Periapical tooth root infections in South American camelids
Transcription
Periapical tooth root infections in South American camelids
Periapical tooth root infections in South American camelids David E Anderson, DVM, MS, Diplomate ACVS College of Veterinary Medicine The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA Dr Anderson began his presentation with a short personal history. His first encounter with camelids was a single case with an obnoxious owner whilst working at the University of Georgia during his first year after graduating. Later, in Kansas, he found much nicer owners who were willing to travel long distances to find an interested vet. However, it was at the University of Ohio that he began to specialise in camelids. When he arrived, OSU was offering farm animal surgery and a post mortem service for camelids – 80 or so a year. Dr Anderson began by expanding into farm animal medicine and was more than happy to include camelids. With an annual case load growth of 300% over the first 4 years, his department now sees over 1000 camelids each year, generating $0.5million. In addition, limited consultations for four or five large herds provides cover for a further 4000 animals. The local llamas are primarily companion animals. Some elite breeders are selling individuals for $10,000 - $20,000 but overall the average sale price is $200 - $2000. The USA alpaca industry has an annual growth rate of 25% with 1000 new farms each year. A breeding female can cost $20,000 (range $8,000 – $150,000), a top quality breeding male (1% of males born) from $20,000 – $260,000. Recently a male sold for $220,000 but had bookings for 100 breedings at $5000 each before leaving the auction area. At the same auction, a group of 68 animals sold for $2.3 million. In other words, these are valuable animals, owners are prepared to pay for treatment and currently alpacas make up 70% of the case load. The treatment of facial abscesses at OSU is lucrative, generating $50,000 yearly. This is because it is the only establishment within a 2000 mile radius willing to attempt treatment. Facial swellings Dental abnormalities are a relatively common occurrence in camelids. Veterinarians are being asked to evaluate facial “swellings” as owner awareness of dental problems in their animals is increasing. Accurate diagnosis is important to differentiate facial swelling in causes of order to provide optimal treatment and prognosis. Alpaca with right mandibular swelling British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference The most common complaint by owners is persistent facial swelling. The swelling may appear to enlarge rapidly (soft tissue abscess), be slowly progressive (osseous remodelling), or persist unchanged for months. Weight-loss, lethargy, anorexia, dropping of feed, and foul odour of the breath are also described. Retention of food boluses in the cheek is occasionally observed. The OSU team has treated tooth root infections in animals ranging in age from four months to 14 years, although most affected animals are six to 10 years old (Coyne, et al) and finds that periapical tooth root abscesses rarely open and drain to the exterior of the face but typically drain into the oral cavity. Tooth anatomy and eruption Eruption Time Tooth Deciduous (1/3,1/1,2-3/1-2,0/0) Adult (1/3,1/1,1-2/1-2,3/3) I1 birth 2 years I2 birth 3 years I3 birth 3 to 6 years C1 +/-, usually - 2 to 7 years PM3 birth 3.5 to 5 years PM4 birth 3.5 to 5 years M1 --- 6 to 9 months M2 --- 1.5 to 2 years M3 --- 2.75 to 3.75 years Note that other authorities the 4 incisor class upper th as upper an canine, making a total of six fighting teeth in the adult – two upper and one lower canines on each side. Underlying anatomy can be found in Dr Spurgeon’s Anatomy of Large Animals. 2 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference Adult dentition The sharp, jagged edges on the occlusal surfaces of the cheek teeth are necessary for the chewing style of crushing and cutting and a flat tabular surface is a sign of dental ageing, leading to inefficient chewing and weight loss. Unless there is misalignment or disease, the best advice is not to float. This contrasts with the scissor and grinding action of the horse where a flat tabular surface is the norm. In fact the only routine dentistry which might be needed is to keep the lower incisors flush or within 5mm of the dental pad. Increased length of the incisors leads to abnormal mechanical stresses on the mandible and hence abnormal alignment of the cheek teeth. A diamond edged Dremel bit performs a neat job with minimal fragmentation when compared with a grinder or side cutter and provides a better view than a guarded incisor cutter. Fighting teeth In llamas the fighting teeth can often be felt below the gum line before they erupt at around the age of two to three years. They are usually small and insignificant in females, small and slow to erupt in males castrated at less than two years, but can be used as formidable weapons by entire males. Used as the main tool of inter-male dominance, these curved teeth can be fixed into an opponent’s ventral neck and a swift pull can fatally damage the trachea, carotid arteries and jugular veins. As the mouth can open to only 30°, if aimed at the back of the neck these backward curving teeth can become embedded in the nuchal ligament and require sedation to remove. Such wounds often become abscessed. These problems can be prevented in entire males by removing the fighting teeth just proud of the gum line using cutting wire. Starting at the age of 3, the procedure can be repeated as needed (often only once yearly) until the teeth stop growing at approximately 7 years old. 3 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference Underlying pathology Damage at the gum line from stemmy hay or thistles and briars can lead to secondary abscessation. It is advised that all abscesses be cultured as a matter of routine. Although the underelying mechanical cause is identical to lumpy jaw in cattle, the infectious agents differ. In camelids, infection is more likely to be staphylococcal, streptococcal or more rarely fungal rather than Actinomyces bovis, though Arcobacter pyogenes has been reported. One farm had a problem with methacillin resistant Staph aureus (MRSA), thought to be transmitted from a human. Eight animals were affected but the infection resolved spontaneously after six months. Neoplasia is rare although squamous cell carcinoma has been reported. Tuberculosis as a cause of mandibular swelling has been seen in New Zealand, though not in the USA. C o r y n e b a c t e r i u m pseudotuberculosis, the cause of caseous lymphadenitis in sheep and goats, has also been implicated in camelid facial abscesses. In small ruminants both the visceral (fading goat/thin ewe syndromes) and cutaneous (lymphadenopathy, abscesses or exuding wounds) forms are recognised. In cattle and horses, infection is more likely to be seen as ulcerative lymphangitis. Lesions in sheep tend to be of the caseated onion-skin type, but in goats, the pus is more likely to be Caseous lyphadenitis liquid. Alpacas seem more resistant than sheep and the condition is most likely to present as sporadic abscesses rather than insidious chronic disease. Superficial, liquid abscesses are most common but the visceral form with involvement of the mediastinal lymph nodes has also been seen, fortunately not followed by chronic wasting disease. C. psuedotuberculosis is a facultative gram positive coccobacillus which can survive in soil for years. Lancing of abscesses in the field may lead to environmental contamination as bacteria can be shed in exudates for more than 30 days. Infection may be transmitted from a discharging abscess via superficial skin damage or contamination of food and entry via oral abrasions, especially during teething. In sheep the visceral form can lead to infection via aerosol but prolonged contact is required. Antibiotics alone are rarely successful and are best used after surgical excision of the lesion and any affected lymph nodes – the aim is to remove all active infection before there is any internal spread. General anaesthesia will be required but the operation is fairly straightforward as there is less soft tissue compared to the sheep or goat. Early detection and isolation, followed by effective treatment can prevent spread to others. 4 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference However, herd outbreaks have been seen - in one case 6 youngsters from 2 to 14 months of age were affected within a 2 month period, possibly after contact with an affected animal in a community trailer. The haemolytic synergistic inhibition test was used for herd monitoring. All tested negative except the 6 affected individuals who were treated surgically, given antibiotics, then kept isolated from the rest of the herd. The herd was checked every 3 months for 1 year then every 6 months for 2 years, but no further cases were detected. Once further testing showed that 4 of the 6 had become seronegative, they were returned to the herd. The remaining two were kept isolated for 2 years but remained seropositive so were culled and found to have chronic active inflammatory lesions in the mediastinal lymph nodes. Physical examination and differential diagnoses Physical examination is normal except for a focal, hard swelling in the region of the affected tooth. This swelling is usually associated with oedema and has a soft centre. Occasionally, a draining tract is present, but, more commonly, the skin overlying the swelling is intact. These lesions are most commonly seen along the horizontal ramus of the mandible (>90%), and, less commonly, the maxilla (<10%) and affect the premolars or molars. However, the OSU team has treated a 6-month-old cria with tooth root abscesses of the right incisors -1,2, and 3, and an adult male with a tooth root abscess of the right canine tooth. Differential diagnosis for facial swellings should include tooth root abscess, osteomyelitis (including Actinomyces bovis), soft tissue abscess (including Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis), foreign body, parotid duct lesion, facial bone fracture, retained food bolus, and malocclusion. At least 50% of cases have no external drainage, though many will drain into the mouth. Often there are no external clinical signs except perhaps weight loss, and the condition is first noticed as a hard bony swelling at shearing in the spring. Except in especially severe chronic cases, the root of the affected tooth is still alive, but the bone around the root is usually affected (periapical tooth root infection). Almost always the condition is secondary to penetration of the periodontal ligament, especially when the molars are erupting between 2 and 6 years of age. On histopathology, plant material is often found deeply embedded in the bone and the condition can be associated with the style of feeding – both oat hulls and poor quality stemmy hay have been implicated. Radiographic imaging Radiographs are indicated for diagnosis of periapical tooth root abscess. Try to routinely obtain dorsoventral, lateral, and dorsolateral to ventrolateral oblique views of the affected side. When contemplating surgery on a mandibular tooth, Dr Anderson has started using intraoral dental film to better evaluate the affected tooth and mandible. All views are obtained while the animal is heavily sedated or anesthetised. Occasionally, an abscess will be found on the medial aspect of the tooth root where is not obvious on standard views. This location of a bone abscess predisposes the mandible to fracture while tooth repulsion is being done. Tooth root debridement or root canal treatment is unlikely to be successful if a bone abscess is present and not treated. 5 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference Also, radiographs may help to determine the cause of the infection. Tooth root infections may be associated with fracture of the mandible or maxilla, retention of a deciduous tooth root, disruption of the gingiva or periodontal lesions, cracking of the tooth, or a patent infundibulum. Normal anatomy and time of the various must be when eruption of teeth considered interpreting radiographs of the skull. Look for a break in the dura, a widening of the space between tooth and dura or resorption of the medial alveolar plate. If available, computerised tomography scanning will show compromise of the medial alveolar wall extending to the gum line. Interestingly, despite routine trimming of the fighting teeth, they are rarely affected. However, it is best to leave approximately 2mm protruding above the gum line to prevent penetration of the pulp cavity. This also prevents traumatic gingivitis which can lead to anorexia lasting several days. 6 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference Although 95% of dental abscesses are found in the mandible, post-mortem examination often reveals undiagnosed maxillary abscesses. These rarely show as an external swelling and if they drain at all, drain into the nose, mouth or a sinus. However, weight loss may ensue and if investigations of all other causes have proved negative, a CT scan might problem. the locate the Unfortunately, maxillary sinus in camelids is too small to allow drilling and endoscopy to view tooth roots as in the horse. In older animals there tends to be bone resorption around tooth roots together with a widening of the periodontal membrane, so predisposing to periodontal infection. This may be due to vitamin D/calcium/phosphorus inbalance leading to decreased bone density, especially over winter – a good topic for future research. Shearing off of the crown, exposing the pulp cavity and leading to infection tracking to the root is seen in only 10% of cases, mainly older animals, and may be associated with routine floating of the cheek teeth. A further 10% of cases are associated with retained deciduous caps. Osteomyelitis can be seen at any age – in the very young it is most likely due to haematogenous spread from another infected site. Periapical osteomyelitis with death of the root is most likely to affect M1 or M2 followed by PM4 then M3. Recommended treatment and surgical approach Tooth root infections may be left untreated, be treated with long-term antibiotics, by curettage, by root canal treatment, or the affected tooth (or a portion of it) may be removed. For pregnant females in which clinical signs are mild, the OSU team delays treatment until after parturition or at least until after the fifth month of gestation. They have treated more than 10 pregnant females in the last three years; to their knowledge, one female aborted 60 days after surgery (reason undetermined) and all other females carried their crias to term. 7 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference If the patient is in good condition and the only clinical finding is a small, well circumscribed jaw nodule, treatment may not be necessary and the nodule will often resolve spontaneously. However, if there is any weight loss or dysphagia then action will be needed. Medical treatment alone is rarely successful, even if given for prolonged periods – one Michigan owner gave antibiotics twice daily for 18 months before accepting that surgery would be necessary. Even if antibiotics initially seem successful, recurrence is common – the dead root acts as a nidus for reinfection and the impacted vegetation and bone resorption may have left chunks of dead enamel in the middle of a sea of infection. If the dura is eroded from the medullary surface, contamination of adjacent teeth is common as the roots almost touch. Conversely, as there is no communication between root cavities, it is possible to amputate a single infected root, leaving the healthy root and crown in situ. It is possible for the body to wall off infection, leaving a shelf of bone on the medial aspect, in effect forming a new mandible. In this case it would be necessary to remove the outer cortex of the old mandible and debride all pus and granulation tissue. Infection can also penetrate into alveolar bone, leading to osteomyelitis which can affect adjacent teeth. Debridement, effective drainage and antibiotics will either solve the problem or give time to detect the original problem tooth so that it can be extracted later. In 1% of cases, severe osteomyelitis has resulted in very poor bodily condition so that surgery cannot be contemplated. In Dr Anderson’s experience, tooth removal effectively resolves the infection with few complications. However, other surgeons have had success by performing curettage or root canal treatment. The only disadvantage of these techniques is the expense suffered by the client if the surgeon must repeat the procedure or remove the tooth if the treatment fails and there are continued clinical signs associated with the infection. For surgical treatment general anaesthesia will be needed, often for a prolonged time. A combination of xylazine/butorphenol/ketamine will give 20-30 minutes surgical time and can be extended with a further 1/3 to 1/2 dose after 15 minutes if needed. If the procedure is expected to last longer than 45 minutes, intubation is preferred. Mandibular tooth extraction Surgical extraction per os is rarely possible due to the limited opening of the camelid mouth. Because of the relatively thin mandible of the camelid, do not be tempted to repel the tooth as in the horse – there is often little medial support left and the mandible is easily fractured. If the affected tooth is loose it can be extracted with forceps, the socket debrided and antibiotics prescribed. However, if it is not loose, make a lateral crescent shaped incision over the swelling, either trans-cutaneously or trans-bucally; reflect the periosteum and resect the bone overlying the lateral aspect to allow removal of the affected tooth. Dr Anderson uses a Hall air-drill with burr attachments to facilitate removal of the lateral bone plate. This practice leaves a smooth bed of bone that may cause less of a cosmetic defect compared with traditional ronguers or osteotome as the mandible heals. A lower cost option is to use a Dremel tool. 8 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference Maxillary tooth extraction Maxillary teeth are somewhat more challenging to remove. Intraoperative radiographs are very useful to guide dissection. The maxilla is easier to fracture than the mandible but these teeth can be equally as difficult to repulse. The parotid duct (externally) and the nasolacrimal duct (internally) should be avoided during dissection and repulsion. The parotid duct enters at the level of upper PM4/M1. If the approach is made cranial to this area, in the centre of the buccal space, the facial nerve will also be avoided. If a more posterior approach is necessary, use an elevator to reflect the periosteum towards the crown so that any nerves or ducts are protected. A frontal sinusotomy may be needed to repel the tooth downwards into the mouth. Although this usually destroys the maxillary shelf, the periosteum and muscle usually heal well and provide adequate support. Post-operative management After the tooth is removed, the defect may be packed with dental acrylic but Dr Anderson prefers to leave a portion of the wound open for daily wound treatment. Even if two adjacent teeth are removed leaving a large defect, it is better to leave it open to drain, asking the owner to flush with dilute Betadine. Take care that this is diluted properly as swallowing of excess iodine can lead to death of the rumen microorganisms. The wound should be flushed once or twice daily until completely filled-in by granulation tissue (usually 14 to 21 days). Use of perioperative antibiotics is continued for 10 - 14 days after surgery (Procaine penicillin G, Naceftiofur, or Ampicillin). Antibiotic selection may be changed based on results of microbial culture and sensitivity of bone samples obtained during surgery. The most common bacteria cultured from these lesions include Bacteroides sp., Actinomyces sp., and Peptostreptococcus sp. (Coyne, et al.). Rifampicin and isoniazid can be given orally but cover only a narrow spectrum so must be combined with penicillin. Enrofloxacillin can be given S/C or orally once daily at 10 mg/kg (double the S/C dose rate). Oral trimethoprim/sulpha is not recommended once the rumen starts functioning at eight weeks of age but this antibiotic gives good cover when given systemically. After extraction, molar drift tends to occlude the gap and as tooth growth ceases with increasing age, so overgrowth of the opposing tooth tends not occur. 9 British Veterinary Camelid Society Proceedings of 2003 annual conference Complications of disease or treatment Complications of tooth root infection are not well documented. Certainly, weight loss, anorexia and difficult mastication are the most commonly described. To Dr Anderson’s knowledge, septicemia, endocarditis, and bacterial embolization of internal organs have not been diagnosed in camelids. Complications of treatment include osteomyelitis, bone sequestra, damage to adjacent tooth roots or teeth, fracture of the mandible or maxilla, and aspiration pneumonia. Entrapment of salivary ducts in healing tissue can lead to the development of post-operative salivary fistulae – oro-cutaneous if affecting the mandible, oro-nasal sinus if affecting the maxilla. The constant loss of bicarbonate in saliva can lead to a profound acidosis which can be prevented by giving 1 tablespoonful of baking soda once or twice daily as a drench. However, the problem will not resolve until the site is revised and the leaking duct repaired. A bone or enamel sequestrum may form if the tooth crumbles as it is extracted. Success rates Extraction, preferred by alpaca clients 90% success rate Root amputation, preferred by llama clients 75% success rate Antibiotics and curettage 60% success rate Antibiotics alone 30-40% success rate Prevention Some individuals are predisposed to dental abscesses, either because of anatomy or feeding practice. Feed good quality hay to avoid damage by tough stems. One client was offered free of charge a batch of round bales destined for cattle. Six weeks later, 15 individuals had dental abscesses. There were no further problems once he returned to using good quality hay. Do not routinely float cheek teeth. Overview Tooth root infection is a relatively common problem in camelids. Owner and veterinarian awareness is probably responsible for the increasing frequency of diagnosis of these lesions. Dental surgery in camelids can be rewarding, but proper facilities and equipment should be available for optimal treatment and outcome. 10