Karl Marx - Exzerpte und Notizen. Juli bis September 1851 (Text)

Transcription

KARL MARX
FRIEDRICH ENGELS
GESAMTAUSGABE
(MEGA)
VIERTE ABTEILUNG
EXZERPTE · NOTIZEN · MARGINALIEN
BAND 9
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DER
INTERNATIONALEN MARX-ENGELS-STIFTUNG
KARL MARX
EXZERPTE
UND NOTIZEN
JULI BIS SEPTEMBER
1851
TEXT
Bearbeitet von einer Forschungsgruppe der
Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg:
Ehrenfried Galander (Leiter), Wolfgang Jahn,
Klaus Fricke, Sonja Hausmann, Otto Schattenberg,
Klaus Stüde und Gisela Winkler
DIETZ VERLAG BERLIN
1991
Internationale Marx-Engels-Stiftung A m s t e r d a m :
Begründet von dem Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis Amsterdam,
dem Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus beim ZK der KPdSU Moskau,
der Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin
und dem Karl-Marx-Haus Trier
Der vorliegende Band wurde noch unter der früheren
Redaktionskommission erarbeitet.
Marx, Karl: Gesamtausgabe : (MEGA) / Karl Marx ; Friedrich Engels.
Hrsg. von der Internationalen Marx-Engels-Stiftung. - Berlin : Dietz Verl. GmbH
[Sammlung].
Abt. 4, Exzerpte, Notizen, Marginalien
Bd. 9. Exzerpte und Notizen, Juli bis September 1851 / Karl Marx
Text. - 1991. - 54, 552 S.: 10 Abb.
Apparat. - 1991. - S. 553-808: 10 Abb.
IV. Abt. ISBN 3-320-00150-7
Bd. IV/9 ISBN 3-320-00159-0
Text und Apparat
Mit 20 Abbildungen
© Dietz Verlag Berlin GmbH 1991
LSV 0046
Technische Redaktion: Jutta Knopp und Heinz Ruschinski
Korrektur: Hanna Behrendt, Barbara Boehnke, Renate Kröhnert
und Eva Mendl
Einband: Albert Kapr
Typografie: Albert Kapr/Horst Kinkel
Schrift: Timeless-Antiqua und Maxima
Printed in Germany
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Buchbinderische Verarbeitung: Leipziger Großbuchbinderei GmbH
Inhalt
Text
Apparat
13*
Einleitung
Editorische Hinweise
49*
Verzeichnis der Abkürzungen, Siglen und Zeichen
559
L o n d o n e r Hefte 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 5 3 . Heft XI-XIV
3
563
Heft XI
5
563
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgskin:
against the claims of capital ...
5
Labour defended
9
Exzerpte aus Robert Owen: Observations on the effect
of the manufacturing system
13
Exzerpte aus: The oppressed labourers ...
14
Exzerpte aus William Copland: A letter to the Rev. C. D.
Brereton ...
Exzerpte aus Nassau William Senior: Three lectures on
the rate of wages
16
Exzerpte aus James H. Renny: Hints on wages ...
18
Exzerpte aus Robert Torrens: On wages and combination
20
Exzerpte aus Nassau William Senior: Letters on the factory a c t . . .
22
Exzerpte aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry ...
25
15
5*
Inhalt
Text
Exzerpte aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, object, and effects of Trades' Unions
29
Exzerpte aus Thomas Henry Stirling: The question propounded
40
Exzerpte aus James Howard: The evils of England
41
Exzerpte aus William Logan: An exposure, from personal observation, of female prostitution
42
Exzerpte aus John Fielden: The curse of the factory system
43
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress
48
Exzerpte aus: The Edinburgh Review. Vol. 67. 1838
51
Exzerpte aus: The Westminster Review. Vol. 37. 1842
57
Exzerpte aus: The Westminster Review. Vol. 38. 1842
59
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung)
61
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last
forty years
77
Exzerpte aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Outlines of popular economy
80
Exzerpte aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts und artisans at home and abroad
82
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress
(Nachtrag)
93
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last
forty years (Nachtrag)
94
Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system ...
96
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (sen.): Notes of a traveller...
100
Exzerpte aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery
104
Heft XII
6*
110
Inhaltsverzeichnis
110
Exzerpte aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery
(Fortsetzung)
113
Apparat
604
Inhalt
Text
Exzerpte aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the causes ...
119
Exzerpte aus James Anderson: Essays. Relating to agriculture and rural affairs
120
Exzerpte aus Christophe-Joseph-Alexandre Mathieu de
Dombasle: Annales agricoles de Roville
124
Exzerpte aus: An inquiry into those principles, respecting the nature of demand ...
132
Exzerpte aus Samuel Turner: Considerations upon the
agriculture ...
135
Exzerpte aus John Stuckey Reynolds: Practical observations on Mr. Ricardo's Principles of political economy
136
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Economical enquiries ...
137
Exzerpte aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: The true
theory of rent
144
Exzerpte aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: Corn-law fallacies ...
146
Apparat
Exzerpte aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of
labour
147
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: On rent of land ...
153
Exzerpte aus David Ricardo: An essay on the influence
of a low price of corn ...
Exzerpte aus David Ricardo: On protection to agriculture
159
161
Exzerpte aus Charles Wentworth Dilke: The source and
remedy of the national difficulties ...
163
Exzerpte aus Robert Somers: Letters from the Highlands
166
Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie ...
172
Heft XIII
199
Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie ...
(Fortsetzung)
199
Exzerpte aus John Claudius Loudon: An encyclopaedia
of agriculture
214
635
7*
Inhalt
Text
Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the
poor laws
215
Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A journey through
Spain ...
219
Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the
poor laws (Nachtrag)
220
Exzerpte aus Robert Wallace: A dissertation on the number of mankind ...
221
Exzerpte aus David Hume: Political discourses
224
Exzerpte aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the
principle of population
226
Exzerpte aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus
230
Exzerpte aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-population and its remedy
235
Exzerpte aus Robert Vaughan: The age of great cities
248
Exzerpte aus Thomas Doubleday: The true law of population
250
Exzerpte aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on
the management of the poor in Scotland
253
Exzerpte aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population
256
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on
agricultural chemistry and geology
276
Exzerpte aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population (Nachtrag)
318
Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juni 1851
321
Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juli 1851
323
Heft XIV
8*
325
Exzerpte aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de
La Malle: Économie politique des Romains
325
Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen
über die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt
365
Apparat
669
Inhalt
Text
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of
agricultural chemistry and geology
372
Exzerpte aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social, and industrial
387
Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juni bis August 1851
394
Exzerpte aus: The Times. August 1851
402
Exzerpte aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the
conquest of Mexico
403
Exzerpte aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the
conquest of Peru
416
Exzerpte aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies
435
Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen
über die Politik ... (Fortsetzung)
454
Exzerpte aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies (Fortsetzung)
461
Exzerpte aus Felix Wakefield: Colonial surveying ...
482
Exzerpte aus Edward Gibbon Wakefield: A view of the
art of colonization
486
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgkin: An inquiry into the merits of the American Colonization Society
492
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgkin: On the British African
Colonization Society
493
Exzerpte aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The African slave
trade
494
Exzerpte aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The remedy; being
a sequel to the African slave trade
499
Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte ...
502
Exzerpte aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity
516
Exzerpte aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considérations
sur les causes de la grandeur ...
527
Exzerpte aus Henry Brougham: An inquiry into the colonial policy of the European powers
542
Apparat
9*
Inhalt
Text
Apparat
REGISTER
Literaturregister
I.Werke und Artikel
II. Periodica
755
755
773
Namenregister
775
Sachregister
796
Verzeichnis der Abbildungen
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Inhaltsverzeichnis
7
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing {jun.): National distress. Heft XI.
Seite 21
63
Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system ... Heft XI.
Seite 37
97
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Inhaltsverzeichnis
111
Exzerpte aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the causes ...
Heft XII. Seite 4
117
Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. Heft XII. Seite 32
173
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural
chemistry and geology. Heft XIII. Seite 39
289
290
313
Exzerpte aus Felix Wakefield: Colonial surveying, with a view to
the disposal of waste land. Heft XIV. Seite 68
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Titelblatt
483
581
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last forty
years. Heft XI. Seite 30
582
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Titelblatt
621
647
10*
Inhalt
Text
Apparat
Exzerpte aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle:
Économie politique des Romains. Heft XIV. Seite 1
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIV. Seite 23
648
671
677
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIV. Seite 24
678
Exzerpte aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social,
and industrial und Exzerpte aus dem „Economist" von 1851. Heft
XIV. Seite 30
695
Exzerpte aus dem „Economist" von 1851. Heft XIV. Seite 31
696
11*
KARL M A R X
EXZERPTE
UND
JULI
NOTIZEN
BIS S E P T E M B E R
1851
Londoner
Hefte
Heft
1850-1853
XI-XIV
H e f t XI
| Heft XI.
London. 1851. Juli.
| Inhalt.
I) Labour defended against the claims of capital. London. 1825. 2) Robert
Owen. Effects of the Manufacturing System. London. 1817. 3) The oppressed Labourers. London. 1819. 4) W. Copland. A letter to the Reverend
etc Brereton. Norwich. 1824. 5) N. W. Senior. Three Lectures on the Rate of
Wages. London. 1830 6) Hints on Wages etc London. 1832.
7) Torr ens. R. On Wages and Combination. London. 1834
10
8) N. W. Senior. Letters on the Factory Act. Lond. 1837.
9)
Brereton. A practical Enquiry into Number, Means of Employment of
Agricultural Lab. London. 1825 (?)
10)
Character, Object and Effects of Trades' Unions. London 1834.
I I ) Stirling.
The Question propounded: How will Great Britain ameliorate
15
the Distress of its Workmen. London. 1849.
12) The Evils of England. Social and Economical. By a London Physician.
London.
1848.
13) W. Logan. An Exposure etc of female Prostitution. Glasgow. 1843.
14) J. Fielden. The Curse of the Factory System. London 1836
20
15) S. Laing. National Distress, its Causes and its Remedies. London
1844
16) Edinburgh Review. (No. 67) Trades' Unions and Strikes. 1838.
17) Hopkins. Great Britain for the last 40 Years. London. 1834
18) J. C. Symons. Outlines of Popular Economy. London. 1840.
5
5
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI
19) J. C. Symons. Arts and Artisans. At Home and Abroad. Edinburgh.
1839.
20) Westminster Review. (1842) Industry and its Reward in Great Britain
and Ireland.
21) Charles Wing. Evils of the Factory System. London. 1836.
22) Laing (Samuel) Notes of a Traveller on the Social and Political State of
France etc London. 1842.
23) Gaskell (P.) Artisans and Machinery. London. 1836. |
6
5
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Inhaltsverzeichnis
Aus Thomas Hodgskin: Labour defended against the claims of capital
Iii Labour defended against the claims
of Capital; or the Unproductiveness
of capital proved. By a Labourer.
5
10
15
20
25
L o n d o n . 1825.
(with reference to t h e Present C o m b i n a t i o n s
amongst Journeymen.)
(Hodgskin?)
Theilung der Arbeit, sagt m a n , ist u n m ö g l i c h o h n e vorläufige A c c u m u l a tion von Capital. [8] A b e r »the Effects attributed to a stock of c o m m o d i t i e s ,
u n d e r the n a m e of circulating capital, are caused by co-existing labour«.
(9.) Do all the capitalists of E u r o p e possess at this m o m e n t o n e week's food
and clothing for all the labourers they employ? Let us first e x a m i n e t h e
question as to food. O n e portion of the food of t h e people is Bread, which is
never prepared till within a few h o u r s of t h e t i m e when it is eaten. ... T h e
p r o d u c e des baker c a n n o t be stored u p . In no case can the m a t e r i a l of
bread, whether it exist as corn or flour, be preserved without continual labour.
Die conviction des Arbeiters des c o t t o n s p i n n e r that he will o b t a i n b r e a d
when he requires it, a n d his master's conviction that the m o n e y he pays
h i m will enable h i m to o b t a i n it, arise simply from the fact that t h e b r e a d
has always b e e n o b t a i n e d w h e n required. (10) A n o t h e r article of the labourer's food is milk, a n d milk is m a n u f a c t u r e d ... twice a day. If it be said
t h a t the cattle to supply it are already there;—why the answer is, they require constant attention and constant labour, and their food, through the greater
part of the year, is of daily growth. T h e fields in which they pasture, require
the h a n d of m a n ... E b e n s o m i t d e m m e a t ; it c a n n o t be stored u p , for it begins instantly to deteriorate after it is brought to market. (10) Selbst Kleidungszeuge wegen der M o t t e n »only a very small stock is ever prepared,
9
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI
compared to the general c o n s u m p t i o n s (11) the only thing w h i c h c a n be
said to be stored up or previously prepared, is the s k i l l of t h e l a b o u r e r .
(12) Mill sagt m i t R e c h t "what is annually p r o d u c e d is annually cons u m e d " , so that, in fact, to enable m e n to carry on all those operations
which extend b e y o n d a year, there c a n n o t be any stock of c o m m o d i t i e s
stored u p . Those who u n d e r t a k e t h e m m u s t rely, therefore, n o t on any commodities already created, b u t that other m e n will l a b o u r a n d p r o d u c e what
they are to subsist on till their own products are completed. T h u s , should
t h e labourer a d m i t that some a c c u m u l a t i o n of circulating capital is necessary for operations t e r m i n a t e d within t h e year ... it is plain, t h a t in all o p erations w h i c h extend b e y o n d a year, t h e labourer does not, a n d he cannot,
rely on accumulated capital. (I.e.) all the effects usually attributed to accum u l a t i o n of circulating capital are derived from the accumulation and storing up of skilled labour u n d this m o s t i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n is performed, as
far as the great mass of the labourers is c o n c e r n e d without any circulating
capital whatever. (13) If we duly consider the n u m b e r a n d i m p o r t a n c e of
those wealth-producing operations which are n o t completed within t h e
year, and the n u m b e r l e s s products of daily labour, necessary to subsistence, which are c o n s u m e d as soon as produced, we shall be sensible t h a t
t h e success a n d productive power of every different species of labour is at all
times more dependant on the coexisting productive labour of other men than on
any accumulation of circulating capital. (I.e.) It is by the c o m m a n d the capitalist possesses over the labour of some men n o t by his possessing a stock of
c o m m o d i t i e s , that He is enabled to support a n d consequently employ other
labourers. (14) W a s nun das fixe Capital angeht, so: all i n s t r u m e n t s a n d m a chines t h e produce of labour. (14) As long as they are merely t h e result of
previous labour, a n d are n o t applied to their respective uses by labourers,
they do n o t repay the expense of m a k i n g t h e m . ... m o s t of t h e m d i m i n i s h
in value from being kept. ... Fixed capital does not derive its utility from previous, but present labour; a n d does n o t bring its owner a profit because it has
b e e n stored u p , b u t b e c a u s e it is a means of obtaining a command over labour.
([14,] 15) After any i n s t r u m e n t s have b e e n m a d e , what do they effect?
N o t h i n g . On the contrary they begin to rust or decay unless u s e d or applied
by labour. (I.e.) W h e t h e r an i n s t r u m e n t shall be regarded as productive
capital or not, depends entirely on its being used, or not, by s o m e p r o d u c tive labourer. (15, 16) O n e easily c o m p r e h e n d s why ... the r o a d - m a k e r
should receive some of the benefits, accruing only to the road user; b u t I
do n o t c o m p r e h e n d why all these benefits should go to the road itself, a n d be
appropriated by a set of persons who n e i t h e r m a k e n o r use it, u n d e r the
n a m e of profit for their capital. (16) Capital is a sort of cabalistic word, like
c h u r c h or state, or any other of those general t e r m s which are invented by
10
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Aus Thomas Hodgskin: Labour defended against the claims of capital
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
those who fleece t h e rest of m a n k i n d to conceal t h e h a n d t h a t shears t h e m .
(17) s t e a m engine ... its vast utility does n o t d e p e n d on stored up iron a n d
wood, b u t on t h a t practical a n d living knowledge of t h e powers of n a t u r e
which enables s o m e m e n to construct it, a n d others to guide it. (I.c.) W i t h out knowledge they (die M a s c h i n e n ) could n o t be invented; without m a n u a l skill a n d dexterity they could n o t be m a d e , a n d without skill a n d labour, they could n o t be productively used. But there is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n
knowledge, skill, a n d l a b o u r requisite, on which t h e capitalist can found a
claim to any share of the p r o d u c e . (18) After he (the m a n ) h a s inherited t h e
knowledge of several generations, a n d w h e n he lives congregated i n t o great
masses, he is e n a b l e d by h i s m e n t a l faculties to complete t h e work of n a ture etc. (I.e.) circulating C a p i t a l . . . is created only for c o n s u m p t i o n ; while
fixed capital ... is m a d e , n o t to be c o n s u m e d , b u t to aid the l a b o u r e r in
producing those things w h i c h are to be c o n s u m e d . (19) it is n o t t h e quantity
b u t the quality of t h e fixed capital on which t h e productive industry of a
country depends. . . . A l t h o u g h t h e n u m b e r of labourers m u s t at all t i m e s
d e p e n d on the quantity of circulating Capital, or, as I should say, on t h e
quantity of the products of coexisting labour, which labourers are allowed to
c o n s u m e ; the quantity of c o m m o d i t i e s they p r o d u c e , will d e p e n d on t h e efficiency of their fixed capital. Circulating capital n o u r i s h e s a n d supports
m e n as its quantity is increased; fixed capital as a m e a n s of n o u r i s h i n g a n d
supporting m e n , d e p e n d s for its efficiency, altogether on the skill of the labourer, a n d consequently t h e productive industry of a country, as far as
fixed capital is c o n c e r n e d , is in proportion to knowledge a n d skill of t h e
people. (19, 20) A m e r e glance m u s t satisfy every m i n d t h a t simple profit
does n o t decrease b u t increase in the progress of society, i.e., t h e s a m e
quantity of labour w h i c h at any former period p r o d u c e d 100 qrs of wheat,
and 100 steamengines, will now p r o d u c e somewhat m[ore,] ||2| or t h e value
of somewhat m o r e : or where is the utility of all o u r boasted i m p r o v e m e n t s ?
In fact, also, we find t h a t a m u c h greater n u m b e r of persons now live in o p u l e n c e on profit in this country t h a n formerly. It is clear, however, that no
labour, no productive power, no ingenuity, a n d no art, can answer t h e overwhelming d e m a n d s of c o m p o u n d interest. But all saving is m a d e from t h e
revenue of t h e capitalist, so t h a t actually these d e m a n d s are constantly
m a d e , a n d as constantly the productive power of labour refuses to satisfy
t h e m . A sort of b a l a n c e is, therefore, constantly struck. (23) A l m o s t every
p r o d u c t of art a n d skill is t h e result of j o i n t a n d c o m b i n e d labour. So dep e n d e n t i s m a n o n m a n , a n d s o m u c h does this d e p e n d e n c e increase a s society advances, that hardly any l a b o u r of any single individual ... is of t h e
least value b u t as forming a part of the great social task. ... W h e r e v e r t h e
division of labour is introduced, therefore, t h e j u d g m e n t of other m e n in-
11
tervenes before the labourer can realise his earnings, a n d there is no longer
any thing which we can call the n a t u r a l reward of individual labour. E a c h
labourer produces only some part of a whole, a n d e a c h part, having no value or utility of itself, there is n o t h i n g on which t h e labourer can seize, a n d
say: this is my product, this I will keep to myself. Between the c o m m e n c e m e n t of any j o i n t operation, s u c h as that of m a k i n g cloth, a n d the division
of its product a m o n g the different persons whose c o m b i n e d exertions have
p r o d u c e d it, the j u d g m e n t of m e n m u s t intervene several times, a n d the
question is, how m u c h of this j o i n t p r o d u c t should go to e a c h of the i n d i viduals whose u n i t e d labours p r o d u c e it? (25.) I know no way of deciding
this b u t by leaving it to be settled by the unfettered j u d g m e n t s of the labourers themselves. (I.e.) I m u s t add that it is doubtful whether o n e species
of l a b o u r is m o r e valuable t h a n another; certainly it is n o t m o r e necessary.
(26) Masters are labourers as well as their j o u r n e y m e n . In this character
their interest is precisely the same as that of their m e n . But they are also
either capitalists or the agents of the capitalist, a n d in this respect their interest is decidedly opposed to the interest of their workmen. (27) T h e wide
spread of e d u c a t i o n a m o n g the j o u r n e y m e n m e c h a n i c s of this country, dim i n i s h e s daily the value of the labour a n d skill of almost all masters a n d
employers, by increasing the n u m b e r of persons who possess their peculiar
knowledge. (30) D e r Capitalist ist der oppressive middleman zwischen d e n
verschiednen labourers. Schmeißt m a n ihn beiseite so »it is plain t h a t capital or the Power to employ labour a n d Co-existing Labour are One; u n d Productive Capital u n d Skilled Labour are also One; consequently capital a n d a
labouring population are precisely synonymous. In the system of n a t u r e ,
m o u t h s are u n i t e d with h a n d s a n d with i n t e l l i g e n c e s (33)
12
5
10
15
20
25
Aus Robert Owen: Observations on the effect of the manufacturing system
Robert Owen. Observations on the Effect
of the Manufacturing System.
2. ed. L o n d o n . 1817.
5
10
Vor 30 oder 40 J a h r e n war G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n wesentlich agricultural. ...
W e c h s e l seit d e n cotton trade inventions u n d der Cultur des cotton tree in
America. (3, 4) N o t m o r e t h a n 30 years since, t h e poorest parents t h o u g h t
the age of 14 sufficiently early for their children to c o m m e n c e regular labour: a n d they j u d g e d well. (8) Since the general i n t r o d u c t i o n of expensive
machinery, h u m a n n a t u r e has b e e n forced far b e y o n d its average strength.
(16)
13
The Oppressed Labourers,
the means for their relief,
as well as for the reduction of their number
and of the Poorrates.
L o n d o n . 1819.
N a c h d e m Schluß des Kriegs 1814 die labourers in agriculture b e c a m e t h e
b u t t of oppression. ... I h r removal from places where they wished to dwell,
to a poorhouse, a n d there being viewed as the pest a n d b u r d e n of t h e state,
r e n d e r e d t h e m objects subject to t h e c o m m a n d of the overseers, to let o u t
for labour, as horses are let to hire, n o t having a choice of master, work, or
wages. (Preface.)
14
5
10
Aus William Copland: A letter to the Rev. C. D. Brereton
s
W. Copland:
A Letter to the Rev. C. D. Brereton,
in Reply to his "Observations
on the Administration of the Poor Laws
in Agricultural Districts."
Norwich. 1824.
Das country is morally a n d o u g h t to be legally, b o u n d to afford t h e m (the
poor) a subsistence. (9) Packt d e n Pfaffen Brereton, der alles P e c h auf die
Armenunterstützung schiebt.
0
15
Nassau William Senior.
Three Lectures on the Rate of Wages.
L o n d o n . 1830.
My principal object has b e e n to draw attention to the elementary proposition, that the rate of wages d e p e n d s on the extent of t h e fund for the m a i n 5
t e n a n c e of labourers, c o m p a r e d with the n u m b e r of labourers to be m a i n tained. (Preface. [Ill, IV]) As marriage (des Arbeiters) has no t e n d e n c y to
increase the value of his labour, it has no t e n d e n c y to increase his r e m u neration. (I.e. IX) Pauper ... the m a n whose labour is n o t worth his subsistence, who c o n s u m e s m o r e t h a n he produces. (XIX) (Die ganze Vorrede 10
räth Emigration auf Staatskosten. Jammer über die Riots der labourers
etc.) the labourer's situation does n o t d e p e n d on the a m o u n t which he receives [at any] one t i m e , but on his average receipts during a given period ... the longer the period taken, t h e m o r e accurate will be the estimate.
(7)I
15
| 3 | Das Jahr am besten als Periode. Umfaßt die S o m m e r u n d W i n t e r l ö h n e . (7) Few things are less u n i f o r m t h a n the n u m b e r of working days
during the year, or of working h o u r s during the day, or the degree of exertion u n d e r g o n e during those hours. (10) T h e average a n n u a l wages of lab o u r in England are 3 x as high as in Ireland; but, as the labourer in Ire- 20
land is said n o t to do m o r e t h a n % of what is d o n e by the labourer in
England, the price of labour may, in b o t h countries, be a b o u t equal. (13)
T h e employer is interested in keeping down the price of labour; b u t while
that price r e m a i n s the same, while at a given expense he gets a given
a m o u n t of work d o n e , his situation r e m a i n s unaltered. If a farmer can get a
25
field trenched for 12 /. it is indifferent to h i m whether he pays the whole of
that s u m to three capital workmen, or to 4 ordinary ones. ... If the three
could be hired at 3 I. 10 s. a piece, while the 4 required 3 I. a piece, t h o u g h
16
Aus Nassau William Senior: Three Lectures on the rate of wages
t h e wages of t h e 3 would be higher, t h e price of t h e work d o n e by t h e m
would be lower. It is t r u e t h a t t h e causes which raise t h e a m o u n t of the la
b o u r e r ' s wages often raise t h e rate of t h e capitalist's profits. If, by i n c r e a s e d
industry, o n e m a n performs t h e work o f two, b o t h t h e a m o u n t o f wages a n d
5 t h e rate of profits will generally be raised. But t h e rate of profits will be
raised, n o t by t h e rise of wages, b u t in c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e additional supply
of labour having diminished its price, or having d i m i n i s h e d t h e p e r i o d for
which it h a d previously b e e n necessary to a d v a n c e that price. T h e labourer,
on the other h a n d , is principally interested in t h e a m o u n t of wages. T h e
10 a m o u n t of his wages b e i n g given, it is certainly his interest t h a t t h e price of
his labour should be high, for on t h a t d e p e n d s t h e degree of exertion i m p o s e d
on h i m . (14, 15) D i e Revenue of a large p o r t i o n of a country k a n n w a c h s e n
u n d die wages fallen. Ζ . B . w e n n I r l a n d n u r K o r n n a c h E n g l a n d ausführte
u n d plötzlich würde die d e m a n d n a c h cattle etc so groß, d a ß die irischen
15
landlords u n d t e n a n t s ihr arable l a n d in p a s t u r e verwandeln. Statt 10 families d a n n vielleicht 2 h i n r e i c h e n d für je 200 acres: one to raise t h e subsistence of t h e two, a n d the other to t e n d t h e cattle a n d sheep. A large p o r t i o n
der Arbeiter so aus Beschäftigung geworfen. D e r fund for t h e m a i n t e n a n c e
of Irish labour would fall, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e increase of t h e r e v e n u e of
20
t h e landlords and farmers. ( 2 1 , 22) N u r in 2 F ä l l e n k a n n der general rate of
wages vermindert w e r d e n d u r c h E i n f ü h r u n g von M a s c h i n e r i e . Erstens:
when labour is employed in t h e construction of m a c h i n e r y , w h i c h l a b o u r
would otherwise have b e e n e m p l o y e d in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s for
the u s e of labourers; a n d Zweitens w h e n t h e m a c h i n e itself c o n s u m e s c o m -
25
modities which would otherwise have b e e n c o n s u m e d by labourers a n d
that to a greater e x t e n t t h a n it produces t h e m . (40) U n s r e j ä h r l i c h e C o n s u m t i o n von Baumwolle vor E i n f ü h r u n g der spinning j e n n y a b o u t to
100,000 lbs, jezt 190,000,000 lbs. Seit E i n f ü h r u n g des powerloom, die
quantity of cotton cloth m a n u f a c t u r e d for h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n gewachsen
30 von 227,000,000 of yards (average a n n u a l a m o u n t von 1 8 1 6 - 1 8 2 0 ) zu
400,000,000 of yards ( a n n u a l average von 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 8 ) . (43, 44) D e r 2 F a l l
paßt n u r auf horses u n d working cattle. (44) Behauptet d a ß M a s c h i n e n ,
angewandt für W a a r e die in d e n B e r e i c h \ C o n s u m des Arbeiters k ö m m t ,
seinen Arbeitslohn e r h ö h n m ü s s e n . [48]
t e
17
Hints on Wages, the Corn Laws, High and
Low Prices, Paper Money and Banking arising
from a consideration of 3 Lectures
on the cost of obtaining Money etc
by N. W. Senior.
5
London.1832.
(By a British Merchant.)
Part I.
On
Wages.
In every n a t i o n , the q u a n t u m of wages received by the labourer is according to the a m o u n t of the p r o d u c e of its soil; a n d his m o n e y wages, t h e 10
equivalent for such q u a n t u m , is according to t h e sale price of t h a t p r o d u c e
on the spot. (2) the cost of u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d in A m e r i c a is % of t h e whole
s u m expended in clearing it. (5) Senior b e h a u p t e t „that the wages o b t a i n e d
by the labourers, in return for whose labours the precious m e t a l s are i m ported, regulate the wages of all other labourers in t h e s a m e country". ... 15
N u n n a c h d e n parliamentary papers der session 1825 folgt, d a ß das G e wicht von Gold u n d Silber gegangen d u r c h das Bullionoffice in d e n 11 J a h ren von 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 2 4 war = 58,726,000 /. D a v o n exported in derselben Periode 34,963,000 /., leaving im L a n d 23,763,000 /. D i e quantity of b o t h
imported, beyond what is t a k e n to the bullion office, n i c h t % der hier 20
eingebrachten ... we require to supply n e w plate, the wear of the old, a n d of
m o n e y , or to be used in o u r manufactories the old plate being r e m e l t e d auf
1 million. ( 4 8 - 5 0 ) In denselben 11 J a h r e n von british p r o d u c e u n d m a n u factures exported jährlich im D u r c h s c h n i t t 39,360,000/. Sollen n a c h Senior
18
Aus James H. Renny: Hints on wages
der 1/39 Theil der wages o b t a i n e d für wages der labourers, in r e t u r n for
whose labour this o n e m i l l i o n was imported, die wages aller a n d r e n reguliren? (50)
19
Torrens. (R.)
On Wages and Combination.
L o n d o n . 1834.
Maximum der wages: that, which r e m a i n s after the capitalist's other advances have b e e n replaced, with the lowest rate of increase, for the sake of
5
which he will carry on his business. (8) M a c h i n e s work b u t do n o t eat.
W h e n they displace labour, a n d render it disposable, they at the s a m e t i m e
displace a n d render disposable the real wages, t h e food a n d clothing, which
m a i n t a i n e d it. T h e aggregate fund for the support of labour is n o t d i m i n ished. (39) In a country n o t d e p e n d i n g u p o n foreign markets, c o m b i n a t i o n s
10
m a y raise wages to their M a x i m u m , provided the supply of labour do not
increase. (57) ||4| W h e n wages are at their m a x i m u m , profits are at their
m i n i m u m . But when profits are at their m i n i m u m , an increase of wages
m u s t check production, d i m i n i s h the fund for the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour
etc. (58) In a country d e p e n d i n g u p o n foreign markets, c o m b i n a t i o n s for 15
raising wages beyond the limit d e t e r m i n e d by foreign competition, ultimately occasion, not an advance, b u t a r e d u c t i o n of wages. (60) T h e m a r k e t
is occasionally understocked a n d occasionally overstocked, with m a n u f a c tured goods. W h e n the supply of s u c h goods is deficient their p r o d u c t i o n is
increased; a n d w h e n their supply is in excess, their p r o d u c t i o n is d i m i n - 20
ished. But when the production of m a n u f a c t u r e d goods diminishes, the
fixed capital of the manufacturer ceases to be fully employed. It is selfevident, therefore, that, a m i d the ebbings a n d flowings of the market, a n d the
alternate contractions a n d expansions of d e m a n d , occasions will constantly
recur, in which the manufacturer m a y employ additional floating capital,
25
without employing additional fixed capital. ... if additional quantities of
raw material can be worked up without incurring an additional expense for
buildings a n d machinery, t h e manufacturers of the country in which the
20
Aus Robert Torrens: On wages and combination
rate of profit is comparatively h i g h (d. h. wo der Arbeitslohn absolut niedriger), will have an interest in lowering their prices in the foreign m a r k e t ,
so as to b e a t out t h e fabrics of the country in which the rate of profit is
comparatively low. (d. h. der Arbeitslohn h o c h , wo also der Preiß nicht
5 weiter herabgedrückt werden k a n n , es sei d e n n daß der L o h n herabgedrückt würde.) (63, 4) So long as buildings a n d m a c h i n e r y , w h e n n o t in
work exist as dead stock, realizing no profit at all, so long will it be the interest of producers to employ, at the customary rate of profit, as m u c h of
their floating capital as possible, without reference to the consideration
10 whether, by so employing it, they realize the customary profit u p o n their
fixed capital also. Diese consideration wird b e s t i m m e n ob new a n d a d d i tional buildings a n d m a c h i n e s shall be erected; b u t when o n c e they are
erected, it will be t h e decided interest of the manufacturer, to keep t h e m in
full work, provided he can thereby secure the customary profit u p o n t h e
15 floating capital employed in paying wages, a n d in p u r c h a s i n g raw m a t e r i als. H e n c e , when t h e foreign m a r k e t is overstocked, it will be the interest of
the manufacturer of the h i g h profit country to c o n t i n u e to supply it at
prices greatly below those ordinary prices w h i c h gave the customary r e t u r n
u p o n his whole capital, fixed a n d floating. (68) In a country possessing su20 periority in m a n u f a c t u r i n g for foreign m a r k e t s , wages m a y be raised within
the limits of such superiority. (73) T h e Cornlaws deprive t h e operatives of
England of the high comparative wages d u e to the superiority w h i c h E n g land possesses in m a n u f a c t u r i n g for the foreign market. (81)
21
Nassau W. Senior.
Letters on the Factory Act,
as it affects the Cotton Manufacture,
addressed to the right Honourable
The President of The Board of Trade.
To which are appended A Letter to Mr. Senior
from Leonhard Horner, Esq. and Minutes of a
Conversation between Mr. Edmund Ashworth,
Mr. Thomson and Mr. Senior.
5
L o n d o n . 1837.
10
D i e difference between the h o u r s of work u s u a l over t h e whole world in cott o n factories u n d a n d e r n e m p l o y m e n t s rührt aus 2 G r ü n d e n her: 1) t h e
great proportion of fixed to circulating capital, which m a k e s long h o u r s of
work desirable; u n d 2) the extraordinary lightness of the labour. (11) Das
fixe Capital gewöhnlich = 4:1 z u m circulirenden, so daß w e n n a m a n u f a c - 15
turer 50,000 l. hat, er 40,000 l. verausgabt in Errichtung seiner mill u n d filling it with m a c h i n e r y u n d n u r 10,000 I. to the purchase of raw m a t e r i a l
(cotton, flour a n d coals) u n d the p a y m e n t of wages. ( 1 1 , 12) the fixed capital is subject to incessant deterioration, n i c h t allein von wear u n d tear,
sondern a u c h von constant m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s , w h i c h in 8 oder 20
9 J a h r e n r e n d e r obsolete, m a c h i n e r y which when first used was the best of
its kind. D a h e r um netprofit von 10 % zu m a c h e n , ist a gross profit von
m e h r als 15 % nöthig. (12) U n t e r d e m gegenwärtigen Gesetz no mill, worin
persons u n t e r 18 J a h r e n angewandt, can be worked m o r e t h a n 1 1 ½ h o u r s
22
Aus Nassau William Senior: Letters on the factory act
5
10
d e n Tag, d. h. 12 S t u n d e n für 5 Tage u n d 9 am Samstag. N u n die folgende
Analyse zeigt, d a ß in a m i l l so worked, t h e whole net profit is derived from
the last hour. E i n m a n u f a c t u r e r investirt 100,000 1.: - 80,000 I. in his m i l l
u n d machinery, u n d 20,000 i n raw m a t e r i a l u n d wages. D e r a n n u a l r e t u r n
der mill, supposing t h e capital to be t u r n e d o n c e a year, a n d gross profits to
be 15 %, m u ß sein goods worth 115,000 1., p r o d u c e d by the c o n s t a n t conversion a n d reconversion of the 20,000 1., circulating capital, from m o n e y i n t o
goods a n d from goods into m o n e y , in periods of rather m o r e t h a n two
m o n t h s . V o n diesen 115,000 I. e a c h of t h e 23 half h o u r s of work p r o d u c e s
/
oder %. V o n d e n % (constituting the whole 115,000 I.) %, d. h.
100,0001, von d e n 115,000 ersetzen n u r das Capital; % (oder 5,000 I. o u t of
the 115,000) m a k e s up for t h e deterioration der mill u n d m a c h i n e r y . D i e
r e m a i n i n g % d. h. die last two of t h e 23 half h o u r s of every day, p r o d u c e
the n e t profit of 10 %. W e n n d a h e r (prices r e m a i n i n g the same) die factory
13 S t u n d e n at work g e h a l t e n w e r d e n k ö n n t e statt 11¾, by an a d d i t i o n of
about 2,600 I. to t h e circulating capital, t h e n e t profit would be m o r e t h a n
doubled. Anderseits, w e n n die A r b e i t s s t u n d e n täglich um 1 S t u n d e per day
reducirt (prices r e m a i n i n g the same) net profit would be destroyed, w e n n
reducirt um 1 ]/ S t u n d e n a u c h gross profits destroyed, das circulating capital would be replaced, b u t there would be no fund to c o m p e n s a t e the progressive deterioration of the fixed capital. (12, 13) ||5| Das Verhältniß des
fixed capital z u m circulating wächst beständig aus 2 G r ü n d e n . 1) D i e t e n d ency of m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t to throw on m a c h i n e r y m o r e a n d m o r e of
the work of p r o d u c t i o n . 2) D a s i m p r o v e m e n t der m e a n s of transport, u n d
die c o n s e q u e n t d i m i n u t i o n of t h e stock of raw material in the m a n u f a c turer's h a n d s waiting for u s e . Formerly, w h e n coals a n d cotton c a m e by water, the u n c e r t a i n t y a n d irregularity of supply forced h i m to keep on h a n d 2
oder 3 m o n t h s ' c o n s u m p t i o n . Now, a railway brings it to h i m week by
week, or rather day by day, from the port or the m i n e . U n d e r s u c h c i r c u m stances, I fully anticipate that, in a very few years, the fixed capital, instead
of its present proportion, will be as 6 or 7 or even 10 to 1 to the circulating;
and, consequently, t h a t the motives to long h o u r s of work will b e c o m e greater, as the only m e a n s by w h i c h a large proportion of fixed capital can be
m a d e profitable. " W h e n a labourer," said Mr. Ashworth to me "lays d o w n
his spade, he renders useless, for t h a t period, a capital worth 18 d. W h e n
o n e of our people leaves the mill, he renders useless a capital t h a t has cost
100,000 /." (13, 14) U n s r e cotton factories, at their c o m m e n c e m e n t , were
kept going the whole 24 h o u r s . T h e difficulty of cleaning a n d repairing t h e
machinery, a n d the divided responsibility, arising from the necessity of e m ploying a double staff of overlookers, bookkeepers etc have nearly p u t an
end to this practice; b u t u n t i l H o b h o u s e ' s A c t r e d u c e d t h e m to 69, our fac5
115
}
15
2
20
25
30
35
40
23
tories generally worked from 70 to 80 h o u r s per week. (15) D a s G a r n , das
40 Sh. ein Pfund kostete, w h e n we c o n s u m e d only 10,000,000 of p o u n d s of
cotton, now, when we c o n s u m e 280,000,000, costs 2 sh. Increase of price,
a n d d i m i n u t i o n of c o n s u m p t i o n , will therefore act a n d react on o n e a n other. Every increase of price will further d i m i n i s h c o n s u m p t i o n ; a n d every
further d i m i n u t i o n of c o n s u m p t i o n will occasion an increased relative cost
of production, a n d consequently a further increase of price. (16)
A us
dem
Brief von
Horner
(Leonard)
an
5
Senior.
Behauptet, d a ß in any period of 5 years, since the cotton trade rose into
c o n s e q u e n c e , der profit in well m a n a g e d factories m u s t have greatly ex- 10
ceeded 10 %. (31) Zeigt Herrn Senior überall, d a ß er sich v o n d e n Fabrikanten hat belügen lassen.
24
Aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry
5
Brereton. (Α. M.) (Rev.)
Rector of Little Massingham, Norfolk.
A Practical Inquiry into the Number,
Means of Employment, and Wages
of the Agricultural Labourers.
L o n d o n . (1825?)
10
15
Am Schluß des 14* Jh. W a t Tyler, J a c k Straw, H o b Carter u n d T o m Miller,
n a m e s a s s u m e d by these spirited leaders of t h e peasantry, to d e n o t e t h e i r
origin a n d e m p l o y m e n t s , c o m m i t t e d with a m u t i n o u s p o p u l a c e great violence on t h e gentry a n d nobility. . . . Ihre insurrection war das grosse M i t t e l
of shaking off t h e servitude a n d oppression of t h e N o r m a n a n d feudal tyranny. (11) V o n 1 6 9 0 - 1 7 9 4 sehr great decrease der p o p u l a t i o n der villages ... D u r i n g t h e last century grosser c h a n g e im woollen trade des
L a n d e s . Das c o m b i n g u n d s p i n n i n g von wool, w h i c h were during t h a t p e riod performed entirely by h a n d , are now d o n e by m a c h i n e r y u n d dieser
trade transferred a l m o s t entirely von Norfolk u n d d e n eastern districts
n a c h Lancashire, Yorkshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e u n d Leicestershire. T h o u g h
t h e earnings from the s p i n n i n g of yarn a n d knitting of stockings were very
small, yet a great part of t h e female p o p u l a t i o n in diesen arts e m p l o y e d .
20
But I shall shew t h a t u n l e s s t h e female p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n disengaged
from these e m p l o y m e n t s , a n d b e e n t u r n e d to t h e labours of t h e field, t h e
l a n d of this c o u n t y could n o t have b e e n cultivated as it h a s b e e n , by t h e
male p o p u l a t i o n of t h e last 30 years. (26, 7) Norfolk ist n i c h t n u r b e r ü h m t
(die county) für ihre Agricultur u n d i m p r o v e m e n t s in that art, b u t also for
25
its p a u p e r i s m . U n t e r s u c h e n wir, at different periods, die quantity of l a n d in
cultivation, t h e m o d e of tillage, u n d t h e p r o d u c e of t h e soil. (38) D i e Graf-
25
t e
schaft Norfolk enthält 1,338,880 statute acres u n d ist die 5 county in extent, u n d die 8 in E n g l a n d as to p o p u l a t i o n . E n t h ä l t 33 h u n d r e d s , 20 m a r ket towns u n d 702 parishes u n d h a m l e t s . Norfolk e n t h ä l t 100 parishes
m e h r als Yorkshire oder any other county in E n g l a n d u n d m e h r als das
whole of Scotland. These divisions are of very a n c i e n t date, a n d h a v e perh a p s rather decreased t h a n increased during t h e last century. ... Nearly
10,000 I. h a v e b e e n spent in some years in law expences, (in this county) respecting removals a n d settlements. (38) In Norfolk m e h r als % der Bevölker u n g u n t e r d e m workhouse system. (39) W h i l e the n u m b e r of parishes a n d
even the n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s in villages decreased w ä h r e n d des last century, the quantity of land in cultivation greatly increased. W i t h i n the last
50 years m e h r als % der parishes inclosed d u r c h P a r l a m e n t s a k t e u n d
brought into a high state of cultivation. M a n y of the parishes of Norfolk are
t h e exclusive property of individuals, a n d in m o s t of these inclosures of
h e a t h a n d waste lands have t a k e n place to a great extent w i t h o u t the sanet i o n of P a r l i a m e n t . Since the Revolution the greater part of this western
district of the c o u n t y has b e e n converted from sheep's walk, of trifling valu e , to t h e highest pitch of cultivation. (I.e.) Also m u ß gewesen sein a great
increase of d e m a n d for labour. Jezt m e h r cattle genährt in d e m Distrikt
u p o n t h e fallows, als früher supported u p o n the whole in a state of pasturage a n d waste. Solches L a n d erheischte weder draining n o r fencing. A u ß e r
diesen h i g h u n d light soils in Norfolk a great d e a l of fen u n d marshland, das
wurde e m b a n k e d u n d drained during this period u n d dessen Cultivation
d a h e r a great increase of e m p l o y m e n t bewirken m u ß t e . A considerable
quantity of saltmarsh also h a s b e e n e m b a n k e d a n d r e d e e m e d from the sea.
T h e great i m p r o v e m e n t der c o u n t y a u c h b e m e r k b a r von der erection of all
the principal m a n s i o n s during this period, - H o l k h a m , H o u g h t o n , Wolterton, G u n t o n etc. D e r c l a m o u r of t h e dearth of e m p l o y m e n t , u n d von der
overflowing supply of labourers fand Statt, while these i m p r o v e m e n t s in the
country ||6| have b e e n in progress. N o t only has there b e e n a great increase
in the m e a n s of e m p l o y m e n t by the increased quantity of l a n d in cultivation, b u t the process of bringing it into a cultivated state, fencing, draining,
a n d improving, which require in m a n y cases l a b o u r to the a m o u n t of m o r e
t h a n y t h e value of the land, m u s t have enormously increased the fund
which supplies the wages of labour. (40, 41) T h e quantity of e m p l o y m e n t
supplied by agriculture has b e e n still further a u g m e n t e d by t h e changes
which have t a k e n place in the mode of tillage. W a h r s c h e i n l i c h d a ß die proportion des arable l a n d to pasture grösser war als einige Zeit n a c h der R e formation. U n t e r der Herrschaft der Elisabeth u n d for s o m e t i m e after, the
inclosure of pasture was discouraged. Arable land was in fact converted
into pasture, a n d the p r o d u c e of corn increased by an improved h u s b a n d r y .
l
5
10
15
20
25
30
2
26
35
40
Aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry ..
A greater supply of m e a t , dessen C o n s u m sehr wuchs n a c h der Reformation, wurde afforded by a t t e n t i o n to pastures. ( 4 1 , 2) Blomefield giebt d e n
following a c c o u n t der several estates at different periods:
5
1324 a messuage, in Norfolk, c o n t a i n e d
1370. ditto
ditto
140
6
30
30
arable
meadow
pasture
heath
ditto
200
100
300
10
arable
meadow
pasture
wood
10
1567
15
1569
20
25
30
35
131 arable
7 meadow
1% p a s t u r e
ditto
60 arable
20 m e a d o w
40 p a s t u r e
300 furze &
h e a t h . (42.)
So at u n d after t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , die quantity des arable land in Proportion z u h e a t h u n d p a s t u r e decreased. W u c h s erst b e d e u t e n d n a c h d e r R e v o lution. Z u r Revolutionszeit die Pfarre, d i e B[lomefield] b e w o h n t , n i c h t
ü b e r Υ 2 o d e r % cultivated as arable land. J e z t von 2238 acres n u r 152 pas
t u r e u n d 2086 arable. D i e ß m u ß die quantity of labour, erheischt seit der
Revolution, v e r m e h r t h a b e n . E b e n s o das E i n f ü h r e n des fourcourse u n d sixcourse system. In d e m fourcourse % des L a n d e s besät m i t K o r n u n d in d e m
sixcourse % oder %. D e r leztre course n u r a n w e n d b a r w h e n the l a n d is of
the finest quality, a n d a d m i t s t h e growth of b e a n s , aber der erstre n u n
allgemein in d e n m i d d l i n g u n d inferior soils. Zwei V e r b e s s e r u n g e n b e s o n ders zu diesen courses geführt, n ä h m l i c h Das M a r l i n g of t h e l a n d u n d die
field culture of t u r n i p s . T h e m a r l i n g of l a n d erheischt viel m a n u a l labour,
a n d that of t h e highest value. Besonders aber die field culture of t u r n i p s .
T h e general culture of t u r n i p s i n t r o d u c e d t h e u s e of t h e h o e in agriculture,
which h a d till t h e n b e e n confined to gardening ... Das L a n d worauf die
turnips wachsen ist h o e d over 2 u n d oft 3 x im Jahr. By t h e system of drilling also the hoe is very generally u s e d ; u n d so a n u m b e r of acres, = perhaps nearly % dieser extensive county, is h o e d over by h a n d , like a garden,
in t h e course of t h e year. ( 4 2 - 4 5 ) D i e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s h a t t e n a u c h a great
effect in distributing t h e m e a n s of e m p l o y m e n t t h r o u g h t h e year. (45) Vor
27
der Reformation die average p r o d u c t i o n per acre, of all k i n d s of grain,
n i c h t ü b e r 12 bushels. V o n der R e f o r m a t i o n zur Revolution h u s b a n d r y i m proved, a n d t h e produce greatly increased. By m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t t h e
p r o d u c t i o n in m a n y parts d o u b l e d seit der Revolution. (47, 8) D e m I n s p e c tor der Cornreturns für Norwich w u r d e n r e t u r n e d 1 8 0 1 : 17,159 qrs, 1814:
5
34,007, also doppelt die quantity u n d 1 8 2 1 : 78,219 oder m e h r als 4x die
n u m b e r of qrs. (49) In this village at this t i m e there are probably as m a n y
w o m e n a n d girls as m e n a n d boys employed. This change in the employm e n t of the female population is of great m o m e n t in ascertaining the earnings of labourers' families. (51) N i c h t zu beweisen, daß der rural p a u p e r i s m 10
gegenwärtig is u p h e l d weder by a superfluity of workmen, n o c h a d e a r t h of
e m p l o y m e n t , n o c h i n a d e q u a t e wages, sondern n u n die poorlaws, ihre Verwaltung etc. (96)
28
Aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, object, and effects of trades unions
|7| Character, Object and Effects
of Trades' Unions; with some remarks
of the Law concerning them.
L o n d o n 1834.
5
10
15
20
Die mächtigste, extensivste u n d bestorganisirte U n i o n in d e m U n i t e d
K i n g d o m scheint die der working cotton spinners. Alle oder fast alle workm e n dieser class in E n g l a n d , Schottland u n d Irland v e r b u n d e n in i h r e n respective districts für 30 J a h r e oder mehr. 1829 der erste V e r s u c h to form
one „ G r a n d G e n e r a l U n i o n " of all t h e spinners of the 3 k i n g d o m s . V o n da
an m e h r systematischen Plan. J e d e Stadt oder Dorf, e n t s p r e c h e n d d e n
n u m b e r s ihrer spinning p o p u l a t i o n , wählte representatives, die Parliaments
abhielten, levied taxes on their constituents, passed laws, p r i n t e d their
speeches a n d proceedings, a n d performed all the functions of a legislative
body m i t so viel F ö r m l i c h k e i t wie das h o u s e of c o m m o n s . D i e I n s t i t u t i o n
dieser assembly o h n e m a r k e d effect on the trade. Die strikes u n d a n d r e offensive business der U n i o n were still for the m o s t part decided on by t h e local committees, a n d the expense of sending delegates to some central spot,
such as the Isle of M a n or M a n c h e s t e r , the u s u a l place of M e e t i n g , h a s prevented the holding of a general congress m o r e t h a n o n c e or at m o s t 2 x a
year, a n d t h e n the Session has n o t c o n t i n u e d longer t h a n 4 or 5 days. (2, 3)
Die spinners bilden n u r y der in d e n cotton mills Beschäftigten, b u t their
labour is absolutely necessary to t h e working des establishment; folglich,
by refusing to work themselves, they force all their fellow-labourers out of
e m p l o y m e n t at the s a m e t i m e . ... diese Abhängigkeit of s o m e w o r k m e n on
others existirt überall, wo T h e i l u n g der Arbeit, b u t in no m a n u f a c t u r e
where the same quantity of fixed capital is employed (a c i r c u m s t a n c e
which will be shewn hereafter materially to aid the objects of a c o m b i n a w
25
29
tion) is t h e disproportion equally great. (12, 13) D e r m o s t extensive u n d
persevering strike der v o n 1810, w h e n all t h e spinners in all t h e mills in der
Nachbarschaft von Manchester, eingeschlossen Stockport, Macclesfield,
Stayley Bridge, A s h t o n , H y d e , O l d h a m , Bolton u n d so weit wie Preston, sim u l t a n e o u s l y left their work, a n d h a d t h e strike c o n t i n u e d a little longer,
t h e whole of Scotland would have j o i n e d it. 30,000 persons thrown o u t of
e m p l o y m e n t , m a n y of t h e m p a r a d e d t h e streets der obigen Städte during
t h e day, s h o u t i n g u n d h o o t i n g at the residences der ihrer S a c h e feindlichen
Personen. Attacks oft g e m a c h t auf die factories, trotz der Polizei, die z u m
S c h u t z n i c h t h i n r e i c h t e ; m a n y masters u n a b l e ihre mills zu verlassen, for
fear of their lives u n d s u c h w o r k m e n as were got to supply t h e place of t h e
seceders, were held prisoners, in a state of almost c o n t i n u a l siege, in t h e es
t a b l i s h m e n t s where they worked. D a s Government dieses strike carried on
by a congress at M a n c h e s t e r , gebildet von Delegates sent from all t h e prin
cipal mills. An der Spitze Joseph Shipley, e i n vollständiger M a s a n i e l l o , aber
» a respectable m e c h a n i c « . W ä h r e n d dieses t u r n o u t , t h e m e n who h a d
struck, were supported by the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of those who were in work u n d
die s u m s so collected beliefen sich für eine beträchtliche Periode zu fast
1500 /. weekly, wovon M a n c h e s t e r allein an £ 600 zahlte. Dieser fund e i n e
Zeitlang h i n r e i c h e n d large, d e n Congress zu befähigen a weekly p a y m e n t
of 12 sh. d e n spinners, who h a d struck, zu m a c h e n , aber die c o n t r i b u t i o n s
u n d folglich die allowances t h a t flowed from t h e m , gradually fell off, till
they at length ceased altogether, a n d those who d e p e n d e d on t h e m , were
consigned to utter destitution. D a s H a u p t o b j e k t der w o r k m e n war to raise
t h e wages in country districts to a level with those in M a n c h e s t e r . . . . A b e r
die country masters, o h n e die advantages der M a n c h e s t e r m a s t e r s , are
obliged to r e d u c e t h e wages of their w o r k m e n to a lower rate, as otherwise
they would be u n a b l e to get the s a m e profit on their capital with t h e i r M a n chester rivals ... Zu j e n e r Zeit 4 d. gezahlt in d e n countryparts for s p i n n i n g
a p o u n d of cotton, N o . 40 u n d 4 / d. in M a n c h e s t e r , u n d to raise die c o u n try wages um % d. war das a i m der U n i o n . ... m o s t signal failure . . . Sobald
die contributions d e r e n in work failed, s u c h of t h e m e n as h a d laid by m o n ey in d e n T a g e n ihrer prosperity, resorted to it for support u n d so die h a r d earned savings von J a h r e n c o n s u m i r t in d i e s e m hopeless warfare. F u r n i ture, clothes, every article of comfort or c o n v e n i e n c e that their cottages
c o n t a i n e d , was t h e n disposed of u n d diese u n h a p p y victims of their own
folly u n d e r w e n t a series of privations, w h i c h would appear incredible to
those who do not know t h e force of pride u n d die e n d u r i n g pertinacity,
womit die english working classes will n o t unfrequently r e m a i n , w h a t they
call, „true to e a c h other". N a c h 4 m o n t h s of misery k e h r t e n die m e n zu ihrer Arbeit zurück, s o m e even accepting e m p l o y m e n t zu 2 d. per p o u n d statt
1
2
30
5
ίο
15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
d e n 4 d. ( 1 3 - 1 7 ) D i e häufigste U r s a c h e der strikes in d e m cotton trade war
die Einführung verbesserter M a s c h i n e r i e u n d speziell das e n l a r g e m e n t of
mules, wodurch die Z a h l der spindles a spinner is capable of s u p e r i n t e n d ing, has b e e n continually increasing. ... A m a s t e r on t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
solcher verbesserten M a s c h i n e r i e in sein établissement stipulirt m i t s e i n e n
Spinners i h n e n less per piece zu zahlen, aber d o c h zu solcher rate, daß, owing der greater power of t h e m a c h i n e , ihre w ö c h e n t l i c h e n earnings steigen
statt zu fallen ... A b e r dieser bargain injurious d e n m a s t e r s u n d m e n in
d e n manufactories ||8| where t h e improved m a c h i n e is not i n t r o d u c e d . (17,
18) 1824 alle spinners t u r n e d o u t in H y d e . (18) 1829 a serious t u r n o u t . A
little before this t i m e , several masters h a d erected m u l e s , carrying from
4 - 5 0 0 spindles, which e n a b l e d t h e spinners w h o worked at t h e m to receive
a less s u m in the proportion of 3 - 5 for a given quantity of work, a n d zu
gleicher Zeit to e a r n at least an e q u a l a m o u n t of wages, with those who
were employed on t h e old m a c h i n e r y . 21 mills u n d 10,000 persons were
thrown idle für 6 m o n t h s d u r c h diesen strike. (19) D e r lezte grosse strike
u n t e r d e n S p i n n e r n D e c e m b e r 1830, w h e n 3000 spinners a t A s h t o n u n d
Stayley Bridge left their work, w o d u r c h 52 mills u n d 30,000 persons idle gesezt für 10 weeks. (20) In Schottland die strikes der Spinner ebenso häufig
u n d d e t e r m i n e d wie in E n g l a n d u n d a t t e n d e d with a greater degree of violence. (21) Sie h a b e n (diese U n i o n der spinners) d e n L o h n h o c h gehalten,
z u m D u r c h s c h n i t t w ö c h e n t l i c h von 30 sh., aber n u r nominell, d e n n : »the
work n o t being sufficient for all, in order to prevent the s u p e r n u m e r a r i e s
from beating down the rate of wages, by working u n d e r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n
prices, the U n i o n is compelled to m a k e t h e m a weekly allowance for t h e i r
support; a n d the subscriptions for this purpose, as well as the other expenses to which they are p u t in m a i n t a i n i n g their association are so
heavy ... daß die s u m distributed a m o n g s t t h e m in wages, is n o t greater
t h a n i n other occupations u n d ihre earnings n u r n o m i n a l l y high, u n d really
n o t above the ordinary level«. (27) Die Z a h l der zu i h r e m business Z u g e l a ß n e n zu b e s c h r ä n k e n gelingt i h n e n n i e . Im G e g e n t h e i l a strike invariably
introduces new w o r k m e n . M o r e t h a n 300 persons were instructed in spinning, owing to the t u r n o u t in A s h t o n in 1825 u n d Mr. Lees states in his evid e n c e that every general t u r n o u t without exception has e n d e d in a r e d u c tion of wages i m m e d i a t e l y after, on a c c o u n t of the influx of fresh h a n d s
causing a s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of labour. (27, 8) V o n diesen fresh h a n d s , s o m e
c a m e from the country u n d s o m e was big piecers what took to spinning.
(28) Schließlich heißt es v o n dieser U n i o n der Spinner: »Surely, if any
c o m b i n a t i o n could answer t h e expectations of the working classes, this
would be the one. It has brought the m o s t extensive m a n u f a c t u r e in t h e
world u n d e r its authority, it has e m b r a c e d in its power three k i n g d o m s , it
31
exercises by the peculiar n a t u r e of the trade, control over t e n t i m e s its own
n u m b e r of workmen, it has shewn t h e reality of these pretensions, by k e e p ing t h o u s a n d s out of employ for half a year at a t i m e , every favourable circ u m s t a n c e has concurred to establish its efficiency, a n d it has kept up the
rate of wages, yet the m e m b e r s fail to draw from this result o n e iota of b e n efit.« (26)
E i n e der extensivsten U n i o n s is t h a t formed by t h e Workmen in the Building Trades. Sehr thätig 1833, besonders in den nordwestlichen m a n u f a c t u r ing districts. Im spring 1833 b e g a n n dieser body operations in M a n c h e s t e r ,
Liverpool u n d d e n b e n a c h b a r t e n Städten, by serving a requisition on t h e
masters, which d e m a n d e d an a b a n d o n m e n t of the practice of erecting
buildings on the system of contracts. Of late years n ä m l i c h die c u s t o m
eingeführt in einigen b r a n c h e s des building d e p a r t m e n t . Contracte e i n z u g e h n m i t m i d d l e m a n or agent, who contracted for the entire building m i t
d e n B a u m e i s t e r n ... der contractor b o u n d himself to furnish whatever was
required for the construction of the whole edifice ... die masters led in
diese Praxis d u r c h d e n W u n s c h ihrer customers, d e n e n er sehr b e q u e m ,
since it enabled t h e m to obtain the estimate for any work from a single person versed in such calculations, who would be responsible for its complet i o n at the c o m p u t e d price, u n d m a c h t e die deception u n d inaccuracy bei
B e r e c h n u n g des Kostenpreisses m i t einer Masse n i c h t m i t e i n a n d e r verknüpfter trades u n m ö g l i c h . D i e m e i s t e n masters i n d e ß complied m i t der
request ihrer workmen to lay it aside. (29, 30) Ein Theil der Kerls n a n n t e n
sich: »The Operative Societies of Bricklayers.« Das C o m m i t t e e der U n i o n
issued a series of regulations, requiring the masters to abide by certain
rules respecting the equalization of wages, the n u m b e r of apprentices they
were to take, the use of m a c h i n e r y , a n d a variety of other m a t t e r s , all m o r e
or less restrictive, a n d consequently injurious to the free transactions of
business. D i e masters, die diesen laws n i c h t gehorchten, entweder gezwungen to s u b m i t to t h e fine willkührlich von der U n i o n i h n e n auferlegt,
oder ein Edict was issued by t h a t body to the w o r k m e n of any „refractory
master", in Folge wovon er verlassen von seinen j o u r n e y m e n u n d u n a b l e to
complete the contracts a n d other work t h e n in progress. ( 3 1 , 2) T h e c o m m a n d s to cease working, issued by the C o m m i t t e e s of the U n i o n were in
every case implicitly obeyed. (34) U n t e r diesen U m s t ä n d e n beschlossen die
masters to employ no workmen, except such as should sign a declaration,
t h a t they did n o t belong to a T r a d e s ' U n i o n . ... D a r a u f general t u r n o u t ...
6 M o n a t e fast beständig die grossen B a u t e n in M a n c h e s t e r , ||9| Liverpool
etc u n t e r b r o c h e n ... die c o n s u m p t i o n of bricks in Liverpool reducirt sofort
von a million weekly to 20,000. (34) D i e masters h a t t e n k e i n e n Versuch zur
R e d u c t i o n der wages g e m a c h t ... die earnings der j o u r n e y m e n in d e n
32
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
15
20
building trades war nie weniger als 24 sh. w ä h r e n d der lezten 20 J a h r e ; zur
very Zeit der strikes, die wages der bricklayers h a d b e e n increased 3 sh.
weekly u n d viele von dieser class of m e n were in the habit of earning 35 sh.
a week, während der s u m m e r m o n t h s , by working longer h o u r s t h a n u s u a l .
Betrachtet m a n die Preisse der provisions zu verschiednen P e r i o d e n - folgende table of prices of provisions at M a n c h e s t e r - so sieht m a n , daß der
L o h n erhöht, fast verdoppelt.
1813.
1833.
s. d.
s. d.
Flour (good seconds) per 12 pounds
Butcher meat, good, per pound
Dto coarse, per pound
Bacon per pound
Cheese per pound
Potatoes, per load of 240 pounds
Butter per 112 pounds
Soap per pound
Coals per pound
Salt per pound
Candles per pound
4 2
0 8½
0 6%
Oil
0 9
12 0
126 0
0 9
0 8
0 3
1 0
2 2
0 6½
0. 5
0. 6
0 7
4 6
90 0
0 6
0 5%
0 0¼
0 6
In clothing diese wages g e m e s s e n ist n o c h grösser.
25
Linen per yard
Strong Calico per yard
Printed Calico, per yard
1810
s. d.
1833.
s. d.
1
0
2
0
0
0
8
10
2
9
4
7.
Die masters versuchten frische Arbeiter aus a n d r e n T h e i l e n E n g l a n d s zu
verschaffen, aber in Folge der I n t i m i d a t i o n m i t wenig Erfolg. Die shops der
masters beständig bewacht d u r c h Piquets von 3 - 4 m e n , die abgelöst wur30 den at certain intervals, u n d d e n e n es im D u r c h s c h n i t t gelang d u r c h D r o h u n g e n n e u e Arbeiter z u v e r h i n d e r n für e m p l o y m e n t sich z u m e l d e n , u n d
wenn any such irgend wie engagirt wurden, the buildings where they
worked were s u r r o u n d e d by U n i o n i s t s , who, by hooting u n d a n d r e effectualere m o d e s of a n n o y a n c e , d e n progress der work zu v e r h i n d e r n s u c h t e n . In
35 der Zwischenzeit die w o r k m e n in d e m b u i l d i n g trade von ganz E n g l a n d
vom Geist der c o m b i n a t i o n ergriffen u n d beschlossen eine allgemeine
U n i o n zu g r ü n d e n , wahrscheinlich instigated by their Lancashire b r e t h r e n .
A scheme von R e p r e s e n t a t i w e r f a s s u n g entworfen, m e m b e r s gewählt in d e n
verschiednen counties u n d in S e p t e m b e r last (1833 oder 34?) Builders' Par40 Uament sizt in England. 275 delegates, repräsentirend 30,000 wie sie sagten. ( 3 5 - 3 8 ) N a c h 6 M o n a t e n m u ß t e n die Lancashire m e n reuig zu ihren
33
masters zurückkehren. D e r U n i o n f u n d s hatte an 18,000 /. in allowances
verzehrt u n d as the p a y m e n t s to workmen, who have t u r n e d o u t nie ü b e r %
ihres L o h n s , im D u r c h s c h n i t t , 4x diese s u m or 72,000 was the loss, which
t h e working builders sustained in pursuit of their i n s a n e project. Die m e i sten erhielten ihre Arbeit nicht zurück. Viele der buildings were discontinu e d ; die gute saison fürs B a u e n war vorbei; m a n c h e ersezt d u r c h fresh labourers brought from distant parts u n d d u r c h die i n t r o d u c t i o n of
m a c h i n e r y ... in the false h o p e of attaining their object, they h a d e n d u r e d
deprivations only second to actual starvation ... die failure des strike war
complet. (40, 41) T h e Derby work people are at this m o m e n t erecting factories by the aid of subscriptions, collected a m o n g themselves, a n d also from
brother Unionists in all parts of England, hoping by these m e a n s to draw to
their own body the profit, bis jezt von i h r e n masters g e n o m m e n . (45) |
1101 N a c h der Repeal der C o m b i n a t i o n laws in 1824 die Yorkshire workmen,
beschäftigt im woollen cloth trade, s u c h t e n eine U n i o n to establish. D i e
d a m a l i g e n Versuche m i ß g l ü c k t e n i n d e ß . Die c o m b i n a t i o n s , die lately so
viel Schaden gethan in d i e s e m county, n i c h t on foot gesezt vor 3 J a h r e n
u n d begriffen im Anfang in sich n u r die w o r k m e n employed in d e m was
technically is t e r m e d the „manufacturing" of woollen cloth, n ä m l i c h slubbers, spinners u n d weavers. (46, 7) E i n e der largest F a b r i k e n in Leeds, der
H e r r e n Gott was the first to feel the power of the U n i o n . H a t t e e b e n
e n o r m e F a b r i k m i t M a s c h i n e r i e etc für W e b e n von fine woollen cloth errichtet, als alle Weber, 210 an der Z a h l t u r n e d out. Sie b e h a u p t e t e n niedrigere wages zu erhalten als die von a n d e r n F a b r i k a n t e n . Unwahr, averaged
17 sh. weekly. V i e l m e h r Versuch ihre n e u e power zu erproben, ob sie n i c h t
d e n rate of wages steigen m a c h e n k ö n n t e n ... D i e ß E s t a b l i s h m e n t gewählt
wegen des large fixed capital. Einige W o c h e n vergeblicher t u r n o u t , till at
length die m e n , die c o n t i n u e d at their work solchen t r e a t m e n t s unterworfen on entering a n d leaving the factory, being hooted, pelted, u n d a n n o y e d
in other ways, daß die proprietors, receiving no support or c o u n t e n a n c e
from other manufacturers, auf die vorgeschlagnen t e r m s eingingen. A b e r
die H e r r e n G o t t n a h m e n n u r die h i n r e i c h e n d e Z a h l von W e b e r n zurück t o
work the looms in the old part of their establishment, leaving their newly
erected building u n u s e d . They soon after disposed of all the m a c h i n e r y it
contained ... Der success dieses contest führte zu einer coalition der U n ion m i t d e n w o r k m e n engaged in d e n various processes of „finishing" as
well as „milling or fulling" woollen cloth, a n d since t h a t period, the trade
has hardly ever b e e n free from strikes, a n d t h e w o r k m e n have wielded an
almost irresistible power over the property of their masters. ( 4 7 - 4 9 ) D e r
n e x t step der U n i o n was to draw up a list of wages to be paid for spinning,
weaving etc, publicirt in d e n newspapers u n d also on sheets of paper, z u m
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purpose of being t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e millowners a n d small m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
Das d o c u m e n t was h e a d e d "A scale of prices to be observed by millowners,
manufacturers etc" u n d h a t t e als A n h a n g einige regulations ü b e r die admission of boys u n d die p r o p o r t i o n worin sie a n z u w e n d e n relatively to t h e
5 n u m b e r of adults. ... D e r grössere T h e i l der m a s t e r s gab n a c h u n d their
n a m e s were carefully set forth in t h e 3 newspapers published at Leeds. D i e
w o r k m e n c o n t e n d e d d a ß dieser scale k e i n rise of wages, s o n d e r n n u r eine
e q u a l i z a t i o n " derselben, it b e i n g a principal object of their association to
c o m p e l the m a s t e r s to pay every operative, good or b a d , an e q u a l s u m for
10 his labour. (49, 50) Trotz dieses advance h a t t e n die w o r k m e n n i c h t d e n erwarteten G e w i n n . Sie either sent their yarn to be woven in t h e n e i g h b o u r ing villages, or stopped part of their works entirely ... Einige m a n u f a c t u r e r s
entschlüpften d e n losses by m a k i n g alterations in spinning t h e yarns a n d
setting t h e webs, was leztres h e i ß t t h e fixing of the geer or reed in w h i c h
15
t h e cloth is woven, a n d w h i c h varies from 36 to 110 portions of 38 t h r e a d s
each. D u r c h diese alterations gewann der m a n u f a c t u r e r dieselbe q u a n t i t y
G a r n converted into cloth of t h e s a m e n o m i n a l quality as before, u n d for
the s a m e cost per yard. Ζ. B. w e n n er vor d e r P r o m u l g a t i o n d e r scale z a h l t e
2 s. for an 80 geer u n d die scale fixed 2 s. 3 d. as t h e price of weaving per
20
string, he would weave t h e s a m e quality of wool in a 76 geer, at 2 s., m a k i n g
s u c h alterations in the s p i n n i n g of yarn as were requisite. D i e U n i o n
m a c h t e n e u e regulations to m e e t this contrivance, c o u n t e r a c t e d by fresh
evasions der m a n u f a c t u r e r s , a n d t h u s a war of c u n n i n g was carried on be
tween m a s t e r s u n d m e n , worin die leztren m a n c h m a l geschlagen ... T h e
25 worst davon, d a ß die goodness des T u c h s was i m p a i r e d by t h e alteration of
the geer and spinning, a n d t h u s t h e p u b l i c h a d to pay in t h e deteriorated
quality of t h e cloth they p u r c h a s e d . (50, 1) D i e U n i o n m a c h t e n u n weitre
F o r d e r u n g e n . Verlangten von d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s , in case of a c o n t r a c t i o n
of their scale of p r o d u c t i o n , n o t to discharge any of their w o r k m e n , b u t to
30
keep every l o o m a n d j e n n y going, dealing o u t t h e work, however small
might be its quantity, in e q u a l proportions to their m e n . Z u m T h e i l h i e r i n
i h n e n nachgegeben. N u n verlangten sie, n o t to stop a single o n e of t h e m a chines u s e d in t h e process preparatory to spinning, though, from t h e falling | | 1 1 | off of their orders, it should not be necessary to keep t h e m in work.
35
H i e r i n i h n e n vigorously W i d e r s t a n d geleistet u n d die m e n m u ß t e n d a v o n
abstehn. (52) N u n d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s befohlen to get all their weaving a n d
spinning d o n e in Leeds a l o n e ; E i n m a s t e r pledged sich schriftlich d a z u , to
weave a n d spin all t h e cloth he m a d e on his own prémisse, at t h e prices
fixed by t h e U n i o n . D a s R e s u l t a t i h n e n n i c h t günstig. Er r e d u c i r t e sofort
40 seine M a n u f a k t u r um % u n d took in work instead from t h e country m a n u facturers to scribble a n d slubb u n d folglich seiner W e b e r earnings reducirt
35
von 17 s. zu 7 s. per week u n d his spinners von 27 s. auf 10 s. N a c h 3 M o n a ten wollten sie, er solle wieder in der alten M a n i e r anfangen, aber vergeblich. (52, 3) Da die U n i o n nie ihre Regulations publicirt hat, k a n n ein m a s ter sie wider W i s s e n brechen. D a n n s u m m a r y p u n i s h m e n t . Vielleicht
m i t t e n in der W o c h e a signal is suddenly given by o n e of t h e m e n , every
o n e of w h o m , without m e n t i o n i n g the grievances, will instantly leave his
work, and in 5 m i n u t e s the factory will be deserted. So E i n F a b r i k a n t gestraft durch a t u r n o u t von 8 Tagen, weil er discharged a w o r k m a n for negligence u n d changed an overlooker from o n e d e p a r t m e n t to another. (55, 6)
T h e most effectual m o d e of compelling every w o r k m a n to j o i n the c o m b i n a t i o n , consisted in proscribing any factory where o n e of these "black
sheep," as the n o n - U n i o n i s t s were called, was employed. (56) Various rules
were laid down m i t Bezug auf die admission von apprentices in any m a n u factory, the n u m b e r being regulated by t h a t of the adults employed u n d
n i e m a n d allowed to enter as s u c h above the age of 15. E b e n s o die Z a h l der
boys beschränkt u n d if any one of t h e m employed on work usually performed by a m a n , he was to be paid m a n ' s wages. K e i n e m erlaubt to work
at any of the trades exercised by their body, unless he h a d served a regular
apprenticeship to t h e m , n o r could a w o r k m a n leave one d e p a r t m e n t des
business to enter another; a weaver could not b e c o m e a spinner, n o r a gigger a s h e a r m a n etc. T h u s an excess or deficiency of w o r k m e n in any particu l a r e m p l o y m e n t could not be easily r e m e d i e d . (57) T h e regulation of
these various matters implies of necessity, t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a j u d i c i a l
character, a n d the C o m m i t t e e have t a k e n u p o n themselves to decide in all
disputes between the w o r k m e n a n d their employers. ... Ihr einziges Mittel
ihre orders zu enforce is by ordering a strike. (58) N u n , da der strike i m m e r
populär »the power of the C o m m i t t e e ist confined to m e a s u r e s of active
hostility u n d fast useless for purposes of restraint«. (59) Die Organisation
der w o r k m e n in d e n stuff und worsted trades, deren m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes
ganz distinct from the woollen, is as perfect u n d präcis auf d e n s e l b e n Principien begründet. (59) D e r strike (1833) bei Messrs. H i n d e s u n d D e r h a m ,
der dieser U n i o n (die Distrikte in Leeds, Halifax, Bradford etc) an 4000 £
kostete verursachte die invention of a wool-combing machine, which wholly
superseded the labour of t h a t class of m e n , who were the chief ringleaders
in this affair, and which has struck a blow at their c o m b i n a t i o n , that it can
never recover. (61, 2) W h e n a strike takes place, a n d any of those who j o i n
in it are m u c h in arrear with their subscriptions, they are disabled by the
rules from receiving any assistance from the general funds. T h e enforcing
of this regulation is obviously necessary to prevent bankruptcy, a n d yet it
never can be enforced, for the manifest reason, that a refusal to support
those who are in arrear, would c o m p e l t h e m to accept e m p l o y m e n t at any
36
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35
40
w—
price, a n d the object of a t u r n o u t would be defeated. (64, 5) F ü r c h t e r l i c h e
Eide etc i m m e r geschworen bei d e m Eintritt in diese U n i o n s . (74 u n d
alias) Im Lauf von 3 J a h r e n , 10 lives were lost in D u b l i n in Folge von c o m binations, u n d in no instance were the m u r d e r e r s brought to justice. (76)
5 Die hatters in L o n d o n struck in 1820, d e m a n d i n g an increase of 1 sh. per
12 h a t s ; a n d after staying o u t for 15 weeks, they accepted e m p l o y m e n t from
their masters at a decrease of 1 sh., instead of a rise of t h a t s u m . (77) Wo
die L o h n e r h ö h u n g erreicht, sie n u r n o m i n e l l e n Vortheil davon; sei es d a ß
die high wages m o r e labourers in diesen trade zogen als can be supplied m i t
10 work u n d die folglich m u s t be supported von d e n e n die get work, else the
competition of their n u m b e r s will beat down the advance t h a t has b e e n o b tained; oder von der expense of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e various b u r d e n s w h i c h a
c o m b i n a t i o n entails, wie clerks, secretaries, delegates, m e e t i n g r o o m s , von
d e m falling off of c o n s u m p t i o n in Folge des Steigens des Preisses, v o m
15 Wegtreiben der M a n u f a c t u r etc. (77, 78) |
|12| Die U n i o n in d e n W o r s t e d M a n u f a c t u r e s von der e b e n gesprochen
u n d die sich n a n n t e »The N a t i o n a l Friendly Society of operative worsted
manufacturers« (die ü b r i g e n U n i o n s in d e n clothing districts n a c h denselb e n Prinzipien established) war folgendermaassen eingerichtet: das c o u n 20
try divided in „districts", j e d e deren c o n t a i n s a certain n u m b e r of „lodges" or
separate clubs of workmen. J e d e r District wählt a governing c o m m i t t e e u n d
sendet Delegaten (deren Z a h l proportionirt der quantity of „lodges" it c o m prises) zu der „grandlodge", h e l d twice a year. In d i e s e m grandlodge m e e t ing ist das „grand c o m m i t t e e " or council of direction gewählt, das allein
25 das R e c h t hat of deciding u p o n strikes, w h e n the object is to raise wages; to
prevent reductions the district authorities are empowered to order strikes.
Der place of M e e t i n g der grandlodge jährlich gewechselt; die Delegates, die
it bilden, bezahlt n a c h der distance they have to travel. M o n a t l i c h e r Bericht jeder lodge, w h i c h c o n t a i n s an a c c o u n t of all its receipts a n d disburse30 m e n t s , a n d also of its general condition. Diese reports c o m m u n i c a t e d d e m
Sekretär der „grandlodge", der sie d e n several districts vertheilt. F u l l m e m bers h a b e n zu zahlen 1 s. e n t r a n c e money, u n d 3 d. weekly u n d are entitled
to receive, when they have struck work, a weekly allowance of 7 s. ausser
1 s. for a wife u n d 1 sh. for each child u n d e r 10, that is u n e m p l o y e d . (62,
35 3)
Herr Jackson, a m a n u f a c t u r e r von Sheffield, sagt vor d e m C o m m i t t e e
des H o u s e of C o m m o n s : "if t r a d e has b e e n remarkably brisk, a n d the dem a n d m a d e by the w o r k m e n has mostly b e e n for an exorbitant price, this
price has been m a i n t a i n e d for a very short t i m e , for a m o n t h , perhaps, to
40 execute the orders on h a n d , b u t t h e price of goods was in c o n s e q u e n c e so
far a u g m e n t e d , as to stop the d e m a n d in our foreign markets, a n d a subse-
37
q u e n t reaction taking place, it has b e e n ascertained, that after a t u r n o u t of
workmen, a n d a c o n s e q u e n t a u g m e n t a t i o n in t h e price of goods, every
third season, or every third half year (as t h e A m e r i c a n orders c o m e usually
2x a year) t h e price h a s fallen m u c h below t h e previous level." (78, 9)
(Trotz a l l e d e m s a g t er a n d e r s e i t s w i e d e r (p. 78) d a ß die c o m b i n a t i o n s d e n
rate of wages aufrecht h a l t e n , w e n n das a u c h n i c h t d e m e i n z e l n e n Arbeiter
zu G u t k o m m e ) Paisley u n d Macclesfield owe their rise to t h e high wages
d e m a n d e d i n Spitalfields; u n d Macclesfield i n t u r n h a t aus d e n s e l b e n
G r ü n d e n e i n e n Theil seines silk trade an M a n c h e s t e r verloren, ( ü b e r h a u p t
in der Nachbarschaft von Leeds etc etc oft die n e i g h b o u r i n g villages in
dieser Art in die H ö h e gebracht.) ... Irland h a t vielleicht am m e i s t e n in
dieser Art verloren. Owing der U n i o n in D u b l i n , planks c a n be cut into
boards 35 % wohlfeiler in Liverpool als in that town; d a d u r c h der Schiffbau
i m m e r m e h r i n Irland a b n e h m e n d etc etc. (80) Z ä h l t d a n n (83 sqq F ä l l e
auf, z . B . N ä g e l m a c h e n in Sheffield etc wo in Folge der c o m b i n a t i o n s die
M a n u f a c t u r e s n a c h fremden L ä n d e r n ausgewandert u n d der h o m e trade
decayed.) Zwei curious facts bewiesen d u r c h die history of t u r n o u t s : 1) that
they are hardly ever resorted to, except by those, who habitually receive
high wages, u n d 2) t h a t t h e t i m e of their o c c u r r e n c e is almost invariably
w h e n trade is prosperous. Ζ. B. in c o t t o n s p i n n i n g mills i m m e r die S a c h e
v o n d e n spinners a u s g e h e n d . Als 1829 die fine spinners in M a n c h e s t e r an
1000 t u r n e d out, they refused work, w o d u r c h sie v o n 3 0 - 3 5 sh. clear e i n e
W o c h e m a c h e n k o n n t e n . Als 52 mills u n d 30,000 persons were t h r o w n idle
w ä h r e n d 10 W o c h e n 1830, zu A s h t o n u n d U m g e g e n d , by t h e t u r n i n g out of
3000 coarse spinners, these m e n could earn weekly von 28 s. bis 31 sh.
clear. Im woollen trade die weavers u n d im worsted die C o m b e r s , die von
1 6 - 2 0 s. weekly, sind die ringleaders. (86, 7) Jackson sagt vor d e m C o m m i t tee of M a n u f a c t u r e s a n d C o m m e r c e , 1833, von d e n c o m b i n a t i o n s in Sheffield: „ S o m e of these c o m b i n a t i o n s have lasted o h n e U n t e r l a ß seit 1810;
b u t others have b e e n b r o k e n up every r e t u r n i n g period of b a d t r a d e ; b u t as
soon as trade b e c o m e s better, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s spring up afresh." Mr. Dunlop sagt vor d e m C o m b i n a t i o n C o m m i t t e e 1824: "they never t u r n out w h e n
t h e trade is b a d . " (87[, 88]) E i n e der »worst features« dieser Societies ist
ihre »hostility to piece or task work« a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t d i s c o u r a g e m e n t
they give to t h e exercise of superior skill a n d industry. "The m a n who does
task-work," sagt das T r a d e s - U n i o n M a g a z i n e "is guilty of less defensible
c o n d u c t t h a n a drunkard. T h e worst passions of o u r n a t u r e are enlisted in
support of y 131 taskwork. Avarice, m e a n n e s s , c u n n i n g , hypocrisy, all excite
a n d feed u p o n the miserable victim of taskwork, while debility a n d destitut i o n look out for the last morsel of their prey. A m a n , who earns by taskwork 40 s. per week, t h e u s u a l wages by day being 20 s., robs his fellow of a
38
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40
week's e m p l o y m e n t . " Sie wollen e q u a l i z a t i o n of wages". (92, 3) In d e n
meisten Statuten d a h e r »the penalty of 2 s. 6 d. or expulsion from the Society, on any m e m b e r , who should "be k n o w n to boast of his superior ability as to either the quantity or quality of work he can do, either in public or
5 private Company"«. (93) In those places where c o m b i n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n
most frequent a n d powerful, a c o m p l e t e separation of feeling seems to h a v e
taken place between masters a n d m e n . E a c h party looks on the other as an
enemy. (97)
In some places Benefit Societies, legally enrolled, have b e e n m a d e the
10 cloak for c o m b i n a t i o n s . (103) S o m e of the m o s t valuable a n d i n g e n i o u s
m a c h i n e s ... actually owe their existence to t h e operation of T r a d e s ' U n ions.—Selfacting m u l e . (107) D e r T u r n o u t der Lancashire w o r k m e n in
d e m building trade (1833) has i n t r o d u c e d a curious application of t h e
steamengine. Diese M a s c h i n e n u n i n einigen Städten angewandt, statt
15 m a n u a l labour, in hoisting the various building materials to the top of t h e
edifice, where they are i n t e n d e d to be used. (109)
39
Th. H. Stirling. The Question Propounded:
or, How will Great Britain ameliorate and
remedy the distresses of its workmen etc.
L o n d o n 1849.
Blödsinn.
40
5
Aus James Howard: The evils of England
The Evils of England. Social and
Economical. By a London Physician.
L o n d o n . 1848.
In der Vorrede heißts: »The object of the a u t h o r in these pages is, to enter
5 a strong a n d earnest protest against M e n d i c a n c y , u n d e r all its disguises;
against Charities, in m a n y of their forms; against Poor Laws, in every possible or conceivable s h a p e ; a n d against all kinds of waste.« Weiser D a n i e l s !
Waste is the great cause of n a t i o n a l as of individual i m p o v e r i s h m e n t ...
T h e m o s t m o n s t r o u s waste of m a t e r i a l yet c o m m i t t e d i s — t h e waste of the
10 refuse of our large towns, a n d of the liquid matters which drain away from
our farmsteads. D a s ist waste of manure. (107) waste of smoke. (108) waste
land, by millions of acres ... sturdy emigrants, by tens of t h o u s a n d s , leaving our shores; a n d t h e best of all m a n u r e s , in the best a n d m o s t available
of forms, to the value of several millions a year, flowing into the sea,—what
15 a picture of n a t i o n a l extravagance! (109) Emigration = waste of m e n . (120)
In England, at the present t i m e , we have n o t half the population we want to
m a k e things cheap. E m i g r a t i o n is an i n d e x of the pressure of idleness on
industry. (120) T h e aristocracy takes typhus fever u n d e r its peculiar patronage; the trading a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g interest adopts c o n s u m p t i o n . (132)
41
William Logan (City Missionary)
An Exposure, from Personal Observation,
of Female Prostitution.
In London, Leeds, and Rochdale,
and especially in the City of Glasgow.
5
Glasgow. 1843.
F e m a l e s h a u p t s ä c h l i c h der Prostitution geliefert % from being servants in
taverns a n d public houses. % from the i n t e r m i x t u r e of the sexes in factories, and those employed in warehouses, shops etc, % by procuresses, or females who visit country towns, m a r k e t s a n d places of worship, for t h e pur- 10
pose of decoying goodlooking girls, % endlich die von I n d o l e n z u n d b a d
t e m p e r leave their situations, d a n n von y o u n g m e n Betrogne, endlich
children who have b e e n urged by their m o t h e r s to b e c o m e prostitutes for a
livelihood. (13, 14) 80,000 H u r e n in L o n d o n , 4000 in Liverpool, 3000 in
Glasgow. [27]
15
42
Aus John Fielden: The curse of the factory system
John Fielden.
(Manufacturer at Todmorden in Lancashire)
The Curse of the Factory System.
L o n d o n . 1836.
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25
Arkwrights inventions took m a n u f a c t u r e s o u t of the cottages a n d farmhouses of England, where they h a d b e e n carried on by m o t h e r s , or by
daughters u n d e r t h e m o t h e r s eye, a n d assembled t h e m in the c o u n t i e s of
Derbyshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e u n d besonders Lancashire, where t h e newly
invented m a c h i n e r y was u s e d in large factories built on the sides of streams
capable of turning the waterwheel. T h o u s a n d s of h a n d s were suddenly required in these places, r e m o t e from towns; a n d Lancashire, in particular,
being till t h e n b u t comparatively thinly p o p u l a t e d a n d barren, a p o p u l a t i o n
was all she ||14| now wanted. T h e small a n d n i m b l e fingers of little children
being by very far t h e m o s t in request, the c u s t o m instantly sprang up of
procuring apprentices from the different parish workhouses of L o n d o n , Bir- m i n g h a m and elsewhere. M a n y t h o u s a n d s of these little hapless creatures
were sent down into t h e N o r t h , being from the age of 7 - 1 3 or 14 years old.
T h e c u s t o m was for the m a s t e r to clothe his apprentices, a n d to feed a n d
lodge t h e m in an "apprentice h o u s e " n e a r the factory; overseers were a p pointed to see to the works, whose interest it was to work the children to
the utmost, because their pay was in proportion to the quantity of work t h a t
they could exact. Cruelty was, of course, the c o n s e q u e n c e ... in m a n y of
the manufacturing districts, besonders aber in Lancashire ... cruelties t h e
most heart-rending were practised u p o n the unoffending a n d friendless
creatures who were t h u s consigned to the charge of m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s ;
they were harassed to the brink of d e a t h by excess of labour; they were
flogged, fettered, and tortured in the most exquisite refinement of cruelty; they
43
were, in m a n y cases, starved to the b o n e while flogged to their work, a n d
even in some instances, they were driven to c o m m i t suicide ... T h e b e a u t i ful and r o m a n t i c valleys of Derbyshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , a n d Lancashire,
secluded from the public eye, b e c a m e the d i s m a l solitudes of torture, a n d
of m a n y a m u r d e r . (5, 6) D i e Profits der manufacturers waren enorm; das weite
nur ihren Appetit; sie begannen die Praxis of „night working", i.e. having tired
o u t one set of h a n d s , by working t h e m t h r o u g h o u t t h e day, they h a d another set ready to go on working t h r o u g h o u t the night; the day-set getting
into the beds that the nightset h a d j u s t quitted u n d vice versa. It is a comm o n tradition in Lancashire, that the beds never got cold! T h e s e outrages on
n a t u r e N a t u r e herself took in h a n d ; contagious m a l i g n a n t fevers broke out
a n d began to spread their ravages a r o u n d ; n e i g h b o u r h o o d s b e c a m e
alarmed; correspondences appeared in the newspapers, a n d a feeling of
general horror was excited when t h e atrocities c o m m i t t e d in those r e m o t e
glens b e c a m e even partially known. D i e masters selbst wurden von d e n
m a l i g n a n t fevers ergriffen, a u s s e r d e m die public voice u n d therefore they
instituted a board of H e a l t h in M a n c h e s t e r , der 1796 e i n e n R e p o r t m a c h t e ,
worin es unter anderm heißt: 1) It appears that the children a n d others
who work in the large cotton factories are peculiarly disposed to be affected
by the contagion of fever u n d es rasch zu propagiren. 2) the large factories
are generally injurious to the constitution of those employed in t h e m , even
where no particular diseases prevail, from the close c o n f i n e m e n t which is
enjoined, from the debilitating effects of hot or i m p u r e air, a n d from want
of the active exercises which n a t u r e points out as essential in childhood
a n d youth, to invigorate t h e system, a n d to fit our species for t h e employm e n t a n d for the duties of m a n h o o d . 3) T h e u n t i m e l y l a b o u r of the night,
a n d the protracted labour of the day, with respect to children, n o t only
t e n d s to d i m i n i s h future expectations as to the general s u m of life a n d industry, by impairing the strength a n d destroying the vital s t a m i n a of the
rising generation, b u t it too often gives e n c o u r a g e m e n t to idleness, extravagance, and profligacy in parents, who, contrary to the order of n a t u r e ,
subsist by the oppression of their offspring. It appears t h a t children e m ployed in factories are generally debarred from all opportunities of education, a n d from m o r a l and religious instruction. (6, 7) G e s c h a h i n d e ß nichts
bis 1802, wo Sir R. Peel procured an Act (42 G e o . 3. c. 73) to regulate the
l a b o u r of apprentice children worked in factories. (7) D e r A p p r e n t i c e Akt,
b u t gradually, wore out the newly-adopted m o d e of taking factory apprentices; for, as the masters would work the long hours, they now h a d recourse
to the children of parents on the spot; which it b e c a m e easier for t h e m to
do, as, about this time, the application of steam power to cottonfactories, by
Watt, was getting into vogue; so that the moving power, which before h a d
44
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
b e e n waterfalls, a n d which, of course, could only be h a d by building t h e
factory on the stream, was now, an engine, that could be p u t up in t h e
m i d s t of ||15| the people wherever they could be found; u n d da sich auf
diese Kinder der vorige A k t n i c h t bezog, 1816 Sir R. Peel procured a C o m mittee of the H o u s e of C o m m o n s to e x a m i n e into the expediency of a Bill
to apply the provisions of the Act above n a m e d to all children worked in
factories. (8, 9) A u s der E v i d e n c e des Sir R. Peel selbst geht hervor that, after the passing of the Factory A p p r e n t i c e Act, the children of very poor
people were brought into t h e mills, and, n o t being apprenticed, were
worked during the long h o u r s prohibited to apprentices. (10) N a c h der Evid e n c e von J o h n Moss, overseer of Backbarrow Mill, bei Preston, der A p prentice Akt constantly set at n o u g h t . T h e witness did n o t even know of it.
Die children in der mill waren fast alle apprentices von L o n d o n parishes;
they were worked von 5 Morgens bis 8 in der N a c h t , das ganze J a h r durch,
mit n u r 1 S t u n d e für die 2 m e a l s ... invariably they worked von 6 am S o n n tag M o r g e n bis 12, in cleaning the m a c h i n e r y for the week. D a b e i m u ß t e n
sie w ä h r e n d der g a n z e n Zeit s t e h n ; keine seats in der mill. D i e K i n d e r
fielen oft h i n u p o n the mill floor u n d schliefen dort ein. (10) It is evident
that the long h o u r s of work were brought a b o u t by t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e of so
great a n u m b e r of destitute children being supplied from the different parts
of the country, that the masters were i n d e p e n d e n t of the h a n d s ; a n d that,
having once established t h e c u s t o m by m e a n s of the miserable materials
which they procured in this way, they could i m p o s e it on their n e i g h b o u r s
with the greater facility. (11) Am 6 J u n e 1815 Sir R. Peel (der Vater des
B e r ü h m t e n ) first m o v e d to bring in his bill. An d i e s e m Tag sagte
Mr. Horner: "It h a d b e e n k n o w n t h a t with a b a n k r u p t ' s effects, a gang, if he
might use the term, of these children h a d b e e n p u t up to sale, a n d were advertised publicly, as a part of the property. A m o s t atrocious instance h a d
c o m e before the King's B e n c h 2 years ago, in which a n u m b e r of t h e s e
boys, apprenticed by a parish in L o n d o n to o n e manufacturer, h a d b e e n
transferred to another, a n d h a d b e e n found by s o m e benevolent persons in
a state of absolute famine. A n o t h e r case, m o r e horrible, h a d c o m e to his
knowledge, while on a c o m m i t t e e upstairs; that, n o t m a n y years ago, an
agreement h a d b e e n m a d e between a L o n d o n parish a n d a L a n c a s h i r e
manufacturer, by which it was stipulated t h a t with every 20 sound children,
one idiot should be taken." (11, 12) Obgleich die M o t i o n Peel's carried,
1815, die Bill erst passed 1819. Aufgeschoben d u r c h das appointing of t h e
c o m m i t t e e to inquire. T h e provisions des Act were: 1) that no child u n t e r
9 Jahren in einer cotton s p i n n i n g factory angewandt werden solle; 2) d a ß
kein Kind u n t e r 16 J a h r e n in einer solchen Fabrik m e h r als 12 S t u n d e n
während des Tages, exclusive of the m e a l t i m e s , angewandt w e r d e n solle.
45
(12) universal is the c o m p l a i n t of "sair tired," a n d of swelled legs, ankles,
feet, h a n d s , a n d arms, t h a t it almost seems as if o n e voice spoke t h e facts.
(21) it is t h e factory system of overworking, which, in its purest state, t e n d s to
corrupt t h e m o r a l s of y o u n g people, a n d in its t o o general state, is t h e cause
of languor so excessive, that exciting drink and o p i u m e a t i n g are b u t too of5
ten resorted to for relief. (28) T h e labour now u n d e r g o n e in t h e factories is
m u c h greater t h a n it used to be, owing to t h e greater a t t e n t i o n a n d activity
required by t h e greatly increased speed which is given to t h e m a c h i n e r y
t h a t t h e children have to a t t e n d to, w h e n we c o m p a r e it with what it was 30
or 40 years ago. (32) as i m p r o v e m e n t s in m a c h i n e r y have g o n e on, t h e "ava- 10
rice of m a s t e r s " h a s p r o m p t e d m a n y to exact m o r e labour from their h a n d s
t h a n they were fitted by n a t u r e to perform. (34) 1832, wo Dr Kay sein B u c h
schrieb, Cholera b r a c h t e die F a b r i k a t e n in M a n c h e s t e r wie in 1796 wieder
in grosse Angst u n d zu e i n e m »Special Board of H e a l t h « . (38) E i n K i n d in
einer factory hat täglich to walk, in following t h e s p i n n i n g m a c h i n e , 15
20 miles in 12 hours, u n d w e n n d i e M a s c h i n e n rascher g e h n 2 5 - 3 0 . (40)
W e n n 3 N a t i o n e n , ζ. B. England, F r a n k r e i c h , ||16| N o r d a m e r i k a in M e x i c o
c o n c u r r i r e n , so m ü s s e n sie zu denselben Preissen verkaufen. W h a t these
m a n u f a c t u r e r s take in r e t u r n from M e x i c o , m u s t be sold at such a price in
their respective countries, as will e n a b l e t h e m to go on m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A n d 20
t h u s , t h e a p p a r e n t dearness of m a n u f a c t u r i n g in one country, as c o m p a r e d
with another, falls on t h e c o n s u m e r s in that country, a n d is paid in t h e
price charged on the returns that t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r brings back. (55)
Dr Bowring statuirt: » C o n s u m t i o n von cotton in E u r o p a u n d A m e r i c a
1,500,000 bales, jährlich, die bales, von 300 lbs im D u r c h s c h n i t t . D a v o n
c o n s u m i r t fast %, 940,000 bales, in G r e a t Britain, % 280,000 bales in
F r a n c e , 216,000 bales oder nearly % in A m e r i c a , 64,000 bales, nearly / in
other parts. A d d i t i o n a l cost of french cotton goods above those of E n g l a n d ,
average 3 0 - 4 0 % . Inferiority of french m a c h i n e r y , 2 5 % . Ditto of french lab o u r 20 %.« (57)
25
x
u
30
Die A m e r i c a n s , w ä h r e n d a period von 18 J a h r e n vor 1833 could purchase in England, m i t d e n proceeds of 300 lbs of U p l a n d cotton, on an average of these years, n u r 24 pieces of 74-cloth; aber 1833 k o n n t e n sie m i t
d e n s e l b e n proceeds 30 pieces kaufen. 1834 k o n n t e n sie 29 pieces kaufen
u n d 1835 - 32 pieces. An increase of 33¾%. W ä h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 35
1833 k o n n t e n die A m e r i c a n s m i t d e n proceeds of 300 lbs cotton n u r
131 lbs of 30 h a n k s water twist kaufen; 1833, 177 lbs; 1834, 178 lbs, 1835,
190 lbs. Increase of 45 %. W ä h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 1833 k o n n t e n die A m e ricans m i t d e n proceeds von 300 lbs of cotton n u r 86 lbs'of half-ell velveteens kaufen, 1835, 136 lbs. An increase of 58 %. W ä h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 40
1833 k o n n t e n sie, m i t d e n 300 lbs cotton kaufen n u r 15% pieces of 2 8 - i n c h
46
72 powerloom cloth. D e r average, 1836, war 24 pieces for the s a m e . I n crease of 53 %. 1826 u n d 7, die A m e r i c a n s , m i t d e n 300 lbs, could p u r c h a s e
n u r 344 yards of domestic, or stout cloth.
5
1828-9
1830-1
1832-3
1834-5
365 yards, an increase of 6 per cent
388
12
464
34
564
64.
Die 5 hier gewählten Artikel sind leading articles, into which a very great
proportion of the cotton i m p o r t e d in E n g l a n d is worked up ... H a d t h e
10 manufacturers a n d the cottongrowers c o m e in close contact with e a c h
other, a n d exchanged a n d t a k e n away e a c h of t h e m their c o m m o d i t i e s in
bulk, the eyes of the british m a n u f a c t u r e r s would long ago h a v e b e e n
opened, a n d a stop would have b e e n p u t to the losing g a m e we h a v e pursued. (60)
47
Samuel Laing:
National Distress. Its Causes and Remedies.
Atlas Prize Essay.
L o n d o n . 1844.
( A u s der V o r r e d e g e h t hervor, d a ß d a s B u c h g e s c h r i e b e n 1842, O c t o b e r
u n d N o v e m b e r , towards t h e e n d of a crisis of u n e x a m p l e d severity et duration.) [V, VI]
Part
I.
Nature
and
Extent
of the
Existing
Distress.
Declared value of exports of british produce a n d m a n u f a c t u r e s to the British West I n d i e s :
Years of Slavery.
1830
£2,838,448
1831
2,581,949
1832
2,439,808
10
Years of freedom
1838
£3,393,441
1839
3,986,598
1840
3,574,970. (4 Note)
Der a m o u n t of i n c o m e actually assessed to the property tax in 1 8 1 4 - 1 5 belief sich auf 166,222,128 I. exclusive of all i n c o m e s below 50 I. a year. D i e
returns of Sir R. Peel's property tax show that in 1842 das i n c o m e des c o u n try, exclusive of i n c o m e s below 150 1., exceeded 180,000,000 I. (5 N o t e ) D a s
jährliche E i n k o m m e n Englands m i n d e s t e n s 350 Millionen. N u n die N a tionalschuld = 760 Mill., also k a u m two years' purchase of the n a t i o n a l inc o m e ; u n d der jährliche Zins darauf = 29,000,000 m a c h t n u r 8 - 9 % u p o n
this i n c o m e . N i m m t m a n die ganze Steuerlast zu 50 Mill., so überschreitet
sie nicht 15 % on the n a t i o n a l i n c o m e . (6)
48
5
15
20
Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1841 - u n t e r der strengen A n w e n d u n g des n e u e n A r m e n g e s e t z e s , offizieller Pauperismus in E n g l a n d u n d W a l e s 1,300,928 persons, 1 auf 12 in einer
Bevölkerung von 15,911,725 oder 8¼%. (9) Captain Miller, s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
of police, 11171 sagt von d e m Hauptlumpenproletarierviertel von Glasgow:
»There is concentrated every thing t h a t is wretched, dissolute, l o a t h s o m e ,
and pestilential.« (11) In Glasgow v o m T y p h u s attacked:
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
Total
10,092
21,800
9,792
8,085
15,290
62,051.
(12)
In Liverpool auf 25 Arbeiter 1 Typhuskranker; 8000 bewohnte Keller, deren occupants geschäzt werden auf 3 5 - 4 0 , 0 0 0 . N a c h Dr D u n c a n % der working classes in Liverpool leben in courts. (13) (175,000 Arbeiter in Liverpool. [13]) Zieht m a n d u r c h das C e n t r u m v o n Leeds eine Linie v o m
N o r d e n z u m S ü d e n , so sind die deaths on the east side of the line = 1:24
(wo die ä r m r e n Klassen wohnen), in d e m a n d r e n Theil = 1:36. Beide ratios
high, the average mortality of E n g l a n d being only about 1:48. (15) In Birm i n g h a m leben 49,016 persons in courts narrow, filthy, illventilated u n d
badly drained. D i e police returns show 122 m e n d i c a n t s ' lodging houses,
252 Irish lodging houses, 314 i n h a b i t e d by c o m m o n prostitutes, 81 h o u s e s
noted als D i e b s w a a r e n h e h l e r r ä u m e u n d 228 als Resort für thieves. (I.e.)
Scotch destitution has g o n e a step b e y o n d english, a n d arrived, like that of
Ireland, at a point at which all other evils are swallowed up in t h e u r g e n t
a n d everpresent danger of literal d e a t h from starvation. (17 Note) in W h i t e chapel, m i t a p o p u l a t i o n von 71,758 die average a n n u a l mortality is
= 1:26, a ratio as h i g h as t h a t of the m o s t u n g e s u n d e n Fabrikstadt. D i e
Durchschnittsmortality in d e n 4 districts von W h i t e c h a p e l , Bethnalgreen,
St. Giles, St. George, Southwark u n d Bermondsey, die z u s a m m e n eine p o p ulation von 281,264 der labouring, m a n u f a c t u r i n g u n d poorer classes enthalten, ist = 1:30 u n d in allen diesen Distrikts das typhus fever, t h e u n e r ring sign of social misery and degradation, is firmly established, a n d m a k e s
periodical ravages ... In d e m aristocratic parish of St. George's, H a n o v e r square die Sterblichkeitsrate = 1:51, u n d in d e n respectable districts of M a rylebone u n d St. Paneras = 1:49. (17)
49
Extent of Destitution in large towns etc.
Condition of Handloom weavers and other classes
of unskilled manufacturing operatives.
In Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, Leeds u n d eastern parts von L o n d o n a
large proportion, in m a n y instances % der c o m m o n labouring population,
5
are compelled to live u n d e r circumstances w h i c h necessarily imply an ext r e m e degree of suffering a n d degradation. ... In d e n agricultural districts
von Yorkshire, D u r h a m , N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , C u m b e r l a n d u n d W e s t m o r e land, die average n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s von je 1000 who arrive at t h e age
of 70, is 204, in L o n d o n 104, in B i r m i n g h a m 8 1 , in Leeds 79, in Liverpool 10
u n d M a n c h e s t e r 63. I n L o n d o n u n d d e n Fabrikdistrikts die D u r c h s c h n i t t s sterblichkeit der K i n d e r u n t e r 5 J a h r e n fast doppelt als in d e n healthy rural
districts. (19, 20) Folgende analysis der p o p u l a t i o n of Leeds, given von R o bert Baker, Esq., in the Sanitary Reports, zeigt folgendes:
Persons having sedentary occupations
Persons having perambulatory occupations
Professions
Merchants
Persons working in mines
General outdoor labour and handicraft
Indoorlabour and handicraft
Dyers
In trade
Not in business
Persons under 15 years without occupations
Other persons without occupations
Persons employed in manufacture
Total
( c o n t i n u a t i o p. 21) |
50
1,586
967
292
427
130
3,988
13,455
665
2,799
1,905
31,056
21,990
8,363
87,613.
15
20
25
(20)
Aus Edinburgh Review. Vol. 67. 1838
Ii8| Edinburgh Review, (vol. 67 April 1838)
Trades' Unions and Strikes.
The G o t h i c ages b e q u e a t h e d to m o d e r n E u r o p e a very peculiar organization of the industrious ranks. T h e y were arranged over the whole of E u r o p e ,
into incorporations or G u i l d s , which were erected into legal incorporations
by Royal Charters, a n d were invested with a large proportion of t h e political power, conceded in those t i m e s to t h e Burghs of the K i n g d o m . (211)
But with the gradual decay of the incorporated trades, the progressive curtailing of their exclusive privileges, a n d the total merging of their political
influence sprangen auf die T r a d e s ' U n i o n s ... Mr H u m e ' s Act, passed in
1824, first gave t h e m t h e sanction of law. (212) Vor d e m C o m m i t t e e ü b e r
die c o m b i n a t i o n laws (1824) h e i ß t es von der evidence u. a.: "the evidence
a d d u c e d before this C o m m i t t e e proved that the C o m b i n a t i o n laws h a d
b e e n inefficient in repressing those associations of workmen, which h a d so
often dictated to their masters the rate of wages, t h e h o u r s a n d m a n n e r of
working. There was hardly a t r a d e in the three k i n g d o m s (the typefounders
in L o n d o n excepted) in which t h e j o u r n e y m e n were n o t regularly organized a n d were n o t prepared to assist with m o n e y , to a great extent, any
body of workmen, who chose to stand o u t against their employers. Of these,
the tailors were the best organized. It appeared that the whole body of
j o u r n e y m e n tailors is divided into two classes, d e n o m i n a t e d flints a n d
dungs; the former work by the day, and receive all equal wages; t h e latter
work generally by the piece. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of houses of call for the
flints, each of which elects a delegate; the delegates again elect five of their
n u m b e r s , called t h e town, who rule the whole trade with u n l i m i t e d power.
T h e whisper is spread a m o n g t h e b o d y that there is to be a strike; a n d , without discussing the subject, they strike whenever they are ordered to do so."
(212, 13) T h e old Corporations were defensive Associations, by t h e masters
51
a n d w o r k m e n in particular trades, t a k e n as a whole, against the violence
a n d injustice of the feudal lords, or t h e arbitrary exactions of t h e Sovereign; die C o m b i n a t i o n s sind »Union, or C o m b i n a t i o n of the w o r k m e n
against their masters«. (213) (defensive c o m b i n a t i o n s , of the w o r k m e n
against their own employers. 214) »they are p e r m a n e n t l y in operation, a n d
the fetters they impose, especially on the working class i m m e d i a t e l y below
the skilled operatives, are often galling a n d oppressive in the highest degree.« (214) Will der m a s t e r e i n e n w o r k m a n a n w e n d e n , der n i c h t zur Association gehört, the whole c o m b i n e d w o r k m e n in his e m p l o y m e n t i m m e d i ately strike; a n d he is left with his new h a n d , in the m i d s t perhaps of s o m e
important operation. Till the obnoxious w o r k m a n is dismissed, no other
m e m b e r of the c o m b i n a t i o n is permitted to enter the master's e m p l o y m e n t .
(215) There are different gradations in these Associations, a m o u n t i n g
sometimes to 2, sometimes to 3 classes. There are the skilled workmen, a n d
the apprentices or beginners. In order to secure the m o n o p o l y of the skilled
part of trade, it is usually enacted by t h e ruling c o m m i t t e e , that no m a s t e r
shall employ m o r e t h a n a small proportion of apprentices to t h e skilled
workmen. In some trades, he is only p e r m i t t e d to employ o n e for 3 skilled
workmen, in some, one for four; in others, one for five. In all however, the
proportion of skilled to unskilled m u s t be very large. Will er nicht, so strike
verordnet. E b e n s o w e n n er d e n Trades' U n i o n s mißliebige overseer oder
m a n a g e r anstellt. (215) Die ruling c o m m i t t e e s m a a s s e n sich a u c h an die
Z a h l der A r b e i t s s t u n d e n u n d die wages zu b e s t i m m e n . ... die colliers von
Lanarkshire, b e n u t z e n d die great d e m a n d for iron während der E i s e n b a h n m a n i e von 1835 u n d 1836, issued a m a n d a t e , t h a t no collier should work
m o r e t h a n 3 days, or 4, in the week, a n d at the u t m o s t 5 h o u r s in t h e day.
This order was implicitly obeyed by the whole of the c o m b i n e d colliers
a r o u n d Glasgow u n d n i c h t n u r von i h n e n , sondern von allen colliers in
Renfrewshire, D u m b a r t o n s h i r e u n d Stirlingshire, z u s a m m e n 2 - 3 0 0 0 . T h e
wages which the m e n were to get for working 1 2 - 1 5 S t u n d e n a week, wechselten von 30 zu 35 sh., according to the quantity of coals they p u t out. Die
coalmasters begünstigten das. Die coals von Glasgow stiegen von 8 s. 6 d.
zu 16 oder 17 sh. each t o n u n d dieser extravagante Preiß d a u e r t e an
18 M o n t h s , die lezten 9 wovon, von J a n u a r - October 1837, was a period of
u n e x a m p l e d commercial and m a n u f a c t u r i n g distress. T r o t z d e m die
w o r k m e n stood out for the old rate of wages; u n d da die ironmasters auf |
|19| einer R e d u c t i o n bestanden, als der Preiß ihres Products fiel M ä r z 1837
von £ 7 10 sh. auf £ 4 a ton, the greater part of t h e m struck work u n d cont i n u e d idle for about 5 m o n t h s , bis ihre funds erschöpft u n d the whole
t u r n e d out coal in the country, even of the worst kinds having b e e n consumed, m u ß t e n sie zu d e n rates der ironmasters arbeiten, which was,
52
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
8 hours a day for 5 days a week, wozu a u c h die inferior h a n d s 5 u n d die
bessern 6 sh. täglich earn k o n n t e n . (216, 17) D i e u n i f o r m practice der c o m bined workmen, is, to fix a rate below which, n o t only no m e m b e r of t h e
u n i o n , b u t no person whatever, shall work to any m a s t e r ... the scale which
they generally adopt, is n o t so m u c h for every day, b u t in proportion to t h e
a m o u n t of work d o n e by the m e n . (217) „ n o b " heißt der deserter, der U n gehorsame Arbeiter der U n i o n . (I.e.) A n o t h e r principle which is very generally acted u p o n by these U n i o n s , is, t h a t t h e m a s t e r is n o t allowed a
choice of workmen, if he requires to take in additional h a n d s . He is n o t
permitted to choose those w h o m he would prefer, b u t m u s t go to a certain
office, called a m o n g the tailors "a h o u s e of call," a n d there take t h e first
m a n who stands u p o n the list for e m p l o y m e n t . This principle is established
i n L o n d o n , Dublin, E d i n b u r g h a n d Glasgow, b o t h a m o n g tailors a n d m a n y
other trades. Its levelling a n d injurious effect etc ... T h e majority in all
trades almost always will be gainers by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u c h a system of
rotation in e m p l o y m e n t . (217, 18) Um sich gegen d e n influx von new
h a n d s in ihren trades zu sichern »very effectual m e t h o d s « n ä m l i c h of
»heavy restrictions u p o n the admission of any persons to the benefits of
their associations« werden g e n o m m e n . (218) Lange apprenticeship gewohnlich verlangt; w ä h r e n d der g a n z e n Zeit m u ß der apprentice pay a
stated contribution to t h e funds of the association. In vielen a u c h entrym o n e y zu zahlen by every apprentice or skilled h a n d , for admission, from
any distant quarter. Die Glasgow Spinners verlangten von entrants der latter description 5 I. Several trades h a b e n a u s s e r d e m a p e r m a n e n t system of
offering bounties to s u c h persons as will leave t h e trade and the country altogether. T h e associated cottonspinners in the W e s t of Scotland h a v e a perm a n e n t b o u n t y of £ 10, which is offered to every person in the trade who
will emigrate to A m e r i c a ; a n d a standing reward of £ 5 payable to every idle
h a n d who will get o n e of the skilled h a n d s , any how, to leave his employm e n t , or to " u n s h o p " h i m . ([218,] 219 Da sie d e n L o h n h ö h e r halten, ström e n natürlich h a n d s aus allen E c k e n in die privilegirten trades) W i r d m i t
N i e m a n d e m gearbeitet, der n i c h t seinen regulären Beitrag zahlt oder refractory gegen die C o m m a n d s des C o m m i t t e e . W e n n er bei e i n e m m a s t e r
Arbeitet, sendet das C o m m i t t e e d i e s e m N o t i z i h n z u entlassen. W e n n
nicht, strike. (220) Erstens a weekly regular c o n t r i b u t i o n is levied from
every m e m b e r according to the rate of wages he receives. ... Das C o m m i t tee der Glasgow C o t t o n s p i n n e r s gab, während des latter part of 1836 u n d 4
ersten m o n t h s von 1837, 11,881 1. aus (220, 1) Secret oaths, which b i n d
them, 1) to keep secret the taking of the o a t h ; a n d 2) to obey in all m a t t e r s ,
legal or illegal, the will of the majority, as expressed by the ruling c o m m i t tee. (221) In der Eidformel, proved von d e m late Mr. R o b i n s o n , Sheriff of
53
Lanarkshire, vor d e m C o m b i n a t i o n C o m m i t t e e des H o u s e of C o m m o n s
J u n e , 1825, wovon Huskisson C h a i r m a n war, heißt es: "I etc swear, in the
awful presence of Almighty god a n d before these witnesses, that I will execute etc every task or injunction which the majority of my brethren shall
i m p o s e u p o n me in furtherance of o u r c o m m o n welfare; as the chastisem e n t of n o b s , the assassination of oppressive a n d tyrannical masters, or t h e
d e m o l i t i o n of shops t h a t shall be d e e m e d incorrigible etc." (222) Sehr
wichtiger Effect dieser secret oaths u n d des sense entertained of their obligatory n a t u r e , ist die ausserordentliche Leichtigkeit, womit, in trials wegen
M o r d etc, befohlen von der U n i o n , the defence of a l i b i , however false, is
successfully m a d e out. (223) Das lezte u n d H a u p t m i t t e l for m a i n t a i n i n g
the authority u n d enforcing the c o m m a n d s des ruling c o m m i t t e e , is tenor
and intimidation. (225) W e n n a strike Platz h a t u n d new h a n d s are att e m p t e d to be introduced, werden guards r o u n d each mill stationirt, von
5 - 1 5 persons. "The guards' duty was to try to take out the new h a n d s who
were working at r e d u c e d rates, a n d to prevent others going in. T h e m e a n s
were—by advising, treating to drink, or assaulting. D i e guards were relieved a b o u t the m i d d l e of the day by a n o t h e r party a n d at other t i m e s ; b u t
guards c o n t i n u e d from t h e earliest h o u r in the m o r n i n g till the work was
dismissed." (226) ||20| D i e Spinners' U n i o n s liessen in Glasgow d u r c h b e zahlte assassins e i n e n n o b u n d e i n e n F a b r i k a n t e n m o r d e n . Glessen von
Vitriol ins Gesicht. (230 sqq.) F e u e r a n l e g e n an F a b r i k e n . (233) Die grosse
Differenz zwischen d e m L o h n der spinners, colliers etc einerseits u n d d e n
besten Agriculturarbeitern u n d W e b e r n (hand) anderseits is quite impossible to explain ausser d u r c h d e n effect of m o n o p o l y p r o d u c e d by conspiracy. (235) W h e n an insulated strike occurs in a single factory, the w o r k m e n
are generally victorious. ... they are supported by contributions from the
whole associated trade, whereas the m a s t e r is left to his own resources.
(236, 37) Bei general strikes dagegen die m a s t e r s Sieger. (I.e.) D e r Liberator
v o m 1 Februar, 1834, das great organ der Trades' U n i o n s in Scotland, sagt:
"Theirs will n o t be insurrection; it will be simply passive resistance. T h e
m e n m a y r e m a i n at leisure; there is, and can be, no law to c o m p e l t h e m to
work against their will. T h e y m a y walk the streets or fields with their a r m s
folded, they will wear no swords, carry no m u s k e t s , assemble no train of artillery, seize u p o n no fortified places. They will present no c o l u m n for an
a r m y to attack, no m u l t i t u d e for the Riot Act to disperse. They merely abstain, w h e n their funds are sufficient, from going to work for o n e week, or
o n e m o n t h , through the 3 kingdoms. A n d what h a p p e n s in c o n s e q u e n c e ?
Bills are dishonoured, the G a z e t t e teems with bankruptcies, capital is destroyed, the revenue fails, the system of G o v e r n m e n t falls into confusion,
a n d every link in the c h a i n which b i n d s society together is broken in a
54
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
m a n n e r by this inert conspiracy of t h e p o o r against t h e rich." (237, 8) D i e
so v o m Liberator e m p f o h l n e n principles in Praxis gesezt u n d der west of
Scotland convulsed with a series of strikes in m a n y skilled trades, b e s o n ders die calico-printers, J a n u a r 1834, which lasted 9 m o n t h s . (238) V o n
1 8 2 2 - 1 8 3 7 , u n d e r t h e alternations of extravagantly high wages a n d total
destitution, steht die m o r a l u n d vital statistics der Bevölkerung v o n G l a s gow wie folgt:
Population has increased von 151,000 zu 253,000
oder a b o u t
Serious crime gewachsen von 98 auf 392
Fever von 229 zu 3,680 oder
Deaths von 3,690 zu 10,888 oder
Consumption
of
spirits
gewachsen
Chance of life decreased von 1:40 auf 1:24 oder
um
66 %
400 d t o
1,600 d t o
300 dto
500 %
44 %. (247)
15
T h e rapid and now u n p r e c e d e n t e d application of s t e a m to weaving in t h e
steam-power looms, w h i c h h a s superseded within these ten years to such an
extent t h e u s e of h u m a n l a b o u r ... is in a great m e a s u r e to be ascribed to
the strength of t h e U n i o n s a m o n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s there e m p l o y e d ; a n d
the harassing repetition of t h e strikes which took place 12 or 15 years ago
20 a m o n g t h e w o r k m e n . (254) G r a n t i n g to t h e T r a d e s ' - U n i o n s their favourite
position, that the wages of skilled labour have b e e n raised by the effects of
c o m b i n a t i o n , — w h a t effect m u s t that have h a d u p o n the r e m u n e r a t i o n of
unskilled labour? ... T h e class of unskilled labourers is, in every country,
5 χ zahlreicher als die der skilled u n d viel m e h r der oppression ausgesezt;
25
because the persons c o m p o s i n g it are, from their extent a n d scattered posi
tion, incapable of c o m b i n i n g , a n d from t h e short instruction requisite to
enable any o n e to engage in t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t , the m o s t exposed to exten
sive a n d depressing c o m p e t i t i o n . Wir h ö r e n n i e von C o m b i n a t i o n s u n d
strikes u n t e r d e n ordinary or unskilled operatives. W i r h ö r e n beständig v o n
30
c o m b i n a t i o n s u n t e r d e n p o w e r l o o m weavers, tenters, cottonspinners, colliers, m i n e r s , ironfounders, engineers, tailors, bakers u.d.g. aber n i e v o n
solchen u n t e r daylabourers, h o d m e n , p l o u g h m e n , carders, reelers, piecers,
pickers, or others engaged in such inferior e m p l o y m e n t s ; n o r it is possible
that such c o m b i n a t i o n s ever c a n exist. W h a t t h e n are T r a d e s ' U n i o n s ,
35
taken in the m o s t favourable p o i n t of view, . . . b u t monopolies of skilled
against unskilled labour? a n d m u s t n o t any forced elevation of t h e wages of
the former produce an u n d u e depression in t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n of the latter? ... By forcibly elevating at t i m e s the wages of t h e skilled classes, they
have compelled t h e m a s t e r s to depress t h e wages of t h e m o r e n u m e r o u s u n -
40
skilled class of persons in their e m p l o y m e n t ; by debarring industry in gen-
55
eral an access to t h e skilled trades, except u n d e r very heavy restrictions,
they have | | 2 1 | thrown a vast m u l t i t u d e of their fellow w o r k m e n back u p o n
the unskilled d e p a r t m e n t s . (256, 7)
M a n sieht aus Mr. Fielden's tables, published 1833, d a ß die wages of
handloomweavers u n d prices of wheat u n d oats seit 1815, have stood as follows:
1815
1824
1831
1832
Wages per piece
to handloomweavers
Wheat per qr
Oats per qr
4 sh. 6 d.
2 s. 3
Is. 4
Is. 6
63 s. 8 d.
62 s.
66 sh.
61 sh.
22 sh. 11 d.
24 s. 1
25 s. 4
24.
So der L o h n der handloomweavers um % gefallen seit 1815. Sie sind at
the starving point. Diese deplorable r e d u c t i o n fand Statt w ä h r e n d cottonspinners von 2 5 - 3 5 sh. u n d colliers von 30 to 40 sh. a week m a c h t e n . D i e
W e b e r dagegen 6 - 1 0 s. (258) D a r a n sollen n u n natürlich die combinations Schuld sein.
/
56
5
10
15
Aus Westminster Review. Vol. 37. 1842
|23| Westminster Review. (1842) vol. 37.
Industry and its reward in Great Britain
and Ireland.
5
10
15
An agricultural labourer, who toils 12 a n d s o m e t i m e s 14, h o u r s per day
in cold, rain, frost, sun, fog—alternately frozen, bleached, a n d
drenched, — earns for his week's labour, for the support of himself, his wife,
and his four y o u n g children the wretched pittance of 12 shillings ... these
12 sh. are expended, wie folgt:
Rent
Flour
Wood or coals
Cheese
Tea
Potatoes
Sugar
Bacon
Candles and Soap
s.
2
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
d.
2
7
7
10
7
8
7
0
20
no butter, no milk, no meat, no red herrings even, no clothing, no m e d i c i n e
for the children, no shoes or boots, no provision p u t by for the t i m e s when
the h u s b a n d m a y be u n a b l e to work from sickness or accident; a n d yet the
12 sh. are G o n e . Yes, G o n e ; — a n d in what? In insufficient food for the
body. We visited lately 50 of s u c h cases. T h e r e are 500,000 m o r e to be
25 looked to, and 500,000 m o r e b e y o n d t h e m . So here is a p o p u l a t i o n — a n d in
some of our best districts, existing on bread, potatoes, from year's e n d to
year's end, b u t 2 o u n c e s of tea a n d a p o u n d of moist sugar for h u s b a n d ,
a n d wife, a n d 4 children for a whole week; a n d this n o r m a l state is viewed
57
not only without horror, b u t even with a sort of complacency. (219) T h e r e
is no step, but simply a hair's breadth, between t h e c o n d i t i o n of our agricultural labourers a n d p a u p e r i s m ... 12 sh. sind übrigens ein M a x i m u m
which it would be impossible for us to sustain, threshers e r h a l t e n selten
weniger u n d oft m e h r , aber die wages of p l o u g h m e n u n d waggoners sind
5
sehr inferior ... if English agricultural labour could now be averaged, it
would not a m o u n t to m o r e t h a n 10 s. 6 d. per family, i.e. for the support of
a m a n , his wife, a n d 3 or 4 small children. (222, 3) T h e cottagers of England ... are m e l a n c h o l y a n d mournful. T h e voice of singing is never h e a r d
within their walls. Their u n h a p p y i n m a t e s vegetate on potatoes a n d h a r d 10
d u m p l i n g s , and keep themselves warm with hot water p o u r e d over o n e
small teaspoonful of tea, which barely colours t h e water a n d w h i c h is adm i n i s t e r e d to the fretful children by their a n x i o u s and impoverished parents. ... They are ground down by iron a n d searching poverty, a n d their
meals are neither nutritive in quality n o r a d e q u a t e in solid a m o u n t . 15
(226)
58
Aus Westminster Review. Vol. 38. 1842
vol. 38 (1842) First Report of the
Children's Employment Commissioners: Mines
and Collieries. Presented to both Houses
of Parliament etc April 21,1842.
5
10
15
20
25
(Unter „young p e r s o n s " versteht der Factories A c t ü b e r die childhood, aber
u n t e r 18 Jahren.) [88] D i e coal u n d iron m i n e s geben das chief employm e n t für K i n d e r u n d y o u n g persons u n d e r g r o u n d . ([90,] 91) U n d e r the
competition which exists a m o n g the coal owners a n d coal proprietors in
each district for the supply of their several markets, no m o r e outlay is incurred t h a n is sufficient to overcome the most obvious physical difficulties;
and u n d e r that which prevails a m o n g the labouring colliers, who are ordinarily m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n the work to be d o n e requires, a large a m o u n t of
danger a n d of exposure to the m o s t n o x i o u s influences will gladly be encountered for wages a little in advance of those of the agricultural population a r o u n d t h e m , in an occupation, in which they can moreover m a k e a
profitable use of their children. This double competition is certainly n o t so
great as in m a n y other b r a n c h e s of industry, b u t it is quite sufficient to
cause a large proportion of the pits to be worked with the m o s t imperfect
drainage a n d ventilation; often with illconstructed shafts, bad gearing, incompetent engineers, a n d illconstructed a n d illpropped bays a n d roadways;
causing a destruction of life, a n d limb, a n d health, the statistics of w h i c h
would present an appalling picture. (102) Bei den Arbeitern, speziell a u c h
den K i n d e r n u n d j u n g e n Leuten, Effects of Overworking, Extraordinary
muscular Development, Stunted Growth, Crippled Gait, Irritation of the
Head, Back etc. (134) D i e übergrosse m u s c u l a r exertion in der K i n d h e i t
(bei den colliers) producirt a preternatural m u s c u l a r development. S u c h a
disproportionate m u s c u l a r development, instead of being an i n d i c a t i o n of
59
s o u n d a n d robust health, is really a proof t h a t the general system is starved
by the overnourishment of this o n e particular part of it; and that the system
is weakened, not strengthened, by this u n d u e e x p e n d i t u r e of its n u t r i m e n t
u p o n t h e muscles, is shown by the evidence now collected, which proves indubitably that the body in general is stunted in its growth, ... peculiarly
5
p r o n e to disease, u n d that it p r e m a t u r e l y decays and perishes. ... in the
coal m i n e s die A n w e n d u n g der K i n d e r protracts the period of childhood,
shortens the period of m a n h o o d , a n d anticipates the period of old age, decrepitude, a n d death. (134) Viel besser stehts in d e n m i n e s of tin, copper,
lead u n d zinc, wo das e m p l o y m e n t ganz anders. (135) |
10
|24| T h e e m p l o y m e n t of t h e adult colliers is almost exclusively in t h e
"getting" of the coal from its n a t u r a l resting place, of which there are various m e t h o d s , according to the n a t u r e of the seams a n d the habits of t h e
several districts. T h a t of the children a n d y o u n g persons consists principally either in t e n d i n g the air doors where the coal carriages m u s t pass 15
t h r o u g h openings the i m m e d i a t e l y s u b s e q u e n t stoppage of which is necessary to preserve the ventilation in its proper channels, or in the conveyance
of the coal from the bays or recesses in which it is hewn, along the subterran e a n roadways, to the b o t t o m of the pit shaft; a distance varying from absolute contiguity even to miles in the great coalfield of the n o r t h of England,
20
where the depth requires that the same expensive shaft shall serve for the
excavation of a large tract of coal. (107) Startling as t h e fact m a y appear, it
is into the pits, which "never can be worked without inflicting great a n d
irreparable injury on the health of children," that children are t a k e n at the
earliest ages, if only to be used as living a n d moving candlesticks, or to
25
keep rats from a dinner; a n d it is in pits of this worst character, too, in
which female children are employed. (I.e.)
1
60
Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung)
/ 2 1 / Laing. contin. von p. 17.
5
10
15
20
25
So in der grossen M a n u f a c t u r s t a d t Leeds beträchtlich m e h r als % der ganzen adult p o p u l a t i o n h a t no regular occupation. W o v o n leben sie? V o n occasional jobwork, by sending their children to factories or into the streets to
beg, by hawking petty articles for sale, by casual charity—especially of
those who are only o n e degree better off t h a n themselves. W i t h such resources, can we w o n d e r t h a t no cellar or lodginghouse is too u n h e a l t h y or
disgusting to fail in finding nightly its 20 or 30 occupants? Can we wonder
that pilfering a n d prostitution are habitually resorted to as a m e a n s of eking out a wretched existence? (20, 21) A n d r e s remarkable result ist die extremely small n u m b e r of persons, die direkt in manufactures verwandt
sind, selbst in d e n Städten, die m a n als exclusively m a n u f a c t u r i n g betrachtet. Dasselbe zeigt sich b e i allen principal seats of m a n u f a c t u r e . In G l a s gow, m i t 250,000 Einwohner, n u r 29,287 direkt oder indirekt c o n n e c t e d
m i t der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e , u n d in all the factories of every description,
n u r 5,585 m a l e s employed. (20 N o t e ) Mr. S y m o n d s u n d Captain Miller, in
their a c c o u n t of the wynds of Glasgow, state ausdrücklich daß der größre
Theil der Bevölkerung, an 30,000 persons, have no visible m e a n s of support
ausser „plunder u n d prostitution". In M a n c h e s t e r giebt Dr Kay a similar
description of a large district; u n d in Liverpool wenigstens % der g a n z e n
Bevölkerung vertheilt between the cellars and lodging houses. In Liverpool
(Parliamentary Tables of Population, 1841) zeigen die Police returns (in
Paris 3800 regular prostitutes, 8000 thieves, swindlers etc, 1500 vagabonds,
243 low lodging houses) 212 m e n d i c a n t s ' lodging houses, 591 brothels,
2404 prostitutes, 5007 thieves a n d suspected characters known to the police. B i r m i n g h a m , wie gesehn, 374 lodging houses devoted to the reception
der loose population of Irish and m e n d i c a n t s u n d 228 houses b e k a n n t als
die resorts of thieves etc. These facts s c h e i n e n zu beweisen, t h a t a large
proportion of the dense masses of p o p u l a t i o n crowded together in the low
61
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress.
Heft XI. Seite 21
districts of our large towns have absolutely no regular u n d recognised occupations, and live, as it were, as outlaws u p o n society. (21, 2) D i e m a n n e r ,
worin diese Klasse beständig recrutirt u n d vermehrt wird will be only too
apparent, w e n n m a n erforscht die Lage der n u m e r o u s classes i m m e d i a t e l y
above t h e m in the social scale, who earn an existence by c o m m o n a n d
5
comparatively unskilled labour. Am lowest in dieser class s t e h n die handloom weavers. D i e n u m b e r of persons, including their families, d e p e n d e n t
on handloomweaving for existence, ist geschäzt von d e m C o m m i t t e e von
1835 auf 840,000 u n d in d e m report der h a n d l o o m weavers' c o m m i s s i o n ers, publicirt 1841, auf ü b e r 800,000. 30 oder 40 J a h r e vorher diese Klasse 10
an der Spitze der british operatives in a m o u n t of earnings, intelligence, edu c a t i o n u n d general respectability. (22) D e r folgende a c c o u n t of wages bezahlt 1839 u n d 1840 to the cotton weavers von Lancashire u n d Glasgow:
Ashton-under-Lyne-District: H e a d s of family visited 483, N u m b e r of persons employed 813, N u m b e r of looms idle 213, n u m b e r of persons d e p e n d 15
ent on the earnings of those employed 1955, average per family per week
4 s. 11¾ d.
Zu Huddersfield der average von 402 weavers, m a i n t a i n i n g 1655 persons, 5 s. 6% d. per week, or 2¾ d. p e r day for each individual. Zu W i g a n
der average von 113 persons employed 3 s. 11 d. a week for each. (22) |
|22| In Schottland folgende Tafel gegeben von Symonds, the first class being
the average net a m o u n t of wages earned by adult skilled artisans on the finest fabrics; the second, the a m o u n t e a r n e d by less skilled a n d younger artisans:
Fabrics
Pullicates,
Ginghams etc
Shawls etc
Plain muslins
Fancy muslins,
silk gauzes etc
Thibets und tartans
Chief Place
of Manufacture
Number
of Looms
Clear ws;ekly Wages
1 Class 2 Class
s. d. s. d.
Glasgow und Lanarkshire
Paisley und Renfrewshire
Glasgow, Lanarkshire etc
18,420
7,750
10,080
7
10 6
7 6
4
6
4
7,860
2,980
9 6
7
6
5
Paisley und Glasgow
Glasgow und Howiek
25
6
30
6
6
Die n u m b e r of families corresponding to this n u m b e r of looms geschäzt
auf 26,160; ergiebt, 4 per family. 104,640 individuals u n d n a c h S y m o n d s %
der g a n z e n Z a h l der weavers belong to the second class of wages. (23) Als
Durchschnittswages der M e h r z a h l der Scottish weavers, giebt S y m o n d s für
M a n n , W e i b u n d 5 children 16 s. 2 d., für m a n , wife u n d 2 children 7 s.
l i d . E x t r e m e cases wo families von 7 persons n u r earn 7 s . 2 d. per week
oder i s . 3 - 7 d . per person. T o earn these wages, die Durchschnittsarbeits-
62
20
35
40
5
10
15
20
25
s t u n d e n sind 70 per week. (23) Fletcher schäzt die earnings der r i b b o n
weavers of Coventry u n d der Nachbarschaft auf 5 sh. a week; die der best
employed linenweavers of Yorkshire, during a period of comparative prosperity, n a c h d e n n ö t h i g e n d e d u c t i o n s für winding, dressing etc auf 5 s. 6 d.
for a m a n ' s earnings, wöchentlich, u n d weniger als half d e n Betrag für boys
a n d girls. In d e m D u n d e e d i s t r i c t die highest earnings von ablebodied linenweavers n i c h t ü b e r 7 s. 6 d. a week. In d e n finer descriptions der woollen
u n d silk fabrics u n d ü b e r h a u p t wo besondrer skill oder strength, oder
beides z u s a m m e n erförderlich, der rate of wages beträchtlich höher, a b e r
dieß trifft n u r small proportion der total n u m b e r of handloomweavers u n d
selbst m i t dieser n o m i n e l l h o h e n rate of wages oft m e h r als compensirt by
the extreme inconstancy of t h e e m p l o y m e n t . ([23,] 24) D i e obigen wages
n o c h zu hoch, um die actual c o n d i t i o n der weaving p o p u l a t i o n zu beurtheilen. Sehr grosse irregularity of e m p l o y m e n t , die slightest fluctuation in
c o m m e r c e never fails to throw m u l t i t u d e s of looms o u t of work. ... A u f d e n
average of m a n y years der W e b e r m i n d e s t e n s % der g a n z e n Zeit ausser Beschäftigung. Selbst, w e n n in full work, Zeitverlust in changing fabrics on
the loom, a n d going to the m a n u f a c t u r e r for work etc, which, we are told,
a m o u n t s , on the very lowest average, to 1 week in 8. Taking the average
rate of earnings, n a c h d e n n o t h w e n d i g e n deductions, evident daß der bulk
der Bevölkerung von 800,000 d e p e n d i n g on handloomweaving m u s t exist,
u n t e r den günstigsten U m s t ä n d e n , in a state of extreme destitution. (I.e.)
Die class der h a n d - l o o m weavers constituirt %, at least, of the adult m a l e
manufacturing p o p u l a t i o n . ([25,] 26) N a c h Baines, acceptirt von M a c C u l loch folgende Liste, wo die wages n o c h zu h o c h angegeben:
Estimate of the number and wages of different classes
of Operatives employed in the Cotton Manufacture.
No. of Operatives
30
35
40
237,000 engaged in spinning and
powerloom weaving
250,000 handloom weavers
159,300 lace workers
45,000 calico printers
33,000 makers of cotton hosiery
Average weekly wages
s.
d.
10
7
2
10
6
5
M a n sieht hier, d a ß wenig b r a n c h e s der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e der l a b o u r a
sufficient r e m u n e r a t i o n gaben. Die R e t u r n s der Factory C o m m i s s i o n e r s |
/ 2 4 / zeigen, daß von 220,134 in d e n cottonfactories beschäftigten P e r s o n e n
n u r 58,053 oder about % des G a n z e n were males ü b e r 18 J a h r e . (26) (Fern e r sieht m a n a u s d e m F a c t o r y C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' R e p o r t v o n 1841: d a ß
65
von 424,209 operatives angewandt in der cotton, wool, worsted, flax u n d
silk n u r 96,752 oder weniger als 2 3 % des G a n z e n males ü b e r 18 J a h r e war e n ; 130,218 waren females ü b e r 18 u n d 114,603 females u n t e r 18.) (I.e.)
A u f die comparativ kleine Z a h l von spinners, carders, powerloom weavers,
engineers, overlookers u n d einige few der best paid calico printers, b o b b i 5
n e t m a k e r etc ist die assertion zu b e s c h r ä n k e n , d a ß „in an ordinary state of
t r a d e " die in der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e beschäftigten operatives ü b e r die c o m forts etc zu gebieten h a b e n . (27) Dasselbe gilt für die woollen, l i n e n u n d
silk m a n u f a c t u r e s . F o l g e n d e s m a y be t a k e n as a fair a n d impartial general
s t a t e m e n t of the c o n d i t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a b o u t 2% millions, who apio
pear from t h e r e t u r n s to derive their subsistence directly from M a n u f a c tures, u n d e r ordinary c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d in an average state of t r a d e :
A b o u t % plunged in e x t r e m e misery, and hovering on t h e verge of actual
starvation; a n o t h e r %, or m o r e , earning an i n c o m e s o m e t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n
t h a t of the c o m m o n agricultural labourer, b u t u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s very
15
prejudicial to health, morality, a n d d o m e s t i c comfort, viz, by t h e l a b o u r of
y o u n g children, girls, and m o t h e r s of families, in crowded factories; and, finally, )/ earning high wages, amply sufficient to support t h e m in respectability u n d comfort. (27) D i e ß der state of things u n d e r ordinary circumstances. (I.e.)
20
3
Condition of the Class of Agricultural Labourers.
N a c h d e m lezten Census die Z a h l der a d u l t m a l e labourers (Agrikultur) i n
G r e a t Britain 887,167; m i t ihren families, a p o p u l a t i o n of 3,500,000 o d e r
a b o u t y der g a n z e n Bevölkerung u n d % m e h r als die p o p u l a t i o n der labourers directly employed in m a n u f a c t u r e s . In E n g l a n d im A l l g e m e i n e n die agricultural labourers sind daylabourers, hired by the week or j o b , m e i s t by
week, possessing no property, a n d living in r e n t e d cottages. D e r rate of
wages earned by an ablebodied labourer wechselt von 8 zu 12 sh. a week
u n d im D u r c h s c h n i t t 9 oder 10 sh. D i e u s u a l r e n t der cottages ist von 3 zu
5 /. a year. T h e extra earnings einer family w ä h r e n d Herbstzeit etc m a y
a m o u n t von 4 I. 10 s. zu 6 I. 10 s., w h i c h m a y be set against t h e rent of t h e
cottage, fuel etc, obgleich in m a n c h e n T h e i l e n E n g l a n d s this source of
earnings sehr reducirt w o r d e n ist d u r c h d e n influx von irish labourers. (28,
29) In Ε. C. Tuffneil, Esq, Assistant P o o r law Commissioner, Sanitary R e
ports, v . I p. 37 h e i ß t s : »im workhouse, where strict e c o n o m y is studied, a n d
where we are constantly told that we give t h e i n m a t e s too little to eat, it is
well k n o w n that a m a n , his wife a n d 5 children, c a n n o t usually be kept u n der 11, per week u n d d a b e i n i c h t s g e r e c h n e t für h o u s e r e n t ; u n d all t h e artis
66
25
30
35
cles required, being purchased in large contracts, are obtained 2 0 % u n d e r
the shop prices. In A n b e t r a c h t dieses solche family ausser d e m workhouse
m i t denselben comforts n u r zu erhalten zu 25 sh. a week, which is m o r e
t h a n double the general agricultural weekly wages in England.« (29) Fol5 gendes ist die actual weekly e x p e n d i t u r e eines labouring m a n , m i t 1 wife
a n d 6 children, in M a r c h , 1841, given von Tuffnell, which will afford a fair
average view of the m a n n e r of living der agricultural p o p u l a t i o n der southern u n d m i d l a n d c o u n t i e s of E n g l a n d :
10
6 gallons of flour
yeast
1 lb. of meat
and Y lb of suet
l i b of butter
1 lb of cheese
Y lb of candles
% lb of soap
Potatoes
Worsted, starch,
cotton, and tape
Zusammen
s.
8
3
4
15
2
20
25
30
35
40
d.
1
0
0
0
1
8
0
6
3½
3½
3
12 sh. 3 d. (30)
D i e ß läßt nichts für rent, clothing, e d u c a t i o n . Offenbar d a ß any suspension der Beschäftigung, rise in the price of provisions, or unforeseen casualty, m u s t of necessity compel t h e m to resort to charity, or to descend to a
coarser diet, and exchange the habits of an english for those of an Irish
peasant. (30) |
|25| Der englische Agriculturarbeiter h a s no c h a n c e of rising in the world
aber sehr viele of falling. (31) H a t er Pech, so wird er Pauper oder he will be
starved out of the country into s o m e large town, a n d absorbed in the floating population who t e n a n t the cellars a n d lodging houses, a n d live by the
worstpaid description of m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry, or by thieving, prostitution, and casual e m p l o y m e n t . Let it always be r e m e m b e r e d , that w h e n we
read in Poorlaw Reports, a n d Treatises on Political E c o n o m y , of l a b o u r being absorbed, a n d distress disappearing by refusing relief, this is, in 9 cases
out of 10, what the thing practically m e a n s . (31) T h e t e n a n t s at will, i.e. die
Highland peasantry are often driven out in great n u m b e r s , a n d sent in
u p o n the large cities u n d speziell Glasgow (wo 20,000 poor Highlanders)
where their condition is m o s t miserable; they are particularly subject to the
worst diseases on c o m i n g to a city - besonders fever u n d small-pox. (33)
W e n n der general rate des increase der Bevölkerung u n i f o r m gewesen
wäre u n d n i c h t migration von e i n e m district in d e n a n d e r n in search of
subsistence, the p o p u l a t i o n der m e h r agricultural counties würde grösser
67
gewesen sein als sie ist (1842) in E n g l a n d u n d Wales um 289,487, in
Schottland um 60,512. (34) Diese results werden bewiesen d u r c h d e n fact,
daß in Schottland, wo keine poorlaws, der proportionate rate of increase zu
G u n s t e n der m a n u f a c t u r i n g counties h a d b e e n double t h a t i n England.
O h n e Armengesetz in E n g l a n d w ü r d e es sich hier ebenso verhalten ... the
bulk of the aged, infirm u n d destitute ... in Scotland wurden starved into
the large towns. In Glasgow n i c h t 15 % der in die Hauptfieberhospitäler Z u gelaßnen waren natives der town; 40 % von d e n H i g h l a n d s u n d agriculturaldistricts of Scotland; 65 % der individuals zugelassen in das H o u s e of
Refuge zu E d i n b u r g h sind n i c h t natives der town. In D u n d e e von 944 p a u pers, n u r 344 natives der town; u n d in A b e r d e e n n u r 420 aus 1517. (Dr Alison, J o u r n a l of Statistical Society of L o n d o n , for year 1840, p. 214.)
In Schottland die Lage des Agricultural labourer wesentlich verschieden
von der same class in England. F o l g e n d e Aussage von a practical witness:
(Report of the C o m m i t t e e on Agriculture, 1836, p. 218): Servants are engaged half yearly. U n m a r r i e d p l o u g h m e n have from 5 I. to 6 I. 10 s., with
two pecks of o a t m e a l weekly, a n d an allowance of milk a n d potatoes, with
lodging and fuel generally in a bothie, i.e., a h o u s e attached n e a r to the
steading, where they all live together and m a k e their @wn food. O t h e r u n married labourers get 4 I. 10 s. to 5 I. half yearly. Married m e n s e r v a n t s are
engaged by the year; they generally get a h o u s e a n d garden, a n d m a i n t e n a n c e for a cow, a n d a b o u t 8 I. of wages, 6% bolls of oatmeal, a n d an allowance of potatoes, or ground for raising them, with a few barrels of coals or
brushwood for fuel. F a r m l a b o u r e r s by t h e day get about 1 s. 3 d. in winter;
in s u m m e r 1 s. 8 d. to 2 s. (34) D i e ß das früher u s u a l system in Schottland
u n d n o c h in m a n y districts vorherrschend. Diese class natürlich viel besser
dran als die englische. Sicher respectable etc. A b e r there is too m u c h reason, to fear that this class, the pride of Scotland ... ist fast disappearing.
D i e oben beschriebnen conditions, of late years, sehr generally infringed,
z u m N a c h t h e i l der weaker party. In m a n y counties das privilege of keeping
a cow entzogen u n d selbst die allowance of milk substituted for it has b e e n
discontinued as t r o u b l e s o m e and expensive. D i e Z a h l der m a r r i e d cottars
living on the farm sehr reducirt u n d das bothie-system, or e m p l o y m e n t of
u n m a r r i e d m e n living together in a bothie or hovel attached to the steading, sehr extended. ... a m o r e effective m e a n s of brutalising u n d demoralising a peasantry could n o t be devised, t h a n t h a t of crowding together a parcel of y o u n g m e n , half of t h e m perhaps strangers, Irish, or b a d characters,
in a hovel ... It is, in fact, transplanting the lodging h o u s e from the wynds
of Glasgow to the heart of the rural districts. Dieses eins der worst evils att e n d e d der Einführung des large farmsystem. Das L a n d cultivirt m i t m e h r
skill u n d economy. M e h r p r o d u c e g e w o n n e n m i t less h a n d s . A b e r von der
68
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
so aus Beschäftigung geworfnen rural population, ein Theil in der o b e n b e schriebnen Weise in die great towns geworfen ins L u m p e n p r o l e t a r i a t u n d
to glut the m a r k e t of m a n u f a c t u r i n g labour; der andre gezwungen to accept
worse and worse terms, bis zulezt der standard of comfort u n d respectabil5 ity has b e e n b r o k e n down. ([35,] 36) U n t e r der agricultural p o p u l a t i o n von
Scotland aufzuzählen die class of crofters, or peasants, living on a small
p a t c h of g r o u n d barely sufficient to employ their labour. This class n u m bers von 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 in d e n H i g h l a n d s u n d Hebrides, whose c o n d i t i o n in
keiner H i n s i c h t besser als die der ärmsten Irländer. (36) D e r reale Arbeits10 lohn gefallen. Beweis folgendes D o c u m e n t given by one of the assistant
poorlaw commissioners, being an actual a c c o u n t of t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h a
labourer's family, m i t 4 children, lived zwischen 50 u n d 60 years ago, on
the t h e n current wages of 6 s. a week: 4¾ gallons of flour at 6 d., = 2 s. 3 d.,
grinding, baking, a n d yeast 5 d., 7 p o u n d s of beef at 2¾ d. = 1 s. 5½ d.,
15 2½ p o u n d s of cheese oder 1½ p o u n d of butter 6¼ d., o a t m e a l u n d salt
2% d., one oz. of tea 2 d., % p o u n d of sugar 3 d., firing (meist h e a t h turf, cut
free from the c o m m o n or wood) 3 d., candles 3 d., soap 3 d. (37) Vergleich
dieß mit der obigen e x p e n d i t u r e einer family in 1841. (I.e.)
20
Condition of classes of labouring population
employed in Mines, Fisheries, Canals, Railways etc.
N a c h den Population returns von 1831 sind 608,712 males, über 20 J a h r e ,
employed as m i n e r s , quarriers, fishermen etc. N a c h M c C u l l o c h
240,000 persons direkt engagirt im irontrade, 150,000 im coal trade, 71,000
in d e n m i n e s of Cornwall u n d Devonshire u n d 8 000 in d e n saltmines von
25 Cheshire etc. ||26| D a z u gerechnet females u n d boys: population of a b o u t
1,200,000 persons d e p e n d i n g on m i n i n g industry. (Die Z a h l der m e n u n d
boys employed in british fisheries ungefähr 220,000) Mit A u s n a h m e des
e m p l o y m e n t of w o m e n u n d e r ground, u n d e r circumstances revolting to decency a n d destructive of morality, a n d of children at too early an age,
30 scheint die Lage der m i n i n g class viel besser als die der agricultural u n d
manufacturing population. U s u a l rates of wages for m e n über 18 J a h r e
werden von d e n Commissioners stated wie folgt: Staffordshire, coal u n d
iron works, 1 5 - 1 8 s. a week; Warwickshire, 18 sh. a week; Yorkshire
2 0 - 2 5 sh.; D u r h a m u n d N o r t h u m b e r l a n d 2 0 - 3 0 s.; Cornwall 4 0 - 6 5 s . per
35 m o n t h ; South Wales 2 5 - 6 0 s. a week; Lanarkshire 2 4 - 4 0 s. a week. D a z u
die labour aller boys von 9 - 1 0 J a h r e n available at a rate seldom lower als
die der handloomweaver ( 4 - 5 s. a week) which increases regularly zu 15
oder 20 s. a week by t h e t i m e the boy reaches 18, evident d a ß die p e c u n i a r y
69
m e a n s der most collier u n d m i n i n g families very a m p l e sind. D a s F o l g e n d e
gegeben as a fair average i n s t a n c e der earnings u n d e x p e n d i t u r e einer collier family in d e m Tyne u n d W e a r district in 1841, by o n e of the c o m m i s sioners employed in the late inquiry:
Earnings per fortnight.
Father, two weeks
Putter, one boy, 17 years of age
Driver, one boy, 12 dto
Trapper, one boy, 8 dto
Outlay per Fortnight.
s.
2 4
1 16
13
9
£ 5 3
£
£
3
Shoes 9 s. per month
Clothes, flannels, stockings etc
Sundries
£ 4
5
8
9
12
7
10
s. d.
8
13
7
9
2
Mutton 14 lb
Flour, 5 stone
Maslin, or mixed grain, 3 stone
Bacon 14 lb
Potatoes, % boll
Oatmeal
Butter 2 lb.; milk 3 d. per day
Coffee 1¼ lb
Tea % lb
Sugar, 3 lb
Candles
Soap
Pepper, salt, mustard etc
Tobacco and beer ...
d.
9
6
4
3
6
6
3
1 6
2
6%
1 8
6
4
0 6½
4
17
2
5
6
6
6
0½.
15
20
25
30
C o n t r i b u t i o n to benefit fund, generally 1 s. 3 d. per m o n t h . R e n t u n d fuel
free. ([38,] 39) Invention of the hotblast, or use of h e a t e d air statt der cold
air, in the smelting of iron. Im Westen von Schottland in Folge dieser Erfind u n g der Iron trade sehr rasch entwickelt. In J u n e , 1835, waren 29 furnaces
in blast in Scotland; M a y 1 8 4 1 : 68 in blast u n d 10 building. Properties, ein 35
p a a r J a h r e vorher n u r einige H u n d e r t e £ a year werth; now yield d e m proprietor an 12,000 £ jährlich. D i e Population der 2 parishes von Old u n d
N e w M o n k l a n d , wo die wichtigsten dieser works liegen, angewachsen von
19,447 in 1831 zu 40,193 in 1841. A b e r diese Bevölkerung zeigt d e m A u g e
n u r slavish labour u n i t e d to brutal i n t e m p e r a n c e . K i n d e r in rag u n d filth 40
etc. D i e ß domestic discomfort seems attributable u. a. d e m crowded state
der habitations, die, from the want of buildings ||27| to c o n t a i n the rapidly
increasing population, were filled with lodgers. In einigen H ä u s e r n , bei
70
5
einer family m i t n u r 2 r o o m s , 14 single m e n als lodgers h e r e i n g e n o m m e n .
An infatuated love of m o n e y , for no p u r p o s e b u t to m i n i s t e r to a d e g r a d i n g
passion for a r d e n t spirits, s e e m s t h e allpervading motive for a c t i o n in this
quarter. (43) Die e c o n o m i c a l c o n d i t i o n der fishing p o p u l a t i o n beweist d a ß
der Besitz von E i g e n t h u m oder s o m e interest in property wesentlich to p r e serve the c o m m o n unskilled l a b o u r e r from falling into t h e c o n d i t i o n of a
piece of m a c h i n e r y , b o u g h t at t h e minimum m a r k e t price at w h i c h it c a n be
produced, d. h. at w h i c h labourers c a n be got to exist and propagate t h e i r
species, to which he is invariably r e d u c e d sooner or later, w h e n t h e inter-
10
ests of capital a n d labour are q u i t e distinct, a n d are left to adjust t h e m selves u n d e r t h e sole o p e r a t i o n of t h e law of supply a n d d e m a n d . ([45,] 46)
Die Z a h l der s e a m e n employed in navigating british vessels am 1 J a n u a r
1841 war 160,509, representing m i t i h r e n families, a considerable T h e i l der
Bevölkerung. Ihre c o n d i t i o n gut, i m Vergleich z u m b u l k der m a n u f a c t u r -
15
ing u n d agricultural p o p u l a t i o n , der u s u a l rate of wages being 3 1. a m o n t h ,
in addition to subsistence, a n d e m p l o y m e n t tolerably certain. (46)
Condition of Classes Superior to Common Labourers.
20
"employed in retail t r a d e or in handicraft, as masters or w o r k m e n . " Shopkeepers, Schuster, Z i m m e r l e u t e , Handwerker m i t e i n e m Wort. Diese class,
n a c h der der agricultural labourers die most numerous single class in England, n a c h d e n returns von 1831 einschliessend 1,159,863 m a l e s ü b e r
20 Jahre oder fast % der whole n u m b e r of m a l e s o f t h a t age u n d folglich representing % der g a n z e n Bevölkerung. Diese class, m i t d e n farmers, d e r e n
Z a h l 187,075 m a l e s ü b e r 2 0 u n d von einigen der best paid u n d m o s t re-
25
spectable operatives, b i l d e n die great m i d d l e class des L a n d e s . D i e lower
m e m b e r s dieser class, wie bricklayers, m a s o n s etc k a u m d a z u zu r e c h n e n .
Die whole division of handicraft or skilled labour n i m m t eine mittlere P o sition ein zwischen der c o m m o n labouring class u n d der der retail dealers.
I h r e wages generally good. 1 4 - 4 0 sh. wöchentlich, m i t e m p l o y m e n t i m
30
D u r c h s c h n i t t von 11 m o n t h s jährlich. (49) D i e g a n z e Z a h l der m a l e s ü b e r
20 Jahre, die zur Kapitalistenklasse gehören, ( a u c h professional a n d o t h e r
e d u c a t e d m e n ) betrug n a c h d e m Census von 1831 n i c h t ü b e r 214,390 o d e r
z4o der G e s a m m t b e v ö l k e r u n g . (50) D i e T o t a l z a h l der l a n d e d proprietors in
Schottland, worunter a r e n t a l of 5 Mill. I. St. vertheilt, ungefähr 7800, wo-
35
von m e h r als 6000 h a b e n properties worth less als 600 I. a year. (51) Im
G a n z e n k a n n m a n r e c h n e n die n u m b e r der m a l e s ü b e r 2 0 J a h r e gehörig z u
d e n capitalists (professional, l a n d e d gentry, m o n i e d m e n , a few literary
m e n ) 250,000 wovon % in easy c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d γ[0 o p u l e n t . D i e ß giebt
71
l
y der g a n z e n Bevölkerung belonging to t h e u p p e r or genteel class u n d / oo
zur aristocracy of r a n k u n d wealth. (51) T h e middleclass includes 1) die
m e m b e r s der lower b r a n c h e s der professions, literature, c o m m e r c e etc, who
form a sort of transition class b e t w e e n this a n d t h e upper. 2) shopkeepers
u n d retail t r a d e s m e n j e d e r Art. 3) farmers. 4) skilled artisans u n d h a n d i 5
craftsmen of superior description. 5) c o m m o n handicraftsmen, or m e n living by t h e exercise of a craft which requires s o m e apprenticeship, a n d c o m m a n d s wages decidedly superior to those of c o m m o n labour. T h e latter
class is a transition o n e between t h e m i d d l e a n d labouring classes. (I.e.)
D i e ß alles z u s a m m e n g e r e c h n e t beläuft sich die Mittelklasse auf % - % der 10
g a n z e n Bevölkerung. (52) Die arbeitende Klasse besteht aus folgenden divisions, deren Z a h l e n u n d Proportions zur g a n z e n Bevölkerung b e r e c h n e t
sind n a c h d e n returns von 1 8 3 1 .
20
2
Proportion to
total population
Agricultural labouring population
Manufacturing ditto
Mining, fishing, and labour
not agricultural
Servants etc
Total of population dependent on
ordinary labour
1.-3.7
1.-6.6
1.-6.6
1.-3.7
Total numbers
at
present
5,000,000
2,800,000
2,800,000
500,000
20
11,300,000(52)
Die Z a h l der m a l e servants j e d e r Art ist 144,188; of female servants
6 7 0 , 4 9 1 ; total 814,679, aber der b u l k of female servants schon eingeschlossen in die families of agricultural u n d other labourers. N e h m e n wir zu d e n
11,300,000 n u n 1,000,000 für die genteel p o p u l a t i o n u n d 4,650,000 für die
middleclass im obigen Sinn, so h a b e n wir a b o u t 17 Mill. Bleiben 1,500,000
u n a c c o u n t e d for. 1,300,000 persons sind in d e m official r e t u r n für 1 8 4 1 .
V o n diesen a large proportion will be i n c l u d e d in t h e p o p u l a t i o n returns,
u n d e r t h e h e a d of agricultural a n d other descriptions of labourers u n d their
families. Die n i c h t als labourers aufgeführte class of paupers ist ||28| 1) die
receiving outdoor relief die ganz unfähig sind zu arbeiten, 2) Wittwen, deserted wives u n d their families; 3) a majority of those receiving i n d o o r r e lief. D i e n u m b e r dieser classes sind stated respectively wie 170,069;
165,267 u n d 159,118, was giebt a total of paupers not i n c l u d e d in die e n u m e r a t i o n of labourers von a b o u t half a million. Läßt a residue von a b o u t a
m i l l i o n für die criminal, destitute, u n d vagrant p o p u l a t i o n , die in d e n grossen S t ä d t e n als Pariah Caste existiren. (52) Sicher, if we estimate t h e class
u n t e r der lowest i n d e p e n d e n t labour, including paupers receiving relief,
criminals, prostitutes, vagrants u n d poor living m a i n l y on private charity,
zu 2 Mill, we should be far u n d e r t h e m a r k u n d 2,500,000 oder zwischen ι/Ί
u n d Υ$ der total p o p u l a t i o n m e h r correkt estimate. (53)
72
15
25
30
35
40
Part
5
10
II.
Causes
of Existing
Distress.
Es ist etablirt d u r c h official evidence, d a ß eh die Factories R e g u l a t i o n bill
in Operation kam, folgender Stand der D i n g e existirte: 1) A n w e n d u n g von
K i n d e r n u n t e r 9 J a h r e n c o m m o n . 2) D e r average t e r m der Arbeit oft
14 S t u n d e n täglich, m a n c h m a l fortgesezt d u r c h die N a c h t u n d selbst
40 S t u n d e n n a c h e i n a n d e r , o h n e intermission. 3) D a h e r excessive a m o u n t
of labour oft extracted v o n d e n K i n d e r n d u r c h strenge Strafen, inflicted at
t h e discretion of reckless u n d irresponsible overseers. 4) K e i n e E r z i e h u n g .
5) no preservation of decency a m o n g a p r o m i s c u o u s assemblage of every
age u n d sex. 6) K e i n e Vorsorge für die thrown out of e m p l o y m e n t by t h e
want of d e m a n d for a d u l t labour, or disabled in the service by a c c i d e n t or
illness. (61) D e r Z u s t a n d auf d e m country u n t e r d e n A c k e r b a u a r b e i t e r n
ging voran »until t h e Swing riots in 1830 revealed to u s , by t h e light of
blazing cornstacks, that misery a n d black m u t i n o u s d i s c o n t e n t s m o u l d e r e d
15
quite as fiercely u n d e r t h e surface of agricultural as of m a n u f a c t u r i n g E n g land«. (62) W i t h t h e m o r e practical intellect of E n g l a n d der U n g l a u b e an
spiritual things took t h e form of indifference to m o r a l influences, a n d a
hard m e c h a n i c a l way of thinking, which would recognise n o t h i n g as real
which was n o t tangible a n d material. (63) »No good was ever yet d o n e by
20 wasting t i m e in vain regrets, by kicking against t h e pricks, a n d refusing to
accept accomplished facts.« (I.e.)
Economical Causes of Existing Distress.
Population. Theory of Malthus.
1801 war die P o p u l a t i o n von G r e a t Britain 10,472,048; 1841 aber
25
18,664,761. Dieser rate of increase adds 260,000 souls jedes J a h r zu G r e a t
Britain u n d w e n n c o n t i n u e d at t h e s a m e rate, verdoppelt die Bevölkerung
in a b o u t 50 J a h r e n . (64) 1754 Irland was c o m p u t e d to c o n t a i n
2,372,634 Einwohner, 1791, 4,206,642 u n d e n t h ä l t n u n 8,205,382. So in
less als 90 J a h r e n fast vervierfacht u n d dieß exclusive seiner emigrations
30 n a c h England, Schottland, A m e r i c a , die sich zwischen 1801 u n d 1821 a u f
1,000,000 belief. Gleichzeitig 3 Mill, i m m e r an d e m verge des H u n g e r t o d e s
b e i der slightest failure der potatoe crop. U n d in Irland t h e p o p u l a t i o n increases fastest grade in d e n m o s t distressed districts. Ζ. Β. In der Provinz
Leinster zwischen 1821 u n d 1831 der Z u w a c h s n u r 9%, in Ulster 14%, wäh35 rend in C o n n a u g h t 22%. H i e r finden wir wieder Galway u n d M a y o , die
2 m o s t destitute counties, exhibiting die eine an increase of 27, die a n d r e
73
von 25 %. In M u n s t e r finden wir Clare, Kerry u n d Tipperary an der Spitze
der Liste. (66, 67) In Lancashire, der rate of increase, zwischen 1831 u n d
1841 ist 24,7%, in W e s t m o r e l a n d dagegen n u r 2,5 u n d in C u m b e r l a n d 4,8.
(67) N i e m a n d heirathet unvorsichtiger als die ärmsten Weber, weil sie die
K i n d e r schon von d e m 6' J a h r an m i t z u m V e r d i e n e n b r a u c h e n ... Evid e n c e a b o u n d s of the t e n d e n c y der m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts generally zu
improvident marriages, ebenso so in d e m m o s t wretched u n d degraded
T h e i l der Agriculturbevölkerung. (68) It is a m a t t e r of d e m o n s t r a t i o n , from
t h e genealogies of patrician families in various countries, that if the people
were all in easy circumstances the world would soon be depopulated. (69) Im D e p a r t e m e n t du N o r d , d e m focus der french destitution, wuchs die Bevölker u n g von 1 8 2 6 - 1 8 3 6 von 962,848 zu 1,086,417 oder um 1 3 % , während der
general increase in F r a n c e w ä h r e n d derselben Periode n u r 5,2 %. (69) Misery, up to the extreme point of famine a n d pestilence, instead of checking,
tends to increase population. (69) In F r a n c e von 1 7 8 9 - 1 8 4 0 die Bevölkerung
n u r gewachsen um 40%, aber der n a t i o n a l wealth sich verfünffacht. (72) In
Irland: L a n d arable 5,389,040; pasture 6,736,240; wastes capable of i m p r o v e m e n t 4,900,000. Die Population zu 8 Mill, giebt 1½ acres of cultivated u n d 2% acres of cultivable land per h e a d . In parts des C a n t o n of Z ü rich u n d des Pays-de-Vaud, wo die Lage der peasantry die beste in Europa,
ist der average nicht V/ acres per head. An acre of land producirt im
D u r c h s c h n i t t 2 / qr wheat u n d 1 qr ist j ä h r l i c h an a m p l e allowance für j e d e
Person. In Great Britain sind ungefähr 1,500,000 horses, die c o n s u m e im
D u r c h s c h n i t t as m u c h grain as would support 8 m e n . E n g l a n d allein h a t
15,379,200 acres in pastures u n d supports seine present p o p u l a t i o n von
1 0 , 2 5 2 , 8 0 0 a r a b l e a c r e s . ([72,] 73) W e n n England h e u t e i n small properties zu parzelliren, wie Frankreich, so k ö n n t e n 5,000,000 families oder
eine Population von 20 Millionen erhalten j e d e family 2% acres arable,
4 acres of pasture u n d 2 acres of improvable waste each. (I.e.) |
5
10
15
20
4
l
2
|29| Maschinen. Extension of Manufactures.
Factory System.
N a c h Baines a firstrate cottonspinning factory c a n n o t be built, filled m i t
M a s c h i n e r i e , u n d fitted m i t steamengines u n d gasworks, u n t e r 100,000 I. A
steamengine of 100 horsepower will turn 50,000 spindles, which will prod u c e 62,500 miles of fine cotton thread per day. In such a factory 1000 persons will spin as m u c h thread as 250,000 persons could without machinery.
(75) D e r powerloom, obgleich schon 1787 d u r c h Cartwright erfunden, seine
i n t r o d u c t i o n gradual u n d erst general in d e n lezten 10 oder 15 J a h r e n .
74
25
30
35
5
10
15
20
25
MacCulloch schäzt die Z a h l der powerlooms in G r e a t Britain auf 130,000,
was in productive power = a b o u t 300,000 h a n d l o o m s . Der use des powerloom noch, in a great m e a s u r e , confined to plain cloths, figured a n d fancy
goods being woven by h a n d . Der handloomweaver indeß has become a m e r e
outdoor member of the factory, with no pretensions to be considered as an independent manufacturer. (75)
There is no effective d e m a n d for o u r m a n u f a c t u r e s a m o n g the l a z z a r o n i
of Naples, n o t b e c a u s e they do n o t prefer good clothes to rags, b u t b e c a u s e
they prefer idleness with rags to l a b o u r with good clothes. W i t h a n o t h e r n u m e r o u s class there is no d e m a n d for foreign manufactures, b e c a u s e their
time is of so little value, t h a t it is impossible to undersell the h o m e m a d e
produce of d o m e s t i c industry. (76) Being left at full liberty by the legislature to buy labour like cotton wherever they could get it cheapest, they succeeded to such an extent t h a t the e m p l o y m e n t of the adult m a l e l a b o u r
m a y almost be said to be superseded. In 4213 factories which p r o d u c e t h e
bulk der e n o r m o u s p r o d u c t i o n in d e n 4 staple m a n u f a c t u r e s of cotton,
wool, flax u n d silk, out of 422,209 h a n d s employed, n u r 96,752 are m a l e s
ü b e r 18 J a h r e , w ä h r e n d 244,821 are females, wovon 162,256 u n t e r 2 1 . (78)
I n r u n d e n Z a h l e n 270,000 h a n d s u n t e r 2 1 J a h r e n verwandt i n d e n factories, while the whole n u m b e r , m a l e a n d female, ü b e r 21 Jahre, ist n u r
150,000; klar daher, daß, ein J a h r u m s andre, 40 oder 50,000 persons,
trained from early childhood to factory labour, m u s t be cast adrift. W h a t
becomes of t h e m ? handloomweavers etc etc. (80) In A m e r i c a the law provides that if children are employed in factories, 3 m o n t h s at least out of
every year shall be devoted to e d u c a t i o n . This, with the force of public
opinion, a m o u n t s to a prohibition of infant labour. (81) A u s d e m R e p o r t of
C o m m i t t e e on M a c h i n e r y , 1841, ersieht m a n , d a ß 1831 there were 700 persons in d e m N o t t i n g h a m trade working their own m a c h i n e s in their respective houses; 1836 aber nur mehr 302 so situated. (83)
30
In dem Second Report of Committee on Machinery statuirt, daß labour, estimated by p r o d u c t i o n , is decidedly cheaper in England than in any country on
the continent. (87) "The weavers of Spitalfields are rapidly descending to t h e
size of Lilliputians; a n d yet, 40 years ago, the r e g i m e n t of volunteers raised
in Bethnal G r e e n u n d Spitalfields were goodlooking m e n . Bad air, b a d
35 lodging, a n d bad food, cause the children to grow up an enfeebled a n d diminutive race of m e n ; b u t of 613 m e n enlisted at B i r m i n g h a m and the
neighbouring towns, only 238 were approved for service." (Chadwick, Sanitary Report.) [90]
40
Gregg giebt die folgende division der gross proceeds of a farm in t h e Lothians: R e n t 3 3 % , Expenses 47%, Profit u n d Interest 20%, Total 100. (97)
75
Emigration.
D i e a n n u a l average n u m b e r of emigrants v o m U n i t e d K i n g d o m für die
12 J a h r e e n d e n d 1837 war 57,000 n a c h d e m Report des Agent G e n e r a l for
Emigration. (122) At the present rate, nearly / des annual increase of population in Great Britain is absorbed by emigration. (122) D e r a m o u n t der e m i gration n a c h Australia n i c h t ü b e r % des n a c h America. (123)
l
3
5
Building.
Mercenary speculators have been allowed to do what they like with their own,
i.e., to take advantage of the influx of population, in order to r u n up rows
of wretched hovels, streets built back to back, without drains or sewers, 10
courts a n d wynds without ventilation, cities without playground or breathing place. They have b e e n allowed to crowd lodgers together pellmell, witho u t distinction of sex or age, to stow t h e m away in cellars, to pack t h e m 5
or 6 together in b e d s yet warm with the contagion of typhus fever—in a
word to work the mine of misery as they could with most profit a n d least ex15
pense. In no particular have the rights of persons been so avowedly a n d
shamefully sacrificed to the rights of property, as in regard to the lodging of
the labouring class. Every large town m a y be looked u p o n as a place of human sacrifice, a shrine where t h o u s a n d s pass yearly t h r o u g h the fire as offerings to the Moloch of avarice. ([149,] 150)
20
76
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years
Hopkins. (Thomas.) Great Britain
for the last 40 Years etc
L o n d o n . 1834.
C.
5
10
15
20
25
I.
Introduction.
rent is a tax levied by the landowners as monopolists u n d t h a t tax is
charged on the c o n s u m e r s of l a n d e d p r o d u c e in an addition to its price, in
the same way that a tax u p o n tea, malt, hops, oder irgend eine andre W a a re, is charged in an increased price of the article. N u r im ersten Falle die
tax paid to o n e class of the c o m m u n i t y by the whole of the r e m a i n d e r . (25)
Every thing that tends to raise up obstacles to the a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital
has a tendency to cause profit to be high, a n d every thing t h a t stimulates to
a c c u m u l a t i o n has a t e n d e n c y to cause profit to be low. (38) |
|30| A loan, then, to a government, to carry on a war, is to be considered
as a tax on wages, levied t h r o u g h the agency of the capitalists of t h e c o u n try, who collect the tax in the form of additional profit, a n d they or a part
of t h e m , pay the a m o u n t to the government in the loan which they advance. (43) Profit h a s a selfadjusting power, a n d adapts itself to t h e supply
of capital in such a way as to e n s u r e s o m e supply u n d e r almost every variety of circumstances. 1253 der Zinsfuß in E n g l a n d 50 % per Jahr. ... Distress on the part of the labouring class, does n o t prevent profit from rising
to an extravagant h e i g h t . . . In m o d e r n e u r o p e a n countries profit is comparatively low. (44) If you r e d u c e the labouring population, n o t only will t h e
capital be reduced, but, it will be r e d u c e d in a greater degree t h a n the p o p ulation. (57) (Die Herren v o n der Populationstheorie n e h m e n dazu an,
daß das Capital dasselbe bleibt, w e n n die Bevölkerung abnimmt.)
77
Von
1793-1802.
D e r extent des rise in der Profitrate u n d die c o n s e q u e n t r e d u c t i o n in d e m
general rate of wages, m a y be seen from the prices of t h e 3 % consols, which
were:
91½ im J a h r 1792, 76 im J a h r 1793, 67 / im J a h r 1794, 66¼ im J a h r 1795,
5
62¼ im Jahr 1796, 50% im J a h r 1797, 51 im J a h r 1798, 56 im J a h r 1799, 61
im J a h r 1800, 58¼ im J a h r 1801 u n d 70 / im J a h r 1802. D i e capitalists, in
their additional profits, h a t t e n die m e a n s b o t h of paying their taxes a n d of
creating annuities for themselves by feeding t h e loans. (83) Also das whole
des wealth expended von der Regierung furnished von der labouring class. 10
(84) In countries supplied with gold in exchange for other c o m m o d i t i e s ,
the value of gold will d e p e n d on the cost of procuring it. In Siberia m a g es
5, in Polen 2, in F r a n c e 1¼, in G r e a t Britain 1 qr of wheat kosten, to procure an o u n c e of gold u n d in diesen countries respectively, the exchangeable value of the gold would be d e t e r m i n e d by the cost of procuring it. 15
(113) It should be recollected t h a t t h o u s a n d s of ingenious contrivances
have b e e n tried a n d laid aside, before spinning m a c h i n e s were brought to
their present state of perfection (i.e. in 1815) ... their u n i t e d effects
a m o u n t to this, that t h e labour of o n e person, aided by t h e m , can now prod u c e as m u c h yarn, in a given t i m e , as 200 could have p r o d u c e d 50 years 20
ago. [134] (Kennedy in a paper published in the M e m o i r s of the Literary
a n d Philosop. Societ. of Manchester, v. 3)
7
8
3
4
H ä t t e n u n die cotton i m A u s s e n m a r k t i m m e r n o c h z u d e m s e l b e n Preiß,
i.e. Q u a n t u m Gold verkauft »gold would have c o m e into the country in
such a b u n d a n c e , as to cause the moneyprices of labour, a n d of all articles
p r o d u c e d in an u n i m p r o v e d way, to be doubled«. ([135,] 136) W h e n profit
falls, circulating is disposed to b e c o m e , to s o m e extent, fixed capital. W e n n
Z i n s 5%, capital n i c h t used in m a k i n g new roads, canals or railways, bis
diese works yield a corresponding large %; b u t w h e n interest n u r 4 oder
3 % capital would be advanced for such i m p r o v e m e n t s , if it o b t a i n e d only a
proportional lower percentage. Jointstock C o m p a n i e s , to accomplish great
improvements, are t h e n a t u r a l offspring of a falling rate of profit. It also induces individuals to fix their capitals in t h e form of buildings a n d m a c h i n ery. (232)
M c C u l l o c h schäzt so die n u m b e r s u n d i n c o m e s derer engaged in der cotton manufacture:
78
25
30
35
w
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years
5
833,000 weavers, spinners, bleachers, etc
at 24 I. each (a year)
111,000 joiners, engineers, machine makers
etc at 30 I. each
Profit, superintendence, coal and
materials of machines
944,000
£20,000,000
3,333,000
6,667,000
£ 30,000,000
V o n d e n 6% millions, 2 millions are supposed to go for coal, iron, a n d
other materials, for m a c h i n e r y a n d other outgoings, which would give e m 10 ployment, at £ 30 a year each, to 66,666 m a k i n g a total of people e m p l o y e d
of 1,010,666; diesen h i n z u z u f ü g e n % der Zahl of children, aged etc d e p e n d ent on those who work, or an additional 505,330, so a total, supported on
wages, of 1,515,996 persons. D i e s e n h i n z u z u f ü g e n die die are supported,
directly or indirectly, by the 4¾ millions of profit, at £ 2 0 a head, 15 233,350 - u n d wir h a b e n a total p o p u l a t i o n of 1,749,346 persons supported
by the 30 millions o b t a i n e d in the cotton m a n u f a c t u r e s . (336, 7) E b e n s o
viel essen die Staatsgläubiger. [337]
79
1
| 3 i | Outlines of Popular Economy,
by Jelinger C. Symons.
L o n d o n . 1840.
4 cardinal elements of p r o d u c e : 1) the a b u n d a n c e of material, s u c h as land,
minerals, wood, a n d water; 2) the quality of material, such as fertility of
5
soil a n d mines, goodness of climate etc. 3) the a b u n d a n c e of labour c o m pared with population, in other words the fewness of n o n p r o d u c t i v e consumers 4) the skill of l a b o u r a n d the l a b o u r of m i n d , as applied to p r o d u c tive invention a n d m a c h i n e r y . Fälschlich fügt m a n d i e s e m h i n z u t h e
produce applied to further p r o d u c t i o n in the shape of m a t e r i a l a n d suste- 10
n a n c e of labour, this, however c o n t a i n s no fresh element, b u t merely constitutes a c o m p o u n d m a t e r i a l into which the e l e m e n t s already n a m e d have
alone entered, acting a n d reacting on e a c h other in the process a n d r o u t i n e
of production. ... This application of the savings of p r o d u c e is merely the
P h o e n i x law of n a t u r e , equally operative in the arts of life as in t h e a n i m a l 15
a n d vegetable world, in which there is no c o n t i n u o u s vitality, a n d where
the existence of creation is kept up by a series of reproductions, the older
p r o d u c e wasting as the newer waxens, again in its t u r n to decline a n d disappear with the growth of its successor. (16) Profits are the increases of
wealth, a n d the only sources of wages, a n d it is alone eventually by increasing
20
these that wages are encreased, a n d by d i m i n i s h i n g t h e m that wages are dim i n i s h e d . (25)
80
Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Outlines of popular economy
5
Class of labourers
France and
Belgium
f.
10
1 Class of Mechanics
2 Class of Mechanics
Farm labourers
Spinning Factory
Labourers, men,
women, and children
c.
Weekly wages
England
Difference after adding
1 s. 3 d. for difference of
money value to France
und Belgium
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
15
10 80
7 80
12 6
9
6 6
20
14.
10.
3 4
2
1 4
7 50
6 3
10. 6
2
2 (26)
81
J. C. Symons.
(One of the Assistant Commissioners
on the Handloom Inquiry)
Arts and Artisans at Home and Abroad.
E d i n b u r g h . 1839.
1)
Wages
at
5
Home.
F o l g e n d e rates of wages in d e n Lancashire Factories sind nearly an average
for the whole country, a n d were drawn up by the M a n c h e s t e r C h a m b e r of
Commerce:
Spinners
men
women
Stretchers
Piecers (boys u n d girls)
Scavengers
In the Card Room
Men
Young w o m e n
Children
Throstle Spinners
Reelers
82
20 to 25
10
15
25
26
4/7
7
1/6
2/8
10
15
1 4 / 6 - 17
9
- 9/6
6
7
5
9/6
7
9
20
Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts and artisans at home and abroad
5
10
Weavers by Power.
Men
Women
Dressers' m e n
W i n d e r s u n d warpers
Mechanics
Weaving by Hand.
Quality
N a n k i n g s (fancy)
common
Checks,
15
best
fancy
common
Cambrics
Quiltings
W o v e n by
men
children a n d
women
men
men
children
all ages
men and
women
13
8
28
8
24
·•-
16/1(
12
30
11
26
9
-
15
6
10
7
6
6
9
8
13
7/6
7
6/6
12
( 1 , 2) I
|31[a]| In a n d r e n trades folgende Durchschnittswages in E n g l a n d :
20
25
30
35
F u s t i a n cutters
Machinemakers
Ironfounders
Dyers u n d Dressers
all ages
men
men
men
Young men
boys
men
Tailors
Porters
men
Shoemakers
men
Whitesmiths
dto
Sawyers
dto
Carpenters
dto
Stone M a s o n s
dto
Bricklayers
dto
Bricklayers' labourers
dto
Painters
dto
Slaters
dto
Plasterers
dto
Spadesmen
dto
Blacksmiths
dto
Compositors
dto
10
26
28
15
12
5
18
14
15
22
24
20
18
17
12
18
3/8 per
19
10
18
24
12
30
30
20
14
10
20
16
18
24
28
25
22
20
day
21
15
22
83
Wages in Sheffield von 2 5 - 3 5 per week für die w o r k m e n in skilled dep a r t m e n t s u n d oft zu 40. In den ironworks in a B i r m i n g h a m district von 20
zu 30 für die c o m m o n labourers. In d e n Leeds flaxmills: M a l e adults
1 7 - 1 9 per week, females 5/6 bis 6/6, children zwischen 9 u n d 10 J a h r e n
3/6 bis 4. In d e n Gloucestershire clothfactories m a l e adults von 1 2 - 1 4 , fe- 5
males 4 - 5 , children 2 - 3 / 6 . (2, 3 )
In u n d bei Glasgow m a s o n s , bricklayers, h o u s e carpenters, b l a c k s m i t h s
etc earn von 1 9 - 2 2 per week, engineers von 2 0 - 3 0 , tailors, cabinet makers,
hatters, p l u m b e r s , shoemakers etc von 2 0 - 2 5 . In d e m country die wages
um 1 0 - 2 0 % niedriger. (3, 4) In d e n C o t t o n mills das following ist a fair 10
general average:
per week
s.
Picking room, females 20 years u n d upwards
A t t e n d i n g cards, males a n d females,
13 J a h r e bis 15
drawing frames, females,
16 J a h r e
u n d upwards
slobbing frames dto
do
finishers
do
do
stretchers
do
do
throstle spinners do
13 J a h r e
u n d upwards
reelers
do
16
toppers
males
20 J a h r e
u n d upwards
spinners
do
do
outside piecers do
16-20
inside piecers
do
13-16
cleaners
do
9-13
7
15
4/6
6/6
6/6
7
8/6
7
6/6
25
14
25-29
6
3/6
21.
In Lancashire fast dieselbe Distribution der Arbeit, aber der average rate
of wages für Weiber, m e n , children z u s a m m e n , wöchentlich 10/6 per h e a d .
(4) J132.1 Die stocking makers of Leicester average 8/3 per week. In D u m fries die workmen are paid at so m u c h per d o z e n of the fabric woven,
whether stockings, drawers or shirts. M e n ' s stockings of 24 gage are paid
9/6 per dozen, and an average w o r k m a n will m a k e 18 pair in the week;
gross wages 14/3 wovon a b z u z i e h n für framerent u n d seaming 2/2, bleibt
12/1 clearwages u n d dieß der average rate in this trade. Fast alle bishergen a n n t e n trades sind more or less c o m b i n e d . V o n d e n n i c h t c o m b i n i r t e n die
handloomweavers die hauptsächlichsten. ([5,] 6) D i e woollen weavers work
84
20
30
35
40
almost entirely in factories where t h e h a n d l o o m s are placed, belonging to
the manufacturer; u n d wo dieß der Fall ist m i t den ginghams, checks u n d
other cotton fabrics die wages invariably von 4 0 - 8 0 % higher. (7) engineers etc
etc.
5
2)
Wages
in
Belgium.
J o h n Cockerill zu Seraing (Maschinenfabrik). Zu Seraing bei Liege,
3000 w o r k m e n employed. Die wages sind wie folgt: Dessinateurs
1 5 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 fcs jährlich oder £ 6 0 - 8 0 . D i e w o r k m e n sind divided in brigades. There are 40 in d e m ersten process who earn von 3 - 4 f. täglich; die
10 founders 4 - 5 fc täglich; die nailmakers 200 sehr y o u n g m e n , b e z a h l t per
weight of nails, u n d earn von 3 - 4 fr b e i n g responsible for losses. D i e m a n u facture of furnaces sehr b e d e u t e n d , von 5 0 0 - 6 0 0 w o r k m e n employed, earning von 4 - 5 fcs; this work is very laborious, a n d deafens m o s t of t h e m e n .
etc etc ([17,] 18) Die average wages der adult w o r k m e n in d i e s e m establish15 m e n t an 3f. 50 c. Die others in B e l g i u m 10% niedriger. Die gewöhnliche
Arbeitszeit 11 S t u n d e n per Tag. Die miners gain as follows: Die superintendents 2 f. 30 c. per day, die first class w o r k m e n 2 f. 25 c, Zweite class 2 f.
10 c, Y o u t h s 1 f. 90 c, U n t e r 12 J a h r e n 1 f. 30. Age of admission ist
10 Jahre. Period of work 6 S t u n d e n per Tag. (19) In Cotton s p i n n i n g facto20 ries, deren h a u p t s ä c h l i c h e zu G e n t , ist der general rate of wages: for adult
m e n , spinners etc von 2 f. 50 c. zu 3 f. per day; für apprentices von 12 zu
16 J a h r e n 75 c. bis 1 f., für girls 75 c. bis 1 f. (22) In d e n l i n e n s p i n n i n g factories den m e n are paid 1 f. 35 cent, für je 12 h o u r s work. Die children e m ployed % der Zahl der m e n . (23)
25 Trades
Masons, Carpenters
und Blacksmiths
Daylabourers
30 Saddlers
Wheelwrights
Compositors
Lithographic
Printers
35 Cabinetmakers
Bleachers
Taylors und
Shoemakers
40
Townwages
f. ct.
Country Wages
f.
ct.
2
5
1 35
2 25
2 25
3
1
60
Hours usually worked
11½
11½
5
3
2
2
50
1
16 in summer
60
oder mit
food 75 c.
11-12
-85
[Trades]
Sawyers
Forgers
Coach Painters
Paviers
Labourers at
Canal wharfs
Miners
Provinces
[Townwages]
[Country Wages]
f.
f.
ct.
ct.
3 25
6
2 25
1 80
1
5
70
2
50
10
Agricultural Labourers
Conditions
Men
f.
Brabant "1
Westpellier J
West Flanders
Liege
Luxemburg
[Hours usually
worked]
Γ with food
|_ without food
f with food
\ without food
J with food
\ without food
without food
c.
Women
f.
63
91
1
1
1
20
18
10
c.
31
80
0
80
88
15
20
85
D i e wages der agricultural labourers wechseln sehr in Westflandern; n o c h
niedriger in Ostflandern, weil hier weniger factories. In Liege u n d N a m u r ,
im H e r z des Fabrikdistricts, die agricultural wages fast doppelt was in d e n 25
purely agricultural provinces. (24, 25)
D i e handloomweavers sind divided in classes, die exceedingly v o n ein
a n d e r abweichen: D i e c o t t o n weavers b e w o h n e n chiefly Ostflandern, G e n t ,
St N i c o l a s etc. D i e 1' class v o n c o t t o n weavers 12 fc per W o c h e , die 2 t e 8
o d e r 9fcs, die 3 t e , b e s t e h e n d aus apprentices, old m e n v o n 3%-4%f. per 30
week. S t u n d e n 1 2 - 1 5 , selten weniger als 13. D e r l o o m u n d its a p p e n d a g e s
at t h e cost des weaver, aber d e r m a n u f a c t u r e r finds t h e winding. D e r aver
age n e t gain per week für adults 8 fc. (25, 26) In V e n d e r s die wages von
1 2 - 2 0 fcs wöchentlich für weavers. M e i s t 12 fc d a h e r clear earnings. ([26,]
27) Die silkweavers besonders zu A n t w e r p e n , average 1 f. 50 c. per day,
35
weben n u r plain silks. (I.e.) Die m e i s t e n l i n e n weavers weave the plain
shirting a n d ||33| sheeting. Sie are completely i n t e r m i x e d m i t d e n agriculturists. A small farmer has generally 2 oder 3 l o o m s which he or his servants u s e w h e n n o t employed o u t of doors. W h e r e a m a n weaves constantly, he can earn von 1 f. 25 c. bis 1 f. 50 c. per day. (27) Einige d a m a s k
40
weavers zu Courtrai etc who work solely in factories u n d von 6 - 1 4 f. per
W o c h e verdienen, je n a c h i h r e m skill. (I.e.) Die food der working classes,
n i c h t n u r von Belgien, s o n d e r n des C o n t i n e n t s ü b e r h a u p t consists of vegetables; m e a t is not the food of t h e working classes ... It is the relish u s e d
86
with food. Die Italiener essen m a c a r o n i , die french u n d G e r m a n h a b e n als
staple food bread or cabbage, die Irish Potatoes, % selbst von J o h n Bull lebt
auf vegetable diet. D i e I n d i e r essen Reis, die W e s t i n d i e r Y a m s u n d b r e a d
tree, die Africans dates; in fact, a fraction, a n d that a very small one, of
5 m a n k i n d are carnivorous. ... Die l i n e n weavers u n d c o m m o n labourers in
Belgien c o n s u m e potatoes u n d ryebread, vegetable soup, rarely flavoured
with meat, coffee of chicory, beer etc. Die cottonweavers u n d factory workm e n (leben schlechter als die in d e n iron works of H a i n a u l t , Liege u n d die
der m a c h i n e m a k i n g factories von Seraing, Bruxelles, G h e n t . A u c h schlech10 ter als die m a s o n s , blacksmiths, carpenters etc der towns. D i e ersten n ä m lich live on potatoes u n d vegetables, m i t a piece of m e a t a m o n g t h e m , for
dinner regularly; coffee of chicory; u n d an Sundays, spirits in m o d e r a t e
quantity. Dieses die best paid. D i e m a s o n s etc, ebenso die woollen factory
u n d domestic weavers c o n s u m e either a less portion of m e a t oder n e h m e n
15 es 3 oder 4x n u r per Woche.) h a b e n Potatoes u n d vegetable soup für ihr
chief food, m i t bread half rye u n d half wheat; coffee u n d gelegentlich a
glass of spirits, a n d c o m m o n l y brown beer - execrably boiled. ( 2 7 - 2 9 ) M i t
7 d. k a n n an ablebodied m a n in d e m country in Belgien leben. Bread, wie
es die Arbeiter essen, \% d. per lb in the country. (29)
20
3)
Wages
in
France.
D u p i n statuirt m i t R e c h t 2 f. 26 c. per day für die n o r t h e r n u n d 1 f. 90 c. für
die Südprovinzen. (36) Elsaß der Hauptcottondistrikt. Bei d e n H e r r e n
Schlumberguer u n d Bocard's zu Guebwillers: m e n (spinners) 1 f. 40 c . - 2 f.,
W o m e n 1 f . - l f. 20 c, children 4 0 - 7 0 cent. A r b e i t s s t u n d e n ü b e r 13 u n d oft
25
14, Kinder wie adults. In der Normandie u n d einigen Plätzen des Elsaß die
wages der h a n d l o o m w e a v e r so niedrig wie in Schottland, in allen ü b r i g e n
Fällen höher. ([36,] 37) Die h o m e s der working classes meist dirty, c o m fortless and evincing every s y m p t o m of b a d m a n a g e m e n t a n d poverty c o m bined. (38) Die Elsässischen W e b e r im A l l g e m e i n e n nicht o h n e sufficiency
30
of food, aber in allen a n d e r n respects ill off. In d e n m o u n t a i n s der Vosges
die peasantry n o c h schlechter d r a n u n d there l o o m s also found, b u t chiefly
on the system of the „customer" weavers von Schottland, obgleich n i c h t exclusively. (39) D i e Lyoner W e b e r sind an emaciated, miserablelooking set
of beings. They are diseased u n d u n d e r s i z e d . (43) Tarare, bei Lyon, is der
35
chief muslin district of F r a n c e . E i n e Portion dieser W e b e r in d e m country
verdient n u r 75 cent. (7½ d.) bis 1 f. 25 c. (1 s.) per day; die der Stadt von
2 f . - 2 f. 50 u n d m a n c h m a l 3 fc. n a c h i h r e m skill. D e r m a n u f a c t u r e r liefert
n u r den reed u n d das u p p e r m o u n t i n g , all the rest being at the expense of
87
the workmen. Die in t o w n weben das ganze Jahr, die des country n i c h t
ü b e r 7 M o n a t e . D i e r e m a i n i n g 5 beschäftigt in agricultural e m p l o y m e n t .
Fast all the fathers dieser weavers in d e m country sind small proprietors
themselves. (44) A townweaver im average 30 sous per day u n d der c o u n tryweaver 25, für 14 hours work. Sie sind a quiet simple people, who have
5
few wants, and b u t limited intelligence. (45) Normandy produces pullicates,
domestics u n d andre coarser articles. Die schlechtesten off in F r a n c e . D i e
peasants live chiefly on vegetable soup, a n d the coarsest sort of bread. (46)
In den Norman spinning mills, Spinners von 1 5 - 2 0 fcs per week, working
von 8 0 - 8 4 hours. W o m e n u n d Girls, employed at t h e carding a n d drawing 10
operations, von 7 - 1 0 fcs. Die power loomweavers von 1 2 - 1 6 fcs wöchentlich. (47)
4)
Wages
in
Switzerland.
In Switzerland grosse i n t e r m i x t u r e of agricultural u n d artisan o c c u p a t i o n s ,
a vast n u m b e r of the working classes p r o d u c i n g a portion of their own subsistence. (59) R ü h m t d i e ß S y s t e m s e h r . |
|34| Bread fluctuates von 1 zu \% d. per lb. of 17 o u n c e s ; the average is
1¾ d. for c o m m o n bread, i.e. o n e batz of Zürich. M e a t varies von 2 / d. zu
4]/ d. per Swiss lb. average price 3 d. Potatoes 20 d. per sack of 33 gallons.
Milk, von 5 - 7 farthings per pot of 3 pints. (72) Die Swiss h a b e n eingesehn,
that a handicraft, at least, as far as plain weaving is concerned, requiring
the skill of children a n d the strength of w o m e n , m u s t necessarily be r e m u nerated by the wages of children's and w o m e n ' s labour. Weaving, therefore,
except, in the fancy work, has long ceased to be a separate e m p l o y m e n t .
([72,] 73)
15
l
2
2
5)
Wages
in
Austria
und
25
Prussia.
Die wages der factory labourers in Austria: Spinners 1 fl. (1/8) per day.
women von 3 0 - 4 0 kr. (10 d.) bis (1/1½ d.) per day; children 1 3 - 1 6 kr.
(4½ d.) bis (5½ d.) per day. Die h o u r s of factory labour oft 15 h o u r s per day,
exclusive of the m e a l t i m e s u n d oft 17 S t u n d e n . (74, 75)
In d e n dye-works zu Elberfeld die m e n receive an 4 Th. = 12 s. p e r
W o c h e , für die hardest work, m i t long h o u r s , u n d 3 dollars = 9/1 für die
second class work. (77) D i e weavers, die Majorität der a r b e i t e n d e n classes
dieses Platzes, sind die best paid u n d earn von 8 - 1 6 s. per week, n a c h ihr e m skill u n d der class of work, besonders silks u n d velvets. (77[, 78]) In
88
20
30
35
5
Nordpreussen, M e c h a n i c s , as carpenters u n d blacksmiths, earn in d e n
towns von 1/6 zu 1/10 per day. S h o e m a k e r s , tailors etc an 1/2; c o m m o n labourers in towns 1 s. per day in s u m m e r u n d 9 d. in winter u n d in d e m
country von 5 - 8 d. Agricultural labourers, ausser houserent, fuel u n d
m a n c h m a l % acre land, von 5 - 7 d. per day. (78) Coarse m e a t costs in Wurtemberg im D u r c h s c h n i t t 8 kr. per lb = 2% d., bread von 3 zu 4 kr. = 1% d.
per lb. (81)
l
S. b e h a u p t e t daß die working class of E n g l a n d wenigstens um / besser
dran als auf d e m C o n t i n e n t . (84) whilst very great disparity exists between
the rates of p a y m e n t in t h e different d e p a r t m e n t s of labour at h o m e , an u n iformity prevails abroad, varied alone by the variations of skill required,
and by the local d e m a n d for a n d supply of labour. (83) D a s factory
workpeople Englands das bestbezahlte i m Vergleich m i t d e m A u s l a n d . D i e
wages in d e n Lancashire factories average 10 s. 6 d. per week per h e a d . In
France, Switzerland, Austria u n d B e l g i u m von 6 f. zu 9 f., averaging 7 f.
50 c. = 6 s. 3 d., was in j e n e n districts in real value = 8 s. 4 d., so d a ß cotton
factory workpeople of Lancashire h a b e n 26% or a quarter m e h r wages als
dieselbe class abroad. D i e disparity less in allen a n d e r n Zweigen der I n d u strie u n d die Differenz nimmt ab in each b r a n c h of industry, in t h e s a m e
proportion in which that b r a n c h is unfortified by c o m b i n a t i o n s at h o m e ...
the agricultural wages differing very little u n d die handloomweavers being
somewhat higher abroad. (84) In F r a n c e wages as low if not lower t h a n in
most countries; a n d the people live in a state of discomfort, n u r surpassed
in d e n ä r m s t e n parts of Austria and W u r t e m b e r g . (85) In Schottland ist die
Sache on a par m i t Prussia. (86)
6
10
15
20
25
7)
On
the
elements
which
govern
wealth
and
wages.
Der Arbeitspreiß regulirt d u r c h supply u n d d e m a n d . Diese aber d e t e r m i n e
n u r the labourer's share: b u t there are another set of agencies, which determ i n e the a m o u n t of wealth to be shared. (88) I n a s m u c h as trade is re30 stricted c o m m o d i t i e s are d i m i n i s h e d , a n d with c o m m o d i t i e s wages, since
wages can alone consist in c o m m o d i t i e s . (91)
Die n u m b e r of w o m e n who perish by prostitution in G r e a t Britain exceeds
that of any other country in the whole world, m i n d e s t e n s = 3:1 in proportion to the population. (119)
89
11)
Combinations
at
Home
and
Abroad.
D e n englischen ähnliche C o m b i n a t i o n s h a u p t s ä c h l i c h n u r i n R o u e n u n d
Lyons. (135) n o t h i n g can benefit the labourer's share in the aggregate, except what increases the a m o u n t of c o m m o d i t i e s or lessens the n u m b e r of
C o n s u m e r s , in proportion to that a m o u n t . C o m b i n a t i o n s viewed in their
operation on the whole body of a people do neither. (136) the c o m b i n a t i o n s
h a v e b e e n beneficial in teaching knowledge. (137) |
|35|
12)
Die
Handloomweavers
5
of Scotland.
Zerfallen in 2 distinct classes. D i e ältre Klasse h a t n o c h b e t r ä c h t l i c h e n
Theil der früher dieser Klasse eignen Bildung. (146) D i e j ü n g r e G e n e r a t i o n 10
far less educated u n d lasterhafter ... I am (nach seinen B e o b a c h t u n g e n u n ter den schottischen W e b e r n ) well convinced, that poverty has the s a m e effect on the m i n d that d r u n k e n n e s s has on t h e body. I believe it to be a
m a i n i n s t r u m e n t in the d e b a s e m e n t of m a n k i n d . (147)
In Oestreich kostet das erecting a cotton mill of 16,000 spindles m i n d e stens 2 I. per spindle oder f 32,000. In England, zu 17 s. 6 d. per spindle
würde dieß n u r kosten £ 14,000. (200) (Aber die long hours, die low wages,
die waterpower costing n o t h i n g fully c o m p e n s a t e s for the cost of erection.)
[201] In Oestreich die F a b r i k a n t e n 1 1 - 1 2 % Netprofit. [199] E b e n s o in
Frankreich in der Spinnerei 1 1 % . (216)
15
20
Ein manufacturer of Glasgow giebt d e m S. folgende N o t i z e n : " E x p e n s e of
erecting a powerloom factory of 500 looms, calculated to weave a good fabric of calico or shirting, such as is generally m a d e in Glasgow, would be
about
£18,000.
A n n u a l produce, say 150,000 pieces
of 24 yards at 6 s.
W h i c h cost as u n d e r :
Interest on sunk capital, a n d for
depreciation of value of the m a c h i n e r y
Steampower, oil, tallow etc,
keeping up machinery, utensils etc
Yarns a n d flax
Wages to w o r k m e n
Suppose profit
90
25
£45,000
£
1,800
30
2,000
32,000
7,500
1,700
£ 45,000
35
In d i e s e m s t a t e m e n t des M a n u f a c t u r e r , wie dieß in Glasgow, aber n i c h t
in Lancashire häufig, unterstellt sein G a r n im M a r k t zu kaufen. (233) "After" f ä h r t d e r s e l b e M a n n fort "a s p i n n i n g or weaving factory h a s b e e n
wrought for a few years, if b r o u g h t to t h e m a r k e t for sale, t h e price to be got
5 is generally 20 oder 30 % less t h a n t h e cost; a n d if forced u p o n t h e m a r k e t
in a t i m e of dull trade, even little m o r e t h a n half t h e cost s o m e t i m e s c a n be
got. W h e n trade is good, if a new going mill, either s p i n n i n g or weaving,
h a p p e n to c o m e into t h e m a r k e t for sale, it is very s e l d o m t h a t first cost c a n
be got for it, though, p e r h a p s , n o t h i n g worse for any tear a n d wear, a n d in
10 every respect fitted up with t h e m o s t approved m a c h i n e r y . " (233, 4)
„Probable expense of erecting a spinning cottonmill m i t h a n d m u l e s , calculated to p r o d u c e N o . 40 of a fair average quality, £ 2 3 , 0 0 0 . If p a t e n t selfactors 2000 £ additional. Das p r o d u c e annually zu d e n present prices of cotton, and t h e rates at w h i c h t h e yarns could be sold
15
20
£25,000
Cost of which as follows:
Interest of s u n k capital, a n d allowance for
depreciation of value of m a c h i n e r y zu 10 %
Cotton
Steampower, oil, tallow, gas, a n d
general expense of keeping up utensils
u n d m a c h i n e r y in repair
Wages to workers
Profit
25
30
35
£
2,300
14,000
1,800
5,400
1,500
£ 25,000
Das Produce der mill t a k e n at 10,0001b weekly." (234) ||36| "Cost of a
cotton spinning mill of 10,000 throstles, calculated to p r o d u c e a fair quality of N o . 24 would be a b o u t £ 20,000. Taking present value of produce, t h e
a m o u n t annually would be
,,, _
£ 2 3 , 0 0η Λ0
r
Costing as u n d e r :
Interest on s u n k capital, a n d for
d e p r e c i a t i o n of value of m a c h i n e r y , zu 1 0 %
Cotton
Steampower, tallow, oil, gas,
keeping m a c h i n e r y in repair etc
Wages to Workers
A s s u m e profit
£
2,000
13,300
2,500
3,800
1,400
£ 2 3 , 0 0 0 " (235)
91
Symons. ( I m o b i g e n B u c h e . ) In Frankreich, there is, generally speaking
sufficient m a n l y o c c u p a t i o n to be h a d ; a n d consequently, m e n are n o t red u c e d to the necessity of having recourse to trades which require children's
skill a n d strength, n o r are they r e m u n e r a t e d with children's wages. (241)
92
Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Nachtrag)
Laing. (Im obigen Buch.)
T h e only articles in w h i c h any effective c o m p e t i t i o n from foreign countries
has yet b e e n experienced in n e u t r a l m a r k e t s are: 1) fine a n d expensive
printed G o o d s from F r a n c e , owing to t h e superiority in taste and design. 2)
5 Coarse cottons from the U n i t e d States, owing to the advantage in the rawmaterial. 3) Certain descriptions of cotton hosiery from Saxony, where u n skilled h a n d l a b o u r is t h e chief e l e m e n t of cost. 4) a few Swiss cottongoods,
owing to the s a m e cause, a n d the superiority of certain dyes. 5) A little
hardware a n d other miscellaneous articles from the R h e n i s h provinces, Bel10 gium, and Westphalia. (In silk n a t ü r l i c h F r a n c e superior in m o s t departments.) Also in s o m e descriptions of woollen cloths, F r a n c e , Belgium, a n d
G e r m a n y , are on a footing of equality with u s . (87, 88)
93
Hopkins. (Das oben citirte Buch.)
Von C o t t o n war der average a n n u a l export, for
official
value
£
The 5 years ending mit 1819
the 5 years ending mit 1824
the 6 years ending mit 1830
20,271,567
23,562,359
31,460,860
declared
value
£
Mean price of
bowed cotton
d.
18,202,179
16,161,422
17,113,485
18½
9½
7½
5
D e r value des rawmaterial unterstellt zu sein % (andre sagen %) des val
ue des m a n u f a c t u r e d article. S a n k von der ersten bis zur 3* P e r i o d e to ίο
nearly 2/s when we c o m p a r e t h e declared values of t h e 2 periods, we m u s t
a d d die other % of t h e price of t h e c o t t o n , w h i c h would raise t h e declared
value der last period zu £20,000,000, in r o u n d n u m b e r s . U n d so von 1817,
d e m m i d d l e J a h r der ersten Periode, bis 1827, d e m Mitteljahr der lezten,
nöthig fast 50 % m e h r m a n u f a c t u r e s zu exportiren, in r e t u r n for an e q u a l 15
a m o u n t of m o n e y . 1815 betrug der official value 17,655,378 u n d der d e clared value 20,033,132, 1830 betrug der official value 37,269,395 u n d der
declared 17,394,584. This is an extent of r e d u c t i o n in price, for which t h e
r e d u c t i o n in t h e price of t h e raw material, a n d t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e
m e t h o d s of producing articles, will not a c c o u n t . Die improve||37|ments 20
waren h a u p t s ä c h l i c h i m spinning d e p a r t m e n t . A u s M r K e n n e d y s s t a t e m e n t
of t h e extent of t h e m 1 8 1 2 - 1 8 3 0 , sieht m a n , d a ß in d i e s e m D e p a r t m e n t
die Hauptverbesserung in N o . 40 u n d da die increased p r o d u c t i o n at t h e
end of 19 J a h r e n n u r 3 auf 8, while t h e decline in t h e declared value of the
whole of t h e goods, exported at t h e e n d of 16 J a h r e n , was 42 millions to 25
only a little m o r e t h a n seventeen millions. ( 2 7 3 - 7 5 )
D e r o b e n citirte Hopkins b e m e r k t n o c h i n B e z u g a u f w a g e s : I n a c o u n try possessing m u c h fixed capital in m a c h i n e s where difficult processes re-
94
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years (Nachtrag)
quire great skill a n d care, and, of course, confidence in t h e persons e m ployed, skilful labour m a y c o n t i n u e to be paid at a good rate, while t h e
wages of c o m m o n l a b o u r are declining. A n d when the state of the c o m m o n
labourer is m u c h r e d u c e d , t h e difference between the rates of p a y m e n t for
5 the two kinds of labour m a y increase. ... T h e comparatively h i g h wages
which yet r e m a i n to t h e superior class of labourers in G r e a t Britain, are,
therefore, no evidence that c o m m o n l a b o u r is even moderately well paid.
The c o n s u m p t i o n of certain taxed articles is s o m e t i m e s pointed o u t as evidence of the undeteriorated, or of t h e improved condition of the people,
10 but the c o n s u m p t i o n of these articles m a y be kept up by the skilled labourers in town, who are increasing in n u m b e r s , and are yet tolerably well paid.
(298, 99)
95
Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system
Heft XI. Seite 37
Charles Wing, (Surgeon to the Royal
Metropolitan Hospital for Children etc)
Evils of the factory System demonstrated
by Parliamentary Evidence.
L o n d o n 1837.
5
Das bischen i m p r o v e m e n t im factorysystem hervorgebracht d u r c h perpetu a l agitation of the question, d u r c h die frequent strikes der operatives,
d u r c h legislative e n a c t m e n t s u n d die voice of public opinion. (IV) Wing
giebt sowohl Sadler's Report wie den der government commissioners, die
d e n manufacturers sehr günstig waren, als »compelled, in spite of t h e m 10
selves, to give their verdict against the factory system by the sheer force of
truth«. (V) W i t h regard to the age at which children begin to work, it appears in evidence, that in s o m e rare instances children begin to work in factories at 5 years old; it is n o t u n c o m m o n to find t h e m there at six; m a n y
are u n d e r seven; still m o r e u n d e r eight; b u t the greater n u m b e r are n i n e ; 15
while some, b u t comparatively few, b r a n c h e s of m a n u f a c t u r e do n o t a d m i t
of the e m p l o y m e n t of children u n d e r ten years of age. (XXIII) Herr Poulett
T h o m s o n (1837) tried to obtain an act to substitute 12 for 13 years, d a m i t
K i n d e r von 12 J a h r e n (nach d e n inspectors 35,000) gesetzlich 69 S t u n d e n
die W o c h e statt 48 angewandt werden k ö n n t e n . (XXIV) (Dr Kay's 20
P a m p h l e t on the M o r a l a n d Physical C o n d i t i o n of the Working Classes e m ployed in the Cotton M a n u f a c t u r e in M a n c h e s t e r . Dieser Kay sagt u. a.:
"There is a state of physical depression which does n o t t e r m i n a t e in fatal
organic changes, which, however, converts existence into a prolonged disease, a n d is n o t only compatible with life, b u t is proverbially protracted to 25
an advanced senility.") [LXXV] Between the weight of the factory a n d n o n
factory children, there is a considerable difference in favour of the latter,
96
Aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system
being, with regard to t h e boys 3.5 lbs, m i t regard to the girls only 0.3 lbs.
... factory e m p l o y m e n t prevents m u s c u l a r development. (LXXXI) D a s
B u c h v o n W i n g , als M a t e r i a l i e n s a m m l u n g wichtig für die, die d i e m e d i zinischen Aussagen über das factorysystem z u s a m m e n h a b e n wollen. |
99
|38| Samuel Laing. Notes of A Traveller
On the Social and Political State of France,
Prussia, Switzerland, Italy, and other Parts
of Europe, during the present century.
2 . e d . L o n d . 1842
5
In Italy, a n d in Holland, the social c o n d i t i o n of great c o m m e r c i a l wealth,
with comparatively little e m p l o y m e n t given by it to the m a s s of the people,
called into existence painters, sculptors, architects; furnished artists, a n d
e n c o u r a g e m e n t for t h e m . (11) M o n e y rent deteriorates the c o n d i t i o n of a
small t e n a n t in two ways. ... He m u s t sell all his best p r o d u c e , his grain, his 10
butter, his flax, his pig, a n d subsist of the m e a n e s t of food, his worst potatoes a n d water, to m a k e sure of m o n e y for his rent. It thus deteriorates his
standard of living. He is also t e m p t e d by m o n e y r e n t out of the p a t h of certainty into that of c h a n c e . It thus deteriorates his m o r a l condition. (44) In
the social E c o n o m y of France, o n e family in every 46 lives by functionar- 15
ism, and at the public expense; there is o n e functionary family for every
46 families of the people. (69) In t h e ratio of population, 189 paid functionaries in F r a n c e live u p o n the public, by doing t h e duties which, at the utmost, from 30 to 35 paid functionaries live by doing in Scotland. (71)
Abroad, the e m p l o y m e n t u n d e r G o v e r n m e n t , in the present age, attracts to 20
it, as the c h u r c h of R o m e did in t h e m i d d l e ages, all the m i n d , industry,
a n d capital of the m i d d l e classes, on w h o m the wealth a n d prosperity of a
country are founded. (73, 4)
Die Bauernfamilie in D e u t s c h l a n d hat its own raw material, d. h. flax,
h e m p , wool, hides, raised by itself; has h o u s e - r o o m a n d t i m e — i d l e t i m e in
winter—to work t h e m up ... T h e whole agricultural population, if n o t m a n ufacturing in some way—spinning, weaving, m a k i n g h o u s e h o l d s goods,
100
25
Aus Samuel Laing (sen.): Notes of a traveller
5
working in iron, wood, or cloth, for t h e i r own use, during t h e winter
m o n t h s — w o u l d be totally idle all t h e winter half year. It is a saving of t i m e
with us to b u y all, a n d m a k e n o t h i n g at h o m e . It would be a waste of t i m e
o n t h e C o n t i n e n t n o t t o m a k e a t h o m e all t h a t can b e m a d e . ... owing t o
this c i r c u m s t a n c e in t h e social E c o n o m y of G e r m a n y t h e h o m e m a r k e t , on
which alone any great i n d u s t r i a l prosperity c a n be founded, is, a n d always
will be, i n c o n s i d e r a b l e . (286[, 287]) Exclusiveness, t h e soul of fashion, c a n
n o t exist in t h e p r e s e n t c h e a p , extensive p r o d u c t i o n of clothing m a t e r i a l .
This greater steadiness of fashion with t h e great m a s s of c o n s u m e r s of
10
cloth, c o t t o n a n d silk, a n d t h e longer e n d u r a n c e , a n d greater e x t e n s i o n of
t h e d e m a n d for a n y fashion t h a t o n c e gets established, enable m a c h i n e r y
a n d large capital to work even u p o n objects which would have b e e n left for
merly to h a n d w o r k ; a n d t h e field for h a n d l o o m w e a v e r s is n a r r o w e d to t h e
p r o d u c t i o n of a few fancy articles. (364) It costs a vast deal m o r e t i m e a n d
15
labour to bring all this finely cooked food together: it costs, at t h e least,
twice as m u c h of h u m a n t i m e a n d l a b o u r to d i n e 5 m i l l i o n s of french or
g e r m a n people, as to d i n e 5 m i l l i o n s of English; a n d t i m e a n d l a b o u r are
the basis of all n a t i o n a l wealth a n d prosperity. T i m e a n d l a b o u r e m p l o y e d
unproductively are capital t h r o w n away. (368) In m a n y b r a n c h e s of i n d u s try, ζ. B. glassmaking, i r o n founding, s o a p m a k i n g , c o t t o n s p i n n i n g h a b e n
die grossen Capitalisten in E n g l a n d s c h o n das M o n o p o l . D i e excessive tax
a t i o n h a t dieß n o c h befördert, d e n n sie vergrössert d e n a m o u n t des vorzustreckenden Capitals. (374) t h e s h e p h e r d a n d h u n t e r states are t h e retrograde, and n o t the progressive steps of t h e h u m a n race from o n e stage of
20
25
civilisation to another. (416) Im alten R o m »The saving of l a b o u r — a n o b ject which has led to t h e perfection of labour in all t h e useful arts in o u r
state of society—was no object in their state of society. All was d o n e by
slaves, and great m u l t i t u d e s of t h e m ||39| at c o m m a n d , and by overseers or
freed m e n entertained a b o u t t h e families of t h e great. Any thing m a y be
30
produced, if waste of t i m e , labour, h u m a n life, a n d happiness, be left out of
the estimate of t h e cost of p r o d u c t i o n s (418) H a u p t p e c h für Italien: T h e
great source of industry a n d civilisation in F r a n c e , is the cultivation of t h e
vine, a n d its n a t u r a l exclusion from all t h e N o r t h of F r a n c e . ... It n o t only
gives within F r a n c e itself a c o n s t a n t interchange of industry for industry
35
etc etc. Italy has n o t this advantage. W i t h her e q u a l or nearly e q u a l p r o d u c tiveness of soil a n d climate over all, b o t h in the kinds and q u a n t i t i e s of h e r
products, no considerable m a s s of her p o p u l a t i o n are d e p e n d i n g on e a c h
other's industry for t h e supply of their m u t u a l wants, a n d inseparably
b o u n d u p with e a c h other b y c o m m o n interests. Italy has n o n a t u r a l capa-
40
bilities of raising up s u c h a division in t h e m a s s e s of her p o p u l a t i o n by
manufacturing or c o m m e r c i a l industry. T h e r e is little c o m m a n d over wa-
101
terpower, a n d n o n e of firepower, in the Italian p e n i n s u l a for moving m a chinery. T h e Po, the Adige, the T e c i n o , a n d all t h e A l p i n e rivers; the Tiber,
the A r n o , a n d all from t h e A p e n n i n e s , owing to the melting of the snow at
their m a i n s o u r c e s , partake of the character of m o u n t a i n - s t r e a m s , having
s u c h difference of level at different seasons, that millseats on their b a n k s ,
at which waterpower can be always available, are extremely rare. Italian
a u c h schlecht für c o m m e r c i a l industry oder zu supporting a seafaring population. She h a s little coasting trade, b e c a u s e all parts of h e r territory prod u c e nearly the same articles in sufficient a b u n d a n c e for the inhabitants,
a n d has little trade, for t h e same reason, with t h e other countries, on the
M e d i t e r r a n e a n . ... Cities u n d towns, zu 5 0 - 6 0 , 0 0 0 E i n w o h n e r sehr häufig
in Italy, vielleicht m e h r als irgend wo in Europa, within so small an area.
Aber of a very peculiar character. T h e country is so fertile, that each of
these masses of population draws its subsistence from, a n d extends its influence over, a very small circle beyond its own town walls. All capital, industry, intelligence, civil authority, and business, public or private; all
trade, m a n u f a c t u r e or c o n s u m p t of the objects of trade a n d m a n u f a c t u r e ,
a n d it m a y be said all civilisation, are centralised within these cities, a n d
the small circles of country a r o u n d t h e m from which they draw the articles
of their c o n s u m p t . ... E a c h city or town, within its own circle, suffices for
itself, is a metayer family u p o n a great scale living u p o n its own farm, a n d
having no d e p e n d e n c e u p o n , or c o n n e x i o n with, the industry, interests,
prosperity, or business of its neighbours in the land; a n d very little c o m m u n i c a t i o n or traffic with any other masses of population, by carriers, waggons, carts, diligences or water conveyances, the objects of interchange being, from the general b o u n t y of n a t u r e , b u t very few between t h e m . T h e y
are m o r a l oases, beyond which, all is desert. W i t h i n t h e m people are refined, intelligent, wealthy, i m b u e d with a taste for the fine arts, a n d inspired with liberal ideas of the constitutional rights of the people, a n d national i n d e p e n d e n c e of their country; a n d without, the people belong to a
different country, age, a n d state of civilisation, are ignorant, poor, halfcivilised, clothed in sheepskins, or u n s c o u r e d , brown, woollen cloaks, or are
halfclothed etc ... Here, the townpopulation, draw the m e a n s of buying as
well as what they buy, from the Country, leaving on the l a n d the cattle a n d
the peasantry to reproduce next year their own food, a n d the incomes of
the town populations. ||40| T h e princes, nobility, or other landholders,
where the land is not, as in Tuscany, divided a m o n g the peasantry, the
higher clergy, the military a n d civil establishments of government, local
a n d general, with their armies of functionaries, live in the towns a n d cities
with the t r a d e s m e n who live by supplying t h e m . The traffic between town
a n d country is small, b e c a u s e there are no c o n s u m e r s in t h e country; its
102
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Aus Samuel Laing (sen.): Notes of a traveller
5
10
15
20
25
produce is c o n s u m e d in the towns without any return. ... Italy is dotted
over with these separate a n d distinct masses of population, forming, no
whole of power, wealth, c o n n e c t e d industry, c o m m o n interests, objects or
feeling; a n d this state of d i s u n i o n in the social e c o n o m y of the Italian p e o pie is ... the effect of n a t u r a l , n o t of political causes. ... social u n i o n , n a tional spirit, interests a n d industry exist only in masses of people living by
each other. ... T h e power of the sword in the t i m e of t h e R o m a n s , t h e
power of c o m m e r c i a l capital in t h e m i d d l e ages, the power of t h e sword
again in the days of N a p o l e o n compressed Italy, or distinct portions of
Italy, into n a t i o n a l m a s s e s in form a n d g o v e r n m e n t ; b u t when the pressure
was removed, the parts started a s u n d e r again ... the b o u n t y of n a t u r e enables m a n to live u n c o n n e c t e d with m a n by ties of c o m m o n interests a n d
necessities, and exchanges of industry. ( 4 7 8 - 4 8 1 ) T h e e n o r m o u s capital
which superstition in t h e m i d d l e ages, a n d down even to m o d e r n times,
drew to R o m e , the vast wealth which the c o m m e r c e of the East brought, in
the same ages, to Florence, Pisa, G e n o a , V e n i c e , have all b e e n laid out u n productively ... It has b e e n r e c k o n e d t h a t the churches of Italy, with their
embellishments, their marbles, jewels, gold a n d silver o r n a m e n t s , paintings
and statuary, have cost m o r e , t h a n t h e fee-simple of t h e whole l a n d of t h e
Italian peninsula would a m o u n t to, if sold at the present average price per
acre. This e n o r m o u s outlay of capital has b e e n altogether u n p r o d u c t i v e .
Ebenso die vast u n d splendid palaces, with their o r n a m e n t a l architecture,
their magnificent galleries of precious paintings, statues, fine marbles, a n d
all the costly glory displayed, even now in their decay etc. (482) t h e besetting error of c o m m e r c i a l wealth, in the ages a n d countries which p r e c e d e d
England a n d her rise, has b e e n to overbuild a n d overdisplay itself in u n r e productive objects, instead of retaining their capitals as working m e a n s or
capitals in trade or m a n u f a c t u r e s . (483, 4)
103
Gaskell, P. (Surgeon.) The Manufacturing
Population of England.
L o n d o n 1833.
ist n u r die erste Auflage v o n
P. Gaskell (Surgeon):
Artisans and Machinery:
The Moral and Physical Condition of the
Manufacturing Population considered with
Reference to Mechanical Substitutes for
human Labour.
London.1836.
1)
Domestic
Manufacture.
T h e distaff, the spinning wheel, producing a single thread, a n d subsequently the j e n n y and m u l e , were to be found forming a part of the complem e n t of h o u s e h o l d furniture in the majority of the cottage h o m e s of G r e a t
Britain, whilst every h a m l e t a n d village r e s o u n d e d with the clack of the
h a n d l o o m . (12) Die domestic manufacturers were scattered over the entire
surface of the country. ... T h e yarn which they spun, a n d which was want-
104
Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery
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ed by the weaver, was received or delivered, as the case m i g h t be, by |
|41| agents, who travelled for the wholesale h o u s e s ; or depots were established in particular n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , to which they could apply at weekly
periods. (13) Some surprise m a y be excited by the assertion ... t h a t sexual
intercourse was almost universal prior to marriage in the agricultural districts. (20) Various circumstances h a d b e e n for a considerable period producing important modifications in the c o n d i t i o n of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g p o p ulation, prior to the i n t r o d u c t i o n of s t e a m as an antagonist to h u m a n
power. (23) Der distaff u n d spinning wheel, producing a single thread,
lange die only m e t h o d s of spinning. G e n M i t t e des 18' Jh. die d e m a n d for
cloth so increased, d a ß die inventive faculties of those interested in it were
called into activity, a n d improved m a c h i n e s for spinning were very s o o n
the result. Sehr viel Vorurtheile dagegen. Einige driven durch Verfolgung
in fremde Länder. T r o t z d e m zwang die w a c h s e n d e Nachfrage n a c h cloth
die manufacturers to the a d o p t i o n verbesserter S p i n n m e t h o d e n ; for the difficulty h a d always lain in producing an a d e q u a t e supply of materials in a
state fit for the loom. D i e s e m abgeholfen d u r c h die m u l e u n d j e n n y , b o t h
of which enabled t h e spinner to p r o d u c e a greatly increased quantity of
yarn. (23, 24) D e r h a n d l o o m w e a v e r gewann sehr durch diese improvem e n t s , without any extra outlay of capital ... A family of 4 adult persons,
with 2 children as winders, e a r n e d at the e n d of the last a n d at t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t of the present century, 4 /. per week, w h e n working 10 h o u r s
per day; when work was pressed they could earn m o r e . (24) E i n e r der ersten
effects der constant d e m a n d u p o n t h e labour of the weaver, resulting from
a m o r e extensive a n d p e r m a n e n t supply of yarn, was the gradual a b a n d o n m e n t of farming as an accessory, which h a d b e e n very c o m m o n with t h e
m o r e respectable portion of the weavers. His labour, when employed on his
loom, profitabler u n d m e h r i m m e d i a t e in its return, t h a n w h e n devoted to
agricultural pursuits. Dieß led zu dem new order of farm tenants, at will. (25)
So wurde der weaver a simple labourer. (I.e.) Die great body of h a n d l o o m
weavers i m m e r in zwei Klassen zertheilt; die, die landholders zugleich,
u n d die entirely d e p e n d a n t u p o n weaving for their support. Leztre h a t t e n
i m m e r gelitten von der impossibility of supplying themselves with m a t e r i als for their labour. Considerable vacations oft occurring in d i e s e m respect
u n d d a n n sie in privations. Diese Klasse also hob sich, während die erste sank.
(26) Die ganze Klasse raised on the whole their general character as a body,
rendered t h e m m o r e u n i t e d , u n d gab i h n e n c o m m u n i t y o f interests a n d
feeling. (27) Sehr m a t e r i a l i m p r o v e m e n t d a h e r gradually operating währ e n d des h a l b e n Jh. u n m i t t e l b a r vor Einführung der s t e a m power. N i c h t
v o m increase in d e m rate of p a y m e n t for labour, sondern from a m a r k e t
generally understocked, and a constantly increasing p r o d u c t i o n of yarn,
105
which enabled t h e m to work full hours, a n d consequently to throw off a regular a n d sufficient quantity of cloth. (I.e.) In d e n early t i m e s of m a n u f a c turing, the spinner and the weaver were to some extent s y n o n y m o u s , - the
distaff, the wheel, and the loom being all called into requisition by a single
family. At a later period, als die S p i n n m a s c h i n e n verbessert, u n d als diese
m a c h i n e s m i t j e d e m Schritt m o r e bulky, m o r e complicated, and consequently m o r e expensive wurden, division zwischen weaver u n d spinner ...
Zu dieser Periode, when spinning was b e c o m e ||42| a separate b r a n c h , a n d
when the division between the two bodies was well defined, the spinners
were j o i n e d by another class of persons, who h a d heretofore h e l d aloof from
m a n u f a c t u r e ; these were the yeomen, the small freeholders. ([28,] 29) D e r yeom a n bisher s u r r o u n d e d by petty farmers, die h a d generally eked out their
l a n d cultivation by being weavers, a n d who h a d served h i m as bulwarks or
breakwaters against the i m p e n d i n g storm. Diese removed o n e by one, gab
[ g e g e n ] andre race of m e n auf who gave a considerably increased rent, u n d
by improved m o d e s of husbandry, soon drove t h e small proprietor from the
m a r k e t s which he h a d so long supplied. So der y e o m a n was driven to e m bark some portion of his m e a n s in the p u r c h a s e of spinning machines, u n d
before very long, great quantities of yarn were p r o d u c e d by the i n m a t e s of
old farmhouses, in which previously the most sluggish inertness h a d prevailed. / derselben, die purchased diese machines mußten zu loan, meist Hypothek, ihre Zuflucht nehmen, to raise money. ([29,] 30) D e r Preiß der complicirteren Spinnmaschinen sehr beträchtlich u n d removte ihn aus d e m r e a c h der
inferior class of weavers. Zugleich m o n i e d m e n b e g a n to fix their attention
on a b r a n c h of trade, the returns from which were very rapid. D i e ß b r o u g h t
a farther accession of capital into it, a n d led to the erection of milk, c o n t a i n ing a less or greater n u m b e r of spinning m a c h i n e s , propelled by water
power; with the assistance of h u m a n labour. Diese mills g e b a u t in einiger
distance von den towns, doch so n a h als U m s t ä n d e erlaubten for the conven i e n c e of markets, u n d readiness of transport for the raw a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d
material. Their site, sonst, durch 2 U m s t ä n d e b e s t i m m t : 1) die Existenz
eines stream of sufficient volume u n d p e r m a n e n c e u n d 2) die neighbourh o o d of suitable workmen. (30, 1) Diese mills ausschließlich devoted d e n
first processes of m a n u f a c t u r e , carding u n d spinning. Ihr gradual increase
wirkte bald auf den domestic manufacturer, his profits quickly fell, w o r k m e n
being readily found to s u p e r i n t e n d the mill labour, zu einer h o h e n Arbeitsrate aber viel lower als der estimated rate of h o m e labour. A n o t h e r cause
which t e n d e d to injure the private spinner was the incessant and expensive
improvements in the construction of machines, (wie h e u t e dieselbe cause of
distress wirkt auf die woollen und bobbin-net manufactures.) W e r E i n J a h r
eine b e d e u t e n d e S u m m e im A n k a u f der besten J e n n y ausgelegt, im folgen-
5
10
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20
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7
106
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30
35
40
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10
15
20
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30
35
40
den Jahr so behindhand, daß mit dem äussersten Fleiß er k a u m G a r n genug
s p i n n e n k o n n t e to repay him for his present labour, in Folge von alterations
which threw the productive power of his machine in the background. T h e
price of yarn b e c a m e of necessity depreciated in proportion to the q u a n t i t y
produced, which was now m o r e t h a n sufficient to supply the h o m e dem a n d . The number of machines which at this period were thrown back into the
market, gave a strong impulse to the growth of the mills; a machine which was
not sufficiently perfect for the purpose of domestic manufacture doing well
enough in a mill in conjunction with others, worked at a less rate of wages, and
assisted by water power, when its use was valueless to its original owner; he was
consequently left in many cases, pekuniär, schlimmer dran als beim Beginn seiner new vocation, no time having been given him to cover its first cost. (31, 2) |
|43| D i e meisten der y e o m e n gingen so caput. Ihre little estates b e k a m e n in
wenigen J a h r e n so e n c u m b e r e d as to be utterly worthless to t h e m u n d a
very rapid u n d very extensive c h a n g e griff Platz in der l a n d e d proprietorship von 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 1 0 . Einige arbeiteten sich durch Energie zu d e n m o s t
successful s t e a m m a n u f a c t u r e r s herauf, wie die Peels, die Strutts etc. ...
Eew of the m e n who entered the trade rich were successful. W ä h r e n d die,
c o m m e n c i n g in an h u m b l e way, generally from exercising s o m e handicraft,
as clockmaking, h a t t i n g etc aufkamen. (32, 3) V o n 1738 (invention of t h e
fly shuttle by J o h n Kay) bis 1800 diese series of changes vollendet. N u n a n d rer grosser change in d e n relative situations der 2 divisions of m a n u f a c t u r ers. Die improved m a c h i n e s , ihre increased n u m b e r , das establishment of
mills, the accession of capital, p r o d u c i r t e n alle z u s a m m e n viel m e h r G a r n
t h a n could by any possibility be converted into cloth by the t h e n h a n d loom weavers. Das surplus in die F r e m d e versandt oder r e m a i n e d a dead
weight u p o n the maker. Die d e m a n d for cloth indeß n o c h u n s u p p l i e d u n d
it b e c a m e necessary to i n t r o d u c e great n u m b e r s of new h a n d s as weavers.
Solange die supply of G a r n begrenzt oder u n t e r der d e m a n d oder j u s t e q u a l
ihr war, die weavers h a d felt b u t little competition. Ihre wages d a h e r stationär geblieben. Jezt, w h e n der outcry for cloth c o n t i n u e d u n d G a r n
a b u n d a n t , a large body of weavers immigrated into the manufacturing districts:
great numbers of agricultural labourers deserted their occupations u n d a n e w
race of h a n d l o o m weavers ... w u r d e n producirt, of a still lower grade als die
primitive; sie hatte geerndtet e i n e n viel g e r i n g e m a m o u n t of wages u n d
waren accustomed to be mere labourers. Die m a s t e r spinners fanden sie parat zu e i n e m n i e d r i g e m Preiß zu arbeiten a n d t h u s discovered an outlet for
their extra quantity of yarn. D i e ß führte zu grosser Depreciation im Preiß
der h a n d l o o m Arbeit. (33, 4) Die ersten manufacturers, who h a d to trust
entirely t o h a n d labour, were subjected periodically t o severe i m m e d i a t e
losses durch den refractory spirit of their h a n d s , who timed their opportu-
107
nity, when the m a r k e t s were particularly pressing, to urge their claims. ... a
crisis was rapidly approaching die d e n progress of m a n u f a c t u r e s würde gecheckt haben, when steam u n d its application to machinery at once turned the
current against the men. (34, 35) (first s t e a m engine applied to cotton spinn i n g errichtet 1783. Sir R. Arkwright's first u s e of this power 1790. 1800
a b o u t 32 s t e a m engines in M a n c h e s t e r . D i e s t e a m l o o m s i n t r o d u c e d von
1800 bis 1806 u n d followed by serious riots, a n d breaking a n d destroying of
machinery.) V o n der Zeit der I n t r o d u c t i o n der steampower painful change
in der condition der handloomweavers ... sie have b e e n crushed b e n e a t h
the steamengine. (35) W a r u m w u r d e n diese W e b e r n i c h t die first workers
on steam looms, and in other factory labours? ... Erst sie feindlich gegen
die Maschinerie, die sie b e t r a c h t e t e n als infringement u p o n their proper
d o m a i n of industry. D i e ß hielt sie entfernt von d e n ersten spinning u n d
weaving mills; so that these were furnished with their c o m p l e m e n t of h a n d s
from other sources. ( 3 5 , 6 ) D a n n die majority of workers in den early spinning establishments were children; partly on a c c o u n t of the m a c h i n e s being small, a n d partly from ||44| a difficulty of procuring adult labour. D a n n
verbesserte sich die M a s c h i n e r i e sehr rasch u n d die geschicktre Arbeit überall XXXweichend ... die steam looms erheischen k e i n e n adult labourer, sondern
sind ganz supplied by y o u n g w o m e n u n d girls ... there is no r o o m for the
m a l e h a n d l o o m weaver—the factories are closed against h i m by the sternest necessity. (36, 7) Families, fast 1 Million von h u m a n beings, d e p e n d e n t
on handloomweaving, die ganze F a m i l i e 14 S t u n d e n täglich arbeitend, m i t
stets fallendem Lohn. (37) N a c h Mr. Felkin, in d e m Factory C o m m i s s i o n
Report, the net weekly earnings of the h a n d s engaged in the cotton stocking trade von 4 zu 7 s. A u f diese S u m m e , a m a n , his wife u n d ihre children
have to be supported. (38) E i n e andre large u n d interesting class of d o m e s tic manufacturers ist connected m i t d e m bobbin-net trade. An
200,000 young w o m e n darin engagirt. (lace-embroidering) "They begin
early a n d work late, and during this long daily period their bodies are constantly b e n t over the frame on which the lace is extended, the h e a d being
usually kept within 5 or 6 inches of the frame, the edge of which presses
against the lower part of the chest. O n e effect, universally p r o d u c e d is
short-sightedness, and often a general weakness of the eyes, with c o n s u m p tive tendency, distortion of the limbs, a n d general debility, from the confinement a n d the posture." (38)
108
5
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15
20
25
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35
ch.
5
ch.
15
20
25
Factory
System.
M o d e geworden d e n K i n d e r n selbst ihre wages a u s z u z a h l e n . Z a h l t so sein e n Eltern n u r a stated s u m for food a n d lodging. (64) Ist reiner »lodger«
im älterlichen H a u s . (I.e.) (Separation of Families, breaking up of t h e
home)
ch. 3.
10
2.
VI.
ch. IV.
Infant
ch.
V.
Labour.
Social Condition.
Female
Labour.
T h e m a c h i n e s for s p i n n i n g were, day after day, b e c o m i n g m o r e bulky, a n d
requiring greater skill a n d exertion for producing fine n u m b e r s , so t h a t
adults gradually found their way to t h e m . (140) Nearly the whole of the
h a n d s employed in the silk factories are females, as well as in t h e Scotch
flax, cotton, and woollen mills. (143) Vast n u m b e r s der factory children are
hired out at the rate of 1 s. 6 d. per week. (153) Das K i n d geboren von F a brikeltern: wieder n u n selbst Fabrikarbeiter, n o t only is its m u s c u l a r syst e m flaccid, supplied with t h i n watery blood; its m u c o u s surfaces u n healthy; its glandular system deranged; b u t the groundwork u p o n which
these are built, the frame u p o n which they are arranged, is i n c o m p l e t e in
comparison. T h e b o n y fabric has h a d no opportunity for b e c o m i n g properly solidified ... c o n t a i n s as yet too large a proportion of cartilaginous m a t ter. (158, 9) W h e r e the b o n y system is still imperfect, the vertical position it
is compelled to r e t a i n influences its direction; the spinal C o l u m n b e n d s
b e n e a t h the weight of t h e h e a d , bulges o u t laterally, or is dragged forward
by t h e weight of the parts composing the chest; the pelvis yields b e n e a t h t h e
opposing pressure downwards, a n d the resistance given by t h e t h i g h - b o n e s ;
its capacity is lessened, s o m e t i m e s m o r e a n d sometimes less; [the legs]
curve, and the whole body loses height, in c o n s e q u e n c e of this general
yielding a n d b e n d i n g of its parts. (159) |
109
H e f t XII
I Heft XII.
London. 1851. Juli. |
I Inhalt.
1) Gaskell. Artisans and Machinery. London.
1836.
2) Anderson (James) An Enquiry into the Causes that have hitherto retardea the advancement of Agriculture. Edinb.
1779.
3) Anderson: (James) Essays relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs.
3 vol. Edinb. 1777-1796.
4) Mathieu de Dombasle: Annales Agricoles de Roville. Paris. 1825 bis
1830.
5) An Enquiry into those Principles respecting the Nature of Demand and
the Necessity of Consumption. London.
1821.
6) Samuel Turner. Considerations upon the Agriculture etc London 1822.
7) Thomas Hopkins. Economical Enquiries. London.
1822.
8) Thompson (Perronet) The true theory of Rent. 2 ed. London. 1832.
9) Sir Edward West., Prices of Corn and Wages of Labour. London. 1826.
10) Thomas Hopkins. On Rent of Land and its Influence on Subsistence
and Population. London.
1828.
11) Ricardo. (David) An Essay on the Influence of the low Price of Corn on
the Profits of Stock etc London. 1815.
12) Ricardo. (D.) On Protection to Agriculture. London. 1822.
13) The Source and Remedy of the National Difficulties etc London 1821.
14) Somers (Robert) Letters from the Highlands or, the famine of 1847.
London.
1848.
15) Liebig (Justus) Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. Braunschweig. 1842. \
110
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25
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Inhaltsverzeichnis
Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery (Fortsetzung)
Iii Gaskell (Contin. von Heft 11)
ch.
10
15
20
25
There are, in the Cotton factories
in Lancashire and Cheshire
Cottonfactories in Scotland
Flaxfactories in Leeds
Flaxfactories in Dundee
and East Coast of Scotland
Male ...
100 to
100 to
100 to
VII,
Physical
ch.
VIII,
ch. IX.
Female
103
209
147
100 to 280. (173)
Condition.
Die population of G r e a t Britain früher gesünder als jezt trotz d e m d i m i n ished rate of mortality. T a k e n as individuals they were m o r e robust, fuller
of organic activity, enjoyed in m u c h higher degree the feelings of existence; but, in c o n s e q u e n c e , their diseases were of a m u c h m o r e a c u t e character, and infinitely m o r e fatal in their t e n d e n c y . (201) In d e n Fabrikstädten disease generally assumes a chronic type; its progress is slow, a n d often
interferes but little with the proper functional actions which are essential to
life. Neither, in m a n y instances, does it, of necessity, shorten its d u r a t i o n ;
b u t rather, by keeping the standard of vital energy somewhat below par, it
abstracts the system from the impression of m o r e fatal affections, w h i c h
kill by disturbing the circulation. (205) 1831 h a t t e L o n d o n 1 m e d i c a l m a n
auf je 345 i n h a b i t a n t s , Paris auf je 900 u n d M a n c h e s t e r auf je 1 2 1 - 3 inhabitants. (208 Note) In M a n c h e s t e r m o r e t h a n % of all children born to
the lower class perish before they have completed their 5 years. (212) (Pâtissier: Sur les Maladies des Artisans. Thackrah: On the effect of the Principal
Arts, Trades, Professions etc, u p o n H e a l t h a n d Longevity. [222]) T h e singularly miserable aspect presented by m a n y of the operatives, shewing, as it
were, an epitome of every thing that m e l a n c h o l y can impress on t h e h u m a n
face, is owing to these bowel affections. (235) Dieser tribe of diseases in
113
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII
n e u r e r Zeit sehr häufig u n t e r d e n higher classes of society, having their origin in too nourishing a n d s t i m u l a n t a diet. [236] (235 die R e d e v o n d e n
d e r a n g e m e n t s in d e n digestive organs.)
ch.
X.
Education
etc.
ch. XI. Combinations.
ch.
XII.
Truck
and
Cottage
5
System.
D i e s e b e i d e n A u s g e b u r t e n d e s factory S y s t e m : »the a p p r o x i m a t i o n w h i c h
these show of the c o n d i t i o n of the labourer, u n d e r the factory system, to t h e
t i m e s of feudal t e n u r e a n d vassalage in E n g l a n d is Singular.« (293) D i e cottages, gruppirt besonders um countryfactories, m e i s t das property des millowner, a n d the o c c u p a n t s are universally his d e p e n d e n t s . Oft diese d e p e n d e n c e viel absoluter als je u n t e r d e m feudal lord. D i e social existence des
d e p e n d e n t hängt von diesem lord ab. A r o u n d m a n y mills a fixed p o p u l a t i o n
has arisen, which is as m u c h a part a n d parcel of the property of the m a s t e r
as his machinery. T h e rapid i m p r o v e m e n t in this last has p u t an end to the
necessity for new labourers, a n d t h u s little colonies are formed u n d e r the
absolute government of the employer. Combination amongst the great body of
the operatives has as yet checked, or rather overpowered, the growing superiority
of the master. (294) Das cottagesystem, ist in fact an offset des truck system. Erstres sich rapidly entwickelnd. (298) This system of cottagebuilding is n o t
universal: in towns where masses of labourers are already collected, a n d ,
w h e n considerable expense would attend u p o n it, it is very little practised. It
is chiefly in out-districts; a n d it is a striking ||2| proof of the advantages to
the master, that the great manufacturers are gradually creeping to the outskirts, or into localities a few miles from the great towns. D i e extension a n d
influence of this system m a y be very distinctly seen in the now p o p u l o u s
township of Hyde and N e w t o n , Duckenfield, etc about 7 miles from M a n chester etc. Die population dieser districts 1801 k a u m 3 0 0 0 , 1 8 3 0 zu 26,000
angewachsen ... die dwellings dieser population in einer large proportion in
d e n h a n d s der manufacturers, als owners oder als general t e n a n t s . (299) All e r d i n g s : »They have b e e n forced to build, a n d are still building; b u t it does
not lessen the evils a t t e n d a n t u p o n the System.« (300) Die masters, m a n y of
w h o m have 80, 100, 200 or m o r e of those cottages surrounding, are i m m e n s e gainers by the arrangement. Die cost of building a range of h o u s e s ,
such as these, z.B. 100, nicht, u p o n the m o s t liberal average, m e h r als
£ 5000; im Durchschnitt, d e m very best, 50 /. will over a n d above cover the
114
10
15
20
25
30
35
Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery (Fortsetzung)
outlay für every cottage. N o w for the outlay of 5000 /. the capitalist draws an
a n n u a l i n c o m e of 800 1., or 13½%, a n d completely covers himself in little
more t h a n 6 years. This profitable return is b u r d e n e d with no drawback; no
rent is lost, every paynight it is d e d u c t e d from t h e wages. (302) Also erstens:
5 dieser disproportionate rate of interest. D a n n erleichtert i h m dieß »congregating his m e n , u n d e r his i m m e d i a t e control« 1) das trucksystem, d e n n er
b a u t 2 oder 3 shops, u n d h o u s e s calculated für taverns u n d beerhouses u n d
if he has no direct dealing in t h e m , he abstracts an equivalent rent. 2) it enables h i m to shorten t h e h o u r s allowed for m e a l s , to begin earlier in t h e
10 m o r n i n g , to c o n t i n u e later at night. (I.e.)
Ch.
15
20
25
30
35
XIII.
Influence
of Machinery
on
Human
Labour.
T h e surplus h a n d s würden die manufacturers befähigen to lessen the rate
of wages; b u t the certainty that any considerable r e d u c t i o n would be followed by i m m e d i a t e i m m e n s e losses from turnouts, extended stoppages,
a n d various other i m p e d i m e n t s which would be thrown in their way, m a k e s
t h e m prefer the slower process of m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s by which,
though they m a y triple p r o d u c t i o n , they require no new m e n . (314) w e n n
die improvements n o t quite displace the workman, will render o n e m a n
capable of producing, or rather of superintending, the p r o d u c t i o n of q u a n tity now requiring 10 or 20 labourers. (315) M a c h i n e s have b e e n invented
which enable o n e m a n to p r o d u c e as m u c h yarn as 250, or 300 even, could
have produced 70 years ago, which enable 1 m a n a n d 1 boy to print as
m a n y goods as a 100 m e n a n d a 100 boys could have printed formerly. D i e
150,000 w o r k m e n in the spinning mills p r o d u c i r e n so viel G a r n als
40,000,000 an d e m onethreadwheel h ä t t e n produciren k ö n n e n . (316) 2 Millions of handloomweavers in H i n d u s t a n have b e e n driven from their labour
by m a c h i n e r y here, m u l t i t u d e s of w h o m have perished by famine. (324)
Mr G o r d o n an engineer sagt v o m S t e a m : "Considered in its application to
husbandry, the cottager looks forth u p o n the n e a t paling which fences his
dwelling; it was sawed by steam. T h e spade with which he digs h i s garden,
the rake, the hoe, the pickaxe, the scythe, the sickle, every i m p l e m e n t of rural toil which ministers to his necessities, are p r o d u c e d by steam. S t e a m
bruises the oilcake which feeds the farmers cattle; m o u l d s the ploughshare,
which overturns his fields; forms the shears which clip his flock; a n d cards,
spins, and weaves the p r o d u c e . Applied to architecture, we find t h e Briarean arms of the steam engine every where at work" etc. ([325,] 326) | | 3 | In
the weaving d e p a r t m e n t the c o n s e q u e n c e of m e c h a n i c a l a d a p t a t i o n is n o w
beginning to be felt in its full force. H i t h e r t o the depression which h a s
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Exzerpte aus James Anderson:
An inquiry into the causes ...
Heft XII. Seite 4
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII
crept over this d e p a r t m e n t has resulted from c o m p e t i t i o n with s t e a m l o o m s ,
from cheap yarn, from this yarn being exported, and h e n c e compelling t h e
English m e r c h a n t , in order to c o m p e t e with t h e foreign manufacturer, to
bring down the price of cotton cloth below h i s ; a n d from the a m a z i n g productiveness of spinning m a c h i n e r y constantly choking the market, whilst
h u m a n labour being driven from this d e p a r t m e n t , and having no other resource, has b e e n forced to keep itself on the loom. H e n c e it is t h a t the
h a n d cotton manufacturers have kept on t h e increase, the n u m b e r actually
employed far exceeding the factory labourers, a n d that the former are in a
far greater proportion adults t h a n the latter; yet t h e h a n d l a b o u r e r s are
charged with being the authors a n d perpetrators of their own r u i n . A b e r
a u c h diese resource will be withdrawn from the operatives. D e r powerloom
n i m m t sehr zu; every new mill which is built contains t h e m , a n d additions
to old mills of weaving r o o m s are going on in every direction. ([329,] 330)
If the 150,000 spinners of the present day s u p e r i n t e n d the p r o d u c t i o n of as
m u c h yarn as would have required the l a b o u r of 40 millions of m e n a century ago, what is to prevent 1000 doing that which is now d o n e by 150,000?
... If o n e powerloom is 6 x as effective as a h a n d l o o m , why should n o t the
powerloom be doubled in capability in 10 years? These things are yet in their
infancy. ([332,] 333) A b e r B a i n e s : A very good h a n d weaver, 25 oder
30 years of age, will weave 2 pieces of 9 - 8 t h s shirting per week. In 1823 a
s t e a m l o o m weaver, about 15 years of age, attending 2 looms, could weave
7 similar pieces in a week. In 1826, a steamloomweaver von 15 J a h r e n , attending 2 looms could weave 12 similar pieces in a week, some a u c h 15. In
1833, a steamloonweaver, von 1 5 - 2 0 J a h r e n , assisted by a girl about
12 Jahre, attending 4 looms, can weave 18 similar pieces in a week, s o m e
20. Also 1823 an adult handloomweaver can produce, at the u t m o s t , n i c h t
% von d e m was a girl at steam l o o m ; 1826 n i c h t %\ 1833 nicht % so m u c h .
(334) machinery, in the first place, destroyed d o m e s t i c spinning; in the second, it has opened up an i m m e n s e export trade in yarn; a n d in the third, it
c o n d e m n s the domestic weaver to clothe the whole world, while he himself
is working 14 hours a day in rags and poverty. (340) D e r Iron Man of R o berts zerstört d e n Factory Spinner. (352)
Year
1821
1822
1831
1832
116
Crime
Commitments
13,155
12,242
19,647
20,829
Pauperism
Poor Rates
£
Drunkenness
Spirits
consumed
Gallons
Cotton Trade
Official
value
£
Exports
Declared
value
£
6,674,938
6,102,253
7,929,608
8,255,315
8,798,655
8,754,281
21,845,309
21,778,559
22,522,079
23,541,615
33,682,400
37,060,750
16,516,758
16,094,807
17,182,936
17,344,676 (399)(
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Aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the causes
μι Anderson (James) An Inquiry into the
Causes that have hitherto retarded the
Advancement of Agriculture in Europe.
E d i n b u r g h . 1779.
5
D i e Agricultur schwieriger als irgend eine M a n u f a c t u r . Agricultur die abso
lut nothwendige, die n ü t z l i c h s t e der arts; w a r u m bis j e z t n i c h t weiter entwickelt? (1) Erstens. D i e N o t h w e n d i g k e i t vieler E x p e r i m e n t e . (2, 3) D i e exp e n c e d u r c h dieselben in agriculture. (4) Infinite diversity of soils, die m a y
be so m u c h altered from their original state by t h e m o d e s of c u l t u r e they
10
have formerly b e e n subjected to, by t h e m a n u r e s etc we have no t e r m s
capable of expressing t h a t great diversity of soils, differing from o n e a n other by such delicate a n d u n o b s e r v e d peculiarities etc. (5) D i e ß m a c h t die
N ü t z l i c h k e i t der E x p e r i m e n t e größer als in a n d r e n arts. U n d die B o d e n der
4 grossen Klassen, clayey, loamy, sandy u n d gravelly u n t e r s c h e i d e n sich
15 wieder sehr. (6) E x p e r i m e n t e r ä t h er a n , v o n d e r g a n z e n G e s e l l s c h a f t g e macht.
119
Anderson (James) Essays relating to
Agriculture and rural affairs.
3 vol. 1 7 7 7 - 1 7 9 6 .
vol.
III.
Essay I. On the Obstacles
to the Advancement of Agriculture in England,
and the means of removing them.
5
Obstacles sind:
1) Commonable lands. (8)
Sie sind schädlich, d e n n sie unterwerfen in regard to their culture a n d
m o d e of cropping, gewisses I n d i v i d u e n gehöriges L a n d , to certain regulations, which were adopted at a very distant period, wenn Agrikultur n o c h in
ihrer K i n d h e i t u n d ein very dissimilar state of society. (9, 10) In m e h r e n
counties in England m e h r als % des arable land in d i e s e m state. (10) U e b r i gens löst sich die common-field h u s b a n d r y n u r im G r u n d auf in die i n a d e quate size of farms. (20)
120
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Aus James Anderson: Essays • Relating to agriculture and rural affairs
2) Commons. (31 sqq.)
3) the minute division of land.
5
Ein L a n d von 100 acres, w e n n j e d e F a m i l i e 3 K i n d e r hat, würde in der
I l t e n G e n e r a t i o n n u r 2 ½ yards auf d e n M a n n fallen lassen, e a c h m a n ' s
property would be barely sufficient to m a k e a grave to hold himself. ([59,]
60)
4) Inadequate size of farms, (p. 76 sqq.)
W h e r e there are two fields, the p r o d u c e of which is nearly as above stated,
n ä m l i c h das Eine 12 bushels, grad r e m u n e r i r e n d die Auslage, das andre 20,
10 without requiring any i m m e d i a t e outlay for their improvement, t h e farmer
would pay even m o r e rent als 6 ζ. Β. für das erste, w ä h r e n d für das a n d r e
keine, (wenn 12 b u s h e l s j u s t sufficient for the expence of cultivating, no
rent whatever can be afforded for cultivated land that yields only 12 b u s h els, p. 107) Yet it c a n n o t be expected that, if the superior p r o d u c e has b e e n
15 i m m e d i a t e l y occasioned by his own outlay of capital, and exertions of industry, he can pay nearly the s a m e proportion of it as rent; b u t after t h e
land has b e e n for s o m e t i m e in a p e r m a n e n t state of fertility to t h a t degree,
t h o u g h it even originally derived t h a t fertility from his own industry, he
will be content to pay s u c h a proportion of rent as is here stated. ( 1 0 9 , 1 0 )
20
5) Want of Capital among Farmers.
Existirt fast überall in d i e s e m Eiland dieser want. (124)
6) Andres obstacle: Church lands, lands in Mortmain
and Entails. (146 sqq.)
7) Indefinite claims upon land
25
(tithes, poorrates etc) (157 sqq.)
121
8) want of easy means of communication.
9) want of markets.
10) fiscal
(209 sqq.)
(210)
regulations.
(Salzsteuer ζ. Β.) 220 sqq.
5
11) law of entails.
12) want of means of circulating agriculture knowledge.
(228)
13) Die tenantry at will,
ueberhaupt die Unsicherheit der l e a s e s etc. Kurz das Verhältniß des
Pächters z u m Landlord, »there c a n be no doubt, t h a t while t h e obstructions above ||5| e n u m e r a t e d shall c o n t i n u e to operate, it would be nearly 10
with equal justice, that we should revile a m a n for his i n d o l e n c e a n d aversion to work, while he was b o u n d h a n d a n d foot so as to r e n d e r h i m incapable of moving, as to c o m p l a i n of t h e d e t e r m i n e d obstinacy of farmers, for
n o t doing those things that were equally b e y o n d their power.« (229)
Essay II On Waste Lands, and the Means of
their Improvement.
15
W a s t e lands k ö n n e n b e improved, entweder i n d e m m a n sie i n cultivated
fields verwandelt oder i n d e m m a n sie m i t B ä u m e n bepflanzt. (239)
Part first. Verbesserung durch means of culture.
Fast alle soils k ö n n e n d u r c h m e n s c h l i c h e A n s t r e n g u n g in Kornfelder verwandelt werden. Aber viele zu größrer expence, als d e m improver a reasonable indemnification gewähren wird. (240[, 241]) Es ist in Betracht g e z o g e n worden: 1) Die N a t u r des soil u n d des subsoil. 2) D i e physical
obstructions that stand in t h e way of cultivating that soil, as arising from
rocks or stones, brushwood, trees etc, hurtful m o i s t u r e , inequalities of sur-
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Aus James Anderson: Essays · Relating to agriculture and rural affairs
face etc. (241) 3) Clima. 4) D i e F e r n e oder N ä h e der M ä r k t e u n d ihr extent. 5) the Arten, Preisse, Beziehungsart, Zeiten, Q u a n t a wie the k i n d s of
extraneous m a n u r e s can be p u r c h a s e d . 6) the n a t u r e of the roads or other
m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . 7) what conveniencies die premises afford for
5 erecting houses, rearing fences, m a k i n g drains etc wie es m i t d e m water b e stellt ist; m i t d e m fuel; der state des L a n d s m i t Bezug auf servants u n d labourers. 8) D e r Stand des L a n d s in Bezug auf m e c h a n i c arts. 9) D i e n a t u r e
der t e n u r e by which t h e lands are held. ( 2 4 1 - 4 5 ) In the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of
large towns alone, the e x p e n c e incurred in improving t h e most barren
10 wastes, can be repaid. As you r e c e d e from these great marts, it is necessary
that the soils be of a greater degree of fertility, before the expence of cultivating t h e m can be repaid ... je weiter ab, je less a b u n d a n c e of e x t r a n e o u s
m a n u r e can be o b t a i n e d etc desto smaller will be the proportion of waste
land that can be b r o u g h t into cultivation. (251, 2)
15
Part II. Plantation of Trees.
Wo der soil dry u n d infertile, oder wo sein chief or only produce is h e a t h ;
oder wo voll von rocks u n d stones rising to the surface, oder a stiff o b d u r a t e
clay, having little surface p r o d u c e , ü b e r h a u p t wo der soil poor, p l a n t a t i o n s
am besten, am erträglichsten, w ä h r e n d gleichzeitig the ground itself, while
20 the trees c o n t i n u e to grow u p o n it, undergoes, for the most part, a gradual
amelioration, which it would n o t have d o n e in its n a t u r a l state. (353, 4)
123
Mathieu de Dombasle. Annales
Agricoles de Roville.
Paris.
2.
livraison.
1829.
1825.
De l'Etendue des Exploitations rurales dans
ses rapports avec la prospérité de l'Agriculture.
5
Lorsque l'extrême division parcellaire se c o m p l i q u e avec l ' e n c h e v ê t r e m e n t
des pièces qui les r e n d r é c i p r o q u e m e n t serves, c o m m e on l'observe dans
u n e partie considérable de la F r a n c e , elle forme un des plus puissans obstacles für das p e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t de l'agriculture. (206) Klar d a ß die culture
ίο
sera d ' a u t a n t meilleure u n d die profits d ' a u t a n t plus considérables, que le
capital pécuniaire et le capital de connaissances seront plus e x a c t e m e n t proportionnés à l ' é t e n d u e de c h a q u e exploitation, g r a n d e ou petite. (213) Die
grosse Kultur folgenden avantage: Möglich die Theilung der Arbeit d'établir,
so daß c h a q u e h o m m e soit c o n s t a m m e n t occupé au m ê m e genre
15
d'ouvrage. ||6| (213, 14) Ferner: die dépense des attelages verhältnißmässig
m o i n d r e in einer g r a n d e ferme als in einer petite. W e n n 10 Pferde nöthig
für eine Exploitation von 100 hectares, 15 oder 16 h i n r e i c h e n d für eine von
200. E b e n s o verhältnißmässig geringer die dépenses de construction et de réparations des bätimens, die éducation des bêtes à laine n u r b e i grossen exploi20
tations möglich, bei k l e i n e n n u r à l'aide d ' u n t r o u p e a u c o m m u n , ce qui
suppose la vaine pâture, et par c o n s é q u e n t l'état de culture le plus misérable. Die exploitations de g r a n d e culture, lorsque les améliorations de la
culture alterne s'y introduisent, o c c u p e n t un b e a u c o u p plus grand n o m b r e
124
Aus Christophe-Joseph-Alexandre Mathieu de Dombasle: Annales agricoles de Roville
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de bras que dans le système d'assolement triennal, m a i s b i e n m o i n s que les
fermes de petite ou m o y e n n e culture ; M a s c h i n e n u n d I n s t r u m e n t e k ö n n e n
hier z u m Theil die H a n d a r b e i t ersetzen. (215, 16) Also die grosse K u l t u r
giebt d e m M a r k t le plus grand e x c é d a n t possible de produits disponibles
relativement au n o m b r e d'individus employés à le créer u n d elle fournit,
relativement à la p o p u l a t i o n totale d ' u n pays, u n e b e a u c o u p plus g r a n d e
quantité des matières p r e m i è r e s q u i servent d'aliment à l'industrie m a n u facturière. Paßt am besten für L ä n d e r d ' u n e p o p u l a t i o n m o y e n n e , wovon
ein Theil die Städte b e w o h n t u n d m a n u f a c t u r i r t u n d wo folglich la m a i n
d'oeuvre theuer. (216) Die g r a n d e culture n'exige pas u n e plus g r a n d e
masse de capitaux q u e la petite ou la m o y e n n e culture ; elle en exige m o i n s
au contraire, aber, in diesen v e r s c h i e d n e n Systemen, m ü s s e n die Capitalien verschieden distribuirt sein; d a n s la g r a n d e culture, les c a p i t a u x appliqués à l'agriculture doivent se trouver entre les m a i n s d ' u n petit n o m b r e
d ' h o m m e s q u i salarient les bras qu'ils emploient ; dieß in England der Fall,
wo die grands propriétaires grosse A u s l a g e n zur Verbesserung des B o d e n s
m a c h e n u n d wo eine Klasse de fermiers riches u n d die Kredit h a b e n ...
D a n s de telles circonstances, la petite culture ne peut soutenir la concurrence avec la grande. Car il ne faut pas oublier que, par la force irrésistible
de la n a t u r e des choses, les terres t e n d e n t toujours à se ranger entre les
m a i n s de ceux q u i en tirent le profit le plus élevé, parce que ce sont ceux-là
qui peuvent y m e t t r e le plus h a u t prix d'achat ou de loyer. ([217,] 218) In
Frankreich dagegen die Capitalien der propriétaires u n d spéculateurs n i e
dirigés vers l'agriculture. Die i m m e n s e majorité qui se livrent à cet art
braucht n u r sehr kleine p e c u n i ä r e M i t t e l dazu, k e i n e n Credit u n d ihre
Kenntnisse im A l l g e m e i n e n n i c h t grösser als la fortune qu'ils possèdent.
... A b e r les plus petites propriétés sont celles auxquelles on consacre presque toujours le capital le plus considérable, relativement à leur é t e n d u e .
(218, 19) Die K e n n t n i s s e dieser K l e i n e n a u c h groß, im Verhältniß z u m U m fang. D a h e r gedeiht die kleine Agricultur. (220 [, 221]) U n t e r d e n U m s t ä n den daher dans lesquelles se trouvent placés les h o m m e s q u i se livrent à
l'agriculture im größten Theil F r a n k r e i c h s sind die petits propriétaires in
der günstigsten Position p o u r les cultiver avec avantage et ils p e u v e n t par
c o n s é q u e n t y mettre un prix d ' a c h a t tel q u e les propriétaires q u i désirent
acquérir un d o m a i n e p o u r l'affermer, ne peuvent entrer en c o n c u r r e n c e
avec eux. Les terres r é u n i e s en corps de ferme acquièrent ainsi par u n e
vente en détail, u n e a u g m e n t a t i o n de valeur. (221, 2) Aber w e n n der cultivateur von grandes exploitations kämpfen k ö n n e n à armes égales m i t d e n
kleinen, d. h. wenn sie p o u r r o n t appliquer Kapital u n d K e n n t n i s s e proportionellement égaux d e n e n die der Bauer anwendet, ||7| m ü s s e n die G r o s s e n
i m m e r siegen u n d die exploitations t e n d r a i e n t c o n s t a m m e n t à s'agrandir
125
u n d die petites propriétés werden sich y r é u n i r successivement. (222, 3)
D i e petite culture favorise e x t r ê m e m e n t la culture des récoltes-racines et
des plantes potagères, qui fournissent, sur u n e é t e n d u e de terre d o n n é e ,
u n e si grande m a s s e de substances alimentaires, m a i s q u i doivent être
c o n s o m m é e s tout près du lieu de production, et q u i ne peuvent guère supporter de transports q u e du c h a m p à la d e m e u r e du cultivateur, à cause de
leur volume et de leur poids. D a h e r in d e n pays excessivement peuplés, la
petite culture présente le seul m o y e n de fournir à la subsistance de la p o p u lation. (223, 4) E b e n s o sicher daß die petite culture fournit le m o i n s d'exc é d a n t disponible p o u r le m a r c h é ; elle p e u t a l i m e n t e r u n e très n o m b r e u s e
population agricole, m a i s elle emploie tous les bras, et elle c o n s o m m e tout
ou presque tout ce qu'elle produit ; elle n'est d o n c n u l l e m e n t favorable au
développement des autres branches d'industrie, grossen Städten etc. (224)
La petite culture elle m ê m e , telle qu'elle est p r a t i q u é e o r d i n a i r e m e n t en
F r a n c e , emploie un b e a u c o u p m o i n s grand n o m b r e de bras q u e la
m o y e n n e culture ne le fait dans les c a n t o n s les m i e u x cultivés de la F l a n d r e : aussi les bénéfices q u ' o n en obtient sont ils b e a u c o u p m o i n s élevés,
quoiqu'ils soient b i e n supérieurs à ceux que présentent en général, chez
n o u s , la grande et la m o y e n n e culture. (227, 8) En supposant q u e de grands
perfectionnements s'introduiraient en F r a n c e dans la petite et la m o y e n n e
culture, le résultat serait nécessairement, d ' u n e part, u n e g r a n d e surabond a n c e de produits alimentaires, suivie d ' u n extrême avilissement dans les
prix, et de l'autre d ' u n r e n c h é r i s s e m e n t excessif de la m a i n d ' œ u v r e . Un tel
état de choses ne pourrait se soutenir. Je crois avoir suffisamment d é m o n tré que, dans l'état actuel de la p o p u l a t i o n de la F r a n c e , le système de
grande culture est le seul qui puisse a d m e t t r e g é n é r a l e m e n t les perfectionn e m e n s q u e l'art agricole a reçus chez d'autres n a t i o n s de l'Europe. (228,
9) (Si la petite et la m o y e n n e culture étaient pratiquées en F r a n c e avec
toute la perfection dont elles sont susceptibles, elles p r o d u i r a i e n t u n e
masse d'alimens disproportionnée à la population, parce qu'elles ne
peuvent aussi facilement et avec a u t a n t d'avantage q u e la grande culture,
tourner leurs spéculations vers les productions des a l i m e n s de n a t u r e a n i m a l e , qui font c o n s o m m e r à un n o m b r e d o n n é d'individus les produits
d ' u n e é t e n d u e de terre b e a u c o u p plus considérable q u e les a l i m e n s végétaux.) (228)
126
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w
Quatrième
livraison.
1828.
Du système de fermage suivi dans la Grande-Bretagne.
Traduit de l'anglais de Robert Brown.
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In d e n ersten Zeiten, als die Agrikultur n o c h sehr roh, die Erde cultivirt,
für R e c h n u n g der E i g e n t h ü m e r , d u r c h die personnes engagées à leur service et qui avaient en j o u i s s a n c e ou recevaient u n e partie d é t e r m i n é e du
produit c o m m e un salaire de leurs travaux et pour l'entretien du bétail et
des i n s t r u m e n s employés à la culture des terres. D i e ß System graduell
a b a n d o n n é , im M a a ß als die cultivateurs e u r e n t amassés des c a p i t a u x u n d
fähig waren die terres für ihre eigne R e c h n u n g zu pachten. D i e R e n t e dieser fermes bestand ursprünglich in services u n d corvées exécutés p a r le fermier ... d a n n changée en redevance, payable en grains oder j e d e m a n d r e n
Agrikulturproduct, d'après u n e q u a n t i t é fixée par les d e u x p a r t i e s ; u n d
schließlich Geldrente. Im ersten état des ||8| choses die é t e n d u e des fermes
sehr resserrée, tandis q u e la c o n d i t i o n du t e n a n c i e r était abjecte et m a l h e u reuse. Ein eben erst emancipirter tenancier, k o n n t e sich n i c h t leicht von
den G e w o h n h e i t e n der esclavage l o s m a c h e n etc. Die tenanciers im Mittelalter obligés de suivre leurs maîtres à la guerre, sous peine d'être chassés de
leurs fermes. Vor 1449 k o n n t e ein fermier écossais o h n e formalité a u c u n
chassé werden ... die fermiers des biens de l'église étaient traités avec plus
de d o u c e u r que leurs frères tenanciers des seigneurs laïques. ( 2 4 5 - 2 4 7 )
Q u a n t aux préjudices occasionnés par ce q u ' o n appelle a s s o l e m e n t
contraire aux règles de la b o n n e agriculture, n o u s en d o u t o n s tout-à-fait, et
n o u s confessons q u e n o t r e o p i n i o n est q u e la valeur primitive du sol ne
peut être d i m i n u é e par a u c u n système d'assolement quelque m a u v a i s qu'il
puisse être, q u o i q u ' i l soit hors de d o u t e q u e la valeur artificielle du sol qui
provient de l'emploi des pâturages et du fumier puisse être dissipée par un
assolement vicieux. ... die conventions restrictives z w i s c h e n f a r m e r u n d
l a n d l o r d daher ganz überflüssig, à m o i n s qu'elles n ' a i e n t pour b u t de déterm i n e r la rotation à suivre à la fin du bail, et de m a i n t e n i r la ferme en b o n
état à l'entrée du fermier qui succédera. (297)
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Des Baux à Partage des fruits.
(Par M. de Dombasle.)
(Metairiewirthschaft) Le propriétaire fournit le d o m a i n e , les b â t i m e n s , et
o r d i n a i r e m e n t t o u t ou partie du bétail et des i n s t r u m e n s nécessaires à l'exploitation ; le colon, de son côté, apporte son travail, et rien ou presque rien
de p l u s ; les produits de la terre se partagent par moitié. (301) les colonspartiaires sont g é n é r a l e m e n t des h o m m e s plongés d a n s la misère et l'insouciance etc. (302) W e n n der m é t a y e r ein accroissement de produit brut de
1500 fcs erhält, au m o y e n d ' u n e avance de 1000 fcs, a l s o 5 0 % b r u t t o G e w i n n , m u ß er zur Hälfte theilen m i t d e m propriétaire, zieht also n u r 750,
verliert also 250 fcs von seinen avances ; c'est encore b i e n pis, si la s o m m e
placée en amélioration n ' a produit q u ' u n e a u g m e n t a t i o n de 10 ou de 15 % ;
le colon qui aurait été assez dupe pour faire cette avance, en perdrait près
de la moitié, dès la première a n n é e . (304) D i e Agricultur in s o l c h e m Contract daher misérable, parce q u ' a u c u n capital ne p e u t s'y appliquer, et
parce qu'elle ne peut être exercée q u e par des h o m m e s retenus dans un état
de misère, par la n a t u r e m ê m e des stipulations qui leur d o n n e n t le droit de
cultiver le sol. (305) M a n m u ß u n t e r s c h e i d e n zwischen d e m produit brut
u n d d e m produit net der Agricultur. E i n Theil des ersten = d e n Productionskosten c. à d. les dépenses qu'il a été nécessaire de faire p o u r obtenir
la récolte ; cette portion, ni le propriétaire, ni le colon ne p e u v e n t en disposer, c'est u n e partie du capital d'exploitation, et elle appartient à la terre,
car elle doit lui être restituée p o u r la p r o d u c t i o n de l ' a n n é e suivante. La
proportion de cette part du produit brut varie c o n s i d é r a b l e m e n t d a n s les divers systèmes de l'agriculture : elle est p e u considérable dans l'assolement
triennal, et d a n s le système agricole imparfait, n o c h gebräuchlich im grösseren Theil du r o y a u m e , elle ne dépasse peutêtre pas alors, d a n s b e a u c o u p
de cas, le quart du produit brut, q u i l u i - m ê m e reste toujours, d a n s ces circonstances, porté au minimum. Cette part du produit ||9| brut, qui représente les frais de production, s'accroît c o n s i d é r a b l e m e n t d a n s les systèmes
agricoles perfectionnés qui aussi a u g m e n t e n t , dans u n e grande proportion,
le produit brut l u i - m ê m e : d a n s quelques cas particuliers, les dépenses de
production égalent les / du produit brut, et c e p e n d a n t celui-ci présente
encore un bénéfice net plus considérable q u e d a n s l'assolement triennal,
où il a été o b t e n u presque sans dépenses. D a n a c h k a n n m a n juger, si un
m o d e q u e l c o n q u e de partage du produit brut, entre le propriétaire et le colon, pourrait être applicable à ces divers systèmes agricoles. (306) D a n s
l'ancien système de culture, la dépense ou les frais de p r o d u c t i o n sont pris
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presque e n t i è r e m e n t sur les produits e u x m ê m e s en n a t u r e , par la c o n s o m m a t i o n des bestiaux, du cultivateur et de sa famille ; il ne se fait p r e s q u e
a u c u n e dépense en écus. N u r dieser U m s t a n d a pu d o n n e r lieu de croire
que le propriétaire et le colon p o u v a i e n t partager entre eux t o u t le produit
des récoltes qui n ' e s t pas c o n s o m m é d a n s l'exploitation; a b e r dieser
Process n u r applicable d i e s e m genre d'agriculture, d. h. der agriculture misérable, aber sobald m a n eine Verbesserung in der Cultur a n b r i n g e n will,
merkt m a n daß dieß n u r m ö g l i c h d u r c h q u e l q u e s avances d o n t il faut réserver le m o n t a n t sur le produit brut, p o u r l'appliquer à la production de l'année suivante, en sorte q u e tout partage du produit brut, entre le propriétaire et le colon, forme un obstacle i n s u r m o n t a b l e à toute amélioration.
(307) Um Fortschritt in der Agricultur zu m a c h e n selbst nöthig q u ' u n e partie du produit n e t ou bénéfice puisse être a n n u e l l e m e n t appliqué à l'accroissement du capital d'exploitation ; cette c o n d i t i o n est r i g o u r e u s e m e n t
nécessaire, pour q u ' u n d o m a i n e s'améliore graduellement par l'accroissem e n t des produits, et par c o n s é q u e n t de la valeur foncière. Ce d o m a i n e ne
peut donc, au contraire, q u e déchoir successivement, lorsque par l'effet du
partage opéré sur le produit brut, on d é t o u r n e c h a q u e a n n é e de l'exploitation u n e portion du capital l u i - m ê m e employé à la production, et lorsque,
par les stipulations du bail, on place le cultivateur dans u n e position où il y
aurait lésion manifeste p o u r lui, s'il appliquait à son exploitation ein anderes Capital als son travail personnel, oder la portion de bénéfice qu'il
pourrait avoir o b t e n u d u r c h b e s o n d e r s günstige U m s t ä n d e d a n s u n e a n n é e
de son exploitation. (309) In F r a n k r e i c h der état de misère dans lequel ce
système a plongé plusieurs de nos d é p a r t e m e n s , que l'on p e u t considérer
c o m m e possédant les sols les plus fertiles du r o y a u m e , et où les d o m a i n e s
ruraux les plus é t e n d u s ne p r o d u i s e n t presque rien p o u r le propriétaire.
(310) D a n s le Berry z . B . (311) D a n s un c a n t o n divisé en grandes propriétés
territoriales, et où les cultivateurs n ' o n t j a m a i s su faire a u c u n e avance pécuniaire pour les travaux de la terre, nothwendig sehr wenig zahlreiche Bevölkerung u n d diese p o p u l a t i o n se trouve inévitablement dégradée par des
habitudes de fainéantise p r o f o n d é m e n t enracinées. U n e p o p u l a t i o n de colons partiaires ne p e u t être e n t o u r é e que d ' u n e population de ce genre ...
wo fainéantise, misère, ignorance u n d dégradation morale. (311, 12) A u c h
im Poitou die Métairie. Im Poitou u n d Berry v e r m i e t h e n sich d o m a i n e s
von 300 hectares für 1 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 fcs, die in weniger als 20 J a h r e n , bei gutem System zu 100 fcs per hectare, d. h. zu 15 x du produit n e t actuel.
(325) I
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|10|
Sixième
Livraison.
1830.
De la r e n t e de la terre et de l'impôt foncier.
(M. de D o m b a s l e )
La rente de la terre est de la m ê m e n a t u r e q u e l'intérêt d ' u n capital p é c u niaire ; car cet intérêt, chez u n e n a t i o n livrée à l'industrie, n'est autre chose
q u e l'excédant du produit q u e l'on p e u t tirer du capital d a n s u n e entreprise
industrielle, après avoir p a y é les dépenses de p r o d u c t i o n , et après le prélèv e m e n t des profits de l'industrie, au t a u x ordinaire d a n s le pays. S e u l e m e n t
la rente de la terre est b i e n plus variable q u e l'intérêt, parce q u e d e u x
s o m m e s de 1000 fcs sont toujours applicables a u x m ê m e s choses l ' u n e q u e
l'autre, et peuvent d o n n e r naissance à des produits égaux, was n i c h t bei
2 hectares de terre der Fall ist: la situation, le degré de fertilité, et mille
autres causes, p e u v e n t établir entre e u x d ' é n o r m e s différences ; d r u m k a n n
die R e n t e von e i n e m H e c t a r 10, die v o m a n d r e n 100 fcs [oder] m e h r werth
sein. (307, 8) D i e Rente ist n i c h t der Z i n s des Capitals employé à l'acquisition du fonds, plus le m o n t a n t de l'impôt ; car elle ne varie a u c u n e m e n t selon q u e la terre a été a c h e t é e à un prix plus ou m o i n s élevé ; et si le propriétaire qui a acheté à très bas prix un terrain marécageux, es wohlfeil
verzehnfacht im W e r t h hat, wird die R e n t e von 100 auf 150 fcs per hectare
steigen, q u o i q u e le propriétaire l'ait acquis m o y e n n a n t un capital peutêtre
inférieur à cette s o m m e . E b e n s o u m g e k e h r t . (308) La rente est l ' é l é m e n t
essentiel qui fixe la valeur vénale des terres ... le t a u x de la r e n t e p e u t faire
baisser celui de l'impôt ; m a i s j a m a i s le t a u x de l'impôt ne p e u t apporter ni
h a u s s e ni baisse dans le prix de la r e n t e . (309) Le loyer d ' u n e ferme p e u t
être supérieur ou inférieur à la rente, selon que le propriétaire, n ' a pas su
ou n ' a pas voulu la porter au prix qu'il aurait pu en prétendre, ou selon
qu'il a trouvé un fermier q u i a consenti à le payer audessus du t a u x ordinaire. Le loyer n'existe q u e pour les terres affermées, tandis q u e la rente ...
est inhérente au sol, et y reste attachée d a n s le cas où elle est exploitée par
le propriétaire lui m ê m e , tout aussi b i e n q u e lorsqu'elle l'est par un fermier. (316) Q u e la rente soit payée intégralement au propriétaire, ou q u e le
fermier en fasse l u i - m ê m e la répartition entre le propriétaire, le fisc et le
créancier hypothécaire, cela est e n t i è r e m e n t indifférent relativement à la
production agricole. (318) Um d e n valeur vénale oder d e n t a u x de la r e n t e
des terres zu verstehn, in Betracht zu ziehn, d a ß : le^sol est u n e q u a n t i t é
fixe et invariable; il ne p e u t ni s'étendre avec l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n de la dem a n d e , ni se rétrécir lorsqu'elle d i m i n u e ; il ne p e u t ni se déplacer p o u r aller chercher ailleurs la d e m a n d e , ni s'employer à d'autres usages q u e la cul-
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ture, ni être r e m p l a c é e par r i e n d a n s cet usage. ... Ainsi, p e n d a n t q u e la
d e m a n d e p e u t varier par l'effet d ' u n e m u l t i t u d e de causes, l'offre est toujours, p o u r ce genre de propriété et d a n s c h a q u e localité, renfermée d a n s
des limites i n v a r i a b l e s : q u e la d e m a n d e s'accroisse ou qu'elle d i m i n u e ,
elle ne p e u t exercer a u c u n e influence sur la m a s s e des offres. (324, 25)
Also folgt q u e la propriété foncière est placée dans u n e position où toutes
les circonstances qui p e u v e n t accroître la d e m a n d e , t o u r n e n t nécessairem e n t à son profit. (325) A n d e r s e i t s : l'élévation de la rente accroissant les
charges de ||11| la p r o d u c t i o n , t e n d alors à d i m i n u e r la d e m a n d e , et à la ra-
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m e n e r au niveau de l'offre : le t a u x de la rente est ici le seul t e r m e variable
qui puisse rétablir l'équilibre, p u i s q u e l'offre est i m m o b i l e par sa n a t u r e .
... c'est finalement au profit de la propriété, q u e se fait tout ce q u i favorise
la p r o d u c t i o n agricole, ( d e n n c o m m e la d e m a n d e des terres s'accroît p a r
l'effet m ê m e de l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n des benefits des fermiers, la rente s'élève à
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l'expiration des bail) C'est p o u r cela q u e d a n s les c a n t o n s p o p u l e u x et b i e n
cultivés, c o m m e p. e. la F l a n d r e , le bénéfice des fermiers n ' e s t certainem e n t pas plus élevé q u e d a n s les c a n t o n s les plus arriérés, c o m m e le P o i t o u
ou la Bretagne, en p r o p o r t i o n de l ' i m p o r t a n c e du capital q u e les u n s et les
autres emploient à leur exploitation ; m a i s la r e n t e et la valeur vénale de la
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terre sont, à degré égal de fertilité, cinq ou six fois plus élevées d a n s la prem i è r e de ces provinces, q u e dans la majeure partie des d e u x autres. Là,
c o m m e partout et dans t o u s les t e m p s , c'est la propriété foncière q u i recueille i n é v i t a b l e m e n t t o u t le profit des circonstances qui v i e n n e n t favoriser la p r o d u c t i o n agricole. L ' i n d u s t r i e productive s'efforce de j o u i r m o m e n -
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t a n é m e n t de ces avantages et elle y parvient, surtout dans un état
a s c e n d a n t de l'art agricole, et d a n s u n e situation sociale qui en favorise les
développemens ; m a i s elle ne p e u t éluder la nécessité de léguer à la p r o priété foncière le fruit de ses succès ; car ce sont ces succès e u x m ê m e s q u i
c h a n g e n t ces rapports avec la propriété foncière, en fournissant à celle ci le
30 m o y e n de lui dicter des lois plus favorables p o u r elle m ê m e . ([326,] 327)
Anderseits m u ß d i e propriété foncière en définitive tragen le poids des circonstances q u i e n t r a v e n t la p r o d u c t i o n industrielle appliquée à la terre, q u i
d i m i n u e n t ses produits, en abaissant le prix, ou q u i élèvent les dépenses de
la production, m i t e i n e m Wort, toutes les circonstances d i m i n u a n t les d e 35
m a n d e s de la terre. (328) D a n s le Berri, la r e n t e de l'hectare de terre ne
s'élève guère plus h a u t q u e l ' i m p ô t foncier q u e supporte l'hectare semblable dans quelques parties de la F l a n d r e ou de la N o r m a n d i e ; q u e l'on essaie d'élever la r e n t e des terres du Berri, en d o u b l a n t , triplant, q u i n t u p l a n t
l'impôt foncier q u i pèse sur elles, et l'on verra si la rente s'élèvera d ' u n seul
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c e n t i m e . (330) la r e n t e est, n o n p a s la r e d e v a n c e des fermiers envers les
propriétaires, m a i s la r e d e v a n c e de l'industrie agricole envers la propriété
foncière. (332)
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An Inquiry into those Principles
respecting the Nature of Demand and
the Necessity of Consumption, lately
advocated by Mr Malthus.
L o n d o n 1821.
A. S m i t h glaubte, daß a c c u m u l a t i o n or increase of stock in general lowered
the rate of profits in general, on the s a m e principle which m a k e s the increase of stock in any particular trade lower the profits of that trade. But
such increase of stock in a particular trade means an increase m o r e in proportion t h a n stock is at the same t i m e increased in other trades: it is relative. (9) I
1121 Herr Say sagt: "There is a glut of english goods in Italy, because
there is n o t e n o u g h produced in Italy." But fewer goods have not b e e n prod u c e d in Italy t h a n formerly. It would be simpler to say, the English should
n o t have p r o d u c e d which was possible, t h a n to say, as he does, t h a t the Italians should. (15) T h e i m m e d i a t e m a r k e t for capital, or field for capital, m a y
be said to be labour. T h e a m o u n t of capital which can be invested at a
given m o m e n t , in a given country, or the world, so as to return n o t less
t h a n a given rate of profits, seems principally to d e p e n d on t h e quantity of
labour, which it is possible, by laying out that capital, to i n d u c e the t h e n
existing n u m b e r of h u m a n beings to perform. (20) Profits do not depend on
price, they depend on price compared with outgoings. (28) 1) So far, as dem a n d m e a n s an exchange of goods, it is insured by increased general prod u c t i o n ; it is ... the same with production, supposing the m e a n s of communication to r e m a i n the same, oder, as is probable u n d e r such circumstances,
to be increased: the increased d e m a n d for one article would be the increased supply of another, a n d the d e m a n d for the whole is ... u n m e a n i n g .
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Aus An inquiry into those principles, respecting the nature of demand ...
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T h e n there is, besides goods, n o t h i n g in which d e m a n d c a n consist, except
land, and labour of all k i n d s . 2) T h e d e m a n d on the part of the land c a n n o t
be increased; the land has a certain extent, a n d no m o r e . ... A b e r die
R e n t e der landholders, der collectors (der taxes) der stockholders, oder der
useless pensioners zu vergrössern, um d e m a n d zu schaffen k o m i s c h ... t h e
upshot of it is, t h a t you are minus so m u c h of your goods without any return. This is not an increased demand; or ... it is no increased i n d u c e m e n t ,
from gain, to produce. It m a y be an increased i n d u c e m e n t from necessity ...
We are continually puzzled, in H e r r n M a l t h u s speculations, between the
object of increasing p r o d u c t i o n a n d that of checking it. ( 5 3 - 5 5 ) W h e n a
m a n is in want of a demand, does Mr M a l t h u s r e c o m m e n d h i m to pay s o m e
other person to take off his goods? (55) t h e very m e a n i n g of an increased
d e m a n d by the labourers is, a disposition to take less themselves, a n d leave
a larger share for their employers; a n d if it be said that this, by d i m i n i s h i n g
c o n s u m p t i o n , increases glut, I c a n only answer, that glut t h e n is synonym o u s with high profits. (59) This distinction between capital and profits is
in a great degree merely in t e r m s . Profits d e p e n d on the quantity I receive
back in return for my whole capital expended. If, at t h e e n d of a certain period, that quantity is less t h a n what I e x p e n d e d at first, or greater in b u t a
small degree, am I to say t h a t my capital is less but my profits fair profits,
or to say that I have t h e s a m e capital, or nearly so, b u t have m a d e no profits? A n d what period am I to take for this purpose? It is impossible for the
n a t i o n to take stock till these fluctuations are over. M a n y transactions extend over m a n y years. We m u s t wait to see how they are w o u n d u p , before
we can pretend to say what o u r capital is. (78, 79) ||13| D i e G r ö s s e d e s A r b e i t s l o h n s n i c h t g u t für die A r b e i t . »Increase the value of t h e encouragem e n t of the m i n i n g labour compared to t h a t of farming labour, m i n i n g industry will increase at the expense of t h a t of farming.« Sprechen wir aber
von allen Sorten of Arbeit: » H e (der Arbeiter) will work a for b wages; b u t
n o t 2 a for 2 b wages. T h e n if y o u give h i m 2 b for 1 a, m a y it n o t follow, t h a t
he will be content with less, a n d therefore n o t work even a?« (97) W e n n
einer food producirt, »and he h a d p r o d u c e d 2x as m u c h as every b o d y
could eat, in this case no new creation of products would open a d é b o u c h é
for his stock, till t h e numbers h a d also increased«. (99) A m a n m a y r e d u c e
the rate of his profits by the c o m p e t i t i o n of his capital with itself, i n d e pendently of that of others. I m e a n , by adding to his capital in order to
gain. He will not gain so m u c h m o r e in proportion as he adds. (103) W h e r e
the advantage possessed by the owner of capital is m o r e felt in p r o d u c i n g
one commodity, t h a n it is in p r o d u c i n g another, in proportion to t h e l a b o u r
employed of course, when capitalists c o m e to take less r e m u n e r a t i o n for
the assistance of their capital, t h e former c o m m o d i t y will e x c h a n g e at a
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less rate with the latter t h a n before. T h e advantage possessed by t h e owner
of capital, who can afford to sink it for a long t i m e , i.e., by the owner of
fixed capital, is greater t h a n that possessed by h i m who only sinks it for a
short t i m e ; i.e. by the owner of circulating capital, or of fixed capital of less
durability. Therefore, w h e n profits fall, c o m m o d i t i e s will exchange with
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o n e another at a new rate, a given quantity of those, which are in a greater
degree p r o d u c e d by fixed capital (and which therefore are, in a greater degree, b e h o l d e n to the assistance of capital on the whole), exchanging now
for a less quantity of such as are p r o d u c e d in a less degree by fixed, a n d in
a greater degree by circulating capital. (103, 4) Unterstellt alle h a b e n in 10
e i n e m L a n d so viel zu essen als sie b r a u c h e n , still, if industry a n d capital
increase, the d e m a n d for raw produce, as materials, will rise, t h o u g h n o t the
d e m a n d for raw produce, as food. T h a t land, w h i c h raises the former sort of
raw produce, will rise t h e n , in t i m e , to an exchangeable value; and, if the
land be convertible, it will encroach on the corn land, and straiten that, 15
a n d give that an exchangeable value too. (106, 7) If land of the n e x t degree
h a d no where existed, the high price u n d high profits would have continu e d (auf d e m b e s t e n L a n d ) and, probably, increased on t h e land of the
first degree; a n d the excess of it above profits in other lines, being an advantage n o t derived from capital, b u t ownership of land, would have b e e n 20
separated very soon in the form of rent. R i c a r d o m a c h t an inversion of
cause a n d effect. (107) R e n t m a y arise on the former a m o u n t of capital, by
an increased d e m a n d for corn. (108) the proposition of M. Say does n o t at
all prove t h a t capital opens a m a r k e t for itself, b u t only t h a t capital a n d lab o u r o p e n a m a r k e t for one another. ( I l l )
25
134
Aus Samuel Turner: Considerations upon the agriculture
Samuel Turner. Considerations upon the
Agriculture, Commerce and Manufactures of
the British Empire etc
London.1822.
5
It is the m o s t easily cultivated, a n d n o t always the best, lands w h i c h are
first cultivated, (enclosed); b u t as society advances, i m p r o v e m e n t s t a k e
place, and lands which, in the earlier stages of society, would p e r h a p s h a v e
yielded a very i n a d e q u a t e r e t u r n for such labour as m a n could have t h e n
bestowed u p o n t h e m , m a y , w h e n new i n s t r u m e n t s are devised, a n d w h e n
10 the labours of the drainer, the lime-burner, a n d others, are brought to the
assistance des cultivator, b e c o m e considerably m o r e fruitful t h a n any l a n d s
before cultivated. (10) |
135
Ii4| Reynolds. (John Stuckey) Practical
Observations on Mr. Ricardo's Principles of
Political Economy.
L o n d o n 1822.
Wages.
(Nichts.)
D a s ganze Buch Hohler Blödsinn.
136
5
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Economical enquiries
Thomas Hopkins. Economical Enquiries
relative to the Laws which regulate Rent,
Profit, Wages and the Value of Money.
L o n d o n . 1822.
5
1)
Production
and
Value.
If t h e borrower paid only for the degree of d a m a g e t h a t h a d b e e n d o n e to
the i m p l e m e n t , or replaced it w h e n it was worn out, the lender could derive
no p e r m a n e n t revenue from lending it; he would have restored to h i m only
what was precisely e q u a l to what he h a d lent. (4, 5) In the general principle,
10 that cost of p r o d u c t i o n regulates the exchangeable value of all c o m m o d i ties, original materials are n o t i n c l u d e d ; b u t the claim which the owners of
these have u p o n p r o d u c e , causes r e n t to enter into value. (11) Food being
considered the original e l e m e n t of value, the quantity of that e l e m e n t n e c essary to the p r o d u c t i o n of any c o m m o d i t y d e t e r m i n e s its value ... Taxes,
15 rent, profit and wages, m a y all be e s t i m a t e d in food; and the whole cost in
food, to the government, the landlord, the capitalist a n d the labourer, or to
any of t h e m , which is indispensably necessary, in order to have an article
produced, constitutes t h e cost of production, a n d t h e exchangeable value
of t h a t article. (12)
137
2)
On
the
General Law
of Rent,
or
Charge for
Use.
R e n t , or a charge for use, arises naturally o u t of ownership, or the establishm e n t of a right of property. (13) Any thing m a y yield a rent if possessed of
t h e following qualities:—First, it m u s t exist in a degree of scarcity; Secondly, it m u s t have the power to aid l a b o u r in the great work of p r o d u c t i o n .
(14)
5
Rent of Land.
t h e existence of a second quality of l a n d is not necessary to t h e formation of
a rent, the relative a m o u n t of p r o d u c e c a n n o t be the cause of it. (20) Inferior soils, so far from being the cause of rent, w h e n they exert an influence,
limit or retard the advance of it. (I.e.) M a n darf n a t ü r l i c h n i c h t d e n case
setzen where land so plentiful, c o m p a r e d with t h e labour a n d stock to be
employed u p o n it, that no charge for rent could be m a d e , b e c a u s e it was
not scarce. (21) »successive portions of capital may, instead of a less, pay a
greater rent for the use of land.« (21) without the application of labour,
land would pay no rent. Let t h e portions of labour and capital employed be
small, a n d the rent will be low; n o t in absolute a m o u n t only, b u t on the
capital employed. (22) T h e cause of successive portions of labour a n d capital affording an increased rate of rent for the land, is to be found in the superior productiveness of sufficient capital a n d wellcombined labour, to isolated a n d u n a i d e d labour. (23) T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r would pay their share of
the rent of land, in the advanced price they would pay for the raw p r o d u c e ;
in precisely t h e same m a n n e r that a c o n s u m e r pays the t a x on any particular article, in the additional price consequently charged for it. W h e n t h e
four producers were b o t h agriculturists a n d manufacturers, the landowner
received, as rent of land, a value of 10 I. Suppose this rent to have b e e n
paid Y in raw produce, a n d the other % hi m a n u f a c t u r e s ; - on the division
of the producers into the 2 classes of agriculturists a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s ,
k ö n n t e dieß fortgesezt werden. In practice, however, it would be found
m o r e convenient for the cultivators of the land, to pay the rent, a n d to
charge it on their produce, when exchanging it against t h e p r o d u c e of the
labour of the manufacturers; so as to divide the p a y m e n t into 2 equitable
proportions between the 2 classes, a n d to leave wages a n d profits equal in
each department. (26) ||15| Ist geschäzt worden, d a ß das productive land of
England pays im D u r c h s c h n i t t 11, an acre per a n n u m . (28) In einigen L ä n -
10
15
20
25
2
138
30
35
d e m k a n n der Lord 50 % a u s d r ü c k e n , in a n d r e n n i c h t 10. In einigen der
fruchtbaren G e g e n d e n des Osten, m a n can subsist auf % des p r o d u c e of his
labour employed u p o n the l a n d ; b u t in parts of Switzerland a n d Norway,
an exaction of 10% m i g h t d e p o p u l a t e the country. ... we see no n a t u r a l
5 b o u n d s to the rent t h a t m a y be exacted, b u t in the limited abilities of t h e
payers. (31) T h e great regulators of r e n t of land in a p o p u l o u s country are,
inability on the part of t h e cultivators to pay m o r e , and, where inferior soils
exist, t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of those inferior soils against t h e superior. (33, 34)
In E n g l a n d viel c o m m o n land, the n a t u r a l fertility of which is e q u a l to
10 what a large part of the l a n d now cultivated was prior to its being t a k e n into
cultivation; a n d yet t h e e x p e n c e of bringing such c o m m o n lands into cultivations is so great, as to cause t h e m not to yield the ordinary interest for
t h e m o n e y expended in improving t h e m , leaving n o t h i n g as rent for the
n a t u r a l fertility of the soil: a n d this m i t all the advantages of an i m m e d i a t e
15 application of labour, aided by stock skilfully applied, and furnished m i t
manufactures cheaply p r o d u c e d ; a u ß e r d e m good roads in der N a c h b a r schaft etc ... T h e present l a n d proprietors m a y be considered the owners of
all the a c c u m u l a t e d labour which has for ages b e e n expended, in bringing
the country to its present productive state. (35)
20
Rent of Mines and other things, the Gift of nature.
W h e r e irrigation of land is practised, a rent is paid for water, as well as for
land. In the rice grounds of L o m b a r d y , it is not u n c o m m o n for a r e n t to be
paid to one owner for water, a n d to a n o t h e r for t h e l a n d : b u t a stream, favourably situated, furnishes an instance of a r e n t being paid for an appro25 priated gift of nature, of as exclusive a kind as any t h a t can be n a m e d . T h i s
is well u n d e r s t o o d in m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts, where considerable rents are
paid for small streams of water, particularly if t h e fall is considerable. T h e
power obtained from s u c h streams being equal to that afforded by large
steamengines, it is as advantageous to use t h e m , t h o u g h subject to the pay30 m e n t of a heavy rent, as it is to e x p e n d large s u m s in the erection a n d working of steamengines. Of streams, too, there are some larger, s o m e smaller.
Contiguity to the seat of m a n u f a c t u r e is also an advantage, w h i c h c o m m a n d s a higher rent. In t h e c o u n t i e s of York a n d Lancaster there is probably a m u c h greater difference between the rents paid for the smallest a n d
35 the largest streams of water, t h a n there is between the rents paid for 50 of
the least and 50 of the most fertile acres that are in c o m m o n cultivation.
(37, 8) Beim L a n d für H ä u s e r b a u e n the c o m p e t i t i o n always turns u p o n
a m o u n t of rent d e m a n d e d , c o m p a r e d with advantage of situation. As land,
139
generally, in m a r k e t towns is of high value, b e c a u s e those towns enable individuals to effect their exchanges with less labour, the central situations in
those towns are of the highest value ... scarcity a n d productiveness are the
2 great qualities which cause rent to be given for the u s e of any thing. (39)
By doubling the labour a n d capital employed in working the coal m i n e , a
5
double quantity of coal could be h a d ; b u t by doubling the quantities e m ployed on the stream (in e i n e r mill) only the s a m e quantity of power would
be obtained. In a limited fishery, a n d in t h e cultivation of a certain extent
of land, in the same way limited quantities of labour a n d capital yield the
highest rent to the owner; a n d any a d d i t i o n a l quantities employed, at the 10
s a m e rate of wages and profits, would n o t add to the rent. A fall in wages
a n d profits m u s t take place, before an ||16| increased rent could be paid for
t h e land or the stream; but a large increase of rent is possible for a coalm i n e , even with a rise of wages a n d profits. (42)
Rent of Stock or Profit.
15
U n t e r Profit schließt m a n sonst a u c h ein, n i c h t n u r die charge für mere use;
b u t a periodical charge also for the wear of the thing, a n d wages of labour
in the m a n a g e m e n t . Diese 2 latter are principally wages of labour. (43) Lab o u r a n d stock being b o t h scarce, relatively to t h e land, would obtain larger
shares of the produce. ... If the doctrine of Mr. Ricardo were true, that, at 20
all times, a n d u n d e r all circumstances, profits a n d wages alone enter into
the value b o t h of raw p r o d u c e and m a n u f a c t u r e s , a rise in profits m u s t be
a t t e n d e d by a fall in wages ... a b e r w e n n R e n t m i t in die P r o d u c t i o n s k o s t e n e i n g e h t , a r e d u c t i o n of rent would leave labour as well rewarded after
as before the ... rise of profits. (48)
25
Different Rates of Rent.
Competition will assign to capital its proper rate of profit, in whatever way
it m a y be employed: b u t this renders it u n e q u a l : it is in the n a t u r e of
things, where c o m p e t i t i o n is the m o s t free a n d active, t h a t the rates of
profit should be u n e q u a l . (53)
140
30
3)
5
Wages
of Labour.
A t t e n d i n g to these n a t u r a l causes of inequality of supply of labor (ζ. B.
weaving has a t t a c h e d to itself an excessive supply of labourers; d e n n o t h e r
e m p l o y m e n t s t h a t afford advantages to children, t h o u g h n o t at so early an
age, receive their average c o m p l e m e n t of n e w h a n d s , b u t t h e supply is m o r e
scanty, as t h e peculiar n a t u r e of t h e trade a p p r o a c h e s those w h i c h afford
little r e m u n e r a t i o n for t h e labor of learners, u n t i l years of application, a n d
an a p p r o a c h to m a t u r i t y , qualify t h e m for their employments.) to various
b r a n c h e s of industry, a scale m i g h t be formed w h i c h would shew t h e grada-
10
tions of wages, a n d p o i n t at t h e different degrees of force with w h i c h l a b o u r
is d e t e r m i n e d to different e m p l o y m e n t s . (60) W h e n t h e wages of t h e p a r e n t
are high, he c a n b e t t e r afford to support a child o u t of those wages, u n t i l he
arrives at a sufficiently m a t u r e age to learn t h e profession which h a s t h e
highest rate of wages; b u t in a c o u n t r y where t h e wages of t h e great m a s s of
15
labourers are low, t h e poverty of t h e p a r e n t i n d u c e s h i m to place his child,
n o t at t h e profession in w h i c h he will be able to earn t h e most, b u t at t h a t
which affords wages t h e soonest. (61) D a s W a c h s t h u m der Bevölkerung
k a n n n u r d a n n die wages fallen, statt steigen m a c h e n , w e n n es bis zu d e m
P u n k t geht, wo an a d d i t i o n a l labourer will not increase t h e productive
20
power of the others. T h e wages of l a b o u r m a y t h e n be considered as having
arrived at t h e highest rate, in t h a t state of t h i n g s : and should labourers still
increase in n u m b e r s , wages m i g h t decline; b e c a u s e t h e a d d i t i o n a l labourer
would n o t increase t h e whole p r o d u c e e q u a l to t h e highest rate of wages of
one m a n : a n d supposing t h e a d d i t i o n a l labourer to receive only to t h e extent that his labour increased the general p r o d u c e , he would have less
wages for his labour t h a n t h e former labourers h a d ; or supposing that, as
t h e new labourer works as m u c h as t h e old, the whole p r o d u c e is equally
divided, t h e n the rate of wages of all would be d i m i n i s h e d in a small degree. (63) T h e gross p r o d u c e of labour being increased by t h e u s e of stock,
25
30
it is the a d d i t i o n a l part that is divided between t h e owner of t h e stock a n d
the labourer. ... T h e degree ||17| of scarcity in which those rentable articles
exist, which have t h e general n a m e of stock, seems to be the p r i n c i p a l
cause which d e t e r m i n e s t h e r a t e of rent that is paid for t h e m . If p l o u g h s ,
carts a n d looms are scarce, c o m p a r e d with t h e labourers who w a n t t h e m ,
35 the owners will require, a n d t h e labourers will give, a larger p r o p o r t i o n of
p r o d u c e as rent for t h e u s e of t h e m ; b u t this rent c a n never a m o u n t to m o r e
t h a n t h e whole of t h a t surplus w h i c h is o b t a i n e d by t h e u s e of the m a c h i n e .
(64) As the degree of scarcity is t h e i m m e d i a t e cause, those c i r c u m s t a n c e s
which affect scarcity or plentifulness of stock, are t h e r e m o t e influencing
141
causes. They are various, and e m b r a c e all those w h i c h affect industry, a n d
t h e inviolability of property, as liberty, security, frugality etc. (65) A farmer
m a y live by spade husbandry, t h o u g h n o t so well as by the plough; b u t , to
the i n h a b i t a n t s of Manchester, superior m a c h i n e r y is indispensably necessary. (68) every improved m a c h i n e to aid l a b o u r in the task of producing,
5
a n d every additional portion of stock, benefited the labourer, b e c a u s e a
greater p r o d u c e was thereby obtained, a n d the labourer shared in t h e surplus. (67, 68) ... stock of all kinds u s e d in p r o d u c t i o n increases the wages
of labour, a n d the m o r e stock there is, t h e higher would be the wages of labour, were it n o t for other counteracting causes ... T h u s t h e labourer is 10
m a d e a k i n d of j o i n t owner of, a n d participator in, the benefits arising from
all the a c c u m u l a t e d stock in the country. (68, 9)
4)
5)
Of taxes.
On
Money.
the causes which d e t e r m i n e the different values of gold in different c o u n tries ... are the same as those which regulate its value in the country where
it is p r o d u c e d from the m i n e s , namely, t h e cost of procuring it. W e n n es in
E n g l a n d 5 sh. sich a u s t a u s c h e n für a b u s h e l of wheat, in F r a n k r e i c h n u r 2,
so ists because it costs E n g l a n d a b u s h e l of wheat to procure a supply of
gold a n d silver to the a m o u n t of 5 sh etc. If all n a t i o n s h a d to give wheat in
exchange for gold, the difference in the value of t h a t metal, in wheat, in
different countries, would be proportioned to the difference in the expence
of conveying t h e wheat to the gold market. (83) An english manufacturer,
by expending a b u s h e l of wheat, or the price of it, is able to get a yard of
cloth m a d e , which he can export, and, in return, bring back 5 sh., after paying his own expences. E n g l a n d is t h e n supplied with gold or silver at t h a t
R a t e . A R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t has 4 bushels of wheat at Moscow, which he exports and sells; and, after paying all expences, he finds that he brings back
to Moscow five sh. It is, therefore necessary to export 4 bushels of wheat
from Moscow, and 1 from England, to obtain an e q u a l quantity of gold or
silver—5 sh: that quantity will consequently exchange regularly in the
2 countries at those rates. W h e a t will, in England, be 5 s. a bushel, a n d in
Moscow 1 s. 3 d. a bushel. ... 1st m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill u n d capital soweit in
Frankreich entwickelt, d a ß es i h m vortheilhafter m a n u f a c t u r e s als wheat
auszuführen u n d d o c h so hinter E n g l a n d zurück, daß es zwei b u s h , of
wheat in m a k i n g of a yard of cloth verausgabt, wo j e n e s n u r 1, so, daß der
original p r o d u c e r of gold would n o t give a higher price for t h e yard of
142
15
20
25
30
35
french cloth, t h a n for t h e yard of english, i.e. 5 sh., F r a n c e would o b t a i n h e r
supply of gold at t h a t rate ... H e r e , t h e cost, in wheat, of procuring gold in
England, F r a n c e , a n d Russia, would be as 1, 2 a n d 4; a n d ist t h e m o n e y
price of wheat in R u s s i a 1 s. 3 d., in F r a n c e 2 s. 6 d., in E n g l a n d ||18| 5 sh.
5 per bushel. ... Also das M e t a l c h e a p u n d m o n e y prices high, where superior m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill, capital a n d industry exist, as in E n g l a n d ; a n d t h e
gold dear, or m o n e y p r i c e s low, in countries ill situated for exporting raw
produce, a n d without m a n u f a c t u r e s , as in parts of Russia. ( 8 4 - 8 6 )
143
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft Xil
Thompson. (T. Perronet.)
The True theory of Rent etc
9 Edition. L o n d o n 1832.
Der wahre G r u n d der R e n t e ist der längst von A. S m i t h pointed out. »It is
the limited quantity of the land, in C o m p a r i s o n with the competitors for its
p r o d u c e ; or, as it is s o m e t i m e s called, t h e monopoly.« (6) It is the rise in
the price of produce t h a t enables a n d causes inferior land to be b r o u g h t
into cultivation; and n o t the cultivation of inferior l a n d that causes the rise
of rent. (8) T h e effect of all agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s is to increase the
quantity of produce and lower its price; but, i m p r o v e m e n t s which consist
in a saving of expense, do this in a m u c h less degree t h a n those which require an a u g m e n t e d outlay. I m p r o v e m e n t s of the first kind d i m i n i s h the
quantity of capital d e m a n d e d from the t e n a n t , a n d consequently t h e final
a m o u n t of the profits that will be left h i m ; i m p r o v e m e n t s of the latter kind
increase t h e m . In i m p r o v e m e n t s of the first kind, the landlord finally obtains the whole of the gain, and a part of what used to be the profits of the
t e n a n t besides. In those of the latter kind, he obtains only t h a t part of the
gain which is left after paying the increased a m o u n t of profits of the t e n a n t .
An i m p r o v e m e n t of this last kind is always advantageous to the t e n a n t ;
and, except in the lowest class of cases where n o t h i n g is left after paying
the necessary profits of the tenant, to the landlord also. An i m p r o v e m e n t of
the other kind is always very advantageous to the landlord; but it is against
the tenant, in the same way as a d i m i n u t i o n in the quantity of capital that
can be employed with a profit is against any other dealer. (10) If any m a n
were to assert that proof spirit sold for a high price because there were
weaker spirits that were selling for a lower, a n d was t h e n c e to d e d u c e some
practical inference ... klar dieß fallacy, (13) R e n t would increase still m o r e
rapidly, if there was no disposable l a n d with any difference of productive
144
5
10
15
20
25
Aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: The true theory of rent
powers at all. ... t h e relation between rent a n d the productive power of t h e
disposable land, is o n e of opposition, n o t of c o n n e x i o n . (13, 14) it is n o t
true that m e n are living on a fixed quantity of food, which will n o t be dim i n i s h e d on an increase of price. ... (oder v e r m e h r t b e i m F a l l e n d e s
5 Preisses.) ... »sufficient to a t t e n d to the fact, t h a t w h e n there is a necessity
for the c o n s u m p t i o n being d i m i n i s h e d because the corn is n o t t h e r e to be
c o n s u m e d , an increase of price is the engine which carries it into effect; a
clear proof that increase of price d i m i n i s h e s c o n s u m p t i o n s (24) T h e secret
(eines glut (general)) lies in t h e slowness of the increase of t h e p r o d u c e of
10 land, compared with t h e increase of m a n u f a c t u r e s which m i g h t otherwise
be created to t e m p t the agriculturists withal. It would be easy to d o u b l e t h e
quantity of goods m a n u f a c t u r e d , if the offer of t h e m would t e a c h t h e agriculturists to produce food for 2 m e n where they p r o d u c e for o n e now, a n d
leave a certain rate of profit for the m a n u f a c t u r i n g capitalists besides.
15 ... There is then, in any given state of m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill a n d of the supply of corn, a certain q u a n t i t y of all kinds of m a n u f a c t u r e s which can be
produced a n d sold with a living profit. A n d if m o r e are produced, they c a n not be sold with a living profit; a n d this is a G e n e r a l Glut. It is not true
that there would be no glut, if there was only less of o n e k i n d of m a n u f a c 20 tures a n d m o r e of s o m e other. T h e cause of the glut extends to all k i n d s ,
and c a n n o t be r e m e d i e d by altering their proportions. (30) M a n u f a c t u r e s
are t h e application of industry in a direction where the p r o d u c e varies as
the labour applied, a n d agriculture where it does not. (I.e.)
145
| i 9 | Cornlaw fallacies with the answers.
By T. P. Thompson. 2. ed.
L o n d o n 1839.
U n m ö g l i c h z u lesen.
5
146
Aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of labour
Sir Edward West.
Price of Corn and Wages of Labour.
L o n d o n . 1826.
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T h e price will d e p e n d n o t only u p o n the actual quantity exposed to sale,
b u t also u p o n the quantity ... in the different stages of its progress of
growth, or m a n u f a c t u r e , or towards t h e m a r k e t ; u p o n the period also within
which the supply can be increased, a n d various other circumstances, as
whether the c o m m o d i t y is durable or perishable etc. (21) T h e price of corn
then, in a given state of the supply, will be settled by the d e m a n d , or t h e
wants a n d m e a n s of t h e lower orders of the c o m m u n i t y ; a n d supposing
their wants to be u n c h a n g e d , any variation in the a m o u n t of their m e a n s
m u s t affect the price of corn. (31) Es ist klar d a ß die lower classes nicht so
viel Brod h a b e n as they desire in average years, for if they h a d , the smallest
addition of a more a b u n d a n t year would n o t be c o n s u m e d . (31, 2) T h e only
m e d i u m through which the price of corn, the quantity remaining the same,
can be increased, is an increase of the wages of labour. (35) the price of
corn depends m u c h m o r e u p o n the wages of labour, a n d follows any variation of the wages of l a b o u r m u c h m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y t h a n the wages of labour follow any variation in the price of corn. (38) A n d r e U r s a c h e n afficiren natürlich a u c h d e n K o r n p r e i ß , besonders die fluctuation der supply,
caused by the variety der seasons; u n d diese different powers wirken
m a n c h m a l z u s a m m e n , m a n c h m a l in opposition to e a c h other. (44, 45) As
the deficient crop sells for an actually larger s u m t h a n the average crop, t h e
price rises m o r e t h a n in proportion to the deficiency. ... E b e n s o an a b u n dant crop sells for a smaller aggregate s u m t h a n an average crop. (56)
U m g e k e h r t bei n i c h t n ö t h i g e n Artikeln, wie T h e e , Z u c k e r etc. W e n n ihr
Preiß gestiegen, n i c h t n u r der C o n s u m a b g e n o m m e n , sondern die a c t u a l
aggregate s u m e x p e n d e d u p o n t h e m has also decreased; u n d w e n n der
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Preiß gefallen, nicht n u r der C o n s u m davon gestiegen, s o n d e r n die aggregate s u m e x p e n d e d u p o n t h e m has also increased. An increase of duty (auf
Zucker, T h e e etc) has actually d i m i n i s h e d t h e aggregate a m o u n t of t h e
duty, and a r e d u c t i o n of rate of duty has actually increased the aggregate
a m o u n t of the duty. (57) Aber »an excess of supply« drückt d e n Preiß n i c h t
so sehr unter d e n average, (da in a plentiful year a part of the excess m a y be
kept over to the following year) wie ein Mangel of supply i h n ü b e r d e n average Preiß hebt; d e n n in e i n e m scarce year keine Mittel zu helfen der supply, es sei daß d a n n fremder I m p o r t möglich ist oder U e b e r s c h u ß von ein e m vorhergehenden reichen Herbst existirt. (57) D i e Kriegsnachfrage wird
n u r d a n n d e n Preiß h e b e n , if the d e m a n d of g o v e r n m e n t for soldiers a n d
sailors constitutes an additional, a n d n o t a substituted d e m a n d . (58) the
price of labour is the s u m paid for a given quantity of labour; the wages of
labour is the s u m earned by the labourer. ... the wages of labour d e p e n d
u p o n the price of labour a n d the quantity of labour performed. (67, 8)
B e i m taskwork fallen diese S a c h e n z u s a m m e n . Hier aber zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n
zwischen d e m rate of wages u n d d e m amount of wages, da leztrer abhängt
von der Z a h l der Tage, die ein I n d i v i d u u m arbeitet, oder der S t u n d e n am
Tag; von der Z a h l der Stücke die es m a c h t etc. (68, 9) the increase of the capital which constitutes t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, s u c h as food, clothing etc
is generally the effect a n d not t h e cause, of the increased d e m a n d for labour, there m a y be an additional d e m a n d for labour without any preceding
increase of capital, such increased d e m a n d for labour causes an increase of
the m o n e y wages of labour, and that ||20| increase of the m o n e y wages effects an additional d e m a n d for a n d an increase of the quantity of s u c h capital. (79) We m i g h t j u s t as well say, t h a t the d e m a n d for coats d e p e n d s
u p o n the quantity of cloth, as that t h e d e m a n d for labour d e p e n d s u p o n the
quantity of capital. T h o u g h the n u m b e r of coats c a n n o t be increased without an increase of the quantity of cloth, increase the d e m a n d for a n d the
price of coats, a n d the cloth will soon be m a n u f a c t u r e d ; so increase the dem a n d for and the price of labour a n d the necessaries which the labourers
require will soon be raised a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d . (81)
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T h e larger the portion of the labour expended in Luxusartikeln for the
rich, the less will be the portion of labour e x p e n d e d für den Theil des capital for the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, a n d the less the a m o u n t the capital pro- 35
duced for the m a i n t e n a n c e of the labourer. (85) T h e general c o i n c i d e n c e of
the high price of corn with a flourishing state of trade, and of the low price
with a depression of trade c a n n o t be disputed. (89) the same increase of
price or other cause which calls fresh soils into cultivation, forces a d d i tional and improved culture u p o n those already u n d e r tillage. (97, 8) Ask 40
den farmer whether every considerable increase of price does n o t m a k e it
148
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answer to cultivate his farm at a larger expense t h a n would have answered
[at] the old price; whether every considerable rise of price does n o t m a k e it
worth his while to m a k e i m p r o v e m e n t s u p o n his lands in order to increase
the produce, to apply m o r e labour a n d m o r e m a n u r e , n o n e of which would
have answered at the old price; a n d he will n o t hesitate to answer you in
the affirmative. (98) Allerdings: »in an improved state of agriculture produce m a y be raised on t h e second or third quality of land at as little cost as
it could u n d e r the old system u p o n t h e first quality.« (98) Zweierlei Art v o n
agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s : E i n s p a r u n g von expense, wodurch der Pächter
sein Produkt v e r m e h r e n k a n n o h n e increase of rate of the e x p e n s e ; zweitens die which increase the p r o d u c e but at an increased rate of expense.
Die erste Art der Verbesserung n ü t z l i c h in every state of the m a r k e t ; die
leztre n u r called into action u n d e r particular circumstances, a n d is n o t always applicable. (99) M a n h a t generally b e m e r k t , daß die english farmers
who have taken lands in A m e r i c a have n o t prospered; die i h n e n gewohnte
Art von high cultivation paßte n i c h t für den Z u s t a n d von A m e r i k a . In a
cheap m o d e of cultivation the n e t p r o d u c e bears a m u c h larger proportion
to the expense and to the gross p r o d u c e t h a n in an expensive m o d e of cultivation. ... weil every a d d i t i o n a l portion of p r o d u c e is raised at a greater
cost. Der a m e r i k a n i s c h e Pächter legt wenig Capital aus u n d sein Profit auf
dieß Capital ist e n o r m . D e r E n g l ä n d e r - a large capital m i t a small profit.
(99, 100) Da jede a d d i t i o n a l portion of p r o d u c e m e h r kostet, e a c h a d d i tional portion of capital yields a less return, solang der Preiß derselbe
bleibt. Liefert die erste Portion a gross return von 150%, die 2 von 140%
u n d so on, so klar, daß das Capital so v e r m e h r t werden k a n n , d a ß at the
given price der gross r e t u r n weniger ist als das capital expended u n d der
Pächter, instead of deriving any profit, m a y actually sustain a loss. D a h e r
m a n y m o d e s of cultivation u n d m a n y i t e m s of cost, die in E n g l a n d m i t
d e m english price of labour u n d d e m english price of corn entsprechend, in
America, m i t d e m a m e r i c a n price, selbst e i n e n Verlust verursachen k ö n nen. Klar, daß in every state of cultivation and of price, es möglich ist, so
to overlay a farm with capital as that a great portion of the expense shall
not answer, and shall even occasion a loss u n d dieß der Fehler vieler n a c h
A m e r i c a gewanderter english farmers. (100) M a n h a t ferner b e o b a c h t e t ,
daß little farmers u n d die der less improved parts des L a n d e s , did n o t sustain so great a loss als die der larger farms u n d die die higher m o d e of
farming adopted u n d alle m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t s a n g e n o m m e n h a t t e n . D e r
large farmer, hatte während der Periode der high prices sein Land gesättigt
mit Capital, Verbesserungen g e m a c h t bis zu d e m u t m o s t extent, den die
h o h e n Preisse erlaubten, u n d h e a p e d m a n u r e u n d expense j e d e r Art u p o n
the land to the very verge of | | 2 1 | profit ... Der small farmer dagegen, blieb
t e
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hartnäckig im alten System, legte n u r kleines Capital aus, raised a m u c h
smaller p r o d u c e , aber larger im V e r h ä l t n i ß zur expense als das des intelligent farmer. Er litt also weniger von der Revulsion of prices, da sein n e t
profit e i n e n grössern A b z u g tragen k o n n t e without t o u c h i n g his capital ...
D e r erstre b e n u z t e die gute Zeit besser, war d a r u m a u c h m e h r d e m S t u r m
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ausgesezt. N e h m e n wir eine farm, zu 100 sh. a qr of corn, bringe 160 %
gross produce für die erste auf es angelegte P o r t i o n von Capital u n d 10 %
less on every successive additional portion of capital (Aber wie H o p k i n s
sagt: Ist die Eintheilung des Capitals in besondere Portionen nicht rein
willkührlich) u n d der ordinary rate of profit sei 10 %. D a s Capital u n d gross 10
u n d net produce u n d rent w ü r d e n sein wie folgt:
Capital
1st
2
3
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6
100
100
100
100
100
100
600
Gross Return
160
150
140
130
120
110
810
Net Return
Rent
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10
210
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10
0
150
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Dieser intelligente farmer legt 600 aus, sein ganzes Capital, u n d k a n n 20
150 R e n t e zahlen. D e r small, aus M a n g e l an Capital oder aus I n d o l e n z u n d
inveterate habits u n d prejudices legt n u r 200 Capital aus, k a n n n u r
90 R e n t e zahlen. D e r Preiß falle n u n / at o n c e oder 30 sh. per qr, so das
gross produce im selben Verhältniß vermindert u n d die R e c h n u n g steht
wie folgt:
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3
10
1<
2
3
4
5
6
Capital
Gross Return
Net Return
100
100
100
100
100
100
600
160-48 =
150 - 45 =
140-42=
1 3 0 - 39=
120 - 36 =
110-33=
12
5
-2
-9
-16
-23
17-50
112
105
98
91
84
77
567
Rent (Loss)
30
-33
Der farmer, der sein ganzes Capital ausgelegt h a t e i n e n actual loss of
capital von £ 3 3 . Der farmer, der 200 ausgelegt h a t k e i n e n loss, n u r der N e t 35
R e t u r n reducirt auf 17. S u c h was the effect of the fall of price in the years
which succeeded the F r e n c h wars, t h o u g h in a greater degree from the
greater fall of price. ( 1 0 1 - 4 ) Die supply war nicht increased i m m e d i a t e l y
in a quantity sufficient to r e d u c e the price to its n a t u r a l price. T h o u g h
s o m e of t h e m e a n s of increasing the growth of corn a n d other r u d e p r o d u c e
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m a y be i m m e d i a t e l y resorted to, a n d be m a d e i m m e d i a t e l y productive,
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other m e a n s of increasing erheischen considerable Zeit eh sie wirken u n d
sind oft erst n a c h m e h r e n J a h r e n produktiv. So bei der V e r m i n d e r u n g [der
d e m a n d ] u n d d e m Preissefallen. Einige Mittel d e n growth z u v e r m i n d e r n
u n d d e m L a n d Capital z u e n t z i e h n , u n m i t t e l b a r zugänglich u n d effectiv,
andre erfordern Z e i t eh sie any effect p r o d u c e . ||22| Steigt der Preiß, so
k a n n new land b e i m m e d i a t e l y t u r n e d u p u n d a n additional p r o d u c e
raised; ebenso wirken direkt expensive m a n u r e s . A b e r einige Zeit, vielleicht Jahre, before a whole farm were clayed or m a r l e d ; Verbesserung alter
oder A n l e g u n g n e u e r W e g e u n d farmbuildings, draining v o n l a n d u n d besonders, wie der Fall direkt u p o n t h e rise of price in 1794, to i n t r o d u c e the
new a n d improved m o d e s of h u s b a n d r y . Viele farmers u n t e r d e m alten Syst e m h a t t e n nicht Capital g e n u g für das n e u e u n d expensive; Vorurtheile
s t a n d e n i m Wege, die n u r d u r c h die Zeit z u besiegen; Feudalfeelings
hielten einige landlords auf die old t e n a n t s m i t n e w capitalists zu vert a u s c h e n ; andre b e s t a n d e n n i c h t u p o n their full rents, which would h a v e
forced the farmer to greater exertions. So m a c h t e n die m o d e r n improvem e n t s ihren Weg n u r slowly u n d gradually, a n d have never pervaded t h e
whole country. In m a n c h e Theile des K i n g d o m das turnip system of h u s bandry n o c h nicht eingedrungen, selbst wo die lands am geeignetsten d a z u .
Alle diese i m p r o v e m e n t s waren partial: in einigen districts das L a n d m i t
Capital gesättigt, in a n d r e n n o c h sehr bedürftig desselben. H a d t h e capital
expended u p o n l a n d during the h i g h prices b e e n m o r e equally distributed,
there can be no d o u b t t h a t a larger p r o d u c e m i g h t have b e e n raised at a less
expense. ... bei dieser gleichmässigren Vertheilung, h a d s o m e of t h e capital which was laid on almost to excess in s o m e districts, b e e n applied to
others where it was deficient, a larger p r o d u c e m i g h t have b e e n raised at a
lesser cost. 1819 bei d e m F a l l e n der Preisse, k a n n t e m a n das P r o d u c t u n d
verminderte m a n es effectiv sofort, i n d e m m a n weniger Arbeit a n w a n d t e
u n d less m a n u r e ; aber nahm, viele Verbesserungen, die m a n nie g e m a c h t
u n d nie erneuert h a b e n würde u n t e r d e n reducirten Preissen, p r o d u c i r t e n
fortwährend für viele J a h r e e i n e n b e t r ä c h t l i c h e n Effect, obgleich das produce raised by m e a n s of t h e m should n o t fetch a r e m u n e r a t i n g price u n d
das ausgelegte Capital n i c h t . . . d e n gewöhnlichen Profit zahlt. As t h e capital expended c a n n o t be withdrawn, the farmer c o n t i n u e s to avail himself of
the improvements effected by it, t h o u g h he would n o t renew or keep t h e m
up at any great fresh expense. Beispiel das marling or claying of land, sehr
expensive, b u t if d o n e well, a very p e r m a n e n t m o d e of i m p r o v e m e n t ...
when the chief expense is o n c e incurred, m a g es answer to take advantage
of it whilst the effects c o n t i n u e . So auf der e i n e n Seite die U m s t ä n d e
preveniren an i m m e d i a t e increase of the supply in proportion to the increase of d e m a n d , u n d auf der a n d r e n Seite, retard the r e d u c t i o n of t h e
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supply in proportion to the r e d u c t i o n of the d e m a n d . (105 - 9) T h e cost of
p r o d u c t i o n (des Korns) d e p e n d s on the price of labour, and an increase of
the wages of labour does n o t necessarily imply an e n h a n c e m e n t of t h e
price of labour. F r o m fuller e m p l o y m e n t , a n d greater exertions the wages
of labour m a y be considerably increased, whilst the price of labour m a y
c o n t i n u e the same, or the price of labour m a y be e n h a n c e d , wie sicher der
Fall w ä h r e n d des Kriegs u n d zugleich die wages of l a b o u r vermehrt in viel
größrer Proportion. Die Productionskost in s o l c h e m Fall v e r m e h r t im Verh ä l t n i ß z u m price of labour, aber die d e m a n d for a n d the price of corn following the wages of labour, would be increased in a still greater proportion.
(112) Dasselbe gilt für die r e d u c t i o n der wages of labour. A l s o Kost der
P r o d u c t i o n fällt u n d steigt nicht m i t d e m Fallen u n d Steigen der wages,
also a u c h Nachfrage nicht. (111[, 112]) Ist die Nachfrage sehr ü b e r der Z u fuhr, so das produce jedes Jahrs m e h r closely c o n s u m e d , a less portion of it
left für das folgende J a h r u n d folglich, w e n n in d i e s e m der crop falls short
von e i n e m Durchschnittsjahr, der Preiß m e h r e n h a n c e d als w e n n m e h r
Rest von Vorigem J a h r geblieben wäre. Ist die d e m a n d less als die supply
u n d der price u n t e r d e m n a t u r a l one, the sale m e h r languid, die dealers
keep more back v o m Markt in Erwartung eines besseren Preisses, a larger
surplus will be thrown u p o n the n e x t year's crop u n d w e n n der plentiful,
the supply will ||23| be still m o r e increased, a n d the price u n u s u a l l y depressed. (115, 16) D a z u die farmers in solcher Zeit d u r c h ihre distress
selbst gezwungen to bring all their stock to market. (116) W e r e a village to
provide all its supplies within itself, die d e m a n d der society leicht zu anticipiren. Aber w e n n für countries in d e n other extremities des globe, I n d i a
oder S ü d a m e r i k a zu sorgen, oft mistake in d e n articles sie want oder in ihrer Zahlungsfähigkeit. W h e n we draw our supplies from quarters as distant,
they c a n n o t be very nicely proportioned to any fluctuation of the d e m a n d
at the distance of half the globe. These very irregularities, however, of an
extended c o m m e r c e , may, perhaps, be rectified by a still further extension
of it. As our markets are multiplied, we b e c o m e less d e p e n d a n t u p o n any
individual o n e ; it is improbable, t h a t all should fail, or b e c o m e unprofitable at once, and the gain in o n e m a y c o m p e n s a t e the loss in another.
(141, 2)
In d e m D e c e n n i u m von 1 7 4 4 - 1 7 5 3 der Durchschnitt des
each Harvest Year 1 / . 11 sh. 2%d.; von 1 7 5 4 - 1 7 6 3 , II.
1 7 6 4 - 1 7 7 3 : 2 I. 8 s. 8 d., von 1 7 7 4 - 1 7 8 3 : 2 I. 8 s. 7 d.; von
9 s. 11 d.; von 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 0 3 : 3 I. 18 s. 6 d.; von 1 8 0 4 - 1 8 1 3 : 4
1 8 1 3 - 1 8 2 1 : 4 I. 4 s. 7 d. yearly average. ( 1 4 7 - 1 5 0 )
152
qr of W h e a t for
1 7 s h . 6 d . ; von
1 7 8 4 - 1 7 9 3 : 2 I.
I. 15 s. 7 d.; von
IF'
Aus Thomas Hopkins: On rent of land
Hopkins. (Thomas.) On Rent of Land and its
Influence on Subsistence and Population.
London.1828.
5
Seine g e m ä s s e A n s c h a u u n g v o n d e r R e n t e i n d e r V o r r e d e : »rent is, i n its
nature, a tax paid to o n e class of t h e c o m m u n i t y by the other classes, which
tax m a y be raised or r e d u c e d at the option of those who impose it.« (VI.)
Ch.
ίο
15
I.
Rent
of land.
Das Prinzip der R e n t e gegründet auf die power des landlord to prevent his
land from b e i n g u s e d ; unless w h a t he d e m a n d s be given to h i m . (6) In der
freien Praxis von settlers, g e h n sie von L a n d N. 1. - wodurch an increase of
their n u m b e r , their power of raising p r o d u c e from it, ist v e r m i n d e r t - zu
Ν. 2, wo their labour will bring, obgleich das L a n d von 2 1 Qualität, a greater
return of p r o d u c e u n d das ist das i n d u c e m e n t to the removal. (7) In every
step in this process of occupying t h e lands of inferior fertility, the m o r e fertile land yield a smaller r e t u r n for the s a m e labour, a n d t h e less fertile a
larger return. (8) L a n d N. 2 would n o t yield a higher r e t u r n t h a n N. 1, to an
equal population. On an average, each individual on N. 2, m u s t have a larger
extent of land, to c o m p e n s a t e for inferior fertility. (I.e.) So, w h e n t h e whole
land was occupied, t h e richest l a n d would have t h e m o s t dense p o p u l a t i o n ,
20
and t h e poorest l a n d t h e m o s t scanty p o p u l a t i o n . (I.e.) D a s T h e i l e n des
Capitals in Dosen is altogether a process of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . Die s.g. erste
Dose is allowed to have h a d its effect collectively in raising p r o d u c e , sie
wird n i c h t unterstellt theilbar zu sein in separate portions, b u t as an u n d i vided quantity it exerts its energies to p r o d u c e the crop. A n d if 2x die
25
quantity of capital a n g e w a n d t das n e x t year on t h e s a m e piece of l a n d with-
153
out producing 2 x d e n return, w a r u m sollte this larger q u a n t i t y of capital
be separated in 2 doses p r o d u c i n g u n e q u a l returns? (10) W e n n eine viel
größre quantity of labour or capital a smaller p r o p o r t i o n a l r e t u r n hat, so
gilt dieß von der g a n z e n quantity of labour a n d capital; there can, t h e r e fore, be no difference to constitute rent. (11) Ist E i g e n t h u m da, so sind die
settlers zweiter Ankunft gezwungen, d u r c h das civil privilege, n i c h t d u r c h
ein N a t u r g e s e t z , sich auf B o d e n N. 2 a n z u s i e d e l n , weil die von N. 1 sie prevent from cultivating lands Ν. 1. (19) So in d e n U n i t e d States die e x a c t i o n
of r e n t on the best land is t h e r e p r e m a t u r e l y forcing l a b o u r a n d capital to
n e w l a n d . (21) So wie different degrees of fertility of land, r e n t m a y give
s u c h a d i r e c t i o n to t h e e m p l o y m e n t of labour, as will m a k e labour, on t h e
whole, less productive. (I.e.) H a t e i n P ä c h t e r 2 farms, eine at will, die a n d r e
at lease, w e n n a u c h die leztre n i c h t so fruchtbar, so wird er alles Capital
darauf werfen, weil es i h m n i c h t in der R e n t e abgezogen werden k a n n . So
rent causes t h e capital to be u n e q u a l l y productive. (25, 6) R e n t a u c h in
G r e a t Britain treibt p o p u l a t i o n p r e m a t u r e l y to poorer soils. (27) T h e l a n d
of each quality has its proper relative rent ||24| d e t e r m i n e d by c o m p e t i t i o n
a m o n g individual t e n a n t s , whatever m a y be t h e general average rate of
rent. (27, 28) D a s principle of c o m p e t i t i o n m a c h t 2 rates of profit u n m ö g lich in d e m s e l b e n L a n d ; aber das b e s t i m m t die relative rents; aber n i c h t
d e n general average rate of rent. (30) T h e rates of wages a n d profit m a y be
equalised by competition, b u t they c a n n o t be kept high, if land proprietors,
by raising rents, choose to r e d u c e t h e m . (I.e.) D e r u n m i t t e l b a r e Effect of a
rise of rent - andre D i n g e dieselben b l e i b e n d - ist a r e d u c t i o n of wages. ...
M i t der m e h r food k a n n der landlord d a n n a surplus p o p u l a t i o n , die für i h n
u n d seine F a m i l i e arbeiten, n ä h r e n . H i e r rent die cause of an increase of
t h e population, statt ihr effect zu sein. (34) Die Bevölkerung u n d alle ü b r i gen U m s t ä n d e stationär b l e i b e n d voraus gesezt, any rise of r e n t reduces t h e
n u m b e r of primary producers, a n d increases t h e n u m b e r of secondary producers, and, with the r e d u c t i o n in t h e n u m b e r of primary producers, there
m u s t evidently be a d i m i n u t i o n in t h e whole quantity of primary p r o d u c e
brought i n t o existence; i.e. of t h e principal necessaries of life, and t h e
share of e a c h labourer m u s t c o n s e q u e n t l y be less, or real wages m u s t fall.
(38) U n t e r d e m feudal system war das great object des l a n d proprietor to
have m a n y m e n u p o n his land; t h e obtaining of m o n e y , or rent from t h e
l a n d was a very inferior consideration. (45) Im 1 3 u n d 14 Jh. die low rents
required, enabled those t e n a n t s who held t h e richest lands, to increase
their n u m b e r s , a n d in process of t i m e , with t h e c o n c u r r e n c e of t h e chief, to
divide a n d subdivide their farms, a n d they were generally r e d u c e d to a
small one for each family. (48) Im 13 J h . die average rent 6 d. an acre
(nearly I s . %ά. von u n s r e m G e l d ) . (50) In I r l a n d :
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
l
154
40
In 1799
1811
Labour
per day
Os. 6%ά.
Is. Od.
Weavers
Potatoes
Potatoe
wages
acre
Is. 2%ά. Os. 2y4d. 3/. 8 s. 6 d.
I s . 3d.
Os. 3y2d. 8 I. 13 s. 2 d.
Rent
per acre
0£. l i s . Od. (A.) Young
1/. 7 s. l i d .
5
N a c h Wakefield die l e z t r e L i s t e . Also in 12 J a h r e n die R e n t m e h r als 2½
gestiegen. (59) R e n t g e h t e i n in d e n Preiß der P r o d u c t e . D i e Influenz v o n
R e n t auf die Preisse der W a a r e n zeigt sich am schlagendsten b e i m Cattle,
dessen Preiß schritthält m i t d e m rise of r e n t of land. Da wenig Capital geb r a u c h t u n d wenig A r b e i t in p r o d u c i n g cattle on n a t u r a l grass, ist es wohl10 feil wo rent low; t h e u e r , wo sie h o c h , as t h e value of cattle t h u s raised will
be formed almost entirely of t h e h i g h rent, die words cheap a n d d e a r n a t ü r lich relatively to o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s . (61) In d e n h i g h l a n d s of Scotland,
w h e n rents were low, a p o u n d of o a t m e a l b r e a d so t h e u e r wie a p o u n d of
meat.
15
20
25
30
35
s. d.
In E n g l a n d am Schluß des 13 century,
a b u s h e l o f wheat c o s t . . .
09
Z u r selben Zeit 24 lbs of m e a t
0
9
In E n g l a n d 1827 a b u s h e l of w h e a t
7
24 lbs of meat, at 7 d. per lb
14
oder its relative price c o m p a r e d
with bread, is d o u b l e d .
1790 in E n g l a n d Brod war per lb
0 1%
U n d m e a t , zur selben Zeit, per lb
0
4¾
In F r a n c e zur selben Zeit b r e a d
1
und meat
3¼;
also in E n g l a n d m e a t zu b r e a d n i c h t ganz wie 2 % : 1 , in F r a n k r e i c h
= 3 ^ : 1 . Gegenwärtig m e a t z u m selben relativen Preiß in E n g l a n d gestiegen, wie 1790 in F r a n c e , d e n n bread per lb n u n 2 d. u n d m e a t 7 d. (67, 8)
K e i n e nothwendige V e r b i n d u n g zwischen d e m proportional rate of r e n t
u n d d e m degree of i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e land. A u f einigen der highly i m proved lands of E n g l a n d die r e n t n u r % oder % des crop, w ä h r e n d on t h e
racked soils of I r e l a n d u n d d e n half deserts der p a p a l states %, % m e h r als
½ des crop. Die r e n t k a n n steigen, w ä h r e n d das land sich verschlechtert.
(68)
155
Ch.
II.
The
Labouring
classes.
Wo Boden, Clima schlecht, wo keine I n d u s t r i e u n d Capital, wie in d e n
arabian u n d african sandy deserts u n d in d e n high n o r t h e r n latitudes, das
people zahlt wenig, w e n n ü b e r h a u p t irgend etwas, als rents, u n d taxes, they
enjoy fast ihr ganzes p r o d u c e , oder ganz ihr p r o d u c e . D e n n o c h few in n u m ber u n d c o m m o n l y very poorly subsisted. Ihre c o n d i t i o n n u r zu verbessern
by increasing their productive power. E n a b l e t h e m to p r o d u c e m o r e , a n d
they m a y have m o r e to enjoy. (81) If all labourers were employed for the
s a m e end, or object, as the d i a m o n d cutter a n d the opera singer, in a short
t i m e there would ||25| be no wealth to subsist t h e m ; because n o n e of t h e
wealth produced would then become capital. If a considerable proportion were so
employed, wages would be low; because, b u t a comparatively small part of
what was produced would be used as capital; b u t if only a few of t h e labourers were so employed, and, of course, nearly all were p l o u g h m e n , s h o e m a k ers, weavers etc, t h e n m u c h capital would be produced, and wages could be
proportionally high. (84, 5) W i t h the d i a m o n d cutter and the singer, m u s t
be classed all those who labour for the ... landlords, or a n n u i t a n t s , a n d who
receive a part of their i n c o m e as wages: all, in fact, whose labours terminate
merely in producing those things which gratify landlords u n d a n n u i t a n t s ,
and who receive in return for their labours, a part of the rent of the landlord, or of the i n c o m e of the a n n u i t a n t . These are all productive labourers,
b u t all their labours are for the purpose of converting the wealth which
exists, in the shape of rents and a n n u i t i e s , into some other form, that shall,
in that other form, m o r e gratify the landlord a n d a n n u i t a n t , and therefore
they are secondary producers. All other labourers are primary producers.
(85) In Irland n a c h massiger B e r e c h n u n g u n d d e m Census von 1821 das
whole n e t produce, was geht an landlords, government titheowners
20¾ Millions I. St., die whole wages aber n u r £ 14,114,000. (94) It has b e e n
stated, d a ß wie früher £ 5 per acre nöthig, to stock Irish land as well as E n g lish land is stocked. (Siehe Wakefield's A c c o u n t s of Ireland.) (94[, 95]) Die
cultivators von Italy, im Allgemeinen, zahlen von / zu m e h r als % des prod u c e as rent an den landlord, m i t m o d e r a t e skill in agriculture u n d a
scanty supply of fixed capital. Der größre Theil der p o p u l a t i o n besteht aus
secondary producers u n d proprietors u n d generally the primary producers
are a poor and a degraded class. ([101,] 102) U n t e r Louis X I V ähnlich, the
m o n e y rents were too high to p e r m i t the cultivators to a c c u m u l a t e capital
on the land. (102) N a c h A. Young in seinen Travels in France stand die
R e n t e dort wie folgt
5
10
15
20
25
30
l
2
156
35
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Arable and L u c e r n e 75,000,000 zu 15 s. 7 d per acre £ 5 7 , 4 3 7 , 5 0 0
Woods
19,000,000 zu 12 s.
11,910,000
5,000,000 zu 76 s. 6 d .
Vines
19,125,000
4,000,000
43 s. 9 d .
Meadows
8,750,000
Wastes
27,150,000 z u I s . 9 d .
2,375,625
130,150,000
£99,598,125
Also fast 100 Mill. £ St. R e n t . H i n z u Tithes zu £ 16,599,687 (viel zu gering angeschlagen) u n d taxes zu £ 24,707,492, z u s a m m e n £ 140,905,304.
D a b e i Ackerbau miserabel.
D i e P o p u l a t i o n Frankreichs
damals
26,363,074. W e n n selbst 6 Millions of labouring population, was zu large,
hätte j e d e family zu liefern g e h a b t jährlich, direkt oder indirekt, an average
von an £ 2 3 of n e t wealth to t h e landlords, the c h u r c h a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t .
N a c h Youngs A n g a b e n , n o c h allerlei in A n s c h l a g gebracht, k o m m t auf
die Arbeiterfamily j ä h r l i c h £ 42, 10 sh. Product, 23 davon paid away to
others u n d £ 19 u n d 10 s. r e m a i n e d to subsist itself. D a r a u s zu folgern, d a ß
n u r a m o d e r a t e portion der whole french p o p u l a t i o n were primary p r o d u c ers. (103, 4) the error of Mr M a l t h u s and his followers is to be found in t h e
assumption, that a r e d u c t i o n of the labouring population would not be followed by a correspondent reduction of capital. (118) At present, in G r e a t
Britain, 1 family on an average cultivates 40 acres; u n d da sie gleichzeitig
in distress, Mr M a l t h u s says they are too n u m e r o u s , and t h a t they m u s t by
some m e a n s r e d u c e their n u m b e r s . (120) D i e antipopulationists sind
b o u n d to prove, d a ß die labour would n o t be even less productive, w h e n
there would be only 1 family to every 60 acres. ([120,] 121) Herr M a l t h u s
vergißt daß die » d e m a n d is limited by the m e a n s of paying wages« u n d daß
diese m e a n s , do n o t arise spontaneously, b u t are always previously created
by labour. (122) A r e d u c t i o n of the population, a n d a c o n s e q u e n t d i m i n u tion of the a n n u a l supply of wealth, would n o t necessarily lower either rents,
or t h e rate of profit, b u t would r e d u c e wages. (124) Sonderbar, daß a |
|26| strong inclination to represent n e t wealth as beneficial to the labouring
class, because it gives employment, t h o u g h it is evidently n o t on a c c o u n t of
being net, that it h a s t h a t power, b u t b e c a u s e it is wealth, - t h a t which h a s
b e e n brought into existence by labour; while, gleichzeitig, an a d d i t i o n a l
quantity of labour is represented as injurious to the labouring classes,
t h o u g h that labour produces 3 x as m u c h as it c o n s u m e s . (126) If by the
use of superior m a c h i n e r y , the whole primary p r o d u c e could be raised from
200 to 250 or 300, while n e t wealth a n d profit took only 140, klar, d a ß there
would r e m a i n as a fund for the wages der primary producers 110 oder 160
statt 60. (128) the c o n d i t i o n of labourers is r e n d e r e d bad either by crippling
their productive power, or by taking from t h e m what they have p r o d u c e d .
157
(129) »No« says Mr M a l t h u s "the weight of your b u r t h e n has n o t h i n g whatever to do with your distress; that arises solely from there being too m a n y
persons carrying it." (134) w h e n the emigrant, by t h e greater r o o m or larger
extent of l a n d that he leaves for those w h o r e m a i n , benefits t h e m in a greater degree, t h a n leaving his share of t h e n e t wealth to be paid by t h e m , inj u r e s t h e m u n d umgekehrt. ([138,] 139.)
158
5
Aus David Ricardo: An essay on the influence of a low price of corn
Ricardo. (David) An Essay on the Influence
of a low Price of Corn on the Profits
of Stock etc
L o n d o n 1815 (2 ed.)
5
I am only desirous of proving t h a t t h e profits on agricultural capital c a n n o t
materially vary, without occasioning a similar variation in t h e profits on
capital, employed on m a n u f a c t u r e s a n d c o m m e r c e . (7) W e n n m a r k e d i m provements in agriculture, or in the i m p l e m e n t s of h u s b a n d r y acted with
equal effect, wie die causes, w h i c h r e n d e r the acquisition of an a d d i t i o n a l
10
quantity of corn m o r e difficult, ... corn would be subject only to a c c i d e n t a l
variation of price, arising from b a d seasons, from greater or less real wages
of labour, or from an alteration in the value of the precious m e t a l s . (17)
T h e sole effect t h e n of t h e progress of wealth on prices, i n d e p e n d e n t l y of
all improvements, either in agriculture or m a n u f a c t u r e s , appears to be to
15
raise the price of raw p r o d u c e a n d of labour, leaving all other c o m m o d i t i e s
at their original prices, a n d to lower general profits in c o n s e q u e n c e of the
general rise of wages. (18) the interest of the landlord is always opposed to
the interest of every other class in the c o m m u n i t y . (20) Der rise or fall of
wages hängt ab, im stationären Stand der Gesellschaft von d e m increase or
20
falling off of the population, in d e m advancing state, ob das Capital oder die
Bevölkerung rascher a d v a n c e ; in d e m retrograde state, ob Bevölkerung oder
Capital decrease with t h e greater rapidity. (22) T h e facilities of o b t a i n i n g
food are beneficial in two ways to the owners of capital, it at t h e s a m e t i m e
raises profits and increases t h e a m o u n t of c o n s u m a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s . T h e
25 facilities in obtaining all other things, only increases the a m o u n t of c o m modities. (27) E i n rise of prices, selbst w e n n d u r c h depreciation of m o n e y
verursacht, is said to be beneficial, b e c a u s e it betters the situation of t h e
159
c o m m e r c i a l classes at the expense of those enjoying fixed i n c o m e s . (42, 3)
B e i m freien I m p o r t von K o r n : In every step of our progress, profits of stock
increase a n d rents fall, a n d m o r e l a n d is a b a n d o n e d : besides which, the
country saves all the difference between the price at which corn can be
grown, a n d the price at which it c a n be imported, on t h e quantity we re5
ceive from abroad. (46) I shall greatly regret that considerations for any
particular class, are allowed to check the progress of the wealth a n d population of the country. (49) To be consistent, let us by the s a m e act arrest improvement, (da improvement in agriculture auch d e m landlord schädlich) a n d prohibit importation. (50)
10
160
Aus David Ricardo: On protection to agriculture
Ricardo. (David.)
On Protection to Agriculture.
L o n d o n . 1822.
In d e m Report, Agricultural C o m m i t t e e , 1821, sagt Mr. Iveson: "I know
5
districts of the country, taking t h e very best qualities in t h e m , that will prod u c e from 4 to 5 qrs per acre. I know there are farms that have averaged in
the wheat crop, 4 qrs to the acre, or 32 bushels, (in Wiltshire)" " . . . I t h i n k
the middling, or second, ... quality of lands u n d e r good cultivation, m a y be
t a k e n at 2% qrs. A n d the inferior lands? F r o m 12 to 15 bushels per acre."
10 Harvey statuirte, d a ß die lowest rent für das worst cornraising land sei 18 d.
per acre. Er statuirte ferner, d a ß im D u r c h s c h n i t t der leztren 10 J a h r e er
30 bushels W e i z e n per acre v o n s e i n e m L a n d e erhalten. N a c h Wakefield
die Differenz zwischen d e m p r o d u c e of wheat per acre auf d e m b e s t e n u n d
d e m schlechtesten L a n d in cultivation 32 bushels. Er sagte: "on the sea15 coast of ||27| Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, a n d Kent, t h e crop is t h o u g h t a b a d
one, if it be not 40 bushels per acre;" a n d he a d d e d "I do n o t believe, t h a t
the very poor lands p r o d u c e above 8 bushels per acre." (3, 4) W e i z e n p r e i s s e
in diesem L a n d in different seasons of plenty, trotz des Exports, fielen v o n
der a b u n d a n c e of crop um 50 % in 3 J a h r e n . Das folgende D o k u m e n t copirt
20 von Tooke's evidence vor d e m c o m m i t t e e von 1821.
s. d.
1728 war der Preiß
des Weizens
1732
25
1740
1743
1750
48
Quarters
5½
23
45 oy
22 1
28 10¾
2
mit einem excess
of import von
mit einem excess
of export von
70,757
202,058
46,822
371,429
947,323
161
[Quarters
[s. d.]
1757
53
4
1761
26 10¾
excess of
import
excess of
export
130,017
441,956.
5
(P. 229, Agricultural Report.)
If we lived in one of Mr Owen's parallelograms, a n d enjoyed all o u r productions in c o m m o n , t h e n no o n e could suffer in c o n s e q u e n c e of a b u n d a n c e , b u t as long as society is constituted as it now is, a b u n d a n c e will oft e n be injurious, to producers, a n d scarcity beneficial to t h e m . ([20,] 21) 10
T h a t some capital would be lost (bei freier K o r n e i n f u h r ) c a n n o t be disp u t e d , b u t is the possession or preservation of capital the end, or the
m e a n s ? T h e m e a n s , u n d o u b t e d l y . W h a t we want is an a b u n d a n c e of commodities, a n d if it could be proved t h a t by the sacrifice of a part of our capital we should a u g m e n t the a n n u a l p r o d u c e of those objects which contri- 15
b u t e to o u r enjoyment a n d happiness, we ought n o t to repine at the loss of
a part of our capital. (60)
162
Aus Charles Wentworth Dilke: The source and remedy of the national difficulties
The Source and Remedy
of the National Difficulties etc
A letter to Lord John Russell.
L o n d o n . 1821.
5
Suppose t h e whole l a b o u r of t h e c o u n t r y to raise j u s t sufficient for t h e sup
port of t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n ; it is evident t h e r e is no surplus labour, conse
quently, n o t h i n g t h a t c a n be allowed to a c c u m u l a t e as capital. S u p p o s e t h e
whole l a b o u r of t h e c o u n t r y to raise as m u c h in one year as would m a i n t a i n
it 2 years, it is evident o n e year's c o n s u m p t i o n m u s t perish, or for o n e year,
10 m e n m u s t cease from p r o d u c t i v e labour. B u t t h e possessors of the surplus
produce, or capital, will n e i t h e r m a i n t a i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h e following year
in idleness, nor allow t h e p r o d u c e to perish; they will employ t h e m u p o n
s o m e t h i n g n o t directly a n d i m m e d i a t e l y productive, ζ. B., in t h e erection of
m a c h i n e r y etc. But, t h e third year, t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n m a y again r e t u r n
15
to productive labour, a n d t h e m a c h i n e r y erected in t h e last year c o m i n g
now in operation, klar d a ß das P r o d u c t grösser als das des ersten Jahrs um
das p r o d u c e der m a c h i n e r y in a d d i t i o n . D i e ß surplus p r o d u c e , also n o c h
mehr, m u ß perish oder be p u t to u s e as before; u n d dieser u s a n c e fügt
wieder der productive power der Gesellschaft h i n z u , bis m e n must cease
20
from productive l a b o u r for a t i m e , or the p r o d u c e of their labour m u s t perish. D i e ß die palpable c o n s e q u e n c e in t h e simplest state of society. (4, 5.)
Der Progress des increasing capital would, in established societies, be
m a r k e d by the decreasing interest of m o n e y , oder, was dasselbe ist, t h e d e creasing quantity of the l a b o u r of others t h a t would be given for its u s e . (6)
25 A b e r wahrhaft reich eine N a t i o n ist, w e n n kein Zins für Capital gezahlt.
W e n n statt 12 S t u n d e n n u r 6 gearbeitet wird »wealth is disposable t i m e ,
and n o t h i n g more«. (I.e.) all u n p r o d u c t i v e classes have always a twofold o p -
163
eration, not only ceasing to produce themselves, but actively destroying t h e
produce of the labour of others. (9) the d e m a n d of other countries is limited, n o t only by our power to produce, b u t by their power to produce, for
do what you will, in a series of years the whole world c a n take little m o r e of
us, t h a n we take of the world, so t h a t all your foreign trade, of which there
is so m u c h talking, never did, never could, nor ever can, add o n e shilling,
or o n e doit to the wealth of the country, as for every bale of silk, chest of
tea, pipe of wine that ever was imported, s o m e t h i n g of e q u a l value was exported; a n d even the profits m a d e by our m e r c h a n t s in their foreign trade
are paid by the c o n s u m e r of the return goods here. (17, 18) foreign trade is
m e r e barter a n d exchange for the convenience a n d enjoyment of t h e capitalist: he has n o t a h u n d r e d bodies, n o r a h u n d r e d legs: he c a n n o t cons u m e , in cloth a n d cotton stockings, all the cloth a n d cotton stockings t h a t
are m a n u f a c t u r e d ; therefore they are exchanged for wines a n d silks; b u t
those wines and silks represent the surplus labour ||28| of our own population, as m u c h as the cloths a n d cottons, a n d in this way the destructive power
of the capitalist is increased beyond all bounds: by foreign trade the capitalists
contrive to outwit nature, who h a d put a 1000 n a t u r a l limits to their exactions, and to their wishes to exact: there is no limit now, either to their
power, or desires. (18) the n a t u r a l a n d necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of an increased capital, is its decreasing value. (22) In Bezug auf Ricardo's Capitel über die »Effects on A c c u m u l a t i o n on Profits and Interest«, sagt der
Verfasser: »Why set o u t by telling us that no a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital will
lower profits, because n o t h i n g will lower profits b u t increased wages, when
it appears that if population does n o t increase with capital wages would increase from the disproportion between capital a n d labour; a n d if population does increase, wages would increase from the difficulty of procuring
food.« (23) If it were possible to c o n t i n u e to increase capital a n d keep up
the value of capital, which is proved by the interest of m o n e y c o n t i n u i n g
t h e same, the interest to be paid for capital would soon exceed t h e whole
produce of labour. ... capital tends in m o r e t h a n arithmetical progression
to increase capital. It is a d m i t t e d t h a t the interest paid to the capitalists
whether in the n a t u r e of rents, interests of m o n e y , or profits of trade, is
paid out of the labour of others. Also w e n n capital go on a c c u m u l a t i n g , the
labour to be given for the u s e of capital m u s t go on increasing, interest paid
for capital c o n t i n u i n g the same, till all the labour of all the labourers of the
society is engrossed by the capitalist. A b e r impossible to h a p p e n ; for whatever m a y be due to the capitalist, he can only receive the surplus l a b o u r of
the labourer; for the labourer must live ... A b e r perfect wahr, daß if capital
does not decrease in value as it increases in a m o u n t , the capitalists will exact from the labourers the produce of every hour's labour beyond what it is
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Aus Charles Wentworth Düke: The source and remedy of the national difficulties
possible for the labourer to subsist o n : a n d however horrid a n d disgusting it
m a y seem, the capitalist m a y eventually speculate on the food that requires
the least labour to p r o d u c e it, a n d eventually say to the labourer, "You
s h a ' n ' t eat bread, b e c a u s e barley m e a l is cheaper; Y o u s h a ' n ' t eat m e a t , be5
cause it is possible to subsist on beet root a n d potatoes." A n d to this p o i n t
have we c o m e . (23, 4) If the labourer can be brought to feed on potatoes instead of bread, it is indisputably true that m o r e can be exacted from his labour; i.e., if when he fed on b r e a d he was obliged to retain for the m a i n t e n a n c e of himself a n d family t h e labour of M o n d a y a n d Tuesday, he will, on
10
potatoes, require only the half of M o n d a y ; a n d the r e m a i n i n g half of M o n day a n d the whole of T u e s d a y are available either for the service of the
state or the capitalist. (26) T h e real labour of every m a n is of equal value,
or rather, is equally paid for, the few exceptions of great talents n o t being
worth distinguishing. Society n e i t h e r p r e s u m e s n o r pays for extraordinary
15 ability: all the i n c o m e , t h e n , t h a t a counsellor, judge, bishop, landholder,
householder, (selbst was die m e c h a n i c s u n d other artizans ü b e r d e n gewöhnlichen L o h n h i n a u s ziehn) receives beyond the pay of a c o m m o n labourer, is interest of capital. (33)
165
Robert Somers. Letters from the
Highlands; or, the Famine of 1847.
L o n d o n . 1848.
Blair-Atholl, wie die m e i s t e n Highland parishes, has witnessed a rapid a n d
steady decrease of its population. H i e r das clearance system b e g o n n e n
schon vor 60 Jahren. G l e n Tilt cleared of its i n h a b i t a n t s by the present
D u k e of Atholl's Grandfather, 20 or 30 years before the burnings a n d ejectm e n t s of Sutherland were heard of. (11) 1801 die P o p u l a t i o n von Blair
Atholl: 2,848; in 1831: 2,384, in 1 8 4 1 : 2,231 ... T h e clearance a n d dispersion of the people is p u r s u e d by the proprietors as a settled principle, as an
agricultural necessity, just as trees a n d brushwood are cleared from the
wastes of A m e r i c a or Australia: a n d the operation goes on in a quiet, business-like way. (12) J e d e clearance p r o d u c e s misery a n d pauperism. It lessens the work to be d o n e in a parish, because the large farmers t u r n extensive tracts of soil into grass, on which the small t e n a n t s used to grow corn,
turnips, a n d potatoes. A n d while it d i m i n i s h e s the work to be done, it increases the n u m b e r of those who can only subsist by hiring themselves to
do it. It grinds down small farmers ( n ä m l i c h w h e n leases expire a n d a new
t e n a n t can be obtained, Y D u t z e n d , 20, 30 families h e r a u s geworfen; to
m a k e r o o m for one ... consolidation of small farms) into daylabourers. (12)
In den H i g h l a n d s die W a l d u n g e n ausgedehnt. H e r e , on o n e side of Gaick,
you have the new forest of Glenfeshie; a n d there, on the other, you have
the new forest of Ardverikie. In the same line ||29| you have t h e Black
M o u n t — a n i m m e n s e waste also recently erected. F r o m east to west—from
the neighbourhood of A b e r d e e n to the crags of O b a n — y o u have now a
continous line of forest; while in other parts of the H i g h l a n d s there are t h e
new forests of L o c h Archaig, Glengarry, G l e n m o r i s t o n , Glenstrathfarar etc.
... the clearances which have t a k e n place within the last few years, to m a k e
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r o o m for these new deer-forests, have m a d e little noise in the country, simply because they were clearances of sheep a n d n o t of people. (25) In the
first place, sheep were i n t r o d u c e d into glens which h a d b e e n the seats of
c o m m u n i t i e s of small farmers; a n d the latter were driven to seek subsistence on coarser a n d m o r e sterile tracts of soil. N o w again, deer are supplanting sheep; a n d these are o n c e m o r e dispossessing the small t e n a n t s , w h o
will necessarily be driven down u p o n still coarser land, and to m o r e grinding penury. Or ... the deerforests, a n d the people c a n n o t coexist. O n e or
other of the two m u s t yield. Let the forests be increased in n u m b e r a n d extent during the n e x t quarter of a century, as they have b e e n in the last, a n d
the G a e l will perish from their native soil. ... Dieses m o v e m e n t u n t e r d e n
H i g h l a n d e i g e n t h ü m e r s theils aus M o d e , aristokratischem Kitzel, Jagdliebhaberei, aber: others follow the trade in deer with an eye solely to profit.
For it is a fact, that a m o u n t a i n range laid out in forests is, in m a n y cases
more profitable to the proprietor t h a n w h e n let as a sheep walk. ... T h e
h u n t s m a n n ä m l i c h who wants a deerforest limits his offers by no other calculation t h a n the extent of his purse. In any circumstances it will be a loss
to h i m . (26) Sufferings have b e e n inflicted in t h e H i g h l a n d s scarcely less
severe t h a n those occasioned by the policy of the N o r m a n kings. D e e r have
received extended ranges, while m e n have b e e n h u n t e d within a narrower
and still narrower circle. ... O n e after o n e , the liberties of t h e people have
b e e n cloven down. ... T h e oppressions are daily on the increase. (28) Small
crofters (bei N e w t o n m o r e ) are located on a rocky acclivity that stretches
back b e h i n d the h a m l e t . T h e s e crofters pay from f 3 to £ 7 of rent, a n d are
far from being comfortable in their c i r c u m s t a n c e s — t h e n a k e d n e s s of t h e
soil giving the labour of the poor people no c h a n c e of a d e q u a t e reward. It is
a prevalent n o t i o n that it is small crofters, such as these, extracting a m i s erable crop of corn a n d barley from a few acres of barren land, t h a t t h e
clearance system r e m o v e d from the glens. But the very opposite is the
truth. The small tenants of this class are in fact creations of the clearance system.
... Allerdings. U n d e r the old system die L e u t e m a n c h m a l schlecht dran.
Their system of farming was b a r b a r o u s ; they neglected their stock u n d ihre
crops; and, while b o t h were going to ruin, they indulged in savage i n d o lence. Aber dieser grosse difference: the distress der small farmers u n d e r
the old system arose entirely from their own bad m a n a g e m e n t , while t h a t
of the small crofters, u n d e r the new system, springs from the essential defectiveness of their circumstances. In the o n e class you h a d all the m a t e r i als of gradual and steady i m p r o v e m e n t ; b u t in the other you have dilapidated m e a n s and a b r o k e n spirit, conjoined with a want of land, t h a t
renders i m p r o v e m e n t scarcely possible by any m e a s u r e short of a new distribution of the soil. (31) T h e labourer or the t r a d e s m a n who has no land
167
k a n n k a u m leben u n t e r solchem System. He is pressed down to the lowest
possibility of existence. His (dieser labourer h e i ß t cottar) c o m p e t i t o r — t h e
crofter—feels that, with his cow or 2, a n d his 2 or 3 bolls of barley a n d oatm e a l , he c a n afford to give his work for smaller wages t h a n he could live
u p o n , without these a p p u r t e n a n c e s ; a n d so he either cuts down the rem u n e r a t i o n of t h e cottar, or cuts h i m o u t altogether. (42) the result was a
wretchedness of living a m o n g the p o p u l a t i o n of the H i g h l a n d s , c o m p a r e d
with which, the subsistence of savage life is luxury itself. (I.e.) D i e club tenants in Lochcarron ... Ihre corncrops oft so poor as to yield little m o r e t h a n
the seed; b u t even with this miserable r e t u r n the people are n o t altogether
dissatisfied, providing that the yield of straw is sufficient to carry their cattle over winter. Aber dieß straw s u c h inferior feeding for cows t h a t it is i m possible they can thrive, or yield the a m o u n t of p r o d u c e which they would
do if well fed. (54) Hier im Lochcarron district (wie fast überall im Highland) n u r 2 Klassen, a higher u n d a lower—the former consisting of a few
large t e n a n t s all occupying nearly the same level; a n d the latter consisting
of a dense body of small lotters a n d fishermen, alle equally u n i f o r m in
their circumstances a n d condition. T h e o n e class has wealth on its side, the
other class has n u m b e r s . D i e sprich||30|wörtliche Feindschaft zwischen Arm e n u n d R e i c h e n erhielt n o c h besondre Entwicklung in this simple social
structure of the Highlands. Die clearances laid the f o u n d a t i o n of a bitter
animosity between the sheepfarmers a n d the lotters; a n d as these violent
changes were executed by the authority of the lairds, they also snapped the
tie which h a d previously, a m i d all reverses, u n i t e d the people and their
chiefs. N o c h E i n Band war da, die spiritual u n i o n . D i e Parish C h u r c h was a
c o m m o n centre where all classes met. A b e r die social wrongs of the lower
class inclined their m i n d s to the doctrine of n o n - i n t r u s i o n u n d sie t r e n n t e n
sich von der etablirten church. T h e parishchurches, in Rossshire particularly, have b e e n literally emptied. ... the sheepfarmers adhere to the Establishment. There is thus a d o u b l e p o i n t of collision between the
2 r a n k s , — a n ecclesiastical as well as an agrarian enmity. T h e Proprietor,
the minister, t h e schoolmaster a n d the large t a c k s m e n — a l l who used to act
as the leaders of the people and to m a n a g e t h e public business of the parish—are ranged together on one side a n d in o n e cause; while t h e people
are as u n a n i m o u s l y a n d determinedly u n i t e d on a n o t h e r side a n d in an entirely opposite cause. (65, 6) No political economist has yet written the history of such towns as Janetown, Plockton, a n d D o r n i e . Diese H i g h l a n d ( a n
d e r W e s t k ü s t e ) fishing villages form a distinct species of the genus urbs.
... On some fatal M a r t i n m a s or W h i t s u n d a y term, t h e forefathers of these
wretched villagers were h u n t e d out from the glens, a n d pressed together in
crowds on barren stripes along t h e m a r g i n s of the lochs. They h a d no arts,
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no manufactures, no goods to sell. A n d even supposing that they h a d b e e n
adepts in trade, there was no rural p o p u l a t i o n b e h i n d t h e m to give a d e m a n d for their products, a n d no corn to take in exchange; for t h e s a m e p r o cess which h u d d l e d t h e m in helpless misery on t h e shore, cleared t h e c o u n try of its peasants, a n d e x t i n g u i s h e d cultivation. ... T h e land allotted t h e m
was too narrow a n d too b a r r e n to k e e p t h e m alive; but here is t h e sea—why
not dip for herrings in t h e tide, a n d scratch limpets from t h e rocks? T h e y
b e c a m e a m p h i b i o u s , lived half on l a n d a n d half on water, and, after all, did
not half live u p o n both. ([83,] 84) D i e Isle of Skye das E l e n d u n g e h e u e r .
Subdivision has b e e n carried to its farthest limits, wofür h o h e R e n t s .
(93 sqq.) the land r e n t a l von Arisaig ist an £ 1200 per Jahr. D i e P o p u l a t i o n
1250. A p o u n d per h e a d is t h e relative p r o p o r t i o n of rent a n d p o p u l a t i o n in
Skye, and some of the m o s t destitute districts of t h e W e s t H i g h l a n d s . (119)
T h e p o p u l a t i o n m u s t necessarily be very poor on an estate where t h e r e is a
15
h u m a n being for every p o u n d w h i c h goes into t h e pocket of the landlord.
Very probably Lord C r a n s t o u n receives a larger share of the a n n u a l prod u c e of Arisaig t h a n t h e whole 1250 souls p u t together. To m a k e up this
rent the people toil, a n d save, a n d stint themselves—living u p o n t h e scantiest a n d poorest fare, a n d scraping together every farthing they can lay their
20 fingers u p o n , from o n e year's e n d to another. (119) Die H a u p t q u e l l e n der
want in d e n H i g h l a n d s sind: I) Waste of land. 1) It is wasted d u r c h das system der sheepwalks. Large tracts of country, 20 or 30 miles in length, are
thrown into one farm; all fences over this vast space are removed, a n d t h e
soil resigned to its own s p o n t a n e o u s p r o d u c t i o n . All kinds of land, dry a n d
25
wet, land fit for t h e p l o u g h a n d land adapted only for pasture, are t h u s applied to t h e s a m e use, a n d subjected to t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t . C o n s e q u e n z :
an e n o r m o u s waste of productive capability. 2) land is wasted by deer-forests
and gamepreserving. (165) T h e b r e e d i n g and fostering of winged g a m e ,
which is also carried to a great e x t r e m e in the H i g h l a n d s , retains extensive
30
moors u n d e r heather. A vigorous m o o r - b u r n would clear t h e soil of t h a t
e m b l e m of barrenness, a n d cover it with grass. But m o o r b u r n is p r o h i b i t e d
by t h e gamepreservers. (166) 3) Natural wastes. Besteht h a u p t s ä c h l i c h aus
mosses, swamps, seabeaches, a n d t h e seats of old and nearly extinct forests.
2 or three centuries ago, t h e surface of t h e lowlands was scarred by similar
35
wastes etc. (I.e.) 4) l a n d is wasted by imperfect cultivation. Ζ. B. das feeble
scraping of the surface soil w h i c h passes for digging m a y also be said to
waste t h e ground, by allowing t h e subsoil to lie useless to t h e work of vege
tation. (166, 167) II.) Waste of Manure. M a n u r i n g is the m e a n s of repairing
the waste of soil o c c a s i o n e d by p r o d u c t i o n . A waste of m a n u r e , therefore, is
virtually a waste of l a n d . (167) III.) Waste of Capital t h e landlords, i n s t e a d
of saving a part, have c o n s u m e d m o r e t h a n their | | 3 1 | i n c o m e s . T h e a n n u a l
40
169
rental of t h e 4 counties of Sutherland, Ross, Inverness, a n d Argyle, is
£ 597,496 18 sh.; b u t how m u c h of this, after paying the interest of m o n e y lenders a n d family i n c u m b r a n c e s , really goes into the h a n d s of the n o m i n a l proprietors? Perhaps %, % or n o t m o r e t h a n %. ... As for the large farmers, they are also in a great m e a s u r e an absentee class. T h e sheepwalks are
principally held by g e n t l e m e n who have farms in the south, a n d who carry
away with t h e m the profits a n d savings a c c u m u l a t e d in the H i g h l a n d s .
... t h u s dispersion of that surplus p r o d u c e which is the lifeblood of i n d u s try, the g e r m and the food of i m p r o v e m e n t . ( 1 6 7 - 1 6 9 ) IV.) Waste of Labour. In t h e Highlands there is a want of roads, of m a c h i n e r y , of impiem e n t s , and of every contrivance of intellect a n d art, by which m a n u a l
labour is assisted and facilitated. (169) V.) Waste of Time. (169 sqq.)
clearance der people from Glen Tilt von 1780-1790. D u r c h d e n Großvater
des jezigen Herzogs von Atholl. Dieses glen was occupied in the same ways
as other H i g h l a n d valleys, each family possessing a piece of arable land,
while the hill was held in c o m m o n . T h e people enjoyed full liberty to fish
in the Tilt, an excellent salmon river; a n d t h e pleasures a n d profits of the
chace were nearly as free to t h e m as to their chief. 3 or 4 p o u n d s a year was
all the rent paid for possession capable of supplying a family with a b u n d a n c e . ... T h e present D u k e ' s grandfather acquired a taste for deer. T h e
people were accustomed to take their cattle in the s u m m e r season to a
higher glen that is watered by the Tarff; b u t a large dyke was built at the
h e a d of G l e n Tilt, a n d they were forbidden to trespass, or suffer their stock
to trespass, beyond it. T h e outer region was consigned to the u n d i s t u r b e d
possession of the deer. These lighthearted creatures increased in n u m b e r ,
a n d paid no respect to their m a r c h e s . They leaped over the enclosure, a n d
destroyed the poor people's crops. T h e D u k e , observing this, gratified their
roving propensities, and added a few 1000 acres m o r e to their grazing
g r o u n d s at the expense of t h e people, who now b e g a n to be peeled of their
possessions like one of their elms of its leaves by an October storm. G r a d u ally the forest ground was extended, a n d gradually the m a r k s of cultivation
were effaced, till the last m a n left the glen, a n d the last cottage b e c a m e a
h e a p of ruins. T h e same devastation which W i l l i a m the Conqueror, a n d the
early N o r m a n kings, spread over the plains of H a m p s h i r e , in the 11 a n d
12 centuries, was thus reproduced, at the end of the 18, in this quiet Highl a n d valley. D e m Herzog bot sich ein Vorwand zur Extirpation seines Volkes. H i g h l a n d chiefs h o b e n regiments to serve in the A m e r i c a n war. D e r
D u k e of Atholl suchte a u c h zu enlist the G l e n Tilt people. Die m e i s t e n refusirten. T h e D u k e flew into a rage: a n d pressgangs were sent up the G l e n
to carry off the young m e n by force. D u r c h i m p r e s s m e n t u n d violence endlieh das regiment raised. N a c h d e m Krieg wollte er sie an die Ostindische
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Compagnie verkaufen; wurde only prevented by the rising m u t i n y of the
regiment. (22, 3) After the Conquest, t h e N o r m a n kings afforested large
portions of the soil of E n g l a n d in m u c h t h e s a m e way as t h e l a n d h o l d e r s
are now doing in the H i g h l a n d s . To s u c h an extent was this practice car5 ried, that an historian informs us, t h a t in the reign of King J o h n "the greatest part of the K i n g d o m " was t u r n e d into forest, and that so multiform a n d
oppressive were the forest laws, t h a t it was impossible for any m a n who
lived within the b o u n d a r i e s to escape the danger of falling a victim to
t h e m . To prepare the ground for these forests, the people required to be
10 driven o u t ... Cultivated land was laid waste, villages were destroyed, a n d
the inhabitants extirpated. Distress ensued, a n d discontent followed as a
n a t u r a l consequence. ... Zu R u n n y m e d e King J o h n was compelled to disafforest the land, a n d restore it to its n a t u r a l a n d appropriate u s e . (27) In
einer history, written by D a n i e l , in 1650 heißt es: " A n d 12 Knights or legall
15 m e n , " says this old writer, referring to m e a s u r e s adopted in t h e reign of
Henry III "are c h o s e n in every shire, u p o n their oath, to dispart the old
Forrests from the new. A n d all s u c h as were disafforested were disposed at
their pleasure who were to possesse t h e m . W h e r e u p o n they were laid open,
plowed, and improved, to the exceeding comfort and benefit of t h e subject,
20 whereby m e n , in stead of wild beasts, were sustained, and m o r e r o o m m a d e
for t h e m to use their industry." (166) |
171
I32| Dr. Justus Liebig.
Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung
auf Agricultur und Physiologie.
4* Auflage. 1842.
I) Erster Theil. Der chemische Prozeß
der
Ernährung
der
5
Vegetabilien.
Die allgemeinen Bestandtheile der Vegetabilien.
Der Kohlenstoff ist der B e s t a n d t e i l aller Pflanzen u n d zwar eines j e d e n
ihrer Organe. D i e H a u p t m a s s e aller Vegetabilien besteht aus Verbindungen,
welche Kohlenstoff u n d die Elemente des Wassers, u n d zwar in d e m n ä m l i c h e n Verhältniß wie im Wasser, enthalten; h i e r h e r gehören die Holzfaser,
das Stärkemehl, Zucker u n d Gummi. E i n e andre Klasse von Kohlenstoffverb i n d u n g e n enthält die E l e m e n t e des Wassers + einer gewissen M e n g e Sauerstoff; sie umfaßt m i t wenigen A u s n a h m e n die zahlreichen in d e n Pflanz e n v o r k o m m e n d e n organischen Säuren. E i n e dritte besteht aus
V e r b i n d u n g e n des Kohlenstoffs m i t Wasserstoff, welche entweder k e i n e n
Sauerstoff enthalten, oder wenn Sauerstoff e i n e n Bestandtheil davon ausm a c h t , so ist seine Q u a n t i t ä t stets kleiner, als d e m Gewichtverhältniß entspricht, in d e m er sich m i t Wasserstoff zu Wasser verbindet. Sie k ö n n e n
d e m n a c h betrachtet werden als V e r b i n d u n g e n des Kohlenstoffs m i t d e n
E l e m e n t e n des Wassers, + einer gewissen M e n g e Wasserstoff. D i e flüchtigen u n d fetten Oele, das Wachs, die Harze gehören dieser Klasse an. (4, 5.)
D i e organischen Säuren sind Bestandtheile aller Pflanzensäfte, u n d : m i t
wenigen A u s n a h m e n , an unorganische Basen, an Metalloxide, g e b u n d e n ; die
leztren fehlen in keiner Pflanze, sie bleiben n a c h der E i n ä s c h e r u n g dersel-
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Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig:
Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie
Heft XII. Seite 32
Aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie
b e n in der Asche zurück. D e r Stickstoff ist ein B e s t a n d t e i l des vegetabilischen Eiweisses, des Klebers; er ist in d e n Pflanzen in der F o r m v o n Säuren,
von indifferenten Stoffen u n d von e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e n V e r b i n d u n g e n enthalten, welche alle Eigenschaften von M e t a l l o x i d e n besitzen; die leztren heis5
sen organische Basen. S e i n e m Gewichtsverhältniß n a c h der Stickstoff der
kleinste Theil der M a s s e der Pflanzen; er fehlt aber in k e i n e m Vegetabil
oder Organ eines Vegetabils; w e n n er k e i n e n Bestandtheil eines Organs
ausmacht, so findet er sich d e n n o c h u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n in d e m Saft,
der die Organe durchdringt. Die Entwicklung einer Pflanze n a c h dieser
10 A u s e i n a n d e r s e t z u n g abhängig von der Gegenwart einer Kohlenstoffverbindung, welche ihr den Kohlenstoff, einer Stickstoffverbindung, welche ihr
d e n Stickstoff liefert; sie bedarf n o c h a u s s e r d e m des Wassers u n d seiner
E l e m e n t e , so wie eines Bodens, welcher die anorganischen M a t e r i e n darbietet, o h n e die sie n i c h t b e s t e h n k a n n . (5)
15
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Die Assimilation des Kohlenstoffes.
Die Pflanzenphysiologie betrachtet e i n e n G e m e n g t h e i l der Acker- u n d
D a m m e r d e , d e m m a n d e n N a m e n Humus gegeben hat, als das H a u p t n a h rungsmittel, was die Pflanzen aus d e m B o d e n a u f n e h m e n , u n d seine G e genwart als die wichtigste B e d i n g u n g seiner Fruchtbarkeit. Dieser H u m u s
ist das Product der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung von Pflanzen u n d Pfianzentheilen. (6) Die C h e m i k e r waren bis j e z t gewohnt, alle Zersetzungsproducte organischer V e r b i n d u n g von b r a u n e r oder braunschwarzer Farbe m i t Humussäure oder Humin zu b e z e i c h n e n , je n a c h d e m sie in Alkalien löslich waren
oder nicht; diese P r o d u c t e h a b e n aber i n ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n d E n t stehungsweise n i c h t das Geringste m i t e i n a n d e r gemein. (7) D i e Eigenschaften des H u m u s u n d der H u m u s s ä u r e der Chemiker sind von d e n
Pflanzenphysiologen unbegreiflicher Weise übertragen worden auf d e n
Körper i n der D a m m e r d e , d e n m a n m i t d e m n ä m l i c h e n N a m e n belegt ...
der H u m u s in der F o r m , wie er im B o d e n e n t h a l t e n ist, trägt zur E r n ä h r u n g
der Pflanzen n i c h t das Geringste bei. (8) Die Felder produciren K o h l e n stoff in der F o r m von Holz, H e u , G e t r e i d e u n d a n d e r e n Culturgewächsen,
deren Massen ausserordentlich u n g l e i c h sind. Auf 2500 Q u a d r a t m e t e r
Wald von m i t t l e r e m B o d e n wachsen 2650 Pfund lufttrocknes T a n n e n Fichten- Birken- etc H o l z . A u f derselben F l ä c h e W i e s e n erhält m a n i m
D u r c h s c h n i t t 2500 Pfd H e u . Die n ä m l i c h e F l ä c h e G e t r e i d e l a n d liefert
1 8 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 Pfd R u n k e l r ü b e n . A u f derselben F l ä c h e gewinnt m a n
800 Pfd Roggen u n d 1780 Pfd Stroh, im G a n z e n also 2580 Pfd. Analysirt
m a n n u r die Bestandtheile von Holz, H e u , etc., so findet m a n :
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2500 Q u a d r a t m e t e r Wald bringen hervor an Kohlenstoff 1007 Pfd
Wiese
1018
Culturland, Runkelrüben ohne Blätter
951
Getreide
1020.
A u s diesen T h a t s a c h e n folgt, daß »gleiche F l ä c h e n culturfähiges L a n d
eine gleiche Q u a n t i t ä t Kohlenstoff p r o d u c i r e n « ... Jedes Jahr n e h m e n wir
d e m Wald, der Wiese eine gewisse Q u a n t i t ä t von Kohlenstoff in der F o r m
v o n H e u u n d Holz u n d d e n n o c h n i m m t der Kohlenstoffgehalt des B o d e n s
zu, wird er reicher an H u m u s . Wird n i c h t gedüngt, wie G e t r e i d e u n d
F r u c h t l a n d . Dieser gedüngte B o d e n bringt nicht m e h r Kohlenstoff hervor,
als der W a l d u n d die Wiese, d e n e n er n i e ersezt wird. ( 1 2 - 1 4 ) D e r Kohlenstoff, v o m ge||33|düngten L a n d hervorgebracht, beträgt n i c h t m e h r als der
Kohlenstoff des u n g e d ü n g t e n ... D e r Kohlenstoff der Vegetabilien m u ß
aus einer a n d e r n Quelle s t a m m e n , u n d da es der B o d e n nicht ist, der i h n
liefert, so k a n n diese n u r die Atmosphäre sein. (15) Zu j e d e r Jahreszeit u n d
in allen Climaten hat m a n in 100 V o l u m t h e i l e n der Luft 21 V o l u m Sauerstoff mit so geringen A b w e i c h u n g e n gefunden, daß sie als Beobachtungsfehler angesehn werden m ü s s e n . W o h e r dieser u n v e r ä n d e r l i c h e G e h a l t der
Luft an Sauerstoff? D e r Sauerstoffgehalt der Luft ist eine erschöpfbare
Grösse. W e n n m a n erwägt, daß jeder M e n s c h in 24 S t u n d e n 57,2 Cubikfuß
(hessische) Sauerstoff in d e m A t h m u n g s p r o z e ß verzehrt, daß 10 Ctr Kohlenstoff bei i h r e m V e r b r e n n e n 5 8 1 1 2 Cubicfuß Sauerstoff verzehren, d a ß
eine einzige E i s e n h ü t t e H u n d e r t e von M i l l i o n e n Cubikfuß, d a ß eine kleine
Stadt wie Giessen, in d e m z u m H e i z e n d i e n e n d e n H o l z e allein ü b e r
1000 Millionen Cubikfuß Sauerstoff der A t m o s p h ä r e e n t z i e h e n , so u n b e greiflich, wenn keine Ursache existirt, w o d u r c h der w e g g e n o m m e n e Sauerstoff wieder ersezt wird, daß der Sauerstoffgehalt der Luft nicht kleiner geworden, daß die Luft in d e n T h r ä n e n k r ü g e n , die vor 1800 J a h r e n in
Pompeji verschüttet wurden, nicht m e h r davon als wie h e u t e enthält. (15,
16) Wo k o m m t die K o h l e n s ä u r e hin, die d u r c h das A t h m e n der Thiere,
durch Verbrennungsprozesse gebildet wird? E i n Cubicfuß Sauerstoff, der
sich mit Kohlenstoff zur K o h l e n s ä u r e vereinigt, ändert sein V o l u m e n
n i c h t ; aus den Billionen Cubicfuß verzehrten Sauerstoffgases sind ebenso
viel Billionen Cubicfuß K o h l e n s ä u r e e n t s t a n d e n u n d in die A t m o s p h ä r e
gesendet worden ... das Gewicht der K o h l e n s ä u r e n a h e Y
des Gewichts
der Luft. Dieser G e h a l t wechselt n a c h d e n Jahreszeiten, er ändert sich a b e r
n i c h t in verschiednen J a h r e n . (17) Es m u ß eine Ursache v o r h a n d e n sein,
welche die A n h ä u f u n g der K o h l e n s ä u r e hindert, u n d die sich b i l d e n d e u n aufhörlich wieder entfernt; eine Ursache, d u r c h welche der Luft der Sauerstoff wieder ersezt wird, den sie d u r c h Verbrennungsprozesse, d u r c h Verwesung u n d d u r c h die Respiration der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere verliert.
1000
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Beide Ursachen vereinigen sich zu einer einzigen in d e m Lebensprozesse
der Vegetabilien. D e r Kohlenstoff der Pflanzen s t a m m t ausschließlich aus
der A t m o s p h ä r e . In der A t m o s p h ä r e existirt der Kohlenstoff n u r in der
F o r m der K o h l e n s ä u r e , also in der F o r m einer Sauerstoffverbindung. D i e
H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l e der Vegetabilien, gegen deren Masse die M a s s e der
übrigen verschwindend klein ist, e n t h a l t e n Kohlenstoff u n d die E l e m e n t e
des Wassers; alle z u s a m m e n e n t h a l t e n weniger Sauerstoff als die K o h l e n säure. D e m n a c h gewiß, d a ß die Pflanzen, i n d e m sie d e n Kohlenstoff der
Kohlensäure sich aneignen, die Fähigkeit besitzen m ü s s e n , die K o h l e n säure zu zerlegen; die Bildung ihrer H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l e . sezt e i n e Trenn u n g des Kohlenstoffes von d e m Sauerstoff voraus; der leztre m u ß , während d e m L e b e n s p r o z e ß der Pflanze, w ä h r e n d sich der Kohlenstoff m i t
d e m Wasser oder seinen E l e m e n t e n verbindet, an die A t m o s p h ä r e wieder
freigegeben werden. F ü r jedes V o l u m e n K o h l e n s ä u r e , deren Kohlenstoff
Bestandtheil der Pflanze wird, m u ß die A t m o s p h ä r e ein gleiches V o l u m e n
Sauerstoff empfangen. ([17,] 18) D i e Pflanze liefert nicht allein d e m thierischen Organismus in i h r e n O r g a n e n die M i t t e l zur N a h r u n g , zur E r n e u e rung u n d V e r m e h r u n g seiner Masse, sie entfernt nicht n u r aus der Atmosphäre die schädlichen Stoffe, die seine Existenz gefährden, s o n d e r n sie
ist es a u c h allein, welche d e n h ö h e r e n organischen Lebensprozeß, die R e spiration, m i t der ihr u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n N a h r u n g versieht; sie ist eine unversiegbare Quelle des reinsten u n d frischesten Sauerstoffgases, sie ersezt der
Atmosphäre in j e d e m M o m e n t e was sie verlor. Alle übrigen Verhältnisse
gleichgesezt, a t h m e n die Thiere Kohlenstoff aus, die Pflanzen a t h m e n i h n
ein, das M e d i u m , in d e m es geschieht, die Luft, k a n n in ihrer Z u s a m m e n setzung n i c h t geändert werden. (20) Die A t m o s p h ä r e enthält 2800 Billion e n Pfund Kohlenstoff, eine Q u a n t i t ä t , welche m e h r beträgt, als das G e wicht aller Pflanzen, der Stein- u n d Braunkohlenlager auf d e m g a n z e n
Erdkörper z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n . D e r Kohlenstoffgehalt des Meerwassers
ist verhältnißmässig n o c h grösser. (20, 21) Die W u r z e l n u n d alle Theile der
Pflanzen, welche die n ä m l i c h e Fähigkeit besitzen, saugen b e s t ä n d i g W a s ser, sie a t h m e n K o h l e n s ä u r e ein; diese Fähigkeit ist u n a b h ä n g i g v o m Sonn e n l i c h t e ; sie häuft sich während des Tages im Schatten u n d bei N a c h t in
allen Theilen der Pflanze an, u n d erst von d e m Augenblicke an, wo die
Sonnenstrahlen sie treffen, geht die Assimilation des Kohlenstoffs, die
A u s h a u c h u n g von Sauerstoffgas vor sich; erst in d e m M o m e n t e , wo der
K e i m die Erde durchbricht, färbt er sich von der äussersten Spitze abwärts,
die eigentliche H o l z b i l d u n g n i m m t ihren Anfang. D i e Tropen, der A e q u a tor, die h e i ß e n Klimate, wo ein selten bewölkter H i m m e l der S o n n e gestattet, ihre g l ü h e n d e n Strahlen einer u n e n d l i c h reichen Vegetation z u z u s e n den, sind die eigentlichen ewig unversiegbaren Quellen des Sauerstoffga-
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to,
ses; in d e n gemässigten u n d kalten Z o n e n , wo künstliche W ä r m e die
fehlende S o n n e ersetzen m u ß , wird die K o h l e n s ä u r e , welche die tropischen
Pflanzen nährt, im Ueberfluß erzeugt; derselbe Luftstrom, welcher, veranlaßt d u r c h die U m d r e h u n g der Erde, seinen W e g von d e m A e q u a t o r z u d e n
Polen zurückgelegt hat, bringt u n s , zu d e m A e q u a t o r z u r ü c k k e h r e n d , d e n
dort erzeugten Sauerstoff u n d führt i h m die K o h l e n s ä u r e u n s e r e r W i n t e r
zu. (22) Die Versuche von de Saussure h a b e n bewiesen, daß die oberen
S c h i c h t e n der Luft m e h r K o h l e n s ä u r e e n t h a l t e n als die u n t e r e n , die m i t
d e n Pflanzen in Berührung sich befinden, d a ß der ||34| Kohlensäuregehalt
der Luft grösser ist bei N a c h t als bei Tag, wo das eingesaugte k o h l e n s a u r e
G a s zersezt wird. (I.e.) Die Pflanzen verbessern die Luft, i n d e m sie die
K o h l e n s ä u r e entfernen, i n d e m sie d e n Sauerstoff erneuern. (I.e.) Die Cultur erhöht den G e s u n d h e i t s z u s t a n d der G e g e n d e n ; m i t d e m Aufhören aller
Cultur werden sonst gesunde G e g e n d e n u n b e w o h n b a r . W i r e r k e n n e n in
d e m L e b e n der Pflanze, in der Assimilation des Kohlenstoffs, als der wichtigsten ihrer F u n k t i o n e n , eine Sauerstoffausscheidung, m a n k a n n sagen,
eine Sauerstofferzeugung. (23) Materien, wie Zucker, A m y l o n etc, welche
Kohlenstoff u n d die E l e m e n t e des Wassers enthalten, sind P r o d u c t e des
Lebensprozesses der Pflanzen, sie leben nur, insofern sie diese erzeugen.
Dasselbe m u ß von d e m H u m u s gelten, d e n n er k a n n ebenso wie diese, in
Pflanzen gebildet werden. (24) Die von d e n Blättern, von den W u r z e l n m i t
d e m Wasser a u f g e n o m m e n e K o h l e n s ä u r e wird m i t der A b n a h m e des Lichtes n i c h t m e h r zersezt, sie bleibt in d e m Safte gelöst, der alle Theile der
Pflanze durchdringt; i n j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t e verdunstet m i t d e m Wasser
aus den Blättern eine i h r e m G e h a l t e n t s p r e c h e n d e M e n g e K o h l e n s ä u r e .
E i n Boden, in welchem die Pflanzen kräftig vegetiren, enthält als eine nie
fehlende Bedingung ihres Lebens u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n eine gewisse
Q u a n t i t ä t Feuchtigkeit, nie fehlt in d i e s e m Boden kohlensaures G a s ,
gleichgültig, ob es von d e m s e l b e n aus der Luft a u f g e n o m m e n oder d u r c h
die Verwesung von Vegetabilien erzeugt wird; kein B r u n n e n - oder Quellwasser, nie ist das Regenwasser frei von K o h l e n s ä u r e ; in keinerlei P e r i o d e n
des L e b e n s einer Pflanze hört das V e r m ö g e n der W u r z e l auf, Feuchtigkeit
u n d m i t derselben Luft u n d K o h l e n s ä u r e e i n z u s a u g e n . K a n n es n u n auffallend sein, daß diese K o h l e n s ä u r e m i t d e m verdunsteten Wasser von der
Pflanze an die A t m o s p h ä r e u n v e r ä n d e r t wieder zurückgegeben wird, w e n n
die Ursache der Fixirung des Kohlenstoffs, w e n n das Licht fehlt? (29, 30)
D i e ß also der F a l l w ä h r e n d d e r N a c h t . Diese A u s h a u c h u n g von Kohlensäure h a t m i t d e m Assimilationsprozeß, m i t d e m L e b e n der Pflanze ebenso
wenig zu t h u n , als die E i n s a u g u n g des Sauerstoffes. Beide Stenn m i t e i n a n der n i c h t in der geringsten Beziehung, der eine ist ein rein m e c h a n i s c h e r ,
der a n d r e ein rein chemischer Prozeß. E i n D o c h t von Baumwolle, den m a n
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in eine L a m p e e i n t a u c h t , welche eine m i t K o h l e n s ä u r e gesättigte Flüssigkeit enthält, wird sich grade so verhalten wie e i n e lebende Pflanze in der
N a c h t , Wasser u n d K o h l e n s ä u r e werden d u r c h Capillarität aufgesaugt,
beide verdunsten a u ß e r h a l b an d e m D o c h t e wieder. (30) D i e Lebenskraft
ist die e i n e m j e d e n e i n z e l n e n Organ i n n e w o h n e n d e Fähigkeit, sich selbst
zu j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t e n e u wieder zu erzeugen: hierzu g e h ö r e n Stoffe,
welche seine E l e m e n t e enthalten, u n d diese Stoffe m ü s s e n sich zu M e t a m o r p h o s e n eignen. Alle Organe z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n k ö n n e n kein einzelnes E l e m e n t , k e i n e n Stickstoff, Kohlenstoff oder ein Metalloxid erzeugen.
(38) Ist die Masse der d a r g e b o t n e n Stoffe zu groß, oder sind sie keiner M e tamorphose fähig, oder ü b e n sie eine c h e m i s c h e Wirkung irgend einer Art
auf das Organ aus, so unterliegt das Organ selbst einer M e t a m o r p h o s e . Alle
sogenannten Gifte gehören der leztren Klasse an. (39) W e n n wir m i t Bes t i m m t h e i t wissen, daß es e i n e n Körper giebt, der H u m u s z.B., welcher fähig ist, eine Pflanze bis zur vollendeten Entwicklung mit N a h r u n g zu versehn, so führt u n s eine K e n n t n i ß seines Verhaltens u n d seiner
Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g auf die B e d i n g u n g e n des Lebens einer Pflanze. Es m u ß
sich alsdann m i t d e m H u m u s grade so verhalten, wie m i t e i n e m einzigen
N a h r u n g s m i t t e l , was die N a t u r für d e n a n i m a l i s c h e n Organismus producirt, n ä m l i c h mit der Milch. W i r finden in der Milch einen an Stickstoff reic h e n Körper, den Käse, eine Substanz, welche reich an Wasserstoff ist, die
Butter, e i n e n dritten, welcher eine grosse M e n g e Sauerstoff u n d Wasserstoff
in d e m Verhältniß wie im Wasser enthält, d e n Milchzucker; in der Butter
befindet sich eine der a r o m a t i s c h e n Substanzen, die Buttersäure; sie enthält
in Auflösung milchsaures Natron, phosphorsauren Kalk, u n d Kochsalz. (I.e.)
Ursprung und Verhalten des Humus.
Alle Pflanzen u n d Pflanzentheile erleiden m i t d e m Aufhören des L e b e n s
zwei Zersetzungsprozesse, von d e n e n m a n d e n e i n e n Gährung oder Fäulniß,
d e n a n d e r n Verwesung n e n n t . Die Verwesung b e z e i c h n e t e i n e n l a n g s a m e n
30 Verbrennungsprozeß, d e n Vorgang also, wo die verbrennlichen Bestandtheile des verwesenden Körpers sich m i t d e m Sauerstoff der Luft verbinden. Die Verwesung des H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l s aller Vegetabilien, der Holzfaser, zeigt eine E r s c h e i n u n g e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e r Art. Mit Sauerstoff in
Berührung, m i t Luft u m g e b e n , verwandelt sie n ä m l i c h den Sauerstoff in
35 ein i h m gleiches V o l u m e n kohlensaures G a s ; m i t d e m Verschwinden des
Sauerstoffs hört die Verwesung auf. W i r d dieses kohlensaure G a s hinwegg e n o m m e n u n d durch Sauerstoff ersezt, so fängt die Verwesung von
N e u e m an, d. h. Sauerstoff wird wieder in K o h l e n s ä u r e verwandelt. D i e
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Holzfaser besteht n u n aus Kohlenstoff u n d d e n E l e m e n t e n des Wassers;
von allem a n d e r n abgesehn, geht ihre V e r b r e n n u n g vor sich, wie w e n n m a n
reine Kohle bei sehr h o h e n T e m p e r a t u r e n verbrennt, grade so als ob kein
Wasserstoff u n d Sauerstoff m i t ihr in der Holzfaser v e r b u n d e n wäre. D i e
Vollendung dieses Ver||35|brennungsprozesses erfordert eine sehr lange
Zeit; eine unerläßliche B e d i n g u n g zu seiner U n t e r h a l t u n g ist die Gegenwart von Wasser; Alkalien befördern ihn, S ä u r e n verhindern ihn, alle a n t i septischen Materien, schweflige Säure, Quecksilbersalze u n d brenzliche Oele
h e b e n i h n gänzlich auf. Die in Verwesung begriffne Holzfaser ist der Körper,
d e n wir Humus n e n n e n . (43, 44) In d e m s e l b e n G r a d e als die Verwesung
der Holzfaser vorangeschritten ist, v e r m i n d e r t sich ihre Fähigkeit zu verwesen, d . h . das u m g e b e n d e Sauerstoffgas in K o h l e n s ä u r e zu verwandeln; zulezt bleibt eine gewisse M e n g e einer b r a u n e n oder kohlenartigen S u b s t a n z
zurück, der sie gänzlich fehlt, m a n n e n n t sie Moder; sie ist das Product der
vollendeten Verwesung der Holzfaser. D e r M o d e r m a c h t d e n H a u p t b e standtheil aller Braunkohlenlager u n d des Torfes aus. In e i n e m Boden,
welcher der Luft zugänglich ist, verhält sich der H u m u s genau, wie an der
Luft selbst; er ist eine langsame äusserst a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n säure. U m jedes kleinste T h e i l c h e n des verwesenden H u m u s entsteht, auf
K o s t e n des Sauerstoffs der Luft, eine A t m o s p h ä r e von K o h l e n s ä u r e . In der
Cultur wird, d u r c h Bearbeitung u n d Auflockerung der Erde, der Luft ein
möglichst u n g e h i n d e r t e r u n d freier Zutritt verschafft. Ein so vorbereiteter
u n d feuchter Boden enthält also eine A t m o s p h ä r e von Kohlensäure, u n d
d a m i t die erste u n d wichtigste N a h r u n g für die j u n g e n Pflanzen welche
sich darauf entwickeln soll. Im F r ü h l i n g e , wo die Organe fehlen, welche
die N a t u r b e s t i m m t hat, die N a h r u n g aus der A t m o s p h ä r e a u f z u n e h m e n ,
wo diese Organe erst gebildet werden, sind es die B e s t a n d t e i l e des Saam e n s , welche zuerst u n d ausschließlich zur Bildung der W u r z e l n verwendet werden; m i t jeder Wurzelfaser erhält die Pflanze e i n e n M u n d , eine
Lunge, e i n e n Magen. V o n d e m A u g e n b l i c k e an, wo sich die ersten W u r z e l fasern gebildet h a b e n , sind sie es, welche die F u n k t i o n e n der Blätter übern e h m e n , sie führen aus der A t m o s p h ä r e , in der sie sich befinden, aus d e m
B o d e n n ä m l i c h , N a h r u n g zu; von d e m H u m u s s t a m m t die K o h l e n s ä u r e
her. D u r c h Auflockerung des Bodens u m die j u n g e Pflanze e r n e u e r n u n d
vervielfältigen wir d e n Zutritt der Luft, wir begünstigen d a m i t die Bildung
der K o h l e n s ä u r e ; die Q u a n t i t ä t der erzeugten N a h r u n g würde sich vermindern m i t jeder Schwierigkeit, die sich im B o d e n dieser Lufterneuerung entgegenstellt; bei e i n e m gewissen G r a d e der Entwicklung der Pflanze ist sie
es selbst, die diesen Luftwechsel bewirkt. Die A t m o s p h ä r e von K o h l e n säure, welche d e n unverwesten Theil des H u m u s vor weiterer Verwesung
schüzt, wird von den feinen W u r z e l h a a r e n , d e n W u r z e l n selbst aufgesaugt
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u n d h i n w e g g e n o m m e n , sie wird ersezt d u r c h atmosphärische Luft, die
ihren Platz e i n n i m m t ; die Verwesung schreitet fort, es wird eine n e u e
Q u a n t i t ä t K o h l e n s ä u r e gebildet. In dieser Zeit empfängt die Pflanze von
den W u r z e l n u n d äusseren O r g a n e n gleichzeitig N a h r u n g , sie schreitet
rasch ihrer V o l l e n d u n g entgegen. Ist die Pflanze völlig entwickelt, sind ihre
Organe der E r n ä h r u n g völlig ausgebildet, so bedarf sie der K o h l e n s ä u r e des
Bodens n i c h t mehr. M a n g e l an Feuchtigkeit, völlige T r o c k e n h e i t des Bodens h e m m e n die V o l l e n d u n g ihrer Entwicklung nicht m e h r , w e n n sie v o m
T h a u u n d der Luft soviel Feuchtigkeit empfängt, als sie zur V e r m i t t l u n g
der Assimilation bedarf; im heissen S o m m e r schöpft sie d e n Kohlenstoff
ausschließlich aus der Luft. W i r wissen bei d e n Pflanzen nicht, welche
H ö h e u n d Stärke i h n e n die N a t u r angewiesen hat, wir k e n n e n n u r das gewöhnliche M a a ß ihrer Grösse. ... die kleine Teltower R ü b e wird in e i n e m
Boden, wo ihr frei steht, soviel N a h r u n g a u f z u n e h m e n , als sie k a n n , zu
e i n e m m e h r e r e Pfunde schweren Dickwanst. ( 4 4 - 4 6 ) Die Masse einer
Pflanze steht im Verhältniß zu der Oberfläche der Organe, welche bestimmt sind,
Nahrung zuzufügen. Mit j e d e r Wurzelfaser, j e d e m Blatt gewinnt die Pflanze
e i n e n M u n d u n d M a g e n m e h r . D e r Thätigkeit der Wurzeln, N a h r u n g aufz u n e h m e n , wird n u r d u r c h M a n g e l eine G r e n z e gesezt, ist sie im Ueberfluß
vorhanden, u n d wird sie zur A u s b i l d u n g der v o r h a n d n e n Organe n i c h t völlig verzehrt, so kehrt dieser U e b e r s c h u ß nicht in den B o d e n zurück, sondern er wird in der Pflanze zur Hervorbringung von n e u e n Organen verwendet. N e b e n der v o r h a n d n e n Zelle entsteht eine n e u e , n e b e n d e m
e n t s t a n d n e n Zweig u n d Blatt entwickelt sich ein n e u e r Zweig, ein n e u e s
Blatt; o h n e U e b e r s c h u ß an N a h r u n g wären diese n i c h t zur Entwicklung gek o m m e n . D e r i n d e m S a a m e n entwickelte Z u c k e r u n d Schleim verschwindet mit der A u s b i l d u n g der Wurzelfasern, der in d e m Holzkörper, in d e n
W u r z e l n e n t s t e h e n d e Z u c k e r u n d Schleim verschwindet m i t der Entwicklung der Knospen, g r ü n e n Triebe u n d Blätter. M i t der Ausbildung, m i t der
A n z a h l der Organe, der Zweige u n d Blätter, d e n e n die A t m o s p h ä r e N a h rung liefert, wächst in d e m n ä m l i c h e n Verhältnisse ihre Fähigkeit, N a h rung a u f z u n e h m e n , u n d a n Masse z u z u n e h m e n , d e n n diese F ä h i g k e i t
n i m m t im Verhältniß wie ihre Oberfläche zu. Die ausgebildeten Blätter,
Triebe u n d Zweige befürfen zu ihrer eigenen Erhaltung der N a h r u n g n i c h t
mehr, sie n e h m e n an U m f a n g n i c h t m e h r zu; um als Organe fortzubestehn,
h a b e n sie ausschließlich n u r die M i t t e l nöthig, die F u n k t i o n zu u n t e r h a l ten, zu der die N a t u r sie b e s t i m m t hat, sie sind nicht ihrer selbst wegen
vorhanden. (46, 7) ||36| W i r wissen, daß diese F u n k t i o n in ihrer F ä h i g k e i t
besteht, die K o h l e n s ä u r e der Luft e i n z u s a u g e n u n d u n t e r d e m Einfluß des
Lichts, bei Gegenwart von Feuchtigkeit, ihren Kohlenstoff sich anzueign e n . (47) Diese F u n k t i o n ist unausgesezt, von der ersten Entwicklung an,
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in Thätigkeit, sie hört nicht auf m i t ihrer völligen A u s b i l d u n g . A b e r die
n e u e n , aus dieser unausgesezt f o r t d a u e r n d e n Assimilation h e r v o r g e h e n d e n
Producte, sie werden n i c h t m e h r für ihre eigne Entwicklung verbraucht, sie
d i e n e n jezt zur weitren A u s b i l d u n g des Holzkörpers u n d aller ihr ä h n l i c h
z u s a m m e n g e s e z t e n festen Stoffe, es sind die Blätter, welche jezt die Bild u n g des Zuckers, des A m y l o n s , der S ä u r e n vermitteln. Solange sie fehlten, h a t t e n die W u r z e l n diese Verrichtung in B e z i e h u n g auf diejenigen
M a t e r i e n ü b e r n o m m e n , welche der H a l m , die K n o s p e , das Blatt u n d die
Zweige zu ihrer A u s b i l d u n g bedurften. In dieser Periode des L e b e n s n e h m e n die Organe der Assimilation aus der A t m o s p h ä r e m e h r N a h r u n g s Stoffe auf, als sie selbst verzehren, u n d m i t der fortschreitenden Entwicklung des Holzkörpers, wo der Zufluß an N a h r u n g i m m e r der n ä m l i c h e
bleibt, ändert sich die R i c h t u n g in der sie verwendet wird, es beginnt die
Entwicklung der Blüthen, u n d m i t der A u s b i l d u n g der F r u c h t ist b e i den
m e i s t e n Pflanzen der F u n k t i o n der Blätter eine G r e n z e gesezt, d e n n die
P r o d u c t e ihrer Thätigkeit finden keine V e r w e n d u n g m e h r . Sie unterliegen
der Einwirkung des Sauerstoffs, wechseln in Folge derselben gewöhnlich
ihre Farbe u n d fallen ab. Zwischen der Periode der Blüthe u n d Fruchtbild u n g entstehn in allen Pflanzen in Folge einer M e t a m o r p h o s e der vorhandn e n Stoffe eine R e i h e von n e u e n V e r b i n d u n g e n , welche vorher fehlten, von
Materien, welche Bestandtheile der sich b i l d e n d e n Blüthe, F r u c h t oder des
S a a m e n s a u s m a c h e n . E i n e organisch-chemische M e t a m o r p h o s e ist n u n
der Akt der U m s e t z u n g der E l e m e n t e einer oder m e h r e r e r V e r b i n d u n g e n
in zwei oder m e h r e r e n e u e , welche diese E l e m e n t e in einer n e u e n W e i s e
gruppirt, oder in a n d e r n Verhältnissen e n t h a l t e n . Von zwei V e r b i n d u n g e n ,
die in Folge dieser U m s e t z u n g e n gebildet werden, bleibt die eine als Bes t a n d t e i l in der Blüthe oder F r u c h t zurück, die a n d r e wird in der F o r m
von E x c r e m e n t e n von der W u r z e l abgeschieden. Die E r n ä h r u n g des thierischen sowie des vegetabilischen O r g a n i s m u s ist o h n e A u s s c h e i d u n g von
E x c r e m e n t e n nicht denkbar. D e r O r g a n i s m u s erzeugt nichts, sondern verwandelt nur, seine Erhaltung u n d R e p r o d u c t i o n geschieht in Folge der M e tamorphose der Nahrungsstoffe, die seine E l e m e n t e e n t h a l t e n . (48, ' 9)
Blausäure u n d Wasser enthalten die E l e m e n t e von Kohlensäure, A m m o niak, Harnstoff, Cyanursäure, Cyamelid, Oxalsäure, A m e i s e n s ä u r e , M e lam, A m m e l i d , M e l a m i n , A m m e i i n , A z u l m i n , Mellon, Mellonwasserstoff,
A l l a n t o i n etc. Diese in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n e n d l i c h v e r s c h i e d n e n
Stoffe k ö n n e n aus Blausäure u n d Wasser in c h e m i s c h e n M e t a m o r p h o s e n
der mannigfaltigsten Art wirklich gebildet werden. D e r ganze Prozeß der
E r n ä h r u n g der Organismen läßt sich d u r c h die Betrachtung einer einzigen
dieser M e t a m o r p h o s e n zur A n s c h a u u n g bringen. Blausäure u n d Wasser
ζ. B. in Berührung m i t Salzsäure zerlegen sich augenblicklich in A m e i s e n -
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säure u n d A m m o n i a k ; i n b e i d e n sind die E l e m e n t e der Blausäure u n d des
Wassers, obwohl in einer a n d e r n F o r m , in andrer Weise geordnet, enthalten. Es ist das Streben der Salzsäure n a c h einer Ausgleichung, ( d u r c h e i n e
Base) wodurch diese M e t a m o r p h o s e bedingt worden ist. In Folge dieses
Strebens erleiden Blausäure u n d Wasser gleichzeitig eine Z e r s e t z u n g ; der
Stickstoff der Blausäure u n d der Wasserstoff in d e m Wasser treten zu einer
Basis, zu A m m o n i a k z u s a m m e n , w o m i t sich die Säure verbindet. I h r e m
Streben ist Befriedigung geworden, ihr Charakter verschwindet. A m m o n i a k
war n u r seinen E l e m e n t e n n a c h v o r h a n d e n , aber die Fähigkeit, A m m o n i a k
zu bilden, war da. (50) In Folge der Bildung von A m m o n i a k sind K o h l e n stoff u n d Wasserstoff, die a n d e r n E l e m e n t e der Blausäure, m i t d e m Sauerstoff des zersezten Wassers, zur A m e i s e n s ä u r e z u s a m m e n g e t r e t e n ; die Elem e n t e u n d die Fähigkeit sich zu verbinden, waren v o r h a n d e n . D i e
A m e i s e n s ä u r e ist also hier das E x c r e m e n t ; das A m m o n i a k repräsentirt d e n
durch das Organ assimilirten Stoff. D a s Organ n i m m t von d e n d a r g e b o t n e n
N a h r u n g s m i t t e l n , was es zu seiner eignen Erhaltung, was es zu seiner R e production bedarf. Die ü b r i g e n E l e m e n t e , welche n i c h t assimilirt werden,
treten z u n e u e n V e r b i n d u n g e n , z u E x c r e m e n t e n , z u s a m m e n . W ä h r e n d
ihres Wegs d u r c h d e n O r g a n i s m u s k o m m e n die E x c r e m e n t e des e i n e n Organs in B e r ü h r u n g m i t e i n e m a n d e r n , d u r c h dessen Einwirkung sie eine
n e u e M e t a m o r p h o s e erfahren; die E x c r e m e n t e des e i n e n Organs e n t h a l t e n
die E l e m e n t e der N a h r u n g s m i t t e l für ein zweites u n d folgendes; zulezt
werden die, keiner M e t a m o r p h o s e m e h r fähigen Stoffe d u r c h die d a z u b e s t i m m t e n Organe aus d e m O r g a n i s m u s entfernt. Jedes Organ ist für seine
i h m e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e F u n k t i o n e n eingerichtet. E i n Cubiczoll Schwefelwasserstoff in die Lunge gebracht, würde augenblicklichen T o d bewirken, in
d e m D a r m k a n a l wird e s u n t e r m a n c h e n U m s t ä n d e n o h n e N a c h t h e i l gebildet. (51, 2) D u r c h die Nieren werden die in Folge von M e t a m o r p h o s e n ents t a n d n e n stickstoffhaltigen, d u r c h die Leber die an Kohlenstoff reichen
u n d d u r c h die Lunge alle Wasserstoff u n d sauerstoffreichen E x c r e m e n t e aus
d e m Körper entfernt. D e r Weingeist, die keiner Assimilation fähigen ätherischen Oele verdunsten nicht durch die H a u t , sondern d u r c h die L u n g e .
Die Respiration ist eine langsame V e r b r e n n u n g , d. h. eine sich stets erneuernde Verwesung. (52) D u r c h die Harnwege wird der überflüssige Stickstoff
als ||37| flüssiges E x c r e m e n t , d u r c h d e n D a r m k a n a l alle, keiner M e t a m o r phose m e h r fähigen festen Stoffe, u n d durch die Lunge alle gasförmigen
aus d e m Körper entfernt. (53) A u s d e m in der G ä h r u n g gebildeten Fuselöl
der Kartoffeln erzeugen wir das flüchtige Oel der Baldrianwurzel m i t allen
seinen Eigenschaften, aus e i n e m krystallinischen Stoff aus der W e i d e n rinde b e k o m m e n wir das Oel der Spiraea ulmaria. (Piria) W i r sind im
Stande, A m e i s e n s ä u r e , Oxalsäure, Harnstoff, die krystallinischen Körper
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in der allantoischen Flüssigkeit der K u h , lauter Producte der Lebenskraft,
in u n s e r n Laboratorien zu erzeugen. (54) M e t a m o r p h o s e n v o r h a n d n e r Verb i n d u n g e n gehn in d e m g a n z e n Lebensakte der Pflanzen vor sich, u n d in
Folge derselben gasförmige Secretionen d u r c h die Blätter u n d Blüthen, feste E x c r e m e n t e in d e n R i n d e n u n d flüssige lösliche Stoffe d u r c h die W u r zeln. Diese Sekretionen finden Statt u n m i t t e l b a r vor d e m Beginn u n d währ e n d der D a u e r der Blüthe, sie v e r m i n d e r n sich n a c h der A u s b i l d u n g der
F r u c h t ; durch die W u r z e l n werden kohlenstoffreiche S u b s t a n z e n abgeschieden u n d von d e m B o d e n a u f g e n o m m e n . In diesen Stoffen, welche u n fähig sind, eine Pflanze zu ernähren, empfängt der B o d e n d e n größten
Theil des Kohlenstoffes wieder, d e n er d e n Pflanzen im Anfang ihrer Entwicklung in der F o r m von K o h l e n s ä u r e gegeben h a t t e . D i e von d e m B o d e n
a u f g e n o m m e n e n löslichen E x c r e m e n t e g e h n d u r c h d e n Einfluß der Luft
u n d Feuchtigkeit einer fortschreitenden V e r ä n d e r u n g entgegen; i n d e m sie
der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung unterliegen, erzeugt sich aus i h n e n wieder der
Nahrungsstoff einer n e u e n G e n e r a t i o n , sie g e h n in Humus über. Die im
Herbst fallenden Blätter im W a l d e , die alten W u r z e l n der Graspflanzen auf
d e n Wiesen verwandeln sich d u r c h diese Einflüsse ebenfalls in H u m u s . In
dieser F o r m empfängt der B o d e n i m G a n z e n a n Kohlenstoff m e h r wieder
als der verwesende H u m u s als K o h l e n s ä u r e abgab. (55, 6) Im Allgemeinen
erschöpft keine Pflanze in ihrem Zustande der normalen Entwicklung den Boden
in Beziehung auf seinen Gehalt an Kohlenstoff; sie macht ihn im Gegentheil reicher daran. (56) D e r H u m u s ernährt die Pflanze nicht, weil er im löslichen
Z u s t a n d e von derselben a u f g e n o m m e n u n d als solcher assimilirt wird, sondern weil er eine langsame u n d a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n s ä u r e darstellt, welche als das H a u p t n a h r u n g s m i t t e l die W u r z e l n der j u n g e n Pflanzen zu einer Zeit m i t N a h r u n g versieht, wo die äussern Organe der
a t m o s p h ä r i s c h e n E r n ä h r u n g fehlen. Die Oberfläche der Erde war vor der
gegenwärtigen Periode m i t Pflanzen bedeckt, deren T r ü m m e r u n d U e b e r r e ste die Braun- u n d Steinkohlenlager bilden. Alle diese riesenhaften Palm e n , Gräser, F a r r e n k r ä u t e r etc gehören zu Pflanzenarten, d e n e n die N a t u r
d u r c h eine u n g e h e u r e A u s d e h n u n g der Blätter die Fähigkeit gegeben hat,
den B o d e n für ihre N a h r u n g ganz zu e n t b e h r e n . (I.e.) Es k a n n hier n i c h t
u n e r w ä h n t gelassen werden, daß die gewöhnliche Holzkohle ... d e n H u m u s
aufs Vollständigste vertreten k a n n . M a n k a n n in ausgeglühtem (etwas ausgewaschnen) Kohlenpulver Pflanzen z u r üppigsten Entwicklung, z u m Blüh e n u n d zur F r u c h t b i l d u n g bringen, wenn sie m i t Regenwasser feucht erh a l t e n werden. (58)
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Die Assimilation des Wasserstoffs.
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Die Luft enthält d e n Kohlenstoff der Gewächse in der F o r m von K o h l e n säure, also in der F o r m einer Sauerstoffverbindung. Der feste Theil der
Pflanzen, die Holzfaser, e n t h ä l t Kohlenstoff u n d die Bestandtheile des
Wassers, oder die E l e m e n t e der K o h l e n s ä u r e + einer gewissen M e n g e
Wasserstoff. W i r k ö n n e n u n s das Holz e n t s t a n d e n d e n k e n aus d e m K o h lenstoff der K o h l e n s ä u r e , der sich u n t e r Mitwirkung des S o n n e n l i c h t s m i t
den E l e m e n t e n des v o r h a n d n e n Wassers verbindet. (59) Oder: »die Pflanze
zerlegt u n t e r d e n s e l b e n B e d i n g u n g e n bei Gegenwart von K o h l e n s ä u r e das
Wasser, sein Wasserstoff wird m i t der K o h l e n s ä u r e assimilirt, w ä h r e n d sein
Sauerstoff abgeschieden wird; zu 100 Theilen K o h l e n s ä u r e m ü s s e n d e m n a c h 2,77 Theile Wasserstoff treten, um die Holzfaser zu bilden, u n d es
werden 72,35 Gewichtstheile, eine d e m G e h a l t der K o h l e n s ä u r e g e n a u gleiche Q u a n t i t ä t Sauerstoff, die z u m Theil m i t d i e s e m Wasserstoff v e r b u n d e n
waren, in der F o r m von G a s abgeschieden. E i n M o r g e n Wiese, W a l d oder
ü b e r h a u p t cultivirtes L a n d ersezt also d e n Sauerstoff der A t m o s p h ä r e wieder, welcher d u r c h 10 Ctr Kohlenstoff bei seiner V e r b r e n n u n g in der Luft,
oder durch d e n Respirationsprozeß der Thiere verzehrt wird. Die Holzfaser
enthält Kohle u n d die Bestandtheile des Wassers; es ist aber in d e m H o l z
m e h r Wasserstoff e n t h a l t e n als d i e s e m Verhältniß entspricht; dieser W a s serstoffbefindet sich darin in der F o r m v o n Blattgrün, Oel, Harz u n d überh a u p t in der F o r m sehr wasserstoffreicher M a t e r i e n ; für jedes A e q u i v a l e n t
Wasserstoff, was in einer dieser F o r m e n von der Pflanze assimilirt wird,
m u ß 1 Aequivalent Sauerstoff an die A t m o s p h ä r e zurückgegeben werden.«
(60) Die m e i s t e n Pflanzengebilde e n t h a l t e n Wasserstoff in der F o r m von
Wasser, welches sich ||38| als solches abscheiden, ersetzen läßt d u r c h a n d r e
Körper; derjenige Wasserstoff aber, welcher zu ihrer Constitution wesentlich ist, k a n n u n m ö g l i c h in der F o r m von Wasser darin e n t h a l t e n sein.
Aller z u m Bestehn einer organischen V e r b i n d u n g u n e n t b e h r l i c h e WasserStoff wird d u r c h Zersetzung von Wasser der Pflanze geliefert. Der Assimilationsprozeß der Pflanze in seiner einfachsten Form stellt sich mithin dar als eine
Aufnahme von Wasserstoff aus dem Wasser und von Kohlenstoff aus der Kohlensäure, in Folge welcher aller Sauerstoff des Wassers und aller Sauerstoff der
Kohlensäure, wie bei den flüchtigen sauerstofffreien Oelen, dem Kautschuck etc,
oder nur ein Theil dieses Sauerstoffs abgeschieden wird. ( 6 1 , 2) So läßt sich die
Bildung von allen stickstofffreien B e s t a n d t h e i l e n aus K o h l e n s ä u r e u n d
Wasserstoff m i t A u s s c h e i d u n g von Sauerstoff u n d die U m w a n d l u n g des
e i n e n i n d e n a n d e r n d u r c h A u s s c h e i d u n g von K o h l e n s ä u r e u n t e r Assimilation von Sauerstoff erklären. (63) D i e l e b e n d e Pflanze vertritt in d i e s e m
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Prozeß das Zink; es e n t s t e h n in i h r e m Assimilationsprozesse u n t e r Ausscheidung von Sauerstoff, V e r b i n d u n g e n , welche die E l e m e n t e der K o h l e n säure u n d den Wasserstoff des Wassers e n t h a l t e n . (63, 4)
Der Ursprung und die Assimilation des Stickstoffs.
In welcher F o r m u n d wie liefert die N a t u r d e m vegetabilischen Eiweiß,
d e m Kleber, d e n F r ü c h t e n u n d S a a m e n diesen für ihre Existenz d u r c h a u s
u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Bestandtheil? Diese Frage leicht zu beantworten, w e n n
m a n bedenkt, d a ß Pflanzen wachsen k ö n n e n i n r e i n e m Kohlenpulver b e i m
Begießen m i t Regenwasser. Das Regenwasser k a n n d e n Stickstoff n u r enth a l t e n in der F o r m von aufgelöster atmosphärischer Luft, oder in der F o r m
von A m m o n i a k . Stickstoff in der Luft k a n n d u r c h die gewaltsamsten chem i s c h e n Processe nicht befähigt werden, eine V e r b i n d u n g m i t irgend
e i n e m E l e m e n t ausser d e m Sauerstoff e i n z u g e h n . K e i n G r u n d v o r h a n d e n ,
daß der Stickstoff der A t m o s p h ä r e A n t h e i l n i m m t an d e m Assimilationsprozeß der Pflanzen u n d Thiere. W o h l aber das Ammoniak. D a s A m m o niak steht in der Mannigfaltigkeit der M e t a m o r p h o s e n , das es bei Berührung m i t a n d r e n Körpern e i n z u g e h n vermag, d e m Wasser, was sie in e i n e m
s o e m i n e n t e n G r a d e darbietet, i n keiner B e z i e h u n g n a c h . I m r e i n e n Z u stande im Wasser im h o h e n G r a d löslich, fähig, m i t allen S ä u r e n lösliche
V e r b i n d u n g e n zu bilden, fähig, in B e r ü h r u n g m i t a n d r e n Körpern, seine
N a t u r als Alkali gänzlich aufzugeben, u n d die verschiedenartigsten direkt
e i n a n d e r g e g e n ü b e r s t e h e n d e n F o r m e n a n z u n e h m e n , diese Eigenschaften
finden wir in k e i n e m a n d e r n stickstoffhaltigen Körper wieder. ( 6 4 - 6 6 ) Ammoniak ist das leite Product der Fäulniß animalischer Körper, Salpetersäure ist
das Product der Verwesung des Ammoniaks. (67) Die Leiber aller Thiere und
Menschen geben nach dem Tode durch ihre Fäulniß allen Stickstoff, den sie enthalten, in der Form von Ammoniak an die Atmosphäre zurück. ... Der Stickstoff
der Thiere und Menschen ist in der Atmosphäre als Ammoniak enthalten, in der
Form eines Gases, was sich m i t K o h l e n s ä u r e zu e i n e m flüchtigen Salze verbindet, ein Gas, was sich im Wasser m i t ausserordentlicher Leichtigkeit
löst, dessen flüchtige V e r b i n d u n g e n o h n e A u s n a h m e n diese n ä m l i c h e Löslichkeit besitzen. Als A m m o n i a k k a n n sich der Stickstoff in der Atm o s p h ä r e nicht b e h a u p t e n , d e n n m i t jeder C o n d e n s a t i o n des W a s s e r d a m p fes zu tropfbarem Wasser m u ß sich alles A m m o n i a k verdichten, jeder
Regenguß muß die Atmosphäre in gewissen Strecken von allem Ammoniak aufs
Vollkommenste befreien. Das Regenwasser muß zu allen Zeiten Ammoniak enthalten, im Sommer, wo die Regentage weit von e i n a n d e r entfernt stehn,
m e h r als im Winter oder F r ü h l i n g ; der R e g e n des ersten Regentages m u ß
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davon m e h r e n t h a l t e n als der des zweiten; nach anhaltender Trockenheit müssen Gewitterregen die größte Quantität Ammoniak der Erde wieder zuführen ...
Diese Q u a n t i t ä t A m m o n i a k ist für e i n e n Cubikfuß Luft verschwindend
klein, dessen u n g e a c h t e t ist sie, die S u m m e des Stickstoffgehaltes von T a u s e n d e n + Milliarden T h i e r e n u n d M e n s c h e n , m e h r als h i n r e i c h e n d , um
die einzelnen Milliarden der l e b e n d e n Geschöpfe m i t Stickstoff zu versehn. ( 6 7 - 6 9 ) Bemerkenswerth, d a ß das im S c h n e e u n d Regenwasser vorh a n d n e A m m o n i a k , w e n n es d u r c h Kalk entwickelt wird, von e i n e m auffall e n d e n G e r u c h n a c h Schweiß u n d fauligen Stoffen begleitet ist, was ü b e r
seinen Ursprung k e i n e n Zweifel läßt. (70 [, 71]) Das A m m o n i a k im R e g e n wasser e n t h a l t e n als kohlensaures A m m o n i a k . (71) Die Gegenwart des A m m o n i a k s in der A t m o s p h ä r e erneuert sich wieder in j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t
durch die u n u n t e r b r o c h e n fortschreitende F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung thierischer u n d vegetabilischer Stoffe in der Luft; ein Theil des mit dem Regenwasser niedergefallnen Ammoniaks verdampft wieder mit dem Wasser; ein andrer
Theil wird von den Wurzeln der Pflanzen aufgenommen, und indem es neue Verbindungen eingeht, entstehn daraus, je nach den verschiednen Organen der Assimilation, Eiweißstoff, Kleber, Chinin, Morphium, Cyan und die grosse Zahl der
andren Stickstoffverbindungen. (71 [, 72]) D e n entscheidensten Beweis, daß es
das A m m o n i a k ist, was den Vegetabilien den Stickstoff liefert, giebt die
animalische D ü n g u n g in der Cultur der Futtergewächse u n d Cerealien. D e r
G e h a l t an Kleber, ist in d e m W e i z e n , d e m Roggen, der Gerste äusserst verschieden, ihre Körner, a u c h in d e m ausgebildetsten Z u s t a n d , sind u n g l e i c h
reich an diesem stickstoffhaltigen Bestandtheil. Eine Vermehrung des animalischen Düngers hat nicht allein eine Vermehrung der Anzahl Saamen zur Folge,
sie übt auch einen nicht minder bemerkenswerthen Einfluß auf die Vergrößrung
des Glutengehaltes. Der animalische Dünger wirkt nun nur durch Ammoniakbildung. W ä h r e n d 100 W e i z e n , m i t d e m am A m m o n i a k ärmsten K u h m i s t gedüngt, n u r 11,95 % Kleber u n d 62,34 A m y l o n enthalten, gab der m i t M e n s c h e n h a r n gedüngte B o d e n das M a x i m u m an Kleber, n ä m l i c h 35,1 % in
100 Theilen W e i z e n , also n a h e die 3fache M e n g e . In gefaultem M e n s c h e n h a r n ist aber der Stickstoff als kohlensaures, phosphorsaures, m i l c h s a u r e s
A m m o n i a k u n d i n keiner a n d r e n F o r m als der F o r m eines A m m o n i a k s a l zes enthalten. (74) In einem Boden, der einzig und allein nur aus Sand und
Thon besteht, genügt es, eine kleine Q u a n t i t ä t G u a n o b e i z u m i s c h e n , um
darauf die reichsten E r n t e n von M a i s zu erhalten. D e r B o d e n enthält ausser G u a n o nicht das Geringste (an der P e r u a n i s c h e n Küste) einer a n d e r n
organischen Materie, u n d dieser Dünger enthält weiter nichts, wie harnsaures,
phosphorsaures, oxalsaures, kohlensaures Ammoniak und einige Erdsalze. (75)
W a s m a n in d e m Ge||39|treide Kleber n e n n t , heißt in d e m Traubensafte vegetabilisches Eiweiß, in d e n Pflanzensäften Pflanzenleim; diese 3 Körper sind
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in i h r e m Verhalten, in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g identisch. Das A m m o n i a k
ist es, was d e m H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l der Pflanzen, d e m vegetabilischen Eiweiß, d e n Stickstoff liefert, n u r das A m m o n i a k k a n n es sein, aus d e m sich
die b l a u e n u n d r o t h e n Farbstoffe in den B l u m e n bilden. (I.e.) D e r U r i n des
M e n s c h e n u n d der fleischfressenden T h i e r e enthält die größte M e n g e
Stickstoff; theils in der F o r m von p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen, theils in der
F o r m von Harnstoff; der leztre verwandelt sich d u r c h F ä u l n i ß in doppelt
kohlensaures A m m o n i a k , d. h. er n i m m t die F o r m des Salzes an, was wir
im Regenwasser finden. Der Urin des Menschen ist das kräftigste Düngungsmittel für alle an Stickstoff reichen Vegetabilien, der Urin des Hornviehs, der
Schaafe, der Pferde minder reich an Stickstoff, aber immer noch unendlich reicher als die Excremente dieser Thiere. ... der Stickstoffgehalt der festen Excremente der Menschen und Thiere verschwindet gegen den Stickstoff in den flüssigen. (76) Das Gewicht des Futters u n d der Speise, welche das T h i e r zu
seiner E r n ä h r u n g zu sich n i m m t , vermindert sich in d e m n ä m l i c h e n Verhältniß, als dieses Futter, die Speise, reich, sie n i m m t in d e m s e l b e n Verh ä l t n i ß zu, als das F u t t e r a r m ist an stickstoffhaltigen Bestandtheilen. M a n
k a n n d u r c h F ü t t e r u n g m i t Kartoffeln allein sein Pferd am L e b e n erhalten,
aber dieses L e b e n ist ein langsames Verhungern, es wächst i h m weder
Masse n o c h Kraft zu, es unterliegt einer j e d e n Anstrengung. Es ist klar,
daß der Stickstoff der Pflanzen u n d S a a m e n , welche T h i e r e n z u r N a h r u n g
d i e n e n , zur Assimilation verwendet wird; die E x c r e m e n t e dieser Thiere
m ü s s e n , wenn sie verdaut sind, ihres Stickstoffs b e r a u b t sein, sie k ö n n e n
n u r insofern Stickstoff n o c h enthalten, als i h n e n Secretionen der Galle
u n d Eingeweide beigemischt sind. Sie m ü s s e n u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n weniger Stickstoff enthalten, als die Speisen, als das Futter. Die Excremente
der Menschen unter allen die stickstoffreichsten, denn, (weil d a s E s s e n i h n e n
S p a ß m a c h t ) gemessen sie mehr Stickstoff als sie bedürfen und dieser Ueberschuß geht in die Excremente über. (77) M a c h e n wir also die Felder m i t t h i e rischen E x c r e m e n t e n fruchtbar, so geben wir i h n e n u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n
weniger stickstoffhaltige Materie zurück, als wir davon als Futter, K r a u t
oder S a a m e n denselben g e n o m m e n h a b e n , wir fügen d u r c h d e n D ü n g e r
d e m Nahrungsstoff, d e n die A t m o s p h ä r e liefert, eine gewisse Q u a n t i t ä t
desselben h i n z u u n d die eigentlich wissenschaftliche Aufgabe für d e n Oek o n o m e n beschränkt sich h i e r m i t darauf, dasjenige stickstoffhaltige Nahrungsmittel der Pflanzen, welches die Excremente der Thiere und Menschen
durch ihre Fäulniß erzeugen, dieses Nahrungsmittel für s e i n e Pflanzen zu verwenden ... Jedes thierische E x c r e m e n t ist eine Quelle von A m m o n i a k u n d
Kohlensäure, welche so lange dauert, als n o c h Stickstoff darin v o r h a n d e n
ist. ... Dieses A m m o n i a k wird von d e m B o d e n theils in Wasser gelöst,
theils i n F o r m von G a s a u f g e n o m m e n u n d eingesaugt, u n d m i t i h m findet
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die Pflanze eine größre M e n g e des ihr u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Stickstoffs vor, als
die A t m o s p h ä r e ihr liefert. A b e r es ist weit weniger die M e n g e von A m m o niak, was thierische E x c r e m e n t e d e n Pflanzen zuführen, als die F o r m , in
welcher es geschieht, welche ihren so auffallenden Einfluß auf die F r u c h t barkeit des B o d e n s bedingt. D i e Culturpflanzen empfangen von der Atm o s p h ä r e die n ä m l i c h e Q u a n t i t ä t Stickstoff, wie die wildwachsenden, wie
die B ä u m e u n d Sträucher; allein es ist n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d für die Zwecke
der Feldwirthschaft; sie u n t e r s c h e i d e t sich d a d u r c h wesentlich v o n der
Forstwirthschaft, d a ß ihre Hauptaufgabe, ihr wichtigster Zweck in der Proauction von assimilirbarem Stickstoff in irgend einer F o r m besteht, w ä h r e n d
der Zweck der Forstwissenschaft sich h a u p t s ä c h l i c h n u r auf die Production
von Kohlenstoff beschränkt. Diesen 2 Zwecken alle Mittel der Cultur untergeordnet. V o n d e m k o h l e n s a u r e n A m m o n i a k , was das Regenwasser d e m Boden zuführt, geht n u r ein Theil in die Pflanze über, d e n n m i t d e m verd a m p f e n d e n Wasser verflüchtigt sich, j e d e r Zeit, eine gewisse M e n g e
davon. N u r was der B o d e n in größrer Tiefe empfängt, was m i t d e m T h a u
u n m i t t e l b a r d e n Blättern zugeführt wird, was sie aus der Luft m i t der Kohlensäure einsaugen, n u r dieß A m m o n i a k wird für die Assimilation gewonn e n werden k ö n n e n . D i e flüssigen thierischen E x c r e m e n t e , der U r i n der
M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere, m i t w e l c h e m die ersten d u r c h d r u n g e n sind, enthalten d e n größten Theil des A m m o n i a k s in der F o r m von Salzen, in einer
F o r m , wo es seine Fähigkeit sich zu verflüchtigen gänzlich verloren hat.
( 7 7 - 7 9 ) In d i e s e m Z u s t a n d dargeboten, geht a u c h nicht die kleinste
M e n g e davon der Pflanze verloren, es wird im Wasser gelöst von d e n W u r zelfasern eingesaugt. D a h e r die W i r k u n g des Gypses auf die F r u c h t b a r k e i t
u n d Ueppigkeit einer W i e s e ... sie b e r u h t auf der Fixirung des A m m o n i a k s
der A t m o s p h ä r e , auf der G e w i n n u n g von derjenigen Quantität, die auf
nicht gegypstem B o d e n m i t d e m Wasser wieder verdunstet wäre. Das in
d e m Regenwasser gelöste k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k zerlegt sich m i t d e m
Gyps auf die n ä m l i c h e W e i s e wie in d e n Salmiakfabriken, es entsteht lösliches, nicht flüchtiges schwefelsaures A m m o n i a k u n d kohlensaurer Kalk.
N a c h u n d n a c h verschwindet aller Gyps, aber seine W i r k u n g hält, solange
n o c h eine Spur davon v o r h a n d e n ist. (80) 100 Pf. gebrannter Gyps fixiren
so viel A m m o n i a k in d e m B o d e n als 6250 Pfd reiner Pferdeharn d e m s e l b e n
zuführen k ö n n e n . ||40| N e h m e n wir n u n n a c h Boussingault an, daß das
Gras y eines Gewichts Stickstoff enthält, so steigert 1 Pf. Stickstoff, welches wir m e h r zuführen, d e n Ertrag der Wiese um 100 Pfd F u t t e r u n d diese
100 Pfd Mehrertrag sind der Erfolg der W i r k u n g von 4 Pfd Gyps. Z u r Assimilation des gebildeten schwefelsauren A m m o n i a k s u n d zur Z e r s e t z u n g
des Gypses ist, seiner Schwerlöslichkeit wegen (1 Theil bedarf 400 Theile
Wasser) Wasser die u n e n t b e h r l i c h s t e B e d i n g u n g ; auf trocknen Feldern und
i M
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Wiesen deßhalb sein Einfluß n i c h t b e m e r k b a r , w ä h r e n d auf d i e s e n thierischer Dünger, d u r c h die Assimilation des gasförmigen k o h l e n s a u r e n A m m o n i a k s , was sich d a r a u s in Folge seiner Verwesung entwickelt, seine Wirkung n i c h t versagt. (81, 2) D i e Z e r s e t z u n g des Gypses d u r c h das
k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k geht n i c h t auf e i n m a l , s o n d e r n sehr allmählig vor
sich, woraus sich erklärt, w a r u m seine W i r k u n g m e h r e r e J a h r e anhält. (82)
E b e n s o einfach erklärt sich die D ü n g u n g der F e l d e r m i t g e b r a n n t e m T h o n ,
die F r u c h t b a r k e i t der e i s e n o x i d i n i s c h e n B o d e n a r t e n . ... Eisenoxid u n d
Thonerde z e i c h n e n sich vor allen a n d r e n M e t a l l o x i d e n d u r c h die F ä h i g k e i t
aus, sich m i t A m m o n i a k zu festen V e r b i n d u n g e n vereinigen zu k ö n n e n .
D i e Niederschläge, die wir d u r c h A m m o n i a k i n T h o n e r d e - u n d Eisenoxidsalzen hervorbringen, sind wahre Salze, worin das A m m o n i a k die Rolle
einer Base spielt. Diese a u s g e z e i c h n e t e Verwandtschaft zeigt sich n o c h in
der merkwürdigen Fähigkeit aller eisenoxid- oder t h o n e r d e r e i c h e n M i n e r a lien, A m m o n i a k aus der Luft a n z u z i e h n u n d z u r ü c k z u h a l t e n . (I.e.) Eisenoxidhaltiger B o d e n u n d g e b r a n n t e r T h o n , dessen poröser Z u s t a n d das Eins a u g e n von G a s n o c h m e h r begünstigt, sind also wahre A m m o n i a k s a u g e r ,
welche sich d u r c h ihre c h e m i s c h e A n z i e h u n g vor der Verflüchtigung schütz e n ; sie verhalten sich grade so, wie w e n n eine Säure auf der Oberfläche
des Bodens ausgebreitet wäre. ... M i t j e d e m R e g e n g u ß tritt das eingesaugte
A m m o n i a k an das Wasser, u n d wird in Auflösung d e m B o d e n zugeführt.
E b e n s o energische W i r k u n g das Kohlenpulver; übertrifft sogar im frischgeg l ü h t e n Z u s t a n d alle b e k a n n t e n Körper in der Fähigkeit, A m m o n i a k g a s in
s e i n e n Poren zu verdichten, da 1 V o l u m e n d a v o n 90 V o l u m A m m o n i a k g a s
in seinen Poren a u f n i m m t , was sich d u r c h bloses Befeuchten d a r a u s wieder
entwickelt. In dieser Fähigkeit k o m m t der K o h l e das verwesende (Eichenholz) Holz sehr n a h , da es u n t e r der L u f t p u m p e , von allem Wasser befreit,
72 χ sein eignes V o l u m e n davon verschluckt. Also j e z t leicht zu erklären
die Eigenschaften des H u m u s (der verwesenden Holzfaser). N i c h t allein er
eine lange a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n s ä u r e , s o n d e r n versieht a u c h die
Pflanzen m i t d e m zu ihrer Entwicklung u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Stickstoff ...
u n s r e Felder p r o d u c i r e n m e h r Stickstoff als wir i h n e n als N a h r u n g zuführen. (83, 4) Wir finden in der A t m o s p h ä r e , in d e m Regenwasser, im Quellwasser, in allen B o d e n a r t e n diesen Stickstoff in der F o r m von A m m o n i a k ,
als P r o d u c t der Verwesung u n d F ä u l n i ß der g a n z e n , der gegenwärthigen
G e n e r a t i o n vorangegangnen Thier- u n d Pflanzenwelt ...es ist das Ammoniak der Atmosphäre, welches den Pflanzen ihren Stickstoff liefert. Kohlensäure,
Ammoniak und Wasser enthalten in ihren Elementen die Bedingungen zur Erzeugung aller Thier und Pflanzenstoffe während ihres Lebens. Kohlensäure, Ammoniak und Wasser sind die lezten Producte des chemischen Prozesses ihrer
Fäulniß und Verwesung. Alle die zahllosen, in i h r e n Eigenschaften so u n e n d -
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lieh verschiednen, P r o d u c t e der Lebenskraft n e h m e n n a c h d e m T o d e die
ursprünglichen F o r m e n wieder an, a u s d e n e n sie gebildet worden sind. D e r
Tod, die völlige Auflösung einer u n t e r g e g a n g n e n G e n e r a t i o n , ist die
Quelle des L e b e n s , für eine n e u e . (84) A m m o n i a c = N H
3
5
Die anorganischen Bestandtheile der Vegetabilien.
Z u r A u s b i l d u n g gewisser Organe zu b e s o n d e r n Verrichtungen, e i g e n t h ü m lich für j e d e Pflanzenfamilie, g e h ö r e n M a t e r i e n , die der Pflanze d u r c h die
anorganische N a t u r dargeboten werden. W i r finden diese M a t e r i e n , wiewohl in v e r ä n d e r t e m Z u s t a n d , in der Asche der Pflanzen wieder. V o n die10
sen a n o r g a n i s c h e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n sind viele veränderlich je n a c h d e m Boden, worauf die Pflanzen wachsen; allein eine gewisse A n z a h l davon ist für
ihre Entwicklung u n e n t b e h r l i c h . Die W u r z e l einer Pflanze in der E r d e verhält sich zu allen gelösten Stoffen wie ein S c h w a m m , der das Flüssige u n d
alles was drin ist o h n e U n t e r s c h i e d einsaugt. Diese Stoffe in g r ö ß r e m o d e r
15
geringrem M a a ß z u r ü c k b e h a l t e n o d e r wieder ausgeschieden, je n a c h d e m
sie zur A s s i m i l a t i o n verwendet werden, oder sich n i c h t dafür eignen. In
d e n S a a m e n aller G r a s a r t e n fehlt aber z.B. n i e p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bittererde in
V e r b i n d u n g m i t A m m o n i a k ; es ist in der ä u s s e r n hornartigen Hülle enthalt e n u n d geht d u r c h das M e h l in das Brot u n d ebenfalls in das Bier über.
20
(85) Alle Pflanzen e n t h a l t e n organische S ä u r e n von der mannigfaltigsten
Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n d Eigenschaften; alle diese S ä u r e n sind an B a s e n geb u n d e n , an Kali, N a t r o n , Kalk oder Bittererde ... Diese Basen sind es offenbar, die d u r c h ihr V o r h a n d e n s e i n die E n t s t e h u n g dieser S ä u r e n vermitteln, m i t d e m Verschwinden der Säure b e i d e m Reifen der F r ü c h t e , d e n
W e i n t r a u b e n ζ. B., n i m m t der Kaligehalt des Saftes ab. In d e n T h e i l e n der
Pflanzen, in d e n e n die A s s i m i l a t i o n am stärksten ist, wie in d e m Holzkörper, finden sich diese Bestandtheile in der geringsten M e n g e , ihr G e h a l t ist
am größten in d e n Organen, welche die A s s i m i l a t i o n vermitteln; in d e n
Blättern findet sich m e h r Kali, m e h r A s c h e , als in d e n Zweigen, diese sind
30 reicher daran als der S t a m m . Vor der Blüthe enthält das Kartoffelkraut
m e h r Kali als n a c h derselben. (86) D e n n die organischen Säuren, ist a u c h
irgend eine alkalische Basis ebenfalls eine B e d i n g u n g ihres L e b e n s , d e n n
alle diese S ä u r e n k o m m e n in d e n Pflanzen als n e u t r a l e oder saure Salze
vor. Es giebt keine Pflanze, die n i c h t n a c h d e m E i n ä s c h e r n eine |[41| koh-
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lensäurehaltige A s c h e hinterläßt, k e i n e also, in welcher pflanzensaure
Salze fehlen. ... die Q u a n t i t ä t e n dieser Basen, w e n n das L e b e n der Pflanzen a n ihre Gegenwart g e b u n d e n ist, m u ß u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n e b e n s o
unveränderlich sein, als es, wie m a n weiß, die Sättigungscapacität der Säu-
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ren ist. K e i n G r u n d zu glauben, d a ß die Pflanze im Z u s t a n d e der freien u n g e h i n d e r t e n Entwicklung m e h r von der ihr e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e n Säure producirt, als sie grade zu i h r e m Bestehn bedarf; in d i e s e m Falle aber wird eine
Pflanze, auf welchem B o d e n sie a u c h wachsen m a g , stets eine nie wechselnde M e n g e alkalischer Basis e n t h a l t e n . ... Alle diese alkalischen Basen
k ö n n e n sich in ihrer Wirkungsweise vertreten ... eine dieser Basen k a n n
d a h e r in einer Pflanze v o r k o m m e n , w ä h r e n d sie in einer a n d e r n Pflanze
derselben Art fehlt ... die fehlende Basis m u ß ersezt u n d vertreten sein
d u r c h eine andre von gleichem Wirkungswerth, sie m u ß ersezt sich vorfind e n durch ein Aequivalent von einer der a n d e r n Basen. Die Anzahl der Aequivalente dieser Basen wären h i e r n a c h eine unveränderliche Grösse, u n d
folgt der Regel, daß die Sauerstoffmenge aller alkalischen Basen z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n u n v e r ä n d e r l i c h ist, auf w e l c h e m
B o d e n die Pflanze a u c h wachsen, welchen B o d e n sie a u c h erhalten m a g .
Dieser Schluß b e z i e h t sich n u r auf die j e n i g e n alkalischen Basen, welche
als pflanzensaure Salze Bestandtheile der Pflanzen a u s m a c h e n ; wir finden
n u n grade diese in der A s c h e derselben als k o h l e n s a u r e Salze wieder, deren Qualität leicht b e s t i m m b a r ist. (87, 88) Es ist klar, w e n n die E r z e u g u n g
von b e s t i m m t e n u n v e r ä n d e r l i c h e n M e n g e n von pflanzensauren Salzen
d u r c h die E i g e n t h ü m l i c h k e i t ihrer (der P f l a n z e n ) Organe geboten, w e n n
sie zu gewissen Zwecken für ihr Bestehn u n e n t b e h r l i c h sind, so wird die
Pflanze Kali u n d Kalk a u f n e h m e n m ü s s e n , u n d w e n n sie nicht so viel vorfindet, als sie bedarf, so wird das F e h l e n d e d u r c h andre alkalische Basen
von gleichem Wirkungswerth ersezt werden; w e n n ihr keine von allen sich
darbietet, so wird sie nicht zur Entwicklung gelangen. (92) In allen ChinaSorten findet sich Chinasäure, aber die veränderlichsten M e n g e n von Chin i n , C i n c h o n i n u n d Kalk; m a n k a n n d e n G e h a l t a n d e n eigentlichen organ i s c h e n Basen ziemlich g e n a u n a c h der M e n g e von fixen Basen
beurtheilen, die n a c h der E i n ä s c h e r u n g zurückbleiben. E i n e m M a x i m u m
der e r s t e m entspricht ein M i n i m u m der a n d e r n , grade so wie es in der T h a t
stattfinden m u ß , wenn sie sich gegenseitig n a c h ihren A e q u i v a l e n t e n vertreten. ... F i n d e n die W u r z e l n der Pflanze die eine Base in h i n r e i c h e n d e r
M e n g e vor, so wird sie um so weniger von der a n d e r n n e h m e n . (92, 3) D e r
Organismus der Pflanzen h a t die Fähigkeit alles d e m B o d e n wieder z u rückzugeben, was nicht zu s e i n e m Bestehn gehört. (95) D i e völlige Entwicklung einer Pflanze ist abhängig von der Gegenwart von Alkalien oder
alkalischen Erdarten. M i t ihrer gänzlichen Abwesenheit m u ß ihrer Ausbild u n g eine b e s t i m m t e G r e n z e gesezt sein; b e i m M a n g e l an diesen Basen
wird ihre Ausbildung g e h e m m t sein. Vergleichen wir ... 2 H o l z a r t e n m i t
einander, welche ungleiche M e n g e alkalischer Basen enthalten, so ergiebt
sich von selbst, daß die eine auf m a n c h e n B o d e n a r t e n kräftig sich entwik-
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Aus Justus Uebig: Die organische Chemie
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kein k a n n , auf w e l c h e n die a n d r e n u r k ü m m e r l i c h vegetirt. 10,000 T h e i l e
E i c h e n h o l z geben 250 T h e i l e A s c h e , 10,000 Theile T a n n e n h o l z n u r 8 3 ,
10,000 Theile L i n d e n h o l z 500, W e i z e n s t r o h 440 u n d Kartoffelkraut
1500 Theile. Auf G r a n i t , auf k a h l e m S a n d b o d e n u n d H a i d e n wird die
T a n n e u n d F i c h t e n o c h h i n r e i c h e n d e M e n g e n alkalischer Basen finden,
auf welchen E i c h e n n i c h t f o r t k o m m e n , u n d W e i z e n wird auf e i n e m Boden,
wo L i n d e n g e d e i h n , diejenigen B a s e n in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e vorfinden,
die er zu seiner völligen E n t w i c k l u n g bedarf. Alle Grasarten, die E q u i s e t a ceen z . B . e n t h a l t e n e i n e grosse M e n g e Kieselsäure u n d Kali, abgelagert in
d e m äussern S a u m der Blätter u n d in d e m H a l m als saures k o h l e n s a u r e s
Kali; auf e i n e m Getreidefeld ä n d e r t sich der G e h a l t an d i e s e m Salze n i c h t
merklich, d e n n es wird i h m in der F o r m von D ü n g e r , als verwestes Stroh,
wieder zugeführt. G a n z a n d e r s stellt sich dieses Verhältniß auf einer
Wiese; nie findet sich a u f e i n e m k a l i a r m e n Sand oder r e i n e m K a l k b o d e n
15 ein üppiger Gras w u c h s ; d e n n es fehlt i h m ein für die Pflanze d u r c h a u s u n entbehrlicher Bestandtheil, Basalte, G r a u w a c k e , Porphyr g e b e n u n t e r gleic h e m Verhältnisse d e n b e s t e n B o d e n z u W i e s e n ab, e b e n weil sie reich a n
Kali sind. D e r h i n w e g g e n o m m n e Kalk ersezt sich wieder bei d e m jährlic h e n W ä s s e r n ; der B o d e n selbst ist verhältnißmässig für d e n Bedarf der
20 Pflanze unerschöpflich an d i e s e m Körper. W e n n wir aber bei d e m G y p s e n
einer W i e s e d e n G r a s w u c h s steigern, s o n e h m e n wir m i t d e m H e u e i n e
größre M e n g e Kali hinweg, was u n t e r gleichen B e d i n g u n g e n n i c h t ersezt
wird. So n i m m t n a c h Verlauf v o n einigen J a h r e n der Graswuchs auf vielen
gegypsten W i e s e n ab, weil es an Kali fehlt. W e r d e n die W i e s e n dagegen
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v o n Zeit zu Zeit m i t A s c h e , selbst m i t ausgelaugter Seifensiederasche überfahren, so kehrt der ü p p i g e G r a s w u c h s zurück. M i t dieser A s c h e h a b e n wir
aber der W i e s e nichts weiter als das fehlende Kali zugeführt. ( 9 5 - 9 7 ) E i n s
der merkwürdigsten Beispiele von der Unfähigkeit eines B o d e n s , W e i z e n ,
u n d ü b e r h a u p t G r a s a r t e n z u erzeugen, w e n n i n i h m e i n e der B e d i n g u n g e n
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ihres W a c h s t h u m s fehlt, bietet das Verfahren eines Gutsbesitzers in der
N ä h e von G ö t t i n g e n . Er bepflanzte sein ganzes L a n d , z u m B e h u f der Pottascherzeugung m i t W e r m u t h , dessen A s c h e b e k a n n t l i c h sehr r e i c h a n k o h l e n s a u r e m Kali ist. E i n e Folge ||42| davon war die gänzliche Unfruchtbarkeit seiner Felder für G e t r e i d e b a u ; sie waren auf J a h r z e h n d e h i n a u s völlig
35 ihres Kalis b e r a u b t . (98, 99) D i e Blätter u n d k l e i n e n Zweige der B ä u m e
enthalten die meiste A s c h e u n d das m e i s t e Alkali; was d u r c h sie b e i d e m
L a u b u n d S t r e u s a m m e l n d e n W ä l d e r n g e n o m m e n wird, ist b e i w e i t e m
mehr, als was das Holz enthält, das j ä h r l i c h geschlagen wird. D i e E i c h e n r i n d e , das E i c h e n l a u b e n t h ä l t 6 - 9 , die T a n n e n u n d F i c h t e n n a d e l n ü b e r
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8 %. Mit 2650 Pfund T a n n e n h o l z , die wir e i n e m Morgen L a n d j ä h r l i c h
n e h m e n , wird i m G a n z e n d e m B o d e n , b e i 0,83 % A s c h e n u r 7 - 8 Pfund a n
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Alkalien entzogen, aber das Moos, was d e n B o d e n bedeckt, dessen A s c h e
reich an Alkali ist, hält in u n u n t e r b r o c h e n fortdauernder Entwicklung das
Kali an der Oberfläche des so leicht von d e m Wasser d u r c h d r i n g b a r e n
S a n d b o d e n s zurück, u n d bietet in seiner Verwesung d e n aufgespeicherten
Vorrath d e n W u r z e l n dar, die das Alkali a u f n e h m e n , o h n e es wieder zurückzugeben. (99) D i e Grasarten, die d e m M e n s c h e n zur N a h r u n g d i e n e n ,
folgen i h m wie ein H a u s t h i e r ... d u r c h ä h n l i c h e U r s a c h e n gezwungen, wie
die Salzpflanzen d e m M e e r e s s t r a n d e u n d Salinen etc so wie die Mistkäfer
auf die E x c r e m e n t e der Thiere angewiesen sind, so bedürfen die Salzpflanz e n des Kochsalzes etc. K e i n e von u n s e r n G e t r e i d e a r t e n k a n n ausgebildete
Saamen tragen, Saamen, welche Mehl geben, o h n e eine reichliche M e n g e von
phosphorsaurer Bittererde, o h n e Ammoniak zu ihrer A u s b i l d u n g vorzufinden.
Diese S a a m e n entwickeln sich n u r in e i n e m Boden, wo diese 3 E l e m e n t e
sich vereinigt vorfinden, u n d kein B o d e n ist reicher daran als Orte, wo
M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere familienartig z u s a m m e n w o h n e n ; sie folgen d e m
U r i n , d e n E x c r e m e n t e n derselben, weil sie o h n e deren Bestandtheile n i c h t
z u m S a a m e n t r a g e n k o m m e n . (99, 100) S a a m e n u n d Pflanzen werden
d u r c h W i n d e u n d Vögel ü b e r die ganze Oberfläche der Erde verbreitet,
aber sie entwickeln sich n u r da, wo sich die B e d i n g u n g e n ihres L e b e n s vorfinden. (100) In den grossen F a b r i k e n zu Liverpool, wo die n a t ü r l i c h e Bors ä u r e zu Borax verarbeitet wird, gewinnt m a n daraus als N e b e n p r o d u c t
viele h u n d e r t Pfunde schwefelsaures A m m o n i a k . Dieses Ammoniak stammt
nicht von thierischen Organismen; es war vorhanden vor allen lebenden Generationen, es ist ein Theil, ein Bestandtheil des Erdkörpers. (102) Jeder a u c h der
schwächste Luftzug entführt m i t d e n Milliarden Centnern Seewasser, welche
jährlich verdampfen, eine entsprechende Menge der darin gelösten Salze und
führt Kochsalz, Chlorkalium, Bittererde und die übrigen Bestandtheile dem festen Lande zu. (103) Das in steter Verdampfung begriffne Meer verbreitet über
die ganze Oberfläche der Erde hin, in dem Regenwasser, alle zum Bestehn einer
Vegetation unentbehrlichen Salze, wir finden sie selbst da in ihrer Asche wieder,
wo der Boden keine Bestandtheile liefern konnte. (I.e.) Die W u r z e l n der Pflanzen sind die ewig thätigen S a m m l e r der Alkalien, der Bestandtheile des
Seewassers, die der Regen zuführt, des Quellwassers, was d e n B o d e n
durchdringt; o h n e Alkalien u n d alkalischen Basen würden die m e i s t e n
Pflanzen nicht bestehn, o h n e die Pflanzen w ü r d e n die Alkalien allmählig
von der Oberfläche der Erde verschwinden. (104, 5)
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Die Cultur.
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Die atmosphärische Luft u n d der B o d e n bietet d e n Blättern u n d W u r z e l n
einerlei N a h r u n g dar. D i e erstre e n t h ä l t e i n e verhältnißmässig unerschöpfliche M e n g e K o h l e n s ä u r e u n d A m m o n i a k , i n d e m B o d e n h a b e n wir i n
d e m H u m u s eine stets sich e r n e u e r n d e Quelle von Kohlensäure, d e n W i n ter h i n d u r c h häuft sich in d e m Regen- und Schneewasser, womit er durchdrungen wird, eine für die Entwicklung der Blüthen und Blätter ausreichende Menge
Ammoniak. (106) Bei A b w e s e n h e i t aller Feuchtigkeit erhält sich der H u m u s J a h r h u n d e r t e lang, m i t Wasser benezt, verwandelt er d e n u m g e b e n d e n
Sauerstoff in K o h l e n s ä u r e ; von d i e s e m Augenblick an verändert er sich
ebenfalls n i c h t m e h r , d e n n die W i r k u n g der Luft hört auf, sobald sie ihres
Sauerstoffes b e r a u b t ist. N u r w e n n Pflanzen in d i e s e m B o d e n wachsen, deren W u r z e l n die gebildete K o h l e n s ä u r e h i n w e g n e h m e n , schreitet die Verwesung fort, aber d u r c h lebende Pflanzen empfängt der B o d e n wieder, was
er verloren hat, er wird n i c h t ä r m e r an H u m u s . (107) N u r der D ü n g e r n ü t z lich, der die Eigenschaft das Wasser zu färben, gänzlich verloren h a t . (109)
In e i n e m Boden, in e i n e m Wasser, welches k e i n e n Sauerstoff enthält sterb e n alle Pflanzen; M a n g e l an Luft wirkt ganz ähnlich wie ein U e b e r m a ß an
Kohlensäure. A u f sumpfigem B o d e n schließt das Wasser, was n i c h t a u s wechselt, die Luft aus, eine E r n e u e r u n g des Wassers wirkt ä h n l i c h wie ein
H i n z u f ü h r e n von Luft, d e n n das Wasser enthält Luft in Auflösung; geben
wir d e m Wasser in d e m Sumpfe Abzug, so gestatten wir der Luft freien Z u tritt, der S u m p f verwandelt sich in die fruchtbarste Wiese. Ueberreste von
Vegetabilien u n d Thieren, ... in e i n e m B o d e n ... in d e n die Luft k e i n e n
oder n u r geringen Zutritt hat, g e h n n i c h t in Verwesung über, e b e n weil es
an Sauerstoff fehlt; sie g e h n in F ä u l n i ß über, zu deren Einleitung Luft gen u g sich vorfindet. ... D i e öftere Lufterneuerung, die gehörige Bearbeitung
des Bodens, n a m e n t l i c h der B e r ü h r u n g m i t alkalischen Metalloxiden, m i t
Braunkohlenasche, g e b r a n n t e m oder k o h l e n s a u r e m Kalk, ä n d e r t die vorgeh e n d e F ä u l n i ß in e i n e n reinen Oxidationsprozeß u m ; von d e m A u g e n b l i c k
an, wo alle v o r h a n d n e n organischen M a t e r i e n in den Z u s t a n d der Verwesung Übergehn, erhöht sich die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des Bodens. D e r Sauerstoff ... dient n u n zur Bildung von K o h l e n s ä u r e . ([109,] 110) F ü r m a n c h e
Pflanzengattungen, besonders für die jenigen, welche ihre erste N a h r u n g
von der Substanz der S a a m e n selbst empfangen, W u r z e l n u n d Zwiebelgewächse, ist der H u m u s völlig entbehrlich, seine Gegenwart ist nützlich, insofern ihre Entwicklung beschleunigt u n d gesteigert wird, sie ist aber n i c h t
nothwendig. In einer gewissen B e z i e h u n g ist ein U e b e r m a ß in d e m Anfang
der Entwicklung einer Pflanze schädlich. ... W e n n im Anfang ihrer Ent-
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Wicklung die A n z a h l der Triebe, H a l m e , Zweige u n d Blätter d u r c h ein U e b e r m a ß von Nahrungsstoff aus d e m B o d e n die G r e n z e überschreitet; (die
die Luft ||43| ihr bieten kann) wo sie also zur V o l l e n d u n g ihrer Entwicklung, zur Blüthe u n d F r u c h t m e h r Nahrungsstoff aus der Luft bedarf, als
diese b i e t e n kann, so wird sie n i c h t zur Blüthe, zur F r u c h t b i l d u n g gelangen. I n vielen Fällen reicht diese N a h r u n g n u r h i n , u m die Blätter, H a l m e
u n d Zweige völlig auszubilden. ... Sie treiben ins K r a u t u n d k o m m e n
n i c h t zur Blüthe. Bei d e m Zwergobst n e h m e n wir d e n B ä u m e n e i n e n Theil
ihrer Zweige u n d d a m i t ihrer Blätter; wir h i n d e r n die Entwicklung n e u e r
Zweige, es wird künstlich ein U e b e r s c h u ß von N a h r u n g geschaffen, die
d a n n zur V e r m e h r u n g der Blüthe u n d Vergrößrung der F r u c h t von der
Pflanze verwendet wird. Das B e s c h n e i d e n des Weinstocks h a t e i n e n ganz
ä h n l i c h e n Zweck. (111, 12) Bei allen p e r e n n i r e n d e n G e w ä c h s e n , bei den
Sträuchern, F r u c h t u n d W a l d b ä u m e n , geht n a c h völliger A u s b i l d u n g der
F r u c h t ein n e u e r e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e r Vegetationsprozeß an; während bei d e n
einjährigen Pflanzen, von dieser Periode an, die Stengel sich verholzen, die
Blätter ihre Farbe wechseln u n d gelb werden, bleiben die Blätter der
B ä u m e u n d Sträucher bis z u m Anfang des W i n t e r s in Thätigkeit. Die Bild u n g der Holzringe schreitet fort, das Holz wird fester u n d härter, u n d v o m
A u g u s t an erzeugen ihre Blätter kein Holz m e h r ; alle K o h l e n s ä u r e , die sie
a u f n e h m e n u n d assimiliren, wird zur E r z e u g u n g von Nahrungsstoffen für
das künftige Jahr verwendet; anstatt Holzfaser wird jezt A m y l o n gebildet
u n d d u r c h d e n Augustsaft in allen T h e i l e n der Pflanze verbreitet ... Sehr
früher W i n t e r oder rascher Temperaturwechsel h i n d e r n die E r z e u g u n g dieser Vorräthe von N a h r u n g für das künftige Jahr, das Holz wird, wie b e i m
W e i n s t o c k z . B . n i c h t reif, seine Entwicklung ist das folgende J a h r in engre
G r e n z e n eingeschlossen. A u s d i e s e m A m y l o n entsteht i m n ä c h s t e n F r ü h j a h r der Zucker u n d das G u m m i , u n d aus d i e s e m wieder die stickstofffreien Bestandtheile der Blätter u n d j u n g e n Triebe. M i t der Entwicklung
der j u n g e n Kartoffelpflanze, m i t der Bildung der K e i m e n i m m t der A m y longehalt der W u r z e l a b ; der Ahornsaft hört auf, süß zu sein, sein Zuckergehalt verliert sich m i t der A u s b i l d u n g der Knospen, der B l ü t h e n u n d der
Blätter. (112, 13) M a n hat m i t U n r e c h t die gegen den Herbst h i n sich in
d e n Pflanzen a n h ä u f e n d e n Vorräthe von Stärke m i t d e m F e t t der d e m
Winterschlaf unterworfnen Thiere verglichen. (114) Die einjährige Pflanze
erzeugt u n d s a m m e l t die N a h r u n g der künftigen, auf gleiche Weise wie die
p e r e n n i r e n d e ; sie speichert sie im S a a m e n in der F o r m von vegetabilis c h e m Eiweiß, von Stärkemehl u n d G u m m i auf, sie wird b e i m K e i m e n zur
A u s b i l d u n g der ersten Wurzelfasern u n d Blätter verwendet; m i t d e m Vorh a n d e n s e i n dieser Organe fängt die Z u n a h m e an Masse, die eigentliche Ern ä h r u n g an. Jeder K e i m , j e d e K n o s p e einer p e r e n n i r e n d e n Pflanze ist der
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aufgepfropfte E m b r y o eines n e u e n I n d i v i d u u m s , die im S t a m m e , in der
Wurzel aufgespeicherte N a h r u n g . (115) D i e Blätter sind v o r h a n d e n , u m
Stärke, Holzfaser u n d Z u c k e r zu erzeugen; führen wir Stärke, Holzfaser
u n d Zucker d u r c h die W u r z e l n zu, so wird offenbar die Lebensfunktion der
Blätter gestört ... E i n W e i z e n k o r n e n t h ä l t in seiner eignen M a s s e die Bestandtheile des K e i m s u n d der ersten Wurzelfaser ||44| u n d g e n a u in d e m
Verhältniß als zu ihrer Entwicklung n ö t h i g ist. W e n n wir diese Bestandtheile m i t Stfärke u n d ] Kleber b e z e i c h n e n , klar, daß keiner davon allein,
sondern beide zugleich a n der K e i m u n d Wu[r]zelbildung A n t h e i l n e h m e n ,
d e n n bei Gegenwart von Luft, Feuchtigkeit [und] einer a n g e m e ß n e n T e m peratur erleiden sie b e i d e eine M e t a m o r p h o s e . Die Stärke verwandelt sich
in Zucker, der Kleber n i m m t ebenfalls eine n e u e F o r m an, beide erhalten
die Fähigkeit sich zu lösen, d. h. einer j e d e n Bewegung zu folgen. Beide
werden zur Bildung der Wurzelfasern u n d ersten Blätter völlig aufgezehrt,
ein U e b e r s c h u ß von d e m e i n e n würde o h n e die Gegenwart einer entsprec h e n d e n M e n g e von d e m a n d e r n z u r Blattbildung, oder ü b e r h a u p t n i c h t
verwendet werden k ö n n e n . (115, 16) K o h l e n s ä u r e , A m m o n i a k u n d Wasser
sind die Nahrungsstoffe der Pflanzen; Stärke, Zucker oder G u m m i dienen,
wenn sie begleitet sind von einer stickstoffhaltigen Substanz, d e m E m b r y o
zur ersten Entfaltung seiner E r n ä h r u n g s o r g a n e . (117) Gewisse K r a n k h e i t e n
von B ä u m e n , der s. g. H o n i g t h a u , r ü h r e n offenbar von e i n e m Mißverhältniß in der M e n g e der zugeführten stickstofffreien u n d stickstoffhaltigen
Nahrungsstoffe her. (118) Alles übrige gleichgesezt, wird n u r eine d e m
Stickstoffgehalt e n t s p r e c h e n d e Q u a n t i t ä t der von d e n Blättern erzeugten
Substanzen assimilirbar sein; fehlt es an Stickstoff, so wird eine gewisse
M e n g e stickstofffreier Substanz in irgend einer F o r m n i c h t verwendet u n d
als E x c r e m e n t e der Blätter, Zweige, R i n d e n u n d W u r z e l n abgeschieden
werden. Die Ausschwitzungen g e s u n d e r kräftiger Pflanzen von M a n n i t ,
G u m m i , Z u c k e r keiner a n d e r n U r s a c h e zugeschrieben. (119)
U n t e r d i e s e m G e s i c h t s p u n k t e i n l e u c h t e n d , wie sehr sich die in einer
Pflanze erzeugten Producte je nach dem Verhältniß der zugeführten Nahrungsstoffe ä n d e r n k ö n n e n . E i n Ueberfluß an Kohlenstoff, in der F o r m von K o h lensäure d u r c h die W u r z e l n zugeführt, wird bei M a n g e l an Stickstoff weder
in Kleber, n o c h in Eiweiß, n o c h in Holz, n o c h in sonst irgend e i n e n Bestandtheil eines Organs Übergehn; er wird als Zucker, A m y l o n , Oel, W a c h s ,
Harz, M a n n i t , G u m m i , in der F o r m also eines E x c r e m e n t s abgeschieden
werden, oder m e h r oder weniger weite Zellen u n d Gefäße füllen. Bei e i n e n
U e b e r s c h u ß stickstoffhaltiger N a h r u n g wird sich der Kleber u n d der G e h a l t
von vegetabilischem Eiweiß u n d Pflanzenleim vermehren, es w e r d e n A m moniaksalze in d e n Säften bleiben, wenn, wie b e i m A n b a u der R u n k e l r ü b e n ein sehr stickstoffreicher D ü n g e r d e m B o d e n gegeben, oder die F u n k -
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tion der Blätter u n t e r d r ü c k t wird, i n d e m m a n die Pflanze ihrer Blätter
b e r a u b t . D i e A n a n a s i m wilden Z u s t a n d k a u m genießbar, treibt bei reichlic h e n thierischen D ü n g e r eine Masse von Blättern, o h n e daß die F r u c h t
deshalb an Zucker z u n i m m t ; der Stärkegehalt der Kartoffeln wächst in
e i n e m h u m u s r e i c h e n Boden, be[i] kräftigem a n i m a l i s c h e n D ü n g e r n i m m t
5
die A n z a h l ihrer Zellen zu, w ä h r e n d sich der A m y l o n g e h a l t vermindert; in
d e m e r s t e m Fall mehlige, in d e m a n d e r n eine seifige Beschaffenheit. Die
R u n k e l r ü b e n auf m a g e r m S a n d b o d e n gezogen, e n t h a l t e n ein M a x i m u m
von Zucker u n d kein A m m o n i a k s a l z , u n d i n g e d ü n g t e m L a n d e verlirt die
Teltower R ü b e ihre mehlige Beschaffenheit, d e n n in d i e s e m vereinigen 10
sich alle B e d i n g u n g e n für Zellenbildung. (120, 1) Die Pflanzen bedürfen
des Lichts u n d zwar des Sonnenlichts aber für ihre F u n k t i o n e n d u r c h a u s
gleichgültig, ob sie v o m Sonnenlichte getroffen werden, oder im Schatten
wachsen, d. h. die Strahlen direkt erhalten oder nicht. Ihre F u n k t i o n e n
g e h n n u r m i t weit größrer Energie u n d Schnelligkeit im S o n n e n l i c h t e als 15
im Tageslichte oder im Schatten vor sich; es k a n n keine andre Verschied e n h e i t hier gedacht werden, als bei ä h n l i c h e n W i r k u n g e n , die das Licht
auf c h e m i s c h e V e r b i n d u n g e n zeigt, u n d diese Verschiedenheit wird bem e r k b a r durch e i n e n h ö h e r n oder g e r i n g e m G r a d der Beschleunigung der
A k t i o n . (121, 2) |
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H e f t XIII
Hl Heft XIII
Liebig. (Contin. Sieh Heft XII.)
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E i n U e b e r m a a ß von K o h l e n s ä u r e tödtet die Pflanze; aber der Stickstoff bis
zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e ist u n w e s e n t l i c h für die Zersetzung der K o h l e n säure, ... also zur A u s ü b u n g von einer ihrer F u n k t i o n e n , w e n n a u c h für die
Assimilation der d u r c h die Z e r s e t z u n g der K o h l e n s ä u r e n e u g e b i l d e t e n Producte, um Bestandtheile gewisser Organe der Pflanzen zu werden, die G e genwart einer stickstoffhaltigen Substanz u n e n t b e h r l i c h zu sein scheint.
D e r aus der K o h l e n s ä u r e a u f g e n o m m e n e Kohlenstoff hat in d e n Blättern
eine n e u e F o r m a n g e n o m m e n , in der er löslich u n d überführbar in alle
Theile der Pflanze ist. W i r b e z e i c h n e n diese F o r m m i t Zucker, w e n n die
Producte süß s c h m e c k e n , m i t G u m m i oder Schleim, wenn sie geschmacklos sind, sie heissen E x c r e m e n t e , w e n n sie d u r c h die W u r z e l n (Haare u n d
D r ü s e n der Blätter etc) abgeführt werden. Es ist hieraus klar, daß, je n a c h
den Verhältnissen der gleichzeitig zugeführten Nahrungsstoffe, die M e n g e
u n d Qualitäten der d u r c h d e n L e b e n s p r o z e ß der Pflanzen erzeugten Stoffe
wechseln werden. Im freien wilden Z u s t a n d entwickeln sich alle Theile
einer Pflanze je n a c h d e m Verhältnisse der Nahrungsstoffe, die ihr v o m
Standorte dargeboten werden, sie bildet sich auf d e m magersten, unfruchtbarsten B o d e n so gut aus, wie auf d e m fettesten u n d fruchtbarsten; n u r in
ihrer Grösse u n d Masse, in der A n z a h l der H a l m e , Zweige, Blätter, B l ü t h e n
oder F r ü c h t e b e o b a c h t e t m a n e i n e n Unterschied. W ä h r e n d auf e i n e m
fruchtbaren Boden alle ihre e i n z e l n e n Organe vergrössern, v e r m i n d e r n sie
sich auf e i n e m a n d e r n , wo ihr die Materialien m i n d e r reichlich zufließen,
die sie zu ihrer Bildung bedarf; ihr G e h a l t an stickstoffhaltigen oder stick-
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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII
stofffreien B e s t a n d t e i l e n ändert sich m i t der ü b e r w i e g e n d e n M e n g e stickstoffhaltiger oder -freier N a h r u n g s m i t t e l . Die Entwicklung der Halme und
Blätter, Blüthen und Früchte ist an b e s t i m m t e B e d i n g u n g e n geknüpft, deren
K e n n t n i ß u n s gestattet, e i n e n gewissen Einfluß auf ihren G e h a l t in i h r e n
B e s t a n d t h e i l e n auf die Hervorbringung eines M a x i m u m s an Masse auszuü b e n . Die A u s m i t t l u n g dieser B e d i n g u n g e n ist die Aufgabe des Naturforschers; aus ihrer K e n n t n i ß m ü s s e n die G r u n d s ä t z e der L a n d - u n d Forstwirthschaft entspringen. (123, 4) N e b e n gleichen allgemeinen B e d i n g u n gen des W a c h s t h u m s aller Vegetabilien, der Feuchtigkeit, des Lichts, der
W ä r m e u n d der Bestandtheile der A t m o s p h ä r e , giebt es besondre, welche
auf die Entwicklung einzelner F a m i l i e n e i n e n a u s g e z e i c h n e t e n Einfluß
a u s ü b e n . Diese b e s o n d r e n B e d i n g u n g e n liegen im Boden, oder sie werden
i h n e n gegeben i n der F o r m von Stoffen, die m a n m i t d e m allgemeinen N a m e n D ü n g e r bezeichnet. (125) Die Aufgabe der Cultur ist im A l l g e m e i n e n
die vortheilhafteste Hervorbringung gewisser Qualitäten, oder eines M a x i m u m s an Masse von gewissen T h e i l e n oder O r g a n e n verschiedenartiger
Pflanzen, sie wird gelöst d u r c h die A n w e n d u n g der K e n n t n i ß der Stoffe,
die zur A u s b i l d u n g dieser Theile oder Organe u n e n t b e h r l i c h sind, oder der
zur Hervorbringung dieser Q u a l i t ä t e n erforderlichen B e d i n g u n g e n . ... Die
Cultur beabsichtigt im Besondren eine a b n o r m e Entwicklung u n d Erzeugung von gewissen Pflanzentheilen oder Pflanzenstoffen, die zur E r n ä h rung der Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n oder für die Zwecke der Industrie verwendet werden. Je n a c h diesen Zwecken ä n d e r n sich die Mittel die zu ihrer
E r n ä h r u n g d i e n e n . Die Mittel, die die Cultur anwendet, um feines, weiches, biegsames Stroh für F l o r e n t i n e r h ü t h e zu erzeugen, d e n e n völlig entgegengesezt, die m a n wählen m u ß , u m ein M a x i m u m von S a a m e n durch
die n ä m l i c h e Pflanze hervorzubringen. Ein M a x i m u m von Stickstoff in
diesen S a a m e n bedarf wieder zu seiner Erfüllung andrer Bedingung, m a n
h a t wieder andre z u berücksichtigen, w e n n m a n d e m H a l m e die Stärke u n d
Festigkeit geben will, der er bedarf, um das Gewicht der A e h r e zu tragen.
(126[, 127]) E i n e E r h ö h u n g oder V e r m i n d e r u n g der Lebensthätigkeit ist
bei den Vegetabilien allein abhängig von W ä r m e u n d Sonnenlicht, ü b e r
die wir nicht willkührlich verfügen k ö n n e n ; es bleibt u n s n u r die Zuführung von Stoffen gestattet, die geeignet sind, d u r c h die v o r h a n d n e Thätigkeit von d e n Organen der Pflanzen assimilirt zu werden. (127) Die Ackererde ist d u r c h die Verwitterung von Felsarten e n t s t a n d e n , von den
vorwaltenden Bestandtheilen dieser Felsart sind ihre Eigenschaften a b h ä n gig. Mit Sand, Kalk und Thon b e z e i c h n e n wir diese vorwaltenden Bestandtheile der Bodenarten. R e i n e r Sand, reiner Kalkstein, in d e n e n ausser Kieselsäure oder k o h l e n s a u r e m oder kieselsaurem Kalk andre anorganischen
Bestandtheile fehlen, sind absolut unfruchtbar. T h o n stets ein Bestandtheil
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von fruchtbarem B o d e n ... der T h o n s t a m m t h e r von der Verwitterung
thonerdehaltiger M i n e r a l i e n , u n t e r d e n e n die verschiednen F e l d s p a t h e ,
Kalifeldspath, Natronfeldspath (Albit), Kalkfeldspath (Labrador), G l i m m e r
u n d Zeolithe die verbreitetsten u n t e r d e n e n sind, die verwittern. D i e M i n e ralien sind G e m e n g e t h e i l e des G r a n i t s , G n e u ß s , Glimmerschiefers, Porphyrs, Thonschiefers, G r a u w a c k e , v u l k a n i s c h e n Gebirgsarten, Basalt,
Klingstein, Lava. (128) ... die thonerdehaltigen Fossilien die verbreitetsten
an der Erdoberfläche ... die U r s a c h e , die im T h o n Einfluß auf das L e b e n
der Pflanzen ausübt, ist sein nie fehlender Kali- und Natrongehalt. D i e
T h o n e r d e n i m m t an der Vegetation n u r indirekt, d u r c h ihre Fähigkeit W a s ser u n d A m m o n i a k a n z u z i e h n u n d z u r ü c k z u h a l t e n , A n t h e i l ; n u r i n h ö c h s t
seltnen Fällen findet sich T h o n e r d e in der Pflanzenasche, in allen findet
sich aber Kieselerde, welche in d e n m e i s t e n Fällen n u r durch V e r m i t t l u n g
von Alkalien in die Pflanzen gelangt. (129) D a s Kali fehlt in k e i n e m T h o n ,
es ist selbst im Mergel enthalten. (130) E i n T a u s e n d t h e i l Letten, d e m
Quarz im b u n t e n Sandstein oder d e m Kalk in d e n verschiednen Kalkform a t i o n e n beigemengt, giebt e i n e m B o d e n von n u r 20 Zoll Tiefe, so viel
Kali, daß ein Fichtenwald auf d i e s e m B o d e n ein ganzes J a h r h u n d e r t lang
d a m i t versehn werden k a n n . E i n einziger Cubicfuß F e l d s p a t h k a n n eine
Waldfläche m i t L a u b h o l z von 2500 • M e t e r F l ä c h e 5 Jahre lang m i t Kali
versehn. Ein Boden, welcher ein M a x i m u m von Fruchtbarkeit besizt, enthält d e n T h o n g e m e n g t m i t a n d r e n verwitterten Gesteinen, m i t Kalk u n d
Sand in e i n e m solchen Verhältniß, d a ß er der Luft u n d Feuchtigkeit bis zu
e i n e m gewissen G r a d e leichten Eingang verstattet. Der B o d e n in der N ä h e
u n d U m g e b u n g des Vesuvs läßt sich als der Typus der fruchtbarsten Bodenarten b e t r a c h t e n ... Dieser aus verwitterter Lava e n t s t a n d n e B o d e n
k a n n s e i n e m Ursprung n a c h n i c h t die kleinste Spur einer vegetabilischen
Materie enthalten; J e d e r m a n n weiß, daß, w e n n die vulkanische A s c h e eine
Zeitlang der Luft u n d d e m Einfluß der Feuchtigkeit ausgesezt gewesen ist,
alle Vegetabilien darin in der größten Ueppigkeit u n d Fülle gedeihn. D i e
B e d i n g u n g e n dieser F r u c h t b a r k e i t sind die darin e n t h a l t n e n Alkalien, die
n a c h u n d n a c h d u r c h die Verwitterung die Fähigkeit erlangen, von der
Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n zu werden. Bei allen G e s t e i n e n u n d Gebirgsarten
[sind] J a h r t a u s e n d e erforderlich gewesen, um sie in den Z u s t a n d der Ackererde überzuführen. ([130,] 131) N a c h d e m Aufhören des Lebens, wo die
Bestandtheile der Pfla[nze] Zerstörungsprocessen der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung unterliegen, erhält der B o d e n wieder, was i h m entzogen w u r d e . (132) |
|2| E i n kohlensäurehaltiges Wasser zerlegt die Gebirgsarten, welche Alkalien e n t h a l t e n , es empfängt e i n e n G e h a l t von k o h l e n s a u r e m Alkali. Es ist
klar, daß die Pflanzen selbst, insofern ihre Ueberreste d u r c h Verwesung
Kohlensäure erzeugen, insofern ihre W u r z e l n im l e b e n d e n Z u s t a n d e Säu-
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ren ausschwitzen, nicht m i n d e r kräftig d e m Z u s a m m e n h a n g e der Gebirgsarten entgegenwirken. N e b e n der Einwirkung der Luft, des Wassers u n d
Temperaturwechsels sind die Pflanzen selbst die m ä c h t i g s t e n U r s a c h e n der
Verwitterung. Luft, Wasser, Temperaturwechsel bewirken die Vorbereitung
der Felsarten zu ihrer Aufschließung, d. h. zur Auflösung der darin enthaltn e n Alkalien d u r c h die Pflanzen. A u f e i n e m B o d e n , der J a h r h u n d e r t e lang
allen U r s a c h e n der Verwitterung ausgesezt gewesen ist, von d e m aber die
aufgeschloßnen Alkalien nicht fortgeführt wurden, werden alle Vegetabilien, die zu ihrer Entwicklung beträchtliche M e n g e n Alkalien bedürfen,
eine lange R e i h e von J a h r e n d u r c h h i n r e i c h e n d e N a h r u n g finden, allein
n a c h u n d n a c h m u ß er erschöpft werden, w e n n das Alkali, was i h m entzogen wurde, nicht wieder ersezt wird; es m u ß ein P u n k t eintreten, wo er von
Zeit zu Zeit der Verwitterung wieder ausgesezt werden m u ß , um einer
n e u e n E r n d t e Vorrath von auflösbaren Alkalien zu geben. ... N a c h e i n e m
Z e i t r a u m von e i n e m oder m e h r e r e n J a h r e n , während welcher Zeit das AIkali d e m B o d e n nicht entzogen wird, k a n n m a n wieder auf eine n e u e
E r n d t e r e c h n e n . Die Colonisten in Virginien fanden solchen B o d e n ; erndteten o h n e D ü n g e r auf d e m s e l b e n Feld ein ganzes J a h r h u n d e r t lang W e i zen u n d T a b a k ; jezt ganze G e g e n d e n verlassen u n d i n unfruchtbares W e i deland verwandelt, was kein Getreide, k e i n e n T a b a k m e h r o h n e D ü n g e r
hervor bringt. E i n e m Morgen von d i e s e m L a n d e w u r d e n aber in 100 J a h r e n
in d e n Blättern, d e m Korn u n d Stroh ü b e r 1200 Pfund Alkali entzogen: er
wurde unfruchtbar, weil der aufgeschloßne B o d e n gänzlich seines Alkalis
b e r a u b t war u n d weil dasjenige, was im Z e i t r a u m von e i n e m J a h r durch
d e n Einfluß der W i t t e r u n g zur Aufschliessung gelangte, nicht hinreichte,
um die Bedürfnisse der Pflanze zu befriedigen. In diesem Zustande befindet
sich im Allgemeinen alles Culturland in Europa. Die Brache ist die Zeit der
Verwitterung. (133, 4) Der W e i z e n gedeiht n i c h t in reiner Holzerde, der
H a l m erhält keine Stärke u n d legt sich frühzeitig u m . Weil die Festigkeit
des H a l m s von kieselsaurem Kali herrührt, weil das K o r n phosphorsaure Bittererde bedarf, die i h m der H u m u s b o d e n n i c h t liefern kann, i n d e m er keins
von b e i d e n enthält, m a n erhält Kraut, aber keine Frucht. Ebenso gedeiht der
Weizen nicht auf Sandboden, noch auf Kalkboden, wenn er nicht eine beträchtliche Menge Thon beigemischt enthält. W e i l diese B o d e n a r t e n für dieses G e wächs n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d Alkali enthalten. (135, 6) K a n n es auffallend sein,
d a ß n a c h d e m A b b r e n n e n von N a d e l h o l z w a l d u n g e n i n A m e r i c a , d u r c h
welche der B o d e n das in J a h r h u n d e r t e n g e s a m m e l t e Alkali empfängt,
L a u b h o l z gedeiht, d a ß Spartium s c o p a r i u m etc, lauter Pflanzen, welche
eine an Alkali höchst reiche A s c h e geben, auf Brandstätten in üppiger
Fülle emporsprossen? ... 100 Theile Weizenstengel geben 15,5 Asche,
100 Theile trockner Gerstenstengel 8,54 Theile A s c h e , 100 Theile Hafer-
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Stengel n u r 4,42 A s c h e ; diese A s c h e bei allen diesen Pflanzen von einerlei
Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g . Si[eht] m a n hier nicht genau, was die Pflanze bedarf?
Auf e i n e m u n d d e m s e l b e n Felde, das n u r eine Ernte W e i z e n liefert, läßt
sich 2 X Gerste u n d 3 x Hafer b a u e n . Alle Grasarten bedürfen des kieselsauren Kalis; es ist kieselsaures Kali, was b e i m Wässern der W i e s e n d e m
Boden zugeführt, was in d e m B o d e n aufgeschlossen wird ... D i e M e n g e
von kieselsaurem Kali, welches in der F o r m von H e u d e n W i e s e n j ä h r l i c h
g e n o m m e n wird, ist sehr beträchtlich. (136, 7) D a s Kali für die m e i s t e n G e wächse aber nicht die einzige B e d i n g u n g ihrer Existenz; in vielen ist es ersetzbar d u r c h Kalk, Bittererde u n d N a t r o n , aber die Alkalien r e i c h e n allein
nicht hin, u m das L e b e n der Pflanzen z u u n t e r h a l t e n . I n j e d e r bis jezt u n tersuchten Pflanzenasche fand m a n Phosphorsäure, g e b u n d e n an Alkalien
u n d alkalische E r d e n ; die m e i s t e n S a a m e n e n t h a l t e n gewisse M e n g e n davon, die S a a m e n der G e t r e i d e a r t e n sind reich an Phosphorsäure, sie findet
sich darin vereinigt m i t Bittererde. D i e Phosphorsäure wird aus d e m B o d e n
von der Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n , aller culturfähige Boden enthält b e s t i m m bare M e n g e n davon. I n allen Mineralgewässern hat m a n b e s t i m m t e M e n gen davon entdeckt. ... D i e der Oberfläche der Erde am n ä c h s t e n liegend e n Schichten von Schwefelbleilagern e n t h a l t e n kristallisirtes phosphorsaures Bleioxid (Grünbleierz); der Kieselschiefer, welcher grosse Lager
bildet, findet sich an vielen Orten bedeckt m i t Kristallen von phosphorsaurer T h o n e r d e ; alle Bruchflächen sind d a m i t ü b e r z o g e n . . . . . A u s d e m B o d e n
gelangt die Phosphorsäure in die S a a m e n , Blätter u n d W u r z e l n der Pflanzen, aus diesen in d e n O r g a n i s m u s der Thiere, i n d e m sie zur Bildung der
K n o c h e n , der phosphorhaltigen Bestandtheile des G e h i r n s verwendet wird.
D u r c h Fleischspeisen, Brod, Hülsenfrüchte gelangt bei w e i t e m m e h r
Phosphor in den Körper als er bedarf; d u r c h d e n U r i n u n d die festen Excrem e n t e wird aller U e b e r s c h u ß wieder abgeführt. ... O h n e P h o s p h o r s a u r e
Bittererde, welche e i n e n nie fehlenden Bestandtheil der S a a m e n der G e treidearten a u s m a c h t , wird sich dieser S a a m e n nicht bilden k ö n n e n ; er
wird nicht zur Reife gelangen. Ausser Kieselsäure, Kali und Phosphorsäure,
die u n t e r keinerlei U m s t ä n d e n in d e n Culturpflanzen fehlen, n e h m e n die
Vegetabilien aus d e m B o d e n n o c h fremde Stoffe, Salze auf, wovon m a n
voraussetzen darf, daß sie die [eb]engenannten z u m Theil wenigstens in
ihren W i r k u n g e n ersetzen; in dieser F o r m k a n n m a n bei m a n c h e n Pflanzen Kochsalz, schwefelsaures] Kali, Salpeter, Chlorkalium u n d a n d r e als
nothwendige Bestandtheile b e t r a c h t e n . D e r Thonschiefer enthält m e i s t e n s
E i n m i s c h u n g e n von Kupferoxid, der G l i m m e r b o d e n enthält F l u o r m e t a l l e .
Geringe M e n g e n davon g e h n in d e n O r g a n i s m u s der Pflanzen über, o h n e
daß sie sich als nothwendig b e h a u p t e n lassen. (138, 9) |
|3| In den verschiednen Stadien ihrer Entwicklung bedürfen die Vegeta-
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bilien ungleiche M e n g e n v o n d e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n des B o d e n s . W e i z e n pflanzen lieferten i h m (de Saussure) e i n e n M o n a t vor der B l ü t h e % oo>
der B l ü t h e % oo u n d m i t reifem S a a m e n n u r % oo A s c h e . M a n sieht offenbar, d a ß sie d e m Boden, von der B l ü t h e an e i n e n T h e i l seiner a n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile wieder z u r ü c k g e b e n , aber die p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bitter5
erde ist im S a a m e n zurückgeblieben. (140) D i e Brache ist ... die P e r i o d e
der Cultur, wo m a n das L a n d einer fortschreitenden Verwitterung vermittelst des Einflusses der A t m o s p h ä r e überläßt, in der W e i s e , d a ß eine gewisse Q u a n t i t ä t Alkali wieder fähig g e m a c h t wird, von einer Pflanze aufgen o m m e n zu werden. Es ist klar, d a ß die sorgfältige B e a r b e i t u n g des 10
B r a c h l a n d e s seine Verwitterung beschleunigt u n d vergrössert; für den
Zweck der Cultur ist es völlig gleichgültig, ob man das Land mit Unkraut sich bedecken läßt, oder ob man eine Pflanze darauf baut, die dem Boden das aufgeschlossne Kali nicht entzieht. (1. c.) U n t e r der F a m i l i e der L e g u m i n o s e n sind
viele A r t e n ausgezeichnet d u r c h ihren geringen G e h a l t von Alkalien u n d 15
Salzen ü b e r h a u p t ; die B o h n e der Vicia faba e n t h ä l t ζ. B. k e i n freies Alkali,
u n d a n p h o s p h o r s a u r e m Kalk u n d Bittererde n o c h n i c h t 1%; die reifen
Erbsen g e b e n im G a n z e n 1,93 Asche, darin 0,29 p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk ...
D e r Buchweizen a n der S o n n e getrocknet, liefert i m G a n z e n n u r 0,681 p . c .
A s c h e u n d d a r i n n u r 0,09 Theile löslicher Salze. D i e o b e n e r w ä h n t e n Pflan- 20
z e n gehören zu d e n s. g. Brachfrüchten, in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g liegt
der G r u n d , w a r u m sie d e m G e t r e i d e , was n a c h i h n e n gepflanzt wird, n i c h t
s c h a d e n ; sie e n t z i e h n d e m B o d e n k e i n e Alkalien, s o n d e r n n u r eine vers c h w i n d e n d e M e n g e v o n p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen. (141) Zwei Pflanzen werd e n n e b e n e i n a n d e r oder h i n t e r e i n a n d e r gedeihen, w e n n sie aus d e m Bo25
d e n verschiedenartige M a t e r i e n z u ihrer A u s b i l d u n g n ö t h i g h a b e n , oder
w e n n die Stadien ihres W a c h s t h u m s , der B l ü t h e u n d F r u c h t b i l d u n g weit
auseinanderliegen. (142)
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Die Wechselwirthschaft und der Dünger.
S c h o n lange die Erfahrung g e m a c h t , d a ß einjährige Culturgewächse, auf
e i n e m u n d d e m s e l b e n B o d e n h i n t e r e i n a n d e r folgend, i n i h r e m W a c h s t h u m z u r ü c k b l e i b e n etc etc. F e r n e r b e o b a c h t e t , d a ß gewisse Pflanzen, wie
Erbsen, Klee, Lein, auf e i n e m u n d d e m s e l b e n F e l d e erst n a c h einer R e i h e
v o n J a h r e n wieder gedeihn, d a ß andre, wie Hanf, T a b a c k T o p i n a m b u r ,
Roggen, Hafer bei gehöriger D ü n g u n g h i n t e r e i n a n d e r g e b a u t werden k ö n n e n ; d a ß m a n c h e d e n B o d e n verbessern, a n d r e i h n s c h o n e n , u n d die lezte
u n d häufigste Klasse d e n B o d e n angreifen oder erschöpfen. Zu diesen geh ö r e n die Brachrüben, Kopfkohl, R u n k e l r ü b e n , Dinckel, S o m m e r u n d
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Wintergerste, Roggen u n d Hafer; m a n r e c h n e t sie zu d e n angreifenden;
Weizen, Hopfen, Krapp, Stoppelrüben, R a p s , Hanf, M o h n , K a r d e n , Lein,
Pastel, W a u , Süßholz betrachtet m a n als erschöpfende. (143) Hauptaufgabe der Wechselwirthschaft »&m System der F e l d w i r t s c h a f t « das » e i n e n
möglichst h o h e n Ertrag m i t d e m kleinsten Aufwand von D ü n g e r erzielt« ...
Sehr bald sah m a n ein, d a ß die Mannigfaltigkeit der Cultur so gut wie die
R u h e (Brache) die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des B o d e n s erhalte. Es war offenbar, d a ß
alle Pflanzen d e m B o d e n in verschiednen Verhältnissen gewisse M a t e r i e n
zurückgeben m u ß t e n , die zur N a h r u n g einer folgenden G e n e r a t i o n verwendet werden k o n n t e n . (144) V o n c h e m i s c h e n Principien, gestüzt auf die
K e n n t n i ß der M a t e r i e n , welche die Pflanzen d e m Boden entziehn, u n d was
i h m in d e m D ü n g e r zurückgegeben wird, ist bis jezt in der Agricultur k e i n e
R e d e gewesen. (1. c.) Die W u r z e l n aller Pflanzen sondern M a t e r i e n ab, die
in i h r e m Organismus weder in Holzfaser, n o c h in Stärke, vegetabilisches
Eiweiß, Kleber etc verwandelt w e r d e n k ö n n e n . (147) Es unterliegt k e i n e m
Zweifel, daß die W u r z e l n der Pflanzen M a t e r i e n ausschwitzen, d u r c h die
sie d e m B o d e n d e n Kohlenstoff wiedergeben, d e n sie von s e i n e m H u m u s
in ihrer frühsten Periode der Entwicklung empfangen h a b e n . (148) W e n n
u n t e r d e n Stoffen, welche von d e n W u r z e l n einer Pflanze aus d e m B o d e n
a u f g e n o m m e n werden, sich solche befinden, die sie zu ihrer E r n ä h r u n g
nicht verwendet, so m ü s s e n sie d e m B o d e n wieder zurückgegeben werden;
E x c r e m e n t e dieser Art k ö n n e n einer zweiten u n d dritten Pflanze zu ihrer
N a h r u n g dienlich, zu i h r e m Bestehn selbst u n e n t b e h r l i c h sein, allein die
in d e m Organismus der Vegetabilien d u r c h d e n E r n ä h r u n g s p r o z e ß n e u g e bildeten Materien, die also in Folge der Erzeugung von Holzfaser, A m y l o n ,
Eiweiß, Kleber, G u m m i , S ä u r e n etc etc e n t s t a n d e n sind, sie k ö n n e n in keiner a n d r e n Pflanzengattung zur Bildung von Holzfaser, A m y l o n , Eiweiß,
Kleber etc verwendet werden. (149) Lein, Erbsen, Klee, selbst Kartoffeln
gehören zu den Pflanzen, deren E x c r e m e n t e auf T h o n b o d e n die längste
Zeit zu ihrer Humificirung bedürfen, aber klar, daß die A n w e n d u n g von
Alkalien, von selbst kleinen M e n g e n unausgelaugter Asche, g e b r a n n t e m
Kalke das Feld in bei w e i t e m kürzerer Zeit wieder in d e n S t a n d setzen
m u ß , den A n b a u der n ä m l i c h e n Pflanze wieder zu gestatten. D e r B o d e n erlangt in der Brache e i n e n T h e i l seiner frühern Fruchtbarkeit s c h o n dad u r c h wieder, weil in der Zeit der Brache, n e b e n der fortschreitenden Verwitterung die Zerstörung oder H u m i f i c i r u n g der darin e n t h a l t e n e n
E x c r e m e n t e erfolgt. E i n e U e b e r s c h w e m m u n g ersezt die Brache in kalireic h e m B o d e n in der N ä h e des R h e i n , des Nils, wo m a n o h n e N a c h t h e i l auf
denselben Aeckern h i n t e r e i n a n d e r G e t r e i d e b a u t . Ebenso vertritt das W ä s sern der Wiesen die W i r k u n g der Brache; das an Sauerstoff so reiche W a s ser der Bäche u n d Flüsse bewirkt, i n d e m es sich unaufhörlich erneuert u n d
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alle Theile des Bodens durchdringt, die schnellste u n d vollständigste Verwesung der angehäuften E x c r e m e n t e . W ä r e es das Wasser allein, das der
B o d e n aufnimmt, so w ü r d e n sumpfige W i e s e n die fruchtbarsten sein. (151,
2)1
|4| Die Vortheilhaftigkeit des Fruchtwechsels b e r u h t auf zwei Ursac h e n ... Bepflanzen wir e i n e n B o d e n m e h r e J a h r e h i n t e r e i n a n d e r m i t vers c h i e d n e n G e w ä c h s e n , von welchen das erste in d e m B o d e n die anorganis c h e n Bestandtheile zurückläßt, welche das zweite, dieses wieder, was das
dritte bedarf, so wird er für diese 3 Pflanzengattungen fruchtbar sein.
W e n n n u n die erste Pflanze ζ. B. W e i z e n ist, welcher die größte M e n g e kieseisaures Kali consumirt, w ä h r e n d die auf i h n folgenden Pflanzen n u r eine
geringe M e n g e Kali d e m B o d e n e n t z i e h n , wie L e g u m i n o s e n , Hackfrüchte
etc, s o wird m a n n a c h d e m 4 ' J a h r e wieder W e i z e n m i t Vortheil b a u e n k ö n n e n , d e n n w ä h r e n d 3 er J a h r e ist der B o d e n d u r c h die Verwitterung wieder
fähig geworden, kieselsaures Kali in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e an die j u n g e n
Pflanzen abzugeben. F ü r die a n d r e n organischen Bestandtheile m u ß für
verschiedne Pflanzen, w e n n sie h i n t e r e i n a n d e r g e d e i h e n sollen, ein ä h n l i ches V e r h ä l t n i ß berücksichtigt werden ... die m e i s t e n dieser Pflanzen d e m
B o d e n so viel Kohlenstoff zurückgegeben, als sie in der F o r m von K o h l e n säure empfingen ... aber dieß n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d , um gewisse Theile oder
Organe derselben, S a a m e n u n d W u r z e l n m i t e i n e m M a x i m u m von N a h r u n g zu versehn. (Wie das die Agricultur m u ß ) ... E i n M a x i m u m im Ertrag
steht g e n a u im V e r h ä l t n i ß zu der M e n g e der Nahrungsstoffe, die ihr in der
ersten Zeit ihrer Entwicklung dargeboten werden. Diese N a h r u n g s m i t t e l
sind K o h l e n s ä u r e , die der Boden in der F o r m von H u m u s , es ist Stickstoff,
d e n e r i n der F o r m von A m m o n i a k e r h a l t e n m u ß ... Die Bildung von A m m o n i a k k a n n auf d e m C u l t u r l a n d e n i c h t bewirkt werden, wohl aber eine
künstliche H u m u s e r z e u g u n g . Diese m u ß als eine H a u p t a u f g a b e der W e c h selwirthschaft u n d als 2 U r s a c h e ihrer Vortheilhaftigkeit a n g e s e h n werden.
D a s A n s ä e n eines Feldes m i t einer Brachfrucht, m i t Klee, Roggen, L u p i n e n , Buchweizen etc, u n d die Einverleibung der ihrer B l ü t h e n a h e n Pflanz e n in d e n B o d e n d u r c h U m a c k e r n , löst diese Aufgabe insofern, als b e i
einer n e u e n E i n s a a t die sich entwickelnde j u n g e Pflanze in einer gewissen
Periode ihres Lebens ein M a x i m u m von N a h r u n g , d. h. eine verwesende
Materie vorfindet. D e n gleichen Zweck erreicht m a n n o c h vollständiger
u n d sichrer d u r c h Bepflanzung des Feldes m i t Esparsette oder Lucerne.
Diese d u r c h eine starke Wurzelverzweigung u n d e b e n so starken Blätterwuchs a u s g e z e i c h n e t e n Pflanzen bedürfen aus d e m B o d e n n u r einer geringen M e n g e von anorganischen Stoffen. Bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e der
Entwicklung g e k o m m e n , bleibt i h n e n alle K o h l e n s ä u r e , alles A m m o n i a k ,
was die Luft u n d der R e g e n zuführen; was der B o d e n n i c h t a u f n i m m t , sau-
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gen die Blätter ein; sie sind es, d u r c h welche die assimilirende Oberfläche
ver4 oder 6facht wird, welche die V e r d u n s t u n g des A m m o n i a k s auf der
Erdoberfläche h i n d e r n , i n d e m sie sie wie eine H a u b e bedecken. E i n e u n mittelbare Folge der E r z e u g u n g v o n Blattgrün u n d der übrigen Bestandtheile der Blätter u n d Stengel ist die ebenso reichliche A u s s c h e i d u n g von
organischen Stoffen, die der B o d e n als E x c r e m e n t e der W u r z e l n erhält. ...
Diese Bereicherung des B o d e n s m i t Stoffen, welche fähig sind, in H u m u s
ü b e r z u g e h n , d a u e r t m e h r e r e J a h r e h i n d u r c h , aber n a c h einer gewissen Zeit
entstehn darauf kahle Stellen. N ä m l i c h n a c h 5 - 7 J a h r e n schwängert sich
die Erde in d e m G r a d e m i t diesen E x c r e m e n t e n , daß j e d e Wurzelfaser davon u m g e b e n ist; in d e m auflöslichen Z u s t a n d , den sie eine Zeitlang b e wahren, ein Theil davon wieder von der Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n , auf welche
sie nachtheilig wirken, i n d e m sie n i c h t assimilirbar sind. Abwechselnd werden Stellen auf d e m F e l d kahl u n d fruchtbar. U r s a c h e : Die E x c r e m e n t e auf
den k a h l e n Plätzen erhalten k e i n e n n e u e n Z u w a c h s ; d e m Einfluß der Luft
u n d Feuchtigkeit preißgegeben, g e h e n sie in Verwesung über; ihr schädlicher Einfluß hört auf; die Pflanze findet von diesen Stellen die M a t e r i e n
entfernt, die ihr W a c h s t h u m h i n d e r t e n ; sie trifft im G e g e n t h e i l wieder H u m u s , (verwesende Pflanzenstoffe) an. E i n e beßre u n d zweckmäßigere H u m u s e r z e u g u n g , als die durch eine Pflanze, deren Blätter T h i e r e n zur N a h rung dienen, ist wohl k a u m d e n k b a r ; als Vorfrucht sind diese Pflanzen
einer j e d e n a n d e r n G a t t u n g nützlich, n a m e n t l i c h aber denen, welche wie
Raps u n d Lein vorzugsweise des H u m u s bedürfen, von u n s c h ä t z b a r e m
W e r t h e . Die U r s a c h e n der Vortheilhaftigkeit des Fruchtwechsels, die
eigentlichen Principien der Wechselwirthschaft b e r u h e n h i e r n a c h auf einer
künstlichen H u m u s e r z e u g u n g u n d auf der B e b a u u n g des Feldes m i t verschiedenartigen Pflanzen, die in einer solchen O r d n u n g auf e i n a n d e r folgen, daß eine j e d e n u r gewisse Bestandtheile entzieht, während sie andre
zurückläßt oder wiedergiebt, die eine 2 u n d 3 Pflanzengattung z u ihrer
A u s b i l d u n g u n d Entwicklung bedürfen, (p. 1 5 2 - 5 6 ) W e n n n u n a u c h der
H u m u s g e h a l t eines B o d e n s d u r c h zweckmässige Cultur in e i n e m gewissen
G r a d e beständig gesteigert w e r d e n k a n n , d e n n o c h kein Zweifel, d a ß der
B o d e n a n d e n b e s o n d r e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n i m m e r ärmer werden m u ß , die i n
d e n S a a m e n , W u r z e l n u n d Blättern, welche wir h i n w e g g e n o m m e n h a b e n ,
e n t h a l t e n waren. N u r in d e m Fall wird die Fruchtbarkeit des B o d e n s sich
u n v e r ä n d e r t erhalten, w e n n wir i h n e n alle diese S u b s t a n z e n wieder zuführen u n d ersetzen. D i e ß geschieht d u r c h d e n Dünger. ... alle a n o r g a n i s c h e n
Bestandtheile der Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n m ü s s e n als D ü n g e r betrachtet werden- W ä h r e n d ihres L e b e n s werden die a n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile der
Pflanzen, welche der a n i m a l i s c h e O r g a n i s m u s n i c h t bedurfte, in der F o r m
von E x c r e m e n t e n wieder ausgestoßen, n a c h i h r e m Tode geht der Stickstoff,
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der Kohlenstoff in d e n Prozessen der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung als A m m o n i a k u n d Kohlensäure wieder in die A t m o s p h ä r e über, es bleibt zulezt
nichts weiter als die a n o r g a n i s c h e n M a t e r i e n , der p h o s p h o r s a u r e Kalk u n d
andre Salze, i n d e n K n o c h e n zurück. E i n e rationelle Agricultur m u ß diesen erdigen R ü c k s t a n d so gut wie die E x c r e m e n t e ||5| als kräftigen D ü n g e r
für gewisse Pflanzen betrachten, der d e m Boden, von d e m er in einer R e i h e
v o n J a h r e n e n t n o m m e n worden ist, wiedergegeben werden m u ß , w e n n
seine Fruchtbarkeit nicht a b n e h m e n soll. (156, 7) D a s H e u enthält
1% Stickstoff; in 25 Pfund wird eine K u h täglich % Pfund Stickstoff zu
ihrer N a h r u n g assimilirt h a b e n . Diese Stickstoffmenge würde, in Muskelfaser verwandelt, 8,8 Pfund Fleisch in s e i n e m n a t ü r l i c h e n Z u s t a n d gegeben
h a b e n . Die Z u n a h m e an Masse weit weniger als dieß Gewicht u n d wir finden in der T h a t im H a r n u n d in der M i l c h den Stickstoff, der hier zu fehlen scheint. ... M i t h i n die flüssigen Excremente worin wir d e n nicht assimilirten Stickstoff zu s u c h e n ; wenn die festen auf die Vegetabilien ü b e r h a u p t
von Einfluß sind, so b e r u h t er nicht a u f d h r e m Stickstoffgehalt. (159) Mit
3600 bis 4000 Pfund frischem Pferdekoth, e n t s p r e c h e n d 1000 Pfund trockn e m Pferdekoth, bringen wir also auf d e n A c k e r 2 4 8 4 - 3 0 0 0 Pfund Wasser,
s o d a n n : 7 3 0 - 9 0 0 Pfund vegetabilischer Materie u n d veränderter Galle, zulezt geben wir d e m Acker 1 0 0 - 2 7 0 Pfund Salze u n d anorganische Substanzen. ... es sind dieß lauter Substanzen, die Bestandtheile des H e u e s , Strohs
u n d Hafers waren, womit das Pferd gefüttert wurde. D e r H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l
davon ist phosphorsaurer Kalk u n d Bittererde, kohlensaurer Kalk u n d kieselsaures Kali, das leztre ist in d e m H e u , die erstren in d e n K ö r n e r n in
überwiegender M e n g e zugegen gewesen. In 10 C e n t n e r n Pferdeexcrementen bringen wir im M a x i m o die a n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n von 45 Ctrn
H e u oder von 90 Ctrn Hafer auf d e n Acker; dieß ist h i n r e i c h e n d , um
V/2 Ernten W e i z e n m i t Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen v o l l k o m m e n zu
versehen. Der K o t h der K ü h e , des R i n d v i e h s u n d der Schafe enthält, ausser
d e n vegetabilischen M a t e r i e n , p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk, Kochsalz u n d kieselsaures Kali; das Gewicht derselben wechselt je n a c h der F ü t t e r u n g von
9 - 2 8 p . c , der K u h k o t h enthält i m frischen Z u s t a n d e 8 6 - 9 0 p . c . Wasser.
Die festen m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e - n a c h Berzelius - e n t h a l t e n frisch
% ihres Gewichts Wasser, ferner Stickstoff von 1/4-5 p.c., sie sind u n t e r allen die stickstoffreichsten. Berzelius erhielt von 100 T h e i l e n trocknen Exc r e m e n t e n , n a c h d e m Einäschern 15 Theile A s c h e , deren H a u p t b e s t a n d t e i l e 1 0 Theile p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalks u n d Bittererde waren. Gewiß
k ö n n e n die vegetabilischen Materien, die wir in d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der
Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n auf die Felder bringen, n i c h t o h n e einigen Einfluß
auf die Vegetation bleiben; i n d e m sie verwesen, liefern sie d e n j u n g e n
Pflanzen Kohlensäure zur N a h r u n g , aber dieß N e b e n s a c h e , u n b e d e u -
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t e n d ... die Q u a n t i t ä t des Kohlenstoffs, d e n m a n als D ü n g e r d e m A c k e r zuführt, beträgt n u r 5 - 8 p. c. von d e m , was m a n als Kraut, Stroh u n d F r u c h t
h i n w e g n i m m t ... Es bleibt die eigentliche W i r k u n g der festen E x c r e m e n t e
auf die anorganischen M a t e r i e n beschränkt, welche d e m B o d e n wiedergegeben werden, n a c h d e m sie i h m in der F o r m von Getreide, von W u r z e l g e wächsen, von g r ü n e m u n d t r o c k n e m F u t t e r g e n o m m e n worden waren.
( 1 6 0 - 6 2 ) In d e m K u h d ü n g e r , d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der Schaafe g e b e n wir
d e m Getreideland kieselsaures Kali u n d phosphorsaure Salze, i n d e n
m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e n p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk u n d Bittererde, i n d e n
E x c r e m e n t e n der Pferde p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bittererde u n d kieselsaures Kali.
In d e m Stroh, was als Streu gedient hat, b r i n g e n wir eine n e u e Q u a n t i t ä t
von kieselsaurem Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e Salze h i n z u ; wenn es verwest ist,
bleiben diese genau i n d e m v o n d e n Pflanzen assimilirbaren Z u s t a n d e i m
Boden. ... trotz der sorgfältigen Vertheilung u n d S a m m l u n g des D ü n gers ... ein Verlust einer gewissen M e n g e phosphorsaurer Salze u n v e r m e i d lich, d e n n wir führen j e d e s J a h r i n d e m G e t r e i d e u n d g e m ä s t e t e m V i e h ein
bemerkbares Q u a n t u m aus, was d e n U m g e b u n g e n grosser Städte zufließt.
In einer wohleingerichteten Wirthschaft m u ß dieser Verlust ersezt werden.
Z u m Theil geschieht dieß d u r c h die W i e s e n . Zu 100 M o r g e n G e t r e i d e l a n d
r e c h n e t m a n in D e u t s c h l a n d als n o t h w e n d i g zu einer zweckmässigen Cultur 20 Morgen Wiese, die durchschnittlich 500 Ctr H e u p r o d u c i r e n ; bei
e i n e m G e h a l t von 6.82 P.C. A s c h e erhält m a n jährlich in d e n E x c r e m e n t e n
der Thiere, d e n e n es zur N a h r u n g gegeben wird, 3410 Pfund kieselsaures
Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk u n d Bittererde, die d e n Getreidefeldern z u
G u t k o m m e n u n d d e n Verlust bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d decken. ... In
der Asche des Holzes, das in d e n H a u s h a l t u n g e n verbraucht wird, ersetzen
wir d e n Wiesen wieder, was sie an p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen verloren h a b e n .
(162, 3) W i r k ö n n e n die F r u c h t b a r k e i t u n s r e r F e l d e r in e i n e m stets gleichb l e i b e n d e n Z u s t a n d erhalten, w e n n wir i h r e n Verlust jährlich wieder ersetzen; eine Steigerung der Fruchtbarkeit, eine E r h ö h u n g ihres Ertrags ist
aber n u r d a n n möglich, wenn wir m e h r wiedergeben als wir i h n e n n e h m e n .
U n t e r gleichen B e d i n g u n g e n wird v o n 2 A e c k e r n der eine so fruchtbarer
werden, je leichter u n d in je größrer M e n g e die Pflanzen, die wir darauf
kultiviren, die b e s o n d r e n Bestandtheile sich a n e i g n e n k ö n n e n , die sie zu
i h r e m W a c h s t h u m u n d ihrer Entwicklung bedürfen. ... die W i r k u n g der
thierischen E x c r e m e n t e ist ersetzbar d u r c h Materien, die ihre Bestandtheile enthalten. In F l a n d e r n wird der jährliche Ausfall vollständig ersezt
d u r c h das Ueberfahren der Felder m i t ausgelaugter oder nicht ausgelaugter
Holzasche, durch K n o c h e n , die z u m grossen T h e i l aus p h o s p h o r s a u r e m
Kalk u n d Bittererde bestehn. (163) Die Wichtigkeit der Holzasche augenfällich. Die m i t kaltem Wasser ausgelaugte H o l z a s c h e enthält kieselsaures
209
Kali gerade in d e m s e l b e n V e r h ä l t n i ß wie Stroh ||6| ausser d i e s e m Salze n u r
phosphorsaure Salze. Die verschiednen H o l z a s c h e n übrigens e i n e n h ö c h s t
u n g l e i c h e n Werth, die E i c h e n h o l z a s c h e d e n geringsten, die B u c h e n h o l z asche den h ö c h s t e n W e r t h . M i t je 100 Pfund ausgelaugter B u c h e n h o l z asche b r i n g e n wir auf das Feld ein Q u a n t u m phosphorsaurer Salze = d e m
5
G e h a l t von 460 Pfund frischen M e n s c h e n e x c r e m e n t e n . M i t 100 Pfund
B u c h e n h o l z a s c h e bringen wir auf das F e l d eine M e n g e Phosphorsäure, h i n reichend für die Erzeugung von 4000 Pfd Stroh oder für 2000 Pfd W e i z e n k ö m e r . N o c h wichtiger in dieser B e z i e h u n g die Knochen. ... D i e lezte
Quelle der Bestandtheile der K n o c h e n ist das H e u u n d Stroh, ü b e r h a u p t 10
das Futter, was die Thiere gemessen. K n o c h e n e n t h a l t e n 55 P. C. phosphorsauren Kalk u n d Bittererde, also 8 Pfund K n o c h e n so viel p h o s p h o r s a u r e n
Kalk als 1000 Pfund H e u oder Weizenstroh, oder 20 Pfund so viel, als in
1000 Pfd W e i z e n - u n d Haferkörnern sich vorfindet. (164, 5) D i e D ü n g u n g
eines Morgen Landes m i t 40 Pfd frischen K n o c h e n reicht hin, um 3 Ernd- 15
t e n (Weizen, Klee u n d Hackfrüchte) m i t p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen zu versehn ... Je feiner die K n o c h e n zertheilt, je inniger sie m i t d e m B o d e n gem i s c h t sind, desto leichter wird die Assimilirbarkeit sein. (165) Als Prinzip
des Ackerbaus m u ß a n g e s e h n werden, d a ß der B o d e n in vollem Maasse
wieder erhalten m u ß , was i h m g e n o m m e n wird; in welcher F o r m dieß W i e - 20
dergeben geschieht, ob in der F o r m von E x c r e m e n t e n , oder von A s c h e oder
K n o c h e n , ist. ziemlich gleichgültig. Es wird eine Zeit k o m m e n , wo m a n
d e n Acker m i t einer Auflösung von Wassergas (kieselsaurem Kali), m i t der
A s c h e von v e r b r a n n t e m Stroh, w o m a n i h n m i t p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen
d ü n g e n wird, die m a n in c h e m i s c h e n F a b r i k e n bereitet. (167) Es giebt 25
Pflanzen, welche H u m u s bedürfen, o h n e bemerklich zu erzeugen; es giebt
andre, die i h n e n t b e h r e n k ö n n e n , die e i n e n h u m u s a r m e n B o d e n d a r a n bereichern; eine rationelle Cultur wird allen H u m u s für die ersten, u n d kein e n für die a n d e r n verwenden, sie wird die leztern b e n u t z e n , um die ers t e m d a m i t zu versehn. (167, 8) Also jezt alles d e m B o d e n gegeben, was die 30
Pflanzen für die Bildung der Holzfaser, des Korns, der Wurzel, des Stengels aus d e m B o d e n z i e h n u n d jezt z u m wichtigsten Zweck des F e l d b a u s ,
n ä m l i c h zur Production von assimilirbarem Stickstoff, also von M a t e r i e n ,
welche Stickstoff enthalten. Das Blatt, was d e n Holzkörper nährt, die W u r zel, aus der sich die Blätter entwickeln, was d e n F r ü c h t e n ihre Bestand- 35
theile zubereitet, alle Theile des O r g a n i s m u s der Pflanze e n t h a l t e n stickstoffhaltige M a t e r i e n in sehr wechselnden Verhältnissen; die W u r z e l n u n d
S a a m e n sind besonders reich daran. ... D i e N a t u r , die A t m o s p h ä r e liefert
d e n Stickstoff in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e zur n o r m a l e n Entwicklung einer
Pflanze u n d ihre Entwicklung schon n o r m a l , w e n n sie n u r ein einziges 40
S a a m e n k o r n wieder erzeugt, was fähig ist, in e i n e m darauf folgenden J a h r e
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die Pflanze wiederkehren zu m a c h e n . ... eine weise Einrichtung giebt der
Pflanze die merkwürdige Fähigkeit, bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e allen
Stickstoff, der ihr dargeboten wird, in Nahrungsstoff für das T h i e r zu verwandeln. (168) W e n n es der Pflanze an Stickstoff fehlt, wird sie Kraut, a b e r
keine Körner, sie wird vielleicht Z u c k e r u n d A m y l o n , aber k e i n e n Kleber
erzeugen. G e b e n wir der Pflanze aber Stickstoff in reichlicher Quantität, so
wird sie den Kohlenstoff, d e n sie zu seiner Assimilation bedarf, aus der
Luft, w e n n er im B o d e n fehlt, m i t der kräftigsten Energie schöpfen; wir geb e n ihr in d e m Stickstoff das Mittel, um d e n Kohlenstoff aus der A t m o s p h ä r e in i h r e m O r g a n i s m u s zu fixiren. Als Dünger, der d u r c h s e i n e n
Stickstoffgehalt wirkt, die festen E x c r e m e n t e des Rindviehs, der Schaafe,
der Pferde gar n i c h t in Betracht zu ziehn, weil ihr G e h a l t an d i e s e m Bestandtheil verschwindend klein ist; die m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e verhältnißmässig reich an Stickstoff, ihr G e h a l t ist aber ausserordentlich variirend; die E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n , die in d e n Städten w o h n e n , wo m e h r
animalische Kost vorherrscht, reicher dran, als die von B a u e r n u n d überh a u p t v o m L a n d e h e r g e n o m m e n e n ; Brod u n d Kartoffeln geben b e i m M e n schen E x c r e m e n t e von einer ä h n l i c h e n Beschaffenheit u n d Z u s a m m e n s e t zung, wie bei d e n Thieren. Die E x c r e m e n t e h a b e n in dieser B e z i e h u n g
e i n e n ungleichen W e r t h ; für Sand- u n d Kalkboden, d e m es an kieselsaur e m Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen fehlt, h a b e n die E x c r e m e n t e der
Pferde u n d des R i n d v i e h s e i n e n ganz b e s o n d e r n N u t z e n , der sich für kalireichen T h o n b o d e n , Basalt, G r a n i t , Porphyr, Klingstein, selbst für Z e c h steinboden ausserordentlich vermindert; für diesen leztern M e n s c h e n d ü n ger das H a u p t m i t t e l seine F r u c h t b a r k e i t ausserordentlich zu steigern;
denselben N u t z e n hat er n a t ü r l i c h für alle B o d e n a r t e n ü b e r h a u p t , aber z u r
D ü n g u n g der e r s t e m k ö n n e n die E x c r e m e n t e der Thiere nicht e n t b e h r t
werden. (169, 170) V o n d e m Stickstoffgehalt der festen E x c r e m e n t e abgesehn, n u r eine Quelle von stickstoffhaltigem Dünger, diese Quelle ist der
Harn der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere. W i r bringen d e n H a r n entweder als Mistj a u c h e oder in der F o r m der E x c r e m e n t e selbst, die davon d u r c h d r u n g e n
sind, auf die Felder; es ist der H a r n , der den leztern die Fähigkeit giebt,
A m m o n i a k z u entwickeln ... I m H a r n geben wir den F e l d e r n A m m o n i a k salze, Harnsäure, die a u s n e h m e n d reich an Stickstoff ist, u n d phosphorsaure Salze, die im H a r n sich gelöst befinden. (170) ||7| Bringt m a n d e n gefaulten Urin auf die Felder, so verdunstet ein Theil des k o h l e n s a u r e n
A m m o n i a k s m i t d e m Wasser ... D a s k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k m a c h t bei
seiner Bildung den H a r n alkalisch, in n o r m a l e m Z u s t a n d ist er sauer; w e n n
es sich verflüchtigt u n d in der Luft verliert, so ist der Verlust b e i n a h e
gleich d e m Verlust an d e m h a l b e n G e w i c h t U r i n ; wenn wir es fixiren, d. h.
i h m seine Flüchtigkeit n e h m e n , so h a b e n wir seine W i r k s a m k e i t aufs D o p -
211
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII!
pelte erhöht. ... Das d u r c h F ä u l n i ß des U r i n s erzeugte k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k k a n n auf mannigfaltige Weise fixirt, d. h. seiner Fähigkeit sich zu verflüchtigen b e r a u b t werden. D e n k e n wir u n s e i n e n Acker m i t Gyps bestreut,
d e n wir m i t gefaultem U r i n oder Mistjauche überfahren, so wird alles kohlensaure A m m o n i a k sich in schwefelsaures verwandeln, was in d e m Boden
bleibt. ... N o c h einfachre Mittel, u m alles k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k d e n
Pflanzen zu erhalten, ein Zusatz v o n Gyps, Chlorcalcium, Schwefelsäure
oder Salzsäure oder von s a u r e m p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk, lauter S u b s t a n z e n ,
deren Preiß a u s n e h m e n d niedrig ist; bis z u m Verschwinden der Alkalinität
des H a r n s wird das A m m o n i a k in ein Salz verwandeln, was seine Fähigkeit
sich zu verflüchtigen, gänzlich verloren hat. ( 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 ) Das A m m o n i a k ,
was sich in Ställen u n d aus Abtritten entwickelt, ist u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n
m i t Kohlensäure v e r b u n d e n . K o h l e n s a u r e s A m m o n i a k u n d schwefelsaurer
Kalk (Gyps) bei gewöhnlicher T e m p e r a t u r n i c h t in B e r ü h r u n g zu bringen,
o h n e sich gegenseitig zu zersetzen. D a s A m m o n i a k vereinigt sich m i t der
Schwefelsäure, die K o h l e n s ä u r e m i t d e m Kalk zu V e r b i n d u n g e n , die n i c h t
flüchtig, d. h. geruchlos sind. Bestreuen wir d e n B o d e n der Ställe von Zeit
zu Zeit m i t gepulvertem Gyps, so wird der Stall seinen G e r u c h verlieren
u n d nicht die kleinste Q u a n t i t ä t A m m o n i a k geht für die Felder verloren.
(173, 4) Der Ackerbau der C h i n e s e n ist der v o l l k o m m e n s t e in der Welt.
(175) W e n n wir a n n e h m e n , daß die flüssigen u n d festen E x c r e m e n t e eines
M e n s c h e n täglich n u r 1% Pfund betragen (¾ Pfd U r i n u n d % Pfd fester Excremente), daß beide z u s a m m e n 3 P. C. Stickstoff enthalten, so wir in
e i n e m J a h r 547 Pfd E x c r e m e n t e , welche 16,41 Pfd Stickstoff e n t h a l t e n ,
eine Quantität, die hinreicht, um 800 Pfd Weizen-, Roggen-, Hafer- u n d
900 Pfd G e r s t e n k ö r n e r n d e n Stickstoff zu liefern. D i e ß ist bei w e i t e m m e h r
als m a n e i n e m M o r g e n L a n d h i n z u z u s e t z e n braucht, u m m i t d e m Stickstoff, d e n die Pflanzen aus der A t m o s p h ä r e saugen, ein jedes J a h r die
reichlichsten E r n d t e n zu erzielen. E i n e j e d e Ortschaft, eine j e d e Stadt
k ö n n t e bei A n w e n d u n g von Fruchtwechsel alle ihre Felder m i t d e m stickstoffreichsten D ü n g e r versehn, der n o c h ü b e r d i e ß der reichste an phosphorsauren Salzen ist. Bei M i t b e n u t z u n g der K n o c h e n u n d der ausgelaugten
Holzasche würden alle E x c r e m e n t e von T h i e r e n völlig entbehrlich sein.
Die E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n lassen sich, w e n n d u r c h ein zweckmässiges
Verfahren die Feuchtigkeit entfernt u n d das freie A m m o n i a k g e b u n d e n
wird, in eine F o r m bringen, welche die V e r s e n d u n g , a u c h auf weite Strekken hin, erlaubt. (175, 6) D e r H a r n der Pferde ist weit weniger reich an
Stickstoff u n d phosphorsauren Salzen. ... 100 Theile M e n s c h e n h a r n enth a l t e n m e h r wie 4x so viel. Der K u h h a r n ist vorzüglich reich an Kalisalzen ... Der H a r n der Schweine ist vorzüglich reich an p h o s p h o r s a u r e m Bitt e r e r d e - A m m o n i a k ... (p. 178) Es ist klar, daß w e n n wir die festen u n d
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flüssigen E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n u n d die flüssigen der Thiere in d e m
Verhältniß zu d e m Stickstoff auf u n s e r e Aecker bringen, den wir in der
F o r m von G e w ä c h s e n darauf geärndtet h a b e n , so wird die S u m m e des
Stickstoffs auf d e m G u t j ä h r l i c h w a c h s e n m ü s s e n . D e n n z u d e m , welchen
5
wir in d e m D ü n g e r zuführen, ist aus der A t m o s p h ä r e eine gewisse Q u a n t i tät h i n z u g e k o m m e n . W a s wir in der F o r m von G e t r e i d e u n d Vieh an Stickstoff ausführen, was sich davon in grossen Städten anhäuft, k o m m t a n d e r n
F e l d e r n zu gut, wenn wir ihn n i c h t ersetzen. E i n G u t , was keine W i e s e n
h a t u n d nicht Felder genug für d e n A n b a u von Futtergewächsen besizt,
10
m u ß stickstoffhaltigen D ü n g e r von aussen einführen, w e n n m a n auf i h m
ein M a x i m u m von Ertrag erzielen soll. A u f grössern G ü t e r n ersetzen die
W i e s e n den j ä h r l i c h e n Ausfall an Stickstoff aufs Vollständigste wieder. D e r
einzig wirkliche Verlust an Stickstoff also beschränkt auf das Q u a n t u m ,
das die M e n s c h e n in ihre G r ä b e r n e h m e n , in M a x i m o 3 Pfund für j e d e s In15 dividuum, welche sich auf ein ganzes M e n s c h e n a l t e r vertheilen; dieß
bleibt den G e w ä c h s e n unverloren, d e n n d u r c h F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung
kehrt dieselbe in der F o r m von A m m o n i a k in die A t m o s p h ä r e zurück. E i n e
gesteigerte Cultur erfordert eine gesteigerte D ü n g u n g . ([178,] 179) W e n n
m a n erwägt, daß j e d e s Pfund A m m o n i a k , welches u n b e n u z t verdampft,
20
e i n e m Verlust von 60 Pfund G e t r e i d e gleichkommt, daß m i t j e d e m Pfunde
U r i n ein Pfund W e i z e n g e w o n n e n werden k a n n , so ist die Leichtfertigkeit
unbegreiflich, mit welcher grade die flüssigen E x c r e m e n t e betrachtet werden. (I.e.) Die frischen K n o c h e n , Wolle, L u m p e n , Haare, K l a u e n u n d H o r n
sind stickstoffhaltige Dünger, die gleichzeitig d u r c h ihren G e h a l t an
25 phosphorsauren Salzen A n t h e i l an d e m vegetabilischen Lebensprozesse
n e h m e n . (179, 80)
213
J. C. Loudon.
An Encyclopaedia of Agriculture etc
2 ed. L o n d o n 1831.
Part
I.
Agriculture
considered
as
to
its
origin,
progress, and present state among different
Nations,
Governments
and
5
Climates.
Book I. History of Agriculture
amongst ancient and modern Nations.
Agriculture is no longer an art of labour, but of science. (2) N a c h d e m Fall
des r ö m i s c h e n Reichs, Verfall der Agricultur in Europa, chiefly preserved 10
on the estates of the c h u r c h . (4) 1) Âltes Aejypten. die canals u n d b a n k s
(Deiche, D ä m m e ) die still r e m a i n in Lower Ejypt u n d besonders in d e m
Delta, sind evidences des extent wozu e m b a n k i n g ( E i n d ä m m e n ) Irrigation
u n d drainage (Austrocknen, Abzugskanäle) have b e e n carried. (6) by a succession of wheels, and gradation of a q u e d u c t s , it is said, s o m e hills, a n d 15
even m o u n t a i n s , were watered to their s u m m i t s . (I.e.) |
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Aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the poor laws
|8| A Dissertation on the Poorlaws.
By a Wellwisher to Mankind.
1786 (J. Townsend.)
R e p u b l . L o n d o n 1817.
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Diese laws (die poorlaws), so beautiful in theory, p r o m o t e the evils they
m e a n to remedy, a n d aggravate t h e distress they were i n t e n d e d to relieve.
(2) Sagt also s c h o n v o n d e m d a m a l i g e n (1786) Zustand in England:
»There never was greater distress a m o n g the poor: there never was m o r e
m o n e y collected for their relief. B u t what is m o s t perplexing is, t h a t poverty
and wretchedness have increased in exact proportion to the efforts which
have b e e n m a d e for the comfortable subsistence of the poor; a n d t h a t wherever m o s t is e x p e n d e d for their support, there objects of distress are m o s t
a b u n d a n t etc.« (7) Die n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y dieser laws is to increase the n u m ber of the poor, a n d greatly to e x t e n d the b o u n d s of h u m a n misery. (13)
T h e poor know little of the motives which stimulate the higher r a n k s to action—pride, h o n o u r a n d a m b i t i o n . In general it is only h u n g e r w h i c h can
spur a n d goad t h e m on to labour; yet o u r laws have said, they shall never
hunger. Allerdings wollen diese Gesetze sie a u c h compel to work. A b e r legal constraint is a t t e n d e d m i t too m u c h trouble, violence, a n d n o i s e ;
creates ill will etc whereas hunger is not only a peaceable, silent, unremitted
pressure, but, as the most natural motive to industry and labour, it calls forth the
most powerful exertions. (15) A u c h die n a t ü r l i c h e Herrschaft ü b e r d e n
K n e c h t durch das A r m e n g e s e t z gebrochen. An e i n e n Magistrate appelliren
is »from a superior t r i b u n a l to the inferior ... T h e wisest legislator will
never be able to devise a m o r e equitable, a m o r e effectual, or in any respect
a m o r e suitable p u n i s h m e n t , t h a n h u n g e r is for a disobedient servant.
( 2 1 - 2 3 ) D u r c h die A r m e n g e s e t z e der Arbeitslohn erhöht. U n d : »the h i g h
215
price of labour raises the value of provisions, a n d the high price of provisions e n h a n c e s the value of labour.« (30) It seems to be a law of nature, that
the poor should be to a certain degree improvident, that there may always be
some to fulfil the most servile, the most sordid, and the most ignoble offices in the
community. The stock of human happiness is thereby much increased, die delicateren sind befreit von der drudgery, und können höhern callings etc ungestört
nachgehn. (39) T h e fleets a n d armies of a state would soon be in want of
soldiers a n d of sailors, if sobriety a n d diligence universally prevailed ...
M e n who are easy in their circumstances are n o t a m o n g the foremost to engage in a seafaring or military life. D i e A r m e n g e s e t z e n u n v e r m e h r e n zwar
die improvidence, m a c h e n die poor aber n i c h t geneigt sich zu fügen in die
» d e m a n d s , which the c o m m u n i t y is obliged to m a k e on the m o s t indigent
of its m e m b e r s ; it tends to destroy the harmony and beauty, the symmetry and
order of that system, which god and nature have established in the world.«
( 3 9 - 4 1 ) In the Progress of society ... s o m e m u s t want; a n d t h e n the only
question will be this, W h o is m o s t worthy to suffer cold a n d hunger, the
prodigal or provident, the slothful or the diligent, the virtuous or the vicious? (42) E r z ä h l t p. 42 s q q . die e r b a u l i c h e G e s c h i c h t e von den 2 Ziegen
(Bock u n d Ziege) die J o h n F e r n a n d o auf der J u a n F e r n a n d e s in der Südsee
bei ihrer E n t d e c k u n g ließ. W i e diese bald die ganze Colonie anfüllen;
H u n g e r u n t e r i h n e n ausbricht oder a vessel in distress u n t e r i h n e n aufr ä u m t . Später die Spanier, um d e n english privateers zu schaden, W i n d h u n d u n d W i n d h ü n d i n auf dieselbe Insel sezten. R a s c h e V e r m e h r u n g derselben, aber die Ziegen flüchten in die craggy rocks ... n o n e b u t the m o s t
watchful, strong, and active of the dogs could get a sufficiency of food.
(I.e.) It is the quantity of food which regulates the n u m b e r of the h u m a n
species. In the woods u n d in d e m savage state wenige i n h a b i t a n t s ; von
diesen h a b e n aber n u r verhältnißmässig wenige M a n g e l zu leiden. As long
as food is plenty they will c o n t i n u e to increase a n d multiply; ... the weak
m u s t depend u p o n the precarious b o u n t y of the strong; and, sooner or later, the lazy will be left to suffer the n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e of their i n d o l e n c e .
F ü h r e n sie n u n Gütergemeinschaft ein u n d lassen j e d e m die Freiheit z u
heirathen, they would at first increase their n u m b e r s , b u t n o t the s u m total
of their happiness, till by degrees, all being equally reduced to want a n d
misery, the weakly would be the first to perish. N e h m e n sie, to procure a
m o r e ample, certain a n d regular supply of food ihre Zuflucht z u m breeding
of cattle, this plenty would be of long c o n t i n u a n c e ; b u t in process of t i m e
its limits would be found. Die activsten würden property erwerben, zahlreiche H e r d e n u n d F a m i l i e n h a b e n ; »whilst the i n d o l e n t would either
starve or b e c o m e servants to the rich, a n d the c o m m u n i t y would c o n t i n u e
to enlarge till it h a d found its n a t u r a l b o u n d s , a n d b a l a n c e d the quantity of
216
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food.« Aehnliches R a i s o n n e m e n t b e i m Ackerbau, »when all that is fertile
has b e e n cultivated to the highest pitch of industry, the progress m u s t of
necessity be stopped, a n d w h e n the h u m a n species shall ||9| h a v e m u l t i plied in proportion to this increase of food, it can proceed no further« ...
T h e earth is no where m o r e fertile t h a n it is in China, n o r does any country
a b o u n d so m u c h in people; yet t h e cries of deserted children prove, t h a t
even they have found limits to their population. ... whilst m e n have appetites and passions, what b u t distress a n d poverty can stop the progress of
population? T h e i n h a b i t a n t s of E u r o p e are said to have doubled their n u m bers every 500 years: from which we m a y infer that their quantity of food
has b e e n doubled in these periods. T h r o u g h o u t A m e r i c a , for the s a m e reason, they have b e e n d o u b l e d every 25 years; a n d in some colonies, in the
space of 15 years. W e n n a new u n d equal division of property were m a d e in
England ... oder gar a p e r m a n e n t c o m m u n i t y of goods eingeführt ... wird
n u r divertirt the occasional surplus of n a t i o n a l wealth from the industrious
to the lazy, they increase the n u m b e r of unprofitable citizens, a n d sow the
seeds of misery for the whole c o m m u n i t y ... It is well known that o u r c o m m o n s , without stint, starve all our cattle. H e r e we clearly see the n a t u r a l effects of that c o m m u n i t y of goods, which the poor laws would r e n d e r universal. ( 4 5 - 5 1 ) In respect to population, s o m e countries will reach their ne
plus ultra sooner, a n d s o m e later, according as they s u r m o u n t the obstacles
which i m p e d e their progress. This period can be retarded by i m p r o v e m e n t s
in agriculture, by living h a r d e r or by working m o r e , by extensive c o n q u e s t s
or by increasing c o m m e r c e . (54, 5) H a t ein L a n d trotz alledem »reached its
u t m o s t limits« d a n n n u r 2 r e m e d i e s : natürliche E n t h a l t e n v o m H e i r a t h e n
oder A u s w a n d e r n aller die in distress. Unnatural: Aussetzen der K i n d e r
»which is the horrid practice a d o p t e d in t h e richest country u p o n earth to
preserve the c o m m u n i t y from famine.« (56, 7) There is an appetite, (sagt der
Pfaffe v o m Geschlechtstrieb) w h i c h is a n d should be urgent, b u t which, if
left to operate without restraint, would multiply the h u m a n species before
provision could be m a d e for their support. Some check, s o m e b a l a n c e is
therefore absolutely needful, a n d hunger is the proper balance; hunger, n o t
as directly felt, or feared by the individual for himself b u t as foreseen a n d
feared for his i m m e d i a t e offspring. (57) Various are the circumstances to
be observed in different n a t i o n s , which t e n d to b l u n t the shafts of Cupid, or
at least to q u e n c h the torch of H y m e n . Ζ. B. G e l ü b d e der K e u s c h h e i t aus
religiösem Aberglauben. Serail. Klugheit, b e m e r k b a r überall auf d e m Occid e n t i n d e m Nichtverheiratetsein der j ü n g r e n S ö h n e ... W e n n alle heiratheten, if all should listen to this call of n a t u r e , ... the whole world in a few
years would be distressed with famine. (57, 8) N e i t h e r Switzerland n o r t h e
coast of Africa, are depopulated by emigrations, because t h e quantity of
217
food in e a c h r e m a i n s unaltered. It is with t h e h u m a n species as with all
other articles of trade without a p r e m i u m ; the d e m a n d will regulate the
market. (61, 2)
Speculation apart, it is a fact, t h a t in England, we have m o r e t h a n we can
feed, a n d m a n y m o r e t h a n we can profitably employ u n d e r the present sys5
t e m of our laws. (65) N o c h m e i n t er fühle m a n n i c h t alle s c h l i m m e n Folgen der Ueberpopulation in England. T h e t e n d e n c y of a law m a y be most
destructive; yet, by adventitious circumstances, the bad c o n s e q u e n c e s m a y
be checked a n d prevented for a season. (66) Bis die workhouses are completely filled, a n d even after they are full, they serve a d o u b l e purpose: they 10
disarm the magistrate, they i n t i m i d a t e the poor. (67) It has b e e n chiefly
from the want of houses t h a t the poor have n o t m o r e rapidly increased. (68)
no system can be good which does not, in the first place, encourage i n d u s try, economy, a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n ; a n d in the second place, regulate population by the d e m a n d for labour. (94) In m a n y parishes where they have no
15
manufactures, b u t the cultivation of the soil, the horses c o n s u m e the prod u c e of m o r e land t h a n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s themselves require. (101)
218
Aus Joseph Townsend: A journey through Spain
Joseph Townsend. A Journey through Spain
in the years 1786 und 1787. 3 vol.
L o n d o n 1791.
vol.
II.
5
T. s a g t v o n S p a n i e n : » I n d e p e n d e n t of the M e r i n o Flock, m a n y of t h e great
landlords have suffered villages to go to ruin, a n d have let their estates to
graziers.« (227) If we suppose, in a good climate, with plenty of food a n d
healthy habitations, the n u m b e r of children in each family on the average
to be 4, a n d the m e a n age to which they shall arrive to be 50 years; if t h e
10 m e n should marry at the age of 2 1 , a n d the w o m e n at 19, t h e n o n e couple
at the e n d of 33 years, will leave 12 d e s c e n d a n t s . In 59 years there will be
24 persons; and at the e n d of 129 J a h r e n 188 oder 90,4 x their first n u m ber. (360, 1) D e r Progress der Bevölkerung m a y be retarded d u r c h : 1) want
of food; C h i n a a u c h hier angeführt als das L a n d wo «population is ad15 vanced to the u t m o s t ability of the soil to nourish.« 2) diseases. 3) want of
c o m m e r c e for the p r o m o t i o n of industry, a n d of a m a r k e t for the surplus of
its produce. 4) war in all its forms. 5) superstitious vows i m p o s e d on t h e
m o n a s t i c orders, a n d celibacy enjoined the priesthood. 6) E m i g r a t i o n of
the breeding stock, a n d transference of capitals. 7) want of land, or t h e op20 portunity of acquiring it by industry. 8) want of habitations. ( 3 6 2 - 4 )
219
Townsend sagt noch in seinem erst
citirten Buch:
On the subject of population we have h a d warm disputes, whilst some have
l a m e n t e d that our n u m b e r s are decreasing, and others with confidence
have boasted that our population has rapidly advanced; all seeming to be
agreed, that the wealth of a country consists in the n u m b e r of its inhabitants. ||10| D i e ß sei a b e r n u r w a h r , wenn P o p u l a t i o n »die Consequenz« von
Industrie u n d frugality. (54)
220
5
Aus Robert Wallace: A dissertation on the number of mankind
A dissertation on the Number of Mankind
in ancient and modern Times. In which the
superior Populousness of Antiquity
is maintained.
5
E d i n b u r g h . 1753.
(von Wallace.)
Gesezt es existire n u r ein Paar; a n g e n o m m e n , d a ß alle marry who attain to
maturity u n d daß j e d e E h e 6 K i n d e r producirt, 3 males u n d 3 females; 2
davon sollen sterben vor der E h e 1 M a n n u n d 1 female; bleiben 4 zu marry
10 u n d replenish the world: in 33¾ years von der Zeit, wo das original pair b e gan to propagate, they shall have p r o d u c e d their 6 children; u n d d a ß in der
2 Periode von 33¾ J a h r e n jedes der succeeding couples 6 K i n d e r producirt
u n d so fort. D a n a c h : Am E n d e der ersten Periode von 33¾ J a h r e n sind
6 persons living, n ä m l i c h das Originalpaar u n d 4 a n d r e : an d e m E n d e von
15 66¾ J a h r e n 12; against 100 years 24 u n d ü b e r das G a n z e lässt sich folgende
Tabelle m a c h e n :
1
221
Periode, Jahre
Geboren
des
seit der
Schemes. lezten
Periode.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
33½
66 /
100
133½
166 /
200
0
6
12
24
48
96
192
2
3
2
3
Gestorben
seit der
lezten
Periode.
0
2
4
8
16
32
64
Remain in
life to
propagate
0
4
8
16
32
64
128
Gestorben
at an
advanced
age
0
0
2
4
8
16
32
Summe aller
die leben
in den
respectiven
Perioden.
2
2+ 4
6+ 8 - 2
12+ 16- 4
24+ 32 - 8
48+ 64- 16
96 + 128 - 32
Die sums
der lezten
Columne
gesammelt,
(addirt.)
2
6
12
24
48
96
192
(p. 3 u. 4)
A n d thus we shall find m a n k i n d to double themselves in e a c h period of
33½ years, as will be evident from t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of the table. (5) D i e ß
giebt für die 7 Periode, also im 233 J a h r des s c h e m e , 384 E i n w o h n e r u n d
in der 37sten Periode, im 1233 J a h r des S c h e m e s eine E i n w o h n e r z a h l von
412, 316, 860, 416. (7) Die Zahl, diese R a t e des Progresses ist aber zu groß,
da sonst die M e n s c h e n m u s t have overstocked the earth long before the
deluge. (8) A b e r s a g t er: it is certain, t h a t they (die M e n s c h e n ) multiply irregularly, a n d m a y have b e e n m o r e n u m e r o u s i n s o m e preceeding, t h a n
some s u b s e q u e n t ages; u n d daß, d u r c h verschiedne U r s a c h e n , there has
never b e e n s u c h a n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s on t h e earth at any o n e p o i n t of
t i m e , as might have b e e n easily raised by the prolific virtue of m a n k i n d .
(12) Die Ursachen dieser paucity of i n h a b i t a n t s u n d irregularity of increase, sind mannigfach: natürliche u n d moralische. Erstre bald m e h r constanter Natur, wie Temperatur, Clima, barrenness etc o d e r m e h r wechselnd, wie inclemency besondrer seasons, plagues, famines, E r d b e b e n ,
U e b e r s c h w e m m u n g e n . (12) S c h l i m m r e n Effect h a b e n die moral causes,
which arise from the passions a n d vices of m e n ; d a z u gehören Krieg, great
poverty, corrupt institutions sei es civiler oder religiöser Art, i n t e m p e r a n c e ,
debauchery, irregular a m o u r s , idleness, luxury, u n d whatever either prevents marriage, weakens t h e generating faculties of m e n , or renders t h e m
negligent or incapable of educating their children, and cultivating the earth
to advantage. ... I n d e e d , h a d it n o t b e e n for the errors a n d vices of m a n kind, and the defects of government a n d education, the earth m u s t have
b e e n m u c h better peopled, perhaps m i g h t have b e e n overstocked, m a n y
ages ago. (13) 'Twas simplicity of taste, frugality, p a t i e n c e of labour, a n d
c o n t e n t m e n t with a little, which m a d e the world so p o p u l o u s in a n c i e n t
times. T h e decay of these virtues, a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a corrupted a n d
luxurious taste, have contributed in a great m e a s u r e to d i m i n i s h the n u m bers of m a n k i n d in m o d e r n days. ... elegance u n d refinement, wenn dis-
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5
played in public works, a n d things of a durable n a t u r e , contribute zur h a p piness u n d g r a n d e u r der Gesellschaft u n d sind kein H i n d e r n i ß für die
populousness. But if displayed in every t h e least trifle in private life, a n d
employed to satisfy the ridiculous taste a n d whimsical fancies of e a c h particular citizen, m u s t c o n t r i b u t e in a great degree to d i m i n i s h the n u m b e r of
m a n k i n d , as the c o n s t a n t labour, great expence, a n d n u m b e r of h a n d s , by
which this luxury is m a i n t a i n e d , m u s t m a k e the necessaries of life scarce
a n d dear. (160) |
223
| i i | David Hume: Political Discourses.
E d i n b u r g h . 1752.
On
the
Populousness
of ancient
Nations.
As there is in all m e n , b o t h female a n d m a l e , a desire a n d power of generation m o r e active t h a n is ever universally exerted, the restraints, which it
lies u n d e r , m u s t proceed from s o m e difficulties in m e n s situation, which it
belongs to a wise legislature carefully to observe a n d remove. A l m o s t every
m a n , who thinks he can m a i n t a i n a family, will have o n e ; a n d the h u m a n
species, at this rate of propagation, would m o r e t h a n double every generation, were every one coupled as soon as he comes to the age of puberty.
H o w fast do m a n k i n d multiply in every colony or new settlement; where it
is an easy m a t t e r to provide for a family; a n d where m e n are no way
straitned or confin'd, as in long establish'd governments? History tells us
frequently of plagues, that have swept away the third or 4 part of a people:
Yet in a generation or 2, the destruction was n o t perceiv'd; a n d the society
has again acquir'd their former n u m b e r etc. (159, 60) To rear a child in
L o n d o n , till he could be serviceable, would cost m u c h dearer, t h a n to buy
o n e of the same age from Scotland or Ireland; where he h a d b e e n rais'd in
a cottage, cover'd with rags, and fed on o a t m e a l or potatoes. Those who h a d
slaves, therefore, in all the richer a n d m o r e p o p u l o u s countries, w o u ' d discourage the pregnancy of the females, a n d either prevent or destroy the
birth. T h e h u m a n species would perish in those places, where it ought to
encrease the fastest; a n d a perpetual recruit be n e e d e d from all the poorer
a n d m o r e desert provinces. Such a c o n t i n u e d drain would t e n d mightily to
depopulate t h e state, a n d render great cities ten t i m e s m o r e destructive
t h a n with us. ... If L o n d o n , at present, without m u c h encreasing, n e e d s a
yearly recruit from t h e country of 5000 people, as is c o m m o n l y c o m p u t e d :
224
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Aus David Hume: Political discourses
W h a t m u s t it require, if the greatest part of t h e t r a d e s m e n a n d c o m m o n
people were slaves, a n d were h i n d e r ' d from breeding, by their avaricious
masters? (167, 8)
225
1
(Malthus.) An Essay on the Principle of
Population, as it affects the Future
Improvement of Society. With Remarks on the
Speculations of Mr Godwin, M. Condorcet
and other writers.
5
L o n d o n . 1798.
Necessity, that imperious all pervading law of n a t u r e , restrains t h e m (Pflanzen u n d Thiere) within the prescribed b o u n d s . T h e race of plants, a n d the
race of animals shrink u n d e r this great restrictive law. A n d the race of m a n
cannot, by any efforts of reason, escape from it. A m o n g plants a n d a n i m a l s 10
its effects are waste of seed, sickness, a n d p r e m a t u r e death. A m o n g m a n kind, misery a n d vice. ... misery is an absolutely necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of
it. Vice is a highly probable c o n s e q u e n c e . (15) if the premises are just, the
a r g u m e n t is conclusive against the perfectibility of the m a s s of m a n k i n d .
(17) Population, w h e n u n c h e c k e d increases in a geometrical ratio; a n d sub- 15
sistence for m a n in an arithmetical ratio. (18) In no state that we have yet
known, has t h e power of p o p u l a t i o n b e e n left to exert itself with perfect
freedom. (19) In the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a , where the m e a n s of subsistence have b e e n m o r e ample, the m a n n e r s of the people m o r e pure, a n d
consequently the checks to early marriages fewer, t h a n in any of the m o d - 20
ern states of Europe, the p o p u l a t i o n has b e e n found to d o u b l e itself in
25 years. This ratio of increase, t h o u g h short of the u t m o s t power of population; yet as the result of actual experience, we will take as o u r rule; a n d
say, ( s c h ö n e Beweisführung) T h a t Population, w h e n u n c h e c k e d , goes on
doubling itself every 25 years, or increases in a geometrical ratio. (20, 1) In 25
d e n ersten 25 J a h r e n m a g die Subsistenz verdoppelt werden, by breaking
226
IF
Aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the principle of population
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40
u p m o r e land, a n d b y great e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o agriculture. I n d e n n ä c h s t e n
25 J a h r e n it is impossible to suppose t h a t the p r o d u c e could be q u a d r u pled. ... T h e very u t m o s t that we c a n conceive, is, that the increase in t h e
second 25 years m i g h t e q u a l t h e present p r o d u c e . Let us t h e n take this for
our rule, t h o u g h certainly far b e y o n d t h e t r u t h ... This ratio of increase is
evidently arithmetical. ([21,] 22) It m a y be fairly said, therefore, (wofür?)
that the m e a n s of subsistence increase in an arithmetical ratio. Let us n o w
bring the effects of these 2 ratios together. (23) ( G r o s s e r Logiker.) Taking
the population of t h e world at any n u m b e r , a 1000 millions, for instance,
the h u m a n species would increase in the ratio of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,
256, 512 etc u n d subsistence as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 etc. In 2 centuries
and %, the population would be to the m e a n s of subsistence = 512:10: in
3 centuries = 4096:13 u n d in 2000 years t h e difference would be almost incalculable, t h o u g h the p r o d u c e in t h a t t i m e would have increased to an i m m e n s e extent. (25, 26) No limits whatever are placed to the p r o d u c t i o n s of
the earth; they m a y increase for ever a n d be greater t h a n any assignable
quantity; yet still the power of p o p u l a t i o n being a power of a superior order, the increase of the h u m a n species c a n only be kept c o m m e n s u r a t e to
the increase of the m e a n s of subsistence, by t h e constant operation of t h e
strong law of necessity acting as a check u p o n the greater power. (26) D e r
constant effort towards p o p u l a t i o n , der act selbst in d e n most vicious societies, increases the n u m b e r of people before the m e a n s of subsistence are increased. Dieselbe food d a h e r u n t e r m e h r M ä u l e r z u theilen. D e r poor m u ß
daher schlechter leben, m a n c h e in grosse distress gebracht. D e r Arbeitslohn sinkt, weil der Preiß der provisions steigt. W ä h r e n d dieser Periode
Population stationär. In der Zwischenzeit encouragirt die Wohlfeilheit der
Arbeit, die plenty of labourers, u n d ihre vermehrte Industrie die ||12| cultivators to employ m o r e labour u p o n their l a n d etc etc bis schließlich die
Subsistenzmittel in derselben Proportion zur Bevölkerung wie früher.
D a n n die Situation der Arbeiter wieder erträglich comfortable, the restraints to population are in s o m e degree loosened; a n d the s a m e retrograde
u n d progressive m o v e m e n t s with respect to happiness are repeated. This
sort of oscillation oder vibration existirt in alien old states. ( 2 9 - 3 1 ) A foresight of the difficulties a t t e n d i n g t h e rearing of a family, acts as a preventive
check; a n d the actual distresses of s o m e of the lower classes, by which they
are disabled from giving the proper food and attention to their children,
acts as a positive check, to the n a t u r a l increase of population. (62, 3) Die effects der preventiven checks, dieser restraints u p o n marriage are but to
conspicuous in the c o n s e q u e n t vices that are p r o d u c e d in almost every part
of the world; vices, that are continually involving b o t h sexes in inextricable
u n h a p p i n e s s . (69, 70) W e n n i c h e i n e m a r m e n M a n n Geld gebe, supposing
227
t h e p r o d u c e of the country to r e m a i n the same, I give h i m a title to a larger
share of that produce t h a n formerly, which share he c a n n o t receive without
diminishing the shares of others. (80) T h e poorlaws of England t e n d to depress the general condition of the poor in these 2 ways. Their first obvious
t e n d e n c y is to increase p o p u l a t i o n without increasing the food for its supp o r t . . . d a d u r c h der Preiß der provisions erhöht, d a d u r c h ein grosser Theil
auf die parish geworfen. ... Secondly, die quantity of provisions c o n s u m e d
in workhouses u p o n a part of the society, that c a n n o t in general be considered as the most valuable part, d i m i n i s h e s the shares that would otherwise
belong to m o r e industrious, a n d m o r e worthy m e m b e r s , u n d t h u s in the
same m a n n e r forces m o r e to b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t . ([83,] 84) All the checks
m a y be fairly resolved into misery a n d vice. (100) F a m i n e seems to be the
last, the m o s t dreadful resource of n a t u r e . T h e power of p o p u l a t i o n is so superior to the power in the earth to p r o d u c e subsistence for m a n , that prem a t u r e d e a t h m u s t in s o m e shape or other visit the h u m a n race. T h e vices
of m a n k i n d are active and able ministers of depopulation. T h e y are the
precursors in the great army of destruction; a n d often finish the dreadful
work themselves. But should they fail in this war of extermination, sickly
seasons, epidemics, pestilence, a n d plague, advance in terrific array, a n d
sweep off their t h o u s a n d s a n d ten t h o u s a n d s . Should success be still incomplete; gigantic inevitable famine stalks in the rear, a n d with o n e
mighty blow, levels t h e population with the food of the world. (139, 40) Es
gilt also in every age and in every state in which m a n has existed, or does
now exist. 1) T h a t the increase of p o p u l a t i o n is necessarily limited by the
m e a n s of subsistence. 2) that p o p u l a t i o n does invariably increase w h e n the
m e a n s of subsistence increase. A n d 3) T h a t the superior power of population is repressed, and the actual p o p u l a t i o n kept e q u a l to the m e a n s of subsistence by misery and vice. (140, 41) t h e t r u t h is, t h a t t h o u g h h u m a n institutions appear to be the obvious a n d obstrusive causes of m u c h mischief to
m a n k i n d ; yet, in reality, they are light a n d superficial, they are m e r e feathers that float on the surface, in c o m p a r i s o n with those deeper seated causes
of impurity that corrupt the springs, a n d r e n d e r turbid the whole stream of
h u m a n life. (177) the most n a t u r a l a n d obvious check seemed to be, to
m a k e every m a n provide for his own children. (199) D i e ß liegt zu G r a n d e
der institution of marriage. (200) W h e n these 2 f u n d a m e n t a l laws of society, the security of property, a n d the institution of marriage, were o n c e
established, inequality of conditions m u s t necessarily follow. T h o s e who
were b o r n after the division of property, would c o m e into a world already
possessed. If their parents, from having too large a family, could n o t give
t h e m sufficient for their support, what are they to do in a world where every
thing is appropriated? ... It has appeared, t h a t from the inevitable laws of
228
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the principle of population
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
our n a t u r e , some h u m a n beings m u s t suffer from want. These are the u n happy persons who, in the great lottery of life, have drawn a blank. T h e
n u m b e r s of these c l a i m a n t s would soon exceed the ability of the surplus
produce to supply. ... Die Besitzer dieses surplusproduce werden d a n n
T h e i l n e h m e n lassen, who were able, a n d professed themselves willing, to
exert their strength in procuring a further surplus produce ... T h e fund a p propriated to the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, would be, the aggregate quantity
of food possessed by t h e owners of l a n d b e y o n d their own c o n s u m p t i o n .
W h e n the d e m a n d s u p o n this fund were great a n d n u m e r o u s , it would naturally be divided in very small shares. L a b o u r would be ill paid. M e n would
offer to work for a bare subsistence, a n d t h e rearing of families would be
checked by sickness a n d misery. On the contrary, when this fund was increasing fast; w h e n it was great in proportion to the n u m b e r of c l a i m a n t s ; it
would be divided in m u c h larger shares. ... On the state of this fund, t h e
happiness or the degree of misery, prevailing a m o n g the lower classes of
people ... at present chiefly d e p e n d s . A n d on this happiness, or degree of
misery, depends the increase, stationariness, or decrease of p o p u l a t i o n .
( 2 0 3 - 2 0 6 ) the principal a r g u m e n t of this essay tends to place in a strong
point of view, the improbability, t h a t the lower classes of people in any
country, should ever be sufficiently free from want a n d labour, to attain
any high degree of intellectual i m p r o v e m e n t . (217, 18) It should be o b served, that the principal a r g u m e n t of this essay, only goes to prove the n e cessity of a class of proprietors, a n d a class of labourers. (287 N o t e ) U p o n
examination, it will be found, t h a t the increase (des R e i c h t h u m s im m o dernen Europa und besonders England) has b e e n chiefly in the p r o d u c e
of labour, and n o t in t h e p r o d u c e of land; and therefore, t h o u g h t h e wealth
of the n a t i o n has b e e n advancing with a quick pace, the effectual funds for
the m a i n t e n a n c e of l a b o u r have b e e n increasing very slowly; a n d t h e result
is such as might be expected. T h e increasing wealth of the n a t i o n has h a d
little or no tendency to better the c o n d i t i o n of the labouring poor. T h e y
have not, I believe, a greater c o m m a n d of t h e necessaries and conveniences
of life; and a m u c h greater proportion of t h e m , t h a n at the period of t h e
revolution, is employed in m a n u f a c t u r e s , a n d crowded together in close
and u n w h o l e s o m e r o o m s . (312, 13) |
113 j A capital employed u p o n land, m a y be u n p r o d u c t i v e to the individu a l that employs it, a n d yet be highly productive to t h e society. A capital
employed in trade on the contrary, m a y be highly productive to the individual, a n d yet be almost totally u n p r o d u c t i v e to t h e society: a n d this is the
reason why I should call m a n u f a c t u r i n g labour unproductive, in comparison of that which is employed in agriculture, a n d not for the reason given
by the french economists. (333)
229
f
Gray versus Malthus. The Principles
of Population and Production investigated
etc by George Purves.
L o n d o n . 1818.
Β. I.) The Principle of Population.
5
(P. discuttirt die beiden Bücher v o n Gray (ganz antimalthusisch) u n d
Malthus.) ( D a s B u c h von Gray heißt: H a p p i n e s s of States.) t h e n a t u r a l
progress of p o p u l a t i o n is found in no particular ratio; b u t its progress is
regulated by its various c i r c u m s t a n c e s in any given district. (14) It is to be
particularly a t t e n d e d to in dieser Frage ( n ä m l i c h ob die animals sich ra10
scher v e r m e h r e n als ihre Subsistenzmittel) t h a t animals themselves form a
portion of food; and that m o s t a n i m a l s of t h e sea, a n d m a n y of t h e land genera, including m a n , live either wholly or in part on a n i m a l s . T h e m o r e
rapidly t h e n that animals increase, t h e m o r e do they increase t h e q u a n t i t y
of n o u r i s h m e n t . (28) W e r e the supposed t e n d e n c y t h e actual fact with re15
spect to irrational a n i m a l s , it would by no m e a n s follow that it is so with respect to the rational a n i m a l , m a n . (32) Does t h e n t h e c o m m o n average
price of food show any s y m p t o m of a p e r p e t u a l excess in t h e d e m a n d above
t h e supply? N o . T h e average profits of t h e farmer are only s u c h as are m a d e
by other dealers. Occasionally, from a deficiency, real or supposed, his 20
prices have risen far b e y o n d t h e fair average rate u n d occasionally from a
m o r e t h a n u s u a l a b u n d a n c e , t h e prices have fallen below t h e average rate.
(42, 43) D e r fair average price of subsistence ist a decisive proof, d a ß der
impulse given by the increasing d e m a n d was sufficient in subsistence, as in
every other b r a n c h of circuland, to raise t h e supply to t h e increased d e - 25
230
Aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus
m a n d , a n d t h u s keep t h e former fully up to t h e latter. (44) It is an a b u n
d a n c e of subsistence w h i c h h a s a strong influence as a check. Luxury, or an
excess of eating a n d drinking, t e n d s to d e f e c u n d a t e , or to d i m i n i s h t h e
n u m b e r of births, as well as to s h o r t e n t h e lives of those who are b o r n . A n d
5
this powerful influence s e e m s to i n c r e a s e in efficacy in p r o p o r t i o n as p o p u
l a t i o n grows m o r e n u m e r o u s . (65) P o p u l a t i o n h a s n o regular n a t u r a l ratio
of increase, w h e n c o m p a r e d with t i m e . ... Subsistence, again, w h e n t h e
p r o d u c e is s p o n t a n e o u s , s e e m s little capable of any increase at all. W h e n
t h e p r o d u c e is artificial, it h a s evidently no ratio of increase of itself. T h e
10 ratio is entirely i m p r e s s e d u p o n it, or given to it by t h e cultivator. (67)
Β.
II.
subsistence,
Does
or
Population
subsistence
Regulate
Population?
W e n n die M e n s c h e n originally subsisted b y t h e b o u n t y o f n a t u r e alone,
a n d were occasionally r e g u l a t e d in t h e i r n u m b e r s by t h e q u a n t i t y of food
15 with w h i c h she p r e s e n t e d t h e m , an increase of p o p u l a t i o n took this regulat
ing power out o f h e r h a n d s , a n d o f h u n t e r s m a d e t h e m regulators, i n t h e
character of cultivators a n d s h e p h e r d s . A n d from t h e m o m e n t of t h e i r c o m
m e n c i n g cultivators, they have c o n t i n u e d regulators ever since. (79) D e r
h u n t e r ist ganz regulated d u r c h die s p o n t a n e o u s supplies of n a t u r e , wie der
20
Tiger, der Löwe, der Wolf. D e r Schaafhirt regulirt einigermassen die n u m ber of animals w h i c h he kept, yet their feed d e p e n d e d on t h e s p o n t a n e o u s
p r o d u c e of n a t u r e . Erst der regular cultivator ist a complete regulator. (80)
M a l t h u s giebt a completely regulating power to subsistence over p o p u l a tion. (82) If be m e a n t only, t h a t there m u s t be a sufficient quantity of s u b -
25
sistence to feed p o p u l a t i o n , this sapient doctrine is a truism. (90) mere
abundance of subsistence wirkt d u r c h a u s n i c h t direkt auf die V e r m e h r u n g
der Bevölkerung, it h a s a strong contrary influence. Beweis 1815, w h e n t h e
u n u s u a l a b u n d a n c e , by lowering t h e price of subsistence, and, of course,
lessening t h e profits of t h e farmer a n d his m e a n s of giving e m p l o y m e n t , as
30
well as the wages of his people, h a d p e r h a p s as unfavourable an influence
against marriage, as the scarcity of 1801. (95) Subsistence h a s no level of
its own. ... Population is constantly employed . . . in raising subsistence to
its own level. (97) T h e r e is a similar e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e hats m a n u factured by the h a t m a k e r , a n d t h e h e a d s t h a t wear t h e m , as between t h e
35 eatables produced by t h e cultivator, a n d t h e m o u t h s that eat t h e m . But is it
the n u m b e r of hats that regulates t h e n u m b e r of h e a d s , or t h e n u m b e r of
heads the hats? (103) F r o m universal experience t h e fact in n a t u r e is, t h a t
231
t h e increase of population is m u c h in the inverse ratio of the quantity of
subsistence used, to the point of a bare sufficiency of m e r e necessaries.
T h e less a given n u m b e r of people c o n s u m e , on the average, the faster, on
the average, they increase: and vice versa. (129) Bei d e n T h i e r e n b e k a n n t ,
daß high feeding is unfavourable to prolificness. M a n is t h u s p u t n o t on the
5
s a m e footing with a n i m a l s but with vegetables. F o r grain, turnips, cabbages, potatoes, are r e n d e r e d m o r e a b u n d a n t from the greater quantity of
artificial food supplied to t h e m . (132) W ä r e es w a h r , daß »population has
an uniform t e n d e n c y to rise fully or nearly to the average a m o u n t of the
m e a n s of subsistence«, so w ü r d e »there be scarcely any exportation or im- 10
portation of subsistence. Districts a n d countries would just feed t h e m selves; a n d there would be little or no surplus on the one h a n d , and little or
no deficiency on the other. Yet few articles can boast so m u c h importing
and exporting as subsistence, or display so m u c h fluctuation in t h e a n n u a l
a m o u n t . « ([134,] 135) N e h m e n wir Berwickshire. Erste county in England,
15
wo die m o d e r n e Agricultur angewandt. Agricultur ist hier das chief m e d i u m of e m p l o y m e n t . Diese beschäftigt in d e n least improved districts % \
|14| der Bevölkerung, aber hier n u r % bei d e m highly improved state of cultivation. V o n d e m defect of e m p l o y m e n t marriage n i c h t frühzeitig in it: yet
the agricultural t e m p e r a n c e in the style of living u n d die G e s u n d h e i t rend- 20
er it productive, and its offspring healthy. So beständig a considerable
n u m b e r of superfluous h a n d s produced, a n d these leave it to find employm e n t ... T h u s a deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t , a n d the emigration arising from
it, render population stationary in a country, which produces such an imm e n s e surplus quantity of subsistence. (141) W h a t e v e r in a district creates
25
an additional a m o u n t of e m p l o y m e n t , has a t e n d e n c y to p r o m o t e early
marriage, as well as to retain the offspring on the spot. (142) It is the proportion which the circulators, who l a b o u r at cultivation, bears to the p o p u lation of a given district, that regulates the quantity of subsistence produced in it; a n d it is the circumstances of these circulators, which regulate
30
that proportion. (144) It is clear, that the regulating power is as completely
in the possession of m a n with respect to subsistence, as with respect to any
other supply provided by h i m . (165)
232
F
Aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus
B.
III.
Does
with
5
Population
respect
to
tend
to
overstock
employment?
In p r o p o r t i o n as p o p u l a t i o n is t h i n , or increases slow, the m e m b e r s are u n
iformly, caeteris p a r i b u s , less generally or constantly employed. ... In very
thinly peopled regions, t h e great m a s s s p e n d m o s t of their t i m e in idleness,
or in half e m p l o y m e n t . T h e average a m o u n t of t h e d e m a n d is smaller,
while the average q u a n t i t y of b u s i n e s s d o n e by individuals is less. (169)
every a d d i t i o n to p o p u l a t i o n m u s t necessarily create a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a d d i
t i o n to e m p l o y m e n t . (173) In proof of t h e increase in the average employ-
10
m e n t arising from t h e increase of p o p u l a t i o n , t h e r e is an u n r e m i t t i n g tend
ency to emigrate from t h e less to t h e m o r e p o p u l o u s districts in search of
e m p l o y m e n t : ζ . B . v o n d e n H i g h l a n d s n a c h Lanark, von S c h o t t l a n d u n d Ir
land n a c h L o n d o n , von der Schweiz n a c h F r a n k r e i c h . A n d e r s e i t s : t h e m o r e
p o p u l o u s a district or country, the smaller is the e m i g r a t i o n from either.
15
(178) N a c h der S u b s i s t e n z t h e o r i e : »Caeteris paribus, the t h i n n e r (state)
will be better e m p l o y e d a n d richer, till we r e a c h the h u n t e r ' s state which
will be the best employed, a n d richest of all except w h e n subsistence h a p
pens t o b e m o r e t h a n usually short. O n this theory, check p o p u l a t i o n a n d
a u g m e n t subsistence (were this i n d e e d at all practicable for a n y n u m b e r of
20
years) a n d you increase e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth.« (194, 5) T h e increase of
p o p u l a t i o n m u s t e i t h e r t e n d t o a u g m e n t e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth, o r t o di
m i n i s h it. A n d to check it m u s t do t h e reverse. If t h e increase p r o d u c e s
m o r e e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth, t h e c h e c k i n g m u s t injure t h e process a n d di
m i n i s h both. If the increase again t e n d s to lessen t h e m , the checking m u s t
25
t e n d to enlarge t h e m . T h e m o r e it is c h e c k e d t h e n etc. (195, 6) T h e in
crease of p o p u l a t i o n uniformly t e n d s to p r o m o t e luxury or t h e u s e of super
fluous food, also e m p l o y m e n t ... A u s s e r d e m , in cultivating a country, zu
erst die besten L ä n d e r e i e n gewählt. In proportion as it fills, the lands m o r e
unfavourably situated, are h a d recourse to by the cultivator. N o w these
30
lands require m o r e labouring. (200, 1)
Β.
or
IV.
Does
diminish
Population
the
average
in
its
amount
increase
tend
of Income
to
and
augment
Wealth?
the increase of p o p u l a t i o n is t h e grand, i n d e e d the sole original cause of
the p e r m a n e n t increase of wealth. (226)
233
Β.
V.
the
Some
effects
Practical
of the
Topics,
2
including
Theories.
T h e supply of subsistence in t h e a n n u a l crops is generally m o r e t h a n a year
before t h e d e m a n d ; a n d , if we i n c l u d e t h o s e forms of subsistence, w h i c h re
quire m o r e t h a n a year to prepare t h e m for t h e m a r k e t with profit, as t h e
5
greater p o r t i o n of cattle, it is m u c h m o r e t h a n t h a t in a d v a n c e . In case of
any p a r t i c u l a r failure of crops, or of any p a r t i c u l a r increase of p o p u l a t i o n ,
this store in a d v a n c e is drawn u p o n to supply t h e deficiency. Subsistence
in t h e green form, as potatoes, or in t h e form of m e a t in case of necessity,
is c o n s u m e d in a larger p o r t i o n t h a n u s u a l . (366)
234
10
Aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-population and its remedy
William Thomas Thornton. Overpopulation
and its Remedy. By W. Th. Thornton.
L o n d o n 1846.
ch.
I.
Definition
of the
Term
Overpopulation.
Overpopulation m a y be shortly defined to be a deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t
for those who live by labour, oder a r e d u n d a n c y of the labouring class
above the n u m b e r of persons t h a t t h e fund applied to the r e m u n e r a t i o n of
labour can m a i n t a i n in comfort. (3)
ch.
II.
Evidences
in
England
of
und
Overpopulation
Wales.
In England zeigt der lezte Census, daß K i n d e r u n t e r 10 Jahren, old w o m e n
of 60 u n d old m e n of 70, verhielten sich zu der Zahl of m a l e s zwischen 20
u n d 70 = 4,566,813: 3,670,677 oder = about \% to 1. In E n g l a n d , therefore, the average earnings of an ablebodied m a l e adult, married or single,
ought, after supplying his own personal wants, to yield a surplus w h i c h
would suffice for t h e subsistence of 1¾ other persons. (9) D i e agricultural
labourers bilden, m i t A u s n a h m e der d o m e s t i c servants, the m o s t n u m e r o u s
class in the country. (11) U n t i l the late change in the poor-law, t h e laws affecting the settlement of p a u p e r s virtually almost confined the english field
labourer to his native parish. (I.e.) ||15| D i e allotment holders of Lincolnshire and Rutland, u n d t h e y e o m e n of Cumberland und Westmoreland b i l d e n
die happiest portion der english peasantry. (Die ersten leben a u c h in
235
Dreckhütten, wo no k i n d h e a r t e d m a s t e r would keep a cow in. A b e r sie h a b e n hinlänglich Futter.) An der a n d r e n E x t r e m i t ä t der scale stehn die
Kerle in d e n counties of Wilts u n d Somerset. ( 1 7 - 1 9 ) In Dorsetshire k a n n in
general ein Arbeiter n i c h t m e h r earn als 8 sh. per W o c h e . E i n e w o m a n
k a n n 6 d., 8 d. oder 1 sh. d e n Tag m a c h e n , je n a c h der season, aber die Beschäftigung von W e i b e r n in Agricultur ist n i c h t c o n t i n u o u s u n d des cottagers wife during the year erndtet n i c h t viel ü b e r 2 I. 10 sh. Also ein m a n u n d
his wife 9 sh. a week, oder 23 I. 8 s. a year, to provide for 3¼ persons on an
average. 2 I. 10 sh. go for rent, 11. 10 sh. für fuel, 11. 10 sh. für soap u n d
candles, 5 l. für clothes, lässt 12 I. 18 sh. das Jahr, oder ungefähr 8 d. % per
day, für food, etwas m e h r als 2 d. % a h e a d daily. Taking the average price
of s u c h bread as is used by t h e peasantry in the W e s t of E n g l a n d to be 1 sh.
the gallon loaf of 8 lb. 11 oz. u n d t h a t of potatoes 14 d. per b u s h e l of 55 lb.,
2 d. / will purchase about 29 oz. of bread or 10 lb of potatoes. In Ireland ...
5 p o u n d s of potatos are considered no m o r e t h a n a sufficient m e a l for a labourer. (20, 1) Ihre cottages are generally old a n d decayed; the walls are of
m u d , the floors generally of stone, b u t s o m e t i m e s of earth u n d die floors often below the level of the ground outside. (22) K ö n n t e er selbst m e h r für
W o h n u n g zahlen, der labourer, as he m u s t live n e a r the farm on which he
works, he m u s t content himself with s u c h lodgings as the owners of the
l a n d think proper to provide. (23) N o c h s c h l i m m e r wie Dorsetshire ist Wilts
u n d Somersetshire. In Wiltshire n ä m l i c h wages are quite as low u n d in der
T h a t lower ... the farmers wonder how their m e n c a n live u p o n their earnings. (23) Weniger Brod noch, Kartoffeln m i t Salz oft die einzige N a h r u n g .
In Somersetshire die matters n o c h schlechter. Wages are 8 s., 7 sh. u n d
m a n c h m a l 6 sh. a week, without any addition, except an allowance of cyder, worth about 15 d., which the labourer perhaps would be quite as well
without. (24) In den m e i s t e n T h e i l e n von Yorkshire u n d a n d r e n n o r t h e r n
counties die peasantry little worse off als die von Northumberland. They are
nearly as well fed, a n d they c a n n o t be worse h o u s e d . In Kent the rate of agricultural wages is rather above the average. ... In Norfolk (hier farms generally very large, a n d farmers m e n of considerable capital) ... Even when
e m p l o y m e n t was a b u n d a n t , a n d while wages r e m a i n e d at the old rate of
10 sh. a week, the peasantry of these 2 counties s e l d o m tasted anything better t h a n dry bread; so that, when e m p l o y m e n t was only to be h a d every
other day, and the rate of wages fell to 7 or 8 sh. a week, their situation bec a m e truly deplorable. ( 2 4 - 2 6 ) D i e peasantry von Bedfordshire und Buckinghamshire nicht besser dran als die des W e s t e n von England. Diese
2 counties die principal seats von 2 m a n u f a c t u r e s , those of pillow lace u n d
straw plat, die vor 20 or 30 J a h r e n , enabled the wives a n d daughters of cottagers to earn as m u c h as their h u s b a n d s a n d brothers. Diese M a n u f a c t u -
5
10
l
2
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15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
ren seitdem verfallen u n d n u n brought so low, daß persons engaged in
t h e m nicht % ihrer früheren earnings erhalten. D e s farmlabourer's 7, 8 oder
9 sh. a week have n o w b e c o m e the m a i n s t a y of h i s family. (26) Die R e b e c c a
Riots in Südwales, S o m m e r 1843, zogen die Aufmerksamkeit auf d e n Stand
der Einwohner, die (die peasantry) s e e m to be worse off t h a n in t h e worst
parts of England. 7 sh. a week, das m i n i m u m of english agricultural wages,
are there the m a x i m u m , u n d are o b t a i n e d only by labourers in the employm e n t o f landowners u n d g e n t l e m e n farmers. S u c h labourers c o m m o n l y
have their cottages rent free. D i e m e i s t e n farms small, n i c h t ü b e r
100 acres; u n d die poorer farmers pay their m e n only 8 d., 9 d. or, at most,
a shilling a day, or 6 d. or 8 d. a day m i t food, if, as is often the case, t h e
m e n board with their masters. Coarse barley bread, flummery, a n d potatoes, are almost their sole food, a n d m a n y of the small farmers themselves
have little else except milk, cheese, a n d bacon. T h e y s e l d o m taste any other a n i m a l food. ([26,] 27) D i e allgemeine A n w e n d u n g der M a s c h i n e r i e
u n d Dampfkraft auf m a n u f a c t u r e s h a t die leztren von der Stadt ins L a n d
gezogen, where the n u m b e r of workpeople required in a large establishm e n t is most easily procurable. E i n oder 2 decaying m a n u f a c t u r e s still
linger in the cottages of t h e poor, so wie die of pillow lace u n d straw plat,
in Buckingham-Bedfordshire u n d einigen a n d r e n m i d l a n d u n d western
counties; die of shirt-button m a k i n g in Dorsetshire. Viele h a n d l o o m w e a v ers u n d stocking m a k e r s residiren in the villages of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts ... It m a y be laid down as a general rule, that, wherever agriculture is
carried on in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of other occupations, its wages will be
found nearly, if n o t quite, at t h e b o t t o m of the scale. (27, 8) T h e harvests in
England, in 1834 a n d t h e 2 following years, so productiv, d a ß der average
Preiß des corn w ä h r e n d dieser Periode is 44 s. 8 d. per qr, less als seit
1786 ... it has b e e n proved by experience that the difference in t h e s u m s
laid out by the labouring classes in dress etc, in cheap a n d dear years, h a s
m o r e effect u p o n the welfare of the manufacturers t h a n almost any other
cause whatever. (49) S c h u l d e n d h a u p t s ä c h l i c h der c o m m e r c i a l revulsion in
d e n U n i t e d States, der value of british exports to foreign countries fell, in
1837, um m e h r als 11 Mill. £ St. below its a m o u n t in 1836. A b e r die Prod u c t i o n schritt fort ... T h e manufacturers in general probably fancied t h a t
the depression of trade would be of short duration, a n d did n o t i m m e d i ately perceive the ||16| necessity of contracting their operations; a n d those
a m o n g t h e m who h a d established themselves with borrowed capital, saw no
other c h a n c e of m e e t i n g their e n g a g e m e n t s t h a n by extending their business as m u c h as possible. Every m a n u f a c t u r e consequently c o n t i n u e d to be
carried on with u n a b a t e d activity; u n d da die Z a h l der factories etc sehr
vermehrt war 1835 u n d 36, the quantity of goods produced, instead of fall-
237
ing off in proportion to the d i m i n i s h e d d e m a n d , s e e m s even to have gone
on increasing. This a b u n d a n c e of goods lowered their price, a n d their low
price caused the c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e m in foreign countries to be so largely
a u g m e n t e d , that, in 1838 a n d the 3 succeeding years, t h e average a n n u a l
value of british exports b e c a m e fast so groß als 1836 u n d viel grösser als
5
1835. Diese vermehrte exportation n ü z t e d e m m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r n i c h t s ,
da sie d u r c h zu niedrige Preisse erkauft war. Es war i h n e n u n m ö g l i c h to
c o n t i n u e this course long, a n d their difficulties were a u g m e n t e d by t h e
scanty harvests of 1 8 3 8 - 4 1 , which, raising the price of food in E n g l a n d by
Y above its price in 1 8 3 5 - 6 , r e d u c e d in a corresponding degree t h e h o m e 10
d e m a n d for their goods. ( 5 1 , 2) In the workshops of B i r m i n g h a m a n d Wolv e r h a m p t o n , in the potteries of Staffordshire, a n d a m o n g the lacemakers
every where, there are n u m e r o u s instances of boys a n d girls u n d e r 10 years
of age, working 10, 12, ja 16 oder 18 S t u n d e n per Tag, yet clothed in rags,
without shoes or stockings, even in winter etc. (61) D i e ganze Z a h l von 15
Paupers, in door u n d o u t door, relieved in 585 U n i o n s in E n g l a n d u n d
Wales, E n d e des Jahrs 1844 (Ladyday) war in door 195,220 u n d o u t d o o r
1,054,462; z u s a m m e n 1,249,682; wovon 431,484 ablebodied adults of b o t h
sexes u n d 215, 742 davon m a l e adults. A b e r diese n u m b e r s waren n i c h t
constantly in the receipt of relief. D e r whole a m o u n t , e x p e n d e d u p o n pau- 20
pers, während des Jahres war £ 4 , 3 7 0 , 1 7 1 ; wovon a b o u t 938,467 ?. abzuz i e h n für die expenses of establishments, salaries etc; läßt 3,431,704 l. für
den purchase of food u n d clothing. D i e average cost dieser articles für an
i n m a t e eines workhouse ist a b o u t 2 s. 6 d. 1 week oder 6 1. 10 sh. a year; so
daß 3,431,704 I. St. would suffice for t h e constant m a i n t e n a n c e , w ä h r e n d 25
eines Jahrs, von n u r 527,954, worauf weniger als % oder ungefähr 90,000
adult males zu r e c h n e n . (68)
2
M a n hat die Grafschaft Sutherland als eine sehr improved county dargestellt, aber: R e c e n t inquiry has discovered t h a t even there, in districts o n c e
famous for fine m e n and gallant soldiers, the i n h a b i t a n t s have degenerated
into a meagre a n d stunted race. In t h e healthiest situations, on hill sides
fronting the sea, the faces of their famished children are as t h i n a n d pale as
they could be in the foul a t m o s p h e r e of a L o n d o n alley. (74, 5) In Glasgow
an 30,000 poor Highlanders in den wynds u n d closes m i t thieves u n d prostitutes. (77, 8) (Th. beweist die Overpopulation aus dem Elend und der
insufficiency der salaries.)
238
30
35
ψ
Causes
5
10
of
Overpopulation
in
general.
(A p e r m a n e n t deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t ) K a n n h e r r ü h r e n von e i n e r diminished demand for labour oder increase in the number of labourers. (114) M i s ery, the inevitable effect a n d s y m p t o m of overpopulation, seems to be likewise its principal promoter. (121) t h e r a p i d m i g r a t i o n s of vast m u l t i t u d e s
from o n e side of t h e globe to t h e other, w h i c h are k n o w n to have t a k e n
place in early times, could only have b e e n effected by people who possessed in their cattle perambulatory magazines of provisions. (123 d u r c h
Hirten) In a thinly peopled country, in which m a n u f a c t u r e s have m a d e
little progress, and foreign c o m m e r c e is u n k n o w n , a great l a n d h o l d e r would
be only e n c u m b e r e d by larger c o n t r i b u t i o n s of raw p r o d u c e t h a n his h o u s e hold could c o n s u m e . (126) In Norwegen, Belgien, Schweiz »the originally
h a p p y condition of t h e peasantry h a s b e e n t h e cause of its own c o n t i n u a n c e s (144) Die N e a p o l i t a n s , Sardinier, r ö m i s c h e n B a u e r n sind »wretched
15
now because wretchedness h a s , d u r i n g m a n y generations, b e e n t h e p o r t i o n
of their forefathers«. (158) D i e E m a n c i p a t i o n der peasantry took place
m u c h earlier i m S ü d e n u n d Südwesten von E u r o p a als i n a n d r e n T h e i l e n
desselben. In Italien besonders p r o m o t e d b o t h by the interposition of t h e
C h u r c h of R o m e , a n d by t h e contests b e t w e e n t h e free cities a n d t h e rural
20 barons, it was effected before t h e serfs h a d acquired any prescriptive rights
over t h e soil (wie in G e r m a n y ) , so that after their enfranchisement they
were obliged, as in F r a n c e , to cultivate t h e lands of others. Savoy i n d e e d ,
like other poor m o u n t a i n o u s regions, h a s probably b e e n always i n h a b i t e d
by petty proprietors, a n d in T u s c a n y , t h e p e r s e c u t i o n which t h e nobility en25
d u r e d from
confiscation
ers. ([158,]
p r o m o t e r of
the d e m o c r a t i c a l g o v e r n m e n t s of t h e towns, a n d the frequent
of their estates, soon enabled t h e farmers to b e c o m e l a n d o w n 159) E n o u g h has b e e n said to show that misery is t h e great
overpopulation. (160)
Causes
of
Overpopulation
in
England.
30
In Italy the natifs h a d b e e n serfs u n d e r t h e R o m a n s , and they r e m a i n e d
serfs u n d e r the G o t h i c d o m i n a t i o n . (164) Jedenfalls, u n d wie dieser W e c h sel i m m e r h i n bewirkt worden sein m a g , es scheint sicher daß, gegen S c h l u ß
der sächsischen Periode, die peasantry in E n g l a n d im A l l g e m e i n e n aufgehört h a t t e das property ihrer lords zu sein oder irgendwas Serviles ausser
35 d e m N a m e n nach. V o n Praedial serfs waren diese villains verwandelt in |
|17| perpetual t e n a n t s of land at a quit-rent. W h e n they h a d paid t h e accus-
239
t o m e d dues, no further claims, either for work or goods, could be legally
m a d e u p o n t h e m by their lord, n o r could they be ousted from their land.
N u r waren sie attached to the soil, d. h. they could n e i t h e r alienate n o r
otherwise a b a n d o n their lands, nor in any way free themselves from the obligation to fulfil the conditions by w h i c h they held t h e m . (169,70) In d e n
3 J a h r h u n d e r t e n , die u n m i t t e l b a r der n o r m a n n i s c h e n Eroberung folgten,
m a c h t e die Civilisation sehr b e d e u t e n d e Fortschritte in E n g l a n d ; internal
a n d external trade were greatly extended, foreign c o m m o d i t i e s i n t r o d u c e d
in a b u n d a n c e , and native m a n u f a c t u r e s established a n d improved. D i e
Wichtigkeit der villain-proprietors of land increased in proportion. Die
m o s t considerable davon h ö r t e n auf zur Klasse der Arbeiter zu gehören.
W h a t services they were b o u n d by the conditions of their t e n u r e to render,
were performed by deputy, u n d die cultivation ihrer own farms was also
performed chiefly by hired labourers. V o n diesen leztren, a large body, im
Besitz von persönlicher Freiheit aber o h n e property in land, war aufgekomm e n . Sie wahrscheinlich ursprünglich e m a n c i p a t e d slaves, oder sons of
small freeholders, oder of villain occupiers of l a n d ; b u t villain t e n a n t s
themselves, after performing their b o u n d e n services to their lords, were at
liberty to serve others for wages, the lords having only a prior claim to s u c h
further services from their own b o n d s m e n as they m i g h t be willing to pay
for. ... Married m e n , engaged as labourers in husbandry, s e e m to have
b e e n provided with a cottage and a few acres of l a n d to cultivate, for their
own profit, in the intervals of their master's work. ([170,] 171) B e h a u p t e t ,
daß im 12* Jh. die Arbeiter gut genährt u n d bezahlt. E b e n s o im 1 3 u n d 14'.
(171, 2) 1349 s u c h t e n die landholders, d u r c h ihre Repräsentatives im Parlament, d u r c h das Statute of Labourers die wages of agricultural labourer to
limit. (172) Aehnliches Statut im folgenden Jahr. (Le.) 13 J a h r e später,
1363 ein andrer Versuch gemacht, d e n h o h e n wages ein E n d e zu m a c h e n ,
by rendering t h e m useless to their receivers; u n d a law was passed (37
E d w . I I I . c. 14), enjoining carters, p l o u g h m e n , a n d all other farmerservants,
n o t to eat or drink „excessively", or to wear any cloth except „blanket a n d
russet wool of 12 d." D o m e s t i c servants, von g e n t l e m e n oder t r a d e s m e n or
artificers, were at the s a m e t i m e declared to be entitled to only o n e m e a l a
day of flesh or fish, a n d were to c o n t e n t themselves at other m e a l s m i t
„milk, butter, cheese, a n d other s u c h victuals". 1388 m a c h t e das P a r l a m e n t
a n o t h e r tariff of wages, according to which a bailiff was to receive 13 s. 3 d.,
a m a s t e r h i n d , carter, or shepherd, 10 s., a n d a c o m m o n labourer in h u s bandry 6 s. 8 d. or 7 s. annually. Of course board u n d lodging were to be allowed in addition. 1444, these rates were raised zu 23 s. 4 d., 20 s. u n d 15 s.
respectively, independently of food a n d of clothes of a specified value.
Daylabourers sollten n u r 3 d. per Tag erhalten, ausser food except in har-
5
10
15
20
l
240
25
30
35
40
5
vest, w h e n they m i g h t be allowed 5 or 6. D i e s e limitations so vergeblich wie
die friihren. Wages stiegen t r o t z d e m u n d die working classes so luxuriös,
d a ß das P a r l a m e n t scandalisirt u n d ein Statut e n a c t e d 1463, w o n a c h servants in h u s b a n d r y restricted to clothing of m a t e r i a l n o t worth m e h r als
2 sh. a yard u n d forbidden to wear hose of a higher price als 14 d. a pair,
oder girdles garnished m i t silver. D e r Preiß of ihrer W e i b e r coverchief oder
h e a d dress sollte n i c h t exceed 12 d. 1482 diese Restrictions herabgesezt
u n d labourers in h u s b a n d r y erlaubt to wear h o s e as dear as 18 d. a pair,
w ä h r e n d ihre W e i b e r legal für d e n Kopfputz 20 d. ausgeben durften. This
10
legislation, m i t Betracht des d a m a l i g e n value of m o n e y , war als w e n n j e z t
Gesetz nöthig to prevent p l o u g h m e n from strutting a b o u t in velvet coats
u n d silkstockings etc. (173, 4) Scarcity of labourers in proportion to t h e d e m a n d im 14* u n d ersten Hälfte des 15* J a h r h u n d e r t s . (178) (Der L o h n stieg
1) d u r c h d e n auswärtigen H a n d e l im 14 u n d 15 Jh. 2) d u r c h die M i g r a t i o n
15
der freiwerdenden A r b e i t e r n a c h d e n S t ä d t e n ; 3) das A u f k o m m e n so der
i n n r e n M a n u f a c t u r e n u n d des i n n r e n M a r k t s ; 4) die F e h d e der weissen
u n d r o t h e n R o s e n . 5) V e r m i n d e r u n g der Bevölkerung d u r c h Pest u n d
Krieg.) t h e extension of t h e field of e m p l o y m e n t proceeded at a m u c h m o r e
rapid rate als die Bevölkerung. (184) D e r rise of wages erreichte seinen
ακμή zur Zeit der accession von H e n r y VII. (I.e.) t h e golden age d e r work
ing class was followed w i t h o u t any interval by t h e iron age w h i c h still sub
sists. In der M i t t e des 15' Jh. k o n n t e j e d e r M a n n o b t a i n so viel work als er
pleased at extravagant wages. N o c h 1496 u n d selbst n o c h 1514 d a c h t e Par
l a m e n t es advisable G e s e t z e z u r N i e d e r h a l t u n g des L o h n s zu erlassen, ob25 gleich der d a m a l s Stattfindende rise Folge der D e p r e c i a t i o n der e d l e n M e
talle war u n d sogar c o n c e a l e d a positive fall in t h e real price of labour. Bald
n a c h h e r n a h m die G e s e t z g e b u n g a new t u r n , a n d parliament, instead of at
t e m p t i n g to curtail t h e labourer's h o n e s t earnings, h a d to exercise its in
genuity in providing for t h e crowds of destitute for w h o m no work c o u l d be
20
30
found. E n g l a n d n i e frei von sturdy beggars ... aber die P e r s o n e n die e i n
idle vagabond life der p a t i e n t industry vorzogen ... n u n aber diese beggars
from choice ersezt by a race of beggars from necessity. R e p e a t e d statutes,
c o m m e n c i n g with o n e passed in 1494, attest t h e rapid spread of destitu
tion. Ursprünglich glaubte P a r l a m e n t es liege n o c h i m m e r an der F a u l h e i t ;
35
no other asylum, therefore, was offered to ablebodied vagrants t h a n t h e
stocks, a n d n o m i l d e r t r e a t m e n t t h a n whipping a t t h e cart's tail. U n d d a n n
zurückgeschickt in ihre G e b u r t s s t ä t t e n . 1535 i n d e ß ||18| w u r d e entdeckt,
d a ß diese „valiant vagrants" after r e t u r n i n g h o m e , could find no work to
d o ; u n d die parish authorities were in c o n s e q u e n c e enjoined to collect volu n t a r y contributions for t h e purpose, n o t only of relieving t h e i m p o t e n t
a n d t h e infirm, b u t of e n a b l i n g t h e strong and lusty to gain a living with
40
241
their own h a n d s . 1547, t h e n u m b e r of beggars still rapidly increasing, in
spite of the „godly acts a n d statutes" ein andres passed gegen sie, das bek a n n t e barbarische Statut. ... T h r e a t e n e d m i t slavery, stripes, a n d death,
m e n chose to r u n every danger in seeking to better their condition, rather
t h a n p i n e with h u n g e r at h o m e , u n d beggars u n d vagabonds c o n t i n u e d
daily to increase. 1562 voluntary alms u n z u r e i c h e n d für d e n relief der poor
gefunden, the parish authorities were empowered to assess persons obstinately refusing to contribute. M e n d i c a n c y a n d vagabondage c o n t i n u i n g
still u n a b a t e d , 1572 power was given to tax all the i n h a b i t a n t s of a place for
the relief of its poor. 1601 endlich der A k t 43 der Elisabeth. ( 1 8 5 - 8 8 ) A u f
die Klöster nicht die Sache zu schieben, da diese n i c h t abgeschafft bis
1535, viele J a h r e after the c o n t i n u a l increase of vagrancy h a d b e c o m e a
standing topic of parliamentary l a m e n t a t i o n . ([188,] 189) Verwandlung von
Ackerbauland in Viehweide der Hauptgrund, (p. 190 sqq.) Vor u n d einige Zeit
n a c h der abolition of villenage enthielt E n g l a n d eine grosse Zahl kleiner
landholders. Erstens freeholders, deren freeholds von j ä h r l i c h e m W e r t h von
40 sh., war zu der Zeit, wo der acre m e i s t zu e i n e m sixpence ausgeliehn,
wichtige Klasse; d a n n die tenants in villenage, oder ihre successors die copyholders; viele tenantfarmers, paying a rent of n o t m o r e t h a n 4 I. a year ... die
m a r r i e d servants in husbandry, die employed u p o n the estates of large proprietors or farmers, h a t t e n a piece of ground which was seldom of less extent
als 3 oder 4 acres. Die meisten landholders aller dieser verschiednen Klassen, mit
Ausnahme der lezten, brauchten die aid of hired labourers, particularly as m u c h
land was u n d e r tillage, a n d large quantities of corn were grown. Folglich
great d e m a n d für agricultural l a b o u r u n d da die supply limited die wages
very high. Aber der high rate of wages, v e r b u n d e n m i t der increasing abundance and cheapness of corn in Folge von Agriculturverbeßrung, m u s t have
r e n d e r e d tillage less profitable t h a n formerly, m o r e especially to large landholders, who did not c o n s u m e at h o m e the principal part of their crops, b u t
raised large quantities for sale, (190, 1) Arable lands nun in pasture verwandelt und die scheinbar i n t e r m i n a b l e corn-fields d u r c h b r o c h e n durch enclosures, to prevent the sheep from straying und um n i c h t i m m e r H i r t e n z u r W a che nöthig zu h a b e n . (191) 1487 A k t passed um diese sociale Revolution
aufzuhalten, d e n n schon b e m e r k t e m a n , d a ß enclosures were, b e c o m i n g
„more frequent, whereby arable land, which could n o t be m a n u r e d without
people a n d families, was turned into pasture, which was easily rid by a few
h e r d s m e n " , u n d daß „tenances for years, lives, and at will, whereupon most of
the yeomanry lived, were t u r n e d into d e m e s n e s " . 1533 (Henry V I I I c.13) A k t
passed, der sehr v e r d a m m t e die practice of accumulating" farms. In d i e s e m
act statuirt, daß single farms m i t flocks von 1 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 Schafen darauf, u n d
befahl, daß N i e m a n d m e h r als 2000 Schafen (ausser auf s e i n e m eignen
242
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w
Land) h a l t e n or rent more als 2 farms solle. 1535 e n a c t e d d a ß der king
should have a m o i e t y der profits of land converted (subsequently to a d a t e
specified) von tillage zu p a s t u r e , bis a suitable h o u s e erected u n d das l a n d
restored to tillage. 1552 (Edward VI, 5 u n d 6.) Gesetz, das r e q u i r e d d a ß auf
5
10
allen estates as large a q u a n t i t y of land as h a d b e e n kept in tillage for
4 years together at any t i m e since t h e accession of H e n r y V I I I should be so
c o n t i n u e d in tillage. ([192,] 193) (Alles das n ü z t e n a t ü r l i c h nichts.) Allerdings damals Handel und Manufactur sehr aufblühend ... b u t t h e r e c a n n o t
be a greater error t h a n to suppose t h a t the substitution of one employment for
another is not detrimental to the workmen originally employed, if the amount of
work to be done remain the same. E v e n w h e n t h e new business is carried on
in t h e s a m e place as t h e old o n e , t h e work m a y be very u n s u i t a b l e to m e n
who have always b e e n differently employed; a n d if t h e b u s i n e s s be removed to a distance, i n n u m e r a b l e difficulties will prevent t h e w o r k m e n in
15
general from following it. ([194,] 195) Am Ende des 16' Jh., in Folge des
Blühns der Städte, stieg der Kornpreiß; so a strong reaction in favour of tillage.
So stieg die Nachfrage n a c h A g r i c u l t u r a r b e i t e r n u n d so ihr L o h n wieder . . .
aber n i c h t so h o c h wie früher. D i e neuen cottages in general ohne an sie attachâtes Land. In m o s t parishes allerdings common lands, worauf a poor h o u s e -
20
holder m i g h t keep a cow: b u t otherwise e i n labourer gewöhnlich abhängig
von seiner täglichen E i n n a h m e , nominell höher, real niedriger als das income
eines cottager a few generations earlier. D e r Preiß des wheat ζ. Β. stieg in
100 J a h r e n von 7 sh. auf 30 sh. a qr u n d 1610 wurde 4¾ d., oder a b o u t a d.
less t h a n a whole sheep h a d o n c e cost, was given for a p o u n d of m u t t o n . An
25
outdoorlabourer am Anfang des 17' J h . daher, der sein eignes F o o d m i t 6
oder 8 d. a ||19| day zu kaufen h a t t e , lang n i c h t so gut dran als ein M a n n
derselben Klasse im 14' J h . m i t n u r 3½ d. a day, selbst unterstellt d a ß der
leztre n i c h t besessen h ä t t e in a d d i t i o n t h e p r o d u c e of a cottage farm.
( 1 9 6 - 8 ) Dieses m o d i c u m of comfort nicht im Stand zu act as a very effectual restraint upon population, u n d in wenigen J a h r e n die Z a h l der A r b e i t e r
gewachsen ü b e r das was beschäftigt werden k o n n t e ... In d e n lezten
30 J a h r e n des 17' Jh. die poorrates geschäzt von 600,000 zu 840,000 /.,
which, at t h e rate of relief t h e n customary, m u s t have sufficed for t h e c o n stant m a i n t e n a n c e of at least 100,000 persons, or % der whole p o p u l a t i o n .
30
35
% davon, n a c h Locke's Bericht 1697, were ablebodied ... in d e n 3 J a h r e n
e n d e d m i t 1750 der average a m o u n t is shown by p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e t u r n s
n i c h t to have exceeded 690,0001. A b e r 1776 der a m o u n t risen auf
1,521,000 /. u n d von 1 7 8 3 - 8 5 der a n n u a l average 1,912,000 l. N u n b l ü h t e
im 27 und 18 Jh. jeder branch of national industry so sehr als bevor c o m -
40
m e r c e u n d m a n u f a c t u r e s prospered exceedingly ... In der Agricultur Introduction of turnip husbandry und artificial grasses. Also, da Nachfrage der Ar-
243
beit aller sorts sehr gewachsen sein m u ß t e beweist der gleichzeitige
increase of p a u p e r i s m a still greater increase in t h e n u m b e r of labourers.
(198, 9) while p a u p e r i s m was advancing in the m a n n e r above described,
t h e condition of the labourers w h o o b t a i n e d employment was not injured by
the competition of the unemployed, but on the contrary was gradually improving.
(200) (Zeigt er durch Vergleichung einer Preißliste v o n E d e n und
A. Y o u n g des 17* u n d des 18* Jahrhundert.) D i e ß erklärt sich T. aus d e n
poorlaws, die die Ausgleichung zwischen Nachfrage und Zufuhr verhinderten. (Aber Herr Thornton vergißt, d a ß w e n n 1) Manufactur, commerce u n d Ackerbau blühten, 2) die M a s s e der Bevölkerung, wie aus
Gregory King etc hervorgeht, relativ gut lebte, viel Fleisch, Weizenbrod,
Bier consumirte, 3) der Arbeitslohn stieg und 4) die Paupers - % der Bevölkerung - gefüttert werden konnten, sicher k e i n U e b e r s c h u ß der Population über die Subsistenzmittel stattfand. D i e Sache m u ß also anders
erklärt werden, nämlich das P h e n o m e n o n ) ... that the real price of labour
rose considerably at a t i m e w h e n the m a r k e t was greatly overstocked. (203)
W a s wesentlich mitbeitrug zur degradation der english peasantry war die
inclosure und partition of common land. (210) In 99 cases o u t of a 100, the
poor m a n has lost his rights of c o m m o n without any p e r m a n e n t equivalent.
(211) A n a t i o n can scarcely, like an individual, grow rich by m e r e parsim o n y , for it m u s t always expend the whole or nearly the whole, of its average i n c o m e . ... At any rate, it is only m o n e y , plate, a n d jewels, t h a t are,
strictly speaking, h o a r d e d ... W e n n m a n n i c h t reason h a t t o think, daß
m a n profitable dispose k a n n ü b e r das surplus, so producirt m a n little m o r e
t h a n m a y suffice for present use. M o n e y , plate u n d jewels sind sehr u n b e d e u t e n d e items in n a t i o n a l property, which consists chiefly of bulky articles, provisions, manufactures, buildings, ships, a n d raw materials, the ann u a l p r o d u c t i o n of all of which is proportioned as nearly as possible to the
expected a n n u a l c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e only articles that can be called p e r m a n e n t acquisitions are those which, from their durable character, m a y rem a i n long in use without being destroyed. ... n a t i o n a l i n c o m e k a n n n u r be
X
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a u g m e n t e d sei es durch an increase des p r o d u c e des native soil oder d u r c h
an increase of foreign imports. (221[, 222] N o t e ) Seit 1837 die Lage der agricultural labourers in England noch unstreitig verschlechtert. N a c h 1836 n a h m e n ihre earnings ab u n d der Preiß der L e b e n s m i t t e l zu. D u r c h das Gesetz 35
von 1842 - freiere Korneinfuhr - farmers verarmt, r e d u c i r t e n endlich die
items of expenditure. Die labour, am m e i s t e n u n t e r ihrer Controlle ...
d a n n (44) to the effects of the poverty of the farmers a d d e d die of a long
c o n t i n u e d drought, which p u t an almost entire stop to m a n y operations of
husbandry. (234, 5) At several places in Wiltshire, Somersetshire, Gloucester- 40
H shire u n d a n d r e n der western counties, m o s t of the cottagers 50 years ago
244
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waren weavers, deren chief d e p e n d e n c e was their looms, obgleich they
worked in the fields at harvest t i m e and other busy seasons. So h a l t e n sie
nieder die wages der agricultural labourers, bis sie selbst von der Agricultur
ganz abhängig geworden in Folge der removal der woollen m a n u f a c t u r e ,
u n d these r e d u c e d wages have b e c o m e their own portion also. (237) D i e
population of towns is rarely increased faster t h a n the m e a n s of subsistence, except by i m m i g r a t i o n from rural districts. ... Town residents h a b e n
nicht dieselben i n d u c e m e n t s to marry wie dwellers in d e m country. M e h r
Gelegenheit für c r i m i n a l gratification ihrer passions. D o m e s t i c comfort
k a n n i h n e n gleichgültig sein. D a s ausserordentliche grosse Verhältniß der
E h e n z u r Bevölkerung in M a n c h e s t e r , Glasgow etc beweist nicht, d e n n die
portion verheirathbarer L e u t e h i e r viel grösser als anderswo ... die foul atm o s p h e r e worin sie leben, z u s a m m e n m i t M a n g e l a n N a h r u n g u n d Kleid u n g erzeugt sehr grosse Sterblichkeit u n t e r d e n K i n d e r n ... In Liverpool
u n d Glasgow die j ä h r l i c h e n deaths zahlreicher als die births ... M a n m u ß
die s u b u r b a n districts von d e n grossen Städten selbst t r e n n e n . In d e m
eigentlichen m e t r o p o l i t a n district von L o n d o n , extending v o n K e n s i n g t o n
n a c h Greenwich u n d von d e m foot of Highgatehill n a c h Camberwell, t h e
births, i n 1 8 4 0 - 1 exceeded the deaths u m 8814; aber i n d e n von A r m e n
dicht bevölkerten Vierteln, die deaths im A l l g e m e i n e n ({201 e x c e e d e d t h e
births. D i e ß ist der case in d e n subdivisions d e n o m i n a t e d St M a r t i n s in the
Fields, East u n d W e s t L o n d o n , W h i t e c h a p e l , St Saviour's u n d St Olave's,
u n d Greenwich. In St. George's H a n n o v e r s q u a r e , Westminster, St Giles
u n d St George, Strand, H o l b o r n u n d der city of L o n d o n leichter excess der
births ü b e r die deaths, aber zu u n b e d e u t e n d to m a k e up for the deficiency
in first n a m e d qrs. ( 2 3 8 - 4 0 ) In einigen towns, besonders in d e n southern
und midland counties, distress u n d overpopulation producirt d u r c h d e n
transfer of m a n u f a c t u r e s formerly carried on there to m o r e advantageous
situations. (243) In der Mitte des 18* Jh., von 1750 an, giebt Th. zu, d a ß
viel Ackerland in Weide verwandelt: » M e n who h a d amassed fortunes in
trade or other pursuits, a n d desired to possess suitable country residences,
if they could n o t p e r s u a d e a decayed family to part with its hereditary seat,
purchased some of the outlying lands of an estate, and cleared half a dozen farms
and a score or two of cottages to make a park.« G o l d s m i t h s "Deserted Village"
is a picture of the desolation p r o d u c e d by such a process. (208, 9) (Herr
Thornton's Entwicklung läuft darauf hinaus: Erst macht der Fortschritt
der Industrie die Bevölkerung redundant, i n d e m sie ihr die gewohnte B e schäftigung entzieht und sie so verarmt; und dann wird die Verarmung
wieder eine Quelle zu rasch wachsender Bevölkerung. Beweis hat Thornton nicht d e n geringsten geliefert. D a ß für die poor jeder Z u w a c h s s c h o n
redundant ist, bedarf k e i n e s B e w e i s e s ; aber d a ß die Bevölkerung in d e n
245
G a n z e n N a t i o n e n mit Verhältniß zu ihren Productivkräften jemals redundant war, ist zu beweisen.)
Most of t h e farmers in d e n highlands waren freeholders u n d z a h l t e n keine
R e n t e , s o n d e r n n u r die s. g. calpe, in token of their personal s u b o r d i n a t i o n
to the chief. (247) F r o m the earliest t i m e s bis vor ungefähr 60 J a h r e n (von
5
1783 u n d 4 an) Ireland was almost entirely a grazing country. N o c h 1727 a
law g e m a c h t to compel every occupier of 100 acres of land to cultivate at
least 5 acres. (258) the misery of the irish people is of no recent origin, b u t
has b e e n from t i m e i m m e m o r i a l an h e i r l o o m in the race. ... T h e chief difference is, that whereas people were o n c e starving on a short allowance of 10
m e a t , they are now starving on an equally short allowance of potatoes.
(260, 1) ... Irland, from a very r e m o t e period, has carried on a considerable
export trade; a n d the lords of the soil have always possessed, in foreign
countries, a m a r k e t for their surplus p r o d u c e . T h e y have therefore h a d good
reasons for practising economy, a n d for restricting t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n of 15
their servants to what was absolutely necessary for their subsistence. W h e n
the servants b e c a m e serfs, they were not, according to the c u s t o m in m o r e
agricultural countries, provided with portions of l a n d to cultivate for their
own support; for the estates of their lords, however extensive, could
scarcely be too large for pasturage. T h e y lived u p o n s u c h fare as their m a s 20
ters chose to provide, went halfnaked, a n d slept u n d e r trees, or the scarcely
better shelter of a few b r a n c h e s c e m e n t e d together with m u d . W h e n they
b e c a m e enfrancised, they gained n o t h i n g b u t personal freedom. (259)
Herr Th. sagt: Whatever other r e m e d i e s m a y be prescribed, restrictions
u p o n the marriages of the poor are an indispensable part of the regimen to
25
be observed. (268) An Irish cottier is n o t miserable because he has 2 or
3 acres attached to his dwelling, b u t b e c a u s e he has to pay for this land 3
oder 4X as m u c h as it would be let for in England. (336) In Irland lange Periode von A n a r c h i e u n d Confusion n a c h der Eroberung von H e n r y I I ; beständiger Krieg zwischen d e n Colonisten u n d d e n E i n g e b o r n e n acted as an 30
effectual bar to agriculture; beide P a r t h e i e n zogen es vor to keep their
property in der F o r m von flocks u n d herds, which could be driven into a
place of shelter, t h a n in corn stacks or standing crops, which m u s t have
b e e n left to the mercy of a successful invader. So blieb cattle das einzige
Product, so sehr daß es oft als T a u s c h m i t t e l a n g e w a n d t . . . 100 J a h r e später 35
lamentirt Spenser (der poet) that „all m e n fell to pasturage, and n o n e to
h u s b a n d r y " ... U n t e r der Herrschaft der Elisabeth, J a m e s I u n d Karl I u n d
Cromwell - Period m a r k e d durch die rebellion der Grafen von Tyrone u n d
Tyrconnel, das massacre der Protestants p r o m o t e d by Roger M o o r e , die
246
r
gleich blutige Invasion von Cromwell u n d die Confiscation von % der I n sel - m a c h t e Agricultur keine Fortschritte. N a c h der Revolution von 1688
y des lands änderte wieder die m a s t e r s u n d a series of p e n a l acts was enacted gegen die r ö m i s c h e n Catholiken. Diese atrocious laws verboten d e n Katholiken lands zu kaufen oder zu h o l d t h e m by lease für m e h r als
31 J a h r e ... So die grosse Majorität des Volks, die Katholiken, gewaltsam
von der Agricultur ferngehalten u n d die proprietors der estates m u ß t e n sie
theilen u n t e r den wenigen capitalists, die gesetzlich dafür c o n c u r r i r e n
k o n n t e n u n d die diese i m m e n s e tracts n a t ü r l i c h n i c h t s u p e r i n t e n d k o n n ten, i n d e m sie sie fast ganz u n t e r Gras hielten. So allgemein u n d so recent
die Vernachlässigung des tillage, d a ß 1727 Gesetz | | 2 1 | gemacht, to c o m p e l
every occupier of 100 acres of l a n d to cultivate m i n d e s t e n s 5 acres. (257, 8)
1783 u n d 84 granted das irische P a r l a m e n t h i g h bounties on the exportation of grain u n d verbot seine Einfuhr from abroad; in Folge davon Steigen
des Preisses, promovirt n o c h d u r c h die d e m a n d for foreign corn in G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n n a c h d e m Anfang des Kriegs m i t F r a n k r e i c h u n d d u r c h die A b schaffung, 1806, aller Restrictions auf d e n corntrade zwischen d e n 2 Ländern. So ausserordentliche i n d u c e m e n t d e n landholders gegeben,
pasturage in cornfields zu verwandeln; aber die tracts held by single graziers in general viel zu extensive to be cultivated by their actual t e n a n t s ,
daher getheilt in farms von m o r e convenient size u n d geliehn an persons
willing to u n d e r t a k e t h e m . A b e r n i c h t Capital genug in dieser Insel für
diese plötzliche R e v o l u t i o n in h u s b a n d r y u n d die m e i s t e n von der new
race of farmers so a r m daß sie ihre Arbeiter n u r z a h l e n k o n n t e n , i n d e m sie
i h n e n assignirten Stücke v o m G r u n d to build cabins u p o n u n d to cultivate
for their own subsistence. Z u s a m m e n m i t d e n farmers daher a considerable
body of cottiers was created u n d die Z a h l der leztren vermehrt d u r c h d e n
desire der landlords ihren politischen Einfluß zu vergrössern. Das elective
franchise belonged in Irland wie in E n g l a n d zu 40 sh. freeholders, d. h. zu
possessors of a life interest in l a n d of the clear a n n u a l value of 40 sh. 1792
t h e privilege was c o n c e d e d to Catholics also u n d landlords b e g a n to m a n u facture voters by t h o u s a n d s , by granting t h e m leases for life of small
patches of land. So wurde die bulk des people converted in occupiers of
land ... Gavelkind, or the c u s t o m of dividing a father's l a n d e d property,
equally a m o n g his children, has always prevailed in Ireland. Starb einer der
n e u g e m a c h t e n farmers, so errichteten alle seine S ö h n e farms of smaller extent, a n d a cottier's son also generally inherited small pieces of g r o u n d .
... So most of the d e s c e n d a n t s of the original farmers have, in the course of
2 or 3 generations, sunk to the level of cottiers, a n d most of the original
cottage holdings have b e e n divided a m o n g as m a n y families as c a n contrive to obtain from t h e soil potatoes e n o u g h to keep t h e m alive. ( 2 5 1 - 5 3 . )
u
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247
Robert Vaughan. The Age of Great Cities.
London.1843.
ch. I.
of
ch. IL
On
the
the
occasion
present
work.
and object
(1-10)
On the social characteristics of Great cities
in
ancient
and
modern
5
Times.
Asia.
Städte ursprünglich g e b a u t zur Sicherheit oder z u m H a n d e l u n d Sicherheit. Im ersten Fall on t h e slope of s o m e m o u n t a i n side oder along the
s u m m i t of s o m e lofty rock. Im zweiten on the b a n k of t h e river or n e a r the
10
bay of the sea. (11) Die capitals in Aejypten u n d A s i e n h a t t e n their place
on the course m a r k e d o u t by the principal rivers. (12) Im Orient die Privilegien der verschiednen Casten n u r sanktionirt d u r c h die Religion. »All
castes are m a d e to have their i m m u n i t i e s , a n d every invasion of those imm u n i t i e s is b r a n d e d , n o t only as an act of civil i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n , b u t as be- 15
ing also an act of impiety.« D i e ß die einzige S c h r a n k e g e n d e n D e s p o t i s m u s . ([15,] 16)
248
Aus Robert Vaughan: The age of great cities
Griechenland.
Rom.
chapter
5
III-VII.
In England prevalence of d e p r e d a t i o n in the rural districts. (245) M e n
change masters m o r e frequently t h a n in feudal t i m e s , b u t the m o r a l feeling
which b o u n d t h e m t o o n e m a n , o r t o o n e household, now b i n d s t h e m t o
their class or society. (289)
249
Th. Doubleday. The true law of Population.
L o n d o n . 1842.
T h e great general law, das vegetable u n d a n i m a l life regirt, ist, d a ß w e n n
eine species oder genus endangered is, a corresponding effort is invariably
m a d e by n a t u r e for its preservation a n d c o n t i n u a n c e , by an increase of fecundity or fertility; besonders der Fall, w e n n solche danger arises von a
d i m i n u t i o n of proper n o u r i s h m e n t or food, so d a ß der state of depletion, or
t h e deplethoric state is favourable to fertility u n d der plethoric state, or
state of repletion, ungünstig. Daher, auf die m e n s c h l i c h e Gesellschaft angewandt, in allen Gesellschaften a constant increase going on a m o n g s t t h a t
portion of it which is the worst supplied with food, d. h. u n t e r d e n poorest.
Dagegen u n t e r d e n e n in the state of affluence u n d well supplied m i t food
u n d luxuries a constant decrease goes on. U n t e r d e n e n who form t h e m e a n
or m e d i u m between these two opposite states die P o p u l a t i o n ist stationär.
D a r a u s folgt that it is u p o n the numerical proportion which these 3 states
b e a r to each other in any society that increase or decrease u p o n t h e whole
depends. (5, 6) In trees, the effect of strong m a n u r e s and overrich soils is
t h a t they r u n to superfluous wood, blossom irregularly, a n d chiefly at the
extremities of the outer branches, a n d almost or entirely cease to b e a r fruit.
(9.) Die Thiere, overfed, werden unproductiv. (14, 15) So b e i m Schaaf. In
accordance m i t der leanness wirft 1, 2 oder 3 L ä m m e r . D i e ß d e n Verbesserern dieser Race b e k a n n t . Um die best c h a n c e of a perfect a n i m a l zu h a b e n , glauben sie daß das Werfen von E i n e m L a m m a m b e s t e n ist u n d dieß
die breeders of sheep erreichen, i n d e m sie so viel F u t t e r geben, daß es weder steril n o c h 2 oder 3 wirft, a single l a m b is almost invariably the offspring of the a n i m a l so limited. (15) |
|21[a]| Die Fischfresser u n t e r d e n M e n s c h e n besonders fruchtbar. (25)
(Highlands, Western Islands of Scotland. F a m i l i e n von 1 0 - 2 0 Kinder!) (Irland, China.) W i r finden die P o p u l a t i o n thin in pastoral countries, wo be-
250
5
10
15
20
25
Aus Thomas Doubleday: The true law of population
sonders a n i m a l food; denser, wo gemischt m i t vegetable a l i m e n t ; denser still,
wo n u r vegetable, aber m i t plenty, densest of all, wo vegetable aber m i t scarcity superadded. (27) extraordinary t e n d e n c i e s to propagation evinced by
b o t h sexes when semiconvalescent, after enfeebling a n d a t t e n u a t i n g ep5
idemics, such as fevers, pestilences, a n d plagues. (28) Decay of all systems of
nobility. Z . B . die Peers u n d Baronets of G r e a t Britain ... few, if any, of t h e
N o r m a n nobility u n d e b e n s o wenige von d e n original b a r o n e t s ' families of
King J a m e s I exist at this m o m e n t ; w e n n n i c h t für perpetual creations,
b o t h orders m u s t have b e e n all b u t extinct. Die great majority des H o u s e of
10 Lords geschaffen seit 1760, d. h. seit 80 J a h r e n (George). (31, 2) U e b e r leztres giebt er folgende Tabelle:
15
Numbers of Peers 1837
Dukes
21
Marquises
19
Earls
108
Viscounts
17
Baronets
185
350
Scottish Peers 16
25
20
Irish Peers
25
30
35
40
Number created seit 1760
5 Dukes
18 Marquises
58 Earls
13 Viscounts
153 Baronets
247
28
394
272 seit 1760. (p. 32)
Der Order der Baronets c o m m e n c e d 1611 u n t e r J a m e s I, as a m e a n s of
raising money, besonders für d e n irish war j e n e r Periode. T h e s u m paid for
this h o n o u r was very large. V o n diesen, die 1611 gemacht, existiren n u r
n o c h 13 u n d von d e n e n , die er 1625 schuf, n u r n o c h 39. (33, 4) E i n G r u n d
ist natürlich dieß: a single failure of offspring m a k e s a gap in the body,
whilst even extra fecundity in a n o t h e r quarter is only allowed to keep up
the line. (34) Aber das n i c h t g e n ü g e n d e r G r u n d . Extraordinary decrease
der V e n e t i a n nobility, obgleich all the sons are e n n o b l e d by birth. A m e l o t
zählte zu seiner Zeit 2500 nobles die S t i m m e im Council h a t t e n ; gegenwärtig (18* Jh. Anfang) n i c h t 1500, trotz der a d d i t i o n von vielen F a m i l i e n
seit j e n e r Zeit. (35) V o n 1 5 8 3 - 1 6 5 4 der sovereign council von Bern a d m i t ted into the bourgeoisie 487 families, wovon 379 b e c a m e extinct in Z e i t
von 2 J a h r h u n d e r t e n u n d 1783, blieben n u r 108 davon. V o n 1 6 8 4 - 1 7 8 4
207 Bernoise families b e c a m e extinct. (36) U n t e r d e m Kaiser Claudius sagt
Tacitus: „Jisdem diebus in n u m e r u m P a t r i c i o r u m adscivit Caesar vetustiss i m u m q u e m q u e e Senatu, a u t q u i b u s clari parentes fuerant. Paucis j a m reliquis familiarum quas R o m u l u s Majorum, et Lucius Brutus M i n o r u m
G e n t i u m , adpellaverat: exhaustis e t i a m quas Dictator Caesar Lege Cassia,
et Princeps A u g u s t u s Lege Saenia, sublegere." (Annal. l.XI, C.25.) [37] D.
251
führt n u n Beispiele an aus Archiven ü b e r d e n decay der free burgesses of
certain rich a n d exclusive boroughs. (40) If it were t r u e t h a t p o p u l a t i o n has
a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to increase equally a m o n g s t all classes, u n c h e c k e d by
anything b u t the inability to p r o c u r e subsistence, the diseases which arise
o u t of a deficiency of n u t r i m e n t , a n d t h e a b a n d o n m e n t of marriage caused
by poverty a n d t h e fear of it; ... the decrease of a people m u s t take place at
the b o t t o m of society, a n d n o t in t h e m i d d l e or at the top. (181)
5
Statement von p. 10 des Report XVII of Excise Commissioners
Date.
Hard soap
made lbs
Soft Soap
made
Number of
manufacturers
1785
1790
1795
1800
1805
1810
1815
1820
1825
1830
1834
35,012,412 lbs
42,074,309
48,262,786
54,233,311
65,723,869
72,636,296
77,678,063
82,379,891
102,623,165
117,324,321
144,344,043
3,358,228
3,671,425
3,495,559
3,528,432
4,575,130
6,146,529
6,224,002
7,099,297
8,910,509
10,209,519
10,401,281
971
772
677
652
553
510
447
398
395
309
302 (236)
10
15
20
A u s d i e s e m law of P o p u l a t i o n ] folgt, daß a long c o n t i n u e d depression,
down to destitution, of a whole people, will, in t h e long r u n , be revenged on
itself a n d those who caused it, by the superfluous a n d u n m a n a g e a b l e pauper p o p u l a t i o n which it is sure to generate. ([253,] 254) there is g r o u n d for 25
the supposition that the neutralization, or absence of alkali, in the m a l e ani m a l constitution, would be a direct cause of sterility, a n d its decided presence, e contrario, a cause of fruitfulness; supposing, in each case, the fem a l e to be prolific by constitution. ... N o w ... a plethoric diet, i.e. of
a n i m a l food u n d wheaten bread m i t W e i n u n d Z u c k e r in c o m b i n a t i o n , ||22|
30
is a c c o m p a n i e d by a development of acid in the frame; whilst, on the contrary, a poor, u n w h o l e s o m e , deficient, or i n d e e d mostly vegetable n u t r i m e n t , t e n d s rather to an alkalescent state of t h e body, from which acid is
excluded. ( 2 7 4 - 2 7 6 )
252
Aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on the management of the poor
W. P. Alison. M. D. Observations
on the Management of the Poor in Scotland.
E d i n b u r g h . 1840.
5
10
15
20
25
Sterblichkeit in E d i n b u r g h 1: auf 22 oder 2 3 . In Glasgow war die D u r c h Schnittssterblichkeit seit 1830 = 1:30 u n d 1832 u n d 1837 = 1:21 u n d
= 1:24. (VII N o t e Preface) the prevention of Disease on a large scale m a y
often be in the power of a c o m m u n i t y , although beyond the power of m a n y
of the inhabitants c o m p o s i n g that c o m m u n i t y . (I.e. VIII) D e r a m o u n t of
suffering from the c o m b i n a t i o n of poverty a n d disease, has b e e n nearly tripled in the city of E d i n b u r g h in d e n lezten 25 J a h r e n , w ä h r e n d die p o p u l a tion n u r um 50 % sich v e r m e h r t hat. (4) D i e repeated u n d severe visitations
of fever ... are not merely the occasion of m u c h a n d widely spread suffering
a n d destitution, b u t they are ... in a great m e a s u r e the result, a n d t h e indication and test, of m u c h previous misery a n d destitution. (18) Jedenfalls ist
destitution »a cause of the rapid diffusion of contagious fever«. (19) T h e
true specific cause of the contagious fever, at least of Edinburgh, certainly
does n o t spring from any thing external to the living h u m a n body, (wie v o n
verdorbner Luft, d u r c h A u s d ü n s t u n g todter Körper.) (20) D a s elaborate
work der Drs Cheyne u n d Barker zeigt d a ß die grossen E p i d e m i e n in Irland
seit 1700, each of t h e m lasting fully 2 years, Folge von privations, sufferings u n d der m e n t a l depression u n d d e s p o n d e n c y which naturally a t t e n d
t h e m ; n ä h m l i c h 1708, 1720, u n d 1731, 1 7 4 0 - 4 1 (after the great frost of
1740), 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 0 1 , after the rebellion, the transference of the seat of gove r n m e n t to L o n d o n , a n d t h e scarcity of 1799 u n d 1800; u n d wieder 1817
n a c h der «transition from t h e state of war to that of p e a c e " u n d der scarcity
of 1816 u n d 1817. (22) V o n d e n recent E p i d e m i c s in E d i n b u r g h u n d G l a s gow gilt dasselbe. D i e erste in Edinburgh b e g i n n e n d 1817, n a c h 2 b a d harvests; die nächste 1826, n a c h d e n great failures in 1825 u n d der s u d d e n
253
cessation, besonders of building speculations in E d i n b u r g h ; u n d die lezte,
1836, n a c h der great depression of trade b o t h in Glasgow u n d D u n d e e , m i t
welchen towns the lower orders here are m u c h c o n n e c t e d . In Glasgow die
Sache n o c h klarer, fever scheint hier to have increased a n d d i m i n i s h e d for
40 years past, nearly as it did in E d i n b u r g h , bis 1836, when, after the great
5
stagnation of trade, it b e c a m e m u c h m o r e formidable. F ü r 20 J a h r e vor
1815, als die Stadt rasch in R e i c h t h u m wachsend war, die Z a h l der Fieberp a t i e n t e n in d e m Infirmary nie ü b e r 130 im Jahr. In 1817, 1818 u n d 1819
belief sie sich zu 2715 oder 905 im Jahr. D a n n n a h m sie wieder beträchtlich a b ; h o b sich aber n a c h d e n failures 1825 u n d 1826, 1827 u n d 1828, 10
a m o u n t e d auf 3520 oder 1173 im Jahr. A n d r e increase of disease 1832;
u n d n a c h d e n great failures 1835 it spread so extensively, daß die n u m b e r s
t a k e n in hospitals 1836, 37 u n d 38 a m o u n t e d auf 9740, oder 3270 im J a h r
u n d von diesen 5387 allein im J a h r 1837 ... In d e n lezten 3 J a h r e n die G e s a m m t z a h l der Fieberfälle von Glasgow c o m p u t e d at nearly 40,000. (23, 4) 15
D i e female field labourers, sehr zahlreich in ganz Schottland, when e m ployed, earn only 18 d. a day, a n d are u n a b l e to provide anything for the future. Accordingly, ceasing to be fit for work a b o u t the age of 50, they inevitably b e c o m e destitute ... the n u m b e r of such poor w o m e n , in almost every
small town in Scotland, is distressing to t h i n k u p o n . ... T h e fact is, they 20
live in a condition to which t h a t of m o s t domestic a n i m a l s is a luxury. (31,
2) In Edinburgh und Schottland überhaupt Blüthe des M a l t h u s i a n i s m u s ,
»the towncouncil of E d i n b u r g h , a n d the M a n a g e r s of the C h u r c h CharityW o r k h o u s e ... refused, even last winter, at the t i m e w h e n e p i d e m i c fever
was alarmingly prevalent, to order the increased assessments which were 25
proposed.« Sie wußten, daß sie d a d u r c h would have very materially relieved
the sufferings vieler hülfloser W e i b e r u n d K i n d e r ... A b e r sie fürchteten
d a d u r c h zu ultimately extend a n d perpetuate the k i n d of suffering which
they would temporarily relieve. (40, 1) W e r in E d i n b u r g h fühlt m u c h anxiety a b o u t die sufferings der poor, s e e m to be usually regarded as well- 30
m e a n i n g , weak m i n d e d m e n , who are incapable of c o m p r e h e n d i n g the
„principle of population", a n d do n o t u n d e r s t a n d that the sufferings of o n e
part of the c o m m u n i t y are the proper corrective to restrain the t e n d e n c y to
u n d u e increase of n u m b e r s in the rest. (39, N o t e ) Mr Revans, der Sekretär
war to the Poor-law-Inquiry in E n g l a n d u n d Wales, which led z u m A m e n d 35
m e n t A c t in 1834, sagt, daß w e n n wir a b z i e h n das p a y m e n t of wages d u r c h
die poorrates seit 1796, (the employers of labourers having dexterously
shifted on the rate payers a great part of the b u r d e n which they only were
b o u n d to bear) and allow for the difference of population, and of the price
of corn, a n d for m a n y extraneous expenses ... charged on the poor rates ...
40
we shall find that they h a d pretty well reached their greatest height in 1680.
254
Aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on the management of the poor
([45,] 46) D i e ö k o n o m i s c h e n F o l g e n dieser schottischen Rigidität: An
irisch widow m i t 4 j u n g e n K i n d e r n , die 4 oder 5 J a h r e in E d i n b u r g h sich
aufgehalten, was refused relief from the Charity-Workhouse; ... sie u n d
ihre Kinder lebten eine Zeitlang in e x t r e m e destitution, in a close cellar, in
5 a small but crowded close. Da eines der K i n d e r v o m Fieber ergriffen, die
others soon sickened, die disease spread to the neighbours, 15 cases occurred in a very limited space in a few weeks; some of which b e c a m e a
heavy b u r d e n to t h e Infirmary; o n e y o u n g w o m a n , who supported h e r aged
m o t h e r died, and t h e m o t h e r b e c o m e s a b u r d e n on the city. H o w far further
10 the evil m a y extend is yet doubtful. (192 note) |
255
|23| Alison. (Archibald) The Principles
of Population.
E d i n b u r g h . 1840.
t.I.
O h n e das bedachtlose H i n g e b e n an d e n Instinkt der G a t t u n g (Be) the species could never have emerged from the woods. (14) Unless the principle of
increase h a d b e e n u n l i m i t e d in its operation in pastoral ages, die Pastoralvölker nie ihre w a n d e r n d e Lebensart verlassen. It is the feeling of want
which impels t h e m into other regions, a n d leads to the formation of different habits. But for the rapid m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of t h e Scythian tribes they
would have wandered to this day u n k n o w n a n d u n c h a n g e d in the steppes of
the U k r a i n e or the plains of Tartary, a n d the n a t i o n s of E u r o p e who have
sprung from their d e s c e n d a n t s would never have existed. (18) It was the
pressure of n u m b e r s alone which compelled t h e m to leave these desert regions, a n d impelled t h e m alternately u p o n the R o m a n , the I n d i a n , or the
Chinese empires. (I.e.) »the forced m i g r a t i o n of shepherd tribes« war »the
m e a n s of peopling an u n i n h a b i t e d world«. (19) G r e a t part of the h i g h tableland of Asia, which shelves upwards from the N o r t h e r n O c e a n to the H i m a l a y a snows, at the foot of which it is 14,000 feet above the sea, is utterly
incapable of arable cultivation: districts in Tartary u n d Mongolia, 2x as
large as all Europe, are for ever c h a i n e d to the N o m a d State. (19) If, therefore, the u n l i m i t e d operation of the principle of increase is necessary in t h e
savage state to the existence of m a n , it is no less essential in the pastoral to
his extension a n d improvement. (21) T h e same want of a rapid increase in
the h u m a n species is felt in the early agricultural state. (22) D e r slow progress which states m a k e in enlarging their n u m b e r s in the first stages of so256
5
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15
20
25
Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population
ciety zeigen die N o t h w e n d i g k e i t einer u n l i m i t e d operation des principle of
increase für die multiplication of m a n k i n d in these periods. Z u r Z e i t Julius
Casars die E i n w o h n e r von Britain wahrscheinlich 700,000; w ä h r e n d der
Heptarchie still smaller; u n t e r H e n r y V das whole Island n i c h t
5 2,500,000 souls. So in 15 centuries die n u m b e r s of the people were hardly
tripled. (23, 4) R a s c h fortschreitende Bevölkerung in d e n early ages n u r in
besonders begünstigten L ä n d e r e i n , wie in d e m Delta von Aejypten, der
E b e n e von M e s o p o t a m i e n , oder in d e n fields of Bengal. (24, 5) D e r rapid
progress der population in N o r d a m e r i k a h a t zu sehr falschen I d e e n in Be10 zug auf die probable rate of increase in the earlier ages of the world geleitet. D i e ß Volk b e g a n n die cultivation seiner forests m i t allen advantages
and resources of civilized life at their c o m m a n d ; etc etc. (25) T h e state of
the N o r t h a m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n is n o t to be t a k e n as an example, b u t as a
contrast to the condition of m a n in the r u d e r ages of the world. (26) F r o m
15 the very earliest ages ... commerce has b e e n the great compelling force
which has driven civilized m a n into distant regions; a n d given rise to those
stations for the transit of m e r c h a n d i s e , or the m u t u a l convenience of buyers and sellers, which have afterwards grown into the greatest cities. (29)
A u s s e r d e m der spirit of urban democracy ist die great moving power which
20 leads civilized m a n to settle in distant regions. (31)
Population and Subsistence.
Ein M a n n k a n n mehr t h u n als die zu s e i n e m eignen Bedarf n ö t h i g e food
schaffen. Dieser Excess der food, von d e m i m m e r alle a n d r e n Klassen ausser der a c k e r b a u e n d e n gelebt h a b e n . (35) Solange die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des
25 Bodens unerschöpft u n d die äussersten limits of increasing subsistence
have not b e e n attained, the s a m e proportion m u s t exist between t h e n u m bers of the cultivators, a n d the surplus p r o d u c e they can raise, as in the
earliest times, weil die n u m b e r of m o u t h s have increased in exactly t h e
same proportion as the n u m b e r of h a n d s . (36) Der B a n a n a b a u m , sagt
30 A. v. H u m b o l d t , will furnish food for 50 individuals on the same surface
which u n d e r wheat will only m a i n t a i n two. (38) Seit 1640 die A m e r i c a n e r
sich beständig verdoppelt in je 33¾ J a h r e n . This long c o n t i n u e d a n d astonishing multiplication for 2 centuries is the m o s t l u m i n o u s fact which t h e
history of the globe h a s yet exhibited of the fixed superiority which t h e pro35 duce of h u m a n labour is able to m a i n t a i n even over the m o s t rapidly increasing multiplication of the species. (39, 40) M u ß zugegeben werden,
that every particular country, m a y by h u m a n industry, be cultivated to its
u t m o s t . . . Aber es ist falsch, d a ß long before this u l t i m a t e limit has b e e n at-
257
tained, p o p u l a t i o n h a s a t e n d e n c y to increase faster t h a n subsistence. (42,
3) (In d e m Vereinigten K i n g d o m 27,000,000 acres of land in pasture, oder
an % des land hitherto brought u n d e r cultivation. [46]) D i e G e s c h i c h t e von
E n g l a n d seit 1801 beweist, d a ß trotz seiner d i c h t e n Bevölkerung, t h e powers of agricultural p r o d u c t i o n in this island have kept in a d v a n c e of its popu l a t i o n j u s t as effectually als in t h e o t h e r side of t h e A t l a n t i c - V o n
1 8 3 1 - 1 8 3 5 t h e price of every species of agricultural p r o d u c e were r u i n ously low. (47) G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n k ö n n t e in 5 oder 10 J a h r e n be m a d e to
m a i n t a i n double its present n u m b e r o f i n h a b i t a n t s . I n E n g l a n d u n d W a l e s
sind 27,700,000 cultivated acres; in I r l a n d 12,125,000; in Schottland an
5,265,000, in allem 45,090,000 u n d von diesen gegenwärtig in Cultur d u r c h
d e n Spade u n d d e n Pflug 19,237,000 acres u n d in pasturage 27,000,000.
Das ist 2 acres für jedes h u m a n b e i n g in d e m U n i t e d K i n g d o m ; t h e n u m ber of i n h a b i t a n t s in G r e a t Britain u n d Ireland, in 1827, being a b o u t
23,000,000, a n d t h e s a m e proportion probably o b t a i n s at t h e present t i m e ,
w h e n their n u m b e r s are nearly 30,000,000. N u n , a full supply of subsistence for every living person in wheat is a quarter a year; so t h a t at this rate
there is only one qr raised over t h e whole empire, for every two acres of arable and m e a d o w land. But an acre of arable l a n d yields im D u r c h s c h n i t t
für ganz E n g l a n d 2 qrs 5 bushels, etwas m e h r als 2% qrs; so d a ß je 2 acres
fähig sind at t h e present average of m a i n t a i n i n g 5 h u m a n beings oder
5 times t h e present i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e empire. C a n there be t h e smallest
d o u b t d a ß in a few years dieß 1 qr per % acre m i g h t be t u r n e d i n t o 2 qr per
acre, less t h a n t h e existing average of E n g l a n d ? oder 3 qrs, still less t h a n |
|24| t h e average of m a n y of its counties? D e r erste dieser changes würde
4 χ , der lezte 6 x der jetzigen E i n w o h n e r z a h l food geben, abgesehn v o n
d e n waste lands etc, wovon 6 M i l l i o n e n acres in arable u n d p a s t u r e l a n d s
verwandelt werden k ö n n e n , was zur selben R a t e a b o u t 12 M i l l i o n e n of m e n
m e h r h a l t e n k ö n n t e . So klar, d a ß 120 millions of h u m a n beings oder 180
m i t ease u n d comfort von d e m territory des U n i t e d K i n g d o m gehalten werd e n k ö n n e n ; a n d supposing t h e m all t o b e m a i n t a i n e d o n w h e a t e n b r e a d
drawn from the arable, a n d b u t c h e r - m e a t , raised on t h e pasture, lands,
without any intermixture of potatoes or inferior food, w h i c h is greatly m o r e
productive. ( 4 9 - 5 1 ) It is practically k n o w n to every Scotch farmer that, by
t h e simple i n t r o d u c t i o n of tile-draining, t h e p r o d u c e of every soil, if at all
wet, is at o n c e raised a half, often doubled. (55) N a c h Porter: Das L a n d included in die inclosure bills, passed seit 1826, n u r 247,000 acres; die zu der
Bevölkerung hinzugefügten n u m b e r s 2,703,707 souls; t h u s affording n o t /
of an acre per h e a d für j e d e n a d d i t i o n a l i n h a b i t a n t . D i e ß Beweis von der
increased productiveness des soil. (I.e.) F r a n k r e i c h e n t h ä l t viel m e h r arable
land im Verhältniß zu seiner surface als G r e a t Britain: d e n n n u r
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
l
10
258
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
9,146,000 acres p e r m a n e n t l y waste out of 132,630,000 acres in its whole
area, w ä h r e n d die british Islands v o n 77,000,000 statute acres 15,871,000
ganz sterile u n d u n p r o d u c t i v e e n t h a l t e n . D a s arable L a n d Frankreichs also
2x das der british Islands; u n d wie viel weniger p r o d u c e des soil hier d e voted to horses u n d cattle, folgt daraus, daß, w ä h r e n d in Great Britain das
m e a d o w u n d pasture l a n d sich auf 27 Mill, acres behäuft, in F r a n k r e i c h
n u r 24 Mill, (nach C h a t e a u Vieux) D e n n o c h h a t F r a n k r e i c h n u r 3 Millions
E i n w o h n e r m e h r als G r o ß b r i t t a n n i e n . H ä t t e wenigstens 60 Mill., w e n n es
contained so viele E i n w o h n e r als G r e a t Britain, im Verhältniß zu seiner
Oberfläche; u n d bei 1 h u m a n being zu j e d e m arable acre, which is only
supposing each acre to p r o d u c e % of the average p r o d u c e of England, oder
1 qr per acre, it would m a i n t a i n 120 Mill, souls, zu 3 qrs an acre aber
360 millions. (52 Note.) W ä h r e n d in Polen, der great granary of E u r o p e ,
20 agriculturists erheischt w e r d e n to p r o d u c e a surplus für 1 manufacturer,
u n d in A m e r i c a 12, für d e n s e l b e n Zweck in F r a n c e n u r 2, w ä h r e n d in
Great Britain o n e agriculturist is able to m a i n t a i n in ordinary years above
3 manufacturers. (61) D i e ß beweist, d a ß das surplus produce der cultivators
is continually increasing as society advances. (I.e.) Da ü b e r h a u p t Capital
nichts ist als subsistence stored u p , da der G e s a m m t r e i c h t h u m der W e l t
nichts ist als die a c c u m u l a t i o n des surplus produce, of the labours der Cultivators der earth in different ages, above what was requisite for their own
support - W e n n d a h e r the efforts of h u m a n p r o d u c t i o n h a d a c o n s t a n t
tendency to sink before the gigantic powers of population in the m o r e advanced stages of society, m u ß t e das a n n u a l i n c r e m e n t of capital have g o n e
on declining m i t d e m progress of its m o r e advanced stages. U n d dieß grad
das Gegentheil der Wirklichkeit. (62) Die wahre relation zwischen Bevölkerung u n d Subsistenz ist die von cause u n d effect. (63) In China, n a c h H u m boldt, die Oberfläche beläuft sich auf 463,000 square m a r i n e leagues u n d
die population, n a c h i h m , ist 175,000,000. If it were peopled in d e m s e l b e n
Verhältniß wie die british Islands, which c o n t a i n 2,250 to t h e square
league, it would c o n t a i n 980 M i l l i o n e n oder fast 5 x seine jetzigen Einwohner; w e n n es cultivirt wäre, wie G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n sein k o n n t e (sieh oben)
d. h. 1 acre von je 3 gewidmet der staple food of m a n , die 2 a n d r e n zu luxuries, it would m a i n t a i n 2 300 M i l l i o n e n Einwohner, 12 x seine gegenwärtige Bevölkerung. D i e P e n i n s u l a of India, n a c h H u m b o l d t , enthält
109,200 square m a r i n e leagues u n d 134 Mill. Einwohner. W ä r e es in d e m selben Maasse bevölkert wie England, so würde es e n t h a l t e n a b o u t
250 Mill. E i n w o h n e r oder fast 2x seine present n u m b e r . (67, 8) B i o s d e m
Malthus gegenüber ist auf die ursprünglichen Productivkräfte des B o dens zu verweisen ... "the m a i n point in civilized society is not what are
the productive powers of n a t u r e in t h e soil, b u t what are the m e a n s which
the h u m a n race have for getting at these powers." (77)
259
On the Changes in the Progress of Society
which limit the Principle of Increase.
W i e nothwendig auch i m m e r a rapid increase of m a n k i n d ist in early
times, die necessity für diese u n l i m i t e d operation des Bevölkerungsprincips hört auf im Fortschritt der Gesellschaft u n d eine Periode k ö m m t , wo
5
s o m e powerful restraint zu legen auf die m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of m a n k i n d . (83)
Check in d e n artificial wants u n d habits of foresight, die der Fortschritt der
society schafft. (87) D a n n der Change, which the objects of his desire u n dergo in the progress of society. (89) D i e gradation of ranks. (I.e.) D i e Z a h l
der Kinder vermindert sich m i t der Contraction der H e i r a t h e n in m i d d l e 10
life, statt of early youth. (136) D i e G r o s s e n Städte. (138)
On the Circumstances in the Progress of
Society which limit the demand for Labour.
Diese U m s t ä n d e sind: change in the employment of capital. (146) there is a
limit imposed to the growth of capital in every country, by the height to 15
which itself has arisen; a n d that it flows into foreign channels, when the
reservoirs at h o m e are supplied, as naturally a n d inevitably as a stream
which has fertilized its own plains descends to enrich inferior soils. (157, 8)
Change in the direction of wealth from productive to u n p r o d u c t i v e employm e n t , (p. 162 sqq.) (In allen diesen Fällen, sei es eine V e r s c h w e n d u n g von 20
Einzelnen, oder von Regierungen, ü b e r h a u p t Verausgabung als Revenue)
t h e capital, das die Arbeit in Bewegung sezt d u r c h seine Nachfrage, is not
reproduced by their exertions, b u t is entirely dissipated. (164) the wealth
which is devoted to productive investments, in addition to the encouragem e n t given to the persons employed, reproduces itself in the h a n d s of the 25
spender, and p e r m a n e n t l y enriches h i m a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s ; whereas t h a t
which is s q u a n d e r e d in t h e purchase of luxuries is in great part lost to h i m
a n d his heirs, a n d reproduces itself only in the persons of those whose productions he acquires. Also im ersten Fall doppelter emploi. (166) |
|25| T h e exchange of the surplus of o n e productive citizen against the 30
productive surplus produce of another, creates n o t only a m u t u a l encoura g e m e n t to industry, b u t a m u t u a l growth of capital in the h a n d s of b o t h
parties, whereas, when o n e of the parties is a m e r e idle c o n s u m e r , the
growth goes on only on o n e side. (167) Zunahme der Circulation, damit relative Depreciation des Gelds u n d Steigen der Preisse. (170 sqq.)
35
260
HBP
w
Theilung der Arbeit u n d Verbesserung der Maschinerie. (181) E a c h w o r k m a n
in der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d s as m u c h work as would have b e e n
d o n e by 200 or 300 sixty years ago. As m u c h work is d o n e by a steampowermill m i t 750 m e n as 200,000 could do w i t h o u t machinery. (188) Die ex5 ports von Great Britain im D u r c h s c h n i t t der 7 J a h r e e n d e n d m i t 1806
= £ 2 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ; im average der 7 J a h r e e n d e n d m i t 1836 £ 7 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . D i e
Bevölkerung der island in der ersten Periode 10,942,000, in der lezten
18,000,000. Also ganz andre V e r m e h r u n g des p r o d u c e als der labourers.
(188 [,189]) In Glasgow (1840) 3000 publichouses auf 290,000 persons in10 eluded in 58,000 families; fast 1 p u b l i c h o u s e auf 20 families. B e w o h n t e
Häuser ungefähr 30,000, so d a ß j e d e s 1 0 h o u s e appropriated to t h e sale of
spirits: a proportion u n e x a m p l e d in any other city of the globe. 1830 war
1 Public h o u s e auf 12 Häuser. (190, 1) Diese Z a h l gestiegen von 1600 seit
1821, obgleich n u r 140,000 Seelen w ä h r e n d derselben Periode der Bevölke15 rung hinzugefügt. (191) the s a m e individuals, who, a year before, were reduced to pawn their last shreds of furniture to procure subsistence, recklessly throw away the surplus earnings of m o r e prosperous times in the
lowest debauchery. (I.e.) It seems the peculiar effect of such debasing e m ployments, to render the c o n d i t i o n of m e n precarious at the s a m e t i m e that
20 it m a k e s their habits irregular: to subject t h e m at o n c e to the m o s t trying
fluctuations of condition, a n d the m o s t fatal improvidence of character.
(I.e.) Experience has proved ... that the proportion of marriages in these
classes is m u c h greater t h a n in the agricultural districts; a n d the increase of
population is still m o r e rapid, as the dissolution of m a n n e r s h a s multiplied
25 to an incredible degree the n u m b e r s of bastards. (192) while the improvem e n t of science a n d the extension of art is daily encroaching on the field
of industry in the often-debasing e m p l o y m e n t s of manufactures, t h e wide
and healthful field of agricultural o c c u p a t i o n r e m a i n s for ever o p e n to the
industry of m a n k i n d , (194) the i m p r o v e m e n t of husbandry, indeed, has a
30
directly opposed t e n d e n c y from the growth of manufactures, a n d in the later ages of society the n u m b e r of persons employed in the cultivation of the
earth is greater t h a n in its earlier periods. W h e r e agriculture has attained to
a high degree of perfection, as in Flanders, Lombardy, a n d Tuscany, t h e
value of land, a n d the great d e m a n d for its varied produce, leads to the ro35
tation of crops, a n d the garden system of h u s b a n d r y . This change a u g m e n t s
immensely the n u m b e r of persons engaged in its cultivation. It has b e e n
calculated, that at least d o u b l e the n u m b e r of labourers are o c c u p i e d on a
farm of equal extent in the level fields of Brabant, or on the A p e n n i n e s ,
from those d e e m e d necessary in the best cultivated parts of Britain. T h e
40 growth of agricultural wealth leads to the division of farms; the improvem e n t of agricultural knowledge multiplies the n u m b e r of crops which c a n
te
261
be raised from soil, the necessity for e c o n o m i s i n g b o t h space a n d l a b o u r introduces the garden cultivation. By no possible contrivance c a n the same
p r o d u c e be raised from good land, as by treating it like a k i t c h e n garden
with the spade a n d the h o e ; a n d this is accordingly t h e m e t h o d adopted in
those countries where agriculture h a s b e e n longest practised with success,
5
a n d is best u n d e r s t o o d ; an extraordinary fact, der zeigt wie der M e n s c h an
die Erde g e b u n d e n etc (194, 5) Herr A l i s o n k ö m m t auf folgendes schöne
Naturgesetz, wovon grade das Gegentheil in der Praxis existirt: »It was
for no light reasons, therefore, that n a t u r e established this eternal distinction between the labour of the country a n d t h a t of the town, a n d m a d e the
10
increase of wealth a n d progress of civilisation a t t e n d e d with constant restraints on the e n c o u r a g e m e n t to labour, from m a n u f a c t u r i n g , a n d constant ||26| increase to t h e d e m a n d for industry or agricultural employments.« (197) Ferner, wird im Fortschritt der Gesellschaft das W a c h s t h u m
generis h u m a n i aufgehalten d u r c h d e n increase of horses für L u x u s oder
15
conveyance oder agriculture. 1 Pferd erheischt so viel food als 8 persons.
(197, 8) W a h r s c h e i n l i c h n a c h den g e n a u s t e n Berichten d a ß die Pferde Lond o n s so viel food verzehren als seine Einwohner. (198) In der Agricultur in
E n g l a n d 832,000 Pferde gebraucht; sie verzehren die food von fast 11 millions of m e n . Viel m e h r als die h u m a n labourers. (198, 9) D i e ß wächst im 20
Fortschritt der commercial opulence. (199) the multiplication of horses
goes on at increased ratio in the advanced stages of ... opulent societies;
a n d an a n i m a l which at first is valued only for its useful qualities, a n d as
the fellow labourer of its master, b e c o m e s in the progress of opulence, the
most costly article of luxury, a n d the principal sign of the distinction of 25
rank. (199) D a n n m i t d e m increase of wealth ebenso wichtiger change in
the food, which is c o n s u m e d by the better classes of society. Metzgerfleisch,
Butter, Käs werden ein H a u p t t h e i l der N a h r u n g der poor. (Esel!) ... 50 %
m e h r Fleisch in Britannien als Frankreich c o n s u m i r t ... In den British islands b e s t i m m t 27,386,000 acres für pasturage u n d n u r 19,135,000 für 30
K o r n ... Dieß Verhältniß h e r s t a m m e n d aus d e m fortgeschrittnen R e i c h t h u m Englands u n d d e n gestiegnen Bedürfnissen der M e h r z a h l ... D a n n
absorption of a considerable portion of grain für Brauen u n d Destilliren u n d
Z i e h e n gährender u n d gebrannter G e t r ä n k e in the later stages of society ...
N u r in fortgeschrittnen stages of society the quantity of grain c o n s u m e d in
35
this form b e c o m e s an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in estimating the m e a n s of n a tional subsistence. ... Seit 1825 (reduction d a m a l s der duties) in Großbrit a n n i e n die Z a h l der gallons spirituöser G e t r ä n k e gewachsen von 16 Million e n auf 24,493,000 (bis 1837) ... N a c h C o l q u h o u n wird in d e n british
isles:
40
262
Consumed by man
Thiere (abgesehn von
grass, hay, straw)
Brauerei u n d Destillation
18,750,000 qrs (grain)
11,829,000
4,250,000. ( 1 9 9 - 2 0 4 )
5
A deficiency in the crop in C h i n a or H i n d u s t a n u n m i t t e l b a r gefolgt von
famine, in England it p r o d u c e s only a d i m i n u t i o n in the n u m b e r of horses,
a stoppage of the d e s t i n a t i o n from grain, a n d a general saving in t h e u s e of
bread or a n i m a l food. (205) In F r a n k r e i c h 20 Millions Agriculturists n ö t h i g
um sich u n d 10 m i l l i o n s Städter etc zu e r n ä h r e n ; in England (Britain)
10 4 Millions für sich u n d für 14 millions in a n d r e n trades. (205, 6) (In F r a n k reich 2 cultivators m a i n t a i n 1 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen; in B r i t a n n i e n 1 cultivator m a i n t a i n s 4 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen. In Polen, R u ß l a n d etc 15 oder
20 agriculturists erhalten 1 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen.) W h e n so large a proportion as % °f the fruits of the soil is c o n s u m e d in articles of luxury, the
15
rent of land rises, a n d the price of agricultural labour is e n h a n c e d long before population has reached its u t m o s t limits. (206) In d e n earlier periods
of agriculture, farms überall u n d in allen Zeitaltern small, aus M a n g e l an
Capital u n d A r m u t h der cultivators. D a n n engrossing of farms ... D i e ß Bedürfniß hört auf, sobald die great operations of agriculture have b e e n c o m 20 pleted, the principal drains m a d e , woods cleared, a n d enclosures finished ... u n d d a n n die operations der h u m a n h a n d nöthiger als die des
Capitals u n d die c o m p e t i t i o n of agricultural capital führt d a n n zur subdivision of farms, and the change in their m o d e of cultivation. ... Das G a r t e n system of h u s b a n d r y verdrängt d a n n j e d e s andre. So in J a p a n . ( 2 1 8 - 2 0 )
25
Modifications of these principles
from human corruption.
W e n n redundant population existirt, von d e n o b e n entwickelten G e s e t z e n ,
dieß n u r der h u m a n corruption z u z u s c h r e i b e n . (225) (die n ä m l i c h die n a türlich limiting principles über H a u f e n wirft.) Er tröstet sich m e i s t e n s bi30 blisch: "the poor will be always with u s . " (226 W e n n er selbst nicht der
poor ist, sehr erträglich.) ( D a m i t er » b e c o m e s qualified for H e a v e n « (226)
m u ß es Arme geben.) Schlechte Regierung. (229) B e h a u p t e n die Advocaten der necessary misery der M e n s c h h e i t , d a ß die actual victims of oppression wenige sind im Verhältniß zu d e n D u l d e r n aus U n k l u g h e i t etc dieß
35 richtig. Wollen sie aber b e h a u p t e n , t h a t this i m p r u d e n c e is n o t m a i n l y owing to erroneous institutions or h u m a n wickedness, and t h a t a t e n d e n c y to
263
increase faster t h a n subsistence can be provided in t h e m , is i n h e r e n t in h u m a n nature, i n d e p e n d e n t of the operation of m o r a l causes, there c a n n o t be
a greater or a m o r e fatal error. (231, 2) |
|27| Bis 1690 ungefähr (bis zur U n i o n der K i n g d o m s ) war % der g a n z e n
Bevölkerung von Schottland, a m o u n t i n g to 200,000 persons, in a state of
i m p o r t u n a t e a n d helpless mendicity, so grosse Proportion wie je in Irland
in its periods of greatest distress. (250, 1)
5
Principles of Decay and Renovation in Human Affairs.
W h e n the lower orders, as in t h e R o m a n or G r e c i a n States, are enslaved,
the social system d e p e n d s entirely on t h e valour a n d industry of the higher
ranks. (283)
10
On the Action of the Principle of Increase in the East.
1) Turkey.
Hier allgemeines System: t h e capital owerflows with riches, while the provinces languish in the most extreme poverty. (314) In the rich plain of R o m e lia, in t h e vicinity of Constantinople, the cultivation is beyond m e a s u r e
wretched. T h e G r a n d Seignior publicly m o n o p o l i z e s all the corn, a n d with
it furnishes the capital. He draws his supplies from the m a r i t i m e provinces,
which are subject to a k i n d of tax called Ichtirach, consisting in the obligation do deliver to the Sultan, at a very low rate, a certain quantity of grain,
which he retails to others. (315) Das türkische government m a y be considered as an army e n c a m p e d , the general of which issues orders to forage the
country. (319) T h e sale of all e m p l o y m e n t s , a n d the precarious t e n u r e by
which they are held, converts the depositaries of authority into oppressors.
Justice is venal, because the Cadis have b e e n laid u n d e r contribution. All
persons who receive pay from the Sultan ... are liable every instant to
d e a t h a n d confiscation. This inspires fear, a n d p r o m p t s those in office to
m a k e the most of what they hold by so frail a t e n u r e . (320, 1) I n s t i t u t i o n
der A z a m s , die die I n d i v i d u e n gegen die Pachas zu s c h ü t z e n h a b e n . In
Städten, sind alle die von E i n e m trade in corporations vereinigt, the chiefs
of which watch over the individuals composing it. E n d l i c h das village system, which prevails almost universally over the east ... By this institution ... the whole country is divided into little c o m m u n i t i e s , who pay a certain fixed tax or rather tribute to the G o v e r n m e n t or Pacha, in
264
15
20
25
30
ψ
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of w h i c h they are relieved from all further e x a c t i o n on t h e
part of these officers. (321, 2) (The p r o p o r t i o n in which e a c h individual in
t h e c o m m u n i t y is to b e a r his share of t h i s b u r d e n is ascertained with
nicety, a n d , in general, faithfully observed. [322]) Property vested in m o r t 5
m a i n , in t h e h a n d s of t h e m i n i s t e r s of religion, is in general tolerably se
cure, a n d it is with t h e m , t h a t t h e little capital which arises from t r a d e or
c o m m e r c e , is c o m m o n l y invested. ... G e n e r a l l y speaking ... t h e hill dis
tricts of Turkey, b o t h in E u r o p e a n d Asia, are far better cultivated t h a n t h e
plains ... das t u r k i s h e m p i r e , das in E u r o p e u n d Asia e m b r a c e s 815,000 fj]
10
miles, c o n t a i n s n u r 25,000,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , also 28 per • mile, n i c h t % der
p o p u l a t i o n i t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e days o f t h e r o m a n a n d persian empires u n d
k a u m m e h r als χ / 0 vieler c o u n t r i e s in m o d e r n E u r o p e . (323, 4)
2) Ejypt.
Die p e a s a n t s dieses L a n d e s afford a m e m o r a b l e e x a m p l e of t h e greatest
15
excess of h u m a n misery, arising solely from t h e oppression of t h e p o o r e r
classes. (327) In t h e Provinces of U p p e r Ejypt die r e t u r n s of agriculture
have b e e n estimated = 80:1 u n d die m o s t m o d e r a t e calculations zeigen
e i n e n D u r c h s c h n i t t s r e t u r n von 25 oder 3 0 : 1 . ... this fertility ... great as it
is, die s p o n t a n e o u s gift of N a t u r e : t h e m e a n s of irrigation ... neglected or
20
lost: ignorant u n d lazy die h u s b a n d m e n . (328, 9) Aejypten zeugt von der
propensity to increase, operating with t h e most force, w h e n t h e r e is t h e
least scope afforded for t h e subsistence of t h e people. (335)
3) Barbary.
T h e only ploughing which they e m p l o y is a species of scratching 6 i n c h e s
25
deep, frequently d o n e with a w o o d e n plough. T h e i r only m a n u r e is t h e an
n u a l b u r n i n g of t h e stubble. (338, 9)
4) Syria, Palaestina, Asia Minor.
P o p u l a t i o n thinly scattered a n d miserably indigent. (341) T h e plough is of
t e n no m o r e t h a n t h e b r a n c h of a tree. (I.e.) t h e cause of t h e r e m a r k a b l e
30
difference between t h e n u m b e r s of t h e people, a n d capacities w h i c h t h e
country affords for subsistence, is to be found in t h e tyranny of t h e t u r k i s h
g o v e r n m e n t . (342, 3) L i m i t e d by t h e tyranny, to which they are subjected to
265
the a n i m a l wants of our nature, e a c h family m a n u f a c t u r e s its own clothes,
has a portable mill to grind corn, a n d this is all t h a t they require. (346)
D r u s e n u n d M a r o n i t e n (Gebirgsbewohner) bilden A u s n a h m e . ([352,] 353)
5) India.
W h a t e v e r m a y be the p r o d u c e of their labour, the c o n d i t i o n of the peasant 5
is nearly the same: he is universally poor: for the c o n t i n u a l exactions of his
superiors leave h i m n o t h i n g b u t the necessaries of life. (354) So great is the
indigence a m o n g the artisans, that the employer is obliged in every case to
advance a certain proportion of the price of t h e m a n u f a c t u r e , in order to
e n a b l e the manufacturer to live while he is engaged in completing it. U n - 10
able to wait the market, or anticipate its d e m a n d , he c a n only follow his
t r a d e w h e n called to it by the d e m a n d s of his c u s t o m e r s ; when these fail,
he is obliged to take to some other m o d e of subsistence, and agriculture is
the general resource by which the u n e m p l o y e d manufacturers gain a precarious livelihood. Over the greater part of India, the p r o d u c e is at least 3 x 15
what it is on a similar extent in England, even u n d e r the present wretched
m a n a g e m e n t ; d e n n die W ä r m e des Climas giebt i m m e r 2, oft 3 crops u n d
größre als hier. Ein acre will ||28| yield von 1 3 - 1 4 qrs wheat in I n d i e n jährlich; in England 3 qrs der average des whole country u n d 4 is considered as
a large allowance. (357, 8) W h e n this extreme fertility of the soil is consid- 20
ered, the population of H i n d u s t a n is small ... T h o u g h the population ... is
everywhere r e d u n d a n t , it is greatly within the capabilities of subsistence
which the soil a n d the country afford. (358) the peculiarities in the condition a n d habits of the I n d i a n people; the small a m o u n t of the revenue and
of the land u n d e r tillage; the r e d u n d a n c e of the p o p u l a t i o n w h e n compared 25
with the d e m a n d for labour, and its scantiness w h e n c o m p a r e d with the
capabilities of the soil; all arise from the government, the religion, a n d existing institutions. (359) K a u m 1 acre auf 50 ist cultivirt in d e m greater
part der M a h r a t t a states. (362) the levying of rents, in ganz I n d i e n , is everywhere almost a scene of fraud and evasion on the o n e part, a n d of p l u n d e r 30
a n d oppression on the other. (364)
6) China.
C h i n a n a c h George S t a u n t o n 330, n a c h M a l t e B r u n 175 M i l l i o n e n Einwohner. (372) the labouring classes are over the whole country in a state of t h e
greatest indigence; their furniture is wretched ... N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the m o s t
266
35
5
economical arrangements, the labouring poor are almost everywhere reduced to vegetable food, with a very rare a n d scanty relish of any richer
substance. ... In the great towns ... the i n d i g e n c e of the lower people cannot be exceeded. (373) farms are universally small; a n d the division of
m a n u a l labour is carried to its u t m o s t length, without ever having led to
any agricultural m a c h i n e r y for the d i m i n u t i o n of the w o r k m e n employed.
(376) famine ... recurs in C h i n a in general at t h e expiration of every 3 or
4 years. (377)
7) Japan.
10
the m e t h o d of h u s b a n d r y , universally adopted, is the garden style; the soil
is all t u r n e d up by t h e spade, a n d incredible pains are t a k e n in weeding the
crops. (393) of luxuries they have no conception. (395) with the exception
of the emperor, no person has the m e a n s of getting rich in J a p a n b u t t h e
m e r c h a n t ; and this class of m e n frequently a c c u m u l a t e considerable
15 wealth; b u t the profession is, nevertheless, universally despised. (395)
8) Persia
and Affghanistaun.
Artificial wants are u n k n o w n a m o n g the labouring classes in Persia; t h e
fare of the poor is simplest imaginable; the use of a n i m a l food or luxuries
of any kind is u n k n o w n . ... their only luxury consists in the m u l t i t u d e of
20 horses. (402) T h e whole plain of M e s o p o t a m i a is susceptible of an artificial
supply of water. ... Aber: T h e old c h a n n e l s for the conveyance of water
were neglected or allowed to get into disrepair during some of the tartar invasions; the insecurity of property, u n d e r s u b s e q u e n t dynasties, r e n d e r e d
their restoration impossible; the richest p l a i n in the world was i m m e d i a t e l y
25 converted into a moving sand; a n d t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g waters of t h e E u phrates a n d the Tigris, fed by the eternal snows of the Caucasus, have, for
ages, rolled their u n d i s t u r b e d waters to the I n d i a n Ocean. (403)
On the Action of the Principle of Increase in Europe.
30
In der Lombardei die Bauern, i n h a b i t i n g a country which a b o u n d s in wine,
it is seldom they drink anything b u t water; their clothing is scanty a n d
wretched; their dwellings destitute of all t h e comforts of life. On the public
roads, in the villages, in the cities, the traveller is assailed by m u l t i t u d e s of
267
beggars. Die proprietors residiren alle in d e n Städten. Das land is all let to
middlemen, who relet their farms to the actual cultivators, a n d such is the
a c c u m u l a t e d weight t h u s heaped u p o n the farmers that, in spite of the
riches of the soil, they can barely procure the necessaries of life. T h e first
crop goes to the landlord, die peasantry m u ß subsist on the m o r e precarious u n d u n c e r t a i n returns of the second harvest. D i e cultivators h a b e n
m e i s t a piece of land m i t 1 oder 2 cows ... by yielding the people a subsistence and nothing more, it gives an improper a n d uncalled for facility to their
increase. (454, 5) Dasselbe oppressive u n d r u i n o u s system of m i d d l e m e n in
d e n states von P a r m a , M o d e n a u n d d e m district von P a d u a . (455) In N e a pel u n d Sicilien die cottagers live on chestnuts, or other casual a n d u n s u b stantial n u t r i m e n t , instead of the rich a n d wholesome diet which the c o u n try affords ... whatever the country produces is owing to the m i l d n e s s of
the climate or the goodness of the soil, aber fast nichts der industry or skill
der E i n w o h n e r (458) Italien k ö n n t e 2x seine jetzige E i n w o h n e r z a h l reichlicher e r n ä h r e n als die jetzige: Schwer to estimate the capabilities of a
country where the plains yield d o u b l e a n d triple crops, the hills an inexhaustible supply of oil a n d wine, the m o u n t a i n s a p e r m a n e n t provision
from their chestnut forests, a n d the highest s u m m i t s a range of the finest
a n d coolest pasturage. (463) ||29| In Spanien residiren die l a n d e d proprietors i m m e r in den Städten, die great nobles zu M a d r i d . (464) A l m o s t all
the farms are too large: cultivation is generally n o t attempted on the half of
it, a n d large quantities of arable land everywhere lie in a state of N a t u r e .
(464, 5) Spanien enthielt früher eine viel größre Bevölkerung. (465) D a s
k i n g d o m von G r e n a d a enthielt u n t e r d e n M o o r s 3 Mill. Einwohner, jezt
n u r n o c h 661,000. (466) D e r B o d e n ü b e r a l l von N a t u r sehr fruchtbar. (467)
Alcavalas tax of 14 % auf W a a r e n , so oft they pass from h a n d to h a n d . ... it
affects heritable as well as movable property. (467, 8) Millones % auf W e i n ,
Oel, butchers m e a t etc. (468) The laws of the Mesta ... 5 millions of sheep,
u n d e r the sanction of a particular code, n o t only fail to enrich the land on
which they feed, b u t effectually prevent its cultivation. Die C o m p a n y der
M e s t a besizt grossen Einfluß, e n o r m e u n d schamlose Privilegien. Ein besondres T r i b u n a l : "The H o n o u r a b l e Council of the Mesta," which superint e n d s the preservation of these i m m u n i t i e s . ... the cultivated l a n d s which
lie near the route which the flocks take, suffer the greatest depredations;
der court entscheidet sich fast i m m e r in favour of its own servants. A u c h
die c o m m o n lands devastated d u r c h die i m m e n s e flocks which traverse
t h e m ... 5 millions of sheep annually migrating in this m a n n e r , n o t only
convert an i m m e n s e tract of highly valuable land into pasturage, b u t prevent any agricultural produce being ever raised u p o n it. (469, 70) Das
größte U e b e l Spaniens ( n a c h J o v e l l a n o s , T o w n s e n d , C a m p o m a n e s , L a -
268
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
borde etc) ist das engrossing of large estates in d e n h a n d s von I n d i v i d u e n ,
die weder Mittel n o c h N e i g u n g h a b e n es zu verbessern. Fast ganz A n d a l u sien in den h a n d s der D u k e s von O s u n a , Alba, M e d i n a Coeli; der leztre
claims by descent fast ganz Catalonia. % von Spanien gehalten v o n d e n
families of M e d i n a Coeli, Alba, Infantado, u n d some other grandees, the
archbishops of Toledo, Compostella, Valencia, Seville, M u r c i a etc u n d a
few of the religious orders; t h e nobles a n d the clergy possess nearly the
whole country; u n d der major part der lands belonging diesen great proprietors is u n d e r grass. Sie leben in cities u n d überlassen alles d e m m a n agement der stewards ... andres U e b e l die great possessions of towns. An
vielen Plätzen h a b e n sie l a n d e d estates, oft 10 oder 15 miles in diameter.
Diese tracts are c o m m o n property a n d of course n o t h i n g is d o n e to improve t h e m . E n t s t a n d e n w ä h r e n d der wars der Moors u n d Christen, when
the peasants des country were compelled to herd together into towns for
their m u t u a l protection. D a h e r im S ü d e n Spaniens, wo diese* wars prevailed, i n d e p e n d e n t farms, d e t a c h e d from e a c h other, k a u m zu sehn. N e a r
the village you see grain, olives u n d vines; beyond this all is desolate. A
foreigner would hardly credit t h e extent of land which is necessarily waste
by being kept in a state of c o m m o n t y t h r o u g h o u t the m i d d l e a n d s o u t h e r n
province of Spain ... To complete t h e evils arising from this unjust m o n o p oly of land, the system of entails u n d mortmain tenure prevails m e h r in Spanien als irgend wo sonst, locks up the l a n d of the chief proprietors in t h e
h a n d s of its present possessors; a n d n o t only prevents either capital or industry from being exerted on the estates which are subject to these fetters,
but raises the price of the whole land in t h e country to a m o s t exorbitant
a n d r u i n o u s height. ... It has b e e n observed by C a m p o m a n e s , that A n d a l u sia, obgleich eine der fruchtbarsten Provinzen Spaniens, is destitute of industry; weil das land occupied by a few proprietors whose estates pass by
entail. T h e bulk der people sind daylabourers, who only find occasional
e m p l o y m e n t . H e n c e , clothed in rags and wretchedness, they crowd into
cities, where they o b t a i n a scanty livelihood by the b o u n t y of ecclesiastics.
( 4 7 0 - 3 ) In Spain ... resoluto j u r e dantis, resolvitur jus accipientis; a n d this
has checked b o t h the progress of wealth towards farming, a n d t h e exertions
of the cultivators, by the precarious n a t u r e of the t e n u r e by which they held
their possessions. (474) A u s n a h m e , plus ou m o i n s , Catalonia. H i e r das
establishment of feus or emphyteutic contracts has broken down the |
|30| landed property. Wo dieß System etablirt, h o h e r G r a d von I n d u s t r i e .
Every parish that will till or feu at a m o d e r a t e price is sure to be cultivated;
but the great lord who will never sell any, is equally sure of perpetuating
deserts to the disgrace of t h e country. ... Wo die lords dieß n i c h t wollen
number of wastes in Catalonia u n d selbst in dieser industrious province 288
269
1
deserted villages. In a country where the farmers are absolutely destitute of
capital, a n d where there is no such thing to be seen as a g e n t l e m a n residing
on his estate, leicht to see d a ß cultivation can m a k e no progress where the
labourer is not possessed in property of t h e soil which he improves. (476, 7)
Valencia ist frei von den oppressive taxes which desolate the greater part
5
der spanischen M o n a r c h i e . Dieß, v e r b u n d e n m i t der extreme fertility des
soil, u n d der absence der great proprietors, has i n d u c e d the a d m i r a b l e cultivation u n d die happy appearance dieser Provinz. (478) A b e r Biscaya das
einzige E x a m p l e of a p o p u l a t i o n completely happy u n t e r der Spanish m o n archy. (Siehe S w i n b u r n e , F i s h e r , M a r s h a l l ) Diese Provinz eigentlich n u r 10
u n t e r spanischer Protection; being a small republic u n i t e d to a great m o n archy. K e i n e royal taxes ausser d e m d o n a t i v e Biscay d u r c h kein state of
the province regirt. (479[, 480])
Portugal. In der reichen u n d fruchtbaren Provinz von Alenteijo the privileges belonging to the flocks der nobles, e q u a l those of the m e s t a in Spain 15
u n d a t t e n d e d m i t denselben r u i n o u s effects. T h e s a m e evils from the enorm o u s size of estates, u n d der prevalence of entails, to which the prevalence
of estates held in j o i n t t e n a n c y is to be added, which are generally covered
with heath. T h e principal obstacle to t h e progress of agriculture, however,
is the extreme badness of the roads, which r e n d e r the riches of n a t u r e , 20
wholly unavailing b o t h to their possessors a n d the state. A u s n a h m e Provinz
Minho, 900,000 souls, obgleich das whole country consists of ridges of granite m o u n t a i n s intersected with precipitous vales. Die steep acclivities der
hills are cut into terraces and planted m i t m a i z e , while the slopes are
covered with vines, a n d yield the finest fruits. ... the whole country m i t 25
A u s n a h m e des d e m monastery g e h ö r e n d e n property, is in the h a n d s of the
actual cultivators, which is the real cause of the prosperity of t h e province.
(Link, Silviera.) (480, 1) In der g a n z e n pyrenäischen Halbinsel: »In the provinces where the n u m b e r s of the people are m o s t scanty, the indigence t h a t
prevails is the greatest; while in those where industry a n d property have 30
b e e n suffered to establish themselves, vast n u m b e r s are m a i n t a i n e d in
comfort a n d affluence.« (481, 2)
Action of the Principle of Increase
in the United States of America.
Seit 1640, wo die P u r i t a n e r in A m e r i c a gelandet, sie sich i m m e r verdoppelt
in 23 J a h r e n . (542) 1790 waren sie 3,929,128 u n d 1830: 12,856,165. (I.e.)
Das valley des Mississippi, der richest part of A m e r i c a , enthält ü b e r 1 Mill.
270
35
square geographical miles, oder an 14 x die area der British islands, h a t
sich die population in d e n lezten 40 J a h r e n 31 x vermehrt, w ä h r e n d in derselben Periode in d e n g a n z e n Vereinigten Staaten n u r verdreifacht.
(543[, 544]) D u r c h E m i g r a t i o n z u m grossen T h e i l von E u r o p a u n d d e m
5 amerikanischen K ü s t e n l a n d . (544) So was, wie dieser grosse Strom v o m
Osten von A m e r i c a n a c h d e m W e s t e n , aus der Civilisation in die W i l d n i ß
n o c h n i e gesehn. Vast as were the savage m u l t i t u d e s which a m b i t i o n or lust
of p l u n d e r in G e n g i s k h a n or T i m o u r b r o u g h t down from the plains of Tartary to overwhelm the o p u l e n t regions of the earth, they are as n o t h i n g
10 compared to the ceaseless flood of h u m a n beings which is now in its t u r n
sent forth from t h e abodes of civilized m a n into the desert parts of the
world. M i n d e s t e n s 300,000 persons j ä h r l i c h cross the Alleghany m o u n tains ... their war is with the forest a n d t h e m a r s h , n o t against the corrupted cities of longestablished m a n . (545) S t e a m Navigation is the vital
15 m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n by w h i c h this extraordinary activity is propelled
into distant regions. (547) D a s T h a l des Mississippi, w e n n so dicht bevölkert wie Frankreich, k ö n n t e allein e n t h a l t e n 250 Mill, souls. (Europa bis zu
den Ural m o u n t a i n s enthält 227 Mill.) (548) In A m e r i c a zuerst scheint das
a t t a c h m e n t der owners des soil zu ihren little freeholds to be entirely oblit20 erated ... |
| 3 1 | However long a n d happily a proprietor m a y have lived u p o n his little
d o m a i n , he is always ready to sell it if he can m a k e any profit by t h e transaction; and putting himself a n d his family with all his effects on board t h e
first steamboat, transport himself to a different part of the country a n d
25 c o m m e n c e , perhaps at the distance of s o m e 100 miles, the great a n d engrossing work of a c c u m u l a t i n g m o n e y . D i e ß peculiarity, ganz u n b e k a n n t in
irgend einer frühren Periode der G e s c h i c h t e - t h e Nomad Agricultural State.
( 5 5 0 - 2 ) E r giebt i m A p p e n d i x z u T . I :
Countries.
30
35
40
America
Rußland
Nordamerika
Südamerika
Asiatisch Rußland
Chinese Empire
United States
China proper
Buenos Ayres
India
Population
1825.
34,284,000
54,000,000
19,650,000
12,161,000
2,000,000
175,000,000
10,220,000
150,000,000
2,300,000
101,000,000
Territory in
square marine
leagues.
1,186,930
616,000
607,337
571,300
465,600
463,200
174,300
128,000
126,800
109,200
Verhältniß per
square league,
29
87
32
21
4
377
58
1172
18
925
271
[Countries.]
United States west
vom Mississippi
United States east
vom Mississippi
British India
Die 15 states on the
Atlantic der United
States
Austrian Empire.
Germany.
Spain und Portugal
France und Corsica
Spain
Italy
British Islands
Prussia
England
Mexico
Schweiz
Aejypten
Holland.
Valencia
Departements of the
Charente in France
[Population
1825.]
[Territory in
squaremarine
leagues.]
[Verhältnißper
squareleague.]
366,000
96,600
4
9,404,000
73,000,000
77,700
90,100
121
810
7,421,000
29,000,000
30,500,000
14,619,000
30,616,000
11,446,000
20,100,000
21,200,800
11,663,000
12,218,500
1,770,000
1,940,000
2,489,000
2,100,000
1,200,000
30,900
21,900
21,300
18,150
17,100
15,000
10,240
10,000
8,900
4,840
3,800
1,330
1,400
900
640
240
1324
1432
805
1790
763
1967
2120
1311
2524
465
1175
1737
1330
1874
5
10
347,000
15
20
25
186
1865
(p. 572 aus Humboldt.)
T.II
t h e acquisition of land, w h e n u n a c c o m p a n i e d by political oppression, is
n o t only t h e strongest s t i m u l u s to industry, b u t t h e m o s t powerful security
against t h e u n d u e increase of t h e people. (39) W h a t in t h e e n d is to distin
guish t h e french p e a s a n t s from t h e ryots of H i n d o s t a n ? (73)
30
On the Corn Laws.
T h e m o n e y r a t e of wages, wholly i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e price of provisions
from year to year, is entirely regulated by it, o t h e r things b e i n g equal, from
10 J a h r e to 10 J a h r e . (418) Α. r e c h n e t für 1 8 3 5 - 1 8 3 7 as being
£ 1 4 8 , 0 5 0 , 0 0 0 Manufacturwaaren, wovon ausgeführt n u r 48,500,000 also,
m e h r als % für d e n i n n e r n C o n s u m . (427) t h e ||32| m a n u f a c t u r e s for t h e ex-
272
35
l
port sales hardly p r o d u c e / des a n n u a l i n c o m e derived from the industry
of the nation, and will bear no proportion, weder in Grösse n o c h Wichtigkeit, weder zu den agriculturists n o c h d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s des h o m e m a r k e t .
Die ersten produce 5 x, die 2 a b o u t double, t h e value annually created by
the manufacturers for the export sales. (428) U n s r e foreign m a n u f a c t u r e s
nicht y deren d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e agriculture a n d h o m e m a n u f a c t u r e s of
the kingdom. (429)
N a c h Porters Progress of the N a t i o n : (für 1827)
u
t e n
5
5
10
England
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
15 British Islands
Acres
cultivated
Acres
uncultivated
Acres
unprofitable
Summary
25,632,000
3,117,000
5,265,000
12,125,280
383,690
46,522,970
3,454,000
530,000
5,950,000
4,900,000
166,000
15,000,000
3,256,400
1,105,000
8,523,930
2,416,664
569,469
15,871,463
32,342,400
4,752,000
19,738,930
19,441,944
1,119,159
77,394,433
(P. 435)
a quarter per h u m a n being die average c o n s u m p t i o n für ein ganzes Jahr.
(436) quarter = 8 bushels. (I.e.) while every i n h a b i t a n t of A m e r i c a cons u m e s 19 sh. and 6 d. worth of british m a n u f a c t u r e s , of the W e s t i n d i e s 3 I.
20 10 sh. worth, of Australia 111, worth, every i n h a b i t a n t of Prussia takes off
only 3 d. worth davon u n d of R u s s i a n u r 6 d. worth. (447) C o n s u m p t i o n per
Kopf in
Great Britain
25
30
Zucker per Kopf
17.1 lbs
1
Tea
22
Salt
9.2.
Cotton goods
4
Wool
Woollen cloth
5¾ ells
10 / tons
Coal
(Bowrings Report on Prusso-Germanic League. 26, 29)
4
5
Preussischer
Zollverein
3.9 lbs
% of an ounce
16¾
4.35.
1.67
2.17 ells
1¾ tons.
[p. 459]
France
4.3 lbs
13½
While the descendants of t h e dwellers in the cities of the plain have
hardly expanded b e y o n d the first cradle of m a n k i n d , the children of t h e
35 desert have covered the globe. ... to the vigour of the h e r d s m e n who p e n e trated from the centre of Asia t h r o u g h the wilderness of Europe, the glories
of m o d e r n civilisation are entirely to be ascribed. (466) 1575 Peru contained 8,280,000 souls, enthält n u n , Chili eingeschlossen, n u r n o c h
2,500,000. (474) W ä r e das Chinesische R e i c h bevölkert wie das brittische
40 es würde statt 175 M i l l i o n e n 971 e n t h a l t e n . (482) Palestine, which formerly
was so richly cultivated in g a r d e n a n d terrace husbandry, m i g h t again be
273
converted by irrigation into a land flowing with milk a n d honey. T h e deserts of M e s o p o t a m i a , now so barren, were overloaded in a n c i e n t t i m e s with
the riches of n a t u r e ; and nothing b u t a renewed distribution of the waters
of the E u p h r a t e s is necessary to revive t h e p r o d u c e of the soil; a n d in all
the plains of Persia, now for the m o s t part deserted, traces of a system of irrigation are to be seen equal to the boasted work des m i l a n e s e territory.
... there is hardly any country in the world except Peru, where rain does
n o t fall in sufficient quantities, if carefully collected, to furnish the m e a n s
of artificial watering ... H u m b o l d t erwähnt, daß dieselbe R ä u m d e in W e i z e n n u r food für Zwei, im Banana Crop für 50 I n d i v i d u e n food giebt ...
S u c h is the produce of the soil in Ceylon (Heber) daß whole families are
frequently m a i n t a i n e d for successive generations on the fruit of a single
tree u n d es ist nicht u n u s u a l to see
part of a cocoa tree alienated as a
separate property. ( 4 8 5 - 7 ) T h e fertility of the soil over the whole globe is
constantly increasing, from the a n n u a l decay of vegetable matter, the addition of a n i m a l droppings or r e m a i n s , a n d the washing down of the soil from
superior situations. ... D a s Deposit der a m e r i c a n lakes is daily forming an
alluvial soil below their waves, which at no distant period will convert t h e m
into vast morasses, and ultimately into fertile plains; the e n o r m o u s masses
of wood and earth which are rolled down by the rivers ||33| of the new
world, are incessantly producing beds of c o m b i n e d vegetable a n d a n i m a l
matter, from which the u t m o s t luxuriance of vegetation will hereafter
spring; and in the i m m e n s e marshy plain which forms the centre of N e w
Holland, the powers of vegetation are unceasingly acting, and preparing in
silence the extension of the earth. (487, 8) Das Meer: those who are
alarmed at the possibility of a geometrical increase of h u m a n beings, c o m pared with the extent of the terraqueous globe, would do well to consider
the rate of multiplication in the finny tribes, c o m p a r e d with the b o u n d l e s s
surface of the sea. U n d das M e e r gleich prolific in allen Z o n e n . G r a d e in
d e n Eisgegenden sind annually impelled those s t u p e n d o u s shoals which
carry to temperate zones the inexhaustible riches of a n i m a t e d life. ... die
multiplication der aquatic tribes gesichert in regions wo der foot des m a n
is never destined to approach. (490) W e n n / o des irischen Volks engagirt
würde in Fischerei womit die coasts dieser island a b o u n d u n d der Rest engagirt in der Cultur des Bodens, würde dieß d o u b l e t h e riches des country.
... In d e n s e l b e n waves, worin die Fische, zu finden an inexhaustible supply
of salt. (491) Dieß field of subsistence ist n o c h almost u n t o u c h e d . (492) It
is impossible to guess even at t h e a m o u n t of those vast shoals which a n n u ally migrate from the n o r t h a n d s o u t h poles to the t e m p e r a t e latitudes. (I.e.)
While m a n in the old world is pining u n d e r the miseries etc an insect in
the Pacific (Die Coralle) is calling a new world into existence, a n d count-
5
10
15
20
25
30
l
2
274
35
40
less myriads of a n i m a l s are labouring to extend the c o n t i n e n t s over
which ... die m e n s c h l i c h e R a c e is to extend. (499) Die Civilisirten, n a m e n t l i c h u n t e r despotischen Regierungen, bevölkern nie die Welt. D i e
democratic passion bildet diese Centrifugalkraft. (507, 8) T h e d e m o c r a t i c
5 principle is the great moving power which expels from the old established
centres of civilisation the race of m e n to distant a n d u n p e o p l e d regions.
(512) While the naval strength a n d colonial d o m i n i o n s of E n g l a n d h a v e
steadily and unceasingly advanced in W e s t e r n E u r o p e ... another, and an
equally irresistible power has risen up in the Eastern H e m i s p h e r e , ... R u ß 10 land. (517) T h e moving power dieser (östlichen) vast bodies of m e n ist die
lust of conquest, and a passion for southern enjoyment. (519) the t i m e will
never c o m e w h e n n o r t h e r n valour will not press on s o u t h e r n wealth.
(520)
275
Johnston (J. F. W.): Lectures on
Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.
2 ed. L o n d o n . 1847.
T h e r e is a wide difference in m o s t countries between the actual a m o u n t of
food produced by the land, a n d that which, in the m o s t favourable circum5
stances, it would delight to yield. An imperial acre of l a n d in our island has
b e e n k n o w n to yield of Wheat 80 bushels (10 qrs), barley, 80, oats 100, Indian corn 170, beans 70, potatoes 30 tons, turnips 60. Aber das average prod u c e des L a n d s weit u n t e r diesen quantities. Schwer dieses true average
produce zu b e s t i m m e n . M a c C u l l o c h schäzt es:
10
W h e a t zu 26 bushels an acre,
Barley
32
Oats
36.
Sir Charles Lemon giebt für das average p r o d u c e of
all England u n d for the highest a n d lowest county averages folgende Z a h len:
15
Average for all England
in bushels
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Potatoes
21
32¼
35½
241
Mr Dudgeon giebt für das
average Corn in
Schottland: Wheat
Barley
Oats
276
Highest county average
in bushels
Lowest county avera
in bushels
26
40
48
360
16
24
20
100
Nottinghamshire
Huntingdon
Lincolnshire
Cheshire
Dorset.
Devon.
Gloucester
Durham.
Good Land
Lighter land
30-32 bushels
40-44
46-50
22-26 bushels
34-38
36-43.
20
25
Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
dieß gäbe als die averages für das whole Island: Wheat 24 bushels, barley 34, oats 37, rye 25, potatoes 6 tons, turnips 10 u n d der average des rich
state of Ohio in d e n U n i t e d States n i c h t ü b e r 15 bushels of wheat.
( 8 4 5 - 8 4 7 ) T h o u g h all c i r c u m s t a n c e s c a n n o t as yet be controlled, a n d differences to a certain a m o u n t are therefore u n a v o i d a b l e , yet m e a n s are already known by w h i c h the fertility of the richer lands m a y be m a i n t a i n e d
or increased and t h e crops of t h e less productive indefinitely enlarged. (848
D i e U n t e r s c h i e d e v o n Natur sehr groß. K a n n m a n aber die U m s t ä n d e
unter die Controlle ||34| n e h m e n , die sie erzeugen, so sehr v e r m i n d e r t . )
Die quantity of food p r o d u c e d by a given extent of land is affected by t h e
climate, by the season, by the soil, by the n a t u r e of the crop, by t h e variety
sown or planted, by t h e general m e t h o d of culture, by the k i n d a n d q u a n tity of m a n u r e employed, a n d by t h e rotation or course of cropping that is
adopted. (848) 1) Climate. W ä r m e des Climas, Länge des S o m m e r s , Q u a n t i tat von Regen, die fällt. D i e W ä r m e der equatorial regions m a i n t a i n s a perpetual verdure, while the short n o r t h e r n s u m m e r s afford only a few m o n t h s
of pasture to the s t u n t e d cattle. 2) Season, wet or dry, warm or cold, c a n n o t
be entirely overcome. ... the greater the a t t e n t i o n which is paid to the m e chanical and physical c o n d i t i o n of the soil, the less will be t h e influence of
a change of season on t h e average p r o d u c e of the land. 3) Soil. A poor sand
is not expected to give the s a m e return as a rich clay. Yet in regard to t h e
capabilities of soils u n d e r skilful m a n a g e m e n t , practical agriculture has yet
m u c h to learn. Are there any m e t h o d s h i t h e r t o little tried by which soils of
known poverty m a y be c o m p e n d i o u s l y a n d cheaply treated, so as to produce a greatly larger return? Science says that there are, a n d she points to a
wide field of experimental research, by the diligent culture of which this
great result will hereafter be generally attained. Into a poor or e x h a u s t e d
soil i n t r o d u c e those substances which a given crop requires, and if the soil
be otherwise properly treated a n d the climate favourable, the crop m a y be
expected to grow. S u c h is the simple principle, u n d e r the g u i d a n c e of
which agricultural practice m a y h o p e to overcome the influence of diversity of soil. 4) Kind of Crop. E i n crop of 30 bushels of wheat giebt n u r a b o u t
1 4 0 0 lbs of fine flour, while a crop of 6 tons of potatoes giebt an 3 500 lbs
of an agreeable, dry, a n d m e a l y food. So das gross weight of food for m a n
in d e m e i n e n Fall 2% m e h r als in d e m a n d r e n . E b e n s o a crop of clover, of
tares, of rape, of potatoes, turnips, or cabbages giebt m i n d e s t e n s 3 x so viel
food for cattle als 1 of pasture Grass of m e d i u m quality. 5) Variety of Seed
Sown. I do not refer to the well k n o w n necessity of changing the seed if t h e
same land is to c o n t i n u e to yield good crops, b u t to the general fact t h a t
2 varieties of the s a m e species will often yield very u n l i k e weights of corn,
277
of turnips, or of potatoes. Oberst Le C o u t e u r fand, d a ß die varieties k n o w n
by t h e n a m e of W h i t e downy, a n d t h e Jersey D a n t z i c yielded respectively:
White downy
Jersey Dantzic
Grain.
Weight
per bushel.
Straw.
Fine flour.
Fine dto P.C.
48 bushels
43½
62 lbs.
4557 lbs.
4681
2402 lbs.
2161
80¾ lbs.
79¾,
63
5
while on a different soil a n d treated differently from t h e above, 2 other
varieties yielded:
Whittington
Belle Vue.
Talavera
Grain.
Weight
per bushel
Straw
Fine Flour
Fine dto P.C.
33 bushel
61 lbs
7786
1454 lbs
12%
52
61 lbs
5480 lbs
2485 lbs
78½lbs •·•
lbs
In the s a m e field I have k n o w n t h e Golden Kent a n d t h e Flanders Red
varieties, sown in the s a m e spring, to thrive so differently, that, while t h e
former was an excellent crop, t h e latter was almost a total failure.
6) Influence of the Method of General Culture,
kind of manuring, and of the rotation followed,
upon
the
produce
of
10
food.
15
20
In a land of m e d i u m quality, our o p i n i o n in regard to t h e q u a n t i t y of food
it is likely to yield would be greatly affected by t h e answers we should obt a i n to the following questions: a) Is the land in permanent pasture, or is it under the plough? M i t der exception of rich pastures, it is said that land, u n d e r
clover or turnips, will p r o d u c e 3 x as m u c h food for cattle as w h e n u n d e r 25
grass. If such a green crop t h e n be m a d e to alternate with o n e of corn, t h e
s a m e land would every 2 years p r o d u c e as m u c h food for stock as it would
during 3 years if lying in grass—besides t h e crop of corn as food for m a n ,
a n d of straw for the p r o d u c t i o n of m a n u r e , β) What kind and quantity of ma
nure are applied? γ) In what way is the manure applied? Ζ. B. Topdressing m i t
30
fermenting farmyard m a n u r e (topdressing die obre D ü n g u n g legen, o h n e
d e n D ü n g e r unterzupflügen) o r bury d e n m a n u r e ||35| m i t d e m t u r n i p
crop in der u s u a l m a n n e r . Ζ. B. an acre of grass land, p r o d u c i r e j ä h r l i c h
o h n e m a n u r e 1 % tons of hay, werde top-dressed every spring or a u t u m n m i t
5 tons of farmyard m a n u r e per acre. Unterstelle e i n e n a n d r e n acre dessel35
b e n Landes in arable culture to be m a n u r e d for turnips m i t 20 t o n s of farm-
278
yard m a n u r e at once. T h e n t h e grass land, by the aid of the m a n u r e , would
n o t produce m o r e t h a n d o u b l e its n a t u r a l crop, or 2 / tons an acre, i.e.
10 tons of hay in 4 years. A b e r das arable L a n d , in d e m 4 Jahr, if of the
same quality, m a y be expected to p r o d u c e :
Turnips
20 T o n s
Barley
36 bushels
Clover
2 % Tons
Wheat
28 bushels, besides upwards of 4 tons of straw. In all
d i e s e m z u s a m m e n , there m u s t b e m u c h m o r e food t h a n i n the t e n tons o f
hay. R e c h n e n wir d e n Geldprofit des farmer, so das result sehr verschieden.
Die cost of raising the 10 tons of hay, exclusive rent, m a y be r e c k o n e d at %
the produce, and of the several crops in t h e 4 years' rotation at % of the produce. We thus have for the clear r e t u r n or profit to the farmer—exclusive
of t h e interest of his capital, w h i c h forms part of the expense of raising t h e
crops, —
l
2
5
10
15
In the one case
half the Produce
In dem andern case
Y des Produce.
4
5 tons of hay
20
5 tons of turnips.
9 bushels of barley.
% t o n of clover.
7 bushels of wheat.
1 ton of straw. Let the clover a n d t h e
straw together equal in value only o n e ton of t h e hay, and the m o n e y value
in the 2 cases will stand as follows:
25
Hay, 4 tons at £5
Turnips, 5 tons, at sh. 10
Barley 9 bushels at 4 sh.
Wheat 7 bushels, at 7 S.
30
35
£.
=> 20
=
2,
=
1.
=
2
S.
P.
10.
16
9
15, 0 . leaving a gain u p o n t h e
6,
grass land of 13 I. 5 S. oder 3 / . 6 sh. an acre every year. T h u s , t h o u g h m o r e
food is raised by converting the l a n d to arable purposes, t h o u g h m o r e capital m a y be profitably employed u p o n the s a m e extent of surface, a n d m o r e
people m a y be sustained by it, yet m o r e profit m a y be m a d e by t h e farmer
whose m e a n s are small by keeping t h e land in m e a d o w . But this result c a n
be obtained only where a ready m a r k e t exists for the hay, where it is allowed to be sold off the farm, a n d where a b u n d a n c e of m a n u r e can be o b tained for the purpose of top-dressing the grass every year, also in der N ä h e
279
von Städten. T h e farmer, however, is never prohibited from selling his corn
off the farm, or his fat stock, or his dairy p r o d u c e , a n d t h u s at a distance
from large towns he m u s t t u r n his attention to the raising of o n e or other of
these kinds of produce. ( 8 4 8 - 8 5 3 )
Theory of the rotation of crops.
Decandolle glaubte, daß die excrements of o n e species are p o i s o n o u s to itself, b u t nutritive to other species. So e r k l ä r t e er die R o t a t i o n s t h e o r i e . ...
D e r wahre G r u n d why a second or third crop of the s a m e k i n d will n o t grow
well, i s — n o t that the soil c o n t a i n s too much of any, b u t t h a t it contains too
little of one or m o r e kinds of matter. If after a skilful m a n u r i n g turnips
grow luxuriantly, it is because the soil has b e e n enriched with all that the
crop requires. If a healthy barley crop follow the turnips, it is because the
soil still contains all the food of this new plant. If clover thrive after this, it
is because it naturally requires certain k i n d s of n o u r i s h m e n t , which n e i t h e r
of the former crops has exhausted. If, again, l u x u r i a n t wheat succeeds, |
|36| it is b e c a u s e the soil a b o u n d s still in all t h a t the wheatcrop n e e d s — t h e
failing vegetable and other matters of the surface being increased a n d renewed by the decaying roots of the preceding crop of clover. A n d if now
turnips refuse again to give a fair return, it is because you have n o t a d d e d
to the soil a fresh supply of that m a n u r e without which they c a n n o t thrive.
A d d the m a n u r e , and the s a m e rotation of crops m a y again ensue. ... different species von Pflanzen erheischen sehr u n g l e i c h e proportions der
several kinds of inorganic food which they derive from the soil. S o m e require a large proportion of o n e kind, s o m e of a n o t h e r kind. If a soil abound
besonders in einer dieser varieties of inorganic food, o n e kind of plant will
especially flourish u p o n it—while, if it be greatly deficient in a n o t h e r substance, a second plant will remarkably languish u p o n it. If it a b o u n d in
b o t h substances, t h e n either crop will grow well, or they m a y be alternately
cultivated with a fair return from each, ... at all events it does n o t s e e m impossible, chemically speaking, to obtain crop after crop of the same kind.
Erste Regel, to grow alternately as many different classes or families of plants
as possible—repeating each class at the longest possible intervals of t i m e .
... A perfect rotation would i n c l u d e all those classes of plants which the
soil, climate, a n d other circumstances allow to be cultivated with a
profit. ... A second rule is to repeat t h e same species of plant at the greatest
convenient distance of t i m e . In corncrops t h e r e is n o t m u c h choice, since
in a four years' course 2 corncrops, out of the 3 (barley, wheat, oats),
usually grown in our islands, m u s t be raised. But of the l e g u m i n o u s crops
280
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
5
10
we have the choice of beans, peas, vetches, a n d clovers—, of root crops, turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, m a n g o l d wurtzel, a n d potatoes—while of
grasses, there is a great variety. Instead, therefore, of a constant repetition
of the turnip every 4 years, theory says, m a k e the carrot or the p o t a t o take
its place now a n d t h e n , a n d instead of perpetual clover, let tares, or b e a n s ,
or peas occasionally succeed to your crops of corn. T h e land loves a c h a n g e
of crop, because it is better prepared with t h a t food which the new crop will
relish, t h a n with s u c h as the plant it has long fed before c o n t i n u e s to require. ( 8 5 4 - 5 7 )
Theory
of fallows.
1) In strong claylands o n e great benefit derived from a n a k e d fallow is t h e
opportunity it affords for keeping the land clean. ... A b e r neglect auf vielen
farms daß sie andre available m e t h o d s of extirpating weeds vernachlässigen. 2) In almost every instance where l a n d lies without an artificial crop
15 during the whole s u m m e r , a crop of n a t u r a l herbage springs u p , the burying
of which in the soil m u s t be productive of considerable good. 3) By lying
fallow (einige Stellen der surface being m e h r erschöpft als die a n d e r n , u n d
b e i m Fallen des R e g e n d u r c h circuliren der solublen Stoffe ü b e r die ganze
Oberfläche) the land b e c o m e s equally furnished over its whole surface, a n d
20 to a greater or less depth, with all those substances required by plants
which are anywhere to be found in it. etc etc. (860 sq.) Bei schwerem L a n d
»where there is no sufficient drainage, fallowing is m o r e necessary u n d
where a good drainage exists, t h e u s e of n a k e d fallows even u p o n stiff clay
lands b e c o m e s less necessary«. (861, 2)
25
T h e practical farmer already rejoices in having in o n e t o n of b o n e or rape
dust, or in half that weight of P e r u v i a n G u a n o , the equivalent of 40 tons of
farm yard m a n u r e : a n d it appears n o t unlikely that m e t h o d s will ere long
be discovered for compressing into a still less bulky form the substances especially required by all o u r cultivated crops, a n d t h a t extensive m a n u f a c t o 30 ries will by and by be established for the preparation of these c o n d e n s e d
m a n u r e s . (8) As a whole the island does n o t at present p r o d u c e % t h e food
for m a n which it m a y be m a d e to bear with profit to the farmer. (I.e.)
Trained up in a n c i e n t m e t h o d s , attached generally to conservative ideas in
every shape, the practical agriculturists, as a body, have always b e e n m o r e
35 opposed to change t h a n any other large class of the c o m m u n i t y . (9) No n a tional efforts have b e e n m a d e for t h e general i m p r o v e m e n t of the m e t h o d s
of culture. (I.e.)
281
1
Plants grow m o r e or less luxuriantly a n d their several parts are m o r e or less
largely developed n a c h folgenden c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; 1) M a n c h m a l für die
Wurzel der Zutritt der a t m o s p h ä r i s c h e n Luft nöthig, b e i a n d r e n nicht. Die
m e c h a n i c a l c o n d i t i o n des Bodens m u ß modificiren seine fitness für d e n
growth ||37| dieser oder j e n e r Sorte von Pflanzen. D a n n die c h e m i s c h e Be5
schaffenheit des Bodens, ob er schädliche S u b s t a n z e n e n t h ä l t oder M a n g e l
a n d e n zur völligen A u s b i l d u n g der Pflanzen n o t h w e n d i g e n a n o r g a n i s c h e n
S u b s t a n z e n . 2) D e r ascent of the sap is modified chiefly by t h e season of t h e
year, by t h e h e a t of t h e day, a n d by t h e g e n u s a n d age of t h e p l a n t or tree.
. . . As the tree advances in age, the vessels of t h e interior will b e c o m e m o r e
10
or less obliterated, a n d t h e general course of t h e sap will be gradually transferred to a n n u a l layers, m o r e a n d m o r e r e m o v e d from the centre. It is this
transference of t h e vital circulation to newer a n d m o r e perfect vessels that
enables t h e tree to grow a n d b l o s s o m a n d bear fruit t h r o u g h so long a life.
. . . t h e entire c h e m i c a l functions of t h e p l a n t m u s t be d e p e n d e n t u p o n , a n d
15
m u s t be modified by, t h e n a t u r e of substances, w h i c h t h e soil a n d t h e air
respectively present to the roots a n d to t h e leaves. 4) Die discharge ihrer
functions von d e n leaves verändert n a c h d e m die S o n n e above or below t h e
horizon, n a c h der T e m p e r a t u r u n d m o i s t u r e der air ... t h e leaf b e c o m e s
green a n d oxygen is given off in t h e presence of t h e sun, while in his ab20
sence carbonic acid is disengaged, a n d t h e whole plant is b l a n c h e d . 5) t h e
rapidity with which a p l a n t grows h a s an i m p o r t a n t influence u p o n t h e
share which t h e bark is p e r m i t t e d to take in the general n o u r i s h m e n t of t h e
whole. ( 1 5 2 - 5 7 )
T h e supply of carbonic acid in the a t m o s p h e r e is kept up partly by the respiration of a n i m a l s , partly by the n a t u r a l decay of dead vegetable matter,
a n d partly by c o m b u s t i o n . A m m o n i a is p r o d u c e d a n d supplied to plants
chiefly by t h e n a t u r a l decay of a n i m a l a n d vegetable substances, t h o u g h occasionally it m a y be formed in the air, a n d nitric acid is p r o d u c e d partly by
t h e n a t u r a l oxidation of dead organic matter, a n d partly by t h e direct u n i o n
of t h e oxygen a n d nitrogen of t h e air, t h r o u g h t h e agency of t h e a t m o s pheric electricity. (298)
25
30
Organic matter of the soil.
Alle soils die in i h r e m existing state fähig sind of bearing profitable crops
in our climate, possess o n e character - they all c o n t a i n organic matter in
greater or less proportion. Diese organische M a t e r i e besteht ζ. T h . a u s de
cayed a n i m a l , aber b e s o n d e r s of decayed vegetable substances. D i e ß
282
35
ψ
wieder i n v e r s c h i e d n e n F o r m e n . T h e p r o p o r t i o n der organic m a t t e r i n soils
die are naturally p r o d u c t i v e of any useful crops varies v o n % bis zu 70 % of
their whole weight. W i t h less t h a n t h e former p r o p o r t i o n they will scarcely
support a profitable vegetation, with m o r e t h a n t h e latter, they r e q u i r e
5
m u c h a d m i x t u r e before they c a n be b r o u g h t i n t o a fertile state of cultiva
tion. N u r i n sumpfigen u n d torfartigen soils findet m a n j e die above large
p r o p o r t i o n - in d e n best soils die organic m a t t e r does n o t average 5 % a n d
rarely exceeds 10 or 12. Oats a n d rye will grow u p o n l a n d c o n t a i n i n g only 1
or 1½ %, barley m i t 2 o d e r 3 %, aber good w h e a t soils c o n t a i n in g e n e r a l v o n
10 4 - 8 %, u n d if very stiff a n d clayey, 1 0 - 1 2 % of organic m a t t e r . D i e organic
m a t t e r m a c h t e i n e n B o d e n allein n i c h t fruchtbar. Von 2 soils in d e r s e l b e n
n e i g h b o u r h o o d e n t h i e l t der eine 4.05 % of organic m a t t e r u n d war sehr
fruchtbar; der a n d r e 14.9 % u n d war almost b a r r e n . D i e ß h ä n g t z u s a m m e n
m i t d e m influence exercised by t h e d e a d inorganic m a t t e r of t h e soil on t h e
15
general h e a l t h a n d l u x u r i a n c e of vegetation. (439, 40)
General Composition of the earthy part of the Soil.
In u n s e r m Clima der earthy part u n s r e s soil does n o t constitute less als
96 % of its whole weight, w h e n free from water. Dieser erdige T h e i l besteht
besonders aus 3 I n g r e d i e n z i e n : 1) Silica (Kieselerde) sei es n u n S a n d oder
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Kies, von verschiednen Stufen von F e i n h e i t von der of an i m p a l p a b l e powder, as it occurs in clay soils, to t h e large a n d m o r e or less r o u n d e d sandstones of t h e gravel beds. 2) Alumina (Alaunerde) gewöhnlich in der F o r m
von clay (Thon) aber gelegentlich occurring in schieferartigen m a s s e s m o r e
or less hard, intermingled m i t d e m soil. 3) Lime (Kalk) in der F o r m von
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chalk (Kreide) oder als fragments von l i m e s t o n e s . Soils b e s t e h n selten a u s
E i n e r einzigen dieser 3 S u b s t a n z e n , heissen sandig, w e n n der Kiesel, Thonboden, w e n n der A l a u n u n d calcareous (kalkartig) wo carbonate of l i m e vorherrscht. R e i n e r clayboden findet sich n i c h t in der N a t u r vor. D i e pure
porcelain clays die reichsten an a l u m i n a , e n t h a l t e n n u r 4 2 - 4 8 % dieser E r d e
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u n d 5 2 - 5 8 Kieselerde. B o d e n z u m grossen T h e i l b e s t e h n aus d i e s e n 3 S u b stances in a state of mechanical mixture. D i e ß stets der Fall m i t siliceous
sand u n d d e m carbonate of lime, aber in d e n clays, die a l u m i n a u n d silica
woraus sie b e s t e h n , in a state of chemical combination. Die clays (das p u r e
porcelain) rarely form a soil - ||38| the strongest agricultural clays (pipe35 clays), consist, in t h e dry state, of 5 6 - 6 2 silica, 3 6 - 4 0 a l u m i n a , 3 o d e r 4 of
oxide of iron, and a trace of lime. D e u t s c h e u n d französische (Thaer) ältre
Schriftsteller n e n n e n dieß d e n r e i n e n T h o n b o d e n . A u s d i e s e m agricultural
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clay (zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n von d e m a l u m i n a l e n ) t h e earthy part of all known
soils is m a d e u p , by m e r e m e c h a n i c a l a d m i x t u r e m i t sand u n d lime, in variable proportions. ( 4 4 0 - 4 3 )
Classification of soils from
their chemical constituents.
Pure clay (Pipe clay), Strongest clay soil. Clay loam, Sandy loam, Sandy soil.
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(Diese Beiden b e s t e h n n u r aus clay u n d sand.) Marly soils, Calcareous Soils,
Vegetable moulds. ( D a m m o d e r F r u c h t o d e r G a r t e n e r d e zu D e u t s c h ) , verschiedne A r t e n von der G a r t e n e r d e , die 5 - 1 0 % , bis z u m Sumpfboden, der
6 0 - 7 0 % organische m a t t e r enthält. Diese, wie die a n d e r n soils, clayey,
loamy, oder sandy, je n a c h d e m p r e d o m i n a n t character der earthy a d m i x - 10
tures. ( 4 4 3 - 5 )
Soils and subsoils.
B e n e a t h the i m m e d i a t e surface soil, t h r o u g h which the plough m a k e s its
way, a n d to which the seed is entrusted, lies der s.g. subsoil (Untergrund).
T h e subsoil often consists of a m i x t u r e of the general constituents of soils
15
in proportions originally different from that which forms the surface
layer—as when clay above has a sandy bed below, or a light soil on the surface rests on a retentive clay b e n e a t h . T h e peculiar characters des soil u n d
subsoil often result from the slow operation of n a t u r a l causes. In a m a s s of
loose m a t t e r of considerable depth, spread over an extent of country, it is 20
easy [to] u n d e r s t a n d , how—even t h o u g h originally alike t h r o u g h its whole
m a s s — a few inches at the surface should gradually acquire different physical and c h e m i c a l characters from the rest, a n d how there should t h u s be
gradually established i m p o r t a n t agricultural distinctions between t h e first
12 or 15 inches (the soil) the next 15 (the subsoil), a n d the r e m a i n i n g body 25
of the mass, which, lying still lower, does n o t c o m e u n d e r the observation
of the practical agriculturist. On the surface plants grow a n d die. T h r o u g h
the first inches their roots penetrate, a n d in the same the dead plants are
buried. This portion, therefore, by degrees, assumes a brown colour, m o r e
or less dark, according to the quantity of vegetable m a t t e r which has b e e n 30
permitted to a c c u m u l a t e in it. I n t o the subsoil, however, the roots p e n e trate less abundantly, and the dead plants are rarely buried at so great a
depth. Still this inferior layer is n o t wholly destitute of vegetable or other
organic matter. However comparatively impervious it m a y be, still water
m a k e s its way t h r o u g h it, m o r e or less, a n d carries down soluble organic sub- 35
stances, which are continually in the act of being p r o d u c e d during the de-
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cay of the vegetable m a t t e r lying above. T h u s , t h o u g h n o t sensibly discoloured by an a d m i x t u r e of decayed roots a n d stems, the subsoil m a y in
reality contain an appreciable quantity of organic m a t t e r which can be distinctly estimated. Again, the c o n t i n u a l descent of the rains u p o n the surface soil washes down the salts of p o t a s h a n d soda, the carbonates of lime,
iron, a n d magnesia, as well as other soluble substances—it even, by degrees, carries down t h e fine clay also, so as gradually to establish a m o r e or
less manifest difference between t h e u p p e r and lower layers, in reference
even to the earthy ingredients which they respectively contain. But, except
in the case of very porous rocks or a c c u m u l a t i o n s of earthy matter, these
surface waters rarely descend to any great depth, and h e n c e after sinking
through a variable thickness of subsoil, we c o m e , in general, to earthy layers, in which little vegetable m a t t e r can be detected, a n d to which the lime,
iron, a n d m a g n e s i a of the superficial covering h a s never b e e n able to descend. T h u s the character of the soil is, that it contains m o r e brown organic, chiefly vegetable, m a t t e r in a state of decay—of the subsoil, that t h e
organic m a t t e r is less in quantity a n d has entered it chiefly in a soluble
state, a n d that earthy m a t t e r s are present in it which have b e e n washed o u t
of the superior soil—and of the subjacent mass t h a t it has r e m a i n e d nearly
unaffected by the changes which vegetation, culture, and a t m o s p h e r i c
agents have produced u p o n the portions t h a t lie above it. D a h e r der effect
of t r e n c h (rajolen v o n Rajolpflug) u n d subsoil ploughing, in altering m o r e
or less materially t h e proportions of the earthy constituents in the surface
soil, in that which the long action of rains a n d frosts has caused to sink b e yond the ordinary reach of the p l o u g h is, by s u c h m e t h o d s , b r o u g h t again
to the surface. W h e n the substances so brought up are directly beneficial to
vegetation, or are fitted to improve t h e texture of the soil, its fertility is increased. W h e r e the contrary is the case, the productive capabilities m a y for
a longer or shorter period be manifestly d i m i n i s h e d . ( 4 4 7 - 9 )
On the general origin of soils.
An einigen Stellen der Erdoberfläche n a k e d rocks, o h n e alle D e c k e von
loose materials from which a soil c a n be formed. Dieß besonders der Fall
in m o u n t a i n o u s u n d granitic districts. A b e r in der greater portion sind die
rocks ||39| covered m i t a c c u m u l a t i o n s m o r e or less deep, of loose m a t e r i 35 als - sands, gravels, a n d clays chiefly - the u p p e r layer of which is m o r e or
less susceptible of cultivation ... This superficial covering of loose m a t e r i als varies from a few inches to 1 or 200 feet in depth, u n d besteht oft of different layers or beds, placed o n e over the other - such as a b e d of clay over
285
o n e of gravel or sand, a n d a loamy b e d u n d e r or over both. In s u c h cases
the characters a n d capabilities of the soil m u s t d e p e n d u p o n which of these
layers m a y c h a n c e to be u p p e r m o s t — a n d its qualities m a y often be beneficially altered by a j u d i c i o u s a d m i x t u r e with portions of the subjacent layers. It is often observed, where n a k e d rocks present themselves, either in
5
cliffs or on m o r e level parts of the earth, that the action der rains u n d frosts
causes their surfaces gradually to shiver off, c r u m b l e down, or wear away.
H e n c e at t h e base of cliffs loose m a t t e r collects, on comparatively level surfaces the crumbling of the rocks gradually forms a soil, while from those
which are sufficiently inclined the rains wash away t h e loose materials as 10
soon as they are separated, and carry t h e m down to form deep deposits in
the valleys. Diese superficial a c c u m u l a t i o n s , die an m a n y places zu einer
Tiefe von 1 - 2 0 0 F u ß die Erde b e d e c k e n , consist of materials thus washed
down or otherwise transported - by water, by winds, or by other geological
agents. M u c h of these heaps of transported m a t t e r is in the state of too fine
15
a powder to p e r m i t us to say u p o n e x a m i n i n g it from w h e n c e it has b e e n
derived. ... the earthy m a t t e r of all soils has b e e n p r o d u c e d by the gradual
decay, degradation, or crumbling down of previously existing rocks. It is
evident therefore: 1) that whenever a soil rests i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n the rock
from which it has b e e n derived, it m a y be expected to partake m o r e or less
20
of the composition a n d characters of t h a t rock. 2) that where the soil forms
only the surface layer of a considerable depth of transported materials, it
m a y have no relation whatever either in mineralogical characters or in
chemical constitution to the i m m e d i a t e l y subjacent rocks. (449, 50)
On the general structure of the earth's crust,
and the general composition of rocks.
25
1) U n t e r d e m B o d e n u n d d e n loose or drifted m a t t e r s on which it rests,
finden wir überall den solid rock. This rock in m o s t countries is s e e n — i n
m i n e s , quarries, a n d cliffs—to consist of beds or layers of varied thickness
placed one over the other. Diese layers heissen strata (Lager, Schicht) u n d 30
rocks thus m a d e up of m a n y separate layers heissen stratified (schichtenförmig, flözartig) rocks. M a n c h e grosse Berge, so weit wir g e k o m m e n , b e s t e h n
nicht aus beds, sondern aus d e m s e l b e n material. Diese rocks heissen unstratified. Sie alle, die unstratified, like the volcanic lavas, waren in a m o r e
or less perfectly m e l t e d state, ihre appearance is owing to the action of fire,
35
d a h e r heissen sie igneous or pyrogenous rocks. Sie exhibit oft eine m e h r
oder m i n d e r crystallinische oder glasige Struktur, oder c o n t a i n i m b e d d e d
in t h e m , n u m e r o u s regular crystals of m i n e r a l substances; heissen d a h e r
286
m a n c h m a l a u c h crystalline rocks. D a s folgende D i a g r a m m exhibits t h e general a p p e a r a n c e of t h e stratified rocks as they are found to occur in c o n t a c t
with unstratified m a s s e s in various parts of t h e globe: -
5
A an unstratified m o u n t a i n m a s s rising up d u r c h die stratified deposits.
T h e b e n d i n g up of t h e edges (das K r ü m m e n der S ä u m e ) of t h e latter i n d i cates that after the beds were deposited in a nearly level position, t h e m a s s
A was i n t r u d e d or forced up t h r o u g h t h e m , carrying the b r o k e n edges of t h e
beds along m i t it. Β zeigt d e n m o r e quiet way, worin veins or dikes of u n
stratified green-stone, o d e r trap (Porphyr) oder lava cut t h r o u g h t h e b e d s
10
without materially displacing t h e m , as if w h e n in a fluid state it h a d risen
up a n d filled a previously existing crack or c h a s m . F a s t alle u n s r e coal
fields zeigen in i h r e n dikes B. C u n d D exhibit t h e m a n n e r in which t h e
strata overlie o n e a n o t h e r in nearly a h o r i z o n t a l position, - 1, 2, 3, indicat
ing different k i n d of rocks, as a l i m e s t o n e , a s a n d s t o n e a n d a clay, w h i c h
15
again are subdivided i n t o b e d s or t h i n n e r layers. D i e stratified rocks liegen
m a n c h m a l h o r i z o n t a l o d e r nearly level over large tracts of country wie in
d e m obigen D i a g r a m m . M a n c h m a l sind sie m e h r o d e r m i n d e r i n c l i n e d o r
appear to dip (versenken, sich n e i g e n ) in o n e to rise in t h e opposite direc
tion, as if a surface, formerly level, h a d b e e n p u s h e d down at t h e o n e e n d
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a n d raised up ||40| at t h e other, a n d s o m e t i m e s they s e e m to rest entirely
u p o n their edges. U p o n t h e m o d e in w h i c h they t h u s lie, t h e uniformity of
t h e soil, in a district where it reposes i m m e d i a t e l y on t h e rocks from w h i c h
it is derived, is materially d e p e n d e n t .
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A bis Ε a tract of c o u n t r y worin die rocks in different parts diese different
degrees of i n c l i n a t i o n h a b e n , b e i A vertical, Β m e h r inclined, C - E m e h r
h o r i z o n t a l . Klar, d a ß w e n n die o u t e r surface dieser several rocks c r u m b l e
u n d form a soil w h i c h rests where it is p r o d u c e d , t h e n t h e quality of t h e soil
287
on every spot will be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e n a t u r e of t h e rock b e n e a t h . V o n Ε
vorgehend finden wir d e n soil pretty u n i f o r m in quality bis wir z u m edge of
t h e b e d of D k o m m e n , d a n n wieder u n i f o r m , t h o u g h p e r h a p s different from
t h e former, bis z u m S t r a t u m [C], wo wieder u n i f o r m beträchtliche Strecke
till we begin to climb t h e hill to B. D i e g a n z e hillside in ascending to Β v o n
einer u n d derselben B o d e n a r t . Aber wo wir h e r a b s t e i g e n on t h e o t h e r side
u n d pass Β we get u p o n t h e edges of t h e beds, a n d t h e n as we proceed from
o n e b e d to another, t h e quality of t h e soil m a y vary at successive short dis
t a n c e s m o r e or less according as t h e m e m b e r s of this group of b e d s are
m o r e or less different from each other. Steigen wir aber d e n hill zu A h i n auf; wo die beds, besides being vertical, are also very t h i n , t h e soil m a y
c h a n g e at almost every step, w e n n die m i n e r a l o g i c a l characters der several
vertical layers be sensibly u n l i k e . S u c h dissimilarities in the angular position
of the strata ... are of c o n s t a n t o c c u r r e n c e n o t only in o u r islands, b u t over
all parts of t h e globe; a n d they illustrate very clearly one i m p o r t a n t cause of
t h a t want of uniformity in t h e n a t u r e a n d capabilities of t h e soil w h i c h is
m o r e or less observable in every u n d u l a t i n g a n d in s o m e comparatively lev
el c o u n t r i e s also. 2) Alle stratified rocks b e s t e h n of a l t e r n a t i o n s or a d m i x
tures von 3 k i n d s of rock only, of s a n d s t o n e s , l i m e s t o n e s , a n d clays. Sandstein v o n d e m loose s a n d der new-red u n d green-sand formations bis z u m
almost perfect quartz rock n o t u n f r e q u e n t l y associated m i t d e n oldest
strata. D i e limestones wechseln e b e n s o v o m soft chalk (Kreide) bis z u m
h a r d m o u n t a i n lime-stone u n d d e m crystalline statuary marble; w ä h r e n d
clays von alien degrees of h a r d n e s s von d e n e n which soften in water bis
z u m Dachschiefer u n d e n d l i c h d e n Gneissrocks w h i c h rest i m m e d i a t e l y
u p o n the granite, a n d which appear to be only t h e oldest clays altered by
t h e action of heat. A b e r die stratified rocks, obgleich so u n t e r s c h e i d b a r in
3 Hauptvarieties, b e s t e h n selten aus n u r diesen S u b s t a n z e n im u n g e m i s c h t e n state. Sandstein enthält oft etwas clay or lime, w ä h r e n d die l i m e stones u n d clays oft m i t Sand u n d m i t each o t h e r gemischt. Die soils
formed von d e n stratified rocks by n a t u r a l c r u m b l i n g or decay m u s t have a
similar composition. Sandy soil gebildet von e i n e m s a n d s t o n e etc u n d ein
gemischter von a m i x e d soil. ( 4 5 0 - 5 4 )
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Relative Positions and Peculiar characters of the several strata.
1) Die several strata, or series of strata, which present themselves in t h e
crust of t h e globe, always m a i n t a i n the s a m e relative positions. So ζ. B. bei
d e n 3 series of beds k n o w n by t h e n a m e s of m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e , t h e lower
new-red s a n d s t o n e , u n d der coal m e a s u r e s , liegt i m m e r der l i m e s t o n e u p -
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Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston:
Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology.
Heft XIII. Seite 39
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permost, der s a n d s t o n e n e x t u n d das c o a l m e a s u r e u n t e r b e i d e n . W h e n e v e r
these 3 rocks are m e t with n e a r e a c h other, they always occupy t h e s a m e
relative position. 2) Diese beds generally c o n t i n u o u s ü b e r very large areas,
or are found to stretch, o h n e U n t e r b r e c h u n g , over a great extent of country.
H e n c e w h e n they dip b e n e a t h other beds ... k a n n m a n m i t grosser W a h r scheinlichkeit schliessen auf ihre presence at a greater or less depth, wherever we observe on the surface those other beds which are known usually to
lie i m m e d i a t e l y above t h e m . So, w e n n in a tract of a country consisting of
the m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e ... deep valleys occur wahrscheinlich d a ß der
B o d e n in diesen T h ä l e r n will rest u p o n , a n d m a y be formed from, the u n derlying red sandstones or c o a l m e a s u r e s ; a n d t h a t it will therefore possess
very different agricultural capabilities from the soil that generally prevails
a r o u n d it. ... ||41| 3) Die stratified rocks so zahlreich u n d so varied in appearance yet consist generally of repeated alternations of limestones, sandstones, a n d clays, or of m i x t u r e s of 2 or m o r e of these earthy substances.
D e n n o c h die several series of strata sehr verschieden von e i n a n d e r d u r c h
peculiar u n d oft wellmarked characters. So sind einige soft, c r u m b l e readily u n d bilden bald a soil, w ä h r e n d andre, obgleich aus d e n s e l b e n ingredients bestehend, long refuse to break into m i n u t e fragments, a n d t h u s
c o n d e m n the surface of t h e country where they occur to m o r e or less partial
barrenness. In a n d r e n die Proportions von sand u n d lime so varied, v o n
bed zu bed, d a ß der character der m i x t u r e in e a c h gänzlich different ist. In
einigen Rocks die r e m a i n s of vegetables in beträchtlicher Q u a n t i t ä t zugegen, oder b o n e s or shells of a n i m a l s in greater or less a b u n d a n c e , j e d e r von
welchen U m s t ä n d e n die agricultural characters u n d capabilities der soils
m e h r oder less afficirt. Schließlich an a d m i x t u r e of other earthy substances
gives a peculiar character to m a n y rocks. So das Per-oxide of iron, which
imparts their red colour to m a n y strata, wie d e n r o t h e n sandstones, influences nicht n u r d e n mineralogischen character des rock, sondern a u c h die
quality des soil which is formed by its decay. E b e n s o die Presence of m a g nesia, m a n c h m a l in large quantity, in m a n y lime stones, p r o d u c e s an i m portant modification in the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d mineralogical characters of the rock, as well as in its relations to practical agriculture. V o n
diesen peculiarities the special agricultural capabilities dieser parts des
globe wo each series of beds occurs are in a great degree d e p e n d a n t . 4)
Dieser peculiar character ist m e h r oder m i n d e r c o n t i n u o u s ü b e r very large
areas. T h u s if a given s t r a t u m be found on the surface in any part of England, a n d again in any part of Russia, the soil formed from that b e d will
generally exhibit very nearly the s a m e qualities in b o t h countries. E i n e
K e n n t n i ß der Geologie daher, d. h. of the kind of rock which appears on
the surface in any part of a country, enables us to predict generally the k i n d
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Heft XIII. Seite 40
of soil which ought to rest u p o n it, if it be n o t covered by foreign a c c u m u l a tions, the m i n e r a l substances in which it is likely to be deficient, a n d
where, as when lime is one of t h e m , they m a y be o b t a i n e d at the least cost.
Andrerseits a knowledge of the agricultural capabilities of any o n e district
in which certain rocks are known to lie i m m e d i a t e l y b e n e a t h the soil, and
of the agricultural practice suited to that district, will i n d i c a t e the probable
capabilities of any other tract worin the s a m e k i n d of rock is known to appear on the surface, and of the kind of culture which m a y be most successfully applied to it. ( 4 5 4 - 6 )
Classification of the stratified rocks.
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D i e niedrigsten layers in der Erdkruste sind die ältesten. In Bezug auf ihr
relatives Alter die stratified rocks getheilt in primäre, s e c u n d ä r e , tertiäre
(jüngste u n d die overlie both.) Diese 3 series of strata wieder u n t e r e i n g e theilt in systems u n d diese in m i n o r groups, called formations, the several
m e m b e r s of each system and formation having s u c h a c o m m o n resem- 15
blance, either in mineralogical character or in t h e k i n d of a n i m a l a n d vegetable r e m a i n s found in t h e m , as to show t h a t they were deposited u n d e r
very nearly the s a m e general physical conditions of the globe. 1) The Tertiary Strata. Charakterisirt by containing, a m o n g other fossils, the r e m a i n s
of animals, which are identical with existing species. 2) Secondary Strata.
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c o n t a i n no a n i m a l r e m a i n s zu identificiren m i t d e n jetzigen, aber a u c h fast
all different von d e n e n in den primary strata below. 3) Primary Strata hier
the r e m a i n s von animals all belong to extinct species, the greater part to extinct genera a n d families u n d oft d e n existing races so u n ä h n l i c h , d a ß es
oft schwer irgend eine Aehnlichkeit zu finden zwischen d e n j e z t l e b e n d e n 25
T h i e r e n u n d those which inhabited the waters der a n c i e n t periods in which
these primary strata were deposited. ( 4 5 6 - 8 2 )
Die Unstratified Rocks
(oder crystalline) form soils von ganz peculiar character.
Granitic Rocks
G r a n i t besteht aus Quartz, Mica (Glimmer) u n d Felspar (Feldspath) (483)
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It is chiefly to t h e chemical decomposition of t h e felspar t h a t t h e wearing
away of granite rocks is d u e , a n d t h e formation of a soil from their c r u m bling substance. (488)
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trap (Basalt) T h e granites a b o u n d in p o t a s h : but except in t h e syenites they
rarely contain lime, and their soils are generally poor. Let t h e m be m i x e d
with the trap soil, a n d they are e n r i c h e d . ... t h e fertility of t h e one is
m a i n l y d u e to the presence of lime, a n d t h e b a r r e n n e s s of t h e o t h e r to t h e
absence of this earth. (497)
Die geological structure of a country, as well as t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n
of t h e minerals of w h i c h its several rocks consist, has a primary a n d fundam e n t a l influence u p o n t h e ||42| agricultural capabilities of its surface. (498)
A b e r in vielen G e g e n d e n der soil ganz different von d e m der producirt
werden w ü r d e d u r c h d i e D e c o m p o s i t i o n oder D e g r a d a t i o n der soils worauf
er rests. ... In solchen F ä l l e n new c o n d i t i o n s have supervened, w h i c h render the n a t u r a l relations between soils a n d rocks in those places less simple ... W ä r e n die surfaces der rocks uniformly level, u n d die of every c o u n try flat, the c r u m b l e d materials would generally r e m a i n on t h e spots where
they were formed. A b e r die rocks rarely lie in a h o r i z o n t a l position, b u t rest
always m o r e or less on their edges, u n d d i e surface des country is often
m o u n t a i n o u s or hilly u n d everywhere u n d u l a t i n g . H e n c e t h e rains are continually washing off t h e finer particles from t h e higher, and bearing t h e m
to the lower grounds u n d b e i G e l e g e n h e i t grosser F l u t h e n vast q u a n t i t i e s
even of heavy materials b o r n e to great distances, and spread s o m e t i m e s to
a great d e p t h a n d over a great e x t e n t of country. T h u s the spoils of o n e
rocky formation are b o r n e from their native seat and are strewed over t h e
surface of other kinds of rock of a totally different character. Ζ. B. die Frag
m e n t e von d e n G r a n i t , G n e i s s , slate rocks der high lands sind scattered
over t h e old red s a n d s t o n e s , w h i c h lie at a lower level - u n d die der b l u e
limestone m o u n t a i n s over t h e millstone grits, t h e coalmeasures, a n d t h e
new red sandstones, which stretch away from their feet. D i e effects pro
d u c e d d u r c h diese n a t u r a l cause zeigen sich in ihrer g a n z e n Grösse in districts, wo, wie in d e n G h a u t s , die separate das levelland der M a l a b a r coast
(the Concan) von d e m high table land of D e c c a n , 120 i n c h e s of r a i n
m a n c h m a l in e i n e m m o n t h fallen u n d 240 i n c h e s oder 20 feet, j e d e s Jahr,
im D u r c h s c h n i t t von J u n e to September. A n d to what vast distances m u s t
materials be transported by great rivers wie d e m Mississippi, A m a z o n f l u ß ,
G a n g e s , I n d u s , die t a u s e n d e von miles durchlaufen, before sie sich in die
See ergiessen. W h a t necessary c o n n e c t i o n s c a n the deposits of m u d a n d
sand, which yearly collect at t h e m o u t h s a n d in the places overflowed by
293
t h e waters of these great rivers, have with t h e n a t u r e of t h e rocks on which
these transported materials m a y h a p p e n t o rest? F e r n e r : die c o n s t a n t m o t i o n der waters der sea washes down t h e cliffs on o n e coast, a n d carries
away their ruins to be deposited, either in its own depths, or along o t h e r
m o r e sheltered shores. H e n c e s a n d b a n k s a c c u m u l a t e , as in t h e centre of
5
o u r own N o r t h Sea; or t h e l a n d gains u p o n t h e water in o n e spot what it
loses in another. In b e i d e n F ä l l e n die so d u r c h oder von der See g a i n e d
soils, k ö n n e n keine relation h a b e n zu d e n rocks worauf sie rest. A g a i n t h e
sea, in general, carries with it a n d deposits in its own b o s o m t h e finest particles of clay, lime, a n d other earthy m a t t e r s , a n d leaves along its shores ac- 10
c u m u l a t i o n s of fine siliceous sand. This sand, w h e n dry, t h e sea winds b e a r
before t h e m a n d strew over t h e land, forming sandhills a n d downs, somet i m e s of considerable h e i g h t a n d of great extent. So b e s o n d e r s in d e n easte r n shores der Bai von Biscaya u n d in d e n coasts von J u t l a n d , b o t h exp o s e d to violent seawinds. Before these winds t h e light sands are 15
continually drifting, and, year by year, a d v a n c e further a n d further into t h e
country, gradually driving lakes before t h e m , swallowing up forests a n d cultivated fields, with t h e h o u s e s of t h e cultivators (in d e n L a n d e s der advance
of t h e downs is estimated auf 6 0 - 7 0 F u ß j e d e s Jahr), a n d burying alike t h e
fertile soils a n d t h e rocks from w h i c h they were originally derived. So wirk- 20
t e n die W i n d e in Africa, wo sie p o p u l o u s cities u n d fertile plains in deserts
verwandelten. ( 4 9 8 - 5 0 2 )
Being a c q u a i n t e d with t h e n a t u r e of t h e rocks in a country, a n d with its
physical geography—i.e. which of these rocks form t h e hills, a n d w h i c h t h e
valleys or plains—we c a n predict, in general, t h a t t h e materials of t h e hills
will be strewed to a greater or less distance over t h e lower grounds, a n d t h a t
these lower soils will t h u s be m o r e or less altered in their m i n e r a l character.
A n d w h e n the debris of t h e hills is of a m o r e fertile character t h a n that of
t h e rocks which form t h e plains, that the soils will be materially improved
by this covering; t h e soil of t h e millstone grit ζ. B. by t h e debris of t h e
m o u n t a i n limestone, or of a decayed g r e e n s t o n e or a basalt. Andrerseits,
where t h e higher rocks are m o r e unfruitful, a n d t h e low l a n d s are covered
with sterile drifted sands, b r o u g h t down from t h e m o r e elevated g r o u n d s a knowledge of t h e n a t u r e of t h e subjacent rock m a y at o n c e suggest t h e
m e a n s of ameliorating a n d improving t h e u n p r o m i s i n g surface drift. T h u s
t h e loose sand of Norfolk is fertilized by t h e subjacent chalk m a r l : a n d
even sterile h e a t h s (Hounslow), on w h i c h n o t h i n g grew before, have, by this
m e a n s , b e e n m a d e to p r o d u c e l u x u r i a n t crops of every k i n d of grain.
(510) I
294
25
30
35
w
|43| Soils are fertile which, besides b e i n g in a proper m e c h a n i c a l or physical
condition, c o n t a i n the necessary organic substances, a n d also a sufficient
supply of all t h e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s w h i c h t h e plants to be grown u p o n
t h e m are likely to require. (519) Zu d i e s e n g e h ö r e n soils, die a n a t u r a l
5 source of fertility h a b e n , (durch springs oder sonst) constantly supplied
werden m i t soluble saline, a n d o t h e r substances, as to e n a b l e t h e m to yield
a succession of crops w i t h o u t m a n u r e u n d w i t h o u t apparent deterioration.
(521, 2) I m p o r t a n c e of d e p t h a n d u n i f o r m i t y of soil: If t h e surface soil be of
a fertile quality, a n d other c i r c u m s t a n c e s be favourable a m p l e r e t u r n s will
10 be sure from any cultivated crops. B u t where t h e subsoil is similar in c o m position to t h a t of t h e surface, n o t only m a y t h e fertility of t h e land be considered as almost i n e x h a u s t i b l e , b u t those crops also which send their roots
far down will be able to flourish p e r m a n e n t l y in it. (523)
B a r r e n or Unfruitful Soils.
15
20
Soils are unfruitful or altogether b a r r e n , either w h e n they c o n t a i n t o o little
of one or m o r e of the inorganic c o n s t i t u e n t s of plants, or w h e n s o m e s u b stance is present in t h e m in s u c h q u a n t i t i e s as to b e c o m e hurtful or poisonous to vegetation. Ζ. B. s u l p h a t e of i r o n in d e m subsoil. (524) Ζ. B. M o o r
l a n d s u n p r o d u c t i v wegen ihrer deficiency i n t h e n u m e r o u s substances,
bewiesen d u r c h das fact, t h a t w h e n dressed with a covering of t h e subsoil
they b e c o m e capable of successful cultivation. D e r subsoil e n t h ä l t d a n n a
n o t a b l e proportion of all t h o s e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s in which t h e soil itself
is defective. (525) Es giebt nearly b a r r e n soils die sehr viel h u m i c acid enthalten, besides a m u c h larger proportion of insoluble organic m a t t e r . E i n
25
B o d e n k a n n b a r r e n sein trotz sehr viel organic matter. (525, 6) If t h e a d d i t i o n of a given m a n u r e to t h e soil r e n d e r it m o r e fertile, so dieß der Fall
weil der soil defective in o n e or m o r e der m a t t e r s die der m a n u r e c o n t a i n s
oder weil der m a n u r e , wie oft m i t d e m l i m e der F a l l ist, r e n d e r s m o r e available to the plant what is already present in t h e soil. (529) Chemically
30
speaking, a soil will p r o d u c e any crop a b u n d a n t l y , provided it c o n t a i n an
a m p l e supply of all that t h e crop we wish to raise requires from t h e soil. B u t
in practice soils which do c o n t a i n all these substances plentifully, are yet
found to differ in their power of yielding plentiful returns to t h e h u s b a n d m a n u n d dieß rührt d a n n von ihren physical properties her. (I.e.)
295
Physical Properties of the Soil.
D i e physical properties in n a t u r e u n t e r g e o r d n e t gegen die c h e m i c a l c o m p o sition der soils. ... Plants m a y grow u p o n a soil, whatever its physical cond i t i o n — i f all the food they require be within their reach—while, however
favourable the physical c o n d i t i o n m a y be, n o t h i n g can vegetate in a healthy
m a n n e r , if the soil be deficient in some necessary kind of food, or c o n t a i n
what is destructive to vegetable life. (529, 530)
5
M e c h a n i c a l Relations of Soils.
1) the density und absolute weight of a soil. Sandy soils sind die heaviest. T h e
weight diminishes m i t d e m increase of clay u n d lessens n o c h m e h r wie die
quantity of vegetable m a t t e r a u g m e n t s . Je dichter a soil, desto weniger injury i h m g e t h a n d u r c h die passage of carts u n d das treading of cattle in t h e
ordinary operations of h u s b a n d r y . Die denser soils retain ihre W ä r m e länger w e n n die Sonne u n t e r g e h t oder kalter W i n d bläst. A b e r in very close or
c o m p a c t Erdarten the air gains slow a n d imperfect admission. 2) State of division of the constituent Parts of the soil. Dieser status h a t a m a t e r i a l influe n c e u p o n its productive character u n d its m o n e y value, da die labours des
h u s b a n d m a n , in lands of a stiffer a n d m o r e c o h e r e n t n a t u r e , are chiefly exp e n d e d in bringing t h e m into this m o r e favourable powdery condition. 3)
Firmness and adhesive power of soils. Pure clays wird sehr hart w e n n getrockn e t u n d schwer z u pulverisiren. Diese tenacity u n d h a r d n e s s v e r m i n d e r t i m
Verhältniß wie Sand beigemengt. D i e ß m e i s t zu kostspielig auf a large
scale. A b e r thorough draining, subsoil ploughing u n d careful tillage, will
gradually bring the m o s t refractory soils of this character into a c o n d i t i o n
worin they can be m o r e perfectly a n d m o r e economically worked. Soils also
a d h e r e to the plough in different degrees u n d present so a m o r e or less
powerful obstruction to its passage. Alle bieten größren W i d e r s t a n d w e n n
wet als w e n n dry u n d m e h r e i n e m hölzernen als e i n e m eisernen Pflug, a
sandy soil, n a ß bietet a resistance to the passage of agricultural i m p l e m e n t s
= 4 lbs, to the square foot of the surface which passes t h r o u g h it - a fertile
vegetable soil or rich garden m o u l d e i n e n W i d e r s t a n d von a b o u t 6 lbs u n d
a clay von 8 - 2 5 lbs auf d e n • f o o t .
296
10
15
20
25
30
Relations of Soils to Water.
5
10
15
20
25
30
1) Power of imbibing moisture from the air. In h o t climates a n d in dry seasons
diese Eigenschaft des soil sehr wichtig, restoring as it does to t h e thirsty
soil, and bringing in d e n r e a c h der plants, a portion of the m o i s t u r e , w h i c h
during the day they h a d so copiously exhaled. Different soils besitzen diese
Eigenschaft in v e r s c h i e d n e m G r a d e , fertile soils besitzen sie in a very considerable degree. Anderseits peaty soils ||44| u n d very strong clays are still
m o r e absorbent of m o i s t u r e . 2) Power of containing or holding water, the rain
falls and is d r u n k in, the dew (Thau) descends, a n d is t h u s t a k e n possession
of by the soil. But after m u c h rain has fallen t h e earth b e c o m e s saturated,
a n d the rest either runs off from t h e surface or sinks t h r o u g h to t h e drains.
This h a p p e n s m o r e speedily in s o m e soils t h a n in others. In dry climates
this power of holding water m u s t r e n d e r a soil m o r e valuable. 3) Power of retaining water when exposed to the air. those soils which are capable of arresting and containing the largest portion of the rain that falls, r e t a i n it also
m i t der greatest obstinacy, a n d take the longest t i m e to dry. T h u s a sand
will b e c o m e as dry in o n e h o u r as a pure clay in 3, or a piece of peat in
4 hours. 4) Capillary power of the soil. W h e n water is p o u r e d into t h e sole of
a flowerpot, the soil gradually sucks it in and b e c o m e s moist even to the
surface. T h e same takes place in the soil of the o p e n fields. T h e water from
b e n e a t h — t h a t contained in t h e subsoil—is gradually sucked up to the surface. W h e r e water is present in excess this capillary action keeps t h e soil always moist a n d cold. T h e t e n d e n c y of the water to ascend is n o t t h e s a m e
in all soils. In those which, like sandy soils u n d such as c o n t a i n m u c h vegetable matter, are o p e n a n d porous, it probably ascends m o s t freely, while
stiff clays will transmit it with less rapidity. 5) Contraction of the soil on drying. Some soils in dry w h e a t h e r d i m i n i s h very m u c h in bulk, shrink in, a n d
crack. T h e m o r e clay or vegetable m a t t e r ein B o d e n enthält, the m o r e it
swells u n d contracts in alternate wet a n d dry weather. This contraction in
stiff clays m u ß schädlich sein to young roots from the pressure u p o n the
t e n d e r fibres to which it m u s t give rise, w ä h r e n d in leichten sandy soils die
compression der roots b e i n a h e u n i f o r m in all weathers, and they are u n d i s turbed in their n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to throw out offshoots in every direction.
Dieses eine andre gute Qualität der light soils.
297
-'ί
R e l a t i o n s of the Soil to t h e A t m o s p h e r e .
1) Power of absorbing oxygen and other gaseous substances from the air. s o m e
soils, u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n , absorbiren oxygen rascher u n d i n larger
q u a n t i t y als andre. Clays m e h r als sandy soils u n d vegetable m o u l d s or
p e a t s m e h r als clays. W e n n der clay Eisen oder M a n g a n e s e e n t h ä l t in t h e
5
state of first or prot-oxides, these will naturally absorb oxygen for t h e purpose of c o m b i n i n g with it ... all soils absorb gaseous substances of every
k i n d m o s t easily u n d in der greatest a b u n d a n c e w h e n sie in a m o i s t state
sind. So wirkt leiser R e g e n s c h a u e r u n d T h a u e n i c h t n u r günstig d u r c h die
supply of water to t h e thirsty g r o u n d , s o n d e r n a u c h d u r c h die power die sie 10
i m p a r t d e m m o i s t e n e d soil, of extracting for itself new supplies of gaseous
m a t t e r from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a t m o s p h e r e .
R e l a t i o n s of t h e Soil to H e a t .
1) Power of absorbing heat. Darkcoloured, s u c h as black a n d brownish red,
soils absorb t h e h e a t of t h e s u n m o s t rapidly, a n d therefore b e c o m e w a r m
t h e soonest. Sie attain a u c h e i n e u m einige G r a d e h ö h e r e T e m p e r a t u r als
a n d r e soils of other colours u n d t h u s , u n t e r der action derselben sun, prom o t e rascher vegetation. D i e ß e Eigenschaft weniger wichtig in L ä n d e r n wo
s u n s h i n e a b o u n d s ; aber sehr wichtig in solchen wie E n g l a n d , hier besizt sie
a considerable e c o n o m i c a l value. D i e ß zu verstehn v o n soils die u n t e r d e n selben U m s t ä n d e n der S o n n e ausgesezt. Wo die exposure oder der aspect
des soil giebt the prolonged benefit of t h e s u n ' s rays, or to shelter it from
cold winds, günstiger der Vegetation als m i n d e r günstig situated, t h o u g h
darker in colour a n d m o r e free from superfluous m o i s t u r e . 2) Power of retaining heat. But soils differ m o r e in their power of retaining t h e h e a t they
have t h u s absorbed. Alle bodies, der air ausgesezt, erkalten. So do all soils,
aber ein sandiger B o d e n l a n g s a m e r als a clay u n d dieser als ein B o d e n
r e i c h an D a r n m e r d e . . . . Plants m u s t be firmly fixed—therefore t h e soil
m u s t have a certain consistency, their roots m u s t find a ready passage in
every direction—therefore t h e soils m u s t be s o m e w h a t loose a n d open. ...
D i e i m m e d i a t e agency v o n S a n d u n d a l u m i n a m e h r physical als c h e m i c a l .
D e r B o d e n im Bezug auf die V e g e t a t i o n performs 4 functions. 1) It u p h o l d s
a n d sustains the plant, affording it a sure a n d safe anchorage. 2) It absorbs
water, air a n d heat, to p r o m o t e its growth. (Dieses sind die m e c h a n i c a l u n d
physical functions.) 3) It c o n t a i n s u n d supplies to t h e plant b o t h organic
298
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20
25
30
35
F
and inorganic food as its wants require; a n d 4) It is a workshop, in which
by the aid of air a n d m o i s t u r e , c h e m i c a l changes are continually going on,
by which changes these several k i n d s of food are prepared for a d m i s s i o n
into the living roots. ( 5 3 1 - 5 4 1 ) |
5
|45|
On
Chemical
the
Improvement
and
of the
Mechanical
Soil
by
Means.
t h e ability of the farmer to grow this or t h a t crop u p o n his land, ist sehr b e schränkt d u r c h its natural character und composition. E a c h soil establishes
u p o n itself, so to speak, a vegetation suited to its own n a t u r e . ... A b e r der
10
farmer can change the character of the land itself. He can alter b o t h its physical qualities a n d its c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and t h u s can fit it for growing
other races of plants t h a n those which it naturally bears—or, if he choose,
the same races in greater a b u n d a n c e a n d with increased l u x u r i a n c e ... In
t h e p r o d u c t i o n of such c h a n g e s — n e a r l y all the l a b o u r and practical skill of
15 the h u s b a n d m a n is constantly e x p e n d e d . (545) W h e r e a soil c o n t a i n s n a t u rally all that the crops we desire to grow are likely to require, m e r e m e c h a n ical operations m a y suffice to r e n d e r it fertile. Sonst a u c h c h e m i s c h e n o ting. Drains, ploughs, subsoils b e z i e h n sich auf die physische V e r ä n d e r u n g .
([545,] 546)
20
Connection between the kind of soil
and the kind of plants that grow upon it.
A n e r k a n n t u n t e r d e n Practikern d a ß clay soils am besten für wheat, l o a m y
soils für barley, sandy l o a m s für oats or barley, n o c h sandigere für oats or
rye u n d die fast ganz sandigen von d e n cornbearing crops n u r für rye. (bar25
ley Gerste, oat Hafer, rye Roggen) (I.e.) Im N a t u r z u s t a n d finden wir special
difference u n t e r d e n s p o n t a n e o u s products des soil, m e h r oder m i n d e r
traceable auf die c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n der spots wo sie wachsen. So: 1)
A u f d e n sandy soils der sea shores u n d d e n saltsteppes Ungarns u n d R u ß lands the sandworts (wort Kraut, W ü r z ) saltworts, glass worts u n d a n d r e
30 salzliebende Pflanzen a b o u n d . W e r d e n diese lands inclosed u n d drained,
so der excess von Salz allmählig washed o u t by the rains, oder in s o m e
countries entfernt by reaping j ä h r l i c h die salineplants u n d b u r n i n g t h e m
for soda (barilla), when wholesome u n d nutritive grasses take their place;
aber der white clover u n d das daisy u n d d a n d e l i o n m ü s s e n erst erscheinen,
299
eh, im allgemeinen, er m i t Vortheil gepflügt u n d m i t Korn besät w e r d e n
k a n n . 2) Die dry drifted sands, m o r e or less r e m o t e von der See, produciren
keine solche Pflanzen, sondern ihre eignen coarse grasses. 3) A u f gewöhnlichen sandy soils sind die l e g u m i n o u s plants (Hülsentragende) selten u n d
das herbage oft scanty u n d void of n o u r i s h m e n t . Ist aber m a r l gegenwärtig
in s u c h soils, the n a t u r a l growth of l e g u m i n o u s plants increases. D e r colt'sfoot (Huflattich) u n d die butter-bur (Rostpappel, Pestilenzwurz) wachsen
n i c h t n u r von selbst, wo der B o d e n marly, s o n d e r n infest ihn oft so sehr
daß ihre Extirpation sehr schwierig. A u f calcareous soils oder sehr limehaltigen ist das couchgrass selten gesehn als a weed, während der poppy, the
vetch, and the darnel a b o u n d . 4) Peaty soils, when laid down to grass,
slowly select für sich selbst a peculiar tribe of grasses, ihrer b e s o n d e r n n a ture entsprechend, besonders der H o l c u s l a n a t u s (meadow soft-grass)
a b u n d a n t . Alter their constitution by a heavy liming u n d sie p r o d u c i r e n
l u x u r i a n t green crops in a great bulk of straw, b u t give a coarse thickskinned grain, m o r e or less imperfectly filled. Alter t h e m further by a dressing of clay, or keep t h e m in arable culture, stiffen t h e m with composts, a n d
enrich t h e m with bones, a n d they will be converted into rich a n d s o u n d
cornbearing lands. 5) In the waters t h a t gush from the sides of lime-stonehills—on the b o t t o m of ditches t h a t are formed of lime-stones or m a r l s — ,
a n d in the springs that have their rise in m a n y trap rocks, the watercress a p pears a n d accompanies the r u n n i n g waters, s o m e t i m e s for miles on their
course. (547, 8) Diese facts beweisen, daß alle a n d e r n U m s t ä n d e Clima etc
gleich gesezt, the n a t u r a l vegetation, that which grows best on a given spot,
is intimately connected with the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the soil. A b e r der
B o d e n u n d die Pflanzen, die er nährt, u n t e r g e h n slow b u t n a t u r a l changes.
Lay down a piece of land to grass u n d n a c h einer R e i h e von J a h r e n der
Boden, ursprünglich vielleicht v o m stiffest clay, wird a rich, light, vegetable
m o u l d , bearing a thick sward of n o u r i s h i n g grasses d u r c h a u s verschieden
von d e n e n die es vor seiner Verwandlung in pasture trug. So in a wider
field u n d on a larger scale, the s a m e slow changes are exhibited in the vast
n a t u r a l forests die lange extensive tracts in various countries Europas bedeckt h a b e n . Geschichtlich daß Karl der G r o ß e h u n t e d in d e m forest von
G e r a r d m e r , damals bestehend aus oak (Eiche) u n d beech (Buche) ; jezt enthält derselbe Wald n u r n o c h verschiedne species von Fichten, (pine) Im
Palatinat die Pinus sylvestris folgt a u c h der Eiche. Im J u r a u n d in Tyrol the
beech a n d the p i n e ersetzen sich m u t u a l l y ... When the time for a change
of ||46| crop arrives, the existing trees begin to languish o n e after another,
their branches die, a n d finally their dry a n d n a k e d tops are seen surr o u n d e d by the luxuriant foliage of other races. In Georgia (United States)
die Castanea p u m i l a is rapidly disappearing, the L a u r a s geniculata, which,
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u n t i l lately, formed large c l u m p s in the p i n e barrens, is n o w rarely to be
seen a m i d the forests of P i n u s palustris, whole forests of the G o r d o n i a liseanthus are seen to die o u t in 2 or 3 years, u n d die q u e r c u s rubra u n d
Laurus sasafras are showing similar s y m p t o m s of decay. Diese facts zeigen
5
die existence of slow n a t u r a l changes in der c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n des soil
itself, which lead necessarily to changes in the vegetation also. We can ourselves, in the case of a n c i e n t forests, effect s u c h changes. W e n n in d e n Vereinigten Staaten von A m e r i k a ein forest von E i c h e n oder m a p l e (Ahorn) ist
cut down, o n e of p i n e springs up in its place; while on the site of a p i n e for10 est, oaks and other broad leaved trees speedily appear. But if the full n a t u ral t i m e for s u c h changes has not yet c o m e , the new generation m a y be
overtaken, a n d smothered by the original tribes. T h u s , when the p i n e forests of Sweden are b u r n e d down, a y o u n g growth of birch (Birke) succeeds,
b u t after a t i m e the pines again appear a n d u s u r p their former d o m i n i o n .
15 T h e soil still r e m a i n s m o r e propitious to t h e growth of t h e latter t h a n of t h e
former k i n d of tree. W ü n s c h e n wir also a luxuriant vegetation auf e i n e m
gegebnen spot, entweder z u wählen die d e m B o d e n a m entsprechendste Art
des S a a m e n s , oder ä n d e r n the n a t u r e des land so as to adapt it to o u r crop.
A n d , even w h e n we have o n c e prepared it to yield a b u n d a n t returns of a
20 particular kind, the changes we have p r o d u c e d c a n only be m o r e or less of a
temporary n a t u r e . O u r care a n d a t t e n t i o n m u s t still be bestowed u p o n it,
that it m a y be enabled to resist the slow natural causes of alteration, by which
it is gradually unfitted to n o u r i s h those vegetable tribes which it appears
now to delight in m a i n t a i n i n g . (548, 9)
25
Of draining, its mode of action and its effects.
Das draining (Trockenlegen d u r c h Abzugscanäle) carries off all stagnant
water u n d giebt a ready escape to t h e excess of what falls in rain; Es hält
d e n ascent des Wassers von u n t e n u n t e n , sei es d u r c h capillary action oder
d u r c h die force of springs auf u n d preservirt so nicht n u r den o b e r e n B o d e n
30 von u n d u e moisture, s o n d e r n befreit a u c h d e n subsoil von der lingering
presence der n o x i o u s substances, die so oft in u n d r a i n e d land lodge in it
u n d impair the growth of deeprooted plants. Er erlaubt d e m Regenwasser,
statt n u r ü b e r d e n B o d e n wegzufliessen u n d oft injuriously zu waschen die
surface, to m a k e its way easily t h r o u g h t h e soil. U n d so durchfiltrirend
35 theilt das rainwater d e m B o d e n n i c h t n u r die zur Vegetation n ü t z l i c h e n
Substanzen mit, die es enthält, sondern es wäscht aus von d e m obren Boden, u n d wenn die drains tief g e n u g sind, von d e m subsoil, such n o x i o u s
substances as naturally collect u n d m a y have b e e n long a c c u m u l a t i n g
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there, rendering it u n s o u n d a n d hurtful to the roots. D e r leztre Vortheil
folgt gradually the draining of land. W h e n o n c e thoroughly effected, it constitutes a m o s t i m p o r t a n t p e r m a n e n t i m p r o v e m e n t . P e r m a n e n t indeß n u r
so lang die drains gehalten werden in good condition. Dieselbe openness
des Boden, die die rains befähigt to wash o u t those soluble n o x i o u s substances, die sich lange angesammelt, erlaubt t h e m to carry off also s u c h die
sich graduell bilden u n d so es in g e s u n d e m state zu h a l t e n ; b u t let this
o p e n n e s s be m o r e or less impaired by a neglect of the drainage u n d der
original state des land will again gradually return. Fällt der R e g e n so it enters the soil u n d displaces m e h r oder m i n d e r vollständig die in seinen
P o r e n enthaltne Luft. This air either descends to the drains or rises into the
a t m o s p h e r e . W e n n der rain ceases, the water, as it sinks, again leaves the
pores of the u p p e r soil open, a n d fresh air consequently follows it. T h e air
is in fact sucked in after the water, as t h e latter gradually passes down to
the drains. So d u r c h die drainage der B o d e n supplied m i t renewed accèssions of fresh air. Ferner: W e n n so readily freed von der constant presence
of water, wird der soil gradually drier, sweeter, looser u n d m o r e friable. Die
h a r d l u m p s der stiff claylands m o r e or less disappear. They c r u m b l e m o r e
freely, offer less resistance to the plough u n d sind so leichter u n d ö k o n o m i s c h e r worked. Der B o d e n wird a u c h erwärmt; w e n n voll von Wasser hält
die large evaporation die surface stets cool u n d retards the growth der
crops. Das Wasser entfernt, die evaporation ceases. D i e plants wachsen
rascher u n d üppiger. Die air die descends u n d der Regen führen diese
m i l d e T e m p e r a t u r in d e n u n t e r n soil. W e n n es die surface der earth erreicht, das Regenwasser gewöhnlich von derselben T e m p e r a t u r als die Luft
w o d u r c h es gefallen u n d wie es sinkt w ä r m t es graduell den B o d e n durch
d e n es passirt. Im S o m m e r wird der R e g e n selbst wärmer d u r c h den hotter
soil auf den er fällt u n d bringt d e m subsoil diese größre W ä r m e . It t h u s
conveys downwards a n d distributes m o r e generally a n d to a greater d e p t h
the effect of the sun's rays. Daher, m i t d e m p e r m a n e n t state of moisture,
the p e r m a n e n t s.g. coldness vieler soils verschwindet rapidly. D i e backwardness der crops in spring u n d die Spätheit der E r n d t e n im Herbst are less
frequently c o m p l a i n e d of, d e n n in m a n y localities the drainage p r o d u c e s
effects which are equivalent to a change ||47| of climate. In c o n s e q u e n c e of
the drainage which has t a k e n place in the parish of Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, during the last 20 years, the crops arrive at maturity 10 bis
14 Tage früher als früher u n d dasselbe zu e i n e m n o c h greater extent true in
vielen other localities. Auf stiff clay lands, well adapted for wheat, wet
weather im Herbst verzögert häufig das S ä e n von W i n t e r k o r n oder verhindert es ganz. An efficient drainage führt das Wasser so rasch ab as to bring
the land in a workable state soon after t h e rain has ceased u n d so, to a cer-
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tain extent, it rescues the farmer von d e m fickle d o m i n i o n of the u n c e r t a i n
seasons. Aber auf jeder Art von L a n d this removal of t h e superfluous water
is equivalent to an actual deepening of the soil. D a s Wasser bleibt sonst n ä m lich in der Tiefe stehn, selbst w e n n die surface trocken. D e r subsoil so repels the approach der roots des grains, a n d compels t h e m to seek their
n o u r i s h m e n t from the surface soil only. Das Wasser entfernt wird der
B o d e n dry to a greater depth. D i e Luft dringt ein u n d verbreitet sich wherever the water has been. T h e roots n o w freely a n d safely descend into t h e
almost virgin soil b e n e a t h . U n d n i c h t n u r h a b e n sie a larger space t h r o u g h
which to send out their fibres in search of food, sondern in d e m bis d a h i n
u n g e n i a l soil finden sie a store of substances, vielleicht n u r sparsam vorh a n d e n in d e m soil above, which the long c o n t i n u e d washing der rains, or
the d e m a n d of frequent crops, m a y have removed, die aber w ä h r e n d der
g a n z e n Zeit sich a c c u m u l i r t h a b e n im subsoil, wohin die roots of cultivated plants could rarely with safety descend. So nicht n u r V e r m i n d e r u n g
der Productionskost d u r c h die drainage, sondern b e d e u t e n d vermehrtes
Product in K o r n u n d G r a s ; wird gefunden daß dieß vermehrte produce allein h i n r e i c h e n d to repay the entire cost of t h o r o u g h draining in 2 oder
3 Jahren. Je tiefer daher die drains (provided the water have still a ready escape) desto grösser die Tiefe des B o d e n s der available g e m a c h t ist for t h e
purposes of vegetable n u t r i t i o n . Tiefwurzelnde plants, wie L u z e r n e , often
fail, selbst in moderately deep soils, weil Excess von Wasser oder G e g e n wart schädlicher S u b s t a n z e n , die deep drains would remove, prevents their
natural descent in search of food. Selbst plants, wie wheat oder clover, die
gewöhnlich ihre roots n i c h t so far senden, where the subsoil is s o u n d and
dry, extend their fibres for 3 or m o r e feet in depth, in quest of m o r e a b u n d a n t n o u r i s h m e n t . Sie v e r m e h r e n so p e r m a n e n t die available d e p t h des Bodens. Ferner: It is n o t till the land is r e n d e r e d dry, daß Feld für die ü b r i g e n
exertions. In wet soils, b o n e s , wood-ashes, rape-dust, nitrate of soda u n d
andre artificial m a n u r e s are almost thrown away. Even lime exhibits b u t %
of its fertilizing virtue, where water is allowed to stagnate in the soil. Ein efficient system of drainage is a necessary preparative o h n e welche alle andre
Verbeßrungen u n m ö g l i c h . ... It has b e e n calculated, d a ß die drainage allein der lands die at present in arable culture in d i e s e m B o d e n (10 Millions
of acres) ihr Product at o n c e v e r m e h r e n würde um 10 millions qrs der various kinds of grain now grown u p o n t h e m u n d a similar drainage der u n c u l tivated lands (15 Mill, acres) 20 Mill, qrs geben würde. 30 mill, qrs is = fast
% unsrer Present c o n s u m p t i o n (65 millions of qrs) of all kinds of grain, so
that were it possible to effect at o n c e this general drainage, a large superfluity of corn would by this i m p r o v e m e n t alone, be raised from the british
soil. Diese general drainage k a n n a b e r n i c h t be effected in any given t i m e .
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In m a n y cases die individual resources der land owners are insufficient to
m e e t the expense u n d solche calculations sollen h a u p t s ä c h l i c h stimuliren
die exertions deren die Capital zu sparen h a b e n , oder d e n e n ein Ueberschuß von E i n k o m m e n erlaubt to invest an a n n u a l portion p e r m a n e n t l y in
the soil, to drain 25 millions of acres zu £ 6 an acre würde 150 mill. I. St.
kosten, a s u m equal, probably, d e m g a n z e n Capital gegenwärtig invested in
farming the land. A b e r jezt b e h a u p t e t , d a ß das land can be efficiently
drained m i t pipe tiles zu £ 3 per acre. Wer drains und sein eignes Land verbessert, confers a benefit to his neighbours also. In der vicinity von wet u n d boggy
lands mists are frequent u n d rains häufiger on the edges of the m o o r , u n d
mildews (Mehlthau) retard the maturity u n d often seriously injure the
crop. Of u n d r a i n e d land, in general, the s a m e is true to a less extent, a n d
the presence of one u n i m p r o v e d property in t h e centre of an enterprising
district, m a y long withhold from the adjoining farms das ihr m o n e y u n d
skill bringen würde. (So wahr daß wir alle von e i n a n d e r a b h ä n g e n u n d d a ß
die kindly co-operation aller allein sichern k a n n that ample return of good,
which the culture either of the dead earth or of the living intellect appears
willing to confer u p o n our entire race p. 556) Jezt sieht m a n a u c h ein, wie
leichte und sandige soils oder solche die lie on a sloping (abschüssige) surface
sehr gewinnen k ö n n e n durch draining. W h e r e no o p e n outlet exists u n d e r a
loamy or sandy surface \\48\ soil, any n o x i o u s m a t t e r s that either sink from
above, or ooze up from b e n e a t h , will long r e m a i n in the subsoil u n d ihn
m e h r oder m i n d e r u n g e s u n d m a c h e n für cultivirte Pflanzen. Solch an outlet g e m a c h t durch das establishment of drains u n d das which rises from ben e a t h will be arrested, while that which descends from above will escape.
T h e rainwaters passing t h r o u g h will wash the whole soil also as deep as the
b o t t o m of the drains, a n d the a t m o s p h e r i c air will a c c o m p a n y or follow
t h e m . Dasselbe gilt für lands die so great a n a t u r a l inclination besitzen daß
ihre Oberfläche raschen Ablauf des Wassers gestattet. Der subsoil wird dad u r c h nicht nothwendig dry, befreit von schädlichen S u b s t a n z e n oder
leichtrer Lufterneurung zugänglich. Small feeders of water occasionally
m a k e their way n e a r to the surface, a n d linger long in the subsoil before
they m a k e their escape. D i e ß schon ein Uebel; aber wenn s u c h springs are
impregnated m i t iron solche Ursache allein h i n r e i c h e n d to produce perfect
barrenness. To bring such lands by degrees to a s o u n d a n d healthy state ...
a system of drains or outlets b e n e a t h is often sufficient. It is to this lingering of u n w h o l e s o m e waters b e n e a t h , daß der origin vieler u n s r e r moorlands, besonders on higher grounds, in grossem M a a ß zuzuschreiben. A
calcareous or a ferruginous spring sends up its waters into the subsoil. D e r
slow access of air from above, or it m a y be the escape of air from the water
itself, causes a m o r e or less ochrey deposit, which adheres to a n d gradually
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c e m e n t s t h e stones or earthy particles, a m o n g w h i c h t h e water is lodged.
T h u s a layer of solid stone is gradually f o r m e d — t h e m o o r - b a n d p a n of
m a n y districts—which n e i t h e r allows t h e roots of plants to d e s c e n d n o r t h e
surface water to escape. Hopeless barrenness therefore, slowly e n s u e s .
5
Coarse grasses, mosses a n d h e a t h , grow a n d a c c u m u l a t e u p o n soils n o t originally inclined to n o u r i s h t h e m , a n d by w h i c h a better herbage h a d previously b e e n long sustained. Of such l a n d s m a n y tracts have b e e n r e c l a i m e d
d u r c h breaking u p this m o o r - b a n d p a v e m e n t , aber solch i m p r o v e m e n t ,
w e n n n i c h t preceded von drainage, n u r temporär. N o t only is t h e drainage
10
equivalent to a change of climate in reference to t h e growth a n d ripening of
plants, b u t it is so also in reference to t h e general health of the people, a n d to
t h e n u m b e r and kind of t h e diseases d e n e n sie exponirt sind ... Dr W i l s o n
h a t gezeigt, d a ß in d e m Distrikt von Kelso, daß fever a n d ague, die fast %
der diseases der P o p u l a t i o n w ä h r e n d der 10 ersten Jahre (während der Perils ode der lezten 20 Jahre) bildeten, fast g a n z v e r s c h w u n d e n sind w ä h r e n d
der lezten 10 Jahre, in Folge der general e x t e n s i o n of an efficient drainage
t h r o u g h the country: w ä h r e n d gleichzeitig die fatality of disease, o d e r die
comparative n u m b e r of d e a t h s von je 100 F ä l l e n ernstlicher K r a n k h e i t sich
v e r m i n d e r t von 4.6 auf 2.59. ( 5 5 0 - 5 8 )
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Quellen.
Wasser findet oft its way to great d e p t h s without passing d u r c h die superior
strata u n d selbst w e n n diese absolut impervious sind d e m Regen, der auf
sie fällt.
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Längst d e m country von A bis Β u n d b e s o n d e r s towards A t h e surface soil
rests auf d e n u p p e r edges der strata. D i e b e d s 1, 2, 3 seien i m p e r v i o u s to
water. So von d e m h ö c h s t e n P u n k t C wird das W a s s e r descend on either
side gegen a u n d b. Bei b m a g es stagniren u n d e i n e n bog bilden, d e n n es
k a n n n i c h t descend d u r c h das bed (2), das forms the b o t t o m des valley;
dasselbe gilt von hollow c, wo a n d r e portions des water m a y rest. All this
tract of country d a h e r will be m o r e or less cold, wet, u n d folglich u n p r o d u c -
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tiv. A b e r laßt das bed (4), dessen edge die surface at a bildet, be p o r o u s or
p e r m e a b l e , d a n n das Wasser, das fallt auf d i e s e n spot oder w h i c h d e s c e n d s
von d e n higher g r o u n d s a b o u t A u n d C, will readily sink a n d drain off, des c e n d i n g von a n a c h d along t h e inclined b e d till it finds an outlet in t h e
latter direction. So k a n n a naturally dry a n d fertile valley, wie at a, exist in
no great distance von m a r s h y u n d insalubrious wie b u n d c, u n d wo artificial drainage alone c a n develope t h e agricultural capabilities of t h e soil.
So, obgleich in e i n e m Distrikt die rocks u n m i t t e l b a r u n t e r der surface kein
W a s s e r e n t h a l t e n m ö g e n , yet ||49| other beds, perhaps at a great d e p t h b e n e a t h , m a y c o n t a i n m u c h . It is, in fact, this a c c u m u l a t i o n of water below
impervious beds that gives rise to m a n y n a t u r a l springs, a n d enables us by
artificial wells to bring water to t h e surface, often where t h e land would
otherwise be wholly u n i n h a b i t a b l e . (560, 61) D i e ß Wasser in der Tiefe
ready a n d willing to rise if a passage be o p e n e d to it. Such is t h e case m i t
der folgenden site der City von L o n d o n .
1) M a r i n e Sand. 2) L o n d o n Clay, (almost impermeable.) 3) Plastic Clay
and Sand. 4) Chalk, both full of water. D a s rainwater das fällt zwischen a
u n d A einerseits u n d auf d e n plastischen clay zwischen d u n d Β andrerseits
sinks into these 2 beds a n d rests in t h e m till it finds an escape. It c a n n o t
rise d u r c h die great thickness of impervious clay on w h i c h L o n d o n u n d
seine N a c h b a r s c h a f t steht, unless wo wells s u n k sind, wie a, b, c, d, sei es in
d e n plastic clay (3) o d e r in d e n chalk (4), w h e n t h e water ascends copiously
till it reaches t h e general level of t h e c o u n t r y a b o u t St Albans, t h e lowest
part of t h e basin where t h e p e r m e a b l e beds form t h e surface. H e n c e im
T h a l der T h e m s e , b e i b, it rises above t h e surface u n d forms a living spring,
w ä h r e n d in a n d r e n P l ä t z e n wie a, c, d it h a s still to be p u m p e d up from a
greater or less depth. It is t h e existence of water b e n e a t h t h e surface where
t h e soils rest on i m p e r m e a b l e beds, a n d t h e known t e n d e n c y of these waters to rise when a boring is s u n k to t h e m , that have given rise to t h e establ i s h m e n t of Artesian wells ... T h e r e is probably no geological fact t h a t
promises hereafter to be of m o r e practical value to m a n k i n d t h a n this,
w h e n good g o v e r n m e n t u n d die arts of peace shall o b t a i n a p e r m a n e n t rest-
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ingplace in d e n countries die o h n e Irrigation hopelessly barren bleiben.
Wo lebende Quellen in d e n sands A r a b i a n s , in d e n african deserts, in d e n
parched plains von Südamerika, ist an island of p e r e n n i a l verdure u n d wo
in solchen countries die m e n s c h l i c h e Arbeit verwendet in digging wells
5 u n d in raising water von i h n e n für artificial irrigation, dieselbe b e a u t y u n d
fertility. It has recently be found t h a t the Oases of T h e b e s u n d Garba, in
U p p e r Ejypt, where t h e blown s a n d s now hold a scarcely disputed d o m i n ion, are almost riddled m i t wells s u n k by the a n c i e n t Ejyptians, aber for the
greater part long since filled u p . T h e reopening of such wells m i g h t restore
10 to these regions their long lost fertility, as the sinking of new ones by o u r
easier and m o r e e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d s m i g h t reclaim m a n y other wide
tracts, and convert t h e m to the use of m a n . (563, 4)
Of ordinary ploughing.
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Destroying weeds u n d insects ... der i m m e d i a t e advantage sought by t h e
farmer is the r e d u c t i o n of his soil to a state of m i n u t e division. In this state
it is n o t only m o r e pervious to the roots of his corn, b u t it also gives a m o r e
ready admission to the air a n d to water. So n ü t z l i c h wie der easy descent
u n d escape des Wassers von der surface ist die permeability des soil für die
natural powers of p r o d u c t i o n . U n t e r a n d r e n i m m e d i a t e benefits derived
from the free access of the air into the soil, we m a y e n u m e r a t e the following: 1) die presence von oxygen in t h e soil nothwendig für die healthy germ i n a t i o n of all seeds, a n d it is chiefly because they are placed b e y o n d its
reach, that those of m a n y plants r e m a i n b u r i e d for years without signs of
life t h o u g h they freely sprout when again brought to the surface and exposed to the air. Ferner: die roots of living plants require a supply of oxygen um gesund zu bleiben. Dieser supply n u r zu erhalten, w e n n der B o d e n
h i n r e i c h e n d offen ist to p e r m i t the free circulation of the air a m o n g its
pores. 2) In Gegenwart der Luft geht die D e c o m p o s i t i o n der vegetable m a t ter des soil rascher vor sich. It is m o r e speedily resolved into the h u m i c , ulmic, a n d ||50| („ulmic a c i d " a d j . v o n u l m i n H u m u s s ä u r e . ) geic acids, i n t o
water, carbonic acid a n d a m m o n i a , those forms of m a t t e r which are fitted
to minister to the growth of new vegetable races. In the absence of the air
also die substances i m m e d i a t e l y p r o d u c e d by it are frequently u n w h o l e some to the plant u n d daher fitted to injure, or materially to retard, its
growth. 3) W h e n the oxygen of the air is m o r e or less excluded, the vegetable m a t t e r of the soil takes this e l e m e n t from s u c h of the earthy s u b stances as it is capable of decomposing, a n d reduces t h e m to a lower state
of oxydation. Verwandelt so das red or per-oxide of iron into t h e prot-oxide
307
u n d acts ebenso auf die oxides of m a n g a n e s e . It also takes their oxygen
from the sulphates (as from gypsum) a n d converts t h e m into sulphurets.
These lower oxides of iron a n d m a n g a n e s e oft injurious to vegetation u n d
einer der n ü t z l i c h e n Erfolge des Pflügens oder auf andre W e i s e Lockerns
des B o d e n s to allow the free admission of a t m o s p h e r i c air, daß die n a t u r a l
5
p r o d u c t i o n dieser oxides entweder z u m grossen Theil prävenirt, oder daß,
w e n n producirt, sie rasch b e c o m e harmless again by the absorption of an
additional dose of oxygen. 4) W e n i g e soils e n t h a l t e n n i c h t eins oder das
a n d r e der c o m p o u n d m i n e r a l substances woraus die crystalline rocks bestehn, wie H o r n b l e n d e , mica, felspar etc in a d e c o m p o s i n g state. F r o m 10
these minerals, as they d e c o m p o s e , the soil, a n d therefore that plants that
grow in it, derive new supplies of several dieser u n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n
die nöthig sind für die gesunde N a h r u n g der cultivated crops. D i e fortdauernde D e c o m p o s i t i o n dieser m i n e r a l fragments is aided durch d e n Access
von Luft u n d besonders by the carbonic acid which the air contains. A 15
state of porosity oder a frequent exposure to air günstig d e m W a c h s t h u m
der Pflanzen, by presenting to its roots a larger a b u n d a n c e n o t only of organic b u t also of inorganic food. 5) Die P r o d u c t i o n von A m m o n i a u n d nitric acid im soil rascher u n d in larger quantity, je öfter das L a n d is t u r n e d
by the plough, broken by the clodcrusher, or stirred up by the harrow. 20
(Egge) Whatever a m o u n t either of these c o m p o u n d s the surface soil is capable of extracting from the atmosphere, t h e entire quantity t h u s absorbed
so grösser u n d its distribution m o r e uniform, je vollständiger der whole soil
has b e e n exposed to its influence. 6) W e n n so every where pervious to the
air, t h e roots also can penetrate the soil in every direction. N o n e of the 25
food a r o u n d t h e m is shut up from the approach of their n u m e r o u s fibres,
n o r are they prevented, by the presence of n o x i o u s substances, from throwing o u t branches in every direction. A deep soil is n o t absolutely necessary
for the production of valuable crops. A well pulverised a n d mellow soil, to
which the air and the roots have every where ready access, will, t h o u g h 30
shallow, less frequently disappoint the hopes of the h u s b a n d m a n , t h a n
where a greater depth prevails, less p e r m e a b l e to the air u n d less wholesome to the growing roots. ( 5 6 7 - 9 )
Of subsoil ploughing
and forking.
A b e r im Allgemeinen d o c h a deep soil sehr superior in value to a shallow
soil of the same n a t u r e . ... in m a n y cases the available qualities of deep
soils bis jezt vernachlässigt. Das general principle, daß je tiefer der B o d e n
desto besser er k a n n be cropped without the risk of exhaustion u n d desto
308
35
grösser die variety of crops, deep as well as shallowrooted ... A soil is virtually shallow where a few inches of p o r o u s earth, often t u r n e d by the plough,
rest u p o n a subsoil, hard, stiff u n d almost impervious ... a subsoil m u s t be
dried, o p e n e d u p , mellowed by the air, a n d r e n d e r e d at once pervious u n d
5 wholesome to the roots of plants, before it can be m a d e available for t h e
growth of corn. D i e ß zu bewirken, after draining, d u r c h d e n use des subsoil
plough, an i n s t r u m e n t equalled only (at present) by the fork, for giving a
real, practical, a n d m o n e y v a l u e to stiff u n d h i t h e r t o almost worthless
clayey subsoils. It is an auxiliary b o t h to the surface plough u n d to t h e
10 drain. 1) Der surface p l o u g h t u r n s over a n d loosens the soil zur Tiefe von
6 - 1 0 inches, der subsoil plough tears o p e n u n d loosens ihn weiter to a further depth of 8 or 10 inches. So erhält das water a more easy descent, u n d
die air penetrates u n d die roots m o r e readily m a k e their way a m o n g t h e
particles of the undersoil. So an auxiliary to the c o m m o n plough u n d as15 sists it in aerating u n d mellowing t h e soil. 2) auxiliary to the drain. Fehler
aber oft daß m a n das d r a i n n i c h t vorher angewandt. T h e s a m e e n d which is
gained durch d e n subsoil plough a u c h attained durch die fork. W i t h this
simple three-pronged i m p l e m e n t der subsoil loosened or t u r n e d over to a
depth of 10 or 12 inches after the top soil has b e e n t a k e n off a n d thrown
20 forward by the c o m m o n spade. ... loosens the subsoil even m o r e c o m pletely als der subsoil plough. ( 5 6 9 - 5 7 1 )
Of deep ploughing and trenching.
Sein Characteristicum to bring up to the surface and to m i x | | 5 1 | with the
upper soil a portion of that which h a s lain long at a considerable depth, a n d
25 has b e e n m o r e or less u n d i s t u r b e d . Bekannt, d a ß schwerer Regenfall sinks
in den soil u n d carries down m i t sich such readily soluble substances als er
auf der Oberfläche findet. A b e r a u c h a n d r e m i n d e r lösbare S u b s t a n z e n ,
slowly u n d gradually, finden i h r e n way in d e n subsoil u n d bleiben dort
m e h r oder less p e r m a n e n t . D a r u n t e r gypsum u n d die d e m W a c h s t h u m der
30 Pflanzen n ü t z l i c h e n Silicates of p o t a s h u n d soda. Sie naturally a c c u m u l a t e
u n t e r d e m reach des gewöhnlichen Pfluges. Insoluble substances likewise
slowly sink. So lime, when laid u p o n or ploughed into the land. So clay
wenn mixed m i t a surface soil of sand or peat. Alle descend bis ausser d e m
Bereich des c o m m o n plough u n d schneller w e n n das land is laid down in
35 grass als w e n n sie constantly brought to the surface again in arable culture.
So geschiehts, daß n a c h d e m der surface soil exhausted von einer oder der
andren c o m p o u n d s die die crops require, an a m p l e supply davon n o c h im
subsoil present, obgleich, u n t i l t u r n e d up, werthlos. So ein P ä c h t e r m i t al-
309
lern Dünger, lime etc n u r mittelmässige crops. Pflügt n u r zu 3 oder
4 inches. Der folgende zu 7 oder 8. He t h u s brings to t h e surface the lime
a n d the a c c u m u l a t e d m a n u r e s which have naturally sunk, a n d which his
predecessor has permitted J a h r n a c h J a h r to bury themselves in his subsoil.
He t h u s has a new, often a rich, a n d almost always a virgin soil to work
u p o n - o n e which from being long buried, m a y require a winter's exposure
a n d mellowing in the air, die aber in d e n m e i s t e n Fällen zahlt für die Extracost. D a s deep ploughing, das zu 14 inches descends, oder das trenching
das brings up a new soil von der depth of 20 or 30 inches n u r an extension
of the s a m e practice. So n e u e r B o d e n für die Pflanzen zu i h r e n W u r z e l n
gebracht, a u c h i h n e n afforded a deeper u n d m o r e o p e n subsoil t h r o u g h
which their fibres m a y proceed in every direction in search of food. D o c h
full benefit erst after draining, for it matters n o t how deep the loosened a n d
p e r m e a b l e soils m a y be, if the a c c u m u l a t i o n of water prevent the roots
from descending. ... Aber a u c h möglich daß der deeper soil m a y c o n t a i n
some substance decidedly n o x i o u s to vegetation. ... Der subsoil plough
u n d der drain sind die most certain available r e m e d i e s für such a state of
the subsoil. In m a n y localities, however, the exposure of such an u n d e r s o i l
to a winter's frost, or to a s u m m e r fallow, will so far improve a n d mellow it,
as to r e n d e r it capable of being safely m i x e d with the surface soil. Unless,
however, this mellowing be effected at once, a n d before a d m i x t u r e a long
t i m e m a y elapse ere the entire soil attain to its m o s t perfect condition. (Der
M a r q u i s von Tweeddale, in his h o m e farm at Yester, has raised his l a n d in
value 8 x (von 5 zu 40 sh. per acre) by draining u n d deep ploughing. After
draining, the fields of stiff clay, with streaks of sand in the subsoil, are
t u r n e d over to a depth of 12 or 14 inches, by 2 ploughs (2 horses each) following one another, the u n d e r 6 inches being thrown on the top. In this
state it is left to the winter's frost, when it falls to a yellow marly looking
soil. D a n n ploughed again to a d e p t h von 9 oder 10 inches, w o d u r c h half
t h e original soil is brought again to the surface. By a cross ploughing this is
m i x e d with the new soil, after which the field is prepared in the u s u a l way
for turnips.) In m a n c h e n districts m e h r schädliche Insects. Diese, ihre eggs
oder larvae generally bury themselves in the u n d i s t u r b e d soil, u n m i t t e l b a r
ausser d e m ordinary reach des Pflugs. W e n n sie gänzlich ungestört bleiben
w ä h r e n d der Z u b e r e i t u n g des Bodens, some species r e m a i n in a d o r m a n t
state u n d der s u b s e q u e n t crop m a y in a great m e a s u r e escape. Pflüge das
L a n d tiefer als gewöhnlich u n d you bring t h e m all to the surface. G e schiehts im Herbst, u n d leave your land u n s o w n u n d der frost of a severe
winter m a y kill the greater part, so that your crops m a y thereafter grow in
safety. But cover t h e m up again with your winter corn, or let this deep
ploughing be d o n e in the spring, a n d you bring all these insects within the
310
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
reach of t h e early sun, a n d t h u s call t h e m to life in s u c h n u m b e r s as almost
to ensure t h e destruction of your c o m i n g crop. ( 5 7 1 - 7 4 )
Improvement of the soil by mixing.
5
Einige soils so offen defective in c o m p o s i t i o n d a ß der gewöhnlichste observer sehn k a n n wie sie zu verbessern d u r c h m e c h a n i c a l a d m i x t u r e s of various kinds. Peaty soils h a b e n oft zu viel vegetable m a t t e r ; a m i x t u r e of
earthy substances of almost any c o m m o n kind verbessert. So g e b e n wir
consistence d e n sandy soils d u r c h a d m i x t u r e von clay u n d o p e n n e s s u n d
porosity d e n stiff clays d u r c h die a d d i t i o n von Sand. ... F e h l t d e m clay
ζ. Β. aber s o m e necessary c o n s t i t u e n t of a fertile soil, so k a n n der S a n d
zwar die physical alteration hervorbringen, aber s o m e o t h e r s u b s t a n c e
d a n n nöthig u m d e n n ö t h i g e n c h e m i c a l change z u bewirken. D i e Z u m i schung von clay zu peaty u n d sandy soils bewirken n i c h t n u r den physical
change, d e n B o d e n firmer oder solider zu m a c h e n , sondern bewirken a u c h
15 c h e m i s c h e n c h a n g e ; sie e r h a l t e n v o m clay s o m e der m i n e r a l substances die
sie früher c o n t a i n e d in less a b u n d a n c e . D i e a d d i t i o n von m a r l to t h e l a n d
wirkt a u c h in a similar twofold capacity. M a c h t claylands m o r e o p e n u n d
friable, a n d to all soils brings an a d d i t i o n of carbonate u n d generally of
p h o s p h o r a t e of lime, b e i d e absolut nöthig zur g e s u n d e n Vegetation. A b e r
20 b e i m Pächter i m m e r die Frage des Profits ... a larger r e t u r n m a y be obt a i n e d by t h e i n v e s t m e n t of m o n e y in p u r c h a s i n g new t h a n in improving
old lands. It is quite true that t h e country at large is no gainer by t h e m e r e
transfer of t h e land from [|52| the h a n d s of A to those of Β u n d der sicher
der verdienstlichste Bürger, der, by e x p e n d i n g his m o n e y in improving t h e
10
25
soil adds to the b r e a d t h of t h e land, in causing it to yield a larger p r o d u c e .
Yet it is n o t less true t h a t t h e e m p l o y m e n t of individual capital in s u c h imp r o v e m e n t is n o t to be expected generally to take place unless it be m a d e to
appear that such an i n v e s t m e n t is likely to be as profitable as any o t h e r
within t h e r e a c h of its possessor. ...
311
alternate hills von Sand (3) u n d hollows u n d flats of clay (4), m a n y spots
wo diese b e i d e n kinds of soil n a h b e i e i n a n d e r verbessert werden k ö n n t e n
d u r c h m u t u a l a d m i x t u r e at a cost of l a b o u r which the alteration in der
quality des lands m i g h t be well expected to repay. In dieser Lage ein b e trächtlicher Theil der Grafschaft D u r h a m u n d besonders die neighbour5
h o o d von Castle Eden, wo a cold, stiff, at present oft poorly productive clay
rests u p o n red, richlooking, loamy sand, in m a n y places easily accessible.
In this wie in vielen a n d r e n localities, die G e l d i n t e r e s s e n t e n des L a n d e s
often rest satisfied that their fields are i n c a p a b l e of such i m p r o v e m e n t or
would give no a d e q u a t e return for the outlay required, - Ausser solchen gen10
eral a d m i x t u r e s für die Verbesserung von L a n d , the geological formation of
certain districts places within the r e a c h of its intellegent farmers m e a n s of
i m p r o v e m e n t of a special kind ... thus b o t h in E u r o p e a n d in A m e r i c a the
green-sand soils are found to be very fertile, u n d die sandy portion of its form a t i o n oft in easy distance of the stiff clays of the gault u n d die poor soils
15
der chalk, with either of which they m i g h t be m i x e d with m o s t beneficial
effects. D i e soils die rest auf d e m new u n d selbst some parts des old red
sandstone, are in like m a n n e r oft in an available distance of beds of red
m a r l of a very fertilizing character, while in the granitic, a n d trap districts
the materials of which these rocks consist may, by a j u d i c i o u s a d m i x t u r e ,
20
be m a d e materially to benefit some of the n e i g h b o u r i n g soils. ( 5 7 5 - 8 )
Improvement of the Soil by Chemical means.
Die c h e m i c a l m e t h o d s of improving the soil b e r u h n auf folgenden Principien: 1) Die Pflanzen erhalten von a fertile soil a variable proportion ihrer
organic food, of their nitrogen wahrscheinlich d e n greatest part. 2) Inorga25
n i s c h e substances, die sie n u r v o m B o d e n erhalten. 3) Verschiedne species
von Pflanzen erheischen a special supply of different kinds of inorganic
food, or of the same kinds, in different proportions. 4) Die inorganic substance, m a g E i n B o d e n a b u n d a n t oder deficient sein, another soil in another; u n d indeß daher this or that plant will prefer to grow on t h e o n e or
30
the other accordingly. D a r a u f b e r u h t die ganze K u n s t of improving d e n soil
by c h e m i c a l m e a n s . Es giebt 3 distinct m e t h o d s of operation by which a
soil m a y be improved: 1) By removing from it s o m e noxious ingredient. D i e ß
n u r möglich durch draining, providing an outlet by which it m a y escape
oder wodurch der R e g e n oder water applied in artificial irrigation m a y 35
wash it away. 2) D u r c h changing the n a t u r e or state of c o m b i n a t i o n of s o m e
n o x i o u s ingredient, die wir n i c h t soon remove k ö n n e n im obigen W e g ;
oder of some inert ingredient, which, in its existing condition, is unfit to
312
Heft XIII. Seite 52
b e c o m e food for plants. D i e ß sind rein c h e m i s c h e Processe u n d wir setzen
sie respectively in practice w h e n we add l i m e to peaty soils, or to s u c h as
a b o u n d in t h e sulphate or other hurtful salts of iron, w h e n by a d m i t t i n g t h e
air into the subsoil we c h a n g e the prot-oxide into the per-oxide of iron, or
5 when by adding certain k n o w n c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d s we p r o d u c e similar
beneficial c h e m i c a l alterations u p o n other c o m p o u n d s already existing in
the soil. 3) By adding to the soil those substances which are fitted to b e come the food of plants. ... dieß geschieht d u r c h das eigentliche manuring
the soil, obgleich wir u n a b l e in vielen cases to say, ob das von u n s h i n z u g e 10 fügte promotes vegetation by actually feeding t h e plant and entering into
his substance, or only by preparing food for it. G r u n d zu glauben, d a ß
m a n y substances, wie Potasche, Soda etc act in several capacities, n o w preparing food for the plant in the soil, now bearing it into the living circulation, a n d now actually entering into the perfect substance of the growing
15
vegetable. ... Saline oder mineral manures, Vegetable Manures, Animal Manures. (579-581)1
|53| At the foot of M o u n t E t n a , whenever a crevice (Riß, Spalte) appears
in the old lavas, a b r a n c h or j o i n t of an Opuntia (Cactus O p u n t i a - E u r o p e a n Indian-fig) is stuck in, w h e n the roots i n s i n u a t e themselves into every
20 fissure, expand, a n d finally break up the lava into fragments. These plants
are t h u s n o t only t h e m e a n s of p r o d u c i n g a soil, b u t they yield also m u c h
fruit, which is sold as a refreshing fruit t h r o u g h o u t all the towns of Sicily.
(633, 4)
Permanent Pasture or Meadow. W h e n land is laid down to p e r m a n e n t grass,
it undergoes a series of c h a n g e s : a) W e n n grass seeds are sown for t h e purpose of forming a p e r m a n e n t sward (Rasen), a rich crop of grass is o b t a i n e d
during the first, u n d vielleicht a u c h das 2te Jahr, b u t n a c h 3 oder 4 J a h r e n
das produce lessens u n d der value der pasture diminishes. Die plants gradually die u n d leave blank spaces, a n d these again are slowly filled up by t h e
30 sprouting of seeds of other species, which have either lain long b u r i e d in
the soil or have b e e n brought t h i t h e r by the winds. Dieser first change, fast
i m m e r bemerkt in fields of artificial grass, arises theils von d e m c h a n g e des
Bodens selbst during t h e few years the grass seeds were sown, u n d z u m
Theil von der species von grass selected n o t being s u c h as the soil, at any
35 time, could p e r m a n e n t l y sustain, b) W h e n this deterioration, arising from
the dying out of the sown grasses, seinen u t m o s t point erreichte, t h e sward
begins gradually to improve, n a t u r a l grasses suited to the soil spring up in
the blank places u n d J a h r z u J a h r das p r o d u c e b e c o m e s greater u n d t h e
land yields a m o r e valuable pasture. D i e ß aber erreicht wieder e i n e n
40 W e n d e p u n k t , wenn vielleicht a u c h erst n a c h A b l a u f einer lease oder selbst
25
315
für die lifetime eines single observer, c) This again is owing to a new
change which has c o m e over the soil. It has b e c o m e , in s o m e degree, exhausted of those substances die nöthig sind to the growth of the m o r e valuable grasses; less nutritive species, therefore, a n d s u c h as are less willingly
e a t e n by cattle, take their place. ... t h e rich grass lands of our fathers are
5
found now in too m a n y cases to yield a herbage of little value. H e n c e , also,
in nearly all countries, o n e of the first steps of improving agriculture is to
plough o u t the old u n d failing pastures, u n d entweder p e r m a n e n t sie in arable fields zu verwandeln, oder n a c h a few years cropping u n d m a n u r i n g ,
again to lay t h e m down to grass. But w h e n thus ploughed out, the surface 10
soil u p o n old grass l a n d is found to have u n d e r g o n e a remarkable alteration. W h e n sown with grass seeds, it m a y have b e e n a stiff, m o r e or less
grey, blue, or yellow clay—when ploughed out it consists to a certain depth
of a rich brown, generally light and friable vegetable m o u l d . Or when laid
down it m a y have been a pale-coloured, red, or yellow sand or loam. In this
15
case the surface soil is still, w h e n t u r n e d u p , of a rich brown colour, it is
lighter only a n d m o r e sandy t h a n in the former case, a n d rests u p o n a subsoil of land or l o a m instead of o n e of clay. It is from the p r o d u c t i o n of this
change that the i m p r o v e m e n t caused by laying l a n d down to grass principally results. ( 7 4 8 - 5 0 ) We c a n n o t tell how often different kinds of grass 20
succeed each other u p o n the soil, b u t we know that the final rich sward
which covers a grass field when it has reached its m o s t valuable condition,
is the result of a long series of n a t u r a l changes which t i m e only can bring
about. (753)
Improvement of the Soil by the Planting of trees.
Seit lang beobachtet von practical m e n , d a ß w e n n a r m e , d ü n n e , u n p r o d u c tive soils für some t i m e bedeckt m i t Holz\wood, ihre quality materially improves. In the intervals of the open forest they will p r o d u c e a valuable herbage, or when cleared of trees they m a y for some t i m e be m a d e to yield
profitable crops of corn. (755) T h e m a i n cause of this i m p r o v e m e n t besteht
in d e m n a t u r a l m a n u r i n g m i t recent vegetable matter, to which the soil
year by year is so long subjected. Trees u n t e r s c h e i d e n sich von grasses n u r
darin, daß die leztren enrich the soil b o t h by their root u n d by their leaves,
the former m a n u r e its surface only by the leaves which they shed. T h e
leaves of trees, like those of the grasses, c o n t a i n m u c h inorganic matter,
a n d this when annually spread u p o n the ground slowly adds to the d e p t h as
well as to the richness of the soil. ... deeprooted trees verbessern d e n
B o d e n m e h r als such, die gleich der Esche, spread themselves along at the
316
25
30
35
depth sometimes of a few inches only, a n d t h u s draw their s u s t e n a n c e from
the surface soil itself. ... U n t e r d e n overshadowing b r a n c h e s eines forest,
der soil v o m W i n d geschüzt u n d dieser protection schreibt Sprengel so viel
zu von d e m rapid i m p r o v e m e n t so generally experienced where land is
covered m i t wood. T h e winds b e a r along particles of earthy matter, which
they deposit again in ||54| still forests; and t h u s gradually form a soil even
o n the m o s t n a k e d places. ( 7 5 5 - 8 )
317
?
Alison: Nachtrag.
If a boundless store of subsistence is provided for m a n k i n d in the multiplication of fish in incalculable quantities in the arctic region, whether of the
n o r t h e r n or the southern h e m i s p h e r e , a progress is going forward in the
milder regions of the Pacific, not less fitted in the e n d to extend the m e a n s
of h u m a n subsistence, and multiply the fields of h u m a n industry. A m i d s t
t h e verdant slopes a n d s u n n y isles of t h e Pacific; in regions blessed with
perpetual spring, and in an ocean which is hardly ever ruffled by a tempest u o u s gale, the process of creation is going on with ceaseless activity; a n d
myriads of insects, hardly visible to t h e h u m a n eye, are preparing b e n e a t h
the glassy wave, a future c o n t i n e n t of vast extent for the h a b i t a t i o n of m a n .
T h e whole islands which stretch from the western coast of South A m e r i c a
a n d the foot of the A n d e s , to the shores of Australia, a n d t h e Alps of N e w
Z e a l a n d a n d form as it were a z o n e of paradise a r o u n d the globe, are, with
a very few exceptions, composed of coral reefs, some of which are still
nearly on the level of the original elements in which they were formed,
while others have b e e n raised up into islands and m o u n t a i n s by the force of
central heat. T h e intervening ocean is in great part filled with these infant
islands a n d continents, which are slowly b u t certainly rising to the surface
of the water, a n d which, from being altogether invisible except in a ruffled
sea, constitute the chief danger of navigation in those heavenly climates.
As soon as the little architects of these s u b m a r i n e c o n t i n e n t s have brought
their fabric to the surface of the water, they t e r m i n a t e their labours, a n d
transfer elsewhere the ceaseless activity of their tribes; the o c e a n labourers
have d o n e their work; terrestrial agents a n d a n i m a l s take the embryo contin e n t from the tenants of the deep. Subterraneous fires elevate some of t h e
aquatic strata into lofty m o u n t a i n s , while others, the destined plains of the
world, are subjected to a process m o r e slow, b u t in the e n d n o t less efficacious. I n n u m e r a b l e aquatic birds perch at intervals on the tiny s u m m i t s
318
5
10
15
20
25
Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population (Nachtrag)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
which rise above the flood, a n d by their droppings c o m m e n c e the formation of earth; m a r i n e plants clasp r o u n d t h e projecting points, a n d fill up
the n u m e r o u s cavities of the coral reefs; the ceaseless agitation of t h e
ocean wafts to t h e m the b r a n c h e s , leaves, a n d vegetable r e m a i n s which are
floating a b o u t in those tepid seas, or have b e e n washed from the shores of
their n u m e r o u s islands. Successive generations of m a r i n e a n i m a l s leave
their r e m a i n s on its surface, a n d at length the n a k e d rock assumes the consistency of an earthy c o n t i n e n t . T h e transition is m a d e from m a r i n e to terrestrial formation. T h e process of terrestrial creation t h e n c o m m e n c e s ; the
tribes of s e m i m a r i n e plants first begin to flourish on t h e surface hardly yet
emerged from the d e e p ; n e x t a salt m a r s h appears filled with the r a n k luxuriance of tropical vegetation, a n d in the course of ages it b e c o m e s filled
with the h u g e lizards, crocodiles, saurian a n d aquatic a n i m a l s of infant existence; and they, in their t u r n , after having r u n their span of life, contrib u t e to swell the a m p h i b i o u s r e m a i n s which are conspiring in the ceaseless
work of creation. F r o m t h e m i n g l e d a n i m a l a n d vegetable deposit of successive generations, an alluvial soil is finally formed, slowly the solid earth
rises above the level of its a q u e o u s cradle, t h e t e n a n t s of the deep forsake a
region no longer fitted for their h a b i t a t i o n , the dove appears with t h e olive
b r a n c h from the abodes of terrestrial life, a green turf springs up on t h e surface of the rich alluvial soil which so m a n y ages, a n d the c o m b i n e d efforts
of so m a n y generations of ani||55|mated life when living, a n d their r e m a i n s
when dead, have c o n t r i b u t e d to form; flights of birds from the nearest islands in quest of their prey bring the seeds of the adjacent land suited to
the soil; the grassy surface is e n a m e l l e d with the flowers and the colour of
spring; trees take root on the fertile expanse, a n d , from the a n n u a l fall of
their leaves, a rich deposit of vegetable earth is rapidly formed, on w h i c h
the harvests and the pastures of future n a t i o n s are destined to be reared. ...
It is impossible to form an estimate of the extent of the surface, which, in a
climate enjoying a perpetual spring, is t h u s preparing for h u m a n habitation; b u t if we cast our eyes on the globe, a n d survey the vast z o n e of islands in the Pacific, m a r k i n g the direction where this s u b m a r i n e c o n t i n e n t
is forming, it may safely be affirmed, that it will o n e day, to all h u m a n app e a r a n c e , equal, if not exceed, in expanse, the vast surface of the asiatic
continent. At least 20 millions of r j m i l e s , capable of containing 5 X the
whole present i n h a b i t a n t s of the globe in affluence u n d plenty, are there in
the course of creation, a n d slowly b u t certainly acquiring consistency in
the depths of the ocean, to rise by alluvial formation above the level of t h e
deep, or be elevated by the awful power of internal fire into the Alps a n d
the A n d e s of a future world. O n e m o s t remarkable circumstance deserves
particular attention, in t h e formation of the great terrestrial regions of t h e
319
southern hemisphere. M a l t e Brun has told us that all the coralreefs and all
the chains of m o u n t a i n s r u n from n o r t h to s o u t h t h r o u g h the whole of
these latitudes. But the winds blow with as invariable regularity, a n d t h e
currents set in from east to west. T h u s a certain provision is m a d e for the
deposit of the ocean being intercepted on the n u m e r o u s bars which insect
5
labour has shot across its wide expanse, a n d terrestrial formation assumes
the character of long promontories, delicious islands, a n d narrow strips of
land, intersected and s u r r o u n d e d by frequent c h a n n e l s of the sea. Such, accordingly, is precisely the character of the i m m e n s e archipelago of Eastern
Oceanica. H o w beautiful the provision thus m a d e for the creation of l a n d 10
in s u c h a form as will t e m p e r the fiery heats of these tropical regions by t h e
cool breezes of the adjacent Ocean. P r o m p t e d by a mysterious instinct, the
coral insects direct the labours of their successive generations in the very
way calculated to form future and delightful abodes for civilized m a n ; a n d
while performing their little functions in life, are laying the foundations of 15
straits exceeding the Bosphorus, a n d seas outstripping the Aegean, in fragrance a n d beauty, (t. II, 4 9 6 - 5 0 3 . )
1
320
Aus The Economist. Juni 1851
I56| Economist. 28 June 1851.
Stand der Zuckerproduction 1828 nach der lezten Ausgabe
von McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, (p. 1485)
5
1) British
Possessions.
2) Foreign
freelabour
produce
Tons
Westindies 210,500
10
Mauritius
British
India
18,000
7,800
3) Foreign
Slave labour,
Tons
Java
5,000
Mauritius, 10,000
Siam, etc
Beet Root, 7,000
Europe
Tons
Cuba und
Portorico
Brazil
65,000
Dutch Guiana 10,000
+
28,000
Lousiana
20,000
French Colonies 50,000
Danish und
Swedish
15
tons
10,000
236,300
22,000
Alles zusammen 441,300 tons. Dagegen
183,000.
Production of Sugar in 1850.
1) Free labour.
20
25
30
2) Slave Labour.
tons
260,000
British Possessions
Foreign free labour:
Java
90,000
Manilla, Siam und China
30,000
United States Maple Sugar
70,000
French Westindies und Bourbon 60,000
Europe beet-root
190,000
Total of free labour sugar
700,000
tons
Cuba
250,000
Porto Rico
46,000
Brazil
110,000
Dutch Westindies
13,000
Danish
8,000
Lousiana United States 124,000
zusammen 440,000
551,600
3) Grand Total.
1,251,000
(p. 698)
A u s diesen Z a h l e n folgt: 1) Die T o t a l z u c k e r p r o d u k t i o n in der Welt gewachsen in 22 J a h r e n von 441,300 tons auf 1,251,000 tons. 2) W ä h r e n d
1828 n u r 22,000 tons von 441,000 d u r c h free labour producirt waren, 1850
dagegen 700,000 von 1,251,000. 1828 n u r 5 % der g a n z e n Z u c k e r p r o d u c t i o n
321
of free labour Zucker u n d 9 5 % aus slavelabour sugar 1850 dagegen 5 6 %
n u n free labour sugar u n d n u r 44 % of slavelabour. In k e i n e m L a n d die Prod u c t i o n in solchem Verhältniß gewachsen als in Java, M a n i l l a u n d Siam.
(I.e.)
Irische Bevölkerung.
5
N a c h d e m official return die Z a h l der E m i g r a n t s von Irland 1850: 207,853.
1 8 4 3 - 1 8 4 7 Der a n n u a l average der emigration 69,687; 1 8 4 7 - 1 8 5 0 :
204,651. M a n k a n n r e c h n e n von 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 5 0 : 1,188,051. 1841 war die Bevölkerung von Irland 8,175,124; 1831 n u r 7,767,401, 4,5 per Jahr. 1850 die
p o p u l a t i o n wahrscheinlich n i c h t viel ü b e r 7,000,000. (701.) N a c h d e m 10
Fourth Annual Report der Poorlaw Commissioners, just (Ende Juni) presented to
Parliament:
Rate of Mortality in Workhouses per 1,000 Inmates weekly:
Date.
Maximum.
3
6
8
30
5
3
23
14
15
25.3
April 1847
November 1847
Januar 1848
September 1848
May 1849
November 1849
March
December 1850
March 1851
Minimum.
15
5.0
11.8.
2.6
12.4
2.4
2.4
6.4
H ä t t e die R a t e v o m 3 März 1847 zu 25.3 wöchentlich fortgedauert, so
alle 1000 gestorben vor d e m E n d e von 10 m o n t h s , (p. 700) |
322
20
6.1
25
Aus The Economist. Juli 1851
|57| The Economist. July 5.1851.
Frankreich
und
England.
1835
5
Total importations
of all kinds
Total exportations:
10
1850
frs
£
fr.
£St.
760,700,000
834,400,000
1,595,100,000
30,280,000
33,376,000
63,656,000
2,565,000,000
102,600,000
Der increase also 969,900,000 f. oder 38,944,000 I. Also für Volk von fast
40 Mill, giebt k a u m 11. auf d e n Kopf der g a n z e n Bevölkerung.
Commerce of the United Kingdom. 1835 und 1850.
1835.
f
15
20
Imports
Export of British
Exports of foreign
Produce
manufacture
48,911,000
47,372,000
12,797,000
£ 109,080,000
1850.
100,460,000 £
71,359,000
21,893,000
£ 193,712,000
Net Increase von £ 84,632,000.
England m i t seinen 28 millions W a c h s t h u m at the rate of 3 I. per h e a d .
Aber von diesen 15 J a h r e n bis 1842 strikte Protection in England.
323
Commerce of France 1842 und 1850.
1842.
Total Imports
Total Exports
1850.
fcs
£
fcs
£ St.
1,142,000,000
940,300,000
2,082,300,000
45,680,000
37,612,000
83,292,000
2,565,000,000
102,600,000
5
Commerce of the United Kingdom. 1842 und 1850.
1842.
£
1850.
Imports
65,204,000
100,460,000
Exports of British Manufacture 47,381,000
71,359,000
Exports of foreign produce 13,584,000
21,893,000
126,169,000
193,712,000
( A n n u a l F i n a n c e A c c o u n t s 1843 p. 128 u n d 1851 p. 122)
10
D e r N e t Increase von F r a n k r e i c h d a h e r von 1 8 4 2 - 1 8 5 0 : 19,308,000 1.,
ungefähr 10 sh. per Kopf der g a n z e n Bevölkerung. D e r Zuwachs von England 67,543,000 /. oder 2 / . 8 sh. per Kopf. A b e r die Exports in F r a n c e still
kept n a c h d e m old official value u n d nicht n a c h d e m real oder declared
value. Setzen wir für E n g l a n d a u c h den official value so k o m m t 1842 für
Exports von brittischen W a a r e n 100,260,000 u n d 1850: 175,416,000 u n d if
das 1842 erhaltne war n o c h Total 179,048,000 /., für 1850: 297,769,000 /.
G i e b t e i n e n increase von 118,721,000/. in 8 J a h r e n statt 19,308,000 in
F r a n c e , der former at the rate von m e h r als 4 /. per h e a d . (726, 7)
15
Irische
20
Bevölkerung.
D i e ß m a l giebt er die official r e t u r n s , »we frankly acknowledge, that, after
m a k i n g the most liberal allowance for emigration, we were n o t prepared for
the dismal tale which the actual e n u m e r a t i o n of the People of Ireland u n folds :«
25
Abstract of the Irish Census in 1841 und 1851.
Houses. Inhabited.
uninhabited, built
building
Total
324
1841
1851
1,328,839
52,208
3,313
1,384,360
1,047,735
65,159
2,113
1,115,007. (728) |
30
H e f t XIV
m XIV
Dureau de Lamalle.
Économie Politique des Romains.
Paris. 1840.
5
Tome
I.
Livre I. Maasse. Geld. Census und Cadaster.
A R o m e , la société forme d e u x classes distinctes, la p r e m i è r e c o m p o s é e
des propriétaires fonciers (vivant de leurs revenus), la seconde de leurs serviteurs ou des pauvres, (vivant des gages.) Cette seconde classe est dans la
10 d é p e n d a n c e directe de la première. (3.) Celle qui vit de ses profits, les m a r chands, les manufacturiers, y est si faible q u ' o n p e u t à peine la compter.
(1. c.) Un peuple guerrier et agricole, pour ainsi dire sans c o m m e r c e ni m a n u f a c t u r e s ; les propriétés très divisées, p e u de terres affermées; dans ces
sortes de biens le fermage payé en n a t u r e par u n e portion fixe des produits.
15 Enfin la terre productive, le capital employé à son exploitation souvent
l'ouvrier chargé de la culture, les bestiaux, les engrais, les outils et les inst r u m e n t s nécessaires, étaient tous la propriété de la m ê m e p e r s o n n e . (4)
325
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV
Poids et mesures des Romains.
Die E i n h e i t des Längenmaasses bei d e n R ö m e r n der Fuß, getheilt in 4 palmes u n d der p a l m e in 4 doigts. (10) Die unité agraire war das jugerum, getheilt in 2 actus quadratus, dieser = un carré de 120 pieds r o m a i n s de côte,
verfällt in 4 clima; der clima = 36 d e c e m p e d a q u a d r a t a u n d dieser
= 100 pieds carrés. (1. c.)
D i e unité de capacité war die amphora oder quadrantal = 2 urnes = 3 modius. D i e a m p h o r a = un pied cube. (11)
5
D i e unité de poids der as oder libra, getheilt in 12 Unzen, j e d e U n z e in
24 scrupula, also 288 Scrupeln auf das Pfund. ([11,] 12) l'eau de pluie cont e n u e d a n s l ' a m p h o r e pesait e x a c t e m e n t 80 livres r o m a i n e s . (14)
ίο
Monnaies
Romaines.
D i e R ö m e r h a t t e n ursprünglich G e l d von b r o n z e coulée très lourde. D i e
u n i t é m o n é t a i r e war der as de bronze d'un livre (aes grave, e m e r e per aes et
libram). 485 schlug m a n des deniers d'argent valant 10 as libraux de b r o n z e ,
15
diese deniers waren 40 à la livre ; 510 schlug m a n 75 deniers à la livre u n d
j e d e r denier n o c h = 10 as, aber 10 as von 4 U n z e n . 513 der as reducirt auf
2 U n z e n u n d der denier, i m m e r = 10 as, n u r n o c h ] / des Pfundes Silber.
Leztre Zahl,
hielt sich bis z u m E n d e der Republik, aber 537 galt der d e nier 16 as d ' u n e o n c e u n d 665 n u r m e h r 16 as einer h a l b e n U n z e . D e r de- 20
nier = 2 quinaires u n d der q u i n a i r e = 2 sesterces. (15, 16) 547 schlugen
die R ö m e r Goldgeld, 1 s c r u p u l u m für 20 sestercia, später 40 deniers ou aureus à la livre. Also das Goldgeld anfangs b e z o g e n auf das s c r u p u l u m , später auf das Pfund. ([16,] 17)
M
E i n römisches Pfund G o l d = 1124 frcs jetziges G e l d u n d ein livre d'argent 25
p u r = 72fcs. (die D e c i m a l t h e i l e fortgelassen.) ... Bei d e n R ö m e r n G o l d
u n d Silber ungefähr = 1 7 : 1 . A b e r als der a u r e u s g e m a c h t w u r d e = 1 2 : 1 .
(40, 1) D e r a u r e u s u n t e r Caesar = 27 f. 95 c, u n t e r A u g u s t = 26 f. 89 c,
u n t e r N e r o = 25 fs. 42 c, von G a l b a bis zu d e n A n t o n i n s = 24 f. 93 c. (44)
D e r solidus u n t e r C o n s t a n t i n = 15 f. 53 c, später im D u r c h s c h n i t t 15 f. 30
10 c. (46) Der denarius (Silber) a. 485 der R e p u b l i k = 1 f. 63, 510 = 0 f. 87,
5 1 3 - 7 0 7 = Of. 78. (448) V o n G a l b a bis d e n A n t o n i n s 1 fc. (450)
326
ψ'
Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains
Rapports
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
des
Métaux précieux.
Gold lang vor d e m Silber angewandt, weil es sich rein oder n u r m i t ein wenig Silber alliirt vorfindet, on l'obtient p a r un simple lavage. D a s Silber
existirt im A l l g e m e i n e n in filons encastrés d a n s les roches les plus dures
des terrains primitifs ; il exige, p o u r son extraction des m a c h i n e s et des travaux compliqués de Poryctognosie. ... D a n s l'amérique m é r i d i o n a l e das or
en filons nicht exploitirt, s o n d e r n das or disséminé en p o u d r e et en grains
dans les terrains d'alluvions. E b e n s o zur Zeit des Herodot. ([48,] 49) Die
ältesten M o n u m e n t e v o n G r i e c h e n l a n d , Asien, N o r d e u r o p a u n d der N e u e n
Welt beweisen, d a ß der G e b r a u c h des G o l d e s en ustensiles u n d bijoux p e u t
très bien s'allier avec un état de choses voisin de la barbarie, w ä h r e n d der
emploi d'argent z u m selben Zweck d é n o t e par lui seul un état social assez
avancé. [49] ||2| In A m e r i c a fand m a n d e n G e b r a u c h von Silber n u r in M e xico u n d Peru, d e n b e i d e n civilisirtesten Staaten; sie führten a u c h allein
steinerne G e b ä u d e auf u n d besassen des h a c h e s , des ciseaux etc en cuivre,
m é t a l was sie hart u n d t r a n c h a n t m a c h t e n d u r c h eine alliage von étain,
a m a l g a m e , das u n t e r d e m N a m e n von b r o n z e u n d airain, die alten Völker
des Orients ebenfalls vor d e m Eisen a n w a n d t e n . ([50,] 51) Dasselbe gilt
von den ältesten Völkern Asiens u n d Africas; m i t A u s n a h m e v o n I n d i e n
u n d Aejypten, wo die Civilisation sehr alt. (1. c.) Wahrscheinlich, d a ß v o m
1 5 - 6 siècle avant l'ère vulgaire (in Asien etc) das Gold z u m Silber = 1 : 6
oder = 1:8, rapport, der in C h i n e u n d J a p o n bis z u m Anfang des 19 Jh. existirte u n d n i c h t = 1:13, wie H e r o d o t es fixirt für Persien u n t e r Darius,
Sohn des Hystaspes. D a s G e s e t z b u c h des M a n o u , geschrieben zwischen
1300 u n d 600 vor Chr. giebt encore un rapport plus faible, n ä m l i c h = 1:2%.
(54) Die m i n e s d'argent finden sich n u r in d e n terrains primitifs, besonders
den terrains à couches u n d in einigen filons des terrains secondaires. (54,
55) Les gangues de l'argent, statt sables d'alluvion zu sein, sind gewöhnlich
les roches les plus compactes et les plus dures, telles q u e le quartz, le pétrosilex etc. Ce m é t a l est plus c o m m u n d a n s les régions froides, soit par leur
latitude, soit par leur élévation absolue, q u e l'or, qui en général affecte les
pays c h a u d s . M a n findet das Silber selten im r e i n e n Z u s t a n d u n d selbst in
den M i n e n von Potosi, die von 1 5 4 5 - 1 6 3 8 396 millions de piastres p r o d u cirten, existirt es n u r à l'état de m u r i a t e et de sulfure noir. (55) H e u t z u t a g e
giebt es 52 x m e h r Silber als Gold, aber das Verhältniß = 1 5 : 1 . (56) D a s
cuivre natif wie das Silber a pour g i s e m e n t les terrains p r i m o r d i n a u x anciens. Das reinste u n d reichste findet sich à l'état de cuivre sulfuré ; u n t e r
der forme von cuivre gris findet m a n es m i t Silber alliirt. A b e r es findet
sich auch sehr oft an der Oberfläche der Erde, oder à de petites profon-
327
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV
deurs, aggloméré en masses pures, oft von b e t r ä c h t l i c h e m Gewicht. (Zu
Brasilien fand m a n eine Masse Kupfer von 2616 livres.) Deßwegen wohl
das Kupfer zuerst bearbeitet u n d diente es vor d e m Eisen d e n alten Völkern im Krieg u n d Frieden. (56) Im 9 Jh. vor Christi das cuivre natif sehr
a b u n d a n t in Italien, das Eisen dagegen sehr rar, p u i s q u ' i l y était importé de
la G r è c e et de l'Asie, deren Civilisation u n d I n d u s t r i e damais fortgeschrittn e r als die Italiens. ... Grosse M a s s e von cuivre brut ou frappé en circulation d a n s l'Italie, soumise aux R o m a i n s , v o m 1-5 Jh. der Republik. (57)
D e r G e b r a u c h von Gold u n d Kupfer verträgt sich m i t h a l b b a r b a r i s c h e m
Z u s t a n d . (1. c.) Eisen n i c h t g e k a n n t vor 1431 vor Chr. Selbst b e i m H o m e r
Eisen selten gegen airain, diese m é l a n g e von cuivre, Z i n k ou étain, deren
sich die griechische u n d r ö m i s c h e Gesellschaft so lang b e d i e n t e n , selbst
für h a c h e s u n d rasoirs. (58) N u n leicht zu erklären die variation de rapport
de l'or, de l'argent et du cuivre entre eux à diverses époques, et d a n s les diverses parties du m o n d e c o n n u des anciens. ([58,] 59) Das é c o u l e m e n t der
m é t a u x précieux a suivi dans l'antiquité, wenigstens bis z u m ersten Jahrh u n d e r t unsrer Z e i t r e c h n u n g u n e direction inverse de celle qu'il suit de
nos j o u r s . A m e r i c a ist j e z t seine H a u p t q u e l l e ; von A m e r i c a gehts n a c h
E u r o p e u n d von d a n a c h Asien. I n den t e m p s anciens schloß Asien die
reichsten u n d fruchtbarsten M i n e n ein. Fortgesezte Exploitation während
m e h r e n J a h r h u n d e r t e n oder vielmehr die Entvölkerung bewirkt d u r c h die
blutigen Einfälle der R ö m e r u n d d u r c h die H ä r t e ihrer Verwaltung seit der
Erobrung von M a c é d o n i e n bis zur Schlacht von A c t i u m v e r m i n d e r t e n die
P r o d u c t i o n von Gold u n d Silber. Diese Metalle flössen von Asien n a c h
G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d Italien, zuerst langsam d u r c h d e n H a n d e l , d a n n in
Grossen Strömen d u r c h die E r o b e r u n g e n der G r i e c h e n u n d R ö m e r . M a n
m a c h t sich eine Vorstellung von diesen Massen aus der Liste der trésors
royaux deren sich Alexander der Grosse b e m ä c h t i g t e , conservé von Q u i n tus Curtius, Strabo, Justinus, Arrien, Diodore u n d Plutarch. (59) Er n a h m
in d e m Feld des Darius u n d zu Babylon, Persepolis, Pasagarde, E c b a t a n allein 1,930,500,000 fcs. Seit dieser Zeit renchérissement notable in den prix de
salaire, des denrées u n d beträchtliches Steigen des i m p ô t a n n u e l . ([59,] 60)
(Folgt die A u f z ä h l u n g e n der G e g e n d e n in Asien, die das edle Metall lieferten.) W i r finden selbst bei Strabo, d a ß bei u n e n a t i o n voisine den Sabéens (asiatisches Volk) das Kupfer 3 x u n d das Silber 2 x d e n W e r t h des
Goldes hatte. Agatarchides sagt, daß diese Völker das Eisen 2 x sein G e wicht in Gold zahlten u n d 10 Pfunde Gold für 1 Pfund Silber gaben. ... bei
diesem arabischen Volke, sagt Strabo, fand sich das Gold en petites boules
grosses au m o i n s c o m m e un noyau, au plus c o m m e u n e noix, et qui n ' a vaient pas besoin ||3| d'affinage. Strabo fügt h i n z u , daß der G r u n d des n i e deren Preisses dieses Metalls zu erklären ist aus der inexpérience dieser peu-
328
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
plades arabes à travailler ce m é t a l , et d a n s la rareté des objets d ' é c h a n g e
der nothwendigsten Lebensmittel. ( 6 1 , 62) A u s s e r d e m , um das reine Gold
zu erhalten von d e n i m m e n s e s terrains d'alluvion situés zwischen d e m I n d o u - K o s h u n d d e m H i m a l a y a , bedurfte e s n u r einer einfachen W ä s c h e .
D a m a l s diese G e g e n d e n von Asien sehr bevölkert u n d folglich die m a i n
d'oeuvre sehr wohlfeil. D a s Silber, d u r c h die N a t u r de son gisement, d u r c h
d e n état d'alliage, worin es sich findet, viel schwerer a u s z u z i e h n . D i e u n v o l l k o m m e n e n procédés des m i n e u r u n d métallurgiste, die A b w e s e n h e i t
von M a s c h i n e n u n d des m o y e n s d ' é p u i s e m e n t , e n d l i c h die Schwierigkeit
der Exploitation m u ß t e n d e n W e r t h des Silbers sehr h e b e n v e r h ä l t n i ß m ä s sig zur rareté u n d zu d e n avantages respectifs des d e u x m é t a u x . (62) D e r
effet contraire producirte sich in A s i e n u n d G r i e c h e n l a n d seit d e m T o d
Alexanders. D e r G o l d s a n d erschöpfte sich; der Preiß der Sklaven u n d der
H a n d a r b e i t stieg; da die M e c h a n i k u n d G e o m e t r i e seit Euclid u n d Archim e d e s i m m e n s e Fortschritte g e m a c h t , k o n n t e m a n exploitiren m i t Vortheil
die riches filons des m i n e s d'argent de l'Asie, T h r a c i e n s u n d Spaniens u n d
da das Silber 52 x plus a b o n d a n t ist als das Gold, m u ß t e das Werthverhältn i ß der b e i d e n Metalle wechseln u n d das Pfund Gold, das zur Zeit des X e n o p h o n s , 350 Jahre vor der ère vulgaire sich gegen 10 Pfund Silber austauschte, valait 18 Pfund davon 422 J a h r e n a c h Christi G e b u r t . (62, 63)
Das c h a n g e m e n t successif zwischen Gold u n d Silber, Silber u n d Kupfer in
verschiednen E p o c h e n , m u ß t e z u n ä c h s t a b h ä n g e n von der n a t u r e d u gisem e n t de ces 3 m é t a u x , et de l'état plus ou m o i n s p u r d a n s lequel ils se trouvent. (63) Italien war im Anfang sehr a r m an G o l d u n d Silber. D i e ß L a n d
enthielt seiner geologischen Construction n a c h sehr wenige M i n e n edler
Metalle. Dagegen assez riche en cuivre natif; bis 247 vor J. C. das Kupfer
das N o r m a l Geld, die u n i t é m o n é t a i r e im mittleren Italien. Die griechischen Colonien im S ü d e n der Halbinsel zogen von G r i e c h e n l a n d oder
Asien, direkt oder d u r c h Tyros oder Carthago, das Silber wovon sie M ü n zen fabricirten seit d e m 5 u n d 6' Jh. vor J. C. (64) Trotz dieser N a c h b a r schaft, die R ö m e r aus politischen G r ü n d e n proscribirten d e n G e b r a u c h
von Gold u n d Silber. Volk u n d Senat fühlten, d a ß ein so leichtes Circulationsmittel Concentration, Z u n a h m e von Sklaven, Verfall der alten Sitten
u n d Agricultur herbeiführen w ü r d e n . (65) R o m h a t t e übrigens Silbergeld
vor 485 v. Chr. u n d vielleicht schon u n t e r d e n lezten Königen. ([65,] 66)
329
Kupfer-Silber-Münzen
und
ihr
Verhältniß.
Ursprünglich bei d e n R ö m e r n k e i n e a n d r e n M ü n z e n als die in d e n Schatz
d u r c h Erobrung k a m e n . (66) F r ü h e r b e d i e n t e m a n sich für d e n A u s t a u s c h
de m é t a l en lingots, aes r u d e . (67) Die u n i t é m o n é t a i r e war der as de
cuivre, der bis z u m ersten p u n i s c h e n Krieg ein r ö m i s c h e s Pfund wog. (68)
5
D i e m o n n a i e d'argent n ' a été frappée als von 485, früher w u r d e sie f o n d u e .
(69) Servius gab d e n R ö m e r n zuerst g e m ü n z t e s Geld. ([70,] 71) Z u r Zeit
des Servius Silber: Kupfer = 2 7 9 : 1 . (73) E i n Pfund Silber von d e n ältesten
Z e i t e n bis z u m Anfang des p u n i s c h e n Kriegs = 40 d e n a r i u s ( d a r i n e i n g e theilt.) 1 denarius (Silber) = 10 as Kupfer. D a s Pfund Kupfer verhielt sich 10
also z u m Pfund Silber = % . ([76,] 77) W ä h r e n d des ersten p u n i s c h e n
Kriegs der as (Kupfer) v e r m i n d e r t auf % seines W e r t h s oder 2 U n z e n . D e r
D e n a r i u s auf % des Pfundes Silber herabgesezt. Galt i m m e r n o c h 10 as de
cuivre, die aber n u r m e h r = 2 U n z e n . D e r rapport des g e m ü n z t e n Kupfers
z u m Silber d a h e r d a m a l s = y . (77) W ä h r e n d des langen Laufens dieses
15
Krieges s u c h t e n die R ö m e r die Erschöpfung des Schatzes d u r c h successive
altérations de la m o n n a i e zu heilen. (78) L ' a n de R o m e 537, u n t e r der Dikt a t u r von Q. F a b i u s M a x i m u s , in Folge der Unglücksfälle im Anfang des
2 p u n i s c h e n Kriegs, der As reducirt auf das G e w i c h t von einer U n z e . D e r
D e n i e r aber galt 16 as n u n statt 10. W ä h r e n d dieser Zeit das Werthverhält- 20
n i ß von Kupfer zu Silber = y . ([81,] 82) Später der as auf % U n z e reducirt ... zur Zeit der guerre sociale (665 von R o m d u r c h die lex Papiria).
( 8 2 - 8 4 ) U n t e r N e r o schon der denarius / des Pfundes Silber. (85) Seit
seiner R e d u c t i o n auf 1 U n z e war das Kupfer as n u r n o c h u n e m o n n a i e
d'appoint. Le sesterce était d e v e n u l'unité m o n é t a i r e , et t o u s les grands 25
p a i e m e n t se faisaient en argent. (84)
00
4
i40
l
u2
l
96
Gold- und Silbergeld und ihr Verhältniß.
Das Gold im Anfang sehr rar in R o m ; 365 k o n n t e n der Staat u n d die particuliers k a u m 1000 livres r é u n i r p o u r se racheter des G a u l o i s . D a s Silber
viel häufiger. D e r Besitz der spanischen M i n e n ; bis z u m Τ J a h r h u n d e r t der 30
T r i b u t der Besiegten u n d b e s o n d e r s von Carthago in Silber gezahlt, dieß
hielt das Gold auf h o h e m N i v e a u . D i e ß M e t a l l n u r in lingots gebraucht bis
547. D i e ß Jahr schlug m a n zu R o m zuerst G o l d m ü n z e n . ([85,] 86) Das
G o l d war z u m Silber im H a n d e l = 13,71:1, ||4| in d e n m o n n a i e s = 17,14:1.
... 1 scrupule d'or valait 20 sesterces = 5 d e n i e r s ; der d e n i e r war y eines 35
Pfundes Silber. (87) U n t e r Caesar 1 a u r e u s = 25 d e n a r i u s ; G o l d z u m Silber
M
330
= 12:1. (88, 89) B e i m A u s b r u c h des Bürgerkriegs sank das G o l d z u m Silber = 8:1, d u r c h P l ü n d e r u n g des r ö m i s c h e n Schatzes von Caesar. Dieses
a e r a r i u m enthielt 663, vor der guerre sociale 1,620,829 (nach Plinius) r ö m i sche Pfunde Gold, ungefähr 1 milliard 800 000 fcs. 705, als Cäsar sich sei5 n e r b e m ä c h t i g t e , enthielt es an 2 milliards fcs. ([90,] 91) V o m a u r e u s gingen 40 bis 45 auf das Pfund, v o m solidus (aureus u n t e r C o n s t a n t i n ) 72 auf
das Pfund. (93) U n t e r H o n o r i u s u n d A r c a d i u s (397) fixirt das V e r h ä l t n i ß
von Silber zu G o l d = 1:14,4; u n t e r H o n o r i u s u n d T h é o d o s e - l e - J e u n e (422)
= 1:18. (95) U n t e r d e n K a i s e r n des O c c i d e n t u n d Orient die G o l d m ü n z e
10 wie in E n g l a n d die regulirende u n d ihr poids u n d titre nie alterirt. (96) U n ter A r c a d i u s u n d H o n o r i u s 1 Pf. G o l d = 1800 Pfd. Kupfer. 1 Pfund Silber
= 100 Pf. Kupfer. (96)
Durchschnittspreiß
des
Getreides.
In der E p o c h e von C l a u d i u s bis Titus der Preiß des Brodes u n d M e h l s u n 15 gefähr wie in L o n d o n im 19 J h . (110)
Preiß
20
25
der Lebensmittel.
(denrées) W i r besitzen in der inscription de Stratonicée, p u b l i é e v o n Cardin a l i etc, u n prix m o y e n des denrées, tarifé par l ' e m p e r e u r lui m ê m e (Diocletian A . D . 303) et q u ' o n ne pouvait dépasser sans s'exposer à la p e i n e capitale. (111) D r a c h m e a t t i q u e war werth Ofr 92 c; der d e n a r i u s d'argent
schwankte von A u g u s t bis G o r d i a n von 1 f. 11 c auf Of. 99 c. (113) V o n
C o n s t a n t i n bis V a l e n t i n i a n war das G e t r e i d e n u r um % wohlfeiler als in
F r a n k r e i c h von 1 8 1 5 - 1 8 3 0 . (124) D e r vin c o m m u n war t h e u r e r im 4* J h .
als jezt in F r a n k r e i c h , n ä m l i c h 80 c. der litre. (124) U e b e r d i e a n d r e n a n a l o g e n P r e i s s e , ζ. B. ein Pfund Rindfleisch = 20 c. s i e h p. 125. (125) D i e
W a a r e n i m A l l g e m e i n e n s o t h e u e r i m 4 l J h . i m r ö m i s c h e n R e i c h wie jezt i n
Frankreich. (126)
Tagelohn de l'homme libre.
30
Von d e m p e l o p o n n e s i s c h e n Krieg bis z u A u g u s t u s u n d d e n A n t o n i n e n der
Tagelphn de l ' h o m m e libre, m a n œ u v r e , laboureur, jardinier, m e u n i e r ,
charpentier ou m a ç o n n u r % u n t e r d e m gegenwärtigen D u r c h s c h n i t t s Tage-
331
lohn in F r a n k r e i c h für dieselbe Arbeit. (128, 9) N a c h Varro zog m a n die
freien Arbeiter von d e n Sklaven in d e n c a n t o n s malsains et p o u r les gros
ouvrages des labours, des semailles, des fenaisons et de la m o i s s o n . (130)
(Sieh die Preißlisten 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 )
Vom Sold der Truppen.
In G r i e c h e n l a n d der Durchschnittssold des fantassin, n o u r r i t u r e comprise,
m i n d e s t e n s 61 c e n t i m e s , in R o m seit Caesar 70 c, u n t e r D o m i t i a n 83 c.
u n d das 4fache für d e n cavalier. In F r a n k r e i c h für un soldat d'infanterie
92 c. par jour. R e c h n e t m a n d e n transport de m a c h i n e s , des équipages de
siège etc h i n z u , so folgt, daß eine A r m e e h e u t e weniger kostet als in G r è c e
u n d Asie seit Pericles bis A l e x a n d e r u n d i m r ö m i s c h e n R e i c h v o n César
bis J u s t i n i a n . (141, 2)
5
ίο
Vom Preiß der Sklaven.
E r will n u r d e n D u r c h s c h n i t t s p r e i ß b e s t i m m e n der esclaves propres a u x
travaux de l'agriculture ou à l'exercice d ' u n m é t i e r ordinaire. (143) En ad15
d i t i o n n a n t le capital employé à l'achat de l'esclave, l'intérêt de ce capital,
la n o u r r i t u r e et le vêtement, le d é c h e t a n n u e l et en c o m p a r a n t ce résultat
avec la s o m m e de travail produit, on voit q u e ce prix s'élève fort a u d e s s u s
des salaires les plus h a u t s du j o u r n a l i e r ou d o m e s t i q u e cultivateur d'Italie,
de F r a n c e , et m ê m e d'Angleterre. (151) Z w i s c h e n d e m 2* p u n i s c h e n Krieg 20
bis z u r Herrschaft Trajans, hielt sich der Preiß des esclave cultivateur zwis c h e n 2000 u n d 2500 fcs. C'était, avant 1789, le prix d ' u n b o n nègre a d u l t e
à S a i n t - D o m i n g u e . (154) je crois avoir prouvé q u e le rapport des m é t a u x
p r é c i e u x au prix m o y e n du blé, de la solde et de la j o u r n é e du travail, était,
d a n s le h a u t et d a n s le bas e m p i r e [romain], à peu près égal à ce qu'il est 25
a u j o u r d h u i en F r a n c e . (157)
Il est évident q u e les m é t a u x p r é c i e u x se r é p a n d e n t a u j o u r d ' h u i d a n s les
cinq parties du m o n d e , et q u e , d a n s l'antiquité, leur usage était limité au
bassin de la M é d i t e r r a n n é e et à q u e l q u e s contrées de l'Afrique et de l'Asie.
S'il y avait 5 x m o i n s d'or et d'argent q u ' a u j o u r d ' h u i , il y avait 5 x m o i n s
de besoins. L'industrie des m a n u f a c t u r e s était m o i n s perfectionnée, le
c o m m e r c e m o i n s actif, et la valeur relative des m é t a u x p u t être la m ê m e ,
q u o i q u e la q u a n t i t é m i s e en circulation ait b e a u c o u p a u g m e n t é d e p u i s les
siècles de Périclès et de C o n s t a n t i n , j u s q u ' à l ' é p o q u e actuelle. (158) N o u s
trouvons la proportion de l'or à l'argent de 1 à 12 d a n s les 2 premiers siè-
332
30
35
cles de l'ère vulgaire, de 1 à 15, c o m m e à présent en E u r o p e , d u r a n t presque tout le III siècle, de 1 à 18 à la fin du IV et dans la première m o i t i é du
V. (158, 9) I
|5| Origine du Cens.
5
les divisions des plébéjens et des patriciens ... prouvaient le besoin de distraire le peuple et de l'occuper au dehors, firent de la guerre un système, un
moyen, un ressort du g o u v e r n e m e n t r o m a i n , (p. 159 wie b e i d e n E n g l ä n d e r n a u s d e r E r o b e r u n g s t e t s n e u e r M ä r k t e . ) L a connaissance exacte d e
leurs ressources en h o m m e s , en argent et en vivres, était la c o n d i t i o n indis10 pensable du succès. La nécessité créa d o n c chez ce peuple guerrier la statistique, le cadastre, les registres de naissance et de décès. T o u t cela fut
compris dans l'institution du cens, et cette institution, base f o n d a m e n t a l e
du g o u v e r n e m e n t et de la p u i s s a n c e r o m a i n e , est d u e à Servais Tullius, le
sixième des rois de R o m e , et date de l'an 197 de cette ville, 555 ans avant
15 J. C. (160) Aile 5 Jahre d u r c h die C e n s o r e n gemacht. (161) Les 20,000 citoyens d'Athènes, les 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s du temps de César étaient
réellement u n e noblesse privilégiée, quoiqu'elle portât le n o m de peuple,
les esclaves, les étrangers ne jouissaient pas des m ê m e s droits. De m ê m e
enfin que le Livre d'or à Venise c o n t e n a i t l'état de toutes les familles patri20 ciennes, q u e le nobiliaire de F r a n c e c o m p r e n d le n o m et les armes de
80,000 familles nobles, de m ê m e les registres de naissance, de décès, par
sexe et par âge, étaient indispensables à R o m e et dans l'Italie. L'âge a u q u e l
un citoyen prenait la prétexte, la robe virile, y était consigné. Sans cela,
c o m m e n t aurait-on pu établir son admissibilité aux divers emplois p u 25
blies? La loi fixait un âge p o u r sortir de tutelle, un âge p o u r être a d m i s
dans l'ordre équestre ou sénatorial, p o u r être n o m m é t r i b u n du peuple,
questeur, édile, préteur, censeur ou consul. Il en était de m ê m e p o u r être
apte à se marier, à tester, à contracter, à prêter serment en justice. (164, 5)
Pour les b i e n fonds diese t a b u l a e censuales basirt auf e i n e m Cadaster u n d
30 u n e estimation vérifiés tous les l u s t r e s ; elles c o n t e n a i e n t la qualité du
c h a m p , la n a t u r e des cultures, soit blé, fourrages, vignes, oliviers etc. (165)
Du Cadastre.
Le plan cadastral du territoire entier était gravé sur cuivre et déposé dans le
Tabellarium, soit de la R é p u b l i q u e , soit de l ' e m p e r e u r ; un d o u b l e était
35 conservé dans les archives de la colonie ou du m u n i c i p e . (169) La descrip-
333
tion j o i n t e à ce plan, m e n t i o n n a n t toutes les conditions de la propriété,
data, assignata, excepta, c o m m u t a t a , reddita veteri possessori, était gravée
sur cuivre, signée par l'auteur du cadastre, puis transportée sur des toiles de
lin, déposées et conservées aussi dans les archives. (170)
A u g u s t u s schrieb eigenhändig das Cadaster u n d das r e c e n s e m e n t général
5
de l'empire romain, das enthielt le r é s u m é des ressources de l'empire, le
n o m b r e des citoyens et des alliés sous les armes, l'état des flottes, des provinces, des royaumes, des tributs, des impôts directs ou indirects, des dépenses nécessaires et des gratifications. (191[, 192]) ( D i e ß w a r n a t ü r l i c h
ein A u s z u g a u s d e r öffentlichen Arbeit, die er m a c h e n ließ.)
10
Livre II. Population.
Population libre de l'Italie.
In d e m 35. Census, J a h r 488 der Republik, vor d e m ersten p u n i s c h e n Krieg,
fand m a n 292 334 römische Bürger; (209) le cadastre et la statistique rom a i n e s'appliquaient i m m é d i a t e m e n t à toutes les contrées soumises. (210)
15
Kurz vor d e m 2' p u n i s c h e n Krieg, gegen 527, r e c e n s e m e n t de ses (de R o m e )
forces et de ses alliés [209, 210]; giebt 770,000 waffenfähige M ä n n e r . (214)
Waffenfähig in gewöhnlichen Fällen von 1 7 - 4 5 Jahren, in ausserordentlic h e n (wie damals, wo t u m u l t u s gallicus) von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n . (216, 17) B e r e c h n e t die population libre totale d a n a c h auf 3 Millionen. (218) Les m é - 20
t œ q u e s ou peregrini étaient des h o m m e s libres, m a i s privés des droits de
cité et de suffrage, qui exerçaient les professions industrielles ou m e r c a n t i les. (225)
De la Population servile.
D i e R ö m e r im IV u n d V J a h r h u n d e r t R o m s h a t t e n sehr wenige Sklaven; 25
bei i h r e m einfachen L e b e n k o n n t e n sie n u r wenige b r a u c h e n u n d halten.
(233) Die lois agraires, proposées p o u r la p r e m i è r e fois l'an de R o m e 268,
stets erneuert; (in d e n 3 ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n seit Vertreibung des T a r q u i nius) elles limitaient de 2 à 7 jugères l ' é t e n d u e de la propriété de c h a q u e
citoyen. (234) (on les élude en distribuant au peuple les terres conquises. 30
1. c.) L ' a n de R o m e 388 Licinius Stolo fit passer la loi die j e d e m Bürger verbot m e h r als 500 jugères zu h a b e n (126 hectares) et o r d o n n a i t q u e l'exc é d a n t serait ôté aux riches et distribué à ceux q u i n ' a v a i e n t a u c u n e
334
propriété foncière. Dasselbe Gesetz fixe un n o m b r e circonscrit de
domestiques et d'esclaves p o u r faire valoir ces terres ainsi partagées, et enj o i n t de se servir d'Italiens et d ' h o m m e s libres. (235) Valerius M a x i m u s
sagt v o m 5' Jh. „Kein oder fast k e i n Geld, wenig Sklaven, 7 jugera L a n d ,
5 l'indigence dans les familles, les obsèques payées par l'état, les filles sans
dot ; m a i s d'illustres consulats, de merveilleuses dictatures, d ' i n n o m b r a b l e s
triomphes". (238) Diese einfachen u n d frugalen Sitten existirten n o c h in
der ersten Hälfte des 6' Jhdts; aber seit d e m E n d e des 2' p u n i s c h e n Kriegs,
besonders n a c h der E i n n a h m e von Carthago u n d Corinth, le tableau
10 change totalement. (238) Diese einfachen Sitten d a u e r t e n bis zur Eroberung von M a c é d o n i e n . (240) V o n 550 de R o m e bis 575 die Cultur geführt
fast ganz von E i g e n t h ü m e r n u n d journaliers libres. (1. c.) U e b e r h a u p t werd e n von d e n R ö m e r n weniger Sklaven zur Agricultur angewandt als m a n
gewöhnlich glaubt; der service d o m e s t i q u e dans les villes leur était particu15 lièrement affecté. (243)
N a c h Varro der Sklave ein i n s t r u m e n t u m vocale, die Thiere i n s t r u m e n t u m
s e m i - m u t u m , Pflug i n s t r u m e n t u m m u t u m . ([253,] 254) |
|6| Die Z a h l der m ä n n l i c h e n Sklaven war 4 oder 5x grösser als die der
weiblichen; die E h e n in dieser Klasse im A l l g e m e i n e n verboten; die Skla20 venbevölkerung rekrutirte sich n u r d u r c h d e n Krieg, la traite, les ventes voluntaires u n d d i m i n u a i t par l'affranchissement. D e r Preiß des esclave m â l e ,
adulte, propre aux travaux de l'agriculture, oscillirte in G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d
Italien, v o m m e d i s c h e n Krieg bis z u m E n d e des 2' p u n i s c h e n Kriegs, zwischen 500 u n d 1200 fcs. (252, 3)
25
Die Z a h l der Sklaven m u ß t e in d e n 5 ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n R o m s sehr
schwach sein ... m a n n a h m d e n besiegten Völkern e i n e n Theil ihres Territoriums, um des colons libres draufzusetzen u n d , généralement, on les soum e t t a i t à un tribut m o d é r é sans les asservir. Das demokratische E l e m e n t ,
das 388 sein Vorherrschen zeigt in d e n licinischen Gesetzen, prévalut à
30 R o m e bis zur Eroberung von M a c é d o n i e n . (265) D i e Länder, die G r i e c h e n land u n d R o m h a u p t s ä c h l i c h Sklaven lieferten bis zur E r o b e r u n g von Gallien d u r c h Cäsar, waren Thracien, Scythien, Dacien, G e t i e n , Phrygien, le
Pont ( E u x i n u s ) ; m i t e i n e m Wort der S ü d e n d e l'Europe occidentale u n d
ein Theil von Asia m i n o r . Die H a u p t m ä r k t e des Sklavenhandels waren, für
35 den N o r d e n l ' E m p o r i u m de T a n a ï s ; für Kleinasien Ephesos u n d Side, für
G r i e c h e n l a n d Samos, A t h e n u n d Delos. (266)
Letronne hat bewiesen, daß von Anfang des peloponnesischen Kriegs bis
zur Schlacht von C h é r o n é e in Attica 110,000 Sklaven auf 130,000 Freie
335
f
von allen âges u n d sexes k a m e n , also n i c h t 1 Sklave auf e i n e n Freien.
(270) N a c h D . , g e s t ü z t auf Dionys von Halycarnass im J a h r 278 der Stadt
R o m 440,000 Einwohner, n ä m l i c h 390,290 r ö m i s c h e Bürger u n d Bürgerinn e n (110,000 Waffenfähige von 1 7 - 6 0 Jahre), 32,523 m é t œ q u e s ou affranchis u n d n u r 17,186 Sklaven. Diese verhielten sich also zu d e n F r e i e n
= 2 5 : 1 . ([270,] 271) Das produit m o y e n du blé im alten Italien zur Zeit des
Varro = 5:1 (für Sicilien; für R o m zur Zeit des Columella = 4:1), obgleich
einige privilegirte Theile Italiens u n d Etruriens n a c h Varro r e n d a i e n t 10
u n d 15 grains pour 1. Jezt ist der prix m o y e n in d e n K i r c h e n s t a a t e n c i n q u e
per u n o . Zu Pisa, jezt, n a c h der Kadasterschätzung, das Product der
schlechtesten L ä n d e r e i e n = 3 : 1 , der besten = 8:1, p o u r le blé, l'avoine, les
haricots, le seigle etc. Der maïs rend 4 0 : 1 . Dieselbe Proportion existirt im
Territorium von A r e z z o ; aber in d e n u n f r u c h t b a r e n terrains bepflanzt m a n
n u r Y der terres u n d läßt die a n d r e n brachliegen. (272 Note) Cato fixirt die
n o u r r i t u r e der travailleurs n a c h d e n verschiednen Jahreszeiten auf 4 u n d
5 livres r o m a i n e s de pain, wovon der D u r c h s c h n i t t m a c h t 3 livres français,
poids de m a r c . (273) Sallust beweist, daß die Plebejer, die R o m b e w o h n t e n ,
dotés par la loi frumentaire, jeder, wie die Gefangnen 5 m o d i u s (66 livres)
de blé für d e n M o n a t erhielten u n d d a ß diese N a h r u n g k a u m h i n r e i c h t e .
... Seneca giebt dieselbe Q u a n t i t é d ' a l i m e n t den Sklaven der Stadt u n d
d e n c o m é d i e n s : servus est ; q u i n q u e m o d i o s accipit. Also der tägliche G e t r e i d e c o n s u m der Plebejer täglich etwas m e h r als 2 französische livres.
(274) Also die c o n s u m t i o n (journalière) eines citadin de R o m e etwas m e h r
als 2 livres françaises, eines c a m p a g n a r d 3 livres. (275) Die Sklaven erhielten n u r das z u m L e b e n nöthige et n o n pour se nourrir c o m p l è t e m e n t . (1. c.)
E i n Pariser verzehrt an Brod 0,93, ein c a m p a g n a r d (in d e n 20 d é p a r t e m e n t
wo das blé die H a u p t n a h r u n g ) 1,70 (livre). (277) E. Biot h a t gefunden für
die tägliche R e i s c o n s u m t i o n der familles agricoles de C h i n e 1 livre, 8 onces. D. h a t g e f u n d e n im jetzigen Italien, in d e n T h e i l e n wo blé die H a u p t n a h r u n g , 1 livre, 8 onces für das individu der famille agricole. ([277,] 278)
W a r u m assen die R ö m e r verhältnißmässig m e h r ? Ursprünglich assen sie
das blé cru oder n u r ramolli d a n s l'eau; n a c h h e r ils s'avisèrent de le griller.
Später k a m m a n zur art de m o u d r e u n d anfangs aß m a n crue la pâte faite
avec cette farine. On se servait, p o u r m o u d r e le grain, d ' u n pilon ou de
d e u x pierres frappées ou tournées l'une sur l'autre ... Diese pâte crue, puis,
appretirte sich der r ö m i s c h e Soldat für m e h r e Tage. D a n n erfand m a n le
van, qui nettoie le grain, on trouva le m o y e n de séparer le son de la farine ;
endlich on ajouta le levain u n d d'abord on m a n g e a le p a i n cru, bis der Z u fall lehrte, daß en le cuisant on l'empêchait de s'aigrir et m a n le conservait
bien plus longtemps. Erst n a c h d e m Krieg gegen Perseus, 580, h a t t e R o m
des boulangers. ([278,] 279) Vor der christlichen Z e i t r e c h n u n g k a n n t e n die
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20
25
30
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R ö m e r keine W i n d m ü h l e n . (280) P a r m e n t i e r h a t bewiesen daß i n Frankreich seit Louis XIV die K u n s t des M a h l e n s grosse Fortschritte g e m a c h t
u n d daß der U n t e r s c h i e d der alten u n d der n e u e n m o u t u r e sich auf % des
von d e m s e l b e n G e t r e i d e gelieferten Brods erstreckt. D ' a b o r d assignirte
5 m a n 4, d a n n 3, d a n n 2, d a n n e n d l i c h 1½ setier des blé pour la c o n s o m m a tion annuelle d ' u n h a b i t a n t de Paris. (1. c.) A i n s i s'explique facilement
l'énorme disproportion entre la c o n s o m m a t i o n journalière de blé chez les
R o m a i n s et chez n o u s ; aus der imperfection der procédés de m o u t u r e et de
la panification. (281) Er rechnet heraus für 529 für das m i t R o m ver10 b u n d n e Italien 4,978,482 Einwohner, wovon 2,312,677 Sklaven u n d
2,665,805 Freie. Die freie Bevölkerung also zur population affranchie, m é t œ q u e ou esclave, à peu près = 2 6 : 2 3 . (289) (Unter die Sklaven hier mitgerechnet die affranchis et m é t œ q u e s ) |
15
|7| U n t e r d e m Kaiserreich a u c h die Z a h l der Sklaven geringer als die der
freien. (300)
Er schäzt die Bevölkerung des Theils des alten Galliens, der d e m h e u t i g e n
Frankreich entspricht auf 10,617,215. (313)
Extension du droit de cité depuis César et Auguste.
D e r dernier cens e x é c u t é sous la république, 683, durch die censeurs
L. Gellius Poplicola u n d C. L. C l o d i a n u s zeigt n u r 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s
waffenfähig (von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n ) . 708 u n t e r Caesar eine andre D e n o m i n a tion zeigt grosse V e r m i n d e r u n g in Folge der Bürgerkriege. (314) 42 J a h r e
n a c h h e r census u n t e r A u g u s t zeigt Z a h l von 4,063,000 citoyens r o m a i n s .
(316) W o h e r diese grosse A u s d e h n u n g des droit de cité? D i e grossen Er25 oberungen von P o m p é e u n d César, en reculant les frontières de l'empire,
l'avaient mis, vers l'Occident et le Nord, en contact i m m é d i a t e avec le
puissant r o y a u m e des Parthes et les n a t i o n s libres et guerrières de la G e r m a nie. Die Gallier erst unterjocht n a c h lOjährigem Krieg, verdächtig d e n Siegern. Also größre Z a h l von L e g i o n e n beständig u n t e r d e n F a h n e n nöthig
30 geworden. Also größre Basis für d e n entretien des armées n a t i o n a l e s , die
o h n e äusserste Gefahr für den Staat d e n corps auxiliaires nicht inférieures
sein durften. (317, 18) W ä h r e n d seiner Dictatur, 705, gab Caesar das droit
de cité complet à t o u t e la G a u l e t r a n s p a d a n e . (318.) Seit d e n Bürgerkriegen von M a r i u s u n d Sylla bis zur Schlacht von A c t i u m , u n g e h e u r e A r m e e n
35 von R ö m e r n gegen R ö m e r . Octavius u n d A n t o n i u s , B r u t u s u n d Cassius
hatten, 711, 59 légions. (295,000 h o m m e s , o h n e die r ö m i s c h e Cavalerie,
20
337
die légion zu 5000 soldats) (318, 9) M a r c A n t o i n e w ä h r e n d seines C o n s u lats gab Sicilien u n d g a n z e n Provinzen le droit de cité complet. (319) (Die
e x e m p t i o n d'impôts folgte n o t h w e n d i g d e m droit d e cité complet u n d A n t o n i u s ließ sich die Verleihung dieses Privilegiums bezahlen.) M a n entging
so e i n e m grave inconvénient, d e m m a n seit M a r i u s u n d Sylla ausgesezt
war, in die L e g i o n e n e i n g e h n zu lassen die prolétaires u n d affranchis. H ä u fige révoltes dieser corps, b e d r o h t e n m e h r m a l s die Existenz der M a c h t von
César u n d Octave; m a n war gezwungen diese révoltes zu besänftigen d u r c h
distributions d'argent u n d gewaltsam der besiegten Parthei f o r t g e n o m m e n e
L ä n d e r e i e n ; vols, brigandages folgten d e m l i c e n c i e m e n t dieser armées, form é e s en grande partie de l ' é c u m e de la société. (320) Caesar n a h m die Provinzen g a n z auf. A u g u s t n u r die magistrats des cités, les notables et les
grands propriétaires des provinces. (321) Das Bürgerrecht befreite v o m impôt foncier, des droits de d o u a n e , d'octroi u n d de péage. (323) A u g u s t ü b r i gens selbst gezwungen einer M a s s e Sklaven u n d affranchis z u m B e h u f des
Kriegs das r ö m i s c h e Bürgerrecht zu ertheilen. ([322,] 323) Das Bürgerrecht
n a h m a u s v o m i m p ô t foncier seit 585, von d e n a n d r e n seit 694 de R o m e .
(323) U n t e r A u g u s t in 20 J a h r e n die Z a h l der citoyens r o m a i n s um % verm e h r t . Diese a d m i s s i o n avait d i m i n u é la q u o t i t é de m a t i è r e imposable,
w ä h r e n d die A u s g a b e n wuchsen. (326) V o n A u g u s t bis Vespasian die Z a h l
der r ö m i s c h e n Bürger wahrscheinlich um die Hälfte gewachsen. Der cens,
opéré u n t e r Claudius, 801, stieg auf 5,984,072. N e r o u n d C l a u d i u s ou ses
affranchis sehr verschwenderisch d a m i t . D a h e r beträchtliche d i m i n u t i o n
dans les revenus de l'état. A b e r Caligula, C l a u d i u s , N e r o , w e n n sie d e n
Schatz erschöpften, füllten i h n wieder d u r c h m e u r t r e s u n d confiscations.
(327, 8) V o n G a l b a bis Trajan wird Differenz in d e n R e c h t e n g e m a c h t zwischen d e n anciens u n d nouveaux citoyens. A b e r die Jagd auf das r ö m i s c h e
Bürgerrecht so groß, d a ß m a n Sklave wurde, um sich d a n n affranchir zu
lassen u n d r ö m i s c h e r Bürger zu werden. ([328,] 329) V o n Vespasian bis Caracalla die das r ö m i s c h e Bürgerrecht erhielten, genossen n i c h t m e h r dieselbe e x e m p t i o n von d e n Steuern wie früher, ζ. B. v o m 2 0 e sur les succes
sions en ligne directe. O h n e das l ' e x t e n s i o n prodigieuse du droit de cité
aurait presque e n t i è r e m e n t tari la source des revenus de l'état. (330) Caracalla gab das droit de cité à t o u s les sujets de l'empire. (1. c.) cette noblesse
privilégiée qui portait le n o m du peuple r o m a i n . (335) Der Verkauf, der
H a n d e l m i t d e m r ö m i s c h e n Bürgerrecht war sicher die H a u p t q u e l l e der
é n o r m e s fortunes der affranchis des Claudius, des N e r o , des G a l b a u n d Vitellius. (336) Die 6 oder 7 M i l l i o n e n de citoyens r o m a i n s , gewählt u n t e r
d e n reichsten propriétaires des empire, v e r m e h r t e n ihr fortune d u r c h die
e x e m p t i o n d'impôts attachée à ce titre, d u r c h d e n W u c h e r , d u r c h die acquisitions successives. H a l b e Provinz Africa gehörte 6 I n d i v i d u e n , die
5
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N e r o fît périr p o u r s'emparer de leurs dépouilles. Diese m o n s t r u o s e C o n centration der propriété in der classe der citoyens r o m a i n s , die U n m ö g l i c h keit Steuern auf diese privilegirte Klasse zu e r h e b e n u n d d u r c h e m p r u n t s
das déficit der ressources ordinaires zu decken, erklären die crimes des e m pereurs. Es trieb sie d a z u der b e s o i n d'argent q u i renaissait sans cesse u n d
d e n sie d u r c h voies légales n i c h t befriedigen k o n n t e n . ... la c r u a u t é ne vint
q u ' à la suite de la prodigalité. ([336,] 337) la m ê m e nécessité contraignit
a u x m ê m e s crimes et l'empire O t t o m a n et ce régime de 93 q u i battait m o n naie sur la place de la Revolution. (338)
10
Etendue et Population
de Rome.
A t h e n war ι/Ί des Paris v o n 1813 in Bezug auf Oberfläche u n d Bevölkerung.
H a t t e 100,000 Einwohner. (344) Die superficie dieses R o m e superbe weniger als y der von Paris in 1840, circonscrit par le m u r des barrières. (347)
D i e superficie comprise dans l'enceinte des m u r s d'Aurélien etwas m e h r
15 als % der von Paris. (1. c.) Selbst, was zuviel ist, a n g e n o m m e n , die Bevölker u n g von R o m , im V e r h ä l t n i ß zur superficie der Stadt sei 2 x stärker gewesen als zu Paris, so hielt das R o m des A u g u s t u n d N e r o , o h n e die faubourgs, n u r 266,684 Einwohner. (370)
s
Des Faubourgs de Rome.
20
V e r s t e h t u n t e r F a u b o u r g s die quartiers u n d bourgs contigus a u x m u r a i l l e s
de l ' a n c i e n n e R o m e , telles qu'elles existaient sous N é r o n . (371)
(cf 3 7 6 - 3 8 7 . )
Des Maisons de Rome.
N i m m t an d a ß im IV Jh. der ère c h r é t i e n n e die faubourgs 120,000 Einwoh25 n e r enthielten, die e n c e i n t e d ' A u r é l i e n 382,695, z u s a m m e n 502,695 oder
en s o m m e r o n d e 502,000 Einwohner. 30,000 Soldaten. F r e m d e 30,000. Z u s a m m e n 562,000 têtes. (403) M a d r i d , w ä h r e n d 1½ siècles seit Karl V
H a u p t s t a d t eines Theils von E u r o p a u n d einer Hälfte der n e u e n W e l t viele
rapports m i t R o m . A u c h seine Bevölkerung wuchs n i c h t i m V e r h ä l t n i ß z u
30 seiner politischen B e d e u t u n g . (405, 6) |
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|8| Obstacles à la Population.
Bei d e n G r i e c h e n u n d R ö m e r n »le peuple, investi du pouvoir judiciaire et
législatif, est u n e véritable noblesse, u n e oligarchie é t e n d u e , et d a n s ces
classes les familles t e n d e n t toujours à se r e s t r e i n d r e : l'oligarchie héréditaire t e n d toujours à se resserrer«. ([408,] 409) Les lois fixent un cens p o u r
la participation au pouvoir; elles b o r n e n t le n o m b r e des citoyens actifs:
aussi ... elles p e r m e t t e n t l'avortement, l'infanticide, l'exposition des enfans ; elles d o n n e n t à l'autorité paternelle un pouvoir illimité. Les femmes,
les enfants en bas âge sont rangés, n o n dans la classe des personnes, mais
d a n s celle des c h o s e s ; on peut s'en défaire c o m m e d ' u n m e u b l e inutile.
(1. c.) Die fixation du cens u n d die Z a h l der Bürger a d m i s à l'exercice des
droits politiques begünstigten die goûts contre n a t u r e u n d die n o m b r e imm e n s e de courtisanes in R o m u n d A t h e n . (1. c.) Die Sklaven, in R o m u n d
G r i e c h e n l a n d in einer condition très dure, m a l vêtus, m a l logés, m a l n o u r ris, c o n d a m n é s aux travaux de m i n e s , aux fonctions les plus pénibles et les
plus délétères dans la m a r i n e , les m a n u f a c t u r e s et les applications des procédés de l ' i n d u s t r i e ; die b e s c h r ä n k t e Z a h l der weiblichen Sklaven, ein
Theil davon der Prostitution b e s t i m m t ; d e n Sklaven von d e n M e i s t e r n auferlegtes célibat rigoureux; ihr massiger Preiß m a c h t e es vortheilhafter sie
rascher zu exploitiren, als sie zu élever; alles d a s k o n n t e v o n dieser Seite
h e r die B e v ö l k e r u n g n i c h t f ö r d e r n . (410, 11) Aristoteles will in einer weisen Republik eine b e s t i m m t e Z a h l von citoyens u n d eine é t e n d u e b o r n é e
des territoire, damit sie h i n r e i c h e n d e ressources h a b e n um zu leben, sich
u n d ihr Territorium genau k e n n e n k ö n n e n . Plato will in seiner R e p u b l i k
n u r 5040 Bürger. A t h e n hatte zur Zeit des Solon n u r 10,800; 20,000 en
m a x i m u m von Pericles bis Alexander. Sparta h a t t e h ö c h s t e n s 7000. (412) la
limitation du n o m b r e des citoyens était la base du g o u v e r n e m e n t de la
Grèce, besonders des gouvernements républicains. (413) le n o m b r e des citoyens était limité dans presque toutes les républiques de la Grèce, l ' a m o u r
antiphysique était u n e m e s u r e politique employée par les législateurs afin
de restreindre l'accroissement de la population. (415) Fast in ganz Griec h e n l a n d hatte der Vater das R e c h t o h n e A p p e l zu entscheiden ü b e r L e b e n
u n d T o d seiner Kinder. Sobald sie geboren, legt m a n sie zu seinen F ü s s e n :
w e n n er sie in seine A r m e n i m m t , sind sie gerettet; w e n n er n i c h t reich gen u g ist um sie aufzuziehn oder w e n n sie certains vices de conformation haben, il détourne les yeux u n d m a n sezt sie aus oder n i m m t i h n e n das Leben. Aristoteles sagt Polit. VII, 16: „Das Gesetz h a t zu b e s t i m m e n welche
N e u g e b o r n e n ausgesezt oder ernährt werden sollen ... W e n n m a n d e n excès der Bevölkerung aufhalten m u ß u n d Sitten u n d I n s t i t u t i o n e n sich d e m
340
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Aussetzen der N e u g e b o r n e n widersetzen, wird der Magistrat d e n é p o u x die
Zahl ihrer K i n d e r fixiren; w e n n die M u t t e r vient à concevoir ü b e r die vorg e s c h r i e b e Zahl h i n a u s , elle sera t e n u e de se faire avorter avant q u e l'embryon soit a n i m é . " (415, 16) Plato sagt Rep. V. p. 460 u . a . : «les enfants des
h o m m e s pervers, c e u x q u i n a î t r a i e n t difformes, les fruits illégitimes, les enfants de père et m è r e trop âgés, seront exposés ; on ne doit pas en surcharger la r é p u b l i q u e . » (416) Das fait der destruction graduelle et constante des classes privilégiées, lorsqu'elles ne se recrutent pas par des a d m i s sions de prolétaires, oder d'étrangers bewiesen d u r c h die ganze griechische
u n d römische G e s c h i c h t e . (420) Spätes Alter für das H e i r a t h e n fixirt.
(421[, 422]) barbarie des Kriegsrechts bei d e n Alten. (422) Die r ö m i s c h e
Agricultur h a t alles von d e n G r i e c h e n entlehnt. ... Un système d'assolem e n t vicieux, u n e jachère b i e n n a l e , l'ignorance des procédés de l'altern a n c e des récoltes, la rotation trop fréquente du blé sur les m ê m e s terres,
l'insuffisance et la m a u v a i s e préparation des engrais, le peu d'extension
d o n n é e aux prairies artificielles, le petit n o m b r e de bestiaux répartis sur les
cultures, l'imperfection des m é t h o d e s et des i n s t r u m e n t s aratoires, l'usage
vicieux de brûler les c h a u m e s sur la place au lieu de les convertir en fumier, cent autre pratiques funestes ... tel est le tableau affligeant ... der
agriculture grecque et r o m a i n e . (426, 27) Fast alle propriétés rurales in
Grèce u n d in Italie entweder régies, für R e c h n u n g du maître, par un intend a n t esclave oder verpachtet an e i n e n colon partiaire, der d e n 9\ n i e m e h r
als d e n 6' Theil der récolte erhielt. (427) Zu R o m , le corps des citoyens actifs, plébéjens, chevaliers, sénateurs, ne p u t j a m a i s se m a i n t e n i r au complet
sans se recruter par des adjonctions successives de citoyens libres des peuples voisins. (429) En G r è c e et dans l'Italie r o m a i n e c'était la qualité, n o n
la quantité des citoyens q u ' o n s'étudiait à obtenir. (430)
Tome
II
Livre III. Agriculture. Produits.
30
Agriculture
Romaine.
Die Blüthe der r ö m i s c h e n Agricultur seit der Vertreibung der Könige bis
z u m Krieg gegen H a n n i b a l ... W e n n ein M e n s c h n u r ein kleines Stück
Land für seine Existenz u n d die seiner F a m i l i e zu verwerthen hat, il e m ploie nécessairement toutes ses facultés. (2) Die R ö m e r Hessen % ihrer Fel35 der brachliegen. (3) In Irland die Bevölkerung ne songe pas à gagner, elle
songe à vivre. (5) In Frankreich, in der L i m a g n e d'Auvergne tout se cultive
341
à bras, dans la Beauce tout à la charrue ; in der ersten die Bevölkerung
3,500 individus, in der 2 7 - 8 0 0 par lieue carrée. D i e propriétés u n d die
culture Italiens in d e n ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n R o m s , wenigstens bis 560 wie
Irland u n d la L i m a g n e . Aber E n g l a n d cherche à borner, R o m e d a n s ses
6 premiers siècles tendait à étendre l'accroissement de sa population. (6, 7)
l
5
État Physique de l'Italie.
D e r B o d e n i m A l l g e m e i n e n G e s u n d , w e n n die F o r m des Terrains d e n A b fluß des Wassers erlaubt, u n g e s u n d im gegentheiligen Fall. (9)
Die spätre extension é n o r m e der possessions veranlaßte die Verwandlung
von Ackerland in Viehweide. (47) D e r influence de la c o u c h e de gazon e m - ίο
p ê c h e l'écoulement des eaux, retient l ' h u m i d i t é u n d favorise, p e n d a n t les
chaleurs, l'exhalaison des m i a s m e s putrides. (48) Le luxe, l'avidité et la
g o u r m a n d i s e réunis ont inventé des piscines, des étangs d'eau d o r m a n t e ,
d o u c e ou salée, et ont crée par là de n o u v e a u x foyers d'infections. (50) D i e
Sklaven oder Kriegsgefangenen, gaulois ou syriens, asiatiques ou m a u r e s , 15
ne travaillaient q u ' e n c h a î n é s , vivaient le reste du t e m p s entassés d a n s des
cachots (ergastulis) u n d ihre G e s u n d h e i t , geschwächt schon d u r c h die
Transplantation in ein fremdes Clima, h a t t e zu leiden von mauvais traitem e n t , mauvaise nourriture, réclusion, m a n q u e d'air et d'espace. ([50,] 51)
D i e Ursachen des accroissement der Be||9|völkerung des c a n t o n s infectés 20
de l'Italie in den ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n der R e p u b l i k waren:
1) D i e Ankunft pelasgischer u n d griechischer Colonien, sorties d ' u n clim a t semblables et de cantons malsains, gewohnt à l'intempérie et aux préc a u t i o n s salutaires qui la c o m b a t t e n t ; 2) Die Entwicklung der Cultur, utile
à l'écoulement des eaux, der V e r d u n s t u n g der Feuchtigkeit u n d d e m assai- 25
n i s s e m e n t de l'air, en d i m i n u a n t la putréfaction des substances a n i m a l e s
ou végétales. (51) Die Hauptgründe des Wachsthums der Ungesundheit und der
Verminderung der Bevölkerung waren: 1) Die guerres d ' e x t e r m i n a t i o n en Italie; 2) Die Zerstörung des petites propriétés; 3) D i e Verwandlung von Akkerbau in Wiesen, Folge der C o n c e n t r a t i o n u n d extension der propriétés. 30
4) l ' a b a n d o n des précautions sanitaires. 5) die Ersetzung d ' h o m m e s libres
d u r c h Sklaven. 6) Die Einfuhr fremder Sklaven u n d ihre u n g e s u n d e n Verhältnisse. 7) Die s t e h e n d e n süssen u n d salzigen Fischteiche ... n o u v e a u x
centres d'exhalaisons pernicieuses, wie die W e i d e n u n d die Gefängnisse
der Sklaven. (52)
35
342
Agrikultur des
5
10
Cato.
(Cato geboren 520 l'an de R o m e , starb 605, 148 vor J.C.) Alle l o b e n die römische Agricultur im 4 u n d 5 Jh. ... die C o n c e n t r a t i o n u n d E i n s c h i e b u n g
von Sklaven s'opéra in d e n 40 lezten J a h r e n des 6* Jh., n a c h der E r o b e r u n g
von M a c é d o n i e n d u r c h P a u l u s A e m i l i u s ; die effets stärker gefühlt im VII
u n d VIII Jh., seit der Zerstörung Carthagos bis z u m E n d e der R e g i e r u n g
N e r o s . ( 5 2 - 5 4 ) Die G e s e t z e ü b e r Ex- u n d I m p o r t des G e t r e i d e s wirkten
auch. (54) Im Τ J h . da der B o d e n erschöpft d u r c h beständige Folge v o n
W e i z e n b a u ; producirte n u r m e h r u n e q u a n t i t é m é d i o c r e d e céréales;
d a r u m verwandelte m a n in W e i d e n e i n e n grossen T h e i l der terres labourables Italiens u n d der c h a m p de blé s c h o n zur Zeit Catos n u r im 6' R a n g
dans l'ordre de la valeur et du rapport, ou p r o d u i t n e t des fonds de terre.
(54) La terre était épuisée par la petite culture. (55) Im 6 u n d Τ J h . gab d e r
italische B o d e n l/2 weniger grain. (56) F ü r die Cultur von O l i v e n b ä u m e n
l
15
auf 240 jugera n a c h Cato n u r 13 P e r s o n e n nöthig. (56) ( M a n b r a u c h t e
m e h r D ü n g e r u n d h a t t e w e n i g e r K o r n . ) D i e R ö m e r w a n d t e n eine sehr geringe Zahl von T h i e r e n an. (57) les céréales n ' é t a i e n t fumées que par la j a chère. (58)
Du Mode de fermage.
20
Z u r Zeit des Cato, aile propriétés, die die E i g e n t h ü m e r n i c h t selbst b e wirthschafteten d u r c h sich selbst oder d u r c h e i n e n régisseur, affermées à
un politor oder colon partiaire, partiarius. Der E i g e n t h ü m e r lieferte Sklaven oder journaliers, bestiaux, s e m e n c e s , outils, vases ou i n s t r u m e n t s , kurz
das ganze m o b i l i e r nécessaire à l'exploitation. (60) In d e n terrains von Ca-
25
s i n u m u n d Vénafre, sagt Cato, u n d in e i n e m g u t e n terrain, wird er h a b e n
die 8 corbeille, in e i n e m sol assez b o n , die 7 , in e i n e m 3' Q u a l i t ä t die 6 .
D a n s le Vénafre die 9 corbeille (panier.) (60) % war das h ö c h s t e für d e n
m é t a y e r r o m a i n ; in F r a n k r e i c h h a t der m é t a y e r à cheptel %. (61) In F r a n k reich die métayers m i t der Hälfte elend. In d e n französischen Provinzen,
30 wo baux fixes r e c h n e t m a n % des p r o d u i t b r u t für die R e n t e , % für die Kulturkosten, Steuern, N a h r u n g der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere die nöthig sind für
die Exploitation u n d % als Z i n s u n d Profit des Pächters. Der r ö m i s c h e m é taire oft n o c h schlechter dran, wie der Sklave. ([61,] 62)
te
te
te
l
343
Procédés
d'Agriculture.
Bei der Catonischen Agricultur zu loben l'emploi du travail, l'ordre et la vigilance qui étaient la base de cette agriculture. (62, 3) Im III, IV u n d V Jh.
mit d e n lois agraires u n d der grossen T h e i l u n g des G r u n d b e s i t z e s das produit b r u t sehr groß. D a h e r W a c h s t h u m der Bevölkerung trotz der b e s t ä n d i 5
gen Kriege. Andrerseits, é n o r m i t é des frais de cette culture à bras,
schlechte M e t h o d e n u n d I n s t r u m e n t e , U n k e n n t n i ß der R o t a t i o n , grosser
G e t r e i d e c o n s u m der cultivateurs b e i ihrer U n k e n n t n i ß vortheilhaften M a h lens u n d B r o d m a c h e n s , erklärt, wie die r ö m i s c h e n Plebejer m i t 1 oder
3½ arpent de propriétés, i m m e r a r m u n d verschuldet waren; sie waren in 10
der Lage der Irländer. Der m a n q u e d'engrais, n o t h w e n d i g e Folge der klein e n Cultur à bras, de la rotation b i e n n a l e du blé u n d einer zu grossen A u s d e h n u n g der W e i z e n p r o d u c t i o n , erklärt die a b n e h m e n d e Fruchtbarkeit des
italischen Bodens u n d die Verwandlung eines grossen Theils davon in
Viehweiden. (67) Die distributions gratuites de blé waren die Armentaxe der
15
R ö m e r . (68) Die Concurrenz der terres de l'Ejypte, de la Sicile, de l'Afrique
trug a u c h das ihrige z u m Verfall der G e t r e i d e k u l t u r bei. (1. c.) Ce changem e n t fut très prompt et ses effets très rapides, puisqu'ils causèrent, von 619
bis 630, die m o u v e m e n t s des G r a c q u e s , et leurs propositions. (1. c.)
Agriculture de Varro.
20
I t a q u e sub urbe (in der N ä h e der Stadt) hortos colère late expedit, sic violaria, ac rosaria, (Veilchen- u n d Rosengärten) i t e m m u l t a , q u a e urbs recipit.
(76)
Des
Instruments
d'Agriculture.
M a n sieht aus einer Stelle des Varro, daß la majeure partie des propriétaires, et tous les grands propriétaires sans exception étaient obligés de
faire fabriquer chez eux tous les objets nécessaires à leurs besoins. (82)
344
25
Semences et Engrais.
5
M a n cultivirte die lys, d e n safran, les roses et le serpolet im Grossen. (87)
So groß war d a m a l s die c o n s o m m a t i o n des grives et des merles engraissés
d a n s les volières, daß ihr K o t h (leur fiente) als D ü n g e r p o u r les terres
diente. (89)
Patrie des Céréales.
G l a u b t daß das T h a l des J o r d a n s ( J u d ä a ) das Vaterland des blé u n d orge
ist, weil hier u. a. diese F r ü c h t e , n a c h d e m m a n sie abgeschnitten, sich im
2' J a h r von selbst wieder aus d e m Stengel erzeugen. (117[, 118]) Also »la
10 chaîne du Liban«. (118) |
|10| Rapport de la Semence au Produit.
Die terres fécondes des L é o n t i n s (agri L e o n t i n i E b n e n von Catania (Sicilien)) gaben n a c h Varro 8, 10 u n d 15 grains pour un ; die m o y e n n e war n u r
4:1 zur Zeit des Columella im größten Theil von Italien. Die plaines de Ca15 t a n e gaben n o c h 8:1 in d e n guten, 10:1 in d e n ausserordentlich fruchtbaren
Jahren. 4:1 ist n o c h das p r o d u i t m o y e n du froment in P i é m o n t . ( 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 )
Sehr wenige endroits en Toscane g e b e n jezt n o c h 10:1 en b l é ; das Val
d'Arno giebt n u r n o c h 6:1. La m a r c h e d ' A n c ô n e in d e n saisons favorables
10:1. ... Le val de Chiana, qui, dans le 17 siècle, n ' é t a i t presque q u ' u n lac
20 et un marais pestilentiel, a été desséché, et le blé y rapporte c o m m u n é m e n t
10 à 12 boisseaux pour u n . (Nach J. S y m o n d s p. 122) D e r c o m t e Prospéra
Balbo u n d M. Charles Pictet, dans leurs m é m o i r e s sur l'agriculture de Piém o n t , d o n n e n t les rapports de la s e m e n c e au produit, ganz g e m ä ß d e n e n
die Columella berichtet. Ihre B e m e r k u n g e n erklären zugleich das P h ä n o 25 m e n einer grossen Bevölkerung m i t schlechten assolements u n d u n e agriculture peu habile. N a c h i h n e n der rapport en blé = 1:4, der des seigle
= 1:9; keine j a c h è r e s ; 2 récoltes p a r an. W e n i g Dünger, relativement à
cette c o n t i n u i t é de p r o d u c t i o n ; aber die prés fast ganz fécondés d u r c h irrigations u n d liefern 3 récoltes de foin. Die feuilles des arbres d i e n e n z u m
30 Thierfutter. C'est surtout l'excellente construction de la charrue p i é m o n taise, l'araire, conduite par 2 boeufs et 1 h o m m e , ce sont les 4 ou 5 labours
q u ' o n d o n n e avec la charrue p o u r la culture du froment, ce sont les binages
répétés pour les maïs et les légumes, qui, selon M. Pictet, sont la cause de
345
cette a b o n d a n c e de produits bruts. La terre est t o u t e entière affermée à
moitié, lorsqu'elle produit du blé, du maïs, du seigle, du riz et de la soie ;
les prés sont seuls à rente fixe et affermés la m o i t i é du revenu net. Le propriétaire paie les impôts ; le m é t a y e r fournit les bestiaux et les i n s t r u m e n t s
aratoires. (123, 4) La Toscane et l'état de L u c q u e s , où il y a 5 ou 6 mille ha5
bitants par lieue carrée, et où l'on ne cultive pas la p o m m e de terre, où le
produit net est très faible, m a i s le produit b r u t é n o r m e et employé presque
en totalité à la p r o d u c t i o n des h o m m e s , explique très b i e n le p h é n o m è n e
de la grande p o p u l a t i o n italienne dans les 5 premiers siècles de la républiq u e r o m a i n e ; car m ê m e système de culture, de b a u x à part de fruits, 10
m ê m e s outils aratoires imparfaits, m ê m e assolement vicieux. (124) D a s
produit m o y e n en blé de la F r a n c e geschäzt 5 - 6 : 1 in 1780 d u r c h N e c k e r
u n d Lavoisier, jezt von 7 - 8 , grâce aux progrès q u ' a faits la culture depuis
46 ans. (124, 5) Zu Varros Zeit der D u r c h s c h n i t t h ö c h s t e n s von 5:1. D i e ß
erklärt, p o u r q u o i à cette époque, le prix du blé étant a u g m e n t é d ' u n tiers, 15
on convertit en pâtures la plus grande parties des terres labourables.
L ' é n o r m i t é des frais de culture, accrue encore par la substitution du travail
des esclaves à celui des h o m m e s libres, r e n d raison de ce fait. (125)
Revenu des terres labourables et des Prés.
Si l'on songe que les anciens faisaient usage alors de faux d'airain, i. e.
d ' u n alliage d'étain et de cuivre j a u n e ; qu'ils ne connaissaient pas l'art de
b i e n tremper le fer et de fabriquer l'acier ; qu'ils n ' o n t découvert qu'assez
tard l'espèce de pierre propre à aiguiser la faux, on ne sera pas é t o n n é
qu'ils fussent obligés de faire en d e u x fois, et par u n e m a i n d ' œ u v r e b i e n
plus chère, l'opération du fauchage des prés q u e n o u s exécutons d ' u n seul
coup. Ce n'est m ê m e , c o m m e on sait, q u e depuis le dernier siècle q u e la fabrication des fers de faux a été portée à u n e assez grande perfection.
... D a s moissonner erheischte a u c h u n e m a i n d ' œ u v r e double de la n ô t r e
q u a n d n o u s coupons le blé à la faucille, et plus que le quadruple si n o u s
n o u s servons de la faux. (129, 30)
Des
Troupeaux.
Presque tous nos espèces d o m e s t i q u e s sont originaires de l'Asie. (138)
346
20
25
30
F
Du menu bétail. (144 sqq.)
Du Gros Bétail. (150 sqq.)
Des Mulets et des Chiens. (159)
Des Bergers et de leurs travaux.
5
C'est encore un des fruits de la domesticité que la production p e r m a n e n t e s
de lait chez les vaches, les brebis et les chèvres ; les espèces sauvages ne le
conservent q u e le t e m p s nécessaire p o u r q u e leurs petits puissent s'habituer à d'autres aliments. (170) |
| 1 1 | Produits de la Villa; Des Volières.
10
U n t e r Villa verstand m a n u n t e r a n d e r e m a u c h u n e m é n a g e r i e p o u r élever
et engraisser des a n i m a u x , des oiseaux, des poissons, des insectes et des
m o l l u s q u e s recherchés par le luxe des tables. (175, 6) M a n m ä s t e t e künstlich des ortolans, des cailles et des grives. (179) On les privait de la lumière ; on les nourrissait de boulettes faites avec des figues et de la farine
15
d'épeautre, on faisait passer d a n s la volière un petit canal d'eau c o u r a n t e
pour qu'ils pussent boire et se baigner à volonté. On tenait la volière très
propre. Vingt jours avant de les p r e n d r e p o u r la c o n s o m m a t i o n , on augm e n t a i t leur nourriture, on y m e t t a i t de la farine plus fine. A côté de la
grande volière, on en avait u n e petite plus éclairée, où l'on faisait entrer les
20 oiseaux gras q u ' o n voulait tuer. (179, 180) é d u c a t i o n des paons. (180) Les
pigeons. (184) é d u c a t i o n des tourterelles. (186) Les poules. (187) etc. la domestication du canard était négligée chez les anciens. Chez n o u s ces
oiseaux vivent libres et ne p e n s e n t pas à s'envoler. (199)
Des Parcs D'animaux.
25
30
Enthielt zur Zeit Varros n i c h t m e h r 1 oder 2 jugera de terrain et q u e l q u e s
lièvres, sondern eine grosse Z a h l d'arpents peuplés de cerf et de chevreuils.
(200) Die R ö m e r engraissaient des l i m a ç o n s et des loirs. (1. c.) Le 14ième
chapitre de Varron traite de l'éducation des mollusques d'eau d o u c e à coquilles, q u ' o n engraissait aussi dans les parcs p o u r les délice de la table.
(202, 3) Parcs d'escargots. (204)
347
Des Viviers
(bassins d'eau peuplé de poissons.) (d'eau d o u c e et d'eau salée) « L e s viviers alimentés par la m e r sont l'apanage de n o t r e noblesse.» (p. 209) (Ils
c o û t e n t b e a u c o u p à construire, b e a u c o u p à peupler, et b e a u c o u p à nourrir.)
(209) Lucius Lucullus avait fait percer u n e m o n t a g n e près de Naples et
avait introduit dans ses viviers des fleuves m a r i n s q u i coulaient ou s'écoulaient par le flux et le reflux ... il p e r m i t à son architecte de c o n s u m e r sa
fortune, pourvu qu'il lui conduisît u n e galerie souterraine depuis ses viviers
j u s q u ' à la mer, en la fermant d ' u n e b o n d e qui permît à la m a r é e , d'y entrer
et d'en sortir d e u x fois par jour. (212, 13) (et de renouveler ainsi l'eau de
ses piscines. [213]) On a dû r e m a r q u e r q u e cette culture en grand des
fleurs, cette industrie si productive d ' a n i m a u x de t o u t e espèce, nourris et
engraissés dans les villas, n ' é t a i e n t destinées q u ' a u luxe de la capitale, et
restaient concentrées dans un rayon circonscrit a u t o u r de R o m e . L'état social des R o m a i n s ressemblait alors b e a u c o u p plus à celui de la Russie ou
de l'empire o t t o m a n q u ' à celui de la F r a n c e ou de l'Angleterre: p e u de
c o m m e r c e ou d'industrie ; des fortunes i m m e n s e s à côté d ' u n e extrême m i sère. (214) V o n 388 de R o m e bis 609, diese 2 J a h r h u n d e r t e n a c h Errichtung der lois liciniennes größte Blüthe der Agricultur in R o m . E p o c h e der
T h e i l u n g der propriétés, des emploi de la p o p u l a t i o n libre à l'agriculture,
Erfindung des m é t h o d e s savantes ... W a c h s t h u m der freien Population,
Italien producirt m e h r als es consumirt, führt Korn aus. D i e Cultur sehr
dispendieuse, I n s t r u m e n t e u n v o l l k o m m e n , die travail à m a i n allgemein
adopté; folglich das produit b r u t viel stärker als das produit net. ... Seit der
Zerstörung Carthagos, wo die Oligarchie sich des pouvoir bemächtigt, die
licinischen Gesetze abgeschafft, die propriété des plébéjens usurpirt, die
R e i c h t h ü m e r accumulirt u n d concentrirt, Corruption der Sitten, Einführung des Luxus, E n t s t e h e n des W u c h e r s , Geld wird eine M a c h t , u n e n t g e l d liche Vertheilung von blé, Export desselben von Italien verboten, I m p o r t
von Africa, Sicilien u n d Sardinien d u r c h P r ä m i e n begünstigt; Volk wird oisif u n d turbulent, a b a n d o n n e la culture des terre, méprise la profession de
journalier : il faut importer u n e é n o r m e q u a n t i t é d'esclaves. La culture des
grains devient trop dispendieuse, la c o n c u r r e n c e des grains étrangers trop
redoutable. Verwandlung in pâtures d ' u n e grande partie des terre en lab o u r ; on crée des basses cours, des colombiers, des viviers, des parcs de
bêtes fauves, p o u r la c o n s o m m a t i o n de l'oligarchie de la capitale. Le produit, la valeur des terres d i m i n u e ; l'agriculture confiée à des esclaves déchoit. Entvölkerung, la population libre décroît avec les produits. ( 2 1 5 - 1 7 )
Die 19 J a h r h u n d e r t e seit Varro h a b e n exercé u n e influence m a r q u é e sur la
348
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
domesticité d e plusieurs a n i m a u x d e n o s étables u n d m e h r e r o i s e a u x der
basses cours. (217) |
|12|
5
10
Concentration des Propriétés.
G e s c h i c h t e des Τ u n d 8' J h . zeigt Agricultur, Bevölkerung, Producte Roms verfallen wachsend m i t der A u s d e h n u n g seiner M a c h t u n d d e m A n z i e h n eines
grossen Theils des R e i c h t h u m s der d a m a l i g e n Welt. Concentration des
Reichthums; wunderbar wachsende Zahl der Sklaven. Kaiser Tiberius dagegen.
Latifundia perdidere Italiam, j a m vero et provincias; sex d o m i n i s e m i s s e m
Africae possidebant c u m interfecit eos N e r o princeps. (Plinius) Z u r Zeit
des H o n o r i u s u n d A r c a d i u s , wo der R e i c h t h u m sehr verfallen, besassen einige grosse r ö m i s c h e F a m i l i e n , en argent et en produits ruraux, n o c h reven u s von 2 millions fcs. A u g u s t u s klagte ü b e r die distribution gratuite de vivres als eine U r s a c h e des Verfalls der Agricultur. A p p i a n u s sagt: « L e s
distributions de blé q u ' o n faisait à R o m e a u x citoyens pauvres y avaient at-
15
tiré tous les fainéants, t o u s les m e n d i a n t s , tous les séditieux de l'Italie.»
S c h o n vor J. Caesar erhielten 320,000 citoyens gratis du blé, m i t 3 m u l t i p l i cirt für W e i b e r u n d K i n d e r giebt 960,000 oisifs. Caesar reducirte sie auf
150,000. Chertés des vivres u n t e r d e n 12 ersten Césars. Die R ö m e r b e zweckten in i h r e m Colonisationssystem d e n a c k e r b a u t r e i b e n d e n T h e i l der
20 italischen Bevölkerung zu v e r m e h r e n . Gegentheiliger Erfolg. Die r e i c h e n
citoyens b e m ä c h t i g t e n sich des größten Theils der eroberten L ä n d e r e i e n ,
die n i c h t verkauft oder abgetreten waren, u n d b e t r a c h t e t e n sich auf die
Länge als deren E i g e n t h ü m e r . D a s E i g e n t h u m ihrer k l e i n e n N a c h b a r n
b r a c h t e n sie an sich d u r c h persuasion, violence, C h i c a n e s . So vastes d o 25
m a i n e s . L ä n d e r e i e n u n d H e r d e n d e n Sklaven anvertraut, die n i c h t u n t e r worfen d e n charges die die conscription militaire auf die F r e i e n fallen ließ.
A u s d e m Columella sieht m a n , d a ß zu seiner Zeit, die Weiber, in Stadt
u n d L a n d sich n i c h t m e h r u m d e n m é n a g e k ü m m e r t e n , s o n d e r n i n
S c h m u c k u n d L u x u s g e g e n s t ä n d e n das Capital verpraßten, das auf die Agri-
30
cultur hätte verwendet werden m ü s s e n . N a c h Plinius in d e n ersten 5 Jahrh u n d e r t e n der Preiß der vivres u n g l a u b l i c h niedrig. Ce bas prix du blé fut
une des causes qui en firent abandonner la culture. ( 2 1 8 - 2 3 4 )
349
Destruction de la classe moyenne.
V o n d e n G r a c c h e n bis August système d'exactions, de concussions, de
confiscations, de proscriptions. Das e n v a h i s s e m e n t c o n t i n u e l des petits
propriétaires par les h o m m e s riches et puissants zerstörte vollständig die
classe m o y e n n e , active et industrieuse. M o r d u n d Proscription n a c h der
5
Niederlage der G r a c c h e n . G u e r r e sociale von 3 J a h r e n , n a h m Italien
300,000 M a n n . Die Proscriptions u n t e r M a r i u s u n d Sylla. Die classe
m o y e n n e h a t t e besonders m i t M a r i u s gehalten. Sylla gezwungen, 10,000
Sklaven zu Bürgern zu m a c h e n . Vertheilte d e n 23 légions die propriétés
foncières etc der Proscrits. Cäsar etablirte m e h r als 120,000 légionnaires. 10
683 n u r n o c h 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n . E n d l i c h der
Krieg von Spartacus. U n t e r Cäsar disette de subsistance u n d F o r d e r u n g der
abolition der dettes, gestüzt auf die Verringerung des W e r t h s der L ä n d e reien in Folge der guerres et séditions. D u r c h die lex Julia erlaubte er den
débiteurs de s'acquitter en livrant des fonds de terres estimés au prix où ils 15
étaient avent la guerre civile ; die loi retranchait aussi du capital der dette
die W u c h e r z i n s e n , die % der Schuld bildeten. U n t e r Cäsar n u r n o c h
450,000 waffenfähige Bürger u n d also ungefähr (a. 683) 1,800,000 personnes libres, wo 529: 750,000 c o m b a t t a n t s u n d ungefähr 3 m i l l i o n e n freie
Bürger. U n t e r Caesar daher lex Julia ü b e r die mariage. Prérogatives assu- 20
rées à ceux qui auraient plusieurs enfans. Proscriptions u n d confiscations
u n t e r Octave, A n t o i n e u n d Lépide. Vertheilung u n t e r d e n Soldaten, état
déplorable de la culture tombées dans les m a i n s de ces guerriers avides et
prodigues. ( 2 3 4 - 2 4 4 )
Diminution de la Population et des Produits.
25
U n t e r August jährlich n a c h R o m u n d Italien, von Aejypten u n d Africa,
60 M i l l i o n e n m o d i u s blé gebracht, la disette d ' h o m m e s libres so groß gen
E n d e der Regierung des August, daß m a n gezwungen d'enrôler les affranchis dans les légions. C o n c e n t r a t i o n der propriétés, e n o r m e r W u c h e r z i n s ,
culture vicieuse, Fortschritte des L u x u s die j e d e s J a h r m e h r terrain der 30
Agricultur entzogen, die multiplicité des fêtes et des jours consacrés aux
j e u x , V e r m i n d e r u n g der freien Bevölkerung d u r c h die v e r d o r b n e n Sitten,
goûts contre nature, l'usage der avortements u n d expositions der enfants,
u n t e r August m e h r célibateurs als mariés ... so die produits v e r m i n d e r t de
règne en règne. D a z u der despotisme impérial u n d die instabilité des 35
E i g e n t h u m s . G e g e n a n s t r e n g u n g e n des Tiberius. Leiden des Volks u n t e r
350
i h m von disette u n d cherté des vivres. 785 u n t e r i h m Gefahr eines Aufruhrs wegen disette. U n t e r Claudius n o c h größre d i m i n u t i o n der produits
de l'Italie. 804 furchtbare disette zu R o m . C l a u d e assailli sur son tribunal.
U n t e r i h m lex Papia zur Beförderung der mariages. U n t e r Nero famine in
5 R o m ; m a n war obligé T a r e n t e u n d A n t i u m zu versuchen zu repeupler
d u r c h Veteranen. Seit d e n Bürgerkriegen von M a r i u s u n d Sylla, wieviel
R ö m e r enrôlés in die légions wo die 20 ersten J a h r e ihres e n g a g e m e n t
s'écoulaient d a n s le célibat. Die Veterans, nourris in d e n Bürgerkriegen,
d e n e n m a n vertheilte die biens der proscrits oder die territoires der Städte
10 q u i avaient t e n u le parti contraire, prodigues et dépravés, rebelles a u x lois
de mariage, inhabiles à élever des enfants, s t r ö m t e n n a c h R o m pour y j o u i r
des jeux, des spectacles, des festins, des distributions gratuites, verschuldet e n sich ü b e r die O h r e n u n d erwarteten d a n n oder suscitaient des n o u veaux troubles um zu réparer leur r u i n e par de nouvelles u s u r p a t i o n s . Also
15 das Célibat der Soldaten H i n d e r n i ß für die R e p r o d u c t i o n der Freien, wie
die dure condition der esclaves für ihre R e p r o d u c t i o n . ( 2 4 5 - 2 5 4 )
Livre IV Institutions Politiques. Administration. - Finances.
Nature des Lois Agraires.
20
loi agraire war u n e limitation de la propriété foncière entre les citoyens actifs ... diese Beschränkung des Besitzes die G r u n d l a g e der Existenz u n d
prospérité der alten R e p u b l i k e n . (256, 7) |
|13| De l'Intérêt légal de l'argent.
Das Gesetz ü b e r die S c h u l d e n (260) h a t t e einfach statuirt daß die intérêts
perçus seraient passés en c o m p t e et en d é d u c t i o n du capital u n d d a ß d e n
S c h u l d n e r n 3 Jahre gegeben w ü r d e n um s'acquitter du reste en 3 paiem e n t s égaux. ... Das Gesetz der 12 Tafeln, 303, sezte d e n Geldzinsfuß auf
1 % par an. 398, durch D u i l i u s dieß Gesetz hergestellt u n d der Zinsfuß von
n e u e m auf 1 % gesezt. A u f % % reducirt 408 u n d 413 a b s o l u m e n t défendu
30 par un plébiscite, m u l t i s q u e plebiscitis, sagt Tacitus, obviam i t u m fraudib u s quae, totiens repressae, m i r a s per artes r u r s u m oriebantur. A b e r d a m a l s
zugleich der c o m m e r c e en gros et en détail interdit aux citoyens. Dieser
Z u s t a n d dauerte 3 J h d t e bis zur E r o b e r u n g von Carthago. Als die Oligarchie gesiegt 12 % erlaubt b e i m L e i h e n , aber 6 % der t a u x c o m m u n de l'inté25
351
1
rêt a n n u e l . 429 die contrainte par corps abgeschafft u n d die créanciers n u r
m e h r actions auf die biens de leurs débiteurs, die cessèrent d'être livrés à
l'esclavage. ( 2 5 9 - 2 6 6 )
Des Lois Liciniennes.
t e
Das 2 (388) dieser Gesetze erlaubte k e i n e m Bürger ü b e r 500 jugera, Gratisvertheilung oder Verpachtung des Ueberschusses an die a r m e n Bürger,
m i n d e s t e n s in dieser partage 7 jugera pro Kopf, n u r b e s t i m m t e Z a h l von
Sklaven auf diesen terres, Z a h l der t r o u p e a u x b e s c h r ä n k t u n d im Verhältniß zur Grösse der b e s e ß n e n L ä n d e r e i e n ; daß die R e i c h s t e n weder n ä h r e n
n o c h envoyer dürften auf d e n c o m m u n a u x u n d pâturages publics m e h r als
100 H o r n v i e h u n d 500 Schafe; a m e n d e bei U e b e r t r e t u n g von 10,000 as
(1630 fcs.). Das 3* Gesetz eröffnete d e n Plebejern das Consulat, 398 ein plebejischer Dictator, 403 u n d 406 Censor, zugelassen zur Pretur 417 u n d zu
den sacerdoces 452. (Carthago zerstört 608) Les t r i o m p h e s de la république
a m e n è r e n t la ruine de sa constitution. Die E r o b e r u n g von M a c é d o n i e n verdarb die Sitten des Volks. « C e r o y a u m e subjugué, sagt Polybe, on crut pouvoir vivre dans u n e entière sécurité et j o u i r t r a n q u i l l e m e n t de l'empire de
l'univers. La plupart vivaient à R o m e dans un d é r a n g e m e n t é t r a n g e ;
l'amour emportait la jeunesse a u x excès les plus h o n t e u x . On s'adonnait
a u x spectacles, aux festins, aux luxes, a u x désordres de tout genre, d o n t on
n'avait q u e trop é v i d e m m e n t pris l'exemple chez les Grecs p e n d a n t la
guerre contre Persée.» Die désordre stieg m i t der M a c h t , bis der Sturz Carthagos, ayant livré aux grands d ' i m m e n s e s possessions, porta la corruption
au plus h a u t degré. Das Gesetz das d e n Besitz ü b e r 500 jugera verbot,
zuerst fraudulös u m g a n g e n . Die riches erwarben beträchtlichere Besitzungen u n t e r erborgten N a m e n ; d a n n , encouragés par leur n o m b r e , fuhren sie
fort zu besitzen par u n e violation ouverte des Gesetzes. ... D i e grands liessen sich v o m ager publicus adjuger à vil prix des vastes portions; ils avaient
eu le crédit d'obtenir des b a u x à rente m o d i q u e ou des distributions privilégiées dans les diverses colonies de la république. Um ihre d o m e s t i q u e s
d e n charges du service militaire zu e n t z i e h n , führten sie statt ihrer auf ihren terres fremde Sklaven ein, réduisirent par là les h o m m e s de c a m p a g n e s
à la plus grande misère, et les forcèrent à se réfugier au sein des villes p o u r
y trouver leur subsistance d a n s les largesses des grands u n d vendre leur suffrage au plus offrant. A p p i a n sagt: « L e s riches se firent adjuger la plus
grande partie des terres n o n distribuées ; ils achetèrent ou prirent de force
les petits héritages des pauvres gens leurs voisins et firent ainsi de leurs
champs d'immenses domaines.» (266-279)
352
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
f.
Lois de Tiberius Gracchus.
T. G. 619, z u m T r i b u n e r n a n n t , beschloß die licinische loi agraire wieder
in Kraft zu setzen. Ausser den 500 j u g e r a erlaubte er d e n fils der riches
propriétaires 250 u n d n u r das surplus sollte d e n pauvres vertheilt werden.
5
Verbot den R e i c h e n diese biens zu kaufen und den Armen sie zu verkaufen.
Auf den W i d e r s t a n d des T r i b u n Octavius verlangt er direkte Wiederherstellung der alten Gesetze u n d das a b a n d o n n e m e n t der surplus terres auf der
Stelle. 3 Commissaire e r n a n n t für die D u r c h f ü h r u n g seines Gesetzes, woru n t e r er selbst. Einige Zeit n a c h h e r , als Attale Philométor, lezter K ö n i g
10 von Pergamus, das römische Volk zu s e i n e m E r b e n einsezte, schlug Tiberius ein neues Gesetz vor, daß „tout l'argent c o m p t a n t de la succession de
ce prince serait distribué aux pauvres citoyens, afin qu'ils eussent de q u o i
s ' e m m é n a g e r dans leurs nouvelles possessions, et se pourvoir des instruments
nécessaire à l'agriculture". C i c e r o Schuft. D i e Proletarier gleichzeitig von
15 den L ä n d e r e i e n h e r a u s g e s c h m i s s e n u n d d u r c h die Sklaven von der Arbeit
verdrängt, hatten nichts m e h r zu verkaufen als ihre S t i m m e n . Voyez, sur la
vénalité des élections et les m a n œ u v r e s employées p o u r acheter le consulat, la préture, l'édilité die 2* R e d e gegen Verres. D a h e r die Corruption générale. Sie fingen an, wie Sallust sagt, à vendre la république avec leur pro20 pre liberté. Die U s u r p a t i o n datirte von 12 J a h r e n vor T. G r a c c h u s .
(280-299)
Lois de Cajus Gracchus.
U. A. édits qu'il présenta, eines qui regardait les colonies u n d d e n a r m e n
citoyens die terres des villes gab, w o h i n m a n sie schickte um diese zu re25 peupler; andres zu G u n s t e n der T r u p p e n ; ein andres das allen Völkern Italiens le droit de suffrage gab; ein andres, das den Getreidepreiß für die Arm e n verminderte; e n d l i c h eins, das d e n S e n a t o r e n die richterliche Gewalt
n a h m u n d sie d e n Chevaliers gab, die sie 16 oder 17 J a h r e wirklich genossen. Das schlimme u n t e r seinen G e s e t z e n die lex frumentaria, w o d u r c h ein
30 Bürger den m o d i u s (13½ de nos livres) für % eines as erhielt. Concession
obligée de l'oligarchie envers le peuple, on regardait la fortune p u b l i q u e
c o m m e u n e propriété c o m m u n e qui devait être partagée entre les particuliers. Die Vertheilung des blé waren die r ö m i s c h e Paupertaxe. A u f die
450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s (705, 48 J a h r e vor Ch.) 320,000 erhielten gratis
35 blé von der Republik. Diese Vertheilung aber u m g e k e h r t e n Effect wie die
A r m e n t a x e in England - n ä m l i c h d i m i n u t i o n de la population. Z u r Zeit
Ciceros nicht 2000 h o m i n u m q u i r e m haberent. ( 2 9 9 - 3 2 2 ) |
353
|14| Lois de Rullus, de Flavius, et de César.
D a s Gesetz des Tiberius G r a c c h u s erhielt d e n Anfang von Ausführung seit
seiner Promulgation, 621 bis z u m T o d e von Cajus G r a c c h u s , 6 3 3 . Kurz
n a c h h e r u n e loi portée, die erlaubte de vendre et d'acheter les portions
concédées du d o m a i n e public. D i e riches renouvelèrent leurs u s u r p a t i o n s
5
u n d die pauvres colons dépossédés. 15 J a h r e n a c h der P r o m u l g a t i o n der
Gesetze des Cajus blieb d e n plébéjens ni terres concédées, ni distribution
d'argent et de blé. 6 9 1 , seit d e m entrée Ciceros z u m Consulat, schlug der
Volkstribun Servilius Rullus ein n e u e s Agrargesetz vor, das u n t e r d e m Vorwand du soulagement des pauvres, einigen citoyens alle D o m ä n e n u n d R e - 10
v e n u e n der Republik preißgab et conférait aux decemvirs chargés de son
exécution un pouvoir exorbitant. 694, Pompejus revenu de l'Asie, wollte
seinen soldats u n e distribution de terres m a c h e n . D a z u schlug der T r i b u n
Flavius eine lex agraria vor. afin q u e t o u t le peuple p û t y p r e n d r e intérêt, ils
associaient les autres citoyens au partage des terres. 695 J. César, consul, 15
reprit les propositions de Rullus et Flavius, m a i s en les modifiant, et présenta de n o u v e a u u n e loi agraire. Il paraît que, par suite de la loi agraire de
J. César, toutes les terres d o m a n i a l e s situées en Italie, furent distribuées
a u x plébéjens; d e n n Cicero sagt in e i n e m Brief an A t t i c u s : « A p r è s la distrib u t i o n des terres de la C a m p a n i e et l'abolition des d o u a n e s et des entrées, 20
q u e l revenu reste-t-il en Italie à la r é p u b l i q u e , excepté le 2 0
assis sur la
vente et l'affranchissement des esclaves?» ( 3 2 2 - 3 3 2 )
è m e
Droits Civils et Politiques.
le g o u v e r n e m e n t r o m a i n n ' a été q u ' u n e n s e m b l e d'institutions m u n i c i pales. Q u a n d R o m e s'est é t e n d u e , ce n ' a dû être q u ' u n e agglomération de 25
colonies de m u n i c i p e s , de petits états fait pour l'isolement et l'indépend a n c e . Das G e h e i m n i ß der d e n n o c h i g e n u n i t é des r ö m i s c h e n R e i c h s ist
das système gradué de différents droits accordés, soit a u x individus, soit
a u x cités, soit enfin aux peuples s o u m i s à la d o m i n a t i o n r o m a i n e . Optimum
jus civis romani, R e c h t e d ' u n citoyen envoyé dans u n e colonie, j u s l a t i n u m ,
30
j u s italicum, j u s des m u n i c i p e s , des villes libres ou fédérées, enfin les
droits et les charges des villes et des c a n t o n s tributaires. ... 585 la victoire
de P a u l Emile affranchit le peuple r o m a i n de l'impôt foncier u n d die droits
de d o u a n e et d'octroi abgeschafft in Italien u n d R o m , 694, par la loi de
Metellus N e p o s . ( 3 3 2 - 3 5 2 )
35
354
Administration
5
Civile
et judiciaire.
Il y avait dans les provinces des terres qui étaient la propriété d o m a n i a l e de
la république. Les a n c i e n s d o m a i n e s des rois de M a c é d o i n e , de P e r g a m e ,
de Bithynie, de Cyrène, de Chypre, et les territoires confisqués lors de la
c o n q u ê t e c o m p o s a i e n t l'ensemble de ce p a t r i m o i n e public, toutes ces
terres s'affermaient en argent au profit de l'état. ( 3 5 2 - 3 6 4 . ) (Concussion,
Exhaustion, Prellerei etc.)
Effets
de
lAdministration
Provinciale.
Le pillage des contrées opulentes de la G r è c e et de l'Asie avait créé, p o u r
un certain n o m b r e de sénateurs, des fortunes i m m e n s e s ; ils en employèrent u n e partie p o u r a m u s e r le p e u p l e par des jeux, des fêtes, des spectacles, des combats de bêtes féroces ou de gladiateurs. Ils s'attachèrent à
faire naître chez leurs anciens rivaux la d é b a u c h e et la paresse. Bientôt la
misère ... gagna t o u t le corps des plébéjens et les m i t sous la d é p e n d a n c e
15 absolue des riches qui fournissaient a u x plaisirs et a u x besoins de leur vie.
C o m m e le cens et les propriétés foncières conféraient un pouvoir politique,
les riches en dépouillèrent p e u à p e u les plébéjens par l'usure, la séduction,
la fraude ou la violence. ... La vanité des grands s'enorgueillissait d'exercer
un i m m e n s e patronage. ... foule de clients ... R o m e devint un séjour de
20 délices et d'oisiveté, et les peuples de l'Italie ... quittèrent en foule leurs
villes, leurs ateliers et leurs cultures pour venir s'établir d a n s la capitale et
y jouir des plaisirs et de l ' e x e m p t i o n de travail qu'elle offrait à ses h a b i tants. ( 3 6 4 - 3 7 6 )
10
Population et Produits de la Sicile.
25
30
In Sicilien l'usage des grandes ferme§. ... la Sicile fabriquait b e a u c o u p
d'étoffes précieuses, soit pour la parure, soit p o u r l ' a m e u b l e m e n t ; des m e u bles, des o r n e m e n t s , des objets d'art et de luxe, exécutés avec le goût et
l'élégance propres à la n a t i o n grecque, sortaient en foule de ses ateliers et
de ses manufactures. ( 3 7 6 - 3 8 4 ) (Sicilien hatte zur Zeit Ciceros
1,190,592 Einwohner.)
355
De la Province d'Asie.
Kleinasien sehr productiv, é t o n n a n t e population, richesses, industrie. Cicero sagt, daß diese province a b o n d e en richesses et en b e a u t é s de t o u t
genre, esclaves superbes, m é t a u x précieux, étoffes recherchées, vases, tab l e a u x et statues. Zahlreiche Städte. Er sagt: «les tributs des autres provinces suffisent à peine à leur défense ; m a i s l'Asie est si riche et si fertile
que, par la fécondité de ses c h a m p s , l ' é t e n d u e de ses pâturages, la variété
de ses produits ||15| et la m u l t i t u d e des objets q u i en sont exportés, elle surpasse de b e a u c o u p tous les autres pays.» Les tributs perçus par les publicains, qui avaient dans la r é p u b l i q u e le m ê m e e m p l o i q u e nos anciens fermiers généraux, consistaient en redevances fixes, capitation sur les
h o m m e s et sur le bétail, droits de d o u a n e s , d'octroi, de péage, impôts sur
les portes, et sur la vente du sel. Sie w u r d e n g e n o m m e n , diese fermiers,
dans l'ordre des chevaliers u n d waren organisés en grandes compagnies, et
b e a u c o u p des R o m a i n s des autres classes, attirés en Asie par des spéculations de t o u t e espèce, y avaient porté u n e si grande m a s s e de leurs capitaux
propres ou empruntés, q u e l'état des affaires dans cette province était dev e n u le régulateur du crédit et du t a u x de l'intérêt d a n s la capitale. ... les
publicains aggravaient é n o r m é m e n t le poids des charges, et forçaient les
villes de l'Asie, qui étaient solidaires de la totalité des impôts, à payer,
p o u r les termes arriérés, un intérêt usuraire qui m o n t a i t souvent à 48 pour
% par an. Les gouverneurs étaient p o u r t a n t forcés de m é n a g e r cette corporation puissante, qui formée des chevaliers r o m a i n s , était alors investie du
pouvoir judiciaire et se mettait souvent audessus des lois. ... Aus e i n e m
Briefe Ciceros an Atticus folgt, d a ß die chevaliers r o m a i n s p r e n a i e n t à
ferme, p o u r cinq ans, tous les revenus de la r é p u b l i q u e d a n s u n e province,
et qu'ils les louaient et sous louaient ensuite à des traitants et à des sous
traitants. ... E i n Gesetz von Solon o r d o n n a i t de vendre à prix fixe, sans dol
ni f r a u d e ; les agoranomes veillaient à la stricte exécution de cette loi.
... Ces républiques asiatiques loin de flétrir, c o m m e Sparte et R o m e , le
c o m m e r c e et l'industrie, les h o n o r a i e n t et les encourageaient puissamm e n t . ... Cicero's esprit aristocratique s'indigne de voir dans la Phrygie et
d a n s la Mysie, à Pergame, à Tralles, les artisans prendre part a u x délibérations publiques. Er erzählt daß diese asiatischen Städte weder trésors n o c h
d o m a i n e s publics hatten, sie h a t t e n n u r 2 M i t t e l sich Geld zu verschaffen:
des impôts et des e m p r u n t s . ... Cicero - Consul - interdit a u x juifs, alors
b a n q u i e r s et usuriers à R o m e , c o m m e ils l'ont été partout, la faculté d'exporter de l'or tous les ans, pour Jérusalem, de l'Italie et des provinces. ...
N o c h während des bas empire u n d des m o y e n âge sehn wir d e n O c c i d e n t
356
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Aus Adoiphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains
5
i m m e r pauvre u n d stérile, d e n O r i e n t a b o n d a n t e n m é t a u x , e n p r o d u c t i o n s
de t o u t genre . . . L'Italie r o m a i n e , d e p u i s la destruction de Carthage
j u s q u ' à la fondation de C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , avait existé, vis-à-vis de la G r è c e et
de l'Orient, dans le m ê m e état où l'Espagne, p e n d a n t le 18 siècle, s'est
trouvée à l'égard de l'Europe. A l b e r o n i disait: « l ' E s p a g n e est à l'Europe ce
que la b o u c h e est au corps ; t o u t y passe, rien n ' y reste. » So das r ö m i s c h e
Italien i m lezten J h . der R e p u b l i k u n d u n t e r d e n Kaisern. R o m e attirait,
engouffrait l'or des provinces, wie S p a n i e n die edlen Metalle M e x i c o ' s u n d
Peru's . . . l'argent s'écoulait sans cesse de leurs m a i n s ; d e n n Italien, wie
10
Spanien, c o n s u m i r t e , o h n e zu reproduire. D e r Orient war wesentlich p r o ducteur, c o m m e r ç a n t et m a n u f a c t u r i e r ; die i m p ô t s , die concussions, die
avanies, faisaient couler sans cesse à R o m e de nouvelles richesses, q u e le
travail i n d u s t r i e u x de l'Ejypte, de la G r è c e et de l'Asie r e p o m p a i t par des
échanges et r a m e n a i t à leur source par le g r a n d c a n a l du c o m m e r c e et de la
15
navigation. D e r R o m unterworfne O c c i d e n t , wie die i h m f o l g e n d e n B a r b a r e n n a h m e n seine a n t i c o m m e r c i e l l e n u n d antiindustriellen Vorurtheile an.
Im Orient bei d e n griechisch s p r e c h e n d e n Völkern U m g e k e h r t : elles attrib u a i e n t a u x professions m e r c a n t i l e s des droits politiques égaux, souvent
supérieurs à ceux des autres c o n d i t i o n s sociales. Ces villes d'Ejypte, de
20
G r è c e et d'Asie, sont à l'Occident, sous le h a u t empire et dans le m o y e n
âge, ce que Venise, G ê n e s et F l o r e n c e sont à l'Europe depuis le 1 3 - 1 6 siècle. ( 3 8 5 - 4 0 2 )
Système
des Impôts.
les revenus de l'état consistaient en d o m a i n e s , contributions en n a t u r e ,
25 corvées, et quelques i m p ô t s en argent payés à l'entrée et à la sortie des m a r chandises, ou perçus sur la vente de certaines denrées. Diese m o d e existirt
fast n o c h o h n e A e n d r u n g im e m p i r e o t t o m a n ... Z u r Zeit der D i k t a t u r Syllas u n d selbst am E n d e des Τ J h . n a h m die r ö m i s c h e R e p u b l i k n u r 40 M i l l i o n e n fcs jährlich ein. ( n ä h m l i c h 697) ... 1780 das revenu des t ü r k i s c h e n
30 Sultans, in piastres en n u m é r a i r e , n u r 35,000,000 piastres oder 70 Million e n fcs. ... Die R o m a i n s u n d die Turcs prélevaient en n a t u r e la plus
g r a n d e partie de leurs revenu. Bei d e n R ö m e r n J/ der grains, % der
F r ü c h t e , bei d e n T ü r k e n von / auf Y der produits wechselnd. Da das r ö m i sche R e i c h n u r eine A g g l o m e r a t i o n i m m e n s e d e m u n i c i p e s i n d é p e n d a n t s ,
35 blieb der größte T h e i l der charges u n d dépenses c o m m u n a l e . Der fisc u n d
der trésor n u r belastet m i t d e n K o s t e n de l ' a r m é e de terre et de m e r u n d den e n der a d m i n i s t r a t i o n dans les provinces impériales. ... Grosse A e h n l i c h keit zwischen d e m Steuersystem des empire r o m a i n u n d d e n Vereinigten
10
l
2
w
357
Staaten von N o r d a m e r i k a , wo a u c h die A u s g a b e n der Centrairegierung gering. ( 4 0 2 - 4 0 7 )
Conditions des terres Imposables.
N u r wenige impôts u n t e r d e n rois, gezahlt en n a t u r e , excepté le produit de
la vente du sel. D e r impôt régulier assis sur le cens gezahlt d u r c h die Plebejer;
5
t r i b u t u m abgeleitet von d e n tribus dieses ordre. W a r u n e taxe à t a n t par
mille, variable n a c h d e n Staatsbedürfnissen ... c o n t r i b u t i o n directe sur les
choses sans égard à leurs produits. Diese charge frappait n u r die assidui;
die Prolétaires n u r t e n u s à la déclaration de leur avoir. W e n n die R ö m e r
ein Volk unterjocht, legten sie i h m e i n e n j ä h r l i c h e n T r i b u t für die Kriegs- 10
kosten auf oder n a h m e n i h n e n ganz oder theilweis ihr territorium ab, das
sie zur d o m a i n e public schlugen. M a n c h m a l etablirten sie des colons auf
d e n terres conquises, die d e m trésor public u n e certaine partie du revenu
de ces terres z a h l e n m u ß t e n . ... In der alten R e p u b l i k die 3 Hauptzweige
der impositions waren assises sur les c h a m p s cultivés, die pâturages u n d 15
die m a r c h a n d i s e s die ein droit z a h l t e n b e i m entrée oder sortie der villes
u n d ports. ||16| Diese Steuern hiessen d e c u m a , scriptura u n d portorium.
die terres du d o m a i n e public hiessen agri publia, parce q u e la propriété
d e m Staat gehörte, der davon die F r u c h t zog, oder vectigales, weil m a n die
possession concedirt hatte an particuliers m o y e n n a n t u n e redevance en n a - 20
ture, vectigal. (à vehendo) Die terres du d o m a i n e public erworben, w e n n
eine Stadt freiwillig toutes ses propriétés d e m r ö m i s c h e n Volk gab oder
w e n n die Eroberung es en avait investi. Diese d o m a i n e s , in gewöhnlichen
Zeiten, die Base der Staatsrevenus; ihr Verkauf, d a n s les besoins pressants,
u n e ressource assurée. Einigen Völkern n a h m e n die R ö m e r %, % ihres ter- 25
ritoire; a n d r e n gaben sie die propriété de leurs fonds zurück ... Fast ganz
Etrurien, weil es der Parthei des M a r i u s gegen Sylla gefolgt, fut dépouillée
de ses propriétés foncières. ... Ein andrer Theil der terres enlevées a u x peuples vaincus vertheilt u n t e r die Veterans oder der r ö m i s c h e n plèbe indigente et séditieuse. So die prolétaires zu G r u n d e i g e n t h ü m e r n g e m a c h t , die 30
Soldaten belohnt, die n e u unterjochten peuples c o n q u i s d u r c h ces colonies
placées dans les villes fortes. Die vétérans z a h l t e n d e n alten E i g e n t h ü m e r n
für die i h n e n assignirten terres u n e petite rente ... die colons, d e n e n m a n
die eroberten terres vertheilte soumis einer massigen R e n t e an d e n trésor
public n a c h der Z a h l der i h n e n zugefallenen jugera. ... die terres q u i 35
étaient possédées von den clans patriciens (gentes) oder consacrées a u x
dieux oder affectées à l'entretien des temples, wie in F r a n k r e i c h vor 1789,
exemptes de t o u t e espèce d'imposition ... Der U e b e r s c h u ß der theilbaren
358
F
terres ü b e r die Z a h l der colons, blieb das surplus d e m fisc, von i h m loué
oder v e n d u oder j o i n t partiellement a u x propriétés concédées, m a i s en
p a y a n t un i m p ô t (ebenso verhielt es sich m i t d e m ager subsecivus, portion
de terrain vague et n o n b o r n é e , a t t e n a n t a u x terres arables partagées a u x
5 colons) oder r e n d u d e n a n c i e n s possesseurs, gegen die charge eines Z e h n ten des Products, oder en c o m m u n d e n colons gelassen, die u n e faible rétribution dafür zahlten. D i e M u n i c i p i e n h a t t e n a u c h das R e c h t des b i e n s
fonds zu besitzen, deren revenu servait à soutenir les charges de la ville ...
D i e biens c o m m u n a u x fast i m m e r des terrains vagues ou de pâtures, u n d
10 n a n n t e n sich c o m p a s c u a , weil alle Thiere der Colonie y avaient droit de pacage. Diese G ü t e r oft sehr entfernt von d e r Stadt, die sie besaß ... D i e
villes affermaient ihre terres à perpétuité, d . h . m o y e n n a n t le p a i e m e n t
exact du prix stipulé, ni les fermiers ni leurs successeurs ne p o u v a i e n t être
évincés. ... Diese sortes de propriétés m u n i c i p a l e s n a n n t e Coelius agros
15 fructuarios. ... Ces propriétés p u b l i q u e s furent conservées aux villes par les
empereurs. ( 4 0 7 - 4 1 7 )
Revenus des terres du Domaine de la République.
D i e Einkünfte der terres die das p a t r i m o i n e der république waren b i l d e t e n
le revenu le plus considérable de l'état, wie die d o m a i n e der französischen
20 rois im c o m m e n c e m e n t der 3' R a c e . ... R é p a n d u s dans toutes les provinces
conquises, ces biens étaient o r d i n a i r e m e n t m i s en régie, c o m m e le sont en
F r a n c e les bois de l'État, et on les faisait valoir pour le c o m p t e de la république,
der produits war das m a x i m u m des i m p ô t foncier. ... D i e forêts de chênes u n d die taillis z a h l t e n geringren i m p ô t als die oliviers u n d
25 die vignes. ( 4 1 7 - 4 2 1 )
Prestations en Nature.
Die durch Krieg unterworfnen pays, surtout hors de l'Italie, unterworfen
e i n e m i m p ô t fixe, basé sur le cadastre ... So Sardinien, Africa, Spanien,
A s i e n u n d die a n d r e n Provinzen m i t A u s n a h m e von Sicilien. Vectigal cer30 tum, annuum. Ein Theil dieses Tributs, stipendiarium, in Geld gezahlt ...
A s i e n u n d die a n d r e n Provinzen z a h l t e n ausser der dîme e i n e n impôt, denselben in fruchtbaren wie sterilen J a h r e n ; elles supportaient en outre des
frais de recouvrement considérables, étant soumises au régime des p u b l i cains ou des fermiers g é n é r a u x . D i e C e n s o r e n k o n n t e n alle 5 J a h r e aug35 m e n t e r l'impôt u n d l'adjugeaient à l'enchère à des compagnies qui se char-
359
geaient de le recouvrer. (Censoria locatio) ... D i e pâturages, lacs u n d
étangs a u c h soumis à un impôt direct ... le lac L u c r i n affermé par les censeurs, hauptsächlich wegen der Austern, sehr recherchées von d e n R ö m e r n .
... Die quote-part der produits, die die fonds de terre des provinces z a h l e n
m u ß t e n , diente zur N a h r u n g , soit de la p o p u l a t i o n de R o m e , soit des n o m 5
b r e u x soldats q u i étaient sous les d r a p e a u x . ... la s o m m e totale du blé produit par les dîmes était inscrite sur des registres publics et devait être transportée intégralement à R o m e ... u n e autre redevance en blé était encore
accordée au préteur par les publicains, qui, d a n s leurs procès avec les provinciaux, avaient intérêt à gagner la faveur des magistrats, f r u m e n t u m h o - 10
n o r a r i u m ... le préteur ou le proconsul h a t t e das R e c h t d'exiger des habitants de la province certaines redevances en n a t u r e pour sa n o u r r i t u r e et
celle de sa maison. ( 4 2 1 - 4 2 9 )
De l'Impôt direct Sous l'Empire.
In d e n 2 lezten J a h r h u n d e r t e n der R e p u b l i k v e r m i n d e r t e n sich diese res- 15
sources. N a c h der Eroberung von M a c é d o n i e n die r ö m i s c h e n Bürger von
d e m impôt territorial befreit. Die lois agraires verwandelten die d o m a i n e s
der république in Privateigenthum. Der Volkstribun Spurius Thorius abolit
toutes les redevances établies sur les terres de d o m a i n e public qui avaient
été concédées a u x colons. J. Caesar, in s e i n e m Consulat, n a h m der R e p u - 20
blic das Territorium de la C a m p a n i e , le seul d o m a i n e q u i lui restât alors en
propriété. Alles um die capitale zu befreien d ' u n e p o p u l a c e oisive u n d séditieuse u n d um repeupler l'Italie. M a i s la plèbe citadine, ignorant et m é prisant la culture des c h a m p s , après avoir dissipé son p a t r i m o i n e , reflua
toujours à R o m e , où on lui fournissait g r a t u i t e m e n t du p a i n et des speeta- 25
cles. ... Sicilien, Sardinien, Africa, Asia, S p a n i e n zahlten a u c h u n t e r d e n
Kaisern N a t u r s t e u e r in blé. A n d r e Provinzen starke Geldsteuer. So Gallien, n a c h der Eroberung von Cäsar m i t einer Steuer von 40 Mill, de sesterces (10 mill, de fcs) belastet. ... Veränderte Gestalt des impôt foncier u n t e r
Augustus. Ausgaben h a t t e n zu, (Armee, Spiele etc) E i n n a h m e n a b g e n o m - 30
m e n . U n t e r d e m K a i s e r t h u m die frühre quotepart variable du produit ann u e l payé e n n a t u r e wurde u n e quotepart fixe d u revenu p r é s u m é , l e 5
ou 7
suivant l'estimation de la valeur des biens. Die M e h r z a h l der Provinzen zahlte n u n , was n i c h t u n t e r der Republik, ce revenu en espèces. ...
I n d e ß u n t e r d e n spätren Kaisern, les i m p ô t s s'étant accrus et le n u m é r a i r e
35
ayant en grande partie disparu, l'État était forcé de recevoir et de payer en
nature. (430-439)
è m e
è m e
360
f
Impôt sur les mines et les Carrières.
W a h r s c h e i n l i c h im 4' Jh. durch Senatusconsult die edlen M e t a l l m i n e n Italiens geschlossen, ihre Exploitation verboten. D i e R ö m e r gaben ihre m i n e s
indigènes auf pour les gisements plus féconds des terres conquises, wie die
5
von Spanien, M a c é d o n i e n , Illyrien, G r i e c h e n l a n d , Afrika u n d Sardinien.
U n t e r der R e p u b l i k die M i n e n meist Privateigenthum, z a h l t e n à l'État
u n e ||17| redevance. U n t e r d e m empire w u r d e n sie fast alle propriété du
fisc, besonders die G o l d m i n e n . Les m i n e s a p p a r t e n a n t en propre à l'état
étaient en régie, die redevances imposées sur les autres verpachtet d e n p u 10 blicains pour u n e é p o q u e d é t e r m i n é e . I m p ô t sur la carrière. ( 4 3 9 - 4 4 4 )
Impôt sur le Bétail.
War zugleich u n e redevance payée en retour du droit de pacage d a n s les
pâtures u n d u n droit d'enregistrement, u n e taxe par c h a q u e tête d e bétail,
daher die 2 N a m e n scriptura u n d capitatio. ( 4 4 4 - 4 4 7 )
15
Impôts indirects. Douanes.
Octrois. Péages.
20
J. César rétablit les d o u a n e s für die Einfuhr fremder W a a r e n ; A u g u s t
d e h n t e sie aus. Péages sur les routes u n d au passage des Ponts. D i e énorm i t é dieser droits, v e r b u n d e n m i t den frais de transport, centuplait à
R o m e , lors de la vente, le prix d ' a c h a t des m a r c h a n d i s e s de l'Inde. Sous
l'administration fiscale der r ö m i s c h e n Kaiser le cadavre m ê m e d ' u n m o r t ,
q u ' o n transportait du lieu de sa sépulture temporaire dans un autre, était
assujetti au péage sur les routes q u ' i l parcourait. U n t e r J u s t i n i a n verlangte
m a n % v o m W e r t h an W a a r e n , i m p ô t é n o r m e et q u i devait a n é a n t i r le c o m merce. (447-459)
25
Impôts sur les objets de Consommation.
30
heißt: Vectigal r e r u m v e n a l i u m . il se percevait, soit sur les denrées v e n d u e s
au m a r c h é , soit sur les objets adjugés p u b l i q u e m e n t à la criée ou a u x enchères. Xoo des W e r t h s der r e r u m v e n a l i u m . Etablirt von A u g u s t u s n a c h
den Bürgerkriegen. N ä m l i c h auf die g e n i e ß b a r e n W a a r e n auf d e m M a r k t .
(marchés u n d foires.) Caligula d e h n t e i h n auf die ganze Stadt auf alle Ver-
361
kaufe aus. Traf n u r die capitale. Salzsteuer. Eingeführt 548 de R o m e . U n t e r
d e n Kaisern y auf die Salinen, (du produit.) V o n d e n m a r a i s salants geh ö r t e n einige d e m fisc, andre Privaten. Die ersten exploités par des criminels (mancipes salinarum). Italien u n d die Provinzen dieser Steuer u n t e r worfen. U n t e r d e n Kaisern scheinen die Privaten avoir recouvré le droit de
5
fabriquer et de vendre du sel à bas prix, soit au fisc, soit a u x fermiers génér a u x des salines ... U n t e r d e n objets die die R e p u b l i k u n d das empire en
n a t u r e i h r e n magistrats ou officiers lieferten, wie blé, vin, huile, viande,
bois, h a b i l l e m e n t s , chevaux, m u l e t s , tentes, chariots, vaisselle, cuisiniers,
etc, spielte das Salz eine Hauptrolle; m a n n a n n t e diese traitements salaire, 10
solarium, (sel.) ( 4 5 9 - 4 6 6 )
i0
Affranchissements
et
Successions.
D e r i m p ô t sur la vente et l'affranchissement des esclaves, établi 398, existirte n o c h 543 u n d selbst 693, scheint u n t e r d r ü c k t zwischen 693 u n d 760.
A u g u s t führte wieder ein un i m p ô t du / sur la vente des esclaves. U n t e r 15
N e r o y . D e r impôt sur l'affranchissement de l'esclave était le prix de la liberté; il était dû par l'esclave affranchi, / . D e r Preiß an den Herren, w e n n
er sich loskaufte u n d das % gezahlt, prélevés sur le pécule de l'esclave. 759
errichtet ι/2ϋ sur les héritages, les legs ou d o n a t i o n s faites par les m o u r a n t s .
Traf alle ausser d e n agnats. A u s g e n o m m e n waren die étrangers, die provin- 20
ciaux u n d um sie dieser e n o r m e n T a x e zu unterwerfen gab Caracalla das
droit de cité r o m a i n e à tous ses sujets. Diese Steuer existirte n o c h u n t e r
Valens. Das produit dieses impôt von August in die A r m e e k a s s e gelegt,
i h r e m entretien bestimmt. Dieselbe B e s t i m m u n g u n t e r d e n späteren K a i sern. ( 4 6 6 - 4 7 4 )
25
l
50
25
l
20
0
Aqueducs et Prises d'Eau.
Das eau pure et salubre des a q u e d u c s besteuert; on l'achetait, sei es z u m
Trinken, sei es zur Irrigation des cultures et des j a r d i n s situés le long de
leur développement, dans un terrain brûlant qui est p e n d a n t 6 m o i s de
l ' a n n é e sans recevoir d'eau de pluie. D e r erste a q u e d u c de R o m e exécuté
441 par C. Appius ... Später des c o n d u i t s ou t u y a u x q u i a m e n a i e n t l'eau
du réservoir public dans les propriétés privées ... les taxes sur les prises
d'eau existait d a n s les m u n i c i p e s , et formait u n e partie du revenu de la
commune. (475-479)
362
30
Impôts sur les Égouts et les Matières Fécales.
D i e R ö m e r h a t t e n viele latrines p u b l i q u e s , p l u s nécessaires chez e u x q u e
chez n o u s ... diese latrines d e n foricariis v e r p a c h t e t . . . I n R o m i n d e n carrefours u n d in d e n coins de rue, des a m p h o r e s ou des t o n n e a u x sciés en
5
deux, dolia curta, wo m a n gratis pissen k o n n t e bis Vespasian, qui défendit
de pisser en public autre part q u e d a n s ces vases, die er a u c h verpachtete
an e n t r e p r e n e u r s ; diese percevaient u n e r é t r i b u t i o n sur les p e r s o n n e s qui
en faisaient usage. D i e financiers byzantins fügten h i n z u Steuer auf die Arm e n u n d Bettler, courtisanes, f e m m e s répudiées, esclaves, affranchis, bêtes
10 de s o m m e et les chiens. ( 4 8 0 - 8 2 )
Impôts
divers.
taxe fixe imposée sur les propriétaires p o u r l'entretien m ê m e des grandes
routes et voies p u b l i q u e s ... In d e n villes j e d e r verpflichtet de paver la rue
devant s a m a i s o n ... o s t i a r i u m , s c h o n u n t e r der R e p u b l i k , e n t s p r a c h d e m
15 i m p ô t sur les portes et fenêtres, aber a u c h die colonnes besteuert. . . . τ έ λ ο ς
ά ε ρ ι κ ό ν (Fenstersteuer, i m p ô t sur l'air) ... vectigal a r t i u m , u n t e r A l e x a n der Severus, A e h n l i c h k e i t m i t u n s r e m i m p ô t des p a t e n t e s , traf aber n u r die
fabricants ou c o m m e r ç a n t s d'objets de luxe. Er b e s t i m m t e diese E i n n a h m e
à l'entretien des t h e r m e s q u ' i l avait bâtis et des autres b a i n s à l'usage du
20
25
public. ... Die Prostitués b e i d e r sexes u n d ihre e n t r e m e t t e u r s seit Caligula
d i e s e m j ä h r l i c h e n droit de p a t e n t e unterworfen ... Steuer auf die saccarii,
Sackträger, waren ein corpus privilégié, h a t t e n allein das R e c h t de transporter les m a r c h a n d i s e s du port d a n s les m a g a s i n s , existirt n o c h in G e n u a
u n d einigen a n d r e n Häfen des M i t t e l m e e r s . ... l ' u x o r i u m seit 350 de R o m e
Strafe für die célibataires, v i d u v i u m für die Wittwen, die n i c h t wieder heir a t h e n wollten, existirt a u c h in A t h e n u n d Sparta. ( 4 8 3 - 4 9 1 )
Conclusion.
30
le long débat des lois agraires ne p r o d u i s a i t que les distributions gratuites
de blé ... die Kaiser b e m ä c h t i g t e n sich der propriétés m u n i c i p a l e s , u n d die
ihrer b i e n s b e r a u b t e n m u n i c i p e s h a t t e n d e n n o c h gleichzeitig ihre städtischen u n d ihren Theil der a l l g e m e i n e n S t e u e r n zu tragen. Alle Verantwortlichkeit fiel auf ein certain part d ' h a b i t a n t s aisés, die, u n t e r d e m N a m e n
décurions, un corps d'officiers n o m m é la Curie, bildeten. Im 4' u n d 5' Jh.
363
die Lage dieser décurions so öklich, daß sie sich i h n e n n u r e n t z i e h n k o n n t e n en se réfugiant a u x Barbares. ... D i o c l e t i a n u n d Constantin, um ein wenig zu r e m é d i e r aux inconvénients du despotisme militaire schufen eine
büreaucratische A r m e e . U n e n u é e d'employés civils et administratifs se rép a n d i t d a n s toutes les provinces; il fallut pourvoir à leur entretien et frapper de nouvelles taxes sur des contribuables seit lange épuisés.
(493-496)
364
5
Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen über die Politik
Ii8| A. H. L. Heeren.
Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr
und den Handel der alten Völker.
Erster
5
Theil.
Asiatische
Völker.
Erste Abtheilung. Perser.
Göttingen. 1824.
Allgemeine
Vorerinnerungen.
Erste B a n d e u n t e r d e n M e n s c h e n , welche die N a t u r selber knüpfte - Familienbande. (4) In der F a m i l i e Ungleichheit. H e r r s c h e n u n d G e h o r c h e n ...
10
W e i b u n d Kind E i g e n t h u m des M a n n e s . - Familiendespotismus. D i e B a n d e
der Verwandtschaft r e i c h e n u n t e r d e n uncultivirten Völkern weiter als u n ter den cultivirten. D i e e i n z e l n e n F a m i l i e n m i t g l i e d e r zerstreuen sich nicht,
wenn herangewachsen, zu mannigfaltigen Geschäften. Alle führen dieselbe
Lebensart. Jagd oder V i e h z u c h t . Die F a m i l i e n bleiben z u s a m m e n ,
15
wachsen zu Stämmen, die S t ä m m e zu Völkerschaften. Stammabtheilung
herrscht daher allgemein u n d an ihr h ä n g t alles, bei d e n W i l d e n in N o r d america u n d Australien, wie bei den Halbwilden in Mittelasien u n d d e n
A r a b i s c h e n u n d Afrikanischen W ü s t e n . D e r S t a m m lebt z u s a m m e n u n d
wandert z u s a m m e n . D a s Bedürfniß der gemeinschaftlichen Vertheidigung
20 u n d Sicherheit in d e n vielen k l e i n e n Kriegen festigt das N a t u r b a n d . Oberherrschaft der Stammhäupter. (5, 6) Sobald Ackerbau, feste W o h n s i t z e entstehn Ortschaften, Städte. Verfassung. Gemeinschaftliche A n g e l e g e n h e i ten, Vertheidigung, gemeinschaftliche Berathung in Bürgerversammlun-
365
gen, Vorsteher, die dieselben l e n k e n . Herrschaft der S t a m m o b e r h ä u p t e r
verliert sich, weil je m e h r solche Orte, T h e i l u n g der Arbeit, verschiedne Lebensweise, V e r m i s c h u n g der E i n g e b o r n e n m i t F r e m d e n . Diese E n t s t e h u n g
der Städte im A l t e r t h u m Ursache der republikanischen Verfassungen ... D i e
Freistaaten der alten Welt waren n u r Städte mit ihrem Gebiet. So die P h ö n i zischen, griechischen, italischen Freistaaten ... B ü r g e r z u s a m m e n k ü n f t e ,
wo alle persönlich erscheinen, also keine Representativverfassung ...
Rathsversammlung, Senat u n d Magistrate. D i e ß der allgemeine U m r i ß der rep u b l i k a n i s c h e n Verfassungen des A l t e r t h u m s ... V e r m ö g e n s u n g l e i c h h e i t ,
politische Ungleichheit ... F a m i l i e n a d e l , Patriziat ... Staaten dieser Art in
i h r e m Ursprung i m m e r klein ... Wo m e h r e oder viele Städte derselben N a tion Verbindungen u n t e r i h n e n , besonders w e n n D r u c k von aussen g e m e i n schaftliche Vertheidigung nothwendig m a c h t . D i e mächtigste Stadt an der
Spitze der vielen, Principat ... R o m ü b e r die lateinischen, Tyrus ü b e r die
p h ö n i z i s c h e n , T h e b e n ü b e r die böotischen Städte u. s. w. E r o b e r u n g e n
d a n n u n t e r d i e s e m Principat. ( 7 - 1 2 ) A n d r e R e i h e von Staaten, die der
grossen Reiche oder Monarchien ... Einige von diesen b e s c h r ä n k e n sich auf
Eine Nation, gingen aus der alten Stammherrschaft hervor; so in Epirus,
M a c é d o n i e n b e h a u p t e t e sich das G e s c h l e c h t der alten Stammfürsten in der
Herrschaft ... andre umfassen eine Menge von Nationen ... Ihr Ursprung in
der schnellen Verbreitung erobernder Völker; b e s o n d e r s Hirtenvölker ... Militärische Herrschaft, Despotismus ... Religion, so politisch wichtiger in der
G e s c h i c h t e der Völker, je weiter m a n in der G e s c h i c h t e zurückgeht ... R e ligion politisch-nationales Band ... die N a t i o n gruppirt sich u m d e n T e m pel der Nationalgottheit ... T e m p e l des Tyrischen Hercules M i t t e l p u n k t
des P h ö n i z i s c h e n S t a a t e n b u n d s , Jupiter Latialis des lateinischen, die Griec h e n fühlten sich als eine N a t i o n bei d e n O l y m p i s c h e n Spielen v e r s a m m e l t
u m d e n T e m p e l des Z e u s ... I m Orient G e s e t z g e b u n g u n d Religion unzertrennlich. Caste der Priester beschränkt die Allgewalt der Herrscher. ( 1 2 - 1 8 )
Die 3 grossen Continente, die allein im A l t h e r t h u m b e k a n n t , d u r c h keine
weiten M e e r e getrennt, b e r ü h r e n sich theils wirklich, theils b e i n a h e ; u n d
das in ihrer Mitte eingeschloßne M i t t e l m e e r von b e s c h r ä n k t e m Umfange.
Landhandel daher H a u p t , Seehandel N e b e n s a c h e ... D i e Schiffahrt im Mittelmeer u n d einigen K ü s t e n diente n u r zur Fortsetzung des L a n d h a n d e l s
u n d zu seiner Erleichterung, z u r Ueberfahrt der W a a r e n ... Grosser Seeh a n d e l erst e n t s t a n d e n d u r c h die Entdeckung von America - Zu j e n e r n e u e n
Welt führen keine Wege zu L a n d e , keine Schiffe an die K ü s t e n oder von
Insel z u I n s e l . . . W e l t m e e r wurde Hauptstrasse für den W e l t h a n d e l . . . N u r
die südlichen Theile von Italien u n d G r i e c h e n l a n d gingen aus der Barbarei
heraus ... selbst der H a n d e l von G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d R o m nicht viel m e h r
als H a n d e l für d e n eignen Verbrauch. ... S p a n i e n allein h a t t e d e m Orient
366
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Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen über die Politik ...
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was zu bieten, edle Metalle ... A s i e n u n d Africa die H a u p t s c h a u p l ä t z e des
alten H a n d e l s ... Handelsgesellschaften, Caravanen ... ihr Z u s a m m e n k o m m e n erheischte feste B e d i n g u n g e n von Ort u n d Zeit ... Die Plätze des E i n
u n d Verkaufs m u ß t e n ebenfalls traditionell werden ... D i e W a h l der Strassen d u r c h die Oasen in d e n Steppen u n d S a n d w ü s t e n b e s t i m m t ... So der
C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l an fixe F o r m g e b u n d e n , erhielt so e i n e n festen G a n g ,
blieb derselbe d u r c h J a h r h u n d e r t e u n d J a h r t a u s e n d e , w e n n a u c h i m E i n zelnen die R i c h t u n g verändert. I m A l t e r t h u m u n d Mittelalter blieb d a h e r
der G a n g des W e l t h a n d e l s derselbe. D i e V e r ä n d e r u n g e n bis zur E n t d e k kung von A m e r i c a bezogen sich n i c h t auf die A r t u n d Weise u n d L ä n d e r
wodurch er geführt, s o n d e r n auf die Völker, die ihn führten ... Caravanenh a n d e l erforderte grosse Z a h l von C a m e e l e n u n d M e n s c h e n nöthig, die sie
zu warten verstehn. L e b e n im F r e i e n ... I h r e n a t ü r l i c h e n Wärter daher die
N o m a d e n v ö l k e r . Sie d a h e r die W a a r e n f ü h r e r u n d geben d e m Bewohner der
H a n d e l s s t ä d t e die Lastthiere. H a l b a s i e n u n d Afrika aber von diesen Völkern besezt. D a h e r dort so grosser U m f a n g dieses H a n d e l s . M e h r e 100 Cam e l e k ö n n e n k a u m die Last eines grossen o s t i n d i s c h e n Schiffs führen. D e r
L a n d h a n d e l daher in Betracht der Q u a n t i t ä t der W a a r e n grossen Beschränk u n g e n unterworfen, die sehr schwer wiegenden, grosse Q u a n t i t ä t e i n n e h m e n d e n W a a r e n gar n i c h t oder in geringem G r a d G e g e n s t ä n d e des L a n d h a n d e l s . D a h e r k o m m e n viele der n ü t z l i c h s t e n P r o d u c t e i m A l t e r t h u m gar
n i c h t in d e n H a n d e l . So Reis, Zucker, Salpeter. Dagegen leichte u n d zugleich kostbare W a a r e n : Edelsteine, Metalle, ||19| Räucherwerk, G e w ü r z e ,
K l e i d u n g e n aus leichten Stoffen ... Cultur von Asien u n d Africa hing vorzugsweis an d i e s e m H a n d e l . . . D e r C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l erzeugt e i n e n starken
Zwischenhandel. D e r Weg der C a r a v a n e n g e h t d u r c h viele L ä n d e r u n d viele
Völkerschaften u n d ihre Bedürfnisse wie die der Kaufleute erheischen
e i n e n wechselseitigen Verkehr. ... Gewisse Plätze im I n n r e n der Länder,
werden H a u p t p l ä t z e des Z w i s c h e n h a n d e l s , die grossen M ä r k t e , wo ein Z u s a m m e n f l u ß der N a t i o n e n entsteht, d u r c h die Leichtigkeit des Verkehrs
hier viele Niederlassungen, A u f b l ü h n grosser Städte daher. ( 2 0 - 2 9 ) D e r
H a u p t c h a r a k t e r der alten Schiffahrt - Küstenschiffahrt ... Vor der E n t d e k k u n g von A m e r i c a bedurfte m a n der grossen Seefahrt n i c h t ... Sie bildet
übrigens die Seeleute. D i e Fischerein bei N e u f u n d l a n d u n d die K o h l e n Schiffahrt n o c h jezt die S c h u l e n der brittischen M a r i n e . D u r c h lang fortgesezte Küstenschiffahrt fanden die Portugiesen d e n W e g n a c h Ostindien.
... Das Fortschiffen längst d e n Küsten, d u r c h e i n e n langen Z e i t r a u m fortgesezt, ist den allmähligen Fortschritten am günstigsten; kein P u n k t , wo
m a n aufhören m u ß ; G e w i n n s u c h t u n d E n t d e c k u n g s s p a ß führen von d e m
B e k a n n t e n stets auf das U n b e k a n n t e ; P h ö n i z i e r u n d Carthager trieben
J a h r h u n d e r t e d u r c h ihre Schiffahrt so ungestört ... So die N o r m a n n e n im
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Mittelalter. ... Die Alten bei beschränkter Ueberfahrt gegenüber der offnen
See ... Mittelländische Meer H a u p t s c h a u p l a t z der Schiffahrt der alten Welt;
die vielen Inseln, womit es besät, die a l l e n t h a l b e n als H a l b i n s e l n hervorrag e n d e n Länder, sein massiger U m f a n g erleichtern die Beschiffung ... D e r
Indische Ocean, soweit i h n die Alten k a n n t e n , massige Entfernung der K ü sten, m i t Inseln bedeckt, regelmässig halbjährig wechselnde W i n d e . ... D i e
E i n r i c h t u n g des alten Handels viel einfacher ... h a u p t s ä c h l i c h Waarenhandel ... Geldhandel blieb im A l t e r t h u m in seiner K i n d h e i t ... In A t h e n ,
R o m , A l e x a n d r i e n u n d wo sonst Z u s a m m e n f l u ß v o n F r e m d e n Wechsler,
aber kein W e c h s e l h a n d e l . . . keine regelmässigen Posten, keine Staatsschuld e n ... der alte H a n d e l bestand n u r i m K a u f u n d Verkauf von W a a r e n ...
kein Commissionshandel im gegenwärtigen Sinn, a u c h dieser h ä n g t zu sehr
von d e n Posteinrichtungen ab ... Getreidehandel im Grossen im A l t e r t h u m
beschränkt auf die L ä n d e r u m das M i t t e l m e e r u n d schwarze Meer, u n d
vielleicht den arabischen u n d persischen M e e r b u s e n . ... Wein n o c h schwieriger für d e n Landtransport, da er wie alle flüssigen W a a r e n n i c h t leicht
d u r c h Thiere, sondern n u r auf W a g e n fortgeschafft werden k a n n ... Oel von
der h ö c h s t e n Wichtigkeit. D i e n t in d e n s ü d l i c h e n L ä n d e r n statt der Butter,
erträgt den Transport besser. Sicilien u n d das südliche Italien v e r d a n k t e n
d e m H a n d e l d a m i t e i n e n grossen Theil ihres R e i c h t h u m s . ... Seide, Baumwolle und feine Wolle waren n u r d e m Orient eigen k o n n t e n n a t ü r l i c h n i c h t
in der Q u a n t i t ä t wie jezt verführt werden ... Gewürze u n d Räucherwerk, in
u n e r m e ß l i c h e r Q u a n t i t ä t bei d e n Opfern gebraucht, s t r ö m t e n aus A r a b i e n
u n d I n d i e n . ( 3 0 - 4 0 ) U n t e r der persischen Monarchie: Ufer des Mittelmeers all e n t h a l b e n von fleissigen u n d seefahrenden Völkern u m g e b e n . Carthago
h a t t e den größten Theil der afrikanischen Küste besezt, sein Besitz des
H a n d e l s m i t d e m i n n r e n Africa, seine Häfen der H a u p t e i n g a n g , wodurch
die fremden Producte diesen Völkern zugeführt. Cyrene beherrschte d e n
östlichen Theil dieser Küste, seine N e b e n b u h l e r i n . Sicilischen und Italischen
Griechen durch die Cultur ihres B o d e n s grosse R e i c h t h ü m e r erworben.
K o n n t e n k a u m W e i n u n d Oel genug für Gallien u n d Africa hervorbringen.
Italien grossentheils d u r c h die Etrusker besezt, b e h a u p t e t e n sich im Mittelm e e r : Römer n u r erst H e r r e n von L a t i u m schlössen m i t d e n Carthagern
Handelsverträge. Massilien hatte d e n Verkehr m i t i n n r e m Gallien. Gades
u n d andre u n a b h ä n g i g e p h ö n i z i s c h e Colonieen an der spanischen K ü s t e .
Corinth und Athen sich zugeeignet d e n H a n d e l des ägäischen u n d schwarzen M e e r s ; Aejypten h a t t e d e n G r i e c h e n e i n e n Freihafen in N a u c r a t i s eröffnet. Völkerschaften des Innern Asiens d u r c h die assyrischen u n d babylonischen L ä n d e r s t ü r m e r genöthigt, sich g e n a u e r k e n n e n zu lernen; die
gewaltsamen Verpflanzungen der Völker - Mittel das der D e s p o t i s m u s schon
in seiner K i n d h e i t erfand, um seine E r o b e r u n g e n zu b e h a u p t e n - h a t t e n
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Bekanntschaft u n d Verkehr der Völker vermehrt. Babylon Sitz der I n d u strie u n d Kultur u n d H a u p t m a r k t von Asien. Tyrus H a u p t a r m des asiatisch-europäischen H a n d e l s . Verkehr des südlichen Afrikas und Aethiopiens,
stand d u r c h den C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l d u r c h die afrikanischen u n d arabischen
W ü s t e n m i t Carthago u n d Tyrus in Z u s a m m e n h a n g . ( 4 0 - 3 )
Asien.
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Asien s e i n e m F l ä c h e n i n h a l t 4 x von E u r o p a u n d % m e h r als Africa. In i h m
größte Mannigfaltigkeit von K l i m a u n d P r o d u c t e n . Seine M e e r e b i l d e n i m
S ü d e n überall grosse Busen, die sich tief ins L a n d h i n e i n erstrecken u n d
da, wo sie aufhören wieder grosse Flüsse a u f n e h m e n . D i e asiatischen Steppen-Länder nicht so gefährlich für die R e i s e n d e n wie die afrikanischen
Sandmeere. A u s n a h m e n u r die W ü s t e Cobi in der kleinen Bucharei, erschwert d e n Zutritt z u d e m W e s t e n u n d M i t t e von China. Gebirgsreihen
die das Skelett bilden: Altaigebirge (nördliche Kette.) Taurus, die südliche
Gebirgskette. E u p h r a t u n d Tigris, I n d u s u n d G a n g e s , Oxus u n d Jaxartes.
D u r c h j e n e Gebirgsketten A s i e n in 3 grosse Theile getheilt, verschieden
d u r c h Clima u n d Bodenbeschaffenheit. Der nördlichste - Fischer und Jägervölker. Mittleres Asien, zwischen d e m Altai u n d T a u r u s k e t t e n . D i e weiten
Steppenländer von d e m caspischen M e e r bis z u m östlichen Ocean, M o n g o lei u n d Tartarei. Die Ströme die sie d u r c h z i e h n , reichen n i c h t h i n diese
u n g e h e u r e n E b e n e n für d e n A c k e r b a u gehörig zu bewässern. H o c h e b e n e .
D o c h selten i n i h n e n dürre u n d unfruchtbare Plätze. Z u m größten Theil
m i t d e n üppigsten F u t t e r k r ä u t e r n bedeckt, oft d e m w e i d e n d e n V i e h an
H ö h e gleich. G ä n z l i c h e r M a n g e l a n W a l d u n g e n u n d allen grossen Holzarten. So b e s t i m m t z u m h e r u m z i e h e n d e n Hirtenleben. D i e weiten E b e n e n
m i t G e z e i t e n u n d Lagern bedeckt. Schaafe, Rinder, Pferde, C a m e e l e . Leb e n von M i l c h u n d Fleisch ihrer Stuten u n d K ü h e ; ihre H ä u t e u n d das
H a a r ihrer Camele verschafft i h n e n Kleider u n d Filze für ihre G e z e l t e :
R o h r an den Ufern ihrer Seen u n d Flüsse Bogen u n d Pfeile. An der Stelle
der bürgerlichen Verhältnisse die n a t ü r l i c h e n B a n d e der Verwandtschaft;
u m s c h l i n g e n ganze S t ä m m e u n d Völker. Volk zerfällt in S t ä m m e , diese in
H o r d e n , die wieder F a m i l i e n umfassen. Häupter der Familien und Stämme
Richter u n d Kriegsanführer. Südasien. Begreift die reichsten u n d fruchtbarsten L ä n d e r der Welt. A u s i h n e n s t a m m e n die edelsten Obstarten, Thiere,
Baumwollstauden, S e i d e n r a u p e n , Rauchwerk, Gold, Edelsteine, Perlen etc.
(48-62) I
|20| Einförmigkeit der asiatischen Geschichte. R e i c h e entstehn, vergehn,
aber die n e u e n t s t a n d e n e n n e h m e n i m m e r wieder dieselbe F o r m a n , wie
369
die untergegangenen. Die grossen Reiche v e r d a n k e n i h r e n Ursprung fast n u r
grossen erobernden Nomadenvölkern. D a s ganze n ö r d l i c h e u n d mittlere Asien
m i t solchen h e r u m z i e h e n d e n Völkerschaften gefüllt. A u c h i m s ü d l i c h e n
Asien m i t i h n e n besezt m a n c h e Strecken der t a u r i s c h e n Bergkette u n d fast
die ganze arabische Halbinsel. D i e s e n Völkern d u r c h ihre Lebensart für
d e n Krieg passend. R e u t e r e i besonders, die Pferde i m m e r m i t sich; k o m m e n a u c h in ruhigen Z e i t e n fast n i e aus den Sätteln. G l e i c h verwüstenden
H e u s c h r e c k e n s c h w ä r m e n b r e c h e n sie aus i h r e n Steppen oder Sandwüsten,
wie M o n g o l e n u n d Araber, oder steigen, wie Parther u n d Perser von i h r e n
G e b i r g e n u n d ü b e r s c h w e m m e n die E b e n e n des s ü d l i c h e n Asiens. Stiften
d a m ä c h t i g e , u n g e h e u r e R e i c h e . L u x u s u n d C l i m a b r i n g e n bald a u c h bei
i h n e n veränderte Lebensart hervor; n e h m e n die Sitten der Besiegten an.
Cultur des Luxus entsteht u n t e r i h n e n . W e r d e n d a n n wieder verdrängt von
n e u e n , u n v e r d e r b t e n Völkern, die aus d e n s e l b e n oder a n d r e n W o h n s i t z e n
hervorbrechen. So e n t s t a n d e n u n d verschwanden im A l t e r t h u m die R e i c h e
der Assyrer, Perser, Chaldäer, Parther; im Mittelalter die arabische Herrschaft; später die tartarischen u n d m o n g o l i s c h e n Staaten. Allmähliges Entstehen u n d Z u n e h m e n nicht möglich bei d e n asiatischen R e i c h e n ; erhalten gleich n a c h i h r e m E n t s t e h n schnellen u n d grossen Umfang. D i e
n o m a d i s c h e n Völker m ü s s e n so ihre E r o b e r u n g e n m a c h e n , da sie weitläufige L ä n d e r zu ihrer eignen Erhaltung b r a u c h e n . J e d e g e m a c h t e Beute A n trieb zu n e u e n Streifzügen. H a l t e n sich für die H e r r e n der Welt. I h r e n R e i c h e n k ö n n e n sie ursprünglich n u r eine militairische Verfassung geben. D i e
Stadthalter h a b e n d a n n n u r die T r i b u t e e i n z u t r e i b e n u n d die unterjochten
Völker in der Abhängigkeit zu erhalten. Später werden i h n e n die Provinzen gegen eine gewisse S u m m e , die sie jährlich d e m königlichen Schatz
zahlen, übergeben. Die bürgerlichen E i n r i c h t u n g e n der L ä n d e r bleiben u n verändert; selbst die besiegten F ü r s t e n oder d o c h ihre N a c h k o m m e n b e h a l ten oft ihre Regierung, so u n t e r d e n Persern u n d M o n g o l e n . A u s dieser
blos militairischen Verfassung geht n a c h u n d n a c h eine Art von Staatsverfassung hervor. Die F e l d h e r r n werden zu Satrapen oder der Despot sezt
i h n e n diese aus Eifersucht zur Seite. D i e grossen asiatischen R e i c h e d a h e r
d u r c h eine Herrschaft im A l l g e m e i n e n z u s a m m e n g e h a l t e n ; grosse M a n n i g faltigkeit der Theile, M e n g e der verschiedensten Verfassungen - kleine Tyr a n n e n , beschränkte Fürsten, R e p u b l i k e n , wie die p h ö n i z i s c h e n u n d griechischen Städte in Kleinasien u n t e r der persischen Herrschaft. Schon b e i
den wilden Völkern selbst der D e s p o t i s m u s d u r c h die u n b e s c h r ä n k t e Herrschaft ihrer S t a m m h ä u p t e r vorgebaut. Bei d e n M o n g o l e n das F a m i l i e n h a u p t der u n u m s c h r ä n k t e Herr seines S t a m m e s . Die ganze Stammverfassung geht von der väterlichen Gewalt aus. A u c h die Grösse u n d der
ungeheure Umfang dieser R e i c h e beförderte d e n D e s p o t i s m u s . E n d l i c h : die
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r
unauflösliche V e r b i n d u n g zwischen G e s e t z g e b u n g u n d Religion. E i n e
n e u e Gesetzgebung wäre hier e i n e n e u e Religion. Selbst einzelne V e r ä n d e r u n g e n u n d Verbesserungen h i e r R e l i g i o n s e r n e u e r u n g e n . Hofritual u n d cer e m o n i e l i n d e n H ä n d e n einer a b g e s o n d e r t e n Priesterkaste, deren Interesse
5
die Unveränderlichkeit. D a n n u n t e r d e n Völkern des i n n r e n A s i e n s die Polygamie. Vielweiberei g r ü n d e t F a m i l i e n d e s p o t i s m u s . Die Gesellschaft b e steht aus einer Z a h l von h ä u s l i c h e n Despoten, die a u c h wieder despotisirt
sein wollen. D u r c h die Polygamie wird der D e s p o t i s m u s von u n t e n auf gegründet. A e h n l i c h e Einförmigkeit, wie in der Verfassung der grossen asiati10
sehen Reiche in d e m Verkehr ihrer Bewohner. Caravanenhandel. Zwar waren
a u c h die grossen Flüsse Asiens Handelsstrassen. A b e r weil sie d u r c h grosse
Steppenländer fliessen, fehlt es i h r e n Ufern gewöhnlich an H o l z z u m
Schiffbau, so wie in m a n c h e n G e g e n d e n an Eisen; die Flußschiffahrt erhielt
d a h e r in Asien n i c h t dieselbe Wichtigkeit wie in Europa. Der innre H a n d e l
15
d a h e r wie in Africa Landhandel u n d ebenso ausgeführt. Heerstrassen, um
die errungne Herrschaft zu b e h a u p t e n u n d die entfernten Völker u n t e r
d e m J o c h z u h a l t e n ; d a z u m u ß einer A r m e e stets der W e g z u i h n e n offen
stehn; liefen durch das ganze A s i e n im Persischen u n d m o n g o l i s c h e n Zeitalter, m i t e i n e m Aufwand u n d einer A n s t r e n g u n g angelegt; die n u r in sol20 c h e n despotischen Staaten, wo m a n die g a n z e Kraft u n d Thätigkeit der
Völker auf E i n e n P u n k t concentriren kann, möglich sind. ... D a n n Anlage
der Caravansereien oder Stationen für die Caravanen, grosse viereckigte G e b ä u d e , die e i n e n weiten Hof oder Platz einschliessen. ... D u r c h die E r o b e r u n g e n der G a n g des asiatischen H a n d e l s für eine Zeitlang u n t e r b r o c h e n ,
25 aber nie gänzlich gestört, u n d i m m e r rasch wieder hergestellt ... Seine
Hauptsitze veränderten sich n i c h t ... Die Bedürfnisse der M e n s c h e n , des
L u x u s u n d W o h l l e b e n s wie der Nothwendigkeit, zu fühlbar u n d dringend,
als daß der Krieg oder D e s p o t i s m u s sie sehr v e r m i n d e r n oder gar aufheben
könnte. (63-80)
30
371
Johnston: (J. F. W.) Catechism of
Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.
23 ed. E d i n b u r g h . 1849.
(Apparatus speziell für diesen K a t e c h i s m u s in L o n d o n von Mr. Button,
146, H o l b o r n Bars, from Mr. Simpson 1 u n d 2 K e n n i n g t o n R o a d , oder von
Mr Griffin, 53 Baker Street, P o r t m a n Square, 2 /. für d e n smaller u n d 5 /.
für den larger set. [VI])
Q »what is the object of the farmer in cultivating t h e soil? A. To raise the
largest crops at the smallest cost, a n d with the least injury to land.« D e r
farmer h a t 3 Hauptbeschäftigungen, raises crops, rears u n d fattens stock
u n d fabricirt Butter u n d Käse. (7)
[Of
the
nature
of
the
crops
raised
from
the
land.]
Alle vegetabilischen S u b s t a n z e n b e s t e h n aus 2 Theilen, e i n e m der im
F e u e r verbrennt - d e m organischen; u n d d e m a n d r e n , der n i c h t verbrennt,
d e m u n o r g a n i s c h e n . In i h n e n der organische Theil stets der größre. Bildet
9 0 - 9 9 von je 100 Pfund ihres Gewichts. D e r organische Theil der Pflanzen
besteht aus 4 Elementarkörpern, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen u n d nitrogen,
m i t m i n u t e quantities von Sulphur u n d Phosphor. (7, 8) Oxygen bildet /
der Luft die wir e i n a t h m e n . (9) 5 Gallons of air e n t h a l t e n 1 gallon of oxygen u n d fast 4 gallons of nitrogen. (11) Die M e h r z a h l der vegetable substances e n t h a l t e n n u r carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen. Ζ. B. Stärke, G u m m i ,
Zucker, Holzfaser, oils u n d fats. (I.e.)
x
5
372
Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology
[Of
the
substances
or
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
mineral
found
in
the
part
of
plants.]
in-organic
Die u n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile der Pflanzen enthalten Pottasche, Soda,
Kalk, Magnesia, Eisenoxide, M a n g a n e s e o x i d e , silica, chlorine, sulphuric
acid, oder Vitriolöl u n d p h o s p h o r i c acid. (12) (über 200,000 Pfund Phosphor in L o n d o n jährlich g e b r a u c h t zur M a n u f a c t u r von Lucifer m a tches.) (I.e.) 600 Pfund Wasser lösen an E i n Pfund quicklime auf, b i l d e n d
das s.g. limewater. (13) Magnesia ist the white, nearly tasteless powder sold
in the shops u n t e r d e m N a m e n of calcined magnesia extracted von Seewasser
u n d von d e n varieties of l i m e s t o n e called M a g n e s i a n Limestones. (14) Q.
what is oxide of iron? A. W h e n polished iron is exposed to the air it gradually b e c o m e s covered with rust. This rust consists of the m e t a l iron, and of
the gas oxygen which the iron has attracted from the moist air, a n d h e n c e it
is called an oxide of iron. (14) | | 2 1 | T h e teacher will explain m o r e fully that,
w h e n metals c o m b i n e m i t oxygen, they form new u n d compound substances, to which the n a m e of. oxides is given, a n d illustrate this by a reference to the red oxide of mercury, which, by the h e a t of the l a m p , he h a d resolved or decomposed into oxygen gas a n d metallic mercury. T h e r e are 2
oxides of iron, the black a n d t h e red. D a s red oxide building den c o m m o n
rust u n d gives their red or ochrey colour to soils. T h e scales which fall from
the anvil of the blacksmith c o n t a i n m u c h of t h e black oxide. ... M a n g a neseoxide very like oxide of iron, b u t occurs in soils u n d plants in sehr
small quantity. (14) Chlorine ist eine Gasart, die has a greenish-yellow colour u n d a strong suffocating smell u n d ist 4¾ x heavier als c o m m o n air. A
taper b u r n s in it with a dull smoking flame. It exists in c o m m o n salt in
large quantity. (15) 100 Pf. c o m m o n salt e n t h a l t e n 60 Pf. chlorine. (I.e.) Sulphuric Acid oder Vitriolöl ist a very sour, b u r n i n g , oily liquid, wird h e i ß ,
w e n n m i t Wasser vermischt. Fabricirt wirds aus b u r n i n g sulphur (brimstone) u n d exists i n c o m m o n gypsum, a l u m , G l a u b e r u n d E p s o m salts.
(I.e.) 1 Pf. sulphur giebt ü b e r 3 Pf. der strongest sulphuric acid of c o m merce. (I.e.) Acid or Sour. Erstens sauer für d e n G e s c h m a c k ; acid substances färben vegetable-blue colours roth, sowie decoctions of violets, of
red cabbage oder of a b l u e s u b s t a n c e sold in the shops u n d e r the n a m e of
litmus, während alkaline substances, wie hartshorn ( A m m o n i a ) , common
soda, pearlash oder quicklime restore the b l u e colour again after an acid has
r e d d e n e d t h e m . (I.e.) Phosphoric acid gebildet d u r c h V e r b r e n n e n von Phosphor in der Luft. Exists in large quantity in the bones of a n i m a l s . (16)
100 Pf. Phosphor verbrannt bilden 227¾ Pfund phosphoric acid. (I.e.) Alle
diese substances sind to be found in the ash of all our usually cultivated
373
plants. (I.e.) Einige Pflanzen, w e n n verbrannt, liefern m e h r A s c h e , a n d r e
weniger. So 100 Pf. H e u h a b e n 9 oder 10 Pf. A s c h e , w ä h r e n d 100 Pf. W e i z e n n u r 2 Pf. Asche. D i e A s c h e n der v e r s c h i e d n e n Pflanzen e n t h a l t e n n i c h t
alle diese S u b s t a n z e n in denselben, s o n d e r n in verschiednen Proportionen.
Die W e i z e n a s c h e enthält ζ. B. m e h r p h o s p h o r i c acid als die H e u a s c h e ,
w ä h r e n d diese m e h r L i m e enthält als die W e i z e n a s c h e . (I.e.)
Of
the
Organic food
of Plants.
Alle Pflanzen erheischen beständige Zufuhr von N a h r u n g , u m z u leben
u n d zu wachsen. Sie erhalten sie theils aus der Luft, theils aus d e m B o d e n .
Sie e r h e i s c h e n organisches F u t t e r für ihren organischen, u n o r g a n i s c h e s für
ihren u n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheil. D i e organische N a h r u n g liefert theils
die Luft, theils der Boden, die u n o r g a n i s c h e n u r der B o d e n . Die F o r m , worin Pflanzen ihre organische N a h r u n g aus der Luft n e h m e n , ist h a u p t s ä c h lich carbonic acid gas, kohlensaures G a s . (Kohlenstoffsäure) Carbonic acid
gas ist a kind of air o h n e Farbe, m i t b e s o n d r e m G e r u c h u n d leicht säuerlic h e m G e s c h m a c k . B r e n n e n d e Körper erlöschen i n i h m u n d T h i e r e sterben
darin. Ist um % schwerer als die c o m m o n air, renders lime water milky u n d
is taken up by its own bulk of cold water. Ist die U r s a c h e des boiling up
von Sodawasser u n d des frothing von beer u n d bildet fast % des Gewichts
aller l i m e s t o n e rocks. (17) In 5000 G a l l o n s a t m o s p h ä r i s c h e r Luft sind n u r
2 gallons of carbonic acid gas. (18) Pflanzen s a u g e n sehr viel K o h l e n s ä u r e
aus der Luft. D u r c h ihre Blätter, by m e a n s of a great n u m b e r of very small
openings or m o u t h s , which are spread especially over the u n d e r surface of
t h e leaf. N i c h t less als 120,000 dieser pores or little m o u t h s on a square
i n c h of t h e leaf of the lilach. A b e r dieses E i n s a u g e n von carbonic acid n u r
w ä h r e n d des Tags, geben davon ab w ä h r e n d der N a c h t . Carbonic acid besteht aus carbon oder charcoal u n d oxygen. 6 Pf. carbon u n d 16 Pf. oxygen
bilden 22 Pf. of carbonic acid. By b u r n i n g charcoal in oxygen gas bildet
m a n carbonic acid gas. Die Pflanze retains only t h e carbon, giving off the
oxygen again into the air. (19) A u s s e r d e m trinken die Pflanzen aus der
Luft watery vapour; it serves in part to m o i s t e n t h e leaves a n d stems, a n d
partly to p r o d u c e the substance of t h e p l a n t itself. V o n der Erde n e h m e n
die Pflanzen carbon auf in der F o r m von carbonic acid, h u m i c acid u n d
s o m e other substances which exist in t h e black vegetable m a t t e r of t h e soil.
Urn humic acid zu b i l d e n n u r nöthig aufzulösen a little c o m m o n soda in
water, to boil t h e solution u p o n finely powdered peat or rich dark soil, to
pour off the solution w h e n it has stood to settle, a n d to add vinegar or weak
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35
spirit of salt to it. Brown flocks will fall w h i c h are h u m i c acid, die n u r a u s
carbon u n d water besteht. Nitrogen n e h m e n die Pflanzen h a u p t s ä c h l i c h a u s
d e m B o d e n auf in der F o r m v o n Ammonia u n d nitric acid. (20)
Of
the
Organic
Substance
of Plants.
5
Die organische S u b s t a n z der Pflanzen besteht besonders aus Holzfaser
(woody fibre) Stärke (starch) u n d Kleber, (gluten) Woody or cellular fibre ist
die Substanz die d e n größren T h e i l aller A r t e n v o n Holz, Stroh, H e u u n d
chaff, of the shells of n u t s , a n d of cotton, flax, h e m p etc. Diese fibres of
cotton ζ. B. sind u n l ö s l i c h in Wasser, schwärzen sich by strong s u l p h u r i c
10
acid, u n d werden d u r c h nitric acid in g u n cotton verwandelt. Stärke
(starch) ist a white powder, das fast die g a n z e S u b s t a n z der Kartoffel bildet
u n d a b o u t % des Gewichts von H a f e r m e h l , W e i z e n m e h l u n d des flour a n d rer für food cultivirter K o r n a r t e n . Kleber (gluten) ist a s u b s t a n c e wie birdlime (Vogelleim), der m i t Stärke in almost all plants existirt. K a n n e r h a l t e n
15
werden aus w h e a t e n flour, by m a k i n g it into a dough, a n d washing it with
water. (21) Most a b u n d a n t ist die woody fibre in d e m s t e m der plants u n d
die starch in its seeds. Exists a b u n d a n t l y in der Kartoffel u n d a n d r e n similar roots, -woody fibre u n d starch, wie gum und sugar b e s t e h n n u r of carbon
u n d water. F o l g e n d e Tabelle: |
20
|22| Carbon. Water
25
36 lbs und
36 lbs und
36 lbs und
36 lbs und
36 lbs und
36 lbs form 72 lbs of woody or cellular fibre.
45 lbs form 81 lbs of dry starch or gum.
49 y lbs form 85 % lbs of loafsugar or sugarcandy.
64 lbs form 100 lbs of fruit, raisin, and honeysugar.
27 lbs form 63 lbs of humic acid.
2
Diese S u b s t a n z e n m a y be formed from t h e kinds of food w h i c h t h e
leaves drink in from t h e air, weil sie drink in carbonic air u n d water. D i e
Pflanzen require only carbon u n d water to form t h e woody fibre u n d starch
which they c o n t a i n u n d therefore they give off t h e oxygen of t h e c a r b o n i c
30
35
acid i n t o the air b e c a u s e they c a n n o t m a k e use of it. D i e Pflanzen beraub e n die air nicht der carbonic acid, trotz ihres vielen Einschlucks davon,
weil beständig new supplies of this gas are r e t u r n i n g into the air. (22) Diese
supplies k o m m e n v o n 3 sources: from t h e b r e a t h i n g of a n i m a l s , from t h e
b u r n i n g of wood a n d coal, a n d from t h e decay of a n i m a l s and vegetables.
All a n i m a l s throw off a small q u a n t i t y of carbonic acid from their lungs
every t i m e they breathe. T h e carbon which wood, coal, candles etc c o n t a i n ,
w h e n it b u r n s in t h e air, forms c a r b o n i c acid gas, j u s t as p u r e c a r b o n does
w h e n it is b u r n e d in oxygen gas. T h e decay of vegetables, of roots in the
375
soil, a n d of the r e m a i n s of animals, is only a slow kind of b u r n i n g , by
which their carbon is at last converted into carbonic acid. ... A n i m a l s u n d
plants thus appear to live for each other's support. T h e a n i m a l produces
carbonic acid, u p o n which plants live; a n d from this carbonic acid a n d water together, plants produce starch etc, u p o n which animals live. Wasser be5
steht aus Oxygen u n d Hydrogen. In 9 Pfund Wasser e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 8 lbs of
oxygen u n d 1 lb of hydrogen. Wasser also, which puts out all fire besteht
aus 2 G a s e n , Eins wovon (Hydrogen) b u r n s readily, w ä h r e n d in d e m andren (Oxygen) bodies b u r n m i t great brilliancy. Also b e s t e h n woody fibre,
starch, g u m u n d sugar aus carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen. Gluten (Kleber) 10
besteht aus allen 4 E l e m e n t e n , carbon, hydrogen, oxygen u n d nitrogen,
u n i t e d to a little sulphur a n d p h o s p h o r u s . Die Pflanze k a n n 3 der Elem e n t e , woraus G l u t e n besteht, carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen aus der Luft
erhalten, aber nitrogen, sulphur u n d P h o s p h o r it usually obtains almost
solely from the soil. H e n c e the i m p o r t a n c e of adding to the soil m a n u r e s 15
which c o n t a i n the three latter substances. (23, 4)
Of the
Soil
on
which
Plants
grow.
D e r soil besteht aus e i n e m organic oder c o m b u s t i b l e u n d aus e i n e m u n o r ganic oder incombustible part. (24) D e r organic part des soil is derived
from the roots and stems of decayed plants u n d von d e m d u n g u n d r e m a i n s
of animals u n d insects of various kinds. V o n peaty soils forms dieser organic part m a n c h m a l %, von rich u n d fertile soils gewöhnlich n u r Y oder
Y des g a n z e n Gewichts. In u n s r e m Clima k a n n der B o d e n keine g u t e n
crops tragen, wenn er n i c h t e i n e n Theil of organic m a t t e r enthält. A rich
soil enthält m i n d e s t e n s Y seines Gewichts, 5 %, of organic matter. D i e organische m a t t e r vermehrt oder vermindert sich im B o d e n according to the
way in which it is cultivated. Sie diminishes wenn das L a n d oft gepflügt
u n d cropped oder schlecht gedüngt wird; u n d wächst, w e n n das L a n d m i t
B ä u m e n bepflanzt, in p e r m a n e n t pasture verwandelt oder when large doses
of farm-yard m a n u r e or of peat compost are given to it. Diese organic matter
in d e m soil supplies the organic food which plants draw from the soil
t h r o u g h their roots. Die Q u a n t i t ä t dieser N a h r u n g (organische) die Pflanzen v o m B o d e n z i e h n wechselt m i t der Art der Pflanze, der Art des B o d e n s
u n d der season; ist aber stets beträchtlich u n d nothwendig für d e n gesund e n W u c h s der Pflanze. Wird der B o d e n badly m a n a g e d u n d constantly
cropped so wird er d u r c h das E n t z i e h n von organic m a t t e r von Seiten der
Pflanzen beständig ärmer an derselben. D i e supply davon wird aufrecht erhalten durch ploughing in green crops, by growing clovers u n d other plants
20
20
10
20
376
25
30
35
which leave long roots in the soil, by restoring all the hay and straw to t h e
land in the form of m a n u r e , by laying down to pasture etc. D e r inorganic or
mineral part of t h e soil is derived from t h e c r u m b l i n g down of t h e solid
rocks. Diese rocks b e s t e h n aus m o r e oder less h a r d e n e d sandstones, lime5
stones u n d clays. ... If a soil effervesce (give off bubbles of gas) w h e n an
acid is poured u p o n it, it c o n t a i n s c a r b o n a t e of lime, a n d the degree of effervescence indicates the proportion of lime. ... Am leichtesten u n d wohlfeilsten cultivirt die lightlands (die c o n t a i n a large proportion of sand or
gravel) called barley or turnip soils, weil diese u n d andre green crops b e 10
sonders gut auf i h n e n f o r t k o m m e n . W e n n n o c h leichter u n d m e h r sandig,
they grow rye and b u c k wheat better. ... Drains nie flacher zu m a c h e n als
3 0 - 3 6 inches; oft tiefer, b u t where there are springs or bodies of water at a
greater depth ... D i e roots of corn, clover u n d flax g e h n down 3 F u ß u n d
selbst turniproots in an o p e n soil ü b e r 2 F u ß . ... W h e n my drains are so
15 deep, I can go down 20 or 24 inches with my subsoil || 231 plough, my spade,
or my fork, without any risk of injuring t h e m . ... crops which look well at
first, often droop or fail altogether w h e n their roots get down to t h e hurtful
m a t t e r im subsoil ... Subsoil ploughing stirs u n d loosens, b u t does n o t
bring up the subsoil to the surface, wie deep ploughing or trenching.
20
... Schweres Land, so gedrained etc, would be m o r e cheaply worked, u n d
yield a greater n u m b e r of bushels of corn per acre als zuvor u n d giebt green
crops in addition. ... there is m u c h high l a n d (über der See) which will n o t
at present pay to crop, which would yet pay well if drained a n d subsoilploughed or forked. F ü r draining tile drains werden vorgezogen d e n stone25
drains. Diese b e s t e h n usually of a d e p t h of 9 or 12 inches of stones b r o k e n
the size of road m e t a l . A tile drain ist inefficient without a sole, b e c a u s e it
is liable to sink, a n d t h u s b e c o m e choked. Der advantage der pipetiles ist,
daß sie cheaper, gleich wirksam u n d d a u e r n d sind, lighter to carry u n d contains tile and sole in o n e . ... An i n c h pipe will carry off a m u c h larger
30 quantity of rain t h e n usually falls in our climate. ... Diese drains are to be
p u t from 15 to 18 feet distance. ( 2 5 - 3 1 )
Of
the
Inorganic
Food
of Plants.
Der inorganic oder earthy part des soil dient 1) als ein M e d i u m , worin die
W u r z e l n sich fixiren k ö n n e n , so as to keep the plant in an upright position
35 u n d 2) supplirt die plant m i t inorganic food. Ausser d e n H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i len, Sand, clay u n d lime, enthält der inorganic part of the soil small q u a n t i ties von Potash, soda, magnesia, Eisenoxid, M a n g a n e s e o x i d , S u l p h u r i c Acid,
Phosphoric acid u n d Chlorine. Bilden a m u c h larger proportion of the soil
377
t h a n they generally do of plants. A u s s e r d e m e n t h ä l t der inorganic part des
B o d e n s alumina, while plant usually c o n t a i n s n o n e . D e r soil enthält silica
u n d a l u m i n a , die plant silica o h n e a l u m i n a , das a n i m a l weder silica n o c h
a l u m i n a . E x c e p t i o n z u m leztren ist das fact, d a ß die F e d e r n der Vögel u n d
H a a r u n d Wolle von m a n u n d a n d r e n a n i m a l s silica e n t h a l t e n i n m i n u t e
q u a n t i t y b u t as an essential constituent. In s o m e plants traces of a l u m i n a
have b e e n found, b u t it does n o t as yet appear to be necessary to any w h i c h
we cultivate for profit. ... Alumina is a white, earthy, tasteless powder,
which exists in alum, a n d gives their stiffness to pipe-clays a n d to stiff claysoils. D i e ß earthy m a t t e r enters into t h e p l a n t by the roots, in a state of solution. T h e r a i n a n d springwater dissolve t h e m , a n d carry t h e m into t h e roots.
... V o n allen diesen i n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n p l a n t s m u s t have a certain
small quantity, b u t they require m o r e of s o m e s u b s t a n c e s t h a n of others.
1) Quantity and Composition of the Ash left
by a ton (2240 lbs) of hay of different Kinds.
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Oxide of Iron
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Chlorine
Silica
15
Italian Rye
grass Hay
Clover
Red
Hay
White
Lucerne
Hay
17
7
13%
3
1
4
8¾
2
81½
138
26
3½
55½
17½
1½
6½
10
4
5
129½
24¾
10½
45½
14
3½
12½
20
5
6
141¾
30
13½
107½
1%
20
%
9
29
6¾
7½
211½
Ist ein B o d e n gänzlich entblöst von o n e dieser S u b s t a n z e n , good crops
would n o t grow u p o n it; enthält er a large supply von allen u n d n u r a small
von s o m e o n e derselben, so werden die Pflanzen well auf i h m wachsen
which require only a small quantity of that o n e s u b s t a n c e ; aber die viel
d a v o n erheischen würden b e stunted u n d u n h e a l t h y . E n t h i e l t e das L a n d
ζ. Β. little lime, so k ö n n t e es grow a good crop of rye-grass, aber n i c h t a
good crop of clover. 1st a soil destitute of a considerable n u m b e r of these
different inorganic substances, so würde er refuse to grow good crops of any
k i n d whatever. It would be naturally barren. S o m e larger tracts of country,
die n i e werden cultivated by m a n , sind naturally fertile u n d a n d r e naturally
barren. In t h e fertile soils all those inorganic substances exist which our
cultivated crops require; in t h e b a r r e n soils, s o m e of these substances are
or m a y be wholly wanting.
Composition of Soils of different degrees. (Sieh die folgende Seite ü b e r d e r
378
10
25
30
35
40
5
10
Bodentafel.) A soil k a n n b a r r e n sein obgleich er alle substances enthält,
which plants require. W e n n it c o n t a i n s a very large p r o p o r t i o n of s o m e o n e ,
wie oxide of iron or c o m m o n salt, d a s in great quantity injurious to t h e
soil, l a n d reclaimed from t h e sea often c o n t a i n s t o o m u c h salt w h i c h t h e
r a i n gradually removes. Solcher B o d e n zu verbessern d u r c h t h o r o u g h
draining u n d subsoilploughing, t h a t the r a i n s m i g h t sink t h r o u g h it a n d
wash out t h e injurious m a t t e r ; d u r c h liming, if it required lime. ( S c h l a g
um.) I
|24| II. Composition of Soils of different degrees
of fertility. *(Sieh die Notiz zu dieser Tafel)
Fertile
without
manure
15
20
25
30
Organic matter
Silica (in the
sand and clay)
Alumina (in
the clay)
Lime
Magnesia
Oxides of Iron
Oxide of Manganese
Potash
Soda
f chiefly as
Chlorine 1 common salt
Sulphuric Acid
Phosphoric Acid
Carbonic Acid
(combined mit dem
lime und magnesia)
Loss
Summa:
(31-36)
Effect
35
40
Fertile with
Manure
Barren
97
50
40
648
833
778
51
18
8
30
3
trace
91
4
1
81
57
59
8½
61
1
2
4
%
trace
2
2
4½
%
40
14
1000
of Cropping
4½
4½
1000 (p. 35)
1000
upon
the
Soil.
E i n n a t ü r l i c h fruchtbarer B o d e n k a n n b a r r e n g e m a c h t w e r d e n d u r c h cont i n u e d cropping, w e n n die same kind of cropping be carried on for a long
t i m e , z. B. J. zitirt w h e a t , o a t s o d e r a n d r e g r a i n . Schließlich unfähig Eins
derselben zu tragen. W e i l sie draw certain substances von d e m soil in great
a b u n d a n c e u n d n a c h einer R e i h e von J a h r e n the soil c a n n o t furnish these
substances in sufficient quantity. D a s grain of our corn crops ζ. B. e x h a u s t s
besonders d e n B o d e n von phosphoric acid, Potash u n d Magnesia. (36)
379
Composition of the Ash of Wheat, Oats, etc
exclusive of the Straw, (in a 100 pounds.)
Wheat
Potash und Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Oxide of Iron
Phosphoric acid
Sulphuric Acid
Chlorine
Silica
Oats
33
3
12
26
6
10
Barley
22½
2½
7½
1½
%
44
39
10½ trace
% trace
27
2%
100
100
%
49
%
trace
2
100
Rye
Indian
Corn
33
32½
5
1½
10½ 16
1½
%
48½ 45
1
3
trace
%
y
1½
100
100
2
Beans
45
6½
%
33
4½
1¼
%
100
Turnips Potato
51½
11¼
3
%
11¼
15
5½
2
100
58
2
5
%
12½
13½
4¼
4¼
100 (37)
(*Notizen zu Tafel II (p. 35) D e r Boden, dessen Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g in
der ersten C o l u m n e gegeben h a d p r o d u c e d crops für 60 J a h r e o h n e m a n u r e , a n d still c o n t a i n e d a sensible q u a n t i t y of all t h e s u b s t a n c e required
by plants. Der in der 2 C o l u m n e p r o d u c i r t e gute crops, w e n n regulär ged ü n g t ; it was in want of 3 or 4 substances only, w h i c h were ||25| given to it
by t h e m a n u r e . D e r 3 war hopelessly barren, it was in want of m a n y substances w h i c h ordinary m a n u r i n g could not supply in sufficient quantity.
D a b e i enthielt er zu viel Eisen.)
5
10
15
l
t e
20
Der special e x h a u s t i o n n u n z u v o r g e k o m m e n by r e t u r n i n g to t h e soil the
particular substances my crops h a d t a k e n out. Ζ. B. die p h o s p h o r i c acid zu
rückgegeben d u r c h b o n e dust or g u a n o oder p h o s p h a t e of l i m e ... J e d e r
crop takes away from the soil a certain q u a n t i t y dieser substances w h i c h all 25
plants require. If you are always taking out of a purse it will at last b e c o m e
empty. (37) A b e r w e n n der farmer p u t s in t h e soil t h e proper substances, in
t h e proper quantities, a n d at the proper times, he m a y keep up t h e fertility
of t h e land, perhaps for ever. D e r F a r m e r m u ß d e m L a n d p u t in at least as
m u c h as he takes out. To m a k e his l a n d better, he m u s t p u t in m o r e t h a n 30
he takes out. His profits consist in this, that he takes off the l a n d w h a t he
c a n sell for m u c h m o n e y , a n d he p u t s in what he c a n buy for comparatively
little m o n e y . If I sell my oats, hay, or turnips, I get a m u c h higher price for
t h e m t h a n I afterwards give, w h e n I buy t h e m b a c k again in t h e form of
horse or cowdung. (38)
35
380
Of Manures
5
and
Manuring
the
Soil.
Portable masses, die are of a small bulk or weight u n d leicht zu great distances transported w e r d e n k ö n n e n . I h r Vortheil: they can be b r o u g h t v o n
fremden Ländern, oder carried far inland, oder carted up to high districts
u n d n o c h m i t Profit v o m P ä c h t e r a n g e w a n d t werden. So G u a n o , b o n e s ,
rapedust, pigeon's dung, p h o s p h a t e of l i m e , gypsum, nitrate of soda etc.
... vegetable, a n i m a l , m i n e r a l m a n u r e s . (39)
Vegetable
Manures.
Pflanzen, wie grass, clover, hay, straw, potatotops, rapedust etc, die usually
10
are buried in the soil for t h e purpose of m a k i n g it m o r e productive. D e r soil
is m a n u r e d m i t green grass w h e n grass l a n d is ploughed u p . E b e n s o white
m u s t a r d , rape, rye, b r o o m , an m a n c h e n Stellen a u c h turnips ploughed in
green to enrich the soil. A green crop einzupflügen in leichte u n d sandy
soils u n d in solche die very little organische M a t e r i e enthalten ... sea15 weed, wo es in large quantity gefunden, bereichert d e n B o d e n sehr. Es ist
either spread over the land a n d ploughed in, or is allowed to rot a n d sink
in, or is m a d e i n t o a compost. In d e n potato drills ist es oft p u t in a fresh
state, care being t a k e n to prevent t h e potato sets from touching t h e seaweed, by putting a little earth between t h e m . So an d e n Ost u n d W e s t k ü 20 sten Schottlands, giebt large Kartoffelcrops, b u t of inferior quality. ... P o tato or turnip tops dug in, w h e n the roots are lifted, m a k e the n e x t year's
corn better. W i e zu erhalten die largest quantity of green m a n u r e in t h e
form of potato-tops? By pulling off the blossoms the tops are k e p t in a
green state till the potatoes are dug u p , a n d thus give m u c h green crop. Heu
25
wird gewöhnlich d e n Pferden gegeben u n d d a n n aufs L a n d geworfen in t h e
shape of their dung. Stroh an s o m e places gebraucht in feeding the cattle,
an a n d r e n theils d e n cattle gegeben u n d theils t r o d d e n a m o n g t h e litter,
while in places, where few cattle are kept, it is s o m e t i m e s rotted with water
u n d a little cow's d u n g u n d put on the l a n d in a half fermented state. 1st
30 das L a n d leicht, so zu d ü n g e n mit*straw well fermented u n d m i x t with t h e
droppings of a good m a n y cattle; ist es heavy clay l a n d during the n a k e d
fallow before a crop of wheat, d a n n rather m i t straw m o r e loose a n d unferm e n t e d . It would help to keep my l a n d o p e n . Rape-cake is t h e refuse t h a t
r e m a i n s when rape or colzaseed is crushed in t h e mill to squeeze o u t t h e
35 oil. W h e n the cake is b r o k e n to powder, it is called rapedust. R a p e d u s t is
applied to turnips or potatos either in place of the whole or a part only of
381
the c o m m o n farmyarddung - a n d it is in m a n y parts of the country u s e d
with great profit as a top-dressing to the y o u n g wheat in spring. ( 3 9 - 4 2 )
Of
Animal
Manures.
H a u p t s ä c h l i c h s t e sind: Blut, Fleisch, K n o c h e n , H a a r e , Wolle, Mist u n d
U r i n der Thiere u n d der refuse der Fische. Blut Eins der m o s t powerful m a 5
nures. In soils, die a r m an Phosphates, b o n e s p r o d u c i r e n excellent crops of
wheat u n d t u r n i p ; w e n n reich daran, rapedust, woollen rags, the salts of
a m m o n i a u n d t h e nitrates of potash u n d Soda are applied m i t great profit
für corn u n d root crops. T h e practical i m p o r t a n c e of Geology b e c o m e s apparent, w h e n it is known that the inspection of a geological m a p enables us
10
to point out where soils rich or poor in p h o s p h a t e s are likely to occur.
Bones b e s t e h n aus gelatine or glue, w h i c h m a y be partly extracted by boiling
t h e m in water, (verbrennt, organischer Bestandtheil) u n d aus bone-earth,
die als A s c h e zurückbleibt (phosphate of lime.) (100 lbs of b o n e earth as it
is o b t a i n e d by b u r n i n g bones e n t h a l t e n 4 0 - 4 5 lbs of phosphoric acid.) Old
15
dairy pastures especially require b o n e s , weil M i l c h u n d Käse b o n e earth
e n t h a l t e n u n d diese, s o n a c h u n d n a c h d e m B o d e n entzogen, e r n u r n o c h
Grasses produciren kann, die little b o n e earth e n t h a l t e n . In 10 gallons
Milch e n t h a l t e n / Pf- b o n e earth. A cow daher, die 20 quarts a day giebt,
n i m m t a b o u t 2 Pf. b o n e earth von d e m soil j e d e W o c h e . To return these to
20
the soil 3 Pf. of dry b o n e s oder 4 Pf. of c o m m o n b o n e dust sind erheischt.
Hair u n d wool sind remarkable for c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 5 % of sulphur. V o n
d e n E x c r e m e n t e n die n ü t z l i c h s t e n der R e i h e n a c h M e n s c h e n = d a n n
bird's = d a n n horse = d a n n pig's, schließlich u n d least cowdung. ( 4 2 - 4 5 ) |
|26| Nitrogen während der fermentation of a n i m a l m a n u r e s n i m m t erst die
25
F o r m von a m m o n i a an. Ammonia is a kind of air which has an exceedingly
strong smell u n d possesses alkaline properties. T h e h a r t s h o r n of the shops
is merely water impregnated m i t this gas. Besteht aus nitrogen u n d hydrogen. 14 Pf. of nitrogen u n d 3 Pf. of hydrogen m a c h e n 17 Pf. a m m o n i a .
D i e ß a m m o n i a , w h e n formed in m a n u r e , is dissolved in t h e soil by water 30
u n d is t h e n sucked in by the roots. D u r c h die acid of a m m o n i a in d e n
Pflanzen gebildet das gluten u n d other substances containing nitrogen. D e r
U r i n von m a n u n d von d e m pig enthält phospates; die des horse, der cow
u n d des sheep nicht. 1845: 220,000 tons of g u a n o i m p o r t e d in the U n i t e d
K i n g d o m . 1847: 82,000, worth a b o u t £ 500,000. ( 4 7 - 5 1 )
35
l
2
382
r
Of
Saline
or
Mineral
Manures.
Die wichtigsten p h o s p h a t e of lime, nitrate of soda, sulphate of Soda, sulp h a t e of magnesia, c o m m o n salt, gypsum, kelp, woodashes, soot u n d l i m e .
Phosphate of lime ist a white earthy s u b s t a n c e , b e s t e h e n d aus l i m e u n d
5
phosphoric acid, which in m a n y places is d u g up as a mineral, a n d is u s e d
for agricultural purpose. Es occurs a b u n d a n t l y in s o m e geological formations, besonders in d e m greensand u n d d e m crag u n d ist zu a variable extent e n t h a l t e n in allen Kalksteinen. T h e discovery dieser p h o s p h a t e b e d s
ist o n e of the i m p o r t a n t benefits w h i c h m o d e r n science has bestowed u p o n
10 practical agriculture. Wird als m a n u r e verwandt, w e n n ground to fine powder oder dissolved, like b o n e s , in sulphuric acid u n d applied to t h e corn
a n d root crops. Nitrate of Soda a white saltlike (saline) substance, gefunden
in der Erde in einigen T h e i l e n von Peru u n d oft m i t Vortheil angewandt as
a topdressing to grass lands a n d to young corn. Besteht aus nitric acid u n d
15
soda. 54 Pf. of nitric acid u n d 31 Pf. of soda bilden 85 Pf. of nitrate of soda.
W e n n carbonic acid sich verbindet m i t Potasche, Soda, l i m e u n d m a g n e sia, bildet es a carbonate, w e n n ein phosphoric acid a phosphate, sulphuric
acid a sulphate, nitric acid a nitrate. Nitric acid a very sour, corrosive liquid,
called also a q u a fortis. Besteht aus nitrogen u n d oxygen. Sulphate of Soda
20
(Glaubersalz) besteht aus sulphuric acid (Vitriolöl) u n d Soda. Sulphate of
Magnesia (Epsom salts) ist a bitter substance, consisting of sulphuric acid
u n d Magnesia. Gypsum is a white solid substance, besteht aus sulphuric
acid u n d lime. Kelp is the ash that is left w h e n sea-weed is b u r n e d in large
quantities. Soot enthält lime, g y p s u m u n d sulphate of a m m o n i a , t h e latter
25
s o m e t i m e s to the extent of % of its whole weight. Soot, die salts of ammonia
und die nitrates give the crops a rich and luxuriant green colour. ( 5 1 - 5 6 )
Of Limestone,
and
and
Use
of
the
Burning
of Lime.
Limestone besteht aus lime (quicklime) in c o m b i n a t i o n m i t C a r b o n i c acid,
30 heißt bei d e n chemists »carbonate of lime«. Varieties of limestone, einige
soft wie Kreide, andre hart, wie die c o m m o n limestones, einige m i t gelber
F a r b e wie der m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e , einige weiß, wie der statuary m a r b l e ,
einige schwarz, wie der Derbyshire black marble. Marl ist dasselbe wie
limestone, n ä m l i c h carbonate of lime, n u r oft m e t with in a soft state oder
35 in that of a fine powder, a n d often also m i x e d with earthy matter. L i m e -
383
stones u n d marls e n t h a l t e n gewöhnlich a m i n u t e q u a n t i t y of p h o s p h a t e of
lime. In limestones das p h o s p h a t e oft zu 1 % % u n d in s o m e few marls zu 2,
3 oder 4 % . Shellsand or b r o k e n seashells is also nearly t h e s a m e thing as
c o m m o n l i m e s t o n e . W e n n l i m e s t o n e (carbonate of lime) is b u r n e d in t h e
kiln, t h e carbonic acid is driven off from t h e l i m e s t o n e by t h e h e a t u n d der
5
l i m e alone r e m a i n s . D i e ß der s.g. b u r n e d lime, q u i c k - l i m e , caustic lime,
h o t lime, lime shells etc (Alkali). D e r lime, sowohl der q u i c k l i m e als der
m i l d l i m e (leztrer s.g. w e n n g e b r a n n t e r Kalk wieder m i t W a s s e r v e r b u n d e n
u n d wieder K o h l e n s ä u r e aus der Luft ausgesogen h a b e n d in Pulver zerfällt)
wirkt by supplying t h e lime which all plants r e q u i r e as part of their food, by
10
c o m b i n i n g with acids in the soil, so as to r e m o v e t h e sourness of t h e land
a n d by converting the vegetable m a t t e r of t h e soil i n t o t h e food of plants.
In d i e s e m L a n d gewöhnlich 8 oder 10 bushels a year a d d e d to an imperial
acre. A b e r n i c h t every year, sondern every r o t a t i o n or every second rotation
oder m a n c h m a l n u r once in the 19 J a h r e n . ( 5 6 - 6 1 )
15
Of
the
which
composition
of
the farmer
the
crops
reaps.
D i e different kinds of grain b e s t e h n besonders aus starch, gluten u n d oil
oder fat. 100 Pfund Roggen- oder Weizenmehl e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 50 Pf. Stärke,
10 Pf. Kleber (gluten) u n d 2 oder 3 Pf. Oel. 100 Pf. oats e n t h a l t e n ungefähr
60 Pf. Stärke, 16 Pf. gluten u n d 6 Pf. Oel. 100 Pf. Indian com ungefähr 70 Pf.
Stärke, 12 Pf. gluten u n d 8 Pf. Fett. Kartoffeln und Turnips b e s t e h n besonders aus Wasser. 100 Pf. potatos e n t h a l t e n an 75 Pf. Wasser. 100 Pfund of
t u r n i p s e n t h a l t e n 88 Pf. Wasser u n d 100 Pf. M a n g o l d w u r z e l an 85 Pf. Die
quantity of water oft n o c h grösser, s o m e varieties of wheat e n t h a l t e n m e h r
gluten als andre, some varieties of oats m e h r Oel als a n d r e , s o m e varieties
of potatoes m e h r Stärke als a n d r e . Oats u n d I n d i a n corn u n d die Oelsaam e n e n t h a l t e n m o s t fat; beans, pease u n d O e l s a a m e n d e n m e i s t e n gluten.
( O e l s a a m e n also ζ. B. L e i n s a a m e n , R a p s s a a m e n , poppy seed, h e m p s e e d ) .
D a s Clima Einfluß hierauf. D e r W e i z e n warmer Climate soll m e h r gluten
u n d die potatoes u n d barley grown auf light u n d welldrained land m e h r
Stärke e n t h a l t e n . ( 6 1 - 6 2 ) |
384
20
25
30
|27|
Uses of the
Crops
in
Feeding.
E i n Thier m u ß erhalten Stärke, Kleber, Oel oder Fett u n d saline or inorganic matter, um to be m a i n t a i n e d in a h e a l t h y state. E i n M a n n throws off
from his lungs in a day 6 - 8 U n z e n of carbon. M u ß daher z u m Ersatz
5 nearly a p o u n d of starch essen. 10 o u n c e s of starch e n t h a l t e n 4 % U n z e n of
carbon. Derselbe carbon ist again u n d again transformed by the plant into
starch u n d by the a n i m a l into carbonic acid; diese changes nöthig to keep
up the w a r m t h of the a n i m a l body. D e r gluten der Pflanzen ersezt die m u s cles der Thiere. food that c o n t a i n s m u c h oil ist die best for fattening. Dario um lin-seed u n d oilcake so good for fattening stock. A b o u t 80,000 tons of
linseed cake imported jährlich in G r e a t Britain, as food for cattle, at a cost
of nearly £ 700,000. P h o s p h a t e of l i m e u n d other inorganic m a t t e r s nöthig
to supply the daily waste of the b o n e s , of t h e salts in the blood etc. A b e r
gluten u n d saline matter, when the a n i m a l is growing, n o t only supply t h e
15 daily waste, but are daily adding to the weight of the a n i m a l ' s body. Q.
How would you convert a ton of oats or turnips into the largest quantity of
beef or m u t t o n ? A. I would keep my cattle or sheep in a warm or sheltered
place, where they m i g h t have wholesome air, a n d b u t little light, a n d I
would disturb t h e m as little as possible. Q. If y o u wanted merely to fatten a
20 fullgrown beast, what would you do? A. I would keep it warm, disturb it
little, a n d give it fat or oily food etc with a good supply of turnips. T h e degree of warmth and c o n f i n e m e n t u n d e r which a n i m a l s will thrive d e p e n d s
m u c h u p o n the breed. Q. If you wished only to convert a large quantity of
hay, straw or turnips into m a n u r e s , what would you do? I would p u t my
25 stock in a cool a n d less sheltered place, a n d I would m a k e t h e m take a
good deal of exercise. ( 6 3 - 6 7 )
Of
milk
and
dairy
Produce.
Milch besteht aus water, curd, b u t t e r u n d einer b e s o n d e r n Art Zucker, gen a n n t Milchzucker. 100 Pf. oder 10 gallons of cow's milk e n t h a l t e n a b o u t
30 4 % lbs of pure curd, 3 of fat or butter, u n d 4 % of milk sugar - nearly all t h e
rest is water. W ü n s c h t m a n , daß die K u h die möglichst grosse Quantität
M i l c h gebe, so reicht m a n ihr rich juicy grass, turnips m i t their tops, green
rye, brewers' grains, warm m a s h e s , oder other food containing m u c h water
u n d giebt ihr so viel to drink als sie will. Will m a n aber Milch von der bestes
möglichen Qualität erhalten, so giebt m a n ihr drier food - oats, b e a n s , b r a n ,
oilcake u n d clover hay, along with h e r turnips or boiled food. Will m a n
385
besonders Butterreiche Milch so giebt m a n ihr dasselbe k i n d of food als für
fattening animals. Die Milch enthält alle E l e m e n t e einer nahrhaften N a h rung. D i e Butter der M i l c h supplies das fat des Körpers, das curd supports
die muscles, der Milchzucker liefert d e n carbon für die Respiration u n d
die Phosphates die earthy m a t t e r der bones ... Das a n i m a l finds ready
5
formed in t h e ripened plant, all the m o s t i m p o r t a n t substances of which its
own b o d y is composed. D e r gluten of its food ist nearly identical m i t d e m
fibre of its muscles, das oil similar d e m fat of its b o d y while the bone-earth
u n d other salts of the plant supply materials for the b o n e s a n d blood of the
a n i m a l , u n d die starch u n d sugar d e n carbon w h i c h is necessary for the 10
purpose of respiration. W h e n the vegetable food has discharged its office in
the a n i m a l body, it returns to the earth in the form of d u n g - only to enter
into the roots of new plants u n d t h u s to p r o d u c e new supplies of sustenace
for other races of animals. ( 6 7 - 9 ) D e r s e l b e J o h n s t o n u.a. n o c h g e s c h r i e b e n »Elements of Agricultural Chemistry u n d Geology.« 5 ed. W. Black- 15
wood u n d sons. E d i n b u r g h u n d L o n d o n . 1848. »Instructions for the Analysis of Soils.« «Contributions to Scientific Agriculture. 1849.« « E x p é r i m e n tal Agriculture, being the Results of Past, a n d suggestions for future
e x p e r i m e n t s in scientific a n d practical agriculture. 1849.«
386
Aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social, and industrial
Johnston. (William, Barrister at Law.)
England as it is, Political, Social,
and Industrial etc 2 vol.
L o n d o n . 1851.
5
T.I.
Statistics of the Land. Farmers und Gentry.
Das U n i t e d K i n g d o m 77,394,433 acres. D a v o n 46,522,970 u n t e r irgend
einer Art von Cultur; n ä m l i c h 19,135,990 acres of arable land u n d g a r d e n s ;
27,386,980 acres of m e a d o w s , pastures u n d m a r s h e s ; 15,000,000 acres of
10 waste land capable of i m p r o v e m e n t , in i h r e m present state geschäzt z u m
W e r t h von 5 Mill. £ S t . a year u n d 15,871,463 acres incapable of improvem e n t . (10) Spackman schäzt das R e n t a l des l a n d des U n i t e d K i n g d o m zu
58,753,615 l. u n d adds daß die direct u n d local taxation applicable to it
a m o u n t s zu 18,314,908 1., wovon 13,881,9111, paid von d e m l a n d e d inter15 est u n d 4,432,997 l. von d e m m a n u f a c t u r i n g interest. Er schäzt das in der
Cultur des Bodens e m b a r k e d capital auf 250 Mill. J a m e s M a c Q u e e n estim a t e s the a n n u a l agricultural p r o d u c e des U n i t e d K i n g d o m auf
686,524,132 l. u n t e r protection prices u n d auf 470,580,485 l. u n t e r d e n
prices of 1850. N a c h Porter: 19,135,000 acres zu 7 I. per acre geben
20 £ 133,945,000; 27 Mill, acres zu 6 I. per acre £ 162 Mill, u n d 15 Mill, acres
wastes zu 5 Mill. G i e b t ein jährliches P r o d u c t von £ 300,945,000. ( 1 0 , 1 1 ) |
|28| Spackman schäzt das a n n u a l p r o d u c e [des] L a n d e s des U n i t e d Kingd o m n u r auf 250,000,000 I. St; obgleich er W e i z e n das qr zu 60 sh. n i m m t
u n d alles andre grain zu 30 sh. His calculation is:
387
22,000,000 qrs of wheat
34,000,000 qrs of all other grains
Hay, seeds, garden u n d green crops
2,000,000 head of cattle
10,000,000 sheep a n d lambs
Potatoes
Wool
Butter
Cheese
Poultry, milk, eggs, fruits u n d vegetables
200,000 horses
Pigs
All other a n i m a l s
Hops
Timber
V a l u e of uncultivated wastes u n d woods
£
66,000,000
51,000,000
30,000,000
30,000,000
15,000,000
25,000,000
8,000,000
5,000,000
5,000,000
3,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,500,000
2,000,000
£250,000,000.
S p a c k m a n schäzt das yield of wheat in E n g l a n d zu 18 Mill, qrs; of barley
zu 6 Mill, qrs; of oats, rye, beans u n d peas zu 12 Mill, qrs, z u m W e r t h von
54 Mill. £ für wheat, 9 Mill. I. für barley, 18 Mill. £ für die other sorts of
grain u n d pulse. McCulloch „On T a x a t i o n " , giebt sein E s t i m a t e von d e m
corn grown in England:
Wheat, 14,000,000 qrs zu 50 sh.
Barley 5,000,000 qrs zu 30 sh.
Oats, peas und beans
12 Mill, qrs zu 25 sh.
£
10
15
20
35,000,000
7,500,000
16,000,000
£ 58,500,000.
1844 gab McCulloch für das ganze e m p i r e :
P r o d u c e from arable land
£ 138,021,548
Pasture u n d uncultivated l a n d
89,750,000
£ 2 2 7 , 7 7 1 , 5 4 8 . ([11,] 12.)
M c C u l l o c h schäzt das G e s a m m t G r u n d r e n t a l von E n g l a n d u n d Wales
auf 4 0 - 4 1 Millionen. (On Taxation, p. 147) Mr. Spackman giebt das gross
rental of England u n d Wales auf 40,167,088 1.; von Schottland: 5,586,628
u n d von Irland auf 13,562,946, z u s a m m e n 59,316,662 /. (13) D e r average of
rent per acre in England u n d Wales 1 8 4 2 - 3 war 1 /. 1 s. 8½ d., having risen
to that s u m von 18 s. 6% d., which was the rate in 1 8 1 4 - 1 5 . (I.e.) 5 - 6 £ per
acre hielt m a n für das capital required for the cultivation of land; aber das
high farming of m o d e r n times erfordert fast das Doppelte. (14) from state-
388
5
25
30
35
m e n t s m a d e in P a r l i a m e n t in 1845 it appeared d a ß das G r u n d r e n t a l of l a n d
in G r e a t Britain advanced von ü b e r 39, in 1814, auf ü b e r 45 Mill. £ (in
1843), while that of h o u s e s h a d increased von 16,259,399 I. in 1814 zu
38,475,738 l. G r u n d r e n t e scheint n u r um 1 2 % gestiegen zu sein, w ä h r e n d
H a u s r e n t e um 140 %. (16, 17) To the Lords C o m m i t t e e on Parochial A s sessments (May 1850) Mr Cornwall Lewis stated t h a t in 1843 das „real p r o perty" assessed to t h e i n c o m e t a x was as follows:
10
15
20
25
Lands
Houses
Tithes
Manors
Fines
Quarries
Mines
Ironworks
Fisheries
Canals
Railways
O t h e r Property
£40,167,088
35,556,399
1,960,330
152,216
319,140
207,009
1,903,794
412,022
11,104
1,229,202
2,417,609
1,466,815
£85,802,728.
1848 lands h a d increased to
Houses zu
Railways zu
All other Property
Total:
£41,179,713
37,282,140
5,465,584
7,245,034
91,172,471 1. ( 1 7 , 1 8 )
T h e smaller proprietors, von d e n e n der M ' C u l l o c h sagt sie seien die M a jorität u n d h ä t t e n kein E i n k o m m e n ü b e r 170 /. a year, sind nicht, as they
o n c e were, owners of fields, b u t of h o u s e s a n d gardens, the proprietors, in
short, of residences, b u t n o t deriving their support from the land. ([18,] 19)
30
Of t r a d e s m e n u n d h a n d i c r a f t s m e n heißt es in den C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' abstracts presented d e m P a r l a m e n t 1844: „Of tradesmen u n d handicraftsmen
bei weitem die größte Z a h l are i n c l u d e d u n d e r the h e a d of boot u n d shoe
makers, a m o u n t i n g zu 214,780 oder fast % m e h r als die butchers, bakers,
b u t t e r m e n , m i l k m e n , grocers u n d greengrocers p u t together." (p. 25) 1849
35 waren die exports von Great Britain 58,848,042 /. u n d dieß schließt ein d e n
value des raw material, wovon ein grosser Theil of foreign p r o d u c t i o n ; D i e ß
probably nicht m e h r als % der a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n of wealth in the U n i t e d
K i n g d o m . Spackman in s e i n e m B u c h „The O c c u p a t i o n s of the P e o p l e "
giebt:
389
£
Agriculture, annual creation of Wealth
in Great Britain
Manufactures (deducting the value
des raw material)
Mining Interest
Colonial Interest
Foreign commerce (including
the shipping interest)
Fisheries
250,000,000
127,000,000
37,000,000
18,000,000
15,000,000
3,000,000
£ 450,000,000.
5
10
|29| S p a c k m a n schäzt den gross value der m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t i o n s auf
187,184,292 1., wovon 118,600,000 l. für d e n h o m e t r a d e u n d 58,584,292 I.
für d e n foreign trade. Unterstellt d a ß von der m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry der
h o m e trade % absorbirt u n d der foreign n u r
Bei der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e
die h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n zu der e x p o r t c o n s u m p t i o n = 20:25. ([51,] 52) the 15
quantities t a k e n into h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n in 1849 waren, of wheat
4,509,626 qrs, of I n d i a n corn 2,249,571 qrs, of wheatflour 3,937,219 cwt, of
I n d i a n c o r n m e a l 102,181 cwt, besides 1,554,860 qrs of barley, 1,368,673 qrs
of oats u n d 1,417,863 cwts of potatoes. (54) 1849 foreign eggs eingeführt
97,884,557. (55) Die Edinburgh Review sagt irgendwo: »intelligent apprécia- 20
tion, childish fear, childish wonder, a feverish spirit of speculation, a n d a
strong infusion of cupidity, are all strangely m i n g l e d in the popular estimate
of what the sciences are destined to effect for the world. T h e general faith
in science as a wonder-worker is at present u n l i m i t e d ; a n d along with this
t h e r e is cherished the conviction t h a t every discovery a n d i n v e n t i o n a d m i t s 25
of practical application to the welfare of m e n . Is a new vegetable product
brought to this country from abroad, or a new c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d discovered, or a novel physical p h e n o m e n o n recorded, the question is i m m e d i a t e ly asked, cui bono? W h a t is it good for? Is food or drink to be got out of it?
Will it m a k e hats or shoes, or cover umbrellas? Will it kill or heal? Will it 30
drive a steamengine or m a k e a mill go? ... Chemistry has long c o m e down
from her atomic altitudes a n d electric affinities, a n d now scours a n d dyes,
brews, bakes, cooks, and c o m p o u n d s drugs a n d m a n u r e s with contented
c o m p o s u r e . Electricity leaves her t h u n d e r b o l t in the sky, and, like Mercury
dismissed from Olympus, acts as lettercarrier a n d messageboy. Even myste- 35
rious m a g n e t i s m , which once seemed like a living principle to quiver in the
compass-needle, is u n c l o t h e d of mystery, a n d set to drive turning-lathes.
T h e public perceives all this, a n d has u n l i m i t e d faith in m a n ' s power to
c o n q u e r n a t u r e . T h e credulity which formerly fed u p o n u n i c o r n s , p h o e n i x es, m e r m a i d s , vampires, crackens, pestilential comets, fairies, ghosts, witch- 40
es, spectres, charms, curses, universal remedies, p a c t i o n s with Satan, a n d
390
5
10
15
the like, now tampers with chemistry, electricity a n d m a g n e t i s m , as it o n c e
did with the invisible world: Shoes of swiftness, seven-leagued boots, a n d
F o r t u n a t u s ' wishing caps are b a n i s h e d even from the nursery; b u t an electro-magnetic steam fire-balloon, which will cleave the air like a t h u n d e r bolt, and go straight to its destination as the crow flies, is an i n v e n t i o n
which m a n y h o p e to see realized before railways are quite worn to pieces.«
[p. 245, 246]
By a return presented to P a r l i a m e n t at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e session of
1850 sieht m a n d e n progress of railways: (p. 262, 263)
Miles
Dec.
Juni
Dec.
Juni
Dec.
open in the United Kingdom at the end of
1844
2240
J u n e 1847
1845
2343
D e c . 1847
1845
2536
J u n e 1848
1846
2765
D e c 1848
1846
3142
J u n e 1849
3603
3945
4478
5127
5447. (263)
Die general receipts waren: (Jahr i m m e r E n d e n d J u n e 30)
20
Receipts von Passengers £ Cattle, Goods etc. £ Total Receipts. £
1845
3,976,341
2,233,373
6,209,714
1846
2,840,354
4,725,215
7,565,569
5,148,002
3,362,884
1847
8,510,886
1848
5,720,382
4,213,170
9,933,552
1849
5,094,926
11,200,901. (265)
6,105,975
T.II.
25
A u f d e m L a n d die boys work hard von 8 J a h r e n bis 15, at wages gradually
increasing von 4 - 1 0 d. a day, bis sie at length achieve m a n h o o d u n d der
climax von 1 8 - 2 0 d. a day gezahlt wird, in this, the dearest country in t h e
world, a n d t h e country in which the agricultural labourer works t h e hardest.
(198) A clergyman von Kent sagt, d a ß „a great u n d oppressive misfortune
30 to the labourer's family", ist die difficulty of expending his earnings to h i s
advantage. Confined to the limits of his little circle u n d perhaps only late
on t h e Saturday evening receiving his wages, his dealings are solely m i t
d e n village shops. In diesen shops articles für c o n s u m p t i o n von sehr m o d erate quality zu sehr h o h e n Preissen verkauft. There are n u m e r o u s in35 stances of large fortunes m a d e in places where the farmers u n d labourers
391
are the only customers; g e m a c h t n u r durch excessive profits u n d want of
competition. It is a h a r d case, says this informant vor der parliamentary
C o m m i s s i o n , to have earned 12 sh. by the sweat of t h e brow, and to be able
to procure n o t m o r e t h a n 9 s. would c o m m a n d in a town where c o m p e t i t i o n
exists ... A labourer is allowed credit for a small a m o u n t u n d t h e n obliged
t o deal, u m n i c h t getreten z u werden. »Millers c o m m o n l y p u r s u e the same
system. Blankets are d o u b l e the price of a wholesale shop in L o n d o n ;
shoes, too, e n o r m high.« (199, 200) |
5
|30| National and Private Indebtedness.
M a n unterstelle das s. g. „real property" in E n g l a n d u n d Wales werth
90 Mill, oder in Capital 2,800,000,000, das der I n h a b e r der N a t i o n a l D e b t
800,000,000, so sind diese 800 M i l l i o n e n hypothesirt auf die 2,800. (270)
the terms on which loans were contracted during the reigns of W i l l i a m III,
A n n e u n d George I were m o s t unfavourable. A b e r a great advantage to the
m o n e y owners, who, because the g o v e r n m e n t was unstable, o b t a i n e d for a
small s u m a large lien u p o n the fruits of the future industry of the people.
(275) V o n 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 1 7 für die a c c o m m o d a t i o n von 584 Mill, in cash (mit
g o v e r n m e n t security) the country gave its b o n d s für 879,000,000 1., wovon
n o c h 576 Mill, out-standing u n d 303 Mill, have b e e n discharged by the
m e a n s of the sinking fund. U n d dieß n i c h t alles: our g o v e r n m e n t first gave
879 Mill. I. St. in stock für 584 Mill. £ in paper m o n e y u n d t h e n the legislature m a d e a change in the law which gave to t h e whole of the o u t s t a n d i n g
stock the value of goldmoney. So die 576 Mill, of o u t s t a n d i n g stock enh a n c e d von 30 to 4 0 % oder, in a n d r e n W o r t e n , für 396,352,207 1., the net
s u m received from loans von 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 1 7 , the n a t i o n is now b o u n d in a s u m
e q u a l to 768 Mill. £ of the m o n e y in which those loans were contracted.
(275, 6) N a c h den official accounts dated J a n u a r y 5, 1850, die total capital
debt das U n i t e d K i n g d o m 775,734,579 1., wovon 2,566,263 transferred to
the Commissioners for the r e d u c t i o n of the debt. D i e g a n z e „ u n r e d e e m e d
debt", abgesehn von den Exchequerbills, worauf die n a t i o n Z i n s zu zahlen,
also 773,168,316 I. (277) M'Culloch liefert eine Tabelle, w o d u r c h er beweist,
daß, if no m o r e interest on debt h a d to be paid t h a n t h a t which existed in
1793, the country might have expended all that it did expend u p o n internal
government a n d foreign war von 1 7 9 3 - 1 8 1 6 u n d have incurred n u r
151,327,007 1., of new debt statt 573,377,988 I. In fact, the total expenditure
of the country, on account of internal government, the colonies, the war +
die debt contracted previously to 1793, von that year bis 1816, b o t h inclusive,
war n u r 151,327,007 /. grösser als die R e v e n u e actually derived from taxes
392
10
15
20
25
30
35
5
during that period. It was t h e profuse system of borrowing etc. (279) D e r
a m o u n t of private d e b t im U n i t e d K i n g d o m wird geschäzt von 1 auf 3 Milliarden /. N e h m e n wir das i n c o m e von fixed property zu 100 Mill, a year,
so /4 davon is tied up by mortgages, settlements, or i n c u m b r a n c e s of o n e
kind or another; interest, a n n u i t i e s etc. (281)
/
393
I3i| The Economist. Juli, 26,1851.
Patent
Laws.
D a s Principle eines Patentlaw is to bestow on o n e individual the exclusive
use of some particular i n s t r u m e n t or object which he claims to have discovered or invented. N u r asked to prevent some other persons from using
5
his inventions. ... It is the very n a t u r e of knowledge a n d skill, totally distinct from most kinds of property, to be improved a n d e x t e n d e d by being
imparted. To limit the exclusive use of knowledge a n d skill to one person,
as is d o n e in degree by the Patent Laws, is in fact to take m e a s u r e s to stop
their growth. ... We deny, therefore, that the claims m a d e by inventors to 10
the exclusive use of inventions is a right of property. ... M a n sagt o h n e Pat e n t e würden vielleicht n ü t z l i c h e Erfindungen der Gesellschaft n i c h t mitgetheilt ... society would n o t be in t h e least injured t h o u g h all s u c h secrets
died with their possessors ... nearly all useful inventions d e p e n d less on
any individual t h a n on the progress of society. A want is f e l t . . . ingenuity is 15
directed to supply it u n d a great n u m b e r of suggestions or inventions of a
similar k i n d c o m e to light. ... So we find continually a great n u m b e r of
similar patents taken out about the same t i m e . T h u s the want suggests the
invention ... T h e progress of knowledge, a n d the progress of invention and
discovery, like the progress of p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e progress of society have 20
their ordained a n d settled course, which c a n n o t be hastened, t h o u g h perh a p s it m a y be retarded, by P a t e n t laws. (812)
394
Aus The Economist. August 1851
The Economist. August, 2,1851.
Englische
und
nordamerikanische
Schiffahrt.
D i e inward u n d outward entries of ships of all kinds to u n d from the
U n i t e d States, 1850, belief sich auf 8,689,641 tons. D a v o n gehörten
5 5,205,804 tons den U n i t e d States u n d 3,483,837 d e n foreign n a t i o n s . D a von gehörten 2,855,338 tons d e n British ships, während die aller a n d r e n
L ä n d e r z u s a m m e n n u r 628,499 tons. Also das whole of the shipping engaged im foreign trade der U n i t e d States besteht aus 6 0 % of A m e r i c a n
shipping u n d 4 0 % of foreign. D e r british shipowner hat 32 % von d e m gan10 z e n foreign trade der U n i t e d States u n d 82 % von d e m Theil carried on by
foreign ships. - A u s d e n accounts des U n i t e d K i n g d o m für das J a h r end e n d 5 J a n u a r 1851 folgt: daß die inward u n d outward entries of ships of
all kinds, to a n d from t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , im lezten J a h r 12,020,674 tons.
D a v o n 8,039,308 of british shipping u n d 3,981,366 of foreign ships of all
15 kinds. V o n den 3,981,366 foreign tons gehörten 1,215,225 d e m a m e r i c a n
shipping u n d 2,766,141 den ships aller a n d r e n n a t i o n s . Also im G a n z e n
67 % of british shipping u n d 33 % of foreign tonnage. Die a m e r i c a n shipowners have obtained n u r 11 % von d e m Ganzen foreign trade des U n i t e d
K i n g d o m u n d 3 5 % von d e m by foreign ships geführten. (837, 8)
20
Competition.
—Shipping.
W i e bei Bildung der E r d r i n d e successive changes u n d zu den v e r s c h i e d n e n
E p o c h e n Pflanzen u n d Thiere verschieden u n d u n t e r i h n e n a successive
development, plants u n d a n i m a l s of a m o r e complete organisation succeed25 ing to plants u n d a n i m a l s of a less complete organisation, so in der G e schichte der M e n s c h e n . A u c h im Detail gilt d i e ß ; a u c h von d e n classes of
men, some of w h o m disappear like the copyists of m a n u s c r i p t s before t h e
printers; u n d in unsrer Zeit die postboys vor d e n engineers, stokers u n d
railway guards u n d gleich d e n h a n d l o o m w e a v e r s vor d e n powerloomweav30 ers ... U n t e r d i e s e m Gesetz des b e s t ä n d i g e n Wechsels u n d der b e s t ä n d i g e n
Entwicklung there m u s t be always s o m e a n i m a l s , some classes of h u m a n
beings, s o m e n a t i o n s m a k i n g less progress t h a n others, or decaying or dying o u t and m a k i n g r o o m for other a n i m a l s , other classes, or other n a t i o n s .
So leztlich m i t d e n Irish, m a k i n g way either for such for themselves as
395
c o m p r e h e n d the laws which govern the wellheing a n d subsistence of m a n
in Ireland, or for other m e n who c o m p r e h e n d t h e m . In all these cases of
m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t we see distinctly, that the race or the m a n who succeeds, possesses m o r e knowledge etc of the powers of n a t u r e as the m a n or
race who fails. N a t u r e works with the successful m a n a n d the thriving nation. T h e y succeed by her power ... A u c h u n s e r shipping d i e s e m Gesetz u n terworfen. Ihre Industrie ersezt d u r c h werthvollere Industrie. T h e application of s t e a m to propelling vessels a n d of s t e a m to drag carriages on
railroads is rendering m a n y old sailing craft comparatively valueless.
... Jezt ||32| auf grosser Stufenleiter im U n t e r g e h n begriffen our coasting
vessels. It is cheaper a n d quicker to send sugar or corn between L o n d o n and
Lowestoffe or L o n d o n a n d Y a r m o u t h on the east, a n d between L o n d o n a n d
Hastings on the south, a n d L o n d o n a n d S o u t h a m p t o n on t h e west, by rail
t h a n by water, a n d this change puts an end to m u c h coasting trade. M u c h
of what is retained is carried on by steamvessels, which are m o r e safe a n d
quicker t h a n sailing vessels. M a c h e n wahrscheinlich n u r 1 oder 2 Reisen,
wo j e n e 3. T h e least efficient of our coasting vessels are t h u s continually
b e a t e n by the rapidly extending operations of railroads u n d s t e a m b o a t s ;
they are continually b e a t e n too by improved sailing vessels; they swell t h e
a m o u n t of u n e m p l o y e d shipping; they are laid u p , or they [are] sent into
t h e m a r k e t as general carriers, a n d the c o m p e t i t i o n which ensues a m o n g s t
shipowners leads to those low freights of which they so loudly complain.
T h e m a i n cause of the deterioration of their property is the i m p r o v e m e n t of
other m o d e s of carriage. ... „Früher war die Küstenschiffahrt die nursery for
our seamen, which our government still vainly e n d e a v o u r to protect." ...
laws however well i n t e n t i o n e d will n o t preserve either m a r i n e r s or postboys
in existence. T h e condition of their c o n t i n u a n c e a n d their success is, that
they do the real work of society, supply the wants of m a n cheaper a n d better t h a n others ... It is u s u a l for those who do n o t succeed in the great
struggle of life to complain of competition. T h e successful m a n exults in it.
It is the stimulus to his e x e r t i o n s — t h e m e a n s by which t h e m o s t energetic,
the most skilful, the m o s t knowing o b t a i n p r e p o n d e r a n c e , a n d carry forward the m o r a l development which is the law of n a t u r e . It is the m e a n s by
which the imperfect are gradually weeded out of society, a n d individuals
a n d the race are ennobled. N o t h w e n d i g e C o n s e q u e n z that there m u s t always be some classes less successful t h a n others; s o m e classes whose occupations are b e c o m i n g relatively valueless; a n d these classes, while the successful and the prosperous are silent, fill the land with complaints. T h e
shipping interest, opposed as it is now by the new a n d thriving railway interest, is somewhat in this condition; ... A part too of the present détérioration of some shipping is d u e to the i m p r o v e m e n t of other shipping. „In
396
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
w
1848, said Mr L a b o u c h e r e , there were built 3 iron vessels of 1,300 tons a n d
7 wooden vessels of 3,000 tons, z u s a m m e n 10 ships u n d 4,300 tons. 1849
there were 7 iron vessels of 1,654 t o n s u n d 10 w o o d e n vessels of 5,703 tons,
z u s a m m e n 17 ships u n d 7,357 tons. 1850 there were 13 iron ships of
5 4,562 tons u n d 17 wooden ships of 9,935 tons, z u s a m m e n 30 ships u n d
14,497 tons, or exactly double the a m o u n t of t o n n a g e built in 1849. He
congratulated the h o u s e o n the extraordinary i m p r o v e m e n t that h a d t a k e n
place in the quality of the ships, a n d the increased a m o u n t of t o n n a g e . "
T h a t is the sort of i m p r o v e m e n t by which o n e class of shipowners drives an10
other class off the water ... Die P o p u l a t i o n des U n i t e d K i n g d o m in d e n lezt e n 10 J a h r e n n u r um 2% gewachsen, die der U n i t e d States um a b o u t 35 %.
Hier schon G r u n d , in the relative increase of population, für die relativ
große increase des shipping der U n i t e d States. (841, 2)
is
The Economist. August, 9,1851.
British tonnage war 1849 z u s a m m e n : 8,152,000 u n d 1850: 8,039,000. Verm i n d e r u n g u m 113,000 tons. (866)
Criminals
in
England
and
Wales.
1850.
20
(Aus d e n P a r l a m e n t s p a p i e r e n 1851) 1841 c o m m i t m e n t s 27,760; 1842
= 31,309, 1843 = 2 9 , 5 9 1 ; 1844 = 26,542, 1845 = 24,303, 1846 = 25,107;
1847 = 28,833; 1848 = 30,349; 1849 = 27,816, 1850 = 26,813. Z u s a m m e n 278,423. Executions fanden Statt:
1801-1810
1811-1820
1821-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
25
302;
897;
686;
250;
107.
N u m b e r of executions 1850 n u r 6, a m i n i m u m which has b e e n 3x r e a c h e d
in the last 12 years. Capital convictions in 1850 n u r 49, being the lowest
n u m b e r ausser in 1845 wo a u c h 49; aber die transportations for life in 1850
waren in Excess gegen die 3 previous years. T h e most serious classes of of30 fences blieben nearly the s a m e . ... D i e tables zeigen alle how m u c h m o r e
influential are other circumstances t h a n p e n a l laws over the greater or less
quantity of crime at any given period. (868, 9) |
397
|33| The Economist. August, 16,1851.
Der
Census.
V o r der Prorogation des P a r l a m e n t s ( A u g u s t 1851) w u r d e i h m vorgelegt
ein R e t u r n , betittelt: „Tables of the Population and Houses in the Divisions,
Registration Counties, and Districts of England and [Wales,] Scotland etc." Es
sind dieß die tables die d e m Census Office by the Registrars of E n g l a n d
u n d the Sheriffs u n d Provosts von Scotland vorgelegt worden sind, vor der
Revision d u r c h das Central Office.
D i e Gesetze sind gemacht, s a g t d e r E c o n o m i s t , n i c h t für die streams,
soil, b u t for the m e n who live on it; a n d as they change in relative n u m b e r s ,
wealth a n d knowledge, the law m u s t change in conformity with t h e m .
... T h e n u m b e r s a n d the distribution of the people are the f o u n d a t i o n of all
political science. (895) Das Volk von E n g l a n d u n d Wales in 10 J a h r e n gewachsen von 15,914,148 zu 17,922,768 oder um a b o u t 12 %. M e h r als % der
Bevölkerung hinzugefügt in 10 J a h r e n (Zuwachs: 1,968,341) 405,457 oder
fast % dieses Zuwachses in der Division of L o n d o n . D a v o n n u r sehr wenige
als m a r k e t gardeners engaged in the cultivation of soil. N a c h London der
größte increase in Lancashire 360,420; in d e m W e s t R i d i n g of Yorkshire,
162,799; a l s o e r s t e r aus d e m Baumwollsitz, zweiter d e m W o l l e n m a n u f a k tursitze. D r i t t e n s in Staffordshire, d e m Sitz der Erdwaare u n d iron m a n u facture 101,639; 4) in Durham, d e m grossen Kohlendistrikt, 82,853; 5) in
Südwales, a n d r e m Sitz der E i s e n m a n u f a k t u r , 74,658; u n d in Warwickshire,
a u c h Sitz der Eisenmanufaktur, 70,841. D e r increase in d e n agricultural
districts as Sussex 33,679, oder Hampshire 45,993 oder Devonshire, 31,353
oder Bedfordshire 17,411 oder Kent 33,679, finden wir d a ß der principal
part des increase geschuldet d e m Z u w a c h s der städtischen Bevölkerung
von Brighton u n d Hastings, P o r t s m o u t h u n d S o u t h a m p t o n , P l y m o u t h u n d
L u t o n , a t C h a t h a m , u n d Dover. I n short adding z u m Zuwachs i n L o n d o n
d e n von Lancashire, Yorkshire u n d d e n Zuwachs der Städtischen Bevölkerung in d e n s. g. Agriculturdistrikts finden wir m i n d e s t e n s 1,600,000 von
d e n 1,968,341 als increase der town population, d, h. n i c h t u n m i t t e l b a r
oder Direct von der Agricultur für Beschäftigung u n d Bestehn a b h ä n g i g e n
Bevölkerung. I n d e n Agriculturdistricten, die sich a m m e i s t e n v e r m e h r t h a b e n , Cambridge, Lincolnshire, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk u n d East R i d i n g von
Yorkshire k ö m m t wieder grosser Theil auf die Städte. V o n d e n Agriculturdistricten, die am wenigsten zur V e r m e h r u n g der Bevölkerung beigetragen,
398
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
7
5
Wiltshire, wo die P o p u l a t i o n abgenommen um / w %; in Shropshire i n c r e a s e
1 %, Somersetshire 2 %, Herefordshire 3 %, Westmoreland 3 %, North Riding of
York 4 %, Oxfordshire 4 %, Bucks 4 %, Berkshire 5 %, Rutlandshire 5 %, # κ η ί ingdonshire 9 %. In allen d i e s e n Grafschaften Z u w a c h s der s t ä d t i s c h e n P o p u l a t i o n ; die rein l ä n d l i c h e also n u r s c h w a c h vermehrt, w e n n n i c h t d e creased; A c c u m u l a t i o n also in d e n Städten, in d e n iron u n d coal districts
des N o r d e n s u n d W e s t e n s , i n d e n M a n u f a c t u r d i s t r i k t e n , i n d e n Seehäfen
u n d Handelsmärkten; u n d Nichtvermehrung, wenn nicht Verminderung auf
d e m L a n d e . In allen Distrikten der Agricultural counties sehr viele D i -
10
strikte a b g e n o m m e n u n d in allen s ü d l i c h e n u n d westlichen, die n i c h t h a v e
derived an increase from their m a r i t i m e p o p u l a t i o n . D i e südwestliche division (einschliessend Wiltshire, Dorset, Cornwall u n d Somerset) u r n 3 % zug e n o m m e n , M i n i m u m des i n c r e a s e ; die Eastern division (einschliessend
die 3 agriculturaldistricts Essex, Suffolk u n d Norfolk) um 7 % ; D i e London
15
Division u n d Northwestern Division (Lancashire u n d Cheshire) b e i d e um
21%, das M a x i m u m . D i e Grafschaft Durham ( K o h l e n d i s t r i k t ) h a t am m e i sten z u g e n o m m e n , 2 6 % ; d a n n k o m m t Lancashire 22%, zählt n u n
2,063,913 persons. V o n d e n b e s o n d e r n districts in der c o u n t y of D u r h a m
der district D u r h a m u m 4 5 % u n d Houghton-le-spring 4 0 % ; Liverpool, i n eluding W e s t Derby um 3 1 % oder von 311,683 auf 408,298; Manchester
(eingeschlossen Salford u n d Chorlton) um fast 30%, von 339,734 a u f
439,757, Bradford u m 3 7 % von 132,161 z u 181,977, Leeds u n d H u d d e r s field jedes 14%; Halifax ü b e r 10%. Brighton um 4 1 % , von 46,661 zu
65,573; Bath etc n i c h t sehr. Die Seebäder vielmehr als die Flußbäder. ||34| In
20
25
30
35
Fällen wie York (von 47,778 zu 57,111 oder a b o u t 20%) Peterborough (von
25,473 auf 28,966 oder 14%) Lincoln (von 36,110 auf 42,061 oder m e h r als
16%), die alle C e n t r a der Eisenbahn Communikation, o h n e sonst b e s o n d r e r
C o n s p i c u o u s source of increase, we m a y trace distinctly t h e influence of
rails in promoting t h e prosperity of towns. A b e r zu Reigate, a small Centre
of railway traffic, h a t die Bevölkerung a b g e n o m m e n ; zu Godstone n i c h t far
from a rail, sehr v e r m i n d e r t ; e b e n zu Canterbury, w o d u r c h a rail passes;
e b e n s o zu Chippenham a n o t h e r small centre of railway c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Wo
die Rail has superseded an ordinary road wie zu G o d s t o n e , Reigate, C a n terbury, its transit traffic is of far less c o n s e q u e n c e to t h e town t h a n was t h e
transit traffic of the road. Da in solchen Fällen, w e n n n i c h t a n d r e Q u e l l e n
der prosperity, A b n a h m e der P o p u l a t i o n . D e n n o c h clear that n o town c a n
now prosper without a rail; those destined to decay w ü r d e n es um so
schneller for wanting a rail. Every town n o t in c o m m u n i c a t i o n with a rail
labours u n d e r great disadvantages whatever it m a y p r o d u c e . (896)
40
399
Wiederausfuhr von
n e t die Zufuhr von
von 1851 als von
33,584,730 lbs; u n d
fremder u n d Ausfuhr von englischer Wolle eingerechWolle um 3,485,619 lbs m e h r in d e n ersten 6 M o n a t e n
1850. In d e n ersten 6 M o n a t e n von 1850 eingeführt
in d e n ersten 6 m o n t h s von 1851, 35,243,840 lbs. [898]
Reaping
by
Machinery.
In der Exposition »American Reaping Machine«. T h e i m m e n s e cost at which
corn is cut by m a n u a l labour, and the very short period during which all
the corn of the country m u s t be cut, r e n d e r any practicable m a c h i n e r y for
t h e purpose deeply interesting to farmers. D i e Hauptschwierigkeit n o c h 10
from the deep furrows u n d laborious e m p l o y m e n t of removing the straw
when cut from the board on which it falls. These will probably be overcome
or alleviated. (McCormick, A m e r i c a n e r , der Erfinder.) Schneidet
1 0 - 1 6 acres per day, according to c i r c u m s t a n c e . A b e r hard work für d e n
M a n n , der die geschnittene Quantity entfernen m u ß , to remove 1¼ acre per 15
hour. [899]
T h e m e n who can c o m m a n d the services of locomotives, build tubular
bridges, soar into the air, r u n with m o r e t h a n ostrich swiftness on the surface of the earth, cleave the ocean with ease a n d safety, m u s t c o m e to pride 20
themselves chiefly on such wonderful achievements as these, a n d m u s t also
c o m e to look with disdain on m a n y of the representations a n d m u c h of the
tinsel a n d gilt and frippery that were the solace of t h e r u d e a n d ignorant
early i n h a b i t a n t s of Asia. ... Those, who can c o m m a n d the elements will
n o t be m u c h plagued with a m b i t i o n to c o m m a n d their fellowmen. G r e a t 25
power seems likely to be s y n o n y m o u s with general equality, a n d w h e n a m bition a n d a desire for worthless o r n a m e n t s are abated, there will be fewer
motives for greediness. U n s e r bisheriger L u x u s s t a m m t aus Asien, von Barbaren, die weder m u l e s p i n n i n g n o c h steam navigation k a n n t e n . [905]
In der Exposition an a m e r i c a n sewing machine, die u n g e h e u e r schnell arbeitet, u n d droht to extinguish the o c c u p a t i o n which dwarfs a race into the
9 part of its n o r m a l type. [702]
th
1
400
/ 3 0 / It is singular, that the chief arts of o r n a m e n t a n d decoration are derived without m u c h i m p r o v e m e n t from a very backward, n o t to say barbarous c o n d i t i o n of society. In t h e o r n a m e n t s of o u r houses a n d our persons
we do little m o r e t h a n imitate the Greeks, t h e H i n d o o s , a n d the Ejyptians.
5 T h e best of these o r n a m e n t s are m o r e a d m i r e d from a kind of traditional
reverence, t h a n from their relation to the present a n d future wants of society. They are preserved a n d h o n o u r e d as we cherish m a n y a n t i q u a t e d errors a n d abuses in politics, in morals, a n d religion, m o r e from a conservative love of the past, t h a n from an enlightened anticipation of the future.
10 ... T h e o r n a m e n t s a n d the decorations t h a t will please the civilised m e n of
the future will probably be m o r e appropriate to their c o n d i t i o n a n d will be
worthy of the powerful i n s t r u m e n t s they will use. A n d as the leading m i n d s
of society—its real rulers a n d g u i d e s — c o m e to love a n d a d m i r e m o r e t h e
wonders in m o d e r n art, they will disregard e m b e l l i s h m e n t s t h a t are merely
15 costly a n d wasteful. (Economist 16 A u g u s t 1851, 905.)
Schneider in L o n d o n seit 10 J a h r e n um % vermindert.
Bei d e n R ö m e r n (Sieh L a m a l l e ) ausdrücklich verboten, aus d e n M a t e r i a lien alter G e b ä u d e n e u e aufzuführen.
20
401
[The Times.]
„Times" b e m e r k t , d a ß der Landweg wieder d e n Wasserweg absezt. Bis 1866
k ö n n e , r e c h n e t e ein I n g e n i e u r aus, die E i s e n b a h n v o m C o n t i n e n t bis Calc u t t a g e b a u t sein u n d m a n in 10 Tagen da sein.
5
A m e r i k a n e r ü b e r d e n I s t h m u s herüber.
Nähmaschine.
Rechenmaschine.
402
10
Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Mexico
|35| Prescott. (W.H.) History of the
Conquest of Mexico.
5 e d . 3 vol. L o n d o n . 1850.
t.I.
B.I.
5
ch. 1 Ancient Mexico. Climate and Products.
Primitive Races. Aztec Empire.
10
A n c i e n t M e x i c a n s oder Aztecs: b i l d e t e n n u r sehr kleinen Theil, ihr L a n d ,
die m o d e r n republic of M e x i c o . (2) Covered wahrscheinlich n i c h t m e h r als
16,000 square leagues. In its greatest breadth, it could n o t exceed 5 degrees
a n d Y , dwindling, as it a p p r o a c h e d its southeastern limits, to less t h a n two.
Yet such is the r e m a r k a b l e formation of this country, that, t h o u g h n o t
m o r e 2x as large as N e w E n g l a n d , it presented every variety of climate,
and was capable of yielding nearly every fruit found between the e q u a t o r
a n d the Arctic circle. ([2,] 3) D i e G e g e n d in 3 terraces getheilt (tierra caliente, tierra t e m p l a d a (temperate) u n d tierra fria). ( 3 - 5 ) Die kalte tierra
(Plateaus) h a t a climate, the m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e of which is n o t lower t h a n
t h a t of the central parts of Italy. (6) Der B o d e n h a t häufig a p a r c h e d u n d
barren aspect, theils aus M a n g e l of trees to shelter the soil from t h e fierce
influence of the s u m m e r sun. In der Zeit der Aztecs das table l a n d thickly
covered m i t larch, oak, cypresses u n d other forest trees ... t h e curse of barrenness in later times m e h r chargeable on m a n als auf n a t u r e . D i e early
Spaniards m a c h t e n an i n d i s c r i m i n a t e war on t h e forests. (6) Midway across
the continent, etwas n ä h e r d e m Pacific als d e m Atlantic, at an elevation of
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nearly 7500 feet is the celebrated Valley von M e x i c o . ... e n c o m p a s s e d by a
towering r a m p a r t of porphyritic rock. (7) D e r Boden, früher carpeted with a
beautiful verdure u n d thickly sprinkled m i t stately trees, jezt oft bare u n d
weiß in m a n y places mit der incrustation of salts, caused by the draining of
the waters. 5 lakes ü b e r das Thal, n e h m e n / seiner Oberfläche ein. (7)
states of A n a h u a c . D i e Toltecs ... t h e true fountains der spätren Civilisation.
Im 7' Jh. N a c h 4 J a h r h u n d e r t e n verschwinden die Toltecs. Folgen andre races, wovon die m o s t n o t e d die Aztecs oder M e x i c a n s u n d Acolhuans oder
Tezcucans von ihrer H a u p t s t a d t Tezcuco. Breiteten ihre Herrschaft ü b e r die
r u d e r tribes in the n o r t h aus. D a n n geklopft d u r c h die T e p a n e c s . D a n n m i t
Hilfe der M e x i c a n allies wieder sich befreiend u n d n o c h brilliantre carrière ... A u c h die M e x i c a n s k a m e n from the r e m o t e regions of the north,
the p o p u l o u s hive of n a t i o n s in the N e w World, as it has b e e n in the old.
Sie arrived at t h e borders of A n a h u a c gen Beginn des 13 Jh., some t i m e after the o c c u p a t i o n of the land by the kindred races. Lang Zeit etablirten sie
sich nicht, sondern w a n d e r t e n von e i n e m Platz z u m andren. Schließlich
langten sie an den südwestlichen borders des H a u p t s e e s an u n d m a c h t e n
dort Halt 1325. Stifteten Tenochtitlan (Mexico); lebten ursprünglich dort
von Fischen, wildem Seegevögel u n d der Cultur solcher simple vegetables
als ihre floating gardens (halbe marshes) raise k o n n t e n . D i e ß die beginnings des Venedig der western world. ( 8 - 1 3 ) Skandale u n d U n e i n i g k e i t e n
u n t e r sich. M a c h t e n sich im Thal R u f für courage u n d cruelty in war. Beg i n n des 15* Jh. erhielten sie das L a n d der Tepanecs für ihren Beistand, den
sie den Tezcucans leisteten. D a n n League zwischen d e n states of M e x i c o ,
Tezcuco u n d d e m kleinen N a c h b a r k i n g d o m Tlacopan. (Ueber das L a n d ,
das sie bei künftigen Kriegen u n t e r sich vertheilen würden) ... Z u n ä c h s t
h a t t e n die allies genug zu t h u n in i h r e m eignen Thal. G e g e n Mitte des
15' Jh., u n t e r d e m ersten M o n t e z u m a , sie h a d spread down the sides of the
table land to the borders of the Gulf of Mexico. Im Beginn des 16* Jh. das
Aztec d o m i n i o n reached across the c o n t i n e n t from A t l a n t i c z u m Pacific;
bis in die farthest corners of G u a t e m a l a u n d Nicaragua. U n d sie h a t t e n
überall m i t gleich kriegerischen u n d in der Cultur i h n e n n u r wenig nachgeb e n d e n S t ä m m e n zu kämpfen. D i e history der Aztecs erinnert in vielen
P u n k t e n an das alte R o m , n i c h t n u r in i h r e n militairischen successes, sondern a u c h in der policy which led to t h e m . ( 1 3 - 1 6 ) (Don M a r i a n o Veytia,
Historia Antigua, 1836, Mexico, H a u p t q u e l l e für die alte G e s c h i c h t e . [17])
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ch. II. succession to the crown ... Aztec nobility. —
Judicial System. —Laws und Revenues ... Military Institutions.
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D i e Regierungsform verschieden in d e n verschiednen states of Anahuac.
Die der Aztecs u n d T e z c u c a n s m o n a r c h i s c h u n d fast absolut. Diese 2 n a tions sich d u r c h a u s ähnlich. Die Regierung der M e x i c a n s an elective monarchy. Vier von d e n principal nobles, die c h o s e n by their own b o d y in d e m
preceding reign, filled the office of electors, wozu added, m i t rein h o n o r ä r e m Rang, die 2 royal allies von T e z c u c o u n d Tlacopan. D e r sovereign selected von d e n brothers des deceased prince oder in default of t h e m , aus
seinen Neffen. So die election restricted auf dieselbe family. Der c a n d i d a t e
preferred m u ß t e sich im Krieg ausgezeichnet h a b e n , obgleich er a m e m b e r
of the priesthood, wie bei d e m lezten M o n t e z u m a ... R e i h e von able princes so g e s i c h e r t . . . G e k r ö n t der Erwählte erst bis er d u r c h siegreiche C a m p a gne d e n p o m p of h u m a n sacrifice etc sich g e b e n k o n n t e ... D i e A z t e c princes, besonders gen Schluß der Dynastie, lebten in a barbarie p o m p , truly
Oriental. ... a distinct class of nobles m i t large l a n d e d possessions, w h o
held the most i m p o r t a n t offices n e a r t h e person of the prince u n d engrossed the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the provinces a n d cities. ... an 30 caciques,
wovon jeder an 100,000 vassals auf seinen estates m u s t e r n k o n n t e ... D a s
country occupied von n u m e r o u s powerful chieftains who lived like i n d e p e n d e n t princes on their d o m a i n s . M u ß t e n , w e n n sie nicht in der capital
residirten, hostages d e n kings stellen ... Diese estates held von various tenures u n d verschiednen restrictions unterworfen. Einige held o h n e limitation, n u r n i c h t verkaufbar an e i n e n Plebejer. A n d r e entailed an die Aeltgeb o r n s t e n u n d b e i M a n g e l von solchen, fielen zurück an die crown.
Obligation, die meisten, to military service. A n d r e , statt dieser D i e n s t e , to
provide for the repair der königlichen buildings u n d to keep t h e royal dem e s n e s in order, with an a n n u a l offering, by way of h o m a g e , of fruits u n d
flowers. ... In alledem several features of the feudal system. Die k i n g d o m s
of A n a h u a c aber, in their n a t u r e , despotic, attended, indeed, with m a n y
mitigating circumstances u n k n o w n to the despotisms of the East. Die legislative power in M e x i c o u n d T e z c u c o resided ganz um d e n M o n a r c h e n .
Dagegen constitution der judicial tribunals. U n d diese wichtiger b e i e i n e m
r u d e people als die Legislative Gewalt. U e b e r j e d e r der principal cities m i t
ihren d e p e n d e n t territories ||36| gestellt a s u p r e m e judge, appointed by t h e
Crown, mit original u n d final jurisdiction in b o t h civil u n d c r i m i n a l cases.
K e i n Appell von seiner Sentenz, selbst n i c h t an den König. Sein Office lebenslänglich; wer u s u r p e d his ensigns m i t T o d bestraft. H i e ß cihuacoatl.
U n t e r ihm, in j e d e r Provinz, a court, von 3 m e m b e r s . Ausser diesen courts
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ein body von inferior magistrates distributed t h r o u g h the country, chosen
von d e m Volk selbst in d e n verschiednen districts. Ihre authority limited
zu d e n smaller causes. N o c h another class of s u b o r d i n a t e officers gewählt
von d e m Volk selbst, die eine certain n u m b e r of families zu b e w a c h e n hatt e n u n d report any disorder or b r e a c h of t h e laws to t h e higher authorities.
... law erlaubte appeal zur highest j u d i c a t u r e n u r in c r i m i n a l m a t t e r s ...
der p e n a l code ausserordentlich streng ... D i e R i c h t e r der h ö h e r n Tribun a l e erhielten von d e m produce eines Theils der K r o n l a n d e , reserved for
this purpose. Sie, sowohl wie der s u p r e m e j u d g e , held their offices for life.
... Die laws der Aztecs registered u n d exhibited to the people in their hieroglyphical paintings. D e r größre Theil davon, wie bei jeder uncivilisirten
N a t i o n , b e z i e h t sich m e h r auf Sicherheit of persons t h a n of property. Alle
grossen crimes gen die society capital. Selbst der M o r d eines Sklaven m i t
T o d bestraft. E h e b r e c h e r gesteinigt. Thieving m i t Sklaverei oder Tod. D o c h
dieß crime n i c h t sehr gefürchtet, since the entrances to their dwellings
n i c h t secured by bolts, or fastenings of any kind. ... I n t e m p e r a n c e bei
J ü n g r e n m i t Tod, bei older persons m i t loss of r a n k u n d confiscation of
property gestraft ... Die rites of marriage sehr c e r e m o n i ö s . Eignes Ehegericht. O h n e es keine Scheidung möglich ... Sklaverei. Verschiedne A r t e n
u n d Stufen. Kriegsgefangne, reserved fast stets für das Opfer; criminals,
public debtors, persons who, from extreme poverty, voluntarily resigned
their freedom u n d children, who were sold by their own parents. Bei solc h e m freiwilligen Verkauf die services to be exacted limited m i t great precision. T h e slave was allowed to have his own family, to hold property, a n d
even other slaves. His children were free. No o n e could be b o r n to slavery
in Mexico. Oft durch T e s t a m e n t die Sklaven befreit. A u c h m i t i h n e n H e i rath. D o c h a refractory u n d vicious slave led into the m a r k e t m i t a collar
r o u n d his neck u n d dort öffentlich verkauft u n d on a second sale, reserved
for sacrifice ... Die Royal Revenues were derived from various sources. D i e extensive crownlands m a c h t e n ihre returns in kind. D i e Plätze in der N a c h barschaft der capital gezwungen to supply w o r k m e n u n d materials z u m
B a u der königlichen Paläste u n d keeping t h e m in repair. M u ß t e n a u c h furn i s h fuel, provisions u n d was nöthig für seine ordinary domestic expenditure. Die principal cities, die viele villages u n d a large territory von sich abhängig h a t t e n , waren vertheilt in districts, with e a c h a share of the lands
alloted to it, for its support. Die i n h a b i t a n t s paid a stipulated part of the
p r o d u c e to the crown. Die vassals der great chiefs, also paid a portion of
their earnings into the public treasury - sehr viel A e h n l i c h k e i t m i t d e n regu l a t i o n s (financial) des a l t e n persian empire ... D i e people der provinces
vertheilt in calpulli oder tribes, die die lands der n e i g h b o u r h o o d in comm o n hielten. Officers of their own a p p o i n t m e n t parcelled o u t these lands
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a m o n g the several families of the calpulli; u n d , on the extinction or removal of a family, its lands reverted to the c o m m o n stock, to be again distribu t e d . T h e individual proprietor h a d no power to alienate t h e m . T h e laws
regulating these m a t t e r s were very precise, and h a d existed ever since t h e
occupation of the country by t h e Aztecs. ... Ausser dieser t a x on agricultural produce of the kingdom, there was another on its manufactures. Z . B . cotton
dresses u n d m a n t l e s of featherwork, o r n a m e n t e d armour, vases u n d plates
of gold, gold-dust, b a n d s u n d bracelets, crystal, gilt, u n d varnished jars u n d
goblets; bells, arms u n d utensils of Copper; r e a m s of paper; grain, fruits,
copal, amber, cochineal, cocoa, wild a n i m a l s u n d birds, timber, lime, m a t s
etc Salz, Tigerfelle etc. (Sieh A u f z ä h l u n g des tribute furnished by different
cities 33, not. *) ... Garnisons errichtet in d e n larger cities, wahrscheinlich
den entfernten u n d recently c o n q u e r e d , to keep down revolt u n d to enforce
the p a y m e n t of tribute. Die caziques, die s u b m i t t e d to the allied arms, gewohnlich confirmed in their authority u n d die c o n q u e r e d places allowed to
retain their laws u n d usages. Taxgatherers verbreitet d u r c h das K i n g d o m ,
erkennbar an ihren official badges u n d gefürchtet wegen der merciless rigour ihrer exactions. Jeder defaulter war liable to be t a k e n a n d sold as a
slave. In der capital waren spacious granaries u n d warehouses für die reception der tributes. A receiver general quartered in the palace ... h a t t e m a p
of t h e whole empire, m i t a m i n u t e specification der imposts assessed on
every part of it. Diese imposts, ursprünglich m o d e r a t e , so d r ü c k e n d at t h e
close der dynasty u n d n o c h d r ü c k e n d e r g e m a c h t d u r c h die m a n n e r of collection, bred disaffection t h r o u g h o u t the l a n d u n d prepared d e n way for its
conquest by the Spaniards. Communication m i t d e n entferntesten T h e i l e n
des Landes d u r c h couriers. Posthäuser in the great roads, an 2 leagues dist a n t from each other. D e r Courier m i t seiner D é p ê c h e , in the form of a
hieroglyphical painting, r a n m i t derselben zur ersten Station, where they
were taken by a n o t h e r messenger u . s . w . Diese couriers, trained from childhood, travelled m i t incredible swiftness; so daß die D e p e c h e n 1 - 2 0 0 miles
a day befördert. A u f d i e s e m Wege Intelligenz der m o v e m e n t s der royal armies rasch brought to court ... A e h n l i c h im alten R o m , in Persien. In
C h i n a three miles von einander. A b e r diese posts for the u s e of the governm e n t only. ... In M e x i c o wie in Aejypten der soldier shared m i t d e m priest
die highest consideration. D e r Schutzgott der Aztecs war der Kriegsgott. Jeder Krieg war a crusade zu H e k a t o m b e n für d e n Kriegsgott. D e r gefallne
Krieger k a m direkt to t h e region of ineffable bliss in t h e bright m a n s i o n s of
the Sun. ... Vor der Eröffnung des Kriegs ambassadors were sent, to require the hostile state to receive the M e x i c a n gods, a n d to pay the c u s t o m ary tribute. ... quotas were drawn from the c o n q u e r e d provinces, which
were always subjected to military service as well as the p a y m e n t of taxes;
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a n d the royal army, gewöhnlich m i t d e m M o n a r c h an der Spitze b e g a n n
ihren Marsch. A remarkable resemblance dieser military usages m i t d e n e n
der alten R ö m e r ... various military orders, e a c h having its privileges u n d
peculiar insignia. D a z u a sort of knighthood, of inferior degree; der cheapest reward of martial prowess; wer ihn n o c h n i c h t erreicht, excluded from
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using o r n a m e n t s on his arms or his person u n d obliged to wear a coarse
white stuff, m a d e from the threads of the aloe, called » n e q u e n « . Selbst die
m e m b e r s der royal family nicht von d i e s e m Gesetz a u s g e n o m m e n ... Der
dress der higher warriors pittoresk u n d oft magnificent. Ihre bodies bedeckt
m i t a close vest of quilted cotton, so thick as to be i m p e n e t r a b l e to the light 10
missiles of I n d i a n warfare. T h e wealthier chiefs s o m e t i m e s wore, statt
diesen cotton mail, a cuirass m a d e of t h i n plates of gold, or silver. Over it
was thrown a surcoat of the gorgeous feather work in which they excelled.
Ihre h e l m s oft von wood, fashioned like the h e a d s of wild a n i m a l s u n d
m a n c h m a l von Silber, on the top of which waved a panache of variegated 15
feathers, sprinkled m i t precious stones u n d o r n a m e n t s of gold. They wore
also collars, bracelets u n d earrings, of the s a m e rich materials. N a t i o n a l flagge m i t embroidery von Gold u n d Federwerk. Die c o m p a n i e s u n d great
chiefs a u c h ihre appropriate b a n n e r s u n d devices ... war war bei i h n e n a
trade, aber n o c h keine science. ... the valour of a warrior geschäzt n a c h der 20
Z a h l seiner G e f a n g n e n u n d kein r a n s o m large genug to save the devoted
captive. Ihr military code natürlich a u c h drakonisch. Hospitals waren errichtet in d e n H a u p t s t ä d t e n für die eure der sick u n d das p e r m a n e n t refuge des
disabled soldier u n d surgeons placed over t h e m . So die Aztec u n d Tezcucan races advanced in civilisation sehr weit ü b e r die wandering tribes of 25
N o r t h America. ... T h e a m e r i c a n I n d i a n has s o m e t h i n g peculiarly sensitive
in his n a t u r e . He shrinks instinctively from the r u d e t o u c h of a foreign
h a n d . Even when this foreign influence comes in the form of civilisation,
he seems to sink and p i n e away b e n e a t h it. It has b e e n so with t h e M e x i cans. ... the m o r a l characteristics of the n a t i o n , all that constituted its indi- 30
viduality as a race, are effaced for ever. ( 1 9 - 4 2 ) |
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ch.III.
Mexican Mythologie.—The Sacerdotal
The Temples. —Human Sacrifices.
Order.—
D i e m e x i c a n i s c h e Religion war nicht m e h r im ersten S t a d i u m . Sie h a t t e received a peculiar complexion from t h e priests, who h a d digested as thoro u g h u n d b u r d e n s o m e a ceremonial as ever existed in any n a t i o n . Allegorisch-Asiatisch ihre Deities. Die Aztecs h a t t e n von ihren Vorfahren eine
mildre Religion geerbt, worauf they später engrafted their own mythologie.
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Die leztre wurde h e r r s c h e n d u n d gab its dark colouring d e n creeds der eroberten nations, which the M e x i c a n s , like the a n c i e n t R o m a n s , s e e m willingly to have incorporated into their own, u n t i l the same funereal superstition settled over the farthest borders of A n a h u a c . 13 H a u p t g o t t h e i t e n ,
200 inferior, j e d e m wovon s o m e special day, oder appropriate festival, was
consecrated. Huitzilopotchli (der M e x i c a n Mars) an der Spitze aller. Dieser
die p a t r o n deity der n a t i o n . Die p h a n t a s t i c forms der m e x i c a n idols im
h ö c h s t e n G r a d symbolical. Der H u i t z i etc von einer Jungfrau geboren, (wie
B u d h (Indien) F o h i (China) Shaka (Tibet.)) ... his altars reeked with t h e
blood of h u m a n h e c a t o m b s in every city of t h e empire. ... Die Sage m i t
d e m emigrirten G o t t Quetzalcoatl b a h n t e d e n Spaniern den Weg ... Diese
M e x i c a n Götter stiegen hierarchisch h e r a b bis zu den p é n a t e s oder h o u s e hold gods, whose little images in der h u m b l e s t dwelling sich fanden. In
ihren Begräbniß R i t u a l i e n finden wir ein G e m e n g s e i von römischkafholisehen, m u s u l m ä n i s c h e n , tartarischen, altgriechischen u n d R ö m i s c h e n Riten. Taufe (ganz wie d a n n die Christen; a u c h um die S ü n d e wegzuspülen).
Die priests s u c h t e n to dazzle the i m a g i n a t i o n des people by the m o s t form a l a n d p o m p o u s ceremonial. D e r influence der priesthood am größten in
d e m imperfect state of civilisation, where sie engrosses all the scanty
science of the t i m e in its own body. D i e ß besonders der Fall, w e n n diese
science nicht um die real p h e n o m e n a of n a t u r e , sondern die fanciful chimeras of h u m a n superstition sich k ü m m e r t . So die sciences of astrology
u n d divination, worin die A z t e c priests initiated ... they seemed to hold
the keys of the future in their own h a n d s ... D e r sacerdotal order sehr zahlreich; 5000 priests attached d e m H a u p t t e m p e l in der capital. D i e various
ranks u n d functions dieser b o d y hierarchisch gegliedert. Die musikalischsten leiteten die Chöre. A n d r e arrangirten die festivals conform z u m Calendar. A n d r e überwachten die E r z i e h u n g der J u g e n d u n d andre die hieroglyphical paintings u n d oral traditions; while the dismal rites of sacrifice
were reserved for the chief dignitaries of the order. An der Spitze der g a n z e n
body 2 Hohepriester, gewählt von king u n d d e n principal n o b l e s ; inferior
n u r d e m sovereign. Die priests e a c h devoted d e m service einer particular
deity, u n d hatten quarters in den spacious precincts ihres t e m p l e ; sonst
i h n e n erlaubt zu h e i r a t h e n . Viele prayers, W a c h e n , Fasten, Geissein, Kasteien des Fleisches. Parochial Pfaffen in d e n Districts vertheilt. W i e bei
d e n Katholiken confession u n d absolution. Priestly absolution was received in place of the legal p u n i s h m e n t of offences u n d authorised an
acquittal in case of arrest. ... F ü r die e d u c a t i o n certain buildings appropriated in der enclosure des principal t e m p l e . In diesem Convent (Kloster) die
Jugend, weibliche u n d m ä n n l i c h e erzogen ... To each of the principal t e m ples lands were a n n e x e d for the m a i n t e n a n c e of the priests. U n t e r d e m
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lezten M o n t e z u m a they covered every district des e m p i r e . A u s s e r d e m der
religious order enriched durch die first-fruits etc. D a s surplus ü b e r das für
d e n support des n a t i o n a l worship Erheischte vertheilt in alms u n t e r die
poor. Sehr zahlreiche T e m p e l . D u r c h die Construction derselben (nämlich
in g e w u n d n e n Treppen um die p y r a m i d h e r u m , o b e n die Altäre etc) all religious services were public. T h e long processions of priests, winding r o u n d
their massive sides, as they rose higher a n d higher towards the s u m m i t , and
t h e d i s m a l rites of sacrifice performed there, were all visible from the
remotest corners of the capital ... Die impression davon kept in full force
by their n u m e r o u s festivals. ... Processionen von W e i b e r n u n d K i n d e r n ,
d a n n aber n u r Thierblut auf den A l t ä r e n der G ö t t e r geopfert ... H u m a n
sacrifices von den Aztecs acceptirt früh im 14' J a h r h u n d e r t , 200 J a h r e vor
der Conquest. I m Anfang selten; n a h m e n z u m i t der A u s d e h n u n g des e m pire; schließlich jedes festival closed m i t dieser a b o m i n a t i o n . ... Oft bei
diesen Opfern die ausgesuchtesten T o r t u r e n rigorously prescribed in the
A z t e c ritual. Z i e m l i c h gut beschrieben im 21 Sang des D a n t e . Die p h a n t a s tic creations des Florentine poet nearly realised zur selben Zeit, wo er
schrieb, d u r c h die barbarians of an u n k n o w n world. Bei einigen Gelegenheiten a u c h W e i b e r u n d Kinder geopfert. D e r body des geopferten captive
delivered d e m warrior, der i h n gefangen in der Schlacht; d a n n served up in
an e n t e r t a i n m e n t to his friends. D i e ß a b a n q u e t t e e m i n g m i t delicious
beverages u n d delicate viands, prepared m i t art u n d a t t e n d e d by b o t h
sexes. Nirgends die Menschenopfer auf solcher scale wie in A n a h u a c . V o n
2 0 - 5 0 , 0 0 0 jährlich geopfert. Bei great occasions, wie Königskrönung oder
Consecration eines Tempels, die Z a h l n o c h m o r e appalling. Customary to
preserve the skulls der sacrificed, in buildings appropriated to the purpose.
D i e H u n d e v o n Pfaffen brachten d e n G l a u b e n auf, d a ß die only diet ihrer
idols was human hearts. Das great object of war bei d e n Aztecs war ebenso
sehr to gather victims for their sacrifices, als to extend their empire. Der influence dieser practices, die familiarity m i t d e n bloody rites der sacrifices
begat a thirst for carnage, (bei den Aztecs) like that excited in the R o m a n s
by the exhibitions of the Circus. Die beständige recurrence der ceremonies,
worin das Volk Theil n a h m , associated religion m i t i h r e n m o s t i n t i m a t e
concerns, u n d spread the gloom of superstition ü b e r d e n domestic hearth,
bis der Character der n a t i o n a grave u n d selbst m e l a n c h o l y aspect a n n a h m .
D i e Pfaffen wurden i m m e r mächtiger. T h e whole n a t i o n , von d e m peasant
bis z u m Prinzen, bowed their necks der T y r a n n e y des F a n a t i s m u s . Aber
m a n d e n k e an die Inquisition im 16' Jh. D a b e i enoblirte das Opfer, während
die Inquisition Infamie in dieser W e l t m i t everlasting perdition in der andern verband ... Die civilisation, die die M e x i c a n s besassen, k a m von d e n
Toltecs, R a c e die nie ihre Altäre m i t Blut befleckte. All that deserved the
n a m e of science in Mexico c a m e from this source. ( 4 6 - 7 0 )
410
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
ch. IV Mexican Hieroglyphics. Manuscripts.
Arithmetic. Chronology. Astronomy.
5
10
To Describe actions u n d events by delineating visible objects seems to be a
n a t u r a l suggestion, a n d is practised, after a certain fashion, by t h e r u d e s t
savage. ... picture-writing h ö h e r e Stufe, to p a i n t intelligibly a consecutive
series of actions ... Aber geht das Object des Schreibers h i n a u s ü b e r die
Gegenwart, the literal i m i t a t i o n of objects will n o t answer for this m o r e
complex plan. W ü r d e z u viel R a u m u n d Zeit e i n n e h m e n . D a n n n ö t h i g t o
abridge the pictures, to confine the drawing to outlines, or to such p r o m i n e n t parts der bodies delineated, as m a y readily suggest the whole. D i e ß
das representative oder figurative writing, die niedrigste stage der H i e r o glyphics, K o m m e n aber n i e abstrakte I d e e n h i n e i n , o h n e Type in der m a t e r i a l
world. This constitutes Symbolical writing. D i e 3 u n d lezte division ist die
phonetic, wo signs are m a d e to represent s o u n d s , either entire words, oder
parts of t h e m . Dieß die n ä c h s t e approach der hieroglyphical series ans Alphabet, wodurch die Sprache aufgelöst in ihre E l e m e n t a r l a u t e u n d an apparatus supplied u m leicht u n d g e n a u die feinsten G e d a n k e n s c h a t t e n auszudrücken. Die Aejypter waren geschickt in allen 3 A r t e n von Hieroglyphen.
D i e Aejypter almost wholly relied in i h r e m ordinary intercourse u n d written records on the p h o n e t i c character. D i e Aztecs, a u c h b e k a n n t m i t d e n
verschiednen varieties der Hieroglyphen, m e h r auf die figurative als die andern. ||38| Um das picture-writing der Aztecs zu würdigen, m u ß m a n es bet r a c h t e n in V e r b i n d u n g m i t oral tradition, der es als E r g ä n z u n g galt ... Die
Materials ihrer M a n u s c r i p t e besonders g e m a c h t aus a fine fabric from t h e
leaves of the aloe, agave Americana, called by the natives maguey, which
grows luxuriantly over the tablelands of M e x i c o . ... Z u r Zeit der A n k u n f t
der Spanier M a s s e n von diesen M a n u s c r i p t s aufgehäuft. Der erste Erzbischof von Mexico ( d e m die soldiers n a t ü r l i c h nachfolgen) D o n J u a n de Z u marraga collected these paintings von allen Ecken, besonders von T e z c u c o ,
d e m great depository der n a t i o n a l archives u n d verbrennt sie d a n n in a
„ m o u n t a i n h e a p " auf d e m Marktplatz von Tlatelolco. E b e n s o h a t t e Erzbischof Ximenes a similar autodafé arabischer M a n u s c r i p t e einige 20 J a h r e
vorher in G r a n a d a g e f e i e r t . . . Ausser d e n hieroglyphischen m a p s die traditions des country e m b o d i e d in d e n songs u n d h y m n s , carefully taught in
den public schools. ... Sie devised a system of n o t a t i o n in their arithmetic,
sufficiently simple. D i e ersten 20 n u m b e r s were expressed by a corresponding n u m b e r of dots. Die ersten 5 h a t t e n spezifische n a m e s ; after which they
were represented by c o m b i n i n g the fifth with one of the 4 preceding: as 5
+ one für 6, 5 u n d 2 für 7 etc. 10 u n d 15 h a t t e n jeder e i n e n b e s o n d e r n Na(
15
20
25
30
35
411
m e n , which was also c o m b i n e d m i t d e n first 4, to express a higher quantity.
Diese four d a h e r die radical characters ihrer oral a r i t h m e t i c , wie they were
of the written im alten R o m . 20 wurde ausgedrückt d u r c h a separate hieroglyphic - a flag. Larger s u m s reckoned by twenties, u n d , in writing, by repeating the n u m b e r of flags. Das square of 20, 400, h a t t e a separate sign,
das einer plume u n d so die cube of 20, oder 8000, d e n o t e d by a purse, oder
sack. D i e ß war der whole arithmetic apparatus der M e x i c a n e r . they used to
d e n o t e fractions der larger s u m s by drawing only a part of the object. So %
oder % of a p l u m e , or of a purse, represented t h a t proportion of their respective s u m s etc. Diese M a s c h i n e r i e n i c h t schwerfälliger als die der great
m a t h e m a t i c i a n s der Antiquity, u n a c q u a i n t e d m i t d e m arabischen oder indischen System which has given a new aspect to m a t h e m a t i c a l science,
d u r c h das d e t e r m i n i n g d e n value, in a great m e a s u r e , by the relative posit i o n of the figures. ... Ihr Civil Year adjusted sie by the solar. T h e i l t e n es in
18 m o n t h s , von 20 Tagen jeder. 5 c o m p l e m e n t a r y days added, to m a k e up
die volle Z a h l 365. Der m o n t h getheilt in 4 weeks, von 5 days jede, on the
last of which was the public fair or m a r k e t day. F ü r die fast 6 S t u n d e n
U e b e r s c h u ß des solar year ü b e r 365 Tagen, sorgten sie a u c h durch intercalation, nicht jedes 4 Jahr wie die Europäer, s o n d e r n in längren intervals,
like some of the Asiatics. Sie warteten bis n a c h Ablauf von 52 vague years,
when they interposed 13 days oder vielmehr 12½, die Zahl, die sie in Rückstand waren. Die Pfaffen h a t t e n für sich a second sacred calendar, w o n a c h
sie ihre own records hielten, regulated the festivals u n d seasons of sacrifice,
u n d m a d e all their astrological calculations, (dans les pays les plus différents ... le sacerdoce a dû au culte des élémens et des astres un pouvoir
d o n t a u j o u r d ' h u i n o u s concevons à peine l'idée) the false science of astrology is n a t u r a l to a state of society partially civilised ... Das eye des simple
child of n a t u r e watches die Gestirne d u r c h lange N ä c h t e , sieht sie changing m i t d e n seasons des Jahr, associates sie n a t ü r l i c h m i t ihnen, as the periods over which they hold a mysterious influence. E b e n s o , he connects
their appearance m i t any interesting event of the t i m e u n d explores, in
their flaming characters, the destinies

Karl Marx - Exzerpte und Notizen. Juli bis September 1851 (Text)

Transcription

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