dilantik berdasarkan kepada prestasi
kerja yang sangat baik dan tidak semestinya telah lama bekerja atau usia
yang lebih tua. Oleh kerana suasana kerja yang sangat mementingkan masa,
pelanggan dan keuntungan, penyelia biasanya lebih tegas terhadap "anak
buah" atau pekerja-pekerja bawahannya dan suasana ini boleh menyebabkan hubungan yang kurang rapat antara penyelia dengan pekerja.
Pekerja kerani di sektor awam merupakan kumpulan kategori pekerja
yang paling ramai bilangannya di kebanyakan jabatan-jabatan kerajaan.
Kerja-kerja yang dijalankan oleh mereka adalah lebih seragam dan
pern bahagian kerja di antara mereka juga lebih khusus. Suasana kerja
mereka lebih berorientasikan kepada memberikan perkhidmatan kepada
orang ramai dan biasanya kerja mereka boleh dilakukan oleh rakan sekerja
sekiranya mereka bercuti atau semasa kecemasan. Tahap gaji mereka juga
tidak banyak berbeza antara rakan sekerja kerana hanya dibezakan oleh
kekananan atau pangkat. Suasana ini tidak membawa kepada persaingan
antara mereka tambahan pula bilangan mereka agak ramai di satu-satu
bahagian menyebabkan jalinan persahabatan yang baik. Keadaan ini
memungkinkan kerani sektor awam lebih puas terhadap rakan sekerja
berbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta (t = 3.42).
Keadaan sebaliknya berlaku di sektor swasta kerana suasana kerja
yang berorientasikan keuntungan dan mengutamakan masa serta pelanggan. Persaingan di antara rakan sekerja wujud dengan hebatnya. Persaingan
yang terlalu kuat boleh merenggangkan persahabatan antara pekerja dan
keadaan ini membawa kepada rasa kurang puas had terhadap rakan
sekerja.
Oleh kerana peluang kenaikan pangkat amat terhad bagi kerani sektor
awam tidak hairan didapati bilangan kerani bertaraf tingkatan biasa adalah
agak ramai. Keadaan ini menyebabkan majoriti pekerja kerani bertaraf
kerani tingkatan biasa telah bekerja lebih dari sepuluh tahun: Mereka
sungguh mahir dalam bidang kerja mereka kerana telah menjalankan kerja
yang sama secara berulang-ulang. Oleh kerana itu penemuan kajian ini
mendapati mereka menganggap bahawa kemahiran kerja adalah tinggi
72
bcrbanding dcngan anggapan kerani sektor swasta (t = 3.17).
Struktur organisasi jabatan atau badan-badan kerajaan biasanya
adalah ditentukan oleh Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam (JPA) yang lebih
menckankan kepada memberikan perkhidmatan yang scbaik-baiknya.
Struktur sesebuah jabatan kerajaan amat mudah difahami di mana pembahagian togas dan tanggungjawab adalah jelas, rigid dan tidak boleh
dipcrtikaikan. Sctiap pcringkat pckerja mempunyai bidang kuasa tersendiri
dan seragam walau di bahagian atau jabatan mana mereka bcrtugas.
Scmcntara di sektor swasta struktur organisasi sering bcrubah-ubah
mengikut kcpentingan dan kcadaan. Pcmbahagian tugas juga sering berubah dari semasa ke semasa dan kcadaan mi mudah dilaksanakan kerana
bilangan pckeijanya tidak seramai pekerja sektor awam. Oleh yang dcmikian didapati kerani sektor awam menganggap struktur organisasi mereka
lebih baik berbanding dcngan struktur organisasi sektor swasta.
Dengan membandingkan antara kedua sektor dapatlah dtsimpulkan
bahawa pekerja kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap pangkat, gaji dan
ciri kerja berbanding dengan pekerja kerani sektor awam sementara pekerja
kerani sektor awam pula lebih puas terhadap rakan sekerja dan penyeliaan.
Analisis Perkaitan
Jadual 14, 15 dan 16 menunjukkan hasil ujian perkaitan antara
angkubah-angkubah bcbas dengan angkubah bersandar berdasarkan
matriks korelasi "zero-order" bagi setiap dimcnsi kepuasan kerja dan
angkubah-angkubah bcbas yang tcrpilih. Cara menjalankan ujian ini ialah
dengan menyenaraikan semua angkubah dan menguji perkaitan antara
setiap angkubah sesama sendiri.
Jadual 14 menunjukkan hasil analisis perkaitan bagi keseluruhan
sampel. Secara umumnya bagi kedua-dua sektor didapati angkubah aktiviti
membantu yang terdapat pada organisasi mempunyai perkaitan dengan
kepuasan kerani terhadap hampir kesemua dimensi kerja (ciri kerja, pangkat, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja). Sementara faktor sektor itu sendiri
mempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap tiga dimensi kerja
(gaji, pangkat dan rakan sekerja).
Bagi sampel sektor awam (Jadual 15) didapati secara umumnya
angkubah aktiviti membantu pada organisasi juga di dapati mempunyai
perkaitan dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap hampir kesemua dimensi kerja
(ciri kerja, pangkat, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja). Manakala taraf jawatan
pula mempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap dua dimensi
kerja (gaji dan pangkat).
Faktor kekemasan struktur organisasi mempunyai perkaitan dengan
73
JADUAL 14
MATRIKS KORELASI UNTUK SELURUH SAMPEL (N = 180)
Yl
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Yl
KERJA
Y2
GAJI
.3248"
Y3
Y4
PANGKAT
.4513" .4822" 1.
PENYBUA
.3852" .1530
.3234*'
Y5
RAKAN
.3845" .0434
.1726
XI
SBKS
-.0292
.0566
-.0690
.0323
-.0213
XI
UMUR
-.0521
.1210
.0139
.0472
.0143
X3
SEKTOR
.1461
.2307-
.4053*" -.1586
X4
SITUASI
X5
TRFJWTN
BEBAN
X6
X7
X8
MAHIR
BJEKTIP
X9 STRUKTUR
X10 BANTU
XI
X2
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
X9
10
Xll
X12
1
1
-.1911 -.0180
-.0516
.0610
.0890 -.1099
.0064
.1226
.2290* .0557
.2214* .0976
.3621" .1699
.0262
1
.5973** 1.
1.
-.2078* 1.
-.2484" .1671
.0073
-.2012*
.0861
-.0150
.0972
.0082
-.0257
.1338
-.1174
-.1278
-.0760
-.0824
-.0599
.1128
.1405
-.2204" .1891
J323" .2586
-.0673
.3706" .2934" -.1286
.1000
1.
.000
1.
.4258" .0582 -.0566
.3652" -.1053
-.0403
-.0188
-.2309*
-.0085
1.
-.0494
1.
.1735
.0809
-.2835" 1.
-.0856
.0877
-.0036
.0379
-.0499
-.1619
.0538
.0941
-.2643" .4039*' .5020" 1.
-.0423
4156" 1.
.1751
.0052
.0941
-.1131
Xll TBUKA
.1261
-.0550
-.0128
J150'
.0602
-.0758
-.0705
-.0640
.0137
-.0355
-.1861
.3425" .1849
.2543" .3069" 1.
X12 TEGAS
.0602
-.0964
-.0635
.0733
.0269
.1166
-.0597
.0192
-.0113
-.0605
-.0116
.0984
.1043
• p < 0.01
"P < 0.001
.3145" .3978" .3190" .0650
-.1583
.3191" .4976" .5470** 1.
.0607
.2049*
.3707*" 1.
JADUAL 15
MATRIKS KORELASI UNTUK SAMPEL SEKTOR AWAM (n » 100)
Yl
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Yl
KERJA
Y2
GAJI
.3470" 1.
Y3
PANGKAT
Y4
PENYELIA
Y5
RAKAN
.3803** .4668** 1.
.4454** .1976
.3233** 1.
AW .1197
.2232
.5552* 1.
XI
SEKS
UMUR
X2
X4
X5
* p < 0.01
X2
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
X9
X10
Xll
X12
1.
.1082
.1204
.0054
.1040
.0303
-.0026
.2489
.2203
-.0228
-.1003
-.1437
--J952
-.0511
-.0485
.3044** .1908
-.0655
-.0605
-.0817
-.1005
-.0418
-.3675** -.1112
TRF JWTN
.0277
.2683
X6 BEBAN
-.0192 -.2745"
.1284
X7 MAHIR
.1649
X8 OBJEKTIF
.2653
.1298
.2035
X9 STRUKTUR .2006
X10 BANTU
.4891** .2226
Xll TBUKA
.2087
.0310
X12 TBOAS
.1077
.0455
STTUASI
XI
-.0445
-.0245
.1313
-J0714
.1229
.3281** .2898
-:0391
-.0662
.1261
.2868*
-.0158
.2372*
.3986" .3338" .0708
-.0371
.0499
.2575*
1.
.2344*
.1331
.2007
.0559
.1054
.0336
.1947
1.
-.0418 1.
.6272** .0462
-.1830 -.1514
-.0744
_2864-
-.0562
0941
0259
-.0293 -.0780
-.2599** 4267
-.0929 -.0502
.0260
1.
-.0192
.0605
1.
-.3134* 1.
.1452 .0929
.4611* 1.
.2104 -.2001
.4198** .5664** 1.
.0731 -.2001
.3615** .5356** .5681** 1.
-.0182 -.0773
.2732* .1587 .1434 .2917* 1.
-.0456 -.1386 -.0351
.0002
.0890
.1398
.3058** 1.
JADUAL16
MATRIKS KORELASI UNTUK SAMPEL SEKTOR SWASTA (n = 80)
Yl
1.
.2469
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
XI
Yl
KERJA
Y2
GAJI
Y3
PANGKAT
.5160" .4452*" 1.
Y4
PENYELIA
.3748" .2030
.10%
Y5
RAKAN
.4508" .0912
.3951" .6233*" 1.
XI
SEKS
-.1590
-.0255
-.2159
.0499
.0200
1.
X2
UMUR
-.0591
.1230
.0022
.0664
.0362
X4
S1TUASI
.0621
.1187
.2373
.0339
.0778
-.2079
-.2847
X5
X6
TRFJWTN
-.1657
-.1031
.0222
.0163
BEBAN
.1096
-.1595
-.1735
.0076
-.0641
.0070
X7
.2213
-.0759
.2141
.0549
.1078
.2054
.0851
X8
MAHIR
OBJEKTIF
X9
STRUKTUR
J451** .0840
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
X9
X10
Xll
X12
1.
1.
.0869
1.
.3195"" -.1852
1.
.0477
-.0067
-.0340
1.
-.0601
-.0452
-J183" .1877
-.0578
.0070
.3661" .4727"" .3710" -.1867
.3138" .4942*" .4413"" .0266
-.0005
.1006 -.0183
-.0181
.1142 .1120 -.1590
.3980"* .5046*" .6387*" 1.
.0465
.0000
-.0435
.4277**
-.0029
-.0855
-.0077
X10 BANTU
Xll TBUKA
-.1125
.0553
.1804
.0310
XI2 TEGAS
.0657
-.1809
-.2161
-.0131
-.0781
.0443
-.0365
-M42
1.
0.534
.1225
.0511
* p < 0.01
** p < 0.001
X2
-.1129
-0612
.0210 .1435 -.0927
.0802
-.1479
.0899
-.2637'
-.2748'
1.
.3273" 1.
.3178'
.0821 .2988"
.3843" 1.
.2074
.3993** .3632" 1.
.0042
.1589 .1701
.4611" 1.000
kepuasan kerani sektor swasta terhadap hampir semua dimensi keija (ciri
kcrja, pangkat, pcnycliaan dan rakan sekeija). Manakala faktor aktiviti
mem bantu yang ada pada organisasi roeropunyai perkaitan dengan
kepuasan kerani terhadap tiga dimensi kcrja (pangkat, penyeliaan dan
rakan sekerja).
Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Ciri Keija
Jadual 17 menunjukkan hasil ujian perkaitan keseluruhan sampel dan
perbandingan antara sektor daripada scgi kepuasan responden terhadap ciri
kcrja. Apabila dilihat hasil perkaitan secara keseluruhan didapati tiga
angkubah bcbas mempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan terhadap ciri
kerja, iaitu kejelasan objektif organisasi (positif lemah, r -
.2290),
kckcmasan struktur (positif lemah, r = .2214) dan aktiviti membantu
pada organisasi (positif lemah, r = .3621). Dengan kata lain semakin jclas
objcktif organisasi maka semakin tinggi tahap kepuasan pekerja kerani
terhadap ciri kerja. Hal yang sama juga berlaku bagi kekemasan struktur
dan aktiviti membantu organisasi.
Bagaimanapun penemuan ini hanya boleh digeneralisasikan kepada
kerani sektor awam sahaja kerana sektor awam juga mempunyai perkaitan
positif yang lemah dengan kepuasan terhadap ciri kerja (r = .2653).
Disamping itu hasil kajian mendapati di sektor awam semakin tinggi tahap
aktiviti membantu dipunyai organisasi maka semakin tinggi tahap kepuasan
pekerja kerani terhadap ciri kerja dan mercka yang bekerja di dalam pejabat
(pentadbiran) lebih puas terhadap ciri kerja berbanding bekerja di luar
pejabat (opcrasi). Scmentara itu di sektor swasta pula didapati semakin
Jadual 17
Perkaitan antara Angkubah Bebas dengan
Kepuasan terhadap Ctrl Kerja MengUmt Sektor
Angkubah Bebas
Awam
Swasta
(n-80)
(n-100)
r
Umur
Jantina
Situasi
Taraf Jawatan
Beban kerja
Kemahiran
Kejelasan Objektif
Kekesanan Struktur
Aktiviti membantu
Sifat Terbuka
Sifat Tegas din
1082
-.0026
-.3675**
.0277
-.0192
.1284
.2653*
.2006
.4891**
.2087
.1077
* p < 0.01
* p < 0.001
77
Keseluruhan
(n-180)
r
r
-.1590
-.0591
.0621
-.1657
.1096
.2213
.2141
.3451**
.1255
.0511
.0657
-.0521
-.0292
-.1911
-.0516
.0850
.1226
.2290*
.2214*
.3621**
.1621
.0602
kemasnya struktur organisasi maka semakin tinggilah tahap kepuasan
keraninya terhadap ciri kerja.
Penemuan ini nampaknya telah menyokong pendapat Steers (1988)
yang mengatakan bahawa faktor organisasi seperti polisi, proscdur dan
struktur organisasi merupakan salah satu daripada faktor-faktor yang
mempengaruhi kepuasan kerja dalam organisasi.
Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Gaji
Kalau dilihat secara keseluruhan didapati tidak terdapat perkaitan
antara angkubah-angkubah bebas yang dipilih dalam kajian dengan
kepuasan pekerja terhadap gaji. Bagaimanapun bagi sektor awam wujud
perkaitan positif yang lemah antara taraf jawatan dengan kepuasan pekerja
terhadap gaji (r = .2683). Penemuan ini menunjukkan taraf jawatan pekerja
kerani sektor awam juga boleh membantu kepuasan mereka terhadap gaji.
Di samping itu di sektor awam wujud pula perkaitan ncgatif yang
lemah antara beban kerja dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap gaji (r =
.2745). Hasil ini memberi makna bahawa beban kerja kerani sektor awam
boleh membantu ketidakpuasan mereka terhadap gaji. Penemuan ini pula
telah menyokong hasil kajian Miles dan Perreault (1976) yang mendapati
tekanan beban kerja boleh merendahkan tahap kepuasan kerja bagi
kebanyakan orang (Jadual 18).
Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Pangkat
Hasil dari ujian matriks korelasi secara keseluruhan sampel (Jadual
19) didapati hanya aktiviti membantu pada organisasi sahaja mempunyai
Jadual 18
Perkaitan antara Angkubah Bebas dengan
Kepnasan terhadap Gaji Mengikot Sektor
Angkubah Bebas
Awam
(n - 100)
r
Umur
Jantina
Situasi
Taraf Jawatan
Beban kerja
Kemahiran
Kejelasan objektif
Kekemasan struktur
Aktiviti membantu
Sifat terbuka
Sifat Tegas diri
Swasta
(n-80)
r
-.0255
.1230
.1187
-.1595
-.1735
-.0759
.0549
.0840
.0443
-.1125
-.1809
.1204
.2489
-.1112
.2683*
-.2745*
.1649
.1298
.2035
.2226
.0310
.0455
* p < 0.01
78
Keseluruhan
(n - 180)
r
.1210
.0566
-.0180
.0610
-.1099
.0064
.0557
.0976
.1699
-.0550
-.0964
Jadual 19
Perkaitan antara Angknbah Bebas dengan
Kepuasan terfaadap Pangkat Mengikut Sektor
Angknbah Bebas
Umur
Jantina
Situasi
Taraf Jawatan
Beban kerja
Kemahiran
Kejelasan objektif
Kekemasan struktur
Aktiviti membantu
Sifat terbuka
Sifat Tegas din
Awam
(n - 100)
r
.0054
.2203
-.1952
.3044*
-.0445
.0245
.1229
.1261
.2372
.0371
.0499
Swasta
(n - 80)
Keseluruhan
(n - 180)
r
r
-.2159
.0690
.0139
-.0262
.0861
.1338
.0599
.1128
.1405
.3145**
-.0128
-.0635
.0022
.2373
-.1031
.0076
.1078
.2054
.3661**
.3108*
.0553
-.2161
* p < 0.01
** p < 0.001
perkaitan dengan kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap pangkat (positif lemah,
r = .3145). Ini bermakna tahap aktiviti membantu dipunyai oleh organisasi
kedua-dua sektor maka bolch membantu kearah kepuasan kerani terhadap
pangkat dan perkaitan ini boleh di generalisasikan kepada sektor swasta
kerana kepuasan terhadap pangkat bagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta juga
berkait secara positif lemah (r = .3108) dengan tahap aktiviti membantu
pada organisasi.
Selain dari itu bagi sektor awam didapati taraf jawatan mempunyai
perkaitan positif yang lemah (r = .3044) dengan kepuasan terhadap
pangkat di mana semakin tinggi taraf jawatan maka semakra tinggilah
tahap kepuasan terhadap pangkat. Sementara bagi sektor swasta didapati
kekemasan struktur organisasi boleh membantu tahap kepuasan pekerja
kerani terhadap pangkat.
Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Penyeliaan
Dari Jadual 20, secara keselunihannya didapati lima daripada
angkubah-angkubah terpilih mempunyai perkaitan positif yang lemah
dengan kepuasan terhadap penyeliaan. Angkubah-angkubah tersebut ialah
kemahiran (r - .2204), kejelasan objektif organisasi (r = .3323), kekesanan
struktur organisasi (r - .3706). aktiviti membantu organisasi (r = .3978)
dan sifat terbuka terhadap kumpulan (r = .2150). Bagaimanapun penemuan ini tidak boleh digeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor kerana
sifat tersebut tidak mempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan terhadap
penyeliaan di kedua-dua sektor.
79
Jadual 20
Perkaitan antara Angkubah Bebas dengan
Kepuasan terhadap Penyellaan Mengikut Sektor
Angkubah Bebas
Umur
Jantina
Situasi
Taraf Jawatan
Beban kerja
Kemahiran
Kejetasan objek
Kekemasan struktur
Aktiviti membantu
Sifat terbuka
Sifat Tegas diri
Awam
(n=100)
Swasta
(n=80)
-1040
-.0228
-.0511
.1908
-.0655
.2575*
.3281**
.2868*
.3986**
.2344*
.1331
-.0499
.0664
.0339
.0222
-.0641
.0851
.3183*
.4727**
,4942**
.1804
-.0131
Keseluruhan
(o-180)
-.0323
,0472
-.1586
.0972
-.1174
.2204**
.3323**
.3706**
.3978**
.2150*
.0733
*p<0.01
**p< 0.001
Di samping itu hasil kajian juga mendapati tiga penemuan di bawah
yang kesemuanya boleh digeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor iaitu:
a.
semakin jelas objektif organisasi semakin tinggi tahap kepuasan
pekerja kerani terhadap penyeliaan,
b.
semakin kemasnya struktur organisasi maka semakin tinggi
tahap kepuasan pekerja kerani kedua-dua sektor terhadap
penyeliaan,
c.
semakin tinggi tahap aktiviti membantu yang ada pada
organisasi maka semakin tinggilah tahap kepuasan pekerja
kerani terhadap penyeliaan.
Bagaimanapun penemuan lain hasil kajian mendapati semakin tinggi
tahap kemahiran kerja pekerja kerani awam maka semakin tinggilah tahap
kepuasan mereka terhadap penyeliaan dan hal ini tidak berlaku pada
pekerja kerani sektor swasta.
Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Rakan Sekerja
Hasil kajian mendapati secara keseluruhannya sifat tegas diri terhadap
kumpulan kerja tidak berk ait dengan tahap kepuasan terhadap rakan
sekerja (Jadual 21). Bagaimanapun kekesanan struktur dan aktiviti
membantu organisasi mempunyai perkaitan dengan tahap kepuasan kerani
terhadap rakan sekerja di mana semakin tinggi tahap aktiviti membantu
organisasi kedua-dua sektor maka semakin tinggi tahap kepuasan pekerja
kerani kedua-dua sektor terhadap rakan sekerja. Begitu juga didapati
80
Jadual 21
Perkaitan Antara Angkubah Bebas dengan
Kepuasan terhadap Rakan Sekerja
Menglkut Sektor
Angkubah Bebas
A warn
(n=100)
Swasta
(n-80)
r
r
Umur
Jantina
Situasi
Taraf Jawatan
Beban kerja
Kemahiran
Kejelasan objek
Kekemasan struktur
Aktiviti membantu
Sifat terbuka
Sifat Tegas diri
.0305
.0200
.0362
.0778
.1063
.0070
.1534
.1877
.3710**
.4413**
.0310
-.0781
-.1003
-.0485
-.0605
-.0817
.1313
.2898*
.2007
.3338**
.0599
.1054
Keseluruhan
(n-180)
r
.0143
-.0213
.0073
.0082
-.1278
.1891
.2586
.2586**
.3190**
.0602
.0269
*p<0.01
**p< 0.001
scmakin kemasnya struktur organisasi swasta maka semakin tinggi tahap
kepuasan pekerja kcraninya terhadap rakan sekerja. Selain dari itu didapati
semakin jelas objektif organisasi sektor awam maka semakin tinggilah
tahap kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap rakan sekerja.
Anallsis Regresi Berganda
Tujuan menjalankan ujian analisis Regresi Berganda adalah untuk
menentukan faktor-faktor utama dari angkubah terpilih yang mempunyai
perkaitan dengan kepuasan terhadap dimensi kerja seperti yang dinyatakan
dalam objektif kajian di dalam Bab 1. Mula-mulanya pengujian dijalankan
mengikut keseluruhan, kemudian dengan mengawal perbezaan daripada
segi sektor. Jadual-jadual 22, 23 dan 24 menerangkan hasil analisis Regresi
Berganda bagi seluruh sampel, sampel sektor awam dan sampel sektor
swasta.
Jadual 25 menunjukkan ringkasan perbandingan analisis Regresi
angkubah peramal mengikut sektor dan secara keseluruhan bagi kepuasan
pekerja kerani terhadap lima dimensi kerja. Penemuan hasil kajian adalah
seperti berikut:
a) Kepuasan teriiadap Ctrl Kerja
Secara keseluruhannya didapati aktiviti membantu merupakan faktor
utama dipilih di dalam kajian ini yang mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja
81
Jadual 22
Analfais Regies! Berganda (Stepwbe) untuk
Reselunihan Sampel (n—180) bagi Angkubah Bebas dengan
Kepuasan terhadap Dunensl Kerja
Angkubah
Sandar
Ciri kerja
Angkubah
Peramal
R
Beertian
Dua
Aktiviti
Kuasa
B
(Beta)
sut.
Error
Sign.
T
t
.1311
.4527
8.8284
5.182
0.0000
membantu
Gaji
Sektor
.0532
5.7425
12.1019
3.163
0.0018
Pangkat
Aktiviti
membantu
.2254
.4315
11.4828
3.739
0.0002
Sektor
.1643
10.5525
11.8942
5.915
0.0002
Aktiviti
.1582
.6653
11.6230
5.784
0.0000
membantu
Struktur
.1917
.5916
11.4220
3.447
0.0075
Sektor
Aktiviti
.1973
.1017
-7.2441
.4856
10.3601
10.9285
-4.598
4.491
0.0000
0.0000
Sektor
Penyeliaan
Rakan
Sekerja
membantu
Jadual 23
Anallsis Regresi Berganda (Stepwlse) untuk
Sektor A warn (n- 100) bagl Angkubah Bebas dengan
Kepuasan terhadap Dunensl Kerja
Angkubah
Sandar
Angkubah
Peramal
Beertian
Ciri kerja
Aktiviti
.2392
membantu
Situasi
R
B
(Beta)
Std.
Error
Sign.
T
.6438
8.7739
5.551
0.0000
.3484
-6.6004
8.1618
-4.031
0.0001
Beban
kerja
Taraf
jawatan
.0753
-.5962
11.5297
-2.826
0.0057
.1280
6.3607
11.2543
2.420
0.0174
Taraf
.0926
7.1273
9.7592
3.163
0.0021
jawatan
Aktiviti
.1391
.2898
9.5548
2.208
0.0243
.1589
.6813
11.9769
4.303
0.0000
Kuasa
Dua
t
kerja
Gaji
Pangkat
Penyeliaan
Aktiviti
membantu
82
Jadval 23 (sambungan)
Rakan
sekerja
Aktiviti
mem bantu
.1114 .4908
10.5965
3.505
0.0007
Jadual 24
Analisis Regresi Berganda (Stepwfae)
untuk Sektor SwasU (n=80) bag!
Anglcubah
Sandar
Angkubah
Peramal
Beertian
Ciri Kerja
Struktur
Pangkat
Penyeliaan
R
Kuasa
Dua
B
(Beta)
Std.
Error
Sign.
T
.1191 .3451
8.0301
3.248
'0.0017
Struktur
. 1 340
1 .2557
12.8595
3.248
0.0008
Aktiviti
membantu
Struktur
.2442
.8068
10.3874
5.020
0.0000
.2858
.7868
10.1622
2.120
0.0372
Rakan
Aktiviti
.1947 .6767
10.0709
4.343
0.0000
Sekerja
membantu
t
Jadual 25
Perbadanan Analisls Regresi
Angkubah Peramal Mengikut Sektor
dan Secara Keselunihan (n=180)
Angkubah
Sektor
Bebas
(n-100)
%
Sektor
Awam
(n-80)
%
Keselunihan
Swasta
(n- 180)
%
Ciri kerja
Akt. membantu
Struktur
Akt. membantu
Situasi
Gaji
Beban
Taraf jawatan
-
Sektor
Pangkat
Taraf jawatan
Sturktur
Akt. membantu
Sektor
Akt. membantu
Akt. membantu
Struktur
Struktur
Akt. membantu
Sektor
Akt. membantu
Penyeliaan
Rakan
Sekerja
Akt. membantu
Akt. membantu
Akt. membantu
83
kerani terhadap ciri kerja dan penemuan ini boleh digeneralisasikan kepada
sektor a warn. Seterusnya situasi tempat kerja juga merupakan faktor kedua
pentingnya yang sama-sama mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja kerani ter-
hadap ciri kerja di sektor awam. Semen tara itu bagi sektor swasta didapati
faktor struktur organisasi merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi
kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap ciri kerja.
b) Kepuasan terhadap Gaji
Secara keseluruhannya didapati faktor sektor memainkan peranan
utama dalam menentukan kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap gaji. Hasil
kajian mendapati bagi pekerja kerani sektor awam, beban tugas yang ditanggung merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan mereka
terhadap gaji dan diikuti oleh faktor taraf jawatan. Sementara bagi pekerja
kerani sektor swasta faktor-faktor yang dipilih dalam kajian ini tidaklah
merupkan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan terhadap gaji.
c) Kepuasan Terhadap Pangkat
Secara keseluruhan didapati faktor aktiviti membantu dari organisasi
merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja perkeranian dan diikuti oleh faktor sektor itu sendiri. Bagaimanapun bagi
pekerja kerani sektor awam didapati faktor taraf jawatan adalah merupakan faktor utama mempengaruhi kepuasan terhadap pangkat. Sementara
bagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta, faktor struktur organisasi adalah
merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan mereka terhadap
pangkat.
d) Kepuasan Terhadap Penyeliaan
Secara keseluruhan didapati tiga faktor utama yang mempengaruhi
kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap penyeliaan iaitu, aktiviti membantu
organisasi, sifat terbuka pekerja itu sendiri dan diikuti oleh kekesanan atau
kekemasan struktur organisasi. Faktor mekanisme membantu organisasi
boleh digeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor. Sementara itu faktor
kedua pentingnya bagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta ialah kekemasan
struktur organisasi.
e) Kepuasan Terhadap Rakan Sekerja
Secara keseluruhan didapati tiga faktor yang utama mempengaruhi
kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap rakan sekerja iaitu kekemasan struktur
organisasi, faktor sektor dan diikuti oleh faktor aktiviti membantu yang ada
pada organisasi. Bagaimanapun faktor aktiviti membantu organisasi boleh
digeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor.
Pengujian Analisis Regresi Berganda di atas telah menghasilkan tiga
84
model mengenai faktor-faktor utama yang mcmpcngaruhi kepuasan pekerja
kcrani terhadap dimcnsi kerja. Model-model terscbut adalah seperti bcrikut:
1. Modd Umnm Kepuasan Kerja Pekerja Kcranf
Aktiviti mcmbantu mcrupakan angkubah utama dan terpenting dari
angkubah-angkubah yang dipilih dalam kajian untuk mcmpcngaruhi
kepuasan pekerja kcrani terhadap hampir kesehiruhan dimcnri kcija iaitu,
ciri kerja, gaji, penyeliaan dan juga rakan sekerja* EM samping itu angkubah
lain seperti kckemasan struktur organisasi juga penting untuk member!
kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja sementera
Angkubah
Bebas
Angkubah
Sandar
Kepuasan terhadap
dimensi kerja:
I
I Aktiviti
I mem bantu
I organisasi
I______
*
ciri kerja
*
gaj'
*
pangkat
*
penyeliaan
Kekemasaan
Struktur
organisasi
Sektor
rakan sekerja
RajahS
Faktor-Faktor MempengaruU Kepoasan Kerja
Pekerja Kcrani Secara Umora
85
faktor setter itu sendiri adalah penting mempengaruhi kcpuasan kerani
terhadap gaji, pangkat dan rakan sekerja (Rajah 3).
2. Model Kepoasan Kerja Kerani Sektor Awun
Bagi pckcrja kerani sektor awam didapati aktiviti membantu orga-
nisasi juga merupakan angkubah utama dari angkubah-angkubah yang
dipilih dalam kajian yang mempengaruhi tiga dari lima dimenri kepuasan
kerja iaitu ciri kcrja, penyeliaan dan rakan sckerja. Sementara bcban kerja
dan taraf jawatan adalah angkubah-angkubah utama yang mempengaruhi
kepuasan kerani terhadap gaji dan taraf jawatan juga adalah angkubah
Angkubah
Bebas
Angkubah
Sandar
Kepuasan terhadap
dimensi kerja:
Aktiviti
membantu
organisasi
J______—————————* *
ciri kerja
| VX.
gaji
-»*
*
pangkat
*
penyeliaan
*
rakan sekerja
Rajah 4
Faktor-Faktor MerapengarnU Keponaa Keija
Kertni Sektor Awam
86
utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan kerani terhadap pangkat di sektor
awam (Rajah 4).
3. Model Kepa»u Kerja Kcranl Sektor Swasta
Bagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta pula didapati kekemasan struktur
organisasi merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi tiga dimcnsi kepuasan kerja iaitu ciri kerja, pangkat dan penyeliaan. Sementara aktiviti
membantu organisasi adalah angkubah utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan kerani teihadap penyeUaan dan rakan sekerja. Di dapati juga
bahawa angkubah-angkubah yang dtpiUh dalam kajian tidak merupakan
Angkubah
Bebas
Angkubah
Sandar
Kepuasan terhadap
dimensi kerja:
*
ciri kerja
| Kckcmasaan
| Struktur
j organisasi
gaji
|
Aktiviti
*
pangkat
*
penyeliaan
*
rakan sekerja
membantu
organisasi
Rajah 5
Faktor-Faktor McmpcngarnU Kepotsan Koja
Kerani Sektor Swasta
87
faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan tcrhadap pangkat bagi pekerja
perkeranian sektor swasta (Rajah 5).
Kesfanpulan
Wujudnya perbezaan yang nyata antara sektor awam dengan sektor
swasta daripada segi kepuasan pekerja kerani tcrhadap gaji, pangkat dan
ciri kerja di mana kerani sektor swasta Icbih puas tcrhadap gaji, pangkat
dan ciri kerja bcrbanding dengan kerani sektor awam. Sementara itu pekerja kerani sektor awam pula lebih puas tcrhadap rakan sekerja bcrbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta.
Aktiviti mcmbantu pada organisasi, taraf jawatan dan beban kerja
merupakan angkubah-angkubah utama dan angkubah yang dipilih dalam
kajian mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja kerani sektor awam terhadap dimensi kerja. Sementara kekemasan struktur organisasi dan aktiviti membantu pada organisasi mempengaruhi kepuasan kerani sektor swasta
terhadap dimensi kerja selain dari gaji. Kepuasan kerani sektor swasta
terhadap gaji tidak dipengaruhi oleh angkubah-angkubah yang dipilih
dalam kajian ini.
ImpUkasi
1.
Adalah dicadangkan satu astern kenaikan gaji mengikut prestasi
kerja dengan mengambilkira pengalaman bekerja dalam satu-satu jangkamasa tertentu dilaksanakan di sektor awam sckiranya pcluang untuk
kenaikkan pangkat adalah tidak begitu luas.
2.
Sekiranya didapati sesebuah organisasi awam itu mempunyai potensi
untuk menghasilkan output yang lebih baik, maka eloklah diswastakan
supaya pekerja-pekerja dapat menikmati tahap gaji yang lebih baik seperti
yang berlaku kepada Jabatan Telekom dan Tenaga National.
3.
Aktiviti-aktiviti mcmbantu dari pihak pengurusan di organisasi sek-
tor awam hanislah dipertingkatkan lagi misalnya melahirkan lebih banyak
ide-ide yang berguna kepada pekerja, mengambil berat mengenai latihan
dan kcmajuan pekerja, sikap bantu-membantu antara bahagian atau
jabatan perlu ditingkatkan lagi, mengambil perhatian yang lebih serius
tentang kebajikan pekerja, galakan di dalam bidang sukan, pcluang
menyuarakan pendapat mengenai kerja yang lebih luas, lebih mudah
menerima perubahan dalam organisasi untuk tujuan kemajuan pekerja dan
tatacara disiplin yang adil terhadap pekerja.
4.
Kekemasan struktur organisasi haruslah diambil perhatian yang
serius dan diutamakan oleh pengurusan organisasi sektor swasta. Antaranya ialah seperti pern bahagian tugas di bahagian atau jabatan yang lebih
sesuai, logik dan scjajar dengan objektif organisasi, pembentukan struktur
yang Icbih bait dan pembahagian kerja yang seimbang dan sama rata
antara pekerja terutamanya bagi pekerja yang mcmpunyai kumpulan ahli
yang ratnai.
5.
Pihak pengurusan organisasi sektor swasta hams membentuk sistem
kerja yang boleh mempertingkat dan mengekalkan suasana kerja yang
harmoni di kalangan pekerja supaya tidak wujud jurang persahabatan
antara pekerja dcngan pekerja bcgitu juga antara pekerja dengan penyelia.
Cadangan-Cad«ngan Untuk Kajlan Akan DaUng
Hasil daripada kajian ini adalah dicadangkan supaya kajian selanjutnya dilakukan di dalam bidang-bidang berikut:
1.
Kajian yang serupa hams dilakukan kepada kategori-katcgori pekerja yang lain seperti kumpulan pengurusan atasan, kumpulan teknik dan
kumpulan pekerja am. Dengan ini kita akan mengetahui gambaran yang
lebih menyeluruh sehingga membolehkan satu gcneralisasi dibuat terhadap
pekerja kedua-dua sektor.
2.
Selain dari dimensi-dimensi kerja yang telah dipilih dalam kajian ini,
banyak lagi dimensi yang boleh dijadikan sebagai angkubah sandar yang
turut mempengaruhi dan menentukan kepuasan pekerja terhadap kerja.
Sudah lentil ianya boleh dikaji untuk melengkapkan lagi bidang kepuasan
kerja.
3.
Selain dari angkubah-angkubah bebas yang telah dipilih dalam kajian ini, kemunglcinan berbagai-bagai angkubah lagi yang turut mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja terhadap dimensi-dimensi kerja dan seterusnya boleh
pula dibandingkan antara kedua sektor.
4.
Kajian yang serupa juga boleh diperluaskan lagi kepada organisaioragnisasi yang menjalankan perkhidmatan atau bidang yang lain pula bagi
kedua-dua sektor.
89
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