Document 6479278

Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A, 41:2399–2428, 2006
C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Copyright ISSN: 1093-4529 (Print); 1532-4117 (Online)
DOI: 10.1080/10934520600873571
Human Health Effects From
Chronic Arsenic Poisoning–
A Review
Simon Kapaj,1 Hans Peterson,1 Karsten Liber,2 and Prosun
Bhattacharya3
1
The Safe Drinking Water Foundation, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
3
KTH-International Groundwater Arsenic Research Group, Department of Land and
Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm,
Sweden
2
The ill effects of human exposure to arsenic (As) have recently been reevaluated by
government agencies around the world. This has lead to a lowering of As guidelines
in drinking water, with Canada decreasing the maximum allowable level from 50
to 25 µg/L and the U.S. from 50 to 10 µg/L. Canada is currently contemplating a
further decrease to 5 µg/L. The reason for these regulatory changes is the realization
that As can cause deleterious effects at lower concentrations than was previously
thought. There is a strong relationship between chronic ingestion of As and deleterious
human health effects and here we provide an overview of some of the major effects
documented in the scientific literature. As regulatory levels of As have been decreased,
an increasing number of water supplies will now require removal of As before the
water can be used for human consumption. While As exposure can occur from food,
air and water, all major chronic As poisonings have stemmed from water and this
is usually the predominant exposure route. Exposure to As leads to an accumulation
of As in tissues such as skin, hair and nails, resulting in various clinical symptoms
such as hyperpigmentation and keratosis. There is also an increased risk of skin,
internal organ, and lung cancers. Cardiovascular disease and neuropathy have also
been linked to As consumption. Verbal IQ and long term memory can also be affected,
and As can suppress hormone regulation and hormone mediated gene transcription.
Increases in fetal loss and premature delivery, and decreased birth weights of infants,
can occur even at low (<10 µg/L) exposure levels. Malnourished people have been
shown to be more predisposed to As-related skin lesions. A large percentage of the
population (30–40%) that is using As-contaminated drinking water can have elevated
As levels in urine, hair and nails, while showing no noticeable clinical symptoms, such
as skin lesions. It is therefore important to carry out clinical tests of As exposure.
Received January 3, 2006.
Address correspondence to Simon Kapaj, The Safe Drinking Water Foundation, 912
Idylwyld Drive, Saskatoon, SK; S7L OZ6, Canada; E-mail: [email protected]
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Factors combining to increase/decrease the ill effects of As include duration and
magnitude of As exposure, source of As exposure, nutrition, age and general health
status. Analytical determinations of As poisoning can be made by examining As levels
in urine, hair and toenails. Communities and individuals relying on groundwater
sources for drinking water need to measure As levels to ensure that their supplies are
safe. Communities with water As levels greater than 5 µg/L should consider a program
to document As levels in the population.
Key Words: Arsenic; Drinking water; Chronic toxicity; Cancer; Hyperpigmentation;
Hair and toenail arsenic.
INTRODUCTION
Human health effects caused by exposure to arsenic (As) have been highlighted
by recent regulatory initiatives in the U.S. This includes three panel reviews:
The National Academy of Sciences, The National Drinking Water Advisory
Council, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) Science
Advisory Board. This work led the US EPA to lower the maximum As
contaminant level in drinking water to 10 µg/L. All public water systems in
the U.S. must comply with the 10 µg/L standard beginning January 23, 2006.
A brief review of the panels findings are highlighted below.[1,2]
Human health effects caused by As exposure were key in panel assessments that resulted in the lowered U.S. As guideline. Health effects were
dependent on the duration and dose of exposure. The National Research
Council (NRC, the operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences)
confirmed that the chronic effects of inorganic As exposure via drinking water
include skin lesions, such as hyperpigmentation, and respiratory symptoms,
such as cough and bronchitis. The cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and urinary
systems were some of the other systems most affected in humans. This review
also concluded that there was sufficient evidence to link bladder and lung
cancers with ingestion of inorganic As. In addition, ailments linked to As
included increased risk of high blood pressure and diabetes. The NRC accepted
the fact that there is a need for more data to confirm the link between the As
ingestion and negative effects on reproductive outcomes. The NRC underlined
that there are differences in outcomes due to factors contributing to risk, such
as exposure in different population groups. Evidence adds to the fact that
As exposure may cause adverse effects, but this evidence is not conclusive
because studies lack information on lifestyle, and other exposures that could
affect health outcomes. The NRC also concluded that infants and children
may be at greater risk for both cancer and non-cancer effects because of
greater consumption via drinking water on a body-weight basis.[3] The US EPA
indicated that lowering of the As guideline from 50 to 10 µg/L could prevent
deaths from bladder, lung and skin cancers, and from heart disease.[2]
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Similarly, Canada is also reevaluating As contamination of drinking water.
The proposed maximum acceptable concentration for As in drinking water is
5 µg/L. However, Health Canada has set the current guideline at 25 µg/L.
This guideline has been put in place temporarily until improved treatment
technologies have been developed to further reduce As levels in drinking water
to 5 µg/L.[4] As is of greatest concern in groundwater supplies where it is
a naturally occurring mineral. Reducing the current level of As in drinking
water will have a significant impact on communities across Canada because
groundwater is a major water source in many rural, small communities. The
Word Health Organization (WHO) has also reviewed As guidelines in drinking
water and established a provisional guideline of 10 µg/L after concluding that
inorganic As is a human carcinogen and that the main route of exposure is
through drinking water and food.[5]
The interest in As has also resulted in the publication of several recent books, including Aquatic Arsenic Toxicity and Treatment[6] and Natural
Arsenic in Groundwater: Occurrence, Remediation and Management.[7] Several
review articles have also been published, including Yoshida et al.,[8] Luster and
Simeonova,[9] Watanabe,[10] Tchounwou et al.,[11] Rossman et al.,[12] Mahata
et al.,[13] Kitchin,[14] and Ratnaike.[15] Throughout this review it is important
to mention that, whenever not stated otherwise, “arsenic” means total inorganic As.
PATHWAYS OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE
Arsenic Exposure Through Drinking Water
Groundwater with elevated concentrations of As has been recognized
as a problem of global concern.[16-18] As contamination of groundwater is
one of the principal pathways of human exposure to inorganic As. Elevated
concentrations of As have been reported from several regions of the world[19]
(Table 1) resulting primarily from natural sources, such as erosion and
leaching from geological formations, although sometimes from anthropogenic
sources, such as uses of As for industrial purposes, mining activities and metal
processing, and application of pesticides and fertilizers containing As. The risk
of As contamination is generally much higher in groundwater compared to
surface water.
Natural occurrence of As in groundwater (>10 µg/L) is reported from many
parts of the United States, such as California, Alaska, Arizona, Indiana, Idaho,
Nevada, Washington, Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin, and New Hampshire.[20–25]
Higher concentrations of As are also found close to areas of geothermal
fields, uranium and gold mining.[26] Natural occurrences of As have also been
found in Canada,[27] Argentina,[28–31] Mexico,[32–34] Chile,[35,36] Taiwan,[37,38]
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14–132 m
Shallow/Deep
Deep
Shallow
70–100 m
Shallow aquifers
Shallow and
deep wells
Shallow and
deep wells
80–560 m
53–56 m
34 000 km2
4800 km2
—
10 districts
1600 km2
10 million km2
—
4263 km2
Large areas
West Bengal, India,
BDP (8 districts)
China, Xinjiang Inner
Mongolia (HAB)
Taiwan
Thailand (10 districts)
Ghana
Canada (Nova
Scotia)
United Kingdom
(Cornwall)
Mexico, Zimapan,
Lagunera
Hungary (Great
Hungarian Plain)
USA
8–53 m
Shallow wells
—
—
—
8–260 m
118, 012 km2
Bangladesh, BDP
(52 districts)
Argentina
(Chaco-Pampean
Plains)
Chile
Depth of well
Area affected
Country/Region
>10
18–146
100→500
25→50
300–1100
100–1000
100–4800
Up to 1820
120–6700
<50–1860
Oxidation of sulfides from mine
wastes
Complexation of arsenic with humic
substances
Desorption of arsenic from
Fe-oxyhydroxides/Sulfide oxidation
Oxidation of sulfides
Oxidation of sulfide from mine wastes
Volcanic ash
Reduction of
Fe-oxyhydroxides/Sulfide oxidation(?)
in alluvial sediments
Reduction of
Fe-oxyhydroxides/Sulfide oxidation
(?) in alluvial sediments
Reducing environment in alluvial
sediments
Oxidation of pyrite in mine tailings
Oxidation of mine wastes and tailings
Oxidation of arsenopyrite in mine
tailings
Volcanic ash with 90% rhyolitic glass
<2→900
<1–1300
Mechanism of contamination
Arsenic conc. (µg/L)
Table 1: Comparison of arsenic occurrences in groundwater from selected parts of the world (Courtesy of Naidu and
Bhattacharya).[19]
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China,[39,40] Japan,[41] southern Thailand,[42] Ghana,[43] Hungary,[44] and
Finland.[45] Occurrence of As in groundwater of the Bengal Delta Plain in West
Bengal, India and Bangladesh, is the region’s single largest emerging societal
and environmental problem of the present century.[46–56] Similar As problems
also exist in the Flood Plain aquifers of the Mekong Delta in Cambodia
and the Red River Delta in Vietnam,[57] where drinking water supplies are
primarily based on groundwater resources.[58-62] Here, a population of over
20 million has resorted to groundwater use to meet agricultural productivity
and increased drinking water demand.[57,60]
Drinking Water Criteria for Arsenic
Arsenic in drinking water can affect human health and is considered as
one of the most significant environmental causes of cancer in the world.[63]
Therefore, it is necessary to document the levels of As in drinking water,
and its chemical speciation, and for establishing regulatory standards and
guidelines.[21] The FAO health limit for As in groundwater was until recently
50 µg/L, but in view of recent incidences of As poisoning in the Indian
subcontinent, a decrease to 5–10 µg/L is being considered by a number of
regulatory bodies throughout the world. The temporary WHO guideline for
As in drinking water is 10 µg/L. This is based on a 6×10−4 excess skin
cancer risk, which is 60 times higher than the factor normally used to protect
human health. However, the WHO states that the health-based drinking water
guideline for As should in reality be 0.17 µg/L. Previously, such low levels were
not feasible to determine as many analytical techniques had detection limits
of 10 µg/L, which is why the less protective guideline was adopted.[64–66]
The US EPA drinking water standard for As was set at 50 µg/L in 1975,
based on a Public Health Service standard originally established in 1942.[67]
On the basis of investigations initiated by the National Academy of Sciences,
it was concluded that this standard did not eliminate the risks of skin, lung,
and prostate cancer from long-term exposure to low As concentrations in
drinking water. In addition, there are several non-cancer effects related to
ingestion of As at low levels, which include cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
and anemia, as well as reproductive, developmental, immunological, and
neurological disorders. In order to achieve the EPA’s goal of protecting public
health, recommendations were made to lower the safe drinking water limit
to 5 µg/L, slightly higher than what is considered the technically feasible
measurable level (3 µg/L).[68] Recently, the US EPA has established a healthbased, non-enforceable Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) of zero
As and an enforceable Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 10 µg As/L
in drinking water.[69] This would apply to both non-transient, non-community
water systems, as well as to the community water systems, as opposed to the
previous MCL of 50 µg As/L set by the US EPA in 1975. However, the current
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drinking water guideline for As adopted by both the WHO and the US EPA is
10 µg/L. This is higher than the proposed Canadian and Australian maximum
permissible concentrations of 5 and 7 µg As/L, respectively.
Arsenic Exposure Through Coal Combustion and Incineration of
Preserved Wood Products
Combustion of high As bearing coals is known to be a principal pathway
of As emission in Guizhou province of southwestern China.[70,71] Open coalburning stoves used for drying chili peppers have been the principal cause
for chronic As poisoning to a population of nearly 3,000. Fresh chili peppers
have less than 1 mg/kg As, while the chili peppers dried over high-As coal
fires were reported to contain more than 500 mg/kg As.[70] Consumption of
other tainted foods, ingestion of kitchen dust containing as high as 3000 mg/kg
As, and inhalation of indoor air polluted by As from coal combustion are the
other causes of chronic As poisoning. A possible pathway for exposure through
air-particulates is the incidental use of preserved wood in open fires, indoors
or outdoors.
Incineration of preserved wood products, pressure treated with chromated copper arsenate was found to be a source of As contamination to
the environment.[72] The content of As in air-particulates from open fires
was found to exceed the German air quality standards by a 100-fold.[73]
The ashes, spread on lawns and vegetable cultivations, pose further risk to
human health. In addition, tobacco smoke is another source of As emission in
indoor environment. It is interesting to note that mainstream cigarette smoke
contains 0.04 to 0.12 µg As per cigarette.[74]
HEALTH EFFECTS OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE
Terminology
Arsenicosis is a chronic illness resulting from drinking water with high
levels of As over a long period of time. It is commonly known as As poisoning.
Arseniasis means chronic arsenical poisoning, also called arsenicalism; the
term arsenicism refers to a disease condition caused by slow poisoning with
As.
Despite the existence of recent reviews, there does not appear to be a
concise overview of the human health issues caused by As. This review is an
attempt to address that gap. In addition, we address analytical approaches
that can be used to determine human As exposures even after the As has been
removed from the drinking water. The review is aimed to help health workers,
practicing rural physicians, water treatment plant operators, government
agencies, and community groups dealing with issues of human As exposure
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and effects. Together, we need to put the safeguards in place to avoid adverse
human health effects from chronic As exposure.
Arsenic and Cancer
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has listed As
as a human carcinogen since 1980.[75] Many researchers have underlined the
potential risk that As in drinking water plays in human health. The positive
association between As exposure and cancer has been evaluated by many
researchers in different countries including the USA, Taiwan, Bangladesh,
India, Argentina, and Chile, to name a few. This section highlights work
performed during the last 4 to 5 years.
In a recent publication, Centeno et al.[76] report that As is a unique
carcinogen. It is the only known human carcinogen for which there is adequate
evidence of carcinogenic risk by both inhalation and ingestion. In a very
detailed study spanning a 7-year period, Rahman et al.[77] indicated that
As-affected patients in West Bengal had severe skin lesions. It was not clear
what number of patients suffered from cancers, because they were too poor to
afford the investigations. However, patients that had premature death due to
cancer had serious arsenical skin lesions prior to that. Also, in follow-up visits,
people that were exposed to high levels of As from drinking water and/or food
for many years were frequently developing cancer. These small communities
in West Bengal use groundwater sources for drinking, and this study showed
that intervention of water management is critical.
Taiwanese studies investigated the risk association at 50 µg/L As in
drinking water, the standard that was being reevaluated by the US EPA at
that time. Data from Taiwan indicated that there is increased risk of internal
cancers from As exposure through drinking water.[78] In a follow-up study
of 8102 residents from an arseniasis-endemic area in Northeastern Taiwan,
the association between ingested As and risk of cancers of urinary organs
was investigated. It indicated that residents being exposed to well water As
for 40 years or more had greater chances of getting urinary tract cancer
than residents that had less than 40 years of exposure.[79] Conclusions from
these studies suggested that the US EPA needed to revise the 50 µg/L As
standard, which has now been done.[3] It is believed that there is a long
latent stage between the time that humans are exposed to As and final cancer
diagnosis.[79–81] In addition, Ferrecio et al.[82] presented a positive correlation
between ingestion of inorganic As and lung cancer in humans in Chile. It is
already known that cigarette smoking is a main risk factor for lung cancer, but
the authors found that cigarette smoking plus ingestion of As from drinking
water had a synergistic effect.
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Skin Cancer
A significant relationship between As exposure and skin cancer has been
observed. In a review, Rossman et al.[12] pointed out that arsenite can play
a role in the enhancement of UV-induced skin cancers. The mechanism of
action may involve effects on DNA methylation and DNA repair. In addition,
Luster and Simeonova[9] reported epidemiological evidence indicating that As
is associated with cancers of skin and internal organs, as well as with vascular
disease.
Bladder Cancer
In a major U.S. study conducted on a population with chronic As exposure
through drinking water, Steinmaus et al.[80] did not find a clear association
between bladder cancer risk and exposure. The risks were lower than those
in Taiwan with high As exposure.[78] However, in the U.S. study there was an
elevated risk of bladder cancer in smokers that were exposed to As in drinking
water near 200 µg/L, compared with smokers consuming lower As levels. These
data suggest that As is synergistic with smoking at relatively high As levels
(200 µg/L). Steinmaus et al.[80] highlighted that latency of As exposure causing
bladder cancer can be very long (more than 40 years).
Lung Cancer
Hopenhayn-Rich et al.[83] found that mortality from lung cancer was
significantly increased with increasing As ingestion. In addition, As and
cigarette smoke are synergistic, thus increasing the risk of lung cancer. In a
recent Taiwanese study, residents in arseniasis-endemic areas were followed
during an 8-year period.[84] An increased risk of lung cancer was associated
with high levels of As exposure via drinking water. The authors suggested
that reduction in As exposure should reduce the lung cancer risk in cigarette
smokers. Southwest Taiwan has been a region that used wells with high As
levels for the past 5 decades. Researchers looked at lung cancer mortality
versus standard mortality ratio (SMR). Their study further indicated that the
mortality from lung cancer declined after the levels of As in the well water
were reduced.[85]
China is another country where millions of people are exposed to elevated
levels of As. In the review of Xia and Liu,[86] it was stressed that chronic
arsenism in China is a serious health issue, which the authorities are now
trying to tackle. Measures are being implemented to improve drinking water
sources, patient treatment, and health education. However, in As-endemic
areas it is predicted that cancer incidence may increase over the next 10–
20 years mainly due to previous exposures. This shows that urgent effective
prevention is needed. Often in China, areas that have chronic arsenism also
Review of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning
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have increased levels of fluoride in the drinking water. There are suggestions
that the combination of the two could increase the risk to human health due to
potential synergism. This should be further evaluated.
In a study with mice, Wu et al.[87] found that chronic low-level As exposure
may affect heme metabolism, causing porphyrin changes. These changes may
appear in the beginning stages of arsenicosis, before the carcinogenesis and
can be a clinical indicator to diagnosis.
NON-CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS OF CHRONIC ARSENIC EXPOSURE
Neurobehavioral and Neuropathic Effects
In a cross-sectional study in Taiwan, Tsai et al.[88] suggested that longterm accumulated As may cause neurobehavioral effects in adolescence;
therefore consumption of As in childhood may affect behavior later in life.
In addition, these effects will be more severe if lead is present, because of
synergistic effects. This facet of As toxicity needs to be addressed further.
Arsenic neuropathy is a recognized complication of As toxicity. Peripheral
neuropathy (an abnormal and usually degenerative state of the peripheral
nerves) due to chronic As exposure is one of the most common complications
of the nervous system. The neuropathy is usually sensor (affects sensation),
and the course of development is chronic. Patients can suffer from constant
pain, hypersensitivity to stimuli, muscle weakness, or atrophy.[89,90] Sensory
and sensorimotor (sensation and muscles are affected) neuropathy have also
been observed.[77] The authors suggest that neurological symptoms are more
frequently associated with people that have chronic As exposure, so duration,
amount of As exposure, and nutritional factors together may affect As toxicity.
Effects on Memory and Intellectual Function
A study of children in Mexico found that urinary As concentration was
inversely associated with verbal IQ and long-term memory. In addition, it was
found that long-term memory, attention and the ability to understand speech
may be affected by exposure to As in people with chronic malnutrition.[91]
Wasserman et al.[92] have also shown that children’s intellectual function can
be decreased by increased As exposure. This correlation was proportional to the
dose, which means children that had more than 50 µg/L As exposure had lower
performance scores than children with less than 5.5 µg/L exposure. However,
this study was limited to a certain period of time for a certain group of the
population and some questions remained unanswered, like the role of exposure
to As on the intellectual functions, and developing a better understanding of
exposure-outcome by follow-up at an earlier age.
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In addition, Watanabe et al.,[10] evaluating the effects of As at different
ages, found that age is a very important factor when evaluating effects. In
younger generations, clinical manifestations are not always obvious and, as a
result, can be missed or underestimated, producing complications later. Effects
of early-life exposure are not well understood compared with the effects of
adult exposure.
Reproductive Effects
In a study by Chakraborti et al.,[93] pregnancy complications were found
to be due to chronic exposure from groundwater As. They found a positive
trend in women, with increased As exposure leading to increased fetal loss
and premature delivery. Furthermore, research on the effects of As exposure
in rats has shown that As causes necrosis (death of living tissue), apoptosis
(programmed cell death), loss of conception in the uterus, and death of the
newborn.[94] Toxic effects on the fetus were also suggested by Hopenhayn
et al.,[95] who reported that women with chronic exposure to As (less than
50 µg/L) in drinking water were predisposed to decreased birth weight of
infants, suggesting that As may reduce the development of the fetus in utero.
Reproductive effects should be further studied to confirm the risks to humans.
A separate study by Hopenhayn et al.[96] found that women exposed to As
in drinking water during pregnancy have changes in urinary excretion and
metabolite distribution that can cause toxic effects on the developing fetus.
As metabolism changes during pregnancy, so the impact on the fetus may
be different at different stages of pregnancy. It is suggested that this may
affect the health in premature and full-term babies. The effects of As exposure
through drinking water on pregnancy outcomes were also assessed in a recent
study by Milton et al.[97] This study indicated a strong link between chronic As
exposure and spontaneous abortion and stillbirth. However, further studies
are needed to confirm the association between As and negative pregnancy
outcomes.
Steatosis (Fatty Liver)
Chen et al.[98] studied the effects of As in mouse liver and concluded that
chronic oral inorganic As exposure caused cellular hypertrophy (enlargement
of the cell) and steatosis. It was suggested that this may cause DNA methylation, which is thought to play a key role in the control of gene expression in
mammalian cells, which is important in oncogenesis in mammals.
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Cardiovascular Disease
Lee et al.[99] reported that As ingestion affects the platelets. Platelets are
key players in cardiovascular disease. In the presence of thrombin, trivalent As
(arsenite) was observed to increase platelet aggregation. In vivo, As in drinking
water increased arterial thrombus formation in rats. The authors indicated
that platelet aggregation increased with long-term exposure to As in drinking
water, being one of the factors causing cardiovascular disease. The authors
proposed that their results may be used for estimation of risks from thrombosis
and cardiovascular disease in humans, but further evidence is necessary to
support their findings.
Ischemic Heart Diseases (IHD)
Ischemia is localized tissue anemia due to obstruction of the inflow of
arterial blood. In a study in arseniasis hyper-endemic villages in southwest
Taiwan, researchers evaluated a possible relationship between long-term As
exposure and IHD. This study included 462 individuals living in a blackfootdisease (BFD) area that were drinking well-water for many years. The study
indicated that 78 subjects (16.9%) had IHD. Looking at age groups, the highest
rate of IHD was for individuals ≥60 years old (about 31%). This suggests
that the prevalence of IHD increased with increasing duration of consuming
artesian well-water.[100]
Carotid Atherosclerosis
The carotid arteries are a chief pair of arteries that pass up the neck and
supply the head including the brain. Wang et al.[101] highlighted that longterm exposure to As is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis. Longterm exposure to As is associated with increased risk of carotid atherosclerosis
and they suggested that carotid atherosclerosis is an excellent biomarker for
arseniasis.
Respiratory System Diseases
Based on separate studies in Bangladesh and West Bengal (India), it was
concluded that, in addition to skin lesions, chronic exposure to As can cause
respiratory system effects such as chronic cough and chronic bronchitis.[90,102]
In another study, Milton et al.[103] underlined the fact that patients with
chronic As exposure have skin manifestations associated with weakness, conjuctival congestion, redness of the eyes, chronic cough, and chronic bronchitis
(inflammation of the respiratory tract). This work strengthens the evidence
that long-term ingestion of As can cause adverse effects on the respiratory
system.[102,103]
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Effects on Hormonal System
Arsenic is thought to be an endocrine disruptor, able to alter hormone gene
transcription at doses as low as 0.4 µg/L arsenite. Different doses of As can
affect hormone regulation in cells at different levels. It is suggested that As
effects on gene expression may depend on internal conditions in the human
body. Different organs in the body will respond differently to As exposure.[104]
Diabetes Mellitus-Type Two Diabetes
Type-two diabetes mellitus is non-insulin dependent diabetes, which generally occurs after 40 years of age, with the highest risk in obese people
and people that have a family history of diabetes. Tseng et al.[105,106] suggest
that inorganic As is diabetogenic in humans, but little is known about pathophysiological mechanisms. They underline the fact that people exposed to As
suffer from type two-diabetes. However, there are some limitations in the study
design that weakens the evidence reported.
Other Effects
Guha Mazumder[90] confirms the findings of previous studies in that
chronic exposure to As is associated with pigmentation, keratosis, skin cancer,
weakness, anemia, dyspepsia, enlargement of the liver, spleen, and ascites
(fluid in abdomen). Other symptoms included chest problems like cough,
restrictive lung disease, polyneuropathy, altered nerve conduction velocity, and
hearing loss. In West Bengal, India, people are endemically exposed to more
than 50 µg/L As in drinking water. Patients reported having irritability, lack
of concentration, depression, sleep disorders, headaches, fatigue, skin itching,
burning of eyes, weight loss, anemia, chronic abdominal pain, diarrhea, edema
of feet, liver enlargement, spleen enlargement, cough, joint pain, decreased
hearing, decreased vision, loss of appetite, and weakness. Liver enzymes were
increased and liver histology showed fibrosis (fibrotic tissue in liver). Other
symptoms included cirrhosis (end stage of hepatic reaction to liver parencymal
cell injury), hematemesis (vomiting with blood), and melena (the passage of
dark, pitchy and grumous stools stained with blood pigments or with altered
blood). It was found that the longer the time of exposure, the more severe
the signs and symptoms of As toxicity.[89,90] Table 2 shows some of the most
common toxic effects that can result from chronic As exposure.
Subclinical Effects
Clinical As symptoms depend on the duration of exposure, with signs
and symptoms appearing at later stages and with diseases progressing in
silent conditions at earlier stages. Rahman et al.’s[77] study in West Bengal
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Tsai et al.[83]
Tseng et al.[95]
Mukherjee et al.[84]
Milton et al.[92]
Hopenhayn et al.[90]
Steinmaus et al.[75]
Tseng et al.[100,101]
Hopenhayn-Rich et al.[78]
Smith et al.[103]
Kurttio et al.[105]
Lee et al.[94]
Milton and Rahman [97]
Morales et al.[73]
Rahman et al.[106]
Rahman et al.[72]
Study
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
Cohort
Cross-sectional
Cohort
Case-control
Cohort
Ecological
Cross-sectional
Cohort
in vivo/in vitro rats
Case-control
Case-control
Cross-sectional
Cohort
Study type
Toxic effects
Neurobehavioral function
Ischemic heart disease
Peripheral neuropathy
Fetal and infant death, spontaneous abortion
Reduction in birth weight
Bladder cancer
Diabetes
Lung, kidney cancers
Skin lesions
Bladder cancer
Platelet aggregation, thrombus formation
Cough, bronchitis
Lung, bladder cancer
Hypertension
Skin cancer, gangrene, neuropathy
Table 2: Studies documenting toxic effects of chronic As exposure.
India
Bangladesh
Chile
USA
Taiwan
Argentina
Chile
Finland
Korea
Bangladesh
Taiwan
Bangladesh
West
Bengal
(India)
Taiwan
Taiwan
Country
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included one that followed a large population during a seven year period. About
0.1 million people out of 7.3 million in the area evaluated had As-associated
skin lesions. In addition, in small villages affected by As exposure, 30–40% of
the population drinking the same As-contaminated drinking water had high As
levels in urine, hair, and nails, but they did not have As associated skin lesions,
indicating that sub-clinical effects may be more widespread than clinical
effects. The authors found that families that had safe water for drinking and
cooking during a 2-year period, but that had been previously exposed to As,
still had high levels of As because of intake from food grown in contaminated
areas and washing of food with contaminated water. Thus, if you minimize
As contamination in drinking water, concentration of As in tissue still remains
above normal, mainly due to consumption of food grown in contaminated areas.
Skin Lesions, Drinking Water and Urinary Arsenic
In a cross-sectional study in Bangladesh, Ahsan et al.[107] reported that
21.6% of participants in the study had skin lesions such as melanosis and/or
keratosis. Of these subjects, 13.9% were currently drinking water with As
levels less than 10 µg/L. This either points to previous higher-level exposures,
or suggests that even levels below current guidelines are not safe. In a West
Bengal study patients that had As-related skin lesions were using water with
As levels of 800 µg/L, as a result, many patients with skin lesions also suffered
from cancer.[77]
In addition, Ahsan et al.[107] underlined the fact that skin lesions were
three times more likely in subjects with the highest levels of urinary As. This
may be because urinary As is a cumulative exposure indicator, suggesting
that urinary As concentration may be a good indicator for predicting negative
health effects in humans.
Dose-Response Relationship between Arsenic Exposure and
Chronic Health Effects
Smith et al.[108] reported that chronic health effects of inorganic As
exposure in Northern Chile included As-induced skin lesions. Skin lesions
were evident despite good nutritional status. Although previous generations
have potentially been exposed to As in the Andes mountains, the dose-response
link in the current generation was not influenced by As exposure of previous
generations. Guo et al.[109] indicated that the prevalence of As dermatosis was
highest in the regions that drank water from wells with higher concentrations
of inorganic As. The prevalence of skin lesions was greatest in people over
40 years of age.
Kurttio et al.[110] reported that a significant increase in the risk of
bladder cancer was seen at levels of As >0.5 µg/L in people from Finland.
Review of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning
2413
This correlation was seen at exposure concentrations many times lower than
any jurisdiction’s current drinking water quality guideline. However, further
research should be conducted to confirm this link.
Rahman et al.[111] indicated that there was a dose-response relationship
between risk of hypertension and drinking water contaminated with inorganic
As. The prevalence of hypertension increased in middle-aged men and in
women over the age of 60 years. A clear dose-response link was shown
as increased exposures were associated with increases in the prevalence
ratio. Guha Mazumder[90] reported that chronic respiratory diseases increased
significantly with increasing As concentrations in drinking water. Among clinical manifestations described were cough, crepitations (to make small sharp
sudden repeated noises), and shortness of breath. In males, the prevalence
of cough adjusted for age was twice as high as for females. With increasing
As concentration in water, the prevalence of keratosis and pigmentation also
increased. The association between exposure and response, and the prevalence
of skin effects, were evident. In addition, in people already identified with
skin lesions, the strongest correlation was with weakness, which increased
with increased As exposure. The same link was confirmed by Milton and
Rahman,[102] who showed that the prevalence ratios for chronic bronchitis
increased with increasing As exposure. It appears that long-term ingestion of
As may be a cause for chronic respiratory diseases and skin lesions.
ARSENIC IN HUMAN TISSUE
Drugs with Arsenic as an Ingredient
Homeopathic medicine is frequently used in countries such as India. In
some cases, patients use non-doctor prescriptions containing As compounds
to treat their disorder. As has caused health problems when used inappropriately and patients have represented with hyperpigmentation, keratosis, and
increased As in tissues such as skin, hair and nails. This shows that people
using As in homeopathic medicine may be at risk of toxicity and discouraging
their use to be appropriate.[112]
Arsenic Accumulation in Tissues
Lin et al.[113] studied biomarkers in BFD patients in southwest Taiwan.
Patients having BFD were linked with the presence of high concentrations of
inorganic As (the most common As form) in well drinking water. A significant
increase in inorganic As in urinary excretion, hair, and fingernails of BFD
patients was observed, underlining that As in urine, hair, and fingernails are
biomarkers of similar value when evaluating As exposure in humans.
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Kapaj et al.
In an Australian study by Hinhood et al.,[114] analysis of As in hair and
toenails showed that there was a clear association with As in drinking water
and residential soil. Their results also indicated that hair As concentrations
were higher in people consuming greater amounts of As in drinking water than
people exposed to As from other sources. Children had higher As concentrations in both hair and toenails compared with other age groups tested, probably
because of more environmental As exposure from their daily life activities. The
study also indicated that toenail As concentrations were more strongly linked
with external As exposures than was hair As concentration.
In a separate study, Chakraborti et al.[115] showed that As levels were high
in hair, nail, and skin tissue of individuals with As-associated skin lesions.
However, As levels were also high in people that had no skin lesions, but who
lived in the same villages in the Ganga-Meghna-Brahmaputra plain of India
and Bangladesh. These individuals may not suffer from physical symptoms at
the present time, but they may be sub-clinically affected. Skin lesions and use
of biological markers like As concentration in hair and nails may help in early
diagnosis of chronic As poisoning.
Urinary Arsenic Species
In studying BFD patients in Taiwan, Lin et al.[113] found that individuals
using well-water contaminated by As excreted higher total urinary As. In
studying the health effects to Mexican populations from chronic As exposure,
Meza et al. [116] found a weak link between total As in water and total As
eliminated in urine. Among the urinary As species, dimethyl arsenic (DMA),
inorganic As (in the form of trivalent As) and monomethyl As (MMA) were
most common. In this study, the methylated As metabolites, such as DMA,
were excreted at a level of about 50%. This was considered a very low
percentage of methylated As metabolites. Different communities that had
experienced chronic As exposure did not have the same level of As metabolism,
suggesting that the main reason may be individual ability to metabolize and
excrete As due to ethnic differences such as the presence of native Indian,
Mexican and Spanish mixture (genetic polymorphism).
Urinary Porphyrins
The impact of As among people who use As-rich coal for heating, cooking,
and drying of food in poorly ventilated dwellings in Guizhou province, China
was studied by Ng et al.[117] It was found that burning As-contaminated
coal causes effects on porphyrin metabolism. The study indicated significant
positive association between urinary As concentration and porphyrin concentration. Porphyrin levels were higher in the young, women, and old age groups
compare to controls (<20, and >40), suggesting that people spending more
Review of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning
2415
time indoors are at greater risk of increased As exposure, resulting in higher
porphyrin levels. However, the most interesting finding was that younger age
groups had higher levels of uroporphyrin and coproporphyrin III, which can be
used as early biomarkers of chronic As exposure. Since As affects porphyrin
excretion and the heme biosynthetic pathway, there is a need for further
investigation into possible associations between urinary porphyrins and both
As-induced cancer and non-cancer clinical manifestations.
ARSENIC EXPOSURE FROM FOOD
The study by Rahman et al.[77] in West Bengal, India, looked at other As
exposure sources. The study revealed that consumption of food from contaminated areas was another source of chronic As poisoning, since food products
like vegetables and rice were cultivated using As-contaminated groundwater.
The level of As in groundwater used to cultivate rice and vegetables ranged
from 103 µg/L to 827 µg/L. The average As levels in rice and vegetables were
0.323 µg/g and 0.027 µg/g. It was estimated that in villages where people
consume such agricultural products, the mean daily individual exposure was
about 100 µg. In addition, Chakraborti et al.[115] confirmed that contaminated
groundwater used to cultivate vegetables and rice consumed by people may
be an important pathway of ingesting As. Urinary As concentration in control
subjects drinking “safe” water was higher than the norm, most likely as a direct
result of contamination of food products.
Huq and Naidu[118] also suggest from their study in Bangladesh that
food is another pathway of As exposure. Different foods have different As
concentrations. However, there is uncertainty about the bioavailability and
associated toxicity of As from different foods. Data from As concentrations in
certain vegetables from where As poisoning is documented show that people
using the same water source are not affected the same way. This raises
the need for more investigation related to speciation and bioaccumulation of
As.[118,119]
Rmalli et al.[120] investigated As levels in food imported from Bangladesh
to the United Kingdom. Results showed that imported vegetables from
Bangladesh have from 2-fold to 100-fold higher concentrations of As than
vegetables cultivated in the United Kingdom, European Union, and North
America. Average As concentrations found were for the skin of arum tuber,
540 µg/kg, arum stem, 168 µg/kg, and amaranthus, 160 µg/kg. The study did
not determine the As species found in the foods, which is necessary to asses
the risk to humans. This does, however, further support the fact that food may
be an important route of As exposure in some regions and that such exposure
could have long-term health effects in people.
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Kapaj et al.
Social Impact of Chronic Arsenic Exposure and Safety Caution
In their review of chronic As toxicity, Ratnaike et al.[15] stressed the impact
of As contamination, not only on people’s health, but also on the economy,
personal incomes and crop productivity. Furthermore, Moyad[121] explained
the importance of public awareness of As toxicity. As has not been routinely
tested in Canada in the past, but the data in this review clearly show the need
to test all groundwater supplies for As compounds, especially inorganic As.
Populations most at risk are those using private well-water as a drinking water
source. Frequently, such sources are only tested for coliforms and nitrates.
Therefore, public education and groundwater monitoring are the most effective
ways to provide people with needed information related to As and its negative
impact on human health.
Mechanism of Arsenic Toxicity and Carcinogenicity
The detailed mechanisms of As toxicity and carcinogenicity are not well
understood. Experiments in animals and in vitro indicate that As acts at
the cellular level at low doses of exposure.[11] In reviewing the literature
on As carcinogenicity, Kitchin[14] found that mechanisms of action included
chromosomal abnormalities, oxidative stress, altered DNA repair, altered DNA
methylation, altered growth factors, cell proliferation, promotion/progression,
gene amplification, and p53 gene suppression. In addition, the author suggested that the methylation of inorganic As can actually be a toxification,
not a detoxification pathway as methylated trivalent As metabolites play an
important role in carcinogenesis.
In a study by Nesnow et al.,[122] it was stressed that DNA damage
induced by methylated trivalent arsenicals is mediated by reactive oxygen
species. Mass et al.[123] indicated that exposure of human lymphocytes to
methylated trivalent As causes direct DNA damage. Their study suggested
that As can be carcinogenic and/or genotoxic by direct and/or indirect changes
in the structure of DNA and chromosomes. Mahata et al.[124] compared the
As-induced cytogenetic damage between symptomatic (having skin manifestations) and asymptomatic individuals who drank As-contaminated water. Results indicated that the frequency of genetic damage was higher in
symptomatic than asymptomatic individuals. In addition, using a sodium
arsenite treatment in vitro, it appeared that lymphocytes of the control group
were more sensitive than those of symptomatic or asymptomatic groups. The
authors suggested that lymphocytes of people exposed to As for long periods
of time reply weaker than the unexposed control group, which may be due to
acquired susceptibility. Mahata et al.[13] suggested that the higher numbers
of chromosomal aberrations occurring in lymphocytes was related to chronic
As exposure, and cancer risks may be predicted by knowing in advance the
predisposition to genetic alterations of this population group. Also, Mahata
Review of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning
2417
et al.[13] and Yamauchi et al.[125] reported that after stopping As exposure,
patients may have less frequent chromosomal aberrations, or DNA damage
was reversible and returned to the previous state. Further research is needed
to fully understand the biochemical and cytotoxic mechanisms of As toxicity.
Treatment of Chronic Arsenic Toxicity
There is no clear treatment for chronic As toxicity. The effectiveness of
drugs was studied in clinical trials which showed that one form of chelation
therapy can stop deterioration of chronic toxicity symptoms, while at the
same time preventing outcomes such as cancer. Two main treatments were
dimercapto succinic acid (DMSA) and 2, 3-dimercapapto-1-propanesulfonate
(DMPS). The study indicated that DMSA did not improve the skin lesions in
chronic arsenicosis patients. In contrast, DMPS improved significantly chronic
arsenicosis.[90] In a separate study, Guha Mazumder et al.[126] found that
DMSA did not improve patient health status, nor did it benefit patients with
skin lesions from chronic arsenicosis. However, DMPS increased excretion of
As in the urine several-fold.[127] Patients under this chelation therapy had
significant improvements in symptoms. The increase in urinary As excretion
during chelation therapy may be the key factor in DMPS therapy. Further
research is needed to confirm the efficacy of this drug.
Guha Mazumder[90] indicated that proteins in food may increase the
elimination of inorganic As by increasing methylation. Hence, people exposed
to As are advised to increase protein consumption from both animal and plant
origins. In addition, retinoids and antioxidants have anti-keratinizing effects
and may prevent cancer. The study underlines that clinical presentations, like
chronic bronchitis, interstitial lung disease, portal hypertension, peripheral
vascular disease, and peripheral neuropathy, must be treated regularly, so
that the patient’s health will not deteriorate. Early detection of cancers due
to chronic arsenicosis, especially skin, urinary bladder and lung, can improve
the intervention and slow the progress of disease.
METHODS FOR ESTIMATING ARSENIC EXPOSURE IN HUMANS
A detailed review of the methods for evaluation of individual As exposure was
recently compiled by Yoshida et al.[8] and is summarized below. Evaluations of
As exposure among individuals are classified on the basis of: (i) monitoring As
concentration in drinking water, and (ii) biological monitoring for As exposure.
Arsenic Concentration in Drinking Water
Four methods have been described for evaluating As exposure in humans
based on As concentration in drinking water. The first method uses the
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concentration of As in drinking water as an index of exposure, but it does not
consider individual consumption volume. This reflects only current exposure
that correlates with short-term effects, but provides less information about
long-term effects. The second method seeks to establish the daily body burden
of As from the amount of drinking water consumed. Air temperature and
humidity may effect the daily individual consumption. The third method is
based on average As exposure. This is an advanced index because it can
assess the link between exposure and chronic health effects, such as cancer,
occurring after long-term exposure. The last method is a cumulative As exposure index, which is more appropriate for cases where As levels in drinking
water have changed, or where there has been a long period of low level As
exposure.[8]
Biological Monitoring of Arsenic Exposure
Drinking water from wells can contain inorganic As in both the trivalent
or pentavalent oxidation states.[8] Inorganic As is metabolized by two-step
methylation and the total amount of inorganic As, monomethylarsonic acid
(MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) can be used as biomarkers of As exposure. In one study, Styblo et al.[128] compared in vitro methylation of trivalent
and pentavalent As. They concluded that trivalent arsenicals methylated more
rapidly than pentavalent arsenicals.
In general, there are four main methods of As biomonitoring. The
first method determines the concentration of As in voided urine. Calderon
et al.[129] indicated that urinary As is a good index for estimating As exposure.
As concentrations in urine were evaluated in a U.S. population that was
exposed to inorganic As in drinking water in the range of 8 to 620 µg/L.
The authors found a strong link between the concentration of urinary As
and the concentration of inorganic As in drinking water. It was suggested
that a few urine samples are able to evaluate the inorganic As burden an
individual has received from drinking water. The second method measures
the amount of As in blood. It is preferred to use peripheral blood samples
for the evaluation of As exposure. Blood and urine samples reflect individual
As intake and are not contaminated from external factors (dust, hands,
contaminated water). The third method determines the amount of As in hair.
Hair samples are used as a biomarker for As exposure because inorganic As
and DMA are stored in the hair root and thus reflect past exposure. The
last method is to estimate the amount of As in nails. Nails of fingers or toes
are used as they reflect As storage 3 months ago in fingers and 6 months
ago in toes. Hair and nails are used as biomarkers to estimate average As
exposure.[8]
Review of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The ingestion of As by humans can cause a variety of disorders, including
skin lesions (e.g., hyperpigmentation, melanosis, keratosis), respiratory system problems (e.g., chronic cough, shortness of breath, bronchitis), nervous
system effects (e.g., neuropathy, neurobehavioral, weakened memory, lower
IQ, decreased attention), cancers of different organs (e.g., skin, lung, bladder),
and reproductive effects (e.g., pregnancy complications, fetus abnormalities,
premature deliveries, reduced birth weight). There are, in addition, potential
links to heart disease and diabetes, but further evidence is needed to support
these relationships. Approaches available to document chronic As exposure
include analysis of As levels in drinking water, and measurement of urinary,
nail, hair and blood As levels (biological monitoring). It has been shown that
even low level As-exposures may affect human health, with greater effects
in malnourished people. Recent evidence also implicates ethnic origin as a
potential variable when determining As effects.
It is becoming clear that a drinking water quality guideline of 50 µg/L As
is not protective, and while guidelines have decreased (to 25 µg/L in Canada
and 10 µg/L USA and WHO), attempts to lower them to ≤5 µg/L (Canada)
must be encouraged. Because groundwater can contain high levels of As,
most groundwater sources used for drinking water should be tested for As.
If total As concentrations are above 5 µg/L, then it is suggested that biological
monitoring should be carried out. This includes measuring As levels in urine,
blood, toenails and hair.
There are a few promising treatment methods currently in use, including
chelation therapy, that may reduce or at least arrest deterioration of chronic
As-poisoned individuals. At any one time, it is only a small percentage of
a population that shows clinical symptoms, making it a prerequisite to test
drinking water, and potentially humans, in order to prevent this element
from causing systemic illness. In addition, education of the public about the
consequences of drinking water contaminated with As is a necessity. Research
needs include the improvement of As quantification in both water and human
samples, as well as improving our understanding of the environmental occurrence and cycling of As. A key aspect is to develop a much better understanding
of the relationship between chronic As exposure and various adverse effects
(i.e., quantitative) in humans, and a better understanding of the underlying
mechanisms of action (chronic toxicity). Unfortunately, rural water users have
received little research and monitoring support from government agencies,
corporations, and Non-Government Organizations. The on-going challenges to
produce safe drinking water from typically poor quality rural water sources
therefore continue to provide extreme challenges for communities and individuals that commonly have few resources available to them, even in developed
countries such as Canada.
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Kapaj et al.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial support of the Safe Drinking Water Foundation’s Dr. Simon
Kapaj by the W. Garfield Weston Foundation and George Gordon Groundwater
Research Centre is gratefully acknowledged. This study was carried out for
the benefit of rural water users including physicians, water treatment plant
operators and the general public. Through improved knowledge it is possible
for rural water users to protect themselves from the ill effects of unsafe
drinking water http://www.safewater.org.
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