Philosophical Counselling within the Realm of a Four

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Philosophical Counselling within the Realm of a Four Stage Counselling Model
Prof D J Louw
171 Dorp Street
Stellenbosch 7600
[email protected]
Introduction
Theories, schemata of interpretation, paradigms and rational patterns of thinking determine
the networking of human minds (mind set) as well as processes of interpretation
(hermeneutics). As argued earlier, the theory, paradigm or idea behind a human action plays a
decisive role in dispositions/attitudes (habitus), and the human attempt to come to grips with
the demands of life1. The undergirding conviction about the hoped outcome of life, the
eventual ultimate goals, projected perceptions about destiny, prescribed cultural taboos and
customs, all of them determine processes of healing.
The idea of health captured, portrayed and reflected in the notion of human wellness play a
fundamental role in wholeness. The connection between healing and life views is decisive in
processes of spiritual healing. The basic assumption is: Life becomes ‘sick’ due to
inappropriate philosophies of life and skewed perceptions and expectations. On the other
hand, the healing of life sets in when convictions, perceptions and ideas are appropriate in
terms of daily demands and criteria set by dominating cultures, contexts and customs. A
pathology in life correlates with the dynamics between appropriate and inappropriate
responses, and between rational/comprehensive and irrational/unrealistic thinking.
Irresponsible behaviour as the outcome of unrealistic ideologies, adds up to misery and dread.
Healing therefore presupposes a paradigm change on a meta-level; i.e. the level of
conceptualisation and of normativity (realm of convictions). Disintegration of behaviour
encompasses more than neurotic dysfunction, psychiatric disturbance and physical or
neurological illness. Disintegration implies more than irrational thinking. The disintegration
of life is also a matter of disintegration on a broader, existential level. Disintegration
corresponds with the quality of life choices and external social structures of life; it touches
the area of schemata of interpretation – the idea-matic level of life views. The integration of
life corresponds with a kind of integral spirituality that deals with the philosophical roots of
convictions, moral decision-making, and framework of meaning.
The idea-matic realm of life (Weltanschauung): the evaluative conception of ideology
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Reader (2008:6) aptly points out that the field of practical theology was for many times dominated by the clerical and
official paradigm. On the other hand practical and pastoral theology has been overtaken by ideas from the fields of
psychology and sources of therapeutic knowledge. In the meantime the “hermeneutical model of pastoral engagement”
(Reader 2008:6) surfaced and is putting new challenges before practical and pastoral theological reflection.
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In his book Ideology and Utopia, Karl Mannheim (1966:49) reflects on the sociological and
philosophical meaning of ideologies in processes of conceptualisation. According to
Mannheim the term denotes (a) distortion of reality and a kind of scepticism; that we are
sceptical of ideas and representations as applied by systems of thinking. The ideas are
regarded as more or less conscious disguises of the real nature of a situation, the true
recognition of which would not be in accord with the real nature of things. Reality becomes
distorted by the human schema of interpretation. “These distortions range all the way from
conscious lies to half-conscious and unwitting disguises; from calculated attempts to dupe
others to self-deception” (Mannheim 1966: 49). However, there is another conception of
ideology which can be differentiated from lies and distortions, namely (b) a more inclusive
total conception of ideology that refers to the concern to capture “the characteristics and
composition of the total structure of the mind” (Mannheim 1966:50) of the epoch or thinking
frameworks in the history of humankind (modes of thought) within concrete social and
cultural contexts. This is more or less what is meant by the concept idea-matic.
Idea-matic thus refers to the concern for frameworks of interpretation that captures the
comprehensive and inclusive function of ideology in differentiation from the more negative
associations with the term. The point is, according to Mannheim, ideologies, i.e. those
complexes of ideas which direct activity toward the maintenance of the existing order, and
utopias – or those complexes of ideas which tend to generate activities toward the change of
the prevailing order – do not merely deflect thought from the object of observation, but also
serve to fix attention upon aspects of the situation which otherwise would be obscured or pass
notice.
Idea-matic is closely related to a sense of optimum in life and the creation of evaluative
concepts that can direct actions in a meaningful and purposeful way. “Without evaluative
conceptions, without the minimum of a meaningful goal, we can do nothing in either the
sphere of the social or the sphere of the psychic” (Mannheim 1966:18).
When ideas become detached from reality and make human beings ‘blind’ for the existential
realities, they becomes sick. With reference to Bacon’s theory of the idola, false ideas refer to
the fact that ideas can become phantoms or preconceptions that distorts and become sources
of error derived from misconceptions (in Mannheim 1966:55). “The particular conception of
ideology therefore signifies a phenomenon intermediate between a simple lie at one pole, and
an error, which is the result of a distorted and faulty conceptual apparatus, at the other”
(Mannheim 1966:54).
The point in Mannheim’s sociological analysis of ideology is that the core issue at stake in a
constructive understanding of ideology is that a conceptual apparatus (an idea: see for
example the notion of apartheid) act as a kind of Weltanschauung (conceptualised world
view; comprehensive framework of interpretation dictating the significance of daily life
events). A conceptual apparatus determines meaningful interpretation and determines the
conative on a very subtle and subconscious way. It feeds ideas and expectations in life. It is
culturally embedded and used by economics, politicians and spiritual leaders in communities
to influence human behaviour and decision-making.
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One can even argue that idea-matic structures determine the appropriateness of belief systems
and religious convictions. For example, when religious schemata of interpretation are
intertwined with political aspirations for power, the danger of religious and spiritual
pathology set in. When projected onto God, the ideology of power and religious
indoctrination, lead to fanaticism and spiritual pathology. In this respect irrational thinking
together with skewed philosophical ideas contribute to unhealthy social, political and
religious practices. Piety and God-images can easily become tools to inflict practices of
discrimination and abuse of power; communities of faith are then manipulated to establish
political ideologies that estrange believers from sound decision-making and moral behaviour.
Philosophies of life together with religious convictions can become the most threatening
factor in the human quest for meaning and dignity. Behind racial discrimination, gender
inequality, xenophobia, social violence and fraud, lurk skewed paradigmatic issues.
In his book Birds without Wings (2005:331), Louis de Bernières describes the impact of
religious differences when high jacked by political ideologies. Set against the backdrop of the
collapsing Ottoman Empire, the Gallipoli campaign and the subsequent bitter struggle
between Greek and Turks, the author traces down the fortunes of one small community in
South-west Anatolia – a town in which Christians and Muslim lives, and traditions have coexisted peacefully for many centuries. When war is declared and the outside world intrudes,
the twin sources of religion and nationalism lead to forced marches and massacres and the
peaceful fabric of life is destroyed.
“But at that time not one of us doubted that it was holy war, and all of us were intoxicated
with the idea of martyrdom, and the imams told us that if we dies in a holy war, then we
would meet the prophet himself in the garden where he abodes, and when we would be
carried there by the green birds of paradise that come only for martyrs ,and we knew that God
had promised us success, and we knew that it is hard to get to Heaven and easy to get to Hell,
and we were being given a chance to go straight to Heaven with no questions asked. It made
us feel very good. If we shed a drop of blood, it would wash away our sins on the instant,
God would not judge us, and on the day of resurrection each of us would have the privilege
of naming seventy people who we wished to enter paradise with us, and they would enter it,
and so all our family and our friends would be there with us, and the best thing was that when
we reached paradise we would have seventy –two virgins to wait on us and do our pleasure.
When we were in a coarse mood we often talked about the seventy-two virgins, and if you are
a young man, what more could you want in your imagination?”
The idea of ‘holy war’, ‘martyrdom’, ‘paradise’ ‘heaven with seventy-two virgins’ motivated
men to destroy peace in a small village. The skewed idea created a spiritual pathology of
hope that intoxicated the religious mind-set of young men. It actually destroyed their
understanding of the meaning of life as well as their identity as human beings. The ideology
leads to inhumane behaviour and expectations.
In the same way, built on the fear for communism and black power, the apartheid ideology
destroyed many lives in the South African society during the time of the apartheid-regime.
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The belief that whites and blacks should legally be separated created the illusion of peaceful
co-existence.
The peaceful settlement by means of a non-violent revolution of negotiation with the ‘formal
end’ of the ideology of apartheid in South Africa, followed by the democratic constitution in
1994, is busy to crumble under the threat of different skewed ideologies regarding affirmative
action, division of land, racial prejudice and sectional privileges. It seems as if sound
reflection and philosophical soberness disappear under the pressure of political claims for
wealth and power. The spiritual pathology of threat power is busy to overrule the sound
values of human dignity, responsible decision-making and wise discernment.
The role of paradigms and the idea-matic realm of life, philosophies of life and their
connection to the ideology of power, are emphasized by current conflicts all over the globe.
According to a news report (Die Burger 2014:2) the secretary general of the United nations,
Ban Ki-moon, responded to the crisis in the Middle East and Syria and is of opinion that the
horizon of hope in 2014 is bleak and dark. It seems as if the world is falling apart, there is an
upheaval of crises and the threat of the Ebola virus is causing concern and anxiety. Barack
Obama, in his response at the United Nations on the Syrian crisis, is convinced that the world
is on the crossroad between war and peace.
In the meantime the USA began bombing ISIS and started with obscure allies (with reference
to human rights issues in many Arabic states) military action against the Islamic State of Iraq
and Greater Syria (ISIS). According to a report in Time (Scherer 2014:20) Obama has
unilaterally ordered already more than hundred bombing runs on ISIS targets in northern Iraq,
citing his authority under Article II of the Constitution to protect U.S. lives and offer
humanitarian aid. The boiling question behind the offences is the paradigm of humanitarian
aid and the understanding of democracy. “But Obama has repeatedly promised the American
people a more democratic approach to warfare” (Scherer 2014:11).
At stake in global healing is the question about schemata of interpretation and its connection
between philosophies of life and the ideologies of power. It seems to me that currently, in
global paradigmatic concerns, five ‘ideologisms’ (extreme forms of the abuse of ideas in their
connection to political, power strategies) are surfacing: (a) the ideology of American
‘humanitarian democracy’ and unbridled individualism encapsulated between war and peace;
(b) the ideology of Middle East oil-wealth and trade capitalism; (c) the religious ideology of
‘holy war’ (jihad) and spiritual fanaticism; (d) the ideology of Beijing’s make-in-China masslabour based upon the exploitation of (cheap) production; (e) the Moscow-ideology of
Vladimir Putin-centralism and national control. One can even identify a sixth (f): the
ideology of Great Optimization by means of the digital tsunami known as Big Data with the
hope that information overload will improve our lives (cyber wholeness).
Paradigms and ideologies are not neutral issues; they are closely connected to power
struggles, political and cultural patterns of thinking. Implied are values regarding the quality
of human life. Our pursuit of happiness, as well as our disillusionments about the reality of
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fate and tragedy, is woven into the normative and prescriptive character of philosophical life
scripts regarding the eventual meaning and destiny of life.
On a spiritual level one could argue that spiritual pathology is linked to questions regarding
good and bad, happiness and evil, success and failure, destiny and doubt, meaning and
hopelessness, hope and helplessness, acceptance and rejection, gratitude and anxiety. All of
these constitute a web of probable senses/experiences of well-being or uneasiness. Acute
forms of uneasiness and severe experiences of loss, suffering, emotional and physical pain,
lead to dread and misery (existential pain and sickness). On a more religious level, doctrine,
rituals, the content of belief systems, all of these can either contribute to ‘spiritual well-being’
or ‘spiritual pathology’.
The undergirding assumption of this chapter is that severe forms of socio-spiritual and
psycho-religious pathology can be traced back to the unilateralism of skewed philosophies of
life (pathology of Weltanschauung), fixed rational constructs about the destiny of life. On a
more religious level, inappropriate God–images and the zombie categories of orthodox
dogmatism add up to fanaticism, hypocrisy and the eventual spiritual pathology lurking in
belief systems. Furthermore, behind fanatic, rigorist religious behaviour lurk irrational
thinking and skewed philosophical ideas about power, political aspirations and the normative
dimension of life. Behind different forms of inappropriate spiritual practices, improper
behaviour, ineffective modes of hoping, dysfunctional structures in, for example, the
dynamics of love, human sexuality, marriage relationships, couple communication, family
interaction, church polity, and political rhetoric, hide unhealthy or sick patterns of thinking.
Spiritual healing should incorporate transformation of irrational convictions, and reframing of
outdated philosophies of life. The point is: the categories which we apply to interpret life can
become skewed and outdated (inappropriate in terms of new demands and paradigm shifts
which already took place, while one still cling to old and out-fashioned ones). Pathology is
then closely related to what is called ‘zombie categories’(Reader 2008:1).
Zombie categories: inappropriate philosophical roots
Due to the important role of theories in scientific research, one should continuously assess
whether a theory is still valid in terms of human needs within cultural contexts. Theory
formation is contiguously engaged in the interplay between paradigmatic conceptualising and
contemporary world views or philosophies of life.
In his book on Reconstructing Practical Theology, Reader (2008:1) warns against the danger
of “zombie categories” (Ulrich Beck), i.e. the continued employment of concepts that no
longer do justice to the world we experience and yet which are difficult to abandon because
of tradition, and also because they are not yet totally redundant. Zombie categories are
therefore described as the “living dead”, the tried and familiar frameworks of interpretation
that have served us well for many years and continue to haunt our thoughts and analyses,
even though they are embedded in a world that is passing away before our eyes.
Reader (2008:6) aptly points out that the field of practical theology was for many times
dominated by the clerical and official paradigm. On the other hand practical and pastoral
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theology has been overtaken by ideas from the fields of psychology and sources of
therapeutic knowledge. In the meantime the “hermeneutical model of pastoral engagement”
(Reader 2008:6) surfaced and is putting new challenges before practical and pastoral
theological reflection. The “monogamy of space” of the earlier modern age has been
transformed into the “polygamy of space” (Reader 2008: 11), while the categories rural and
urban made place for the categories of local (integration) and global (fragmentation).
Theories, schemata of interpretation, paradigms and rational patterns of thinking as related to
the function of the “human spirit” to transcend the merely mundane realm of life, determine
the networking of human mind, and processes of interpretation (hermeneutics) in such a way
that the theory or idea behind the human action, plays a decisive role in dispositions/attitudes
(habitus) and the human attempt to come to grips with the demands of life. They determine
processes of healing, but can also lead to “spiritual illness” and pathology. The idea
embedded in theory and expressed in rational categories or paradigms, can change human
behaviour. “Ideas” can promote meaningful perspectives and actions, but on the other hand
also instigate the “the illness of the human mind”: i.e. skewed perceptions, unrealistic
expectations and irrational thinking.
In a nutshell: Ideas (rational forms as patterns of reality) shape and determine human selfunderstanding within existential realities. In order to change people the presupposed
framework or form needs to be disputed, therefore the role of philosophy in counselling, i.e.
the need for philosophical counselling.
Within interdisciplinary networking, philosophy could be rendered as the most important
auxiliary science in processes of theory formation in theology. For example, the language of
the early church on trinity was shaped by the metaphysics of substance, with concepts such as
homoousios (of one substance) and hypostasis (reality); Christ as first Logos; the
omnipotence of God as a Caesar-like pantokrator. Even psychology developed from
philosophy. In this regard, going back to our philosophical roots can help practical theology,
and very specifically pastoral theology, to discover perhaps new avenues for theory formation
in counselling.
Carl Rogers (1951:4-5) acknowledges that psychology and psychotherapy is deeply rooted in
American culture and determined by its philosophical roots. “Some of its roots stretch out
even further into educational and social and political philosophy which is at the heart of our
American culture.” He admits that an operational philosophy of the individual determines the
skilfulness of a counsellor (Rogers 1951:20). The individual must select and choose his/her
own values. Client-centered therapy is therefore determined fundamentally by the following
philosophical presupposition: a nondirective approach and respect for the individual (Rogers
1951:21). Rogers’ so-called ‘new approach’ relies “heavily on the individual drive toward
growth, health, and adjustment” (Rogers1942:29).
The idea embedded in theory and expressed in rational categories or paradigms, can change
human behaviour. “Ideas” can promote meaningful perspectives and actions, but on the other
hand, also instigate the “the illness of the human mind”: i.e. skewed perceptions, unrealistic
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expectations and irrational thinking. In a nutshell: ideas (Plato2: the form as pattern of reality)
shape and determine human self-understanding within existential realities.
Forms (ideas): the shaping of the human mind
With reference to the importance of “ideas’, “forms” regarding the shaping of our lives, the
following example. Sigmund Freud’s book: The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) changed in
a radical way psychological anthropology. Freud’s idea about the essence of our being human
was expressed in the theory that the human nature consists of the unconscious, repression,
infantile sexuality (leading to the Oedipus complex), and the tripartite division of the mind
into ego, the sense of self; superego, broadly speaking, the conscience; and id, the primal
biological expression of the conscious (Watson 2000:12-13).
In his book on people and ideas that shaped the modern mind, P. Watson (2000:29) refers to
Hugo von Hofmannsthal’s remarkable statement in 1905 that the nature of our epoch is
multiplicity and indeterminacy. Everything is slipping and sliding. What generations believed
to be firm is in fact das Gleitende.
Einstein shattered the Newtonian worldview of solid substance with his notion of relativity.
His theory that all mass has energy as hypothesized in his paper on the electrodynamics of
moving bodies, which became known as the Special Theory of Relativity, modified the
Newtonian cosmology , based on the straight lines of Euclidean geometry and Galileo’s
notions of absolute time (Johnson 1983:1). The theory, namely that there is no absolute
motion, changed cosmology and paved the way for the so-called cultural interpretation of
‘post modernity’.
The arrival of Max Planck’s quantum physics was a remarkable break with the mechanistic
and deterministic paradigm of interpretation. Planck described an ‘atom’ of radiation which
he called a ’quantum”. He confirmed that nature was not a continuous process but moved in a
series of extremely jerks (Watson 2000:25).
In a more popular style, N Ferreira (2009:4) accuses the church from holding on to metaphors
derived from what he calls the mythological period of reflection. With reference to transpersonal psychology and the three phases of pre-rational (archaic, magical, mythological),
rational and post-rational, it is his contention that we are living in a pluralistic-holistic stage
which operates according to post-rationalism. The category post-rational refers to holistic and
integral reflection, i.e. the mode of networking.
In the light of the previous, the advantage of philosophical counselling is: it probes into the
appropriateness of schemata of interpretation and the paradigmatic context of wisdom
thinking. It deals with questions probing into the realm of intention, motivation,
purposefulness, eventual goals: What is the undergirding theory behind an existing practice
(world view and belief system?; which idea is shaping the mind (appropriateness of
conceptualisations)?; what are the normative frameworks of meaning and undergirding
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According to Plato, knowledge probe into the reality of the form or idea which determine the meaning of appearances. In
this regard Plato referred to, for example, the “Form of Beauty” as the “unchangeable” essence of things which have a real
existence independent of our minds. Plato: 19463:183.
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presuppositions/assumptions that determine ethos?; what is the eventual outcome and wished
future scenario that will make a constructive difference in the light of previous maladaptive
behaviour, problematic responses and inappropriate attitudes within the practice of hoping,
helping and healing?
The philosophical roots of ideas
Philosophical counselling probes into the paradigmatic roots of both the existing culture, the
framework of ideas beyond (signals of transcendence – Berger) and the philosophical
convictions of both the counsellor and counselee. In order to change people the framework or
philosophical forms need to be disputed. Forms or ideas determine our human quest for
meaning, thus the role of philosophy in counselling, i.e. the need for philosophical reflection
in decision-making and true discernment.
This need can be illustrated when the practice of counselling deals with several existential
issues in life. For example: people enter marriage with a very specific “idea” about
“marriage” and “love”. Influenced by the “philosophy of romantic love” as projected by film
and media, couples behave according to the following “illusion”: the proof that he/she loves
me resides in the emotion of “I-am-wanted” and the impression that love exits without
conflict and within the possibility of an unqualified “yes”. Nowadays marriage is portrayed as
a “living partnership” within the form of “experiential cohabitation”. The traditional idea of a
church or official marriage is becoming outdated. The Hollywood notion of “instant love”
and “sex-on-lay-by” become the normative “idea” that shapes the emotional needs of
couples.
Behind the institution of marriage lurks the danger of ideologies of love. Thomas Hardy
(1985:305) in his novel Jude the Obscure (first published in 1896) unmasks the destructive
impact of rigid religious and skewed cultural convictions on the love relationship between
male (Jude) and female (Sue). “But sometimes a woman’s love of being loved gets the better
of her conscience, and though she is agonized at the thought of treating a man cruelly, she
encourages him to love her while she doesn’t love him at all.” This skewed perception of love
and gender roles destroyed the identity and life view of both the main characters Jude and
Sue with tragic consequences to their framework of meaning; it ruined their love relationship,
thus the remark of Mrs Edlin: “Weddings be funerals ‘a b’lieve nowadays.” (Hardy
1985:479).
Within the gender debate a very specific idea and philosophy determine male or female
identity. For example, the crisis of male identity within the social construction of
“masculinities” (males must be rude, muscular and strong and in control of their emotions),
points in the direction of the influence of public images shaped by the philosophy of
masculinities as projected by the social media. In the counselling of men, these normative
philosophies and ideas about masculinity should be disputed and changed in order to “heal”
males. Healing and therefore counselling males has become a systemic issue.
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A good example of the impact of communication technology and the mass media on being
male/female is the philosophical concept of hegemonic masculinity3: the athletic male body
as a mark of power and moral superiority. It has become a dominant, global idol in Western
thought: white, middle-class heterosexuals (Dworkin 2004:158)
Other variations include the Adonis Complex, which describes male image and masculinities
in terms of a preoccupation with building muscles, a lean body, appearance and good looks in
terms of clothing and grooming, and often in terms of the size of the penis.
Another social philosophy is the concept of metrosexuality where the male is in contact with
the female component of his being, but freed from the strict categories and classifications of
masculinities of the past. The metrosexual person lives in the metropolis within the different
options of “a Man’s World”. The David Beckham icon opens up the world for the
metrosexual from the gym to the hairdresser. Metrosexuality within a postmodern paradigm
beyond any past “isms” and stereotypes nowadays even becomes the Ǚbersexual where men
are portrayed in terms of categories such as the quality of their status and the positive aspects
of being male; maleness as excellence and something to be proud of.
Gender issues (as indicated by the above-mentioned philosophical developments in male
images) are closely linked to stereotypes and in this the regard the media plays a decisive
role. For example, Gauntlett (2002:38) refers to the phenomenon of scopophilia.
Scopophilia is the voyeuristic gaze directed at other people as part of the pleasures of cinema.
The pleasure in looking leads to the male gaze projecting its fantasies onto the female figure
which is styled accordingly, and vice versa. In their traditional exhibitionist role women are
simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and
erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at In this regard the role of
magazines in stereotyping should be emphasized. According to Gauntlett (2002:187-191)
men should be handsome and self-confident. The ideal is that men should be well built with
muscles, good in bed, happy in relationships, witty, considerate, skilled in all things, and have
sex with a lot of attractive women.
Personal self-esteem, for a male, required public performance. In this regard boys grew up
with the notion of the pre-eminence of men. Males should therefore be the head of everything
(Driver 1996:43-65). Notions such as “male supremacy”, “male chauvinism” and the cultural
archetype of the “super-macho” refer to the dominant positions of males in society. Supermacho, violent body contact sports such as wrestling, football; rugby and boxing enforced
this rigid macho image, because in the eyes of viewers the crowds will respond to a player
coming back onto the field after an injury: “What a man!” (Goldberg 1976:112-113).
Within the gender debate what should be changed in order to heal males is the cultural and
philosophical concept of “patriarchalism” Without a paradigm switch individual males are
not going to change their life styles and sexual behaviour. Counselling males are therefore in
3
According to T. Carrigan, et al. ‘Toward a new Sociology of Masculinity’, (2004:151-165) the differentiation of
masculinities is psychological, but also institutional and an aspect of collective practice. Hegemonic masculinity is to impose
a particular definition on other kinds of masculinity (154).
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need for different and appropriate male images in order to address many relational and social
issues.
Within the HIV and AIDS debate the necessity for philosophical counselling has become
paramount. For example: HIV and AIDS is a punishment for irresponsible behaviour. It is
quite clear that within the HIV and AIDS discourse, stigmatisation and its connection to
gender issues, for example the social and cultural construct of masculinities, have become
critical issue: sexual performance without condoms is a proof of male independency. The fact
is that the notion of gender is deeply determined by philosophical paradigms stemming from
hierarchy and patriarchal cultural systems.
Perceptions regarding how men should behave and express their being male (masculinities)
determine behaviour and contribute without any doubt to the HIV and AIDS epidemic. “Men
and boys are supposed to be strong, have many sexual partners, get what they want through
forms of aggression and have a lack of sensitivity for feelings. The strict gender norms hinder
dialogue, healthy relationships and positive sexual relations” (RFSU 2007:15).
Horrocks (1994:143) refers to the crisis of masculinity when he points out that males feel
powerless in our contemporary society. Under the pressure of the gender debate, and the
demand to come in contact with their feminine side, men are becoming more and more
uncertain of themselves. They often escape in a very artificial mode of being. Even tend to
behave more violently in their attempt to destroy their vulnerable side and sensitivity. Within
poor communities, due to unemployment and disrupted social structures, they become
desperate.
Within the patriarchal society, male identity was fixed and prescribed. Suddenly within a
postmodern and global society every part of our being human is subjected to severe scrutiny
and processes of radical deconstruction. Males are therefore becoming more exposed to
public criticism. It results in an existential crisis an uncertain self-esteem. Who am I and what
is my purpose and function in life? These questions reveal a possible spiritual emptiness and
confusion.
Could it be that men are trapped in a void empty space of nothingness (nausea) as forecasted
by Jean-Paul Sartre (1968:54)? Are men forced by the current gender debate into
indifference, confusion and uncertainty? “This negative which is the nothingness of being
and the annihilating power both together, is nothingness” (Sartre 1968:54).
Are men the endangered species in a capitalistic vacuum doomed to respond with absurdity?
According to Camus (19653:47) absurdity is the equivalent of philosophical suicide. The
absurd man is told that nothing is. This at least is the only certainty. “He wants to find out if it
is possible to live without appeal. It is a constant confrontation between man and his own
obscurity (19653: 47). And in many of the poor townships in South Africa unemployed young
men live within the desperate situation of philosophical suicide, life without any appeal with
as only alternative violence, rape and high-jacking. Gangsterism becomes a violent
expression of a false identity build upon drugs, rape and corruption.
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According to Peterson (1998:15) the crisis of masculinity should be understood as an aspect
of a broader crisis, i.e. the crisis of modernity and its severe critique of every mode of
categories. It seems as if life has indeed become a kind of “Dead Poets Society”: “Something
of a romance of the wounded son. The failure of the father was enacted in the boy’s selfdestruction” (Rutherford 1992:173).
The new society breads the Rambo-idol; Rambo as the aggrieved adolescent son who smarts
in sullen silence at the injustices done to him by the older man (Rutherford: 1992:178).
The HIV and AIDS epidemic has given rise to accusation (Steinberg 2008:6). With reference
to Lusikisiki, an Eastern Province District in South Africa, Steinberg reveals the crisis of
male identity and sexuality within the cultural setting of a traditional, rural village with very
rigid ideas regarding gender roles.
According to Steinberg (2008:326) it is men particularly whose moral credibility and even
identity is most acutely called into question. Sidibé (2010:32) is therefore convinced that
men’s active involvement could unlock the main obstacles in the AIDS response.
The HIV and AIDS epidemic has put male identity anew under the public spotlight. It is clear
that male sexuality is without any doubt a public issue and under huge pressure. The
confusion of male identity is according to Rutherford (1992) inter alia due to a cultural
context wherein “wayward sons and failed fathers are trying to re-invent the Victorian
paterfamilias, a figure who could enforce oedipal and family structures, ensuring social
stability through a period of demographic upheaval.”
Male identity is no longer a local or private entity. As being part of the discourse on gender,
male identity is an ingredient of the international publics of being an inhabitant of the ‘global
village’. It is moulded and framed by the mass media. It is a by-product of the networking
dynamics and interaction of human relationships as embedded within existing cultural role
functions, needs and expectations.
Male identity is should be viewed an anthropological construct. Anthropology in itself is
about our being human within the experiences of social and public relationships. With public
is here meant images and perceptions of our being human within the networking dynamics of
social relationships and cultural contexts. The further basic assumption is that symbols,
metaphors and language give expression to the basic images that function as prescriptive
indicators for social role modelling. The latter shapes masculinities. As a product of culture
and a societal construction (Galasińsky 2004:81) one can say that masculinity in the past
went hand in hand with social role functions as well as personal and public self-esteem.
Because of cultural differences sociologists prefer the plural “masculinities”. It is an
indication of the fact that gender issues are about philosophical issues embedded in cultural
contexts and perceptions. Attitudes in society are shaped by patterns of thinking within
different societal settings. One can thus argue: philosophical ideas, worldviews determine
attitudes and perceptions and play a fundamental role in identity and issues regarding human
dignity and rights. Therefore to ‘heal’ human beings, the ideas behind cultural shaped
12
paradigms should be assessed, and be critical scrutinized in order to detect the healing of life
(cura vitae).
The argument thus far was that spiritual healing refers inter alia to transformation of skewed
patterns of thinking and existing zombie categories – categories that do not befit
contemporary life issues and critical human needs; obsolete paradigms. The basic hypothesis
is that the fibre, flavour, value, meaning of life is determined by patterns of thinking,
paradigms that direct human behaviour and shape human needs and conditions. Appropriate
convictions about the meaning of life, about goals and future planning, about the telic
dimension of life (purposefulness), determine commitments as well as conative, conative and
affective behaviour. Being functions and different modes of being are shaped by
philosophical schemata of interpretation – convictions as driving forces of life. In order to
change the value and meaning of life, rational constructions should be tested in terms of the
possible threat of irrational belief systems, i.e. belief systems that contribute to dread and
anxiety, false guilt, severe doubt and despair, desperate feelings of helplessness and
hopelessness, frustration manifested in anger and violent –aggressive - behaviour, vulgar and
greed and the exploitation of life and nature. Human dread is therefore a by-product of the
disposition of despair wherein despondency is intertwined with hopelessness as an indication
of a philosophical stance of unhope (inespoir)
Non-hope: the philosophical stance of tragic hopelessness –unhope (inespoir) and the
human quest for encouragement and growth
Behind radical and total resignation and the conviction that everything is in vain, lurk specific
views that shape expectations about the outcome of life. Existential dread stems from an
unarticulated disposition determined by the despondency of non-hope (apelpizō): the
existential resignation before the threat of nothingness. The antipode of hope is therefore not
merely despair, but hopelessness as the disposition of indifferentism, sloth and hopelessness
(Bollnow 1955:110). The French philosopher Gabriel Marcel called this desperate situation
of dread without a meaningful sense of future anticipation, unhope (inespoir) with the
eventual threat of destructive resignation: désespoir (Marcel 1935:106).
E. Brunner (1953:7) captured the philosophical disposition after World War II: hope
destroyed by anxiety and the threat of annihilation. For Brunner anxiety is the negative mode
of hoping and expectation. Edmaier (1968:49) asserts that the need for hope surfaces within
the experience of loss, dread and the threat of destructive annihilation. The affective mode of
hope, hope as a mood swing, is thus linked to the dynamics between threat/anxiety and
expectation.
According to Heering (1964:17-20) the root of the connection hope - anxiety can be traced
down to the metaphysical pattern of thinking in Greek philosophy. When tragedy is the
overarching philosophical paradigm for the interpretation of the meaning of life, as in the
case of classic Hellenism, fate (moira) becomes the dominating paradigm of interpretation. A
philosophy of life, constructed by a fatalistic schema of interpretation and a nihilistic
metaphysics, is manifested in a mood of dread, anxiety and guilt. Hope could then be
rendered rather as a vice (as in the Pandora legend), or a bad affect (the scepticism of Stoic
13
philosophy) than a positive virtue. Unrealistic forms of hope can therefore cause
disillusionment and disappointment and thus should be avoided and addressed.
Due to the possible danger of disillusionment and the artificiality of false optimisms, both
Nietsche and Kierkegaard were men who lived in passionate revolt against the smugness of
the nineteenth century, particularly against the cheapness of its religious faith (the urge for
political power and the hierarchical clericalisation of church polity), and the brash confidence
of its secular reasoning or generally against its shallow optimism, worldly idealism and
tendency to conform (Guinness 1973:13). “So then it is an infinite advantage to be able to
despair; and yet it is not only the greatest misfortune and misery to be in despair, no, it is
perdition” (Kierkegaard 1953:148).
While facing existential dread and the fear for death, it is the emphasis on the cult of selfrealisation that causes despair: the fear to be oneself and the awareness of not being oneself
(Kierkegaard 1953). The imperative of self-actualisation and self-maintenance within a lifeview fed by psychological optimism, leads inevitably to severe doubt and the notion of fear
and trembling. “The hopelessness in this case is that even the last hope, death, is not
available” (Kierkegaard 1953:151). Without a sound foundation of trust and faith, despair,
hopelessness/un-hope (apelpizō) sets in (Kittel 1935:530). The result is a life of resignation
without the prospect of something new and different.
Within the optimism of a cult of progress, development and growth, the real danger of
hopelessness lurks. This is the reason why American optimism and developmental selfconfidence is often exposed to the possibility of an undergirding and unarticulated fear for the
self.
The client centered approach of C. Rogers is actually based on the optimism of the inner
potential of the self and the psychic capacity for ‘self-healing’; “…we may say that the
counselor chooses to act consistently upon the hypothesis that the individual has the
sufficient capacity to deal constructively with all those aspects of his life which can
potentially come into conscious awareness” (Rogers 1951:24). The advantage of a growth
model is that it focuses less on pathology and problems and more on the inner potential of
humans for self-development. In his book Counseling and Psychotherapy (1942:28) his basic
statement is that the individual and not the problem is the focus. “The aim is not to solve one
particular problem, but to assist the individual to grow, so that he can cope with the present
problem and with later problems in a better-integrated fashion” (Rogers 1942:28).
The interesting point in Roger’s psychotherapy is that the principle of growth is actually
formulated on the presupposition of the psychic energy within the individual towards a selfstructured mode of hoping (self-coping potential). Hope as an inner growth-potential is built
on the emotion and experience of constructive self-confidence (the psychology of ‘within’, of
affective hoping); “… this newer therapy places greater stress upon the emotional elements,
the feeling aspects of the situation, than upon the intellectual aspects” (Rogers 1942:29). The
point is that client centred hope is more focused on the present than on the future and possible
causative past events. “In the third place, this newer therapy places greater stress upon the
immediate situation than on the individual’s past’ (Rogers 1942:29).
14
The argument of existential philosophy is that a hope, utterly dependent on psychological
mood swings, is inevitably extradited to the threat of anxiety. Even the emphasis on a
‘courage to be’ is immediately exposed to anxiety. “Nevertheless it is necessary for an
ontology of courage to include an ontology of anxiety” (Tillich 19653:44). Tillich’s intention
is to warn against an optimistic acceptance ontology based on merely the optimism of
emotional self-coping. D. Stollberg (1969:29), in his study on the action-oriented therapy and
pragmatic approach in the American psychology and psychotherapeutic approach in pastoral
caregiving, pointed out that the hermeneutical principle in counselling is based on the ‘futureoptimism’ (Zukunftsoptimismus) of the American consumer society. It is his conviction that,
due to the impact of Martin Buber’s philosophy of dialogue within different relationships and
Paul Tillich’s method of correlation and ontology of acceptance, pastoral counselling in
America is exclusively based on the notion of inter-human relationships with the exclusion of
any external factor (Stollberg 1969:29, 135). The notion of kerygma gave way to affective
and non-verbal communication.
One should accept the fact that the traditional understanding of ‘counselling’ is intrinsically
determined by an ontology of acceptance, the methodology of correlation (the correlation
between grace/acceptance and the human potential of self-help and self-healing) and the
functional dynamics of relationships. However, Tillich’s notion of acceptance cannot be
isolated from his warning regarding the realism of an ontology of anxiety. Thus the question:
“Is there a courage to be, a courage to affirm oneself in spite of the threat against man’s ontic
self-affirmation?” (Tillich 19653:53). The message of Tillich is that ‘moral self-affirmation’
is constantly exposed to the reality of disillusionment and hopelessness. Moral selfaffirmation is based upon the principle that a human being contributes to his/her destiny, to
the actualisation of what he/she potentially is. But it is exactly on this point of selfaffirmation, that being is overwhelmed by failure and existential anxiety. “A profound
ambiguity between good and evil permeates everything he does, because it permeates his
personal being as such” (Tillich 19653:59). One cannot sidestep the dynamics of anxiety and
guilt. “It is present in every moment of moral self-awareness and this can drive us toward
self-rejection, to the feeling of being condemned – not to an external punishment but to the
despair of having lost destiny” (Tillich 19653:59). For the human being to transcend the
boundaries of anxiety and guilt, hope as a courage to be should be founded by an external
principle of being. Being should be founded by an external factor which functions as the
ground of being, namely divine Being (divine acceptance). “Despair is an ultimate or
‘boundary-line’ situation. One cannot go beyond it” (Tillich 19653:59). The beyond of hope
is founded by and ontology of hope, hope as the courage to be; i.e. self-affirmation of being
in spite of non-being – the courage to accept Acceptance and divine forgiveness (19653:89;
156-161). “The acceptance by God, his forgiving and justifying act, is the only and ultimate
source of a courage to be which is able to take the anxiety of guilt and condemnation into
itself” (19653:162). If that is not the case, being is inevitably delivered out to the despair of
‘homelessness’ – “unheimlichkeit” (Heidegger 1963:185).
Hopelessness as homelessness is what Heidegger describes as a constant condition of anxiety
– to be exposed to void as the experience of nothingness and meaninglessness. While fear can
be traced down to a mundane factor, anxiety is a condition of sheer homelessness,
15
helplessness and homelessness which sets in the moment when being should act in
courageous determination (Entschlossenheit) and become aware of an existential inability to
give meaning to nothingness. Hopelessness then connects to an existential mode of dread,
emanating from the fact that being is structurally determined by death (Sein-zum-Tode). Hope
is now encapsulated between the two possibilities of success and failure. In terms of future,
two options emerge: fear as focused onto a negative, destructive/bad outcome (malum
futurum), or hope as focused onto a positive, fortunate/better outcome (bonum futurum)
(Heidegger 1963:329-341).
The existential analyses of Kierkegaard, Tillich and Heidegger seem to be negative. In
essence they are realistic in the sense that they are meant to warn human beings against the
cheap projection of a better future, and the attempt to manipulate future by means of a
philosophy of unrealistic optimism and the phantom of achievement expectations. In the end
hope, based on fear and manipulation, leads to disappointment, hopelessness and
disillusionment.
The realism of disillusionment has been called by Jean-Paul Sartre: the tragedy of non-being
(existential annihilation). Nothingness (Néant) lurks like a gorging worm in the essence of
being; being is destroyed by nothingness (le Néant ‘est néantisé) (Sartre 1943:58). Hope as
determined by the threat of Néant is therefore merely anxiety projected to the future so that
horror (horreur) becomes the active agent in tragic hoping. In terms of Albert Camus’
(1942:163) notion of the absurd, hope is myth with as only alternative in the present the
strange and contradictory courage of despair (désespoir). Courage (rebellious and brutal selfrealisation) in the present implies to be totally indifferent towards hope. One should become
immune to hope in order to experience the torment of existence as a joyful struggle.
Persistent struggle implies a total absence of hope (L’absence totale d’espoir) (Camus
1942:50, 165).
The value of tragic un-hope is that it underlines the fact that in a critical realism, one should
always reckon with the factuality of existential anxiety and a deeper level of human suffering,
namely the fear and dread for loss and dying, as well as the awareness of total hopelessness
and helplessness stemming from the disillusionment of human failure. The existential
analyses of un-hope, helps one to understand better the dynamics of hoping in both a
theology of hope and a philosophy of hope.
In general one can say a philosophy of hope is about the existential attempt to overcome the
threat of anxiety within the awareness of tragedy, fate (moira) and the constant awareness of
futility. It underlines two basic principles in existential healing: growth and a courage to be.
Un-hope, despair and futility are not the opposites of hope; they are indicators of the total
absence of hope and the inability to hope and to cope with the demands of life; they are
exponents of anxiety due to loss and experiences of rejection. Hope is related to un-hope
((désespoir) as the attempt to overcome distrust, and to come to terms with constant
disillusionment; it is a kind of prognostic expectation for a more constructive future and
courageous anticipation of a humane and just society. This expectation is exactly what Ernst
Bloch’s principle of hope (docta spes) is about. In fact, what we hope for is always ‘before’
16
us, and thus not-yet. Hope as a philosophical principle needs therefore an utopian spirit to
keep human beings going.
Docta spes (Ernst Bloch): utopian spirit in a philosophy of hope
Ernst Bloch’s philosophy of hope is an attempt to describe the dynamic organic principle of
an utopian, even messianic spirit in matter. Docta spes (the principle of hope) describes the
ontological tension between the already and the not-yet. The primary focus and goal in a
principle of hope is to promote a more humane society: a society without class distinction
free of any form of oppression and discrimination.
The twenty first century is characterised by a fundamental paradigm shift from the religiousphilosophical homo divinarus to the philosophical prognostic stance of homo spectans (Polak
1986:271). This is especially true when one takes the American dream of the pursuit of
happiness into consideration. Democratisation should keep the idea of a better life for all
alive. Happiness becomes the ‘idea’ behind pragmatism and functionalism. The idea of safety
and happiness becomes institutionalised as a Freedom Charter with the utopian slogan “A
new World is at Hand”. The United States is thus promoted as a ‘Beacon of Liberty’.
The ‘The Declaration of Independence’ (4th of July 1776) can be viewed as the paradigmatic
framework and idea behind the American view of life. The idea-matic realm of the American
spirit, the meta-realm of the not-yet of the American dream for the future of humankind,
reads as follows: “When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume
among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature
and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that
they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed
by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the
pursuit of Happiness.” With reference to ‘absolute despotism’ the constitution promotes even
a revolutionary stance in order to maintain ‘safety’ and ‘happiness’, and to keep the not-yet of
liberty alive: “it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for
their future security.”4
4
Online: http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration_transcript.html. Accessed: 08/07/20124.
17
The Statue of Liberty: a ‘Deed of Gift (July 1884)5. “Liberty Enlightening the World,” more commonly known as the Statue
of Liberty, was a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States. It stands in New York Harbor. Conceived
by the French sculptor Frédéric de Bartholdi, it celebrates a century of friendship between the two nations. In her left arm,
Lady Liberty holds a tablet inscribed with the date of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776.
Built on a colossal scale, the statue has become one of the most potent symbols of human freedom. The famous sonnet,
composed by Emma Lazarus in 1883, and inscribed on the pedestal in 1903, gives voice to a strain of idealism that
celebrates the United States as a refuge for the oppressed peoples of the world:
“Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless tempest-tost to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!”
From “The New Colossus,” by Emma Lazarus.
National Archives, General Records of the Department of State6
5
6
Online: http://research.archives.gov/description/595444. Accessed: 08/07/2014.
Online:http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters_of_freedom_zoom_pages/charters_of_freedom_zoom_12.1.1.ht
ml. Accessed” 08/07/2014.
18
One can say that the Statue of Liberty captures the utopian spirit of an American not-yet. It is
a profound symbol of hope and captures what one can call the meta-physics of liberty.
Liberty is the paradigm that keeps the hope of nationalism, unification and democratic
politics alive.
However, it seems that the meta-realm, the spirit of hope, the ultimate telos are indeed a notyet, a kind of utopian ultimate, and therefore, always exposed to the possibility of
disillusionment. As an existentiality reality the not-yet is elusive and exposed to unexpected
tragedy and fate. For example, on the 11th of September (2001) the American dream of liberty
made place for anguish and the fear for disaster. When the Two Towers crumpled down, the
pursuit of happiness had been crushed into pieces, and the dream of a safe and happy society
became the nightmare of terrorism.
Left: The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center on fire; A section of the Pentagon collapses; Flight 175 crashes into 2
WTC;A fireman requests help at Ground Zero; An engine from Flight 93 is recovered; Flight 77's collision with the
Pentagon as captured by CCTV. Online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks. Accesses: 08/07/2014. Above
right: 11th September Memorial Cross Wreckage. The World Trade Center cross, also known as the Ground Zero cross,
is a group of steel beams found amidst the debris of the World Trade Center following the September 11, 2001 terrorist
attacks
which
resembles
the
proportions
of
a
Christian
cross.
Online:
https://www.google.co.za/search?q=11th+of+september+cross&hl=en-ZA&gbv=2&tbm=isch&oq=&gs_l=. Accessed: 08/7/2014.Beneath right: American Atheists sued the National September 11 Memorial & Museum’s operators in 2011, saying
the beam’s display would be unconstitutional. Lawyers for the memorial operators said in their papers that the steel beam,
found by rescue workers two days after the terror attacks, was an inspiration. They said workers “took solace in its
symbolism as they searched for survivors and found mostly victims.” Online: http://www.theglobaldispatch.com/september11th-memorial-cross-to-remain-after-atheist-group-lawsuit-tossed-64380/. Accessed: 08/-7/2014.
19
Ernst Bloch, when he proposed his philosophy of hope, maintained the position that the notyet is always exposed to disillusionment, especially when it is dependent solely on human
emotion and sheer optimism. Existential hope has always a shadow side: distrust. The not-yet
therefore needs an ontological dimension and utopian spirit that supersedes psychic energy,
as well as dialectic materialism; it needs a messianic spirit that transcends fate: a ‘Geist der
Utopie’ as exemplified by Thomas Moore and Jesus as Jew.
‘Meta’ in a philosophy of hope is not so much about the attempt to explain life in terms of a
causative principle ‘beyond’ or ‘behind’ the realm of the physics (the origin of being and
life), but to describe the essence of being in terms of a progressive principle of future
projection and anticipation (signals of transcendence). ‘Meta’ is connected to the dynamics of
an intra-life or organic principle of incompleteness; it is about future transformation and
change and renewal (an utopian spirit - Geist der Utopie); it describes an imaginary creativity
determined by the ‘spiritual realm’ of the idea or form behind being. Its focus is a new vista
for life; it operates with a view to anticipatory meaning and ultimate significance– the telos of
life.
In this regard the philosophy of Ernst Bloch can be identified as a milestone in the attempt to
establish hope as a ‘spiritual’ principle in the human quest for meaning and dignity. Life,
being and matter are incomplete and directed by the ontological principle of ‘not-yet’. An
ontology of not-yet describes a kind of ‘kingdom/realm’ and eschatology7 of being. It
interprets the human being and human existence in terms of incompleteness open to a
humane future– the human being as homo absconditus focused and the utopian realm of
human freedom. His philosophy of hope is connected to the Judea Christian tradition of the
Messianic expectation of something new and different in the future (a radical novum) that can
transform the predicament of our being human and unmask the injustice inherent to systems
of oppression and power abuse.
Meta-religion within the healing moment of human embracement: anagnorisis
As said, not-yet describes a meta-physics of hope. The objective of a philosophy of hope is
therefore to link docta spes with metaphors stemming from the freedom-tradition of a
messianic hope. In this regard, Bloch’s meta-physics could be described as a meta-religion.
Docta spes is designed as a critique on a theocratic and deistic interpretation of the divine
factor in religion. His ‘atheism in Christianity’ (Atheismus im Christentum 1968) is focused
on a deliberate program to uproot and dismantle a theocratic conceptualisation of God ,
which in terms of Bloch’s understanding, had become a stumbling block for the humanisation
of life (the ultimate humanum). The exodus-tradition in the Old Testament is according to
Bloch the best example and metaphor to keep the not-yet of the ultimate humanum and utopia
of freedom, alive and free from all forms of dehumanising slavery. An utopia of hope can be
kept alive by the promise of Canaan and the tradition of the Exodus-God8.
7
A. Jäger (1969) refers to the ontology of the not-yet in Bloch’s thinking as a kind of future projected spiritual kingdom the atheism of hope without a divine factor (Reich ohne Gott).
8
”Der Gott Moses ist die Verheissung Kanaans, oder er ist nicht Gott” (Bloch 1959:1456).
20
The answer to the question posed by Hegel: Cur deus homo? is the notion of eritus sicut
deus9: ‘to be become like god’ – the divinisation of the human being. Adam (humankind)
should then become ‘god’ without the theocratic principle of a deistic God behind. His
intention in his program of atheism is a process of de-teocratisation and not to be anti-Christ
as such. According to Bloch’s ‘religious atheism’ the mysticism of the Son of Man had
already replaced the transcendence of a deistic God10. The ‘Son of Man’-event enthroned the
deistic god of theism in order to free human beings from any form of external domination. In
this regard Jesus became for Bloch the archetype of the ultimate humanum: Jesus inherited
the kingdom of God and transformed it into the kingdom of human beings; the Son of the
David-tradition became the ultimate humanum – Makanthropos (Bloch 1968:20). Jesus
functions as a kind of Prometheus-figure who dethroned the Ceasar-God in favour of the
humane God (Bloch 1959:1431; 1968:150). In this sense hope keeps the notion of a
messianic interpretation of the exodus-tradition alive, and prepared the way for a paradigm
shift from the pantokrator/Caesar God to the weak, humane God.
Bloch’s understanding of ‘atheism in the Christian faith’ (Atheismus im Christendom) can be
criticised. However, his philosophy of hope challenged traditional theism to take the human
quest for identity and dignity seriously. He advocated for a kind of spiritual humanism that
can transform the class divisions and discriminative practices in society. He attacked the
threat power in orthodox faith. He also attacked the mechanical understanding of dialectic
materialism. At the same time he made a break with the principle of determinism inherent to
Marxism. His plea for an ‘utopian spirit (Geist der Utopie) was an attempt to merge the
principle of hope with the spiritual dimension in life. He called this spiritual element the
dynamic principle of the not-yet, inherent to all elements of the cosmos. Spirituality is in fact
a cosmic issue and represents the revolutionary energy in the human spirit, namely the human
energy to stand up against injustice and to protest and combat for equality in social
relationships. He advocated for a praxis of hope that can restore the dignity of all human
beings. In this respect he criticised the skewed ideology in Marxism and the tendency in
communism to abuse power by promoting social structures that rob people from their
freedom.
Docta spes, the principle of hope, is in essence a spiritual category that links future to a
messianic understanding of utopia. The reality of social and political systems are always
exposed to failure and the abuse of power, therefore, the ideal of human dignity will always
be a kind of future scenario (Utopia); nothingness and evil are always existential realities
(Alles oder Nichts). But, in order to break with the fatalistic approach of cause and effect, and
to open the dynamics of life for the vision of a new earth (Novum), the not-yet of hope is the
only real ‘salvific event’ in life. In order to keep hope alive, human beings need a narrative
that can illustrate an ideal state of classless freedom. This narrative was for Bloch the Jewish
version of the meeting between Joseph (Egyptian monopoly and power) with his brothers
(Semitic vulnerability, poverty and guilt) – the idea-matic notion of anagnorisis (spiritual
9
“Hierin wirkt die Tiefe eines Christlichen Eritus sicut Deus, des Anlassens zu der Antwort auf die Frage Cur Deus homo”
(Bloch 1962(a):331).
10
”…der Atheist, der das unter Gott Gedachte, als eine Anweisung zum unerschienenden Menscheninhalt begriffen hat, ist
kein Antichrist” (Bloch 1959:1527).
21
wholeness). He sees this historical event in the Jewish tradition as a messianic act of
‘salvation’.
The point in Bloch’s principle of hope is that it linked a philosophy of hope to the meta-realm
of ‘signals of transcendence’. His hope principle also makes a hermeneutics of meaning
sensitive to the fact that life is fundamentally determined by ideas and forms – the noetic
framework of life. Furthermore, deeper than the need for self-realisation on the level of intrapsychic process of need-fulfilment, there is the existential need for hope and an
understanding of being that is not merely driven by inner human needs (libido), but by
messianic images of utopian freedom.
Bloch’s philosophy of hope opens up anew the discourse on a meta-perspective that can
contribute to the shaping of a humane future and a sense of life fulfilment beyond the
categories of sheer observation. He makes us aware of the fact that human dignity is related
to the noetic realm of paradigms. Meta-physics cannot be ignored in the discourse on
constructive hoping; significance is related to the detecting of ‘signals of transcendence’,
symbols of ‘redemption’ and role models for forgiveness (Joseph and his Brothers) and social
justice.
In this regard Bloch (1961:338) refers to Sir Thomas More in his book Utopia (published
1516 in Latin) who combined two issues: the search for good and the eluding character of the
ultimate. Utopia, for example is a pun on two Greek words, eutopia (good place) and outopia
(no place)11. It describes an ideal society where there is no private property with goods being
stored in warehouses and people are estranged from land and unemployed. Utopia projects a
welfare state with free hospitals, euthanasia permissible by the state, priests being allowed to
marry, divorce permitted, premarital sex punished by a lifetime of enforced celibacy and
adultery being punished by enslavement12.
11
"Utopia" is derived from the Greek words eu (ευ), "good", ou (οὐ), "not", and topos (τόπος), "place", with the suffix -iā (ία) that is typical of toponyms; hence Outopía (Οὐτοπία; Latinized as Utopia, with stress on the second syllable), both "noplace-land" as well as "good-place-land".
12
Online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia_(book). Accessed: 09/07/2014.
22
Latin text of Sir Thomas Moore’s book on Utopia13. Projection of an utopian island as image of a fair and just society.
Utopia is described as a place in which human society, natural conditions, etc., are so ideally perfect that there is complete
contentment.
For Bloch (1967) Thomas Müntzer was the prototype of a rebellious spirit and revolutionary
theologian. Thomas Müntzer (ca. 1489 – 27 May 1525) was an early Reformation-era
German theologian, who became a rebel leader during the Peasants' War. He sided with the
peasants and viewed the questioning of authority promoted by the Lutheran Reformation as a
paradigmatic framework to address social inequality in the economic sphere.
Two paintings: one of Thomas Müntzer (from Mühlhausen) addressing
the peasants in 1525 and the other of Lenin addressing the workers in 191714.
The Jewish tradition and eschaton as embodied by Jesus’ replacement of an authoritarian
‘god’, is for Bloch the epitome of the messianic spirit of utter freedom. This messianic notyet keeps the urge for true human identity alive.
In a nutshell: to live meaningfully the utopia of the not-yet represents an existential mode of
hoping. Hope is about a meta-realm and a kind of restless search for signals of transcendence;
hope is in essence an existential feature of our being in this world
Suddenly, since the 1990s a new variant of hope surfaced: the meta-realm of the Internet with
its virtual horizon of hope-online. While it was the intention of Bloch to move from static
archē thinking in ontology and dialectic materialism (mechanical Marxism) to the dynamism
of an utopian spirit inherent in matter by pointing to the ‘eschaton’ of the not-yet (principle of
13
Online: http://baltimore.about.com/od/events/ig/Walters-Art-Museum-Map-Exhibit/-The-Island-of-Utopia.htm. Accessed:
08/07/2014.
14
Online: http://stalinsmoustache.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/lenin-01a.jpg. Accessed: 08/07/2014.
23
hope), a total different variation of ‘eschaton’ has been opened up by the networking of
digitalisation: the utopia (eutopia good place) and outopia (no place) of virtual reality.
Cyberspatial meta-physics: netizens and the virtual hope-online (homo electronicus)
Behind the curiosity for the unknown and the attempt to probe into the future, lurks always a
kind of meta- principle (to probe beyond the facticity of brute matter). As in the case of
Bloch’s philosophy, we have seen how closely the attempt to probe into the unseen future is
related to the spirituality of the not-yet (signals of transcendence in search of a better space
and place in future). The not-yet of life can be manifested into different forms and modes. In
this regard the cell phones and webpages such as Facebook and others have opened up a
kaleidoscope of new meta-options. “Now everything we do – every online purchase, eprescription and tweet – adds to the digital tsunami known as Big Data” (Grunwald 2014:34).
Instead of Orwell’s Big Brother in 1984, lurks Big Data.
The Internet pushes thinking into the philosophy of simulation beyond existing boarders of
reality; it creates opportunities for a new understanding of meta-physics (cyberspatial metaphysics), as well as the philosophy of ‘Great Optimatization’ (Grunwald 2014:35) of
networking knowledge.
The paradigm shift is from the ‘democratisation of people’ to the ‘democratisation of
information’ (Grunwald 2014:34). The Roman philosopher Seneca worried about information
overload nearly 2,000 years ago. “What is the point having countless books and libraries
whose titles the owner could scarcely read through in a lifetime?” (In Grunwald 2014:33). “In
1685, the French scholar Adrien Baillet warned that the continuing “multitude of books
which grows every day in a prodigious fashion” could prompt the kind of collapse that befell
Seneca’s civilization, leading to Visigoth-style barbarism” (Grunwald 2014:33).
Homo spectans, in its different modes of meta-probing, is currently captured by the vista of
cyberspace. For, as David Thomas (in Karaflogka 2002:200) suggested, “cyberspace has the
potential to not only change the economic structure of human societies but to also overthrow
the sensorial and organic architecture of the human body, this by disembodying and
reformatting its sensorium in powerful, computer-generated, digital spaces.”
Our digital era and computer explosion suddenly opened up the electronic meta-physics of
online. This kind of cyber-metaphysics is opening up the option of a virtual, hyper-reality
with the simulation of what can be called the ‘mass-personality’ of homo electronicus.
According to McLuhan (in Han 2013:20) the homo electronicus is a virtual manifestation of
the previous century’s achievement ethics with its emphasis on homo faber.
Due to technology and the introduction of the Internet, the options opened by virtual reality,
contributed to the fact that homo spectans became fascinated by cyberspatial metaphysics; the
pro-spection of the World Wide Web sets free the dynamics of hope online. This kind of
hope online is closely connected to the information revolution of the High-Tec age, which is
also called ‘the answers age’: “The answers business is the future” (Grunwald 2014:35).
From floppy disks, compact discs to flash drives and the cloud, we live in an age of Great
24
Optimizing, “where we can program home appliances to optimize energy usage, where
Amazon and Netflix can mine our purchasing histories and those of similar customers to
recommend other books and movies we might like, where crowdsourcing services like
Chowhound and Waze harness the power of the hive mind to prevent us from wasting money
on bad restaurants or wasting time in bad traffic” (Grunwald 2014:35).
Human beings become focused on the beyond of cyberspace, networking webpages, the
liminality between the seen and the unseen, and the mysticism of interface. The facelessness
of Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and WhatsApp become a secure hiding place for a metaphysics of psychic curiosity online. This world of homo digitalis shapes an digital profile
with options for new kind of anonymity with the facelessness of ‘smart mobs’ (Han 2013:20);
the so-called empire of the multitude; an interconnectivity through and from singularity.
The meta-realm of cyberspace brought about a revolution in terms of the different dimensions
of religious experiences. Karaflogka (2002:191) refers to cyberspace as a polymorphic
conception. Since its creation, and until the beginning of the 1990s, the Internet was a
territory occupied solely by computer specialists. However, in the light of the widespread
usage, the internet and the computer world now support a new and real social or public space
where people can ‘meet’ to interact; to exchange ideas, knowledge, information and
experience; to give substance to creative, imaginative and innovative new concepts and ideas;
and to relocate and deconstruct old concepts and ideas in a new setting of virtual reality.
Beyond geographical terms, the meta of cyberspace cannot be demarcated. The reality of
cyberspace is ‘nowhere’ and yet its presence is felt ‘everywhere’ (Benschop in Karaflogka
2002:192); it creates an ‘utopia online’.
One can say that homo spectans, has been transformed into a new citizen, the so-called
‘netizen’ (Karaflogka 2002:192).
Cyperspatial phenomena created a new mode of metaphysics. It combines religious thinking
with hypertexts of virtual immortality and the ‘cyber-community’ behind the present reality,
namely the reality online. Reality online creates a spirituality online. This new spirituality
online contributes to a religious cyberspace of multiple identities, virtual identities behind the
limitations of the present social identity. Religion in cyberspace can be called ‘cyber
religion’. Spirituality online is about a religious, spiritual, and/or metaphysical expression,
which is created and exists exclusively in cyberspace, where it enjoys a notable degree of
‘virtual reality’. “The world inside the screen can become more real than the world outside”
(Grunwald 2014:34).
“The Internet in this case is used as an environment which supports and nurtures the ‘rise of a
new conceptual framework and language for religious experience suited to the changed
environmental conditions of postmodern society’” (Karaflogka 2002:193-194).
Cyberspace has become a sacred space and created the metaphysics of virtual reality without
the previous hierarchies of contemporary society. By virtue of the way the internet was
created, the metaphysics of virtual reality is organized horizontally rather than vertically;
“there is neither central authority, nor hierarchy” (Karaflogka 2002:196). One can even toy
25
with the idea that we are moving out of the outdated category of postmodernity into the
virtual category of ‘postorganic’ form of humanities. ‘Postorganic cyberspatialism’ is
focused on the “cyberspatial forms of intelligence as opposed to the more conventional
humanistic, more or less reflexive, study of premodernist, modernist, or postmodernist
humankind” (Karaflogka 2002:200).
Virtual hoping: between utopian and dystopian extremes
In a philosophy of hope, the core projection into the future is about the need for change so
that the present state of being can be transformed into a more benevolent state of being. The
better place is ‘there’ not ‘here’ (utopian spirituality). The wish for a better human condition
is projected into a future dispensation by which a new or different identity is anticipated.
Internet and interviews with internet users, indicate the wish for a kind of utopian condition
of enhanced, qualitative livelihood; it even revealed the birth of a new ‘electronic frontier’
(Dawson 2004:8) wherein new possibilities are opened for the so-called ‘Virtual Community’.
According to Rheingold (in Dawson 2004:81), virtual communities are social aggregations
that emerge from the Net when enough people carry on, when public discussions are
established over a longer period of time, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of
personal relationships in cyberspace.
“A ‘Wild West’ of the imagination fashioned from technology and talk, where people from
diverse backgrounds could meet in ways that transcended the physical and social limitations
of their daily lives” (Dawson & Cowan 2004:8). Facebook opens up new faces for immediate
and instant friendship and sharing.
Utopian hope is about the transcending of limitations and boundaries in the present due to
dehumanising past experiences. The new global and mass mode of virtual communication is
expanding the time and space parameters of social interaction. The anonymity of discourse
online opens up multiple identities and connections from everywhere in the world. Virtual
reality opened up the new public space of the ‘global village’. “Geographic or residential
communities are being replaced by ‘elective communities’ or ‘communities of choice’, and as
Castells concludes, there is a growing consensus amongst sociologists of cyberspace “that the
study of sociability in/on/with the Internet has to be situated within the context of the
transformation of patterns of sociability in our society” (Dawson 2004:81).
However, the Internet also implies a shadow side as well. The so-called ‘dystopian texts’ call
for caution in the too quick embracement of the Internet with its multiple options of
socialising. The warning of many researchers is that the information super highway can
isolate individuals from real life. “It indulged an illusion of sociality that was superficial and
furthered the real alienation of modern individuals from themselves, their families, their
friends and co-workers, and their neighborhoods” (Dawson & Cowan 2004:8). It opens up
the possibility of masquerading and living under the false pretention of a social identity that
does not exist in immediate contexts. Furthermore, the Internet can enhance fraud, increasing
commercialisation and a new ‘online-substance dependency’, namely the images of the
26
web15. There is the real fear that a growing dependence on the ‘Wikipedia of the Web’, would
lower levels of literacy and the damage the capacity for serious thought “as young minds
became immersed in the glib, irreverent, and rock video-inspired culture of the new
hypertexts environment” (Dawson & Cowan 2004:8). “Wikepedia killed the encyclopedia.
Apps killed maps” (Grunwald 2014:14).
Han (2013:24) refers to the fact that the internet can also become a hiding place wherein not
multitude but solitude shapes our new cyber society. The system of sameness has the shadow
side of becoming the “hell of sameness” creating a kind of instant immediacy of life events
(Han 2012:6). He even calls the internet the new messiah of networking (“Messianismus der
Vernetzung”) (Han 2013:65). The point in Han’s analyses is that the so-called transparency
of the internet does not take into consideration the spiritual dynamics of the human soul and
its connection to the realm of suffering and grief (“Menschliche Geist als Scmerzgeburt”)
(Han 2013:12).
Although the cyberspace of virtual reality is for many people a new kind of meaning giving,
meaning implies much more than virtual networking. In this regard Han (2013:17) is of
opinion that the internet brings about a new mode of suffering, namely a loss of direction,
purposefulness and direction16. The artificiality of online-faces create a kind of “soulful
pornography” (Han 2013:8-9); when transparency of the soul means the immediate contact
between image and seeing the reality of our being means to become exposed to a kind of
cyber abuse, the striptease of the human soul sets in. The human soul is not transparent, only
a machine is transparent otherwise we will die from spiritual burnout; total transparency
equals death (Han 2013:8-10). The internet cannot ease out ambivalence and paradox.
The point is that the notion of cyberspace reveals the fact how specific world views, and in
this case, the meta-physics of the World Wide Web, determine and dictate human behaviour.
Virtual communities create certain faces and modes of communication. One could even talk
of a Facebook-mentality, an online mode of being with its internet language and symbols.
Without any doubt, the meta-physics of cyberspace replaced analytical thinking with its
subject-object split; the replacement is about networking thinking and its post-organic
systemic integration virtual humanities.
The noetics-online underlines the fact that human behaviour implies more than the inner
capacity of psychic energy. The human spirit is a many layered construct with many hidden
dimensions and mysterious, even uncharted levels of vitality (elan vitae). The human spirit is
extremely sensitive to unseen dimensions of life; it can take on ‘new faces’ on Facebook and
is influenced on a daily basis by impressions and ideas coming from the ‘outside’. Healing
therefore cannot be limited to merely the confines of ‘inner healing’. Wholeness supersedes
the limitations of psychic energy. Integral spirituality is more comprehensive and refers to a
whole system of interconnected ideas, convictions, life views, assumptions, hypotheses,
social structures and technological networks. In philosophical counselling we move from
15
16
The Interent can even become an outlet for sexual desires, the so-called ‘cybersexuality’ (Partain 2003:70-80).
“Ihr fehlt die Richtung, nämlich der Sinn” (Han 2013:17).
27
merely inner healing to networking healing, from psycho-social to noetic-paradigmatic
healing as well.
Philosophical counselling: noetic healing in a meta-physics of hope
Throughout the previous chapters it has become clear that conceptualisation and patterns of
thinking that captures worldviews social customs play a fundamental role in sound and
mature human behaviour. Meaning giving as related to the telic dimension of life is closely
related to noetics: the significance and existential, philosophical value of concepts (noetics)
as captured by rational analyses, cognitive description, paradigmatic frameworks and patterns
of thinking representing life views, cultural customs and philosophies of life. My
presupposition is that noetics therefore play a fundamental role in attitude and disposition
(habitus).
One can say that philosophical counselling is basic about an attempt to probe into the realm
of the noetic understanding and idea-matic structure of wisdom thinking regarding the
outcome, destiny, purposefulness and significance of life. Its intention is objective
assessment, conceptualisation, critical examination and creative imagination, the ability to
analyse, synthesise or to articulate the discrepancies, ambiguities, ambivalence and paradoxes
inherent to cosmic events and the trajectories of life. In this regard its aim is to network
between contradictions without any attempt to come up with rational solutions or an
explanation. Philosophical counselling in this regard is heuristic; it traces down signals of
transcendence that helps human beings to live the contradictions in a meaningful and
responsible way.
Philosophical counselling: a new trend?
‘Philosophical counselling’ could be viewed as quite a ‘new’17 trend in the practice of
counselling. In his book Plato not Prozac, Marinoff (1999:24) refers to the relatively recent
scientization of psychology and the psychological industry with the emphasis on talk
therapy18 and the human need for dialogue. With reference to psychoanalysis in
psychotherapy most of the theories are built on the notion of post hoc ergo propter hoc, it
means that because one event happened before another, the earlier event caused the later one.
This cause and effect approach, combined with empathetic counselling, leads to the practice
of emotional probing and memory analyses. But knowing the cause of your pain does not
necessarily take the pain away or comforts one.
The shift towards philosophically counselling19: is a shift towards wisdom and its
connectedness to meaning, future orientation, life views and the realm of ideas or
convictions. Its aim is to help people to apply the narrow insights they learn about themself to
the bigger picture and meta-realm of life; “to integrate every conceivable insight
17
“Philosophical counselling is a relatively new but rapidly growing field of philosophy”. Marinoff 1999:7.
“Counseling psychologists have a virtual monopoly on government licensing of talk therapy…” Marinoff 1999:24.
19
See Sperry 2002:15-16. Philosophical counselling entails a process involving a logical, analytical and noetic evaluation of
the meaning dimension of different concepts and how they are related to basic existing paradigms and ideas/ideologies as
well as to different existential dimensions of life.
18
28
(psychological insights being just one kind) into a coherent, workable outlook on and
approach to life” (Marinoff 1999:30-31). It is therefore the contention of Marinoff (1999:31)
that if the root of a problem is philosophical, nothing on a pharmacist’s shelves is going to
give lasting relief. “Drugs don’t do anything in the outside world – even with a mood
softened by Prozac, you’ll still have to deal with a sadistic boss or a cheating partner or a
bureaucratic bank: (Marinoff 1999:33-34).
Philosophical counselling is aware of the fact that for healing to take place, the outside world
and the framework for meaning, as well as the interpretation of events, need to be changed.
Healing implies more than empathetic listening and talking (verbalising). Healing also
implies paradigmatic changes and the development of a functional philosophical disposition
toward your situation. Rather than dwelling on the question: How do you feel? philosophical
counselling poses the questions: What is your framework for meaningful living? What
meaning, purpose, or value is implied? What is motivating you to decide for a very specific
direction or definite goal? How do you envision a possible outcome and what are realistic
future options? What are the factors preventing you to act according to the eventual goal?
What do you hope for? What is meant by a future scenario in which the current problem is
absent and one starts to behave differently than before?
All of these questions cannot be separated from their philosophical context which is
determined by different schemata of interpretation and patterns of thinking (paradigms).
Thomas Kuhn, in his influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (first published
in 1962), asserts that a change in the basic assumptions, or paradigms (a fundamental model
or perception of events), within the ruling theory of science, can change fundamental
frameworks of meaning. According to Kuhn (1996), a paradigm is what members of a
scientific community, and they alone, share.
Paradigms are important to understand because “....no natural history can be interpreted in the
absence of at least some implicit body of intertwined theoretical and methodological belief
that permits selection, evaluation and criticism” (Kuhn & Hacking 2005:16-17). According to
Kuhn’s theory (Kuhn 1996:23-24; 82-84) crises in life are immediately reflected in the
functionality of paradigms. The crisis starts with the blurring of the paradigms and the
consequent loosening of the rules for normal life. When the paradigm ceases to function
effectively the individual begins to behave differently and the nature of their problem
changes. For change the crisis should lead to paradigmatic changes. These changes should
reintroduce values or normative frameworks that are connected to aesthetic experiences.
(Kuhn 1996:152-153; 158).
Paradigms are closely connected to schemata of interpretation within processes of conceptual
analyses. Schemata in philosophical counselling function as kind of conceptualised
networking; “the network of interlinked conceptual categories that serve as frameworks for
meaning” (Hirshberg 1993:26). Due to the fact that frameworks of meaning are more focused
on qualitative value than moral implication, they point to what one can call the beauty of life
views.
29
In philosophical counselling aesthetics is more fundamental than ethics and morality. It is
about the beauty of life, i.e. the mode by which one interprets the challenges in life in order to
grow into a deeper sense of significance and gratitude. Aesthetics is the existential mode of
thanksgiving in terms of grace and not in terms of fate. In this regard philosophical
counselling probes into the human art of daily living and wisdom decision-making.
“Philosophical counselling is a practical application of what has been largely an academic
pursuit; it is a contemporary pragmatism whose goal is to deal with what actually matters in
people’s everyday lives and to re-establish theory as a “useful instrument to a higher
philosophical practice: the art of living wisely well”( Raabe 2001:4).
In essence philosophy is a passion for understanding (wisdom) and healing as insight in order
to use astonishment and amazement (verwondering) as a vehicle or tool to bring about a
profound transformation of the individual’s mode of seeing and being, a transformation of
our vision of the world and a metamorphosis of our intentionality20. It is called a “worldview
interpretation” or wise therapy (LeBon 2001:9). Schuster (1999:72-74) refers to
philosophical care. He is so convinced of the value of philosophy in care and counselling that
he even admits as a psychologist: it seems to be “preferable to choosing a theologian for
philosophical talks” due to the tradition of pastoral healing in cura animarum.
Philosophical counselling can be described as the method of transcendent inquiry (transspection and pro-spection) into the realm of meaning and significance. It investigates a
person’s network of believes, it facilitates progressive clarification of life-ordering values,
commitments, conceptual orientations and meaningful connections. It describes a process of
philosophical and transcendent inquiry (Raabe 2001:206) into a person’s theory, paradigms
or worldview, very specifically how this worldview is related to human suffering and the
problem of theodicy. In this regard philosophical counselling is a method for helping people
to live and to look at the world in a more thoughtful way (Raabe 2001:217). It probes into the
realm of “conceptual vicissitudes” (Schefczyk in Raabe 2001:164) and helps to identify a gap
between a person’s actual way of life and any potential ways of life; it infiltrates the interplay
between life expectations and the realm of existential needs within the awareness of
limitations and liminality. In thus doing so, philosophical counselling reveals the hidden
agendas framed by paradigmatic presuppositions. Its objective is to articulate convictions and
indicators used by people to anticipate future options; it identifies the telic dimension in life
that plays a decisive role in the fostering of hope and encourages a person to take responsible
decisions (respondeo ergo sum).
The value of philosophical counselling in pastoral care is that it helps a person to differentiate
between (a) meaning as the pursuit of happiness (the optimistic approach), and (b) meaning
as the promotion of benevolent life views and coherent schemata of interpretation that can
foster a courage to be and a noetic framework for constructive hoping (the noetic approach)
(the realm of spiritus and logos). The outcome of philosophical counselling is a vivid hope
20
For a discussion on the realm of the unconscious, se Raabe 2006.
30
and a different approach to the future (pro-spection) (the hopeful approach):perspectivism
(change in perspective).
As a spiritual endeavour and a helpful supplement in a Christian approach to life,
philosophical counselling helps to pose the question of ethos: What are you intending to
contribute in order to promote positive change? If necessary, what are you willing to sacrifice
or to share so that relationships can promote human dignity and combat stigmatisation or
discrimination? How can one become a host to another human being in order to promote
human well-being? What are sources of comfort (internal and external) so that one can grow
into compassionate intimacy in order to prevent the ‘sickness of the human soul’: despair,
anxiety and the fear for loss and rejection without an intimate space of unconditional love?
Philosophical counselling also probes into the realm of meta-theory, namely the noosphere
(the realm of ideas and knowledge and their connection to meaning and purposefulness) of
life. Thus, the emphasis on perspectivism and the noetic framework of life views and
convictions. It poses the question: what do you believe in, and how can the current belief
system contribute to meaningful change and healing?
The noosphere in therapeutic perspectivism: the epistemic position
Philosophical counselling is focused primarily on noetic healing and deals to a large extent to
what one can call the noosphere of life. Noosphere refers to the realm of ideas and
knowledge and their connection to meaning and purposefulness. “Paying attention to the
noological environment of research suggests a consideration not only the rational ideas that
populate someone’s theoretical world, but also the social and cultural rules and logics that
determine the ways they live an evolve” (Morin in Alhadeff-Jones 2013:28). At the same
time, it also suggests acknowledgement of the influence of belief systems (sometimes nonrational convictions), metaphors and symbols on processes of knowing and hoping.
If one can assume that pastoral care is indeed a theological endeavour, embedded in the
Christian tradition of caring and spirituality (the tradition of cura animarum), a critical
discussion on theory formation and epistemic processes of knowing in pastoral care and
counselling and their connection to paradigms has become paramount. If we want to move
into the paradigm of community care and the pastoral healing of life (an integrative
approach); if we want to opt for a paradigm switch from an exclusive societal approach (see
the notion of racial discrimination) to inclusivity; from gender prejudice (see the impact of
hierarchy and patriarchy on cultural models for masculinity and femininity) to equality; from
stigmatisation in the HIV and AIDS epidemic to destigmatisation; even in our ecclesiology
from denominationalism and institutionalism to ecumenical communality; in pastoral
caregiving from cura animarum to cura vitae; and therefore, in therapy from client-centered
individualism to networking wholeness in a holistic approach, urgent attention need to be
31
paid to the noosphere of life - paradigmatic issues and schemata of interpretation dictating
processes of knowledgeable and comprehensive interpretation of meaning and destiny.
The point is: the notion of healing implies more than personal and behavioural change and
transformation. Behind behaviour and attitudes is the realm of meta-theory; i.e. patterns of
thinking, philosophies of life, rational conceptualisation shifts, perceptions, convictions, ideas
and belief systems. If the lenses of interpretation become blurred and the rational filters of
understanding become blocked, life is intoxicated by inappropriate perspectives and should
be revisited and reframed in order to heal life. Hence, the necessity for the notion of
therapeutic perspectivism (the theoretical angle and undergirding life view in experiences and
observation), and the urgent need for philosophical counselling in pastoral caregiving.
Healing on a meta-level, is about the healing of noetics (rational categories and theories
regarding purposefulness, meaning, significance, intentionality, ultimate goals and
philosophical convictions and values - noetic healing).
The noosphere of life is about perspectivism and its connectedness to prejudice and processes
of stigmatisation and discrimination. It poses the critical question regarding the
appropriateness of existing rational categories, belief systems and paradigmatic frameworks
of interpretation for daily human behaviour. Life becomes sick not merely due to irrational
beliefs, but due to inappropriate paradigms and schemata of interpretation. And schemata of
interpretation represent philosophies of life and meaning-driven perspectives on the eventual
outcomes of life. In this regard religious convictions and the noetics of belief systems play a
decisive role in a dynamics of hoping.
Epistemic positions
At stake is what can be called an ‘epistemic position’ (Alhadeff-Jones 2013: 20). Knowledge
and processes of knowing is about the selection of significant data and the rejection of nonsignificant data, separating, uniting, organizing into a hierarchy, and centralising information.
People’s way of thinking is embedded in a complexity of ideas. Philosophical counselling
actually emerges from the notion that a critical realism deals with the complexity of systems
in thinking and is thus about the capacity to access, describe, interpret and challenge the
assumptions that frame the way knowledge and experiences are organised within the sociocultural conditions from which they emerge.
According to Le Moigne (in Alhadeff-Jones 2013:22) the complexity of thinking and human
reflection is grounded in four epistemic principles.



First, the principle of relevance, according to which the importance of life experiences
is interpreted in regard to the implicit or explicit intentions of the person.
Second, the principle of globalism which deals with the notion that one is belonging
to a large functional whole and systemic web of interactional networking.
Third, the teleological principle requires that one interprets not according to an a
priori of fixed ideas, but in terms of a functional goal and future purpose.
32

Fourth, the principle of aggregativity (agrégativité) requires one to acknowledge the
fact that perspectives are partisan and that the selection of aggregates is done
according to relevancy and appropriateness.
Systems of ideas
What philosophical counselling intends to undertake is to probe into a ‘system of ideas’. For
Morin (in Alhadeff-Jones 2013:25) a ‘system of ideas’ is constituted by the constellation of
concepts associated and closely interlinked. This scaffolding of concepts and combination of
assumptions are established over time and follows apparently logical links, according to
axioms, convictions and underlying principles of organisation. The function of systems of
ideas is to express statements whose value is considered as true (valid) and eventually
predicts facts and events susceptible to happen. “Any system of ideas is at the same time
open (it is fed by confirmations and verifications coming from the outside world) and closed
(it has to protect itself against degradations and aggressions from the outside, threatening its
internal order)” (Alhadeff-Jones 2013:25-26).
In a nutshell: Philosophical counselling is the attempt to interpenetrate the dynamics of
openness and closure in order to deal with the fact that theories, paradigms, schemata of
interpretation are never free from a level of closure, opacity and blindness. The legitimacy of
core assumptions, principles and life views should thus be critically challenged and disputed
in order to promote growth, healing and valid levels of hoping. Philosophical counselling
deals therefore with systems of ideas – such as religious convictions (doctrine),
behaviourism, existentialism, cognitivism, constructivism, feminism, patriarchalism,
capitalism, Marxism, socialism, liberalism, positivism, post-structuralism, psychoanalysis,
structuralism, systems theories, etc. – as characterised by epistemic assumptions.
Schemata of interpretation in noetic counselling
In the tradition of Christian theology, different philosophical schemata of interpretation21
played a decisive role in theological theory formation and an attempt to understand God in
terms of our being human in this world. However, within our recent culture of global
networking, it is impossible to identify one schema. Due to the multi-factor and the notion of
relativity, several schemata are immediately at stake. The emerging notion of cyberspace at
the end of the 1980s contributes to a mixture of different schemata. Local culture and even
glocalisation cannot prevent the dominant factor of globalisation and its impact on customs
and patterns of thinking. Currently there is the tendency to mould everything and everyone
into a kind of multi-sameness wherein equality, unisex and the norm of ‘everything goes’
determine life in a global world. A dominant factor in global thinking is the images of the
social media and the prescriptive culture of a market driven economy. One worldview is not
anymore possible. We live in the networking of overlapping worldviews (Benner 2012:30).
21
For the role of schematism in a pastoral hermeneutics, see Capps 1984:53.
33
However, the following schemata of interpretation help one to understand the complexity of
different interacting philosophies of life dictating the ‘shopping mall’ of daily experiences
and multiple choices. They function as diagnostic criteria in order to detect the noetic
framework within which hope care operates. The schemata are indeed a kind of reduction of
the complexity of different views; nevertheless, they help to understand better the
hermeneutics of philosophical counselling and the impact of patterns of thinking on
wholeness and religious, theological reflection (very specifically on God-images).




The Hellenistic schema and the connection to the paradigm of cause-and-effect
thinking. Its impact on theology was the notion of the immutability of God, and the
fact that change emanates from this One source that in itself cannot change. Thus
everything that is emanating from the One in succeeding stages of lesser and lesser
perfection. Benner (2012:24) refers to this schema as the understanding of the whole
of the cosmos from the perspective of one supreme, perfect Being as the origin of life.
He furthermore refers to Plotinus and his teaching namely that this supreme, totally
transcendent principle contains no division, multiplicity, or distinction and is beyond
all categories and objects. “The One is not simply the sum of all things but is prior to
everything and the source of everything that exists. The One contains everything that
exists, just as white light contains the entire spectrum of light that we witness in the
rainbow. All things that exist emanate from the One” (Benner 2012:24). This
emanation ex deo (“out of God”) is used as the explanation and origin of everything;
it makes the unfolding of the cosmos a consequence of the existence of the One.
The metaphysical schema (substantial thinking and the ontology of beyond) and its
connection to the dualistic schism between the seen world and the unseen world. Due to the
subject-object split the spiritual realm became removed from the secular realm. Its impact on
theology was the schism between God (vertical approach with the emphasis on
transcendence) and the cosmos (horizontal approach with the emphasis on the empirical
phenomena). Theologians have often tried to bridge the gap between God and being by
introducing the principle of correlation. Due to the fact of that God is viewed as Being,
human beings partake in and correlate with the divine elements of life. God is then introduced
as the meta-ground of all being and the source of self-affirmation, self-acceptance and a
courage to be (Tillich 19653:152-183).
The mechanistic schema and its connection to rational explanations. For all the unsolved
problems of life, God should be introduced as a Deus ex machina. In terms of a cause-andeffect schema, God operates as the instigator of all life events and suffering. God becomes
the unmovable first logic and rational explanatory principle within the chain of life events
(movements) emanating from the blueprint of Gods provision and deterministic election
(theological positivism).
The imperialistic schema and its connection to the paradigm of power as expressed in
dominionship (authority/omnipotence as force). According to the Constantine paradigm,
God's Kingdom should be understood in terms of a militant or ruling power. God reigns as a
“Superman” or “Ceasar” and determines every sphere of life. The church becomes a cultural
institution with God as the official head of a powerful establishment. God's omnipotence was
seen as the exercise of power (force/threat power); God became The Pantokrator.
34





The patriarchal schema and its connectedness to the paradigm of status: from the top, down
to the bottom. God acts as the great Patriarch. He dominates human beings and instructs them
according to the pedagogic principle of judgement and punishment.
The hierarchical schema and its connection to superiority (the monarchic tradition). Life is
viewed as an ordered system. At stake are position and differentiation. The latter is structured
in terms of importance, status and position along the same lines of class differences. In such a
model, the tension between superiority and inferiority determines people's understanding of
God: God as royal King and ruling Judge with his prescriptions formulated in unchangeable
laws.
The profit and materialistic schema: market-driven economy. Features of the latter are inter
alia wealth, achievement, development, maximum profit and affluence. Capitalism functions
as dominant life view and contributes to the social schism between the haves and the havenots. The paradigm at stake is management: Life is to be managed in terms of materialistic
goals driven by money, profit, development and progress. God becomes an official and public
idol: the God who safeguards prosperity. God is then high-jacked to serve our selfish needs.
The Kingdom of God becomes a stock exchange: God as Director and Manager of an affluent
society.
The cyberspatial schema of community online: virtual reality and the hypertext of the World
Wide Web. Due to the shift from a local culture of interaction, the notion of a community
online creates a new cultural identity: the anonymity of virtual community with the flexibility
of multiple identities, instant technical relationships and masquerading faces. The global and
mass mode of communication is expanding the time-and-space parameters of
communication. “With the anonymity of discourse online, people could readily meet
individuals from other places, cultures, social classes, ages, and occupations. New and
perhaps even multiple identities were possible, as were friendships and conflicts with people
of similar and different turns of mind from everywhere in the world” (Dowsan & Cowan
2004:8).On the one hand an online-identity can create an illusion of sociality that is
superficial and furthers the real alienation of modern individuals from themselves, their
families, their friends and co-workers and their neighbourhoods. On the other hand Facebook
creates opportunities for sharing and social comfort. “The rise of the Internet led many to
claim that a new way exists for overcoming the alienating effects of modern life. Virtual
associations could replace the loss of the traditional neighbourhoods and small personal work
environments, and counter the deleterious effects of increasing social and geographic
mobility, the impersonal nature of large bureaucratic organizations, and so on” (Dawson
2004:76). The point is: the Internet facilitates the formation of entirely new kinds of
communities; it creates the online community and the creation of virtual freedom; i.e. to be
free of such limiting factors as ethnic stereotyping, class distinctions, gender discrimination,
and difference in time as well as in space. People can reach out to each other twenty-four
hours a day from almost anywhere in the world. As stated by Dave Healy (in Lawson
2004:76) “Synchronously and asynchronously, the sun never sets on the virtual community.”
The schema of communality and interconnectedness: the ubuntu philosophy. Identity is
determined by the quality of human relationships within cultural groups and tribal systems.
35
This is why Kahiga (2005:190) asserts that traditional African epistemology cannot be
isolated from life events.22 The African paradigm is therefore about life and human events of
interconnectedness and a sense of belongingness. Life never stands on its own; it is
embedded in the dialectics between procreation and death. “Life is a thesis and death is its
antithesis. Life is to embrace and death is to depart and to isolate. The synthesis between life
and death is becoming” (Kahiga 2005:190). Human life is seen as an infinite becoming or
progression and each human person ought to be an agent of this traditional cultural reality.
“The spirit of Ubuntu – that profound African sense that we are human only through the
humanity of other human beings – is not a parochial phenomenon, but has added globally to
our common search for a better world”(Mandela 2005:82).
J Gathogo (2008:42-43) links the notion of ubuntu23 to hospitality and the generosity of
giving freely without strings attached. It can be seen as a philosophy and way of life, i.e. “an
unconditional readiness to share” (2008:42). It describes interdependence as described in the
proverb that says: Gutri gigatuirie kingi, i.e. “All things are interdependent” (Gathago
2008:43). Ubuntu is basically both a philosophical and religious concept that defines the
individual in terms of his or her relationship to others. It is supposed to articulate a basic
respect and compassion for others. According to Gathogo (2008:44) ubuntu illustrates that
Africans were not incapable of philosophising as G F Hegel maintained. Instead of Rene
Descartes’ cogito ergo sum (I think therefore I exist), the African asserts “I am because we
are”, or “I am related, therefore I am “(cognatus ergo sum or an existential cognatus sum,
ergo sumsu (I am related, therefore we are). According to Gathogo (2008:46) this parallels
with the concretisation of Heidegger’s Being as Being-with in his Dasein-analyses24.

22
The hermeneutical schema of interpretation and meaningful networking: the integrative
approach. Hermeneutics (derived from hermeneuein) refers to the art of explanation and
interpretation as the attempt to understand the meaning of different texts within the
vibrant fibre of inter-textuality. This process includes verbalisation, speech, translation
and the communication of a message (Smit, 1998:276). In this regards the interpretation
of metaphors and symbols in terms of the interrelatedness of systemic networking
becomes important. Its impact on God-images is that theology becomes involved in the
quest for meaningful God-images that can promote meaningful (hopeful) norms and
structures for a humane living. For example: God as a Covenantal Partner and Soul
Friend for life; the God in human flesh (the paradigm of incarnation) and the God-within-
The present is the arena of life in its fullness and, as such, it is to be celebrated now. The fullness of life lies on earth in
the present (despite the threat of evil, disease, pain, chaos and death). See Twesigye 1996:216.
23
In defining ubuntu, Gathogo (2208:45) points out that it is critical to underline that it is described differently among the
various African communities. “For instance it is called Uhu among the Shona of Zimbabwe; Ubuntu among the Ngunie
speakers of Southern Africa; Utu among the Swahili speakers of East Africa; and Umundu among the Kikuyu of Kenya,
among others” (45).
24
Gathogo (2008:51) pointed out how tribalism, the abuse of women, bribery and corruption and the reducing of an
individual to nothing in the community, can harm and discredit the whole principle of ubuntu.
36
us embodied in human bodies and existential categories25 (the paradigm of
pneumatological inhabitation).
The previous examples indicate a close connection between philosophical schemata and the
paradigmatic issues implied in theory formation for the noetics of religious thinking. It gives
an indication how philosophies influence fundamental views on the value and
meaning/significance of life. It does not mean that the schemata are in themselves necessarily
good or bad. They should not be assessed in terms of morals. They should be assessed as
inevitable, cultural and philosophical paradigms, noetic frameworks of interpretations, to be
used as diagnostic criteria in processes of theory formation. Within a very specific period or
historical setting one schema can be appropriate while another becomes inappropriate. The
point is that the challenge in a hermeneutical approach is to detect and assess the value of a
specific paradigm for a very specific cultural context. It is in this context that the relevancy of
philosophical counselling comes into play.
The importance of the recognition of schemata of interpretation is that it creates a noetic
awareness that can help caregivers to probe into the realm of the patterns of thinking and
ideas that shape human actions. Schemata of interpretation reveal different noetic frameworks
in praxis-thinking; they determine significance within being functions and different doing
functions.
Deconstruction and disputing
Healing through communication often implies a deconstruction of fixed perceptions and
concepts. Changing rational and noetic categories and investing them with new content and
meaning is an important ingredient of the process of healing in pastoral care. In a
hermeneutical approach, healing implies how one can connect life and existential issues with
the spiritual realm of the content of the Christian faith. One can call this approach: spiritual
existential networking. Spiritual healing thus implies the understanding of the
interconnectedness of life issues; it deals with the question how spiritual categories can assist
processes of hermeneutics in the human attempt of finding meaning in life.
In order to contest the value and appropriateness of needs on the different levels, and to
dispute the efficiency of a life view, the following indicators in noetic counselling are
applicable:
(a) How relevant is an existing view and schema of interpretation in terms of contextual,
cultural and public issues – the notion of befitting?
(b) Does the schema contributes to integration or causes confusion that in the long run
can develop into disintegration of behaviour – the notion of coherence.
(c) Does the schema illuminate a better understanding of the telic dimension of life – the
notion of significance?
25
More schemata could be identified: i.e. the democratic schema of individual self-actualisation and its connectedness to
human rights; the systemic schema of global networking (globalistion), intersubjectivity and interrelatedness.
37
(d) Does the schema promotes the value of life and creates a benevolent livelihood – the
notion of justice and human dignity?
(e) Does the schema opens up constructive future options, alternatives and goals that
enhance perennial anticipation – the notion of hope?
(f) Does the schema operate with an inclusive approach or exclusive approach – the
notion of systemic networking?
(g) Does the schema contribute to human wellness and healing or to fragmentation and
disorientation – the notion of wholeness?
(h) Does the schema works with a closed horizon in terms of linear thinking and fatalism
or with the zigzag pattern of wisdom thinking – the notion of critical realism?
(i) Does the schema provides an ultimate vision for transcendence or is it fixed towards
one-dimensional observation and phenomenological facticity – the notion of
spirituality?
Positioning within the noetics of logotherapy26
Together with the upcoming of existential philosophy in the middle of the twentieth century,
developed what could be called ‘existential therapy’. Existential therapy is in general more a
philosophical attitude or approach in counselling rather than a particular school of therapy
with specific techniques. “Existential therapy focuses on helping clients experience their
existence in an authentic, meaningful, and responsible way” (Tan 2011:102). It is based on
existential philosophy and deals with the structures of our being in this world (Dasein) and
our experience of anxiety and constant exposure to death and dying. “Crucial issues that
every human being must ultimately deal with include death and mortality, freedom,
meaninglessness or emptiness, isolation, and the need to be real and authentic in choosing
one’s approach and values in life in a responsible way” (Tan 2011:102).
Even in psychology the dimension of noetics has been recognized as an important factor in
therapy. In this regard Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy should be mentioned. Logotherapy was an
attempt to translate psychotherapy in “spiritual terms” (Frankl 1969:11). Its focus is the
destiny of humankind and the position one takes – “that is, his forms an attitude. This
“position taken” or attitude is –in contrast to the basically destined “position given” –a matter
of free choice”. (Frankl 1969:80).
It was therefore the viewpoint of Frankl that logotherapy must supplement psychotherapy:
“by the use of logotherapy we are equipped to deal with philosophical questions within their
own frame of reference, and can embark on objective discussion of the spiritual distress of
human beings’ suffering from psychic disturbances (1969:17). His presupposition is that
instead of the “will to pleasure”, the “will to meaning” is the primary motivational force in
human beings (Frankl 197524:154). For Frankl logos denotes meaning and focuses therefore
26
R C Leslie wrote a book on “Jesus and logotherapy” in order to link Frankl’s approach to Christian spiritual care. “while
the task of psychotherapy is to uncover the psychological background of an ideology, the task of logotherapy is to reveal the
flaws in improper logical grounds for a world-view and thereby to effect a readjustment (1965:114).Leslie’s basic premise
was that “Jesus gave primary attention to correcting a wrong view of life”(1965:113).
38
on the future, attitudinal values, as well as “man’s search for meaning” (Frankl 197524:153154).
The noosphere of metaphors in noetic counselling: diagnosis and the religious decoding
of God-images in a praxis of hope care.
The existential locus of God language and their healing impact within a pastoral
hermeneutics
METAPHOR
PRINCIPLES
MONARCHICAL
FAMILY
COVENANT
INTIMATE
KING
PARENT
PARTNER
SOUL FRIEND
JUDGE
FATHER/
CONFIDANT
MOTHER
HOST
Authority
Care
Fellowship
Redemption
Power
Support
Mutuality
Ethos of unconditional
love
Encounter
Hospitality
MODE
Empowerment
Consolation
Faithfulness
Reconciliation
Acknowledgement
through anagnorisis
Forgiveness
Caritas/hospitable
HUMAN EXPERIENCE OF Apathy
SUFFERING
AND
Retribution
UNDERSTANDING OF GOD
Awe
Respect
Punishment
Pedagogy
Solidarity
Service
Empathy
Identification
Co-suffering
We-encounter
Vicariousness
39
IMPACT
Awareness of guilt
PSYCHOSPIRITUAL Confession
INFLUENCE
AND
Devotion
CONSEQUENCE
Support
Responsibility
Gratitude
Change
Moral awareness
Joy/Hope
Development.
(ethical)
Lament
Growth
Commitment
Aesthetics
Obedience
Encouragement
(parrhesia)
Appreciation
One can assume that in pastoral care the metaphors stemming from a family, covenant or
personal context could have a more consoling effect on believers when they are exposed to
traumatic life events than metaphors which reflect distance and control.
For example, in the metaphor God as Host the concept of acknowledgement and
unconditional acceptance represents what Bloch identified as anagnorisis: the mutuality of a
we-encounter and the communality of belongingness as described in the narrative of the
encounter between Joseph and his brothers in Genesis 45. In the light of the Genesis 45
encounter one can say that a spiritual epistemology is about the following we-identity:
“Joseph said to his brothers, “I am Joseph!” (Gen. 45:3). In the act of an intimate encounter
comfort becomes an existential reality: “And now, do not be distressed and do not be angry
with yourselves for selling me here, because it was to save lives that God sent me ahead of
you” (Gen. 45:5). A spiritual epistemology links destiny and meaning to the experience of
being consoled. Anagnorisis healed the being functions of both Joseph and his brothers. The
embracement of anagnorisis is the best illustration of what is meant by spiritual healing and
wholeness in hope care. “Then he (Joseph) threw his arms around his brother Benjamin and
wept, and Benjamin embraced him, weeping. And he kissed all his brothers and wept over
them. Afterwards his brothers talked with him” (Gen. 45:14-15). In the act of embracement
Joseph exchanged the paradigm of hateful revenge for a paradigm of amazing grace. A sense
of belongingness and the comfort of forgiveness created a space for human dignity. Without a
space and place for true embracement, human dignity remains a formal principle. In
anagnorisis human dignity becomes an existential reality as it is embodied in the hospitality
of grace.
Anagnorisis stems from the Greek verb anaginōskō = to know exactly, or to know again,
acknowledge (Blunk 1975:245). Anagnōsis occasionally meant recognizing, but also referred
to reading aloud, especially in meetings of the court. It was used in for example cultic
readings. The cultic reading aloud of the divine commandments and legal requirements was
an early practice at the great Israelite festivals (Exod. 34:7 cf. Jos. 24:25) (Blunk 1975:245).
What Joseph did was actually to demonstrate a lectionary of the Torah. The palace of
40
Pharaoh was transformed into a temple of Yahwēh; the secular space became a holy place;
acknowledgement a sacrament of human dignity27.
Anagnorisis could thus be called the most powerful image of becoming whole in a praxis of
hope care. Anagnorisis is about a soulful habitus, and a profound illustration of what is meant
by a praxis of pastoral caregiving in theory formation for practical theology.
Joseph and his Brothers. Woodcut by Gustav Dore. In the blessing of grace hatred and guilt is transformed into wholeness
by means of an act of spiritual healing. Joseph healed the souls of his brothers (anagnorisis). It becomes a profound
indication of what is meant by promissiotherapy. Online: http://beginningandend.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/DoreJoseph-and-Brothers.jpg. Accessed” 07/07/2014.
The whole of the New Testament is actually about the embracement of unconditional love
and the acknowledgement by amazing grace. In John 15:15 Jesus made a profound statement:
“I have called you friends”. Our position before God shifted from the discrimination position
of a slave into the inclusive and equal position of a friend. In the ‘covenant business’ God and
human beings become partners for life. Jesus exemplified anagnorisis: “Greater love has no
one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends” (John 15:13). Anagnorisis is about the
27
Thomas Mann wrote a very famous novel on the Joseph narrative, called Joseph and His Brothers (Joseph und seine
Brüder) (1943). Mann sets the story in the 14th century BC and refers to Akhenaten the pharaoh who makes Joseph his viceregent. Joseph is aged 28 at the ascension of Akhenaton which would mean he was born in ca. 1380 BC in standard Egyptian
chronology, and Jacob in the mid-1420s BC. Other contemporary rulers mentioned include Tushratta and Suppiluliuma.
Online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_and_His_Brothers#Three_famous_events. Accessed” 07/07/2014.
41
aesthetics, ethos and habitus of unconditional love. Ethos therefore should determine ethics:
“My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you” (John 15:12).

Reframing
Another example of noetic, philosophical counselling is the reframing model proposed by D
Capps (1990:10). His argument is that when we change the frame, we change the meaning.
Changing the frame in which a person perceives events in order to change the meaning, is
called reframing. When the meaning changes the person’s responses and behaviours also
changes. “To reframe means to ‘change the conceptual and/or emotional setting or viewpoint
in relation to which a situation is experienced and to place it in another frame which fits the
‘facts’ of the same concrete situation equally well or even better, and thereby changes its
entire meaning” (Watzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch in Capps 1990:17).

Renaming
Renaming is the attempt to deconstruct existing inappropriate forms of conceptualisation and
to introduce a different category which represents the meaning and significance of the
existing problematic area in a more appropriate way. For example: a couple is planning for a
family. The wife resigned her job. The husband at the same time moved into another job and
is spending a lot of time to get it from the ground. After the birth of the first child the wife
interprets her spouse’s investments in the new business as a loss of love. The message she
received was: “He does not love me; we do have a marriage problem”. After a counselling
session the husband was totally surprised because his intention was to provide an income for
his family and to create financial security. He did that as an act of love and as an investment
into the relationship. After the wife understood his intention she renamed the problem. It is
not a marriage problem or a problem of love but a problem of readjustment, i.e. how to adjust
to a total new dimension in their marriage: the dynamics of family life. It is therefore a
problem of family adjustment and not a marital crisis per se.
Counselling strategies in hope care: towards a four stage model in the pastoral
encounter
Caregiving implies more than only counselling techniques. Caregiving establishes a network
of caring relationships; it supersedes the formal structures of an appointment in the sense that
caregiving is fundamentally an encounter on the level of being functions: To be with
somebody else.
Counselling strategies in hope care: four stages of progressive hoping
In general the tendency in counselling is to opt for a nondirective approach. The processes of
interviewing and counselling are then less structured. The tendency is rather to follow the
flow of emotions and expression of needs and to understand the internal framework of
reference of the counselee (the counselee is the expert). The person and the autonomy of the
other dictate the agenda of the counselling process.
42
There is indeed a place for the more informal approach to counselling with the emphasis on
empathetic listening. The flow of the conversation is then determined by the narrating process
and the level of disclosure on an affective level.
However, a kind of structure helps the caregiver to keep track with the process character of
talk-therapy. The point is: narrating and talking implies more than merely verbalising issues.
It is primarily an attempt to gain insight and to connect different aspects of the narrative to
other components; it connects the life story of a person to the networking processes in the
dynamics of relationships. In order to ‘see’ the bigger picture and to make progress rather
than to fall back into regression, a kind of structure can be most helpful. Although the
progress follows a circular pattern direction to future planning, the consideration of options,
the challenge of decision-making and goal-setting provide a sense of hopeful progression. In
order to foster hope in the process of talking and to enhance a sense of anticipatory change
with possible solutions, the four stage model of counselling has been developed.
A pastoral hope-strategy implies a process of interpretation and understanding. The fact has
already been pointed out that this process of interpretation is an attempt to provide a link
between the person’s experiential world and sources of comfort and hope
The discourse thus follows a circular course, in other words the caregiver links up with the
experiential world of the person (internal framework of reference), moves to interpretation
and understanding, and then back to the person with the profound intention of encouraging an
understanding and interpretation that will open up appropriate alternatives.
It is necessary that the caregiver be conscious of the various phases in counselling.28 These
phases must be perceived as concentric overlapping circles; in each the next would be
present. The phases could also merge with other phases (Louw 1998:349-365) and does not
necessarily follow a linear pattern of successive stages. Stages are often a zigzag pattern of
mutual communication. The advantage of knowledge regarding the structural impact of an indirective progressive approach to counselling helps to enhance the efficiency of the
procedures of intervention and appropriate guidance.
The basic assumption in a structured model of storytelling and conversing is that the
impression of progress instils hope. It conveys the message that although the situation could
be desperate and depressing, there is still progress and therefore hope.
STAGE 1. TRUST BUILDING AND SHARING: FEEL ARTICULATION AND
SHARING (AFFECTIVE DIMENSION)
The first phase is about building up contact and establishing a relationship of trust. The
pastor’s objective would be to assist people and patients in a clinical setting to understand
themselves within the experiential world of their illness, to invite people to share their
personal experiences and to disclose within a safe space of acceptance and unconditional love
(intimacy). The affective dimension gives access to the personal frame of reference and
immediacy of existential realities; to a kind of experiential truth.
28
The work of Egan 19852 provides the basis for the phase theory in counselling. Cf. C. W. Taylor 1991 on Egan’s model.
43
Feelings and emotions play such an important role in the attempt to make contact and build a
relationship of trust in communication. Entering into the person’s world of emotions is
possible, e.g. “How do you feel today?”
To start with the affective is the ABC of building a relationship of trust, because without
trust, disclosure is not possible. The purpose is trust by means of understanding and insight.
For example, in clinical settings when the person or patient looks tired or listless, or when
there appears to be no possibility of communication, the pastor should observe the body
language of the patient and respond to the immediate condition of the person, by
commenting, for example, “You feel tired”, “You feel uncertain”, “You are afraid” or “You
feel calm”. The caregiver could also say: “I would like to be part of what you’re experiencing
– I am just here to say: I care.” With such a statement, a kind of presence and being-with is
established.
For example: In pastoral caregiving to the ill, the patient’s body language is very important.
Comments such as: “I can see it is uncomfortable”, “You have pain” or “It is very sore” are
connected to the physical attitude, which so often conveys very directly what the patient
experiences and would like to tell one.
When the caregiver asks questions, he/she must ensure that they are asked openly. For
example: instead of asking: “What did the doctor say, what is the matter – is it cancer?”, one
could ask: “Do you know why you were admitted to hospital? Is there certainty about the
treatment?”
The object of a question is to give people the opportunity to share their story spontaneously
with the caregiver. Verbalisation and articulation help to revisit the events and issues at stake.
The identification of a possible problem, diagnosis and treatment, invariably, are of lesser
importance for pastoral purposes than the person’s attitude and reaction to different life
issues.
Pastoral care is a process of profound listening and understanding. A person wishes to be
understood by someone who could also, in a sensitive manner, interpret his/her needs
concerning pain, uncertainty, problems, depression, anxiety and guilt. This interpretation
must especially take into account the type of story told.
The art of listening to stories (story analysis)
Stories within the context of a pastoral conversation and clinical settings can be divided into
several types:

Happy stories, which could also be described as romantic stories.
These are stories which have a “happy ending”; in other words: the problem was addressed
appropriately; the operation was a success; the treatment is taking effect; the patient is
recovering. Then the person wishes to communicate his/her gratitude. The caregiver follows
up by conveying by sharing mutual thanksgiving and kinds of praise and worship.

Dramatic stories are stories with sharp contrasts (paradox).
44
Often people struggle with unresolved conflicts and questions, which could lead to revolt and
resistance, in which case the caregiver could follow up with the lament in the Psalms and, in
so doing, help the person to interpret his/her confused emotions in an honest way.

Tragic stories are stories in which people are struggling with the inevitable effect of
unforeseen disasters and undeserved suffering. In clinical settings patients often
struggle with the irreversible long-term effects of an illness or an accident.
In many cases the loss could be irreparable, for example, the loss of loved ones in an accident
or the paralysis of a patient who has suffered a stroke. A terminal condition, in a certain
sense, is also tragic. The person realises that he/she is threatened by impending death and
experiences anxiety, anger, frustration and fear. Now it is the task of the caregiver to bring
home to the person that, through the medium of faith, one can openly share this experience
with God. Through faith one knows that God himself is part of tragedy. This theological fact
is conveyed by the “tragic” death of Christ and opens up new avenues for the spirituality of
hope..

Ironic stories are those in which people struggle with embitterment and powerlessness
despite a profound faith and constructive understanding of God. In irony one is
exposed to unexpected events which seems to be totally irrational derived from any
logic and meaning. The meaning seems to be the opposite of what is known to the
speaker. The experience of incongruity and peculiarity can result in bitterness,
cynicism and even sarcasm.
Irony appears especially in situations when pain or suffering goes hand in hand with injustice
and surprise. Caregiving now responds, pointing out the injustice which was part of Christ’s
trial and suffering. For example: Christ pretended to be a saviour but he could not save
himself from dying on the cross or performing a miracle at Golgotha.

Comical stories deal with the discrepancies and paradoxes of life in a humorous or
flexible way. They pretend to be humorous, but are actually very serious. Pastoral
caregiving will strive to heighten the comical side by means of a new comprehension
of life or the discovering of new options that will help to see the same situation from a
different angle (reframing). Suffering is then understood from a different perspective.
For example, the remark of Paul when being aware of the painful reality and
deadliness of death: Death, where is your sting!”
The understanding and analysis of a person’s story runs through from phases 1 to 4. Storyanalysis could thus also be an important component of phase 2.
STAGE 2. REFLECTION, CLARIFICATION, PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND
INTERPRETATION: THINK (COGNITIVE DIMENSION)
This phase aims at helping people to integrate facts and to reflect on the meaning of events on
a more cognitive level. For example, in a clinical setting the goal of the pastoral encounter is
to assist people to accept the physical reality and integrate all the relevant facts within a
coherent perspective. In this phase appropriate information regarding the core issues at stake
45
is extremely important, thus the reason why cross-reference and an interdisciplinary approach
is paramount. For example in clinical settings like medical care units the doctor and nursing
staff play an important role. It is most important that the correct medical facts regarding the
patient’s situation are conveyed in a sensitive way, so as to minimise the patient’s
uncertainty. Reliable information plays an important role in this phase of counselling in order
to get clarity on the main issues at stake and to boil down to the basic problem (problem
identification). This phase aims at building perspective in order to help patients to gain a
realistic insight into their situation on the one hand, and on the other, to help them to discover
hope, which would be strengthened by a discovery that counselling is an on-going process
and that there are still other phases to be addressed.
In general, this stage is important in order to move from the level of the affective and
listening to the more cognitive level of data collection and appropriate information. The
intention is to move from the subjective level of feeling to a more objective level of analytical
thinking. In this regard critical realism is important in order to analyse all the detail facts in
order to boil down to the basic issues at stake.
Reflection also entails probing into the different schemata of interpretation. To detect the idea
‘behind’ (idea-matic realm of life) helps one to relate problematic issues and difficult life
events to possible skewed forms of conceptualization and zombie categories. It is in this stage
that philosophical counselling becomes appropriate. One should start to ‘see’ the ‘bigger
picture’ and gain insight in terms of processes of networking: how different issues are
interconnected and linked. Diagnosis of the problem moves from merely the level of the
affective to the level of the cognitive with its connection to the ‘idea behind, and possible
links to zombie categories, irrational thinking and inappropriate comprehension.
STAGE 3. MOTIVATION, ENCOURAGEMENT, RESPONSIBILTY AND GOAL
SETTING: ACT (CONATIVE DIMENSION)
This phase is about person’s level of responsibility and possible contribution to consider
other options and to move into active goal setting. In stage 3 the conative dimension and
appropriate decision-making is at stake. From What do I feel? and What do I think ,
counselling moves to the question: “What are the options and what can I do about my
situation?” People must now be encouraged to be actively involved in their concrete setting
or predicament and healing process. At this point pastoral caregiving aims to enhance
people’s co-operation. The degree to which relatives or friends (social networking) may be
involved in peoples’ processes of adapting and healing is also important.
An important task of the pastor is to encourage a person is to formulate objectives (goal
setting) that are aimed at slowly but surely involving him/her in a programme of action. Thus
pastoral caregiving wishes to restore the persons contact with life outside his/her situation
and to use creativity and imagination in order to establish new perspectives and to discover
future vision.
46
STAGE 4. INTEGRATION AND MEANING-GIVING (HOPE): BELIEVE AND
RESILIENCE (SPIRITUAL DIMENSION)
During this phase pastors wish to help people to integrate the happenstances of life by
making use of existing belief systems, convictions, philosophies and norms/values. In a
certain sense phase 4 is a golden thread which runs through all the stages. Its aim is to link
emotions, thinking and doing to meaning- giving and sustainable hoping. The counselling
process now moves from analysis to synthesis. The presupposition in this phase is that sound
values and wisdom bring about coherency, stability and insight beyond the limitations of
subjective foresight.
Phase 4 focuses on the question of imparting meaning and receiving meaning. When the
person is once again able to make decisions concerning his/her future (sketch of a future
scenario), a normative dimension, decisions and objectives bring about spiritual growth. Thus
the aim and object of this phase is to facilitate wisdom and maturity in faith. Growth in the
Christian tradition of faith is strengthened by an organic use of Scripture, service (diakonia),
prayer, Holy Communion, fellowship and liturgical rituals.
The intention in phase four is to help people to see the bigger picture (visual wholeness) and
to start linking new initiatives to reliable sources that can provide stability, encouragement,
sustainability and resilience. The objective is to edify so that people can shift their position
from being a victim and captive or their present situation (disorientation) to accommodation
(re-orientation, repurposing and new orientation). With accommodation is meant: What you
cannot change you need to accept; what you can change should be viewed as a challenge and
opportunity to set new goals. In phase the basic question shifts from How do you feel?; What
do you think?; What are you going to do?; to : What gives you confidence to keep on with
your plan?; and: What are reliable sources to put the future scenario into practice?; in terms
of the foreseen outcome: What do you hope for?
The four-phase model is not a technique with which change, growth and healing can be
enforced on people in a linear way. One cannot manipulate spiritual growth. One does not
manage hope; hope should be exemplified in new modes of being (habitus). The respective
phases do not develop in strict succession nor follow logically upon each other. These phases
are part of a dynamic process which should be viewed as a spiral model within mutuality and
zigzag networking.
47
Diagrammatically the four-phase/stage model29 could be illustrated as follows:
Stage 1:Affective
Stage 2:Cognitive
Stage 3:Conative
Self-insight
Person
Caregiving
skills
Stage 4:Spiritual
Self-integration,
Active
and
sharing comprehension and involvement and
networking
the taking up of
(disclosure)
responsibility;
exploring different
options
Meaning-giving
Self-understanding
Appropriateness,
efficiency of belief
systems
(Godimages)
Problem
identification
Action/programme
Goal setting
Acceptance
situation
of Future scenarios
of Assistance in
Empathy
Knowledge
theodicy
Interpathy
Summary of facts
Listening
Interpretation
Valid information
Wisdom
Encouragement
and resilience
Significance and
identifying signals
of transcendence
formulating
objectives/goals
Encouragement
and hope-giving
Facilitation
Understanding
Story analysis
Sensitivity
Compassion
Disputing
of Partaking in rituals
irrational concepts
Seeing the bigger
picture
(synthesising)
Probing schemata
of interpretation
Organic use of
Motivation
external sources
(Biblical
counselling;
Prayer;
Serving
sacraments)
Objective
29
the
Building trust
Building new
Co-operation
Growth in faith
Relationship
perspectives
Purposeful
Maturity in faith
Communicating
Vision
Behaviour
Imparting meaning
Understanding and
Insight
Reaching
Systemic
out Receiving meaning
The four stage model is applicable to believers as well as to non-believers in a secular society because the principles
implied in all the four stages are relevant to all human being in any cultural setting.
48
Sensitivity
Reframing
interaction
Repurposing
Encouragement
Generating hope
Integration
Core
com-
Emotion
ponents
Reason
Responsibility
Hope & Faith
Unconditional love Paradigms
Will
Cultural/
Systemic approach
Support network
religious
and norms
Thought/wisdom
thinking
Family and friends
Pastoral style and
attitude
Faithful promises
(promissiotherapy)
Philosophical
counselling
Summary FEEL
THINK
DO
BELIEVE/
TRUST
Basic pastoral functions during all the phases of a pastoral encounter:
(1) Facilitating – the art of listening
(2) Sustaining – the art of support and understanding
(3) Guiding – the art of directing/diagnosing and meaning-disclosure
(4) Healing – the art of consoling/changing
(5) Nurturing – the art of caring
(6) Reconciling – the art of forgiving and witnessing
(7) Confronting – the art of disputing and admonishing.
(8) Interpreting: the art of hermeneutics
(9) Liberating: the art of human empowerment (human dignity)
(10) Disputing: the art of deconstructing and reframing
values