Formfinder

June 2003
Formfinder
concept for a software-tool to assist architects
in the preliminary design of form-active structures
Ph. D. thesis submitted by
DI Robert Wehdorn-Roithmayr
Vienna University of Technology
supervised by
Professor William Alsop OBE RA
DI AA Dip RIBA BDA SADG FRSA
Department of Architectural Design and Construction
Vienna University of Technology
Professor Dr.-Ing. Lothar Gründig
Division of Engineering Surveying and Adjustment Techniques
Berlin University of Technology
Professor Mag. Dr. Dieter Merkl
Institute of Software Technology and Interactive Systems
Vienna University of Technology
THIS DOCUMENT WAS DOWNLOADED FROM WWW.FORMFINDER.AT
Formfinder
DIRECTORY
Abstract
Preface
Argument
3
4
6
1 CONTENT
1.1 Content DRAW
1.2 Content DATABASE
1.3 Content BOOK
1.4 Content INTERACTION
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14
16
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2 OBJECTIVE
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3 METHOD
22
4 REALISATION
24
4.1 Realisation DRAW
4.1.1 Design considerations
4.1.2 Program considerations
4.1.3 Realisation Starting Point
4.1.4 Available Modules and Formfinder screenshots
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27
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4.2 Realisation DATABASE
4.2.1 SQL in short
4.2.2 Program-release information
4.2.3 Public-modifiable information
4.2.4 External Databases
4.2.5 Internal Database tables
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4.3 Realisation BOOK
4.3.1 Description by cross-references
4.3.2 Bibliography classification of BOOK
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4.4 Realisation INTERACTION
4.4.1 Explicit direct integration
4.4.2 Program sequence
4.4.3 Human - Computer interaction
4.4.4 Software
4.4.5 Element levels
4.4.6 Object recognition
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1
Formfinder
5 FINAL REMARK
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6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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7 APPENDIX
7.1 Physical model-making
7.2 File format
7.3 Software
7.4 Trade brands
7.5 Addresses
7.6 Bibliography referenced to BOOK
7.7 Terms
7.8 Acronyms
7.8 Notation
7.9 Bibliography
7.10 Image register
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2
Formfinder
Abstract
The following text describes the concept for the realisation of a software-tool entitled
´Formfinder´. The tool is intended to assist architects in the preliminary design of form-active
systems. ´Form-active structure systems are structure systems of flexible, non-rigid matter, in
which the redirection of forces is effected through particular FORM DESIGN and characteristic
FORM STABILIZATION.´1
The designer outlines the desired design just as he or she would use a pen and a sheet of paper.
The software visualizes the behaviour of a form-active system and guides the designer to a
possible next step. A model-based recognition algorithm analyses the sketch and compares
analogies with information stored in a data base. Information delivered should relate exactly to the
´question´ the architect is currently working on, e.g. architectural aspects such as proportion,
detailing, material design aspects or technical aspects such as consistency of necessary deflection,
forces to anchor systems, operativeness of certain details, requirements for the ordering of a
structure and building construction process. Information should inspire and cause the user to ´fall
in love´ with the immense development potentialities of form-active systems. If the designer
operates a tool to verify his design questions it is possible to record the state-of-the-art and
therefore improve the design so as to achieve much more than a sum of the elements: the
understanding of the form-active system as ´gestalt´2.
Based on an intense study of available literature3, proceedings of expert-meetings, universities,
online-sources and communication with engineers, architects and experts in the field of formactive support systems, a database was developed aimed at linking together certain fields of
knowledge. The database contains tables such as acronyms, addresses, assembly, building codes,
details, error messages, literature, materials, projects, available software, support information,
terms and typologies. Because of the need to update it, the Formfinder database is supported
online. Online- support means that information can be updated via the internet. The user decides
which information he wants to store on his computer system. The program can also be updated via
the internet by downloading newer versions. Formfinder benefits very much from the latest
development of communication platforms and databases like TensiNet4, U.P.C.5, SDA6 and the
efforts made by companies to offer products online. Collaboration in multidisciplinary team is
essential for the success of Formfinder as the main intention of the free software is the
improvement of architectural quality.
Key words
architecture, computational geometry, database, design, film, formfinder, formfinding, form-active
system, lightweight structure, modelling, membrane, model-based matching, similarity
transformation, simulation, software-tool, textile
………………………………
1
[Engl97] p. 57, Heino Engeld determinates: 1 Form-active, 2 Vector-active, 3 Section-active, 4 Surface-active,
5 Height-active and 6 Hybrid
2
Definition: Gestalt ´A physical, biological, psychological, or symbolic configuration or pattern of elements so unified
as a whole that its properties cannot be derived from a simple summation of its parts.´, [Dict92] p. 762
3
Listed APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY
4
http://www.tensinet.com
5
http://www.upc.es/ca1/cat/recerca/tensilestruc/portada.html
6
http://emulava.fbe.unsw.edu.au:8080/index.html
3
Formfinder
Preface
Establishment of Formfinder
At the ´Skelett und Haut´ symposium7 the lecture by the physician Martin Schlicht8 initially made
me aware of the world of ´membranes´. The lecture entitled ´The reverse way to encase the human
body´9 revealed to me the capability of human skin.
During my studies of Architecture and Computer Science at the Vienna University of Technology,
I dreamed of being able to handle the complex geometries of ´membranes´.
Working with different companies10 gave me a first insight about formfinding and how to effect
drawings for blank. Finishing my studies with a thesis about the design of an air-supported
structure made of one single piece of membrane,11 I thought that an improvement of ´cuttingpattern´ technology would push the ability to design and could therefore improve the quality of
form-active systems. Using high-technology to achieve a perfect shaped surface made of one
single piece of sail-cloth, I realised that there was still something missing: the quality of the
architectural design. The shortcomings of ´form-active structures´ are not the manageability of
complex geometry. For the architect it is necessary to go much further than creating one ´perfect´
surface over a certain geometry. It is necessary to understand that the study of one single field of
research does not lead to the ability to design form-active systems, and the study of many fields of
research might result in an unprejudiced finding of ´gestalt´12. This work should commence the
discussion on creating synergies by providing usable information for architects for the preliminary
design of form-active systems. Only the knowledge about what has already been done can start a
discussion on co-operation. A well elaborated preliminary design is a main key to quality13.
´Mankind does not need anymore technology - it is clearness that is missing´14
Astor Piazzola
For this reason it is now time to follow up the discussion on ´how to elaborate the architectural
process´ of preliminary form-active system design. The progress in the subject by Frei Otto and
team, the SFB64 and many others did not meet the public response it deserved.15 In the field of
membrane technology the term formfinding describes a process for the optimisation of formactive systems, colloquially known as ´membrane building´16.
´The bearing mechanism of form-active systems rests essentially on the material form. Deviation
from the correct form, if possible at all, jeopardizes the functioning of the system or requires
additional mechanisms that compensate for the deviation.´17
………………………………
7
Symposium ´Skelett und Haut´, November 19th 1998, Galerie Architektur und Arbeit GAA, Gelsenkirchen, Germany.
Symposium was supervised by Bernd Bayer, Konstruktive Gestaltung und Leichtbau Universität Essen, Germany
8
Doctor Martin Schlicht, assistant medical director of the Würselen Clinic, Germany
9
Entitled ´Der umgekehrte Weg: Vom Teil zum Ganzen´
10
E.g DI P. Michael Schultes, Vienna http://www.schulteswien.com
11
The 3dl sailcloth technology used is patented by Northsails, Minden Nevada
12
Definition: Gestalt ´A physical, biological, psychological, or symbolic configuration or pattern of elements so unified
as a whole that its properties cannot be derived from a simple summation of its parts.´, [Dict92] p. 762
13
Definition of the term in the chapter on OBJECTIVE of Formfinder
14
Astor Piazzola in an interview at the Westdeutscher Rundfunk February 5th 2003
15
Enthusiastic and experimental research set up the basis for engineering and scientific research. From the
engineering point of view formfinding was solved by methods like the Newton-Raphson
16
Definition of the term in the chapter on CONTENT of Formfinder
17
[Engl97] p. 58
4
Formfinder
Before computer technology was available the only practicable way to find a proper design was
model-making.18 Today software technology offers a radical improvement in finding an operative
design. But unfortunately not many architects apply formfinding software in their offices and if
they do, the designer himself is very seldom the person operating the software. Additionally the
option of model-making sometimes seems to be lost although it is an inspiring and formative
experience.19 Touching material is essential to decode material attributes.
Many publications do not offer a comprehensive overview on the topic of formfinding for formactive systems or an up-to-date guide. Some experts20 tend to maintain technology to hold their
competitive edge. The spread of ´everything is possible´ ideologies also stopped the work in basic
research on the way to find gestalt. The consequence is that the quantity of form-active systems21
which have been realised does not correspond with the possible potential.
But how can one achieve or at least discuss a small range of these complex problems? To improve
the quality of form-active support systems it is first essential to build many bridges over the
significant void between amateurs and high-technology.22 Then it is of highest importance to
deliver available information for the designer. Deliver means the merging of knowledge and
describes how accessibility of information can be achieved. The merger of knowledge could
possibly revise and refine fundamentals of the preliminary-design of form-active systems.
´Basic research is the most vital form for the future; then comes applied research, and finally its
application. A society that is interested only in the application of solutions is finished.´23
Architecture is individual and will not advance by standardisation of the design-processes. What is
required is equipment for the preliminary design of form-active structures in combination with
comprehensive information reduced to a manageable size.
To follow up these questions this work is an attempt to outline a software tool that assists
architects in the preliminary design of form-active structures.
Beginning this year I have received the support of Professor Gründig and technet gmbh24 for the
realisation of this concept.
………………………………
18
1800 C. F. Gauß (first geodetic networks) applied algebra also leads to a result but is not applicable for
newcomers
19
The importance of ´haptics´ is displayed in the chart in chapter REALISATION of Formfinder
20
An expert is someone who is reminded of just the right prior experience to help in processing current experiences.
[Preece02] p. 175
21
First concern must be quality, and therefore quantity is irrelevant
22
During the ´Panel Discussion ´at the Textile Roofs Workshop, Berlin June 1st 2002 Professor Jürgen W. Hennicke
from the University of Stuttgart discussed the fact that companies argue about ´crazy ideas´ by some architects and
Mr. Hennicke consequently asked why companies still need architects for their designs?
23
"... there's still plenty of scope ..." - Frei Otto on the Future of Tent Construction Otto Frei, interview with
Gabriel Andreas, ´Grundlagenforschung ist das Notwendigste für die Zukunft, dann kommt die angewandte
Forschung und dann die Anwendung. Eine Gesellschaft die nur noch anwendet steht am Ende.´ Detail 6/2000,
München 2000, p. 965 http://www.detail.de
24
http://www.technet-gmbh.com
5
Formfinder
Argument
In order to understand how building works, we can separate out and study various elemental
functions. Only few building functions take place in isolation. Almost every component of a
building serves more than one function. These functions are heavily interdependent. A designer
cannot change the way in which one function is served without affecting others. A building has its
own ecology, a delicate internal balance of connected mechanisms that function not in isolation
but as a richly interconnected whole. The following image is a reflection of some larger functional
patterns underlying every building.
Image [Allen95] p. 30
Functional patterns25 show how buildings work. Although each pattern affects other patterns there
is one ´dependency´ which must be observed strictly during the design of form-active systems. The
following subject disclosure by Heino Engl is intended to present the term ´form-active´ more
precisely. ´In nature and technology there are 4 typical mechanisms to deal with acting forces, i.e.
to redirect them. They are basic; they possess intrinsic characteristics; they are familiar to man in
his daily encounter with forces, how he bears them, and how he reacts.
1 ADJUSTMENT to the forces; Structures acting mainly through material form: FORM-ACTIVE
STRUCTURE SYSTEMS; Systems in single stress condition: Compressive or tensile forces.
2 DISSECTION of forces; Structures acting mainly through composition of compressive and tensile
members: VECTOR-ACTIVE STRUCTURE SYSTEMS; Systems in coactive stress condition:
Compressive and tensile forces.
3 CONFINEMENT of forces; Structures acting mainly through cross section and continuity of
material: SECTION-ACTIVE STRUCTURE SYSTEMS; Systems in bending stress condition: Sectional
forces.
………………………………
25
The term pattern describes a problem, a solution, and where this solution has been found to work
6
Formfinder
4 DISPERSION of forces; Structures acting mainly through extension and form of surface;
SURFACE-ACTIVE STRUCTURE SYSTEMS; Systems in surface stress condition: Membrane26 forces.
5 COLLECTION and GROUNDING of forces Structures acting mainly as vertical load transmitter:
HEIGHT-ACTIVE STRUCTURE SYSTEMS (Systems with typical stress condition)
and 6 the structure system with dissimilar mechanics for redirecting forces called: HYBRID
STRUCTURE SYSTEMS. Two parental systems in their bearing function are basically equipotent and
in their novel behaviour they are dependent upon one another´. 27
The introduced term ´dependency´ describes two counterparts which characterise the behaviour of
form-active systems: The design of the form and the stabilisation of the form.
To reach a stable form designers have to conceive different patterns at the same time. Therefore
many designers did not go too much further into the question of finding the form of form-active
systems and accepted shapes which have been provided by engineers. Depending on the available
budget, communication between architects and engineers is more or less intense. During my study
of the literature available it was obvious that some ´large´ 28 projects were elaborated very well and
many ´small´ ones not. Frei Otto´s definition of ´large tents´ is determined by the overall span
width of 15 metres29. It is not the case that ´large´ or ´small´ projects require a different
engineering effort30 but it is vital whether designers have access to engineers or not. In the past it
was difficult to design form-active structure systems as basic engineering research was not done.
Today many ´basics´ have been solved and from the scientific engineering point of view formactive structures are no longer challenging. Now we have lots of technologies but they are
conceptualised for engineers and they are not very enjoyable to architects. Joy also describes the
decisions we make because something has a meaning beyond the practical use. Joy is energy and a
way to achieve gestalt. It imposes ´working well´ and ´reminding´ on something which is important
to our broader cultural environment. It seems that there has not been much investigation on the
initial design of form-active structures at all. Architects are working at the strategic level of ´what
is the message to communicate and to whom´. Engineers find mathematical determinations of a
problem but:
´Mathematical calculations have little meaning for the development of structure concepts. In fact,
they are not required to gain insight into the complex behaviour of structure systems or to inspire
the creative spirit for structural invention.´
Heino Engl31
The first approach of Formfinder is to provide an up-to-date tool for architects to develop the
preliminary design of form-active systems. The second approach of Formfinder is to provide
architects with the information which is needed to elaborate the current state of the design
process. Information relates to different fields of knowledge as a means of surveying different
´views´ of the current design. Information opens the ´view´ and is much more than the simple
´how to do it´.
What is it that is much more than ´how to do it´? Functional patterns describe physical abilities but
do not assist in finding gestalt. Gestalt does not value how the building ´works´ because it is
presupposed that buildings must ´work´ to be accepted by operators. One definition of gestalt is ´A
physical, biological, psychological, or symbolic configuration or pattern of elements so unified as a
whole that its properties cannot be derived from a simple summation of its parts.´32
………………………………
26
Note: The term ´membrane´ is not equivalent to form-active
[Engl97] p. 20
28
The unsatisfactory determination of ´large´ should only describe the number of square meter
29
[IL16] p. 12
30
Discrepancy between ´large´ and ´small´ also arises from the simple fact that there is sometimes no money in ´small´
projects. Mass production is exceptional to this fact.
31
[Engl97] p. 20
32
[Dict92] p. 762
27
7
Formfinder
Discussion on gestalt might begin with Vitruv33 and has still not been answered. Personal
percipience could be a way to answer the question of finding gestalt. One perception of gestalt can
be found in architecture, which is the art and science of designing and erecting buildings.
Buildings show the interests of a society, organisational skills, affluence or poverty, climate,
attitude towards technology and arts. Architecture can also be seen as the most pervasive mirror
of human presence. Personal perception is inimitable and the key to innovation34 in architecture.
Dissimilar ´views´ could perhaps innervate an object which has to be understood as a whole with
its elegance and utility. One answer to ´how to find gestalt´ might be found in the preliminary
architectural design. The process of design considers 4 phases: 1 Conceptual formulation of the
task, 2 Conceptual preliminary design, 3 Outline and 4 Composition. These 4 phases produce
different ´views´ of the desired design.
The strategic process of finding gestalt comprises ´MULTIPLICATION´ and ´QUALIFICATION´.
Creativity creates multiplication and information, and experience qualifies. The two counterparts
MULTIPLICATION and QUALIFICATION could be described as a constructive dialogue of ´what is
wanted and what is possible´. The said existing assimilable dialogue between architects and
engineers has been found in ´large´ building projects. The absence of communication between
architects and engineers in the preliminary design of ´small´ form-active systems led to some
associations which are not proved. The most important evidence for the absence of
communication can be found in the ´quality35´ of ´small´ form-active systems. The Quality of
´small´ form-active structures suffers from ideas36 such as form-active systems are inherently:
cheap, easy and rapid to set up, size does not matter, trouble-free to restore and portable. They are
also available with a minimum order quantity. The order quantities are constant, i.e. there are no
seasonal influences. The costs of an individual project are for the same quantity of mass
production i.e. costs of craftsmanship compared to manufacturing are the same. Clients recognise
quality differences that cost a great deal but only become apparent years later, there are no costs
for obtaining engineers and qualified personnel, product development does not take time, building
codes and information for price calculations are retrievabel. Even information about trustworthy
companies who realise form-active systems is sometimes not easy to obtain.37 Some designers
access information via the internet, e.g. search criterion ´membrane´38, instead of using factual
information. Although there are some tendencies to improve communication between designers
and professionals, many developments have been lost due to the lack of agreement to create
solutions from synergetic effects. In addition to the absence of synergetic effects doctrines like
´everything is possible´, or ´form is something natural´ did a disservice to the developments in
finding of ´form´. Form is not something ´natural´ and does not simply follow the function39. Form
can be in any appearances but each form depends on the perception of its designer. Due to this
perception a form can be elaborated or not. Searching for the feasible form is the key to find
gestalt. If whether the said ideas are ´true´ or ´not true´ depends only on designers knowledge and
perception. 40 The key to improve the quality of form-active systems can be found particularly in
preliminary design where the objectives are defined. The desired form and the stabilisation of the
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33
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (approx. 90 to 20 B. C.) De architectura
Innovation mostly arises through cross-fertilization of ideas from different applications. Cross-fertilization demands
observation, straightforward copying
35
The term quality is discussed in the chapter on OBJECTIVE
36
In 1977 the main aspects have already been discussed by Friedmann Kugel ´Minimierung im praktischen
Membranbau´, [Bubner77] p. 190
37
During the last few years many companies have merged, while some have changed brand name or owner
38
The criterion ´membrane´ leads to science fields like biology
39
Louis Sullivan´s article ´The tall office building artistically considered´ published in 1896 in: Athey I., editor,
Kindergarten Chats (revised 1918) and Other Writings. New York 1947 p. 202
40
Statements like ´it is the engineers job is to make buildings work and it is, the architects job to give buildings form´
do not count in the context of form-active systems
34
8
Formfinder
form´ is only one essential part but not the only objective which has to be found. For a radical
improvement in the determination and elaboration of a wide range of objectives the designer
could profit greatly from the use of a software tool.
This work is intended to provide a solution feasible today for the discussion of gestalt in the
preliminary design of form-active systems by providing an up-to-date software tool which is easy
to manage and which does not spread a personal doctrine. Architects use drawing as the media to
express thoughts. Drawings are absolutely free. Architecture is art and art is not mimetic41 and is
not a craft. It is the capacity of the human body which allows art to be created. It is the ´eye´ that
recognises the appearance of art and therefore the artist must be able to express what is wanted
to be seen. Art, creativity and invention are often wrapped in mystique but it is simple the ability to
´view´ and to recognise, to trigger the imagination. Formfinder is intended to allow designers to
intrude on the form like sculptors do. The sculptor is often free in form since the range of
functionality is sometimes smaller at the beginning of the design.
Formfinder is intended to be an attentive, quiet listener to answer questions from the architect
when asked. Answers should be independent of doctrines or the engineer´s personal perception. At
best the information provided should be exactly in the context of the current state of the
preliminary design the architect is working on.
´As a designer… I believe that what was, what is, and what will always be has always been. And
from this position I see no discontinuity in architecture through the ages, from Greece, to Rome, to
Romanesque, to Gothic, to the Rennaissance… These periods have the quality of a great continuum
although the circumstances which led to each period with its different characteristics were not the
same at the specific time of these styles.´
Louis I. Kahn42
………………………………
41
42
Mimetic means relating to an imitation. [Dict92] p. 1147
Architect´s Challenge, Find Continuity, The Times Picayune, March 3th 1972, p. 8, from [Baker89] p. 21
9
Formfinder
1 CONTENT
This work outlines the concept of a software-tool for architects entitled: Formfinder. The name
´Formfinder43´ is an artificial term which sounds like the technical term ´formfinding´. In the view
of structural design formfinding describes the process of the optimisation of a structure or more
precisely the optimisation of the geometry of a form-active system. Artists use the term
formfinding in order to describe the process of finding gestalt44.
´Form-active structure systems are structure systems of flexible, non-rigid matter, in which the
redirection of forces is effected through particular FORM DESIGN and characteristic FORM
STABILIZATION.´ 45
Formfinding of form-active structures does not allow simple geometric approaches, and so the
common approach to design is to make a model or to simulate in an analogue way.
There are two counterparts that characterise form-active structures: The design of the form and
the stabilisation of the form.
The desired design depends on loading conditions and therefore the characteristics of forces can
not be separated. The stabilisation of the form requires force-equilibrium. To find the forceequilibrium of the desired design iteration loops are required. Even once a form has been conceived
of, iteration loops are necessary to stabilise the desired form.
It is useful to use software to process iteration loops. Although there are software packages46
available to perform ´formfinding´ no software on the market can be applied without consolidated
knowledge about the behaviour of form-active systems. While acknowledging the efforts made by
CADISI and ISIMEM47, which were never put on the market, Formfinder is one of the very few
software packages that allow the preliminary design of form-active structures.48 Available software
packages have in common that results have to be evaluated and must be proven by experienced
professionals. On the other hand a ´Black box´ system that would lead to one single result would
not help. It is a fact that every interpretation should be carefully reviewed using a pool of verified
information, and the results must be discussed with experienced engineers before thinking about
realisation.
Formfinder visualises the key questions of the preliminary design of form-active systems to enable
the designer to receive appropriate answers or to find an engineer who is able to cooperate in the
development. The designer could forward the design in digital or printed report format to any
engineer to express the state of the desired design. Before the engineer is contacted, Formfinder is
intended to provide technical knowledge, e.g. available literature, or information about what has
already been built. A database has been established based on the intense research of e.g. for
instance the available literature, proceedings of expert-meetings, universities, online-sources and
communication with engineers, architects and experts in the field of form-active support systems.
Formfinder is intended to balance existing efforts by merging 4 program modules: DRAW,
DATABASE, BOOK and INTERACTION into one reconcile.
………………………………
43
In a different field the term Formfinder is used by the designer Peter Winkler and by Adobe Systems Incorporated
for software to sort documents. No information has been available on the website since 2003
44
Definition of the term see PREFACE
45
[Engl97] p. 57
46
Listing of available software APPENDIX
47
CADISI and ISIMEM were developed in 1996 as the first steps towards easy-to-use formfinding software. CADISI
without DXF interface was a demo. CADISI with DXF interface is no longer state of the art. DXF (Drawing
Interchange Format) http://www.autodesk.com/techpubs/autocad/acadr14/dxf
48
Most software packages emphasise engineering aspects and not the process of finding gestalt
10
Formfinder
1.1 Content DRAW49
DRAW is the name for the user-interface which allows
a geometry to be outlined. In order to provide
inexperienced users with a first insight, the user
interface design is as uncomplicated as possible50.
Opening Formfinder leads to the DRAW user-interface.
Formfinder prompts the designer to sketch an outline
by clicking the mouse button51 and to double-click to
close the outline. The initial input information is a
breakpoint.52 A point on the ground view is visualised
after drawing pen or mouse is clicked. Every point
appears as a black spot connected with a ´rubber band´.
The rubber band indicates the connection from the first
input to the following breakpoint. Basic settings display
a grid to indicate a certain distance. The grid guides the
mouse if orthogonal lines are needed. Double-click
closes an open outline. The outline can be changed by
moving the mouse over the breakpoint, and clicking on
this points shows the rubber band again. The next step
is indicated: Rotate design, press cursor keys or right
mouse button. The outline and the grid is rotated in
space and displayed in isometric view. The centre of
rotation of the Cartesian coordinate system53 is equal
to the centre of the drawing. The next step is to lift up
a point perpendicular to the original position of the
ground view. The original line is indicated in red. The
breakpoint opposite is also lifted by the same
procedure. The user interface displays one single button
labelled FORMFIND. When this button is activated,
analytical formfinding is executed by Force Density
Structural Analysis.54. The existing geometry is ´covered´
by a mesh which simulates form-active system
properties. A hyper-paraboloid tent was created
without setting e.g. border, net, surface triangulation,
T-elements55 or structural analysis. Once a form-active
system has been created, designing can start, for
instance the proportion, curvature, material properties
must be defined to discuss ´gestalt´, which is much
more than the predefined surface covering a geometry.
The term ´gestalt´ includes e.g. proportion, construction
and the appropriate material. Whether desired or not,
every design involves these elements.
………………………………
49
For clear distinction names of modules are capitalized
User interface design follows specifications of DIN EN ISO 9241-10, 90/270, see chapter on REALISATION DRAW
51
Pressure-sensitive pen input technology is recommended for using Formfinder. The term ´mouse´ is used to allow
compatibility with unexperienced users without the different input devices. Some input devices are described in
chapter on INTERACTION, Human - Computer Interaction (HCI)
52
Definition APPENDIX Terms
53
Details on Cartesian coordinate system can be found in the chapter on REALISATION DRAW
54
First published in [Linkwitz71]
55
T-Elements are described in the chapter on Existing Software EASY, Program Laggen
50
11
Formfinder
The DRAW module supports the handling of complex geometries and allows a connection for
instance to existing typologies, buildings, or details. The following images show a hyper-paraboloid
in different stress conditions (same ´design´ with different forces in boundary cable. Result56 is a
radical change of surface57).
Ground view
Isometric projection
Area force : Cable force
1 : 0.005
Note: deformations are much higher
than commonly available material
1:1
1 : 2,5
1:5
1 : 7,5
1 : 10
1 : 100
………………………………
56
57
Note: To display stress conditions with more contrast, orientation of net does not follow principal stress direction
Force in cable F = Z (r/2); (r) radius, (Z) Area resp. surface force, (F) Cable force. Images relate to [Höller99] p. 177
12
Formfinder
DRAW is an easy- to- use facility similar to a pen and a sheet of paper as a means of expressing
the desired design straightforwardly.58 The centre of display is the design which was made by the
architect. As soon as something concrete59 is available Formfinder offers the designer the ability to
elaborate different ´views´. ´View´ can be described as a ´systematic survey´ providing high
structural information. The current design can find correspondence by e.g. built examples of formactive systems, or analogies of structure systems. Similarities or analogies are represented by
´information trees´. The information ´tree´ can be described as a ´view´ of the current design made
by the architect. As soon as an analogy is found, the designer enters into a ´dialogue´ with the
design. The term dialogue represents the exchange of opinion60 which is essential to the
understanding of the current state of the design. If one´s own design correspondends with e.g.
projects already realised, the designer can make use of available information. What designers are
able to repeat could also be improved. Learning from what exists should also be inspiring61. One
key to achieving ´gestalt´ is iterative development by matching design with available information,
e.g. about corresponding typologies62. Consequently, the approach used by Formfinder is the
linkage of ´design and knowledge´.
………………………………
58
Formfinder must also provide an easy-to-use import function for available digital information
E.g. number of breakpoints, projected ground area, net properties, or no input information
60
The term opinion is used in the sense of special knowledge given by experts
61
Inspiration is joy and joy is a possible key to gestalt
62
Typology ´The study of systematic classification of types that have characteristics of traits in common.´
[Dict92] p. 1935
59
13
Formfinder
1.2 Content DATABASE
DATABASE is Formfinder´s information storage system. The tables of the relational database
contain information about existing projects, typologies, materials, details, addresses, terms etc.
Advantages of structured query language (SQL): It is the standard for databases63, easy to handle64
and to learn. The aim of DATABASE is the management of knowledge and not storage in archives.
Formfinder should only keep a ´key´ to access resources e.g. project name, architect, location, year
and the most important information for Formfinder for the classification of a project. Classifying is
something like the comprehension of information. Formfinder should be able to read information
like a geometry description e.g. AREA circle, SHAPE half-sphere, diameter 320 metre. Formfinder
should understand that this could possibly be the Millennium Dome.
There are several databases available which store images, drawings and project information. The
approach of DATABASE is the minimal size by defining a ´key´ for receiving information.
Every input in DRAW creates an entry in the database table Project_current after the geometry is
closed by double-clicking or pressing the FORMFIND button. The Project_current table is
interpreted by INTERACTION, which is the Database Management System (DBMS). INTERACTION
decides where to point in the database (DB) where information is physically stored. In order to take
account of administration and future developments of DATABASE the following chart represents
the context of DATABASE.
Grey boxes indicate DATABASE elements. Detailed information about e.g. tables, or key see chapter
REALISATION DATABASE
………………………………
63
64
SQL standard language American National Standards Institute (ANSI) http://www.ansi.org
Access via HTML/XML is possible http://www.w3c.org
14
Formfinder
Database (DB) is the physical storage system.
A copy of the database is made during the installation of Formfinder on a computer. As it does not
make sense to store the whole Data Base on a local computer there are two different techniques to
update database.
The decision to update the database allows the selection of: size of the local database, permanently
or temporarily online, or update only a certain type of project. The user must be informed about
what information is stored and how to economise the system. For this reason the Formfinder
database consists of two information storage modes:
Program-release information which is stored on the local computer system:
Acronyms, Building codes, Building construction process, BOOK, Errors, Help_texts, Notations,
Project_current and Typologies.
Public-modifiable information which is supported online:
Addresses, Details, Detail_images, Literature, Materials, Material_images, Projects, Project_images,
Software and Terms.
The advantage of the two update-techniques is that public-modifiable information can be updated
at any time. The program-release information is updated with the next program- release, for
instance one specific building code changes and therefore the links stored in program- code must
also be updated. Two update techniques guarantee that older versions work properly on the update
of public-modifiable information.
The database is directly accessible via the user interface DRAW, BOOK and DATABASE. Direct access
can also be obtained via TOOL in the main menu bar.65
………………………………
65
Main menu bar is the ´upper first line´ of the window: File, Edit, View, Tool, Help
15
Formfinder
1.3 Content BOOK
The term book is often associated with ´knowledge base´, ´consultancy´. or ´continuance´.
BOOK is intended to deliver highly structured information about the process of the preliminary
design of form-active systems. It is of highest importance to provide the architect information
from experts. As mentioned, the massive amount of information must be classified and structured.
Classification could be effected through the support of highly advanced systems such as text
classification and the labelling of document clusters with self-organisation maps.66
This concept should give an outline of how located information is to be displayed.
BOOK is represented in two different appearances. First the highly preprocessed information in the
DIALOGUE window and the semantic structured information on the ´webpage´ entitled BOOK. The
term webpage should mean that information provided can be adjusted to the user´s preferences.
HTML/XML is the communication language. The additional semantic layer of XML information
supports easy handling and parsing. BOOK represents a collection of guides though the questions
of the preliminary design of form-active systems. The process of answering questions is structured
in: Understanding the problem, collecting information, analyse of information, design act,
synthesis, execution and communication of the result.67
In technical terms BOOK is a browsable structure in HTML/XML format. BOOK consists of linked
documents which have been created by experts and is also web-based so that it is possible to
implement common online elements, such as discussion- and newsgroups, meeting boards.
Structure of BOOK
Current user´s standard web-browser in full screen size. The windows standard full screen appears
with a smaller icon size than the non-full screen window. There are two main frames which
represent BOOK.
CHAPTER FRAME represents a hierarchically structured index or chapters of BOOK.
CONTENT FRAME displays the content selected from the index.
Further reading, SEE ALSO (compared to CHECK IT) is an automatic scrolled box which allows
terms to be checked or further information to be received. Example point68 to one example of
chapter ´Historic development´ of BOOK: The blue bar indicates the current position
………………………………
66
Further information http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/375272.html, http://ieee-nns.org, http://www.scirus.com,
http://www.ifs.tuwien.ac.at/~dieter/Research/research-dlir.html
67
According to Horst W. J. Rittel, who argues that collecting information and solving a problem can not be seen
separately [Höller99] p. 26
68
The term ´point´ is specific for databases and means ´request´
16
Formfinder
Example of the hierarchically structured index. The blue area underneath ´Arab Black tents´
indicates the active status:
Historic development
Skins or woven fabrics
Tents
Nomads
Black tents
Arab Black tents
Morocco Black tents
Modern Black tents
Teepee
Sedentary
Small tents (no engineering)
Large tents
Circus tents
Canopies
Velum, Toldos
Awning
Dais
Umbrellas
Sails
Air-supported structures
Material aspects
Construction
Computational and Physical Modelling
Membrane load behaviour
Detailing
Project management
Economic factors
Climate and environmental aspects
Lifecycle aspects
Masterpieces and built examples
Non architectural applications
Related
Image [Berger96] p. 21
http://www.adventureswithali.com
Each chapter is represented by a ´tree´69. Each chapter is of a hierarchical tree -structure and can
be opened by clicking on the plus in the square. Upon opening, the selected topic has images and
text. The display of information must be in the centre, every chapter should have related, further
information and a bibliography and key words on mouse over.
………………………………
69
Some ´trees´ might be concordant with other topics. The intention is to create different ´views´ to transfer
information smoothly
17
Formfinder
1.4 Content INTERACTION
Interaction is the process of communication. Interaction design defines one parameter of
communication quality. Interaction design is based on disciplines, fields, and approaches that are
concerned with design research
Image: Relationship among contributing academic disciplines, design practices, and
interdisciplinary fields concerned with interaction design. [Preece02] p. 8
To understand INTERACTION it is necessary to define how architect70 and computer interact.
Architects´ interaction and communication is mostly executed by drawing, and the technological
progress of Formfinder is object recognition that selects appropriate information for drawing.
Interaction describes who interacts and what is involved in the interaction. Basic elements in
human - computer interaction are: How is input information delivered and how can the user
express a question. Interaction describes the relationship DRAW, DATABASE and BOOK, in other
words the software technology, e.g. user-interaction, database relation, or object recognition.
Interaction is the ´brain´ of Formfinder.
Interaction should also describe the current state of the design to express what the architect needs
to know in the current situation. This chapter focuses on the analysis of the preliminary design
progress.71 The process is recorded to deliver wanted information. If e.g. sketched area is flat the
………………………………
70
71
As defined in the chapter on ARGUMENT
The design process is recorded eg. in the database table Project_current
18
Formfinder
DIALOGUE window prompts the use to lift up a point. If the user does not want to lift a point
because he or she wants an air-supported structure, DIALOGUE should give a description of where
to set ´air-supported´.72
INTERACTION DRAW
First interaction on opening Formfinder is a startup window which instrucs the user to start with
drawing 1. The reason for this action is that users can be assured that their work is safe, since it
has a name and is physically located on a hard disk.
DIALOGUE window
The blue arrow of the opened DIALOGUE window points at the key-line. The key-line displays keywords to prompt the user to proceed to action. Additional words in the DIALOGUE window area
provide further information about how to execute the following action or suggest possible
different options.
INTERACTION is a main key for the development of an interdisciplinary language for the
description of form-active systems. At the same time as the development of information for BOOK,
each text must be referred to a certain topic. A first step in this direction is e.g. an XML description
or abstract. The BOOK chapter gives an outline for sorting information. At the best, a system would
organise itself.
………………………………
72
One answer could be: Flat structure, click on PROPERTIES in ELEMENT window
19
Formfinder
2 OBJECTIVE
This work is a concept for a software tool for architects which assists the process of the
preliminary design of form-active systems. This concept is designed to be implemented in full
volume.73
The object of this work is the improvement of the quality of form-active systems in terms of
architectural preliminary design. Everyone has an idea about the meaning of quality74. However,
when it comes to quality in the real world it seems that it is often unclear what the requirements
are and what the characteristics are with regard to these requirements. Only when the
requirements are defined in conjunction with the characteristics that are relevant for quality is it
possible to measure results. Especially in the field of form-active systems the term quality is often
misunderstood e.g. adequacy of a detail, decision for material, proportion and gestalt are
sometimes not taken in account appropriately. Standards can help in defining quality but
standards are often not of assistance within the design process. For this reason standards cannot
answer the question of design, especially the two counterparts which characterise form-active
properties, the design of the form and the stabilisation of the form.
Physical model-making offers the designer a clear understanding75 of e.g. material and geometry.76
It is the simplest way to ask about material properties. The question which has to be asked is: What
does the designer want to know from the model? 77 Experience can only be made if the designer
knows which questions should be asked. The basic principle of form-activity can only be
understood if materials are physically touched. Physically touching can not be simulated by
software. For this reason, the utterly basic principle is that materials have to be experienced
physically. If this principle is understood, the stage by stage refinement of the necessary questions
can follow e.g. the question ´How to find the gestalt of the desired design´ is rather difficult to
discuss on physical models since the degree of abstraction is not infinitely variable.
Imaginativeness depends on the examination of the design. For this reason a certain degree of
abstraction is necessary to generate different ´views78´ of the design. Software tools are able to
create different ´views´ e.g. the exact adjustment of different cladding materials, discretisation of
structure system, multiplication and qualification cannot be recorded easily. Computer simulation
allows refinement and proper analysis to discrete the canon and coherence of design elements.
Starting from this point software tools can answer essential questions very accurately. If the
designer is able to handle software tools and knows which questions to ask it is possible to find
most answers which are required during the design process.
Many architects do not like ´book keeping´ of cryptic numbers and most architects are not willing
to read unintelligible handbooks. Software-packages on the market are not design tools, and have
been developed for engineering only. The term engineering means that the preconditioned
knowledge is not provided by the program. Most architects cannot use available software because
most user interfaces are not self-explanatory and analysis could produce errors in interpretation.
Many architects like to draw and to find their expression visually. Formfinder is therefore a tool
which is applicable like a pen and a sheet of paper. Formfinder allows consideration to be taken of
form-active structures and track kept of the stage of the design simultaneously. To avoid insecurity
the user-interface is designed as simply as possible. The DIALOGUE window explains the next
possible steps. A ´sheet of paper´, a ´pen´ should produce familiarity to the natural design practice
of architects.
………………………………
73
Beginning this year Formfinder team and technet gmbh are currently realising this concept
An inherent or distinguishing characteristic; Latin qua-lis, of what kind. [Dict92] p. 1479
75
Heinz Isler said that ´the model has an answer to (nearly) everything, if it is asked (accurately)´
76
Model-making with soup films produce a minimal surface which is only the first step of the formfinding process
e.g. most realized structures are not minimal surfaces although they might look similar
77
Some basics of physical model-making are described in the APPENDIX A0
78
The term ´view´ is described in the chapter on CONTENT DRAW
74
20
Formfinder
The outline is discretisised by breakpoints. The outline can be modified into a three-dimensional
structure and the FORMFIND button can create a minimal-surface79 which is then automatically
converted into a mesh which meets requirements like the dimension of the design, the required
curvature, or the direction of main forces. Form-active properties can be visualized in DRAW and
the user-interface enables the handling of the geometry comparable to a physical model.
Formfinder has a special system to adjust the proportions of the object. The refinement of a design
can also be done by analogy with for instance existing typologies80, or built examples. The architect
should be able to find analogies easily and gain passion in designing. The architect is also often the
launcher of the need for developments. Increasing the technological complexity while losing the
main principles would eliminate the stimuli to design form-active support systems. At best the
designer should be able to sketch, model, diversify, and check the consistency of a design against
the information available., being inspired, learning about the structural system choice and the
impact on the building design and most importantly enjoying the process of designing. Formfinder
is based on the idea of focusing on a topic without losing the primary intention of the designer. It
is more important to organise the main concept first and focus later on the expertise for e.g. the
analysis of the iteration matrix or biaxial-testing output.
The mode of operation pictures what the objective of Formfinder is. Default settings create
automatically feasible results. Only if the designer has something concrete it is possible to deliver
information to allow software to react. Formfinder should provide information which is
intrinsically preconditioned only by engineers or experienced designers. If Formfinder is not able to
provide the information required, BOOK should sort out or link to further readings or at least
provide contact addresses. Formfinder is also an attempt to merge knowledge which assists the
preliminary design of form-active systems. Formfinder provides on-call factual information.
´Semantic compression´ introduced to keep track of the massive amount of available information
from e.g. proceedings papers, or online-sources. Semantic means that the content relates to a
special meaning concerning the topic the designer is working on. The collection of available factual
information is merged in BOOK, which reduces information to a manageable size with the option
to zoom into a topic by linked references. Formfinder enables direct information access.
Formfinder guides the user through the stage of preliminary design to open his or her perception
for quality. Once the preliminary design has been made the designer has to be certain that the
information transfer to the engineer is fluent. If a precise and feasible description of the design is
available, architect and engineer raise the level of discussion since many misunderstandings can be
sorted out before contact is made. Formfinder can define a proper interaction-language.
The ability to ask proper questions and the creation of an interaction-language are essential for
improving the quality of form-active structures. Formfinder should also provide information
boards, data exchange and the ability to access the latest developments in certain fields of
research.
The designer specifies the information needed by the sketch. Beside technical aspects the
spiritedness of a design has to be well elaborated and is therefore a main key to quality.
´…each draft took over one month. Day for day I draw tiny little spots, stars and an infinite number
of coloured spots to find to a complete equilibrium at the end…´ Joan Miró81
The Formfinder concept is made in the hope that ´not everything that is possible is made´82
………………………………
79
The definition of a minimal surface is any surface that has a mean curvature of zero. Physically this means that for
a given boundary a minimal surface cannot be changed without increasing the area of the surface
http://www.uta.edu/optics/sudduth/4d/minimal/minimal_surfaces.htm
80
Definition of ´TYPOLOGY´ can be found in the chapter on REALISATION of DRAW
81
Interview with Joan Miró, Martin Mosebach, Frankfurt am Main, Merian 2/47
82
Aichinger Ilse, Lecture at the Alte Schmiede, Schönlaterngasse, Vienna, autumn 2000
21
Formfinder
3 METHOD
Humans remember of what…83
… they read
… they hear
… they see
… they see and hear
… they talk about
… they execute on their own
10 %
20 %
30 %
50 %
70 %
90 %
Since Frei Otto and team84 began scientific research on form-active systems there have been many
attempts to create an easy-to-use design guide for architects providing standardised handling
information for the design of form-active systems. The wide range of research projects which have
been originated covered many scientific fields which are essential to the preliminary design of
form-active systems. Research projects have been originated e.g. by the Institute for Lightweight
Structures, or the Institution of Structural Engineers in London and the University of Bath, United
Kingdom.
As discussed, Formfinder is based on intensive research of available literature85, proceedings of
expert -meetings, universities-, online -sources and communication with engineers, architects and
experts in the field of the form-active support systems etc.
Analysis of the available collection of information led to a first outline of BOOK86. But during the
outline of BOOK it was obvious that a survey of this massive amount of information is not easily
manageable. Although most aspects of the preliminary design are covered by available information
it was not possible to proceed with ´simple semantic compression´. The question was how it could
be possible to provide useful information without losing track. ´Simple semantic compression´ did
not work because one very important fact has to be evident: What does the user want to know? As
´which question is asked´ is understood, useful information could be provided. To find out what
the designer would like to know, the creation of a dialogue is required. Generation of dialogue
assumes an understanding of collaboration and communication mechanisms, as well as social
mechanisms in communication and collaboration. Every dialogue is based on the interaction
language or framework and the obligation of cognition. The interaction language of architects is
drawing, and cognition depends on ´viewing´, which again requires information. Concerns to
create a dialogue depend on aspects like credibility, appearance, behaviour and the mode of
interaction. To create fluent dialogue it is necessary that designer answer a list of questions. To
answer questions, a classification of available information must be done. Classification of
information can be expressed in a database.
Based on these demands a software-tool could bring substantial progress.87 To discretise demands
stated, the concept for the software -tool Formfinder is based on the modules for the performance
of the preliminary design of a form-active support system without being an expert. The first user
interaction starts with DRAW, which is the visible user interface. To create familiarity with the
common design process the screen appears visually like chequered drawing paper and the pointing
device88 operates like a pen. For the fluent dialogue with the architect, as many settings as possible
………………………………
83
´Schülern auf die Sprünge helfen´, W. Kowalczik, K. Ottich, Rowohlt 1995
SFB 64 ´ Wide-spanned Surface Structures´ and SFB 230 ´Natürliche Konstruktionen´ at the Universities of Stuttgart
and Tuebingen
85
More information see the chapter on REALISATION BOOK
86
For clear distinction the module ´BOOK´ is capitalised
87
The outline of the concept for a software-tool was made during the last two years and was elaborated to set a
stabile basis for current realisation and implementation of further developments. The realisation of the concept
was begun this year in cooperation with technet gmbh and the Formfinder team
88
E.g. mouse or pressure sensitive pen
84
22
Formfinder
are pre-adjusted. Verification and evaluation of the input is processed automatically according to
availabe engineering expertise. Following the sketch of the outline, the minimum layout of the
user-interface provides one single button named FORMFIND to perform the creation of a mesh:
The user receives a visually comprehensive result whatever, the input is like and even an empty
drawing will provide information about possible next steps or alternative ways. The usability goals
of the interaction design are: ´Effective to use (effectiveness), efficient to user (efficiency), safe to
use (safety), have good utility (utility), easy to learn (learnability), easy to remember how to use
(memorability).´ [Preece02] p. 14. The design of the user -interface also tries to conform to the ten
usability principles89 developed by Nielsen and colleagues e.g. visibility of system status to keep
users informed by providing appropriate feedback, user control and freedom to allow users to
escape from places they unexpectedly find themselves, or error prevention and recognition instead
of reminding the user. In short, the method can be described as providing preset engineering
know-how automatically. Each question is balanced by algorithms to obtain appropriate
information from the data storage system which is called DATABASE.
The DRAW module is equipped with a window called DIALOGUE to assist procedures and an
ELEMENT window to display discrete parts of the current design. These two windows (DIALOGUE
and ELEMENT) create an interaction dialogue between the current design and the available
information. The designer can handle the geometry with the help of RATIO in the ELEMENT
window. It is possible to create a geometric interrelationship with proportion systems. The RATIO
tree provides essential comparison of discrete elements of the current design. RATIO creates an
interaction which must gain in importance as the achievement of architectural quality is
inseparable from categories of proportion, e.g. adequacy of material, adequacy of detail, or
curvature, which is easy to simulate with software but not easy to arrange by physical modelmaking. Geometric analogies can be compared with entries in the database to find out what has
already been realised. The detail and material collection offers examples for learning from other
designers. Adjusting and therefore perhaps also improving the design can be realised by
comparison. In addition, the model-based recognition algorithm links the user to analogue
typologies, or projects which are stored in the database. The aspect of multiplication and
qualification90 offers a survey of different state-of-the-art developments. The user could be
inspired by and could learn from existing projects: ´Repeatable means improvable´.
In addition, the fluent interaction between architect and engineer requires a design and
communication-language91. With creation of this language Formfinder could have an effective
improvement for future developments in engineering and design techniques regarding the
preliminary design of form-active systems.
Whatever is done with Formfinder, the designer should be able to do it with passion.
………………………………
89
More details see the chapter on REALISATION DRAW usability principles
Multiplication and qualification are described in context of ´TYPOLOGY´ in the chapter on REALISATION DRAW
91
Interaction language also describes the safe data transfer from one software to another eg. AutoCAD
http://www.autodesk.com, or Cinema 4d http://www.maxxon.net by object linking and embedding (OLE) reference.
90
23
Formfinder
4 REALISATION
This chapter will mainly focus on the realisation of the DRAW module as it pictures Formfinder
functionalities from the user side. Main user-interaction will be performed using the module
DRAW, which is also the key to improve the quality of form-active structures.
Software engineering aspects are not covered as ´paper prototyping92´ considers first what the user
expects from the program.
The introduction to this chapter should be guided by three aspects: First the spiral of lifecycle
models of software development, usability goals and main usability principles.
Image [Preece02] p. 189
DRAW should allow the user to operate ´manually´ by providing something like ´haptic´ experience,
which is necessary to open to the designer a comprehensive association of form-active systems.
Realisation of this concept could offer an increasing prospect to improve the quality of formactive systems. Emergence of this application could bring a diversity in different sets of concerns.
………………………………
92
More information on ´paper prototyping´ http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20030414.html
24
Formfinder
The chapter on the realisation of FORMFINDER will focus on the improvement of efficiency and
productivity by following usability goals:
Image Usability and user experience goals93 [Preece02] p. 19
Jakob Nielsen and colleagues (2001) defined 10 main usability principles:
´1 Visibility of system status. 2 Match between system and the real word. 3 User control and
freedom - provide ways of allowing users to easily escape from places they unexpectedly find
themselves. 4 Consistency and standards. 5 Help users recognise, diagnose, and recover from
errors. 6 Error prevention. 7 Recognition rather than recall - make objects, actions, and options
visible. 8 Flexibility and efficiency of use - provide accelerators that are invisible to novice users,
but allow more experienced users to carry out tasks more quickly. 9 Aesthetic and minimalist
design - avoid using information that is irrelevant or rarely needed. 10 Help and documentation provide information that can be easily searched and provides help in a set of concrete steps that
can easily be followed.´ [Preece02] p. 27
………………………………
93
Annotation to ´Fun´. ´Much of the work on enjoyment, fun, etc., has been carried out in the entertainment and
computer games industry, which has a vested interest in understanding the role of pleasure in considerable detail.
Aspects that have been described as contributing to pleasure include: attention, pace, play, interactivity, conscious
and unconscious control, engagement, and style of narrative.´ [Preece02] p. 19
25
Formfinder
4.1 Realisation DRAW
The physical action of drawing opens a normative inquiry about signs. ´A sign is something which
stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, it
creates in the mind of that person an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign. That sign
which it creates I call the interpretant of the first sign. The sign stands for something, its object´
Peirce94
Cognition of a sign needs interpretation. The science of signs is known as ´semiotics´ and deals
with meanings and messages in forms and contexts.
Image: User is represented by a black square and linesrepresent different ways to access other
squares.
Signs or information must be encoded to become knowledge. There are many attempts to define
what would be the exact semantics for the term ´knowledge´. Knowledge is e.g. experience and
could be described as the range of what has been perceived, discovered or learned. Knowledge is
the unit of granule of information encoded into a structure. Two elements have to be considered:
The real word as the dynamic continuous phenomena running parallel, and the individual human
perception. Knowledge is the comprehension of singularities. Formfinder should be an attempt to
aggregate information in one concept.
The main core of the concept is that architects like to draw and find their expression visually.
Architects create signs to communicate and to express their perception. The sign is an element of a
defined system95 which should be absolutly precise and should create an ´error-free´
communication to professionals. To assume liability, architects have to use signs which express
architectural -and professional language with absolute precision. As discussed Formfinder should
be applicable like a pen and a sheet of paper and should therefore use the language of ´drawing´
to express the designer´s perception. The communication language has to be simple and should
avoid misunderstandings. Formfinder therefore uses the most simple elements to express the
geometry of an object. Geometry is ´The mathematics of the properties, measurement and
relationships of points, lines, angles, surfaces, and solids.´96
………………………………
94
Peirce, C. S. The Collected Papers of C. S. Peirce, Vol. 1-6 ed. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss, Vol. 7-8
ed. A. W. Burks, Cambridge Harvard 1931-58 http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/jzeman/peirces_theory_of_signs.htm
95
Opposite of symbol is signal. Signal is stimulus without information
96
[Dict92] p. 758
26
Formfinder
4.1.1 Design considerations
Colour
Colour elements are an added dimension that evoke moods and emphasise important information.
The usage of colour is mainly reduced to two basic statements:
Neutral balanced light grey areas (RGB97 244,223,227) for permanently visible elements e.g. area of
toolbar.
Calming natural light blue areas (RGB 112,154,245) for current position of interaction e.g. link,
frame of DIALOGUE window, frame of tool bar.
White areas (RGB 255,255,255) for the setting an operation e.g. workspace and Black (RGB 0,0,0)
for text-elements. The increase and decrease of contrast should produce a slight feeling of
´movement´ and should therefore lead the eye to e.g. text elements.
Lines
Lines are simple basic elements to indicate connections or affiliation e.g. the natural light blue lines
(RGB 112,154,245) frame windows or toolboxes. The blue indicates that e.g. the window size or
position can be modified.
Arrows
Arrows point at available information. Blue arrows (RGB 204,204,204) indicate possible user
interaction. The DIALOGUE window arrow indicates a possible next step. The arrow of the
ELEMENTS window indicates the name of the current design sheet.
Buttons and Text
One single button is able to operate Formfinder.
The embedded standard true type font is Swiss 721 Light Condensed BT, version mfgpcctt-v1.5298.
Information and text is adjusted to standard settings of the user´s operating system. If desired the
font size can be enlarged or scaled down by customisation of screen, colours, fonts.
Mass
Every element has a certain size, the size equals mass. Additionally, each component of an element
has a relative mass. The balance of mass is important to create a user-friendly environment.
Shapes
Three basic types of shapes are used in Formfinder:
Geometric e.g. rectangular
Abstract e.g. FORMFIND button
Natural e.g. BOOK icon
Texture
Gradient bars (RGB 204,204,204 to RGB 255,255,255) horizontal to widen the workspace area and
to avoid the ´windows standard frame´ feeling.
Grid in workspace area (1 m by 1 m grid with 10 cells) creates the feeling of moving physically over
the screen.
………………………………
97
98
Red Green Blue values represent the colour palette of the screen
Copyright 1990-1993 Bitstream Inc. http://www.bitstream.com
27
Formfinder
4.1.2 Program considerations online version or online-supported version
ONLINE version99
The online version is executed in a web-browser e.g. Internet Explorer, Netscape, Mozilla.
The deciding disadvantage of this solution is that this technology is currently not available in full
efficiency. But it is only a question of ´delivery´ (some Java applications for instance are slow and
are sometimes not executable in some web-browsers). Advantage is platform independence.
………………………………
99
Both sketches are developed for the first layout of Formfinder with the assistance of Philipp Jurewicz.
28
Formfinder
ONLINE-supported version
The concept of Formfinder is based on the idea of information sharing and should therefore be
realised as a full online-version. This concept is currently being implemented and the DRAW
module cannot be realised without losing lots of performance. Performance means the instant
visualisation of the user-action. The decision to an online-supported version was made to benefit
from both. Performance of the directly executable program utilise user´s hardware resources and
an online-support provides the latest information. Independence from connexion quality is also an
advantage.
29
Formfinder
4.1.3 Realisation Starting Point
To reconcile with the latest progress, Formfinder should create solutions from synergetic effects.
While acknowledging the efforts made by CADISI and ISIMEM, which were never put on the
market, Formfinder should arise through cross-fertilization of ideas from different applications.
Cross-fertilization demands observation, straightforward copying by bringing together
developments. In 1996 the research project ISIMEM, CADISI was developed by IF100 and technet
gmbh supported by the European Community101. Integrated design simulation method for
membrane structures (ISIMEM). The learning program and structural aspects have been made by IF
and computational aspects have been made by technet gmbh (CADISI). Goal of the project was to
make designer familiar with structural principles and offer a presentation tool.
CADISI and ISIMEM were developed as the first step towards easy-to-use formfinding software.
Unfortunately CADISI without DXF102 interface was a demo and CADISI with DXF interface is no
longer state of the art. ISIMEM Learn and CADISI are two disjoined systems.
CADISI
Image Screenshot of CADISI
………………………………
100
Ingenieurgemeinschaft Flächentragwerke (IF), architect DI Horst Duerr, DI (FH) Josef Leibinger, DI Reiner Essrich,
http://www.if-group.de
101
CRAFT program http://www.cordis.lu/ist, http://europa.eu.int
102
DXF (Drawing Interchange Format) http://www.autodesk.com/techpubs/autocad/acadr14/dxf
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Formfinder
ISIMEM Learn
ISIMEM Learn consists of 6 chapters: ´1 what is a Membrane 2 ´The SCENE´ 3 architect + engineer
4 working concept 5 details decisions 6 closing chapter´103. Unfortunatelly the development of
this concept was not elaborated completely respectively updated. The user-interface of the
program is not up-to-date any more.
Images Screenshots of 3 animations ISI Learn animations stored on the CD-ROM [ISI96]
Image The designer can manually select from 3 ´plan views´ and different support systems.
Screenshot of ´Template´ [ISI96]
………………………………
103
[ISI96]
31
Formfinder
EASY104 MODULES
EasyForm Force-equilibrant formfinding
Force-equilibrant form-finding according to specified force-density network, force-equilibrant
form-finding according to specified surface stress field, mixed element form-finding according to
both force density and elastic control, sophisticated geometrical nodal restraint capabilities, textile
structures, cable net structures, funicular compression structures (domes, grid shells), hybrid
structures, tensegrity structures. Exports surface geometry as DXF file format.
EasySan Geometrically non-linear statical load analysis
Convergence due to scaling techniques and design-specific stress and force visualisation.
EasyCut Cutting pattern generation
Extend EasyForm through the provision of two cutting pattern generation systems.
EasyBeam Geometrically non-linear frame analysis
Extends EasySan through the provision of geometrically non-linear structural analysis frame
elements.
EasyVol Formfinding and analysis subject to volume constraints
Low volume air-beam structures, multi-cellular smart systems, and closed cell liquid chambers.
EASY SYSTEM105 consists of over 100 programs
Each program is represented in a Borland C++106 library entiteled ´structural modelling (SM)´
library. The following listing should give an idea about these programs: AREA Calculate surface
and projected areas of a structure defined by an EIN file and a DREI file, BERZUG Respecify the
link stiffnesses in an EIN file according to explicit value. Calculates the total unstressed lengths of
specific cables, CUT Cut a surface described by an EIN file into sections according to a series of
surface lines, DXFEASY Convert AutoDesk DXF format file to Easy format, EASYDXF Convert
Easy format files to AutoDesk DXF format file, ENTLAG Remove T-elements from a model by
dividing into three links, FLATDRE Flattens single strips. See also FLATTEN, FOFIN Form
finding and statical analysis of membrane and network structures. FRAND Determination of
surface boundary polygons for cutting pattern generation, FRONT Interactive tool for the
generation and editing of INPUT files for Rangen and Netgen, GEDDREI Graphical editor for the
DREI and ECKEN files, GEDEIN Graphical editor for EIN files, or LAGGEN Conversion of a net
structure's boundary region such that the inner link forces are divided between boundary nodes via
`T´element supports. This facilitates the generation of smooth boundaries.
………………………………
104
http://www.technet-gmbh.com
[technet03] p. 50 - 150
106
http://www.borland.com
105
32
Formfinder
Formfinder compared to EASY system 107
The horizontal axis describes the time line, the other the degree of difficulty in engineering of the
desired architectural design. The small ´empty´ space between boxes and time line represents the
time the designer needs to find out that a tool is helpful to preliminary design form-active
systems. The ´empty´ space between boxes and task complexity means that only information about
the desired design will automatically lead to concrete support.
EASY modules support more or less all stages from preliminary design to implementation planning
and realisation. The term CONSULT on the time axis indicates that from this point on, the designer
must contact engineers or experts for technical support. The functionality range of Formfinder
covers only the preliminary architectural design.
………………………………
107
EASY software by technet gmbh http://www.technet-gmbh.com
33
Formfinder
4.1.4 Available Modules and Formfinder screenshots
DRAW consists of several windows. The following screenshots are intended to give an impression
of the layout of the user interface. Shell homebase is the ´technical´ expression for DRAW.
The first interaction is the possible set of a project name. Clicking on ´open folder´ can locate the
file at any desired place e.g. database, harddisk. Clicking on any other area will close the start with
dialogue box to begin the design.
34
Formfinder
CUSTOMISE
To customise e.g. colours, grid, working units see chapter Edit: Customise.
CUSTOMISE COLOURS
On customising colours the ´standard colour picker
window´ appears. Colour picker is a clickable
imagemap. Different colour tables are available e.g.
AutoCAD colour wheel, ANPA108, DIC109, FOCOLTONE110,
HKS111, HSV, NCS112, PANTONE, Photoshop palette,
TOYO, TRUMATCH and Windows standard palette.
Colour picker indicates exact values of HSB (Hue, Saturation, Brightness), LaB (Photoshop palette
converter), CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key), RGB (Red, Green, Blue) and name of colour
referring to selected colour table. Colour settings are automatically saved on restart of program.
………………………………
108
ANPA-Colour American Newspaper Association http://www.naa.org
DAINIPPON Ink and Chemicals Incorporated http://www.dic.co.jp/eng/index.html
110
Abbreviation ´four colour tone´ http://kikuze.com/wlkikuze/jsp/products/cdrom/focoltone/main.jsp
111
HKS is mostly used for print projects in Europe
112
Natural Colour System http://www.ncscolorusa.com producer like Ferrari use NCS beside their own colour palette
109
35
Formfinder
CUSTOMISE SCREEN
To customise the appearance of the screen user can select different backgrounds or grid systems.
GRID
CUSTOMISATION GRID examples of different grids
Criss-cross pattern
Criss-cross pattern with dots
Vertical and horizontal lines
Image113 example used instead of a grid:
Le Corbusier, 3 quadrats, 4 circles ...,
December 4th 1948, [LeCorb53] p. 236
………………………………
113
Image formats such as BMP, jpg, gif
36
Formfinder
In every status the DIALOGUE window on the right side of the screen can be opened by clicking on
the blue arrow or the vertical strip with the word DIALOGUE.
First line in DIALOGUE window shows in brief what is to
be done. The following lines give a hint on how to
execute.
If outline is closed, DIALOGUE states that DESIGN 1 can
be rotated by clicking the right mousebutton and
moving the mouse or by pressing the cursor keys.
The reason for the short description is that designers
have to experience on their own how e.g. cursor keys
perform an action. It does not make sense to describe
all shortkeys or the function of each cursor key as the
designer might use the mouse and does not want to
know how the cursor key operates. As soon as the
designer uses e.g. the up and down cursor key, the
dialogue states that e.g. the left key rotates the design
anticlockwise. A description that the right cursor key
rotates clockwise is not necessary.
First image to the left displays the rubber band which
connects the breakpoint with the position of the
pointing device. The second image to the left shows a
screenshot if the mouse is in the area of the right point
and the Ctrl key is pressed. Ctrl and left mousebutton
raise a breakpoint perpendicular to origin position.
37
Formfinder
TRANSPARENCY
Dialogue window is slightly transparent and has two
main areas: The dialogue area to display information
for the designer. The tree area to open the trees at the
bottom of the window. The trees can be opened by
clicking on the plus of each heading bar.
DIALOGUE window can be resized, placed in a different
position or closed to widen the view of the drawing
paper. The window remembers previous states. The
hierarchical structure of the DIALOGUE window shows
another four trees: TYPOLOGY, BUILT EXAMPLE, DETAIL
and MATERIAL. The minus or plus in square indicates
the open or closed status.
38
Formfinder
TOOL BAR
For more advanced operation, more tool bar icons can be visualised:
New Sketch
Begin a new sketch e.g. EIN-files, DXF, DWG, BMP, JPG, GIF
Point
Add fixed point e.g. mast on surface or border
Linear element
Add ´linear´ element e.g. cable, arch on surface or border
Move 2d
Moves elements by graphical or numerical input
Raise 3d
Raise elements perpendicular to origin position
NET
Customise of surface properties e.g. radial net, length, force, distance factor of warp and weft,
estimated stress, warp angle to global
FORMFIND
Creates a form-active support structure based on the geometry
Operational tools
Select, zoom, rotate drawing and move drawing
BOOK
Opens the ´basics´ for the actual stage of the design
DATABASE
Allows a direct request of the database
TOOLS
E.g. report of the state of the design, cutting-pattern for physical model-making, conversion of
units
39
Formfinder
ELEMENT WINDOW on the left side indicates discrete elements of the design
SCALE
The grid indicates 1 x 1 metre. Formfinder distinguishes whether the geometry has a certain scale
5 m x 5 m or 50 m x 50 m and will produce different results concerning e.g. database statements.
The required scale factor can be adjusted by clicking on Edit Customise SCALE.114
The hierarchical structure of the ELEMENT window displays three trees: NUMERIC INPUT, NET and
RATIO.
………………………………
114
The ELEMENT window indicates the scale factor
40
Formfinder
FORMFIND
If the input of an outline is available FORMFIND can be started.
If the structure is flat the DIALOGUE prompts the user to open BOOK which describes the problems
of flat structures and pre-stress techniques.
To create a regular mesh with an adequate boundary
one single button labelled FORMFIND115 has to be
clicked. The two images to the left indicate the status
before and after pressing FORMFIND. Mesh and
boundary are initially displayed.
Activating e.g. point, border, net in ELEMENT window or
direct in the drawing area allows the adjustment of
elements. Programmed object recognition locates the
main force direction e.g. by measurement of distances
and adjusts automated warp and weft orientation. Left
image shows the standard adjustment of a mesh e.g.
orthogonal without object recognition.
………………………………
115
The FORMFIND icon shows the M&G RICERCHE, Research Laboratory, Venafro, Italy. The right to use the image was
granted by the architects Samyn & Partner
41
Formfinder
NUMERIC INPUT
For NUMERIC INPUT the tree can be opened by clicking on the ´plus´. NUMERIC INPUT allows exact
refinement of a geometry, e.g. click on ´minus´ closes the tree.
BORDER characterises boundary attributes: FORMFIND not only formfinds the surface, it also
formfinds boundaries. For this reason, the designer can adjust boundary settings. Name of
boundary e.g. 1 to 2 is the boundary from point number 1 to point number 2.
POINTS the intermediate number of point on border 1 to 2 could be e.g. 8 free points. The number
of intermediate points discretise the accuracy or precision or exactness of boundary. Default
ELEMENT window settings do not display intermediate points to keep the user interface ´clear´.
SAG term ´sag´ describes ´movement of a structure or structural part as a result of stress´.
Numeric input of ´sag´ can be in percentage or explicit value. ´Sag´ in percentage is calculated
from the straight line of e.g. point 1 to 2. The explicit value is calculated from the maximum
distance of the boundary curve to the perpendicular of the straight line of e.g. point 1 to 2.
FORCE can be set by explicit value of boundary or automatically calculated from stress as a result
of the radius of boundary. A straight boundary would create an infinite amount of stress for
instance.
42
Formfinder
MESH
The tree NET allows the user to set properties of the ´mesh´ that was created by FORMFIND.
Independently of border or stress conditions the mesh
can be generated in different ways e.g. a triangle, or
quadrilateral can be selected to represent the
approximation of the surface. Description and survey
on meshing technologies can be found at
http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/sowen/softsurv.html
Independently of the selected meshing technology, the
surface has to be in force equilibrium. The option
´deform surface´ allows the geometry to be adjusted by
breakpoints which are located on the surface to adjust
curvature. If one breakpoint is added, the stabilisation
of the form has to be iterated again e.g. the point could
be represented by a highpoint.
Images [Hoschek92] p. 255, 304, 305
RATIO
By opening RATIO the user can set proportions and curvature of the design. Proportion is the
relationship of parts of the geometry in relation to e.g. the whole size of the geometry. Proportion
also describes e.g. stress factor, surface curvature.
Default status of e.g. net properties, forces in the context of the size and geometry of the structure
are automatically set at the beginning of operations. The first interaction determines net
properties, material, detail.
Every update is instantly visualised and each step is followed by a suggestion displayed in the
DIALOGUE window.
ELEMENT window displays DESIGN 1. The ´minus´ shows that the tree is opened. If DESIGN 1 is
closed the last screenshot is saved and the name will appear.
43
Formfinder
RATIO
RATIO allows the adjustment of objects to a certain proportion e.g. outline is set to square and the
maximum total height is set to double the size of the square.
One primary usage of RATIO is the adjustment of ´curvature´. Changing curvature can produce a
variety of designs. If the desired ´shape´ is found, the ´characteristic´ of the design is also found.
Adjustment of ´sag´ is presented by the blue chart. In default status each boundary has
approximately the same amount of sag.
An important development is the PROPERTIES adjustment of geometry No. 1 listed in the
ELEMENTS window: Typology, Built examples, Details and Materials. For this reason PROPERTIES
shows the four terms already seen in the DIALOGUE window (to express the link to the right
window, the terms are not capitalised).
The main aim of having the same terms twice is to allow the set of own design properties and to
compare ´existing´ properties. The database delivers e.g. project examples similar to one´s own
design.
As soon as the designer has selected e.g. material, or details, RATIO must provide more
functionalities such as the physical size of the details compared to the overall area. At this stage
the first diagram ´set new value´ holds space for these new parameters.
44
Formfinder
COMPARING PROPERTIES of current design with database
Geometries in DRAW are directly linked with the ELEMENT and DIALOGUE window. Checking e.g.
Typology leads to a dramatic new experience. Typology tree in DIALOGUE window opens
automatically and creates a direct link between the ELEMENT - DRAW - DIALOGUE windows. Object
recognition locates similar typologies from the database for comparison with the existing object.
If no related support systems are found, the operation leads to BOOK, e.g. further support.
TYPOLOGY describes the form-active support system as an object which was developed on four
basic principles:
The first two assume geometric aspects (area and shape) the second two assume a specific support
system (the support of the surface and the support of the border).
TYPOLOGY MULTIPLICATION and QUALIFYING as a part of the design progress
´AREA and SHAPE´ produce a high number of results and ´SURFACE support and BORDER support´
tend to reduce the number of results. The reason is that there are many support-systems with e.g.
´area´ square base, ´shaped´ by one single highpoint. But there are only few with e.g. arch as the
support system of surface and one mast each at border as support system.
AREA and SHAPE produce many results. This process is named MULTIPLICATION.
Support of SURFACE and support of BORDER qualify the number of results (found by AREA and
SHAPE). This process is named QUALIFYING.
45
Formfinder
TYPOLOGIES
There are FOUR BASIC TYPOLOGIES of a form-active support structure: Anticlastic, highpoint,
synclastic and arch. The following images represent possible appearances:
In other words: Point fixing (highpoint), linear fixing (arch) and flexural rigidity (anticlastic) with
the necessity of being pre-stressed in an anticlastic way, except for the air-supported structure
which is synclastic pre-stressed, e.g. sphere.
By opening the four TYPOLOGIES icons the following typologies are symbolised by icons
AREA
SHAPE
Support of SURFACE
Support of BORDER
e.g. one single line (leads to BOOK), triangle, square, U-type,
L-type, hexagon, octagon, circle, irregular type and ´autoselect´116
e.g. flat (leads to BOOK), highpoint with large opening
arch, hyper-paraboloid, wave form, frame and nets
air-supported structure117 (pillow, sphere), and ´autoselect´
e.g. flat (leads to BOOK), mast, flying mast,
masts with branched crowns, cable loops
air-support and ´autoselect´
e.g. arch, mast, beam and ´autoselect´
………………………………
116
The term ´autoselect´ is definded in REALISATION DRAW, OBJECT RECOGNITION
117
[Dent71] ´…´pneumatics´, ´blow-ups´, ´inflatables´, ´airdomes´, ´airhouses´ nonchalantly describe in one case the
whole field of this technology and in another just one particular aspect. To define it accurately, however, it should
be known collectively as pressurised construction, a term which implies the control and stabilisation of all kinds of
structures by means of pressure differentials achieved by the uniform loading actions of air, gases, liquids, or even
granular solids´
46
Formfinder
The following objects represent some possible ´typologies´ of form-active systems and are
modelled in 3d and stored in the database table typologies_existing under the name
AREA_square_shapetype_hoeller and AREA_circle_shapetype_hoeller. The name of the entry
consists of geometric aspects of the object based on AREA and SHAPE, all objects listed are ´close´
to minimum-surface listed in the SUPPORT OF AREA.
Image Examples of different typologies [Höller99] p. 56, 57
OBJECT RECOGNITION MULTIPLICATION of the current design (AREA, SHAPE)
The typologies AREA and SHAPE are pre-selected. On opening the typology panel the wide range of
possible objects displayed have to be selected to fit to the current design. The objects made by
Ralph Höller represent square and circle for the projected area. AREA as a common denominator
works with most objects, the second denominator is the shape, which can also be managed with
the following recognition algorithm: The model-based recognition algorithm is a breakthrough for
a shape matching system. One possible algorithm which could be used was originally elaborated by
Arkin, E. M., Chew, L. P., Huttenlocher, D. P., Kedem, K. Mitchel, J. S. B. and presented in the IEEE
Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 13, 1991.118
The input information is stored in the database table Project_current and automatically compared
by INTERACTION against e.g. the typologies: projected area, estimated shape, support of surface
and support of border. If similarities are found a database output is produced. The output
information is e.g. images of project, descriptions.
MANUAL SELECTION QUALIFICATION of the current design (Support of AREA, Support of Border)
Typologies Support of AREA and Support of BORDER are not pre-selected, so as to allow
inexperienced users the full range of possible ´forms´. On opening one of the two ´QUALIFICATION´
buttons the list of possible support systems for area or shape is displayed. A blue square indicates
the most similar geometry. If the geometry is not similar to one object the recognition algorithm
indicates more than one possible similar structure.
………………………………
118
Further details Chapter REALISATION INTERACTION
47
Formfinder
MANUAL SELECTION
Selecting an object visualises further details to learn about the selected typology.
If the selected typology is opened in DRAW, a new geometry named Highpoint twelve will appear
in the ELEMENTS window. From this moment on the two open elements (geometry number one
and highpoint twelve) are displayed in the ELEMENTS window and are both fully operational. Net
properties can be compared, the ratio can be compared etc.
Each model can be switched off by clicking on the ´minus´ before the element list. If switched off
the object is displayed as a thumbnail image. Cross-fading two models allows an advanced study.
All selected structures can be analysed and compared with the design previously made.
48
Formfinder
For a full inspection of the object, it can be opened in DRAW and again updated by the available
typologies:
Once the desired geometry has been found, the designer compares the current object by clicking
on ´Built examples´ in the ELEMENTS window. On activating a different tree in the DIALOGUE
window the TYPOLOGIES tree is automatically closed.
From the technical point of view it is possible to keep both dialogues open (TYPOLOGIES and BUILT
EXAMPLES) but an inexperienced user might not realise that the changes made only effect the
active window (BUILT EXAMPLES). There are no ´physical´ limitations to keeping windows open or
placing them in a different position e.g. onto another screen.
Gradient grey area behind tree names e.g. TYPOLOGY indicate that the size of the DIALOGUE
window is too small for the display of its content. The user can move vertical scroll bar or resize
the DIALOGUE window at the frame border.
DESIGN 1 is automatically closed to expand the view of the newly opened design HIGHPOINT 18. If
DESIGN 1 is opened by clicking on the ´plus´, or double-clicking on the thumbnail image of the last
screenshot of DESIGN 1 can open both designs at the same time. The screen shows two grids each
with one design. The designer can easily compare several designs visually by overlaying and
adjusting.
49
Formfinder
BUILT EXAMPLE
The displayed images represent built examples for the typology of Highpoint 18.´Information trees´
are provided by different databases. First ´information tree´ should represent the internal database.
Note: DIALOGUE window, BUILT EXAMPLE first three images are copyright by Ingenieurbüro
Teschner, Kosel, first image Bugenhagenschulte, Bugenhagen Germany 1997, second and thirth
image Rostock, Rostock-Warnemünde, Germany 2001, second ´information tree´
DIALOGUE window, BUILT EXAMPLE TensiNet Database119
DIALOGUE window, BUILT EXAMPLE SDA Database are copyright by Lightweight Structures
Research Unit (LSRU)120/The University of New South Wales (UNSW) Sydney Australia and Vinzenz
Sedlak121 Faculty of the Built Environment (FBE), The University of New South Wales (UNSW)122
The designer can compare the current design with built examples. The panel displays the results of
two databases. The first row displays entries of the ´internal´ database and the second row
indicated as ´SDA Database´ is received via an online request. There should be several databases
involved to achieve as much ´MULTIPLICATION´ as possible.123
It is very important to stress out that information from ´External Databases´ must be
distinguishable. Provider should profit by circulation of information.
………………………………
119
http://www.tensinet.com
http://www.fbe.unsw.edu.au/units/LSRU
121
Email [email protected]
122
http://emulava.fbe.unsw.edu.au:8080/index.html
123
Possible Databases are listed in the chapter on REALISATION DATABASE: External Databases
120
50
Formfinder
SELECT BUILT EXAMPLE
Selecting a built example display further information.
51
Formfinder
DETAIL
DIALOGUE window, DETAIL drawings are copyright by U.P.C.124
The organisation of the chart allows a certain position of a detail to be defined:
AREA to AREA
AREA to BORDER
AREA to CORNER
AREA to FOUNDATION
to describe the connection of two membrane elements
the fixing of the membrane at the border
e.g. corner fixation
e.g. linear fixation of membrane
BORDER to AREA
is equal to AREA to BORDER and allows one more detail to be shown to
create an overview.
………………………………
124
http://www.upc.es/ca1/cat/recerca/tensilestruc/portada.html
52
Formfinder
SELECTION OF DETAIL GROUP
The selection BORDER to AREA fades all different possible selections and allows the desired detail
to be ´dragged´ onto the current design. Position of the detail is defined by:
Point e.g. CORNER, FOUNDATION
Border e.g. BORDER
or Net e.g. AREA
If the selection BORDER to AREA is not dragged to a compatible position125, the status-bar
indicates where to drag the detail. If the user still does not drag the detail to a suitable position the
BOOK support is opened to explain the usage of details or e.g. that detail ´name x´ does not work
with the current forces.
………………………………
125
The file format used indicates proper positions of details. See REALISATION INTERACTION: FILE FORMAT ISI
53
Formfinder
MATERIAL
Some principals of detailing in connection with the decision on materials
Structural requirements
Strength and stability
Flexibility of displacements
Redundancy – Avoiding chain collapse
Geometry
Following direct load paths
Space needed
Effect of the scale
Coordination
Erection and dismantling process
Hinges
Auxiliary clamps for installation
Adjustable devices
Accessibility
Maintenance
Climate and environment
Corrosion
Watertightness
Visual expression (see screenshot)
54
Formfinder
MENU BAR
Menu bar titles are File, Edit, View, Tools and Help. The following two menu bars are exemplarily
the ´3d´ effect on opening.
Image Screenshot menu bar
55
Formfinder
MENU COMMAND
ICON
MENU COMMAND
SHORTKEY
MOUSE OVER INFORMATION
File (underlined letters indicate shortkey used in combination with ALT key)
New sketch
N
Each paper is one design
Open
O
Close sketch
Save
S
Save as…
Ctrl+S
Save to data base
Ctrl+D
Import
I
e.g. DXF, BMP
Export
E
Print
P
Send to
note: arrow indicates sub menu
Sub menu
E-Mail-recipient
e.g. Eudora, Outlook
Exchange-folder
if available
Fax-recipient
if available
CAD-system
e.g. DXF linked Program
PDF-system
e.g. Acrobat Writer
Image Processing-system
e.g. BMP, JPG linked system
Status of Formfinder
Ctrl+Alt+S
e.g. owner of design
Exit Program
Edit
Undo
Ctrl+Z
Redo
Ctrl+Y
Copy
Ctrl+C
Cut
Ctrl+X
Paste
Ctrl+V
Move Element
M
Lift Element
L
or Ctrl+Left mousebutton
Select All
Ctrl+A
Select None
Ctrl+Q
Select Invert
Ctrl+Alt+A
Select By
note: arrow indicates sub menu
Sub menu
Colour
Name
e.g. fitting
Point
e.g. fixed points
Border
e.g. free borders
Net
e.g. radial net
Selection tangent on/off
Repeat last selection
L
Check support system
C
Customise
Sub menu
Screen, Colour, Font Setting
e.g. reduce icons in tool bar
Audio setting
e.g. additional audio
expressions
Working Unit
e.g. meter, modulor
Search Element
Ctrl+F
56
Formfinder
View
View all
Zoom in
Zoom out
View
Sub menu
Top view
Front view
Back view
Left view
Right view
Bottom view
Axonometric view
Military view
Isometric view
Permanent rotate view
Pan
Scale factor
Sub menu
Scale 1 : 1000
Scale 1 : 100
Scale 1 : 50
Scale 1 : 20
Scale 1 : 10
Scale 1 : 1
Ctrl+alt+Z
+
Ctrl+arrow up
Ctrl+arrow down
Z
Ctrl+Z
Ctrl+ 1
Ctrl+ 2
Ctrl+ 3
Ctrl+ 4
Ctrl+ 5
Ctrl+ 6
Ctrl+ 7
Ctrl+ 8
Ctrl+ 9
Ctrl+ 0 (zero)
space
Tool
Book
Database
Data base online update
Program version update
Report
Units converter
Physical model-making
B
D
Ctrl+D
Ctrl+V
R
U
M
Help direct
Formfinder help
Frequently Asked Questions
Search direct
Keyboard shortcuts
Formfinder on the web
About Formfinder
H
F1
B key also closes BOOK
D key also closes Data base
Drawing for blank
Help
F
Ctrl+K
Ctrl+W
Equal ´Search Element´ at ´Edit´
57
Formfinder
TOOLS126
DRAW is equipped with several TOOLS e.g. report of the state of design, drawing for blank, unit
converter.
TOOL PHYSICAL MODEL-MAKING
TOOL Drawing for blank
Drawing for blank opens a screen with the current
object in top view. A strip of dashed red lines is
projected on the object. By moving the mouse the user
can adjust the angle of the grid. Double-clicking allows
a width to be set for the model-making paper strip. The
accuracy of the pattern is adjusted to a model size up
to approx. x meter127 per net.
Image screenshot of cutting patterning generation
process
TOOL Unit converter
Available modules concerning units-converter checked 26.4.2003
The following links do not meet the full requirements for Formfinder
Conversion of units is executed by typing numbers or pressing the GO button.
Some other existing online -converters:
http://usa.autodesk.com/adsk/servlet/index?siteID=123112&id=2758888&linkID=2377681
http://www.fmmg.it/eng/ct
http://www.convert-me.com/en
http://www.chemie.fu-berlin.de/chemistry/general/units_en.html
Dictionary of units:
http://www.ex.ac.uk/cimt/dictunit/dictunit.htm
………………………………
126
127
The two chapters BOOK and DATABASE can also be found under menu heading TOOLS
The decision on the accuracy of cutting patterning will be made during realisation process
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Formfinder
TOOL REPORT 128
Report allows to be contacted with another person as engineer, consultant.
TOOL Object enables for export and datashare.
//Existing file hypar.isi, CREATE REPORT OF CURRENT STATUS
ISI 2.00 CADISI 523 {
Pattern {
4.600 0.600 21.400 17.400 1.000
0.000
}
BoundaryGlobalGeometry 4 32 {
99000001
4.6000
1.6000
0.0000 000
99000002
6.1725 14.8118
3.2989 000
99000003 20.6000 15.6000
0.0000 000
99000004 20.6343
0.0472
7.0323 000
}
BoundaryCurves 4 4320 {
90010000 99000001 99000002 8 0.000 1.371 0.000 17.135
90020000 99000002 99000003 8 0.000 1.482 0.000 18.526
90030000 99000003 99000004 8 0.000 1.707 0.000 21.336
90040000 99000004 99000001 8 0.000 1.758 0.000 21.972
}
NetParts 1 {
PART 1
259 {
Polygon 4 {
99000002
99000003
99000004
99000001
}
LocalGeometry 1 {
}
NetSpecification {
1
1.000 1.000
0.000 90.000
1.000 1.000
1.000
0.500 0.500
3100 4100 8100
}
}
}
}
1
1
1
1
5000.0
5000.0
5000.0
5000.0
111
111
111
111
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
Example for a report of the file: Hypar, proportion square, net regular, mesh width 50 cm, force in
area …
………………………………
128
Report can be opened in File, Tools and in the extended tool bar, shortcut command is R.
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Formfinder
4. 2 Realisation DATABASE
DRAW creates signs to select desired knowledge. DATABASE is the storage system which provides
the desired knowledge.
Every object can be compared with database entries. The SQL129 database uses HTML/XML130 as the
communication language and can be updated via the internet.
4.2.1 SQL IN SHORT
Abbreviation for structured query language, and pronounced either see-kwell or as separate letters.
SQL is a standardised query language for requesting information from a database. The original
version called SEQUEL (structured English query language) was designed by an IBM research centre
in 1974 and 1975. SQL was first introduced as a commercial database system in 1979 by Oracle
Corporation.
Historically, SQL has been the favourite query language for database management systems running
on minicomputers and mainframes. Increasingly, however, SQL is being supported by PC database
systems because it supports distributed databases (databases that are spread out over several
computer systems). This enables several users on a local-area network to access the same database
simultaneously.
Although there are different dialects of SQL, it is nevertheless the closest thing to a standard query
language that currently exists. In 1986, ANSI approved a rudimentary version of SQL as the official
standard, but most versions of SQL since then have included many extensions to the ANSI
standard. In 1991, ANSI updated the standard. The new standard is known as SAG SQL.
SQL allows to access a database, is an ANSI standard language and can execute queries against a
database, retrieve, insert, delete or update records in a database. Formfinder uses SQL as the Data
Definition Language (DDL) and Data Manipulation Language (DML)
As described, Database is divided into two update-techniques.
4.2.2 PROGRAM-RELEASE INFORMATION which is stored on the local computer system:
Acronym, Building code, Building construction process, BOOK, Error, Help-text, Notation and
Typology.
4.2.3 PUBLIC-MODIFIABLE INFORMATION which is online-supported: Address, Detail,
Detail_image, Literature, Material, Material_image, Project, Project_image, Software and Term.
The advantage of the two update-techniques is that public-modifiable information can be updated
at any time. The program-release information is updated with the next program-release e.g. one
specific building code changes and as a result the links stored in program-code also have to be
updated. Two update techniques guarantee that older versions work properly by updating publicmodifiable information.
………………………………
129
130
http://www.sql.org
http://www.xml.com
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Formfinder
Example database output
Image Screenshot of DATABASE
4.2.4 EXTERNAL DATABASES possible ´External´ Databases131 accessible by Formfinder
AE 439 http://www.engr.psu.edu/www/dept/arc/server/courses/ae439/ae439.htm
ALOSS http://www.anc-d.fukui-u.ac.jp/~ishikawa/Aloss/page/form.htm
Textile Architecture Details http://www.upc.es/ca1/cat/recerca/tensilestruc/portada.html
ESTRAN http://www.grupoestran.com
Fiz Technik http://www.fiz-technik.de/en/index.htm
Great Buildings http://www.greatbuildings.com/types/construction/
Institut Hochbau 2 http://www.hb2.tuwien.ac.at/dbase/ddb
Int. Architectural Database http://www.archinform.net/?ID=1ab2690a848ac9c3f7e48e1b6fc08d1b
lightstructures.de http://www.lightstructures.de
MIT Libraries http://river.mit.edu/mitlibweb/FMPro?-db=RS_Items.fp5&-Lay=web&format=ro_search.htm&-findany
Structurae http://river.mit.edu/mitlibweb/FMPro?-db=RS_Items.fp5&-Lay=web&format=ro_search.htm&-findany
TensiNet http://www.tensinet.com
Technical Textiles http://www.technicaltextiles.de
The Virtual Library: Architecture http://www.clr.toronto.edu:1080/VIRTUALLIB/arch.html
………………………………
131
This listing can also be found http://www.tensinet.com
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External Database examples
The following two pages exemplarily focus on the potential of listed databases:
Aloss132 Album of Space Structures, since April 2001, contact person Mr. Yoshito Isono133, Ishikawa
Lab Fukui University, Fukui Japan
Language
Japanese, partly English
Content (HTML)134
Cable
6
Space frame
82
Shell
219
Folded plate
19
Beam
7
Bridge
140
Hanging roof
73
Net
4
Membrane
140
Steel
33
Structural Engineers
5
Timber
62
Images
over 1000
Terms
Japanese only
Projects (vector-active) approx. 360
Projects (form-active)
approx. 140
Structure
arch, vault, dome, shell, folded plate, flat plate, truss, beam, bridge, tension, space frame, hanging
roof, membrane, structure, steel, timber, cable net, grid, shell, tensegrity, hanging, deck, place,
structural engineer, removed data
Example search
Name of building, structural system, country, construction year, internal number, address,
architect, structural engineer, use, still built or not, admission, requirement for admission, traffic
access, reference, note
Direct search
Direct data base request
Google Keyword Search,
Relevant to Formfinder (Key access possible)
Key access: year of completion, shape, material, place, structural engineer,
Not accessible: area, support of area, support of border, definitions
………………………………
132
http://www.anc-d.fukui-u.ac.jp/~ishikawa/Aloss/page/form.htm
[email protected]
134
May 18th 2003
133
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Formfinder
Structurae 135 International Database and Gallery of Structures, since 1998, contact person Nicolas
Janberg136, Princeton University137 New Jersey, USA
Language
English, German, French
Content138 (relational data base)
Books and articles
7324
External Links
12579
Firms and Offices
3408
Images
8213
Journals
161
Large-Scale Projects
308
Persons
2657
Structures
9292
Structure
Author
Name
Structural Type
Function
Construction Method
Geographical Location
Year of Completion
Alphabetical index of structures by generally accepted name
Alphabetical index, building name
Bridges, buildings, dams and retaining structures,
off-shore and marine structures, towers, tunnels
Intended use
How the structure was constructed
Continent, country, city
Example structure type: BUILDING
Arch, arch-supported roof structure, barrel shell/vault, beam structure, cable-supported structure,
central core with perimeter columns, column and beam structure, cylindrical shell, dome, double
thin shell, flat slab (mushroom floor), frame structure, geodesic dome, gothic vault, hipped-gable
roof, horizontal cantilever structure, inflatable structure, load bearing masonry wall structure,
membrane structure, monolith, pyramid, quadripartite vaulting, shell structure, space truss,
stressed ribbon roof structure, tensile structure, thin-shell structure, truss roof, tubular system,
underground vault, wall
Example search
Bridges (6747), Buildings (1370), Dams and Retaining Structures (605), Towers (175), Tunnels (348)
Direct search
Direct data base request 115 (membrane structure)
Google Keyword Search, traced approximately 570 (membrane 488, film 12, textile 70)
Relevant to Formfinder (Key access possible)
Key access: Architect, engineer, building name, geographical location, year of completion, shape,
material
Not accessible: Typology, area, support of area, support of border, construction details, definitions
………………………………
135
http://river.mit.edu/mitlibweb/FMPro?-db=RS_Items.fp5&-Lay=web&-format=ro_search.htm&-findany
[email protected]
137
http://www.cee.princeton.edu
138
May 16th 2003
136
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Formfinder
4.2.5 INTERNAL DATABASE TABLES in alphabetical order
The number of relevant tables should be as accurately as possible to offer different selection
procedures: Affinities create options.
Acronyms
abbreviation description
1st
first
Addresses
Sn, inputdate, abbreviation (e.g. IL), notation (e.g. Institute of …), field of research, contact person
(e.g. Müller) office, position in office, salutation, surname (family name), given name, second name,
title, address, zip code, city, state, country, phone no. business, phone no. private, fax business,
mobile, e-mail, website, annotation, category (e.g. Architect, Engineer, both: Architect, Engineer,
salesperson, association, academic institution, architecture and engineering office, manufacturer
and fabricator, material producer, coater & weaver, machinery, steelwork and ropes, blower
manufacturer
Building codes
AENOR
Spain
ANSI, USST
USA
BSI, STDL
UK
DIN
Germany
GOST
Russia
ISTA, ISO
International
JANO
Japan
NORI, AFNOR
France
NSSN, WSSN
Global
OENORM
Austria
SCC
Canada
SNVV
Switzerland
UNI
Italy
Assembly
Name of assembly, Element relation, usage, links
Details
Name of detail, fixation e.g. permanent, place of use e.g. highpoint,
Detail_images
ProjectID, Images, source, owner, links
Error
Message
Dialogue support
File xyz not found
file has not been found, you can search with….
Helptext
dialogue text proper, dialogue text alternative, dialogue inverse, dialogue recall, dialogue settings,
dialogue user recognition,
Literature
title, author/editor, publisher, city, year, pages, ISBN, related topic, language, description, stock
information
Materials
FABRIC trade name, abbreviation of trademark holder internal type name
CONSTRUCTION base fabric, base fabric_code, yarn, yarn_code, fabric weave, fabric weave_code,
coating, coating_code, Coating thickness, Coating thickness_code, put up, put up_code, width,
width_code, finished weight, finished weight_code, overall thickness, overall thickness_code,
AESTHETICS color top, color top_code, color underside, color underside_code, light transmission,
light transmission_code, back-lit translucent, back-lit translucent_code, solar transmission, solar
64
Formfinder
transmission_code, solar reflection, solar absorption, solar factor
DURABILITY tensile strength warp, tensile strength weft, tensile strength_code, tear strength warp,
tear strength weft, tear strength_code, flame retardancy, flame retardancy_code, adhesion,
adhesion_code, elongation under load, elongation under load_code, temperature min, temperature
max, temperature_code, E-module, E-module_code, heat conductivity, heat conductivity_code,
thermal transmission coefficient, thermal transmission coefficient_code, life expectency, life
expectency_code, warranty/duration, warranty/duration_code, UV resistance, UV resistance_code,
water-repellent, water-repellent_code, flame resistance, flame resistance_code, flame-seep, flameseep_code, flame-fume, flame-fume_code, flame-poison, flame-poison_code, mildew resistance,
mildew resistance_code, wick resistance, wick resistance_code, breathability, breathability_code,
abrasion, abrasion_code, heat sealable w/o seam tape, heat sealable w/o seam tape_code, heat
sealable w/ seam tape, heat sealable w/ seam tape_code, shrinkage, shrinkage_code, stretch factor,
stretch factor_code
GRAPHIC, ADDITIONAL support materials, source, inputdate, author
Notation
List of all notations
mathematical symbols, abbreviations used in text
Project_current (further information see REALISATION INTERACTION: file format)
Geometry_name, dimension, Nr_of_points, Points_up, Points_down, Nr_of_points_fixed,
Nr_of_points_free, Net,
Projects
Name of the project, Project type Membrane, Homepage , Location address, Location country, Year
of construction, Name of the client/building owner, Function of building, Primary function of the
tensile structure, Degree of enclosure e.g. Fully enclosed structure Climatic zone Temperate - cold
winters and mild summers, Short description of the project, Documents, Description of the
environmental conditions e.g. U-value 0.95 W/m2 K, Cubic capacity x m3, Surface Area x m2 ,
Documents, Misc., General comments, links, References, Attachments, name of the person who
entered the data information, date of input
Project_images
Reference name
Software
geometric, parametric unfolding software, mesh generation
Terms
German, Engl, French
Note: Different languages can be provided by Structured Generalized Markup Language139.
Typology
Archetypes
covered area (triangle, square, rectangular, L-type, U-type 5, 6, 8 corners, circle, bubble)
estimated volume (pyramid, cone, cylinder, dome, polyhedra, prism, vault…)
support of the area (air, beam, arch, cable, circle for radial net, anticlastic)
support of the border (beam, arch, cable, linear fixation, …)
Classification system
BEFO Management and Organisation, BMED Medical Engineering, DOMA Plants and Machinery,
ITEC Information Technology, TEMA Technology and Management, WEMA Materials.
………………………………
139
http://www.xml.org/xml/xml_chance_challenge.shtml
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Formfinder
4.3 Realisation BOOK
The content of the book is hierarchically structured to zoom into a topic. BOOK is an HTML/XML
based browsable structure which is linked to the DATABASE and external references.
4.3.1 DESCRIPTION BY CROSS-REFERENCES
A cross-reference signals that additional information about one entry can be found at another
entry. Cross-references have two main functions: To avoid needless duplication of information and
to indicate where further discussion of a word occurs.
The book displays the content on the left side of the screen, the text body in the centre and
additional information on the right side. Additional information includes related topics, links.
Based on the local standard browser setting of the current user it is possible to add information or
a memo or to bookmark a page.
COMPLETE LIST gives the complete overview of information sorted by several topics e.g. Historic
development, Material aspects, Construction, Computational and Physical Modelling, Membrane
load behaviour, Detailing, Project management, Economic factors, Climate and environmental
aspects, Lifecycle aspects, Masterpieces and built examples, Non architectural applications and
Related fields.
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Formfinder
4.3.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY CLASSIFICATION OF BOOK Titles in the chapter on APPENDIX 140
ACOUSTIC AND THERMAL CONDITIONING
AIR SUPPORTED STRUCTURES
ANALYSIS
ANCHORS AND FOUNDATIONS
ANTECEDENTS AND HISTORY
ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS
CABLES, ROPES AND FITTINGS
CONTROL
COST
CUTTING PATTERN
DESIGN
DETAILS
EDUCATION
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS AND ENERGY
EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
FORM FINDING
GENERAL INFORMATION
HANDBOOKS AND BASIC REFERENCES
MAGAZINES
MAINTENANCE
MATERIALS
SAILS AND BOATS
SOFTWARE
SPECIFICATIONS
SYMPOSIUMS AND CONFERENCES AND EXHIBITIONS
TENSILE STRUCTURES
THEORY AND RESEARCH
TYPOLOGY
………………………………
140
Most references in BIBLIOGRAPHY are not listed in INDEX as they only refer to a certain topic. The list is analogical
to the U.P.C. BIBLIOGRAPHY and was extended by own references.
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Formfinder
4.4 Realisation INTERACTION
The Latin term ´inter-´ means ´between´ or ´among´.
Action141 is the state of process of doing. Beside
determing ´who is interacting with what´ the chapter
INTERACTION describes cognition and every cognition
follows phenomenology. Phenomenology describes ´the
study of all possible manifestations
in human
experience, during which considerations of an object´s
reality and of purely subjective response are left out of
account´.142
Image Four different team members looking at the
same square, but each seeing it quite differently
[Preece02] p. 9
Within the software different layers of INTERACTION take place e.g. USER - DRAW, USER - BOOK,
USER - DATABASE, DRAW - Datbase, DRAW - BOOK, BOOK - Datbase, Database - external Datbase.
4.4.1 EXPLICIT DIRECT INTEGRATION
The following chart describes the computation procedure during iteration process:
Image Barnes Michael, Review of Solution Methods for Static and Dynamic Analysis of Tension
Structures, Proceedings ´The design of air-supported structures Churchill Hall, Bristol, July 1984´,
The Institution of Structural Engineers, London 1984, [Airsup84] p. 139
………………………………
141
142
´Action is a physical change, as in position, mass, or energy, that an object or a system undergoes.´ [Dict92] p. 17
[Dict92] p. 1358
68
Formfinder
4.3.2 PROGRAM SEQUENCE
69
Formfinder
4.4.3 HUMAN - COMPUTER INTERACTION
Physical human - computer interaction
The physical human - computer interaction is mostly reduced to keyboard, mouse and screen. This
interaction has not improved much over the last twenty years although this interaction is highly
limited. One main disadvantage is that operations are not displayed at the location where they are
executed. The following examples of input and output devices are intended to show the
advantages of pressure-sensitive pens and touchscreens.
Keyboard
Standard keyboards like QWERTY143 or Dvorak144 are well known. There are also other keyboard
layouts available which try to be more ergonomic e.g. Maltron145 or the DataHand146 keyboard.
The designer should be able to operate Formfinder without a keyboard147 or keypad. The toolbar,
menu-bar and dialogue boxes must provide every possible interaction.
Mouse148
Mouse or Trackball can be equipped with one (MAC) button or more buttons (Windows) and a
wheel. The use of a mouse or pressure-sensitive input device is recommended but not obligatory.
The Cursor-keys + Alt key can move the ´mouse´ pointer. Enter key is equivalent to clicking on
mouse button. The usage of the mouse-wheel is equivalent to page-up and page-down key.
Pressure-sensitive pen
should be similar to a pen and a sheet of paper e.g. pressing the pen on the screen should create a
fixed point, pressing the pen on the first created point should close the outline.
Other 2d input devices
Pressure sensitive tablets e.g. WACOM149 are more ergonomic than using a mouse. Joystick is
mostly used for games e.g. gamepads, SpaceNavigator150 is an integrated motion controller at the
keyboard which is similar familiar to a joystick. The SpaceNavigator is used to pan, zoom, scroll or
position the controller in one hand while the other hand operates the mouse.
3d and other input devices
Electromagnetic or acoustic-inertial trackers can be attached to any head, hands, joints, objects.
Optical trackers may become more common in future. Optical tracker is a photogrammetric
technique for space-resection by collinearity. Other 3d input devices are gloves with attached
electromagnetic trackers or pinch151 gloves.
Touchscreen
Touchscreen in combination with pressure-sensitive pen is an ideal input - and output device to
simulate physical pen and paper. Drawing directly on the screen is a very nice experience and
makes human - computer interaction more natural. Natural means that the interaction is not
changed artificially.
………………………………
143
QWERTY keyboard was designed in 1868 by Christopher Sholes, the inventor of the typewriter,
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/Q/QWERTY_keyboard.html
144
Dr. August Dvorak designed the keyboard for maximum typing efficiency. Compared to QWERTY e.g. letters like Z, Y
are located differently, http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/jcb/Dvorak
145
Maltron keyboard, layouted to relieve the symptons of Repititve Strain Injury (but with regrettably bad visual
layout), http://www.maltron.com
146
http://www.datahand.com/flashsite/home.html
147
Note: Computer systems e.g. Microsoft, Apple are equipped with input assistance to display a graphical keyboard.
Formfinder should also be operational without this input assistance
148
In 1962 at the ARC (Augmentation Research Centre) of the Stanford Research Institute Douglas Engelbart
developed a tool to locate ´X-Y position´, http://www.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0035.html
149
http://www.wacom.com
150
http://www.3dconnexion.com/products/SpaceNavigator
151
http://www.fakespacelabs.com/products/pinch.html
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Formfinder
Other output devices
2d video output devices like coherent radiation transition (CRT) screens or liquid crystal display
(LCD) screens are mostly used in architectural offices. ´3d´ output devices are e.g. Virtual Retinal
Display152, head-mounted displays153, stereo shutter glasses, or CAVE154 and mostly not available for
designers but it would be very interesting to gain one more dimension in ArCHITECT - Formfinder
interaction.
Audio
Audio interaction could bring lots of comfort. Audio interaction does not mean the annoying
error-peep, it is a high level of voice recognition for the operation of the computer. The dialogue
window of Formfinder can be additionally expressed via audio.
Printer
Printing a drawing for blank is helpful for physical model-making. In addition, a 3d printer can be
used to build a scale model of the form-active system155. Although 3d prints156 are not as expensive
as they used to be, the best way of getting an understanding of the 3d model is still physical
model-making157.
………………………………
152
http://www.hitl.washington.edu/projects/vrd/
http://www.studierstube.org/projects/mobile/
154
http://evlweb.eecs.uic.edu/home.html
155
DXF-, STL export files can be processed by most 3d plotters.
156
http://www.alphacam.de
157
See Appendix A0 Physical model making
153
71
Formfinder
4.4.4 SOFTWARE
OPERATING SYSTEM
Common user interaction with computers is done by working with an operating system. An
operating system is a computer program that controls the entire operation of a computer. Basic
functions like I/O (input and/output), core functions and a suite of utilities are provided by an
operating system. Early systems required CLI (command-line interpreters) and every new one
provides a GUI (graphic user-interface). Some functions of an operating system are e.g. access
control (who does what), accounting (who uses which resources), error handling, I/O handling,
interrupt handling, JCL interpretation, job sequencing (jobs can have different ´priorities´),
protection and security, provision of operator/user interface(s) and resource allocation
(peripherals). Although many operating systems158 have been developed, Microsoft Windows159
holds 95 % of the operating system market160 Apple MacOS 3 % and Linux RHAT, NASD, SuSe 2 %,
while other systems are not even mentioned in many statistics. Even though there has been an
immense development on operating systems like WindowsXP and MacOS X there are still human computer interactions which are not sensible e.g. Windows users have to press START to switch off
a computer, MacOS users have to drag a disk-icon over the trash can icon to eject a disk to save
information. Some misleading information has become standard in computer technology and
experienced users sometimes do not think about basic conceptual elements. Newcomers have lots
of problems in learning human - computer interaction as many programmers conceptualise
software according to their own personal comprehension. Decades of human - computer
interaction was needed to develop a GUI. The revolutionised 8010 ´Star´ system introduced by
Xerox in 1981161 offered most of the basic elements still used in modern operating systems e.g.
icons, scaleable windows and scroll bars. Xerox designed the operating system for workers who are
not interested in computing per se. Star developers spent several person-years on the project:
although other companies earned the success, it shows one fundamental fact: Information technology needs a clearly elaborated basis and basic research for if it is to function.
Image: Screenshot Star 8010 ´Dandelion´ operating system by XEROX,
http://www.digibarn.com/collections/systems/xerox-8010/index.html
………………………………
158
More information in chapter A2 Software Overview Resource links Operating Systems
´The ´Microsoft Disk Operating System´ or MS-DOS was based on QDOS, the ´Quick and Dirty Operating System´
written by Tim Paterson of Seattle Computer Products, for their prototype Intel 8086 based computer.´,
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa033099.htm
160
http://www.us-market.de/profile/MSFT.htm The same study points out that Microsoft holds 95 % of the
office-market. Competitors are Corel WordPerfect Office, IBMs Lotus SmartSuite and Sun Microssystems StarOffice.
161
Beginning July 1st 1970 the Xerox Corporation formed a team of world-class researchers in information sciences
and physical sciences to create ´the architecture of information´, http://www.parc.com/company/history
In 1971 Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) developed the XEROX Alto system which was already equipped with a
tree button mouse. http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/416664.html
159
72
Formfinder
PROGRAM
Every software development depends on the limitations of the available hardware and operating
system. Keyboard, mouse and pressure-sensitive pen, touchscreen are the commonly available162
instruments to operate software which is visualised by e.g. screen or printer. Formfinder is bound
to basic interface metaphors like icons and windows. Similar to some ´unnatural´ human computer interactions there are also some software standards which are illogical but accepted by
many users. The concept of Formfinder is to reduce misunderstandings in the operation of
software. Software designers tend to create interface metaphors which look and behave
figuratively like the physical entity it is compared with, e.g. ´why is the trash bin icon on the
desktop and not under the desktop?´163 If the virtual- and real world used the same rules, users
would not e.g. see the desktop because it is under the desktop. To avoid ´unnatural´ interface
metaphors Formfinder tries to differ from standard windows applications. The minimum
requirement to change the outline to a form-active system is one single button labelled
FORMFIND. The icon shows the M&G Ricerche building in Venafro, Italy and does not look like the
common icons used in formfinding software. The design of the user-interface has attempted to
reduce as many ´maybe-standards´ as possible. Formfinder also uses ´well known standards´ to
make the user ´feel at home´. One example of ´feeling at home´ is that the menu bar might be used
if an operation was not confident. The menu bar is similar to applications most users might be
familiar with e.g. Internet Explorer, Word or Photoshop. The menu bar offers abstract symbols like
book, binocular, floppy disk and printer. In relation to ´passive´ input devices like a keyboard or
mouse, virtual input devices like software interfaces offer a high customisation to user behaviour
e.g. moving the hand from the keyboard to the mouse pointer on the screen is often inefficient. On
the other hand advanced hardware devices are expensive and not always available for all
platforms. To allow complicated inputs to be performed with simple gestures, software developers
implement virtual input devices. Many 2d widgets like scroll bars, dialogue boxes, or object
handlers are part of the operating system. The simulation of hardware devices also enables spatial
movement operations with 2d input gestures. To disambiguate the 2d mouse gesture for a 3d
translation, Formfinder operates by a combination of e.g. mouse and keyboard input at the same
time e.g. Ctrl and left mouse button move a breakpoint perpendicular to original position.
Image: Screenshot ´Markup´ software image http://www.derstandard.at
………………………………
162
The user-interface of Formfinder must radically change if other input technologies are available e.g. virtual gloves,
´eye-recognition systems´, advanced virtual visualization environments,
http://lifesci.arc.nasa.gov/research_labs_v.html
163
[Preece02] p. 56
73
Formfinder
4.4.5 ELEMENT LEVELS
This chart represents the basic levels of systemisation applicable at tensile structures:
Chart [Hebbe01] p.38
74
Formfinder
4.4.6 OBJECT RECOGNITION
This page follows up with some details about OBJECT RECOGNITION mentioned on page 45.
Image Screenshot DIALOGUE window TYPOLOGY
On opening AREA the following selections can be made e.g. one single line, triangle, square, Utype, L-type, hexagon, octagon, circle, irregular type.
Image Screenshot DIALOGUE window TYPOLOGY, AREA selection opened
Image Auto-selection of ´square´ first 4 objects and ´triangle´ last 4 objects
AUTO-SELECT
Term ´auto-select´ describes that a routine takes something as a choice without recall of the user.
Algorithms of polygon-matching recognises objects by 2d approximation of the overall e.g.
projected area. The difference of file-evaluation by counting breakpoints and polygon matching is
significant. The mentioned Arkin, E. M., Chew, L. P., Huttenlocher, D. P., Kedem, K. Mitchel, J. S. B.
method could solve possibly solve the desired 2d matching process.
/* Source code example from http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~algorith/implement/turn/distrib/sim.c
/* Read a polygon from the standard input. One (x,y) pair is expected per line. EOF or a line not
/* starting with a digit, -, or. end the polygon. Returns 1 if a valid polygon (3 or more vertices) was
/* read. Unparsable input and polygons too big or small are reported. */
int read_poly(POLY poly)
{ static int line = 0;
int i; char buf[82]; i = 0;
while(read_line(buf, sizeof buf, &line) &&
(isdigit(buf[0]) || buf[0] == '.' || buf[0] == '-')) {
if (sscanf(buf, "%lf %lf", &poly->pt[i].x, &poly->pt[i].y) != 2) {
fprintf(stderr, "line %d: bad point\n", line);
exit(1); }
if (++i >= MAX_PTS) {
fprintf(stderr, "line %d: polygon too big\n", line);
exit(1);}}
if (i > 0 && i < 3) {
fprintf(stderr, "line %d: null polygon\n", line);
exit(1);}
return(poly->n = i);}
SORT OF SEQUENCE
Each auto-selected object is adjusted by a ´mass´ value which represents the similarity. The
DIALOGUE window TYPOLOGY displays all found objects by two axes. The horizontal axis describes
the complexity of AREA support, the other the complexity of the BORDER.
75
Formfinder
5 FINAL REMARK
As this work focuses on the importance of a need for a
tool for the process of preliminary design, it is
interesting to point out some possible future aspects.
One of the most important future developments should
lead to an improvement in the automatic ´input
recognition´. Input recognition contains an analysis of
user behaviour and therefore improvements in the
usability of the system and secondly the ´drawing input
recognition´ to allow e.g. contact pressure of the input
device, thickness of lines, lines with different colours to
allow a wide variety of interpretation for new
developments in the field of form-active structures e.g.
tapered lines at a corner could be interpreted as a patch
as used in sailcloth technology, different colours
suggest aesthetic aspects in the material decision.
Calligraphy ´Nan demo uke ireru´164 by Hideo Mitsui.
A refinement of the input recognition could create an
advanced interaction- language which must create
further developments.
It is also important to reach a state of ´physical
visualisation´ to create a ´haptic´ experience during the
process of design165. Why should the designer not be
able to check his computer model by the usage of a
virtual rain to hear his design or to simulate wind to
hear the sound of a form-active system. A ´haptic´
aspect in the design is essential to achieve gestalt.
………………………………
164
Shinto priest Hideo Mitsui, Keta Shrine of the Ishikawa prefecture Japan. English translation could be ´accept
them all´, http://www.gmd.de/de/GMD-Spiegel/GMD-Spiegel-1_2_99-html/Japan.html
165
Whatever the development will be, it is of course clear that there is no better way for designers than touching real
physical elements
76
Formfinder
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is grateful to the support of national and international supervision. In particular
I would like to thank Professor William Alsop, Professor Dieter Merkl, and Professor Lothar Gründig.
Thanks are due to the people at the Vienna University of Technology and Berlin University of
Technology and for the good cooperation in carrying out the realisation of Formfinder, especially
Björn Beckert.
77
Formfinder
7 APPENDIX
7.1 Physical model-making
Physical model-making is the most comprehensive way to understand materials.
Stocking
Heinz Isler, who is well known for the design of selfsupporting concrete domes, designed his domes
without any high-technology computer program. As
already mentioned in the footnote of the chapter on
OBJECTIVE, Heinz Isler said that ´the model has an
answer to (nearly) everything, if it is asked (accurate)´.
Due to this fact the question of the designer should
define the method of asking.
Images [Berger96]
Cut usefull parts of stocking material from tights. Use
thumb tacks to connect the stocking material at the
lower fixed points of the structure. Tie strings to the
tacks and stays to the top of the tacks at mast tops.
Tack the stocking to the top of masts and erect the
masts. Sew string boundary cables along the stocking
boundaries. Trim the stocking from outside the
boundary strings.
Images Physical Modelling [TextR02]
Synclastic Moosgummi
Cut pattern pieces from sheet of Moosgummi and
pieces of fabric tape. Apply tape to one seam of a
pattern piece. Use the textile behaviour of the tape to
curve the tape evenly along the seam. With the tape
beneath the pattern pieces, butt-connect the pieces to
the next along the common seam.
Images Physical Modelling [TextR02]
Soap
Cut off a length of wire and straighten. Trim off the
tips and create right angled bends close to both ends.
Form the wire loop into a smoothly curved ellipse and
dip the wire loop into pustafix liquid and remove.
Observe the resulting soap film and notice the effect on
the film of gravity and motion. Reform the wire loop
other shapes and compare them.
Images Physical Modelling [TextR02]
78
Formfinder
7.2 File format (ISI)
ISI 2.00 CADISI 523 {
Pattern {
0.000 0.000 20.000 20.000 1.000
0.000
}
BoundaryGlobalGeometry 5 32 {
99000001
9.0000
0.0000
7.0000 000
// 99… is a fixed point, x, y, z value
99000002
0.0000 11.0000
0.0000 000
99000003 10.0000 20.0000
7.0000 000
99000004 20.0000 14.0000
0.0000 000
99000005 19.0000
5.0000
0.0000 000
}
BoundaryCurves 5 4320 {
// 5 number of boundary curves
90010000 99000001 99000002 8 0.000 1.584 0.000 19.807 1 5000.0 111 1.000
90020000 99000002 99000003 8 0.000 0.000 0.000 18.952 2 5000.0 000 1.000
90030000 99000003 99000004 8 0.000 1.360 0.000 17.004 1 5000.0 111 1.000
90040000 99000004 99000005 8 0.000 0.906 0.000 11.313 1 5000.0 111 1.000
90050000 99000005 99000001 8 0.000 1.319 0.000 16.490 1 5000.0 111 1.000
}
// name of curve, from to, 8 number of intermediate points, 1.584 sag, 0.000 elevation, 19.807
force, 1 , 5000.0 stiffness, 111 xyz fixity, 1.000 stress
NetParts 1 {
PART 1 259 {
Polygon 5 {
99000002
99000003
99000004
99000005
99000001
}
LocalGeometry 1 {
}
NetSpecification {
1
1.000 1.000
0.000 90.000
1.000 1.000
1.000
0.500 0.500
3100 4100 8100
}
}
}
}
//1 regular (would be 2 radial)
// length of warp / weft
// warp angle to global, weft angle to warp
// estimate stress
// distance factor
79
Formfinder
// If radial net NetSpecification as followed
NetSpecification {
2
1.000 15.000
11.370 9.944
1.000 2.000
1.000
0.500 0.500
3100 4100 8100 7100
1.000 2.613
}
// 2 radial
7.3 Software
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Amiga
BSD
BeOS
GNU/Linux
IRIX
Macintosh/MacOSX
QNX RtP
OS/2
Solaris
Syllable
Windows
Other
http://www.amiga.com
http://www.amigaworld.net
http://www.daemonnews.org
http://www.freebsd.org
http://www.netbsd.org
http://www.openbsd.org
http://www.BeOSJournal.org
http://www.BeBits.com
http://www.redhat.com
http://www.linux-mandrake.com
http://www.SuSE.com
http://www.debian.org
http://www.freshmeat.net
http://www.sgi.com
http://www.apple.com
http://www.versiontracker.com
http://www.macminute.com
http://get.qnx.com
http://www.ecomstation.com
http://www.qnxzone.com
http://www.sun.com
http://syllable.sf.net
http://www.microsoft.com
http://www.SkyOS.org
http://www.NewOS.org
http://ArOS.sf.net
http://www.menuetos.org
80
Formfinder
MESHING SOFTWARE
Cart3D, Michael J. Aftosmis
Chalmesh, Anders Petterson
COG 2.0, Ilja Schmelzer
Convergent Thinking, G-Smooth
CSCMDO, Bill Jones
CUBIT, SANDIA, BYU
Delaundo, Jens-Dominik Müller
DimensionMG, A. Johnson
EMC2, GAMMA
FELISA, NASA LARC
Femmesh, Medical Physics, UCL
FIST, Martin Held
GENIE++, Bharat Soni
GEOMESH/X3D, Carl W. Gable
GEOMPACK, Barry Joe
GMSH, Jean-Francois Remacle
GNU Triangulated Surface Lib.
Gridgen, USGS
Gridpak, IMCS
GRUMMP, Carl-Ollivier Gooch
GUM-B, Michael Remotique
IitZeus, IIT Bombay
Javamesh, Hsuan-Cheng Lin
LaGriT, Los Alamos National Lab.
Maille, CERCA
MAKROS-A, BW-Uni
MegaCads, DLR
Mesh-maker, Jason Lander
Meshme, Andrew S. Johnson
Mesh modeler, AHPRC
MG, Luiz Cristovao Coelho
NCSA MinMaxer, NCSA
NETGEN, Joachim Schöberl
Overture
PMESH, LLNL
PSUE, Nigel Weatherhil
Qhull, Brad Barber
QMG,; Stephen Vavasis
QUIKGRID, John Coulthard
SCOREC meshing tools
SD, David Kornmann
SiGMA, Sergei Chumakov
SimLab, Paul Chew
SolidMesh, Adam Gaither, MSU
Surface95, Andrew S. Johnson
T3D, Daniel Rypl
TCGRID, NASA Glenn Research
http://www.nas.nasa.gov/~aftosmis/cart3d
http://www.na.chalmers.se/~andersp/chalmesh/chalmesh.html
http://www.wias-berlin.de/software/cog/
http://www.convergent-thinking.com/grid.htm
http://www.cerfacs.fr/~muller/delaundo.html
http://geolab.larc.nasa.gov/CSCMDO
http://www.cerfacs.fr/~muller/delaundo.html
http://www.ahpcrc.org/~johnson/SOFTWARE/MESHGEN
http://www-rocq.inria.fr/gamma/cdrom/www/emc2/eng.htm
http://abweb.larc.nasa.gov:8080/~kbibb/felisa.html
http://www.medphys.ucl.ac.uk/~martins/toast/manual
http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/sowen/software/FIST.html
http://www.erc.msstate.edu/research/thrusts/grid/genie
http://ees-www.lanl.gov/EES5/geomesh
http://members.attcanada.ca/~bjoe/index.htm
http://www.bloodwolf.org/~jf/Gmsh_Eng.html
http://gts.sourceforge.net/index.html
http://crusty.er.usgs.gov/gridgen
http://marine.rutgers.edu/po/gridpak.html
http://tetra.mech.ubc.ca
http://www.erc.msstate.edu/research/thrusts/grid/gumb/html
http://www.iitb.ernet.in/~aero/IITZeus
http://www.steven.pop.net.tw/javamesh
http://www.t12.lanl.gov/~lagrit
http://www.cerca.umontreal.ca/maille
http://www.bauv.unibw-muenchen.de/makros-a/index.html
http://beasgi2.ea.bs.dlr.de/megacads
http://grytviken.leeds.ac.uk/~jason/Mesh-Maker
http://www.arc.umn.edu/~johnson/meshme.html
http://www.arc.umn.edu/gvl-software/modeler.html
http://www.tecgraf.puc-rio.br/~lula/mg/index.html
http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/SDG/Software/Brochure/Overview
http://www.sfb013.uni-linz.ac.at/~joachim/netgen
http://www.hpfem.jku.at/netgen/
http://www.llnl.gov/liv_comp/meiko/apps/hardin/hardin.html
http://www.engr.ucdavis.edu/~spandya/prism.html
http://www.geom.umn.edu/software/qhull
http://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/vavasis/qmg-home.html
http://www.perspectiveedge.com
http://scorec.rpi.edu/programs/modeling/meshing/Meshing.html
http://www.dlc.fi/~dkpa
http://www.erc.wisc.edu/~sergei/research/sigma
http://www.cs.cornell.edu/Info/Projects/SimLab
http://www.erc.msstate.edu/simcenter/docs/solidmesh/
http://www.arc.umn.edu/~johnson/surf.html
http://ksm.fsv.cvut.cz/~dr/t3d.html
http://www.lerc.nasa.gov/www/5810/webpage/tcgrid/tcgrid.htm
81
Formfinder
FORMFINDING SOFTWARE166
EASY, technet gmbh, Germany
Engineering Systems International, France
Formem, Switzerland
ForTen32, Italy
Tensys, UK
Multimedia Enginneering, Singapore
MCN, USA
OptiFlow, France
Patterner, UK
Sofistik, Germany
Surface Evolver, USA
Surface Software, New Zealand
http://www.technet-gmbh.com
http://www.esi.fr
http://www.formem.com
http://www.forten32.com
http://www.tensys.com
http://www.me.com.sg
http://www.birdair.com
http://www.optiflow.fr
http://bruno.postle.net
http://www.sofistik.com
http://www.geom.uiuc.edu/software/evolver
http://www.surface.co.nz
7.4 Trade brands
3d Studio Max
Apple
AT&T
AutoCAD
Kevlar
Linux
Mac
OpenGL
SGI
Unix
Windows
Kinetix, Milpitas CA, USA
Macintosh, Cupertino CA, USA
AT&T Bell Telefone Labs
Autodesk Inc., San Rafael CA, USA
DuPont, Wilmington, USA
Linus Torvalds, Durham NC, USA
Apple Macintosh
Silicon Graphics, USA
Silicon Graphics, USA
The Open Group New York, USA
Microsoft Corp., Redmond, USA
http://www.kinetix.com
http://www.apple.com
http://www.att.com
http://www.autodesk.com
http://www.dupont.com
http://www.linux.com
http://www.apple.com
http://www.sgi.com
http://www.sgi.com
http://www.opengroup.org
http://www.microsoft.com
7.5 Addresses
Academic Institutions
New Jersey Institute of Technolog Newark, USA
University of Newcastle, UK
Ghent University, Zwijnaarde, Belgium
Stuttgart University of Technology, Germany
University of Liverpool, UK
Berlin University of Technology, Germany
Munich, University of Technology, Germany
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
University of Bath, UK
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
University of Nottingham, UK
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Vienna University of Technology
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
http://www-ec.njit.edu/civil
http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/p.d.gosling/pdg
http://textiles.rug.ac.be
http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/ilek
http://www.liv.ac.uk/abe
http://www.survey.tu-berlin.de
http://www.lt.arch.tu-muenchen.de
http://www.aq.upm.es
http://www.bath.ac.uk/Departments/Arch
http://www.fbe.unsw.edu.au/units/LSRU
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/sbe
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/CivEng
http://www.iti.tuwien.ac.at
http://dtwws1.vub.ac.be/arch
………………………………
166
Further information http://www.arcaro.org/tension
82
Formfinder
Manufacturer
A & O Technologies Pte
Singapore
Academy Tents
Los Angeles, USA
ACS Production
Montoir de France
Advanced Structures
Marina Del Rey, USA
Aerosail
Darwin, Australia
Anchor Industries
Evansville, USA
Arcane Total Structure
Cinderford, UK
Aura
Hamble, UK
BAHAMA, Becher Textil & Stahlbau, Germany
Bill Harkin Associates
UK
Birdair Europe Stromeyer Konstanz, Germany
Buitink Zeilmakerij Duiven RR Duiven, Netherlands
C&KA Flanagan Sailmakers Gateshead, Australia
Canobbi
Castelnuovo, Italy
Canvas Speciality
Los Angeles, USA
Ceno Tec
Greven, Germany
Clamshell Buildings
Ventura, USA
Cover-All Corporate
Saskatoon, Canada
Covertex
Obing, Germany
CreaTent
Horw, Switzerland
Dalo
Ramboui, France
De Boer Structures
Recklinghau, Germany
Duvall Design
West, USA
Eide Industries.
Cerritos, USA
Esmery Caron
DreuxFrance
Fabric Images
Elgin, USA
Fabric Structures
Whiteley, UK
Festo
Esslingen, Germany
Flontex
Blaustein, Germany
Foiltec
Bremen, Germany
Hansen Weatherport
Olathe, USA
HP Gasser
Sarnen, Switzerland
International
Surrey, Canada
J & J. Carter
Basingstoke, UK
Kayam
North, UK
Koch Membranen
Rimsting, Germany
Lantor
Bellingham, USA
Losberger Intertent
Mühlenbeck, Germany
Mahaffey Fabric
Memphis, USA
Marquee Tent & Tarpaulin Sevenoaks, UK
Membrana Tensadas
Buenos Aires, Argentina
MoonBurst Structures
Sheffield, UK
Poly Nederland
AB Wezep, Netherlands
Procup
LA, France
Rainier Industries
Seattle, USA
Reklama
Brno, Czech
RUBB BUILDINGS LTD
Sanford, Maine, USA
Sattler
Graz, Austria
Serious Structures Ltd.
Pilton, UK
http://www.aandotech.com
http://www.academytent.com
http://www.acs-production.com
http://www.asidesign.com
http://www.aerosail.com
http://www.anchorinc.com
http://www.arcane-structures.com
http://www.aurafabric.com
http://www.bahama-jumbrella.de
http://www.billharkindesign.demon.co.uk
http://www.birdair.com
http://www.buitinkzeilmakerij.nl
http://www.shade-to-order.com.au
http://www.canobbio.com
http://www.can-spec.com
http://www.ceno-tec.de
http://www.clamshell.com
http://www.coverall.net
http://www.covertex.de
http://www.creatent.ch
http://dalo.com
http://www.deboer.com
http://www.midcoast.com
http://www.eideindustries.com
http://www.esmery-caron.com
http://www.fabricimages.com/fimenu.html
http://www.gapsails.co.uk
http://www.festo.com
http://www.flontex.de
http://www.foiltec.de
http://www.weatherport.com
http://www.membranbau.ch
http://www.worldexport.com/tentnology
http://www.jjcarter.com
http://www.kayam.co.uk
http://www.kochmembranen.com
http://www.lantorinc.com
http://www.losberger.com
http://www.fabricstructures.com
http://www.marquee.co.za/tent/index.html
http://www.mtmembranastensadas.com.ar
http://www.moonburststructures.com
http://www.polyned.nl
http://www.procup.fr
http://www.rainierindustries.com
http://www.kubicekairtex.cz/en
http://www.rubb.com
http://www.sattler-europe.com
http://www.stages.co.uk/index.html
83
Formfinder
Shade `n` Sails Pty Ltd
Skyspan International
Sobresaliente
Sprung Instant
Stageco
Starnet International
Sullivan & Brampton
Summit Structures
Taiyo Kogyo Corp.
Tamimi Tents & Tensile
Teguh Canvas
Tensilefabric
Tension Structures
Textil Bau
Toile et Structures
Tolder Fernandez
Transformit
Universal Fabric
Vector Special Projects
VeldemanTent
Vom Baur
Weidlinger Associates
WSSL - Warner Shelter
Yeadon Fabric
Ronstan International
Wendouree, Australia
Rimsting, Germany
Montevideo, Uruguay
West , USA
Tildonk, Belgium
Longwood, USA
San Leandro, USA
Cheshire, UK
Japan
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Kuala, Malaysia
Clifton, UK
Cape Town, South Africa
Hamburg, Germany
Sete, France
Torrejo, Spain
Gorham, USA
Diepenbeek, Belgium
London, UK
Bree, Belgium
Wuppertal, Germany
Glenrothes, UK
Calgary, Canada
Guelph, Canada
Sandringham, Australia
http://www.shadensails.com.au/index.htm
http://www.skyspan.com/home.html
http://www.sobresaliente.com
http://www.sprung.com
http://www.stageco.com
http://www.starnetint.com
http://www.sullivanandbrampton.com
http://www.summitstructures.com
http://www.taiyokogyo.co.jp
http://www.tamimitents.com
http://www.teguhkanvas.com.my
http://tensilefabric.co.uk
http://www.tensionstructures.co.za
http://www.textilbau.de/home.html
http://www.toilestructures.com/home.htm
http://www.tolder.es/tolder_en
http://www.transformitdesign.com
http://www.ufsinc.com
http://www.vector-foiltec.com
http://www.veldemantent.com
http://www.vombaur.de
http://www.wai.com
http://www.wssl.com
http://www.yeadondomes.com
http://www.ronstan.com
3M
Acordis Industrial
Advanced Glassfiber
Avondale Mills Inc.
Neuss,Germany
Arnhem, Netherlands
Lyon, France
Sylacauga, USA
http://www.3m.com
http://www.acordis.com
http://www.agy.com
http://www.avondalemills.com
ContiTech Holding GmbH
Cooley Group
Dickson Industrial Group
DuPont de Nemours
Duracote Corp.
Dyneon LLC
Ferrari
Glen Raven Mills
USA
Glen Raven, USA
Wilmington, USA
Ravenna, USA
Oakdale, USA
La Tour du Pin, France
Glen Raven, USA
http://www.contitech.de
http://www.cooleygroup.com
http://www.dickson-us.com/flashsplash.htm
http://www.dupont.com
http://www.duracote.com
http://www.3m.com/us/mfg_industrial/dyneon
http://www.ferrari-textiles.com
http://www.glenraven.com
Haywinkel GmbH
Bramsche, Germany
http://www.heytex.de
Hoechst
Frankfurt, Germany
Erbach, Germany
Montreal, Canada
Bramsche, Germany
Ulm, Germany
Frankfurt, Germany
New Haven, USA
Fulda, Germany
http://www.hoechst.com
Fabricator
CHEMFAB
HiraokA
INTERGLAS
Intertape Polymer
Julius Heywinkel
Kastilo
KoSA
MarChem Coated
Mehler Haku
MERMET
Naizil Coatd Fabrics
Salt Lake City, USA
Hannover, Germany
Taito-Ku, Japan
Veyrins, France
Bolton ON, Canada
http://www.chemfabcorp.com
http://www.ifaijapan.com
http://www.cs-interglas.de
http://www.intertapepolymer.com
http://www.heytex.de
http://cgi.kastilo.com
http://www.kosa.com
http://www.marchemcoatedfabrics.com
http://www.mehlerhaku.de
http://www.mermet-industries.com
http://www.naizilcanada.com/splash.html
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Prat
Rainier Industries
Toulouse
Shelter-Rite
SI-KA-TEC
SIOEN Industries
Taconic International
Twitchell
Unitex
Verseidag-Indutex
Gore & Associates
Wacker-Chemie
Weblon Inc.
John Boyle
Seattle, USA
West Pimbo , UK
Wooster, Ohio, USA
Wooster, USA
Selb, Germany
Ardooie, Belgium
Petersburgh, USA
Dothan, USA
Kansas City, USA
Krefeld, Germany
Putzbrunn, Germany
Munich, Germany
Orangeburg, USA
Statesville, USA
Steelwork
Alliance Métal Group
Bodill Parker Group
Bridgeport Rope & Chain
Bridon Ropes
Broadway Splicing
Carl Stahl
Certex
Euro-Inox
Forges Le Beon
Hanes Supply
Hercules
Igena
Macalloy, Bar Systems
N.V. Bekaert
PFEIFER
Sling-Choker
Tycsa
Wire Rope Industries
Villefranche, France
West, UK
Dartmouth, Canada
Wallsend, UK
Spokane, USA
Süssen, Germany
Doncaster, UK
Luxembourg
Lorient, France
Buffalo, USA
Québec, Canada
Barcelona, Spain
Sheffield, UK
Kortrijk, Belgium
Berlin, Germany
Sudbury, Canada
Barcelona,Spain
Williamsport, USA
Saint-Gobain Technical
Seaman Corporation
http://www.prat-sa.com
http://www.rainierindustries.com
http://www.saint-gobain-technical-fabrics.com
http://www.seamancorp.com
http://www.architecturalfabrics.com
http://www.si-ka-tec.de
http://www.sioen.be
http://www.taconic-afd.com
http://www.twitchelltextilene.com
http://www.unitex-chemicals.com
http://www.vsindutex.de
http://www.gore.com
http://www.wacker.com
http://www.weblon.com
http://www.johnboyle.com
http://www.alliance-metal.com
http://www.bodill-parker.co.uk
http://www.bridgeportwire.com
http://www.bridon.com
http://www.broadwaysplicing.com
http://www.carlstahl.com
http://www.certex.co.uk
http://www.euro-inox.org
http://www.lebeon.com
http://www.hanessupply.com
http://www.herculessling.com
http://www.igena.com
http://www.macalloy.com
http://www.bekaert.com
http://www.pfeifer.de
http://www.slingchoker.com
http://www.tycsa.com
http://www.wirerope.com
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7.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY referenced to BOOK (alphabetical order)167
ACOUSTIC AND THERMAL CONDITIONING
Herzog Thomas, Pneumatische Konstruktionen, Bauten aus Membranen und Luft, Hatje, Stuttgart
1976
Mollaert Marijke, Environmental aspects in textile architecture Textil Roofs 2002, Technische
Universität, Berlin 2002 http://www.tensinet.com
AIR SUPPORTED STRUCTURES
Dent, Roger Nicholas, Principles of Pneumatic Architecture, The Architectural Press, London 1971
Dessauce Marc, Inflatable Moment - Pneumatics and protests in ´68, Princton Architectural Press,
New York 1999
Geiger David, U.S. Pavilion at Expo 70, Features Air Supported Cable Roof, Civil Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1970
Geiger David, Pneumatic Structures, Progressive Architecture, Agost 1972
Geiger David, Largest and lightest fabric roof to date, Civil Engineering, November, American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1976
Geiger David, Structural engineering aspect of the design of low profile air-supported roofs, 1977
Geiger David et al., Estructuras neumáticas de gran luz, reforzadas por cales de acero, 1977
IL 9 Pneus in Natur und Technik - Pneus in Nature and Technics, Mitteilungen des Instituts für
Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1977
IL 12 Wandelbare Pneus - Convertible Pneus, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1975
IL 15 Lufthallenhandbuch - Air Hall Handbook, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1983
IL 18 Seifenblasen - Forming Bubbles, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart
IL 19 Wachsende und sich teilende Pneus - Growing and Dividing Pneus, Mitteilungen des Instituts
für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1979
IL 35 Pneu und Knochen - Pneus and Bone, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke
(IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1995
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Air Supported Structures, 139, Venezia
Acero-Acier-Stahl-Steel, 9, 281-288
………………………………
167
Most references in BIBLIOGRAPHY are not listed in INDEX as they only refer to a certain topic. The list is analogical
to the U.P.C. BIBLIOGRAPHY and was extended by own references.
86
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Kröplin R., et al., Pneumatic tube-structures, some examples, Bulletin of the IASS, vol.26 n.2,
August, n.118, 67-72, 1995
Majowiecki Massimo, et al., Interactive computer aided design in the International Symposium,
International Symposium on Air Supported Structures, 90-113, Venezia 1977
Nagem Raymond, et al., Pneumatic structures for lunar and martian habitats, Building Research
and Information, vol.19 no.1 1991
Naumer Wolfgang, Konstruieren mit Luft, Entwicklungen der pneumatischen Architektur,
Innsbruck 1999
The Institution of Structural Engineers, The design of air-supported structures Churchill Hall,
Bristol, July 1984, The Institution of Structural Engineers, London 1984
The Institution of Structural Engineers, Air-supported structures: the state of art, The Institution of
Structural Engineers, London 1980
ANALYSIS
Blum Rainer, Beitrag zur nichtlinearen Membrantheorie, Sonderforschungsbereich 64 (SFB 64) Universität Stuttgart, 1985
Farin Gerald, Curves and surfaces in CAGD, Kurven und Flächen im Computer Aided Geometric
Design, Academic Press Inc, Bosten, Wiesbaden 1994
Gasparini D. A. et al., Dynamic and static behavior of cable dome model, Journal of Structural
Engineering, vol.115 n.2, 363-381, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1989
Gebauer Oliver, Ein Softwarepaket zur rationellen Produktion von Yachtsegeln, Linz 1988
Gründig Lothar, Deutsche Geodätische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Datenverwaltunskonzepte für typische Aufgaben aus der Ingenieurgeodäsie,
Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Kommission bei der C.H. Beck´schen
Verlagsbuchhandlung München, München 1988
Gründig Lothar, Hangleiter Ulrich, Löw Kurt, Nguyen-Toung Bach, Preuss Hans-Dieter,
Weitgespannte Flächentragwerke - FASNET- Eine Programmbibliothek zur Formfindung und
statischen Berechnung von Seilnetzkonstruktionen, Sonderforschungsbereich 64 (SFB 64)
Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart 1979
Gründig Lothar, Moncrieff Erik, Schewe Heinrich, On the feasibility of using large scale
photogrammetry to accurately determine in-service strain distribution across three dimensional
textile roofs, 1997
Horcic Miloslav, Windbelastung und Berechnung des Spannungs-und Verformungszustandes im
zylindrischen Teil, Zürich 1974
IL 1 Minimalnetze - Minimal Nets, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1969
87
Formfinder
IL 21 Form Kraft Masse 1 - Grundlagen - Form, Force Mass 1 - Basics, Mitteilungen des Instituts für
Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1979
IL 40 Verzweigungen - Branching Structures, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart
Ivovich V. A. et al., Dynamic analysis of suspended roof systems, Balkema, Brookfield 1991
Lars Taenzer, Strukturdynamische Modellierung und statische Berechnung von Segelkonstuktionen,
Shaker Velag GmbH, Aachen 1997
Leonard John W., Tension structures: Behavior and analysis, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, Londres
1988
Lightweight Structures in Architecture (LSA 86), Unisearch Limited, The University of New South,
Wales, Sydney 1987
Levy Robert et al., Analysis of geometrically nonlinear structures, Chapman & Hall, 1995
Linkwitz Klaus, Gründig Lothar, Hangleiter Ulrich, Bahnsdorf Joachim, Weitgespannte
Flächentragwerke - Mathematisch- numerische Methoden der Netzberechnung, Sonderforschungsbereich 64 (SFB 64), Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart 1984
Lopez Rey Laurens, Cubiertas tensiles continuas, doctoral thesis, ETSAB, Barcelona 1973/1977
Lübcke Edgar, Zur Beschreibung von Falten in Membranen mittels nichtlinearer, finiter
Plattenelemente 1992
Noesgen Jürgen, Sonderforschungsbereich64 (SFB 64), Universität Stuttgart, Vorgespannte
Seilnetztragwerke - Zum Tragverhalten des quadratischen Netzes mit Randseilen, Werner-Verlag,
Düsseldorf 1977
Otto Frei et al., Tensile structures, The MIT Press, London 1973
Otto Ullrich, Seilkonstruktionen - Verfahren zur Näherungsberechnung von Kräften und
Verformungen in Seilen und vorgespannten Seilnetzen, Sonderforschungsbereich 64 (SFB 64) Universität Stuttgart, Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1977
Paduart André, Structures spatiales discontinues, Centre Belgo-Luxembourgeois d'Information
de l'Acier, Bruxelles
Ramm Ekkehard, Stein E., Wunderlich W., Finite Elemente in der Baupraxis, Ernst & Sohn Berlin,
Berlin 1995
Singer Peter, Deutsche Geodätische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Die Berechnung von Minimalflächen, Seifenblasen, Membranen und Pneus aus geodätischer Sicht,
C. H. Beck´sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, München 1995
Unger Christian, Einbau eines zweidimensionalen, isoparametrischen Elements in ein FE-Programm
für rotierende Strukturen, Wien 1991
88
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ANCHORS AND FOUNDATIONS
Das, B. M., Earth Anchors, Developments in Geotechnical Engineering, vol. 50. Elsevier Science
Publishing Co. Inc., New York 1990
Widmann R., Anchors in theory and practice, International Symposium, Balkema, Rotterdam 1995
Xanthakos Petros, Ground anchors and anchored structures, John Wiley & Sonscop, New York 1991
ANTECEDENTS AND HISTORY
Blue Evening Star, Tipis & yurts authentic desings for circular shelters, Lark Books, North Carolina,
1995
Cataldi Gian-Carlo, All'origine dell'abitare, Alinea Editrice, Firenze 1986
Faegre Torvald, Tents, architecture of the nomads, John Murray, London 1979
Guidoni Enrico,:Architettura primitiva, Electa Editrice, Milano 1975
IL 37 Alte Baumeister - Ancient Architects, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke
(IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1994
Laubin G., The indian tipi, Ballantine Books, New York 1957
Le Corbusier, Vers une Architecture, Crès et Cie, Paris 1923
Llorens Joseph et al., The Envelat, a big dancing tent for local holidays in Catalunya "Spain",
International Conference on Lightweight Structures in Architecture, Unisearch Limited, The
University of The South Wales, Sydney 1986
Peters H.M., Spiders and their webs, 28-40. Institut for Lightweight Structures, Stuttgart 1973
Viollet-le-Duc, Histoire de l'habitation humaine, Bibliotheque d'education et de recreation Paris,
Paris 1875
ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS
Canobbio, nuovi spazi del tessile in architettura, Castelnuovo Scrivia (AL) 2000
Berger Horst, Light Structures - Structures of Light, The Art and Engineering of Tensile
Architecture, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Berlin, Boston 1996
Sobek Werner, Blaser Werner, Art of Engineering, Ingenieurkunst, Birkhäuser - Verlag für
Architektur, Basel, Boston, Berlin, 1999
Sommer Degenhard, Ove Arup & Partners, engineering the built environment, Ingenieure als
Wegbereiter der Architektur; Prinzipien, Projekte, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Berlin 1994
CABLES, ROPES AND FITTINGS
Burgoyne Chris, Polyaramid ropes for tension structures, Tension Structures, vol.II, The Institution
of Structural Engineers, London 1988
Llorca Javier et al., Fatigue behaviour of wive ropes, Materials and Structures, 22, 411-419, 1989
89
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CONTROL
Geiger David, A cost comparison of roof systems for sports halls, Bulletin of the International
Association of Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), 1988
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), 96, vol. XXIX-1, 9-23. IASS, Madrid
Laboratori General d'Assaigs i Investigacions, Informatiu, Generalitat de Catalunya, Departament
d'Industria Comerç i Turisme, Bellaterra
COST
Geiger David, A cost evaluation of space trusses of large span, American Institute of Steel
Construction Engineering Journal, April, American Institute of Steel Construction, New York 1968
IL 20 Aufgaben - Tasks, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität
Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1979
CUTTING PATTERN
Gründig Lothar et al., Automated Cutting Pattern Determination and Control for Prestressed
Membranes, 1990
Proceedings of Textile Composites in Building Construction, Part 2. Pluralis, Lyon 1992
Gründig Lothar et al., Cutting Pattern of Structural Membranes - Precise Physical Modelling,
Proceedings of the International Association of Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) - Symposium
Toronto 1992
Gründig Lothar et al., Geodesic and Semi-Geodesic Line Algorithms for Cutting Pattern Generation
of Architectural Textile Structures, Proceedings of The Conference on Shell and Spatial Structures,
Beijing 1996
Gründig, Lothar et al., High-performance cutting pattern generation of architectural textile
structures, Proceedings Fourth International Colloquium on Computation of Shell & Spatial
Structures, 2000
Moncrieff Eric et al., Computer Methods for the Generation of Membrane Cutting Patterns,
Computers and Structures, vol 37, 1990
DESIGN
IL 31 Bambus - Bamboo, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität
Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1986
Robbin Tony, Engineering a new architecture, Yale University Press, New Haven 1996
Schock Hans-Jörg, Soft shells, Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel 1997
DETAILS
Alluin et al., Fabrik in Lessay, Frankreich, Detail, 6, 802-805, Institut für internationale ArchitekturDokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Bergermann Rudolf et al., Bewegliche Überdachung für die Arena in Zaragoza, Detail, 6, Institut für
internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
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Formfinder
Bianchi Lorenzo, Frachthalle am Flughafen Charles de Gaulle in Roissy, Detail, 6, Institut für
internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Brookes Allen, et al., Connections. Studies in building assembly, Butterworth Architecture,
Oxford 1992
Bubner Ewald, Membrankonstruktionen, Druckerei Wehlmann GmbH, Essen 1987
Capasso Aldo, La tensostrutture a membrana per l'architettura, Maggioli Editore, Rimini 1993
Chaplin F., The technology of suspended cable net structures, Construction Press, Longman 1984
Dawson Susan, An asymmetrical fabric roof, A. J., 50-51, Emap Construct, London 1993
Dawson Susan, A fabric roof to a stairwell, A. J., 36-37. Emap Construct, London 1994
Geipel Finn et al., Temporäre Überdachung der Antiken Arena in Nimes, Detail, 6, 819-824, Institut
für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Giachetti Maurizio, Zeltstrukturen für Ausgrabungen anf Pianosa und in Desenzano die Garda,
Detail, 6, 795-797, Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Girmes In-Tex GmbH & Co KG, Produktkatalog, Grefrath
Hebbelinck Sven, A Generating System for Temporary, Adaptable and Reusable Nets and Tensile
Structures, Brussels 2001
Hopkins Michael et al, Verwaltungskomplex in Nottingham, Detail, 4, 658-666, Institut für
internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, München 1995
IL 5 Wandelbare Dächer - Convertible Roofs, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1973
Horden Richard, Strandwache in Südaustralien, Detail, 6, 790-791, Institut für internationale
Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Huntington C.G., Connections and detailing, Fabrics & Architecture, March/April, 64-67, IFAI,
Roseville 2000
Jenkins David, Mound stand lord's cricket ground, Architecture Desing and Technology Press,
London 1991
Jenkins David, Schlumberger Cambridge Research Centre, Phaidon, London 1993
Kochta Herbert, Raubtierhaus im Tierpark, München, Detail, 4, 628-629, Institut für internationale
Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, München 1995
Llorens Joseph et al., Composite materials with textile reinforcement for use in building
construction and related applications, Proceedings of the international symposium held in Lyon,
July 16/18, vol.2, 153-164, Pluralix, Paris 1990
91
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Martinez José Antonio et al., Sonnensegel in Palma de Mallorca, Detail, 6, 792-794, Institut für
internationale Architektur - Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Piano Renzo, Stadion in Bari, Detail, 6, 829-832. Institut für internationale Architektur Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Prada J.M., Carpas para auditorio en Pinar del Rey, Madrid". Informes de la construcción,
vol.38, n.380, 39-45, Instituto Eduardo Torroja, Madrid 1986
Rasch Bodo et al, 4 Schirme im Innenhof von schops Wasseralfingen, Aalen, Detail, 6, 806-809,
Institut für internationale Architektur - Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Rasch Bodo et al, Bewegliche Überdachung für das Freilufttheater in Wiltz, Detail, 6, 810-812,
Institut für internationale Architektur - Dokumentation GmbH, München 1994
Scheuermann Rudi, et al., Tensile architecture in the urban context, Butterworth Architecture,
Oxford 1996
Schulitz et al., Steel construction manual, Edition Detail, München 2000
Siegel et al., Stadion in Stuttgart, Detail, 6, 825-828, Institut für internationale ArchitekturDokumentation GmbH, München 1994
EDUCATION
Engel Heino, Rapson Ralph, Bandel Hannskarl, Tragsysteme/Structure Systems, Verlag Gerd
Hatje, 1998
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS AND ENERGY
IL 11 Leichtbau und Energietechnik - Lightweight and Energy Technics, Mitteilungen des Instituts
für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart
EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
Berger Horst et al., Tensile structures highlight new Denver airport, Bulletin of the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), 115, vol 35 - 2, 110-116, Madrid 1994
Boxer Keith et al., Tensile architecture in the urban context, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995
Building Desing Partnership, Tunnel vision, A. J., Emap Construct, London 1993
Building Desing Partnership, A unique transport interchange, A. J., 11/05, 41 - 52, Emap Construct,
London 1994
Capasso Aldo, Le tensostrutture a membrana per l'architettura, Maggioli Editore, Rimini 1993
Finch P., Civilising influence of a visionary urban desing, A. J., 16/11, 44 - 47, Emap Construct,
London 1995
Glaeser Ludwig, The work of Frei Otto, The Museum of Modern Art, New York 1972
Glaeser Ludwig, The work of Frei Otto and his teams 1955-1976, Institut for Lightweight
Structures, Stuttgart 1978
92
Formfinder
Holgate Ann, The work of Jörg Schlaich and his team, Edition Axel Menges, Stuttgart 1997
Horden Richard, Light Tech, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel 1995
IL 13 Multihalle Mannheim - Multi Hall Mannheim, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1978
IL 29 Die Zeltstädte des Hadsch - The Tent Cities of the Hajj, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1980
Ishii Kazou, Membrane structures in Japan, SPS Publishing Company, Tokyo 1995
Ishii Kazou, Membrane Designs and Structures in the World, Shinkenchiku-sha Co. Ltd
Tokyo 1999
Kronenbourg Robert, Houses in Motion - the genesis, history and development of the portable
building, Wiley-Academy, Chichester 2002
Kronenbourg Robert, Portable Architecture, Architectural Press, 1996
Ludwig Matthias, Mobile Architektur - Geschichte und Entwicklung transportabler und modularer
Bauten, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1997
Nohmura Ryotaro, The development of fabric structures in Japan and in the United States, Bulletin
of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), vol.33, n.13, 156-164.,
Madrid 1991
Otto Frei et al, Finding Form, Edition Axel Menges, Stuttgart 1995
Roland C., Frei Otto, Spannweiten, Verlag Ullstein GmbH, Frankfurt 1965
Schock Hans-Joachim, Soft shells: design and technology of tensile architecture, Birkhäuser-Verlag,
Basel Berlin Boston 1997
Singmaster D., Bus station brightens up London's East End, A. J., 08/12, 22-23, Emap Construct,
London 1994
FORM FINDING
Höller Ralf, Formfindung, Architektonische Grundlagen für den Entwurf von mechanisch
vorgespannten Membranen, Verlag Dr. Thomas Balistier, Tübingen 1999
IL 8 Netze in Natur und Technik - Nets in Nature and Technics, Mitteilungen des Instituts für
Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1975
93
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GENERAL INFORMATION
Architen Ltd., Membrane structures off the peg, A.J., 63-65, Emap Construct,
London 1987
Benjamin B. S., Structural design with plastics, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York 1969
Benjamin B. S., Structures for architects, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York 1984
Berger Horst, The evolving design vocabulary of fabric structures, Architectural Record, 173, 1985
Dudszus Alfred, Köpcke Alfred, Das grosse Buch der Schiffstypen, Transpress Verlags gmbH,
Berlin 1990
Hellwig Gerhard, Lexikon der Maße und Gewichte, Lexikon-Institut Bertelsmann, Stuttgart 1983
Horn Roland, Küffner Georg, Stahl und Licht- Structure and Light, Fotografien von Roland Horn Das Dach des Sony Center am Potsdamer Platz, Nicolaische Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin 2000
IL 6 Biologie und Bauen 3 - Biology and Building 3, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1973
IL 7 Schatten in der Wüste - Shadow in the Desert, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1972
IL 10 Gitterschalen - Grid Shells, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1974
IL 17 The Work of Frei Otto and his teams 1955 - 1976, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1978
IL 41 Intelligent Bauen - Building with Intelligence, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1995
Levitt Michael, The North Sails Story North Marine Group, Milano 1999
Llorens Joseph et al., Construcciones de lona, On-Diseño 62, 11-32, Aram Ediciones,
Barcelona 1985
Schlaich Jörg et al., Tensile membrane structures, Bulletin of the International Association for Shell
and Spatial Structures (IASS), 102-103, vol 31, 19-32, Madrid 1990
Shaeffer R. E., Tensioned Fabric Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),
New York 1996
Watt Alan, 3D Computer Graphics, Addison Wesley, Wokingham 1993
Whidden Tom, Levitt Michael, Das Segel - Material Konstruktion Aerodynamik
Praxis - The Art and Science of Sails - a guide to modern Materials, Construction, Aerodynamics,
Upkeep and Use, Delius Klasing Verlag, Bielefeld 1992
94
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HANDBOOKS AND BASIC REFERENCES
Berger Horst, Light Structures Structures of Light, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel 1996
Chaplin F. et al., The technology of suspended cable structures, Construction Press, Harlow 1984
Drew Philip, Tensile architecture, Granada Publishing Limited, London 1979
Frei Otto, Zugbeanspruchte Konstruktionen, Gestalt, Struktur und Berechnung von Bauten aus
Seilen, Netzen und und Membranen, Ullstein Fachverlag, Berlin; Frankfurt am Main 1962
Frei Otto, Das hängende Dach, Gestalt und Struktur, Bauwelt Verlag, Berlin 1954
Heinle Erwin, Schlaich Jörg, Kuppeln aller Zeiten - aller Kulturen, Deutsche Verlagsanstalt,
Stuttgart 1996
Hoppe Diether, Freigespannte textile Membrankonstruktionen: Ein Beitrag zur geschichtlichen,
materialtechnischen, konstruktiven und gegenwaertigen Entwicklung, Wien 1998
IL 22 Otto Frei, Form Kraft Masse 2 - Form, Form Force Mass 2, Mitteilungen des Instituts für
Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag Stuttgart 1988
IL 23 Form Kraft Masse 3 - Konstruktion, Form Force Mass 3 - Structure, Mitteilungen des Instituts
für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1992
IL 24 Form Kraft Masse 4 - Prinzip Leichtbau - Form, Force Mass 4 - Lightweight Principle,
Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer
Verlag, Stuttgart
IL 25 Form Kraft Masse 5 - Experimente - Form, Force Mass 5 - Experiments, Mitteilungen des
Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1990
IL 26 Natur und Bauen, Nature and Architecture, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart
IL 27 Natürlich Bauen, Natural Building, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke
(IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1981
Majowiecki Massimo, Tensostrutture : progetto e verifica, Edizioni CREA, Genova 1994
Scheuermann Rudi, et al., Tensile architecture in the urban context, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford 1996
Thornton J., Materials Benefits, A.J., 19, 42-43. Emap Construct, London 1996
Vandenberg Maritz, Soft canopies, AD - Academy Editions, London 1996
95
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MAGAZINES
Detail Zeitschrift für Architektur + Baudetail, Bauen mit Membranen, Institut für internationale
Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, München
Fabric architecture, The Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI), Roseville Minnesota
Fabrics & Architecture, IFAI, Roseville, MN
MATERIALS
Geiger David, Recherche de tissus pour structures gonflables de faible hauteur, Techniques &
Architecture, 304, 38-42, Éditions Regirex, Paris 1975
SAILS AND BOATS
Banks, Looking at Sails, United National Publisher, Basel 1979
Howard J. et al., Sails, Aldlard Coles Limited, London 1967
Svensson S., The Lore of Sail, AB Nordbok, Gotheborg 1983
SOFTWARE
Franck B. M. et al, New software, Fabrics & Architecture, 33-39., IFAI, Roseville, MN 1998
Gründig Lothar et al., The design of wide span roof structures using microcomputers, Computers &
Structures, vol.30 n.3, 495 - 501, 1988
Technet GmbH, Easy, Handbuch, Berlin 1999
SPECIFICATIONS
Fabrics & Architecture, Fabric specification table, Fabrics & Architecture, vol 9, n.6., IFAI, Roseville,
MN 1997
SYMPOSIUMS AND CONFERENCES AND EXHIBITIONS
Bridging Large Spans From Antiquity to the Present, Intanbul 2000
Fourth International Colloquium on Computation of Shell & Spatial Structur, Creta 2000
Mobile and Rapidly Assembled Structures III, Computational Mechanics, Southampton,
United Kingdom 2000
Shells and spatial structures from recent past to the next millenium,. International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), Madrid 1999
Techtextil, Messe Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main 2001, 2003
The Design of Membrane and Lightweight Structures, Vrije Universiteit, Brussels 2000
Widespan, Roof Structures, Thomas Telford, London 2000
96
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TENSILE STRUCTURES
Ashmawy M. A. et al., A Numerical Method for the Nonlinear Static Analysis of Space Cable Skeletal
Structures, Bulletin of the International Association for Shel and Spatial Structures (IASS),
Madrid 1997
Barnes Michael et al., Widespan. Roof structures, Thomas Telford, London 2000
Beaubois H., Airships an illustrated History, Macdonald and Jane's, London 1973
Buchholdt Hans Anton, Introduction to cable structures, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 1985
Bulson P.S., Rapidly assembled structures, Proceedings of the International Conference Held at
Southampton, Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton, United Kingdom 1991
IL 16 Zelte - Tents, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität
Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1976
IL 30 Vela, Toldos, Sonnenzelte - Sun & Shade, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1984
IL 32 Leichtbau in Architektur und Natur - Lightweight in Architecture and Nature, Mitteilungen
des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag,
Stuttgart 1983
THEORY AND RESEARCH
Drixler Erwin, Deutsche Geodätische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Analyse der Form und Lage von Objekten im Raum, C. H. Beck´schen
Verlagsbuchhandlung, München 1993
IL 2 Stadt in der Arktis - City in the Arctic, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke
(IL) Universität Stuttgart; Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1971
IL 10 Grid Shells, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart;
Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1974
IL 14 Anpassungsfähig Bauen - Adaptable Architectue, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1975
IL 28 Diatomeen 1 - Diatoms 1, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1985
IL 33 Radiolarien - Radiolaria, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart
IL 34 Das Modell - The Model, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1989
IL 36 Subjective Standorte - Subjective Standpoints, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1984
97
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IL 38 Diatomeen 2 - Diatoms 1, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart
IL 39 Ungeplante Siedlungen - Non-planned Settlements, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1992
Teichmann Klaus, Sonderforschungsbereich (SFB), Natürliche Konstruktionen, Leichtbau in
Architektur, Prozeß und Form, Ernst, Berlin 1996
TYPOLOGY
Berger Horst, New developments in lightweight dome structures, Bulletin of the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), vol 30, n.101, 135 - 145, Madrid 1989
Geiger David et al., The Desing and Construction of Two Cable Domes for the Korean Olympics,
Shells, Membranes and Space Frames. Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures (IASS), Osaka, 1986
Geiger David, Exhibition Halls & Sports Stadia: Recent Works of Geiger Associates, Proceedings of
The Firts International Conference on Lightweight Structures in Architecture, The University of New
South Wales, Sydney 1986
Geiger David, The possibility of membrane structures, Bulletin of the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), 91, vol XXVII - 2, 33-38., Madrid 1986
IL 5 Convertible, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart,
Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1972
IL 10 Grid Shells, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart,
Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1974
Proceedings of the International Association of semiotic Studies (IASS), Symposium on Membrane
Structures and Space Frames, Osaka, vol 2, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam
Rebeck Gene, Tensegrity, Fabrics & Architecture, IFAI, Roseville, MN 1993
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7.7 Terms168 (Following terms are listed to avoid misunderstandings within text)
Accuracy
Precision, exactness or conformity to fact.
Adhesion
The state in which two surfaces are held together at an interface by forces or the interlocking
action of an adhesive or both. [BeHi01]
Air-supported
Roger Dent argues that ´pneumatics´, ´blow-ups´,
´inflatables´, ´airdomes´, ´airhouses´ nonchalantly
describe in one case the whole field of this
technology and in another just one particular
aspect. To define it accurately, however, it should
be known collectively as pressurised construction, a
term which implies the control and stabilisation of
all kinds of structures by means of pressure
differentials achieved by the uniform loading
actions of air, gases, liquids, or even granular solids.
Sketches are based on definitions by Kazou Ishii.
Aramid
Polyparaphenylene terephtalamide, a type of highly oriented aromatic polymer material. Used
primarily as a high-strength fibre. Available on the market as Kevlar and Twaron. [BeHi01]
Archetype
An original model or type after which other similar things are patterned: a prototype. It is the ideal
example of a type. [Dict92] p. 95
EQUAL VARIANT: Typology
Breakpoint
A point of discontinuity, change, or cessation.
Buckling
Unstable displacement of a structural part, such as a panel, caused by excessive compression
and/or shear. Microbuckling of fibres in a composite material can also occur under axial
compression. [BeHi01] p. 179
Cantilever
The portion of a beam or truss that projects beyond its last point of support. [Allen95] p. 237
………………………………
168
´Ultimate description´ is not the aim of this list. Knowledge base is part of the intention to give space for an
interdisciplinary dialogue. To elaborate terms, experts have to discuss and determinate the ´knowledge´ of
form-active systems
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Formfinder
Cartesian coordinate system
1. A two-dimensional coordinate system in which the coordinates of a point in a plane are its
distances from two perpendicular lines that intersect at an origin, the distance from each line
being measured along a straight line parallel to the other. 2. A three-dimensional coordinate
system in which the coordinates of a point in space are its distances from each of three
perpendicular lines that intersect at an origin. [Dict92] p. 295
Catenary
The curve theoretically formed by a perfectly flexible, uniformly dense, and inextensible cable
suspended from its endpoints.
Antonym: Funicular
Chord
The top or bottom linear element of a truss. [Allen95] p. 237
Creep
The change in dimension of a material, under constant load over a period of time. [BeHi01] p. 179
Ctrl-key
Lower left key on keyboard
Deflection
The amount by which a given point on a structural member moves when the member is placed
under a given load. [Allen95] p. 238
Deformation
Changes in size and shape of a body resulting from externally applied stress, temperature change,
and moisture absorption. [BeHi01] p. 179
Elastomer
Elastic substance occurring naturally as rubber, or produced synthetically as a specific gradation of
many polymer materials. [BeHi01] p. 179
Fibre
Single filament, rolled, formed in one direction, and used as the principal constituent of woven and
non woven composite materials. Most common fibres are glass,, boron, carbon and aramid.
[BeHi01] p. 179
Filament
A continuous discrete fibre. The cross-section is not necessarily circular. [BeHi01] p. 179
Form-active system
Form-active structure systems are structure systems of flexible, non-rigid matter, in which the
redirection of forces is effected through particular FORM DESIGN and characteristic FORM
STABILIZATION. [Engl97] p. 59
100
Formfinder
Funicular
Having the form that would be taken by a hanging rope that supports a given set of weights, or
having the inversion of that form. [Allen95] p. 238
Latin fu-niculus, slender rope, diminutive of fu-nis, rope. [Dict92] p. 735
Antonym: Catenary
Geometry
The mathematics of the properties, measurement and relationships of points, lines, angles,
surfaces, and solids. [Dict92] p. 758
Inflatable
Colloquial: Designed to be filled with air or gas before use. [Dict92] p. 926
EQUAL VARIANT: Air-supported
Minimal surface
The definition of a minimal surface is any surface that has a mean curvature of zero. Physically this
means that for a given boundary a minimal surface cannot be changed without increasing the area
of the surface http://www.uta.edu/optics/sudduth/4d/minimal/minimal_surfaces.htm
Raise element
Move element perpendicular to origin position.
Ratio
The relative value of
RATIO is the name of a tree in ELEMENTS window.
Latin ratio-, calculation, from ratus, past participle of re-ri-, to reckon, consinder [Dict92] p. 1500
Sag
1. Deflexion 2. The movement of a structure or structural part as a result of stress
Semantic
Of or relating to meaning, especially meaning in language. [Dict92] p. 1639
Shear
A slipping tendency along a plane in a material caused by parallel but opposite forces applied to
the two sides of the plane, much as a pair of scissors apply parallel but opposite forces to two
sides of a plane perpendicular to the plane of a sheet of paper. [Allen95] p. 240
Shear stress
The magnitude of shear in a structural member, measured in units of applied force per unit area.
[Allen95] p. 240
Synclastic
A surface on which the Gaussian curvature K is everywhere positive. When K is everywhere
negative, a surface is called anticlastic. A point at which the Gaussian curvature is positive is called
an elliptic point http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Synclastic.html
Strain
Deformation produced by stress. [Dict92] p. 1774
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Formfinder
Stress
1. An applied force or system of forces that tends to strain or deform a body. 2. The internal
resistance of a body to such an applied force or system of forces. [Dict92] p. 1778
Tensile stress
The magnitude of tension in a material, measured in units of applied force per unit area.
[Allen95] p. 241
T-Element
At the points on the boundaries, which will be new generated by the program NETGEN, it is not
possible to get a kink. The forces at these points are transformed to the neighbour points, which
are generated by the program RANGEN. The ratios of distances corresponds to the ratios of the
forces [Manual01] p. 8
Tie
A simple tensile structural member or a simple tensile connection device. [Allen95] p. 241
Truss
A structural spanning device in which the loads are translated into axial forces in a triangulated
system of slender members. [Allen95] p. 241
Typology
1. Shape Grammar
2. The study of systematic classification of types that have characteristics of traits in common.
[Dict92] p. 1935
EQUAL VARIANT: Archteype
Units converter
Name for the tool in DRAW to convert different units
Vault
A structural form consisting of an arch translated along an axis not in its plane, or of a
combination of such translations. [Allen95] p. 241
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7.8 Acronyms
3d
ADD
approx.
API
ASP
BMP
CAGD
CAI
CAL
CBT
CMS
CSS
DHTML
DTD
DOM
GDL
e.g.
et al.
etc.
HTML
i.e.
ITS
J2EE
JVM
JPEG
LAMP
MASS ML
MBD
OLE
p.
PDF
PHP
resp.
RDBMS
SGML
SOAP
WBT
XML
XSL
XSLT
7.8 Notation
A, b, a, b
A, b
D
F
DRAW
EASY
Three-dimensional
Architectural Design Document
Approximately
Application Programming Interface
Active Server Pages
Bitmap
Computer-Aided-Geometric-Design
Computer Assisted Instruction
Computer Assisted Learning
Computer Based Training (mostly CBT/WBT)
Computational Material Science
Cascading Style Sheets
Dynamic Hypertext Markup Language
Document Type Definition
Document Object Model
Geometric Description Language (by ArchiCAD)
Exempli gratia
Latin et alia, and others
et cetera
Hypertext Markup Language
Latin id est, that is
Intelligent Tutoring System
Java 2 Enterprise Edition
Java Viritual Machine
Joint Photographic Experts Group, extension of file is JPG
Linux Apache MySQL PHP
Multi-Application Support Service System Markup Language
Model Based Design
Object linking and embedding
Page
Portable Document Format
PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
Respectively
Rational Database Management System (e.g. Access, MySQL)
Standard Generalized Markup Language
Simple Object Access Protocol
Web Based Training
Extensible Markup Language
Extensible Style Language
Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformation
Real numbers or real-valued function
Points or vectors
Differences of parameter intervals
Affine mapping
Capitalized for a chapter or a term
Modules or software packages are printed in Arial font
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Formfinder
7.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[ACHKM91]
Arkin, Chew, Huttenlocher, Kedem, Mitchel, An efficiently computable metric for
comparing polygon shapes, IEEE Transaction on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence 13, 1991
[Allen95]
Allen Edward, How Buildings Work, The natural order of architecture, 2nd edition,
Oxford University Press, New York - Oxford, 1995
[Baker89]
Baker, Geoffrey Howard, Design strategies in architecture: an approach to the
analysis of form. Van Nostrand Reinhold Int. Co. Ltd London 1989
[Berger96]
Berger Horst, Light Structures - Structures of Light, The Art and Engineering of
Tensile Architecture, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Berlin, Boston 1996
[Blum85]
Blum Rainer, Beitrag zur nichtlinearen Membrantheorie, Sonderforschungsbereich
64 (SFB 64) – Universität Stuttgart, Düsseldorf 1985
[BeHi01]
Beukers Adriaan, Hinte Ed van, The inevitable renaissance of minimum energy
structures, 010 publishers, Rotterdam 2001
[Bubner77]
Bubner Ewald, Baier Bernd, Koennen Reinhold, Oelbermann Jobst,
Minimalkonstruktionen: Beiträge zum Symposium ´Minimalkonstruktionen´, March
2nd - 4th 1977, Universität Essen Gesamthochschule, Köln-Bransfeld, Müller, 1977
[Dent71]
Dent Roger Nicholas, Principles of Pneumatic Architecture, London 1971
[Dict92]
The american heritage dictionary of the english language, 3rd edition, Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston - New York 1992
[Drixler93]
Drixler Erwin, Analyse der Form und Lage von Objekten im Raum, Deutsche
Geodätische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, C. H.
Beck´schen Verlagsbuchhandlung, München 1993
[Engl97]
Engel Heino, Tragsysteme Structure Systems 1967 1997, 2nd edition Verlag Gerd
Hatje http://www.hatje.de
[FabricA]
Fabric architecture, The Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI), Roseville,
Minnesota USA
[Farin94]
Farin Gerald, Kurven und Flächen im Computer Aided Geometric Design, Curves
and surfaces in CAGD, Academic Press Inc., Übersetzung Wolters J. Hans, Vieweg,
Braunschweig, Wiesbaden 1994
[Gründig76]
Die Berechnung vorgespannter Seil- und Hängenetze unter Berücksichtigung ihrer
topologischen und physikalischen Eigenschaften und der Ausgleichungsrechnung,
Deutsche Geodätische Kommission Reihe C, Heft Nr. 216, München 1976
[Gründig97]
Gründig Lothar, On the feasibility of using large scale photogrammetry to
accurately determine in-service strain distribution across the-dimensional textile
roofs, Generation of Synthetic Images, 1997
104
Formfinder
[Hebbe01]
Hebbelinck Sven, A Generation System for Temporary, Adaptable and Reusable Nets
and Tensile Structures, doctoral thesis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium 2001
[Heinle96]
Heinle Erwin, Schlaich Jörg, Kuppeln aller Zeiten – aller Kulturen, Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1996
[Hellwig83]
Hellwig Gerhard, Maße und Gewichte, Lexikon der Maße und Gewichte, LexikonInstitut Bertelsmann, Stuttgart 1983
[Herzog76]
Herzog Thomas, Pneumatische Konstruktionen, Bauten aus Membranen und Luft
englische Ausgabe, Hatje, Stuttgart 1976
[Höller99]
Höller Ralf, FormFindung: architektonische Grundlagen für den Entwurf von
mechanisch vorgespannten Membranen und Seilnetzen, Mähringen: Balistier, 1999
[Hoppe98]
Hoppe Diether, Freigespannte textile Membrankonstruktionen, doctoral thesis,
Vienna University of Technology, Vienna 1998
[Hoschek92]
Hoschek Josef, Lasser Dieter, Grundlagen der geometrischen Datenverarbeitung,
B. G. Teubner Stuttgart 1992
[IL5]
IL 5 Otto Frei, Wandelbare Dächer, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte
Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Fink GmbH Stuttgart 1971
[IL11]
IL 11 Bach Klaus, Hennicke Jürgen, Graefe Reiner, Otto Frei, Leichtbau und
Energietechnik, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Fink GmbH Stuttgart 1978
[IL15]
IL 15 Drüsedau Heide, Otto Frei, Das Lufthallenbuch, Air hall handbook,
Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart,
Fink GmbH Stuttgart 1983
[IL16]
IL 16 Zelte - Tents, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL)
Universität Stuttgart, Karl Krämer Verlag, Stuttgart 1976
[IL18]
IL 18 Otto Frei, Seifenblasen, Forming Bubbles, Mitteilungen des Instituts für
Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, Schwäbische Druckerei
Stuttgart 1988
[IL24]
IL 24 Otto Frei, Klenk Frieder, Prinzip Leichtbau, Lightweight principle, Mitteilungen
des Instituts für Leichte Flächentragwerke (IL) Universität Stuttgart, S. D. Team
Stümpflen GmbH, Stuttgart 1998
[ISI96]
CD-ROM, ISIMEM Learn Ingenieurgemeinschaft Flächentragwerke http://www.ifgroup.de, CADISI technet gmbh http://www.technet-gmbh.com 1996
[Ishii95]
Kazou Ishii, Membrane Structures In Japan, SPS Publishing Company, Tokyo 1995
[Ishii99]
Kazou Ishii, Membrane Designs and Structures in the World, Shinkenchiku-sha Co.
Ltd., Tokyo 1999
105
Formfinder
[LeCorb53]
Le Corbusier, Der Modulor, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt GmbH, Stuttgart, 1998
[Levitt99]
Levitt Michael, The North Sails Story, Milano 1999
[Linkwitz71]
Linkwitz Klaus and Schek Hans-Jörg, Einige Bemerkungen zur Berechnung von
vorgespannten Seilnetzkonstruktionen, Ingenieur-Archiv 40, 1971
[Manual01]
Manual EASY, Paper for training, technet gmbh Berlin - Stuttgart, 2001
[Merkl98]
Merkl Dieter, Unsupervised text classification, postdoctoral lecture qualification,
Vienna 1998
[MeRa97]
Merkl Dieter, Rauber Andreas Cluster Connections – A visualization technique to
reveal cluster boundaries in self-organizing maps. In M. Marinaro and R. Tagliaferri,
(editors), Proceedings of the 9th Italian Workshop on Neural Nets, Perspectives in
Neural Computing, Springer, Vietri sul Mare, Italy 1997
[Mollaert02]
Mollaert Marijke (editor), The Design of membrane and lightweight structures,
Proceedings of the symposium at the Vrije Universiteit Brüssel, VUB Brussels
University Press, 2000
[Morris64]
Morris, Charles William, Foundations of the theory of signs, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago 1964
[Nielsen94]
Nielsen Jakob, Mack Robert (editors) Usability Inspection Methods, John Wiley &
Sons Inc., New York 1994 http://www.useit.com
[Noesgen77]
Noesgen Jürgen, Vorgespannte Seilnetztragwerke – Zum Tragverhalten des
quadratischen Netzes mit Randseilen, Sonderforschungsbereich 64 (SFB 64) –
Universität Stuttgart, Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1977
[Otto54]
Otto Frei, Das hängende Dach, Gestalt und Struktur, Bauwelt Verlag, Berlin 1954
[Otto62]
Otto Frei, Zugbeanspruchte Konstruktionen, Gestalt, Struktur und Berechnung von
Bauten aus Seilen, Netzen und Membranen, Ullstein Fachverlag, Frankfurt, Berlin
1962
[Otto77]
Otto Ulrich, Seilkonstruktionen – Verfahren zur Näherungsberechnung von Kräften
und Verformungen in Seilen und vorgespannten Seilnetzen,
Sonderforschungsbereich 64 (SFB 64) – Universität Stuttgart, Werner-Verlag,
Düsseldorf 1977
[Preece02]
Preece Jennifer, Yvonne Rogers, Helen Sharp, Interaction design: beyond humancomputer interaction, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York 2002
http://www.ID-BOOK.com
[Ramm95]
Ramm Ekkehard, Formfindung und Entwurf Natürlicher Konstruktionen: ´Statique
expérimentale et théoretique des liquides soumis aux seules forces moléculaires´
(Experimentelle und theoretische Statik von Flüssigkeiten, die allein
Molekularkräften unterliegen), Finite Elemente in der Baupraxis, Ernst, Berlin 1995
106
Formfinder
[Roith01]
Roithmayr Robert, Traglufthalle ´changing skin´, Diploma thesis, Vienna University
of Technology, Vienna 2001
[Sails02]
Sails Science Software Package, Northcote Auckland, New Zealand 2002
[Schock97]
Schock Hans-Joachim, Segel, Folien und Membranen, Innovative Konstruktionen in
der textilen Architektur, Birkhäuser – Verlag für Architektur, Basel Berlin Boston
1997
[Singer95]
Singer Peter, Die Berechnung von Minimalflächen, Seifenblasen, Membranen und
Pneus aus geodätischer Sicht, Deutsche Geodätische Kommission bei der
Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, C. H. Beck´sche Verlagsbuchhandlung,
München 1995
[Sobek99]
Sobek Werner, Art of Engineering, Ingenieurkunst, Birkhäuser – Verlag für
Architektur, Basel, Boston, Berlin 1999
[technet03]
Technet gmbh, Easy, Manual, Berlin - Stuttgart 2003
http://www.technet-gmbh.com
[Techt03]
CD-ROM, Techtextil Symposium, 12th International Techtextil Symposium for
Technical Textiles, Nonwovens and Textile Reinforced Materials, Messe Frankfurt
GmbH, 2003 http://www.techtextil.com
[TextR02]
Textile Roofs 2002, The Seventh International Workshop on the Design and
Paractical Realisation of Architectural Membrane Structures, Berlin University of
Technology, 2002
[Taenzer97]
Taenzer Lars, Strukturdynamische Modellierung und statische Berechnung von
Segelkonstruktionen, Technische Universität Berlin 1997
[Wessel02]
Wessel Ivo, GUI-Design, Carl Hanser Verlag München Wien, 2002
http://www.ivo-wessel.de
[Whid90]
Whidden Tom, Levitt Michael, Das Segel, Material Konstruktion Aerodynamik Praxis,
Bielefeld 1990
7.10 Image register
Image Name
Owner of copyright, location, country
Photographer
Formfind Icon
Samyn & Partner, M&G RICERCHE Venafro, Italy Matteo Piazza
Soltis
Ferrari SA, La Tour Du Pin cedex, France
THIS DOCUMENT WAS DOWNLOADED FROM WWW.FORMFINDER.AT
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