Malta and a Social Policy in the Making

ISSN 2277-0844, Volume 4, Issue 1, pp 1-7, March, 2015.
Online Journal of Social Sciences Research
©2015 Online Research Journals
Full Length Research
Available Online at http://www.onlineresearchjournals.org/JSS
Malta and a Social Policy in the Making
Dr Andrew Azzopardi
Senior Lecturer, Department of Youth and Community Studies, Faculty for Social Wellbeing, University of Malta, Malta.
E-mail: [email protected]; Tel.: (+00356)23402918.
Received 19 February, 2015
Accepted 17 March, 2015
Social policy is a term which is applied to various areas of policy, usually within a governmental or
political setting. It can refer to guidelines, principles, legislation and activities that affect the living
conditions conducive to human welfare. It is generally viewed as the study of human wellbeing. This
concept denotes action as well as end results and therefore implies changing situations, systems,
practices and behaviour. The awareness of social policy in Malta increases in importance during
economic recession because people feel that their standard of living might be threatened. In this paper
the researcher defines social policy and explains how it can be applied to all individuals in Malta. The
discussion is a clear distinction between the individual and the collective well-being. Finally, the paper
makes a case in favour of the value of intangible assets which have a determining factor on the state of
well-being.
Key words: Society, human welfare, economic recession, social cohesion, standard of living, Malta.
INTRODUCTION
When discussing social policy, this important question
arises; what do we mean by social policy? And
connected to this is the equally important question;
whose policy is this? The word 'policy' has been taken to
refer to the principles that govern action directed towards
people in need. The concept denotes action and
therefore implies changing situations, systems, practices
and behaviour. The concept of social policy is a complex
one. It is about equity, where everyone‟s rights are
guaranteed. It is a pragmatic measure stemming from the
basic principle of equality and fairness. Social policy as a
concept is not new. It started in Europe [1] as a response
to the increasing communal split resulting from
employment conditions and the insufficiency and
meagerness of social welfare provisions [2]. Social policy
should be constructed in a pro-active manner based
mainly on the notion of healthy living, responsible
choices, healthy environment, interaction, inclusion and
community engagement. Essentially social policy is a key
element in ensuring active citizenship which is about
having equal access and the opportunity to participate
fully in the life of the community [2] and all the decisions
affecting its development. Full and active citizenship is at
the basis of a fulfilled and content life. In other words, an
effective social policy promotes the concept of well being
for all which does not only provide for the prevention from
poverty but ensures inclusion and active citizenship in all
aspects of civic and political life [3]. Thus social
policy primarily refers to guidelines, principles, standards
and legislation that affect the quality of life and good
quality living conditions. In social policy a number of
actions are developed that affect the well-being of
members of a society through the just distribution of
goods and resources. That is why we need to analyse
social policy within a discussion that also includes the
economy. In this respect economic and social policy
discourses need to be analyzed in tandem and both
geared towards wealth generation, sustainable
development, community development and social
cohesion, equality and the democratization of our society
[4]. Essentially the objective of social policy is that the
citizens have a positive life experience. The author‟s
point of view is that we need a social policy model in
Malta that does not reduce social expenditure and curtail
social spending whilst imposing more demanding
eligibility requirements, control benefit expenditure and
eliminate universal entitlement to minimum economic
support. The social policy that we need to design needs
to be centered around models whereby an individual can
attain a decent standard of living despite the unequal
distribution of market-based incomes. Having a welfare
service package and a safety net philosophy remains
pivotal. It is also important to maintain that the social
policy in Malta relies on non-profit and Church run
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charities to augment services and provide value for
money. Conversely, in a globalised World where
competition, consumerism and technology seem to
dominate every aspect of living, the strategy
underpinning our economic and social policy is important
for two main reasons, first, such a strategy maps out a
direction towards the communities that we hope to have
in the future; namely one that empowers and supports its
citizens in their life projects underpinned by the value of
solidarity and second, it is duty bound to be an alternative
Policy and Strategy that makes a difference in the quality
of life and standard of living of its citizens [5].
Values and ideology determine the desired end-goals
of social policy, this together with empirical data that can
document the prevalence and incidence of an identified
social problem, evaluate outcome and determine policy
goals. Some interesting social policy concept emanates
from the Council of Europe’s [6] rich social policy
tradition. These are:
- Promoting social cohesion by increasing the capacity of
our society to ensure the welfare of all its members,
minimising disparities and avoiding polarisation. A
cohesive society is a mutually supportive community of
free individuals pursuing these common goals by
democratic means.
- Constructing social cohesion on a basis of human rights
and the revised European Social Charter, the starting
point of the social cohesion strategy. In this respect
welfare implies not only equity and non-discrimination in
access to human rights but also; The dignity of each
person and the recognition of their abilities and their
contribution to society; namely, respect towards the
diversity of cultures, opinion and religious beliefs; the
freedom of each individual to pursue their own personal
development; the possibility for each person to participate
actively as a full member of society.
- Social cohesion as a responsibility shared by all and
seen as a responsibility for all sectors of society. During
the 20th century it was often considered that, apart from
the role of the family and other traditional social
relationships, welfare was the sole responsibility of the
State, while on the other hand business was responsible
for economic development. In recent decades and as a
result of the phenomenon of globalisation, the economy
has shown that this model is no longer adequate and that
welfare must become a goal shared by all social
stakeholders; the State, the industry and services and the
individual. This new situation does not imply the
withdrawal of the State but leads to its seeking more
varied means of action involving new partners.
Economic and social scenario
Malta is traditionally identified as having a good welfare
state [7]. People are said to be understood in a social
context, rather than as individuals. „Solidarity' is a well
ingrained concept and collective action is the rule of the
day. Our social services are „funded‟ through two main
sources; directly by the State and indirectly through the
free services provided by NGOs. Malta's economy is
dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing especially
electronics and pharmaceuticals and tourism [2] all of
which have been negatively affected by the global
economic downturn. Malta produces only about 20% of
its food needs, has limited fresh water supplies, and has
few domestic energy sources [2]. Malta's geographic
position between the EU and Africa make it a recipient of
illegal immigration, which has strained Malta's economic
resources. The Maltese government is challenged to
contain the budget deficit, which has ballooned in recent
years, placing it above the euro zone's 3% maximum. On
the other hand, the financial services industry has grown
in recent years, but is not fully modernized. It escaped
significant damage from the international financial crisis,
largely because the sector is centered on the indigenous
real estate market and is not highly leveraged. Locally,
the restricted damage from the financial crisis has been
attributed to the stability of the Maltese banking system
and to its prudent risk-management practices. The global
economic downturn and high electricity and water prices
have hurt Malta's real economy [8]. There are some very
crucial notions we need to engage in when linking
economy with social policy. Some of which are:
Sustaining growth: Social policy is there to support the
economy and encourage the private sector with a view to
delivering sustained growth in the country. The
Government should design policies to support the
economy and to target as much support as possible
where it is needed most for families, pensioners,
businesses and to take the action necessary to promote
growth and jobs while ensuring that the public services
offer the hold that is required.
Responsibility: Social policy should outline and indicate
the responsible course of action. The Government should
take to support the Maltese economy during the ongoing
global economic slowdown. We have seen in the last
years the benefits of globalisation with cheaper consumer
goods but also difficulties that need to be overcome in
terms of resources and on restructuring if Malta is to
withstand the competitive pressures of the single market
and the global economy [2]. The economy is successful if
it works for everyone and not just for a few.
Sensible policy: Malta needs to embrace social policies
that take into account the economic realities. Sensible
social policies will not take risks with inflation or let the
public deficit get out of control. The reality today suggests
that everyone needs to be responsible, employers
investing and workers showing restraint on pay. For
example, benefit penalties could be considered if
claimants refuse to turn up for interviews facilitated by the
Employment and Training Corporation.
Adapting and reforming: Malta must adapt and reform
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its economy in order not to be left behind. Anticompetitive practices should be discouraged and stability,
prudence and job opportunities should be a priority. The
Government should be guided by a social policy that
aims for an even split between additional revenue raising
and lower spending, roughly 50:50. Given the scale of the
deficit, there is a need to spread the burden of
adjustment to make it economically and socially credible.
Modern enforcement: It is possible to achieve
considerable savings in social welfare by reforming the
way in which the system works. Savings can be made by
more robust and modern enforcement of anti-fraud
measures. What may be required is a good
comprehensive expenditure review with a definite time
horizon.
New ways to generate wealth: In addition to established
economic measures that have proved successful, new
ways of generating wealth need to be encouraged
particularly in view of the need to increase the
participation of effective micro-enterprises which can help
diversify economic activity.
Outlining an alternative: The challenge for any
administration is to begin an honest public debate about
what kind of economy we want for Malta and how we
might create it. This is already being taken up amongst
many sister parties across Europe [7]. Reference may be
made to the debate on the Good Society that has been
taking place in the United Kingdom in which the issue of
political economy has always been present. What kind of
economy will sustain the Good Society is the key element
here.
Sustainable economy: A sustainable economy can be
built on a number of policy foundations. Government
should substantially boost funding for energy efficiency
projects and other measures to improve the energy
economy in homes and businesses [9]. Waste reduction
policies that can be effectively implemented should be
pursued.
Business promotion: A modern economy sees
significant opportunities for developing businesses which
are not constrained by Malta‟s size in new areas such as
biotechnology,
information
and
communications
technology and design. This is a social policy that
emphasises on traditional values in work, the family, and
nationhood, a good male-breadwinner/family approach to
social policy [5].
The economic debate within a social policy discourse is a
crucial one that ensures that industry and services,
production and consumerism are closely engaged within
a scenario of mutual respect between citizens, regard
towards our communities and reverence towards the
environment. The researcher is particularly worried about
the extensive differences that are developing between
the different social classes, an issue that will be
discussed further on in this paper. Maybe the time is ripe
to understand social policy within a context of liberalism
3
beginning from the premise that everyone is an
individual, and that individuals have rights. Liberals argue
that society is likely to regulate itself if state interference
is removed. Due to the fact that social policy is a
competing ideology, it is a complex concept that carries
tensions and contradictions. It is a concept that reflects
policy-advocacy aimed at reforming social institutions in
order to respond to populations in need. In more ways
than one it is a notion that acts as a social control. The
essential question we need to ask at this point is; what is
the role of government in social policy? What can be said
as being „good‟ for people? The role of government is
„unique‟ in tackling the challenges experienced by small
communities. We need to have an innovative framework
to research social policy.
The „take home‟ pay of every individual is a key
component when evaluating quality of life. Wage
inequalities and an expansion of low-paid jobs, the
inability to produce a well-trained labor force and
accumulative cycles of social disadvantage and exclusion
of vulnerable groups require that we re-think our social
policy within a context of anti-greed measures [9]. We live
in a consumerist society that is constantly enticing
citizens to spend, with media and marketing pressure
pushing people to the brink at times, especially when the
purchasing power of the individual falls short of one‟s
„expectations‟. As a result we need to have systems in
place that guarantee consumer security and we need to
embed in our policy systems consumer education. It is
imperative that we ensure that the necessary regulations
and enforcement systems for the protection of the
consumer are in place and effective. Good corporate
governance and sustainable development at the macro
level is crucial. We need to promote ethical financing and
responsible consumption, ensure sustainable land and
water management and food production, encourage
greater industrial democracy and promote a solidarity
based economy, co-operative societies and social
enterprises by direct investment and supporting
structures [10]. This will all fall into place when we
promote micro enterprises, consumer societies, introduce
„social impact assessments‟ and „consumer impact
assessments‟ when embarking on new projects and/or
measures and ensure the access to public procurement
and responsible consumption by public authorities.
Malta‟s main resource is the people and given that
social policy is meant for the well-being of all, the
economic policy needs to serve this purpose. So while
the economic policy has to be one that rewards
entrepreneurship and innovation, it has to be framed
within a strategy of sustained development and just
distribution of wealth with a commitment towards the
eradication of poverty and social exclusion. In particular,
emphasis needs to be laid on continuous professional
development of the workforce, fair and just rewards,
making work pay and a safety net that offers security and
promotes activation [9].
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Social policy paradigm in Malta
It is important to realize that Malta is a small Country but
with robust traditions cast within a scenario of a resilient
religious cult, a hefty family presence (extended and
nuclear), values and morality directed essentially by
religious beliefs, a momentous charity [11] tradition and
consumer patterns that tend to follow Anglo-Saxon and
Italo models. Naturally, to have a fully-fledged social
policy we need to develop evidence-based research to
help us understand the norms that are governing our
communities (of practice). The initiatives the author is
advocating for will be focusing on identifying the common
values that will take us through the next generation. This
is based on civic integration, synergy and integrity within
a discourse of societal norms and values relating to
social justice and egalitarianism.
Essentially, social policy needs to be developed from
the people and by the people [12]. Taking the citizens on
board and engaging them in policy development and, in
particular involving the users of services is a powerful
exercise in empowerment and collective well-being. The
author proposes the concept of user involvement as a
fundamental right right and duty for all individuals that
informs social policy.
Principles that govern social policy
The principles that should regulate our social policy are
the following; equality of rights; eradicating discrimination;
availability of quality services; basic services that are
affordable by all; special focus on vulnerable populations
within the community; eradicating stigmatisation;
sustainable fiscal policies; service-user participation;
transition from a „pension based‟ to a „services-oriented‟
welfare structure and sustainable and pro-active social
services [13]. Malta has poor, vulnerable and excluded
people in our community, people who are living „hand-tomouth‟ and the slightest predicament will have an
immediate negative impact on them [2]. Others
experience social exclusion, both because of poverty and
also because of conditions that bar them from being fully
immersed in their communities. We need to ensure that
the voice of every citizen is considered as important and
relevant and to have the courage and the de rigueur
social mechanisms to identify the groups and individuals
that have fallen or are prone to plummet by the wayside.
It is central that we identify the scale of values of the
dominant groups in society [2]. Social policy is one
important tool to guarantee that the values of liberty,
equality and engagement lie at the heart of our
communities, but within a context of respect and
autonomy of one‟s individual. We need to keep finding
ways on how to get the citizens to participate and entice
the community as a whole to nourish and take care of
itself. It is vital that we create the necessary
configurations that ensure the involvement of the citizen.
This is crucial and we need to evaluate whether current
systems are really engaging the community, Local
Governments being a case in point.
A social policy paradigm
Social policy needs to cover various aspects that work
together in favour of inclusion and often the piecemeal
approach to social cohesion is ineffective and wasteful. In
social policy, social recognition and well-being is obtained
by full citizenship in the various aspects of social life [4].
Naturally a social policy would require taking in
consideration depth of the recession, unemployment
levels, balancing between tax revenues and public
spending, extent of previous social policy expenditure
and welfare state profile, individual and family savings
amongst other. On the other hand the economic
paradigm is dependent on one‟s ability to earn money
and use it in order to secure inclusion. Most often those
who participate and are included are doing well
economically and socially whilst those who do not have
the fiscal assets are highly limited in this social endeavor.
It is a fact that we cannot keep postponing the reality that
the traditional social support of the extended family is
decreasing and shall continue doing so. However, the
Church structures, the Local Governments and the NGOs
may fill in some of the roles that the traditional extended
family used to fulfil [8]. The Government may consider a
policy of facilitating partnership among these bodies to
take on a more active role in this respect at the
community level. The Catholic Church has a longstanding tradition in providing social welfare services in
Malta, in particular, services for children, the elderly and
disabled people come to mind. Supporting the Church to
rationalise its services and align them to the national
priorities may present the Church with an increased
activity, better reach at community level and costeffectiveness. The Government must also consider
prioritising low income workers, children, elderly, those
struggling with mental health and people with disability as
the priority groups. The strategy of the State should look
at structural change of the main institutions, reform of
major societal institutions and create a universal safety
net always taking into consideration individual and family
responsibility [13]. Social policy depends on regular
review of social indicators that measure social and
employment mobility, indicators of effectiveness and
accountability with regards to each policy and a periodic
review of the overall strategy for social cohesion.
Social policy is there to create the systems and
procedures that support people who fall by the wayside
but also to create the right conditions to find the
necessary services and support to provide the rod rather
than the fish. Moreover we need to look into the future
and take action today to avoid difficult situations. We also
need to instil in our communities a feeling of mutual
responsibility, respect and regard [6]. Namely, children in
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vulnerable situations such as persons with disability,
those with mental health problems and those in need of
care and management; young people who are passing
through drug-related problems and young people with
serious and severe delinquency issues and criminal
career trajectories; families in precarious life-situations,
especially single-parent families; elderly people,
especially those who are living alone or who no longer
have the support of their family; asylum seekers whose
status is inherently exclusive and whose integration into
society is of utmost importance to social cohesion albeit
sensitive and low income workers and in particular those
with low educational/skills base [9]. Unless we priorities
and focus on certain populations we risk trying to do a bit
for everyone and a lot for none. That is why each step
and decision in social policy needs to be supplemented
with the right dose of evidence-based research. In view of
the fact that social policy covers a wide range of policy
measures, it is of great importance that all policies and
interventions are assessed to ensure that they have a
positive collective impact. Through social policy policymakers seek to reform institutions and build a humane
and just society whereby welfare discourses also function
as a means of social control [15].
Inclusive policy making and implementation need to be
debated within a discourse of „social dialogue‟ and the
involvement of multiple stakeholders in policy making.
Implementation may improve social cohesion and
empower disadvantaged groups. In order to achieve this
we need to consider involving social partners and NGOs
in policy-making and evaluation at national, and regional /
local level, involving service-users in service-delivery and
provision (including, planning, design, implementation
and evaluation). Social policy is particularly concerned
with a range of issues extending far beyond the actions of
government. Social and economic conditions shape the
development of welfare.
There is the need to foster full access to social rights
for all citizens by monitoring the phenomena of irregular
migration and look for opportunities for Malta and for the
migrants consistent with the adherence of basic human
rights and international obligations and the resources of
the country. In conjunction we need to facilitate and
improve access to comprehensive and quality social
services and in this respect re-visit the Social Security
Act and bring it up to speed with the current needs of
today‟s communities; in particular eliminate benefits that
are out of sync with the modern times and design social
benefits with the aim of making work pay, empower
people and offer security. This will also entail that we
consider an integrated approach to social services to
enhance effectiveness and avoid waste of resources,
focused on moving people away from poverty. This is a
major project for capacity building with long term effects
and benefits and institutional development should also
take into consideration the new reality of diversity and
therefore develop intercultural sensitive policies and the
5
corresponding staff competencies [3]. Training should be
provided to all the staff to deal effectively with diversity
namely developing the skill of mediation within a policy of
reasonable accommodation. The setting up of an
interagency committee to ensure an integrated and
coherent approach to social policy strategy, capacity
building, standards of service and sustainable service
development are essential considerations together with
all public institutions follow a policy of user involvement in
social services in order to produce better outcomes and
efficiency. Such an approach is based on the premise
that the involvement of users can be catalysts for change
and help organisations become more responsive to the
clients‟ needs and improve services. The imbalance
between users and the administration is changed and the
user is empowered leading the user to become more
confident and self reliant. Moreover, the service system
gains greater legitimacy and would be an exercise of
education in democracy and value for money [3]. A social
system is effective when a government is responsible for
the economic and social welfare of its citizens and has
policies to provide free health care, benefits, free
education and an effective welfare net.
Evidence suggests that differential access to social and
cultural resources can have negative effects on the
opportunities available to individuals and social groups.
Housing policies that aim to improve access to housing
for vulnerable groups have to be based on analyses of
the nature of the housing hardship. In particular we need
to look at the relationship between the extent of the legal
protection and the economic situation, as well as the role
of Government in terms of whether it is willing (and able)
to be active in the housing market or not. The
government has been involved in the provision of social
housing and may consider consolidating this position.
The method may however differ from that of the past in
view of the high level of housing stock available and the
need to exercise caution in the use of limited land space
[10]. But this makes sense if the ability to analyze,
propose, advocate, implement policy-based programs in
social policy requires skills in the methods of indirect
practice. The ability to deliver policy-based concrete
services in face–to-face contact with individuals and
families in an agency setting requires skills in the
methods of direct practice. In order to tackle area-based
and community disadvantage, one may consider
fostering the involvement of all stakeholders in resolving
community problems and promoting local development.
In a nut shell, measures including funding to develop
social capital empower the community to take charge of
its own and increase the democratisation of our
communities by engaging and including everyone in the
life of the community. Ensure that local authorities
receive adequate funding related to the needs of their
communities and that they are accountable for their
performance in meeting those needs. We need to be
meticulous in the funding for social projects. Social policy
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is a crucial “turf” to move from a “socialist” interventionist
approach to a more “neoliberal” flexible method [16].
Social policy is nothing more than a tool for decisionmakers, public-administrators, the labour market and civil
society. It is a way of converging all stakeholders to work
towards the „common good‟. The ingredients that
influence the way social policy is instructed and
implemented are wide-ranging and this section will draw
and describe a number of these elements that will lead
towards the following; pparticipation, needs analysis,
identification of vulnerable groups, resources required
(including budgetary measures), vision and finally
institutional structures. The term integration refers to, not
just one, but a range of approaches or methods for
achieving greater co-ordination and effectiveness
between different services, and to achieve improved
outcomes for the service users. Cost advantages are also
possible. In a small country like Malta, integration of
services should follow a common strategy, complement
each other and apply common standards of practices.
Policies create a huge return in terms of quality,
effectiveness and cost reduction [17]. Discrimination is
one of the factors that contribute to exclusion and poverty
and in this respect should be tackled with vigor and
commitment. Legislation and policy should also ensure
equal rights [6].
The community based services that provide support
(socio-medical) to individuals who cannot go to specialist
centers and who need regular/daily support at home is
seriously lacking. School absenteeism of children whose
parents have mental health problems, disabled
individuals needing help to go out to work and elderly
people who need some support to function independently
are a few examples. Moreover, what is provided is not
integrated and therefore the system may have gaps and
overlaps. The concept of a package of care needs to be
introduced and properly managed. Such integration
should be linked to community centres which should
continue to grow as a focal regional family resource
centre [5]. NGOs should also be a major stakeholder and
empowered to increase their role in the community
together with local government and schools. While our
institutions continue to change and evolve, they often find
themselves in situations that lack credibility and trust
while clients feel frustrated. The public service reform has
been slow at best, at worst it has been an exercise in
increased expenditure and decreasing quality of service.
While change needs to be driven from the highest
echelons of the administration changes need to be
absorbed and implemented at the level of each
department and entity. Institutions tend to change slowly
with the consequences that they may continue to follow
practices and deliver programmes that add no value to
the beneficiary. Furthermore priorities may change and
the benefit would no longer reflect the current needs and
therefore make no difference to the well being of the user
or new user of the service [6]. At the moment the
measure of success is only the degree of expenditure
that goes into the services. We also need to look at
individual utilitarianism and subjective wellbeing and
happiness that all relate to quality of life. This should be
in tandem with socially-oriented perspectives on poverty
with normative and consensual approaches to social
exclusion [10].
The solidarity based economy is a recent concept
which basically advocate for viable business initiatives
that are sensitive to the environment, include in their
recruitment policy, people who might not be able to
compete in the market economy and deliver a marketable
product or service. This concept includes responsible
consumption, an educated consumer and the provision of
ethical financing. In Europe there are about 1,000,000
workers engaged in this type of economy that can run
parallel to the market economy but its driving force is not
the return on investment or the ratio of profit to sales but
the sustainability in terms of financial viability,
employment of people with special needs, support to the
local community and respect for the environment [15].
This concept runs parallel to Corporate Social
Responsibility. Co-operative societies are another
variation yet another important model of doing business.
Social policy is about encouraging incentives and
benefits accorded to mainstream business. These
solidarity based initiatives benefit from incentives and
support. The NGOs are once again strategically placed to
play a leading role and should be roped in. Furthermore
such initiatives entail a culture of entrepreneurship and in
this respect may consider supporting school based
initiatives [2]. What happens when people find
themselves left out of communities? The quality of life of
a population is an important concern in so many areas
and a significant part of our standard of living is
measured by many social and economic factors. The
notion of community development is most certainly
crucial in the representation and debates surrounding this
phenomenon.
„Community,
Governance
and
Participation‟ are the three main ingredients for effective
social policy.
Conclusion
Social policy is a complex notion bearing a multiplicity of
personal, occupational and economic interactions that
are in a continuous transformation. For the stability of
society to be maintained citizens require a steady flow of
solidarity. Social inclusion cannot be an isolated
experience divorced from reality but a shared community
responsibility. As we have seen in this article, the social
policy indicators that point towards social stability are [18]
employment, health services, social services, access to
post-secondary opportunities, increase in children and
youth participation in NGOs and Local Councils,
improved provision of services and increased
representation and opportunities for disadvantaged
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groups. If this is achieved we will have a society that is
genuinely community-based with robust governance and
a stronger heritage [18, 19]. Social policy should be proactive and dynamic, listen to what the grassroots are
saying and create the ambiance that will make people
feel good about participating in the development of their
own life projects and communities [3, 19, 20].
nd
ed.). NY:
[18] Council of Europe, Experts on youth policy indicators – third and
concluding meeting on 26-27 March 2003 – European Youth Centre,
Strasbourg – final report, Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2003a.
[19] Azzopardi A. Participation of Young People in the Voluntary Sector,
2012.
[20] Barton H. Sustainable communities – The potential for econeighbourhoods. London: Earthscan. 2000.
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