A MANUAL GRAMMAR GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A MANUAL GRAMMAR
of the
G R E E K NEW TESTAMENT
BY
H. E . DANA, TH.D.
Professor
of New
Testament
in the Southwestern
Seminary
Baptist
in Fort Worth,
Interpretation
Theological
Texas
AND
J U L I U S R. M A N T E Y , TH.D., D.D.
Professor
of New
Testament
in the Northern
Seminary
Baptist
in Chicago,
Interpretation
Theological
Illinois
T H E MACMILLAN COMPANY
©
COPYRIGHT, T H E MACMILLAN
©
COPYRIGHT, T O M M I E
JULIUS R.
P.
MANTEY,
COMPANY,
1927
D A N A AND
1955
A l l rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the Publisher.
Fifteenth Printing, 1 9 6 7
Printed with new index to Scripture References, 1 9 5 7
Library of Congress catalog card number: 5 7 - 9 5 4 4
T h e Macmillan Company, New York
Collier-Macinillan Canada, L t d . , Toronto, Ontario
Printed in the United States of America
PREFACE
The need most keenly felt by present-day teachers of the
Greek New Testament is for an accurate and comprehensive compendium of grammar which is adaptable to the
average student. This need we have attempted to supply^
in the following pages. The book is not offered as an
exhaustive treatment of the grammatical phenomena of
the Greek New Testament, for its scope and design would
not permit it to be such. I t is intended to give to the student a comprehensive survey of the chief features of the
grammar of the Greek New Testament in simple outline
form, as an introduction to a more detailed and inductive
study. Our chief effort has been to bring the best Greek
scholarship within reach of the average student, and produce a textbook which, while being easy to comprehend,
would adequately meet his needs. To this end we have
made the method of presentation largely deductive, but
the conclusions offered have been based upon more than a
decade of careful inductive effort. I n all our work of
preparation we have sought to keep before us the average
Greek student rather than the technical Greek scholar, at
the same time endeavoring to make the book sufficiently
accurate and thorough to stand the most severe tests of
technical scholarship.
The primary consideration which induced the authors to
undertake the production of this manual was their own
experience in seeking to find among the number of great
treatises already in existence on the grammar of the Greek
New Testament a worjs: readily adapted to class-room use.
That we need at this time another exhaustive treatise on
iii
iv
PREFACE
the grammar of the Greek Testament is doubtful; that we
need a practical and adaptable textbook is beyond question. Just here is where we have sought to make a worthwhile contribution.
The foundation of scholarship, upon which i t has been
our privilege to build, is immense. The grammatical
phenomena of the Greek New Testament have been attracting scientific attention for nearly, if not quite, three centuries. We have been able to trace the history of definite
effort in this field back as far as 1650, when Caspian Wyss
published the results of his investigations. Antedating his
work was that of Salamanda Glass, but his accomplishments
seem to have been of but slight consequence. The honor of
the first published work to which we could at all accommodate the term grammar belongs to George Pasor, whose
work appeared in 1655, though prepared much earlier.
From Pasor we must skip a period of one hundred and sixty
years to 1815, when P. H . Haab published at Tubingen his
Hebrew-Greek Grammar of the New Testament.
The title of the last-mentioned book is indicative of the
type of work which up to this time had been done on the
Greek of the New Testament. I t was largely an attempt—
and of course a vain attempt—to conform the linguistic
phenomena of the New Testament to the vague principles
of Semitic grammar. The true light, in the full glow of
which we now labor, dawned in 1824. Its earliest gleams
found entrance through the mind and work of Johann
Winer, whose Grammar first appeared in 1824. Winer's
work was epoch-making in the highest degree. A grateful
multitude of New Testament students are ready to join
A. T. Robertson in his admiring declaration that "in a true
sense he was a pathfinder" (Grammar, p. 4). He introduced a revolution into the study of the Greek New Testament by adopting and substantiating the premise that
PREFACE
V
Biblical Greek, and particularly that of the New Testament, was not a special "Holy Ghost" language, nor a
conglomerate of Greek words and Semitic grammar, but the
ordinary colloquial tongue of the day, spoken throughout
the Graeco-Roman world. This idea has remained since
his day an axiom in the study of the Greek New Testament.
As one scans the history of the period he gains the
impression that progress after Winer's day was strangely
islow. Much work was done here and there, the greater
part of i t based'on Winer's fundamental premise, but none
of i t developed into any very definite production. I t was
1860 before another conspicuous publication appeared. At
about this date Buttmann's Grammar came from the press.
A short while afterward (1864) there was published a work
which has not received considerable attention, but which
unquestionably has some real merit. I t was a brief treatment of the Syntax and Synonyms of the New Testament,
by William Webster, a Cambridge scholar. Further progress
was made by Blass, whose Grammar was published in 1896,
and S. G. Green, whose Handbook to the Grammar of the
Greek Testament has served many classes well as a textbook, but is rather too elaborate and detailed for the most
effective class-room use. E. D. Burton's New Testament
Moods and Tenses, which first appeared in pamphlet form
in 1888, then in book form in 1893, Was a notable contribution to one phase of the study.
The greatest and most fruitful field for investigation
which Greek New Testament scholarship has ever known
is found in the Greek papyri. Chief honor for the effective
exploration of this vast source of information on behalf of
the Greek Testament belongs to Adolf Deissmann and J. H .
Moulton. The earliest work of Moulton was his Introduce
Hon to the Study of New Testament Greek, which was first
published in 1896. His Prolegomena appeared ten years
vi
PREFACE
later, and his Grammar (vols, i i and iii, the Prol. being
vol. i) is now in process of publication. I t is a posthumous
publication, for Moulton met a tragic and premature death
during the early years of the World War. For the enormous and delicate task of editing Moulton's Grammar from
the notes which he left, the world of New Testament
scholarship owes a great debt of gratitude to W. F. Howard,
M.A., B.D. Deissmann's Bible Studies and Philology of
the Greek Bible are his works of greatest linguistic interest.
A chapter of incalculable import in the history of the
grammar of the Greek New Testament transpired when
Gessner Harrison had in his Greek classes in the University
of Virginia the young ministerial student John A. BroadusHarrison was a highly accomplished Greek scholar, and far
advanced beyond his own era in the understanding and
use of the modern linguistic method, as is evidenced by his
great work on Greek Prepositions and Cases. From him
young Broadus acquired an incentive and equipment which
made of him a mighty teacher and peerless scholar in the
Greek New Testament. I t was possibly regrettable that he
published no work of his own on the Greek Testament, but
the fruit of his labor has ripened into a most glorious yield
in spite of that fact. The priceless heritage of his vast
scholarship fell into worthy and competent hands in the
person of his student and son-in-law, A. T. Robertson, that
towering genius and masterful scholar who stands today
without a rival at the forefront of the Greek scholarship of
the world. I n 1908 he first attracted the attention of New
Testament students with his Short Grammar of the Greek
New Testament, and then in 1914 appeared that stupendous
work, so far superior to every preceding effort in the entire
field, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light
of Historical Research. This book is, and is probably for
a long time to remain, the unrivaled standard in its realm.
PREFACE
vii
To this colossal work the authors of this book are indebted
more than to all their other sources combined. What a
benediction it would be to all the coming generations of
New Testament students if this great scholar could yet find
it possible to give us a translation of the New Testament,
and what a loss it will be if we must be deprived of i t !
Among works on elementary Greek devoted to the New
Testament, two of the earliest to hold the field in America
were those by Harper and Weidner, and Huddilston. I n
recent years an elementary Greek text and brief work on
syntax have been contributed by H . P. V. Nunn, a Cambridge scholar. The best textbooks on elementary Greek
at present in the field are those by W. H . Davis and J. G.
Machen.
This brief historical review makes i t quite obvious that
extensive and highly efficient efforts have already been
bestowed upon the grammar of the Greek New Testament
^—and a considerable number of minor works have not been
mentioned. Major works may also have been omitted
through oversight or ignorance. But in all this aggregation
of scholarly treatises there is no work satisfactorily adapted
to class-room use. I t is our hope that we offer here a book
which will fill that need. We have sought to select and
present with the greatest possible clearness the matters
essential to a working knowledge of the language of the
New Testament. The primary principles we have set out
in large type and plain language. Matters of detail and
the comparison of the opinions of leading scholars we have
presented in smaller type, hoping that instructors and
students will not regard the smaller type as a suggestion
to skip anything, or an intimation that the matters so presented are of minor importance. As a matter of fact, the
material in the small type represents the authors' widest
research and most diligent effort.
viii
PREFACE
We have adopted the simplest language possible in an
adequate statement of grammatical principles. As far as
could be done in conformity with our own judgment we
have followed the terminology of Robertson and Moulton,
in the firm belief that they come most nearly offering to
English-speaking students a terminology which can become
standard. Where the two have differed we have usually
given the preference to Robertson, though not invariably.
Of course, we have found instances in which we believed
there were sufficient reasons for differing from them both,
in which cases we have in honesty followed our own best
judgment. We have had a fundamental principle in selecting terminology: to use terms which are simple and expressive, and easily apprehended by the average student. I t
has been our policy to avoid coining new terms. Those
already familiar in Greek grammatical usage have been
employed as far as possible.
In our discussion on Cases we have taken the advanced
position that the cases should be approached from the viewpoint of function rather than of form, and that there were
in reality eight cases in Greek. From the time that we
began with the eight-case hypothesis we have found no evidence in Greek literature to confute it, while we have found
ample evidence to confirm it. A decade of patient and
wide research has established for us a conviction on this
matter which is inescapable. We invite any who think i t
gratuitous to treat the cases from this viewpoint to ascertain whether it harmonizes with the original Aryan case
divisions, and whether i t contributes to simplicity and
accuracy. I t is our conviction that i t does.
I n the sections on Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Particles, which deal with the extensive and elusive field of
connectives, several new meanings illustrated by various
and vivid examples are set forth. An inductive study of
PREFACE
ix
ohese connectives was begun several years ago. An unusual use of a connective was carefully noted and its
apparent meaning was written into a notebook or on the
margin of whatever document was being studied. Later on
these connectives were reexamined, and their meanings were
classified in the light of the inductive evidence thus derived.
The papyri proved to be most helpful in this study. The
discoveries of new meanings for ofiv, in particular, are of
exceptional interest and value. I t was a coincidence that
in our independent research we arrived at the same conchi'
sions that Professor Moulton did as to av having the force
of ever in most passages.
The illustrations have in the main been taken from the
actual text of the Greek New Testament, but have been in
some cases slightly altered for purposes of brevity and
greater clearness. The discussion throughout has been
based on the W H . text, and kept free from technical problems of textual criticism, with which the student at the
stage of training contemplated by this book is rarely
acquainted. We have sought to put the material in convenient outline form, and i f we have made a distinctive
contribution to this important field of science, i t is chiefly
a better organization of the material already produced.
To be used for study supplementary to the textbook, we
have provided at the beginning of each section a list of
references to Robertson's Grammar and Short Grammar,
and Moulton's Prolegomena. The instructor would do well
to assign one reference in each section as required parallel
reading. Every student should be urged to own a copy of
Robertson's Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the
Light of Historical Research.
This book is in an unusual degree a cooperative product.
The names of the two . chief contributors appear on the
title page, but many other proficient hands have wrought
v
X
PREFACE
faithfully upon it—too many to mention by name. Nevertheless, for every aid received we record our most hearty
thanks. I t is but just that we should acknowledge here
our constant use of the unpublished grammar notes of Professor C. B. Williams, Union University, Jackson, Tennessee, who, while in the chair of Greek New Testament in
the Southwestern Seminary, was the honored preceptor of
both authors. The fact that this material was not in
published form has prevented any very definite reference
in the text of the book. A t the cost of great labor and
painstaking care, the paradigms of conjugation were prepared by Professor L . R. Elliott, Librarian and Instructor
in Biblical Greek in the Southwestern Seminary. Mr. John
W. Patterson has rendered most valuable aid in the preparation of the vocabulary. To Mr. C. W. Roller, Fellow
in the New Testament department of the Southwestern
Seminary, we are grateful for valuable suggestions and
assistance, while to Messrs. W. L. Moore and J. R. Branton
we record our thanks for careful and effective proof reading. A large part of the typing of the manuscript has been
done by Mr. E. P. Baker, who brought to the task a personal knowledge of the Greek language which in the nature
of the case was indispensable.
This work is a successor to a former edition, published
as a private enterprise by the authors chiefly for their own
classes, under the title, A Manual for the Study of the
Greek New Testament. Several of our friends, however,
have kindly adopted i t and used i t as a textbook; and for
words of commendation and suggestion from them we are
deeply grateful.
A task which has been sometimes tedious but ever intensely interesting is at last completed. We would place
the book in the hands of the average student of the Greek
PREFACE
xi
New Testament, with the hope and prayer that it may
secure for him access to the rich treasures of scholarship,
and thereby to the deep mines of religious truth and inspiration which lie imbedded in the original text.
H . E. D A N A ,
Seminary Hill, Tex.
J. R . M A N T E Y ,
Chicago, 111.
K E Y TO ABBREVIATIONS
We give here a list of the principal works cited in this
volume. The books here listed would make a fairly complete working library on the grammar of the Greek New
Testament for the average student. For such purpose there
should be added, however, Moulton and Geden's Concord*
ance to the Greek Testament
One who wishes a beginner's
book for elementary Greek may secure Machen: New Testament Greek for Beginners (Macmillan) or Davis: Beginner's Grammar of the Greek New Testament (Doran). If
an extensive bibliography is desired, Robertson provides in
his Grammar one which will serve all ordinary purposes.
The method of citation in this book is to insert the
adopted abbreviation for the name of the author or for
the title of his book (as indicated below), followed by the
page numbers. The abbreviations used are as follows:
ASV
American Standard Version.
AV . . . .Authorized Version.
Bl
Blass: Grammar of New Testament
Greek
Br
Burton: New Testament Moods and Tenses.
Bt
Buttmann: Grammar of New Testament
Greek.
Deissmann: Philology of the Greek Bible (P.
G. B.) and Bible Studies (B. S.).
(2d ed.).
D
G
LXX
Green: Handbook to the Grammar of the
Greek New Testament.
Septuagint (Greek Old Testament).
xiii
Xiv
K E YTO
M
M-II
A B B R E V I A T I O N S
Moulton: Prolegomena to the Grammar of
New Testament Greek.
Moulton: Grammar of New Testament Greek,
vol. i i .
R
R-S
RV
T
W
Robertson: A Grammar of the Greek New
Testament in the Light of Historical Research.
Robertson: A Short Grammar of the Greek
New Testament.
Revised Version.
Thumb: Handbook
Vernacular.
of the Modern
Greek
Thayer's translation of Luneman's revision
of Winer: Grammar of the Idiom of the
New Testament (7th ed.),
WH
Westcott and Hort: Greek Text of the New
Wr
Testament.
Wright: Comparative Grammar of the Greek
Language.
All cross references in the book are made by paragraph
numbers. For instance, 120, (3), i i would refer to paragraph 120, subhead (3), the second paragraph in small
type. We have tried so to enumerate the materials in the
book as to make reference easy and accurate.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface
Key to Abbreviations
Introduction
m
xin
1
PART I. ACCIDENCE
CHAPTER
I.
II.
III.
Orthography.
Declension
Conjugation
19
32
41
PART I I . SYNTAX
Introductory
DIVISION I.
1.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
T H E NOUN.
The Cases
Prepositions
The Adjective
The Pronoun
The Article
DIVISION I I .
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
59
65
96
115
122
135
T H E VEBB.
Voice, Person, and Number
Mood.
Tense
The Infinitive.-...
The Participle
The Adverb
Conjunctions
Particles
XV
155
165
176
208
220
234
239
258
xvi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
DIVISION I I I .
I.
II.
III.
CLAUSES.
The Structural Relation of Clauses.
Relative Clauses
Causal Clauses
IV. Comparative Clauses
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
Local Clauses
Temporal Clauses
Purpose Clauses—
Result Clauses
Conditional Clauses
Concessive Clauses
Substantival Clauses
Indirect Discourse
Commands and Prohibitions
APPENDIX
Paradigms
Exercises for Greek Composition—
English-Greek Vocabulary
English Index
Greek Index
Index of Scripture References
A MANUAL GRAMMAR OF T H E
G R E E K NEW TESTAMENT
INTRODUCTION
References: R. 76-83; R.-S. 3, 4; M. 2£-34*
1. The modern historical method as applied to all phases
of linguistic science is to investigate a language in the light
of all the periods of its own history, and its relationship
to all kindred languages. This investigation of linguistic
kinship and development is known as the science of comparative philology. No really informed student now
attempts the study of any language without the use of this
comparative method. Consequently we should approach
the study of New Testament Greek by considering its relation to the other representatives of human speech, and the
stages of its own development. I t will be of value to the
student to become acquainted especially with the relation
of the Greek to those languages nearest it in kinship, and
in general with the entire scope of linguistic development.
The Indo-European Languages.
2. The languages of mankind may be divided into families, the families into branches, and the branches into dialects. However, i t will be necessary here to offer complete
analysis only of the family to which the Greek belongs.
And indeed, the family to which the Greek belongs submits
itself most readily to thorough analysis, for it is the most
highly developed, and at the same time the most clearly
defined of all languages. Besides its designation as Indo*For key to abbreviations,see pp. xvii and xviii.
1
2
INTRODUCTION
European, i t is sometimes called Indo-Germanic, or Aryan.
Of these three designations the last is the most convenient,
but may be confusing because so often restricted to the
Asiatic dialects of the family; the second is undesirable
because i t gives an exaggerated prominence to the German
language; the one here used, though rather clumsy, is by
far the most accurately descriptive.
3. The Indo-European was the original tongue of those
tribes which in prehistoric times are believed to have
inhabited a region somewhere about east-central Asia or
west-central Europe. The earliest historical evidences of
them appear in western Europe, though at some extremely
ancient period a large remnant of the race moved southward and settled in Persia and India—hence the name
Indo-European. There have developed seven branches of
this family, each branch being represented in several dialects. Only the chief dialects will be mentioned here. For
a fuller discussion the student is referred to Whitney's Life
and Growth of Language and Sweet's History of Languages.
4. The oldest representative of the family is the Indian
branch, of which the chief known dialect is the Sanskrit,
which is of special interest to the student of the Greek New
Testament because of its close relation to the Greek, of
which i t may be described as an elder sister. The preservation of Sanskrit was largely due to its use in the Vedic
hymns, the sacred literature of the Hindus. Later remains
of i t may be found in laws, epic writings, etc. Its inflection of the noun is the most highly developed of all the
languages, there being eight inflectional endings, with
occasional traces of a ninth.
A later stage of the Indian branch is represented in the
Prakrit.
5. The second oldest branch of the Indo-European is the
Greek. Its dialects belong to antiquity, the language
INTRODUCTION
3
having become unified and universalized several centuries
before the Christian era. This matter will receive fuller
attention later. Greek is the most literary of all the ancient
languages, having produced a veritable stream of literature,
beginning with Homer about 900 B.C.
6. Next in age to the Greek is the Italic, of which the
Latin was the chief dialect. Other ancient dialects of the
Italic were the Umbrian of northern Italy and the Oscan
of southern Italy. Only scant remains of these dialects
have come down to us. The Latin is witnessed by an
abundance of ancient literature, and survives, though
greatly modified, in the Romanic (or Romance) languages,
which include the Italian, French, Spanish, Portugese, and
Roumanian.
7. From this point on the question of comparative age
must be waived for want of sufficient evidence. I f we follow the order of historical prominence we are brought next
to the Teutonic branch, of which our own English is the
most widely distributed dialect. I t , with the Dutch and
German, seems to have come to us from a sister dialect of
the ancient Gothic (if the German be not a direct successor
of the Gothic), of which the only surviving literary remains
are fragments of the Bible translated by Ulfilas, the great
Christian missionary to the Goths. Of ancient origin also
is the Scandinavian, the chief literary remains of which are
the Eddas and Sagas of Iceland, its surviving dialects being
the language of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland.
"The oldest records of this branch are the runic inscriptions, some of which date as far back as the third or fourth
century" (Wr. 2).
8. The Slavic is the branch of the Indo-European tongue
now distributed in eastern and southern Europe. I t survives chiefly in Russia, JPoland, and some of the Balkan
states. I t is also usually regarded as embracing the Lettic
4
INTRODUCTION
languages, unless these last be placed in a separate class as
the Baltic branch (cf. Sweet: op. dt p. 98). The Bulgarian
has the oldest literature, but the Russian is the most widely
distributed.
9. The Celtic is the ancient language of western Europe,
represented chiefly by the Gauls and Britons. The Irish,
Scotch, and Welch also belong to this branch.
10. The Iranian branch is represented mainly in the
Persian language. I t also includes the Zend dialect, preserved in the Avesta, the sacred book of the Zoroastrian
religion.
n
The foregoing outline will furnish the student with a fair working
analysis of the family of language to which the Greek belongs.
Beyond this even greater brevity may be adopted, but a comprehensive sketch of the entire field of linguistic research is of value
as giving the student a proper appreciation of the modern approach
to the science of language. There is one other family fairly well
denned, but the remaining six are difficult of classification, and
appear to be the result of combining elements of one family or
dialect with those of another.
11. The Semitic family is almost as well defined as the IndoEuropean. Its geographical origin was probably southern Asia. To
it belong the Assyrian, the Hebrew, the Phoenician, the Aramaic,
the Syriac, the Arabic, and the Abyssinian. It is the second family
in the degree of its development.
12. After leaving the Indo-European and Semitic families we face
a bewildering conglomerate. We turn from forms of speech which
present orderly and intelligible inflection, and hence are subject to
systematic analysis, and approach a mode of expression which is
monosyllabic, or agglutinative, or both. One is immediately seized
with the impression that they all belong to a single family, but
philologists have been unable to reduce the matter to any such
simple solution. On the contrary, they have discovered sufficient
lines of distinction to divide these mongrel tongues into six different
families.
The Scythian family has dialects in Asia and Europe, being
represented by the Turkish, Finnish, and Hungarian. The Mongolian or Monosyllabic family has its home in southeastern Asia
INTRODUCTION
5
with the Himalayan tribes, the Mongols, the Manchus, and the
Chinese. Japanese is also probably a kindred tongue. The MalayPolynesian family belongs to the islands of the southern Asiatic
seas. The Caucasian is spoken by the tribes dwelling among the
Caucasus Mountains in south-central Asia. The Hamitic is represented by the Egyptian, Libyan, and Ethiopian, with possible kinship to the lower African dialects. The languages of the savage
tribes of Africa practically defy classification. The American family
includes the languages of the Indians of our own continent. But
comparative philologists are not entirely agreed that the Indian
languages belong to a single family. In fact, several of the conclusions adopted in the foregoing discussion are but tentative. The
science of comparative philology is still in its infancy, and offers a
wide and important field of investigation. Much may be learned
about the antiquity of the race by searching in the origins of
linguistic expression.
13. Robertson (R. 37) classifies language as isolating, agglutinative, and inflectional. The isolating languages are those without
inflection, employing other devices, such as word-order, for variety
in expression. They include Chinese, Burmese, etc. Agglutinative
languages make use of separable prefixes, infixes, and suffixes, such
as may be seen in the Turkish. The inflectional languages vary
expression by means of endings, stems, and prefixes. This type of
language is represented in the Indo-European and Semitic families.
Some languages, e.g., modern English, employ to a greater or
less extent all these methods. Sweet adds one other class to these
three, which he calls the incorporative languages. These gather into
a single word several elements of the sentence, such as subject, verb,
and object (cf. Sweet: op. cit., pp. 65ff.). For a splendid brief discussion of the Indo-European languages the student may refer to
Wr. 1-4.
The Greek Language
14. The history of the Greek language extends back to
about 1500 B.C. Previous to Homer, however, the history
of the language is wrapped in great obscurity. The development of the language may be divided into five periods:
(1) The Formative Period. This period extends from
the prehistoric origin of the race to Homer (c. 900 B . C ) .
6
INTRODUCTION
The primitive tribes from which the Greek nation arose
were members of the great Aryan family which had its
original home somewhere in west-central Asia. I n prehistoric times a group of tribes from this original stock
migrated into the little peninsula of southern Europe now
known as Greece. The topographical character of this
country is exceedingly irregular. Numerous mountain
ranges and the inland penetration of arms of the sea cut
the country up into many divisions. As a result of this
irregular topography the original tribes were practically
barred from intercourse with one another, and hence were
slow in developing unity of life and language. There grew
a number of different dialects, the chief of which were the
Attic, Boeotian, Northwestern, Thessalian, and Arcadian.
These probably developed from three original dialects: the
Doric, Aeolic, and Ionic. The most vigorous and attractive
of these was the Ionic, which, therefore, exerted the greatest
influence upon subsequent linguistic developments among
the Greeks.
(2) The Classical Period. This period embraces the
centuries from Homer to the Alexandrian conquests (c. 330
B.C.). I n this period the Attic dialect, based chiefly on the
old Ionic, with the best elements of the Doric and Aeolic,
secured supremacy. The ancient Greek literature which
has come down to us is predominantly Attic. Any general
grammar of classical Greek deals primarily with the Attic
speech, noting the elements from other dialects as irregularities and exceptions. The Attic was the molding force
in all the subsequent developments of the Greek language.
I t constituted the chief basis of New Testament Greek.
(3) The Koine Period. This period extends from 330
B.C. to A.D. 330. I t is the period of the common or universal Greek. During this period the Greek language was
freely used and understood throughout the civilized world,
INTRODUCTION
7
being spoken as freely on the streets of Rome, Alexandria,
and Jerusalem as in Athens. There were four main causes"
bringing about the development of the Koine Greek.
a. Extensive Colonization. The Greeks were a very aggressive people, and early learned seafaring from the
Phoenicians, and vied with the latter in the extent of maritime activities. As a result Greek colonies were planted on
nearly all the shores of the Mediterranean. One of the
strongest of these colonies was on the eastern coast of Italy,
not far from the center of the Latin world.
b. Close Political and Commercial Affiliation of the
Separate Greek Tribes. The broadening of the life of the
people by extensive colonization, and more especially the
common peril of eastern conquerors, brought the several
tribes of Greece into closer touch, and developed a sense
of racial homogeneity. Doubtless no single cause contributed more to this result than the long struggle with the
Persians. The campaign of Cyrus, recounted for us by
Xenophon in his Anabasis and Katabasis, brought together
Greeks of all tribes and dialects into one great army, and
hence did much to develop a common tongue. There are
foretokens of a Koine language to be found even in so
astutely Attic a document as Xenophon's Anabasis.
c. Religious Interrelations. Though each Greek tribe
had its own tribal god or gods, yet there was a sense of
religious unity in the race. This exhibited itself in the
common reverence of all the tribes for certain preeminent
deities of the pantheon, especially Zeus. These leading
deities which we might speak of as racial gods, served to
promote the unity of the race. This was particularly true
after the establishment of the great national festivities at
such religious centers as Olympia, Delos, and Delphi. I n scriptions upon the statues and memorials of various kinds
erected at these centers were in all the leading dialects, and
8
INTRODUCTION
led to the acquaintance of one tribe with the language of
another. As the people from all the different localities of
widely distributed Hellas mingled together at these periodical celebrations, there arose a natural tendency toward a
common speech. This factor was certainly very potent in
the creation of the Koine.
d. The Alexandrian Conquests. The climax of this merging process in the growth of the Greek language was reached
in the Alexandrian conquests (334 to 320 B.C.). The
mingling of representatives from all the Greek tribes in
Alexander's army matured the development of a common
Greek, and the wide introduction of Greek culture under
his direction distributed the common tongue throughout the
Macedonian empire. When Rome conquered this Hellenized
territory, she in turn was Hellenized, and thereby the civilized world adopted the Koine Greek. Hence Paul could
write his doctrinal masterpiece to the political center of
the Latin world in the Greek language, and Augustus,
emperor of Rome, must needs inscribe his official seal in
Greek (cf. D., B. S. 243).
The remaining two periods of development in the Greek
language will need but bare mention.
(4) The Byzantine Period extends from A.D. 330 to 1453.
I t begins with the division of the Roman empire, and its
progress is largely affected by the uncertain fortunes of the
throne at Constantinople.
(5) The Modern Period is from 1453 to the present. W B
have in this period the development of the language now
spoken on the streets of Athens. The remarkable fact is
that i t bears a closer kinship to the New Testament language than do the writings of Euripides and Plato.
15. Eobertson discusses the essential and obvious unity of the
Greek language. While it consists of a variety of dialects, and
presents several successive stages of growth, yet all its various mem«*
INTRODUCTION
9
bers are so related as to compose a single language. Therefore, no
one phase of the language or its history should be set up as the
final standard (cf. also D., P.G.B.).
The classical Attic is in no
sense to be regarded as the standard Greek, any more than we are
to make Homer the criterion. Both are dialectic variations of the
one Greek language. Greek is one whether we consider it at J 000
B.C. or A.D. 1000; whether used by the Attic poet, the Koine letterwriter, or the resident of modern Athens. "It is one language
whether we read the Epic Homer, the Doric Pindar, the Ionic
Herodotus, the Attic Xenophon, the Aeolic Sappho, the Atticistic
Plutarch, Paul the exponent of Christ, an inscription in Pergamus,
a papyrus letter in Egypt, Tricouphis or Vlachos in the modern
times" (R. 42). Robertson outlines the history of the Greek language as follows: The Mycenaean Age, 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C.; the Age
of Dialects, 1000 B.C. to 300 B.C; the Age of the Koine, 300 B.C. to
A.D. 330; the Byzantine Greek, A.D. 330 to 1453; the Modern Greek,
1453 to the present. He remarks with great truth, "As a matter of
fact, any division is arbitrary, ior the language has had an unbroken
history, though there are three general epochs in that history*
(R. 41-43),
The Greek of the New Testament
16. There was a time when the scholars who dealt with
the original text of the New Testament regarded its Greek
as a special Holy Ghost language, prepared under divine
direction for the Scripture writers. When the fallacy of
this conception began to grow evident, two opposing schools
developed. The Hebraists contended that the Septuagint
and the New Testament were written in a Biblical Greek,
dominated largely by Hebrew or Aramaic modes of expression; the Purists contended that they represented variations
of the classical Attic. But beginning with Winer in 1825
there came a revolution in the views of New Testament
scholarship relative to this matter. As a result of the
labors of Deissmann in Germany, Moulton in England, and
Robertson in America all question has been removed from
the conclusion that New Testament Greek is simply a
10
INTRODUCTION
sample of the colloquial Greek of the first century; i.e., the
Koine Greek. The inspired writers of the New Testament
wrote in the ordinary language of the masses, as might
have been expected.
17. Robertson shows that the progress of opinion among New
Testament Greek scholars has been for more than half a century
toward the conclusion now universally accepted that the Greek of
the New Testament is but a specimen of the vernacular Koine of
the first century. He deals extensively with the witness of the
inscriptions and papyri to this fact. The evidence of inscriptions
was employed as early as 1887. Two pioneers in this newfieldwere
E . L . Hicks and W. M. Ramsay. But the complete establishment
of the new method is an accomplishment of the twentieth century.
Deissmann has doubtless done the most extensive work in this
particular field. The future will countenance no other view of the
Greek New Testament (cf. R. 31-48).
Literary Witnesses to the Koine
18. Since the Greek of the New Testament is the current
language of the period in which i t was written, i t is of
interest to the New Testament student to learn what other
literary monuments this language has left to us, from which
he may obtain additional light on the Greek New Testament. There are six of these sources of light on the Koine.
(1) Biblical Greek. Not because i t is a separate language, or even dialect, but because i t exhibits certain characteristics and possesses an interest all its own, we may
still speak of the language of the New Testament and
Septuagint as "Biblical Greek." When one has read the
epoch-making works of Deissmann, he is just a little shy
of the term, but still i t is true that there is a place in philological science for the term "Biblical Greek." This would
be true for the one fact alone of the distinctive literature of
transcendant interest which composes it. I t is also true
that the New Testament and Septuagint present a distinc-
INTRODUCTION
11
tive type of the Koine. They are superior in literary
quality to the average presented by the papyri, and yet da
not exhibit the classical aim of the Atticistic writers. So
while heeding and properly applying the warning of Deissmann, at the same time we need to preserve a serviceable
distinction.
(2) Literary Koine. There was formal literary effort of
considerable extent during the Koine period which much
more readily approaches the classical nature of the Attic
than does our New Testament. To this class belong the
writings of Plutarch, Polybius, Josephus, Strabo, Philo
etc. (cf. M . 25-26).
(3) Papyri. This ancient writing material was made
from the papyrus reed, an Egyptian water plant. Its use
dates back to extreme antiquity, and extends down to the
Byzantine period. Papyri are now discovered in Egypt,
where climatic conditions have favored their preservation.
They are especially valuable to the student of the Greek
New Testament, both because of the wide range of their
literary quality and their exhibition of the typical Koine.
They represent every kind of general literature, from the
casual correspondence of friends to the technicalities of a
legal contract. There is, however, little formal literature—
such as poem or treatise—to be found among them. They
consist in the main of private letters, contracts, wills, court
records, government documents, etc. They represent the
ordinary language of the people, and i t was in this type of
language that our New Testament was written (cf. D.,
P. G. B. 23-33; M . 27-28; especially Goodspeed in
Mathews-Smith, Dictionary of Religion and Ethics, p. 324).
(4) Inscriptions. These are more widely distributed
than the papyri, being found in abundance on several sites
of important centers of Mediterranean civilization. They
are found "either in their original positions or lying under
r
12
INTRODUCTION
ruins and mounds of rubbish" (D., P. G. B. lit).
They
are usually epigraphs or notices, carved upon slabs of stone
for official, civic, and memorial purposes. They are of a
more formally literary character than the papyri. Their
value has been not only literary but historical. The great
works of Sir William Ramsay on the historical criticism
of the New Testament have secured a rich contribution of
evidence from the inscriptions (cf. D., P. G. B. 17-23; M .
28-29).
(5) Ostraca. The ostraca were potsherds—fragments of
broken jugs or other earthen vessels—used by the poorer
classes for memoranda, receipts, and the like. "As linguistic memorials of the lower classes these humble potsherd
texts shed light on many a detail of the linguistic character
of our sacred book—that book which was written, not by
learned men but by simple folk, by men who themselves
confessed that they had their treasure in earthen vessels
(2 Cor. 4:7). And thus the modest ostraca rank as of
equal value with the papyri and inscriptions" (D., P. G. B.
35). I t would be well here to add the observation of
Moulton that " i t must not be inferred . . . that the New
Testament writers are at all comparable to these scribes in
lack of education" (M. 28; cf. D., P. G. B. 17-23; R. 21).
(6) Modern Greek. The important relation of Modern
Greek to the Koine is a discovery of the nineteenth century,
dating back only to 1834. The connection is simply that
the Modern Greek is an outgrowth of the Koine rather
than of the Attic, which, of course, was to be expected.
Vernacular is always the chief factor of change in the
growth of a language. Hence the real basis of the Greek
now spoken in Athens is that represented in our New Testament, and not the classic tongue of Aeschylus, or eveu
the Atticistic attempts of Polybius. Moulton quotes Hat*
zidakis, the Modern Greek grammarian, as saying that
INTRODUCTION
13
"the language generally spoken today in the towns differs
less from the common language of Polybius than this last
differs from the language of Homer" (cf. M . 29f.).
19. Deissmann assigns to the inscriptions the chief place as evidence on the Greek of the New Testament. To the papyri he
gives a high but secondary place (B. S. 80f.). Moulton contends
that the private letters discovered among the papyri are the most
important source of light on New Testament Greek (M. 27f.).
Biblical Greek could not be understood until their evidence was
brought to light. Robertson cites one hundred and eighty-six words
formerly supposed to be peculiar to Biblical Greek which the papyri
and inscriptions have shown were in common use (R. 65f.). Deissmann offers a list of seventeen merely as examples (£. S. 83), and
later presents an extended discussion of scores of others which
he has found current in thefirst-centuryworld (B. S. 86ff.). On
the whole, Moulton is probably correct in maintaining that the
papyri offer the most important source of light on the Greek
of the New Testament.
Types of the Koine
20. As is true of any language which develops a literature,
Koine Greek presents characteristic differences between
the spoken and written language. This fact presents the
two types of Koine.
(1) The literary Koine is represented by extra-Biblical
literature, by most of the inscriptions, and by a few papyri.
(2) The vernacular Koine is represented by most of the
papyri and ostraca, and by nearly all Biblical Greek. Luke
and the author of Hebrews approximate the literary type.
Moulton says of the literary Koine: "The post-classical writers
wrote Attic according to their lights, tempered generally with a
plentiful admixture of grammatical and lexical elements drawn
from the vernacular, for which they had too hearty a contempt even
to give it a name," and he further observes with reference to their
censure of the vernacular as,.-"bad Greek" that they were "thus
incidentally providing us with information concerning a Greek
14
INTRODUCTION
which interests us more than the artificial Attic which they prized
so highly" (cf. M. 24-26). Most of the literary Koine represents
a clumsy and unsuccessful effort to restore the classical type and
idiom of the Attic. Hence it is neither good Attic nor good
Koine.
Other Elements in New Testament Greek
21. The life out of which the New Testament came was
affected by a variety of historical currents. The one which
most deeply influenced the language was Hellenistic culture.
But this is not the only factor reflected in the language. The
writers of the New Testament were Jews (with the probable
exception of Luke), which would lead us quite naturally tv
expect traces of their native tongue. The political regime
under which the New Testament was written was controlled
by Rome, the center of the Latin language. I t is, therefore,
quite natural that we find effects of Hebrew and Latin
influence in the Greek of the New Testament.
(1) Hebraisms. There are in the New Testament unquestionably some traces of Hebrew idiom. They result
chiefly from the influence of the Hebrew Old Testament
and the L X X . Since Aramaic was the native vernacular
of Palestine, i t is probable that the New Testament was
affected to some extent by it. I t is thought by many that
Luke had literary sources of his gospel which were in
Aramaic. I n view of these several means of Hebraic influence upon the New Testament the amount of Hebraisms
in i t has been overestimated. There are really but few.
Examples may be found in M t . 19:5; Lu. 1:34, 42; 20:12.
Moulton finds three results of Semitic influence in the New Testa^
ment: (1) words which reflect Semitic idiom; (2) Semitic influence upon syntax; (3) Semitisms which result from the translation
of Hebrew or Aramaic into Greek. He discusses at length the
prevalence of Semitic peculiarities in Luke's writings, and accounts
for it in two ways: (1) the use of rough Greek translations from
INTRODUCTION
15
Semitic originals; (2) the literary adaptation of the style of the
L X X . He cites the paratactic construction with Kai as a probable
result of Semitic influence, paralleling the waw-consecutive of the
Hebrew. The introduction of a narrative with Kal eyevero is likely
a reflection of 'JTJ (M. 10-18). Deissmann regards such Semitisms
in the New Testament as a matter of religious technicality, "like
that of our sermons and Sunday magazines" (cited M. 18). He considers the general Semitic, influence upon the New Testament as a
very potent factor, and describes the L X X as "the mother of the
Greek New Testament" (cf. P. G. B. 8-15). As a matter of fact,
however, the L X X is not as intensely Semitic as has formerly been
supposed. Of eighty-one varieties of grammatical usage discussed
by Conybeare and Stock (Selections from the Septuagint), a careful
examination in the light of the present knowledge of the Koine
reveals that fifty-three of them are typical Greek, and the remaining twenty-eight would likely be considerably reduced by furthet
knowledge of the Koine. That is, at least sixty-five per cent ol
the Septuagint represents Greek of the age in which it was made.
"We have come to recognize that we had greatly overestimated the
number of Hebraisms and Aramaisms in the Greek Bible" (P. G. B,
52; cf. also R. 88-108).
(2) Latinisms. These are from Roman influence, being
chiefly names of persons, offices, institutions, etc. The
number is small, even in comparison with the Hebraisms.
Moulton thinks that Latin can scarcely be said to have influenced the language of the New Testament. He admits there are
terms derived from Latin, but as to grammar—the really vital
point in language—the Latinisms of the New Testament present a
vanishing quantity. "Apart from lexical matters, we may be content with a general negative" (M. 21). Robertson presents an
exhaustive list of the Latin terms in the New Testament, the total
number being thirty-two—with one in question. He finds four
Latin phrases (cf. R. 108-111). So while we must follow Moulton
in regarding New Testament grammar as free from Latin influence,
yet it is still true that there are Latinisms, and a thorough review
must in justice recognize them-
PART I
ACCIDENCE
I . ORTHOGRAPHY
References: R. 177-181, 206-208, 221-222, 236-238; R.-S. 11-16;
M. 44-47.
22. Orthography comes from two Greek words, opdos
meaning straight, and ypacpeiv meaning to write. Hence
it means the correct or accepted forms of writing. The
term is employed in grammatical science to embrace all
those matters which have to do with the mechanical structure of words. I n the Greek of the New Testament i t
covers a field about which there is much uncertainty. We
will discuss here only the more important matters.
The Alphabet
23. There were twenty-four letters in the Greek alphabet
of the Koine period. The Greek alphabet was originally
derived from the Phoenecian, several additions and modifications having been made, as for instance the invention
of the vowels. The alphabet underwent several changes
in preclassical times, such as the loss of digamma and the
change of h (derived from the Semitic heth) to rj. The
forms of the characters as they became fixed in the Attic
continued in the Koine. But as to phonetic value, there
were probably numerous changes.
Four different types of letters have developed in the history of
the language. (1) Probably the oldest were the capitals which
appear in the inscriptions, being practically the same as the forms
now used for capitals. (2) The rapid formation of these capitals in
the writing of manuscripts after the use of papyri and vellum were
introduced developed what is known as the uncial type. (3) The
effort to join together in writing these uncial letters resulted in what
we call the cursive ("running") or minuscule type. (4) When print-
19
20
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
ing was invented, a "printer's type" of small characters was derived
from the minuscules (cf. M-II. 37ff.).
Alphabet
Name
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu
Nu
Xi
Omicron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Upsilon
Phi
Capitals
A
B
T
A
E
Z
H
0
I
K
A
Small Letters
a
ft
y
5
c
f
M
p
v v
N
S
0
n
P
S
T
T
$
Uncials
A
B
f
A
6
z
H
9
17
0
t
K
X
€ \
o
7T
p
<rs
r
v
_
K
A
M
N
I
O
n
P
C
T
Y
<P
Chi
X
Psi
Omega
^
^
Y
$2
a?
(A)
X
X
24. Language was originally spoken, so that letters are
but arbitrary symbols invented to represent sounds. Voea]
sounds are made by contracting the vocal cords so that they
vibrate as the breath passes through. The varieties of
enunciation are secured by varying the positions of the
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
21
organs of the mouth. These variations may be separated
into two principal classes, those made by obstructed breath
and those made by unobstructed breath. Consequently
there are, in the nature of the case, only two classes of
letters. The consonants are those made by obstructed
breath. The vowels are those made by unobstructed breath.
(1) The consonants may be classified as follows:
a. Liquids:
b. Mutes:
Gutturals
Labials
Dentals
c. Sibilants:
X,
v, p.
Smooth
K
TT
r
£, a,
Middle
Rough
y
/8
8
X
<p
0
(2) The vowels are a, e, rj, i, o, v, w. The pronunciation
of these vowels in the past history of the Greek language
is a problem practically impossible to solve. The interchange in the papyri of vowels for dipthongs and vice versa,
and of vowels for one another shows that there was much
duplication in sound, but just what the sounds were we are
unable to tell. As a matter of fact, we may be sure "that
considerable difference existed between the Greek of Rome
and Asia, Hellas and Egypt" so far as pronunciation was
concerned (cf. M - I I 41f.). Adopting for these vowels the
pronunciation of Modern Greek would not "compensate in
accuracy for the inconvenience i t would cause" (ibid. 42).
Robertson is undoubtedly correct in his opinion that the
Greek of the New Testament was pronounced much more
like the vernacular Greek of Demosthenes' times than like
the Modern Greek (R-S. 15). The matter must be left an
open question.
25. Sometimes two vowels are united and blended into a
single sound. Such a ^combination is called a diphthong.
The Greek dipthongs are at, av et ot ov, ev, rjv, vi. The
x
v
t
22
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
iota subscript with a , rj, and co is a sort of diphthong, though
it in no way modifies the sound. Like the vowels, the pronunciation of the diphthongs is a problem for which there
can be no final solution.
Spelling
26. At no other point of mechanical structure does so
much uncertainty obscure the Koine as we find here. The
oldest known MSS. of the New Testament were written
more than two and a half centuries after the original autographs, and so widely do these MSS. differ in spelling that
we may be sure that the copyists were least faithful at this
point. I n this matter the papyri offer us but little aid, as
f-hey, too, present a chaos of variations. But these differences in spelling really have little weight in exegesis. We
may accept without fear of being led astray in interpretation the spelling of the WH. text.
Especially does difficulty arise from a tendency "in transcription
known as itacism. This is the modification of other vowels and
diphthongs in the direction of the short i sound. This feature
appears even as early as the Sinaitic MS. Such confusion in sound
naturally led to a confusion in transcription. Two other tendencies
need mention. One was an inclination to suppress the distinction
between the long and short vowels. Length of vowels was assiduously observed in the classical Attic, but the differentiation began
to disappear in the Koine, and has continued to fade until Modern
Greek makes no distinction at all (cf. T. 7). In line with the
itacistic tendency we find a disposition to replace diphthongs by
simple sounds (cf. M-II. 42f.). And yet the reverse of this frequently occurs in the papyri, where we find t and € replaced by
ei and at. In fact, these vowels and diphthongs are used interchangeably in the papyri. Such tendencies meant inevitable confusion in
the MSS., for it is obvious that "the scribe is under the constant
temptation to correct the spelling in his document by the spelling
of his day" (R-S. 11).
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
23
Elision
27. I f a final vowel is short, i t may be omitted before a
word beginning with a vowel. The omission is indicated
by an apostrophe. Elision is seen chiefly in prepositions
and particles, as 5i aurou, /car' OIKOV, ovd' av.
9
Elision is not so extensively used in the New Testament as in
classical Greek. It is comparatively infrequent in modern Greek.
In the New Testament its use "takes place habitually and without
variation before pronouns and particles; also before nouns in combinations of frequent occurrence, as £71*' dpx^S KCLT OZKOV, In other
cases there is much diversity and occasional variation" (M-II. 61).
3
Crasis
28. Crasis is the merging of a word into the one following by the omission and contraction of vowels. I t affects
the conjunction KCH and the article, and is marked by the
retention of the breathing of the second word, which is
called the coronis; e.g., Kayco for Kal ey&); rowofxa for TO
ovofia.
Crasis is rare in the New Testament. In fact, "except for TOVVOIML
in Mt. 27:57, rovvavriov
ter, and ravrd in Luke, crasis is confined to
combinations with Kal which retains the same tendency in Modern
Greek more conspicuously. . . . Papyri of culture low enough to
admit phonetic spelling show us that crasis was practiced sometimes
when unaccented words were capable of being fused with the preceding word" (M-II. 63).
Movable Consonants
29. The final s of OVTCOS is used in classical Greek only
before vowels, but in the New Testament it is used prevailingly before consonants as well. W H . admit only ten
exceptions.
30. The omission of s from axpi* and jue'xpt is observed in
the New Testament with but few exceptions, if we accept
the WH, text,
24
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
31. Movable v is added to the third person singular ending in e, to words ending in cn, and to eorl; as'ehafiev,iraaiv>
iariv. I n classical Greek it is used only before word's beginning with a vowel, or at the end of a sentence or clause,
but in the New Testament—as also in the papyri—it occurs
frequently before consonants. So we may say that the rule
of the Koine was to use the v movable irrespective of what
followed.
Breathings
32. Kinds of Breathings. The Koine Greek like the
classical has two breathings, rough (') and smooth (').
The indication of these breathings is a device of later
Greek. Moulton finds that "literary documents have begun
to insert them at a date not much later than « and B"
( M - n , 97ff.).
33. Aspiration. I n classical Greek when a preposition
preceded a word with a rough breathing and the final vowel
of the preposition elided, if the consonant thus left final
had an aspirate form, it was aspirated, but in the New
Testament, aspiration sometimes occurs where there is no
rough breathing; as &(pop&co for aw6 and opdco, but &<pi8o) for
awo and i5co.
Contraction
34. When two vowels or a vowel and diphthong come
together in adjoining syllables they usually blend into a
single syllable. Thus yeve-os becomes yivovs; e^tXe-e becomes eipihei.
i. Contraction in verbs with vowel stems presents a uniform
system in general, with rarely an exception. In other parts of
speech there are many variations, which must be learned by observation. The following scheme of vowel contractions will be found
to apply in most cases, especially with verbs.
To locate a contract form in the following table, find the stem
vowel in the first vertical column, and the connecting vowel in the
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
25
top line, follow the columns to their intersection and there the regular contraction will be found.
€
0
CO
€1
a
a
a
CO
CO
€
ei
V
ov
CO
ei
°
ov
CO
ov
CO
01
Tl
ov
CO
CO
2?
ov
01
01
ov
OL
ii. The formation of infinitives in contract verbs presents some exceptions which should be noted. Verbs with a as their stem vowel
have their present infinitive active form in -av instead of -q>v, as it
would be with the regular contraction of -aew. The present infinitive active of verbs with o stem contract -beiv to -ovv instead of -oZv.
The verb f dco has as its present active infinitive £fjv instead of f qv.
iii. In word formation, stem formation and inflection the combination of consonants occasions frequent changes and contractions. We
offer the following table as an aid to the student in tracing these
variations.
Liquids.
Submit easily to transposition.
Sometimes X is doubled to compensate for the loss of a vowel.
Regularly p is doubled when preceded by a vowel.
As to v: before liquids it becomes the same liquid.
before gutturals it becomes y (nasal).
before labials it becomes /X.
before dentals it remains unchanged.
before cr it is dropped, and the preceding vowel lengthened.
Mutes.
Gutturals: before /x become y; before cr become £;
before r become K; before 0 become
Labials: before /i become JJL; before cr become xf/;
before r become 7r; before 6 become <p.
Dentals: before ju become cr; before cr are dropped;
before r become'cr; before 6 become cr;
before K are dropped.
26
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Sibilants.
f is a combination of a dental and cr.
£ is a combination of a guttural and cr.
^ is a combination of a labial and cr.
cr between two consonants or vowels is usually dropped.
cr at the beginning of a word usually appears as a rough breathing.
Accent
35. The matter of accent is regarded with but slight concern by many Greek teachers, but in this neglect such
teachers betray their own lack of appreciation for the
genius and history of the language. I f one wishes with
finished accuracy to learn the Greek language, i t is important that he should master the principles and practice
of accenting. We present here a brief statement of the
principles and the resulting methods for the help and guidance of the student. He cannot master Greek accent by
memorizing rules; he should comprehend the principles
and discern the application of these in the methods, and
thus obtain a real working knowledge of the system.
36. We begin by summarizing briefly the principles of
accentuation. "The limits of the position of an accent
depend on the 'three syllable law/ by which the rising
inflexion cannot stand further back than on the third
syllable from the end of a word" ( M - I L 53). That is,
accent is governed by principles of intonation. These principles were very thoroughly developed and rigidly observed
by those who produced the Greek classics. The "acute"
represents the rising inflection of the voice, while the
"gravfe" represents the falling inflection. Every syllable
has an accent, either grave or acute, though the grave is
not indicated except on the last syllable of a word which
has no acute. A word which in continuous composition has
no acute accent must receive an acute if standing alone (as
in the lexicon) or at a pause (at the end of a clause or
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
27
sentence). Thus we say that an acute on the last syllable
changes to a grave in continuous composition. I f a single
syllable is treated with both a rising and falling inflection,
it carries a combination of the acute and grave accents,
which we call "circumflex." Thus 77 (3aai\eia
rov
Oeov
when the accents are analyzed and all represented would
be written fj jSdcrtXad rod Qeov.
37. The degree of stress is modified by the length of the
syllable. Though the long syllable need not be the accentuated syllable, i t greatly affects the accent. Hence a word
with a long ultima cannot have the accent farther back
than the penult.
38. The acute accent will sustain the tone for three
syllables; hence, the antepenult may have an acute if the
ultima is short. The word needs no additional accent before
a monosyllabic enclitic if the acute is on the penult, or
before a dissyllabic enclitic if the acute is on the ultima.
But a dissyllabic enclitic must take its own accent if preceded by a word with the acute on the penult, or if the
acute is on the antepenult there must be before a dissyllabic
enclitic an additional accent on the ultima. Note that
when this additional accent is placed on the ultima, i t and
the two syllables of the enclitic make the three syllables
which i t is possible for the acute to carry.
39. The circumflex will sustain the tone for only two
syllables, for the obvious reason that the circumflex represents the accentual equivalent of two syllables, since i t is a
combination of both the rising and falling inflection. For
this reason the circumflex can stand no farther back than
the penult, and cannot furnish the accent for a dissyllabic*
enclitic, or for a monosyllabic enclitic if i t is on the penult
40. We will now review the application of these principles in more systematic form as classified in a summary
of the methods of accentuation* I t is important that the
28
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
student should keep in mind that these are not mere arbitrary "rules," but methods which represent the application
of fundamental principles of intonation.
(1) Acute (').
a. May stand on one of the last three syllables; e.g.
r
apdpuwos, ayawrj, ade\<pbs.
b. Cannot stand farther back than the penult if the
ultima is long; e.g., avdpwiros, but avdpooirov.
c. Cannot stand on the ultima when immediately followed by another word; that is, without intervening punctuation marks; e.g., 6 Xpiarbs ay ados.
(2) Circumflex (~).
a. May stand on one of the last two syllables; e.g.?
SovXos, 0eco.
6. Must stand on the penult if a long penult is accented
before a short ultima; e.g., d&pov.
c. Cannot stand on the penult if the ultima is long; e.g.,
S&pov, but 86)pov.
d. Cannot stand on a short syllable; e.g., b&pov> but
\byos.
(3) Grave C).
a. May stand on the last syllable; e.g., 6 6ebs <piXel.
b. Occurs only when immediately followed by another
word; e.g., rj KOXTJ yvvrj.
(4) Accent in Conjugation.
a. I n conjugation accent is recessive; i.e., it stands as far
back as the ultima will allow; e.g., CLKOVU,
T\KOVOV.
Moulton regards this method of accenting verbs as "a consequence
of their primitive enclitic condition" (M-II. 55).
b. There are several irregularities in the accent of
verbs. I n the regular co verbs the aorist active infinitive,
the perfect active infinitive, the perfect middle-passive
participle, and the aorist passive infinitive accent the
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
29
penult, while the perfect active and aorist passive participle
accent the ultima. The irregular verbs present still other
irregularities in accent; e.g., anovaai,
XeXu/ceW, XeXv/ieVos,
Xu077J>cu, XeXv/ctos, \vdds,
Xctj3o>j\
It will be noticed that the exceptions to the principle of recessive
accent are in every case infinitives and participles. Moulton considers that since these are essentially nouns and adjectives, rather
than properly verbs, they are not really exceptions to the recessive
principle in verbal accent (M-II. 55).
c. I n compound verbs (those combined with a preposition) the accent regularly does not rest on the preposition.
Several exceptions to this rule occur; e.g., QrfKdev, e^eariv.
d. I n contract verbs, i f the accent on the uncontracted
form occurs on the first of the two contracted syllables, i t
becomes a circumflex; e.g., <pih&i becomes <pi\el. I f the
accent of the original form is on the second of the two contracted syllables, i t remains acute; e.g., ^tXeerco, becomes
<pi\eiTO). I f the original accent is on neither of the contracted syllables, i t is governed by the regular rule of recessive accent; e.g., ecplKee becomes eVtXet.
(5) Accent in Declension.
I n declension the accent remains as in the nominative
singular, as nearly as the general rules for accent will permit. The accent of the nominative must be learned by
observation. There are in declension, however, three special
rules which we should notice.
a . All nouns and participles of the first declension have
the circumflex on the ultima in the genitive plural; e.g.,
rjnep&v,
irpocprjT&v.
b . Any word declined in the first or second declension
which has its accent on the ultima takes the circumflex in
the genitive and dative, singular and plural; e.g., singular:
apxrjy
*PXns>
* P X V , "PXW; plural, dpxat, apx&v,
apxais
30
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
c. Monosyllabic nouns of the third declension accent
the ultima in the genitive and dative, singular and plural;
e.g., singular:
VVKTOS,
VVKT'L,
VVKTCL;
plural: wares,
VVKT&V,
vv^i,
VVKT
(6) Proclitics
as.
and
Enclitics.
a. A proclitic is a word which has no accent, and is pronounced with the word following; as, e/c Oeov. The New
Testament examples are the forms of the article 6, rjj ol, at;
the prepositions, els, e/c, eV; the conjunctions el, cos; and
the negative ov.
b. An enclitic is a word which, whenever possible, loses its
accent and is pronounced with the word preceding^ as
as d Oebs eanv ay ados. The enclitics found in the New
Testament are the pronoun forms juoO, juol, MC\ aov^ aol ere';
the indefinite pronoun rls; the indefinite adverbs irov, wore",
TTO), TT6)S ; the particles ye, re; all the present indicative forms
t
of el/xl, except the second person singular el, and cpviu, (prjeri.
It is to be noted that fxov and GOV "throw an acute upon the preceding word, and receive it from a following enclitic; e.g., avvbovkbs croi)
et/u (Rev. 19:10"; cf. M-II. 54).
The following methods of accent for-enclitics may be
observed.
(a) An acute accent on the ultima is retained before an
enclitic; e.g., 6 6e6s eanv ay ados.
(b) I f the word preceding has an acute on the penult or
a circumflex on the ultima, a dissyllabic enclitic retains its
accent, while a monosyllabic enclitic loses its accent; e.g.,
6 X670S early a\r]6r}s, 6 Xoyos rov deov early aXrjdrjSy rrjy x&P
fxov eiayj\deVj 6 0e6s (pihel jue.
(c) An enclitic at the beginning of a sentence retains its
accent; e.g., eapkv ixanapioi.
(d) I f a word preceding an enclitic has an acute on the
av
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
31
antepenult, i t takes an additional acute on the ultima; e.g.,
6 XpiffTos avdpuiros eariv, OVTOS iyivero 6 airoaroXos iiov.
(e) I f a word preceding a dissyllabic enclitic has a circumflex on the penult, i t takes an additional acute on the
ultima; e.g., TO d&pov ecrriv e/c TOV deov.
(f) A monosyllabic enclitic takes its own accent i f the
word preceding has a circumflex on the penult; e.g., 6 oltcos
JJLOV.
(g) A dissyllabic enclitic takes its own accent when preceded by a word with the circumflex on the ultima, e.g.,
TIKVOV
deov eifxL
(h) A proclitic or an enclitic followed by an enclitic
receives an accent; e.g., el TLS eanv St/catos.
I. Let it be observed that enclitics which consist of long syllables are,
for purposes of accent, regarded as short syllables when added to a
preceding word; OVTOS o \6yos [xov r\v.
ii. There are three situations in which ecrri becomes ecm:
(1) At the beginning of a sentence, e.g., eanv ayaOos avOpcoiros.
(2) When it signifies existence or possibility, e.g., 6 Beds eanv.
(3) When it follows OVK, &, cbs, icai, TOVTO,
e.g., OVK tanv
KCLKOV*
(7) Special Rules.
a. On a diphthong the accent and breathing must stand
over the second vowel; e.g., OVTOS.
b. The diphthongs ai and oi when final ( e ^ r i L i a J h e
optative mood) are regarded as short when accenting; e.g.,
avdpuiroi, x&P »
at
We have not sought to relate every method of accent to the general principles, but the student can readily discern the connection
in most instances. A few of the methods are simply facts of the
language for which no logical explanation appears. It is well always
to keep in mind the three-syllable law (see §36) and to observe
that: (1) the antepenult may have only the acute; (2) the penult
may have the acute or circumflex; (3) the ultima may have the
32
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
acute, circumflex, or grave. In all these variations the situation of
the accent is to be decided in consideration of the length of the
ultima, with the exception of enclitics and a very few other cases
which can be learned by observation. An excellent discussion of
the principles of accentuation, based upon a wide induction, may be
found in M-II. 51-56. When this is compared with R. 226-236, the
matter has been seen from every important angle.
I I . DECLENSION
References: R. 246-254; R-S. 17-31; M. 48-49.
41. Declension is the inflection of a substantive (noun,
adjective, pronoun, or participle) for the purpose of indicating its relation to the rest of the sentence. I n the primitive stages of the Indo-European language i t is probable
that case was indicated almost exclusively by inflection.
Though "comparative philology has nothing to say as to
the origin of the case suffixes" (R. 250), it seems most
likely that they originated from pronouns and adverbs
(Wr. 144f.). This question, however, must remain largely
in the realm of subjective speculation, the only point of
objective probability being that inflection was originally
the sole means of expressing case relations. Later the
preposition began to do service in this capacity, and gradually encroached upon the inflectional endings until in
modern speech declension has almost disappeared.
Relation of Declension and Case
42. Let i t be remembered that inflection did not arise as
determining case, but for the purpose of-indicating case.
The case was determined by considerations^ use. Declension, then, is a matter of form: case is a matter of fmiction.
Case is determined by the relations of the substantive in
the grammatical structure of the sentence. Declension was
developed as a means of indicating such substantive relations. Hence i t may be seen that, without question, the
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
33-
case of a noun is to be decided, not by its inflectional form,
but by the grammatical relations which i t sustains. The
importance of this fact will appear more clearly when we
come to the study of case in the part on Syntax. Our
interest in the matter here is to note that it is not really
accurate to speak of the various forms in declension as
cases* for their relation to case is not essential but modal.
I t tends toward confusion even to speak of them as case
endings, the better plan being to refer to them as inflectional endings.
The above consideration will enable the student to understand why we may speak of more cases than a noun has
inflectional endings.
43. A single inflectional ending may do service for several cases. This is already a familiar phenomenon to the
Greek student; as, for instance, the nominative, vocative,
and accusative of neuter nouns, where we have three cases
represented by one inflectional ending. Therefore, it is not
possible to deny that there may be more than one case
represented by a single inflectional ending in other instances. The new historico-scientific method by which
Greek has been studied in recent years has discovered that
the language has eight cases: nominative, vocative, genitive, ablative, dative, locative, instrumental, and accusative. Ordinarily we find only four inflectional endings.
The first usually embraces the nominative and vocative;
the second, the genitive and ablative; the third, the dative^
locative, and instrumental; the fourth, the accusative. The
student should be careful to bear in mind that these inflectional endings do not decide the question of case.
Wright believes that "the parent Indogermanic language had
eight cases—probably more—if we call the vocative a case" (Wr.
144). Robertson finds eight clearly defined cases in Greek (R.
247-250). Moulton is in general agreement with him (cf. M. 60ft\),
34
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
and Nunn follows their lead—omitting the instrumental (H. P. V.
Nunn, Syntax of N. T. Gr., p. 38). Full discussion of this question
belongs to Syntax.
Number in Substantives
44. I n classical Greek we meet with three numbers:
singular, dual, and plural; but in the Koine the dual has
disappeared. The details of the history of the dual and its
final decadence cannot be recited here, i t being necessary
to the present purpose only to call attention to the fact.
The singular and plural are usually employed in the normal way. The nature of some nouns requires that they be
used in the singular only or the plural only, as the case
may be. The irregularities cannot be reduced to systematic
statement, but are best learned by observation.
Moulton finds that many Greek dialects—"Ionic conspicuously"—
had lost the dual before the advent of the Koine. He thinks it
arose by reason of a limitation in primitive speech and inevitably
decayed after this limitation was removed (M. 57). Robertson
suggests that it might have arisen from a desire to emphasize pairs,
such as hands and eyes (R. 251). A combination of the suggestions
given by Moulton and Robertson would likely come nearest to
the facts.
Gender in Substantives
45. We meet in the Koine the familiar three genders of
the Attic Greek; masculine, feminine, and neuter. Where
there are no facts of sex to decide the matter, the gender of
a noun must be learned by observation. The distinctions
of gender are strictly adhered to in the Greek New Testament.
Robertson and Green think that distinctions in gender grew out
of the fact of sex and became applied to inanimate objects by
poetic personification (R. 252; G 17). Sweet, however, dissents
from this opinion (Hist, of Lang., p. 38). Moulton regards it as a
rather remarkable fact that Modern Greek "is nearly as much under
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
35
the domination of this outworn excrescence on language as was its
classical ancestor" (M. 59). But, however we may regard the
importance of gender, as students of the Greek New Testament we
must adapt ourselves to the fact. It is to be carefully observed
that there is not only "sense gender"—that which is relative to
actual sex—but "grammatical gender"—that which is determined
purely by grammatical usage.
The Greek Declensions
46. I t is best to divide the Greek language into three
declensions, on the basis of the ending of the noun stem.
Nouns which have a as their characteristic stem ending are
assigned to the first declension. Those with o as the characteristic stem ending are in the second declension. The
third declension includes nouns whose stems end in a consonant, or in t, v, or ev. The third declension is to be determined by observing both the stem ending and the inflectional endings, which are distinctive for this declension.
The variation in the stem ending of third-declension nouns
has occasioned some difference of opinion as to the number
of Greek declensions, but there is general agreement upon
the three we have mentioned.
Robertson believes that it is not possible with final precision to
draw fixed limits for the declensions. This may most naturally be
expected when we remember that declensions had no rules by which
to develop, but came with the spontaneous growth of the language.
With this fact in view there is no wonder that there is mixing and
overlapping. In the earliest grammatical effort they tried to make
an exhaustive classification of all variations, which resulted in
division into ten or more declensions. Whitney has divided noun
inflection in the Sanskrit into five declensions, but the difference is
not pronounced. In Modern Greek there has been a blending of
the first and third declensions (cf. R. 246-247).
47. The First Declension. The nouns of this declension
are usually feminine, though a few are masculine. The
stem ends in a. but this a is frequently found in contract or
36
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
modified form. The forms vary with different kinds of
stems. These variations are seen in the singular only, the
plural being the same for all nouns of this declension (see
Paradigm 1).
(1) When the stem ending is preceded by e, t ,or p, the a
is retained throughout.
i
But in the New Testament we sometimes find rjs and rj following
and p (cf. M-II. 118).
(2) When the stem ending is preceded by cr, X, XX, or a
double consonant, the vowel is generally short a, which
becomes rj in the genitive and dative singular.
(3) After other consonants the stem ending is usually rj
(see Paradigm 1).
(4) The regular masculine ending for nouns of this declension is rjs.
(5) After e, 1, or p masculine nouns have -as after the
analogy of feminine nouns
It should be carefully observed that there are also nouns of the third
declension which end in a, as, and rjs. The difference of declension
is to be noted in the genitive singular. A few masculine nouns of the
first declension have a in the genitive singular; e.g., Boppas, -a,
jj,ano)vas, -a, K?7<pas, -a. Some nouns in pa have their genitive and
dative in -r]s, -rj; e.g., aireZpa, -rjs, /JL&xaipa, -rjs.
48. The Second Declension. The nouns in this declension are masculine and' neuter, with a few feminines. There
are two sets of terminations, one for masculine and feminine
and another for neuter. The genitive and dative endings
correspond in both numbers for all three genders (see
Paradigm 2).
In this declension there are a few nouns with nominative in cos and
some in eos and 00s which appear in contract forms.
49. The Third Declension. This declension presents the
greatest variety and at the same time the greatest difficulty
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
37
of the three. The important element of variation is the
stem ending. The stem may be found by omitting the
ending of the genitive form. The nouns of the third declension are of all three genders. No classification can be
accomplished which would hold absolutely without variation, and an exhaustive analysis would require treatment
of greater length than is possible here. The simplest
analysis we can secure which approximates accuracy is to
divide the declension into the following five classes (see
Paradigm 3).
(1) Mute Stems. Here we have masculine and feminine
nouns whose stems end in a mute, mostly the dental mutes
r and 8, with one in 6. There are several in K, some in y and
X, four in T, and one in /3. Some New Testament nouns of
this class are x^P^, -ros; eX7rls, -5os; opvis, -60s; az>0pa£, -/cos;
<p\6^, -70s.
(2) Liquid Stems. These nouns are chiefly masculine,
though a few are feminine. Some representatives in the
New Testament are #Xs, aXos; ai&v, -COJ>OS; riyetikv, -ovos,
iroiiJLrjv,
-evos; p7]ro)p -opos; pA)v, fxrjvos.
}
(3) Syncopated Stems. I n this class we have those
nouns of the third declension which lose the vowel from the
final syllable of the stem in the second and third forms
singular and in the third plural; as avrjp, stem avep-,
gen. avdpos. They are masculine and feminine in gender,
and are represented in the New Testament by such words as
iraTrjp, -rpos; wrrjp, -rpos; dvyaTTjp, -rpos.
(4) Vowel Stems. These are masculines in eu, feminines
in t, and masculines and feminines and one neuter (dcucpv)
in v. The masculines in ev have their genitive ending in
ecos. The same is true of the feminine stems in 1. The v
stems have os for the genitive. Nouns of this class are
dXieus, BacrtXeus, 7r6Xts, ordcns, ixOvS) or&xus.
38
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(5) Stems in ar and ecr. These are all neuter nouns. Those
in ar are the second largest third-declension group, the largest being the feminines in i . Some of the ar stems form
their nominative by changing the r of the stem to s, but
generally the nominative is formed by dropping the r.
The ecr nouns lose their distinctive stem ending in the nominative and terminate in os. I n inflection the cr of the stem
is dropped and the e contracts with the vowel of the termination. Some New Testament nouns of this class are /cepas,
-aros; crcojua, -aros; yevos, yevovs (contraction of yeveos from
yeveaos); eros, erovs (contraction of ereos from erecros).
The masculine noun (xvyyevrjs apparently belongs to this
class, since it has its genitive in avyyevovs (cf. M-IL138), but
it was originally an adjective declined like aKrjdrjs.
(6) Besides these nouns which may be classified with
more or less distinctness, there are a good many thirddeclension nouns in the New Testament which are so
irregular as to preclude definite classification. For irregular
nouns of all three declensions see Paradigm 4.
i. An exhaustive treatment of the third-declension nouns which
occur in the New Testament may be found in M-II. 128-143.
ii. It will be helpful to the student to observe that there are
certain forms which are common to all three declensions.
(1) Neuters have but three forms for all the cases, one embracing
nominative, vocative, and accusative, another the genitive, and ablative,
and a third the dative, locative, and instrumental. (2) The neuter
plural always has a for its nominative, vocative, and accusative ending.
However, this a sometimes appears in contract form,as7eV?7 for yeve-a.
(3) The dative singular always ends in t, which becomes subscript
when it follows a long vowel, as in the first and second declensions.
(4) The genitive plural always has -cov for its ending. (5) Masculine
and neuter nouns always have their ending alike in the genitive and
dative (cf. G. 16).
iii. Several New Testament nouns, borrowed from Hebrew, are indeclinable; such e.g., pa]8j8et, 'IepoucraA^jii, fxavva 'AjS/Sa. This is
probably the explanation of the phrase in Rev. 1:4, d 0)V Kal o r\v Kald
y
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
39
epxo^evos, which is lifcely treated as an indeclinable noun for the
Hebrew Yahweh (Jehovah).
iv. There are a few cases in the New Testament of mixed declension.
A word is found sometimes in one declension, and again in another: with
one case expressed by one declension, and another by another. Thus
crapParop has aafifiartp in the singular, but orafiPacn in the plural.
A complete review of the matter is offered by Moulton (M-II. 124r-128).
The Article
50. The Greek article is, strictly speaking, a pronoun,
but its entirely distinctive function makes i t best that i t
should receive distinct treatment both in accidence and
syntax. As to inflectional form, i t is declined after the
analogy of the first and second declensions. I t is to be
observed that the article is an unfailing means for determining the gender of substantives (see Paradigm 5),
The Adjective
51. Declension of Adjectives. I n declension adjectives
follow the analogy of nouns. When the masculine and
feminine differ, they are usually declined in the first and
second declensions, though sometimes in the first and third.
When the masculine and feminine are the same, they are
declined in the second or third declension only (see Paradigm 6).
52. Comparison of Adjectives. I n comparison the Koine
adjective does not differ greatly from the classical method,
the chief difference being that the superlative form rarely
occurs in the Koine. There are two regular forms of comparison, besides a number of irregular forms.
(1) The prevalent method of comparison is the addition
of -repos and -raros to the stem; e. g. iriaTos, iriaroTepos,
iricTTOTCLTos* I f the penultimate syllable ends in a short
vowel, the connecting -o- is regularly lengthened to -co-;
e. g., aofpos, (ro<p<j)T€po$, (TO(p&TaTos.
Adjectives of the third
40
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
declension whose stems end in ecr add the comparative suffixes
to the stem; e.g., a\rj9f)s aKrjOearepos, aKrjdeararos.
y
Those
in COP add ecr to the stem; e.g., a&xppuv, crco^pcopeVrepos, crco^pcovearaTos.
(2) There are frequent comparatives in -ICOP, with a few
superlatives in -tcrros; e.g., /caXos, KOKKIOOV, /caXXicrros.
(3) Some adjectives present irregular forms of comparison ;
e.g., fxiKpos, eXacrow, eX&xtcrros.
i. For declension of comparative and superlative adjectives and a
list of the principal irregular comparisons see Paradigm 6.
ii. Adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding cos to the stem of
the positive, using the neuter accusative singular for the comparative,
and the neuter accusative plural for the superlative; e.g., /caXcos,
KCLXKIOV,
K&XXKTTCI.
The Pronoun
53. Since the pronoun was introduced into language as a
helper to the noun, it quite naturally follows the noun in
inflection (see Paradigm 7).
(1) The great majority of the Greek pronouns are found
in the first and second declensions.
(2) The interrogative, indefinite, and indefinite relative
are declined in the third declension.
Participles
54. Participles present five inflectional types. Four of
them are in the first and third declensions, and the other in
the first and second (see Paradigm 8).
(1) Present and future active; Xucoz>, -OPTOS; -ovaa, -ovarjs;
*ov, -OPTOS; \b(T(j)v in the same way.
(2) Aorist active: Xucras, -cra^ros; -cracra, -crdcrTys; -crap,
<rapros.
(3) Perfect active: XeXwcc&s,
-KOTOS.
-KOTOS;
-KVICL,
-KVLCLS;
-KOS,
T H E
GREEK
N E W T E S T A M E N T
41,
(4) Aorist passive: \vdds, -devros; -fletcra, -deiarjs; -dip,
Sevres.
(5) The remaining passives and all the middle participles
are declined in the first and second declensions; e.g., XuojoieVOS,
-7],
-OP.
Proper Names
55. Proper names in the New Testament derived from
the Hebrew, or the transliteration of Hebrew names, are
usually indeclinable. Some of them have been Hellenized
and inflected like a Greek noun. Greek and Latin names
are regularly declined. Proper names are found in all
three of the declensions. For a detailed treatment of this
matter see M - I I . 143ff.
Numerals
56 I n the nature of the case the first numeral els is declined in the singular only, and the others in the plural only.
Many of them are indeclinable. I t is not difficult to discern
just which do submit to inflection. Els is declined after the
analogy of the first and third declensions; Suo, rpets, and
Tecraapes, the third only. The ordinals and the cardinals
in -ot are declined in the first and second declension, lik&
KaXos (see Paradigm 9).
III.
CONJUGATION
References: R. 303-306, 330-343; R-S. 32-47; M. 51-56.
57. I n Greek the verb reaches the acme of its development in the history of language. I n no other branch of
human speech are the structural phenomena of the verb so
extensively elaborated, or organized with such "architectural skill" (R-S. 33). To analyze the Greek verb in all
its varied modifications is an extended and minute process
which can be presented here only ija brief outline. A com-
42
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
plete system of verbal inflection is presented in Para*
digm 10.
Moulton observes that the Koine verb has moved considerably in
the direction of simplification, as compared with the complexity of
the Attic verb. This tendency has continued into Modern Greek,
which lacks the optative and infinitive, and has but few survivals of
the middle voice and -JIH forms. "These and other tendencies, the
issue of which is seen in Modern Greek, were all at work early in
Hellenistic; but they have not travelled far enough to relieve the
accidence of much grammatical lumber, once significant but now
outworn" (M-II. 182).
Classes of Greek Verbs
58. The Regular Verbs. These are the verbs whose
present indicative active first person singular ends in co,
which retain the same verb stem throughout, and whose
tense stems occasion no irregularities in inflection. They
may be defined as omega verbs with regular inflection.
They present the typical form of the Greek verb; e.g.,Xuco,
Xucrco, e\vaa, XeXu/ca, etc.
59. The Irregular Verbs. These are the verbs which
present variations in the structure of the stem.
(1) This variation is sometimes caused by changes made
in the formation of tense stems as &77€XXco, aorist 777761X01.
(2) Many verbs present two or more different verb
stems from entirely different roots. These roots appear to
be the survival of several different original verbs; e.g.,
epxo/xat, stem epx-J eKevaoixai, stem eXeu-; rfkdov, stem eX0-.
60. The Contract Verbs. Here we have verbs whose stems
end in a vowel, which vowel occasions certain changes in
termination or in the formation of tense stems. There
are three classes of these verbs: those ending in a, as cVyaTraco;
those ending in e, as <piXeo>; those ending in 0, as drfkoo).
In the terminations of the present and imperfect the final
vowel combines with the vowel of the ending and gives a
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
43
contract form (for table of contractions, see §34). I n the
formation of the stems for the other tenses the tinal vowel is
lengthened; a and e become rj, and o becomes co; e.g., aya7raco
contract form ayairco, future ayairrjaa); <pi\ea), contract form
<pik&,
future <pL\r)aa); 8rj\6o), drfkcb, Srfk&aa).
61. The M i Verbs. This class is composed of the verbs
which retain the primitive Greek endings. They are the
oldest of the Greek verbs. Quite a number of fxi forms are
found in Homer, but they are much fewer in the classical
Greek, and continue to diminish through the Koine and
Byzantine periods, and disappear entirely from Modern
Greek vernacular—though still surviving to a slight extent
in the more formal or literary use. The verbs in most
constant use appear in this form, which fact gives evidence
of its primitive character; e.g.,eE/u, iarrjfii ridrjuL.
9
The Structure of the Greek Verb
The typical Greek verb is composed of four parts,
62. The Verb Stem, which is the simple basal form of the
verb, and constitutes the foundation of its inflection. I t is
not accurate to call this part of the verb the "root," because
the root may be a still more remote element of the verb stem,
which may be "a derivative stem like rijua" (R-S. 33),
of which the root is rt/i. As has been shown above, many
verbs have more than one stem. The verb stem may usually
be found by removing the affixes of the aorist, though there
are exceptions; e.g., aya), aorist rjy -ay -ov, stem ay; \eiTO),
aorist e-XtTT -ov, stem Xi7r; but oreXXco, perfect e -oraX -/ca,
stem araX.
63. The Tense Stem. This is the form of the verb employed to distinguish the tense; e.g., ayco, aorist stem cvyaY-;
ridrjfXL, present stem ride-;
\eiiro),
perfect stem XeXoi7r-.
64. The Connecting Vowel. This is used in uniting the
terminations with the tense stem, and generally distinguishes
44
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
the mood; e.g., ayay-rj-Te, where -??- suggests the subjunc-.
tive mood.
65. The Verbal Suffix. This is the termination proper, and
serves to distinguish voice, person, and number. Thus in
Xv-e-cr0e the termination -ade indicates the middle voice,
second person, plural number.
With these facts in view we may analyze \vaa)fxev thus:
Verb stem,
XuTense stem,
Xi><rConnecting vowel,
-coVerbal suffix,
-jjiev.
Tense Stems
66. Considering the verb stem under the figure of the
foundation of the verb system, we may aptly describe the
tense stem as the ground floor. I t must always appear as
the basis to which the terminations are affixed.
67. Formation of Tense Stems.
I n the normal, regular
tense stem the primary distinguishing element is an affixed
consonant which we call a stem ending. The two other
features employed in distinguishing tense functions are
augment and redupUcation.
(1) Stem Endings. The ordinary Greek verb presents
four characteristic stem endings.
a. The future has cr, with the connecting vowels o/e; e.g.,
Xucrco, Xucro/xej>, \vaere.
b. The aorist active and middle has cr, with the connect*
ing vowel a; e.g., eXucra, eKvaafxev, eXucrare.
c. The passive has 0e, which in actual inflection usually
appears as Brj; e.g., e\Wrjv, XI^CTOJUCH.
d. The perfect active has tea; e.g., XeXu/ca.
e. The perfect middle and passive has no distinctive ending, but attaches the verbal suffix (personal ending) directly
to the reduplicated stem; e.g., XeXu/xcu, XeXucrat, XeXurcu, etc*
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
45
Verb stems which end in a consonant present important changes
in their combination with the stem ending. As an aid to the student
in constructing verb forms we insert here a table of these consonant
changes. Compare with this table the one given under §34, iii.
(1) Future and Aorist Stems. Before o*:
As to liquids.
The future inserts € and elides a: &77e\Xco, ayyeheaa),
becomes ayyekeoo, contracted to dyyeXco (cf. §68, (3), b).
The aorist omits a and lengthens the stem vowel: fxevoo, 'eixewa,
(cf. §68, (1), a, (6)).
As to mutes.
Guturals become £: ay a), a£co, rj^a.
Labials become ^ : rptjSto, Tpiy/zo), erpu/'a.
Dentals are dropped: ireidca, ireiao), eweiaa.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are dropped: crcfafco, crcocrco, effcoaa.
(2) Passive Stem. Before 0:
As to liquids,
v is dropped: Kplvo), eKpWrjv.
X, p are retained: ayyeKko), fjyye\dr]v; cupco, rjpdrjv.
IX inserts e, lengthened to rj: pepa), ev^rjdrjp. (These are the
only n stem forms in the New Testament.)
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
K, y are changed to x* Sub/cco, eStcbx^p; ayco, TJXQTWI
X is retained: SiSdovcco (5t5ax~), ebihaxQw*
Labials.
7T, /3 are changed to <p: ireinra), eirefxpBrjv; Tpij3a), erpi<pr]v.
<p elides 0, producing a second aorist: ypa<po), eypacprjv; or
is retained: akeupoo, TJkelcpdrjv.
Dentals are changed to or: 7re!0co, eireiadrjv.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are changed to <r:
comes ea&Orjv.)
KTtfco, €KTi(Tdr)v.
(But aa)£a) be-
46
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(3) Perfect Active Stem. Before K:
As to liquids.
X, p are retained: &77eXXco, rjyyehica; alpct), i/p/ca.
v is dropped: Kpivco, KeKpLKa.
or inserts e lengthened to rj: pivot, fJLefxevrjKa.
or forms a second perfect: (palva), ire<pr]va.
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
K changes to % and elides K of stem ending: 8i6)KO), SeStc^x***
7 changes to X and elides K of stem ending: ayco, fjX '
or is retained and elides K of stem ending: avolyo), avicoya.
X is retained and elides K of stem ending: rvyx&voo (rvx-)%
a
T6TVX0"
Labials are changed to <p and elide K: rpljSco, rkrpi<pa.
Dentals are dropped: ireWa), irtireiKa.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are dropped: apTrafa,
rjpwaita.
(4) Perfect Middle Stem.
Before ju:
As to liquids,
v is changed to cr: £>aiz>co, iricpaofxai;
or is dropped: Kpivo), KeKpifxai.
X, p are retained: &77eXXa>, fjyyeKfiai] atpco, fjpjJLai.
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
K, x are changed to 7: Sico/cco, 8e5uo7/icu; 5i5acr/cco, SeSiScryjuicu.
7 is retained: C17CO, 777/zcu.
Labials are changed to /x: ypapa),
yiypafifiai.
Dentals are changed to cr: Treida), ireireio/zcu.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are changed to cr: /crtfco, e/crtcr/xat.
Before o :As to liquids.
Liquids remain as before p,: 7rcVct(cr)crat, fce'fcptcrat, fjyyeKaai,
noaai.
THE
GREEK
NEW
47
TESTAMENT
As to mutes.
Gutturals are changed to £: SeStcu^at, f}£cu.
Labials are changed to \p\ yeypa\[/aL.
Dentals are elided: ireireKxai.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are elided: e/crtcrat.
Before r:As to liquids.
Liquids remain as before /x: ir&<pa<TTai rjyyeKrai,
9
etc.
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
y x are changed to K: TJKTat,
deSibaKrai.
K is retained: dedicoKTai.
Labials.
j8, <p are changed to 7r: ylypaiTTai.
7T is retained: 7re7T€/X7rrat.
Dentals remain as before ju: 7T€7T€to'Tat.
f
As to sibilants.
Sibilants remain as before jx: £KTI<TT ai.
The indicative second person plural of the perfect middle elides cr and
combines 0 with the stem according to the praxis indicated under the
passive stem: eicpide, rjyyehde, fjxde, etc.
The indicative third person plural of the perfect middle is formed by
the perfect middle participle and the third person plural of eijJLi: Aet7rco,
\ek€Lfxp>evoL eiai; aya>, r)yixevoi elal, 7re[0co, ireireKrfievoi
elai.
With these suggestions the student will be able to work out the other
changes.
(2) Augment. I n the indicative the tenses which refer
to past time have an augment, and are called secondary
tenses. There are two kinds of augment.
a. Syllabic augment is the prefixing of e to the veibs
beginning with a consonant: e.g., ehvov.
b. Temporal augment is used in the case of verbs beginning with a vowel, and is the lengthening of the initial
vowel; e.g., 6,KOVOO T\KOVOV.
}
48
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
If the initial vowel is e, it is regularly changed to 77, but occasionally
to et as exco, imperfect uxov. A is changed to t], o to co. Since 1
and v have no corresponding long vowel, the augment is not indicated
unless marked I , v. If the initial vowel is already long, it of necessity
remains unchanged. Diphthongs which have 1 as the second vowel
lengthen the first vowel, and the 1 becomes subscript; e.g., rj for at
and €i; cp for ot.
In other diphthongs the first vowel is lengthened and the second
remains unchanged; e.g., rjv for ev and av.
c. A few verbs appear with both the temporal
syllabic augments, as/ieXXco, 77/jeXXoj>; avolyoij aveoo^a.
and
i. When a verb is compounded with, a preposition, the augment is
placed between the preposition and the verb stem; e.g., evdvco, eviSvaa.
If the preposition has a final vowel, it is elided before the augment;
e.g., d cairo pew p,ai, diewopevdiJirjp. Before the augment en changes to
e£; e.g., eKjS&XXco, e£e/3aXoj>.
ii. Sometimes traces of a primitive initial consonant appear in the
form of syllabic augment where we should normally expect temporal
augment; e.g., elxop f ° e-exop, which is from Zaexop, the cr having
been lost.
r
(3) Reduplication. This appears in the perfect stem as
a part of its regular formation. As in augment, the method
varies in accordance with the initial letter.
a. When a verb begins with a consonant, the initial consonant is doubled with e inserted to form a syllable: e.g.,
XeXuKa.
If the initial consonant is a rough mute, it is reduplicated with the
eorresponding'smooth mute; e.g., Bavp,a%co, redavfxaica. When a verb
begins with two consonants (unless it be a mute followed by a liquid)
or a double consonant, it follows the analogy of syllabic augment, and
takes only e; e.g., crrepcu'oco, ecrre^a^co/ca; ^rjpaipa), e^rjpafxjJLai;
yip&aKO) (verb stem Y^o-), eypouca (cf. G. 99).
6. When a verb begins with a vowel, the vowel is lengthened, as in the case of the temporal augment; e.g., &7a7r&co,
fiyairrjKa.
I n a few instances the entire first syllable is reduplicated; e.g., CLKOVO), auriKoa.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
49
c. Sometimes a verb with an initial vowel appears with
both forms of augment for reduplication; e.g.,6paco, e c i p a K a .
68. Classification of Tense Stems. The Greek verb presents five distinctive tense stems; viz., aorist, present,
future, perfect, and passive. I t is well to treat the aorist
first as i t is the basic and most prevalent tense.
(1) The Aorist Stem. On this stem are formed the aorist
active and middle. I t appears in two varieties, known as
first and second aorist.
a. The first-aorist stem is formed in three ways.
(a) I t is usually formed by adding a (a) to the verb stem;
e.g., \vco, verb stem Xu-, first-aorist stem Xucr(a)-.
(b) Liquid verbs form the aorist by lengthening the stem
vowel; e.g., &77eXXco, stem ayyek-, aorist ?777€iXa.
(c) A few first aorists are formed by adding K to the verb
stem; e.g., 8i5co/u, stem So-, aorist eSco/ca.
b. The second aorist usually lies closest to the root of
the word, and forms the basal verb stem. I t is formed in
three ways.
(a) Some second aorists merely add the endings to the
simple verb stem, prefixing the augment in the indicative
and adding the secondary endings; e.g., \aix(3avo), stem
Xa/3-, aorist e\af3ov.
(b) A few lengthen the vowel of the verb stem; e.g., yivcovno),
stem yvo-, aorist eyvoov.
(c) Still fewer reduplicate the verb stem; e.g., cfyco, stem
ay-, aorist tfyayov.
(2) The Present Stem. On the present stem are formed
the present and imperfect—active, middle, and passive.
I t presents the greatest variation in form and is the most
difficult of classification. These various forms likely had
functional significance in prehistoric times, but the distinctions had largely become obsolete even in the classical
50
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
period (cf. M - I I . 183). A simple working analysis of the
structure of the present tense may be made as follows:
a. Simple present stems. Sometimes the simple verb stem
is employed for the present stem; e.g., Xfoo, stem \v~.
b. Lengthened stems. Some verbs form the present stem
by lengthening the stem vowel, usually to a diphthong. Most
of these verbs have stems which end in a mute; e.g., (pebyw,
stem <pvy~.
c. Reduplicated stems. Sometimes in the formation of the
present stem reduplication is used, after the analogy of the
perfect; e.g., SIScojut, stem So-.
d. Tau stems. Many verbs whose stem ends in a labial
mute add r to form the present; e.g., Kphirro), stem Kpvw-.
e. Iota stems. Some verbs add c to the verb stem in forming the present. This i unites:
(a) With K, 7, x and forms acr; e.g., <po\&<x<Tu, verb stem
tpvhaic-, present stem <pv\aici-.
(b) With S and occasionally 7, to form f; e.g., o-cbfo),
stem crcoS-, present stem o*co5t-.
(c) With X to form XX; e.g., &77eXXo;, stem &77eX-, present
stem &77cXi-.
(d) With v and p, and is transposed and becomes part of
the stem, usually becoming a diphthong; e.g., atpco, stem dp-,
present stem apt-.
/ . Nasal stems. These are of two kinds.
(a) Sometimes a nasal consonant is added to the verb
stem; e.g., 7rt^co, stem 7ri-, present stem mv~.
(b) A nasal consonant (or consonants) is sometimes inserted in the verb stem; e.g., Xaju/3dj>co, stem Xa/3-.
g. Inceptive stems. These are present stems in -OTCOJand are called inceptive because verbs of this class usually
denote the initiation of a state or action; e.g., ixifxvrjcrKca,
stem PLVT)-.
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
51
In pipvrjorKOJ, as is frequently the case, we have a combination of
two characteristics of the present stem, reduplication and the addi-
tion of -cr/coK
h. Vowel stems. These verbs add a vowel—generally—
to the verb stem to form the present; e.g., doneca, stem 8OK-;
yapeu, stem yap-.
i. Irregular stems. Here belong a large number of irregular verbs whose present stem offers no characteristic for classification; e.g., yivopai.
For a more detailed and technical analysis of the present stem
see M-II. 184f.
(3) The Future Stem. This stem has fallen heir to some
primitive uses of the present, and hence usually shares
stem characteristics with the present. However, it presents distinctive stems with sufficient frequency to justify
separate classification. The future stem exhibits four
methods of formation.
a. Regularly i t is formed by adding cr to the simple verb
stem; e.g., Xvco, stem Xu-, future Xucrco.
6. I n liquid verbs considerations of euphony prevent
the addition of cr, so the future is formed by affixing e, which
regularly appears in contract form; e.g., eyeipoo, stem eyep-,
future eyepeo), contracted to eyepS).
c. A few futures are built on the unaltered verb stem; e.g.,
<payopai, future of ecrdia), the verb stem being <pay- (aorist
*<payov).
d. Frequently when the vowel of the final stem syllable
is t, the cr is displacd by e; e.g., eX7rtfco, regular future ekirlao),
but eX7rtco is the form actually found, being a contraction
of eX7rt€co.
(4) The Perfect Stem. On the perfect stem are formed
the perfect and pluperfect, active, and middle, and the
52
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
future perfect passive (with the addition of <j). The perfect stem presents three variations.
a. The first perfect is formed by reduplicating the
simple stem and adding K as a stem ending. On it are
formed the first perfect and pluperfect active; e.g., Xe'Xu/ca,
The formation of the perfect in liquid verbs frequently changes the
stem vowel to a; e.g., crreXXco, eVraX/ca. Observe also that in reduplication an initial O" is usually dropped or changed to the rough breathing.
In some verbs afinalconsonant is dropped before the stem ending; e.g.,
7rei0co, ireireiKa.
b. The second-perfect stem is formed by reduplicating
the simple stem, lengthening the stem vowel, and adding a.
On it are formed the second perfect and pluperfect active;
e.g., Xet7rco, root Xi7T-, perfect XeXot7ra, pluperfect (e)XeXo67re«>.
a The perfect-middle stem is formed by reduplicating
the simple stem and adding the verbal suffixes directly to
this reduplicated stem, without any stem ending or connecting vowel. On this stem are built the perfect and pluperfect middle and passive. I n the case of the futureperfect passive the characteristic cr of the future stem is
added to the reduplicated stem and the connecting vowels
are used; e.g., XeXujucu. (e)XeXu/zr7j', \e\vaofxai.>
(5) The Passive Stem. On this stem are built the aorist
and future passive. I t is formed in two ways.
a. The first-passive stem is formed by adding -de- to
the simple stem, the e usually appearing lengthened to 77; e.g.,
eKWrjv, \vdr)aoiiai.
b. The second-passive stem is formed by adding e, lengthened to 77, to the verb stem; e.g., eXnrrjv, \nrrjaofxai.
Connecting Vowels
69. Between the tense stem and the verbal suffix a
vowel is ordinarily inserted, called a connecting vowel. I t
T H E
GREEK.
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
53
asually appears in combination with some other vowel,
though in the first and second person plural it is regularly
found unchanged. These connecting vowels vary with the
moods, and hence by some grammarians are called "mood
suffixes." But this designation is not wholly accurate,
because they also vary with different tenses of the same
mood. I t is true, however, that each mood has its distinctive set of connecting vowels, and i t is by this means that
we differentiate the moods. I t seems most nearly accurate
to call them simply connecting vowels (or variable vowels),
and to classify them according to moods.
(1) In the Indicative.
a. The present, imperfect, and future have o before p and
Vj and e elsewhere; e.g., \v-o-jj,ev, Xu-e-re.
b. The aorist and perfect have a; e.g., ehva-a-nev, XeXu/ca-r€.
c. The pluperfect has et; e.g., (e)\eKvK-eL-ixev.
(2) In the Subjunctive.
Here we find co before ju and v and 77 elsewhere in all
tenses; e.g., XIMJ-S, Xucr-co-jiiej'.
}
(3) In the Optative.
Though but few of these are found in the New Testament,
we must present here the scheme of connecting vowels for
the sake of completeness.
a. The present active and middle, future active and middle, perfect active, and future-perfect passive have 01; e.g.
Xu-ot-/xt, \v-oi~ixrjv, Xucr-ot-jut, \va-oriX7jv, XeXiw-oi-jut, \vdrjcroi-nrjv.
b. The aorist active and middle have at; e.g., Xucr -ai-/u,
Xucr -ai -fxrjv.
c. The aorist passive and perfect middle have et; e.g., Xu0d-rjp, \ekvjJiivos el-7]i>.
54
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(4) In the Imperative.
This follows the analogy of the indicative, except that in
the perfect there is e instead of a; e.g., XeXwc-e, \ekvK-£-T<a, etc.
(5) In the Participle.
The middle and passive participle ending ixevos takes o as
a connecting vowel, except the perfect;] e.g., \v-6-jxepos, but
XeXu-jueVos.
The Verbal Suffixes
70. These vary with tense and voice, number and person.
They furnish the chief means for distinguishing voice, number, and person. The most convenient classification, however, is to present them according to tense and voice.
(1) The Primary Suffixes.
These are used with unaugmented or primary tenses.
a. I n the active voice they are: singular ju, at, r t ; plural
re, vcri. These suffer great change when used in actual
inflection; e.g., o-/it becomes co; e-ai becomes eis; e-rt becomes
€i; and o-vcri becomes ovai.
b. I n the middle and passive they are: singular /zcu, a at,
rat; plural [xeda, <r0e, vrai. I n actual inflection crai usually
becomes 27.
(2) The Secondary Suffixes.
These are used with the augmented tenses of the indicative
and with the optative middle.
a. I n the active voice they are v, s, —; yep, re, v or cap.
These are also used in the aorist passive indicative.
b. I n the middle and passive they are ixrjp, GO, TO) jxeda,
aOe,
pro.
Terminations o£ Infinitive and Participle
71. I t is helpful to the student in grasping in broad perspective the inflectional phenomena of the verb to get before
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
55
him in a single view the characteristic endings of the Greek
infinitive and participle.
(1) The Infinitive.
a. The present, future, and second aorist active have -eiv;
e.g., \vew, \vcreiv, \afieiv.
b. The first-aorist active has -at; e.g., Xucrat.
a The perfect active and aorist passive have -pat; e.g.,
XeXv/ceVat, \vdrjpai.
d. The middle and remaining passives have -cr0at; e.g.,
\ieaOai, Xuow0at, X#cracr0at, etc.
(2) The Participle.
a. The present, future, and second aorist active have -COP,
-over a, -OP; e.g., Xucoi>, XIJOW, XajSco^.
6. The first-aorist active has -as, -acra, -a?; e.g., Xucras.
c. The perfect active has -cos, -via, -os; e.g., XeXu/ccos.
d. The aorist passive has -ets, -etcra, -ep; e.g., Xu0€ts.
e. The middle and remaining passives have -ixepos, -TJ, -OP;
e.g., \v6fiepos, \vabixtPos, \vaanepos, etc.
A splendid aid to the student in constructing various verb forma
is offered in a table in Moulton's Introduction to the Study of New
Testament Greek, p. 98, which we take the liberty of adopting
with abridgment. The scheme indicates the modifications of the
verb stem in forming tense stems. With this scheme compare §67
Pres. Act.
-ao/l
-ceo J
-oco
-|Sa>, -7TC0, 1
-(fO),
Fut. Act.
-rjao)
-\[/0)
-TTTO))
-7co, -/ceo, -£co \ -?co
-crcrco, rrco J
-5co, -0co, co
-crco
-PO)
-P0~)
IsUAor.
Act.
Past-Perf. Perf. Mid.
Act.
lst-Aor.
Pas.
-rjaa
-qua
-rjfxai
-7]9r]P
-cocra
-co/ca
-cojuat
-0)6T]P
-\[/a
-<pa
-fxjxat
-(pOrjp
-era
-/ca
-pa
-jKa
-<r/*at
-jut/xat
-vdrjp
-pdrjp
-?a
PART n
SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY
References: R. 379-389; R-S. 63, 64.
72. We have been studying accidence; we now turn to
the study of syntax. I t is well that we should just here
distinguish between the two. Accidence deals with the
structural form of words. Syntax deals with the grammatical relations between word's. Accidence deals with the
facts which result from incidental development, while syntax deals with the rational principles of thought expression.
Accidence differs with every different dialect, while syntax
is largely the same for all human speech.
73. Nothing is more important in the study of syntax
than securing an adequate idea of its scope and nature.
This is a point which has been hurtfully neglected. Too
often in the study of the grammar of a language the student
has gone into the field of syntax with no consciousness more
than that he has passed to a new heading of the general
subject under consideration. And as he proceeded he has
known only that he was reviewing an array of facts—or
"rules"—with varying significance. He has not thought
sufficiently about the fundamental reasons for these facts,
and their consequent relations to one another. His task is
too often thought of as memorizing a list or arbitrary
"rules of grammar." This attitude totally misapprehends
the true nature of syntax.
74. The idea that syntax is a formulation of rules for
correct speech is an erroneous notion. Syntax is the process
of analyzing and classifying the modes of expression presented by a language. I t does not govern language; i t
deals with the facts of language as they are found. Hence
3*
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
we are now to study the history and aspects of linguistic
phenomena as they appear in the Greek text of the Ne-W
Testament. "The scientific grammar is at bottom a grammatical history, and not a linguistic law-book. The seat
of authority in language is therefore not in the books about
language, but the people who use the language' (R. 31).
75. Logically the next question for consideration is:
What is language? I t is the means by which thought is
communicated from one mind to another, or, from the converse viewpoint, the means by which one mind is enabled
to think with another. "Language may be defined as the
expression of thought by means of speech-sounds" (Sweet:
Hist, of Lang., p. 1). The term "speech-sounds" can be
made to include both spoken and written language, for
written language is but a system of symbols which represent spoken sounds. But there is another type of thoughtexpression which we know as sign-language. This is produced by gesture, and while not nearly so accurate or
convenient as speech-language, it is nevertheless language,
for i t expresses thought. Consequently a more adequate
definition is that of Whitney: "Language . . . signifies
. . . certain instrumentalities whereby men consciously
and with intention represent their thought, to the end,
chiefly, of making it known to other men: i t is expression
for the sake of communication" (Life and Growth of Lang.,
p. 1). Then, essentially, language is a system of symbols
which represent thought.
76. We have thus far observed that syntax deals with
the facts of language, and that language is a medium for
the conveyance of thought. This brings us to the final and
fundamental fact that syntax deals essentially with the
forms which thought may take in the process of expression.
So we discover that grammar and psychology are twin
sciences. Therefore, for a study of syntax to be adequate,
7
61
"its account of the facts of speech should first of all reflect
the ascertained facts of conceptual thinking," for which
reason the best of modern grammarians "follow the ideas
they work with into their background of psychology and
logic" (Sheffield: Grammar and Thinking, pp. vi, 3). Syntax deals primarily with modes of thought. Thought is the
action of the mind upon the phenomena of environment or
experience. A phenomenon presents itself in consciousness,
perception takes account of its occurrence, and judgment
defines and relates it. For example, I glance across the
landscape from my window, and an object occurs in the
line of my vision. Perception presents it as a fact in consciousness. Judgment, through the faculties of memory,
imagination, and reason, defines it—it belongs to a known
class of things which I have learned under the word tree.
Hence the bare concept occurring in consciousness is tree.
But judgment enlarges the limits of thought beyond that.
I t not only discerns that the concept in consciousness
belongs to a known class of things, but i t also determines
that there is existing yonder on the landscape the occasion
of that concept—hence, tree is. But judgment also distinguishes a feature in the character of that concept—tree
is green. Furthermore, this concept appears as a particular
member of its class—the tree is green. Thus through the
activity of perception and judgment there is offered as the
material of thought a complete idea. This complete idea
is the starting point of syntax.
We have observed that the thought created in consciousness is expressed with a group of words—the tree is green.
This group of words we call a sentence. Notice that this
typical expression of thought contains two elements: the
designation of an object—the tree, and an assertion about
that object—is green. The first element we call the subject,
and the second the predicate. But the basis of this com-
62
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
plete expression of thought consisted of only two words—
tree is. Hence the basal element in the subject is the noun,
and the basal element in the predicate is the verb. Thus
we conclude that the sentence lies at the foundation of
syntax, and its essential parts, the noun and the verb, constitute the fundamental elements in syntax. We will build
our study of New Testament syntax around these two
fundamental elements.
We have called our example the tree is green a typical sentence
for the reason that it contains the two normal elements of a complete idea, designation and assertion—subject and predicate. But
there may be sentences which do not present this typical form, and
yet they are truly sentences, for they express a complete idea, as
the exclamation, "What a beautiful rose!" or the reply, "Why, of
course." These, however, are not to be regarded as the typical sentence with which syntax deals. For a thorough scientific discussion
of the nature of the sentence see R. 390-445, or for a brief summary
of the more important points see R-S. 63, 64. A very illuminating
discussion of the sentence from the viewpoint of psychology and
logic may be found in Sheffield: op. cit., pp. 18-29.
I . The Noun
77. A noun is a vocal sound by which one designates a
fact of consciousness. This vocal sound may be mediately
represented by written symbols. As utilized in processes
of thought the noun may be employed and qualified in
various ways. This group of contextual relations gives to
us the subjects to be treated under the syntax of the noun.
(1) As used in the expression of a thought the noun may
bear various relations to the rest of the sentence. I t may
be the subject proper, or i t may qualify the subject, or it
may function in various ways in the predicate. This variety
in the fundamental relations of the noun we call C A S E .
(2) I t may be desired to make the functional relation of
the noun to its context more vivid than can be done by
T H E
GREEK
the devices of inflection.
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
63
This purpose is served by the
PREPOSITION.
(3) Often one wishes to qualify the noun by some attribute. For this he uses the A D J E C T I V E .
(4) The object before consciousness may be referred' to
frequently in the same context. To avoid the monotony
of repetition the processes of linguistic development have
produced the PRONOUN.
(5) I f i t is desired to represent the thing designated by
the noun as particular or known, we may use the
ARTICLE.
Therefore, the study of the syntax of the noun includes
cases, prepositions, adjectives, pronouns, and the article.
I I . The Verb
78. A verb is a vocal sound by which one makes an assertion relative to a fact of consciousness. Like the noun, it
may be represented by written symbols. The relations
which condition the assertion determine variations in the
function of the verb.
(1) The subject is varied in accordance with its relation
to the speaker, as to whether the speaker indicates himself,
the one addressed, or an object referred to; hence, PERSON.
(2) The subject may include one or many; hence, N U M BER.
(3) I f the assertion relative to the person is an act, it
may be viewed as either performed or received by the
subject; hence, V O I C E .
(4) The assertion must reflect the speaker's attitude of
mind in making i t ; hence, MOOD.
(5) The assertion represents a certain character of the
fact asserted, and may be related to a certain time; hence,
TENSE.
(6) An assertion may be subjoined as auxiliary to an-
64
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
other, so partaking of the nature of both noun and verb*
for which one may use the I N F I N I T I V E or P A R T I C I P L E .
(7) I f the force of the assertion is to be varied by
certain qualifications, we may use the ADVERB.
(8) I n subjoining one assertion to another a connecting
word may be used, which we call a C O N J U N C T I O N .
(9) The speaker's attitude or concern in the assertion is
frequently expressed by a word which we call a P A R TICLE.
These variations in verbal function thus include under
the syntax of the verb a consideration of person, number,
voice, mood, tense, infinitive, participle, adverb, conjunction, and particle. The last three may be used with nouns
or adjectives as well as verbs, though it is doubtless more
logical to treat them in connection with the verb.
i. Robertson regrets that greater advance has not been made in
the scientific study of syntax, especially such as recognizes the
results of comparative philology. The work in this field which has
been done was inadequate because based upon too restricted an
induction from the facts of language. The need is syntax which
is historically and inductively exhaustive. The dawn of a better
day, however, is indicated in the work of Delbrlick, who in conjunction with Brugmann has made encouraging advancement along
this line.
ii. There is difficulty in keeping the province of syntax distinct
Form and meaning of form are very intimately related. Syntax,
however, has its distinct place. It is indicating and interpreting the
facts with regard to usage in a language. Such a process is essentially
historical and not philosophical. Hence we are not to construct
theories and arbitrary rules which we seek to illustrate by a few
facts selected from the language, but we are to take all the facts
of the language, with the irregularities and personal peculiarities, and
seek the best possible classification and interpretation of these facts
(cf. R. 379-389).
DIVISION I
THE NOUN
I . T H E CASES
References: R. 441-456; R-S. 86-90; M. 60-70.
79. There were certainly at least eight cases in the primitive Indo-European tongue—with the associative case in
addition as a sort of auxiliary to the instrumental. In
support of this statement we have, along with many others,
the very pointed and emphatic testimony of Professor
Joseph Wright of Oxford: "The present Indogermanic language had at least eight cases—probably more—if we calJ
the vocative a case" (Wr. 144).
80. There are two reasons for concluding that we properly have eight cases in Greek. The first intimation of the
fact was obtained from investigation of the Sanskrit, which
exhibits eight case forms. When the Greek cases were
studied in the light of these eight Sanskrit cases, it was discovered that the same general distinctions prevailed. This
sound method of comparative philology has brought the
twentieth century Greek grammarian to recognize that there
are eight cases in Greek instead of five.
81. I n addition to the process of comparative investigation, this conclusion is also based upon the very obvious
fact that case is a matter of tunction rather than of form.
The case of the Greek noun is to be determined by its relation to the rest of the sentence. "Every case, as such,
stands in a necessary connection, according to its nature,
with the structure of the sentence in which i t occurs" (W.
181). We have seen above that the fundamental elements
65
66
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
of a sentence are a noun and verb. I n the simplest typical
sentence the noun is the subject, and, therefore, in the nominative case. I t is absurd to think of turning this statement
around, and saying that the noun is in the nominative case,
and, therefore, the subject. Hence i t may easily be seen
that function rather than form determines case, and is consequently the fundamental consideration.
82. Then as we attempt to analyze the cases of the Greek
noun, we must seek to discover the functions which i t performed in the structure of a sentence. As a noun is commonly employed in Greek i t exhibits the following uses:
(1) Its primary and typical use is to designate an object
of consciousness, concerning which the assertion contained
in the predicate is made; i.e., the function of subject. This
function we call the Nominative case. (2) A noun is
sometimes used without specific grammatical relations,
simply as the object of address, which use we call the
Vocative case. (3) One noun may be used to define the
character or relations of another, which function we describe as the Genitive case. (4) A noun may be used to
denote the point of departure, in a thought of removal or
derivation, for which the Ablative case is used. (5) A
noun may be used to indicate an object of interest or reference, which function we call the Dative case. (6) A noun
may be used to indicate the position of an object or action,
for which the Locative case is used. (7) Sometimes a noun
denotes the means described in an expression of thought.
Such use we call the Instrumental case. (8) A noun may
be used in some way to limit an assertion, which function
we describe as the Accusative case. These eight functions
define the root idea of the eight cases. For the eight cases
we ordinarily find only four inflectional endings, with occasionally a separate form for the Vocative. The matter may
be graphically presented thus:
T H E
GREEK.
Inflectional Form
First
N E W T E S T A M E N T
Case
Root Idea
Nominative
Vocative
Designation
Address
Second
Genitive
Ablative
Definition
Separation
Third
Dative
Locative
Instrumental
Interest
Position
Means
Fourth
Accusative
Limitation
I
67
1
l
i. Robertson takes a positive stand for eight cases in the Greek
language, and shows the trend of present-day linguistic scholarship
in that direction (R. 247-250; 446-449). Sheffield says, "IndoEuropean languages have as oblique cases, the genitive, dative,
accusative, ablative, instrumental and locative. Over against these
cases stand the nominative for noun-function, and the vocative as
a kind of noun-imperative" (op cit., p. 147). This statement reflects
what is now the prevailing judgment of comparative philologists.
Those who do not admit the eight cases as entirely distinct, at
least recognize some distinction by the use of such terms as ablatival
genitive, instrumental dative, and the like. Robertson calls the
coalescing of several cases into one form the "Syncretism of Cases''
(R. 448). This merging in form rarely causes ambiguity, though
Robertson notes a few instances in which the case is difficult to
determine. These exceptions, of course, are not to be regarded as
destroying the fundamental distinctions existing between the cases.
Every case had its original root idea, which has persisted in the
history of the case, and may be discerned by sufficient study
( R 453-456).
ii. Moulton is not positive in his recognition of the eight cases
in Greek. He characterizes the evidence for the ablative, instrumental, and locative as "a few moribund traces" (M. 60). He discusses at considerable length the decay of cases before the encroachment of prepositions, clearly having in mind inflectional forms rather
,
68
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
than case function. But he does deny that the "old distinctions of
case meaning have vanished," and in pursuing his discussion of
cases admits the historical distinctions. He takes issue with Winer
in defining the genitive as "unquestionably the whence-c&se" remarking in this connection that "the ablative . . . is responsible
for a part of the uses of the genitive in which it has merged." But
he does injustice to his great scholarship and linguistic insight by
referring to the locative dative and instrumental dative. If locative
or instrumental, then why dative at all? We seriously doubt the
wisdom of thus confusing terms (cf. M. 60-76). Blass falls into the
same inconsistency when he devotes considerable space to discussing the "instrumental dative" (Bl. 116fr\). Winer refers to the
dative's doing service for the ablative (W. 208), wherein he misses
the case function utterly, and falls into a confusion doubtless
induced by inflectional phenomena of the Latin. Buttmann, in his
discussion of cases, follows Winer very closely, adopting, for instance,
his definition of the genitive as the whence-case (Bt. 157). Yet, in
spite of their confusion of terms, Winer, Buttmann, and Blass give
abundant evidence of their recognition of the fundamental distinctions. The dawn of the nineteenth century found so many misapprehensions befogging the atmosphere of the Greek New Testament that we could not expect of these pioneers that they should
clear up all of the confusions—especially when we recall that comparative philology is but an infant science. Especially in the latter
half of the century, progress was steadily being made toward the
light. Gessner Harrison, in a treatise published in 1858, recognizes
that there are more than five cases in Greek (cf. Greek Prepositions
and Cases, pp. 70ff.). His renowned student, John A. Broadus,
blazed a way in the new method for that prince of modern Greek
grammarians, A. T. Robertson (cf. R. viii). The twentieth century
will unquestionably see the full and final victory of this far more
logical and historical interpretation of the cases in Greek, as well
as in other Indo-European languages.
The Nominative Case
References: R. 456-461; R-S. 90-91; M. 69-70.
83. Taking up the treatment of the cases in the familiar
order we approach the nominative first, "though it is not
the first in the order of time" (R-S. 90). The original func-
T H E
GREEK
N E W T E S T A M E N T
69
tion of the nominative was to lend more specific identification to the subject of a finite verb. I n Greek the verb
expresses its own subject, as e/a?pu£e means he preached.
Consequently when we express a noun subject of the verb,
it is in apposition with the subject implied in the verb
itself. Thus 6 IlauXos eKrjpv^ev really means, he preached,
that is, Paul. Therefore, the nominative is more than
the case of the subject: i t is the case of specific designation,
and is in appositional relationship.
(1) The Subject Nominative. Though the nominative
cannot be strictly defined as the case of the subject, yet its
chief use is to specify that which produces the action or
presents the state expressed by a finite verb. This is really
the appositional use of the nominative (cf. 2 Cor. 10:1),
and hence includes what is usually termed the nominative
of apposition.
6 7raTr)p ayairq
rbv
vlbv.
The Father loves the Son. Jn. 3:35.
(2) The Predicate Nominative. A further example of
the appositional aspect of the nominative is seen in its use
as predicate. Here its significance of designation is
strengthened by making i t the thing emphatically defined
by the sentence, as when we say, 6 Krjpvcraoiv earl TLavXos,
the one preaching is Paul.
bueZs yap
eare r)
For ye are our glory.
S6£a
r)fjL&v.
1 Ths.
2:20.
See also: Eph. 2:14; 1 Jn. 4:8.
iS) The Nominative of Appellation. Since the nominative is by nature the naming-case, i t is not strange that
there should be a tendency to put proper names in this
case irrespective of contextual relations. So we often find
a proper name in the nominative in such connection as to
70
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
leave an awkward grammatical structure. Such instances
yield to the genius of the case rather than the demands of
the context.
rjyyiaev wpos TO opos TO nakovixevov 'EXcu&v.
He drew near to the mount called Olivet. Lk. 19:29.
See also: Lk. 21:37; Jn. 1:6; 3:1; Ac. 7:40; 2 Cor. 12:18; Rev. 9:11.
This use of the nominative is a possible explanation of the grammatical difficulty in Rev. 1:4. It is also frequently seen in the New
Testament with the passive of Kahtco, as in Lk. 2:21 and 19:2.
(4) The Independent Nominative. When an idea is conceived independent of any particular verbal relations, the
expression of i t may be left standing alone in the nominative, with some descriptive or explanatory phrase added*
Thus employed the nominative names an idea rather than
an object. This includes what is sometimes called the
parenthetic nominative and nominative absolute.
raura a 0ea>peZre, eXevaovTat fjixepai.
These things which ye see, the days shall come. Lk. 21:6.
See also: Mk. 8:2; Eph. 4:15.
The nominative as used in salutations is an example of this use
of the case (cf. 1 Cor. 1:1). We also find the independent nominative used as a sort of "nominative absolute" in proverbial express
sions and quotations (cf. 2 Pt. 2:22; 1 Cor. 3:19).
({§)) The Nominative of Exclamation. When i t is desired
to stress a thought with great distinctness, the nominative
is used without a verb. The function of designation, serving ordinarily as a helper to the verb, thus stands alone and
thereby receives greater emphasis. I t is as when a child
in joyous surprise points his finger at a friend who approaches with fruit, and cries, "Apples!" I t would quite
obviously weaken the expression to say, "There are apples!"
The nominative is the pointing case, and its pointer capacity is strengthened when unencumbered by a verb.
T H E
GREEK
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
71
Tahaiwoopos eyco avOpuwos*
Wretched man that I am!
Rm. 7:24.
See also: Mk. 3:34; Rm. 11:33.
We have omitted in our analysis that use of the nominative
which the grammarians generally describe as "the nominative used
as vocative" for we agree with Robertson that the true situation
in this use is not one case used for another, but one case ending
serving for two cases. Wherever the idea of address is present, the
case is vocative, regardless of the inflectional form (cf. R. 461). The
remark of Blass that "the nominative has a tendency to usurp the
place of the vocative" is based upon the erroneous idea that the
ending determines the case (cf. Bl. 86).
The same confusion as
to the significance of case influenced Moulton when he concluded
that, "The anarthrous nominative should probably be regarded as
a mere substitute for the vocative" (M. 71). Moulton is here, as
in many places, yielding to established modes of expression. He falls
into the same error when in an earlier work he says that in Jn. 17:25
"we find a vocative adjective with a nominative noun" (Introd. to
the Study of N. T. Gr., p. 168). Adjectives must agree with the nouns
they modify in case, but not in inflectional form, as is clear from
such an instance as r) aducos yvpr), the unjust woman.
The Vocative Case
References: R. 461-466; R-S. 91-92; M. 71.
84. The vocative has but a single use, and that is as the
case of direct address—if, indeed, the vocative may properly be called a case (see below). When address is intended
to carry special force, the inflectional particle & is used, as
in M t . 15:28. Otherwise the simple vocative is used, as in
Ac. 17:22. Where it is desired to ascribe to the object of
address special definiteness, the article is used; and since
it is necessary to use the nominative form of the article—
there being no distinct vocative form—this influences the
use of the nominative ending for the noun, but the vocative
function is there just the same (cf. Lk. 8:54).
72
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
dapaeu,
dvyarep.
Be of good cheer, daughter. Mt. 9:22.
The vocative is hardly to be regarded as a case. Where it has a
distinctive form it is usually the root of the word, as ix^v, fiaoriXev,
dal[xop. We may safely follow Robertson in his conclusion that "in
reality it is not a case at all. Practically it has to be treated as a case,
though technically it is not (Farrar: Gr. Syntax, p. 69). It is wholly
outside of syntax in that the word is isolated and has no word relations'' (R. 461). The distinctive vocative form is falling into disuse in
the Koine* period, and has entirely disappeared from Modern Greek.
A trace of its classical use may be seen in Lk. 1:3.
The Genitive Case
(The
Pure
Genitive)
References: R. 491-514; R-S. 98-104; M. 72-74.
85. The genitive is the case of definition or description.
I t "is in function adjectival" (R-S. 98), and usually limits
a substantive or substantival construction, though its use
is not infrequent with verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Its
adjectival nature is very pronounced and quite obvious,
To say "a flower ot beauty" is not very different from
saying "a beautiful flower." So Kapdia aTrtarias, a heart
of unbelief, is practically the same in sense as airiGTos
Kapdia,
an unbelieving heart. But the qualifying force of the
genitive is more emphatic than that of the adjective.
Many examples of nouns in the genitive case functioning as adjectives can be cited. A recognition of this usage is necessary to avoid
translating certain sentences as if they were stilted or clumsy in form.
Thus in Acts 9:15 a news eKkoyijs eariv JJLOL is rightly translated,
he is a chosen vessel to me. So, ev irvpl <p\oyos (2 Ths. 1:7) reads best,
in a flaming fire. And rrjs 86^rjs in Col. 1:27 means glorious—TO
WKOVTOS
rrjs 86^rjs rov fxvarrjpiov TOVTOV.
In I Ths. 1:3 TTJS
7r£aT€Cos, rrjs a Y a ^ s , and rrjs eKiridos mayfittinglybe translated
as adjectives, respectively, faithful, loving, and hopeful. Our common
versions give a vague and awkward rendering of Heb. 4:2, 6 \byos
TT)S aKorjs, by translating it the word of hearing.
It is literally the heard
T H E
GREEK
N E W T E S T A M E N T
73
word; that is, the word of their hearing, or the word which they heard.
So Moffatt, Weymouth, Broadus, et al.
86. There is marked penetration in the statement of
Gessner Harrison that the genitive "is employed to qualify
the meaning of a preceding noun, and to show in what
more definite sense i t is to be taken" (op. tit., p. 15). Thus
the basal function of the genitive is to define. I n this i t
quite clearly carries with i t an idea of limitation, and thus
shows kinship with the accusative, which also has the idea
of limitation. But the genitive limits as to kind, while the
accusative limits as to extent. Eipyaaaro rr)v fjjjiepav means
he worked through a portion of or throughout the day, while
dpyavaro rr)s rifxepas means he worked in day time, and
not in night time. The genitive reduces the range of reference possible to an idea, and confines its application within
specific limits. Thus jSaouXeta denotes an idea of a wide
variety of possible meanings. Kingdoms are of many kinds,
when we consider both the literal and metaphorical use of
the term. But r) jSacriXeia deov denotes but a single kingdom, and a particular kind of kingdom. Thus by the use
of the genitive the implications of an idea are brought
within a definite scope.
87. Then i t would appear that the basal function of the
genitive is to set more definitely the limits of an idea as to
its class or kind. " I t simply marks attributive nouns,
expressing almost any relation with which they may enter
into complex concepts" (Sheffield: op. tit., p. 152). We
may, however, carry the investigation of its root meaning
a step farther. Upon the basis of what general principle
does the genitive thus define? I t by no means sets arbitrary limits; nor does it set incidental limits, as does the
c&cusative. The genitive signifies essential limits, presenting that which has "some obvious point of affinity with the
term defined" (Harrison: o#. tit., p. 16). Thus Bavihelo>
74:
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
requires a certain nature on the part of its limiting genitive:
it must express an idea which may be consistently associated with the thought of a realm of organized and regulated activity. Hence it is because of God's essential
sovereignty that we may construct the phrase r) (iacriheia
deov. The genitive deov ascribes to jSacrtXeta a rational
attribute. So the use of the genitive is to ascribe a rational
attribute to the idea defined. To denote by the genitive
that which is not a rational attribute results in an absurdity; as, "the humidity of the desert," "the heat of the
ice," r) jSacriXeta dov\ov, etc. So the genitive qualifies the
noun by the attribution of some essential relation or characteristic.
88. So we may say that the root meaning of the genitive
is attribution.
This attribution may be in either of two
ways. I t may employ an essential relationship. Thus
r) jSacriXeta deov is the kingdom which has as its distinguishing attribute its relationship to God. I t may employ an
essential quality. Thus KapSia amo-Tias is a heart which
has as its distinguishing attribute the quality of unbelief.
Therefore, the genitive defines by attributing a quality or
relationship to the noun which i t modifies.
89. When the idea of relationship receives a physical
application, i t becomes contact. The "roof of the house"
is the roof on the house, and the "grass of the field" is the
grass on the field. This significance is seen in the fact that
verbs which imply the idea of taking hold of or attaining
are regularly used with the genitive. I t is even more clearly
seen with prepositions. Thus em with the locative signifies
general position, while with the genitive i t signifies actual
contact.
In Mt.
9:2
the
use
of
eirl KKivrjs, upon
a
bed,
places emphasis upon the fact that the man was actually
confined to his bed, while in Lk. 21:6 \idos eirl \Wc*), stone
upon stone, contemplates a general situation when the
T H E
GREEK
N E W T E S T A M E N T
75
Temple stones will no longer be in their proper position.
This idea applies with remarkable precision throughout the
prepositions used with the genitive.
Present-day grammarians justly express their respectful disapproval of Winer's dictum that "the Genitive is acknowledged to bo
the whence-c&se" (W. 184). In this erroneous definition many later
scholars have followed Winer. He manifests much greater insight
into the basal significance of the genitive when he calls it "the case
of dependence" (W. 190). This may readily be seen to be in
line with its significance of definition or attribution. Webster fellows Winer in confusing the root meaning of the genitive with the
ablative, declaring that "its primary meaning appears to denote an
object from which something proceeds" but he shows progress to-
ward a more accurate view when he says, at the close of the same
paragraph, "Thus the genitive in Greek answers to the Latin genitive
and ablative" (Syntax and Synon. of the Gr. Test., pp
63, 66).
Robertson shows his characteristic apprehension of the genius of
the language when he defines the genitive as the specifying case,
the case expressive of genus or kind (R. 493>. A similar definition is
•offered by Dr. C. B. Williams of Union University in his unpublished
grammar notes. He proposes as the root meaning the idea of classification. We may combine these two suggestions and obtain a very
appropriate definition of the genitive as the case which specifies
with reference to class or kind. This is the same as saying that it
specifies by the ascription of a rational attribute.
90. For the use of the genitive in the New Testament we
offer the following analysis, which we have sought to make
accurate and plain, if not exhaustive.
(1) The Genitive of Description. This is clearly the us?
of the genitive which lies closest to its root meaning. Tc>
denote a rational attribute is to describe. I n fact, this
usage is so very near the root meaning of the case, that we
find difficulty in fixing exact limits. A l l genitives are more
or less descriptive. Blass correctly observes that this is the
most extensive use of the genitive (Bl. 95). When a
genitive stands out boldly in its typical significance, with-
A
M A N U A L
GRAMMAR
out shading off into combination with some contextual idea>
we then classify it as a descriptive genitive. Many examples may be found which are perfectly distinct.
eyevero
'loiavrjs
K^pvaaoov
/3a7rrio7xa
iieravolas.
John came preaching a baptism of repentance. Mk. 1:4.
See also: Rom. 6:6; Col. 1:22.
The adjective force of the genitive is most clearly seen when the
descriptive genitive is used in the predicate, in identically the same
relation as a predicate adjective, as in Heb. 10:39, ^/xets Se OVK
eafxev VTTOGToXrjs, but we are not of a shrinking back (cf. Rom. 9:9).
(2) The Genitive of Possession. Attribution quite easily
blends with the idea of ownership. To denote ownership is
to make one noun the attribute of another in the relation
of privilege of prerogative. To say fj j8t/3Xos, the book, is
to assign a thing to a class of indefinite limits, but to say
fj jStjSXos TOV 'looavov, John's book, is to immediately specify
it in a particular way by attributing to i t a certain relationship—it is the particular book owned by John. This is one
of the most prevalent uses of the genitive, especially with
personal pronouns.
ev rcbv ir\oioiv,
6 rjv
'Sifxoovos.
One of the boats, which was Simon's.
Lk. 5:3.
See also: Mt. 26:51.
(3) The Genitive of Relationship.
I n this use of the
genitive a person is defined by the attribution of some
genital or marital relationship. I t is closely akin to the
previous use, being really "the possessive genitive of a
special application" (R. 501). The usual construction
simply presents the article in the proper gender with the
genitive of the person related, omitting the noun which
indicates the relationship. I t is assumed that the relationship is known or has been made sufficiently clear by the
T H E
GREEK
N E W T E S T A M E N T
77
context. Thus, should we find in the gospels 'Irjo-ovs 6
Mapias, we would unhesitatingly supply vlbs after 6. Sometimes, however, the relationship is obscure to the modern
reader (cf. TouSas 'laic&flov, Ac. 1:13). This construction
was abundantly used in colloquial Greek of the Koine
period, as is evidenced by its frequent occurrence in the
papyri.
Aavelb rbv TOV 'lecraaL
David, the (son) of Jesse. Ac. 13:22.
See also: Mt. 4:21; Jn. 6:71; 21:15.
(4) The Adverbial Genitive. The genitive is sometimes
used to define a verbal idea by attributing local or temporal
relations, or as qualifying an adjective. Here its attributive function is still clearly present, for i t is kind of action
which is being emphasized. Thus action VVKTOS
does not
mean action at night (point of time) or during the night
(limit of time), but action within the night (kind of time),
or, to put it literally, night-time action. The adverbial
force of this construction is obvious, as attributes of time
and place normally modify a verbal idea, and adjectives
are regularly limited by adverbs. This adverbial use
includes:
a. The Genitive of Time. As already indicated, the significance here is distinction of time rather than point of
time (locative) or duration of time (accusative). I t is
"this rather than some other time" (R-S. 100).
ouros rfkdev irpbs avrbv
VVKTOS.
This one came to him in the night. Jn. 3:2.
See also: Mt. 25:6; Lk. 18:7; Jn. 19:39.
b. The Genitive of Place. I n this use the sense of contact is prominent. But attribution is still the emphatic
point. When eKelvns is used in Lk. 19:4 i t is that way
78
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
rather than any other way that Jesus is expected to come.
Homer uses \ovevdai iroraixoio to indicate bathing in a
river rather than anywhere else; i.e., he defines the bathing
by attributing in the genitive the place at which i t occurs,
and distinguishes i t as river bathing. I t is clear that the
idea of bathing has kinship with the thought of a river,
and therefore 7rorajuoto is a rational attribute.
tva f3a\[/ri TO aKpov TOV SaKrvKov abrov vSaTos.
That he might dip the tip of his finger in water. Lk. 16:24.
See also: Lk. 19:4; Ac. 19:26.
c. The Genitive of Reference. The genitive is sometimes
used with adjectives to refer their qualifying force to certain definite limits. Thus ivxvpbs iricrTecas means strong
with reference to the matter of faith, and might be rendered
faithly strong. The adverbial force is obvious.
Kaphia irovrjpa
airiGTias.
A heart evil with reference to unbelief. Heb. 3:12.
See also: Heb. 5:13; Jas. 1:13.
(5) The Genitive with Nouns of Action. Sometimes the
noun defined by the genitive signifies action. I n this construction the noun in the genitive indicates the thing to
which the action is referred, either as subject or object of
the verbal idea.
a. The Subjective Genitive. We have the subjective
genitive when the noun in the genitive produces the action,
being therefore related as subject to the verbal idea of the
noun modified.
}
TO Krjpvyfxa Ir]aov
XpiaTov.
The preaching of Jesus Christ.
Bom. 16:25.
See also: Rom. 8:35; 2 Cor. 5:14.
b. The Objective Genitive. We have this construction
when the noun i n the genitive receives the action, being
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
79
thus related as object to the verbal idea contained in the
noun modified.
fj 8e rov Trvev^aros p\ao-<prjjJLia OVK apedrjaeTai.
But the blasphemy of the Spirit shall not be forgiven. Mt. 12:31.
See also: 1 Cor. 1:6; 1 Pt. 3:21.
(6) The Genitive of Apposition. A noun which designates an object in an individual or particular sense maybe used in the genitive with another noun which designates
the same thing in a general sense. I n this construction a
thing denoted as a representative of a class is more specifically defined by attributing to i t in the genitive a particular designation. Here the genitive stands in exact apposition with the noun i t modifies. Thus in 7) irokis 'E^eVou
the noun 7r6Xis denotes a member of a class and 'E^eVou
specifies this same member in an individual and particular
sense.
zkeyev 7repl rov vaov rov a&jjiaTos avrov.
He spoke concerning the temple of his body. Jn. 2:21.
See also: Rm. 4:11; 2 Cor. 5:1.
(7) The Partitive Genitive. A noun may be defined by
indicating in the genitive the whole of which i t is a part.
The sense of attribution is remote here, but nevertheless
present. I f i t is said, 6 Ilerpos r\v ets TCOV airoarokuv, Pqter
was one of the apostles, Peter is thereby defined by attributing to him a relation to a group. Hence we have in
this construction the typical genitive function.
Scbcrco aoi ecos rj[xiaovs rrjs jSacrtXetas /xou.
I mill give you as much as a half of my kingdom. Mk. 6:23.
See also: Mt. 15:24; Rev. 8:7.
It is altogether possible to interpret this construction as an ablative,
ior it is easy to conceive of the whole as the source from which the part
Is taken (cf. G. 215). In construing it as an ablative we would be sup*
80
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
ported by the fact that the partitive idea is sometimes expressed in the
New Testament by &7r6 (Mt. 27:21) and €K (Mt. 27:48) with the
ablative. This construction is found also in the papyri; e.g., P. Petr.
II, 11:5: &7TO robrov TO fxev rjfxtav, the half of this. This view is further strengthened by the use in Modern Greek of airo as the regular partitive construction. There is no doubt that these indications forcibly
point toward the partitive as ablative rather than genitive, yet the very
fact that the Koine" writers had ready at hand a construction for the
exact expression of the idea of source would make it all the more probable that they used the genitive to stress character rather than source.
Reference to that from which a thing is taken may be either with a view
to stressing derivation or definition—source or character. To emphasize the former the ablative with a preposition exactly serves the purpose; to emphasize the latter would require the use of the genitive, since
the ablative has no such significance. Therefore, we had best regard
the partitive construction without the preposition as a genitive.
(8) The Genitive Absolute. A noun and participle in
the genitive case not grammatically connected with the rest
of the sentence are called a genitive absolute. I t is possible to construe this as an ablative absolute, after the
analogy of Latin, but the variety of usage as to case in
this construction exhibited by the Indo-European languages
prevents any positive conclusion. I n Sanskrit we have
genitive, locative, and instrumental absolute (Whitney:
Sansk. Gram., pp. 98, 100,102), while Modern Greek has a
nominative absolute (T. 32). There is no particular reason
against calling the construction here a genitive absolute.
Kal eK($\r}devTOs TOV daifiovlov e\a\rjaev
6 Koxpos.
And the demon having been cast out, the dumb man spoke. Mt. 9:33.
See also: Mt. 25:5; Mk. 9:28.
The genitive is used with adjectives and adverbs where the idea
implied needs some specific definition to make complete sense. Thus
KOLVCOVOL
ecrre would leave the thought in suspense, but KOLVOIVOL
eo~Te TOOV TradrjfiaTCOV, ye are partakers of the sufferings (2 Cor. 1:7),
presents the thought complete and definite. The genitive is also fre->
quently found with verbs where the verb "relates itself to the root-idea
THE
GREEK
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
81
of the genitive" (R. 507). Some of the chief classes of verbs taking
the genitive are those of:
a. Sensation. Lk. 15:25 (cf. English "smell of," "taste of," "hear
of," etc.).
b. Emotion. Ac. 20:33 (cf. English "to be careful of," "forgetful
of," "desirous of," etc.).
c. Sharing. 1 Cor. 10:21 (cf. English "partake of"). This construction contains the partitive idea.
d. Ruling. Mt. 2:22 (cf. English "to have charge of," "to get possession of," etc.).
The Ablative Case
(The Ablatival Genitive)
References: R. 514-520; R-S. 104, 105; M. 72.
91. This case has seldom occurred in Indo-European
languages with a distinctive ending of its own, but i t does
have quite a distinct function. The name suggests the
basal significance of the case: ablativus, that which is
borne away, or separated. Its basal significance is point
of departure. This idea may be elemental in various conceptions. I t is involved not only in the literal removal of
one object from the vicinity of another,- but in any idea
which implies departure from antecedent relations, such as
derivation, cause, origin, and the like. I t contemplates an
alteration in state from the viewpoint of the original situation, as when we say r\ acoTTjpia TTJS aixaprias, we are considering salvation from the standpoint of man's original
condition of bondage in sin. The use of the ablative comprehends an original situation from which the idea expressed
is in some way removed. Hence, in simplest terms we may
say that its root idea is separation.
(1) The Ablative of Separation. This use is where the
ablative presents its simple basal significance, unaffected
by any associated idea.
82
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
a7rrjWoTpiO)fxepoL rrjs TroKiTeias rov 'Ivparfk.
Having been alienated from the commonwealth of Israel. Eph. 2:12.
See also: Heb. 13:7; 2 Pt. 1:14; Rev. 21:2.
(2) The Ablative of Source. The idea of separation may
be accompanied by the implication that the original situation contributed in some way to the present character or
state. That which is named in the noun modified by the
ablative owes its existence in some way to that which is
denoted in the ablative.
8ia rrjs irapaKkrjaeois r&v ypa<p&v.
Through the consolation from the Scriptures. Rm .15:4.
See also: Ac. 1:4; 2 Cor. 4:7.
(3) The Ablative of Means.
The ablative is not the
regular case used in expressing means, but may be used
when the expression of means is accompanied by an impli'
cation of origin or source.
iicavbs de Kkavdfjibs eyivero
iravrwv.
There was great lamentation by all. Ac. 20:37.
See also: Lk. 2:18; Ac. 20:3.
It may readily be seen in the example given that the sense would
still be preserved if iravroiv were rendered from all. The means or
agency is at the same time the source. By far the greatest number
of the occurrences of this construction in the New Testament are with
the preposition virb. The so-called "genitive of material or measurement" belongs in this class (cf. Rom. 15:13; Lk. 2:44).
(4) The Ablative of Comparison. I t is immediately evident that what has usually been defined as a genitive of
comparison is really an ablative. Comparison obviously
implies separation in degree. Thus fxeifav rov 8eivos
means advanced in a position beyond, consequently away
from, some one. The thought of separation is obvious. The
ablative of comparison may also be used with the superlative degree (cf. Mk. 12:28).
T H E
OVK
A
G R E E K
N E W T E S T A M E N T
eanv SovXos fiei^cop
servant
TOV
Kvpiov
&&
CLVTOV.
is not greater than his lord. Jn. 13:16.
See also: Mt. 3:11; Mk. 4:31.
i. The ablative is quite frequently used with verbs, though not so
frequently as the genitive, dative, and accusative. Of course, the
ablative with verbs must be distinguished by sense rather than form.
Verbs compounded with airo, €/c, and Trap a in the very nature of the
case take the ablative where these prepositions bring to the verb the
idea of separation. Verbs of ceasing, abstaining, missing, lacking,
despairing, or kindred ideas take the ablative. Where a verb contains
a comparative or partitive idea, it naturally takes the ablative. It
may be seen that verbs take the ablative when their sense is akin to
the root idea of the ablative (cf. It. 517-519).
ii. The ablative and genitive have been confused by nearly all
Greek grammarians, both classical and New Testament. A few have
realized the underlying distinction, and given separate treatment to
the "ablatival genitive," but this characterization "is only true as to
form, not as to sense, and causes some confusion" (R. 514). Robertson
takes a positive stand for the ablative as a distinct case. Moulton
recognizes the distinction, but gives little prominence to it. Nunn
acknowledges that the ablative is a distinct case from the genitive, but
does not distinguish its uses, because he wishes "to avoid conflicting
with established usage" (Syntax of N. T. Greek, p. 42). Most other
New Testament grammarians follow Winer in regarding the genitive
as the "whence-case."
The Dative Case
(The Pure
Ddtive)
References: R. 535-543; R-S. 111-114; M. 62-64.
92. The dative, locative, and instrumental cases are all
represented by the same inflectional form, but the distinction in function is very clear—much more so than the distinction between the ablative and genitive. Recent grammarians nearly all recognize this distinction, and even those
of the previous century have discerned it. Blass observes
that "a distinction must be made between the pure dative,
which expresses the person more remotely concerned, the
84:
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
instrumental dative (and dative of accompaniment), and,
thirdly, the local dative" (Bl. 109). Even Gessner Harrison, as far back as 1858, observed the distinction of the
instrumental and locative from the dative, though he erroneously confounded these cases with the ablative, influenced, of course, by the Latin (op. cit., p. 53). I f case is
determined by function, then there can be no question that
the third inflectional form of the Greek noun includes three
cases, the dative, locative, and instrumental.
93. The observation of Blass, quoted above, that the
dative "expresses the person more remotely concerned," is,
without doubt, in line with the root meaning of the case.
The dative deals very largely with the personal idea. " I t
is sometimes used of things, but of things personified,"
having "a distinctive personal touch" (R. 576). I t is primarily a case of personal relations, and i t is with this in
view that we must interpret i t when applied to things. We
adopt Robertson's view of the root idea as personal interest.
The idea of interest as applied to things becomes reference.
(1) The Dative of Indirect Object. This use lies nearest
the simple root idea. I t indicates the one for whom or in
whose interest an act is performed. Thus i t carries the
basal significance of the dative.
iravTa
airodooao)
aoi.
I will give you all things. Mt. 18:26.
See also: Mt. 13:3; 1 Cor. 5:9.
(2) The Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. Growing
out of the use of the dative of indirect object we have the
dative used in a more specific expression of personal interest.
If I say e8o)Kev TO fiifSklov juot, it is clear that the giving of
the book was in my interest, and the sense is not materially
ahanged if it be said that TO fiifiXiov ixoi rjyopaaOrj, the
book was bought for me, only making the idea of personal
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
85
interest more emphatic. The negative aspect of the same
idea is the dative of disadvantage.
enpiva
ejLtauroj
TOVTO.
I determined this for myself. 2 Cor. 2:1.
See also: Mt. 23:31; Rev. 21:2.
(3) The Dative of Possession. This is an idiom for which
•we have no exact equivalent in English. I t is personal interest particularized to the point of ownership. There is in it
manifest kinship with the dative of indirect object, Thus
edooKev TO fSifiXiov fxoi is obviously closely related in sense
to
TO fii{$\iov eCTL ixoi.
Kal
OVK
r\v avTols
TIKVOP.
And they had no child. Lk. 1:7.
See also: Lk. 4:16; Jn. 1:6.
(4) The Dative of Reference. The force of interest in the
dative may be diminished to the idea of mere reference.
Thus in edooKev TO (3ifi\iov /xot oiKo8op,fj, for edification,
the idea of interest is quite emphatic in p.oi but is remote in
oUoSoixfj, though still present, for the word might with
good sense be rendered, in the interest of edification, which,
however, is a personification of olKodo/ifj. This use of the
dative occurs mostly with things, though it may also be used
with persons.
aired avofiev rfj
aixapria.
We died with reference to sin. Rm. 6:2,
See also: Rm. 8:12; 2 Cor. 5:13.
i. A special application of the dative of reference is found in its
use with intransitive and impersonal verbs (cf. 1 Cor. 6:12).
ii. On the question of the syncretism of the dative case with the
locative and instrumental, Robertson observes that the distinction
is much more pronounced than that between the genitive and
ablative. He quotes Monro as saying that "distinct forms for
these three cases survived down to a comparatively late period in
86
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Greek itself" (R. 535). Buttmann shares the confusion about the
dative and ablative in Greek, influenced by the analogy of the
Latin (Bt. 171). This shows to what extent grammarians have
allowed themselves to be affected by the matter of form in their
conclusions with reference to syntax. Buttmann inherits his opinion
from Winer (cf. W. 208). There seems to have been a general
tendency of former grammarians to confuse the dative with the
ablative. Moulton correctly defines the distinction in the three
cases of the third inflectional form, but employs the compound
terms locative dative and instrumental dative (M. 75). Let it be
admitted, however, that this procedure is not wholly unjustifiable,
for we cannot ignore form entirely while we are in the realm of
syntax, for it often happens that we would be utterly unable to
determine what the intended function is except for the form. The
matter for caution is not to give form the preeminence in our analysis
of syntax.
iii. The dative is used most frequently with verbs. It occurs
with verbs implying personal interest, help, etc. It is also widely
used with substantives and adjectives. It rarely occurs with adverbs,
and it is very doubtful whether we ever find it used with a preposition (cf. R. 536-538, 541).
The Locative Case
(The Local
Dative)
References: R. 520-525; R-S. 105-108.
94. There is no case in Greek more clearly marked in its
use than the locative. Its root idea is quite distinct, and
the application of the root idea in its various uses is readily
discernible. Certainly we could be on no surer ground than
when we are treating the locative as a distinct case. "The
significance of the locative is very simple. I n Sanskrit
Whitney calls i t the in case, and so i t is in Greek. I t indicates a point within limits and corresponds in idea with the
English in, on, among, at, by, the resultant conception
varying according to the meaning of the words and the
context. I n every instance i t is not hard to see the simple
THE
GREEK
N E W T E S T A M E N T
87
root idea of the case, a point with limits set by the word
and context" (R-S. 106). So in simplest terms we may
define the locative as the case of position. Its varieties in
use are few and plain.
(1) The Locative of Place. When the limits indicated
by the locative are spatial, we call i t the locative of place.
We may regard this use as lying nearest the simple root
idea. I t is most frequent in the New Testament with prepositions, but sometimes occurs without.
ol nadrjral TOO irhoiapicp rfkdov.
The disciples came in the little boat. Jn. 21:8.
See also: Acts 21:21; 1 Ths. 3:1.
(2) The Locative of Time. The limits indicated by th*>
locative may be temporal, in which case we call i t the locative of time. The idea of position is quite clear in this
use: i t signifies the time at which; i.e., point of time.
Kal rfj Tplrr] r)fxepa iyepOrjcrerai.
And on the third day he will be raised up. Mt. 20:19.
See also: Mk. 14:30; Ac. 21:16.
(3) The Locative of Sphere. We have here a metaphorical use of the locative, but still exhibiting the root
idea. The limits suggested are logical rather than spatial
or temporal, confining one idea within the bounds of another, thus indicating the sphere within which the former
idea is to be applied. This use may occur with nounsj
verbs or adjectives.
a. With nouns.
voodpol yeyovare rals a/coats.
Ye have become babes in hearing. Heb. 5:11,
See also: 1 Cor. 14:20.
88
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
&. With verbs.
eve8vpafjL&9r] 777 irlarei.
He was made strong in faith. Rom.
4:20.
See also: Ac. 18:5; Heb. 3:10.
c. With adjectives.
IxaKapioi ol naOapoi rfj naphla.
Blessed are the pure in heart. Mt. 5:8.
See also: Mt. 11:29; Heb. 3:5.
i. Sometimes eV with the locative is used with expressions of motion,
where we would expect to find els with the accusative. This is called
the pregnant use of the locative.
ii. The unqualified statement of Blass that "there is no trace of a
local dative in the New Testament" (Bl. 119) appears very strange
when we examine the convincing examples cited by Robertson (R.
521). We are compelled to accept the latter's conclusion that "it
is overstating it to assert that the locative of place has entirely
disappeared from the New Testament" (ibid.).
iii. The locative is used with quite a number of adjectives and
verbs, and with a few substantives, but the predominant use is
with prepositions.
The Instrumental Case
(The Instrumental Dative)
References: R. 525-535; R-S. 108-111.
95. This case was likely preceded historically by the old
associative case, of which traces remain in the Sanskrit.
The idea of association and instrumentality are really much
more closely related than might appear at first thought.
One is in a sense associated with the means by which he
accomplishes an objective, and in personal association the
second person supplies the means of fellowship. The connection between the two ideas appears in the use of our
word with in the expression, " I walked down the road with
my friend, who was walking with a cane." The simpler
T H E
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T E S T A M E N T
89
and cruder idea of the implement used in a task being
associated with the one using it developed into the more
advanced notion of its being the instrument. The function
of the instrumental case is quite distinct. Its root idea is
manifestly means.
i. The significance of the instrumental sometimes approaches, much
more closely than one would think, that of the locative. For instance,
in Jas. 2:25, where it is said that Rahab sent the Israelitish messengers
out erepa 63<£, by another way, Robertson concludes that "we probably
have the locative, though the instrumental is possible" (R. 527). But
i/he emphatic idea is not the place by which they went out, but the
method of their departure. Hence it is most easily explained as an
instrumental of manner. We can generally decide such a question by
looking for the emphatic idea.
ii. A distinct inflectional ending for the instrumental survives in
historical Greek in the Cyprian dialect. It also appears in the
form of several adverbs (cf. R. 525).
(1) The Instrumental of Means.
Quite obviously this
is the use lying closest to the root meaning of the case. I t
is the most prevalent use of the case in the New Testament.
I t is the method for expressing impersonal means, while
personal agent is usually expressed by virb with the ablative.
e^efiakev ra irvevixara X6yo>.
He cast out the spirits with a word. Mt.
8:16.
See also: Mk. 5:4; Lk. 6:1.
(2) The Instrumental of Cause.
I t is an easy transition
from the intermediary means by which a result is produced
to the original factor producing it. Thus when we say, "He
was destroyed by an earthquake," the mode of expression
is but slightly different from saying, "He was destroyed
by an assassin's dagger." I n the former construction agency
is referred to the original cause. This is clearly instrumental, and could not be elsewhere classified.
90
A MANUAL
<p6pc*) davarov
GRAMMAR
eVo%ot r\aav
8ov\elas.
Because of fear of death they were subjects of bondage. Heb.
2:15
See also: Rom. 11:30; 2 Cor. 2:7.
(3) The Instrumental
of Manner.
This is one of the
most obvious uses of the instrumental. I t is expressive of
the method by means of which an act is performed or an
end achieved. I t is seen frequently in adverbs of the
instrumental form, such as drinocria, publicly (Ac. 16:37).
"But the usage is abundant outside of adverbs, chiefly with
verbs, but also with adjectives and even with substantives"
(R. 530).
Trpocprjrevovcra aKaraKaKvirrq)
rjj K6<pa\fj.
Prophesying with the head unveiled. 1 Cor. 11:5.
See also: Ac. 11:23; 1 Cor. 10:30.
(4) The Instrumental of Measure. The idea of instrumentality in measure is not difficult to see. Two points oi
time or space are separated by means of an intervening
distance. I n the New Testament i t is used chiefly with
reference to time. Indeed, Robertson classifies this use as
instrumental of time (R. 527). I t may also be used to
express the degree of difference (cf. Heb. 1:4).
LKavcc
xpbvco rats ixaylais
e^eora/ceVat
avrovs.
For a long time he had amazed them by his sorceries. Ac. 8:11.
See also: Lk. 8:27; Rom. 16:25.
(5) The Instrumental of Association.
The instrumental
idea contained in association has been discussed above. To
have association, a second party must furnish the means
of that association. However, association is not necessarily
personal, though predominantly so. I n Rom. 15:27, rots
TTPevixariKoTs eKoiv&vrjcrap means literally they had fellowship (with you) by means of your spiritual benefits.
This
is clearly an example of association, though the means of
THE
GREEK
N E W
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91
association is not personal. This use of the instrumental is
quite extensive in the New Testament. Robertson gives
seventy-eight examples.
veavivnos
TLS
avvquokovdei
CLVTCZ.
A certain young man followed with him.
Mk. 14:51.
See also: Rom. 11:2; 1 Cor. 4:8.
(6) The Instrumental of Agency. Agency is expressed
occasionally in the New Testament by the instrumental
case without the use of any preposition. A t such times the
verb is always in the passive or middle voice.
ocroi yap m u / i a n deov ayovrai, ovroi viol deov eiviv.
For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are the sons of
God. Rom. 8:14.
See also: Gal. 5:18; Col. 1:16.
The Accusative Case
96. The accusative is probably the oldest, and is certainly the most widely used of all the Greek cases. Its
function is more general than that of any other case.
Truly i t is "the normal oblique case for a noun unless there
is some reason for i t to be used in some other case" (R-S.
29). I t must originally have had a great variety of uses,
as a result of which its root idea is not easy to discern. I t
certainly belongs in a particular way to the verb, even as
the genitive is especially allied with the substantive. I t
relates primarily to action, and indicates the direction,
extent, or end of action. "The accusative signifies that the
object referred to is considered as the point toward which
something is proceeding: that i t is the end of the action or
motion described, or the space traversed in such motion or
direction" (Webster: Syntax and Synon. of the Greek Tes*
tament, p. 63). So the root meaning of the accusative really
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
embraces three ideas: the end, or direction, or extent of
motion or action. But either of these ideas is employed to
indicate the limit of the action, and hence we may define
the root meaning of the accusative as limitation. I f one
say, 6 avdponros e7rejjL\f/ep, the man sent, the act of sending is
left without a boundary, and has no definite meaning; but
to say, 6 avdpwiros eirepL\[/e TOP 8ov\ov, the man sent the
servant, immediately limits the action by the specification
of its object. Or to say, 6 avdponros rjXOev rrjv x<*>paj>, the
man went to the country, limits the motion by specifying its
destination. Likewise, [to say, 6 avdpwiros ewopevero iianpav
bbbv, the man traveled a long journey, limits the action by
indicating its extent. So, in either case, limitation appears
as the ultimate function. This basal function is more or
less evident in the various uses of the accusative.
l ) The Accusative of Direct Object. The idea of limitation is most clearly seen when a noun receives the action
expressed by a transitive verb. Blass calls this use the
complement of transitive verbs (Bl. 87). I t refers the
action of the verb to some object which is necessary to the
completion of its meaning. Of course, any number of
examples occur in the New Testament.
r
aKrjOeiav Aey&>.
/ speak truth. Jn.
8:46.
See also: Mt. 4:21; Jn. 1:14.
It must be kept in mind in determining the accusative of direct
object in Greek that many verbs which in English are intransitive
are treated as transitive in Greek. Such verbs are those which
mean to speak well or ill of one, to abstain, to have mercy, etc.
Occasionally we find such verbs connecting their object by means
of a preposition, just as in our own idiom (cf. Bt. 146ff.).
(2) The Adverbial Accusative. Sometimes in perform-*
ing its limiting function the accusative does not directly
T H E
G R E E K .
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
93
complement the verb, but qualifies i t in an indirect way.
I t is an "accusative employed to denote a material object
only in a mediate or remote way" (W. 229). I t limits by
indicating a fact indirectly related to the action rather than
an object directly affected by the action. Many words came
to be so frequently employed in this indirect use of the
accusative that they became essentially adverbs, some disappearing entirely from use in the other cases and becoming exclusively adverbs; e.g., irpbrepov, irkelarov, ixaKkov,
axeSov. The adverbial accusative may be used in. three
senses.
a. Of Measure.
aireairacrdr] air' avrcov &ael Widov /36\r)v.
He was separated from them about a stone's throw. Lk. 22:41.
See also: Mt. 20:6; Jn. 6:19.
To this adverbial accusative of measure belongs the accusative
of the time during: which (Mt. 20:6). Sometimes the accusative is
used to indicate point of time, much as the locative (Ac. 20:16), but
with a sense of duration or extension not possible for the locative.
When the accusative is used to indicate a point of time, it is part of
a continuous period implied in the context (cf. Jn. 4:52; Ac. 27:33;
1 Cor. Ib:'6i)). This implication is not possible for the locative.
b. Of Manner.
dcopeav eXctjSere, dupeav Sore.
Freely ye have received, freely give. Mt. 10:8.
See also: I Cor. 14:27; 1 Pt. 3:21.
c. Of Reference.
T)TIS
TvoKKa
eKoiriacrev
els
VJJLCLS.
Who labored for you with reference to many things. Rom. 16:6.
See also: I Cor. 9:25; Eph. 4:15.
i. The accusative used with the infinitive is not properly the
"subject" of the infinitive, but is an accusative of reference used
to describe "the person connected with the action" (R-S. 97).
94
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
ii. The adverbial accusative is used widely in the papyri (cf.
B. G. U. 22:5).
(3) TM Cognate Accusative.
When an accusative of
the direct object contains the same idea signified by the
verb, i t is called a cognate accusative. Here the limits set
by the accusative are coextensive with the significance
of the verb, the use being for emphasis.
rov Kahbv ay&va T}y&vio~ixai.
I have fought the good fight. 2 Tim. 4:7.
See also: Mk. 4:41; 1 Pt. 5:2.
4 The Double Accusative.
Some verbs require more
than one object to complete their meaning. Such are those
which take:
a. A personal and impersonal object.
eneivos vfxas 5tSa£ei iravra.
He will teach you all things. Jn. 14:26.
See also: Mk. 6:34; Heb. 5:12.
b. A direct and predicate object.
ovtcirL \eyca vjuas bovKovs.
No longer do I call you servants. Jn. 15:15.
See also: Jn. 6:15; Lk. 1:59.
i. We have followed here substantially Blass's outline of the
double accusative (cf. Bl. 91f.). Winer divides it into the "accusative of the person and thing" (Jn. 19:2), and the "accusative of
subject and predicate" (Jn. 6:15; cf. W. 226-228). It will be noticed
that the basal lines of analysis are the same in both authors.
Webster analyzes the construction in practically the same way (op.
cit., p. 64).
ii. Many verbs which occur with some other construction in English take a double accusative in Greek; e.g., evldvaav avrbv ra Ifxaria
avrov, they clothed him with his own garments (Mk. 15:20).
On the
other hand, when we would sometimes expect a second accusative, we
find instead els with the accusative, a probable Hebraism, influenced
by the Hebrew construction with \ (cf. Ac. 7:21 and Gen. 12:2 of the
T H E
GREEK
N E W T E S T A M E N T
95
L X X ; cf. Bt. 150). Robertson shows that we may even have three
accusatives with one verb, as in Mk. 10:18 (R. 479). Where the double
accusative occurs with the active of a verb, when changed to the passive it ordinarily retains the accusative of the thing (Ac. 18:25), though
sometimes, especially with /caXew, both nouns are changed to the nominative (Luke 2:21; cf. W. 229).
(5) The Accusative Absolute. Sometimes an accusative,
with or without a participle, is set off in a sort of explanatory way grammatically independent of the rest of the
sentence. This use is very rare in the New Testament.
Robertson gives Ac. 26:3 as the clearest example. There
are a few other possible instances.
yv6)aT7jv bvra ere.
Since thou art expert. Ac. 26:3.
See also: 1 Cor. 16:6; Eph. 1:18; Rm. 8:3.
One cannot be positive that any of these constructions is an
accusative absolute. Each of them may be otherwise explained.
Winer regards Ac. 26:3 as an anacoluthon, a construction of frequent occurrence in the New Testament. He expresses doubt about
there being any instance of the accusative absolute in the New
Testament, giving it as his opinion that "on close examination the
grammatical reason for the Accusative can be discovered in the
structure of the sentence" (W. 231). It is used in classical Greek
(Goodwin: Greek Moods and Tenses, p. 338), and in the inscriptions
(Buck: Gr. Dialects, p. 125), but is very doubtful in the papyri
(M. 74). Webster quite pertinently defines this usage as "the
accusative in apposition to the whole sentence" (op. cit., p. 66).
An appositive use of the accusative it undoubtedly is.
[6) The Accusative with Oaths, I n the New Testament
ipidfaj I adjure, is regularly followed by two accusatives.
bpnifa ae TOP Qebv, p,r) fxe (3aaavicrris.
I adjure thee by God, torment me not. Mk. 5:7.
See also: Ac. 19:13; 1 Ths. 5:27.
This construction is really a double accusative, and is placed by
Robertson in that class (R. 483f.), but the peculiarity of the idiom
justifies distinctive treatment.
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
I I . PREPOSITIONS
References: R. 571-636; R-S. 115-126; M. 98-107.
97. A preposition is a word used as an aid in the expression of substantive relations. This is its chief function,
though, as explained below, it has other uses as well. I t is
called "preposition" because in its use i t is regularly placed
before the noun. Beginning merely as an auxiliary to noun
inflection, i t has progressively encroached upon the inflectional endings until they have been almost entirely displaced. Modern Greek, like most other modern languages,
uses the preposition as the chief device for representing
case distinctions.
Origin
98. Originally prepositions were adverbs. That is, they
were at first adjuncts to verbs rather than substantives.
They gradually became more closely associated with the
noun, until custom finally fixed their use with particular
cases. " I t is not difficult . . . to infer that the Aryan
prepositions were originally adverbs, which at first were
adjuncts not to the noun but to the accompanying verbs.
. . . By degrees these old adverbs came to be more and
more closely connected in thought with the inflected nouns
they now served to define, till at last the original meanings
of the cases were subordinated to those of the accompanying prepositions and in some cases forgotten" (Sweet: op.
cit.j p.
54).
99. Most of the prepositions found in Homer are used
also as adverbs. There are instances in the New Testament
of prepositions used as adverbs, which indicate that at one
time they were pure adverbs. Note for example 2 Cor.
11:23, diCLKovot Xpiarov elaiv; vwep eyoo. Are they ministers
of Christ? I more. Here virep functions as a regular ad-
T H E
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97
Verb; also els in Lk. 21:4, e(3akov els ra Scopa, they cast
in their gifts. I n Rev. 21:21 ava els and in Mk. 14:19
Kara els are used distributively: one by one, or each. (Note
that els is in the nominative case.) We also find indications
Df how prepositions were formed from adverbs; e.g., ava
from ava), upwards; Kara from KCLTO:, downwards; els from eaco,
within; and e/c from e£co, outside.
100. I n addition there are many adverbial prepositions,
tvhich some have unwittingly termed "improper" prepositions, that function in one passage as an adverb and in
another as a preposition. A list of them follows: afxa,
together with; avruipvs, airevavri,
Karevavrt,
opposite;
avev, arep, without; a%pt(s), up to; eY7us, near; euros, e£co,
outside; eixirpocrdev, ev&iriov, before; eveicev, for the sake
of; evoxos, guilty of; evros, eaco, within; eiravoo, virepdvoo,
above; eireneiva, bixepeneiva, beyond; ecos, up to; ixeaov,
in the midst of; fxera^v, between; 6\j/e, after; irkrjv, besides;
viroKaTQ), under; x^P^s, apart from.
Function
101. While adverbs qualify the action, motion, or state
of verbs as to manner, place, time, and extent, prepositions
do also; but, in addition to this, they mark the direction
and relative position of the action, motion, or state expressed by the verb. Prepositions then attend upon verbs
to help them express more specifically their relation to
substantives. Thus in rjKovaare aw' apxvs, you heard from
the beginning, the hearing is qualified by being localized
in time; in rjXdev els TO lepbv, he went into the temple,
the going is limited as to place. I t is incorrect in view of
the above to say that prepositions govern cases. Neither
is the opposite true, that cases govern prepositions. But
it is true that as cases limit and define the relations of
verbs to substantives, so also prepositions help to express
98
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
more exactly and effectively the very distinctions for which
cases were created. They are also used to express the case
relations of substantive with substantive, as Eph. 6:23,
hyairri
fiera 7rioT€cos airb Oeov, love with faith from God.
Thus from being purely an adjunct of the verb in function,
prepositions were transferred to more intimate association
with the noun, to define more closely its relation to the
rest of the sentence. Some came to have case endings
according to the case with which they were first used. Thus
to understand the full significance of a preposition one
needs to know the function of the case with which i t is used
in each instance, the meaning of the preposition absolutely,
and, what is most difficult, learn what i t means relatively
in each context.
Significance
102. Nearly every preposition may be prefixed to a word
and thus add a new idea to the word or modify or even
intensify the meaning of that particular word. A very
frequent use of prepositions is in composition with words
for the purpose of expressing emphasis or intensity. Grammarians term this the "perfective" use of the preposition.
One can often detect shades of meaning from this usage
that are otherwise impossible to discern. A l l the prepositions except aixcpl, irepi, [and irpb drop a final vowel before
a word beginning with a vowel.
103. Some prepositions are used with only one case; e.g.,
&v&, fori, &7r6, & , and ds; some with two, and the others
with three cases.
104. A very important fact to remember in studying
prepositions is that each one, unlike the English use, may
be used to express one or several either kindred or diversified ideas. The best way to determine the meanings of a
preposition is to study i t in its various contexts and note its
T H E
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T E S T A M E N T
99
various uses. References are given to facilitate this. This
is the inductive method. Each preposition originally had,
very likely, only one meaning. We cannot know definitely
what that was, but we have ventured a guess for each preposition and term i t the root meaning. Additional meanings
were accumulated in succeeding years, most of them kindred
to the root meaning, but some not. These we call resultant
meanings. They are by far the more numerous and are
the meanings to which the student should confine himself
in his prose composition. Then there is a special, rare use
of prepositions whose meanings we term remote, because
they are remote from the root idea and because they are
seldom used. A knowledge of them will be of great help
in interpreting difficult passages of Scripture.
>Av&
105. Root meaning: up.
In composition: up, back, again.
Rom. 12:2,
ava-Kaiv&G€i
f
new again or renewal.
Resultant meaning: i t is rarely used out of composition,
and only with the accusative case. I t means to the number
of in Rev. 4:8, exw ava irripvyas 2£, having wings to the
number of six. See also Jn. 2:6. I n M t . 20:9, kva Srjvapiov
means at the rate of a denarius. I t is most frequently used
in the distributive sense: Lk. 10:1, ava Svo, by twos; 1 Cor.
14:27, ava nepos, by turns. See also M t . 10:9,10;Rev. 21:21.
The expression ava iieaov in M t . 13:25, M k . 7:21 and Rev.
7:17 means in the midst of; but in 1 Cor. 6:5 i t means between.
'AvTf
106. Root meaning: face to face.
In composition: face to face. Lk. 24:17, ctm-jSaXXere,
throwing into each other's face, or against; Jn. 19:12, a m -
100
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
Xeyet, speaks against I t is used with the ablative case
only. One of its regular meanings in classical Greek was
in exchange for, and this translation fits Heb. 12:16 perfectly,
who in exchange for (avri) one meal gave away his birth-right
So Kiihner and Winer translate it. I n M t . 5:38 and Rom.
12:17 for is a good translation, eye for an eye, evil for evil. See
also M t . 17:27; Jn. 6:16. The phrase av6' &v occurs five
times with the sense of because (cf. Lk. 1:20; 12:3).
107. There is conclusive proof now that the dominant
meaning for avri in the first century was instead of. " B y
far the commonest meaning of avri, is the simple instead of"
(Moulton-Milligan: Voc. of the Gr. N. T.). This statement
refers to the papyri usage. Professor Whitesell (Chicago)
made a study of avri in the Septuagint and found thirtyeight passages where it is rightly translated instead of in the
RV. Since avri is used in two atonement passages in
the New Testament, such a translation needs careful consideration. Notice the following: Gen. 22:13, and offered him
up for a burnt offering instead of {avri) his son; Gen. 44:33, Let
thy servant, I pray thee, abide instead of {avri) the lad a bondman to my lord; Num. 3:12, I have the Levites from among"
the children of Israel instead of {avri) all the first-born. These
three sentences unmistakably deal with substitution. This
translation applies especially to the following: M t . 2:22,
Archelaus was reigning over Judea instead of (avri) his
father Herod; Lk. 11:11, and he instead of (avri) a fish give
him a serpent; 1 Cor. 11:15, for her hair is given her instead
of (avri) a covering; Heb. 12:2, Jesus . . . who instead of
(avri) the joy that was set before him endured the cross. But
does it mean instead of in M t . 20:28 and Mk. 10:45, bovvai
TTJV yj/vxw avrov \vrpov avri iroW&v ?
Either that, or else
it means in exchange for, and each implies substitution.
The obscurity of this passage is not the result of linguistic
ambiguity, but of theological controversy.
T H E
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101
T E S T A M E N T
'ATT6
108. Root meanings: off, away from.
In composition: off, back. Jn. 18:26, aireKo\f/ev, cut off;
Mt. 16:27, &7ro5c!)(rei, give back. This preposition is very
common. I t implies separation, and is, therefore, used only
with the ablative case.
Resultant meaning: from.
M t . 3:16, avefiri airb rov
vbaros, he went up from the water. But Mark is more descriptive and adds further details by using a present participle
and 6K, out of: 1:10, avaPalvo)v etc rov vbaros, going up out
of the water.
Remote meanings: (1) by: Jas. 1:13, airb deov Tretpafo/zai,
I am tempted by God (cf. Ac. 15:4; 2 Cor. 7:13; Rev. 12:6).
These all emphasize source. (2) On account of: Heb. 5:7.
elaaKovaOels
airb
rijs
ei>Xa/3etas, heard
on account of
his
cf. Jn. 21:6; Ac. 28:3. This usage is supported by
the papyri. Fayum C X I : 4, I blame you greatly for having
devotion;
lost two little pigs airo rov aKvKjJLov rrjs bdov, on account of the
fatigue of the journey.
'Ap' rjs
or
ov
means
since.
' Airb may include the idea expressed in e/c, but its usual significance is
from the edge of, while €K has the idea from within, n a p a with the
ablative emphasizes source and is used only with persons; as in Jn.
9:16, OVK eanv OVTOS irapa deov, this one is not from God.
Aid
109. Root meaning:
two;
from
8vo.
Jas. 1:8,
bi-ypvxos,
double-lived.
In composition: two, between, through. I t is also frequently
used in the "perfective" sense. Heb. 1:11, av be Siajuems,
but thou abidest through, or
endlessly.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive case;
through.
Jn. 3:17, tva aoidfj b Kbcrfxos SL' avrov, that the world might be
This usage is very common. (2) With
the accusative case: (a) because of. M t , 6:25, Sid TOVTQ
saved through him.
102
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
bpZv, because of this I say to you.
This usage is also
very common, (b) For the sake of, for. Mk.jj2:27, rd adfifiaTov
hid TOV avdpooirov eyeVero, the sabbath was made] for the
\iyca
sake of man (cf. M t . 19:12; Rom. 4:23, 24; 11:28; Rev. 1:9;
2:3).
Remote meanings: (1) by,
through
(agency). 2 Cor. 1:19,
'lyjaovs & Iv vpXv hi' rjti&v KrjpvxOds, Jesus, who was preached
among you by us
of.
(cf. 1 Cor. 11:12; Gal. 1:1).
Lk. 8:4, elirev hid wapapo'Xrjs, he spoke
(2) By
means
by means of a
(cf. Ac. 15:23; 18:9). The phrase 5i<x r l regularly
means why (cf. M t . 21:25; Mk. 11:31).
parable
In G. Milligan's Greek Papyri, pp. 39, 40, there are four places
where hid means by. A writer says he is sending two letters, hid
TStqdvjjLOV p!iav, hid 'Kpoviov . . . piav, and he states that an inclosed
document is to be signed hid Aioh&pov . . . fj hid rijs
yvvaiKos.
Although hid is occasionally used to express agency, it does not approximate the full strength of VTTO. This distinction throws light on
Jesus' relation to the creation, implying that Jesus was not the absolute,
independent creator, but rather the intermediate agent in creation.
See Jn. 1:3, irdvra hi' avrov eyeVero; Heb. 1:2, hi' ov Kal eiroiTjaev
TOVS
al&vas; Mt. 1:22, tva TrXrjpoodfj rd prjdev bird Kvplov hid TOV
TTpo<p7jTov (cf. Mk. 1:5; Lk. 2:18; Jn.l;10),.,
110. Root meanings: out of, from within.
I n composition: out of, away—emphasis. 2 Cor. 4:8
furnishes a striking example of the perfective use, diropobixevoi
dW
OXJK
e^airopovixevoi, perplexed, but not completely perplexed.
Resultant meanings: with the ablative case, the only case
it occurs with: out of, from within. Ac. 8:39, ore 5e
dv£f3rjaav e/c TOV vharos,
and when they came up out of the water.
Remote meanings: (1)
els
e£ eboovvjjioov,
on.
M t . 20:21, 23, els e/c
one on the right
he&obv Kal
hand, and one on the
left. So also Lk. 20:42. The papyri substantiate such a
translation: oiiXri KaaTpoKvrjjjLico IK he^icov, a scar on the calf
of the leg on the right (B.G.U. 975:15). But e/c is so used
T H E
GREEK.
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
only when i t occurs with the words "right" or "left."
103
(2)
By means of. Rom. 1:17, iriareccs ^rjaerai, saved by means
of faith. In^Rom. 3:30 we have who will justify h iricTecas.
(cf. Jas. 2:18, 22; 1 Jn. 4:6). (3) Because of. Jn. 6:66,
e/c TOVTOV
TTOXXO! . . . &rrr]Kdov, because of this many
went away}
Ets
111. Root meanings: within, in. I t was derived from h
and gradually took over its functions, so much so that in
Modern Greek ev does not occur.
I n composition: into, in; as elaeKdeXv, to go into.
Resultant meanings: with the accusative case: into, unto,
to, for. These meanings are very common. Els is used
more than seventeen hundred times in the New Testament,
and i t occurs only with the accusative case. Ac. 11:26,
e%qkdev be els Tapabv, but he went forth to Tarsus; 16:19,
eihuvcrav els TTJV dyopav, they dragged them into the marketplace; Rom. 1:5, aToaroXrjv els VTaKoijv irlarecas, apostleship
unto the obedience of faith; 1 Cor. 14:22, al y\£xr<rai eis
arjixelop eiatv, tongues are for a sign.
Remote meanings: (1) in. Lk. 8:48, rropevov els elpfjvrjv,
go in peace (cf. Jn. 1:18; Ac. 2:27, 31; 19:22). (2) Upon.
Mk. 1:10, mrafialvov els avrbv, coming down upon [him
(cf. Ac. 27:26). This use is common in the papyri. (3)
Against. Lk. 12:10, 8s epel \byov els rov vlbv, who will
speak a word against the Son (cf. Lk. 15:18; Ac. 6:11). (4)
Among. Lk. 10:36, ep,irecrbvTOs els TOVS
Xfloras, fell
among thieves (cf. Jn. 21:23; Ac. 4:17). (5) With respect to,
with reference to. Ac. 2:25, Aavelb yap \eyet, els avrbv,
for David says with reference to him (cf. Rom. 10:4; 15:2; 16:19).
(6) As, expressing equivalence. Heb. 1:15, eyo> eVojucu aura?
els irarepa, I will be to him as a father (cf. Mk. 10:8; Ac. 7:53;
13:22). (7) Because of. Rom. 4:20 els be TTJV iwayyeKlav
p
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G R A M M A R
rov Oeov ov 8ieKpWrj rfj air carl a, but because of the promise
of God he did not waver in unbelief (cf. M t . 3:11; M k . 2:18;
Rom. 11:32; Tit. 3:14). (8) For the purpose of, regularly
when used with the infinitive, but a few times also without.
Mt. 8:34,^ TTOXLS e%qkdev els vwavTrjaiv rep Ir]aov, the city
went out for the purpose of meeting Jesus (cf. M t . 8:4; 1 Cor.
11:24; 2 Cor. 2:12).
J
i. The following is a quotation from J . B,. Mantey's article in the
Expositor (London), June, 1923, "Unusual Meanings for Prepositions in the Greek New Testament":
When one considers in Ac. 2:38 repentance as self-renunciation
and baptism as a public expression of self-surrender and self-dedication to Christ, which significance it certainly had in the first
century, the expression els cupeaiv rcov afxaprtebp vfxcop may mean
for the purpose of the remission of sins. But if one stresses baptism,
without its early Christian import, as a ceremonial means of salvation, he does violence to Christianity as a whole, for one of its
striking distinctions from Judaism and Paganism is that it is a
religion of salvation by faith while all others teach salvation by
works.
The sentence /JLeravorjaev els TO Krjpvyiia 'IOOPCL in Mt. 12:41
and Lk. 12:32 is forceful evidence for a causal use of this preposition. What led to their repentance? Of course, it was Jonah's
preaching. Mt. 3:11 furnishes further evidence: eyed fxev VJJLOS
fiairrl^o) ev vhari els ixeravolav. Did John baptize that
they might repent, or because of repentance? If the former, we
have no further Scriptural confirmation of it. If the latter, his
practice was confirmed and followed by the apostles, and is in full
harmony with Christ's demand for inward, genuine righteousness.
In connection with this verse we have the testimony of a firstcentury writer to the effect that John the Baptist baptized people
only after they had repented. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews,
book 18, chapter 5, section 2: "Who (John) was a good man, and
commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness
towards one another and piety towards God, and so to come to
baptism; for that the washing (with water) would be acceptable
to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away of
some sins, but for the purification of the body; supposing still
that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness."
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
105
ii. Deissmann in Light From the Ancient East gives several convincing
quotations from the papyri to prove that Tnareveiv els avrbv meant
surrender or submission to. A slave was sold into the name of the god
of a temple; i.e., to be a temple servant. G. Milligan agrees with
Deissmann that this papyri usage of els avrbv, is also found regularly
in the New Testament. Thus to believe on or to be baptized into the
name of Jesus means to renounce self and to consider oneself the lifetime servant of Jesus.
'Ev
112. Root meaning: within.
In composition: within, in; as
evbvo), put
evepyeco,
work in; on; as,
on.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the locative case; in, on, at,
within, among. M t . 2:5, ev 'BrjO^eep, in Bethlehem; Ac. 1:17,
ev v]uv, among us. With the locative case it is used mostly
with words of place, but i t also occurs with words of time
(cf. Ac. 1:15). (2) With the instrumental case: with, by
means of. 1 Cor. 4:21, ev pajSSo? e\6o) irpbs vpas; should
I come to you with a rod? Rev. 6:8, airoKreivai ev popcpala
Kal ev \ i / x £ Kal ev Oavarco, to kill by means of sword, famine
and death. See also Lk. 1:51; Rom. 1:18; Heb. 9:25; Rev.
13:10. To introduce temporal clauses ev r#, while, is frequently used, both with infinitives and finite verbs; e.g., M t .
13:4, ev TOO aiveipeiv avrbv, while he was sowing (cf. Lk. 5:34).
Remote meanings: (1) besides, used only once. Lk. 16:26,
Kal ev 7racrt TOVTOLS
pera^v ypoov Kal vp&v, and besides all
these things, between us and you, etc. (2) Into. Jn. 3:35, iravra
bebooKev ev rfj x P"
avrov,
he has given all things into his
hand (cf. M t . 26:23; Rom. 2:5). (3) Because of. Gal. 1:24,
ebb^ov
ev epol rov deov, they were glorifying God because
of me (cf. Rom. 1:24; Col. 1:21; 1 Pt. 2:3.)
€l
L
i. "Prof. H. A. A. Kennedy has collected a number of instances
of this use of ev—because of, on account of—from the L X X and from
the Pauline Epistles" (cf. M. and M.: op. cit).
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G R A M M A R
ii. On the expression ev XpiaT<5, which occurs one hundred and
sixty-four times in Paul's letters, Deissmann says, "There cannot be
any doubt that 'Christ in me' means the exalted Christ living in Paul
. . . and Paul is in Christ. Christ, the exalted Christ, is Spirit. Therefore, He can live in Paul and Paul in Him." This mystic relation is
likened to the air that is in us and yet we are in it.
iii. '"Ev is used in Heb. 1:1, 2 with about the same force that bib\
with the genitive has, 6 debs \aKrjaas rots irarpaviv ev TOZS
irpcxprjTais eV eaxdrov T&V fiftepobv TOVTOOV ekaKrjaev bfxlv ev
vico, God spoke through prophets then, but now through a son (cf. Mt.
12:27, 28).
'Em
113. Root meaning: upon.
I n composition: upon, and also for emphasis, as eVtyiPcicrKco,
know thoroughly.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive case: upon, on,
at, by, before, emphasizing contact. Lk. 2:14, eirl yijs eiprjvrj,
peace upon earth. (2) With the locative case: upon, on, at,
over, before, emphasizing position.
M t . 18:13, xcupet e V
aircp, he rejoices over it. (3) With the accusative case: upon,
on, up to, to, over, emphasizing motion or direction. M k .
16:2, 'epxovrai ewl rb ixvrjfxelov, they came to the tomb.
Remote meanings: (1) in. Ex. 2:5, \ovaaadai eirl TOV
iroranbv, to bathe in the river; Rom. 1:10; 6:21; T i t . 1:1.
(2) Against. M k . 14:48, cos enl \yarfjv e^rjKdare, you came
out as against a thief (cf. Lk. 12:53; Ac. 13:50), (3) For. M t .
3:7, epxop>£vovs eirl TO ]8d7rrtcrjLta, coming for baptism, Lk.
T:44; 18:4; Ac. 19:10, 34. (4) After. L k . 1:59, enahovv
avrb eirl T ~ bvoixan TOV irarpbs, they were going to call it
after the name of his father (cf. Lk. 14:34; Rom. 5:14; Rev.
1:7). (5) On account of. Ac. 4:21, ebbfr^ov Tbv Oebv ewl rep
yeyovbri, they were glorifying God on account of the event (cf
Lk. 1:47; Rom. 5:12; 1 Cor. 1:4). The phrase e<p' & in
Rom. 5:12 and 2 Cor. 5:4 means because. (6) In the time of.
Ac. 11:28, $ns eyevero eVl KXcwStov, which really happened
T H E
G R E E K
N E W T E S T A M E N T
10?
in the time of Claudius (cf. M t . 1:11; Mk. 2:26; Lk. 3:2). (7)
In addition to. 2 Cor. 7:13, eirl rfj TrapaicKrjaei fjpcov, in
addition to our comfort. This was a common usage in classical Greek.
Kara
114. Root meaning: down.
I n composition: down. Rom. 1:18, rrjv aKrjOeLav . . .
Karexbvruv, holding down (hindering) the truth. A t times i t
is emphatic; as M t . 3:12, TO be axvpov KaraKavaec, and he
will burn completely the chaff.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the ablative case: down from.
Mk. 5:13, {ippqaev rj ayehr} Kara rov Kprjpvov, the herd
rushed down from the cliff. (2) With the genitive case:
down upon, down, against, throughout, by. Ac. 9:42, yv&arbv
be eyevero icad' S\rjs 'fb7nrr)s, and it became known throughout all Joppa. (3) With the accusative case: along, at, according to. L k . 10:4, prjbeva Kara rr\v ddbv aairacrrjade,
salute no one along the road. Also in the distributive sense:
Ac. 2:46,^aT OXKOV, from house to house; Lk. 2:41, Kar'jeros,
from year to year; 1 Cor. 14:27, Kara bvo, by twos; see also
Lk. 8:1; 13:32.
Remote meanings: (1) with reference to, with respect to, per*
taining to, etc. Phs. 4:11, ovx on Kad' wrepnaiv Xeyo?,
not that I speak with reference to lack; Rom. 14:22; 2 Cor.7:ll;
Eph. 6:21. (2) In. Ac. 11:1, ol bvres Kara rrjv Tou5cuaj>,
those in Judea (cf. Ac. 13:1; 15:23; 24:12; Heb. 11:13). (3)
Before. Lk. 2:31, Kara Trpbaccirov TCLVTWV,
before the face of all
(cf. Ac. 2:10; Gal. 2:11; 3:1).
,
M6T&
115. Root meaning; in the midst of. M t . 1:23, ped' rjp&P
& debs, God in the midst of us.
i n composition: three clearly defined meanings. (1) With.
Lk. 5:7, perbxos, from pera and e'xw, one who holds with",
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G R A M M A R
hence a partner.
(2) After. Ac. 10:5. ixeTdirep4/ai Stjucopa,
send after (summon) Simon. (3) I t is frequently used to express the idea of change or difference; as ixerapoeco, think
differently; jxeraixopcpovade, transform yourselves; fxeTarLOrjiu,
translate.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive: with. M k .
1:13, rjv [xerd T&P dtipioop, he was with the wild animals; see
also Mk. 1:20, 29, 36. (2) With the accusative: after. Lk
5:27, fxerd ravra QrjXOep, after these things he went out;
see also Lk. 9:28; 10:1; 12:4.
Ilapd
116. Root meaning: beside.
In comnosition: beside. Mt/4:13, Kapappaovp, rijP irapaOdKaao-laPj Capernaum beside the sea. Closely akin to this
are the meanings by and along. I t also signifies emphasis
at times.
M t . 8:5, irapaKaKcop avrop, calling earnestly; i.e..
beseeching him (cf. Ac. 17:16; Heb. 3:16; Gal. 4:10).
Resultant meanings: (1) with the ablative case: from.
Jn. 4:9, irap' ep,ov irelp aireis, ash a drink (infinitive used
as object) from me.
(2) With the locative case: by the side of,
in the presence of, with, before. Lk. 1:30, eupes xdpip irapd TO}
0eco, you have found favor with God; Rom. 2:13, biKaioi irapd
Geo), just before God. Ilapd is used only with words denoting
person in the ablative and locative cases, but i t is just the
reverse with the accusative case, with a few exceptions. (3)
With the accusative case: to the side of, beside, along, beyond.
Mt. 18:35, 7rapd TTJP 6SCV eiratrcop, begging beside the road; Lk.
13:4, o^etXerat eyepopro irapd irdpras, became debtors beyond
alf(d. Rom. 1:25; Heb. 1:9). I n comparisons its sense is best
translated by than. Heb. 1:4; 2:7, ^Xdrrcocras avrop . . .
Trap' dyyeXXous, having made him lower than angels. A few
times i t means contrary to. Rom. 1:26, TTJP (pvaLKrjp xP^iv
els TTJP irapd covaip, the natural use into that contrary to nature
(cf. Ac. 18:13; Rom. 11:24).
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
109
IIcpi
117. Root meaning: around.
I n composition: around. Ac. 13:11, irepiayuv e^rjrei
xeipayooyovs, going around he was seeking guides. I t is used
in the perfective sense, implying emphasis, occasionally.
Heb. 10:11, irepiekelv apaprias, to take away sins com-
pletely (cf. Ac. 27:20; M t . 26:38).
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive case: about,
concerning. M t . 16:11, ov irepl aproiv elirov, I did not speak
concerning loaves (cf. M t . 17:16; 18:19; 19:17).
(2) With the
accusative case: around, about. M t . 8:18, bx\ov irepl avrbv,
a crowd around him (cf. M t . 20:3, 5, 6, 9). I n the accusative
case irepl implies position around, whereas in the genitive
case i t implies general relationship, as in the statement,
"He was talking about him."
Remote meanings: (1) in behalf of. M t . 26:28, rb alpa
pov . . . irepl iroW&v, my blood in behalf of many (cf. Mk.
1:44; Jn. 16:26; Heb. 5:3; Ex. 14:14, 25). (2) I n Ac. 13:13 i t
may best be rendered with; ol irepl Havkov, those with Paul,
(3) I n Tit. 2:7 irepl irdvra may well be translated in every*
thing.
n 6
P
118. Root meaning: before.
I n composition: before. M t . 2:9, 6 aarrjp . . . irporjyev
avrovs, the star went before them.
Resultant meaning, with the ablative case: before. Jn.
5:7, aXXos irpb epov KaraPaivei, another goes down before me.
Remote meanings: irpb deviates only twice in the New
Testament from its regular meaning before. (1) I n Jn. 10:8,
irdvres bcroi rjkdov irpb epov Kkeirrai elalv Kal X^crat,
this preposition is translated before, but the context favors
in the room of, or in the name of, which are recognized translations for irpb. I n Gessner Harrison's Greek Prepositions
110
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GRAMMAR
and Cases (p. 408) are quoted examples of such a use.
He
there says, "whence comes the idea of occupying the place
of another, or becoming his substitute." (2) The expression
irpb ir&vroov in Jas. 5:12 and 1 Pt. 4:8 means above all.
Ilpds
119. Root meaning: near, facing.
I n composition: near (Mt. 15:32); toward (Lk. 9:41); for
(Mt. 13:21). Its significance is emphasis occasionally.
Ac. 10:10, irpbaireivos, very hungry; Ac. 2:42, irpoaKaprrjpeo),
continue steadfastly.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the locative case: at. Jn.
20:12, eva 7rpbs rjj Ke<pa\fj Vcai eva irpbs rots irocrlv, one
at the head and one at the feet (cf. Lk. 19:37; Jn. 18:16; Rev.
1:13). (2) With the accusative case, (a) To, towards. M t .
2:12, prj dvaKap\l/aL irpbs ^p^brjv, to not return to Herod,
(b) Beside. Mk. 4:1, b 6%Xos irpbs TTJV daKaaaav, the
wowd beside the sea. (c) Against. Ac. 6:1, irpbs rovs 'EjSpcuovs, against the Hebrews, (d) With. Jn. 1:1,6 \byos rjv irpbs
TOP deov, the word was with God. (e) At. Mk. 7:25, irpoaeireaev irpbs rovs irbbas avrov, she fell at his feet.
Remote meanings: (1) for. Ac. 27:34 (its only occurrence
with the ablative case); Jn. 5:35; Rom.15: 2;Tit. l:16;2Tim.
3:17, irpbs irav epyov dyadbv e^rjpriapevos, thoroughly prepared for every good work. (2) With reference to, pertaining to.
Heb. 5:1, ret irpbs rbv deov, things pertaining to God (cf. Lk.
12:47; Rom. 10:21; Heb. 1:7). (3) On. Mk. 5:11,
5e heel
irpbs T& bpei ayeKr] x^P^) ^ there was there on the mountain a herd of swine. (4) On account of. Mk. 10:5, irpbs TTJV
<rK\rjpoKapblav
vp&v, K T K . , on account of your hardheartedness
an<
he wrote you this command (cf. M t . 19:8). (5) I t is used with
the infinitive to express purpose. M t . 6:1, irpbs TO deadrjvai
avrols, in order to be seen by them.
T H E
GREEK
111
N E W T E S T A M E N T
Svv
120. Root meaning: together with.
I n composition: (1) with. Mk. 14:51,
veaviaicos
TLS
GVPrjKo*
\evdei avrop, a certain young man followed with him. (2)
Together. 1 Cor. 14:26, orav cvvepxqcrde, when you come to-
gether. (3) A t times i t intensifies the meaning of the word
to which i t is joined. Lk. 2:19, avveTrjpei, carefully kept
(cf. Lk. 12:2; 13:11; Rom. 11:32).
Resultant meaning, with the instrumental case: together
with, with.
Jn. 12:2, 6 A&fapos rjv . . . abv avrop, Lazarus
was with him (cf. Lk. 1:56; 5:9; 9:32). I t is used almost exclusively with persons, and implies close fellowship or cooperation.
Remote meaning: besides. Lk. 24:21, ai)v irdaiv
TOVTOIS,
besides all these things. I t may be so translated also in Ac.
17:34.
121. Root meaning: over.
I n composition: (1) over. Heb. 9:5, virephvoo, over above,
(2) More than. 1 Ths. 3:70, virepeicirepKraov Seojxevoi,
praying more than abundantly (cf. 2 Cor. 12:7; Phs. 4:7).
(3) Beyond. 1 Ths. 4:6, virepfialveiv, go beyond, defraud.
(4) I t is "perfective" or intensive at times.
Phs. 2:9,
i Beds avrov virepvypoxrev, God has highly exalted him (cf. 1
Tim. 1:14).
Resultant meanings: (1) with the ablative case, (a) For,
for the sake of, in behalf of. T i t . 2:14, ibowev iavrbv virep
rjn&v, he gave himself in behalf of us (cf. M k . 4:24; Lk. 22:19,
20; Heb. 2:9).
(b) Instead of.
Jn. 11:50, " i t is expedient
for you that one man should die instead of the people, vrrep TOV
\aov, and not that the whole nation perish"; Gal. 3:13,
"Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having
become a curse instead of us, virhp rjn&v. I n both of these
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G R A M M A R
passages the context clearly indicates that substitution is
meant (cf. 2 Cor. 5:14, 15); Cat. of Gr. Papyri, 94:15. (2)
With the accusative case, (a) Over, above. M t . 10:24,
OVK eariv padrjrrjs virep rov StSao'KaXoj', a disciple is not
above his teacher. (6) Beyond. Ac. 26:13, i>7rep rrjv \apirporrjra rov 07X101;, beyond the brightness of the sun. (c)
More than. M t . 10:37, 6 <pi\obv irarepa fj prjrepa virep epe,
he who loves father or mother more than me.
Remote meanings. (1) Concerning, with reference to. Jn.
1:30, OVTOS ecrnv virep ov ey& elirov, this is he concerning
whom I spoke (cf. 2 Cor. 8:23; 2 Ths. 2:1). (2) After a comparative adjective i t may be translated than. Heb. 4:12,
Top&repas virep pdxaipav, sharper than a sword (cf. Lk,
16:8; Jn. 12:43).
<Y<ir6
122. Root meaning: under.
lin composition: under. M t . 5:35, viroirbbiov, under-foot;
i.e., foot-stool.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the accusative case: under.
M t . 8:9, avdpuirbs elpi biro e^ovaiav, I am a man under
authority. (2) With the ab ative case: by (agency). M t .
1:22, prjdev virb Kvpiov, spoken by the Lord.
'Tiro is most frequently used for expressing agency. In fact, agency is
expressed with the aid of biro more frequently than it is by all the other
methods combined. The instrumental case without a preposition is
used frequently. Rom. 8:14, oaoi yap irvevpari deov ayovrai,
for as many as are led by the Spirit of God. Four other prepositions are
used rarely for expressing agency: eK (Gal. 4:4), 7rapd (Jn. 17:7), &7r6
(1 Cor. 3:18), and Std (Mt. 1:22). In our discussion of dia we have
given examples of its use in expressing intermediate agency.
Prepositional Phrases
123. Prepositions may be used in conjunction with adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and adverbs in forming phrases.
The resultant meaning of such a Dhrase is idiomatic at times.
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
113
i?or instance, the following phrases serve as conjunctions:
Lk. 21:24, axpi o5, until; Rev. 16:18, ct^' o5, since; Lk. 12:3,
dvd &v, because; Rom. 5:12, eft &, because; M t . 25:40,45, eft
oaov, inasmuch as, but in M t . 9:15 and 2 Pt. 1:13, as long as;
Heb. 3:3; 9:27, Kad bcrov, inasmuch as, since; M t . 21:25, bed
T'L, why; M t . 14:31, els ri, why; Lk. 5:34, ev co, while.
1
J
Diagram of the Directive and Local Functions of Prepositions
vird
Ka ra
f
124. The following phrases function chiefly as adverbs:
2 Cor. 1:14, &7r6 jxepovs, in part; M t . 4:17, dtrb irbre, from
that time on; Mt 23:39, air* apri, henceforth; M t . 18:10, dud
rravrbs, always; Heb. 7:25, els TO iravrekes, completely;
2 Cor. 13:13, els TO TTOKLV, again; Jn. 6:51, els TOV ai&va,
forever; Ac. 12:7, ev rdxei, quickly; Jn. 4:31, ev TO} juera£i>,
meanwhile; 3 Jn. 1, ev aKt)deia, sincerely or genuinely; 2 Cor.
9:6, err' evKoyiais, bountifully; Ac. 23:19, /car' iblav, privately; Ac. 3:17, /car' ayvoiav, ignorantly.
114
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS CLASSIFIED
\ Direction
ava
up
Position
in exchange
for, instead of,
for
on account of
through
for
by
through, because
by means
of
of
into
into,
unto,
to
on
in, on, at, besides
among,
within
as, for,
in,
among, against,
in reupon
pect to
(X6T6L
irapb
irepl
around,
about
beside,
before
virb
by means because
of
of
because
with,
by means
of
of
for the
sake of
with
because
of
for the
purpose
of
on
account
of
for
after
with
contrary
to
with
in behalf
of, concerning,
about
with
to, toward
at, on,
beside
against,
for, pertaining
to
beyond
over,
above
concerning, for,
instead
of, on
behalf of
by means on account of
J of
under
with
for
with
besides
avv
xmkp
Purpose
before
irpb
irpbs
in
up to, to upon, at, against,
after,
on, in,
in the
by, betime
of
fore,
over
accorddown,
along,
ing to,
from,
down,
upon,at, with refupon,
erence
through- in, by,
to
before
out
beyond,
to the
side of,
from
Association
because
of
by
h
KarA
Cause
for
out of
kirl
Means
from
k
CIS
Agency
in, by
dvri
dirb
Relation
for the
sake of
by
T H E
G R E E K
N E W T E S T A M E N T
115
125. Occasionally prepositional phrases may be translated
as adjectives. G. Milligan in his Greek Papyri (p. 47)
translates e£ vyiovs Kal eV d\?70€tas, sound and true, and
in the Voc. of the Gr. Test (p. 59), he translates dwo Srjiilas,
blameless. I n 2 Cor. 8:2 the phrase Kara fiadovs means
deep. When prepositional phrases occur in the attributive
position, i.e., follow the article, they are adjectival in function: Ac. 7:13, ol cbrd rrjs Qeo o'a\ovlKi]s 'lovSaioi, the
from-Thessalonica Jews; Ac. 18:25, edlSaaKev d/cpijScos r d
rcepl rov 'lyo-ov, he was teaching accurately the concerningJesus things; Rom. 4:12, rrjs ev aKpoPvarla 7rloT€cos, the
in-uncircumcision faith.
126. I n a similar way a noun in the descriptive genitive
may be translated as an adjective sometimes. I n Col. 1:27
and Tit. 2:13 rrjs do&s means glorious, and in Lk. 16:8 rrjs
a5udas is rightly translated unjust. Notice this in Ac.
9:15, cxKevos etc \oyrjs earlv JJLOL, he is a chosen vessel to me.
,
I I I . T H E ADJECTIVE
References: R. 650-675; R-S. 65-66; M. 77.
127. We approach here a neglected point in the treat
ment of Greek grammar. Since the character of the adjed
tive is so close to that of the substantive few grammarians
give i t separate treatment. Those who do, devote relatively
little space to its discussion. Yet there has never been a
language which, in its use of the adjective, presented greater
wealth or variety than the Greek. Hence i t is highly necessary that the student of the Greek New Testament should
be familiar with at least the more characteristic features
of the Greek use of the adjective.
The Origin o£ the Adjective
128. The adjective is simply a use of the substantive
highly specialized. Of its derivation from the substantive
116
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
there can be no reasonable doubt. Three evidences of this
fact may be mentioned here, and others will appear in the
further development of the subject. There is first the close
kinship between the noun and the adjective in root and
inflection. I n the second place, the Sanskrit makes much
less distinction between the noun and adjective than does
the Greek. The third and perhaps the strongest evidence
is the employment of an appositional substantive in the
exact relation of an adjective, which has persisted even
down to the present time. Note for instance such expressions as "a city home," "a treasure house," etc. An example of this adjective use of the noun in the New Testament
may be seen in M t . 3:6, kv TOO 'lopdavrj TOTapo}, in the
Jordan river. These indications point unquestionably to
the origin of the adjective in the substantive. But its
highly developed use in the Greek language justifies separate treatment.
Winer observes that there are "two sorts of nouns, substantive
and adjective," and that, though they are "distinct from each other
in thought, yet the latter (including participles) enters the sphere
of substantives far more abundantly in Greek than, for instance,
in Latin" (W. 234).
The Agreement o£ the Adjective
129. The close relation of the adjective to the substantive is further exhibited in the fact that the substantive
regularly governs its form. The adjective agrees with the
noun i t qualifies in gender, number, and case.
eyoo elpi 6 iroipr)p 6 KCCXOS.
J am the good shepherd. Jn. 10:11.
See also: Mt. 7:24; Heb. 8:2.
A collective noun may take a plural adjective (Ac. 21:36), in
which case the agreement is determined by sense rather than form*
This agreement in sense may apply also to gender (1 Cor, 7:19).
T H E
G R E E K .
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
11?
The Function of the Adjective
130. The genius of the adjective is description. I t denotes some fact which distinguishes or qualifies a noun.
Thus in the expression "beautiful garden" the adjective
simply points to the fact of beauty as it relates to the
garden. But note that the adjective designates a state of
being, beauty, just as the noun designates an object,
garden. So the fundamental sense of the expression might
be represented "beauty-garden" (a garden of beauty).
Thus, in its function, we see that the adjective is at heart
a substantive, being the outgrowth of a noun used in
qualifying relationship with another noun.
i. While the genius of the adjective is description, it is not the
only idiom in Greek whose distinctive character it is to perform
this function. The same force belongs to the genitive, especially the
genitive of description and apposition. When the article is absent
from the genitive construction, the adjectival relation is strengthened.
It is possible that historically the noun in the descriptive genitive
preceded the adjective, and constituted its immediate origin. There
would be, then, three steps in the development of the adjective:
(1) a beauty garden, (2) a garden of beauty, (3) a beautiful garden.
We also find appositional nouns in the genitive case (cf. § 90 (6) ).
ii. All these qualifying devices fill their distinctive purposes. It
is a mistake to say that any one of them is used "for" another
Robertson justly differs from Winer in the statement that a certain
idiom "should naturally be expressed by an adjective" (R. 651; cf.
W. 236). The writer "should" use the idiom that he does use, for
we must assume that it most accurately represents his thought.
131. The adjective is abundant in the variations of its
use in Greek, but for the practical purposes of the average
student the following analysis will prove sufficient.
(1) The Adjective
Used as a Modifier.
The primary
and most characteristic use of the adjective is to limit or
describe a noun. I n the performance of this function it
118
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
exhibits a twofold relation. I t may be either attributive or
predicate.
a. An adjective is in the attributive relation when it
ascribes a quality to the noun which i t modifies; e.g.,
6 aducos KpiTTjs, the unjust judge.
wp&Tov
He
first
sets
TOV
KO\6V
forth the
olvov rldrjaiv.
good wine. Jn. 2:10.
b. An adjective is in the predicate relation when i t makes
an assertion concerning the noun which i t modifies; e.g.,
6 KpiTrjs aducos, the judge is unjust.
earrjKev ev rfj KapSla iSpaios.
He stands stedfast in heart. 1 Cor. 7 :S7.
While attribution is an adjectival function, it may also be true of
other parts of speech, such as nouns, pronouns, participles, infinitives,
adverbs, and clauses. We should be careful to distinguish the
attributive and predicate adjective from the attributive and predicate position of the article. An attributive adjective usually has
the article, but may not (Jn. 1:18). The predicate adjective occurs
invariably without the article. The article, however, does not
determine the relation of the adjective to the noun. This i* determined by the mode of description by which the adjective presents
the noun—whether the adjective is incidental or principal in the
statement. Robertson sums the matter up well by saying that
"the predicate presents an additional statement, is indeed the main
point, while the attributive is an incidental description of the substantive about which the statement is made" (R. 656).
(2) The Adjective Used as a Noun. Sometimes the
adjective so far recovers its original substantive character
as to perform the full function of a noun. I n this use the
three genders present variation.
a. I t is so used in the masculine gender when the noun
is concrete.
a\) el 6 ayLOS TOV Oeov.
Thou are the Holy One oj God. Jn. 6:69.
T H E
G R E E K
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T E S T A M E N T
119
b. The feminine gender is generally in agreement with a
feminine substantive understood.
iwopevdrj els TT)P opivrjv.
She went into the mountain. Lk. 1:39.
This is, literally rendered, She went into the mountainous, with country,
X&pa*', understood.
c. The neuter singular is ordinarily used as an abstract
noun.
TO xpyvrbv
TOV Oeov.
The goodness of God. Rom. 2:4.
Frequently a neuter substantive is implied (Mt. 10:42). Sometimes the adjective in the neuter plural refers to definite classes of
things, and is to that extent concrete, as in Rom. 1:20 (cf. W. 235),
(3) The Adjective Used as an Adverb.
The adverb
bears a very close relation to the adjective, which was
"probably the earliest and simplest adverb" (R-S. 66).
This primitive connection is demonstrated i n the use of
the adjective in direct relation to the verbal idea of the
sentence. The case of the adjective in this construction
is usually accusative (of reference), though the other
oblique cases may be used (cf.7roXAc£ in Rom. 5:9).
rb \onrbv,
%atper€ ev icvpicp.
Finally, rejoice in the Lord. Phs. 3:1.
See also: Mk. 1:19; Jn. 10:40.
Frequently an adjective is used in its pure adjectival relation when
English idiom would require an adverb (Mk. 4:28; cf. G. 269). Cara
should be taken to distinguish these instances from the true adverbial
use of the adjective. The distinction is sometimes obscure between
the predicate adjective and the adverbial adjective. The question is to
be determined by whether the relation of the adjective is more intimate
with the noun or the verb. Thus 6Vou r\v 'looavrjs TO irpoorov ]8a7rri^cov in Jn. 10:40 means, not where John was the first to baptize, but
where John first entered upon the process of baptizing; while in Mk. 4:28
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A
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G R A M M A R
f] yrj Kapirocpopei irp&rov x^prov means the land bears a blade first
and not the first thing the land does is to bear a blade. That is, in the
latter instance wpcorov is more closely related to x^prov than it
is to napirocpopei, while in Jn. 10:40 wp&TOV clearly modifies
fiawrifap rather than 'looavrjs, and, therefore, functions as an
adverb. In that fact lies the distinction (cf. R. 657). j
The Comparison o£ the Adjective
132. The comparison of adjectives in Koine Greek presents many distinctive peculiarities. I t is imperative that
the English student discard his own idiom in approaching
the study of the Greek usage, if he is really to comprehend
these peculiarities. Several differences from the classical
Greek are to be observed in the New Testament, especially
the infrequency of the superlative, which when it does occur
is usually for emphasis, rarely in its normal function.
(1) The Comparative Degree. This is expressed in the
New Testament in five ways.
a. By the positive adjective with a prepositional phrase.
afiapToiKol irapd irdvras
rovs
TakiKaiovs.
Greater sinners than all the other Galileans. Lk. 13:2.
See also: Rom. 8:18; Heb. 4:12.
b. By the positive adjective followed by rj.
naKbv aoi eanv rj (SKqdTJvai els rb irvp.
It is better for thee than to be cast into the fire. Mt. 18:8.
c.
By the positive adjective with
Kakbv
iariv avro}
[xaXXop.
fxaWov elfiePkqraiels rrjv ObXaacrav.
It were better for him had he been cast into the sea. Mk. 9:42.
d. By the comparative adjective followed by 77.
[xei^cov b irpoprjTevoiv
rj b \a\cov
y\coa<rais.
Greater is the one prophesying than the one speaking with tongues-
1 Cor. 14:5.
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
121
e. By the comparative adjective followed by the ablative.
TO pupbv rov deov aop&repov r&v avdp&iraiv earlv.
The foolishness of God is wiser than men. 1 Cor. 1:25.
It will be observed that the New Testament presents several devices
for expressing comparison by the use of the positive form of the adjective with adjuncts. This unquestionably exhibits Hebraistic influence,
being analogous to the use of the positive adjective with ]JD. Occasionally we find a double comparison where paWov or 7roXXw is used
with the comparative form of the adjective (Mk. 7:36; Lk. 18:39).
Sometimes the comparative is used as a means of emphasis when the
relative object is only implied, sometimes clearly, often very remotely.
(Jn. 13:27).
(2) The Superlative Degree. The superlative idea as
employed in Koine Greek presents three variations.
a. The comparative form is sometimes used for a superlative function.
pei^cop be TOVTOJV r) ayhirrj.
But the greatest of these is love. 1 Cor. 13:13.
b. Rarely the regular superlative adjective is used in its
normal function,
eyd) yap elpi 6 eKaxwros rcov airoaroKcov.
For I am the least of the apostles. 1 Cor. 15:9.
See also: Mk. 5:7; Ac. 17:15.
c. The majority of the superlatives in the New Testament are used for emphasis, in the sense of very or exceedingly. These are called elative superlatives.
ret ripia Kal pey terra rjpXv eirayyekpara beb&p-qrai.
He has given unto us the precious and exceeding great promises.
2 Pt. 1:4.
The use of the comparative for the superlative is one of the distinguishing idioms of the Koine* (cf. R. 667; Bl. 108: M. 78). This tendency
continued until in Modern Greek we have no distinctive superlative
form, the superlative idea being expressed by the use of the article
122
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
with the comparative form: e.g., 6 [XLKporepos, the smatlest (cf. T. 73).
This extension of the comparative to include more than two was probably influenced by the disuse of the dual. So Moulton says, "Of
course thefirststep was taken ages ago in the extinction of the dual"
(M. 77). Blass accounts for this change by "the absorption of the
category of duality into that of plurality" (Bl. 33). The use of the
superlative in the Koin6, however, is not fairly represented in the New
Testament, for while the New Testament presents but few occurrences
of the true superlative, "there are scores of them in the papyri" (M
78).
I V . T H E PRONOUN
References:
R. 676-753; R-S. 78-85; M. 84-98.
133. The pronoun is a device of language employed to
prevent the monotony which would necessarily result from
the indefinite multiplication of the noun. That is, i t is
used "to avoid the repetition of the substantive" (R. 676).
The word is derived from the Latin pro and nomen, meaning "for a noun." The name is appropriate, as i t is quite
obviously suggestive of the function. There are nine classes
of pronouns in the New Testament whose grammatical
phenomena require orderly treatment. They are the personal, relative, demonstrative, intensive, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, interrogative, and indefinite pronouns.
There are three other classes, alternative, distributive, and negative
pronouns, which we do not discuss in this treatment. They hold
no very important grammatical place in the New Testament as
pronouns, their significance being chiefly lexical. The matters of
grammatical interest connected with them may be found fully
discussed in R. 744^-753.
Personal Pronoun
134. The personal pronouns are eya), rifiels, av, ifxeis.
The Attic third-personal pronouns ov and acpels are not
used in the New Testament, the third person being expressed by the intensive pronoun avros.
We also occasion-
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
123
ally find the article used as a third-personal pronoun (cf. Lk.
1:29).
(1) The Personal Pronoun for Emphasis.
The pronom-
inal subject of a finite verb is ordinarily not expressed, the
person and number of the subject being indicated by the
verbal ending. When the personal pronoun is used, i t is
for emphasis.
ri o\)v j8a7rrtf€ts el av OVK el 6 Xpiaros;
Why then dost thou baptize, if thou are not the Christ? Jn. 1:25.
See also: Mt. 3:11; Jn. 1:42.
Winer declares that the personal pronoun "nowhere occurs without
emphasis" (W. 153). Robertson, however, thinks that "this is not
quite true of all examples," and cites Gildersleeve in support of
his position (R. 676). Moulton concurs in this opinion (M. 85).
As a matter of fact, there appear varying degrees of emphasis, being
sometimes perfectly obvious, but shading off to where it is very
obscure (cf. Jn. 3:10 and Lk. 19:2). On the whole, Winer is likely
correct, because the simple fact that the personal pronoun is a repetition of the subject expressed in the verb lends at least some
degree of emphasis. The emphasis is generally antithetical (Mt.
5:28), though it may be used merely to give prominence to a thought
(Col. 1:7).
(2) The Objective Uses of the Personal Pronoun.
I t is
In the oblique cases that we find the abundance of personal
pronouns in the New Testament. As a natural characteristic of vernacular speech, and probably as influenced to
some extent by Semitic usage, the personal pronouns occur
in the New Testament with marked frequency (cf. R.
682f.). They appear in practically all the various uses
of the oblique cases. Two of the objective uses of the
personal pronoun deserve special attention.
a. I t may be used as a possessive. Pronominal possession is expressed in the New Testament
more often by
124
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
the genitive of the personal pronoun than by the possessive
pronoun.
TTCLTep r)jJ,6bv 6 h
TOIS OVpCLVOlS.
Our Father who art in heaven. Mt. 6:9.
See also: Lk. 21:19; 2 Cor. 4:16.
b. I t may be used as a reflexive. There are at least two
clear instances in the New Testament—with possibly others
—in which the personal pronoun is used with a reflexive
force.
fir) drjaavpl^ere vplv drjaavpovs eirl rrjs yrjs.
Lay not up for yourselves treasures on earth. Mt. 6:19.
See also Mt. 6:20; Eph. 1:9 (?).
i. Frequently the personal pronoun appears in a context in which
its use makes the impression of unnecessary repetition (cf. Mt. 8:1;
Ac. 7:21; Rev. 3:12). Moulton declares that this "redundancy of
the personal pronoun is just what we should expect in the colloquial
style, to judge from what we have in our own vernacular" (M. 85).
Robertson regards it as "also a Hebrew idiom" (R. 683). It is a
tendency of the vernacular Greek which yields readily to the
influence of a similar Hebrew idiom. Hence both elements are
present in it.
ii. The frequency of personal pronouns in the New Testament is
regarded by Winer as due to Hebraistic influence (W. 143). Blass
also observes that this fact is to be accounted for by "the dependence
of the language on Semitic speech" (Bl. 164). Moulton dissents
from this view upon the evidence of the papyri, and thinks the
cause is to be found in the vernacular character of the New Testament language rather than Semitic influence (M. 85), but Robertson
thinks that we need not "go as far as Moulton does and deny that
there is any Semitic influence in the New Testament on this point"
(R. 683). The fact is that the vernacular and Hebrew coincided
at many points in the use of the pronouns, and both became factors
to the product in the New Testament.
The Relative Pronoun
135. A relative pronoun is used to connect a substantive
with a clause which in some way qualifies its meaning. For
T H E
G R E E K
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T E S T A M E N T
125
example, in the sentence, "The eunuch was converted," we
might qualify the noun "eunuch" by the addition of two
explanatory clauses, thus: "The eunuch, who had been to
Jerusalem to worship, and who was returning in his chariot,
was converted." I t will be seen that the connection of
these clauses with the substantive is expressed by the relative pronoun who. So Robertson declares that the relative
is "the chief bond of connection between clauses" (R. 711).
The principal relative pronouns of the New Testament are
os, OOTIS, oios, o7rotos and ocros (cf. R. 710).
The relative was originally identical with the demonstrative. I t
is Whitney's opinion that in Sanskrit the relative yas was originally
a demonstrative, though "from the earliest period of the language,"
as known to grammarians, it "has lost all trace of the demonstrative
meaning" (op. ext., p. 195). The survival of the demonstrative force
has been much more persistent in Greek. As the relative appears in
the earliest literature of the language, its distinction is unsettled.
In Homer os is used alternately as demonstrative and relative. I n
classical Greek the function and form of the relative have become
definite and fixed, though in the best Attic prose it sometimes retains
its demonstrative force. This usage continues into the Koine, and
is found in the New Testament. The Greek article shares with
the relative its lineage from the demonstrative. They are but
specialized functions of the demonstrative pronoun (cf. R. 695, 711),
(1) Agreement of the Relative Pronoun.
The substan-
tive with which the relative pronoun connects the qualifying
clause is called the antecedent. The relative pronoun agrees
with its antecedent in gender and number, but not in case,
Its case is determined by its relation to the clause with
which i t occurs.
ev avrco,
os eariv
i) KetpaXr).
In him, who is the head. Col. 2:10.
See also: Mt. 2:9; Rom. 2:6.
The person of the verb in the relative clause is determined by the
antecedent; e.g., €70? € t £ U 6s TOVTO eiroiuaa,.! am the one who did this*
126
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
The relative may sometimes agree with the predicate of an explanatory
clause in which it is used (Eph. 3:13).
(2) Attraction. The antecedent and the relative quite
naturally react upon one another in the determination of
case. This interchange of case is called attraction. I t may
be the relative drawn to the case of the antecedent, or, less
frequently, the antecedent to the case of the relative.
a. When the relative is attracted to the case of the antecedent i t is called direct attraction.
os S' av rrlrj e/c TOV i55aros ov eyd) S&cra) avrop.
Whosoever shall drink of the water which I shall give him. Jn. 4:14.
See also: Lk. 1:4; Ac. 1:1.
6. When the antecedent is attracted to the case of the
relative i t is called indirect attraction.
r
ov eyd) aweKe<pa\iaa 'Io)avr]v
ovros
rjyepdrj.
This John whom I beheaded is risen. Mk. 6:16.
See also: Ac. 21:16; Rom. 6:17.
Other irregularities occasionally presented in the agreement of
the relative are its assimilation to the gender of a predicate substantive when the predicate substantive "is viewed as the principal
subject" (W. 166; cf. Mk. 15:16), or to the natural gender of the antecedent (Ac. 15:17), or to the neuter gender under the influence of an
abstract idea implied in the entire statement (Jn. 2:8; cf. R. 712f.).
Frequently the antecedent is incorporated in the relative clause,
both appearing in the same case (Jn. 6:14).
(3) Omission of the Antecedent. When the antecedent
is made clear by the context i t may be omitted.
ov e%eis OVK eariv
aov dvrjp.
(He) whom thou hast is not thy husband. Jn. 4:18.
See also: Lk. 9:36; Heb. 5:8.
Sometimes an antecedent is introduced which from the viewpoint
of the English idiom seems superfluous (Mk. 1:7). It is, however,
perfectly good Greek, as may be seen from the history of the
T H E
G R E E K
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T E S T A M E N T
127
matter presented by R. 722. While "in ancient Greek it was a very
rare usage" (ibid.), yet it was used there, and all the way down
through all the periods of the Greek language, and has "in modern
Greek become very common" (R. 723). So this pleonastic antecedent is perfectly normal Greek, though awkward to English eyes
(cf. further Rev. 7:2).
- (4) The Indefinite Relative.
I n classical Greek 6s is used
as the definite relative, and oans as indefinite, but this
distinction has almost disappeared in the Koin6. However,
it is the distinctive use of oans which is fading out, for 6s
is still used in accord with Attic practice.
oans b'av apvrjcrrjral pe.
Whosoever shall deny me. Mt. 10:33.
See also: Jn. 14:13; Col. 3:5.
It should be observed that 8s used with av has the indefinite force
and may be rendered "whoever" (cf. Mt. 5:22). The indefinite pronoun rts may be used withal in the sense of "anything whatever"
(cf. Jn. 16:23). It is usually clear from the context whether a relative
construction is to be regarded as definite or indefinite (cf. Bl. 172; R.
712, 727).
The Demonstrative Pronoun
136. Sometimes i t is desired to call attention with special
emphasis to a designated object, whether in the physical
vicinity of the speaker or the literary context of the writer.
For this purpose the demonstrative construction is used. I t
may take any one of several forms.
(1) Ordinarily the regular demonstrative pronouns are
used.
a. For that which is relatively n,ear in actuality or
thought the immediate demonstrative is used.
lare
K
otros yap b M.e\x ^
pevei lepevs.
For this Melchizedek remains a priest. Heb. 7:1.
See also: Mt. 3:3; Rom. 9:9.
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G R A M M A R
b. For that which is relatively distant in actuality or
thought the remote demonstrative is used.
ea&drj r) yvvr) arrb rrjs &pas enelvrjs.
The woman was saved from that hour. Mt. 9:22.
See also: Jn. 10:1; Ac. 2:16.
(2) The article sometimes retains its original demonstrative force, being used with ixev or be.
ol jiev ovv avveXdovres rjpcorcav avrbv.
These, therefore, having come, asked him. Ac. 1:6.
See also: Ac. 8:4; Mt. 26:67.
Sometimes 6 fxev and b be are set over against each other in contrast
>!cf. 1 Cor. 7:7; Ac. 14:4).
(3) Occasionally the relative is restored to its demonstrative force, employing like the article the particles ixev and 5e.
os p,ev ireiva, Ss be fxedvei.
One is hungry, and another is drunken. 1 Cor. 11:21.
See also: Mk. 15:23; 2 Tim. 2:20.
(4) Ten times the New Testament uses the pronouns
85e, fjbe, robe.
arjfxepop rj avpiov iropevabfieOa els rrjvbe rr)v iroXiv.
Today or tomorrow we will go into this city. Jas. 4:13.
See also: Lk. 10:39; Rev. 2:1.
The use of these pronouns is characteristic of Revelation, where we
find seven of the ten occurrences. The infrequency of them in the New
Testament is typical of the Koine* in general, for they occur but rarely
in the papyri. There are but faint traces of them left in Modern
Greek. The force of SSe in Attic Greek as a sort of subsequent demonstrative (referring to something which follows), Robertson says
amounts to little in the New Testament, since bbe is so rare" (R. 702).
il
(5) The intensive pronoun is sometimes used with demonstrative force in Luke's writings.
T H E
G R E E K
5i5a£ei
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
129
vpas ev avrfj rfj &pq,.
He will teach you in that hour. Lk. 12:12.
See also: Lk. 10:7, 20:19.
The distinction between the demonstratives which we have denominated "immediate" and "remote" is not always evident in the New
Testament, though ordinarily it may be discerned. OVTOS may sometimes refer "not to the noun locally nearest, but the one more remote,"
but it will generally be found upon close scrutiny that the antecedent of
OVTOS
"was mentally the nearest, the most present to the writer's
thought" (W. 157). Thus it does not necessarily denote that which is
physically adjacent, but that which is immediately present to the thinking of the writer. So eKelvos need not denote that which is physically
distant, but may be only that which is mentally remote. Hence we have
termed them immediate and remote demonstratives.
The Intensive Pronoun
137. The intensive pronoun is avrbs. I t is the most frequently used of all the pronouns in the New Testament,
and is the most varied in use, being employed as personal,
possessive, and demonstrative, as well as intensive pronoun.
I t is its distinctive use as intensive pronoun which we consider here.
138. The function of the intensive pronoun is to emphasize identity. I t is the demonstrative force intensified.
There are two uses of the intensive pronoun, distinguished
by the attributive and predicate position.
(1) The Attributive Use. When auros is used in the
attributive position it means the same.
'exovres
be TO avrb irvevpa rrjs iriorrews.
Having the same spirit of faith. 2 Cor. 4:13.
See also: Mt. 26:44; Rom. 2:1.
(2) The Predicate Use.
When
predicate position i t means self.
avrbs
is used in the
130
A
avrb
M A N U A L
TO irvevpa
G R A M M A R
avvpaprvpel
roj irvevpan
qp&v.
The Spirit Himself beareth witness with our spirit. Rom. 8:16.
See also: Rom. 8:26; 1 Ths. 4:9.
The use of avrbs as a demonstrative calls for special attention. That
Luke uses it in this sense is certain, and it is possibly to be so construed
in other authors (cf. Mt. 3:4). Thus in Lk. 13:1 we are forced by the
context to translate ev avrco rop Kaipoj "in that very season" rather
than "in the season itself." The use is probably to secure an emphatic
demonstrative (that very) without the employment of two pronouns.
It may be readily seen that ev eKeivoj TO} avrop Kaipo} would make a
bunglesome construction (cf. R. 686). This demonstrative use of avrbs
is characteristic of the Koine* in general. " There is an apparent weakening of avrbs b in Hellenistic, which tends to blunt the distinction between this and eneivos 6" (M. 91). Abundant evidence of this change
appears in the papyri (cf. Moulton and Milligan: op. cit., p. 94). Avrbs
is used as a regular demonstrative in Modern Greek, right alongside
of TOVTOS (OVTOS) and eKelvos, appearing as such in its normal form,
and also in the altered form avrbvos (T. 90).
The Possessive Pronoun
139. The possessive pronouns are epos, <rbs, fjperepos
and vperepos. The Koin6 Greek offers no possessive
pronoun for the third person, but uses the genitive of avrbs
instead. The article and Wios are also used to denote possession. So we find pronominal possession expressed in the
New Testament in four ways.
(1) By the Possessive Pronouns.
fj Kplais fi eprj
biKala
eariv.
My judgment is righteous. Jn. 5:30.
See also: Rom. 10:1; Phs. 3:9.
(2) By the Genitive of the Personal Pronoun. This is
decidedly the most prevalent mode employed in Koine
Greek.
TO iraaxa rip&v ervOrj Xptarbs.
Christ as our passover was sacrificed. 1 Cor. 5:8.
See also: Mt. 7:3; Rom. 1:4.
T H E
G R E E K .
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
131
(3) By the Article. The article is used when the one to
<vhom possession is referred is made clear by the context.
Kal eKrelvas
rrjp xetpa fjif/aro
abrov.
And putting forth his hand he touched him. Mt. 8:3.
See also: Heb. 7:24; 1 Pt. 4:8.
(4) By I'Sios. Where the idea of possession is emphatic
idtos is used.
r{kdev
els rrjv ISlav
TTOKIV.
He went into his own city. Mt. 9:1.
See also: Lk. 6:41; Jn. 4:44.
The Reflexive Pronoun
140. When the action expressed by the verb is referred
back to its own subject, the construction is called reflexive.
There are two usual ways of expressing this reflexive idea
in the New Testament.
(1) By the regular reflexive pronouns ifxavrov,
aeavrov
iavrov, and iavrcov.
I n the New Testament lavrcbv is used
for all three persons in the plural.
ixrjbev rrpd^iis aeavrop
KaKbv.
Do thyself no harm. Ac. 16:28.
See also: Lk. 12:1; 2 Cor. 3:1.
(2) By an oblique case of the personal pronoun, as discussed above, §134 (2), b (cf. M t . 6:19).
The Reciprocal Pronoun
141. When a plural subject is represented as affected by
an interchange of the action signified in the verb, i t is
called a reciprocal construction; e.g., ovroi ol avdpooiroi
abiKovaiv
dXX^Xous, these men are injuring one another.
The New Testament uses three methods for the expression
of this idiom.
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G R A M M A R
(1) The Regular Reciprocal Pronoun.
dyairTjroij
ayaw&ixep aXXrfKovs.
Beloved, let us love one another. 1 Jn. 4:7.
See also: Rom. 12:5; 1 Cor. 16:20.
(2) The Reflexive Pronoun.
7
npiixara
e'xere jxeB
eavr&p.
Ye have lawsuits with one another. 1 Cor. 6:7.
See also: Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16.
(3) The Middle Voice.
Kal (rwePovkevaavro.
And they took counsel with one another. Mt. 26:4.
See also: Lk. 14:7; Jn. 9:22.
The Interrogative Pronoun
142. The interrogative pronoun is rls. I t is used to intro
duce both dependent and independent questions. As enu
ployed in the New Testament i t presents five fairly distinct
uses.
(1) The Interrogative Use. I t is the regular pronoun for
introducing questions.
f
OVK o i8are rl
alreiade.
Ye know not what ye ask. Mt. 20:22.
See also: Mt. 3:7; Lk. 12:14.
(2) The Adverbial Use. When rls is used in the adverbial sense i t means why.
rl Se jSXeVets TO Kapcpos;
Why seest thou the mote? Mt. 7:3.
See also: Mt. 6:28; Ac. 5:4.
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
133
(3) The Exclamatory Use. The adverbial use of rls
sometimes has the force of exclamation rather than interrogation.
Kal
And
rl de\o) el TJST] avrjcpdrj.
how I wish it were already kindled! Lk. 12:49.
See also: Lk. 22:45.
(4) The Relative Use. rls sometimes adds to its interrogative function a distinct relative force, the construction
presenting a shading off of the indirect question toward the
relative clause.
&XX' ov rl eyd) OeKo) dXXa rl av.
Nevertheless, not what I will, but what thou wilt. Mk. 14:36.
See also: Mt. 10:19; Lk. 17:8.
This construction presents a vernacular tendency of the Koine
Greek toward "a confusion much further developed in our own
language" (M. 94). The confusion arises from a common ground
lying between the relative clause and the indirect question. Thus,
"I know what you are doing," presents the blending of a relative
sense ("that which you are doing") and an interrogative sense
("What are you doing?").
(5) The Alternative Use. Instead of the classical irbrepos
which of two, the Koine Greek uses rls to introduce alternative questions.
rl yap eariv
evKow&repov;
For which (of the two) is easier? Mt. 9:5.
See also: 1 Cor. 4:21; Phs. 1:22.
Moulton regards the disappearance of irbrepos from the Koine* as
resulting directly from the decadence of the dual. Hefindsbut a single
occurrence in the papyri. He says, " I have twelve papyrus collections by me, with one occurrence of irbrepos in the indices, and that is
nearly illegible and (to me, at least) quite unintelligible" (M- 77)*
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G R A M M A R
The Indefinite Pronoun
143. Frequently the occasion arises for the expression ot
a substantive idea in a general sense, as representative of a
category. For example, we might wish to mention an act
performed by one who was a disciple of Jesus, without
caring to specify his exact identity. The mode of expression employed for this purpose would be the indefinite
pronoun (rls, r l ) , thus ixadrjTfjs TLS, a certain disciple.
Thus the indefinite pronoun provides a means of general
reference. I t presents five forms of construction.
(1) The Pronominal Use. Tls may be used independently when i t functions as a pronoun.
fxrj
TWOS
vareprjaare;
Did ye lack anything? Lk. 22:35.
See also: Ac. 3:5; Phs. 3:15.
(2) The Adjective Use. When associated with a noun,
rls functions as an adjective.
eyeVero lepebs
TLS.
There was a certain priest. Lk. 1:5.
See also: Ac. 15:36; Jas. 1:18.
(3) The Emphatic Use. Tls is sometimes used as a reflection of a sense of distinction or importance (cf. Bt. 114).
\eyuv
elval TLva iavrop.
Saying that he was somebody. Ac. 5:36.
See also: 1 Cor. 3:7; Gal. 2:6.
(4) The Numerical Use. Tls may be employed with a
number to convey the idea of approximation.
8vo TLPCLS TCOP fxaBrjT&v.
called some two of his disciples. Lk. 7:18.
See also: Ac. 15:36.
TTpoaKaXeaafxevos
Having
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
135
(5) The Alternative Use. We sometimes find rives . . .
rives, or rls . . . erepos, employed in alternative expressions.
ekeyovro virb rivcov on 'looavrjs rjyipdrj en veicp&v, virb rivcov
be on
'HXetas ecfravTj.
It was being said by some that John had risen from the dead, but
by others that Elijah had appeared. Lk. 9:7.
See also: Phs. 1:15; 1 Cor. 3:4.
i. Regularly pronouns take their grammatical form from a substantive antecedent expressed or understood. Sometimes, instead
of direct agreement with the grammatical form of an expressed
antecedent, we have logical agreement, in some instances with actual
or assumed sex rather than grammatical gender (Mt. 28:19), in
others with the plural sense of a collective noun rather than its
grammatical number (Eph. 5:12).
ii. The use of the pronoun is becoming more extended in the
Koine period, and continues to increase down to the modern period.
In the main the pronouns in the New Testament are nearer to Attic
usage than the adjectives. There are many instances "where the
pronouns are used carefully according to classical precedent" (M. 79).
Winer observes that in the use of the pronoun, the New Testament
differs from Attic Greek at two main points: "First, it multiplies
the personal and demonstrative pronouns for the sake of greater
perspicuity. . . . Secondly, it neglects . . . many forms which
ranked rather among luxuries of the language" (W. 140).
V. T H E ARTICLE
References: R. 754-796; R-S. 68-77; M. 81-84.
144. Nothing is more indigenous to the Greek language
than itos use of the article. Moulton find's that in the New
Testament "its use is in agreement with Attic," a feature
in which the New Testament is more literary than the
papyri ( M . 80f.). We are, therefore, upon a broad historical basis when we are studying this important element
136
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M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
of the Greek language. I t is also true that we are entering
one of the most fascinating fields of linguistic research,
for, without doubt, "the development of the Greek article
is one of the most interesting things in human speech" (R.
754). Scholars have not accorded i t sufficient attention,
nor sought with proper diligence to apprehend the real
genius underlying its various uses. We do not claim that
the discussion here offered is conclusive, but hope that it
may prove suggestive of the directions in which an adequate
comprehension of the article lies. An exhaustive treatment
of the question would require more space than is covered
by this entire volume. One who wishes to pursue the study
further could not do better than consult the discussions by
Gildersleeve (Syntax, pp. 215-332) and Robertson (R. 754796).
The Origin,of the Article
145. The article was originally derived from the demonstrative pronoun 6, T), TO, and is clearly akin to the relative
pronoun 6s,
o. I t always retained some of the demonstrative force. This fact is evidenced by its frequent use
in the papyri purely as a demonstrative pronoun (e.g.,
P. Elph. 1:15). Robertson says, "Hence 6 is originally a
demonstrative that was gradually weakened to the article
or heightened to the relative" (R-S. 68).
TOV
yap
Kal
yevos
eVjueV.
For, indeed, of him are we the offering. Ac. 17:28.
See also: Rm. 8:24; Gal. 4:25.
Like the pronoun, the article ordinarily agrees with its noun
in gender, number, and case, though it sometimes agrees with an
implied gender (cf. Rev. 3 14; 6 apji]V, where 6 is governed by the
reference to Jesus. The Greek had no indefinite article, though
TIS and els sometimes approximated this idiom (cf. Lk. 10:25; Mt
8:19).
:
T H E
G R E E K .
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
137
The Function of the Article
146. The function of the article is to point out an object
or to draw attention to it. Its use with a word makes the
word stand out distinctly. "Whenever the article occurs
the object is certainly definite. When i t is not used the
object may or may not be" (R. 756). The use of prepositions, possessive and demonstrative pronouns, and the
genitive case also tends to make a word definite. At such
times, even if the article is not used, the object is already
distinctly indicated.
i. The basal function of the Greek article is to point out individual identity. It does more than mark "the object as one definitely
conceived" (W. 105), for a substantive in Greek is definite without
the article. In this respect the Greek substantive shares character
with the Latin. "The function of the article, which was originally
a demonstrative, and always has more or less demonstrative force,
is to fix a floating adjective or substantive" (Gildersleeve; op. cit.,
§514). Gildersleeve goes on to show that the Greek noun has an
intrinsic definiteness, an "implicit article." Therefore, the explicit
article does more than merely ascribe definiteness. Green is touching its genius when he says that it is used "to mark a specific object
of thought" (G. 170). It should be kept in mind that the Greek
article retained much of its original demonstrative significance.
"The vital thing is to see the matter from the Greek point of view
and find the reason for the use of the article" (R. 756).
v ii. A suggestion of the essential function of the article is to be seen
in the fact that it is used regularly with the pronouns OVTOS and eneZvos?
"inasmuch as they distinguish some individual from the mass" (W.
110). The stress on individual identity is here perfectly evident. It
may be further observed that in Homer "the article marks contrast
and not mere definiteness" (R. 755).
iii. The genius of the article is nowhere more clearly revealed than
in its use with infinitives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or even whole sentences (cf. Gal. 5:14). We have an advantage here in the fact that
we are not bothered with having to divest ourselves of any confusing
associations arising from our English idiom. There is no English usage
even remotely akin to this, for in English we never use an article with
anything other than a substantive, and then to mark definiteness.
138
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G R A M M A R
When we begin tofindthe article used with phrases, clauses, and entire
sentences, we are, so to speak, "swamped in Greek." The use of the
article with the phrase, clause, or sentence specifies in a particular way
the fact expressed: marks it out as a single identity. So in Mt. 13:4,
Kal ev rap airelpeiv avTOV, and as he sowed, points to the foci of that
particular sowing, while in Mt. 12:10, rots aafifiaviv depaireveiv,
to heal on the Sabbath, emphasizes the character of the deed (a Sabbath
healing). Note that the former infinitive has the article, while the
latter has not. The articular infinitive singles out the act as a particular occurrence, while the anarthrous infinitive employs the act as
descriptive.
iv. In Mt. 2:3 we have 6 (HaaiXevs Hpo)dr]s because the emphasis is
upon the fact of Herod's being king (Herod and no other), while in Lk.
1:5 ev rats rjixepats 'Upcbdov jSacriXecos, in the days of king Herod, defines a certain period of time (Herod-days), and jSacrtXeu 'Ayplirira
in Ac. 25:26 defines the rank of Agrippa (Agrippa, a king). In the first
example the purpose is identification, in the other two it is definition.
When identity is prominent, wefindthe article; and when quality or
character is stressed, the construction is anarthrous. Note that in all
three of the cases just given the noun is definite. In Ac. 7:30 TOV opovs
*Ziva means the wilderness of Mt. Sinai as distinguished from any other
wilderness, while in Gal. 4:24 opovs H/Lva means the Mt. Sinai sort of
covenant. In Rev. 14:1 TO 6pos 2ICOJ> points out the distinct position
of the Lamb, while in Heb. 12:22 7JL6)V bpei argues that the Christian
is not, like the Israelite of old, approaching a destiny like unto Mt.
Sinai, but is approaching a Mt. Zion destiny. We may read the passage,
"But ye have not come to a Mt. Sinai, but to a Mt. Zion" (cf. R. 760).
In Rom. 9:28 iroirjcrei Kvpios eirl TTJS yrjs, the Lord will work upon the
earth, identifies thefieldof divine operation, while Heb. 6:7 yr) ydprj
(
TTOiovcra TOV verbv, the earth which drinketh in the rain, characterizes
the ground which is made fruitful by the refreshing showers. Observe
that in both cases the noun is equally definite, and normally takes the
article in English (cf. ASV). In Mt. 14:3 TTJV yvvalKa ^iKlinrov
particularizes Herodias as the wife of Philip, while evos avdpds yvvf)
in 1 Tim. 5:9 means a one-husband sort of wife. Ordinarily English
renders the first the wife of Philip, and the second the wife of one hus-
band, treating the noun as definite in both instances. The difference is
particular specification in thefirstexample and a required qualification
m the second. Examples might be multiplied ad infinitum.
v. In determining the function of the Greek article, an exceedingly
important consideration is its demonstrative origin. The danger i$
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
139
that we will approach the matter from the wrong side; that we will
view it from the standpoint of the force of our modern English article
rather than consider it in the light of its own origin and history. We
must take our stand at Homer and look down toward the New Testament, and must not, from our present English idiom, look back toward
the New Testament. "In Homer 6, rj, TO is the commonest of the
demonstrative pronouns" (Milden: The Predicative Position in Greek,
p. 7), and constantly oscillates between pronoun and article. Thus in
Iliad 1:11, 12,
9
.. .TOV Xpvarjv rjTifJLrja aprjrijpa
'Arpeidrjs 6 yap rjXde doas eirl vrias-'kxai&v.
Atreides dishonored the priest Chryses, for he came to the swift ships of the
AchaeanSj TOV is used in thefirstclause as an article and 6 in the second
as a personal pronoun. In Iliad 1:125,
dXXd r d pev
TTOKIOOV
e^ewpadopev, r d SeSaarai,
but the spoil which we took from the cities, that has been divided, ra in
chefirstclause is used as a relative pronoun and in the second clause as a
demonstrative pronoun. "In the Iliad 6, rj, TO occurs as a pronoun
3000 times and as an article 218 times, or in a ratio of 14 to 1; in the
Odyssey it is used as a pronoun 2178 times and as an article 171 times,
or in a ratio of 13 to 1" (Milden: op. cit, p. 8). The prevalence of the
pronominal use b,rj, TO persists in the inscriptions, especially as a demonstrative. The relative use occurs frequently in the Lesbian, Thessalian, Arcado-Cyprian, and the older Boeotian inscriptions (cf. Buck'
Greek Dialects, pp. 92f.). Frequency as an article increases during
the classical period and, at the zenith of the Attic dominance, 6, rj, T6
is typically article and exceptionally pronoun. At this point the New
Testament is more classical than the papyri, which incline more to
ward the Homeric use (M. 81). Occasionally we find in the papyri,
the old Homeric forms rot, Tal (cf. P. El. 1:15), which is a result of
Western Greek influence (cf. Buck: op. cit, p. 92). Thus we see that
the article in the ^New Testament carries with it a pronounced heritage from its demonstrative origin, and one would make a serious
blunder to ignore this fact.
vi. The use of the articular and anarthrous constructions of 6e6s is
highly instructive. A study of the uses of the term as given in Moulton
and Geden's Concordance convinces one that without the article Beds
signifies divine essence, while with the article divine personality is
140
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G R A M M A R
chiefly in view. There is keen discernment in Webster's statement
published as far back as 1864:
Qebs occurs without the article (1) where the Deity is contrasted
with what is human, or with the universe as distinct from its Creator, or with the nature and acts of evil spirits, (2) when the essential attributes of Deity are spoken of, (3) when operations proceeding from God are appropriated to one of the three Divine Persons,
(4) when the Deity is spoken of as heathens would speak, or a Jew
who denied the existence of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. But
the article seems to be used (1) when the Deity is spoken of in the
Christian point of view, (2) when the First Person of the blessed
Trinity is specially designated, unless its insertion is unnecessary
by the addition of ircLTrjp, or some distinctive epithet (op. cit.,
p. 29).
This analysis is doubtless more exact and detailed than the facts will
support, but it certainly shows admirable discrimination. Surely when
Robertson says that debs, as to the article, "is treated like a proper
name and may have it or not have it" (R. 761), he does not mean to
intimate that the presence or absence of the article with debs has no
special significance. We construe him to mean that there is no definite
rule governing the use of the article with debs, so that sometimes the
writer's viewpoint is difficult to detect, which is entirely true. But in
the great majority of instances the reason for the distinction is clear.
The use of debs in Jn. 1:1 is a good example. Upbs rov deov points to
Christ's fellowship with the person of the Father; debs rjv 6 X670S emphasizes Christ's participation in the essence of the divine nature.
The former clearly applies to personality, while the latter applies to
character. This distinction is in line with the general force of the article. It may be seen even in the papyri, as 6 (poos eK cpoJTOS, debs
akqdivbs, 0 Light of light, true God, where the emphasis is clearly on
God's character rather than His personality (Milligan: op. cit, p. 134).
vii. The articular construction emphasizes identity; the anarthrous
construction emphasizes character. If the student will turn to Rom.
8: Iff. and apply this principle, he willfindhow illuminating it becomes
in actual interpretation. It is certain that one engaged in exegesis
cannot afford to disregard the article. The New Testament justifies
the observation of Buttmann that "the use of the article has everywhere
its positive reason" (Bt. 88).
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
141
The Regular Uses of the Article
147. I n harmony with its basal significance there are
certain constructions in which the article is normally used.
We employ the term "regular" here in the sense of ordinary,
and not as implying use in keeping with any fixed rules.
There are no "rules" for the use of the article in Greek, but
there is a fundamental principle underlying its significance
—as we have seen in the foregoing section—and this gives
rise to a normal usage. Deviation from this normal usage
may occur at the will of the writer.
(1) To Denote Individuals. Nearest to the real genius
of its function is the use of the article to point out a particular object.
fj fiaaCKeia TCOP ovpav&v.
The kingdom of Heaven. Mt. 3:3.
(2) To Denote Previous Reference.
The article may be
used to point out an object the identity of which is defined
by some previous reference made to i t in the context.
irbdev ovv e\eis TO vSo)p TO fcoz>;
Whence hast thou the living water? Jn. 4:11.
That is, "the living water" to which Christ had just made reference.
See also: Mt. 2:1, 7; Rev. 15:1, 6.
(3) With Abstract Nouns. Abstract nouns are ordinarily general in their character and application, and therefore indefinite. But in Greek, when it is desired to apply
the sense of an abstract noun in some special and distinct
way the article accompanies it. Thus aKrjdeia, truth, means
anything in general which presents a character of reality
and genuineness, but r) aKrjdeia as used in the New Testament means that which may be relied upon as really in
accord with God's revelation in Christ. The general sense
of the abstract noun is restricted, and given a particular
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application: the particular truth which is revealed i u
Christ.
lTl
rfj yap x^P
ceaooapivoL.
For by grace are ye saved. Eph. 2:8.
That is, grace in its particular application in securing man's salvation. It is not grace as an abstract attitude, nor yet the gracious
attitude of God in general; but "the grace" of God which operated
through the atonement in providing human redemption. Grace is
a quality which may characterize various objects; but here it is
particularized as an attribute of God, exercised in a particular realm.
See also: 1 Cor. 13:4; 15:21.
(4) With Proper Names. Frequently the article is used
with the name of some person whose identity is made clear
by the context, or assumed as well known by the reader.
Thus in the New Testament, which was written for those
already acquainted with the historical facts of the Christian
religion, when we find 6 'Irjaovs, we know immediately that
it is the particular Jesus who was the Messiah and Savior. In
Col. 4:11, when Paul refers to a member of the Colossian
congregation who bears the name of Jesus, he significantly
omits the article with 'ITJCTOUS and adds the explanatory
phrase 6 \eyopevos 'lovaros. The entire phrase means,
"a man named Jesus, but who is distinguished by being
called Justus." I t is a general custom with New Testament
writers to leave off the article when an explanatory phrase
is added to the name; as, SauXos Si, 6 Kal IlaCXos (Ac.
13:9); St/wo*/ 6 \eyopevos Uirpos (Mt. 10:2). I n such a
construction the emphasis is upon the name as a designation
rather than the identity of the individual indicated by the
name.
dpd£o) vpas rov 'Irjaovv ov IlauXos Ktipvcrcra.
I adjure you by Jesus whom Paul preaches. Ac. 19:13.
i. That is, "by the particular Jesus whom one by the name of Paul
preaches." The thought of definite identity belongs to Tr/crous, but
T H E
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not to IlaDXos. This is to put special stress upon the designation of
Jesus. See also: Ac. 15:19; 19:1.
ii. Gildersleeve says that proper names, "being in their nature particular do not require the explicit article, and when the article is used
with them, it retains much of its original demonstrative force" (op.
cit. 215). It is the particularizing force of the article which is employed in this idiom. 'Icoavrjs as a proper name may denote any
number of individuals, but 6 'looavrjs is a particular individual bearing
this name. Hence, when 6 'Icoavrjs is used, it means a particular John
assumed as known by the reader. This distinction seems in general to
lie at the basis of the idiom, though it is not invariably observed in
actual use. In fact, it is difficult to find a principle which will apply
with uniformity to this use of the article. Winer is undoubtedly correct in his opinion that "the use of the article with names of persons . . .
can hardly be reduced to rule" (W. 112). Moulton concurs by saying
that "scholarship has not yet solved completely the problem of the
article with proper names" (M. 83). Thus far we are compelled to
yield to Robertson's conclusion that "no satisfactory principle can be
laid down for the use or non-use of the article with proper names"
(R. 761). This is not to assume that the writer had no reason for
using the article with a proper name, or not using it, but that frequently
we are unable to discover his reason. It is precarious to suppose in any
instance that a writer is employing an idiom at random, though in rare
cases this is possibly true.
iii. It is instructive in dealing with this problem to observe the use of
the article with 'Irjaovs. The word occurs nine hundred and nine
times in the New Testament (according to Moulton and Geden: op. cit).
It is used three hundred andfifty-ninetimes without the article (WH).
In one hundred and seventy-five of these instances the emphasis is on
the Messianic significance of the name, which means "a deliverer";
forty-one times the emphasis is upon the name as a designation rather
than upon the identification of the person—approximating the force
of our expression "a man named"; ten times it is used in the vocative
without the article. In several instances these anarthrous uses are in
salutations, where the absence of the article is doubtless due to the
general custom in the New Testament and the papyri of not using
the article in salutations. But there are one hundred and thirty-three
times that 'Irjaovs occurs without the article, for which we canfindno
evident reason. Though this is butfifteenper cent of the occurrences
of the word and thirty-four per cent of the anarthrous constructions,
yet it is sufficient to prove that we are as yet unable to lay down any
}
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rigid principle according to which we can explain the use of the article
with proper names. The anarthrous constructions of 'Irjaovs prevail
in John, Hebrews, and Revelation. In John they are mostly in the
phrases "Jesus said" or "Jesus answered." Most of the anarthrous
constructions in Luke are in the expression "Jesus said." This is
probably in line with the custom of not using the article in stereotyped
or technicalized expressions.
(5) The Generic Use. This is the use of the article with
a noun which is to be regarded as representing a class or
group. Gildersleeve says, "The principle of the generic
article is the selection of a representative or normal individual" (op. cit., 255). I t comprehends a class as a single
whole and sets it off in distinction from all other classes. I t
individualizes a group rather than a single object, and points
out that group as identified by certain characteristics.
at dXco7T€fC€s <po)\eoi)s exovaiv.
Foxes have dens. Mt. 8:20.
The thought of the entire passage here is that a thing even as
lowly and insignificant as the fox has shelter of a kind, but the
Son of man is humbled even beneath that lowly estate. The meaning is, "The foxes, mere little beasts though they are, have dens."
Thus the noun is used to represent a class rather than a group
of individuals. See also: Lk. 10:7; 1 Tim. 3:2.
(6) With Pronouns.
Since a pronoun ordinarily conveys
the force of identification, it is quite naturally associated
with the article. Thus the article regularly occurs when
the pronouns oSros and eiceivos are used with a noun (Lk.
14:30). I t is used with possessive pronouns except when
they are predicate (Mt. 7:22; Jn. 17:10). I t is ordinarily
used with the genitive of the personal pronoun (Mt. 26:25;
cf. M t . 27:46). Its use with avrbs has been discussed
sufficiently under pronouns. The use of the article with
iras presents important variations. I n the singular, anarthrous IT as means every (Rom. 3:19). ' 0 re as means the
whole (Gal. 5:14) and was 6 means all with a substantive
T H E
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145
(Ac. 10:2), though it is ordinarily to be rendered every with
a participle (Mt. 5:28). The plural rravres is rare without the
article, though i t is found occasionally meaning all (Eph.
3:8). 01 iravres likewise means all, as does iravres ol, but in
the former the collective idea is stronger (Mt. 1:17). These
are the ordinary changes in the meaning of rras as affected
by the article, though variations from the common practice
are often indicated by the context (cf. R. 771ff.).
(7) With Other Parts of Speech.
I n keeping with the
genius of the article, whenever a sense of individuality is
sought in any form of expression, the article is used. I n such
a construction, the article functions as a sort of bracket, to
gather the expression into a single whole and point it out in
a particular way. Thus in Lk. 5:10, airb rov vvv signifies
more than would be expressed by from the present. I t means
from the present as distinguished within itself—as defined by
a new set of circumstances: the entrance of Jesus into the experience of those addressed. I t is not just from now, but
from the now defined and particularized by a new relation
to Jesus. I n Lk. 19:48 Kal ovx yvpiaKov TO ri iroLrjffoiaiv,
they could not find what they might do, means, freely rendered,
they could not find the effective course which they might take.
(The chief priests and scribes were seeking to destroy Jesus,
and found it difficult because of his popularity.) I t is not
that they could not find anything to do, but they could not
find the particular thing which would accomplish their
purpose. This principle may apply to adjectives, adverbs,
participles, infinitives, prepositional phrases, clauses, and
even entire sentences.
TO el bvvj}, iravra
bvvara
Top
iricrrevovri.
"If thou canst!" All things are possible to him who believes. Mk. 9:23
i. Freely rendered TO el bvvjj means beware of the lack of faith implied
in that remark, "If thou canst.' See also Mt. 5:3, 4; Ac. 15:11; Rom.
7
13:10; Gal. 5:14; Heb. 13:24.
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ii. Gildersleeve undoubtedly misses the point here when he speaks of
the article as "substantivizing these various parts of speech; that is,
altering their nature in the direction of the noun" (op. cit, 262f).
He is here influenced by the almost inseparable association of the
article with the noun in English idiom. But such is not true of the
Greek article. It is of a nature which enables it to lend itself naturally
to the essential force of these various parts of speech. In Mk. 1:24,
6 ayios is not a substantive construction by reason of the article: the
nature of the adjective itself makes it such (cf. § 131,(2), a). We have
already seen the reason for the article in TOV VVV (Lk. 5:10); it does
not change the adverb into a noun, but defines more particularly its
reference. Since participles and infinitives are of their own nature
verbal nouns, the article in no way affects their substantive character.
In such phrases as ol fzer avrov, those with him, the article, instead of
modifying the prepositional phrase in the direction of a substantive, is
itself returning to its original demonstrative force. In Lk. 11:3,
didov v)ixiv T6 Kad' fjfxepav is more difficult for English eyes to per-*
ceive. In this case TO is an adverbial accusative of reference. Give us our
ewiovaiop bread with reference to that which comes in the regular order
7
of the day, i.e., our need of physical sustenance. So it is again the demon-
strative force of the article blending with the unaltered significance of
the prepositional phrase. In clauses and sentences it is the particularizing function of the article which is employed. In Rom. 8:26 we
have a clear example: TO yap rl irpoaevl;6)fxeda Kadb del OVK o'ldafxev,
we know not what we should pray for as we ought. Paul's point here is:
"that problem of praying as we ought we do not know about." The
article converges the clause into a single point and presents the problem
as a particular issue, morerigidlydefined than any device of English can
render it. This is what we might call "the bracket force" of the article.
The fact that wefinddifficulty in translating these constructions without using substantival expressions in English is due to the character of
the English idiom and not of the Greek. It is vitally important in
exegesis to see the matter from the Greek point of view. Compare
further Rom. 1.26; 4:16.
The Special Uses of the Article
148. Some phenomena presented by the article are but
remotely related to its basal function, and consequently
•nay be treated as special uses.
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147
T E S T A M E N T
(1) With Nouns Connected by Kal. The following rule
by Granville Sharp of a century back still proves to be
true: "When the copulative Kal connects two nouns of the
same case, if the article 6 or any of its cases precedes the
first of the said nouns or participles, and is not repeated
before the second noun or participle, the latter always
relates to the same person that is expressed or described by
the first noun or participle; i.e., i t denotes a farther description of the first-named person."
TOV Kvplov Kal aoorrjpos 'Irjaov Xpiarov.
Of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. 2 Pt. 2:20.
The article here indicates that Jesus is both Lord and Savior. So in
2 Pt. 1:1 TOV deov rjp&v Kal aoorrjpos 'Irjaov Xpiarov means that
Jesus is our God and Savior. After the same manner Tit. 2:13, TOV
peyaKov deov Kal aoorrjpos 'Irjaov Xpiarov, asserts that Jesus is the
great God and Savior.
(2) As a Pronoun. The original pronominal nature of
the article survives in many of its uses. I n such a construction i t is not strictly speaking an article, but is restored to its use as a pronoun. This is a standard Attic
characteristic. Gildersleeve, under what he terms the "Substantive Use" of the article, gives a multitude of examples
from a number of classical authors (op. cit., 216ff.).
a. The article may sometimes have the full force of a
demonstrative pronoun.
ol rov Xpiarov.
Those who belong to Christ. Gal. 5:24.
See also: Mt. 13:29; Heb. 13:24.
b. The article may be used with pev and 5e as an alters
native pronoun.
ol pev exXeuafop, ol 8e elwov, aKovaopeda
crov.
Some began mocking, but others said, "We will hear thee. ' Ac 17:32.
See also: Mt. 21:35; Ac. 14:4.
3
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c. The article is frequently used practically as a posses*
sive pronoun.
eKrelvas
rfjv
a
x&P
V^aro
avrov.
Stretching forth his hand he touched him. Mt. 8:3.
See also: Ac. 5:19; 2 Cor. 8:18.
This use of the article is abundant in the papyri, as P. Oxy. 294:31.
TOV irarepa, Dorion our father, and P. Oxy. 292:6: 'Ep/uaz>
TOV adeX<p6v, Hermias my brother. It is not, however, distinctively
Koin6, but is a typical classical Greek usage; e.g., Thuc. 1:69. oi) rjj
ftvvaixei dXXd rfj fxeWrjcrei anvvbfievoL, defending yourselves, not
Ao)plo)va
by your power but by your threatening aspect.
y
d. The repetition of the article with some word or phrase
which modifies the noun is a device employed for emphasis,
in which the article functions with more than its ordinary
force, and appears as a mild relative pronoun.
6 Xoyos 6
TOV
aTavpov.
The word which is of the cross. 1 Cor. 1:18.
See also: Mt. 26:28; 1 Tim. 3:13.
This use of the article is to lend greater emphasis and prominence
to a clause which in some particular way defines. It is a prevalent
construction in Attic Greek. The emphasis is really a matter of contrast. This contrast may be specific, as in Rom. 2:14, eOvrj r d fxr)
vbixov exovra, where Gentiles who have no law are contrasted with
Jews who do have law; or it may be general, as in Ac. 20:21, irio~Tiv
rr)v eis TOV Kvpiov rfficov 'Irjaovv Xpiarbv
(TR), where faith which
is in our Lord Jesus Christ is contrasted with any other sort of faith.
When the article is not used, no contrast is intended (cf. 2 Ths. 3:14).
(3) With the Subject in a Copulative Sentence. The article
sometimes distinguishes the subject from the predicate in a
copulative sentence.
I n Xenophon's Anabasis, 1:4:6,
eixirdpiov 5' r\v TO %coptoj>, and the place was a market, we
have a parallel case to what we have in John 1:1, Kal debs
r)v 6 X670S, and the word was deity. The article points out
the subject in these examples. Neither was the place the
T H E
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T E S T A M E N T
149
only market, nor was the word all of God, as i t would mean if
the article were also used with debs. As i t stands, the other
persons of the Trinity may be implied in debs.
paprvs
yap pov ecrnv 6 debs.
God is my witness. Rom. 1:9.
See also: Mk. 6:35; 1 Jn. 4:8.
In a convertible proposition, where the subject and predicate are
regarded as interchangeable, both have the article (cf. 1 Cor. 15:56).
If the subject is a proper name, or a personal or demonstrative pronoun, it may be anarthrous while the predicate has the article
(cf. Jn. 6:51; Ac. 4:11; 1 Jn. 4:15).
The Absence of the Article
149. Sometimes with a noun which the context proves to
be definite the article is not used. This places stress upon
the qualitative aspect of the noun rather than its mere
identity. An object of thought may be conceived of from
two points of view: as to identity or quality.
To convey
the first point of view the Greek uses the article; for the
second the anarthrous construction is used. Also in expressions which have become technicalized or stereotyped, and
in salutations, the article is not used. This is due to the
tendency toward abbreviation of frequent or customary
phraseology, such as our expressions "at home," "down
town," etc.
rovro
yap
vpiv \eyopev
ev
\byop
Kvpiov.
For this we say to you by the word of the Lord. 1 Ths. 4:15.
i. That is, by a word of that character which comes from one
who is a Lord. It is the divine authority of the teaching which is
being stressed. See also: Jn. 4:27; 1 Ths. 5:5; Heb. 6:7.
ii. We adopt Robertson's conclusion that it is more accurate to
speak of the "absence" of the article than the "omission" of the
article. When we use "omission," we imply "that the article ought
to be present" (R. 790), while as a matter of fact it ought not to
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be, because the writer was seeking to convey an idea which the
use of the article would not have properly represented. To say
"omitted" is too much like measuring Greek idiom with an English yardstick. Winer (W. 119) discusses the "omission of the
article," and falls into the common error of supposing that where*
the article is not used it is merely because the substantive is sufficiently definite without it. Rigid caution should be exercised in
viewing the article from its Greek character and history and not
from English usage. Buttmann is making for the point when he
says that "the omission of the article is very common in cases where
we employ it," but utterly ruins matters by adding, "and where in
strictness it ought to stand in Greek also" (Bt. 88). By what standard of judgment are we to conclude that "it ought to stand in
Greek?" The ancient Greek writer is arraigned at the bar of modern German and English idiom!
in. It is instructive to observe that the anarthrous noun occurs in
Many prepositional phrases. This is no mere accident, for there are no
Occidents in the growth of a language: each idiom has its reason. Nor
fs it because the noun is sufficiently definite without the article, which
is true, as Greek nouns have an intrinsic definiteness. But that is
not the reason for not using the article. A prepositional phrase usually
implies some idea of quality or kind. ' E ^ apxft in Jn. 1:1 characterizes
Christ as preexistent, thus defining the nature of his person. When,
in Col. 2:20, Paul says, "If ye died with Christ from the rudiments of
the world, why, as if living ev Koapcp, in the world, do ye subject yourselves to decrees?" it is clear that ev Kbapco defines a kind of life:
an "in-the-world life." So we might present innumerable instances in
proof of the fact that in a prepositional phrase it is the qualitative
aspect of the noun which is prominent, rather than its identity (cf.
ev vbpoo, Rom. 2:23; irpbs evrpo7rrjv
1 Cor. 15:34; /caret deov, Eph.
4:24). Anarthrous nouns without a preposition present the same
stress upon character or quality (cf. reKva <po)rbs, Eph. 5:9).
iv. Robertson gives but slight attention to this phase of the
question, though he does say that qualitative force "is best brought
out in anarthrous nouns" (R. 794). Moulton recognizes the importance of this point in saying that "for exegesis, there are few
Df the finer points of Greek which need more constant attention
ihan this omission of the article when the writer would lay stress
on the quality or character of the object" (M. 83).
v. It is important to bear in mind that we cannot determine the
English translation by the presence or absence of the article in
9
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151
Greek. Sometimes we should use the article in the English translation when it is not used in the Greek, and sometimes the idiomatic
force of the Greek article may best be rendered by an anarthrous
noun in English. The best guide in this matter is well-informed
common sense, exercised in keeping with the principle of exegesis
proposed long ago by William Webster: "The reason then for the
insertion or omission of the article will not be evident, unless we
can look at the matter from the same point of view as that in which
the writer regarded it" (op. cit., p. 27).
The Position o£ the Article
150. The use of the article with the adjective, participle,
and demonstrative pronoun calls for special attention.
(1) When the article precedes the adjective it is said to
be in the attributive position.
6rav TO aKaOaprov irvevixa ei;e\dri.
When the unclean spirit came forth. Mt. 12:43.
See also: Mk. 12:37; Jn. 10:11.
The attributive relation is not essentially affected by the article,
but arises from other considerations which were discussed under
adjectives (§131, (1)). But when the article is used with an
adjective in the attributive relation it does occupy regularly the
attributive position. Sometimes the attributive relation must be
discovered from the context, there being no article to indicate it
(Eph. 2:10). We must remember that the use or absence of the
article in an attributive construction "depends on the point of
view of the speaker or writer" (R. 787), but also that the author
had a reason for the form used, hence it is not to be regarded as
a matter of accident. Entire phrases or clauses are sometimes found
in the attributive position (1 Pt. 1:11).
(2) When the article does not precede the adjective it is
called the predicate position.
ov KaXbv TO Kavxwa
VJICJV.
Your glorying is not good. 1 Cor. 5:6.
See also: Heb. 7:24; 1 Pt. 4:8.
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i. A noun in the predicate relation never takes an article unless there
is some very special reason for it. It is obvious that a predicate noun
ordinarily emphasizes quality, and should, therefore, naturally be
anarthrous. In the above example Kahbv manifestly describes the
kind of boasting. When the article is used with the predicate, it marks
its essential identity with the subject. Thus rj ct/xaprta evTiv r)
avofxia (1 Jn. 3:4) makes sin identical with lawlessness. The use of
the article with the noun but not with the adjective determines the
adjective as predicate, though the idiom may seem awkward in English
(cf. 1 Cor. 11:5).
ii. Care should be taken to distinguish between the attributive
and predicate relation, which has to do with the essential connection
of the adjective with its context, and the attributive and predicate
position, which has to do with the use of the article with the
adjective.
(3) When the article is repeated with an adjective which
follows the noun, i t distributes the emphasis equally between the adjective and noun, and causes the adjective to
function as an appositive. Here the particularizing force
of the article is operative.
eyco elfxi 6 iroiixr)v 6 KCL\6S.
I am the good shepherd. Jn. 10:11.
i. The real idiomatic force of this construction is, / am the
shepherd—or, more particularly defined—the good one. See also:
Mt. 17:5; Heb. 13:20.
ii. Robertson explains the significance of the attributive's being
placed before or after the noun. Before the noun the attributive
receives primary emphasis, while following the noun the emphasis
is more equally distributed, the adjective being "added as a sort
of climax in apposition with a separate article" (R. 776). Sometimes
when the noun is indefinite and the attributive defines it in some
particular relation, the noun is anarthrous while the attribute has
an article. Frequently other attributes besides the adjective follow the noun with the article repeated (cf. 1 Cor. 1:18; Mk. 4:31).
though such attributes may follow the noun without the article.
The article may occur in the attributive position when it is transfeted by a relative pronoun in English (Rom. 8:39).
THE
GREEK. N E W T E S T A M E N T
153
iii. When several adjectives modify one noun, if differentiation
is emphasized, the article is repeated with each adjective (Rev.
1:17); but if simple qualification is intended, only one article is
used (Rev. 3:17). When the article is repeated in the enumeration
of a series of items, it blends them into a single object of consideration (Eph. 2:20). In this matter, however, we need to note the
observation of Gildersleeve: "Theoretically the repetition compels
a separate consideration while the omission suggests unity. Practically the Greeks were almost as loose as we are prone to be, and
a sharp difference cannot be made" (op. cit., 277).
iv. The repetition of the article with a modifying phrase or
clause for emphasis, with the approximate force of a relative pronoun, has been mentioned above. It is closely akin to the usage
under consideration here.
(4) When a participle has the article, i t is thereby attached to the noun as a qualifying phrase, as a sort of
attribute; without the article the participle functions as a
predicate. Thus 6 avOpuwos o eXd&v els rr)v TTOXLP means
the man who came into the city, but 6 avdpwrros eKO&v els
TT]V
TTOKIV
means the man having come into the city. The
attributive participle may come between the article and
noun, just as the attributive adjective. The demonstrative
force of the article lends itself naturally to the participle,
and hence we find the article with the participle more often
than with ordinary adjectives.
dXXct \a\ovp,ev Oeov ao<piav rfjv airoKeKpvixfJL&rjv.
But we speak a wisdom of God which is hidden. 1 Cor. 2:7.
See also: Ac. 9:39; 1 Ths. 2:15.
(5) Demonstrative pronouns are regularly placed in th6
predicate position.
OVTOS
6 avdpcoTos fjp^aro oitcohoixeiv.
This man began to build. Lk. 14:30.
See also: Jn. 4:53; 2 Cor. 7:8.
DIVISION I I
T H E VERB
151. The verb is that part of the sentence which affirms
action or state of being. The nature of the verb presents
two varieties. The action described in the verb may require
an object to complete its meaning. Thus merely to say,
"He built," creates a sense of suspense: we instinctively
wait to learn what he built. When we say, "He built a
house," the sense is complete. Such a verb is called a
transitive verb. Other verbs do not require an object to
complete their meaning. Thus, "he ran" makes complete
sense. These are called intransitive verbs.
Robertson raises timely warning against confusing the nature of a
verb with its voice. Transitiveness or intransitiveness belongs to the
very character of the verbal idea, while voice is determined by relations
to the context, especially the subject. Transitiveness is discerned by
the relation of the verb to an object, but is determined by the nature of
the verbal idea. "Transitive verbs belong to any voice, and intransitive verbs to any voice" (R. 330). "That point concerns the
verb itself, not the voice" (R. 797). Cf. eyeipo in Mt. 10:8 and 26:46.
This is not to be construed, however, as meaning that the verb is fixed
as transitive or intransitive by its root meaning. Transitiveness consists in the application of the root meaning, its use in a particular expression. Thus (3\eira) in Jn. 9:25 is intransitive, rv<p\os &v apri
jSAexotf, though having been blind, now I see; but in Mk. 8:24 it is transi-
tive, tSXeiro) rovs avdptOTVOVS, I see men. Even the character of the
verbal idea may be affected by the context, and the change of voice.
The distinction to be noted is that transitiveness lies essentially in
the character of the verbal idea in a given sense, while voice is determined entirely by the context. Hence transitiveness may change with
change of voice, but not necessarily so. Verbs which are transitive in
the active voice may be also transitive in the middle, or they may
become intransitive. Only transitive verbs are normally used in
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155
the passive, though in some instances wefindintransitive verbs in the
passive (cf. Mk. 10:45; Heb. 11:2). Normally the passive voice makes
•a verb intransitive, but a verb which takes two objects may retain one
of them when used in the passive (cf. Ac. 18:25; Gal. 2:7). Verbs
which are ordinarily transitive may sometimes be used intransitively
without any change in voice; as ayco, I lead; present imperative, aye,
go. This is especially true of €%co (/ have), in certain idiomatic expressions with adverbs; as Mt. 4:24, rot's KaKOOS ixovras, those who are
ill (literally, those having badly).
I . V O I C E , P E R S O N , AND N U M B E R
References: R. 797-820; R-& 133-135; M. 152-163.
152. Voice is that property of the verbal idea which indicates how the subject is related to the action. We have
already seen that i t is to be distinguished from the matter
of transitiveness, which is discerned by the relation of the
verbal idea to the object. A comparison of "he killed"
with "he was killed" fixes attention upon a variation with
reference to the subject, while "he ran" compared with "he
ran a race" fixes attention upon the object. So we see that
voice is concerned with the relation of the action to the
subject (cf. R. 798).
The variations in use of a particular voice must usually be discerned
by examination of the entire context. Thus wefindthe need of translating Gvverldeivro
in Jn. 9:22, they had agreed among themselves
(reciprocal middle), by inferring from a wide study of the context that
the Jews were holding recurrent conferences in their effort to suppress
the work of Jesus. It is important for the student to keep in mind that
voice is determined, and its varying shades of meaning discerned, by
contextual relations. The usage in respect to voice is practically the
same in Koine* Greek that it was in the classical Attic.
The Active Voice
153. The active voice describes the subject as producing
the action or representing the state expressed by the verbal
idea. I t represents the simplest verb use. The thought of
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a verb as expressing something acting is obviously the
verbal significance which lies at the surface. This does
not necessarily mean, however, that the active was the
original voice. There are reasons which lead some grammarians to regard the middle as the oldest voice. But as
a matter of fact, there is no way of knowing with final
certainty.
(1) The Simple Active. The ordinary significance of
the active voice is to describe the subject as directly performing the act affirmed.
6 Se Beds yiv&aneL ras KapSias vp&v.
But God knows your hearts. Lk. 16:15.
See also: Lk. 22:54; 1 Cor. 3:6.
Some variations of the simple active are the active with reflexives
(Mk. 15:30) and the impersonal active (1 Pt. 2:6).
(2) The Causative Active. The subject is sometimes
represented as related to the action through intermediary
means.
TOP rjXiov avrov
avareWei.
He causes his sun to shine. Mt. 5:45.
See also: 1 Cor. 3:6; 8:13.
This idiom is a necessary device of intelligent expression, and is,
therefore, in some form common to all languages. In Hebrew we
have approximately the same idiom represented in the Hiphil stem,
We have it in English in such expressions as "to blow a horn," "to
shine a light," "to run a horse," etc. It generally arises from the
use of an intransitive verb in a transitive sense.
The Middle Voice
154. Here we approach one of the most distinctive and
peculiar phenomena of the Greek language. I t is impossible to describe it, adequately or accurately, in terms of
English idiom, for English knows no approximate parallel
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157
I t is imperative that the student abandon, as far as possible, the English point of view and comprehend that of
the Greek. We can never hope to express exactly the Greek
middle voice by an English translation, but must seek to
acclimate ourselves to its mental atmosphere, and feel its
force, though we cannot express it precisely.
155. The middle voice is that use of the verb which describes the subject as participating in the results of the
action. Thus fiovXeva) means I counsel, but (3ov\evofxai
means I take counsel: the subject acting with a view to
participation in the outcome. While the active voice
emphasizes the action, the middle stresses the agent. I t ,
in some way, relates the action more intimately to the
subject. Just how the action is thus related is not indicated by the middle voice, but must be detected from the
context or the character of the verbal idea (cf. R. 804).
i. So "the middle is, strictly speaking, never used without some
sort of reference to the subject'" (Bt. 193). It "refers back the
action to the acting subject'* (W. 252), or "calls special attention
to the subject" (R. 804). "The essence of the middle therefore
lies in its calling attention to the agent as in some way clearly
concerned with the action" (M. 153). All these opinions represent
from various angles the fundamental significance of the middle
voice. It is scarcely possible to formulate a single definition of
its basal function which could be applied to all its actual occurrences. No single principle can be found to cover all the cases,
for "the sphere of the middle was . . . not at all sharply delimited"
(M. 158). It is an appropriate warning that Robertson gives in
saying that "we must not fall into the error of explaining the
force of the middle by the English translation" (R. 804). The
importance of the matter in interpretation may be seen by the
statement of Blass that "on the whole the conclusion arrived at
must be that the New Testament writers were perfectly capable
of preserving the distinction between active and middle" (Bl. 186).
ii. "The parent Indogermanic language had two voices—the active
and the middle" (Wr. 250). The endings of the middle would
suggest that it was the original verb form. Moulton says, "But
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nothing is more certain than that the parent language of our family
possessed no Passive, but only Active and Middle, the lattei
originally equal with the former in prominence, though unrepresented now in any language, save by forms which have lost all
distinction of meaning" (M. 152). The Sanskrit had only active
and middle forms, save in the present, where there was a distinctive
passive conjugation. The active is termed by Hindu grammarians
parasmai padan, "word for another"; the middle, atmane padan,
"word for one's self." This terminology is vividly suggestive of the
basal distinction between the two voices.
156. Any analysis of the uses of the middle is of necessity more or less arbitrary. No rigid lines of distinction
can in reality be drawn. Distinctions there are, however,
and the following analysis is proposed as indicating the
main lines of difference. But the student should seek to
master the fundamental significance of the middle voice,
then interpret each use in the light of its own context and
the meaning of the verb.
(1) The Direct Middle. The typical use of the middle
Voice is to refer the results of the action directly to the
agent, with a reflexive force.
Kal awekO&v airrjyZaroS
And having gone forth, he hanged himself. Mt. 27:5.
See also: Mk. 7:4; 1 Cor. 16:16.
"The reflexive sense of the middle is comparatively rare; reflexive
pronouns being usually employed with the active" (G. 292). This
results from what is termed in comparative philology the "analytic
tendency" in language. It has not, however, resulted in obliterating
this use of the middle voice, for it still persists in Modern Greek,
though sometimes in combination with a reflexive pronoun or its
equivalent (T. 114).
(2) The Indirect Middle.
Sometimes the middle lays
stress upon the agent as producing the action rather than
participating in its results. This use signifies that the
action is closely related to the subject, or is related to the
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subject in some special and distinctive sense which the
writer wishes to emphasize. The reason for the emphasis
is to be inferred from the context.
aiojviav
\vTpoxriv
evparo.
He himself secured eternal redemption.
Heb. 9:12.
See also: 1 Cor. 13:8; 2 Tim. 4:15.
i. This usage is sometimes called the intensive middle, which
is suggestive but hardly adequate. It roughly corresponds to the
Piel stem in Hebrew, but is more varied and extended in its use.
Moulton calls it the "dynamic" middle, and reckons that it "emphasized the part taken by the subject in the action of the verb"—
a very pertinent suggestion. He recognizes that the variations of
this use are not easy to define, but is surely overestimating the
difficulties when he says that "the category will include a number
of verbs in which it is useless to exercise our ingenuity on interpreting the middle, for the development never progressed beyond
the rudimentary stage" (M. 158). The student should employ all
the knowledge he has and all the linguistic sense at his command
in seeking an intelligent explanation of any and every occurrence
of the middle. It must be admitted, however, that the use of the
middle here under consideration is widely varied, and does not
submit to definition by fixed and rigid lines of distinction.
ii. The intensive significance of the middle may be seen in 2 Tim. 4:15,
ov Kal av (pvKaaaov, of whom do thou also beware. Here Paul is warning
Timothy against Alexander the coppersmith, who had done the Apostle
serious damage. The sense of the passage is about this: "Since he has
treated me so despitefully, you had better take heed for yourself."
The Greeks employed the middle where we must resort to italics. A
striking and instructive example appears in Ac. 20:24, &XX' ovSevos
Xbyov iroiovixai rr)v ipvxtiv TipXav ifxavTCO, but I do not make my
life of any account as dear to myself. Here the significance of the middle
TTOLOVfiai seems to be, " I do not make, as far as I am personally concerned, my life dear unto myself." Paul does not at all mean to say
that he has no interest in living, but means that he considers his divinely
appointed ministry as overshadowing any selfish interest which it would
be possible for him to have in life. The middle indicates that, however
others may regard the matter, this is his conclusion. Here the middle
is not only intensive, but antithetical in force (cf. alreiadai - alreiTe airelade
in Jas. 4:2,
3).
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iii. This use of the middle may give to a verb an individualistic of
specific application. Thus crrpareveiv means to conduct a military
campaign, while arpareveadai
means to be a soldier (2 Tim. 2:4);
rroXireveiv means to live in a free state, while TroKireveadai means
to take active part in the affairs of a state—to be a citizen (Phs. 1:27).
iv. This is the most extensive use of the middle, and a use
which requires and rewards the closest study. Robertson distinguishes between the indirect middle and the intensive use, of
which examples were given above, and employs with Moulton the
term "dynamic" for designating a separate variation. This undoubtedly conduces to greater analytic accuracy, but introduces a
distinction of which the line of demarcation is vague and confusing
to the average student. Since the intensive use unquestionably
shares in the basal function of the indirect middle, we conclude that
it is best to take care of it by an extension in the definition of
the indirect middle, for the "dynamic" middle is admitted to be
merely a "drip-pan middle," which is "put at the bottom to catch
the drippings of the other uses" (Gildersleeve: cit. R. 811). Our
policy here is to abandon the drip-pan, and employ the indirect
middle to catch the drippings, since we find it so clearly adapted
to that purpose.
(3) The Permissive Middle. The middle may represent
the agent as voluntarily yielding himself to the results of
the action, or seeking to secure the results of the action in
his own interest.
8ia ri obyl paKkov afiiKeiaOe;
Why not rather let yourselves be wronged?
I Cor. 6:7.
See also: Lk. 2:4, 5; 1 Cor. 11:6; Ac. 15:1.
This idiom appears as far back as Homer; e.g., \vaopevos Ovyarpa,
to get his daughter set free. An example from the papyri may be seen in
Tb. P. 35, iavrdv alriaatrai,
he will get himself accused.
(4) The Reciprocal Middle.
A middle verb with a
plural subject may represent an interchange of effort between the acting agents.
avveredeivro ol 'lovdaloi.
The Jews had agreed with one another. Jn. 9:22.
See also: Mt. 26:4; Lk. 14:7.
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161
i. Occasionally we find the middle accompanied by a pronoun
(Ac. 7:58). Robertson calls this the redundant middle. "Gildersleeve sees in this idiom the effort to bring out more clearly the
reflexive force of the middle" (R. 811). Since the reflexive came in
to aid in the very function performed by the middle, this idiom is
not unnatural. The reflexive pronoun and passive voice have
gradually encroached upon the middle—the reflexive upon its functions and the passive its forms. But, though the middle in Modern
Greek has no distinctive conjugation, yet its functions survive and
are expressed in forms identical with the passive. In this way it
serves in Modern Greek in deponents, as reflexive, reciprocal, and
causative (T. 113-115).
ii. Since the middle and passive have in several tenses forms
alike, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. The
matter must be determined by the context and the meaning of the
verbal idea (cf. Mt. 11:5).
The Passive Voice
157. The passive voice is that use of the verb which
denotes the subject as receiving the action. Its variations
in use are determined by the medium through which the
subject receives the action. Upon this basis we may construct the following analysis.
(1) The Passive With Direct Agent When the original
agent which produces the action signified in the passive
verb is expressed, the regular construction is vrrb with the
ablative.
KarTjyopeLTai bird rcov 'Iovbaia)i>.
He was accused by the Jews. Ac. 22:30.
See also: Mt. 10:22; Rom. 3:21.
Personal agent may also, though rarely, be expressed by the instrumental case (cf. Lk. 23:15). "Yet this use in Greek is by no means
so general that we can assume that it can be substituted indifferently in
any case and every case for vrrb with the Genitive" (Bt. 187). It is
only where the personal idea is remote and instrumentality is prominent; as above (Lk. 23:15), it is an act of guilt which is contemplated
rather than a personal achievement. For use in his Greek compost
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tion the student had best adopt the regular construction,
ablative.
VTTO
with the
(2) The Passive With Intermediate Agent. When the
agent is the medium through which the original cause has
effected the action expressed by the passive verb, the regu*
lar construction is 8ia with the genitive.
rrkvra SV avrov eyivero.
All things were made through him. Jn. 1:3.
Here God the Father is thought of as the original cause of crea*
tion, and the Xoyos as the intermediate agent. See also: Mt. 1:22;
Gal. 3:18.
(3) The Passive With Impersonal Agent. I f the agent
through which the action of the passive verb is performed
is impersonal, i t is ordinarily expressed by the instrumental
case, independently or with ev.
Xaptrt eare aeaooajxevoi.
By grace ye are saved. Eph. 2:8.
See also: Mt. 3:12; Ac. 12:2.
I. Agency is also sometimes expressed by awb (2 Cor. 3:18); en,
(Gal. 4:4); and 7rapa (Jn. 17:7).
ii. The passive arose out of the middle, and the line of demarcation
between them was never absolutely fixed. There was a slight margin
in which they overlapped and presented a common ground. Thus in
Ac. 22:16, pairriaaL is middle and means, get yourself baptized. But
as to practical significance, how much difference is there between that
rendering and be baptized, the way it is usually rendered? We must
beware not to seek a hard and fast English equivalent to be employed
persistently in the translation of either of these voices (cf. M. 162). As
the passive pressed the middle off the field there remained a common
ground of interchanging functions between them. In fact, as we have
observed above, the functions of the middle voice stillflourishin the
Greek language.
iii. When verbs which take two accusatives are put in the passive,
and the accusative of the person becomes the subject, the accusative of the thing is ordinarily retained (2 Ths. 2:15). Where the
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active has a direct object in the accusative and an indirect object
in the dative, the dative usually becomes the subject and the
direct object is retained as an accusative of reference (Rom. 3:2).
Irregularities in Voice
158. There are two principal ways in which many Greek
verbs depart from normal usage in the matter of voice.
(1) Defective verbs are those not used in all three voices,
or not in every tense of one or more voices. This arose in
the natural processes of linguistic development, for the
root meaning of a verb would yield itself more readily to
usage in one voice than in another, which would cause the
less natural forms to become obsolete, and be replaced by
another verb root better adapted to use in that voice and
tense. Thus epxo/xat must have had a primitive active
form epxojut, but for some reason the Greek mind found
more satisfactory expression in the middle form, so the
active was lost. But when they used the aorist, a synonym
of epxoixi yielded itself better to the desired mode of expression, the verb 'foBopi, aorist rfkdov. Thus the present
form of this verb became obsolete. By some such process
as this the defective verbs probably originated. To this
class belong the great majority of what we call the irregular
verbs.
(2) Deponent verbs are those with middle or passive
form, but active meaning. I t is obvious that the same
verb may be both defective and deponent. The distinctive
fact about the deponent verb is that its voice form is different from its voice function. Thus dexofxai means I
receive, and not I receive myself or I am received.
i. It will be found that some grammarians speak of deponents as
passive in form, while others call them middle. As a matter of fact,
they may be found in either. The difference is to be detected in the
aorist. The majority of the deponents have their aorist in the middle;
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as a(nra£o/icu, aorist, 7ja7raaa/irjv; though quite a number have the
aorist passive; as, ^ovKopai, aorist, ef3ov\rjdrjv. In a few wefindthe
use of both forms; as dedopai, aorist, edecxraiATjv or edeadrjv.
ii. Robertson and Moulton both assail the t'erm "deponent" on
the ground that it should include both actives without middle form
and middles without active form, "if retained for either" (M. 153).
Robertson uses the term "dynamic" for this class of verbs, admitting that it is not "much better" (R. 812). The only justification
we have to offer for retaining the term here is that there is a
phenomenon of the language for which we need a distinct term, and
this is the most familiar. While it is truly inappropriate to say
that a verb has "lost" (deponere, "to lay aside") its active meaning
(and indeed, likely contrary to the history of the verb), yet "deponent" has become so thoroughly fixed in grammatical terminology that its inappropriateness is hardly serious enough to require
that we seek to displace it—at least, until an obviously better term
is found. Perphaps "defective" would cover the whole case, but
there should be a distinction between the lack of a voice and the
use of one voice with the significance of another. It is, however,
likely confusing to go as far as Winer and say, "From middle verbs
are to be carefully distinguished Deponent" (W. 258). Deponent
is not a voice, but an anomalous variation of voice.
Person and Number
159. I n Greek, as in all other languages, person and
number are determined by the relation of the speaker or
writer to the assertion contained in the verb. I f the assertion contains a fact relative to the one asserting, the verb
is in the first person. I f i t presents a fact relative to the
one addressed, the verb is in the second person. I f i t presents a fact relative to someone other than either the one
asserting or the one addressed, the verb is in the third
person. I f the assertion is made concerning more than
one, the verb is in the plural (in the Koine Greek—older
Greek had the dual for two). This essential fact of language has given rise to the "rule of concord" that the verb
agrees with its subject in person and number.
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i. A seeming exception to the above principle of syntax is the fact
that a neuter plural subject regularly takes a singular verb (Jn. 9:3).
This is doubtless because a neuter plural usually refers to inanimate
objects, which are viewed in mass rather than as distinct individuals.
Evidence for this explanation is seen in the fact that the verb is generally plural if the neuter plural subject refers to persons (Mt. 12:21), or if
it is desired to emphasize the plurality of things (Lk. 24:11). In Jn.
10:27, rd rrpb^ara ra e/xa rrjs cpovr)s jiov CLKOVOVCTLV, my sheep
hear my voice, Jesus means that each of his disciples individually responds to his command; and further, 7rp6|8ara is a figure of speech
referring to persons. Both considerations combine to form a plural
Verb here.
ii. When two or more subjects are joined together by a conjunction, the verb is regularly plural (Ac. 15:35), though it may agree
with the nearest subject (1 Cor. 13:13). When a collective subject
is taken in mass, the verb is singular (Mk 5:24), but if the component parts are viewed individually the verb is plural (Mk. 3:7).
II.
MOOD
References: R. 911-1049; R-S. 128-132; M. 164-201.
160. I n the expression of the verbal idea i t is necessary
to define its relation to reality: that which has, will, or
does now exist. For instance, i t is impossible to present
the thought of a child running without affirming either the
fact of his running—in present, past, or future, or the possibility of his running. To say, "The child runs," places the
statement in the first category; to say, " I f the child runs,"
presents the second. This affirmation of relation to reality
is mood. Whether the verbal idea is objectively a fact or
not is not the point: mood represents the way in which the
matter is conceived. I t represents "an attitude of mind
on the part of the speaker" ( M . 164). Robertson has
aptly defined mood as "the manner of the affirmation"
(R. 912).
161. I n the strictest analysis of the verb function in
language there are but two essential moods. Mood being;
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the way in which an action is conceived with reference to
reality, i t presents two viewpoints: that which is actual
and that which is possible. The presence of a negative,
affirming that a thing is not actual or not possible, does not
modify the essential category of thought; i t merely negatives these fundamental ideas. The indicative is the mood
which denotes the verbal idea as actual. Possible action
may employ, in Greek, either of three moods. I f i t is
viewed as contingent upon certain existing and known conditions—being objectively possible—the subjunctive is used.
I f the action is conceived of as possible without reference
to existing conditions—being subjectively possible—the
optative is used. Where the mind purposes the realization
of a possible action through the exercise of the will upon
an intermediate agent and conditioned upon the agent's
response—being volitionally possible—the imperative is
used. So the two essential moods in language are the real—
represented in Greek by the indicative; and the potentials
embracing the subjunctive, optative, and imperative (cf.
V/. 281). But for simplicity of grammatical analysis i t is
best that we should present our treatment of moods under
the four separate heads, indicative, subjunctive, optative,
and imperative.
i. Sheffield's definition of mood as the "speaker's concern with
what is said" (Grammar and Thinking, p. 120) is pertinent but not
adequate, as he himself later concludes (ibid., p. 127). It represents an element in mood but not its totality. One's concern in
the assertion of the verb may influence his attitude of mind, but
with it there may be associated many other factors, or, on the other
hand, the matter of personal interest may be entirely absent from
the attitude expressed in the verb. The essence of mood is the
way in which the assertion is related to reality.
ii. There has been disagreement among grammarians as to the
number of the moods in Greek. Some regard only the subjunctive
and optative as being in the strictest sense moods, since they exhibit in the most pronounced manner the attitude of mind ex-
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167
pressed in the affirmation; others would include also the imperative,
the mood of purpose and, therefore, of mental attitude; but the
majority would accept four, because, while it is true that the indicative is the mood of simple assertion of fact, it nevertheless reflects
very definitely a mental attitude. The infinitive and participle
are not regarded by any as truly moods. Robertson groups infinitives and participles under the general head of "verbal nouns," an
entirely justifiable procedure. They cannot appropriately be called
moods. We adopt here the prevalent view, which regards as moods
the indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative.
iii. Some grammarians find evidence for a primitive injunctive
mood. Robertson decides that because of its close relation to the
imperative "it has to be considered in an historical review" (R. 321).
Moulton finds in it the origin of the imperative. He thinks that
"it represented the bare combination of verbal idea with the ending
which supplies the subject." It "was simply an imperfect or aorist
indicative without the augment" (M. 165). It is found in actual
use in the Sanskrit, where it expresses prohibition.
iv. There is but one mood which has essential temporal relations;
viz., the indicative. This is to be normally expected in the indicative, since it asserts actuality, and that which actually occurs or
exists is inevitably defined by relations of time. But that which
is potential has no definite time relations, its temporal connections
being only relative. Hence the time element is entirely absent
from the potential moods.
v. The New Testament is fairly accurate in observing the customary distinctions between the Greek moods. "Only it is noticeable that the Optative, as in the later Greek authors who do not aim
at classical refinement, is partially set aside . . . and in certain
constructions is superseded by the Subjunctive" (W. 282; cf. Bt.
207). The use of the optative after secondary tenses is also discontinued in the Koine.
vi. "The mode is far and away the most difficult theme in Greek
syntax" (R. 912). The greatest difficulty is presented in the overlapping of functions. That is, the same function may be performed by more than one mood. For instance, the subjunctive
and imperative are both used in prohibitions. The indicative and
imperative are both used for commands, and the indicative and
optative for wishes. "The development of the modes was gradual
and the differentiation was never absolutely distinct" (R. 924). But
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the lines of distinction are sufficiently clear to admit of a thoroup,!
working analysis.
The Indicative Mood
162. The indicative is the declarative mood, denoting a
simple assertion or interrogation. I t is the mood of certainty. I t is significant of a simple fact, stated or inquired
about. The thing which distinguishes the indicative is its
independence of qualification or condition. I t represents
the verbal idea from the viewpoint of reality. This is the
attitude of mind expressed, whether the assumed reality is
an objective fact or not. "The indicative does state a
thing as true, but does not guarantee the reality of the
thing. I n the nature of the case only the statement is
under discussion" (R. 915). I t is "primarily the mood of
unqualified assertion or simple question of fact" (Br. 73),
and hence is by far the most frequently used.
(1) The Declarative Indicative. Its basal significance
is most clearly seen when the indicative is used in the statement of a simple fact.
ev apxv r\v 6 Xoyos.
In the beginning was the word. Jn. 1:1.
See also: Eph. 4:1; 1 Ths. 2:7.
(2) The Interrogative Indicative. The viewpoint of
reality is implied in a fact inquired about when the indicative is used in asking a simple question.
ri ^rjrelre;
What do ye seek? Jn. 1:38.
See also: Mt. 16:13; Mk. 1:24.
The interrogative indicative assumes that there is an actual fact
which may be stated in answer to the question. Though this
essential force of the construction may vary in strength and clear-
T H E
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169
ness, it undoubtedly lies at the basis of the usage. Robertson
asserts with good reason that there is really no difference between
declaration and question, so far as the essential use of the mood
is concerned (R. 915). We present them as two distinct uses as a
policy of simplification rather than strict scientific analysis. For
the negative particles in interrogations, see the section on particles,
and for the interrogative pronouns, the section on pronouns.
(3) The Cohortative Indicative.
The future indicative
is sometimes used to express a command.
<xYa7n7(7eis TOV TrXrjalov aov &s creavrov.
Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Jas. 2:8.
See also: Mt. 27:24; Lk. 1:13.
(4) The Potential Indicative.
Sometimes the idea of
contingency accompanies the indicative, being supplied by
the use of av, the nature of the verbal idea, or the context.
I t may be thus used in association with three ideas.
a. The indicative may be used in a claim of obligation.
ovs edet eirl aov irapelvau
Who ought to be here before thee. Ac. 24:19.
See also: Mt. 25:27;. 1 Cor. 4:8.
b. The indicative may be used to express an impulse.
rjvxbfJLrjv
yap avadefxa elvai.
For I could wish to be accursed. Rom. 9:3.
See also: Ac. 25:22; Gal. 4:20.
c. The indicative is used in certain forms of condition^
el r)s &8e OVK b\v aireOavev.
If thou hadst been here, he would not have died. Jn. 11:21.
See also: Mk. 14:5; Ac. 26:32.
For the indicative in a conditional sentence without av see Gal. 4:15.
Let it be kept in mind that the potential use of the indicative is not
really an exception to its essential force as the mood of certainty,
for the contingent element resides in av, or the context, or the character of the verbal idea.
170
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The Subjunctive Mood
163. The subjunctive is the mood of mild contingency;
the mood of probability. While the indicative assumes
reality, the subjunctive assumes unreality. I t is the first
step away from that which is actual in the direction of
that which is only conceivable, and, therefore, properly
leads the list of the potential moods. As the sense departs
farther from reality than the subjunctive, i t shades off into
the optative. When the element of intention or purpose
is involved, the potential idea is regularly conveyed by the
imperative. These three moods are akin to each other by
being related to a common idea, that of potentiality.
i. The close relation of the subjunctive to the imperative is to be
seen in the hortatory subjunctive and the subjunctive of prohibition. Its kinship to the optative has been demonstrated by the
fact of its having taken over the functions of the optative. It does
the full service of the optative in Latin, and is found usurping its
functions in the Koine period of the Greek, pushing it entirely off
the field by the time of Modern Greek (T. 115). We might almost
say that the subjunctive is the typical potential mood, and that
the optative and imperative are but variations of it. The contingent idea is dominant in the optative, and is not at all remote
in the imperative. As a matter of fact, action is either real or contingent, and even the slightest variation from the real produces
the contingent. Hence the potential moods express varying degrees
of contingency.
ii. There is likely close relationship between the subjunctive and
the future indicative. "It is quite probable that the future indicative is just a variation of the aorist subjunctive" (R. 924). In the
earliest Greek which we have the subjunctive and future indicative
are used interchangeably. In the classical literature the distinction
is quite rigidly observed, "but in later writers vacillation in the
employment of them is again discernible" (Bt. 211). The idea of
futurity is almost invariably connected with the subjunctive, but
while inevitable in the very nature of the case (for contingency
naturally involves relative futurity), it is not the primary and
fundamental idea. It is the variation from the real (assumed in
y
T H E
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T E S T A M E N T
ITl
thought) which gave rise to the subjunctive and which must remain
as its basal idea.
(1) The Hortatory Subjunctive.
When one exhorts
others to participate with him in any act or condition, the
subjunctive is used in the first person plural.
Kparcofiev
rrjs
bjAoKoyias.
Let us hold fast our confession. Heb. 4:15.
See also: Heb. 12:1; 1 Jn. 4:7.
The first person singular of the subjunctive is sometimes used
in a request for permission to do a thing (cf. Mt. 7:4; Lk. 6:42).
(2) The Subjunctive of Prohibition.
I n the expression
of a prohibition or a negative entreaty the second person
of the aorist subjunctive may be used.
ixr) eiaevijKTfjs
r)fxds els
ireipacrixbv.
Lead us not into temptation. Mt. 6:13.
See also: Mt. 6:34; Heb. 3:8.
The subjunctive of prohibition may also occur in the third person, especially in dependent clauses of fear or warning, though it
may also occur in an independent clause of direct prohibition
(1 Cor. 16:11).
(3) The Deliberative Subjunctive. When interrogation
does not assume an answer in actual fact, but represents
deliberation or is employed as a mere rhetorical device, the
subjunctive is used.
ri eiTO) vpZv;
What shall I say to you? 1 Cor. 11:22.
See also: Mk. 12:14; Lk. 3:10.
The subjunctive also occurs in indirect deliberative questions (Mt.
6:25). Questions may be classed as real and rhetorical. Real questions are those intended as actual requests for information (Mt.
16:13). Rhetorical questions represent an attitude of mind or an
assumption of fact in the form of a question (Rom. 10:14),
172
A
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(4) The Subjunctive of Emphatic Negation.
When spe«
cial stress is placed upon a negative proposition, the subjunctive is used with ov prj.
Kal ov prj eKcpvyojffLV.
And they shall not possibly escape. 1 Ths. 5:3.
see aiso: Mt. 5:20; Lk. 6:37.
(5) The Potential Subjunctive.
The preceding uses of
the subjunctive are confined largely to independent clauses,
but i t is also widely used in subordinate clauses. These
commonly imply future reference, and are qualified by an
element of contingency. A l l uses of the subjunctive in
object or conditional clauses are included in this class.
Siapaprvpopai 'tva ravra (pvKa^sI charge thee that thou guard these things. 1 Tim. 5:21.
See also: Mt. 17:20; Lk. 6:34.
The Optative Mood
164. The optative is the mood of strong contingency; the
mood of possibility. I t contains no definite anticipation of
realization, but merely presents the action as conceivable.
Hence i t is one step farther removed from reality than the
subjunctive. I n fact, i t never attained to very pronounced
distinction, and was never more than "a sort of weaker
subjunctive" (R. 936).
i. Some grammarians describe the optative as expressing "past
contingency." This view is determined by the classical use of the
mood after secondary tenses—a rather narrow basis of definition. A
better definition would be emphatic contingency, for this implies
the essential force of the mood, and includes independent as well
as dependent clauses. The kinship of the optative to the subjunctive is manifest in both history and function. The probability is
that it arose in order to enable the subjunctive to occupy more
definite limits of meaning. Its use with secondary tenses was
probably one of its earliest functions, since it developed secondary
T H E
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173
endings in conjugation. Since the optative came in as a helper
to the subjunctive, it is not likely that wishing was its original
significance, though it was from this idea that it derived its name.
But "the name does not signify anything. It 'was invented by
grammarians long after the usages of the language were settled "
(R. 936).
ii. In the New Testament the optative is little used in dependent
clauses. "The Optative as a dependent mood appears most frequently in the writings of Luke; its use even here, however, is
unmistakably on the decrease" (Bt. 215).
iii. In Sanskrit the optative practically displaced the subjunctive,
and became the chief potential mood. Whitney tells us that
"instead of their being (as in Greek) both maintained in use, and
endowed with nicer and more distinctive values, the subjunctive
gradually disappears, and the optative assumes alone the office
formerly shared by both" (Sansk. Gr., p. 261). In Greek the history
of the matter has been exactly opposite. In early and classic Greek
the optative is used alongside the subjunctive with about the same
frequency. It is rapidly disappearing in the Koine period, even in
the literary language. It was extremely rare in the vernacular,
being used only sixty-seven times in the New Testament, and
seldom in the papyri and inscriptions. Robertson thinks that "it
is doubtful if the optative was ever used much in conversation even
in Athens" (R. 325). Indeed, it "was never common in the language of the people, as is shown by its rarity in the Attic inscriptions" (R. 326). Winer appends a very suggestive note on the
optative, saying that "it is still a question how far it was used in
the popular speech of the ancient Greeks. It is often the case that
certain forms and constructions embodying refinements of the literary diction are persistently shunned by the people" (W. 282). The
optative is "a literary mood that faded before the march of the
subjunctive" (R. 936). In Modern Greek the optative has entirely
disappeared (T. 115).
7
(1) The Voluntative Optative. The optative is the ordinary form of the verb used in the expression of a wish„
This is its most extensive use in the New Testament.
6
oh Kvpios
Karevdvvai
VJJL&V
TCLS
Kapdlas.
May the Lord guide your hearts. 2 Ths. 3:5.
See also: Ac. 8:20; 1 Pt. 1:2.
174
A
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G R A M M A R
"The phrase prj yevoiro is an optative of wishing which strongly
deprecates something suggested by a previous question or assertion.
Fourteen of thefifteenNew Testament instances are in Paul's writings,
and in twelve of these it expresses the apostle's abhorrence of an inference which he fears may be (falsely) drawn from his argument"
(Br. 79.).
(2) The Potential Optative.
I n several instances in the
New Testament the optative serves in a clause which implies
a condition. This use is distinguished by the particle av.
rl dp 9£\oi
What would he wish to say? Ac. 17:18.
See also: Lk. 1:62; Ac. 8:31.
Expressed fully the example would read, What would he wish to
say, if he could say anything? These optatives occur as the fill*
fillment of a condition which is implied, and in the great majority
of instances we can supply from the context the implied condition.
(3) The Deliberative Optative.
A few times in the New
Testament indirect rhetorical questions are expressed by the
optative. I n this construction an unusually doubtful attitude of mind is implied.
bieKoyl^ero rcorairbs elrj b aairocrpbs
OVTOS.
She was pondering what manner of salutation this might be. Lk. 1:29.
See also: Lk. 22:23; Ac. 17:11.
The Imperative Mood
165. The imperative is the mood of command or entreaty
—the mood of volition. I t is the genius of the imperative
to express the appeal of will to will. I n ordinary linguistic
communication the primary appeal is from intellect to
intellect, but in the imperative one will addresses another.
I t expresses neither probability nor possibility, but only
intention, and is, therefore, the furthest removed from
reality.
T H E
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175
i. There is good reason to suppose that the imperative, which is
likely the youngest of the moods, arose in the use of the verb stem as a
sort of interjection, for we find it to be the "simplest possible form of
the verb" (M. 171). Compare the use of Sevpo, meaning hither, and note
that it "only needs the exclamation mark to make it mean come here
(M. 172).
ii. The imperative has never been able to secure a field all to
itself, as the indicative and subjunctive and even the infinitive and
participle (also the optative in Attic Greek) do service in the
expression of commands. It has had difficulty in maintaining itself,
having survived in Modern Greek only in a bare residuum. However,
whatever weakening it may have suffered in the rest of the Koine
does not appear in the New Testament. "The use of the imperative
mood in the New Testament preserves all the refinements of the
classical language" (Simcox: Lang, of the N. T., p. 114).
})
(1) The Imperative of Command. Where one will makes
a direct, positive appeal to another the imperative finds its
most characteristic use. The degree of authority involved
in the command, and the degree of probability that the one
addressed will respond are matters but incidental to the
use of the mood. The imperative itself denotes only the
appeal of the will.
ay air are rovs exOpovs vfi&v.
Love your enemies. Mt. 5:44.
See also: Mt. 6:6; 1 Ths. 5:16.
(2) The Imperative of Prohibition. The imperative is
frequently used to express a negative command.
eya) elfxi,
JJLT)
(pofieiaQe.
It is I, be not afraid. Jn. 6:20.
See also: 1 Cor. 6:9; Lk. 7:14.
For the distinctions in tense, and difference in the force of
subjunctive and imperative in commands and prohibitions, see
§§288f.
176
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(3) The Imperative of Entreaty.
Often the imperative
does not convey the finality of command, but has the force
of urgency or request.
rrpoades rjpiv irianv.
Increase our faith. Lk. 17:5.
See also: Mk. 9:22; Jn. 17:11.
(4) The Imperative of Permission. The command signified by the imperative may be in compliance with an expressed desire or a manifest inclination on the part of the
one who is the object of the command, thus involving consent as well as command.
el 5e 6 airiaros xup'i>%erai, xuptfeaQw.
But if the unbeliever depart, let him depart. 1 Cor. 7:15.
See also: Mt. 8:32; 26:45.
Normally the imperative carried with it a very forcible tone of
command. This was its characteristic force, though it might shade
off into mere permission. The ancient Greeks so regarded it, and
hence never employed the imperative in communication with superiors. This fact makes it significant that the imperative is so
abundant in the New Testament. The apostles and their associates
did not regard it as appropriate to address their readers "with carefully softened commands; and in the imperial edicts of Him who
'taught with authority/ and the ethical exhortations of men who
spoke in His name, we find naturally a large proportion of imperatives" (M. 173).
III.
TENSE
References: R. 821-910; R-S. 136-146; M. 108-151.
166. No element of the Greek language is of more im-i
portance to the student of the New Testament than the
matter of tense. A variation in meaning exhibited by the
use of a particular tense will often dissolve what appears
to be an embarrassing difficulty, or reveal a gleam of truth
which will thrill the heart with delight and inspiration.
T H E
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T E S T A M E N T
17?
Though it is an intricate and difficult subject, no phase of
Greek grammar offers a fuller reward. The benefits are to
be reaped only when one has invested sufficient time and
diligence to obtain an insight into the idiomatic use of
tense in the Greek language and an appreciation of the
finer distinctions in force.
The development of tense has reached its highest in Greek, and
presents its greatest wealth of meaning. "Among all known ancient
languages none distinguishes the manifold temporal (and modal)
relations of the verb so accurately as the Greek" (Bt. 194). And
"in the use of tenses the New Testament writers are by no means
deficient in the requisite skill" (Bt. 195). These considerations
should impress the importance of mastering the use of the Greek
tenses, yet "probably nothing connected with syntax is so imperfectly understood by the average student as tense" (R. 821). In
fact, that the Greeks themselves always observed with conscious
accuracy their tense distinctions, Kobertson hesitates to conclude
(R. 829). It is certainly unsafe, however, to proceed upon any
supposition other than that the New Testament writer used the
tense which would convey just the idea he wished to express. This?
is the rule, and all seeming exceptions are to be regarded with
doubt.
167. The distinctive function of the verb is to express
action. Action as presented in the expression of a verbal
idea involves two elements, time of action and kind of
action. That is, the action may be described as occurring
at a certain time, and must be described, if intelligible, as
performed in a certain manner. Tense deals with these two
aspects of verbal expression, kind of action being the chief
idea involved, for time is but a minor consideration in the
Greek tenses.
168. I n its temporal relations action may be defined as
either past, present, or future. I n Greek these distinctions
are involved only in the indicative mood, the potential
moods being without temporal significance—except that as
a rule they are relatively futuristic. Past time is indicated
178
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
by augment, which is the only purely temporal element in
the formation of the Greek verb. The distinctive verbal
suffixes of the indicative carry temporal implications, but
associated with other ideas.
169. The important element of tense in Greek is kind of
action. This is its fundamental significance. "The chief
function of a Greek tense is thus not to denote time, but
progress" (Br. 6). For this element of tense recent grammarians have adopted the German term aktionsart, "kind
of action." The character of an action may be defined
from either of three points of view; i t may be continuous,
it may be complete, or it may be regarded simply as occurring, without reference to the question of progress. There
are, therefore, three fundamental tenses in Greek: the
present, representing continuous action; the perfect, representing completed action; and the aorist {dbpiaros, without
limits, undefined), representing indefinite action. "These
three tenses were first developed irrespective of time" (R.
824).
(1) Action as Continuous. Here the principal tense is
the present, which in the indicative is used primarily of
Dresent time. Continuous action in past time is denoted
by the imperfect tense. For continuous action in future
time the regular future is ordinarily used, though the idea
is best expressed by the periphrastic future.
(2) Action as Complete. Here the principal tense is the
perfect, and in the indicative is contemplated from the
viewpoint of present time. Complete action viewed from
a point in past time is expressed by the pluperfect. Complete action viewed from a point in future time is the future
perfect.
(3) Action as Occurring.
The tense here is the aorist.
It has time relations only in the indicative, where i t is past
and hence augmented. I t has no distinctive form for
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179
present and future time, though the present and future
tenses may denote an aoristic force. Modern Greek has
developed a separate form for the aoristic future (T. 125).
The characteristic significance of the aorist is best seen in
the potential moods.
These distinctions are especially vivid in the comparative meanings
of the present, perfect, and aorist infinitives; e.g., rroetv, to be doing;
7re7roir]K€vai, to have done; woiijaat, to do (cf. Hadley-Allen: Gr. Grammar, p. 204).
170. There are really two fundamental ways of viewing
action. I t may'be contemplated in single perspective, as a
point, which we may call punctiliar action (R. 823); or it
may be regarded as in progress, as a line, and this we may
call linear action ( M . 109). The perfect tense is a combination of these two ideas: i t looks in perspective at the
action, and regards the results of the action as continuing
to exist; that is, in progress at a given point. Hence the
perfect has both elements, linear and punctiliar.
The
aorist may be represented by a dot (•), the present by a
line (
) , and the perfect by the combination of the
two ( •
).
i. The evidence is that there "were originally two verb types, the one
denoting durative or linear action, the other momentary or punctiliar
action. Hence some verbs have two roots, one linear (durative), like
pepo) (fero), the other punctiliar (momentary), like rjvejKOV (tuli)....
With other verbs the distinction was not drawn sharply, the root could
be used either way (cf. (prj-fil, e-cprj-v; Xey-co, e-XeY-oj>). All this
was before there was any idea of later tense. So e-<p ay-ov is punctiliar,
while iadlo) is linear or durative" (R. 823). "It is seen that the
Aorist has a 'punctiliar' action; that is it regards action as a point. . . .
The Present has generally a durative action—linear, we may call it. . . .
The Perfect action is a variety by itself, denoting what began in the
past and still continues" (M. 109). Thus we see that the present and
aorist are the basic tenses in Greek. It is important to keep this fact
in mind in all our consideration of the matter of tense, and along with
it the fact that neither contains any essential notion of time.
180
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ii. Moulton insists that tense is "a subject on which many of the
most crucial questions of exegesis depend," and that "the notion of
(present or past) time is not by any means the first thing we must
think of in dealing with tenses. For our problem of aktionsart, it
is a mere accident that <pevyo) is (generally) present and e<pevyov
ecpvyov, and <pvy6)V past: the main point we must settle is the
distinction between <pevy and <pvy which is common to all their
moods" (M. 119).
$
171. I n the analysis of the tenses which we offer here we
have not sought to be exhaustive, but rather suggestive.
To present the Greek tenses in all their variations and distinctions would result in bewildering the student and impairing his appreciation of this important subject. Simplicity and comprehensiveness have been chiefly in view in
preparing the following analysis of tense functions. I t is
hoped and assumed that the student will pursue further a
study of the best grammars and an inductive observation
of the tenses in their various ramifications of meaning.
We can do no more here than introduce and inspire such a
line of investigation.
It would doubtless be more strictly scientific to follow Robertson
in analyzing our treatment of tense on the basis of he three prin^
cipal kinds of action, which he denominates punctiliar, durative,
and perfected. But it lends to simplicity to take up the tenses in
the usual order of their occurrence in the conjugation of the verb,
the order with which the average student is most familiar. Since
we have primarily in view the average student rather than the
scientific scholar, we shall follow that policy. It is true that the
imperfect and pluperfect occur only in the indicative, and the future
has its chief significance there, but, in view of the great abundance
of the indicative in the text of the New Testament, it is well to
give it prominence in the treatment of tenses. It is a working
knowledge of the Greek verb in the New Testament we seek, and
the simplest method of treatment will be most conducive to that
end. It is necessary, though, that we give but little place to the
time element, even in the indicative.
J
T H E
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181
The Present Tense
172. The fundamental significance of the present tense is
the idea of progress. I t is the linear tense. This is not,
however, its exclusive significance. I t is a mistake to suppose "that the durative meaning monopolises the present
stem" (M. 119). Since there is no aorist tense for present
time, the present tense, as used in the indicative, must do
service for both linear and punctiliar action. But it is to
be borne in mind that the idea of present time is secondary
in the force of the tense. The time element belongs to the
indicative, where the present tense is really the "imperfect
of present time," while what we know as the imperfect tense
is the "imperfect of past time." The progressive force of
the present tense should always be considered as primary,
especially with reference to the potential moods, which in
the nature of the case do not need any "present punctiliar"
tense. I n them the aorist serves the purpose for the punctiliar tense under all circumstances, since they have no
temporal significance. I n the indicative the linear significance of the present may sometimes be found more or
less remote, being modified by other influences. The other
elements entering into the resultant import of the present
tense are the meaning of the verb itself and the general
significance of the context. That is, in dealing with the
present tense we must consider not only the fundamental
force of the tense, but also the meaning of the verb root,
and the significance of the context. As affected by these
three factors the present tense exhibits several variations
in use.
These same three factors are to be considered in dealing with
all the other tenses. Sometimes one, sometimes two, or all three,
exert an influence.
182
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G R A M M A R
Regular Uses of the Present
173. There are three varieties of the present tense in
which its fundamental idea of progress is especially patent.
To facilitate study we will group these together in a single
class as "regular uses."
(1) The Progressive Present This use is manifestly
nearest the root idea of the tense. I t signifies action in
progress, or state in persistence, and may be represented
by the graph (
) . I n the indicative i t is related
to present time, and because of possible varieties in this
relation to present time i t may denote three points of view.
a. The present tense may be used in a sense of description, to indicate that which is now going on. This use
might almost be called the "pictorial present," since its
distinctive force is to present to the mind a picture of the
events as in process of occurrence.
al Xa/x7raS€S rjjJLeop crfievvvvrai.
Our lamps are going out. Mt. 25:8.
See also: Mt. 8:25; Jn. 5:7.
b. The present approaches its kindred tense, the perfect,
when used to denote the continuation of existing results.
Here i t refers to a fact which has come to be in the past,
but is emphasized as a present reality, as we say, " I learn
that you have moved" (that is, information has come to
me in the past which I now possess).
CLKOVO)
ax^Cfxara ev vpXv vrrapxeiv.
I hear that there are divisions among you. 1 Cor. 11:18.
See also: Lk. 15:27; Gal. 1:6.
To say that this use is "present for perfect" (Gildersleeve: Syntax,
p. 87) is not accurately representing the case. It does approach quite
closely the significance of the perfect, but stresses the continuance of
results through present time in a way which the perfect would not do,
for the perfect stresses existence of results but not their continuance.
T H E
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183
To say pavBdvco avrbv ekQelv, I learn that he has gone, has a force
which is approximated only by pepaOrjKa avrbv ekdeiv, I have
learned that he has gone,
c. Sometimes the progressive present is retroactive in its
application, denoting that which has begun in the past and
continues into the present. For the want of a better name,
we may call i t the present of duration. This use is generally associated with an adverb of time, and may best be
rendered by the English perfect.
ar'
apxvs
per'
epov
eare.
Y* have been with me from the beginning. Jn. 15:27.
See also: Lk. 13:7; 2 Cor. 12:9.
Gildersleeve appropriately calls this idiom the "present of unitjf
of time" (op. cit., p. 86), and, like most of the grammarians, gives
it separate classification. But it conduces to a more accurate comprehension of the construction to treat it as a special application of
the progressive present. Here the present tense "gathers up past
and present time into one phrase" (M. 119); or in other words,
joins them into a single line, in harmony with the essential force
of the present. Robertson confines the term "progressive" to this
particular idiom, but resorts to this designation as "a poor name
in lieu of a better one" (R. 879). The construction is hard to name,
as we have confessed above, but "progressive" is too good a name
to be hazarded in a doubtful situation, especially when it fits so
well as a general designation for this entire class of uses, which
iie nearest the "progressive" base of the tense function.
(2) The Customary Present. The present tense may be
used to denote that which habitually occurs, or may be
reasonably expected to occur. I n this use the temporal
element is remote, even in the indicative, since the act or
state is assumed to be true in the past or' future, as well
sis the present.
7ras yap
dims
KaraaKeva^erai
virb
nvos.
For every house is built by some one. Heb. 3:4.
See also: Mt. 7:17; 2 Cor. 9:7.
184
A
M A N U A L
(3) The Iterative Present.
G R A M M A R
The present tense may be
used to describe that which recurs at successive intervals,
or is conceived of in successive periods. I t is sometimes
called the present of repeated action.
tcad' r)fxepav o\irodvr)(XKO).
I die daily. 1 Cor. 15:31.
See also: Rom. 8:36; 1 Cor. 11:21.
The difference between the customary and iterative present is not
very pronounced. Both can be represented in the graph ( ).
Robertson treats them under one head as a single usage (R. 880). But
a distinction there is, though not always clear. In I Cor. 11:21,
eKaaros yap TO ifaov delirvov irpoKafxpaveL ev T & <payelv, for each
takes his own supper before the other, when you eat, the reference is not to
a,fixedcustom, or that which is true in the nature of the case, but to an
evil practice which is persistently recurring in the observance of the
Lord's Supper by the Corinthian church. It is the recurrent fact which
Paul wishes to represent, certainly in the hope that it may not become
a general custom, orfixedhabit. We believe there is here a distinction
which deserves notice.
Special Uses of the Present
174. There are several uses of the present tense in which
the root idea is not so evidently patent and which are not
of so frequent occurrence as the regular uses.
(1) The Aoristic Present.
Since the indicative has no
distinctive tense for expressing the idea of a present fact
without reference to progress, that is, punctiliar action in
present time, the present tense must be used to perform this
function. The aorist indicative is used to convey this idea
with reference to past time. The aoristic present sets forth
an event as now occurring.
Axvea, laral
ere 'Irjaovs XptoTos.
Aeneas, Jesus Christ heals thee. Ac. 9:34.
See also: Ac. 16:18; Gal. 1:11.
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
185
"This use is a distinct departure from the prevailing use of the
present tense to denote action in progress. . . . There being in
the indicative no tense which represents an event as a single fact
without at the same time assigning it either to the past or the
future, the present is used for those instances (rare as compared
with the cases of the Progressive Present) in which an action of
present time is conceived of without reference to its progress"
(Br. 9). The student would do well to note in this observation of
Burton's a vivid fore-gleam of the basal significance of the aorist
tense.
(2) The Futuristic Present
This use of the present
tense denotes an event which has not yet occurred, but
which is regarded as so certain that in thought i t may be
contemplated as already coming to pass.
6 vlbs rov dv6p6)7rov irapaSlborai
els rd
crravpoidijpcu.
The Son of man is delivered to be crucified. Mt. 26:2.
See also: Lk. 3:9; Jn. 14:3.
While the present is thus used "in appearance for the future," it in
reality retains its own temporal and essential force, being employed
to denote a future action "either because it is already firmly
resolved upon or because it follows because of some unalterable law"
<W. 265).
(3) The Historical Present
The present tense is thus
employed when a past event is viewed with the vividness
of a present occurrence.
Kal diplas yevopevrjs
epx*rai pera
r&v S6)SeKa.
And when it was evening he comes with the twelve. Mk. 14:17.
See also: Mt. 3:1; Jn. 1:29.
This idiom is possibly a residue from the primitive syntax of the
Indo-European language, when, like the Semitic verb, time relations were indicated by the context rather than the inflectional
forms. Gildersleeve thinks that it "belongs to the original stock
of our family of languages" and "antedates the differentiation into
imperfect and aorist" (op. cit., p. 86).
186
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
(4) The Tendential Present The present tense may be
used of action which is purposed or attempted, though it is
not actually taking place. I t represents the idea of that
which is intended or inclined to occur—that which tends
toward realization.
5td
rrdiov
CLVT&V
ejue
epyov
\ida£ere;
For which of these works do ye stone me? Jn. 10:32.
See also: Mt. 2:4; Gal. 5:4.
(5) The Static Present The present tense may be used
to represent a condition which is assumed as perpetually
existing, or to be ever taken for granted as a fact.
rravra
ovrus
Stajuem
1
air
apxqs
Kriaews.
AH things remain as they were from the beginning of creation
2Pt. 3:4.
See also: Jn. 15:27; 1 Jn. 3:8.
While this use is rare, it is nevertheless fully significant of th(
genius of the tense. The idea of progress in a verb of action finds,
its natural counterpart in an idea of perpetual state in a verb
of being. This use is practically the present of duration applied to
a verb of being.
The Imperfect Tense
175. The imperfect may be regarded as a sort of auxiliary
to the present tense, functioning for i t in the indicative to
refer its significance of continuous action to past time.
This fact is exhibited even in the form of the imperfect,
for i t is built on the present stem. The imperfect is "a
sort of moving panorama, a 'moving picture show/ . .
The aorist tells the simple story. The imperfect draws the
picture. I t helps you to see the course of the act. I t passes
before the eye the flowing stream of history" (R. 883).
That is, " i t dwells on the course of an event instead of
merely stating its occurrence" (Goodwin: Greek Moods
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
187
and Tenses, p. 12). The time element is more prominent
in the imperfect than in the present, owing to the fact that
it is exclusively an indicative tense. Since its essential
force is identical with that of the present, i t follows that
its uses should be practically parallel.
Webster quotes from Donaldson the following definition of the
imperfect: "The imperfect denotes an incomplete action, one that
is in its course, and is not yet brought to its intended accomplishment. It implies that a certain thing was going on at a specified
time, but excludes the assertion that the end of the action was
attained" (Syntax and Synon. of the Gr. Test., p. 87).
Regular Uses of the Imperfect
176. The regular uses of the imperfect lack but little of
being identical with those of the present.
(1) The Progressive Imperfect. The imperfect is used
to denote action in progress in past time. This is manifestly the most characteristic use of the tense. The thought
of process involved in the imperfect may be regarded from
two points of view.
a. The process may be vividly represented as actually
going on in past time. This use we may define as the progressive imperfect of description.
Kal iroWol ifkovaioi effaWov woWa.
And many rich people were casting in much. Mk. 12:41.
See also: Mt. 3:6; Lk. 15:16.
b. The imperfect may contemplate the process as having
gone on in past time up to the time denoted by the context,
but without any necessary inference as to whether or not
the process has been completed. I f the writer wished to
imply that the process had been completed at a given point
in the past, he would normally use the pluperfect. This
we may call the imperfect of duration, I t may sometimes
188
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
be associated in thought with a concurrent period of time,
expressed or implied, or with a parallel event. When thus
used, i t might be defined as a "simultaneous imperfect."
This use of the imperfect may be rendered in English in
some instances by the continuous past, in others by the
perfect, and in still others by the past perfect. The use of
the tense cannot be determined by the English rendering:
that matter is to be discerned by a close scrutiny of the
context and a discriminating apprehension of the essential
force of the tense.
ev T& pera^v
fjp&roov avrbv ol
paOrjTal.
In the meantime his disciples had asked him. Jn. 4:31.
See also: Lk. 2:49; 1 Cor. 3:6.
We have been unable to find in the New Testament any example ol
the imperfect which we could adjudge as really corresponding to the
present of existing state. A few instances could possibly be placed in
that class, but we consider them as belonging really to the progressive
imperfect of duration. The imperfect etp'Ckei in Jn. 11:36 approaches
more nearly the idea of existing results than any other example we have
found, but even this instance may be interpreted as an imperfect of
duration. That the student who desires may go further with the inves»
tigation we will list a few additional examples of the imperfects which
we regard as belonging to this class: Mt. 14:4; Lk. 23:8; Ac. 9:31; Rom.
15:22; 1 Jn. 2:7.
(2) The Customary Imperfect.
The imperfect may be
used to denote that which has regularly or ordinarily occurred in past time. Here our English expression "used to
is generally a good rendering.
,fc
Kal eTTKip&raiv avrbv
ol
oxXot.
And the multitudes used to ask him questions. Lk. 3:10.
See also: Mk. 15:6; 1 Cor. 10:4.
(3) The Iterative
Imperfect.
The imperfect may
bt
used to describe action as recurring at successive intervals
in past time. The vernacular English "kept on" represents
T H E
G R E E K .
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
189
quite well the sense. I t may be graphically described by a
broken line (
).
rds irpuroKhivlas
Qekeyovro.
They kept on choosing out the first seats. Lk. 14:7.
See also: Jn. 19:3; Ac. 3:2.
As we observed relative to the present, the customary and iterative
uses are very close together, but there is a distinction which needs
to be observed in order to the most accurate interpretation.
Special Uses of the Imperfect
177. As the imperfect differs from the aorist in representing a process rather than a simple event, it also differs
from the perfect in representing a process and carrying no
sense of completion. Hence as a sort of negative function
the imperfect fails to imply the attainment of the end
toward which progress is made. That is, the imperfect
represents process without attainment. Out of this negative
aspect of the tense are derived three uses which are very
similar, but have a difference in viewpoint which makes it
best to distinguish them.
(1) The Tendential Imperfect. The lack of a sense of
attainment in the imperfect may be emphasized to the
point of a positive implication that the end was not attained, but was only attempted, or that action tended
toward realization. There are quite a number of these
imperfects in the New Testament, and they are one of the
most commonly misinterpreted features of the tenses. The
student should be carefully on the alert to note any occurrence of this use of the imperfect.
Kal eKaXovv avrb
Zaxaplav.
And they were going to call him Zachariah. Lk. 1:59.
See also: Mt. 3:14: Ac. 7:26.
19a
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
(2) The Voluntative Imperfect
The want of attainment in the imperfect prepares i t to submit quite easily to
the expression of a desire or disposition, since the statement of a wish itself implies the lack of realization. There
are but a few instances of this usage in the New Testament, but adequate grammatical treatment requires that
they be recognized as a distinct class.
e(3ovk6p,r}v Kal avros
TOV avdp&irov
aKovaai.
Indeed, I myself have been rather wanting to hear the man.
Ac. 25:22.
See also: Rom. 9:3; Gal. 4:20; Phlm. 13.
(3) The Inceptive Imperfect The force of the imperfect may revert to the opposite of realization, and signify
the initiation of a process. That is, i t may denote the beginning of an action, or that which is upon the point of
occurring. This is well represented in our colloquial idiom
When we say "one went to doing a thing."
KaOlcras eSldavKev
TOVS
oxkovs.
Having sat down he went to teaching the multitudes. Lk. 5:3.
See also: Mk. 5:32; Ac. 3:8; Heb. 11:17.
i. There is no tense in the New Testament which requires and
repays more care in interpretation than the imperfect. The student
should getfixedin mind in the very beginning that it is not identical
with our continuous past, by quite a wide margin. It is also important to distinguish the imperfect from the other past tenses of
the Greek indicative.
ii. A splendid example of the distinction between the imperfect and
aorist may be found in 1 Cor. 10:4, Kal wavres TO avrb
irveviiariKov
imov
rrojjia,
emvov
yap
€K rrvevixaTiKTJs aKo\ovdovor]s
irerpas,
and all drank the same spiritual drink, for they were accustomed to drink
of the spiritual rock which followed them. Here the aorist (emov)
states the fact in the history of Israel, while the imperfect (Imvov)
describes a continuous custom.
iii. It differs from the perfect in that the perfect views a process as
complete, with the results remaining, while the imperfect views the
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
191
process as going on, without implying anything as to its completion.
Thus in Mt. 4:10 yeypairrai, it is written, refers to the results of a
process of divine inspiration whereby the Old Testament Scriptures are
in existence, while in the following verse dirjKovovv, began ministering,
is the inceptive imperfect and refers to the initiation of a process wherein
the angels were comforting Jesus after his temptation. The same distinction obtains between the imperfect and pluperfect.
The Future Tense
178. The future is primarily an indicative tense, and
hence the element of time is very pronounced. I t does,
however, signify to a large degree the character of the
verbal idea, but instead of presenting progress as the leading idea—as do the present and imperfect—the general
significance is indefinite (aoristic or punctiliar). "This is
due partly to the nature of the case, since all future events
are more or less uncertain" (R-S. 142). The future and
aorist are similar, and quite likely kindred, in form. There
is evidence in the history of the Greek language that the
future arose from the aorist subjunctive. Hence i t is but
natural that the punctiliar force of the aorist should survive in the future (M. 149). As the aorist indicative narrates an event in past time, so the future indicative expresses anticipation of an event in future time. I t is this
foretold occurrence of a future event which is its basal
significance, and any qualifying idea is derived from the
context or the nature of the verbal idea.
i. The periphrastic form of the future consisting of peKKco with
the infinitive, which we quite often meet in the New Testament,
is different in significance from the regular future. It is more
emphatic in force, and contemplates the action as more imminent.
Robertson calls it "a sort of half-way station between the futuristic
present and the punctiliar future" (R. 870).
ii. Outside the indicative the future is but rarely used in the
New Testament. The future optative does not occur at all—in
fact, it has disappeared entirely from the Koine Greek. The fu*
192
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
ture infinitive is rare; the future participle more frequent, but not
abundant (cf. M. 151).
(1) The Predictive Future. The simple, ordinary significance of the future tense is to predict an event which is
expected to occur in future time. I t is in this use that its
aoristic or punctiliar force is most pronounced.
eiceZpos vpas biba^ei iravra.
He will teach you all things. Jn. 14:26.
See also: Rom. 6:14; Phs. 3:21.
(2) The Progressive Future. Sometimes the context or
nature of the verbal idea requires that the use of the future
tense be construed as denoting the idea of progress in future
time.
a l
ev rovrq) x ' P&
• ctXXa Kal xap^ojuat.
In this I rejoice, yea, and will continue to rejoice. Phs. 1:18.
See also: Rom. 6:2; 2 Ths. 3:4.
(3) The Imperative Future. The future is sometimes
used in the expression of a command. Since a command
necessarily involves futurity, this is a very natural idiom.
Kal KaXeaeus rb bvopa avrov 'Icoavrjv.
And thou shalt call his name John. Lk. 1:13.
See also: Mt. 1:21; Jas. 2:8.
"This idiom as it occurs in the New Testament shows clearly the influence of the Septuagint. It occurs most frequently in prohibitions,
its negative being, as also commonly in classical Greek, not prj, but ov"
(Br. 35). But we should be careful not to take this idiom as a Hebraism,
for it is of frequent occurrence in Attic Greek; e.g., Euripides: Medea,
1320,
\ey' ei n fioi)\ei • xetpl b' ov ipavaeis rrorL
Say whatever you wish; you shall by no means touch my hand. Examples
are plentiful (cf. Goodwin: op. cit, p. 19). It is just another case
<yhere parallel idioms appear both languages^ it being, therefore^ the
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
193
frequency and not the fact of the idiom in the New Testament which
shows Septuagint influence.
(4) The Deliberative Future. Questions of uncertainty
are occasionally expressed by the future indicative. "Such
questions may be real questions asking for information, or
rhetorical questions taking the place of a direct assertion"
(Br. 36).
itvpie,
Tpbs riva
aireKevabixeda)
Lord, to whom shall we go? Jn. 6:68.
See also: Rom. 3:6; 10:14.
(5) The Gnomic Future. The statement of a fact or
performance which may be rightfully expected under normal conditions is expressed by the future tense.
e/cacrros
yap
TO
ibiov (popriov
fiavTaaei.
For each shall bear his own burden. Gal. 6:5.
See also: Rom. 5:7; Eph. 5:31.
The Aorist Tense
179. We approach now the most prevalent and most
important of the Greek tenses. I t is also the most peculiar
to Greek idiom. The fundamental significance of the
aorist is to denote action simply as occurring, without
reference to its progress. I t is the indefinite tense (abpiaTos,
unlimited). I t has no essential temporal significance, its
time relations being found only in the indicative, where it is
used as past and hence augmented. Its true function is best
seen in the potential moods, and should be carefully considered in interpretation. The aorist signifies nothing as to
completeness, but simply presents the action as attained. I t
states the fact of the action or event without regard to its
duration. Thus eirolei rovro means he was doing or used to
do this; rreiroiiqKe TOVTO, he has done this; eTceiroiijKei rouro.
194
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
he had (at some given point in past time) done this; but
liroiTiae rovro means simply he did this, without implying
that the action was either durative or perfective. I t presents
the action or event as a "point," and hence is called "punctiliar."
i. The root idea of the aorist has been variously defined by Greek
grammarians. Burton says that "it represents the action denoted
by it indefinitely; i.e., simply as an event" (Br. 16). Quite similar
to this, but not so appropriate, is the definition of Gildersleeve:
"The Aorist states a past action without reference to its duration
simply as a thing attained" (op. cit., p. 103). This definition presents a defect in the emphasis it gives to the time element. Much
more discriminating and accurate is the observation of Goodwin:
"The aorist indicative expresses the simple occurrence of an action
in past time." He refers the aorist to past time specifically in the
indicative, and then declares* concerning the potential moods: "This
fundamental idea of simple occurrence remains the essential characteristic of the aorist through all the dependent moods, however indefinite they may be with regard to time" (op. cit., p. 19). Moulton
presents a happy expression of the root idea as denoting "an event
as a single whole, without regarding the time taken in its accomplishment^ (Introd. to Study of N. T. Gr., p. 190). Robertson's
definition is quite similar. He regards the aorist as treating "the
act as a single whole irrespective of the parts of time involved"
(E. 832). Green's definition of the aorist as denoting indefinite
action is to the point (G. 296). Webster, likewise, defines the
aorist as indefinite, stating that it represents the action "as simply
acted, without any distinct statement of progress or completion"
(op. cit., p. 80). The observation of Winer that it signifies "occurrence at some former time" (W. 264) applies only to the indicative.
It is strange that Blass should speak of the aorist as the tense
"which denotes completion" (Bl. 193). This definition falls into the
error of making an occasional derived significance fundamental. The
aorist denotes an action simply as an event, without in any sense
defining the manner of its occurrence.
ii. The Aorist and Present Tense Compared. A Greek writer in-
stinctively knew what tense to use in expressing an idea accurately.
The more one studies Greek the more this conviction grows upon him.
At times the same verb is repeated in succeeding clauses, but the tense
TttB
GBEBK
NSW
TESTAMENT
195
is changed, because the writer was acutely conscious of the distinctive
force of each tense in expressing the state of an action. The play is
entirely upon whether the action is punctiliar—viewed as a single
whole—or whether it is the opposite, continuous or repeated. A very
clear and forceful example of this striking play and interplay between
the aorist and present tenses is found in Jn. 10:38: iva yv&re Kal
yLV&aicrjTe on ev epol 6 waTrjp Kay& ev T& irarpi,
that you may
come to know (ingressive aorist) and continue knowing (progressive present) that the Father is in me and I in the Father, Both tenses are again
used in this kind of contrast inHeb. 6:10, "For God is not unrighteous
to forget your work and the love which you showed toward his name;
namely, that you ministered (duaKovrjaavres) to the saints and continue ministering {hianovovvres)
" On the question of the believer's
relation to sin, it is exceedingly important to observe John's use of the
present and aorist tenses in his First Epistle. In 1 Jn. 2:1, he uses the
aorist tense twice with the verb apapraveiv, to sin,' 'My little children,
I write these things to you Iva prj apapTrjre, in order that you won't
wen commit an act of sin. And edv ris apdprrj, if anyone does commit a
sin, we have an advocate with the Father." In 3:9 he uses the present
tense with the same verb: "Everyone born of God ov iroiel, does not practice, or continue in sin; because his seed pivet, is abiding in him, and he
is not able to apaprdveiv,
continue in sin, because he
yeyivrjrai,
has been born of God." Thus the use of tense may often, when clearly
understood, illuminate passages which in the translations seem difficult.
Regular Uses of the Aorist
180. While the aorist views an action as a single whole, it
may contemplate i t from different angles. I t may regard
the action in its entirety, which we call the constative aorist;
e.g., ^rjaev, he lived. We might represent the constative
aorist in a graph thus: < • > . The action may be regarded
from the viewpoint of its initiation, which we. call the ingressive aorist; e.g., airedavev, he died. The ingressive
aorist might be graphically represented thus: • >
„
When the action is viewed in its results, we call i t the culminative aorist; e.g., direKreivev, he hilled. I t may be indicated in the graph:
< • . The same verb may, in different contexts, present all three views; e.g., (idheiv may mean
196
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
throw (constative), or let fly (ingressive), or hit (culminative).
However, the verbal idea as well as the context usually
affects very decidedly the significance of the aorist (cf. M .
130). These modifications of the fundamental idea present
the regular uses. They appear in all four moods, and also
the infinitive and participle.
(1) The Constative Aorist. This use of the aorist contemplates the action in its entirety. I t takes an occurrence and, regardless of its extent of duration, gathers it
into a single whole. We have here the basal, unmodified
force of the aorist tense.
reaaepcLKovra Kal e£ ereaiv
OLKodonrjdrj 6 vabs
This temple was built in forty-six years. Jn
ovros.
2:20.
See also: Mt. 8:3; Heb. 11:13.
Because of the fact that the constative aorist indicates nothing
relative to duration, this matter may be implied or expressed from
various viewpoints in the context. We may have a constative aorist
referring to a momentary action (Ac. 5:5), a fact or action extended
over a period of time (Eph. 2:4), or a succession of acts or evenU
(2 Cor. 11:25) (cf. Br. 19f.).
(2) The Ingressive Aorist. The action signified by the
aorist may be contemplated in its beginning. This use is
commonly employed with verbs which signify a state or
condition, and denote entrance into that state or condition.
For you* sakes he became poor. 2 Cor. 8:9.
See also: Ac. 15:12, 13; 19:20.
(3) The Culminative Aorist. The aorist is employed in
this meaning when i t is wished to view an event in its entirety, but to regard i t from the viewpoint of its existing
results. Here we usually find verbs which signify effort
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
197
or process, the aorist denoting the attainment of the end of
sunh effort or process.
eyd) yap ejiadov avTapKTjs elvai.
For I have learned to be content. Phs. 4:11.
See also: Lk. 1:1; Ac. 5:4.
This idiom may be best translated by the English perfect when
it affects a situation present to the writer, and by the pluperfect
when relatively past. "Sometimes the use of an adverb or participle
helps the English" (R. 844). As in the case of the ingressive aorist,
Robertson thinks that the distinctive idea in this construction belongs
to the verb. He calls it the effective aorist, but does not regard
this name as "particularly good" (R. 834). Blass thinks that in
this use the aorist "has extended its province at the expense of
the perfect" (Bl. 199), but in this observation he has in mind the
perfect of his own language rather than of the Greek.
Special Uses of the Aorist
181. I n addition to the three uses above, which are
directly related to the root idea of the tense, there are three
other uses in which the force of the aorist is rhetorically
applied.
(1) The Gnomic Aorist
A generally accepted fact or
truth may be regarded as so fixed in its certainty or
axiomatic in its character that i t is described by the aorist;,
just as though i t were an actual occurrence. For this idiom
we commonly employ the general present in English.
h TOVTO) edo^aady] 6 irar^p fxov.
In this is my Father glorified. Jn. 15:8.
See also: Lk. 7:35; 1 Pt. 1:24.
i. Sometimes the gnomic aorist is difficult to distinguish from the
eulpainative aorist. For instance, the distinction is rather obscure in
Rom. 3:23. It is very plausible to take rjfiaprov as a gnomic aorist,
ai>d construe the passage as meaning, "As a general rule all sin and so
fall short of the glory of God." This fits exactly into the present of
iarepovVTai.
But when we. confer the larger context, wefix?dthat
198
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Paul has been discussing the fact of sin as universal in the human race
and would here stress the fact that past experience stands as evidence
that all are condemned under the law, and that all, therefore, fall short
of the glory of God. This idea emphasizes the reality of a fact which
has taken place, hence should be construed as a culminative aorist and
best rendered, all have sinned.
ii. A clear case of the gnomic aorist appears in Gal. 5:24, ol 8e TOV
Xpiarou rrjv crapKa ecrravpojaav, which may be rendered, it is the
t
normal disposition of those who are Christ's to crucify the flesh. There is
difference of opinion among grammarians as to whether the strict
gnomic aorist occurs in the New Testament, but there are unquestionably many instances which must be classified under this head
(cf. R. 836f.).
(2) The Epistolary Aorist A Greek writer would sometimes place himself at the viewpoint of his reader ol
readers, and use an aorist indicative in stating an act or
event which was present or future to him.
cnrov8aior€po)s o5v'iirepxf/aabrbv.
The more quickly, therefore, I am sending him. Phs. 2:28.
See also: Ac. 23:30; Col. 4:8.
"This idiom is merely a matter of standpoint. The writer looks
at his letter as the recipient will" (B. 845). It is a case where the
writer "puts himself in the place of his reader and describes as past
that which is to himself present, but which will be past to his reader"
(Br. 21). The epistolary aorist occurs in Latin, and is of very
frequent occurrence in the papyri. "There is therefore no adequate
reason for denying its presence in the New Testament" (R. 846).
(3) The Dramatic Aorist. The aorist may be used for
stating a present reality with the certitude of a past event.
This idiom is a device for emphasis. I t is commonly used
of a state which has just been realized, or a result which
has just been accomplished, or is on the point of bein&
accomplished.
vvv edo^aadrj 6 vlbs TOV avOp&irov.
Now is the Son of man glorified. Jn. 13:31.
See also; Mt. 3:17; 1 Cor. 4:18.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
199
i. Moulton thinks that "we have probably to do here with one of
the most ancient uses of the aorist" (M. 135), and Robertson agrees,
describing this idiom as "possibly the oldest use of the tense
(R. 841).
ii. Robertson is undoubtedly correct in his contention that the
aorist can never be properly said to be "used for" other tenses.
In fact, this whole practice of saying that one idiom of a language
is used for another results from the projection of one's own idiom
into another language. For instance, a Greek might say that our
simple past is equivalent to the aorist, but that the best English
writers frequently use the present-perfect for the simple past, because
our present-perfect approximates the Greek aorist in certain constructions. Yet, as a matter of fact, no English writer ever uses the
present-perfect for anything other than its own function. The same
is true of those who used the Greek tenses. Where two or more
tenses are grouped together in the same context it but proves
"how keen the distinction was felt to be" (R. 838). We sometimes
find the aorist and imperfect side by side, but we are not to conclude
for that reason that either is used for the other. Each performs its
own distinctive function. In such ''juxtaposition the aorist lifts the
curtain and the imperfect continues the play" (ibid.; cf. Mk.
12:41-44). Burton sums the matter up correctly when he observes
that the possibility of confusion as to the relation of the aorist to
the perfect results "from the difference between the English and
Greek idiom" (Br. 24).
,k
iii. It is well to notice particularly the difference between the aorist
and present infinitive. The aorist infinitive denotes that which is
eventual or particular, while the present infinitive indicates a cond£
tion or process. Thus TncfTevaai is to exercise faith on a given occasion, while iricrrebeiv is to be a believer; SovKevaat is to render a
service, while dovXevetv is to be a slave; aixapreiv is to commit a sin,
while afiapTCLveiv is to be a sinner. These distinctions are typical
and basal, though plastic in actual usage.
iv. Robertson calls attention to the difficulty of obtaining an
accurate translation of the aorist. To attempt to translate it
invariably by the simple past of the English would, in the majority
of cases, do violence to the real shade of meaning intended to be
conveyed. We should take into consideration the significance of the
tense, find its relation to the context, consider the nature of the
verbal idea, decide upon the resultant meaning, and select the
200
A MANUAL
GRAMMAB
English idiom which will most nearly represent that meaning. Probably in no point have translators made more blunders than they have
in rendering the aorist. Moulton regards the matter as "so important that no apology is needed for an extended enquiry." He proves
his sincerity in this statement by devoting six pages to a discussion
of the question (M. 135-140). He gives chief attention to the
relation of the aorist to the English simple past and perfect. There
are also instances in which the English past-perfect best represents
the aorist (cf. Mt. 22:34). No better equipment for interpretation
can be secured than an adequate understanding of this tense.
The Perfect Tense
182. The perfect is the tense of complete action. Its
basal significance is the progress of an act or state to a
point of culmination and the existence of its finished results.
That is, i t views action as a finished product. Gildersleeve
significantly remarks that i t "looks at both ends of the
action" (op. tit, p. 99). I t implies a process, but views
that process as having reached its consummation and existing in a finished state. The point of completion is always
antecedent to the time implied or stated in connection with
the use of the perfect. I t might be graphically represented
thus:
•
183. I n the indicative the perfect signifies action as complete from the point of view of present time. Its exact
meaning is often difficult to render, because of a blending
of the sense with the English simple past. This makes the
impression upon the English student that the line of distinction between aorist and perfect in Greek is not clearly
marked, but the confusion arises from the effort to explain
the Greek in the terms of our own idiom. I t is best to
assume that there is a reason for the perfect wherever it
occurs.
i. It is easy, under the influence of our English idiom, to confuse tr^
Greek aorist and perfect. But, though it is true that "the line between
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
201
the aorist and perfect is not always easy to draw" (M. 141), yet it is very
necessary that we always assume that the line is there, and do our best
to find it. The fact is that the two tenses come very close to each other
in actual usage, and in Modern Greek have practically blended, yet
to suppose "that the old distinction of aorist and perfect was already
obsolete" is "entirely unwarrantable" (ibid). The fundamental difference between the perfect and aorist is vividly illustrated in Col. 1:16.
We have first the statement, hv avTCp eKrladr] ra iravTa, all
things were created by him. which simply notes the fact that Christ was
the active agent in creation^ while the last clause, TairavTa du avrov
9
Kai eis abrbv e/crtcrrat, all things through him and unto him have
been created, views the universe as a result of Christ's creative activity—
it is a "Christ-created universe."
ii. We should certainly in fairness take it for granted that the
New Testament writer intended the differentiation of meaning which
is represented in this distinction, whether we are able to understand
fully his reason or not. One who says that "on the whole, then, it
seems necessary to admit that the distinction between aorist and
perfect is beginning to be obliterated in the New Testament"
(Simcox: op. cit., p. 106), is too much influenced by English idiom.
It is much more in keeping with a sound linguistic sense when
the same writer insists that one "ought, in every case, to look
for a reason for one tense being used rather than the other"
(ibid.).
iii. The reason for the confusion of the Greek perfect and aorist
by the English student is that these tenses in Greek are not
coextensive in their use with the corresponding English tenses.
The Greek aorist is much wider in range than the English simple
past, while the Greek perfect is more restricted in use than the
parallel English tense. An extensive and excellently discriminating
discussion of this point may be found in Br. 23-30.
184. The significance of the perfect tense in presenting
action as having reached its termination and existing in its
finished results lies at the basis of its uses. Emphasis, as
indicated by the context or the meaning of the verb root,
may be on either the completion of the action or on its
finished results. This possible difference in emphasis lies
at the basis of the variation in the uses of the perfect tense?
202
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(1) The Intensive Perfect. I t is most in keeping with
the basal significance of the tense to place emphasis upon
the existing results, for i t is distinctively the tense of the
"finished product." When special attention is thus directed
to the results of the action, stress upon the existing fact is
intensified. This is the emphatic method in Greek of presenting a fact or condition. I t is the strong way of saying
that a thing is. There is no exact equivalent of this idiom
in English, consequently there is no way to give i t an
exact translation. Usually its closest approximation is the
English present, but i t is important to bear in mind that
it is not a mere duplicate of the Greek present. I t presents an existing fact more forcibly than either the Greek
or English present could possibly do.
6 Se hiaKpivbpevos
edv
(payy
KaraKeKpirai.
But he who doubts is condemned if he eat. Rom. 14:23.
i. When fully rendered into English the meaning of this passage
is, but he who doubts has already been condemned, and is then in
a state of condemnation if he eat. And even this circumlocution fails
adequately to render the Greek, for it loses the conciseness and
pointed emphasis of the original—it spreads the emphasis out, so
to speak (see also: Lk. 24:46; Jas. 1:6).
ii. Burton calls this use the "Perfect of Existing State," and says
that to it "are to be assigned those instances in which the past is
practically dropped from thought, and the attention turned wholly
to the existing state" (Br. 38). Burton then employs the term
"intensive perfect" in listing a few special verbs the meaning of which
yields naturally to this use, but he makes the separate classification
with expressed hesitation, and we share in his doubt of its propriety.
(2) The Consummative Perfect. The other element in
the dual significance of the perfect tense is completed
action. I n the use of the perfect this is sometimes the
phase which is emphasized. Here i t is not an existing state,
but a consummated process which is presented. However,
we are not to suppose that the existing result is entirely
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
203
cut of sight, for "the writer had in mind both the past act
and the present result" (Br. 38). Otherwise he would have
used the aorist, which in the culminative sense denotes
completed action without reference to existing results. I n
the consummative perfect i t is not merely the process which
is denoted, but a consummated process, and consummation
implies result.
TreTkTjpcoKare
rrjv
'lepovaaXrjp, rr\s SiSax^s
vpcov.
Ye have filled Jerusalem with your teachings. Ac. 5:28.
See also: Rom. 5:5; 2 Tim. 4:7.
Whatever difference there is between the consummative perfect
and the culminative aorist consists in the reference of the former
to the results of the action. The culminative aorist sees the fact
chat the act has been consummated; the perfect sees the existence
of the consummated act. We might make a graphical distinction
thus: culminative aorist, presenting the fact that the process has
been completed,
• • consummative perfect, presenting the
completed process,
•
• intensive perfect, presenting
the results of the completed process,
•
. These distinctions are of course theoretical, but they constitute the basis of
practice as we find it in the actual text of the Greek. The English
student finds difficulty here because all three of these points of
view are included in the present-perfect in English.
(3) The Iterative Perfect. The process of which the
completion is represented in the perfect may have been one
of recurrent intervals rather than of continuous progress.
This idiom is a perfect of repeated action, but is a true
perfect, for i t is the fact that the recurrent instances have
established a certain result which is denoted by this use
of the tense. Its stress is upon completed action, but the
character of the action is iterative. I t is infrequent in the
New Testament.
Oebv ovdels e&paicep ir&Tore.
No one has seen God at any time. Jn. 1:18.
See also: Jn. 5:37; 2 Cor. 12:17.
204
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(4) The Dramatic Perfect. We have here what in former
classifications of tense usage we have called a special use,
but this single indirect application of the root idea of the
tense would hardly justify separate classification. I t is a
rhetorical application of the perfect tense. Since the perfect represents an existing state, ii may be used for the
purpose of describing a fact in an unusually vivid and
realistic way. The historical present and dramatic aorist
are also used in a sense similar to this, but for this purpose
the perfect is the most forcible of the three. I t is like our
vernacular expression when we wish to describe vividly the
expedition and ease with which one does a thing, "The first
thing you know, he has done i t . " The Greek would just
say, Tr€7roir]K€ TOVTO.
Like the intensive perfect, the dramatic perfect emphasizes the results of action. I n fact, it
is a sort of special rhetorical use of the intensive perfect,
for its emphasis is upon the existing state. The New Testament writers used this construction quite frequently.
v
airekd&v ireirpanev iravra 6aa &x* Having gone out he sold all that he had. Mt. 13:46.
i. This passage is found in the parable of the Pearl of Great
Price, and the dramatic perfect as used here stresses the haste and
eagerness with which the man sought to secure for himself the rich
treasure he had found. In colloquial English we would say, "He
goes out, and the first thing you know he's sold everything he has I"
See also: Jn. 1:15; Rev. 5:7.
ii. It is probable that the majority of the so-called "aoristic
perfects" in the New Testament may be included under this head—
if not all of them. Aoristic perfects there may be, for it appears
that the idiom is not unknown in earlier Greek, but the scholars
are not able to agree on the matter as it affects the New Testament.
It is with evident doubt that Moulton admits a bare residuum of
"those which have a fair claim to be thus regarded" (M. 145), and
even some of these are offered as but "tentative," and "propounded
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
205
with great hesitation" (M. 238). Burton, though positively maintaining that "the perfect tense was in the New Testament sometimes an aorist in force," yet considers that the usage was "confined
within narrow limits," and is found in but "a few forms" (Br. 44).
Robertson admits one case (2 Cor. 2:13) as "possible but not
quite certain," and concludes that "the New Testament writers
may be guilty of this idiom, but they have not as yet been proven
to be" (R. 901, 902). If there are instances of the aoristic perfect
in the New Testament, and possibly there are, the idiom is to be
counted as emphasis upon the punctiliar element in the perfect,
rather than a use of the perfect "for the aorist." It is quite conceivable that the use of the perfect might stress the performance of
an act or the initiation of a state to the extent of a preterite force,
but we should regard the idea of finished result as still present, even
though we are unable to translate it into English. Since the matter
is involved in doubt, we do not give the aoristic perfect as a
separate classification. In fact, it is our definite opinion that
those so regarded in the New Testament are in reality dramatic
perfects.
The Pluperfect Tense
185. Since the pluperfect is but the perfect indicative of
past time, the significance and principal uses are the same.
I t represents action as complete and the results of the
action in existence at some point in past time, the point
of time being indicated by the context. The temporal force
of the pluperfect is incidental, arising from its use in the
indicative, but since i t is used only in the indicative it
never occurs without time significance. That is to say, the
essential and invariable temporal reference of the pluperfect indicative arises ultimately from the mood rather than
the tense.
(1) The Intensive Pluperfect. I n the use of the pluperfect, as we saw in the perfect, the emphasis may be upon
the existing results. Here stress is laid upon the reality of
the fact, which enables i t to be presented with more force
206
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
than could be done with the aorist, but the only device for
construing i t in English is the simple past.
avdpes dvo TrapiaTrjKeLaav avrois.
Two men stood by them. Ac. 1:10.
See also: Lk. 4:41; Jn. 18:16.
(2) The Consummative Pluperfect. The pluperfect may
represent action as a process completed in past time at
some point indicated by the context.
fjdt] yap crvverideivro oi TouScuoi.
For the Jews had already agreed. Jn. 9:22.
See also: Lk. 8:2; Ac. 9:21.
i. There is but one construction in the New Testament which we
can positively conclude is an iterative pluperfect (Lk. 8:29), and
this one occurrence does not justify separate treatment. The dra~
matic pluperfect does not occur at all, since it is the character oi
action which is the special point in this construction, and for this
the perfect entirely serves the purpose.
ii. The future-perfect is rare in the New Testament, and its few
occurrences may be interpreted in the light of the basal distinctions which exist in the perfect and pluperfect (cf. R. 906).
The Interpretation o£ Tense
186. Throughout the foregoing discussion we have persistently reiterated our insistence upon the student's investigating three matters in forming his conclusion as to the
significance of a particular use of a tense; viz., the basal
function of the tense, the relation to the context, and the
significance of the verbal idea. I t is not well to leave the
consideration of tense without making this matter explicit,
for upon the proper apprehension of this process is conditioned the accurate and effective use of whatever knowl-
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
207
edge of tense the student may have acquired. As an example observe Rom. 6:12, ixrj dbv ftacrChevirw fj i/zapria,
therefore, let not sin reign. Here jSaaxXeuera; is the
present active imperative, third person, singular, from
j3a<TL\evG). (1) Note first the tense function. The present
signifies continuous action. (2) As to the contextual relation, Paul is here discussing the obligation of the believer
to practice pure conduct as the only life commensurate with
the significance of his spiritual experience in salvation,
wherein he was ushered into a new spiritual state. Hence
the prohibition is against the constant domination of sin.
(3) This harmonizes exactly with the significance of the
verbal idea, forfiacrCKebeivmeans primarily to be engaged
in a process of ruling, though in the aorist i t may mean to
become king. The present tense here certainly preserves
its root idea. Hence in the light of the three cardinal considerations in the exegesis of a verb we may render this
passage, "Let not sin go on reigning in your mortal body."
i. If Paul had wanted to say here, "Do not let sin ever reign in your
mortal body," he would normally have used the aorist subjunctive of
prohibition, firjfiaorCKevay.We would, of course, avoid agitating the
theological problem which smolders just under the surface here, it
being our purpose only to call attention to the linguistic phenomenon.
There can be no doubt that the point Paul intended to emphasize here
was restraint from the constant practice of sin.
t
ii. The judgment of tense is one of the realms in which the
gravest errors have occurred in the translation and interpretation
of the New Testament. Winer is unquestionably just in bringing
charge that at this point "New Testament grammarians and expositors have been guilty of the greatest mistakes" (W. 264). This
statement, made a hundred years ago, would perhaps need some
modification now, in view of the encouraging progress made in the
understanding of the Greek tenses since Winer's day, so that "a
multitude of absurdities have been removed" (Bt. 195), but certainly it is not ye* wholly inapplicable.
208
A. M A N U A L
GRAMMAR
iii. Perhaps nothing has been better preserved in Greek than the
idiomatic force of the tenses. While it is going too far to say
that they "are employed in the New Testament in exactly the
same manner as in the Greek authors" (W. 264), yet the wealth
of variety in the Greek tenses was by no means an unconscious
possession of the New Testament writers. Slight changes of meaning and delicate variations are flashed back and forth in manypassages (cf. Mt. 4:11; Rom. 3:23). We have no right whatever
to assume that these writers were using such varieties of tense in
reckless carelessness. A sufficiently close examination, with the
genius of the tense in mind, will generally reveal a significant reason
for each variation. Therefore, "whenever our mode of conception
departs from the tense employed, it is our business to transfer
ourselves to the position of the writer, and take pains in every case
to apprehend the temporal relation which corresponds to the tense
he used, and, if possible, to reproduce it" (Bt. 195). It should be
added to Buttmann's statement that the "temporal relation" is an
entirely subordinate matter, for the aktionsart of the tense is the
preeminent consideration, and the point which the student should
diligently seek to understand.
IV. T H E INFINITIVE
References: R. 1051-95; R-S. 187-192; M. 202-218.
187. Intelligent expression inevitably occasions at times
the naming of an action with substantival relations in a
sentence. Here we have noun and verb occupying common
ground. This may be sometimes expressed by an ordinary
noun of action, but is more forcefully expressed by a verbal
substantive. For this function the chief device of language
is the infinitive, which doubtless reached its highest known
stage of development and variety of usage in the Greek
language.
The Origin and Nature o£ the Greek Infinitive
188. The infinitive is strictly a verbal noun and not a
mood. Its significance in Greek can never be appreciated
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
209
until this fact is recognized. No idiom is more decidedlypeculiar to the language than this substantive character of
the infinitive. Frequently i t occurs in constructions where
its idiomatic nature is so fully demonstrated that even the
novice cannot fail to discern it. A splendid example may
be seen in Heb. 2:15: "Who, because of the fear of death,
were subjects of bondage Std WCLVTOS TOV £fjv, through all
their lives." Here the infinitive £fjv is accompanied by a
preposition, modified by an adjective, defined by the article, and used in the genitive case: distinctive and essential
characteristics of a pure noun. Though this particular example is the most elaborate infinitive construction in the
New Testament, yet i t is without any doubt typical Greek
usage. Plato has 8ia iravros TOV elvai, a striking parallel
to the example just cited from Hebrews. I n the papyri
we find ajua r $ Xa/3eu>, immediately upon receipt, where
the noun characteristics are not so many as above, but quite
as pronounced (P. Tebt, 421). The exact translation of
such a construction into English is not possible, so the
student must learn to sense the force of the Greek idiom.
189. The history of the Greek infinitive shows that it
was a noun in its origin. Its earliest appearance in Sanskrit is as a derivative abstract noun, usually in the dative
case (Whitney: Sansk. Gram., p. 203). Robertson's thorough review of the matter brings him to the conclusion: " I t
is then as a substantive that the infinitive makes its start"
(R. 1052). Goodwin likewise assumes "that the Greek
infinitive was originally developed . . . chiefly from the
dative of a primitive verbal noun" (op. cit, p. 297). The
very form of the infinitive manifests its substantival nature,
for i t is a relic of declension rather than of conjugation,
representing two primitive noun inflections—the dative and
locative. But while these case forms are conclusively evi-
210
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
dent, they are not observed in the actual relations of the
infinitive, for we find that a form which is clearly dative
is used in a nominative or accusative relation (cf. R. 1057).
I t may be that its assumption of verbal characteristics and
functions caused the Greek infinitive to lose its substantive
inflection. But this obscuration of its formal significance
had no effect upon its essential noun force.
190. The beginning of voice and tense in the infinitive
must be consigned to the prehistoric period of the Greek
language. Voice of the infinitive is not found in Sanskrit
and is found in Homer; consequently i t must have been
after the origin of the Greek as a distinct language that the
infinitive assumed voice distinctions. I t is certain that
voice and tense are a secondary development, and that substantive form and function are original (cf. R. 1079).
i. Robertson says of the history of the infinitive: "The story is
one of the most interesting in the history of language" (R. 1056).
The primitive Greek infinitive was nothing more than a noun in the
dative or locative case, without tense or voice. Other functions
later accrued to its use, but the noun force it never lost. In the
Homeric infinitive the case significance has become very much obscured, and strict verbal elements have appeared, both as to form
and function; yet it still retains some of its original case distinction, and the article is not yet used with it. In the Attic the infinitive reaches the zenith of its development. It has lost entirely
the significance of its dative and locative case forms, but retains
in full its noun force and assumes all the case functions (except
vocative, if that may be called a case). In this stage we find the
article with the infinitive, helping to preserve its substantive character. The KoinS infinitive maintains all its classical force and
varieties of use, but evidences of decay appear as the period advances. In Modem Greek only fragments of the infinitive remain
(cf. T. 116). "Outside the Pontic dialect the infinitive is dead, both
anarthrous and articular, save with the auxiliary verbs" (R. 1056).
ii. Proper understanding of the Greek infinitive is conditioned
upon an adequate apprehension of its dual character. As an aid
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
211
to that end we will present in parallel columns a list of its noun
and verb characteristics.
As a noun:
As a verb:
It has case relations.
It is accompanied by a preposition.
It is used as a subject.
It is used as an object.
It modifies other words.
It takes the article.
It is qualified by adjectives.
It
It
It
It
has voice.
has tense.
takes an object.
is qualified by adverbs.
Note that the noun characteristics are in the ascendancy.
The Articular Infinitive
191. Nothing distinguishes the noun force of the infinitive
more than its ase with the article. Gild'ersleeve says: "By
the substantial loss of its dative force the infinitive became
verbalized; by the assumption of the article it was substantivized again with a decided increment of its power"
(Am. Jour, of Phil. I l l , p. 195). The articular infinitive
was a distinctively Attic idiom, though not exclusively so,
for i t occurs a few times in other Greek dialects. I t appears with relative frequency in the New Testament, and
is there true to Attic usage (cf. M . 214). This item is one
of the proofs of the general good quality of New Testament Greek, as is clear by comparison with the papyri.
192. The presence of the article with the infinitive has
no fixed effect upon its varieties in use. That is, a particular use may occur with or without the article, at the
option of the writer, in accordance with his desire to make
the expression specific or general (see §146, i i i ) . As to
the New Testament, an apparent exception to the above
statement is the infinitive with a preposition, which is
always articular; but the anarthrous infinitive with a
212
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
preposition occurs elsewhere in 3iblical Greek, and also in
the literary Koine (cf. Votaw: Inf. in Bib. Gr., p. 5; Allen:
Inf. in Polybius, etc., p. 49), hence the absence of this construction from the New Testament must be regarded as
incidental. A thorough canvass of the evidence leads to
the conclusion that the article made no radical change in
the function of the infinitive. I t cannot be said, however,
that i t was without effect. The article influenced the
infinitive at two points.
(1) Historical Significance. The article "did serve to
restore the balance between the substantive and verbal
aspects of the infinitive" (R. 1054). We have observed
that the infinitive originated as a noun with dative-locative
ending. I n Homer the significance of this case form has
faded to a bare trace, and verbal characteristics are gaining in prominence. The decided direction of development
here is toward the loss of the substantive nature. But
another line of development in Greek comes in just here to
save the noun force of the infinitive. The article is arising
from a primitive demonstrative pronoun, and assuming its
function of particular designation, and its intimate connection with the substantive. But the fact that in Greek i t
was not confined in use exclusively to the substantive permitted i t to be employed with the infinitive—along with
other parts of speech. Henceforth the increase in use of
the articular infinitive keeps pace with the growth of the
article. There can be no reasonable doubt that this association of the infinitive with the article helped to sustain
the substantive force of the infinitive.
(2) Grammatical Significance. I n some constructions
the infinitive appears more natural with the article as an
indication of its distinctive case; as, for instance, when it
is the object of a verb which takes the genitive (2 Cor,
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
21S
1:8), or when i t is used with a preposition (cf. Mk. 4:6
and Gal. 3:23).
a. The article unquestionably makes the infinitive more
adaptable to use with prepositions. This, in fact, is the most
prevalent use of the articular infinitive in the New Testament, there being some two hundred occurrences of it, as
compared with the entire absence of such a use of the anarthrous infinitive and thirty-three telic uses of the articular
infinitive—the next use in order of frequency (cf. Votaw:
op. cit, pp. 46, 47). When employed with prepositions, the
articular infinitive conforms with regular case usage. For
instance, Sta with TOV means through (Heb. 2:15), while
with TO it means because (Jas. 4:2).
6. Without the preposition we commonly find the articular
infinitive in the appropriate case. The infinitive with TO is
generally in harmony with the case significance of the
article, occurring in nominative and accusative constructions.
The infinitive with TOV is frequently found modifying a noun
in the normal way (Heb. 5:12), or as object of a verb which
regularly takes the genitive (Lk. 1:9), or ablative (Rom.
15:22). I t is also employed widely in expressions of purpose,
occasionally for result, and for various other constructions.
I t is quite a frequent construction. We find used with
the infinitive without the preposition but once in the entire
New Testament, and there i t is the instrumental of cause
(2 Cor. 2:13). The infinitive with r<3 is almost invariably
accompanied by the preposition ev.
c. I t is to be observed, however, that the conformity of
the case of the article with the case relation of the infinitive is not a fixed rule. We may find, for instance, a subject
infinitive accompanied by rod (Ac. 27:1).
i. The parallel uses of the anarthrous and articular infinitive may
be best exhibited by presenting a brief tabular view of their com-
214
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
parative number of occurrences in a few of the principal infinitive
constructions. We get these figures from Votaw (op. cit., pp. 46,
47) :—
PreposiApposi- tional
Subject Object tion
Object Purpose Result
Anarth. Inf
289
1104
13
261
82
Artie. Inf
27
29
5
200
33
4
ii. Prof. Votaw's work, which was prepared with extreme care by
a scholar of extraordinary ability, discloses to us that the infinitive
is used 2276 times in the New Testament, of which 1957 occurrences
are anarthrous, and 319 articular.
The Uses o£ the Infinitive
193. There is no other part of speech more widely used
in the New Testament than the infinitive. Its dual nature
enables i t to perform a large number and variety of functions. These functions may be classified under the two
phases of its character, verbal and substantival. The two
phases are both present in all its uses, but one is naturally
more prominent than the other. I t is by this comparative
prominence that we determine the classification.
Verbal Uses of the Infinitive
194. Here we place those uses in which the relation of
the infinitive to its context is defined chiefly by its character as a verb. That is, i t functions just as would a
finite verb of the appropriate mood in a dependent, or (in
one use) in an independent clause.
(1) Purpose. The infinitive may be used to express the
aim of the action denoted by the finite verb. This is a
very common New Testament method for expressing purpose.
Kal rjKdoixev Tpoaicvpyjaai avrcg.
And we have come to worship him. Mt. 2:2.
See also: Mt. 5:17; Lk.
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
215
Purpose may be expressed by the simple infinitive, the infinitive with
TOV (Ac. 9:15), the infinitive with a preposition (els, 1 Ths. 3:5; irpbs
Mt. 6:1), or with wore (Lk. 4:29) or cos (Lk. 9:52).
y
(2) Result There are a few instances in the New Testament (eighty-six according to Votaw, op. cit, pp. 46, 47)
where the infinitive is clearly used to signify result. The
distinction between purpose and result is far from exact,
and in many constructions there is a blending of the two
in which it is difficult to decide which should be regarded
as the more prominent, but in quite a number of instances
the significance of result is perfectly clear.
evodudrjaojJiaL eKOelv irpbs bpas.
I shall be prospered to come to you. Rom. 1:10.
See also: Ac. 5:3; Rom. 7:3.
i. Result may be expressed by the simple infinitive (Col. 4:3), the
infinitive with TOV (AC. 18:10), and the infinitive with els (Ac. 7:19).
Most frequently the infinitive of result is used with cocrre (Lk. 12:1).
ii. There are three points of view from which result may be
expressed by the infinitive. It may represent actual result (Mk.
9:26); it may represent conceived result, that which follows in the
nature of the case, or is assumed as a consequence (1 Cor. 13:2); it
may represent intended result, when the result is indicated as fulfilling a deliberate aim (Lk. 20:20). The last-mentioned construction is a blending of purpose and result.
(3) Time. The infinitive may be used as the equivalent
of a temporal clause. But "temporal relations are only
vaguely expressed by the infinitive" (R. 1091). I t does
not have within itself any significance of time, but may
derive a temporal meaning from the context and its use
with a preposition or particle. Three viewpoints of time
are presented by this usage in the New Testament.
a. The infinitive with irpiv or irplv fj is used to express
antecedent time.
7rph> fj Sis aXeKTopa <po)vyjaaL.
Before the cock crow twice. Mk. 14:30.
See also: Jn. 4:49; Ac. 2:20.
216
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
&. I n the locative construction with ev TO) the infinitive
denotes contemporaneous time.
KaX ev TOO aireipeiv avrov.
As he was sowing. Mt. 13:4.
See also: Lk. 1:21; Ac. 9:3.
c. The infinitive with juerd TO is used to express subsequent time.
juerd TO eyepdrjvai jue.
After I have risen. Mt. 26:32
See also: Lk. 12:5; Ac. 1:3.
(4) Cause. The accusative infinitive with Std is a very
natural construction for the expression of cause.
evdeus e^avereCKev dia TO p,ij exeiv jSaflos yijs.
Immediately it sprang up because it had no depth of earth. Mt. 13:5.
See also: Mk. 5:4; Jas. 4:2.
There is but one instance of the articular infinitive without a
preposition being used in the New Testament to express cause
(2 Cor. 2:13). In this construction the infinitive is generally accompanied by 5ia TO, though once we find evenev TOV (2 Cor. 7:12).
(5) Command. This is commonly called "the imperative
infinitive." I t is the only independent use of the Greek
infinitive, and is not of very frequent occurrence. " I t is of
ancient origin, being especially frequent in Homer" (Br.
146). The construction suggests a close kinship between
the infinitive and imperative. I n fact, "the probability is
that imperative forms like del^ai . . . are infinitive in
origin" (R. 943). Though this idiom is rare in the New
Testament, i t is a current Koine usage, for the papyri contain many occurrences of it. Moulton thinks that its
rarity in the New Testament is a "matter for surprise"
(M. 180).
els 6 epdacrapiev, TOO OVTOO aToixelv
Whereunto we have attained, by this walk. Phs. 3:16.
See also: Rom. 12:15; Tit. 2:2.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
217
i. An example of the imperative infinitive in patristic Greek may
be found in the DidachS, 14:3: irpocrcpepeiv juot dvaiav Kadapdv^
offer to me a pure sacrifice.
ii. The infinitive in indirect discourse is the practical equivalent
of a clause, and may be expressed with a finite verb, for which
reason it might be justly included under the present classification.
But it is also to be regarded as the object of a verb of saying. It
is classified by Votaw as a variety of the infinitive used as a verbal
object (op. cit. pp. 8f.). Hence verb force and noun force are quite
evenly balanced in this construction. This use of the infinitive will
come in for more prominent notice at §285.
f
Substantival Uses of the Infinitive
195. I n some constructions the relation of the infinitive
to its context exhibits more clearly its character as a noun.
I t performs the typical noun functions of subject, object,
indirect object, instrument, apposition, and substantive
modifier.
(1) Subject. The infinitive may function in exactly the
same way that a noun would as the subject of a finite verb.
We have the same usage in English; for instance, "To prevent the deed was his purpose."
TO yap deheiv TrapaneiTai poi.
For to will is present with me. Rom. 7:18.
See also: Mt. 3:15; Eph. 5:12.
(2) Object. The substantive character of the infinitive
enables i t quite readily to serve as the object of a finite
verb.
Kal e^rjTovv avTOV KpaTrjcrat.
And they sought to lay hold on him. Mk. 12:12.
See also: 2 Cor. 8:11; Phs. 2:6.
This use is generally with verbs the meaning of which adapts
itself naturally to an infinitive complement. This is in line with
the fundamental relationship of the object to its verb, for a substantive object is essentially the complement of the verbal idea
f
218
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
We would, therefore, include under this head most of the cases oi
the so-called "complementary infinitive." The complementary infinitive used with nouns or adjectives is really an infinitive modifier,
and close scrutiny will always disclose the case relation.
(3) Indirect Object. An infinitive may function as the
secondary object of a verb, just as would a noun in the
dative case. This use of the infinitive conveys a mild telic
force, being used to express "that for which or with reference to which the action or state of the governing verb is
performed or exists" (Votaw: op. cit., p. 11; cf. Br. 147).
rj adeKcprj pov [xoprjv jxe KareKencev oianoveiv.
My sister has been leaving me to serve alone. Lk. 10:40.
See also: Lk. 7:40; Ac. 7:42.
(4) Instrument. The infinitive sometimes functions as
a noun in the instrumental case, "to define more closely the
content of the action denoted by a previous verb or noun"
(Br. 150). Burton classifies this use as a species of the
infinitive of conceived result, but its essential function is
that of a noun in the instrumental case.
6 Xpiarbs oi>% eavrop edo^aaep yevrjdyjpat apxicpea.
Christ glorified not himself by becoming a high priest. Heb. 5:5.
We have here a sort of instrumental of material, used metaphorically to describe more fully the content of the verbal idea. In Ac.
15:10, "Why tempt ye God by putting (eiriQeiPai) a yoke upon the
neck of the disciples," the infinitive phrase explains more fully what
is meant by tempting God. The instrumental of cause is clear in the
use of the infinitive in 2 Cor. 2:13, "I had no relief for my spirit
because of not finding (TO} fxij evpelp) Titus my brother."
(5) Apposition. The infinitive is found in apposition
with a substantive.
6 aytaapbs vp,&p airexe&Oai airb TTJS Toppeias.
Your sanctification is to abstain from fornication. 1 Ths. 4:3.
See also: Ac. 15:28; Jas. 1:27.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
219
(6) Modifier. Just as substantives may modify one another in various case relations, so an infinitive may modify
a substantive. Many nouns and adjectives have a meaning
which is specially adapted to an infinitive construction,
such as authority, need, ability, fitness, etc.
a. The infinitive may modify a noun in a typical substantive relation.
edcoKep avTols e^ovaiav reuva Oeov yeveadau.
He gave them the right to become children of God. Jn. 1:12.
See also: Mt. 3:14; Rev. 11:18.
b. The infinitive may modify an adjective with a regular
substantive function.
oivc elpl iKavos
\vaai.
I am not worthy to loose. Mk. 1:7.
See i\lso: 1 Cor. 7:39; 1 Pt. 1:5.
i. The substantive force of the infinitive modifier may be seen
by substituting in its place a noun in the same case relation. So
in Jn. 1:12 we might read, "He gave them the right of a condition
as children of God"; while Mk. 1:7 may be changed to, "I am
not worthy of the most humble service."
ii. A typical illustration of the idiomatic force of the Greek infinitive
may be seen in Heb. 5:11, where it is used in exactly the relation of an
adverbial accusative of reference: irepl ov wo\vs vpXv 6 \byos nal
(ivaepfxrjvevTOS \eyeiv, concerning whom we have much to say and hard
to be explained, which, literally rendered, would read, concerning whom
we have an important discourse, and one hard of interpretation with reference
to its statement (cf. Gal. 5:3). A descriptive genitive may be found in
v
Rom. 13:11: &pa 7)677 p,as e§ virvov eyepdrjvai, it is high time already
for you to be awakened out of sleep; i.e., it is already the hour of your
awaking out of sleep. An equivalent of the genitive of apposition
occurs in Lk. 2:1: e%qkdev 86yp,a airoypapeadai
waaav Trjv OLKOVpevrjv, there went out a decree that all the world should be enrolled; i.e.,
a decree of enrollment for the whole world; likewise in Rom. 1:28: els
adoKtixov vovv, iroelv rd p,rj KadrjKovra, to a reprobate mind, to do
those things which are not becoming; i.e., to a mind of unbecoming deeds.
The infinitive thus used with the force of a, substantive modifiei is
220
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
frequent in the New Testament. It is hardly possible to emphasize
too much the importance of keeping in mind the substantive character of the Greek infinitive.
V . T H E PARTICIPLE
References:
R. 1095-1141; R-S. 193-198; M. 220-232.
196. There are few languages which have equalled the
Greek in the abundance and variety of its use of the participle, and certainly none has surpassed it. The Greek
participle is found in all three of the principal tenses, and
^the future in addition, and in all three voices. There is a
wide range in the variation of its "logical force or modal
function" (pr. 163); that is, the different modes of expression in which i t is employed. This wealth of significance
which belonged to the Greek participle at the zenith of its
development lies undiminished before the student of the
New Testament, and becomes a valuable asset in interpret
tation when adequately comprehended. The comparatively
generous use of the participle in English greatly facilitates
the matter of translation. "The English participle is much
like the Greek in its freedom and adaptability" (R-S. 193).
The Origin and Nature o£ the Participle
197. The participle, like the infinitive, is not a mood but
a verbal substantive. But while the infinitive maintained
itself as a noun, the participle became an adjective. I t ,
therefore, developed inflectionally much more than the infinitive, and came to be declined as an ordinary adjective
With variations in form for gender, number, and case. I t
took on the distinctions of voice and tense very early in its
history, exhibiting these characteristics even in the Sanskrit.
i. The participle became an adjective at a very primitive stage
of its development, and did not, as the infinitive, lose the significance
of its inflectional form, It continued to be in form, as well as func-
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
221
tion, an adjective. The verbal characteristics of voice and tense
and contextual relations, such as subject, object, etc., did not displace the adjectival elements, but were simply added to them. In
Sanskrit the participle was superior to the infinitive in development. Whitney tells us that participles are found representing both
voices and all the tense stems except the periphrastic future and
aorist (op. cit., p. 220). The earlier language had the aorist participle, but it has disappeared from the later Sanskrit. In Homer
"the participle occurs as a fully developed part of speech'" (R.
1098). It flourishes abundantly in the classical Greek, and is found
on the increase in the literary Koine, but was not popular in
vernacular usage, as is witnessed by the papyri. Here again the
New Testament as a whole inclines toward literary usage, for in
it the participle is extensively used, though not so much as in
thr strictly literary Koine. In Modern Greek the participial construction is fading, but still survives and is represented in active,
middle, and passive voices (T. 168).
ii. The extent of participial usage in the New Testament varies
with different authors, in accordance with their literary training
and taste. Luke shows the greatest fondness for the participle,
particularly in the book of Acts. Especially noticeable is the frequency in the New Testament of the aorist participle. This is
typical Greek usage, for though the aorist participle was lost from
the Sanskrit and fails to appear in the Latin, ye't it is very abundant
in Greek, doubtless due to the fact that Greek is an "aorist-loving
language" (Broadus).
The Participle Compared W i t h the
Infinitive
198. Because of their intimate relations in nature and
function i t is not amiss for us to get a comprehensive view
of the infinitive and participle compared. There are certain points of similarity, and just as decided points of difference. I t will be noticed that the differences exceed considerably the similarities.
(1) Similarities. I n their general character both belong
to the class of verbal substantives, and may be used with
or without the article. Both are indefinite in their bearing
222
A MANtJAL
GRAMMAR
upon the limits of action; that is, they are infinitival in
nature.
(2) Differences. The infinitive is an indeclinable noun,
which originally had a fixed dative-locative ending, but in
historical Greek is used in all the cases, though only in the
singular number. On the other hand, the participle has a
pronounced adjective function, following the adjective rule
of agreement with the noun, and declined in both numbers
and in all the genders and cases. The substantive form of
the infinitive has lost its significance, while the adjective
form of the participle is fully recognized. The infinitive
is ordinarily connected closely with the verb, while the
participle is more intimately related to the subject or object.
The participle generally contemplates action as real, while
the infinitive implies the potential. For instance, in Lk.
16:3, "to beg I am ashamed/' the infinitive eiraiTeZv contemplates an undesirable possibility; while to make the
statement represent an actual fact in process of occurrence,
the participle would be more adaptable; e.g., ewaLT&p
aicrxvvoixaij
I am ashamed because I am begging. There
is, however, a margin in which they come very near each
other in function; as, for instance, in indirect discourse.
But their significance in indirect discourse is not to be
regarded as identical (cf. R. 1103).
An interesting point of differentiation between the infinitive and
participle may be cited from a work belonging to the middle of the
nineteenth century:
The use of the infinitive in dependent clauses may be thus distinguished from the use of the participle. The infinitive is used
when the real object of the governing verb is an act or state, yvooaovai rpecpeiv TTJV y\coaaav
rjavx^repav.
The participle is
used when the real object of the governing verb is a person or thing
whose act or state is described by the participle, opco avOpooTOP
airodvrjatcovTa.
The infinitive is a substantive expressing an act
or state; the participle is an adjective expressing an act or state; if,
THE
GREEK.
NEW
TESTAMENT
223'
then, the object of a verb is an act or state, the verb is followed
by an infinitive, used like a common noun. But when the object
of a verb is a person or thing, the participle agrees with the
object, and expresses its act or state. (Jacob: Greek Grammar,
§135.)
To this we may add some observations of Webster, from whose
work the above quotation is adopted:
The infinitive is most frequently used as a supplement of other
ideas, and especially of verbal ideas. If the idea expressed
by a verb is complete, the verb denotes an independent event,
or an action finished in itself. If the idea is incomplete, the
verb requires a more accurate definition by way of supplement
to convey the idea with perfect clearness. . . . Verbs which
denote the operation of sensation require only the supplement
of the object to which the feeling is directed, and by which
it is excited. This is expressed by the participle. Other verbs
which express an incomplete idea are supplemented by the
epexegetical infinitive, expressive of object, design, purpose
(op. cit., p. 108).
The Classification of the Participle
199. This matter has occasioned great diversity of opinion
among Greek grammarians. I n observation of this fact
reference may be had to such standard treatises as Hadley
and Allen, Goodwin, Burton, Robertson, etc. Hadley and
Allen divide participles into two classes, attributive
and predicate, and subdivide the latter into circumstantial
and supplementary {op. cit, p. 302). Goodwin offers a
threefold classification, attributive, circumstantial, and
supplementary, but admits that the "distinction between the
second and third of these classes is less clearly marked than
that between the first and the two others" {op. cit., p. 329).
Burton divides them into three classes, adjective, adverbial,
and substantive (Br. 163); and Robertson into two, adjectival and verbal (R. 1103f.). We propose here the twofold classification of adjectival and adverbial participle^
224
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
agreeing with Robertson that "the only way to get sym*
metry in the treatment of the participle is to follow the
line of its double nature (adjectival and verbal) and discuss
the adjectival functions and verbal functions separately"
(R. 1104). We have tried to offer some improvement in the
direction of simplification.
The Adjectival
Participle
200. I n keeping with its essential character, the participle may be used directly to limit or qualify a noun.
This qualification may be only a general ascription of that
which characterizes, or a clearly marked restriction to certain facts which define. We have, therefore, two uses of
the adjectival participle.
(1) The Ascriptive Use. I n this function the participle
ascribes some fact, quality, or characteristic directly to the
substantive, or denotes the substantive as belonging to a
general class. This is its most typical use as an adjective.
I t appears in the regular adjective capacities of attributive
predicate, and substantive.
a. The participle, like the adjective, may modify the
noun in the attributive relation. This construction may
occur without the article.
{
rjKpifHaxrev TOV xpovov TOV <paivop,evov aaTepos.
He ascertained the time of the appearing star. Mt. 2:7.
See also: Lk. 1:17; Ac. 10:1.
b. The participle may be used like an adjective in thfl
predicate, after a verb of being.
r\p.r\v 8e ayvoovfievos TO) ITpoahirto rats eKKkrjaiais.
But I was unknown by face to the churches. Gal. 1:22.
See also: Lk. 1:10; Ac. 5:25.
It is important to note a distinction observed by Burton between
three possible uses of the predicate participle. It may be a sub-
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
225
stantive participle which happens to stand in the predicate (Mk.
10:22); or it may be joined in sense to the copula in a periphrastic
verb form (Lk. 5:17); or it may function as a pure predicate
adjective, just as in the above example (see Br. 168).
c. When the participle is not accompanied by a noun i t
may function as a substantive. This construction may be
found with or without the article. I t may be used as subject, object, or modifier.
6 (pofiovpevos
avrbv
beards
avrco
earlv.
The one fearing him is acceptable to him. Ac. 10:35.
See also: Jn. 7:32; Heb. 2:9.
Here we have a construction analogous to the substantive adjective. The actor is identified in the action, rather than by a specific
term of designation. This idiom also approaches the function of
the infinitive.
(2) The Restrictive Use. The participle may denote an
affirmation that distinguishes the noun which i t qualifies as
in some way specially defined, or marked out in its particular identity. This use approximates the function of a
restrictive relative clause, and may usually be so translated in English. I t is to be differentiated from the ascriptive use in that, while the ascriptive participle only assigns
a quality or characteristic, the restrictive participle denotes
distinctiveness.
ovrbs
eanv
b apros
b en rov ovpavov
Karaf3aii>cov.
This is the bread which cometh down from heaven. Jn. 6:50.
See also: Mt. 10:4; Ac. 4:36.
The restrictive participle is not, strictly speaking, a different use
from the ascriptive participle, but an extension in use. It is the
ascriptive participle used to define in its distinctive identity the
word which it modifies. Its force is discerned in the general sense
and the context. If the restrictive participle denotes a fact assumed
as obvious or already known, it becomes explanatory in function (2
Cor. 2:17). A substantive participle may be used in the restrictive
Knse (Mt. 10:37; Ac. 10:35).
226
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
The Adverbial Participle
201. This is the use in which the participle is involved
in the relation of the noun which i t modifies to the action
or state expressed in the main verb, and exhibits predominant verbal characteristics. Robertson treats these uses
under the head of "Verbal Aspects of the Participle" (R.
lllOff.). We have adopted Burton's terminology for this
class (Br. 169ff.). Though in these uses the sense of the
participle may be rendered with a clause, we cannot correctly assume that i t is the syntactical equivalent of a
clause, for its adjective force is retained and relates it intimately with the noun as well as the verb. I t is simply an
adjective used to modify a verb, and hence may be appropriately called adverbial. The varieties in adverbial use
come, not from alterations in the essential function of the
participle, but from variations in the relation of its noun
to the main verb and the context. To indicate clearly the
significance of the different uses, we translate them below
with adverbial clauses, but let the student bear in mind
that most frequently that does not preserve the exact significance. Most often the English participle will best
render the Greek, for Greek and English are very similar
in their use of this idiom.
(1) The Telic Participle. Purpose may be denoted by
the participle; ordinarily, though not invariably, future. In
Ac. 15:27 we find a present participle used to express purpose. This, however, is rare. I n fact, the purpose participle is not a frequent occurrence in any form.
Wojixev el ep%erai
'HXetas
cr&crcov abrbv.
Let us see if Elijah comes to save him. Mt. 27:49.
See also: Ac. 3:26; Rom. 15:25.
(2) The Temporal Participle.
The participle is used in
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
227
the sense of a temporal clause, where i t may be translated
in English by when, after, or while.
IdovrestieTOV aorepa
ix^P^av.
And when they saw the star they rejoiced. Mt. 2:10.
See also: Rom. 4:10; 2 Cor. 2:13.
(3) The Causal Participle. The participle may denote
that which is the ground of action in the main verb. Here
it functions in the same general relation as a causal clause
introduced by because or since.
ebe^avTo avTbv wavra IwpaicbTes oVa eiroirjGev.
They received him because they had seen all that he did. Jn. 4:45.
See also: Mt. 3:6; 1 Tim. 4:8.
"*£2s prefixed to a Participle of Cause implies that the action
denoted by the participle is supposed, asserted, or professed by
someone, usually the subject of the principal verb, to be the cause
of the action of the principal verb. The speaker does not say
whether the supposed or alleged cause actually exists" (Br. 170).
(4) The Conditional Participle.
The participle may
function as the protasis of a conditional sentence.
e£ &v 8iaT7]povvTes iavrovs ev irpa^ere.
From which, if ye keep yourselves, ye will do well. Ac. 15:29.
See also: Lk. 3:11; Heb. 2:3.
(5) The Concessive Participle. The participle may denote a sense of concession, being used either with or without the concessive particle.
d yap
exOpol ovres KaTrjXKayypev
TOO
deep.
For if, though we were enemies, we were reconciled to God.
Rom. 5:10.
See also: Heb. 5:12; 1 Pt. 1:6.
228
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(6) The Instrumental Participle. The participle may
indicate the means by which the action of the main verb is
accomplished.
ev
epyaaiav TroWrjv irap&x
^avrevopLevrj.
She brought much gain by soothsaying. Ac. 16:16.
See also: Mt. 6:27; 1 Tim. 1:12.
(7) The Modal Participle. The participle may signify the
manner in which the action of the main verb is accomplished.
This use of the participle may be accompanied by &s.
irapayiverai
Tcoa^s 6 Paimarys
Krjpvaacov.
John the Baptist appeared preaching. Mt. 3:1.
See also: Mt. 19:22; Lk. 1:64.
(8) The Complementary Participle. The participle may
be used to complete the idea of action expressed in the
main verb. When so used, i t may modify either the subject or object of the verb and agree with it in case.
oi) iravopai evxapiaTcop bwep vp,6op.
I cease not giving thanks for you. Eph. 1:16.
See also Mt. 6:16; Heb. 5:12.
In this construction the participle approaches very near the
sphere of the infinitive. The participle used in indirect discourse
is a variety of the complementary participle (cf. Ac. 8:23).
(9) The Circumstantial Participle. A participle may not
present in a distinct way any of the above functions, but
may merely express an attendant circumstance—an additional fact or thought which is best rendered in English by
the conjunction "and" with a finite construction. Here
the English participle fails to extend its use sufficiently to
take care of the entire force of the Greek participle, and at
the same time i t is doubtful if a separate clause is an exact
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
229
translation. I t is one of those idioms which have no exact
parallel in English.
enelvoi 5e e^eKdopres eKrjpv^ap wapraxov.
They went forth and preached everywhere. Mk. 16:20.
See also: Lk. 4:15; 2 Tim. 4:11.
(10) The Participle Used as the Imperative. Here we
have a peculiarity of Koine Greek, found in the New Testament and the papyri. Only a few examples of it, however, occur in the New Testament. Some have regarded it
as a Hebraism, but its use in the papyri contradicts this
view (M. 180, 222).
yvpaiKes vroraaaopLepai rots Idiots apdpacrip.
Let wives be in subjection to their own husbands. 1 Pt. 3:1.
See also: Mk. 5:23; Rom. 12:9; 1 Pt. 2:18.
i. Adjectives are also sometimes used in what appears to be
an imperative construction, but doubtless in these cases the imperative of the verb to be is understood. In this construction it
is important that the student bear in mind that the participle "is
not technically either indicative, subjunctive, optative or imperative.
The context must decide. In itself the participle is non-finite
(non-modal) like the infinitive, though it was sometimes drawn
out into the modal sphere" (R. 946).
ii. The different uses of the participle are sometimes difficult to
distinguish, as, for instance, the attributive and substantive uses,
or those of time, cause, and manner. The distinctions may at first
seem to the student to be arbitrary in some instances, but a close
examination will reveal that the differences, even when remote,
are real.
The Tense of the Participle
202. Though the tense of the participle never conveys an
independent expression of time, yet its relation to its context usually involves a temporal significance. That is, the
230
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
time relations of the participle do not belong to its tense,
but to the sense of the context. "Time with the participle
is purely relative" (R-S. 197). But as a particular tense
may fit better into certain time relations of the context, we
ordinarily find that tense used in such a connection in
preference to other tenses (cf. Heb. 6:10). I t is not to be
thought that there are any regulative rules in this matter,
but observation of actual practice discloses that the use of
tenses in the participle took certain usual directions as to
time relations. The significance of tense in the participle,
as to kind of action, is the same as in the finite moods.
Time relations of the context with the participle naturally
take the following three variations.
(1) Antecedent action relative to the main verb is ordinarily expressed by the aorist or perfect. Nevertheless, the
aorist frequently expresses contemporaneous (Mt. 22:1) or
subsequent action (Heb. 9:12).
TOV
8e irkrjdovs TCOV mar ever avroiv rjv KapSia pla.
There was unity in the multitude of those who had believed. Ac. 4:32
See also: Ac. 1:1; Mt. 28:5.
(2) Simultaneous action relative to the main verb is
ordinarily expressed by the present.
evcre(3eLa co<pe\ipos eanv, eirayyeXiav exovaa fcoijs.
Godliness is profitable, having promise of life. 1 Tim. 4:8.
See also: Jn. 11:49; Rom. 12:3.
(3) Subsequent action relative to the main verb is regularly expressed by the future.
Mcovaijs pkv Tricrrds eis papTvpiov rcov \a\rjdrjaop,epoov.
Moses was faithful for a testimony of the things which were to be
spoken. Heb. 3:5.
See also: Jn. 6:64; 1 Cor. 15:37.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
231
The Periphrastic Use o£ the Participle
203. The participle is frequently used with a finite verb
to constitute a compound tense-form. This mode of expression, common to all languages, is extensively employed in
Greek. I t occurs in all the voices and tenses, though rare
in the aorist. According to Robertson only one periphrastic
aorist appears in the New Testament; viz., rjv pXrjdeis in
Lk. 23:19 (R. 375). Certain tense forms in Greek were expressed exclusively by the periphrastic construction; namely,
the perfect middle-passive subjunctive and optative. As
the finite verb, eifxl is generally used, though also ylvoixai
and i>7r&pxco, and possibly €%co in the perfect (cf. Lk. 14:18;
19:20) and pluperfect (Lk. 13:6). The periphrastic imperfect is the form most common in the New Testament.
This matter can, with perfect propriety, be treated under accidence, but since it is a distinct grammatical use of the participle
we prefer to present it here.
(1) The Periphrastic Present This form consists of the
present of eljut with the present participle. I n the present
tense the periphrastic construction marks more clearly the
durative force, and in view of the fact that the present has
no distinctive aoristic (punctiliar) form i t offers a very
convenient device, which fact makes i t a little strange that
it is infrequent in the New Testament.
Kad&s teal ev iravrl
T(O Koaixco ecrrlv
Kapirocpopovixwov.
Even as also in all the world it is bearing fruit Col. 1:6.
See also: Mt. 27:33; 2 Cor. 2:17.
(2) The Periphrastic Imperfect Here we have the present participle and the imperfect of elpl.
This construction is decidedly durative in significance, but was not needed
to convey this sense, since the regular imperfect was primarily durative in force, and had the aorist to take care of
punctiliar action in past time. Nevertheless the periphrastic
232
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
imperfect is widely used in the New Testament, doubtless
due to Aramaic influence.
y
Kal rjv didaaKcov TO Kad ijpepav ev TO} lepo).
And he was teaching daily in the Temple. Lk. 19:47.
See also: Mk. 10:32; Gal. 1:22.
(3) The Periphrastic Future. This is formed by using
the present participle with the future of elpi. Since the
regular future was chiefly aoristic in significance, the periphrastic form was readily adaptable for expressing durative
action in future time.
curb TOV vvv avdp&irovs ear} fayp&v.
From henceforth thou shalt be catching men. Lk. 5:10.
See also: Mk. 13:25; Lk. 21:17, 24.
We sometimes find peXKo) with the infinitive in what might be
termed a periphrastic future (Rom. 8:18). The infinitive with 6e\o)
occasionally approaches the force of a "volitive future" (R. 878), but
the sense of determination is likely preeminent in all the occurrences
of 0eXco.
(4) The Periphrastic Perfect. The perfect participle and
the present tense of elpi are used in this construction. In
function the periphrastic perfect is usually intensive, but
there are several clear instances of a consummative force
(cf. £ r . 40).
el 8e Kal 'eaTiv Kena\vp,pevov TO evayyekiov rjjuoov.
But even if our gospel is vailed. 2 Cor. 4:3.
See also: Lk. 20:6; Heb. 4:2.
(5) The Periphrastic Pluperfect. This is formed by the
imperfect of el/xl and the perfect participle. As in the case
of the perfect, i t is generally intensive in force, though quite
a number of occurrences are consummative.
Kal rjv aura? Ke%9r\paTiapevov vwb TOV wvevpaTos TOV aylov.
And it had been revealed to him by the Holy Spirit. Lk. 2:26.
See also: Mt. 26:43; Ac. 21:29.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
233
(6) The Periphrastic Future Perfect. This form is made
up of the future ei/u and the perfect participle. I t is the
regular construction for the future perfect in the New Testament. Exceptions are rare and doubtful.
eyco eaofJLai ireiroidc^s en'
avrti.
I shall have believed on him. Heb. 2:13.
See also: Mt. 18:18; Lk. 12:52.
i. Grammarians see Aramaic influence in the extensive use of the
periphrastic construction in the New Testament. It is noteworthy
that we find so many examples of it in Luke, and especially in
Just those passages which were most probably based upon Aramaic
sources. But it is also true that periphrastic verb forms are thoroughly Greek, for they are widely used in classical literature and
in the extra-Biblical Koine. "It is only that where Aramaic sources
underlie the Greek, there is inordinate frequency of a use which
Hellenistic has not conspicuously developed" (M. 226).
ii. The Participle in Absolute Constructions.
This matter has
already been treated under other heads. It is the association of a
participle with a noun in the genitive and accusative cases to form
clauses which are not grammatically related to the rest of the
sentence (cf. §§90 (8), 96 (5) ).
iii. The Verbal Nouns. There are in the Greek language some verbal
substantives which cannot be classed as participles "inasmuch as they
have no tense or voice" (R. 1095). They are the verbals in -TOS
and -reos. "In the broader sense, however, these verbals are participles, since they partake of both verb and adjective. . . . The verbal
in -TOS goes back to the original Indo-Germanic time and had a sort of
perfect passive idea" (ibid). But Robertson goes on to show that
these verbals are not to be regarded as really having voice. Perhaps
they supplied a primitive function which came to be the province of the
passive voice. The passive participle in Latin seems to point to some
such use. But "even in Latin a word like tacitus illustrates the absence
of both tense and voice from the adjective in its primary use" (M. 221).
If there was a primitive passive use of this form it was largely conditioned on the root meaning of the word, and disappeared from historical Greek. Thus ayvcoaros means not to be known, while aTnaros
Hieans not to believe: the former passive, the latter active.
23*fc
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
V I . T H E ADVERB
References: R. 544-552; R-S. 67; G. 136-139.
204. The consideration of the adverb is chiefly a lexical
and etymological matter, but its exceedingly important
place in the structure of the sentence in general, and in the
interpretation of the New Testament in particular, claims
for it definite notice in a complete survey of New Testament syntax. The treatment of it, however, may be brief,
and will of necessity include etymological as well as syntactical phenomena.
The Nature of the Adverb
205. Adverbs are of great value for defining and stating
a matter with exactness, as well as for stimulating the
imagination by suggesting graphic, extravagantly painted
pictures. Both in form and in function adverbs are closely
related to adjectives. For example, /caXws is different from
the adjective KaXos only in the matter of the vowel of the
final syllable. And like adjectives, adverbs qualify the
meaning of words. But adverbs regularly^ modify the
meanings of verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and in rare instances substantives, while adjectives are used almost
exclusively with substantives. Adverbs are used to express
relationships of time, place, manner, and degree. Thus, they
are used for answering such natural questions as when, where,
how, how much, and sometimes to what extent; e. g., vvv^ now;
e/cet, there; /caXcos, well; irbaov, how much; TOQV virepViav
awoGToXwv, apostles exceedingly or prominent
apostles.
The Scope of the Adverb
206. The term adverb is so general in its scope that it includes a wide range in grammatical usage. I n a broad, nontechnical sense, all prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
235
interjections are adverbs. Giles has well stated, "Between
adverbs and prepositions no distinct line can be drawn,"
and, "The preposition therefore is only an adverb specialized
to define the case usage." We have already called attention
to this close grammatical relationship in our discussion of
prepositions. The conjunctions express adverbial ideas
in relation to clauses, whereas adverbs in the narrower
sense express such ideas only in relation to words. Thus
ore, when, is used to introduce a clause; but rore, then,
at that time, is used to specify a time relationship pertaining to a word. For example, rore \eyet avrols, then
he says to them; or, ol rore avdpuTroi, the at that time men.
In the first example the speaking, while in the other the men,
are localized in time. The particles are adverbial in their
origin as well as in their usage in the main. They function,
however, in a definite field of Greek usage, and so need a
separate name. We shall discuss them separately in another
chapter. The interjections are frequently just adverbs used
in exclamation. Robertson gives the following as "adverbs
used in exclamation," aye, devpo, 8evre, ea, I'Se, tSov. ola, &,
and mentions others as possibly having similar significance.
9
The Formation of Adverbs
207. The most common and the simplest way to form an
adverb is to take an adjective in the positive degree and in
the genitive plural, and substitute s for v of the ending. The
accent remains the same. For example:—
<P'L\OS,
lovely; gen. pi., cp'Chw, adverb, cp'Ckus.
Kakbs, noble; gen. pi., KO\&P;
adverb, /caXcos.
iras, all; gen. pi., iravrw, adverb, iravrcos.
raws, swift; gen. pi., raxecov; adverb, raxecos.
Adverbs as to form are derived from several parts of
speech. Most of them, however, are derived from the fixeo
case forms of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.
236
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(1) Adverbs derived from fixed case-forms.
a. The accusative. I n the New Testament the accusative
case is still used in expressing adverbial relationships. For
examples turn to our discussion on the adverbial accusative.
But certain words which were frequently so used came
to be classed as adverbs; e.g., irepav beyond; doopeav, freely;
X&PW)
f the sake of. Adverbs were formed freely by using
the neuter accusative, both singular and plural, in the positive, comparative, and even the superlative degrees; e.g.,
7roXu, much; irKyaiov, near; paXKov, more; wrepov, afterwards; irp&Tov, first; juaXiora, especially. A few times the
article is combined with a neuter adjective and used as an
adverb; e.g., T O irpbrepov, formerly; rb \oLirbv, finally; rd
7roXXa, for the most part.
b. The oblique cases of nouns and pronouns.
(a) The ablative. Robertson has registered it as his opinion that all adverbs in -cos were originally ablatives. He
thinks KaXcos is from an original /caXcoS and that the s was
substituted for the 5.
(ft) The genitive. Some of the adverbs with such endings
are: avrov, there; bpov, together; owov, TTOV, where; TOV \oiirov
(Gal. 6:17), finally.
(c) The locative. Not many adverbs with such endings occur. I n classical Greek 7roI is frequent, but it does not occur
in the New Testament. But we do find e/cet, there; KWCXCO,
around; and irpooi, early.
(d) The instrumental. Since this case primarily functions
in specifying manner and means, it would naturally contribute
to the formation of adverbs. The iot# subscript had disappeared early in Greek usage, with a few exceptions. We
find the following: a/xa, together; avo) up; el/07, vainly;
e£co, without; Kpvcpr\ secretly; retfj, by land.
(e) The dative. Grammarians are disagreed as to tracing
any adverbs back to this case. Some, however, cite the
}
or
}
}
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
237
following as having had such origin: 7raAcu, of old; airovdf],
and x^-M^t, on the ground.
(2) Adverbs formed by adding suffixes. With a few
exceptions these suffixes have significance as follows:—
a. -i, -cu, -ou denote place where; e.g., e/cet, there; irepvat, last
zealously;
year; oirov, where.
b. -dev denotes place
place; avwdev, from above.
c. -he, -ere, denote
eneTo-e, thither.
d. -re denotes
Tore, then.
whence; e.g.,
evrevQev, from
direction whither; e.g.,
time; e.g., ore,
when; wore,
this
evddhe, hither;
at some time;
-cos denotes manner; e.g., bucaicos, justly; raxecos, quickly.
-ts, -/cts, denote number; e.g., 8ls, twice; rpts, thrice;
7ro\Xa/as, many times.
g. The meaning of other suffixes is no longer clear; e.g.,
e.
f.
-SrjVj -bov, -Ka -/cas, -rt, -art.
}
(3) Adverbs formed from verbs. There are only a few
adverbs with such derivation, and all of them were originally
imperatives; e.g., aye and bevre, come; l'5e and Ibov, behold;
ocpekov, would that.
(4) Adverbs used as prefixes.
'A- and av- (from avev, without), like our English un,
mean not or without; e.g., a-yaixos, un-married; a-yvo)o~Tos.
un-known; &j>-a£ios, un-worthy; av-vbpos, without water.
b. Aus- expresses difficulty or trouble; e.g., Sutf-jSacrrcuos,
a.
hard to be borne; 5vo--vbr]Tos, hard to understand.
c. Ei>- means well or good; e.g., ev-yeprjs, well born; ev-doda,
good thinking hence good will; ev-\oyia,
good speech hence
praise.
The Comparison o£ Adverbs
208. The comparison of adverbs in Greek follows quite
closely the methods employed in the comparison of adjectives. The matter may be presented under three heads,
238
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Interrogative
TABLE OF CORRELATIVE ADVERBS
Indefinite
§
1
1
§
In
o
t
g
Indefinite
Relative
©a.
CO
Oo.
%
O
•§
CD
to
CO
g
g
1 1
1
?T
cs
©
s
g
to
8 |
u?
Demonstrative
Relative
*o
cf
^
O
1
1
•8
8*
O
to
§
o
CO
CO
1
s
^
3
o
I
THE
GREEK.
NEW
TESTAMENT
239
(1) Most of the adverbs which have the endings -cos in
the positive have the same endings as adjectives in the
comparative and superlative degrees. That is, they have
-repov and -rara, the neuter accusative adjective endings for
the singular and plural, for the comparative and superlative.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
aacpaK&s, safely
d(r<pa\earepov aacpakecrrara
Succucos, justly
bucaibrepov
Si/ccuorara
io-xvpccsj strongly
iaxvpbrepov
laxvporaTa
^o/3epcos, fearfully
<poj3epi)Tepov
(pofiepcoraTa
(2) Another group of adverbs have -repco in the comparative and -raro) in the superlative. This is true especially
of adverbs with the ending of -co in the positive.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
aVco, up
avcorepoo
avcorarco
KCLTO), down
Karcorepco
Karcordrco
Trbppco, far
7roppcore'pco
7roppcordrco
(3) The other adverbs are irregular in their comparison.
Many, however, end in -ov in the comparative.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
raxe'cos, quickly
rdx^iov
raxwra
rjbeus, sweetly
rihov
fjbtara
eyyvs, near
eyyvrepov
eyyicrra
pa\a very
juaXXoz>, more
/iaXiora, most
}
V I I . CONJUNCTIONS
209. A conjunction is a word that connects sentences,
clauses, phrases, and words. I t may be a mere colorless
copulative giving no additional meaning to the words preceding or following, as is true of re' and is usually the case with
fcai, or it may introduce a new meaning in addition to being a
connective, as is true of iva and cocrre. A correct under-
240
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
standing of the uses and meanings of Greek conjunctions
is of fundamental importance for New Testament interpretation. The turning point or direction of a thought is
usually indicated by a conjunction. The meaning of a
sentence following a conjunction, and oftentimes of a whole
paragraph, is suggested or colored by the connective. Then
also, because in Greek, as in Hebrew and Latin, but unlike
the English use, a conjunction may have several meanings,
each requiring separate and careful study.
210. Only the conjunctions that are the most difficult to understand are discussed in this chapter. These are purposely
treated in aphabetic order instead of being classified into
groups, because of their overlapping meanings. The others
are sufficiently treated in lexicons for practical purposes.
'AXXd
211. This is a strong adversative conjunction. I t usually
has the meaning but, as in M t . 5:17, OVK rjXdov KaraKvaai
dXXd irXrjp&acu, I came not to destroy but to fulfill (cf. Mk. 5:39;
9:22, 37). I t may fittingly be translated except in Mk.
4:22, ovyap eanv Kpvirrbv eav pij Iva (pavepoodij, ouSe eyevero
airoKpvtpov, dXX' Iva ekdrj els <pavepbv, for there is nothing
hid except that it should be made manifest, nor does it become
hidden except that it should come into manifestation. Notice
that in the above sentence dXXd is translated as equivalent
to eav pr], "Then there are instances of dXXd = except" (M.
& M . : Voc. Gr. Test.; cf. M t . 20:23). I n Lk. 12:51 and 2
Cor. 1:13 dXXd fj = except. But dXXd is also clearly emphatic
in several passages. Although it is translated yea, this translation is not necessarily the best, even when dXXd is confirmatory or emphatic
And it should be translated as emphatic several times
where it is rendered as adversative in the RV. I n 1
Cor. 4:15 certainly fits the context very well: "For
though ye have ten thousand tutors in Christ, ye cert
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
241
tainly do not have many fathers." I t has the same significance in 1 Cor. 9:2, " I f I am not an apostle to others,
I most certainly am to you." Its emphatic force may be
brought out by the words in fact in Ac. 19:2, "And they
said to him, In fact we have not even heard whether
there is a Holy Spirit"; likewise in Eph. 5:24, " I n fact,
as the church is subject to Christ, so also let wives be to
their husbands"; also in 1 Cor. 3:3, "In fact not even
now are ye able, for ye are still carnal" (J. R. Mantey:
Expositor (London), vol. xxiii, p. 376; cf. Jn. 4:23; 7:27;
8:26; 1 Cor. 4:3; 2 Cor. 1:13; 3:15; Phs. 3:8).
"Apa
212. This conjunction is a postpositive. I t is inferential
or illative in function most of the time; i.e., it introduces a
conclusive statement. But it seems to be more subjective
and indirect than ovv or did. I n such usages it may be
translated therefore, then, so: Gal. 3:7, yiv&GKere apaon ol
etc irlareoos, OVTOL
viol elaiv 'kfipaap,, know therefore
that they that are of faith, these are sons of Abraham (cf. Rom.
7:21; 8:1; 10:17). I t is uniformly translated as inferential
in the RV except in a few instances when it is translated
haply, perchance, or perhaps. The latter translation is really
emphatic, for i t emphasizes the uncertainty of the statement.
But there is abundant evidence in the New Testament
and other Greek literature to establish the fact that
this conjunction often has the function of an emphatic
particle. And I do not believe there is any real necessity for having the circumflex accent on the word when
it begins a question. For, when we give i t an emphatic
translation in such cases, i t throws increased light on
that particular sentence and fits the context exactly.
Cf. Ac. 8:30, apa ye ytv&aKeis a avayiv&criceis; do
you really understand what you are reading? Herodotus
242
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
used i t as emphatic, as the following sentence proves:
cbs 5e o\)K (ETreiOev apa TOP apbpa debrepa Xeyet 17
yvprj rdbe, but since she did not really persuade- her husband, the woman spoke a second time as follows. J. Bond
and A. S. Walpole translate i t really in their Lucian Selections. And examples from the papyri in which i t is
emphatic are quoted in the Vocabulary of the Greek
Testament by Moulton and Milligan. I n one of these
they translate i t indeed. Besides the examples they
give, there is another in Papyri Oxyrhynchus, I , 113:28.
I n Ac. 12:18, where apa is not translated at all in the
RV, i t certainly is not inferential, but is effective and
helpful at once when considered as intensive or emphatic: "What really became of Peter?" There are three
words which express fairly well its emphatic uses. They
are indeed, certainly, and really, but the last is perhaps
the best. I n M t . 18:1 we can see the value of such a
translation: "Who is really greatest in the kingdom of
Heaven?" Likewise in Lk. 12:42, "And the Lord said,
Who is really the faithful and wise steward?" Notice
particularly 1 Cor. 15:15, eiirep apa veicpol om ey'eipoprai,
if the dead are not really raised. Other places
where i t may be emphatic are: M t . 7:20; Ac. 8:22;
11:18; 2 Cor. 1:17; Heb. 12:8 (J. R. Mantey: op. tit.
(London), vol. xxiii, pp. 377-378).
}
Tap
213. Kiihner has summarized the meanings of this conjunction in the following words: "Tap may express: (a)
a ground or reason, (b) an explanation, (c) a confirmation
or assurance; and hence i t may be translated by (a) for, (b)
that is, for example, (c) indeed, certainly ' (Gram, of the Gr.
hang., p. 1186), I t is a postpositive and a compound of yi
and apa.
9
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
243
(1) I t is most frequently used in the illative sense introducing a reason. At such times i t means for. But this translation has been greatly overworked. The lexicons are misleading, and in the RV i t is regularly translated for with only
two exceptions, Ac. 16:36 and Rom. 15:27, where i t is
properly translated as emphatic. I n Rom. 8:18 and in
several succeeding verses i t introduces reasons; cf. M t . 1:21,
"Thou shalt call his name Jesus for he shall save his people
{avTos yap atovei TOV \abv avTov)." A close parallel to the
above is its function in some sentences where i t may properly
be translated by the interjectional why; M t . 27:23, 6 8e e<pij
TL yap KaKov eroirjaev, and he said, Why, what evil thing has
he done? Jn. 9:30, ev rovrty yap TO davpaarbv eanv,
Why, in this is the marvel (cf. Jn. 7:41).
(2) I n the following passages the contexts imply that y&p
is explanatory; M t . 9:5, "Why do you think evil in your
hearts? For instance (yap), which is easier, to say, Thy sins
are forgiven, etc."; Lk. 14:27, 28, "Whosoever doth not
bear his own cross and come after me cannot be my disciple.
For instance (yap), which of you desiring to build a tower,
etc." Our word now represents its meaning in most passages under this category better than for instance; cf. 1 Cor.
11:6, 7, "But if i t is a shame to a woman to be shorn, let her
be veiled. Now (yap) a man ought not to have his head
veiled, since he is the image and glory of God"; 1 Cor. 10:1,
"Now I would not, brethren, have you ignorant." So also
in Jn. 4:8, 44; Ac. 13:36; 18:3; 19:37; 20:16; 1 Cor. 11:19;
2 Cor. 1:12.
(3) Then there are also unmistakable uses of yap as an
emphatic particle. Liddell and Scott so translate i t in a
question: dXXd ydp, but really, certainly. Blass gives "yes,
in truth," "indeed" as suggestive equivalents. The RV
does not attempt to translate i t in Ac. 8:31, where an emphatic word used with the optative mood expresses the utter
244
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
hopelessness the eunuch felt with reference to understanding
that passage of scripture. I n answer to the question whether
he understood what he was reading, he responds, "How
indeed (yap) can I except someone should guide me?" Note
Ac. 16:37, "They have beaten us publicly, uncondemned,
men that are Romans, and have cast us into prison; and do
they now cast us out privily? No indeed! (ov 7<xp)." Ac.
4:16, "What shall we do to these men? That a very notable
miracle indeed (on fiev yap yvcoarbv ayjpeXov) hath been
wrought through them is manifest to all." Ac. 19:35,
"Men of Ephesus, who in fact is there who does not know?"
(cf. Ac. 4:34; 1 Cor. 5:3; 11:22; 2 Tim. 2:7).
Li
214. This is a postpositive conjunction. (1) I t is commonly used as an adversative particle, when i t is translatable
but, however, yet, on the other hand, etc. M t . 6:14, edv be prj
cMprjre, but if you do not forgive; M t . 5:22, ey& be \eyo) vpXv,
but I say to you (cf. also M t . 6:6, 20, 23). (2) I t is also common as a transitional or continuative particle, when it may be
translated and, moreover, then, now, etc. I t is used in this
sense thirty-eight times in Matthew's genealogy (cf. Jn.
7:2, "Now (be) the feast of the Jews was near"; also Lk. 4:1;
Rom. 3:2). (3) Closely akin to this is its explanatory usage,
Jn. 3:19, "Now (be) this is the judgment; namely, that light
hath come into the world"; 1 Cor. 1:12, "Now (be) I say this
because each one of you says, etc." (cf. Jn. 6:6; 1 Cor. 14:6;
Eph. 2:4; 5:32). (4) But this particle has still another use
which but very few Greek scholars have expressed; i.e., i t is
emphatic or intensive at times, and means the equivalent of
indeed, really, in fact The RV translates it yea in 2 Cor.
10:2. Notice its effectiveness as emphatic in Ac. 3:24,
sal iravres be ol irpocpTJrai KaTrjyyeuKav rds qpepas rauras,
and in fact all the prophets . . . spoke of these days (cf,
Mt. 23:4; Jn. 8:16; Ac. 13:34; 1 Jn. 2:2).
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
245
Aio
215. This is the strongest inferential conjunction. I t
was formed by uniting a preposition with the neuter relative
pronoun 5L* 6, on which account, wherefore. M t . 27:8, did
eKKrjdr] 6 aypbs eiceivos 'Aypos Mparos, wherefore, that field
was called Field of Blood (cf. Lk. 1:35; 7:7; Rom. 1:24). I t
is translated therefore, by Moulton and Milligan (op. cit.)
in a papyrus quotation (A. D . 108), Sid e7rireXeZre cos
KadrjKei, execute the deed therefore, as is fitting. The translation therefore seems to fit into the meaning of some passages better than wherefore, but one would be a stickler for
grammatical nicety to insist on one to the exclusion of the^
other (cf. 2 Cor. 4:13, eirlarevaa did eKaKrjcra, I believed,
therefore I have spoken). A synonym often used is 8ia rovro
(cf. Rom. 1:26; 4:16). AioTrep is twice used (1 Cor. 8:13;
10:14) and i t seems slightly stronger than 8io, having the
significance of for which very reason. Another combination
is 8L6TL with the meanings because and for (cf. Lk. 1:13;
2:7; Rom. 1:19, 21). I t has stronger causal force than on'Edv
216. This" is a combination of el plus av. When one
knows the function of av (see Particles), which is to indicate
uncertainty or indefmiteness, he readily understands why
eav is used with the mood for uncertainty—the subjunctive.
I t introduces a hypothetical condition. Consequently, a
statement introduced by kav was not regarded with such
certitude as one introduced by el. "The difference between
ecu> and el is considerably lessened in Hellenistic Greek,
with the result that eav is found fairly frequently with the
indicative—as in Lk. 19:40; Ac. 8:31; 1 Ths. 3:8; 1 Jn.
5:15" ( M . & M . : op. cit.). The combination el av is
frequently spelled av and means if just the same as when
spelled eav. On the other hand, eav is often used as av,
246
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
meaning ever. I t is found frequently with relative pronouns
and adverbs, and it indicates indefiniteness or generality;
e.g., Mk. 13:11, whatever. See further our discussion of av,
under Particles. 'Ed? prj like el JJLTJ may be translated
unless (cf. 1 Cor. 14:6; Rev. 2:22). This idea of uncertainty which edv implies was at times applied to time as
well as to fact, and in such instances it is translatable whenever (cf. 1 Jn. 3:2, olhapev on edv <pavepo)0r} opoioi aura?
eo-opeda, we know that whenever he is manifested we shall be
like him; Jn. 8:16, teal edv Kplvco he eyco, rj tcpiais rj epfj
d\rjdLvrj ecnv, and whenever I do judge, my judgment is
true; 2 Cor. 13:3, irpo\eyoi . . . on edv eKOca els TO
wd\iv oi <peiaopai, I declare in advance that whenever I come
again I will not spare).
Et
217. Its regular meanings are if (when i t introduces conditions) and whether (when i t introduces indirect questions).
I t is found, with only a few exceptions, with the indicative;
and implies that there is likelihood that the assumption will
be fulfilled, or that there is no hope of fulfillment, as in contrary to fact conditions. When el introduces direct questions i t should not be translated (so also with on when it
introduces direct discourse; cf. Lk. 22:49, Kvpie, el irardt-opev
ev paxaipW, Lord, shall we smite with a sword? See also
Mt. 12:10; Lk. 13:23; Ac. 1:6; 19:2). After words denoting
wonder i t is best translated that; as in M k . 15:44, "Pilate
marvelled that he was already dead" (cf. also 1 Jn. 3:13; Lk.
12:49). A strange and rare usage is that in which el=prj
(prj is substituted for el in Heb. 3:18). This exceptional
use of el is due to the fact that the Hebrew conditional
particle was also used as a negative occasionally (cf. Mk.
8:12, dprjv, \iyca el hoBrjcreTai rfj yeveq, raftrft arjpeiov,
verily I say, a sign shall not be given to this generation). Sep-
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
247
tuagint examples occur in Gen. 14:23; Num. 14:28 (cf. also
Heb. 3:11; 4:3).
This particle is also used in a wide range of combinations.
For instance, elVep (1 Cor. 8:5) and el fcatJ(Col. 2:5) mean
although. But eiVep in 1 Cor. 15:15 has a different meaning: ov OVK rjyetpev elVep apa veicpol OVK eyelpovrai,
whom he did not raise, if indeed the dead are not really raised.
And el Kal may also be translated if even or if also. When
these words are reversed in order, they mean even if. The
expression el prj has such meanings as if not, unless, except
(Mk. 9:29; 1 Cor. 8:4), but in Gal. 1:7 and Rev. 21:27 i t
means only. The similar expression el Se prj (Mk. 2:21,
22) means otherwise. I n Ac. 27:12 and Rom. 1:10 the words
el 7rcos seem to mean if at all possible. But a special use of
el with indefinite pronouns, which is not recognized in
translations of the New Testament or in lexicons (Robertson
discusses i t on page 956), needs explanation. E i n or el ns
is equivalent to 6 n or os ns (cf. Xenophon's Anabasis,
I , 5:1; I , 6:1). Notice the improvement in the translation
of Phs. 4:8, "Whatsoever things are of good report; whatever
is excellent and whatever is praiseworthy, think on these
things." Paul first particularizes and then generalizes. And
Zacchaeus' statement in Lk. 19:8 should read, "Whatever
I have wrongfully exacted from anyone I will repay four-fold "
(cf. also M t . 18:28; Mk. 4:23; 8:34; Rom. 13:9; 2 Cor. 2:10;
7:14).
*ElT€L
218. This conjunction is used most frequently in a causal
sense with the meanings since and because (cf. Heb. 5:2,
"Since he also is compassed with infirmity"; M t . 18:32,
"Thou wicked servant, I forgave you all that debt because
you besought me"; see also M t . 21:46; 27:6). I n a few
sentences it has the significance of else or otherwise; as in
Heb. 9:26, "Else must he have often suffered" (cf. also Ronou
248
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
11:6, 22). I n a question in Rom. 3:6 it is suitably translated
then, eirel TT&S Kpivel 6 debs TOV Koapov, how then will
God judge the world?
"H .
. . . T]
219. These are called correlatives, and are translated
either . . . or (Mt. 12:33). Sometimes only one 77 is
used (Lk. 20:4). Closely akin to these are etre . . . etre
(1 Cor. 3:22), and edv Te . . . edv re (Rom. 14:8),
whether . . . or. The negative correlatives neither . . . nor
occur as follows: OVK . . . ovbe (Ac. 8:21); ovbe . . .*ou5e
(Rev. 9:4); ovbi . . . owe (Gal. 1:12); owe . . /owe
(Ac. 24:12); pi] . . . prjbi (Jn. 4:15); prjbi . . . prjbi
(Mt. 10:10); pqM . . . wre (2 Ths. 2:2); prjTe . . . pyre
(Mt. 5:35).
"Iva
220. Its most common occurrence is in purpose or final
clauses, and it occurs regularly with the subjunctive mood,
there being but few exceptions and those with the optative.
Its full translation when final is in order that, but what we
usually find is simply that. The negative prj may be used
with iva in stating a purpose negatively; as in M t . 7:1,
iva jirj KpidrJTe, in order that you be not judged; or the simple
prj without iva may be used, as in Mk. 13:36, prj evpy
vpas KadevbovTas, in order that he may not find you asleep.
Then iva is also used frequently in a non-final sense in objectclauses in the New Testament. I t is simply the equivalent
of 6TI scores of times. At such times the translation that
suggests its force. I t is found after verbs of caring, striving,
wishing, saying, asking, etc. (cf. Mk. 7:26, nai rjpcoTa awbv
iva TO baipbviov e/cjSdXr/ e/c TTJS dvyaTpbs awrjs, and she
asked him that he cast the demon out of her daughter). Or the
iva clause can be translated in many cases just as well
by an infinitive clause; e.g., "to cast the demon o u t
u
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
249
(cf. Jn. 4:47). Occasionally Iva introduces clauses in apposition; as in 1 Jn. 5:3, avrrj yap eanv fj ayairrj rov deov
tva ras evro'Kas avrov rrjp&pev, for this is the love of God,
(namely) that we continue keeping his commandments; Jn.
13:34, ivrdKrjv Katvrjv dldoopi vplv iva &Ya7rare aXKrfkovs,
a new commandment I give to you (namely) that you love
one another. Again we find Iva used in result clauses, when i t
is translatable so that, but this usage is rare and i t is a late
Koine development (cf. Jn. 9:2, "Rabbi, who sinned, this
man or his parents, so that he was born blind?" Rev.
3:9, "Behold I will make them Iva rj^ovaiv Kal TpoaKwrjaovaiv
ev&TTiov rcov TTOS&V &ov, so that they will come and
worship before thy feet (see also Gal. 5:17; 1 Jn. 1:9; Rev.
9:20). We agree with Abbott-Smith's statement in his
Lexicon: " I n late writers, ecbatic, denoting result = c6aTe,
that, so that: Rom. 11:11; 1 Cor. 7:29; 1 Ths. 5:4; al.; so
with the formula referring to the fulfillment of prophecy,
Iva TrKripadjj; M t . 1:22; 2:14; 4:14; Jn. 13:8; al." Again, it
is used in a strange manner in Mk. 5:23 and 2 Cor. 8:7, where
it approaches being inferential in function and may be
appropriately translated so. And it may even be translated
when in Jn. 16:32! After a special study of the idiom tva
Ti in the L X X (cf. Ex. 2:20; 5:4, 15, 22; Ps. 10:1; Isa. 55:2)
we are convinced that it simply means why, and it should be
so translated in Mt. 9:4; Lk. 13:7; 1 Cor. 10:29, and wherever
found (cf. Ps. 2:1, tva r l ecppva^av Wvrj, why do the heathen
rage?).
Kal
221. This conjunction is by far the most common in the
New Testament. Five pages selected at random from the
W H text give us an average use of fourteen times to the page.
I t should be observed, however, that this average is raised
especially by the fact that one of the pages was taken from
Mark, where Kal is uncommonly frequent, occurring OP
250
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
an average of more than once to the line. The casual Greek
student has difficulty in understanding KCLL because i t has
so many diversified uses. For it is often used as a mere
mechanical connective (a copulative), and i t is left for the
reader to determine which possible translation best suits
the context. The ordinary Hellenist, as the papyrus
records reveal, had but few conjunctions in his vocabulary,
and KCU was the main one; but he, like the average American, knew how to make those few serve him in numerous
ways.
(1) Three generally accepted classifications and meanings
for Kal are: as transitional or continuative—and; as adjunctive—also; and as ascensive—even. Since these translations are unquestioned we shall not stop to cite examples
and references. But in our opinion these translations do not
cover all its uses in the New Testament. There ought to be
two other classifications; namely, adversative and emphatic.
(2) For its use as adversative we need but call attention
to some passages where it is already translated as such in
the RV by the words and yet (see Jn. 7:19; 16:32; 20:29).
The words however and but are just as good if not better in
several passages. Take for instance Ac. 7:5, "And he
gave him no inheritance in i t ; no, not so much as to set his
foot on; but (/cat) he promised that he would give i t to him
in possession." See also Mk. 4:16, 17, "Who, when they
have heard the word, straightway receive it with joy; but
(Kal) they have no root in themselves" (cf. M t . 7:23; Lk.
10:24; 13:17).
(3) The emphatic use of Kal is unquestionable and
frequent. I n proof of this contention we offer a quotation
from J. R. Mantey (op. cit. (London), vol. xxiii, p. 381):
Now, with reference to Kai as emphatic. What
grammarians call the ascensive use should, in my opinion, be widened in scope and called intensive or empha-
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
251
tic, and should be translated by several emphatic words
such as indeed, verily, really, in fact, yea, certainly, etc.,
instead of by the one word even. The word even will
not suit every context which is ascensive or emphatic.
Why limit the translation to but one stereotyped word?
Because the translators were averse to giving any other
translation to Kal than those current, they did not attempt to translate i t a part of the time in the RV. (Neither have Grenfell and Hunt always translated i t in
their volumes of papyri.) For instance, in Jn. 20:30,
Lk. 3:18, and Phs. 3:8, where i t is used with emphatic
words, i t is not translated (cf. also Ac. 22:28; 27:9; 1
Cor. 12:13). But in 2 Cor. 11:1 and Phs. 4:10, in
spite of that aversion, we have indeed, and in M t . 10:30
we have very. The translators made a good beginning
in these places that needs to be carried out to wider
applications. I n 1 Cor. 14:19 the thought is clearer when
this word is considered emphatic: "Howbeit in the
church I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that I might really (Kal) instruct others,
than ten thousand words in a tongue." Col. 4:4,
"To speak the mystery of Christ for which in fact (Kal)
I am in bonds" (cf. 1 Ths. 2:13, 19; Phs. 4:15; Col. 3:8;
Ac. 22:28), in which Kal seems to have the effect of
intensifying the personal pronoun (cf. also Lk. 3:9, 18;
10:29; 11:18; 2 Cor. 4:3, 10, 11).
The combination of Kal yap has long been considered
as emphatic in some of its occurrences in classical Greek
as well as in the New Testament. And in M . & M . ,
op. cit, this example and translation occur: Kal yap eyd)
6\os biairovovpai el *E\evos x ^ s
airokeaev, I
am quite upset at Helenos' loss of the money. And in the
RV these conjunctions are translated either for indeed or
for verily in Ac. 19:40; 2 Cor. 3:10; 5;2, 4; 1 Ths. 3:4;
a
Koy
$52
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
4:10. But the words in fact seem to suit most contexts
even better (cf. also Lk. 22:37; 1 Cor. 12:13; 14:8;
2 Cor. 7:5).
W
OTI
222. This conjunction in form is simply the neuter indefinite relative pronoun 6 n. (1) I t is very common as a
causal particle meaning because or for. I n this sense i t
occurs in each one of the beatitudes (cf. Jn. 1:30, "After
me comes a man who existed before me, on irp&rbs pov r\v, because he was before me"; Lk. 6:20; Ac. 1:5). (2) Again,on is
very common as a conjunction introducing an objective
clause after verbs of knowing, saying, seeing, feeling, etc.
(cf. Mk. 3:28, "Verily I say to you that (on) all things
shall be forgiven, etc." (cf. M t . 3:9; 6:32; 11:25; Lk. 2:49).
(3) Then with direct discourse, just as el with direct questions, on does not need translation, for i t is practically
equivalent to our quotation marks. M t . 7:23, Kal rore
6ixo\oyrjcro) aureus on ovdeirore eyvo)v vpas, and then I
will profess unto them, I never knew you (see also Mk. 2:16;
Lk. 1:61; Jn. 1:20). (4) Professor Milligan (op. tit.) calls
attention to two unusual uses of on: " I n Mk. 9:11, 28 the
AV rightly makes 6n=n, why; for this use of on in indirect
interrogation see the examples in Field Notes, p. 33 . . . .
In 2 Cor. 5:19, al., cos on is taken by Blass, Grammar,
p. 321f., as equal to Attic cos c. genitive absolute (Vg. quasi),
but in papyri of late date cos on often means merely that."
223. Because this conjunction is treated as having only
inferential meanings by the Greek New Testament lexicographers, by most Greek grammarians (Robertson excepted),
and by practically all commentators, and in as much as J. R.
Mantey wrote his doctor's thesis on The Meaning of Ovv
in John's Writings, and published the results of his findings
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
253
in the Expositor (London) under the title "Newly Discovered
Meanings for Ovv " we are giving an extended discussion of
this word, setting forth these newly established meanings.
(1) This word occurs four hundred and ninety-six times
in the W H text. I t should be translated as inferential only
about two hundred times, by such words as therefore, so,
consequently, then (cf. Jn. 3:23; 4:5, 12, 33, 40). When
oijv is inferential, that inference is expressed by the main
verb in the sentence and not by a verb in a subordinate
clause nor by an infinitive nor a participle. I t is woefully mistranslated scores of times both in the AV and the RV because it was rendered only as inferential (cf. Jn. 18:24; 20:30;
Lk. 14:34; Ac. 8:25).
(2) Ovv should be translated as then and now about on^
hundred and seventy times. This usage is variously termed
as transitional, or continuative, or resumptive. I t predominates in John's Gospel. The word then indicates a succession of either time or events under this classification, but
it may also be used in stating a conclusion, so i t properly
belongs also under the classification termed inferential.
The word now indicates the continuation of a subject from
Dne thought to another, the introduction of a new phase of
thought, or of an explanation. Under this classification ovv
is a synonym for such words as yap, 8i, Kal, and even rore.
Following are two extracts from the papyri: (a) B. G. U. iv,
1079:6 (41 A. D.), " I sent you two letters, one by Nedymus
and one by Cronius, the swordbearer. Then (ovv) at
last I received the letter from the Arab and I read i t and was
grieved." (b) B. G. U . ii, 423:11 (2c. A. D.), /caXcos pol eartv
epcorco ere ovv, Kvpie pov Tarrjp, ypa\pov poi emaroKiov,
I am well. Now I beg you, my lord father, write me a little
letter. Some other references illustrating this usage in the
papyri are B. G. U. i, 48:4; 73:10; 322:9; iv, 1024:7; 1078:6;
1097:8. Plato used ovv in this sense frequently; e.g., Phaedo,
}
254
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
"After waiting so long time he came and ordered us to go in.
Now when we went in we found Socrates already bathed."
In spite of their training and prejudice against this sort
of translation the revisers translated o\jv now in Ac. 1:18;
1 Cor. 9:25; Heb. 7:11; 8:4; 9:1. The following quotations
illustrate the advantage and fitness of such a translation:
Jn. 3:24, "For John had not yet been cast into prison. Now
there was a controversy among the disciples of John with a
Jew"; Jn. 4:6, "And the well of Jacob was there. Now
Jesus having been wearied by the journey, etc."; Jn. 4:27,
28, "Yet no man said, What seekest thou? or, Why speakest
thou with her? Then the woman left her waterpot";
Jn. 18:23, 24, " I f I have spoken evil, bear witness of the
evil; but if well, why do ye strike me? Then Annas sent him
bound to Caiaphas, the high priest (cf. also Jn. 9:17, 20, 21,
32,38,56; 12:1,2,3,9,17,21,29; Ac. 8:25; 9:19,31; 10:29,32).
(3) Hartung in his Lehre von den Partikeln der Griechischen
Sprache has a classification for ovv in some of its uses that he
terms responsive, and he cites several examples from classical
Greek to prove such a usage. I n Ex. 8:10 we have a good
example of this: 6 be elirev, Els avpiov. elirev ovv, 'Os eiprjKas
Iva tSrjs on OVK, And he said, Tomorrow. In reply he said,
As you have spoken, that you may know that there is not
another except the Lord. I n the New Testament ovv should
be translated as responsive about thirty times, and all
these occurrences are in John's Gospel. When it is responsive, i t may fittingly be translated in reply, in response, or in
turn (cf. Jn. 4:8, 9, "Jesus said to her, Give me a
drink . . . . In response the Samaritan woman said, etc.";
Jn. 4:47, 48, "He asked that he come down and heal his
son. . . . In response Jesus said to him, etc."; Jn. 6:52,
53, "How is this one able to give us his flesh to eat? In
response Jesus said to them, etc." (cf. also Jn. 7:6, 16, 28,
47: 8:13, 19, 25, 57; 9:10, 16, 20, 25, 26).
THE
GREEK
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TESTAMENT
255
(4) There is extensive and convincing evidence in the
papyri and much in the New Testament that ovv was
frequently used also as an emphatic or intensive particle.
This discovery came as the result of studying ovv first in
postscripts. Observe P. Fay. 110:34 ( A . D . 94), JUT) OVV
aXXcos iroif}o"!(is; B.G.U. iii, 824:17 ( A . D . 56), prj ovv aXXtos
7rotf?s; both of which may be translated, Be sure that you do
not do otherwise. An unmistakable example of this usage is
found in Brit. M . P. i . 28 (B. C . 162), "Apollonius to Sarapion
his brother: greeting. /caXcos ovv irolarjs ^porter al pot
airapiov, please be sure to look after the grain for me" (cf.
also P. Tebt. i , 33; P. Oxy. ii, 281:9; 282:6; 294:14, 25; x,
12,937; xii, 1493:9). There are some unusually peculiar
uses of ovv in the papyri in which it occurs in the body
of a sentence in a relative clause, and its function seems to
be to intensify the indefiniteness of the pronoun, very much
as av does. The following examples illustrate this usage:
ov 617 7Tore o3i> rpbirov (P. Amh. i i , 86:9); rj oaris ovv
(Brit. M . P. iii, 1171:8); oaa irore ovv (P. Ryl. iii, 243:9);
Sorts iror' oiv (P. Par. 574:1240).
I n Phs. 3:8 we have dXXd pev ovv ye Kal and in 1 Cor. 6:7,
77877 pev o\)v o\cos. The presence of so many particles in
these places is clearly for the purpose of emphasis. There
are at least three words in each example that are emphatic.
What depth of feeling is here expressed! Paul's inmost
soul cries out through these expressive particles. The
revisers did not attempt to translate ovv in either place. The
context in each case should suggest what emphatic English
word or phrase is most suitable. Some suggestive translations are be sure, to be sure, surely, by all means, indeed,
very, really, above all, certainly, in fact. I t seems to be
emphatic in the following passages: Jn. 20:30, "To be sure
Jesus also performed many other signs"; Lk. 14:34, "Salt
to be sure is good, etc."; Rev. 3:3, "By all means remember
256
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
how thou hast received and didst hear"; M t . 10:32; 12:12;
Lk. 14:33; 21:7; Ac. 2:33; 10:33; 25:11; Rom. 4:10; 5:9,
al. The following is* a quotation from Professor Milligan
(op. cit.): "O0V is also used with an intensive force in exhortations, etc. . . . I n drawing attention to this usage,
Mantey (Exp. V I I , xxii, p. 210f.) thinks that this emphatic sense might be given ovv in about 65 places
in the N T : e.g., M t . 3:8, 10, 'By all means produce fruit
worthy of acceptance. . . . Every tree, rest assured, that
does not produce good fruits. . . . ' "
(5) That ovv may also be translated as an adversative,
we were led to conclude from a study chiefly of the following two extracts from the papyri: P. Oxy. 1609:12 (98-138
A. D.), "And i t seems to appear there. For i t is not seen
on that mirror, but the reflection to the one seeing. However {ovv) concerning these things mention has been made
in the discussion on Timaeus." P. Tebt. i i , 315:16 (2c.
A. D.) "Know that an inspector of finance in the temples
tias arrived and intends also to go into your district. But
do not be at all disturbed, for I will deliver you. However
(olv), if you really have time write up your books and come
up to me." Hartung classified ovv as an adversative particle
and likened i t to ctycos in meaning at times. We quote Professor Milligan again (op. cit.): "From this is developed a
slightly adversative sense in such passages as P. Tebt.
37:15 (B. C. 73), iyd) ovv Trepwir&pevos mpl avaymicov
yiypa<pa aoi 'iva Uavbs y&rj, howbeit as I am occupied with
urgent affairs, I have written to you, in order that you may
undertake the matter (cf. Ac. 25:4; 28:5, and Mantey op. cit.,
p. 207f.)." I t should be translated however in the following
passages: Ac. 25:22, "For this cause the Jews seized me in
the Temple and tried to kill me. However (ovv), having
obtained help from God, I stand even to this day witnessing
to small and great"; 1 Cor. 11:20, "However, when ye as*
}
;
SOME CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED WITH SOME OF T H E MEANINGS
St
T e m - Causal
poral
Purpose
Result
Inferential
Conditional
INDICATED
ConAd
ExEmtinua- versa- plana- phattive
tive
tory
ic
however
oXXa
certainly
therefore
&pa
really
until
now
for
yap
and,
now
8k
kav
if
d
if
bed
when
since
eireidi}
when
since
ever
otherwise
in order that
Iva
that
so
that
Kal
and
IxkvToi
*J
because
OTL
that
therefore
OVV
then,
now
Trkqv
however
nevertheless
before
and
T€
roivvv
wore
even
indeed
when
ore
V
V
but
however
in order that
OTTOiS
cos
indeed
because
8L6TL
TTplv
now
wherefore
816
tl
but
therefore
when,
as
since
in order that
so
that
therefore
257
now
really
258
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
semble together, i t is not possible to eat the Lord's Supper,
for each one in his eating takes in advance his own supper";
Jn. 8:38, "What I have seen with the Father I speak.
However, do you also do what you have heard from the
Father?" (cf. also M t . 10:26; Lk. 21:14; Jn. 2:22; 4:45;
6:19; 9:18; 11:6; 12:29; 18:11, 27; Rom. 2:21; 10:14; 11:1,
al.) I n all there are about thirty such usages in the New
Testament.
VIII.
PARTICLES
224. The term particle has undefined limits among Greek
grammarians. To some i t includes nearly all parts of
speech except verbs, nouns, and pronouns; namely, adverbs,
conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. The word
particle is derived from a Latin word which means a small
part I t is a suitable word to head a classification which
deals with the "odds and ends" in Greek grammar. We
have chosen to limit i t chiefly to those words which do not
properly belong to the regular classifications, such as conjunctions, adverbs, prepositions, etc. The abundant and
diversified uses of particles by the Greeks is one of the
most unique and distinctive characteristics of their unparalleled language. However, in contrast with classical
Greek we find comparatively few particles in the papyri
and the New Testament.
225. The fact that they are seldom used makes their use
all the more significant, for i t is evident that each occurrence of a particle was necessary to help express the writer's
ideas. I n them lurk hidden meanings and delicate shades
of thought that intensify and clarify the thought of the
sentence. Unless one learns to understand and appreciate
their significance, he will miss getting the author's full
thought and fail to realize the benefit of the niceties of
Greek.
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
259'
The Emphatic or Intensive Particles
References: E . 1144-1154; M. 165-169, 200f.
226. The emphatic particles are inserted in the sentence
either to emphasize some word in i t or the thought of the
sentence as a whole. And i t is not always easy to decide
by which word, if by any, the force of the particle should
be expressed in translation. The same particle may be
translated by different emphatic words in different contexts.
As in the case with prepositions and conjunctions, so with
particles—the context is the final court of appeal in determining the most suitable translation.
'Ajiljv
227. This particle is a transliteration of the Hebrew verbal
adjective ]•«, to be firm, which is rendered] O\TJ9LV6S (Isa.
65:16) and aKrjOcos (Jer. 35:28) in the L X X . I t is used in
the Gospels for introducing solemnly significant statements
of our Lord in the sense of truly, verily (cf. Jn. 3:3, aprjv
aprjv \eyo> <roi eav prj ns yevvrjdfj avudev, verily, verily I
say unto you, if one is not born again, etc.) Then i t is also
used to express assent to prayers or praise (cf. 1 Cor. 14:16,
7rcos epei TO apijv iwl rfj afj evxapiariq,, how will he say So be
it to your giving of thanks? Rom. 15:33, 6 de Oebs TTJS elprjvrjs
pera wavrcov vpcov • apLrjv, and the God of peace be with you.
So be it (amen).
t
"Av
228. "We have no English word which corresponds to
av. The most that can be said is that i t implies vagueness
or uncertainty in the sentences where i t occurs" (Nunn:
Syn. of N. T. Gr., p. 128). And eav occurs more frequently
that av, but functions as the particle av as well as a conditional conjunction. I t is merely a matter of spelling.
"Two originally connected uses are now sharply distin-
260
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
guished. I n one, av stands with the optative or indicative,
and imparts to the verb a contingent meaning, depending
on an if clause, expressed or understood, in the context.
In the other the av (in the N T period more often written
edv) has formed a close contact with a conjunction or a
relative, to which i t generally imparts the meaning -soever:
of course this exaggerates the differentia in most cases"
(M. 166). At any rate we term i t an emphatic particle.
(1) I n most of its occurrences our word ever suggests the
force of av. For instance, brav, eireibdv, whenever; oirov
edv, wherever) 6s av, whoever. Ac. 8:19, Iva & edv eindcb
rds x^P^s, that upon whomever I place my hands. I t is of
interest that the indefinite relative clause in the New Testament is introduced but rarely by oaris (which in soma
contexts functions as an emphatic relative), but very often
by 8s av or 8s lav (Mt. 11:6; Mk. 10:43). I n M t . 12:50 and
Gal. 5:10 av is used with Sorts to intensify, apparently, the*
generalization.
(2) Since av implies vagueness and uncertainty i t is very
fitting that i t should be used with the subjunctive and
optative moods, which affirm things with varying degrees of
uncertainty; and its use is also significant with the indicative
in contrary to fact conditions, because they deal with
obvious unrealities.
Ti
229. I t emphasizes usually the word with which i t is used
and may be translated at least, indeed, even, in fact (cf. Rom.
8:32, os ye rod ibiov OVK ecpeicraro, who in fact did not
spare his own son). I t is found most frequently with other
emphatic particles, such as dXXd, apa, be. A good example is
found in M t . 7:20, apa ye dirb r&v Kapir&v avr&v einyv&creade
avrovs, you shall really know them by their fruits. When
it is used with dXXd, it expresses strong emphasis: yea even>
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
261
230. Robertson says aptly concerning this particle: " I t i s
climacteric and indicates that the point is now at last clear
and may be assumed as true" (R. 1149). I t is used onlj
seven times in the New Testament. I n Lk. 2:15; Ac. 6:3;
13:2; 15:36; and 1 Cor. 6:20 the emphatic phrase by all
means suggests its force. I n M t . 13:23 and Heb. 2:16 i t
means really (cf. M t . 13:23, Who really bears fruit; i.e., is a
genuine Christian).
E t |JLTJV
231. This expression is very rare in the New Testament,
In Heb. 6:14 its emphatic meaning stands out clearly,
"Assuredly (or Above all) blessing I will bless thee."
Mev
232. Its most common usage is to help differentiate the
word or clause with which it occurs from that which follows
(cf. M t . 3:11, eycb pev . . .ode, I in fact . . . but he;
Lk. 3:16, os pev . . . os he, one . . . another). When
it is used with the article, the expression may be translated
as a pronoun; (cf. Jn. 7:12, ol pev eKeyov, some were saying—
just as 6 he may be translated he). At other times it is
purely emphatic, but is usually associated with other emphatic particles when i t is (cf. Ac. 4:16, on pev yap yvccarbv
arjpeiov, that a really notable miracle; see also Ac. 9:31; Rom.
1:8; 3:2; Phs. 3:8). At such times the translation in fact is
about as good as any. I n Lk. 11:28, where it is used with
ovv, the expression contains both contrast and emphasis,
with the significance of in fact, rather. Mevroi, as often in
the papyri, is emphatic in Jas. 2:8 and Jude 8, bpolus pevrox
Kal OVTOI,
likewise these also in fact; but it seems adversative in the other passages.
262
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Nhrj, vai
233. The former is used only in 1 Cor. 15:31 in its characteristic and exclusive use, which is only in oaths, vrj rrjv
vperepav
Kavxqaiv,
I affirm by your boasting. The following extracts from the papyri illustrate its use effectively:
P. Par. 49:30 (164-158 B. C.) ey& yap vrj rovs deovs ayuvicb,
prjirore appwvrel rb iraibdpiov, for I swear by the gods
that I am worrying lest the lad is not well; P. Oxy. vi, 939:20
(4c. A. D.), vrj ydp TTJV ar)v aurrjpiav, Kvpie pov, rjs paKiard
poi jueXet, for I swear by your salvation, my lord, which is
of special care to me.
234. Nat is a strong emphatic particle, confirmatory of a
preceding statement, with the significance of our yes or
yea (cf. M t . 13:51, \eyovaiv
aura?, vai, they say to him,
Yes; Jn. 11:27, X£yet aur<3, vai nvpte, he says to him, Yes,
Lord; see also 2 Cor. 1:17, 18, 19, 20).
235. According to the W H text, this particle does not
occur except as a part of another word. I t emphasizes the
meaning of the word to which i t is affixed, and has such
meanings as indeed, really, completely, etc. (cf. Rom. 8:17,
elVep avviracrxoptv, if we really suffer together; see also Heb.
3:14; 5:4, 8).
IIOT€
236. This is an enclitic particle which occurs frequently.
(1) I n several passages our word ever suggests its force better
than any other word (cf. Heb. 1:5, rivi ydp elirev wore TCOV
AYY^XCO*', for to whom of the angels did he ever say, etc.?
Eph. 5:29, ovbels yap irore rrjv iavrov capm epiarjaev,
for no one ever hated his own flesh; see also 2 Pt. 1:10, 21).
(2) I t is often used with temporal significance and may be
translated at that time (notice the relationship to the interoggative particle irbre, at what time?), at length, once, formerly
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
263
(cf. Eph. 2:2, ev ais irore TrepieiraTricraTe, in which you at
that time walked; Phs. 4:10, on fjdrj Trore avedakere TO virep
epov cppoveiv, that now at length you have revived your thinking
about me; see also Eph. 2:3, 11, 13; Lk. 22:32).
nov, ircos
237. These are also enclitic, emphatic particles, but are
rarely used in the New Testament. The former may be
translated somehow and about in Ac. 27:29 and Rom. 4:19. I t
seems to mean at all in Heb. 2:16. Uks is translatable by any
means in Rom. 11:14. I t is so translated in Xenophon's
Anabasis by Goodwin and White (ii, 5:2).
TOL
238. This particle does not occur except as affixed to
another word and is clearly emphatic in function, but
it is rather difficult to translate that emphasis (cf. Jas. 2:8).
The Negative Particles
References: R. 1155-1175; M. 160-171, 187-194.
239. There are two chief negative particles in Greek, oi
and p,r]. The distinction between them is real and clear,
but i t has not always been observed. Modifications in use
came with the advancing history of the language. Very
much modified in form and function, and reinforced by the
addition of 8e (v), these negatives persist in Modern Greek
(T. 199f.). I t is not to be questioned, however, that they
had in the Koin6 period a pronounced distinction, and
that the New Testament writers were aware of this distinction.
Ov
240. This negative particle is spelled ov before words
beginning with consonants, OVK before words beginning
264
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
with vowels which have a smooth breathing, ovx before
words beginning with vowels which have a rough breathing.
(1) Ov is the particle used in summary negation. I t is
the stronger of the two negatives, and "the proper negative
for the statement of a downright fact" ( M . 232). "Ov
denies the reality of an alleged fact. I t is the clear-cut,
point-blank negative, objective, final" (R. 1156). When
John the Baptist was asked if he was "the prophet" he simply replied, ov (see Jn. 1:21,6 7rpo(pr)rrjs el av; Kal aweKpidrj'
ov).
Since ov is the stronger negative we would naturally
expect to find i t used most frequently with the indicative
mood, which is the mood for stating facts positively and
forcefully. And this is the case. But Blass has overstated
the facts in attempting to bring the differences between ov
and pi) under a single rule. " A l l instances/' he states, "may
practically be brought under the single rule, that ov negatives
the indicative, prj, the other modes, including the infinitive
and participle" (B. 253). That is true of the majority of
uses, but there are numerous exceptions. Whenever a Greek
wanted to make a denial or state a prohibition emphatically,
he was not fenced in by grammatical conventions from using
ov with any of the moods. He simply used whatever mood
best expressed the idea he had in mind and accompanied
it with the proper negative. Ov is found with the subjunctive (1 Pt. 3:3), the infinitive (Heb. 7:11), and with the
participle (Jn. 10:12), but its predominant use is with the
indicative. " I n addition to its regular use with the indicative ov is frequently found in the papyri with the participle,
apparently for the reason that i t is the proper negative for a
statement of fact" (Milligan in Voc. Gr. Test; cf. P. Oxy.
iv, 726:10 (A. D. 135): ov bvvdpevos 8i' dadeveiav ifKevcr ai,
since he is unable on account of sickness to make the voyage).
(2) When ov (or ov%l) is used in a question its use always
implies that the expected answer is "yes." I n this regard
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
265
it is the equivalent of the Latin nonne (cf. M t . 13:55, ov%
OVTOS
eCTTLV 6
TOV T6KT0V0S
vloS)
01>X
V
MTTJP
GUTOU
Xeyerai Mapiap, this is the carpenter's son, is it not? His
mother is called Mary, is she not?
Mil
241. This is the weaker, milder negative, denying subjectively and with hesitancy. " I n a word, prj is just the
negative to use when one does not wish to be too positive.
M97 leaves the question open for further remarks or entreaty.
Ov closes the door abruptly" (R. 1156).
(1) Then prj is the particle of qualified negation. Since
the subjunctive and optative moods imply uncertainty, i t
is but natural that prj, which denies hypothetically and
with reserve, should predominate with these moods. I t
also predominates with imperatives, infinitives, and participles, but i t is used sparingly with the indicative. The
student should remember that this is true not because of
any fixed rule, but due to the fact of the inherent meaning
of the moods and the negatives.
Professor Milligan (op. cit.) summarizes the occurrences of prj with
the indicative in the papyri thus: "(a) in relative clauses . . . (b) in
cautious assertions (as in Lk. 11:35; Gal. 4:11; Col. 2:18)."
(2) I n questions prj (or prjri) implies that the expected
answer is "no." Notice how Judas asked the memorable
question, prjri eydo dpi) It is not I , is it? (Mt. 26:25). The
difference in meaning in questions between the two negatives
is clearly apparent in Lk. 6:39, prjri bvvarai rv<pKds
TV<p\bv obrjyelv; ov%l apporepos els fioOvvov epireaovprai\
a blind man is not able to guide a blind man, is he? They will
both fall into a ditch, will they not? (cf. Mk. 4:21; Jn. 4:29.)
The differences between these negatives in other sentences besides the
interrogative may be summarized as follows: "The general distinction
between ov and prj is that ov is objective, dealing only with facts, while prj
\s subjective, involving will and thought. . . . In the NT ov is
266
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
almost entirely confined to the indicative, while pr) monopolises the
other moods" {Voc. Gr. Test.) Or, according to Dr. C. B. Williams
(Union University, Jackson, Tenn.), "Ov expresses a definite, emphatic
negation; pr) an indefinite, doubtful negation. If a negation was to be
asserted unequivocally, ov was always used; if hypothetically, pr) was
invariably used" (unpublished Grammar Notes). An illuminating
comment may be quoted from Webster: "Ov conveys a direct and
absolute denial; pr) conveys a subjective and conditional denial. In a
conditional proposition, fir) belongs to the protasis, ov to the apodosis.
M17 negatives a supposition; it prohibits, or forbids. Ov negatives an
affirmation, affirming that it is not so. Ov is used when an object is
regarded independently in itself; jit^when it is regarded as depending on
some thought, wish, purpose. Ov negat rem ipsam; pr), cogitationem
rei. Ov implies non-existence simply; but pr) implies non-existence,
when existence was probable or possible. Ov is negative; pr) is privative" (op. cit., p. 138). The relative difference between these negatives
is evident in 1 Pt. 1:8, ov ovulbbvres ay aware, els bv apri pr) bp&vres iriarevovres be aydWiare x P& dveKKa\f)rco, whom having
a
never seen you continue loving; upon whom, though not looking you continue trusting, and you are rejoicing with unspeakable joy. In the
above sentence OVK, used with the aorist participle, states positively
that they had not seen Jesus, while pr) in a milder way, with the present
participle, states that they are not now seeing him. Dr. A. T. Robertson has the happy way of illustrating to his students the difference in
meaning between these negatives by picturing graphically a young man
proposing to his lady friend. If she answers him, pr), it may only mean
that she wants to be coaxed a little longer, or that she is still in a state of
uncertainty; but if she responds, ov, he may as well get his hat and
leave at once.
0\> \LT\
242. I n the WH. text the combination ov pr) occurs ninetysix times. With the light that the papyri have thrown upon
this doubling of the negatives we can now say unreservedly
that the negatives were doubled for the purpose of stating
denials or prohibitions emphatically. "Ov pr) is rare, and
very emphatic in the non-literary papyri" ( M . 188). The
following papyrus quotation from a boy's letter to his father
illustrates the papyri occurrences very effectively: R Oxy.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
267
2c
9
i, 119:5, 14f. X --3c. A. D.), y ov deKis aireveKneiv per
ecrov els AXe^av8plav, ov prj ypaxpo) ere eiriaToXrjp . . .
ap (=eav) pr) wepxf/rjs, ov pr) <payo), ov pr) irelvo), if you
refuse to take me along with you to Alexandria, I positively will
not write you a letter. . . . 7/ you do not send (for me) I
will not eat; I will not drink. The above illustrates how people used the doubling of the negatives for making categorical
and emphatic denials (cf. M t . 5:20, ov pr) elaekdrjre els rr)v
(iacrChelav r&v ovpav&v, ye shall by no means enter into
the kingdom of heaven; 1 Cor. 8:13, ov pr) <payo Kpea els rbv
alobva, I will never at all eat meat again (cf. also Lk. 22:16,18,
67, 68).
J
Ov is found in composition frequently in the following combinations:
ovSapcos, by no means; ov8&, not even, neither; ovSels, ovdels, no one;
ovSeTore, never (not even ever); ovSeTO), not yet; ovKeri, no longer, no
more; ovwoo, not yet; ovre, neither. When a less positive denial was
desired, the same suffixes were attached to prj. The suffixes -x<< on ov,
and - r i on pr) have the force of strengthening and intensifying these
negatives (Mt. 13;27] 26;25; Lk. 1;60),
DIVISION I I I
CLAUSES
243. Regardless of what kind of comparisons are made
in the study of languages, the Greek language, with scarcely
an exception, proves to be the most accurate, euphonious,
and expressive. And i t keeps up its high average in the
realm of clauses. There is an ample number of different
types of clauses, and each type is exquisitely developed, so
as to be the most suitable vehicle for expressing with ease
and grace any elusive thought.
244. Not many grammars have a separate treatment of
clauses. This is no doubt due to the fact that the clause
does not represent a separate part of speech. I t is essentially interwoven with other parts of speech which call for
specific treatment in a descriptive grammar. Consequently,
whenever all the parts of speech have been discussed, the
clauses have already been considered. To devote to them
a separate discussion might, therefore, seem to necessitate
either the omission of important matters pertaining to the
parts of speech involved in clauses, or useless duplication
in treating each clause a second time. That there is some
truth in this objection cannot be denied, but the objection
is offset by the fact that the clause is a unique element of
syntactical structure and cannot be adequately comprehended until all its phenomena are presented in a single
systematic view. There will also appear duplication between different groups of clauses. This is especially true
of the relative clauses, which occur under various classifications. But in such repetition we venture to sacrifice
rhetorical propriety to pedagogical efficiency.
268
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
269
245. As to their general character, clauses gather about
the two pivotal points of syntax, the noun and the verb.
They present a triple character—substantival, adjectival,
and adverbial (cf. R . 952). To treat them in three groups
under this classification according to character would conduce to scientific accuracy, but would sacrifice simplicity
and clearness. We employ in our grouping here the more
obvious basis of their sense in relation to the context. For
a fuller analysis of clauses on the basis of their character
see Br. 82.
246. As to the use of moods in subordinate clauses, this
general rule applies; viz., that the moods used in coordinate clauses have exactly the same force in subordinate
clauses. "There is no essential difference in meaning of
the modes in subordinate clauses from their significance in
independent sentences" ( R . 950).
I . T H E STRUCTURAL RELATION OF CLAUSES
247. When two or more clauses are connected in a coordinate relation, they constitute what is known as a compound
sentence. The distinctive feature of the compound sentence
is that in its structure no clause is subordinate to another, but
all are in coordinate or par atactic relation (iraparaKTos:
arranged alongside).
When one clause is subordinate to
another, the relation is called hypotactic
(viroraKrbs:
ar-
and the technical name for the sentence is
common practice of the Greek language was
that each clause be connected with the preceding by some
connective word. The term for the lack of such a connective
is asyndeton (aavvberos: not bound together). Many examples of asyndeton are found in the New Testament. I t
occurs most frequently in John's Gospel and First Epistle.
248. A clause is simply the employment of a circumlocution by which we convey a meaning that we cannot readily
ranged under),
complex.
The
270
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
express with a single word or phrase. Thus to say, " I saw
the man going home," is modified and expanded in meaning
by saying, " I saw the man who was going home." I n this
modifying function the clause presents a threefold relation
to the principal sentence of (cf. §245).
(1) A clause may sustain the relation of a substantive,
and be used as subject or object of a verb.
OVK e'xw o irapadrjcro) avrco.
I do not have that which I may place before him. Lk. 11:6.
See also: Jn. 12:10; 1 Cor. 4:2.
(2) A clause may have the function of an adjective, and
be used to modify a noun.
r<3 aireppari
GOV,
6S CGTIV
XpiGTos.
To thy seed, who is Christ. Gal. 3:16.
See also: Jn. 4:34; 15:12.
(3) A clause may serve as an adverb.
aKo\ov6rjG0) GOL oirov eav airepxti*
I will follow you wherever you go. Lk. 9:57.
See also: Jn. 3:16; 1 Cor. 14:12.
i. The student will find interesting variation and unmeasured
possibilities of expression in the Greek use of clauses.
ii. In the treatment of clauses it is easiest on the whole to denominate them according to the connectives that introduce them, having
first classified the clauses according to the ideas they are used to express. However, with a few exceptions, as far as clarity is concerned, only the subordinate clauses need separate discussion.
I I . RELATIVE CLAUSES
- References: R. 953-962; R-S. 168-170'.
249. The relative is used to indicate clauses of various
types. This variety in the nature of relative clauses does
not, of course, arise from the character of the relative itself,
but is determined by the nature and relations of the clause.
For instance, a relative pronoun has the same essential
THE
GREEK.
NEW
TESTAMENT
271
character in a causal clause that it does in a purpose clause.
But while the character of the relative is not the determining factor, i t does affect the clause in the matter of definiteness or indefiniteness.
Nature o£ the Relative
250. A relative is a word by means of which the complete
expression of one idea is connected in sense with the complete expression of another. Thus, "The man lives" is a
complete thought, and "The pastures are green" is a complete thought. These two sentences may become principal
and subordinate clauses in a single sentence by the insertion of the relative adverb where: "The man lives where
the pastures are green." I n this construction the first sentence becomes the principal clause and the second the
subordinate clause. Relatives may be pronouns; e.g., 6s
and OCTTLS; or adverbs, e.g., ecos and cos.
Uses o£ the Relative
251. The relative pronoun has no invariable effect as to
mood. That is determined by the general relation of the
clause to its context. So we need not be surprised to find
relative clauses embracing two moods, indicative and subjunctive. I t is true, however, that the definite relative
accords more naturally with the indicative, while the indefinite relative suits the subjunctive better. This fact is
in line with the fundamental character of the two moods.
The indicative assumes the actual existence of the event or
thing denoted by the relative, while the subjunctive contemplates i t as hypothetical.
The Indicative with Relative Clauses
252. I n by far the greater number of relative clauses,
both as to frequency of occurrence and variety in usej
272
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
we find the indicative used. I t appears in five types of
clauses.
(1) Adjectival Clauses. Sometimes a relative clause is
used to directly limit or define a substantive, performing a
pure adjective function.
pvrjpovevere TOV \6yov ov eyco elirov vplv.
Remember the word which I spoke to you. Jn. 15:20.
See also: Jn. 6:37; Gal. 3:16.
(2) Causal Clauses. The relative clause may denote the
grounds for the assertion in the main clause.
oirives airedavopev rfj apapriq, TTCOS en ^rjaopev ev avrfj;
We who died to sin, how shall we longer live therein? Rom. 6:2„
See also: Ac. 10:41; Gal. 5:4.
(3) Concessive Clauses. A relative clause may imply th*,
idea of concession.
ol \eyovres
avpiov KepSrjaopev,
otTLves OVK eirlaraade
rrjs
avpiov.
i}
Some say, "Tomorrow we will get gain, who know nothing about
tomorrow. Jas. 4:13, 14.
(4) Simple Condition. The relative clause may supply
the protasis of a simple condition.
oaoi yap
avopoos rjpaprov,
avopoos Kal
aird\ovvrai.
For as many as sin without law also perish without law. Rom. 2:12.
See also: Mk. 10:43; 2 Cor. 2:10.
(5) Purpose Clauses.
purpose.
The relative clause may express
r o j > apirek&va eKh&crerai aKkois yeupyoTs, drives
avrco rovs
awoS&orovaiv
Kapirovs.
tie will let the vineyard to other husbandmen, who will render to
him the fruits. Mt. 21:41.
See also: Mk. 1:2; 1 Cor. 4:17.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
273
The Subjunctive With Relative Clauses
253. Where the contingent or indefinite idea is supplied
by the context, or the context and the nature of the relative,
the subjunctive is used.
(1) More Probable Condition. The protasis of a more
probable future condition may be expressed by the use of a
relative pronoun with av.
bs 5'av iroirjari Kal SiSa^rj, dbros plyas KKvOrjaerat.
Whosoever shall do and teach them, he shall be called great. Mt. 5:19.
See also: Mk. 10:43; Jas. 2:10.
This construction is sometimes found in the future indicative without
av (cf. Mt. 10:32). In the New Testament we sometimes find lav
instead of av. This was current Koine" usage, as is abundantly evidenced by the papyri.
(2) Voluntative Result Clauses. A relative clause may
express a result which the context shows was intended or
contemplated.
av
odev dvayKaiov ex
TL
TOVTOV
o
irpoaevlyKrj.
Wherefore, this one must have something which he may offer.
Heb. 8:3.
See also: Mk. 14:14; Lk. 7:4.
i. We have in this construction a blending of purpose and result,
and it is often difficult to determine which is the more prominent.
Where the voluntative force is but slightly felt the future indicative
is used, instead of the subjunctive as in the above case (Phs. 2:20).
ii. Some Correlative and Interrogative Pronouns Illustrated. We find
ocros, as much as, used frequently with TOGOVTOS,
so much as; e.g.,
Heb. 1:4, roaovTOp . . . 6aeg, by so much as. Similarly olos, what
kind of, occurs in connection with roiovros, such kind of; e.g., 1 Cor.
15:48, olos 6 x°^6s, TOLOVTOL,
as is the earthy, such also are those who
are earthy. There is no difference in meaning between 7roZos, of what
sort, and 07roios, of what sort. The former is an interrogative pronoun,
so the difference is one of function (cf. Lk. 24:19; 1 Cor. 3:13). The USQ
of iroaos, how great, how much (Mt. 6:23), is closely akin to that ol
TJKLKOS,
how great, how large (Jas. 3:5). The latter seems to have refer*
ence more to size* while the former deals rather with quantity or number,
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
I I I . CAUSAL CLAUSES
References: R. 962-966; Nunn 115.
254. A causal clause is one which states the ground or
reason for the assertion contained in another.
Coordinate Causal Clauses
255. The inferential particle yap is the regular connective,
for two coordinate clauses which bear to each other some
relation of cause and effect, or reason and conclusion. These
coordinate sentences- joined by yap do not in the strictest
sense belong to clauses.
papTVs yap pob IGTIP 6 6eos.
For God is my witness. Rom. 1:9.
i. In the preceding statement Paul has expressed his profound
interest in the Roman church and his appreciation of it, and here
he adds an evidence in proof of his claim (see also: 1 Cor. 8:5; Gal.
4:15; et innum.).
ii. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether a clause is coordinate
or subordinate. When the particle is yap, that usuallyfixesit as
coordinate. If it is art, the clause is regularly subordinate, although
there are a few apparent exceptions (cf. 1 Cor. 1:25] 10:17).
Subordinate Causal Clauses
256. Four chief methods of expression are exhibited in
the construction of subordinate causal clauses.
(1) By a Subordinating Conjunction. The particles used
are, on, 5i6n, KaOori, eirel, iireihr), oOep; also the phrases,
i(p
t<p oaov, CLPO' & P , ov x&pw*
7
J
8n eycj f & Kal ipeis ^rjaere.
Because I live, you also shall live. Jn. 14:19.
e<p' oaop eTTOLrjaare Ivl TOVTCOP.
Since you did it to one of these. Mt. 25:40.
See also: Rom. 1:21: 1 Cor. 1:22; Heb. 3:1.
THE
GEEE1
NEW
TESTAMENT
275
(2) By bid with the Articular Infinitive.
did
TO
elvai avrov
e£ oUov AaueiS.
Because he loas of the house of David. Lk. 2:4.
See also: Lk. 8:9; Jn. 2:24.
(3) By the Participle. The participle may express cause
either when it is in agreement with some word in the principal clause, or in the genitive absolute.
pr) 6eko)v avrrjp
beiypariaai.
Because he did not wish to make her a public example. Mt.
1:19.
fir) €XOVTOS be avrov dirobovvai.
And since he did not have anything to pay. Mt. 18:25.
See also: Lk. 16:1; Ac. 12:3.
The use of cos with a causal participle implies that the action
denoted by the participle is the supposed or alleged cause of the
action of the principal verb.
(4) By the Relative Pronoun.
7
TTpoaix* '* uirb r&v \[/evSoirpo(prjrcoVy dlnves
vpas ev evdvpaaw irpo(3dra)v.
epxovrai
irpbs
Beware of false prophets who come to you in sheep's clothing.
Mt. 7:15.
See also: Rom. 6:2; Heb. 12:6.
I V . COMPARATIVE CLAUSES
References: R. 966-968; R-S. 175-176.
257. A comparative clause introduces an analogous
thought for the purpose of elucidating or emphasizing the
thought expressed in the principal clause. To say, "The
believer is baptized as the Savior was," is to describe the
believer's baptism; while to say, "The believer shall be
raised even as Christ was raised," is to emphasize the certainty of the resurrection. Description or emphasis will be
found to be the function of nearly all comparative clauses,
which are of frequent occurrence in the New Testament,
276
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
The Particles Used
258. I t is well that the student should become easily
familiar with the various connective particles which are
used to introduce comparative clauses.
(1) Those used most are cbs and
ovro)s r)pas XoytfeVflco avOpuiros
Kadks.
&s VTrrjperas
(n this way let a man think of us, as servants of Christ
Xpiarov.
1 Cor.
4:1
tva iravres Tipcoai rdv vibv Kadoos rip&ai TOV
iraripa.
In order that all will honor the Son as they honor the Father.
Jn. 5:23.
(2) Compounds of Kara; viz., Kado (Rom. 8:26), KaQbri
(Ac. 2:45), KaO&airep (Heb. 5:4), naQairep (Rom. 3:4).
iapev evrjyjeKiapivoL
Kadawep KaiceZvoi.
We have been evangelized even as also they. Heb. 4:2.
(3) Compounds of &s; viz.,
(Mt. 6:2), &<nrepel (1 Cor. 15:8),
Karaftalvov
&crei
waavTus
(Mt. 9:36), cbairep
(Mt. 20:5).
cbcret Trepiarepav.
Descending as a dove. Mt. 3:16.
(4) The correlative pronoun oaos. I n the comparative
sense it is found only four times, each of which is in
Hebrews.
8(TCjj bia<pop6)T6pov nap' avrovs KeKkrjpovoprjKev
ovopa.
By how much he has inherited a more excellent name than they.
Heb. 1:4.
(5) The comparative particle 77, than. I t occurs most
frequently with single words, but now and then also with ft
clause.
evKOTdorepov eariv Kaprjkov
bia rprjparos
pa<pihos elaeXdeXv
fj irkovaiov els rr)v f3ao~i\elav TOV deov.
It is easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich
man to enter into the kingdom of God. Mt. 19:24,
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
277
(6) The use of the phrase 6V rpoirov, as, just as. I t is frequent in 2 Clement with this meaning (cf. 8, 9, 12).
ToacLKis
ridiXrjaa
eiriavvayayeiv
opvis eiriavvayei
rd reuva
rd voaaia
GOV,
OV
rpoirov
avrrjs.
How often would I have gathered together thy children just as
a hen gathers together her little ones! Mt. 23:37
See also: Lk. 13:34; Ac. 1:11.
The Moods Used
259. I t is not the meaning of the particles or the significance of the comparison per se which causes the variation in mood, but the implications of the context. The
fundamental ideas of actuality and potentiality determine
the matter, as is always the case with mood.
(1) Regularly we find the indicative.
eaecrOe vpels reXetoi cos 6 Trarrjp vpcov rikeios ecmv.
Ye shall be perfect as your Father is perfect. Mt. 5:48.
See also: Bom. 3:4; 8:26.
(2) Where the element of contingency is introduced, the
subjunctive is used.
els Kaipov €Xco/z€J>, epya^copeda
rbv
dyaOov.
As we have opportunity, let us do good. Gal 6:10.
See also: Mk. 4:26; 2 Cor. 8:12.
V . LOCAL CLAUSES
References: R. 969-970; Nunn 114.
260. A local clause is one which is introduced by a relative adverb of place.
The Particles Used
261. These clauses are introduced in the New Testament
by three local adverbs.
278
A MANUAL
(1)
Kal
By
GRAMMAR
OTOV.
ctAXo eirecrev eirl
TO
ireTp&hes
oVou OVK
&x&> yyv iroWrjv*
And other fell upon stony soil where it had not much ground.
Mk. 4:5.
(2) Byo5.
dvol^as
(3ifi\lov evpev
TO
TOV
TOTTOP
O5 t)v yeypappevop.
Having opened the book he found the place where it was written
Lk. 4:17.
(3) By 60ev.
els
TOV
OZKOV
pov iTiaTptya)
oOev l%r\hBov.
I will return to my house whence I came out. Mt. 12:44.
The Moods Used
262. The same general principles operate here which
affect moods elsewhere.
(1) The indicative only is used when the local clause is
definite.
drjaavpovs erl
TTJS
yrjs, owov ar)s Kal pp&ais d(papl%ei.
Treasures upon earth, where moth and rust consume. Mt. 6:19.
See also: Mt. 2:9; Mk. 2:4.
(2) The indicative is used in indefinite local clauses when the
action took place prior to the writing, but the subjunctive
occurs when the action is expected to take place in the future.
In such constructions av or eav occurs with the local adverb,
oirov av elviropeveTo els K&pas.
Wherever he entered into villages. Mk. 6:56.
aKciKovdrjcro) coi 6Vou edv dwepxyI will follow thee wherever thou goest. Lk. 9:57.
See also: Mt. 24:28; Mk. 6:10.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
279*
V I . TEMPORAL CLAUSES
References: R. 970-979; R-S. 171-174.
263. There are in the Greek language several particles,
derived from relative adverbs, which are used to introduce
clauses that define a thought by means of its temporal relations. Some temporal particles are also used as prepositions, introducing a phrase rather than a clause (cf. M t .
24:38; Lk. 16:16; Heb. 12:4).
The Character of Temporal Clauses
264. The function of a temporal clause is to limit the
action of the verb in the principal clause by the introduction of a relation of time. The quality of such a clause
may be defined from two points of view.
The Relation of the Time Limit
(1) Antecedent Time. The time limit may be described
as prior to the action of the principal verb, in which case the
clause is generally introduced by irpiv, before.
(2) Contemporaneous Time. The time limit may be the
continuance of an action which is described as parallel with
the action of the principal verb, the clause being introduced
by ecos, while, or ore, cos, when.
(3) Subsequent Time. The time limit may be described
as the terminus of the action of the principal verb, the
clause being introduced by ecos, until.
The Nature of the Temporal
Idea
(1) Definite. The time limit may be indicated as a specific point or period, corresponding in meaning to "When,"
by the use of the indicative mood.
(2) Indefinite. The time limit may be stated as a con-
280
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
tingency, carrying a conditional element, and corresponding
in meaning to "whenever." The indicative with av is generally used in such clauses for past time, and the subjunctive with av for future time.
The prevalence of relative adverbs among the temporal particles
quite naturally makes the grammarians disposed to class them withrelative clauses. So Burton gives as his classification of this group,
"Relative Clauses Introduced by Words Meaning Until, While and
Before" (Br. 128). Blass describes them as "only a special clas3
of relative sentences," which "exhibit the same constructions" (Bl.
218). But Robertson takes issue with this opinion, and contends
for the temporal clause as a distinct construction. He does admit,
however, their kinship to relative clauses, as exhibited in their character as definite or indefinite. Indefiniteness is based upon "futurity,
frequency and duration." He calls attention to one place in the
New Testament where the optative occurs in a temporal clause
(Ac. 25:16), but is "due to indirect discourse." The presence or
absence of av in temporal clauses varies in accordance with the conjunction and context (cf. R. 970).
The Constructions i n Temporal Clauses
265. We may distinguish five constructions in the use of
the temporal clause in the New Testament.
(1) With the Indicative. Where the temporal limitation
is stated as definite, or assumed as real, the indicative is
regularly used.
a. Introduced by ore, eireiSr), birbre, cbs, meaning when.
ore eriKeaev o
'ITJCTOVS
TOVS
Xoyous rovrovs,
perijpev.
When Jesus had finished these words, he departed. Mt. 19:1.
See also: Mt. 7:28; 21:1; Lk. 7:1; 11:1.
b. Introduced by ora*>, meaning whenever.
orav arfiKere irpoaevxbpevoij apiere.
Whenever ye stand praying, forgive. Mk. 11:25.
See also: Mk. 3:11; Rev. 4:9.
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
c. Introduced by ecos, ecos ov, ecos
meaning while.
/jvdyKaaev
padrjras
TOVS
OTOV,
axpi
281
o3, e<p' 6aov,
ecos airoKvei TOV oxKov.
ep^rjvai,
He constrained the disciples to embark, while he dismissed the
multitude. Mk. 6:45.
See also: Jn. 9:4; 1 Tim. 4:13; Heb. 3:13; Lk. 12:58.
d. Introduced by ecos, axPh ^XP °3, meaning until.
L
6
a(XTr)p
irporjyev avrovs, ecos earaOrj ewavoo ov r)v TO
TTCUSIOV.
The star went before them until it stood over where the child was.
Mt. 2:9.
See also: Ac. 7:18; Rev. 17:17.
e. Introduced by cos,
ov, meaning since.
irocros xpbvos iarlv cbs
TOVTO
yiyovev
avTcjb;
How long is it since this happened to him? Mk. 9:21.
See also: Lk. 13:7.
(2) With the Subjunctive.
The subjunctive is used
where the temporal clause is conceived as an indefinite possibility, and its use implies uncertainty as to realization.
a. Introduced by
OTCLV
Se
eiacpepcoaiv
orav,
eirav, rjviKa, meaning whenever.
ifpas eirl rds avvaycayds,
pr) pepipvrjaeTe
r{
elV^re.
And whenever they bring you into synagogues, be not anxious what
ye may say. Lk. 12:11.
See also: Mt. 24:33; Mk. 13:11; Lk. 11:34; 2 Cor. 3:15.
b. Introduced by ecos, axPh
meaning until.
1
&XP
^XPh
L
^XP
e/cet pevere ecos av i^iKOrjTe eiceWev.
There abide until ye depart thence. Mk. 6:10.
See also: Lk. 21:24; Rev. 15:8; Eph. 4:13; Mk. 13:30.
When the temporal clause has an actual future reference, av ia
often used (Lk. 15:4). When the principal clause is past, and the
temporal clause presents a future reference relative to the principal
clause, av is omitted (Mk. 18:30).
282
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
(3) With the Infinitive. For antecedent time the regular
construction is the infinitive with irplv oiirplv r), meaning
before.
elprjKa vpXv irplv yevecrOai.
I have told you before it comes to pass. Jn. 14:29.
See also: Mt. 1:18; 26:34.
i. The infinitive is also used with 7rp6 TOV to mean before^(Gal. 2:12)
with ev T($ to mean while (Mt. 13:25) or when (Ac. 8:6), and with
pera TO to mean after (Ac. 1:3; cf. (3) above).
ii. Where the principal clause is negative, irplv fj is followed by the
indicative (cf. Lk. 2:26).
(4) With a Relative Phrase. A relative pronoun with a
preposition may express a temporal idea.
7
ev $ 6 vvp<plos per avrcov ecrriv.
While the bridegroom is with them. Mk. 2:19.
See also: Mt. 9:15; 13:25.
(5) With the Participle. One of the regular uses of the
participle is as the equivalent of a temporal clause.
Kal
e£e\0cbj> elhev
TTOKVV
bxKov.
And when he came forth, he saw a great multitude. Mt. 14:14.
See also: Mt. 14:32; Heb. 11:21.
V I I . PURPOSE CLAUSES
References: R. 981-991; R-S. 152-154.
266. The variety and distinctiveness of the constructions
for expressing purpose in Greek make i t important that
close attention be given to the matter. The student will
do well to tarry with this section until he has mastered it.
The Character of Purpose Clauses
267. The function of a purpose clause is to express the
aim of the action denoted by the main verb. This aim may
be of the nature of a deliberate design, i t may be a matter
T H E
G R E E K
N E W
T E S T A M E N T
283
of general direction, or merely of contemplated results.
Thus to say, "Paul went to Berea to preach the gospel,"
could mean that Paul went in accordance with an actual
plan, or that he went so that he could preach. So purpose
clauses may exhibit various shades of meaning, ranging
from deliberate design to mere tendency or result. They
may be divided into two classes.
(1) Pure Final Clauses are those which express a distinct
purpose conceived as the aim of the action indicated in the
principal verb.
(2) Semi-Final Clauses are those which denote a direction of the action in the main verb toward a given result,
which result is sought or anticipated.
The Constructions in Purpose Clauses
268. Purpose may be expressed in six ways according to
New Testament usage.
(1) By tva and OTGOS, meaning that, in order that; or, a
negative purpose, by tva pr) and pr), that not, lest. The
subjunctive occurs regularly, and the future indicative occasionally.
rjXOev iva paprvprjar]
irepl TOV (pcorbs.
He came that he might bear witness concerning the light. Jn. 1:7
dedcoicev r)plv di&voiav
iva yivooaKopev
TOV
akqdivbv.
He has given us a mind that we know the truth. 1 Jn. 5:20.
pr) Kplvere Iva pr) KpiOrJTe.
Judge not that you be not judged. Mt. 7:1.
pr) TIS pe hb%r) a<ppova elvai.
Lest anyone think me a fool. 2 Cor. 11:16.
OTTOS
cpav&criv rots avOpcowois.
That they may be seen by men. Mt. 6:5.
See also: Lk. 2040; 22:11.
284
A
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
(2) By the simple infinitive.
pr) voplarjTe
Think
o n rj\dov
KaraKvaau
not that I came to destroy
TOV vbpov.
the law.
Mt.
5:17.
See also: Mt. 11:8; 22:3.
(3) By the infinitive with
p£\\ei
yap
^Hp^brjs ^t]Teiv
TOV.
TO
iraidiov
TOV
diroXeaai
For Herod will seek the child to destroy him.
CLVTO.
Mt.
2:13.
See also: Ac. 26:18; Phs. 3:10.
(4) By the accusative of the articular infinitive with els
and 7rp6s; and very rarely also by cos and cWre without the
article.
els TO (TTrjpLxOyjvai
vpas.
To the end that ye may be established.
6 /3Xe7rcoz>
irds
Every
yvvaiKa
irpbs
Rom.
eiriOvprjaai.
TO
one that looks on a woman for the purpose of lust.
avpfiovkiov
ekafiov
cWre OavaT&aat
eicrrfkQov
entered
els
K&prjv
a village
Mt.
2a/xapetrcoj>, cos eToipdaai
of the Samaritans
Mt.
5:28.
CLVTOV.
They took counsel in order to put him to death.
They
1:11.
to make
27:1.
avrcg.
ready
for
him
Lk. 9:52.
See also: Mt. 6:1; Lk. 4:29; Heb. 7:9.
(5) By the relative with the future indicative or the
subjunctive.
8s KdTaaicevdcrei
TT)V 686V.
That he may prepare thy way.
dvayKalov
His
exew
TL
Kal
TOVTOV
Mk.
6
irpoaeveyKr}.
necessary that this one really have something
See also: Ac. 6:3; 21:16.
1:2.
to offer. Heb.
8:3.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
285
(6) By the future and, rarely, the present participle.
airecrreikev avrov evKoyovvra vpas.
He sent him to bless you. Ac. 3:26.
%
e\rj\vdei irpoanvvrjaaiv els lepovaa\r)p.
He had come to Jerusalem to worship. Ac. 8:27.
See also: Mk. 3:31; Mt. 27:49.
V I I I . R E S U L T CLAUSES
References: R. 997-1003; R-S. 155-156.
Definition
269. A result clause states that which is consequent upon
or issues from the action of the main verb. As indicated
under Purpose Clauses (§267) i t is often difficult to determine whether a clause should be translated as denoting
result or purpose.
The Constructions in Result Clauses
270. Result may be introduced in the following ways:
(1) Py far the most common way of expressing result is
the use of G&ore followed by the infinitive.
K&V
iraaav rr)v
iricrTiv
&are oprj pediaraveiv.
And if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains. 1 Cor. 13:2.
See also: Mk. 1:27; 2:12.
(2) By the simple infinitive.
ret 8e WVYJ virep eXe'ous ho^aaai
TOV
deov.
So that the Gentiles might glorify God for His mercy. Rom. 15:9.
See also: Lk. 1:54; Ac. 5:3.
(3) Rarely by the infinitive with TOV.
eKevOepa earlv diro TOV vbpov, TOV pr) elvat avrrjv
poixa\l5a.
She is free from the law, so that she is not an adulteress. Rom, 7:3.
See also: Ac. 18:10; 20:3; 27:1.
286
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
(4) By the infinitive with els TO, which is also rare.
els
TO
elvat
OVTOVS
avawciKoyrjTovs.
So that they are without
excuse.
Rom.
1:20.
See also: Phs. 1:10; Heb. 11:3; Jas. 1:19.
(5) By the indicative with Sn and a>ore, also rare.
irov OISTOS piKKei
Tropeveadai
OTL
OVX
zvprjcropev
Where is this man about to go so that we shall not
avrov;
find
himf
Jn. 7:35.
&CTT6
rov
vlbv
TOV
povoyevij
So that he gave his only begotten
edo)K6v.
son.
Jn.
3:16.
See also: Mk. 4:41; Gal. 3:13; Heb. 2:6.
With the infinitive (Sore expresses conceived or intended result,
but with the indicative (only two occurrences in the New Testament)
it expresses actual result. But actual result may also be expressed by
the infinitive with wore (Mt. 8:24; 12:22; Lk. 5:7).
(6) By the subjunctive with iva. Grammarians have been
reluctant to admit this use for iva. But J. H . Moulton and A.
T. Robertson, who at first stood against admitting the consecutive force of iva, came to do so later (R. 997). See our
discussion of iva in the section on conjunctions (§220).
Xeyco ovv, titTawav
iva
ireaooaiv;
Rom. 11:11.
See also: Gal. 5:17; Lk. 1:43; Jn. 6:7.
I say then, did they stumble so that they fell?
I X . CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
References: R. 1004-1129; R-S. 161-167.
The Character o£ Conditional Clauses
271. A conditional clause is the statement of a supposition, the fulfillment of which is assumed to secure the
realization of a potential fact expressed in a companion
clause. The clause containing the supposition is called the
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
287
protasis. The clause containing the statement based on
the supposition is called the apodosis. Conditional clauses
may be classified on the basis of the attitude they express
with reference to reality.
(1) Supposition from the Viewpoint of Reality. The
protasis of a condition may present one fact as conditioning
another. I n one form of condition there is nothing implied
as to whether or not this fact actually exists. This we call
the simple condition. I n another form of condition i t is
implied that this fact has not been realized, and therefore
does not exist. This we call the contrary to fact condition.
(2) Supposition from the Viewpoint of Probability. The
protasis may imply that the fact suggested as a condition
is a probability. Sometimes i t is implied that there is considerable probability of its fulfillment. This we call the
more probable future condition. Again, the protasis may
not contain any special implication of the fulfillment of the
condition, viewing i t merely as a possibility. This we call
the less probable future condition. Thus we find that there
are four classes of conditional sentences.
272. The primary thing in understanding conditional
sentences is to keep in mind what kind of affirmation each
mood expresses. As has already been stated in the chapter
on mood, the indicative states a thing as a fact, the subjunctive with a degree of uncertainty, and the optative with
a greater degree of uncertainty. Hence, on the basis of
mood, the four kinds of conditional sentences can be conveniently grouped into two types. First, there are the two
that have the indicative mood, which assume that the
premise is either true or untrue. The speaker takes for
granted that what he assumes is true, as in the simple condition; or that i t is known not to be true, as is the case in
the contrary to fact condition. The indicative, being the
mood for reality, is regularly used in this type of sentence.
288
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
I t would be contrary to the genius of the Greek moods if i t
were otherwise. Second, the other two conditional sentences
composing the second type do not have the indicative mood,
but rather the subjunctive and optative, which are used to
express varying degrees of uncertainty or doubt. Inasmuch
as the optative has vanished almost entirely from the New
Testament, we see in i t but traces of the fourth class of
conditional sentences. But the subjunctive in conditions is
very common.
273. Another thing that lends light toward a thorough
understanding of conditional sentences is the particle av thatis used in all but the first-class condition. The third-class
condition begins with ei+av or eav, or sometimes av. I n the
apodosis of sentences in the second and fourth classes av
occurs most of the time, but i t is not necessary according to
Koind usage. As we have pointed out in our discussion of
av in the section on particles, i t implies doubt or indefiniteness. Its very presence in a sentence indicates lack of
certainty on the part of the one using it. I t warns us not to
take at full face value what the other words may imply. I f
we but remember that this word which implies uncertainty
is used with the moods for uncertainty, we are far advanced
in a proper understanding of i t .
274. If the indicative is used in a conditional clause, naturally the negative is ov. Whenever any other mood is used,
the regular negative is pr). I n a few cases this rule is not
followed absolutely, the contrary to fact condition being a
notable exception, where pr), the weaker negative and the
one for expressing doubt, is used regularly with but two
exceptions in the New Testament.
Robertson has termed these four kinds of conditional sentences as
follows: (1) reality; (2) unreality; (3) probability; (4) possibility.
And he makes a very pertinent statement, the substance of which
needs to be remembered: "The point about all the four classes to
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
289
note is that the form of the condition has to do only with the
statement, not with the absolute truth or certainty of the matter.
. . . We must distinguish always therefore between the fact and
the statement of the fact. The conditional sentence deals only with
the statement" (R. 1005).
The Constructions in Conditional Sentences
275. We have developed in the above discussion that
there are two general types of conditional sentences, of
two varieties each, thus requiring four different constructions for expression.
(1) The Simple Condition. This condition was used
when one wished to assume or to seem to assume the reality
of his premise. El occurs regularly in the protasis, with
any tense of the indicative. There is no fixed form for the
apodosis—any mood or tense may occur.
el 5e irvevpari
ayeade,
OVK
core
bwb vbpov.
But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under law. Gal. 5:18.
See also: Mk. 4:23; Rev. 20:15.
(2) The Contrary to Fact Condition. The premise is
assumed to be contrary to fact in this class, and only the
past tenses of the indicative are used. As suggested above,
this condition states a thing as if i t were untrue or unreal,
although in actual fact i t may be true, as the first example
below shows. The protasis is introduced by el, and av
usually occurs in the apodosis. Exceptions are found in
Mt. 26:24; Ac. 26:32; 2 Cor. 2:2.
a. A contrary to fact condition dealing with present time
has the imperfect tense in both protasis and apodosis.
OVTOS
el r\v TTpocpr)rr]s eyivwaKev av rls Kal iroTain) r) yvvf).
If this man were a prophet, he would know who and what sort of
woman this is. Lk. 7:39.
See also: Jn. 15:19, 22; Gal. 1:10,
290
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
b. A contrary to fact condition dealing with past time
has the aorist or pluperfect tense in both protasis and
apodosis.
el f]s coSe OVK av airedavev 6 ade\<pos.
If you had been here, my brother would not have died. Jn. 11:32.
See also: Mt. 11:21; Mk. 13:20.
(3) The More Probable
subjunctive is used in the
The protasis is introduced
the verb may occur in the
has to do with the future.
Future Condition. Because the
protasis, uncertainty is implied.
by lav, and almost any form of
apodosis, but the thought always
Kal rovro iroirjaopev edv eirirpeirr] 6 Oeos.
And this we will do, if God permit. Heb. 6:3.
See also: Mt. 9:21; Rom. 7:2.
(4) The Less Probable Future Condition. This condition
is expressed by & with the optative in the protasis and av
with the optative in the apodosis.
aXX' el Kal irdaxoire 8td oiKaiocrvvrjv,
paKapioi.
But even if ye should suffer for righteousness sake, happy are ye.
1 Pt. 3:14.
See also: 1 Cor. 14:10; 15:37.
i. No example of this condition complete in both protasis and
apodosis is to be found in the New Testament. Indeed, Robertson
denies that a complete example occurs in the L X X or papyri "so
far as examined." . . . "It is an ornament of the cultured class
and was little used by the masses save in a few set phrases" (R.
1020).
ii. Of these four forms of condition, the New Testament uses the
first two with great frequency, the third occurs quite often, but the
fourth is used but rarely and never in full form. The contrary to
fact condition could not occur in anything but its full form, for
the simple reason that "an alteration of it would have caused ambiguity, and have disturbed at once the character of the hypothetical
statement" (Bt. 224).
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
291
Irregular Forms of Condition
276. I t was inevitable that in actual practice speakers
and writers would not confine themselves to fixed forms of
hypothetical expression. Variations are found which cannot be reduced to logical analysis, but can be grouped only
according to their distinctive aspect of irregularity. (1)
There occur a good many mixed conditions; that is, conditions one member of which belongs to one class, while
the other belongs to a different class (Lk. 17:6). (2) There
are also implied conditions, in which the apodosis is ex-
pressed and the protasis implied in a participle (1 Tim.
4:4), imperative (Mk. 1:17), or question (Mt. 26:15).
(3) An elliptical condition is one from which one member
has been entirely omitted, and must be supplied from the
context (Lk. 13:9).
X . CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
References: R. 1026-1027; Rr-S. 166-167.
Character
277. Concessive clauses are in their essential nature conditional clauses, but differ from the latter in that with the
condition the apodosis attains reality by reason of the
protasis, while in the concessive clause realization is secured
in spite of the protasis.
There is manifest reason for Robertson's contention that concessive clauses are at bottom a type of conditional sentence. For
this reason he treats them as a subhead under conditional sentences
(cf. R. 1026). In this position he is in agreement with Blass, who
declares that "there is no real distinction between them and conditional sentences" (Bl. 215). We can but feel, though, that the distinctive phenomena are sufficient to call for a separate treatment of
concessive clauses, though we would not be so positive as Burton in
holding that "the force of a concessive sentence is thus very dif-
292
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
ferent from that of a conditional sentence" (Br. 112). They are in
the last analysis really not "very different" from conditional sentences.
Classification
278. I t is difficult to maintain with final consistency any
analysis of concessive clauses in the New Testament, but
it is not wholly arbitrary to divide them into three classes.
(1) Logical Concession. This is where the concession is
assumed to be a fact. The clause is introduced by el Kal
followed by the indicative.
el Kal e\v7rrj(ra vpas ev rfj eiriarokrij ov
perapehopai.
Though I grieved you by my letter, I do not regret it. 2 Cor. 7:8.
See also: Lk. 11:8; Phs. 2:17.
(2) Doubtful Concession. We find this type proposing
the concession as a possibility. I t is introduced by edv Kal
followed by the subjunctive.
edv Kal irpoXrjpcpdfj avOpcoiros ev rivi
rif
ere
TOV
Trapairr&paTi,
Karap-
TOLOVTOV.
Even though a man be overtaken in a fault, restore such a one.
Gal. 6:1.
(3) Emphatic Concession. This type of clause expresses
concession with the added thought that the supposed assumption has no likelihood of fulfillment. Such a clause is
introduced by Kal edv with the subjunctive or Kal el with
the indicative.
Kal edv Kplvco 8e ey&, r) Kplais r) epr) d\r)divf)
evriv.
But if I should judge, my judgment is true. Jn. 8:16.
Kal el Oehere de^aadau, avros eariv
'HAelas.
And if you will receive it, this is Elijah.
See also: Lk. 6:32; Gal. 1:8.
Mt. 11:14.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
293
279. Concession may also be expressed by the use of the
participle. Five times Kaiirep is used with the participle
expressing concession, but the participle by itself is often
so used.
Kaiirep
&v vlos epaBev v7raKof)v.
}
Although he was a son, he learned obedience. Heb. 5:8.
ei yap exdpol bvres KarrjKhayripev rw de&.
For even though we were enemies we were reconciled to God.
Rom. 5:10.
See also: Heb. 5:12; 11:4.
X I . SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES
Definition
280. A substantival clause (often called noun clause) is
one that is so related to the main verb in the sentence that
it functions in the capacity of a noun. Such clauses are
abundant in the New Testament, and they exhibit the
characteristics of a noun as subjective, as objective, and as
appositive.
Constructions
281. There are three general divisions under which these
clauses naturally fall. I t is of interest to note also that there
were three optional ways open to a Greek to make a
statement regardless of whether the clause was subjective,
objective, or appositive. He could use the infinitive, or he
could introduce the clause with iva, or on.
(1) Subjective Clauses,
a. With the infinitive.
ra avTa ypaipeiv vpiv epol pev OVK oKvrjpov.
To write the same things to you is not irksome to me. Phs. 3:1,
See also: Heb. 4:6; 9:27,
294
A
6. With
M A N U A L
G R A M M A R
6n.
ov pfoei (Toi OTL a,7roXXi>/xe0a;
Is it not of care to thee that we are perishing?
Mk.
4:38.
See also: 1 Jn. 5:9.
c. With
iva.
epbv fip&pa Ivriv
iva roirjao) rd QeKrjpa TOV itlpypavTos
My meat is to do the will of him that sent me.
/ze.
Jn. 4:34.
See also: Mt. 18:14; 1 Cor. 4:3.
(2) Objective
Clauses.
a. With the infinitive.
f3ov\opat, ovv irpoo~evx*vd at
TOVS
I desire, therefore, that men pray.
avbpas.
1 Tim.
2:8.
See also: Phs. 2:6; 4:11.
6. With 6TL.
id&v avrdv o n vovvex&s
aireKpidrj.
Seeing that he answered wisely. Mk. 12:34.
See also: Jn. 10:36; 11:27.
c. With Iva and oVcos after verbs of saying, asking, exhorting, wishing, caring, striving, etc.
r)p6)Ta iva KaTa(3jj Kal iaarjTai
avrov TOV vlbv.
He asked that he come down and heal his son. Jn.
SerjdrjTe ovv
Pray ye,
TOV
therefore,
Kvpiov
the
TOV
Oepicrpov oVcos eK^aKy
Lord of the harvest
laborers. Mt. 9:38.
4:47.
ipyaTas.
that he send
forth
See also: Mt. 4:3; Lk. 4:2; 7:3.
d. With pr) after verbs of fearing, warning, caution, etc.
/SXeVere pr) TLS vpas 7r\avf)ar].
Beware lest anyone lead you astray. Mt. 24:4.
See also: Mk. 13:5; Col. 2:8.
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
29£
e. Without a conjunction (asyndeton).
\eyei
avTco,
op a pr]8evl prjdev eiTrrjs.
He says to him, See that you tell nobody anything. Mk. 1:44.
See also: Mt. 9:30; Mk. 12:34.
(3) Appositive Clauses.
a. With the infinitive.
dprjaKeia
KaQapa
avrrj eariv, eiriaKiirTeaBai bp<pavovs
Kal xVpaS'
Pure religion is this, to visit orphans and widows. Jas. 1:27.
See also: Eph. 3:6, 8; 4:17.
b. With Sri.
avrt] be eariv r) Kplais, on rb <poos ekr)\vdev els rbv Kbcrpov.
And this is the judgment, that light has come into the world.
Jn. 3:19.
See also: 2 Cor. 1:18, 23; 11:10.
c. With Iva.
TLS ovv pob eariv 6 piadbs; iva evayyehi^bpevos
drjaco TO
abairavov
evayyehiov.
What then is my reward? That I while preaching will give them
the gospel without cost. 1 Cor. 9:18.
See also: Lk. 1:43; Jn. 15:8, 12.
The Moods Used
282. The indicative is always found with o n ; the subjunctive is predominant with iva at a ratio of thirty-two to
one: there being twenty-six occurrences with the indicative,
seventeen of which occur in the Johannine writings; the
subjunctive is dominant with oVcos and pr), there being only
one occurrence of oVcos with the indicative (Lk. 24:20), and
only four of pr) (as conjunction) with the indicative.
296
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
X I I . INDIRECT DISCOURSE
References: R. 1027-1043; R-S. 181-186.
283. There is not a great deal of indirect discourse in the
New Testament. This is true also of other Koine writings.
Direct quotations are characteristic of vernacular speech.
Such language is simpler and more picturesque. The indirect discourse found in the New Testament is in full accord
with the general Greek rules and may be readily analyzed.
Verb Forms in Indirect Discourse
284. Striking differences from the English idiom make
this a matter which requires close attention from the
student.
(1) Tense. I t was a regular thing that the same tense used
by the original speaker was also used by the one quoting the
statement indirectly. This is an important fact for the
student to grasp. For instance, if Jesus said, /3Ae7rco, I see,
Luke in putting the statement into indirect discourse would
say, T^o-oiis elirev on jSXeVei (or fiKeireiv). Although
the statement was made in the past, the present tense is
used in recording it, because the original statement occurred
in the present tense. There are, however, a few examples
where the imperfect in indirect discourse seems to represent
a present tense in the original statement (cf. Jn. 2:25). If
the original writer or speaker used an aorist or future tense,
the same tense was observed in indirect discourse. Our
English idiom differs widely here from Greek usage. While
we would say, "He said he was going home," changing the
tense from present to past, in Greek it would be elirev on
iropeverai els rbv OXKOV, preserving the present tense (cf.
Lk. 24:23; Jn. 9:9).
(2) Mood. The mood like the tense, barring a few exceptions, is preserved regularly when the statement is put
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
297
into indirect discourse. I n classical Greek the indicative
and subjunctive were often changed to the optative in indirect discourse. Only Luke of the New Testament writers
ever does this, and he only a few times (cf. Lk. 3:15; 22:23;
Ac. 25:16). When we find the subjunctive or indicative in
indirect discourse, we are to infer that the original speaker
Used that particular mood in making his statement. The
infinitive is often used in indirect discourse to represent the
indicative in the direct, but i t is, strictly speaking, not a
mood but a verbal noun.
(3) Person. The person of the verb in indirect discourse
is determined by the relation of the speaker to the quoted
statement. I f the speaker is quoting his own statement, the
person remains unchanged; if he is quoting the statement of
another, the third person is used; if he is quoting i t to the one
who made the original statement, i t is in the second person.
This is practically the same as English usage. For example,
note Mk. 9:6, ov ydp fjdei ri diroicpidfj, for he knew not what
he might answer, where the original statement was, rl
dwoKpiOcb.
We are not to suppose that indirect discourse can be introduced
only by verbs of saying or thinking: a wide variety of verbs may
take this construction (cf. It. 1035). Any verb which introduces a
definite idea that would of itself permit independent expression may
take a clause of indirect discourse.
Types of Indirect Discourse
285. There are three types of indirect discourse: indirect
declarations, indirect questions, and indirect commands.
These each take their own distinct constructions, and therefore must be treated separately.
(1) Indirect Declarations. These are expressed in three
ways.
298
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
a. By on with the indicative.
eyd) irewlo-TevKa on av el 6 Xpiarbs.
I believe that thou art the Christ Jn. 11:27.
See also: Ac. 10:34; Gal. 2:14.
6. By the infinitive.
ot \eyovaiv avrov £r)v.
Who say that he lives. Lk. 24:23.
See also: Rom. 2:19; Phs. 2:13.
c. By the participle.
aKovopev yap nvas
TTepnrarovvras ev vpiv araKrccs.
For we hear that some among you walk disorderly. 2 Ths. 3:11.
See also: Ac. 7:12; 8:22.
(2) Indirect Questions. These are regularly introduced
by ris or rt, though a relative pronoun or adverb may be
used. I n Ac. 9:6 we find on in an indirect question. The
original mood is generally retained, though Luke sometimes
uses the optative (cf. Lk. 18:36).
Kal rjkdov ISelv rl eanv TO yeyovbs.
And they came to see what had happened. Mk. 5:14.
See also: Mk. 15:44.
(3) Indirect
Commands.
Indirect commands present
three modes of expression.
a. By the infinitive.
}
otnves T$ UavKa) ekeyov pr) eirifialveiv els Iepoao\vpa.
Who were telling Paul to not go to Jerusalem. Ac. 21:4.
See also: Ac. 21:21; 26:20.
b. By tva and oVcos with the subjunctive.
TraprjyyeiKev avrols tva prjdev aipuviv els bdbv.
He commanded them to take nothing for the journey.
See also: Ac. 25:3.
Mk. 6:8
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
299
c. An indirect deliberative question may imply an original command.
virohei^o) he vpiv TLVCL <poPrjdr)re.
But I will warn you whom ye should jear. Lk. 12:5,
X I I I . COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS
References: R. 851, 855, 890, 908, 942-950; M. 122-126.
286. I t is very uncommon to find this class of sentences
treated separately in Greek grammars. jBut the average
student never fully appreciates the important distinctions
involved for the simple reason that he never sees them in a
single comprehensive view. Therefore, the purpose of this
book requires that we treat commands and prohibitions in
a separate group. I t is most practical to classify them
under the three tenses used.
In the Future Tense
287. Occasionally the future indicative is used in the
sense of a command. This usage occurs frequently in the
J J X X , each of the ten commandments being given this way.
ayairrjaeis rbv irXrjaiov
GOV
KCLI
fxiGrjGeis
TOV
exOpbv
GOV.
Thou shalt love thy neighbor and hate thy enemy. Mt. 5:43.
See also: Mt. 6:5; 27:4; Lk. 13:9.
In the Aorist Tense
288. The essential force of the aorist tense is very clearly
exhibited in commands and prohibitions.
(1) Prohibitions with the Aorist Subjunctive. The main
idea of the aorist tense, as has been indicated, is to express
punctiliar action. When a prohibition, which is a negative
command, is expressed in the aorist i t means to forbid in
advance whatever may be contemplated. The only way a
prohibition in the second person and in the aorist tense is
300
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
expressed in the New Testament is by the use of the sub*
junctive mood. But in the third person either the subjunctive or imperative is used.
Kal prjSeva Kara rr)v bbbv
aaTaarjade.
And salute nobody along the way. Lk. 10:4.
See also: Mt. 10:9; Ac. 7:60.
(2) The Aorist Imperative in Commands. When the
aorist imperative is used i t denotes summary action—"an
action that is either transient or instantaneous, . . . or
to be undertaken at once" (W. 313).
aparco rov aravpbv avrov Kal aKoKovOelrco poi.
Let him take up his cross (at once, aor.) and follow me (continually,
pres.). Mt. 16:24.
See also: Jn. 5:8; Mk. 2:11.
The aorist imperative predominates in the New Testament, which
fact "is characteristic of the Koivf) generally" (R. 855). The distinction
between the present and aorist imperative sometimes seems to be
ignored. But we are safest when we assume that the author had a
reason in his mind for using one rather than the other. Indeed,
Winer says that "in many cases it depends on the writer whether
or not he will represent the action as occurring, in a point of time
and momentary, or as only commencing, or likewise continuing" (W.
314). Why does it not in every case depend upon the writer? As a
matter of fact, it does.
In the Present Tense
289. I n the present tense the imperative is used for both
commands and prohibitions.
(1) The Present Imperative in Commands. When the
present imperative is used, i t denotes continuous or repeated
action. Every time Jesus asked a person to follow him he
used the verb aKo\ovdia) in the present imperative.
Kal \iyet, avrcjb, aKo\ovdei pot.
And he says to him, Follow me. Mt. 9:9.
That is, begin now to follow me, and continue doing so.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
301
Aa a climax to Jesus' parable about the man who persisted in asking
lor three loaves until he got them, we find, alrelre . . . ^rjTelre
. . . Kpovere, keep on asking; keep on seeking; keep on knocking
(Lk. 11:9). And Luke reports that Jesus answered the man who asked
help to get part of an inheritance, 6pare Kal (pvk&aaeade arrb
Traarjs ifkeove^las, be constantly alert in guarding yourselves from
every form of greed (Lk. 12:15).
(2) The Present Imperative in Prohibitions. The present tense is properly used for expressing continued action.
A prohibition in the present imperative demands that action
then in progress be stopped.
pr) Kplvere,
tva pr) KpiOrjre.
Stop judging, lest ye be judged. Mt. 7:1.
eyo) eK\aiov
. . . Xe^yei pot,
Mr)
/cXaie.
/ was weeping; he says to me, Stop weeping. Rev. 5:4, 5.
See also: Lk. 10:7; Jas. 3:1.
The Aorist Subjunctive and Present Imperative in
Prohibitions Contrasted
290. The purpose of a prohibition, when expressed by
the aorist subjunctive, is to forbid a thing before it has
begun; i.e., i t commands to never do a thing. But a prohibition in the present imperative means to forbid the
continuance of an act; i t commands to quit doing a thing.
There should be nothing confusing about understanding
the force of these negative commands as they occur in
these tenses. As we learned in the study of tense, the present tense in any of its moods means linear or durative
action, whereas the aorist tense in any of its moods means
the converse of linear or durative action, it means punctiliar or summary action.
(1) Thus a prohibition expressed with the present tense
302
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
demands the cessation of some act that is already in
progress.
pr) /cXtuere eir' epL
Do not continue (i.e., stop) weeping for me. Lk. 23:28.
See also: Jn. 2:16; 20:17.
Moulton tells how his friend Davidson learned the difference in
meaning between the present and aorist in prohibition by hearing a
Greek command his dog to stop barking by using fir) with the
present imperative. With that as a clue he found the distinction
carefully observed throughout the history of the Greek language,
from the classical Attic literature to the Greek which is spoken
today (M. 122).
(2) A prohibition expressed in the aorist tense is a warning or exhortation against doing a thing not yet begun.
fir) eiaeveyKrjs fjpas eis ireipacrpov.
Do not (ever) lead us into temptation. Lk. 11:4.
See also: Lk. 14:8; Jn. 19:24.
i. There are a few occurrences in the New Testament of prohibitions
in the aorist tense in which the general rule is disregarded. In Jn.
3:7 we find fir) davpaarjs addressed to Nicodemus who was already
marveling, and in Mt. 1:20 pr) (pofirjdfjs irapaXafieiv Mapiav is
addressed to Joseph who is then planning to break his engagement
with Mary. "But, as a rule, it is the ingressive aorist subjunctive
used in prohibitions to forbid a thing not yet done, or the durative
present imperative to forbid the continuance of an act" (R. 852).
ii. The subjunctive with iva may be used in passionate exhortation
or entreaty with the approximate force of a command. Thus in Mk.
5:23 the petition of Jairus to Jesus, iva Oid&v eiridfjs rds X^pas avrfj,
might be rendered, Oh, that thou wouldst come and lay thy hands on her!
iii. Buttmann's description of the aorist subjunctive in prohibition
as a "substitute" for the imperative is scarcely accurate (Bt. 211).
While it is true that the subjunctivefillsthe office of the aorist imperative, yet the genius of the subjunctive is present. Thus pr) iroiei rivd
means quit doing a thing,y?hile pr) iroirjarjs rivd carries both authority
and expediency and is more nearly equivalent to our, you had better not
do it. It is hardly to be taken for granted that any mood loses its own
significance whenfillingan office ordinarily supplied by another.
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
303
iv. Moulton finds in the New Testament one hundred and thirtyfour examples of the present imperative in prohibitions, while there
are only eighty-four of the aorist subjunctive. This probably
arises from the immediate ethical application involved in the viewpoint of the New Testament writers. It is to be noticed in this
connection that aorist prohibitions are expressed in the New Testament almost exclusively by the subjunctive, the aorist imperative
occurring only a few times in the second person. This arises from
the sense of ethical restraint in the aorist subjunctive. The emphatic sense of the aorist subjunctive is evident from the fact that
it is the construction most used with the double negative, only the
future indicative dividing the usage with it, and that in a ratio of
eighty-six to fourteen (cf. R. 854).
APPENDIX
PARADIGMS
PARADIGM l
FIRST
DECLENSION
TERMINATIONS
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. L ) . .
Ac
V
Singular
Feminine
a
rj
rjs
rjs
V
V
£
av
rjv
av
a
rj
Masculine
rjs
as
ov
ov
V
*
rjv
av
\-»
—
a
a
Plural
N. (V.)....
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I . ) .
Ac
... .eav
F E M I N I N E NOUNS
fjpepa: day
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I . ) . . .
Ac
rjpipa
rjpipas
ijpipq.
rjpipav
N . (V.)
rjpipai
rjpepcov
rjpepais
rjpipas
§6£a: glory
Singular
6o£a
do^rjs
Sokv
do^av
apyrj: beginning
apxyj
apxys
apxfi
&PXV
V
Plural
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I . ) . . .
Ac
86£(H
8o^cov
6o£cus
56£as
307
apxoi
apx&v
apxals
apx&s
308
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
MASCULINE NOUNS
7rpo<pr)Tr)s: prophet
veavias:
young man
Singular
N
TrpoprjTrjs
veavias
G. (Ab.)
Trpocprjrov
veaviov
D . (L. I . )
irpocprjTri
Ac
Trpoipf)rr]v
veaviav
V
Tpo<prjra
veavia
N . (V.)
irpo(pr)rai
veavias
G. (Ab.)
Trpo(prjToov
veavi&v
D . (L. I . )
Trpo<pf)Tais
veaviats
Ac
Trpo<prjTas
veavias
veavia
Plural
PARADIGM 2
SECOND DECLENSION
TERMINATIONS
Singular
N
Neut.
os
ov
G. (Ab.)
ov
D . (L. I . )
co
Ac
ov
V
Plural
Mas. Fern.
e
Mas. Fern.
Neut.
01
a
cov
ois
ov
ovs
a
01
a
Masculine (and Feminine)
Xoyos: word
Neuter
epyov:
work
Singular
N
X670S
epyov
G. (Ab.)
X6701;
Ipyov
D. (L. I . )
Xoyo)
Ac
}<6yov
epyov
epyco
V.
Xoye
epyov
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
Plural
X6701
Xoycop
X670W
Xoyous
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
D . (L. I . )
Ac
PARADIGM 3
309
Ipya
Ipyuv
epyois
ipya
THIRD DECLENSION
TERMINATIONS
N
G. (Ab.)
D . (L. I . )
Ac
V.
Singular
Plural
Mas. Fern.
Neut. Mas. Fern.
Neut.
s
—
es
a
os
cov
t
crt
v or a
—
as
a
es
a
MASCULINE AND F E M I N I N E NOUNS
Xapts, 17:
grace
aicoVjd:
age
apxcw,b:
avr)p,b\
ruler
man
Singular
N.
G. (Ab.)
D . (L. I . )
Ac
V
X^P^s
X^P^os
X&P*™
x^pw
X^pts
ai&v
alcovos
alcovt
ai&va
aicov
&PX&V
apxovros
apxovri
apxovra
apxov
avrjp
avbpbs
avhpi
avbpa
avep
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
D . (L. I . )
Ac
X»ptT€S
x P' ™
X<*puri
X^ptras
Plural
alcoves
al&vcav
aicoai
al&vas
apxovres
apxbvr&v
apxovat
apxovras
avSpes
avbpkv
avbphai
avhpas
a
L
v
510
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Singular
yovevs, b:
irb\is, 17:
parent
city
N
yovevs
7r6Xis
G. ( A b . ) . . . .
yovicas
7r6X€cos
D . (L. I . ) . . .
yovel
irbXeL
Ac
yovea
TTO\LV
V
yovev
T6\I
N . (V.)
G. ( A b . ) . . . .
D. (L. I . ) . . .
Ac
yovels
yovecov
yovevvi
70ms
Plural
woKeis
irbXeoov
irbXeav
7r6Xets
ix^h 6:
fish
ixOvs
ixOvos
lx#ut
ixOvv
ixOv
IxObes
IxOvoov
IxOvai
IxOvas (tx^s)
N E U T E R NOUNS
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
a&ixa: body
Singular
aw pa
a&paros
yivos: race
yivos
yivovs
D . (L. I.)
(TO)pari
yivei
Ac
acopa
yivos
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Plural
a&para
a(f)paro)v
a&paai
v&para
PARADIGM 4
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L.I.)
Acc
V
yivrj
yevcov
yeveav
yevrj
I R R E G U L A R NOUNS
povs,b:ox
vovs, 6 (vbos):mind
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
fiovs
jSoes
vovs
vol
|3o6s
fioobv
vov
vcbv
pot
povai
vca
vols
(3ovv
/3ovs((3bas) vovv
vovs
(3ov
/?6es
vov
vol
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
311
Like vovs are declined several contracted nouns of the
second declension, such as 5i7rXous, darovv, xpwovs. Other
irregular forms of declension deserving of special notice are:
aid&s (f.), gen. aidovs (from aiSoaos), dat. aldol, acc. alSco.
aXcoz> (f.), gen. aXa>, dat. aXco, acc. aXco*>.
poppas (m.), gen. (loppa.
7&Xa (n.), gen.
etc.
yaKaKTos,
yrjpas (n.), gen. yrjpws (from yrjpaos), dat. yrjpei.
ybvv
yvpf)
(n.), gen. 7o^aros, etc.
(f.), gen. 7UJ>CHK6S, dat. yvvaud, acc.
yvvatKa,
voc.
7IWCH.
epts (f.), gen. £ptSos, acc. ipiv; nom. pi. epets or eptSes.
Zeus (m.), gen. Aios, dat. Ail, acc. Ala, voc. ZeO.
Tyjuttcri; (n.), gen. fipieovs, dat. ^tcrct; nom. and acc. pi.
rjpiaia.
0pl£ (f.), gen. Tpix°$9 etc.; dat. pi. 0pt£l.
'I^o-ous (m.), gen. 'LJO-QD, dat. 'Irjvov, acc. 'Ljo-oiJj', voc.
t/x&s (m.), gen. t/iapros, etc.; dat. pi. Ipaai.
fcXets (f.), gen. icXei86s, dat. KXeiSi, acc. /cXe!? and fcXeiSa;
acc. pi. fcXets and K\eX8as.
JDJjprjs (m.), gen. KkfjpevTos, etc.
Kp^as (n.), gen.
Kpiaros,
etc.; acc. pi. fcp^a.
KUCOJ> (m.), gen. KVVSS, etc.; dat. pi. icvcrL
paprvs (m.), gen. p&prvpos, etc.; dat. pi. p&prvai.
vavs (f.), sing, pecos, W7I, j>auj>; pi. vrjes, vecbv, vavai, vavs.
odovs
(m.), gen. 686vros, etc.
08s, (n.), gen. tiros, etc.; dat. pi. tiai.
TTOVS
(m.), gen.
TTOSOS,
etc.; dat. pi. 7rocrt.
Trvp (n.), gen. 7rup6s, etc.
vScop (n.), gen. i5Saros, etc.
xdp (f.), gen. x^tpiy, etc.; dat. pi. xP<^*
€
C&SIJ> (f.), gen. &8ivos, etc.
312
A
MANUAL
GRAMMAR
PARADIGM 5
T H E ARTICLE
Mas.
Singular
Fem. Neut.
Plural
Fem. Neut.
Mas.
N
b
f)
ol
al
G. (Ab.)
TOV
TTjS
TOV
TCOV
TCOV
D. (L. I.)
T$
Tfj
T<3
rots
rats
rots
ACC
TOV
T7JV
TO
TOVS
T&S
TCL
T6
PARADIGM 6
TCOV
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
*aX6s:
Mas.
N
fcaXos
G. (Ab.). ./caXoD
D. (L. I.).KaXc3
Acc
KaXbv
V
Ka\i
TCL
beautiful
Singular
Fem.
Neut.
Ka\r)
Ka\bv
Mas.
KaXot
KaKrjs
KO\OV
KOKCOV
Ka\fj
KaX#
KCLXOZS
Ka\f)v
KCLKOV
Ka\ovs
KCLMJ
KO\6V
fcaXot
IKCOV:
Plural
Fem.
Neut.
KaXat fcaXa
KO\COV
KOKOOV
KaXats KaXots
fcaX&s KaXa
KaXat /caXd
willing
Singular
Mas.
Fem.
Neut.
N . (V.)
intov
inovaa
ZKOV
G.
iKovTos
iKovarjs
iicbvTos
(Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Acc
iitbvTL
enovcrri
iicovTa
eKovaav
Plural
Mas.
N . (V.)
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
£KOVT€S
iKovaau
lubvTcov
eKovcrcov
D.
iKovat
iKovaais
eicovai
hbvTas
hoixras
hbvra
(L. I.)
Acc • • -. r
Fem.
IKOVTI
CK6P
Neut.
eKovra
IKOVTCOV
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
313
CLSLKOS:
unjust
Singular
Plural
Mas. Fern.
Neut.
Mas. Fern.
Neut.
N
CLSLKOS
adiKOV
&8LKOL
aduca
G. ( A b . ) . . . . a8itcov
aSUov
ahimv
&8Uo)V
D. (L. I . ) . . . aSiKCx)
aSUco
CLSLKOLS
aStKois
Acc
CLSLKOV
aSiKov
aSUovs
&8iKa
V
aStfce
SSIKOV
aSi/coi
aSwca
N
G.
D.
Ac
V
a\rj8f)s: true
Singular
Plural
Mas. Fern. Neut.
Mas. Fern. Neut.
aKrjdf)s
aKrjOis
aXrjdeis
dX^
(Ab.).... aKrjdovs aXrjdovs
aKrjd&v a\t)Q&v
(L. I . ) . . . aKrjdel
a\t)dei
aKrjOiaL aKrjdeai
aXrjdrj
a\r]6es
aXrjdeis aXrjdrj
aKrjdes
a\r]9es
aKrjdels &\r)6rj
N
G.
D.
Ac
V*.
a&ppow: sane
Singular
Plural
Mas. Fern.
Neut.
Mas. Fern.
Neut.
a&cpp&v crcocppov crdxppoves aixppova
(Ab.)... . a&xppovos aoxppovos croxppovcov acocppovcov
(L. I . ) . . . adxppovu ai)(ppovi
aaxppocrt, a&ippoai
a&cppova craxppov
<r&<ppovas akcppova
<r&<ppop a&ippov
aoxppoves a&xppova
N
G. (Ab.).
D. (L. I.)
Ac
V
ra%vs: swift
Singular
Fern.
Mas.
raxeta
raxdas
raxel
raxdq,
rax&av
raxela
Neut.
raxv
raxeos
raxet
raxv
raxi)
314
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Plural
Mas.
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
V
Fem.
raxetat
...
raxecrc
TOLS:
raxdats
raxetas
rtxx^ai
Neut.
raxea
raxicov
raxicn
raxea
rax^a
all
Singular
Mas.
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Fem.
iraaa
iraarjs
iraar]
Neut.
irav
wavros
iravri
Plural
Mas.
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Fem,
Neut.
7ra<7(H
iravra
TTCLLTCOP
TTCLPTtOV
Trdcras
TTCLVTa
iracri
piyas: great
Singular
Mas.
N.(V.)
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Fem.
fxeycxKr]
IxeyaKrjs
IxeyttXy
Neut.
[xiya
fxey&Xov
Ixey&Xcp
[xiya
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
Plural
Mas.
Fem.
315
Neut.
N . (V.)
G. (Ab.)
D . (L. I.)
peyaXoi
peyaXtov
peyttKois
peyaKai
peyah&v
jueyaXais
peycxKa
peyaXcov
peyaXous
Ac
peyaKovs
/xeyaXas
/zeyaXa
irdXvs: much
Singular
Mas.
Fem.
N. (V)
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I )
Ac
irdXKov
TToWf)
ToXkrjs
7roXXq3
7roXX]J
iroKvv
ToXKrjv
TTOKVS
Neut.
TToXv
7roXXoD
7roXX<£
TTOKV
Plural
Masc.
Fem.
7roXXot
7roXXat
Neut.
N . (V.)
7roXXd
G. (Ab.)
TToXhtov
TTOWCOV
7TOXXC5J>
D. (L. I . )
7TOXXOIS
7roXXaIs
TTOWOLS
Ac
irdXhovs
7roXXds
7roXXd
Declension of the forms of comparison: - repos, - raros,
and -i0Tos are dechned like KCL\6S; -ico? is declined like <rcb<ppcov.
The following are a few of the principal irregular comparatives and superlatives.
ayados
KCLKOS
pucpos
TTOXVS
fiehr'uw
Kpdaacov
KadiOV
Xelpcov
eXaaacov
riLTCTCOV
irkdcov or ifKicov
jSeXnoros
KPCLTLCTTOS
KCLKLCTTOS
x^P^TOS
eK&x^ros
fJKHTTOS
irKdaros
These are the comparative and superlative forms of primi*
tive roots whose positive form had become obsolete.
316
A MANUAL
GBAMMAB
PARADIGM 7
eyco:
D E C L E N S I O N O F PRONOUNS
I
17/zels: we
thou
av:
r)fxels
u/zets: ye
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
eyoo
epoVf fxov
ejuol, /xoi
ifxels
vp&v
r)pXv
aol
VJUV
Ac
ejxi, jxe
fjnas
ai
vfias
av
rjficov
aov
avrbs: he (she, it)
Singular
Mas. Fern. Neut.
N
CLVT6S
G. (Ab.)... .avrov
D. (L. I . ) . . .aura;
Ac
avrov
avrrj
avrb
avroi
Plural
Fern.
aural
avrrjs
avrov
avr&v
avrcov
avrjj
aura;
avrols
aurats
avrrjv
avrb
avrovs
avras
OVTOS:
Mas.
avro)v
avrols
aura
this
Singular
Mas.
Fern.
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Neut.
aura
OVTOS
avrrj
TOVTOV
ravrrjs
Tovrcp
ravrr]
TOVTOV
Tavrrjv
Neut.
TOVTO
TOVTOV
TOVTCO
TOVTO
Plural
N
G.
(Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Mas.
oJirot
Fern.
aurai
TOVTCOV
TOVTCOV
TOVTOIS
TOVTOVS
ravrais
rauras
Neut.
raura
TOVTCOV
TOVTOLS
ravra
THE
GREEK
317
NEW TESTAMENT
that
eKeivos:
Singular
Mas.
Fern.
Neut.
N
eKeivos
eKeivrj
G. (Ab.)
eKelvov
eKeivrjs
D . (L. I.)
eKeiva)
eKeivrj
eKeivco
Ac
eKelvov
eKeivrjv
eKelvo
Mas.
eKelvo
eKeivov
Fern.
Neut.
N
eKelvoi
eKelvai
eKeiva
G. (Ab.)
eKeivuv
eKeivuv
eKeivcov
D . (L. I.)
eKelvois
eKeivats
eKelvois
Ac
eKelvovs
eKeivas
eKeiva
os: who
Mas.
N
G. (Ab.).
D. ( L . I . ) . . .
Ac
Singular
Fern. Neut.
«/
V
rjs
0
V
$
iv
0
Mas.
ot
Plural
Fern. Neut,
tt
at
a
&v
&v
&v
ols
ovs
als
&s
ols
&
rls: who? (what?)
Singular
Mas. Fern.
Neut.
N
G. (Ab.).. •
D. (L. I . ) . . .
Ac
TLS
rivu
Plural
Mas. Fern.
Neut.
TL
rives
riva
rlvos
rivoov
T'LVCOV
TLVL
riai
rial
ri
rivas
riva
The indefinite pronoun rls, r l , is declined like the above,
except for accent, being an enclitic.
318
N
G.
D.
Ac
A MANUAL
Mas.
epos
(Ab.)
epov
(L. I . ) . . . .epco
epov
GRAMMAR
epos: my
Singular
Fem. Neut. Mas.
epr)
epbv epol
eprjs epov eptov
epfi
epco epoXs
eprjv epbv epovs
Plural
Fem.
epai
eptov
epais
epas
Neut.
epa
eptov
epols
epa
Like the above are declined abs thy; r)perepos, our; bperepos,
your.
3
PARADIGM 8
DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Singular
Mas.
Fem.
\vcov
\vovaa
\VOVTOS
\vovarjs
\vovri
\vovay
\vovra
\vova>av
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Plural
Mas.
\vovres
\vbvrcov
Twovat,
\vovras
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. 1.)
Ac
Singular
Mas.
Fenn.
\vaas
\vcraaa
\u(ravTos
\vcraarjs
\vaavTL
Xvaaarj
\vcravra
\vcraaav
Fem.
\vovcrat,
\vovacov
\vovaais
\vovaas
Neut.
\vov
\vovros
\vovri
\vov
Neut.
\vovra
Xvbvrcov
\vovai
\vovra
Neut.
\vcrav
Xvcravros
\vaavTi
\vvav
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
319
Plural
Mas.
N
Fern.
Neut.
G. (Ab.)
\vaavres
\vcrapro)v
Xwraaw
Xvaavra
\vaavroiv
D. (L. I.)
Xvowi
\vcraaais
Xixracri
Ac
\vaavros
\vaaaas
\vaa<xat,
Singular
Mas.
N
XekvK&s
Fern.
\e\vKvta
Xbaavra
Neut.
XeXiwos
G. (Ab.)
\e\vKoros
\e\vKvias
D. (L. I.)
XeKvKOTL
\ekvKvia
XeXwcon
Ac
XeXu/c6ra
\ehvicvZav
XeXwcos
Plural
Mas.
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Fern.
Neut.
\e\vKdres
XeKvuvlcu
\eKvKOTO)v
\e\vnvicbv
\eKvKora
XeKvudrw
XeXuKotri
\e\vKvlcus
XeXiwocu
XeKvudras
XeXwcutas
Singular
Mas.
Fern.
N
\v8eis
\v9eicra
G. (Ab.)
\v6ivros
\v9evTL
\vdevra
Xvdeiarjs
XvOeian
Xvdelcrav
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Plural
Mas.
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
,
\eKvKoroi
Fern.
XufleVres
Xvdivrcop
\vd&<rai
\vdei(r&v
Xi>0€i<rt
\vdeiaaLS
\vdevras
\vdeiaas
\e\vKora
Neut.
\vBh
XVO&TOS
Xu0eVn
\vdiv
Neut.
\vOivra
XvOevroop
XvOeiai
\vdevra
620
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I.)
Ac
Singular
Mas.
*kvbpevos
\vopevov
\vopevco
\vbpevov
Fem.
\vopevrj
Xvopevrjs
Xvopevrj
\vopevrjv
Neut.
\vbpevov
\vopevov
\vopevco
\vbpevov
N
G. (Ab.)
D. (L. I . )
Ac
Mas.
\vbpevoi
\vopevcov
\voplvois
Xvopevovs
Plural
Fem.
\vbpevai
\vopevcov
\vopevacs
\vopevas
Neut.
\vbpeva
\vopevcov
\vopevot,s
\vbpeva
0
PARADIGM 9
DECLENSION OF NUMERALS
CARDINALS
Mas.
N
G. (Ab.)....
D . (L. I . ) . . .
Ac
els
evbs
evL
iva
pia
ptas
piq.
piav
D. ( L . I . ) . . .
A.c
,.,,
Neut. M . F.
& N.
ev
bvo
ivbs
bvo
ivl
bvai
ev
bvo
Mas. Fem.
reaaapes
reaaapcov
reaaapai
reaaapas
N
G. (Ab.)
D . (L. I
Ac
N
G. (Ab.). . .
Fem.
Mas.
x^oi
x ^6"'
t
6
o t
x ^ ^
xiXlov?
Mas.
Neut.,
Fem. >
rpels rpla
rpuov rpicov
rpial
rpial
rpels
rpia
Neut.
reaaapa
reaaapcov
reaaapai
reaaapa
Fem.
yVKiai
x ^ &v
i
l
a t
X^ ^
x ^' 2
L
Neut.
yikia
ia
x'M'Ois
X^
ia
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
32}
ORDINALS
Singular: Mas. rpiros,
fern, rplrrj,
neut. rpirop, etc.
Plural: Mas. rpiroi, fern, rpirai, neut. rpira, etc.
Throughout like KCL\6S.
P A R A D I G M 10
T H E VERB
The accompanying folder -contains a scheme of the
entire verb system, presented in a single view, and designed
to enable the student to secure a more comprehensive knowledge of the Greek verb. For this valuable contribution the
authors are indebted to Mr. L. R. Elliott, Th.D., Librarian
of the Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, and
Instructor in Biblical Greek. The student will find this
paradigm a valuable aid in mastering the Greek verb system, and a source of ready reference in composition work.
CONJUGATION OF SOME IRREGULAR V E R B S
The verbs dpi, be; dpi, go; cuplrjpi (airb + Irjpi), send
lie; and Kadrjpai, sit, are inflected as follows:
nelpai,
Present Indicative
dpi
dpi
acpirjpi
nelpai
KaOrjpai
d
d
a<peis
Keiaai
Kadrj
iari
ei<ri
cKpirjai
Kelrai
Kadrjrat
eapep
ipev
acpiepep
Keipeda
KaOrjpeda
tare
ire
acpiere
Keiade
KadrjcrOe
eiai
iacri
acpiovai
Keivrai
Kadrjvrai
r)prjp
fjeip
f)<pirjp
eKeiprjp
eKadrjprjp
rjs,
yeis
fj<pies
eKei(ro
eKadrjao
r)v
fiei
fj(pie
eneiro
eKaOrjro
rjpep
ypep
t)<piepep
eiceipeda
eKadf)peOa
v\re
ryre
rjcpiere
eneiade
eKadrjade
rjaav
licrap
rppieaap
eneivro
eKadrjvro
Imperfect
r)ada
away;
322
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Present Subjunctive
V
t
IS)
i
Vb
&JJL6V
iccfxev
irjre
iaxri
rjre
5)(Tl
cupuo
acpijjs
KaOcojxai
KetOfXCLL
K£TJ
Kadfj
Kirjrai
KadrjTai
Kadcofieda
a<piCOfJL€V
Ke6)fxe9a
a<pL7JT€
Kerjade
KaOrjaOe
acpicotn
Kecoprai
KaOcovrai
Present Imperative
Wi
CL<pl€L
Kelao
KCL0OV
*e(7T0)
ITO)
a<pero)
KelvOu)
Kadr)(rdco
tare
Ire
trcccrav
KadrjaOe
acpere
KeXade
acpUrcoaavK€i<rOa)(TapKadr)aOa)<T\
Iscrrcocrav
OVTtOV
Present Infinitive
eivai
&v, oiaa
$v
Uvai
acpUvai KelcrOat
KaQriaBai
Present Participle
Itbv, iovcra acpids, acpieiaa Kelpevos, Ka6f)fievos
lov
a<pUv
-?7, -ov
-77, -ov
The Future of elfxl
eaofia
icro/ieOa
iarai
icrovrat
The Future of a<pirj}xi
a<pr\<ro)
a<pf)crofJL€V
a<pr)(T€t,s
cKprjaere
a(pr)<r€L
acprjaovcn
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
323
Following are other forms found in the New Testament.
Future pass. 3 p. sing. a<pedr)<reTai.
Pres. ind. middle 3 p. sing, ktplerai, pi. cKplevrai and
acpiovaw.
Aor. pass. ind. 3 p. pi. a<pe8rjo-av; subj. 3 p. sing. a<pedfj.
The aor. active ind. acprjica is conjugated like
edrjKa,
and
the aor. subj. a<poo is conjugated like Xvoo.
Aor. imper. active 2 p. sing, apes, pi. acpere.
Aor. active inf. aipdvai.
Aor. active part, cupels, - eiaa, -eV.
Pf. middle ind. 3 p. pi. a^eWrcu.
018a, know, which is second perfect in form, is conjugated
as follows:
Indicative
cl8a
olSas, olada
olSe
tapev
tore
iaacn
Second Perfect
Subjunctive
Optative
el8&
el8fjs
el8y
elbdrjv
elSelrjs
elSelrj
d8&pev
eldrjre
elScoai
eiSelrjpev
tare
elSelrjaav
t<TTG)<rav
Participle
eldivat
eld&s, elSvia, el86s
Second Pluperfect
fiSets
fjSeipev
ySeire
qheiaav
X<TT(0
eldelrjTe
Infinitive
fjSew
Imperative
Future
etaopai
elan
or
elSrjao)
elSrjaeus
elaerat.
eldrjaet
eladpeda
etaeaOe
elSrjaopev
elaovTtxi
eldrjcrovat,
eldrjcrere
324
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
The Second Aorist of
Indie.
Impv.
eyvcov
eyvcos
eyvco
yivcbaKco,
Subj.
Inf.
yv&Qi
yvco,
know
inflected like 55
yvcovac
Part, yvovs,
yvovaa,
yvbv
yv6)T0)
tyvcoixev
tyvcore
yvcore
eyvtocrav
yvccrcocrav
The Second Aorist of Paivio, go
Indie
e(3rjs
Imp.
e/377
Prjdi,
Prjrco
efirjfiev
ef3r}T6
efirfaav
Prjre
Pdvrcov
Subj. /3cu, inflected like Sw
Inf.
ffivai
Part.
/3ds, /3acra,
P&v
Future and Aori st of j3dXXa>, throw
In forming the future one X is
dropped and e is substituted
for it. We have as a result the
following contract forms:
jSaXw
.SaXets
/3aXeZ
PaXcofxev
jSaXelre
/3aXco(U
In forming the aorist the
stem is shortened by dropping one X, thereby leaving
the simple verb stem.
ipdkov
efiaXoixev
gjSaXes
e'jSaXe
e/SdXere
e(3a\ov
Other forms are the pf. ind. active and middle PeP\rjKa
These are oonjugated like
the corresponding forms of Xuco.
y
(3e(3\rj[xai; 1 aor. ind. pass. eP\r)drjv.
THE
GREEK
NEW
325
TESTAMENT
PRINCIPAL P A R T S O F I R R E G U L A R
VERBS
To give an exhaustive list of the irregular verbs would carry us far
beyond the prescribed limits of this volume. We present here some
of the most difficult and most frequently used, with the recommendation that they be thoroughly mastered by the student. A more
extended list may be found in R-S. 48-56, 241-244, or M - I I . 224-266.
Aorist
Perfect
Act.
Per. Mid.
Aor. Pas.
Present
Future
<x7YeXXco
&yye\&
777YetXa
fjyyeKpcu
aya)
a£a>
rjyayov
rjypcu
rtxdrjv
cdpe'co
aipr)aopcu
eTKov
flpripai
jipedrjp
a'ipo)
apco
f)pa
rjpica
&KOVU)
aicovaa)
rjKovaa
CLK7JKOOL
apapr&vcjo
apapTf)<ro)
rjpapTov
r)papT7}Ka
rjppai
rjyyeKrjv
r)pdr)V
rjKovGdrjP
rjpapTrjaa
rjveco^a
&voiyo)
avecoya
rjveoypm
avecpypcu
fjvo^a
&7rOKT€LV0)
-KT6VCO
-£KT€IVCL
&7r6XXu/u
&7roXecra>
ctir<s)\eGa
&peaKO)
&piao)
fjpeGa
apveopai
apvrjGopcu
rjpvTjGaprjv
apxo)
ap^opai
rjp^aprjv
a<plrjpi
(3aivQ)
-7] KCL
1
rjvec^x^V
aveddxBnv
fjvoiypai
rjvolxSrjP
-eKTavdrjv
r}pvr)pai
rjpvrjdrjv
-iupai
-edr)v
&7r&Xa>Xa
-et/ca
firjaopcLL
0aXXco
]8aXaJ
efiakov
yapeco
yapt)GO)
eyrjpa
yeyaprjica
yivopai
yevrjGopai
eyevbprjv
yiyova
yeyevrjpai
eyevrjdrjv
yiv&am
yvi)Gopai
eyvoov
eyvwKa
eyvcoGpai
eyvcoGUrjv
ypa<po>
ypa\f/o)
eypa\[/a
yeypapa
yeypappcu
SeiKPvpi
Sixopai
del-oixcu
PefiXrjpaL
eyaprjdrjp
eypacpnv
e5et£a
dedeiypai
edeixOyv
ede^aprjv
dedeypau
edexOyv
326
A
M A N U A L
Present
Future
Aorist
diSactKCo
Sldcopi
eSida^a
SICOKCO
diSa^co
Scoaco
dicb%co
dvvapai
8vvr)<Topai eSvvaprjv
GRAMMAR
Perfect
Act.
Per. Mid.
Aor. Pas.
£8iSax8rjv
e866r)v
deSopai
Sedicoypai edicoxOyv
idcoKa
eSico^a
r)hvvr)dr]V
rjSvvaadrjv
r)8vvaprjv
77771*0,
fjyyiaa
eyylfa
iyylato
eyyuo
dpi
£\irl{co
epytx$opai
epxopai
iadico
evayyekifa
fjprjv (impf.)
fj\wi(ra
ffKiriKa,
rjpyaaaprj]V
£kr)kvOa
ekevtroptu rjkOov
<payopcu Zcpayov
evrjyyikicra
evplcTKO)
evpr)<Ko
etpov
evxopai
Zxa
ev^opai
6£\co
dekrjaco
OvfjCTKCO
Oavovpai
ev^aprjv
ttrxov
r)d£\r)<ra
Wcxvov
iarrjpi
arrjaco
iarrjaa
Kaico
KCLVLTCO
iKavaa
iaopai
eipya<rpai dpya<jOr)v
evrjyyekiapai
evrjyyekiaOw
evrjyyekiLTaprjv
evpeOrjv
evprjKa
a
i(TXV^
ridvrjKa
ecrraOrjv
%LTT7JKa
KiKCLVpCLl
eKavdrjv
KiKkrjpai
eKkrjdrjv
KdXeoj
Kakiaco
iK&keara
K€K\rjKa
KWIVCO
KKLVCO
ZKKIVCL
KeVXtKa
Kpivco
Kpivco
iKpiva
KeKpiKa
KiKpipai
eKpidrjv
XapPavco
ke'nrco
pavdavco
pekkco
kf)\[/opai
kdypco
e'lkrjcpa
e'lkrjppai
kekeippai
e\r)<pOriv
£\ei<prjv
ptpvrjpai
ipvfjaOrjv
pivto
p,ipvr)<TKC0
ekafiov
ekiirov
ipaOov
pek\r)<Tto fjpeWov
ipeWov
pevco
Ipeiva
pvfjaco
epvqva
\ekonra
eK\Wrjv
pepadrjKa
pep£vr]Ka
T H E
Pxesent
Future
G R E E K
Aorist
Perfect
Act.
ibpana
ipao)
elSop
Trddco
Tretcrco
eiradop
eweiaa
Trliroida
7TLP0)
irlopai
tiriov
7T€7TC0Ka
TTITTTO)
neaovpai
GT&Ck(0
areKC)
eireaov
eoreiXa
earpef/a
eaoxra
erekeaa
edrj tea
eSpapov
Per. M i d .
reKeo)
rlBripi
reXco
6r)<Tio
Tptx&
Aor. Pas.
&<pdrjv
ccopa/ca
(TTpe\[/0)
327
N E W T E S T A M E N T
iriirovda
eoraXfca
iriireurnat,
ITA<TBT]P
£ir607]p
tVTakpai
evTpapipai
l<JTtik7)V
iarp&cprjp
<xi(TO)Ka
(ri<TO)crpai ia&BrjP
rer^Xe/ca
rideuca
reriXeapat ireKeaBTjp
redeipcu
iriBrjp
<paivo)
<pipco
(pavovpai i(pava
lipkP7]V
otao)
7\pkx07\p
<pevyo)
(pev^opau eepvyov
(pdepcb
ecpOeipa
(pdeipo)
TJveyica
evTjvoxa*
iri<pevya
lyBappai icpO&prjp
Note:—A few forms not occurring in the New Testament have
been given in order that the student may become familiar with the
variations i n verb stems.
E X E R C I S E S F O R COMPOSITION IN G R E E K
NEW TESTAMENT
Orthography
1. Paul saluted the church at Gams' house. 2. On ac«
count of him some blasphemed the name of God. 3. Thus
he shall do for all. 4. He brought the fruit of the Olive.
5. God is righteous and I am evil. 6. They crucified my
Savior, and he died for you and me. 7. Christ is the Lord
of my life.
Declension
8. The man sent his brother to the master. 9. The gifts
of the servants are pleasing to the kings. 10. The priests
will bring the coats for the children. 11. The man wrote
the epistle to his brother. 12. The shepherds came in the
night. 13. The children of the king are running through
the temple.
Conjugation
14. The lambs are playing in the fields. 15. The birds
were eating the wheat. 16. The teacher will call his disciples. 17. The angels sang, praising God. 18. The enemies have crucified the Redeemer. 19. Many had determined not to believe the word of Jesus.
Nominative and Vocative Cases,
20. Thanksgiving ascended to the throne of God. 21.
The gospel is the hope of all men. 22. Oh, vain works of
sinful flesh! 23. 0 God, hear the prayer of thy people.
328
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
329
Genitive and Ablative Cases
24. The message of life came from Heaven. 25. The
journey of Paul was the salvation of the people. 26. Three
of the disciples heard the message. 27. Jesus having been
crucified, the soldiers parted his garments. 28. The message of the woman was worthy of praise. 29. John gave
the people the revelation from Christ.
Dative, Locative, and Instrumental Cases
30. The Jews made trouble for them. 31. Those who
trust the Savior are pleasing to Him. 32. I t seemed best
to them to go away. 33. The fishermen left in the boats.
34. On that same night Judas betrayed him. 35. The believer should be a child in spirit. 36. He calmed the sea
with a word. 37. The believer enjoys fellowship with his
brethren. 38. They proclaimed the gospel with zeal. 39. He
came earlier by five days.
Accusative Case
40. Paul remained in Ephesus three years. 41. They
served in the same way. 42. He was mighty in the ministry of the word. 43. Barnabas lived a good life. 44. The
publicans asked him many questions.
Prepositions
45. The teacher went through the cities and up to the
sea. 46. Jesus came from the Father and died for sinners.
47. Paul suffered on account of his love for the cross. 48.
John went out of the city and into the country and preached
in the wilderness. 49. He went down to the river with the
disciples. 50. The women remained by the altar and prayed
for their sons. 51. The multitudes journeyed before Christ
to the city. 52. The Savior died under the curse for sin.
330
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
Adjectives
53. He spoke a good word to the idle boy. 54. The heart
of the saint was pure. 55. The evil one is not able to do
good. 56. He first gave commandment to the twelve. 57.
Christ was greater than the law.
Pronouns
58. I am not the Christ, but thou art the Christ. 59. He
is grieved on account of my sin. 60. Stephen, who was
stoned for the faith, died without fear. 61. This boy is the
son of that woman. 62. The jailer himself was baptized on
the same night. 63. Certain said unto him, Who is this who
forgives sins?
Article
64. Atonement is the work of Christ; grace belongs to
God. 65. James was killed by Herod; but the church
prayed for Peter. 66. Nations are in the bondage of sin.
67. This Jesus is not only man; he is God.
Voice and Mood
68. They took counsel to slay him. 69. The uproar was
silenced by the officers with a word. 70. What was the
Master teaching? 71. Thou shalt hear the words of truth.
72. Let us ask the Master what we shall teach. 73. Do not
disobey God. 74. Let us love God. 75. Shall sin conquer
us? May i t never be! 76. Yield yourself to the entreaties
of the Spirit.
Tense
77. Their enemies are making war upon the city. 78.
Saints submit to the providence of God. 79. The priest was
praying in the Temple. 80. They were waiting to slay him,
and began crying out for his blood. 81. The redeemed in
THE
GREEK.
NEW TESTAMENT
331
heaven shall rejoice. 82. The multitude cried out against
Jesus. 83. Peter became penitent. 84. The prophets wrote
concerning the Messiah. 85. We have believed their message. 86. The council had condemned the Lord of glory.
Infinitive
87. Paul went to Macedonia to preach the gospel. 88.
The women prayed while they worked. 89. The Pharisees
ceased persecuting because they feared the people. 90. To
work righteousness is becoming to the people. 91. Herod
feared to keep his oath. 92. To win souls to Christ is the
believer's joy. 93. They were not worthy to receive the
gospel.
Participle
94. The saints were waiting for the coming kingdom.
95. The one keeping his commandments loves him. 96. The
people having assembled, the disciples proclaimed the message. 97. The priests were afraid because they had crucified Jesus. 98. By sitting in the boat he was able to teach
the multitude. 99. When the Sabbath came the scribes
ceased working.
Adverbs
100. Finally, they were there. 101. They ran thither
quickly. 102. He spoke more friendly and came nearer.
103. He ran farthest and quickest. 104. God loves most
and always.
Conjunctions and Particles
105. I n fact, he loved his father, but he was covetous.
106. They lived, for they obeyed the vision. 107. Whenever
we preach the gospel somebody will believe. 108. Wherefore, we must give glory to God. 109. Now, the believer
332
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
prays in order that he may receive a blessing. 110. The
Passover was indeed a great feast. 111. Yea, our flesh is
weak through sin. 112. One is under the law, while another
is under grace. 113. How shall we return his love, if indeed
he died for us? 114. Above all, do good.
Relative and Causal Clauses
115. John baptized those who repented of their sins.
116. God, who loves us, ^ ill not forget His children. 117. He
who lives in sin does not have true faith. 118. We trust our
souls to Christ, who will save them. 119. Paul rebuked
Peter because Peter was wrong (write in four ways).
Comparative, Local, and Temporal Clauses
120. We will suffer for our Lord as he suffered for us.
121. The believer prays as the Spirit guides him. 122.
Whenever a man sins and wherever he sins, he grieves the
Holy Spirit. 123. Let us work until Jesus comes. 124. Paul
was to wait at Troas until Titus came. 125. Paul waited
at Philippi until Titus came. 126. Before the leper departed
he asked to be healed. 127. While we wait, we must not
be idle.
Purpose, Result, and Substantival Clauses
128. John was preaching near the Jordan in order that
he might baptize the people. 129. Paul went with Luke
to preach the gospel in Philippi. 130. The Greeks came to
inquire concerning Christ. 131. The way is so plain that
the poor may understand it. 132. He left by night so that
his enemies did not see him. 133. That he may please his
Master is the Christian's desire. 134. There came no one
who really cared for him. 135. I t seemed best to him to
go to the feast. 136. They feared to seize him.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
333
Conditional and Concessive Clauses
137. I f Paul preached the gospel in Bithynia, men believed. 138. I f Paul had preached the gospel in Bithynia,
men would have believed. 139. I f Paul preaches the gospel
in Bithynia, men will believe. 140. I f Paul should preach
the gospel in pithynia, men would believe. 141. Even
though Christ died on the cross, he was not a sinner. 142.
Though the heavens should fall, the word of God will not
fail.
Indirect Discourse, Commands, and Prohibitions
143. Jesus said that John was least in the kingdom of
heaven. 144. The Spirit informed Paul what he would
encounter at Jerusalem. 145. Paul instructed Titus to
ordain bishops in every city. 146. Receive the message of
truth and preach it to the world. 147. Do not cease keeping
the comixvandment of the Lord. 148. Stop sinning. 149. Do
not sin.
ENGLISH-GREEK V O C A B U L A R Y
(This vocabulary is designed especially for the aid of students in
preparing English-Greek composition. Instructors will find it adequate for a large variety of exercises. The exercises offered above
may be used, or the teacher may give exercises of his own. For
the preparation of this vocabulary we are principally indebted to
Mr. John W. Patterson.)
Key to Abbreviations
1 a.: first aorist; abl.: ablative; acc.: accusative; act.:
active; adj.: adjective; adv.: adverb; ai.: from the bottom;
a. ps.: aorist passive; Aram.: Aramaic; AS: AbbottSmith's Manual Greek Lexicon; Att.: Attic Greek; cf.:
compare; cl. and cl. Gr.: classical Greek; conj.: conjunction; cons.: consonant; contra.: contraction; D . : Davis'
Beginner's Grammar of the Greek New Testament; decl:
declension; dubl.: double; emph.: emphatic; f.: future;
fem.: feminine; fm.: from; ftn.: footnote; G.: Green's:
Handbook and Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament;
Ger.: German; impf.: imperfect; imv.: imperative; inc.:
including; indel.: indeclinable; indef.: indefinite; inf.:
infinitive; instru.: instrumental; inter.: interrogative; Lat.:
Latin; 1. i . d.: locative, instrumental, dative; lit.: literally;
LS.: Liddell and Scott; Man.: Manual Grammar of the
Greek New Testament, Dana and Mantey; mid.: middle;
M M . : Moulton and Milligan's Vocabulary of the Greek
Testament; mngs.: meanings; N . : Nestle's Greek New Testament; nom.: nominative; obj.: object; obs.: obsolete;
opp.: opposite; pi.: plural; poss.: possessive; pred.: predicate; ps.: passive; ptc: participle; sts.: sometimes; subst.:
334
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
335
substantive; t.: times; T.: Teschendorf's Greek Text; Th.:
Thayer's New Testament Greek Lexicon; T.R.: Text Received; Tr.: Tregelles' Greek Text; W H . : Westcott and
Hort's Greek Text; Vulg.: Vulgate.
A, an, expressed by the absence of the definite article. The
absence of the article also denotes quality.
able, to be, dvvapai.
above all, ovv, el pr)v (Man.).
according to, /card with acc. (Man.).
afraid; be, cpofieopai (rpepco, tremble, be afraid).
against, els, acc. only (into); Kara (down), w. gen.; irpbs
(toward), w. acc. (Man.).
all, 7ras, rrava, rrav.
altar, dvaiacrrrjptov,
-ov, TO (|3a>/x6s, -oi), 6, elevated place
altar;. Ac. 17:23).
always, rravrore.
am,
elpl
(be).
and, Kal (also); Se, in the next place, and, but, on the other
hand.
angel, ayye\os,
-ov, 6 (messenger).
appoint, KaOlarrjpi, a. subj. Karaarijao), pres. inf. KaQwrava^
arrive, KaTaifXeo), 1 a. Kareirkevaa
(7rapa/3dXXco, place
beside; mid. arrive),
as, cos; naQks (according as, even as),
ascend, avapalvoo (come up, go up),
ask, alreco (ask for something); epcordco (ask a question),
assemble, avvepxopai
(convene, come together, go with), 2
a. -rfSBov, 2 pf. -e\r)\v9a,
2 pf. ptc. -e\rj\vdos;
2 a. act.
ptc.
convoke, call together, assemble; 1 a.
avP€Ka\eaa;
avvayo),
gather together, collect; 1 a.
(TVPrj^a, 2 a. (rvvrjyayov,
pf. <Tvvr)x<t>, or crwa/yaYoxa,
1 a. ptc. vvvat-as (LS.), pf. ptc. mid. avvr\ypevos.
at, ev (in, loc.,); em, upon (loc. or gen.),
atonement. KardXXayf),
-rjs, r) (reconciliation).
-e\86)v; avvKaXeo),
336
A MANUAL
baptize,
PawTi^to,
f. paTTiato,
GRAMMAR
1 a.
efiairTKra,
pf. ptc.
fiefiaTr-*
Tiapevos.
Barnabas, Bapvafias, -a, 6.
be, dpi (exist); yivopai (begin to be, become); 2 a. eyevoprjv.
because, OTI; 8ia, because, or prep, with acc.
become, yivopai, begin to be, come into being; 2 a. eyevoprjv.
becoming, evaxvptov, -ov (well-shaped, 1 Cor. 8:35); a^ios, -a,
-ov, worthy, becoming,
before, irpo (prep. w. abl.); eprpoadev, in front of, w. abl.
(L. ante); both are used in cl. Gr. of time and place;
but in NT, chiefly time; epwpoadev, place only; irpiv,
before (formerly, L. prius).
begin, apxopai, 1 a. rjp^aprjv.
believe, wiaTevto, f.
believers, ol TTKXTOI
iriaTevato.
(the trusty, the faithful); believer, 6
7riarevo)v.
belong, dpi with the dative case (cf. Man. under dat. case),
best, KpeiTTCov, -ovos (Kpelaatov, -ovos); irptoros, -rj, -ov.
betray, irapadldcopi, impf. ind. 3 sg. irapeSiSov, f. irapabcoato, 1
a. TapeStoica.
bird, irereivbv, -ov, TO (flying or winged animals, fm. irereivos,
-r), -ov, flying),
bishop, eirla KOTOS, -ov, 6.
Bithynia, j3idvvia, -as, r).
blaspheme, p\aa<prjpeto.
blessing, eiikoyla, -as, r).
blood, alpa, alparos, TO.
both . . . and, re . . . re'; Kal . . . Kal.
bondage, SovKevto, to be a slave, to be in bondage; (/cara)
-dovKoto, to enslave,
boy, TOIS, iraiSos, 6 (r), girl); irai8laKos, -ov, 6, young boy
bring, ay to; <pepto, bear, carry,
brother, a8e\<pos, -ov, 6.
but, dXXct; 8e (cf. Man.),
c
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
337
by, VTO (abl. of agent, w. pass); 7rap&, beside (w. loc. abl.
acc; cf. Man.).
call, /caXe'co, f. /caXe'crco, 1 a. e/caXecra (/caXe'co denotes to cry
out for a purpose (for help). jSocico (Lat. boo), to cry out
as a manifestation of feeling, sensibility; /cpafco, croak,
cry out harshly, instinctively; /cpairy&f co, shout coarsely.
calm, to, /caracrreXXco (to quiet); (ppaaao), fence up, stop.
calm, to be, rjavxafa,
be or keep quiet, silent; crrycico,
keep silent (mental); cua>7raco (physical).
care, n.; empekeia, -as, r), attention; crirovSf), -rjs, r), diligence;
plpipva, -rjs, r), anxiety, distraction.
cease, iravopai (fm. iravco, stop), f. iravaopai, 1 a. eiravaaprjv,
pf.
irerravpai.
certain (one), rls, rl (any one, anything).
child, TBKVOV, -ov, TO; (ipecpos, -ovs, TO, infant; 7rcus, -86S, 6, r)
(boy or girl).
Christ, Xpuaros, -ov, o (the annointed one, fm. xP °S)
7>
-ov, verbal adj. of XPW)
annoint).
Christian, Xptariavos, -ov, 6 (a follower of Christ),
church, eKKkrjaia, -as, r).
city, 7r6Xts, -ecos, r).
coat, xtTcb^, -&vos, 6 (tunic).
come, epxopai, 2 a. rj\0ov, come, go; -f3aiva), 2 a. -efirjv, go,
come (in N T only in comp).
commandment, evro\f), -rjs, r).
concerning, 7rept with gen. or acc; els, /caret with acc;
L(TR
U7re'p w.
_?
abl.
condemn, KaraKpivo).
conscience, avveiSrjo-is, -ecos, r).
conquer, vinao), f. vucfjaco, 1 a. evUrjaa, pf. vevinrjica.
council, avveSptov, -ov, TO (Sanhedrin).
counsel (noun), (3ov\rj, -?Js, r); avpfiovKiov, -ov, TO; (vb.)
avpfiovXevci), to give counsel, vvpfiovkevopai, to take
338
& MANUAL
GRAMMAR
counsel (together); fiovXevopai (to give one's self counsel), to take counsel.
country, xcbpa, -as, r) (place, region, field); dypbs, -ov, 6,
field (cf. L. ager, G. Acker, Eng. acre), farm (cf. M M ) ;
irarpLs, -ibos, r), fatherland.
covetous, irkeovetcrrjs, -ov, 6, a covetous person (irkeov, more +
exo), have), greedy (Th.); avaricious (G.); <pikapyvpos,
-ov.
cross, aravpos, -ov, 6.
crucify, aravpbco, f. aTavpcoGco, 1 a. eaTavpcoaa, pf. earravptopai (on improper reduplication, i.e., "like the augment"; cf. Man.).
cry out,
KpcL^co, f. Kpd^co, 1 a. eKpa!;a, 2 a, eicpayov,
pf.
Keicpaya;
cry coarsely, in contempt; intensive (see
Kpavyafa,
sub. call).
curse (n.), mrapa, -as, r) (judicial sentence, n ^ p ) ; avadepa,
-TOS,
TO, set up, laid by (Th.); vb. avadeparitco,
to curse.
day,
rjpepa,
-as,
r).
depart, cupicrTrjpi, 1 a. airetTTTjaa, 2a. aireaTrjv; awepxopai,
2 a. dirr)\6ov, go away,
desire, ewidvpia, -as, fj, active or evil desire; irdOos, -ovs, TO,
passionate or ungovernable desire (passive side of vice
in N T ; in cl. Gr., good or evil),
determine, Kpivco, f. Kpivco, 1 a. eKpiva; pf. KiKpiKa; bpl£cc,
determine, appoint, designate, settle, 1 a. &piaa.
die, airodvrjaKCO, f. dirodavovpai, 2 a. aireOavov.
disciple, m., padrjTrjs, -ov, 6 (used also for fem. exc. Ac. 9:36
r
padrjTpia,
-as,
r)).
disobey, direideco.
do, 7roi£co, make, cause to be;
out, practice.
early (adv.), irpcoi.
early (adj.), irpcoios, -rj, -ov.
Tpdacrco
(root,
irpay-),
carry
THE
GREEK
NEW
TESTAMENT
339
eat, eadia), impf. rjaQiov, f. (payopai, 2 a. e<payov.
encounter, trujUjSdXXco, 2 a. vvvefiakov.
enemy, exOpbs, -ov, b (subst. fm. ex#pos, -d, -OP, hated),
enjoy, ?x&> d7r6Xai;cru> with gen.,fe'xcoAs airokavaiv with acc,
entreaty, irapaiikqcns, -ecos, 17 (exhortation, consolation);
atTrjpa, -CLTOS, TO (request).
Ephesus, "Ecpecros, -ov, r).
epistle, emaToKr), -rjs, r).
even, /cat, and, also (copulative coordinating conj.).
even though, Kal el.
every, 7ras, 7racra, nav.
evil, KaKos, -f), -bv (bad); rrovqpbs, -a, -bv (wovrjpbs, -ov, 6, the
evil one).
fail, e/cXet7rco (leave out; eclipse, LS.).
faith, Trlcrrts, -ecos, r) (fidelity, loyalty, Gal. 5:22; Titus 2:10).
fall, 7rl7rrco.
farthest, see Man. on Adverbs,
father, iraTrjp, 7rarp6s, 6.
fear, <pb(ios, -ov, b; euXdjSeia, -as, r), reverence, pious fear,
feast, beirrvov, -ov, TO supper, 5ox?7, -Jjs, r) banquet,
fellowship, peroxr), ->jfs, r) (sharing, Vulg.
participatio);
Koivoyvla,
-as, r), communion, partnership,
field, aypbs, -ov, b (xuplov of papyri, M M ) ,
finally, TO \onrbv.
first, 7rpcoros, -rj, -ov; adv. irp&Tov, irp&Toos; TO irp&Tov = at
first.
fisherman, dXeeus, -ecos, 6 (T. W H . N.) =dXteus, ecos, 6,
(T. R. c l ) .
five, 7reVre, 61, al, rd (indeclinable),
for, Yap (causal conjunction).
for (prep), 5td w. acc, for the sake of; virep w. abl., for the
sake of; "for" is a meaning of the dat. without any
prep.; avri w. abl. in the sense of instead of"; els,into,
may acquire the resultant mng. "for" after vbs. of
a
340
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
"ethical direction (one's advantage or disadvantage)"
or "of purpose" (Th.).
forget, to, eirikavOdvopai, 2 a. eire\adopr]v.
forgive, to, d<pirjpL, f. dcprjcrco, 1 a. a<prjKa, pf. d^et/ca, a. ps.
apeOrjv.
forsake, KaTakdirco, f. KaTakdypco, 2 a. KCLT£\ITOV,
1 a.
fcareXet^a.
friendly, see Man. on Adverbs.
from, diro, off, away from (L. a, a&, abs; Ger. von., a&, W&7); IK
(e£) out of (abl.) (L. e, ex); 7rapd, from beside (Man., Th.)
fruit, Kapirbs, -ov, 6.
Gaius,
Taios, -ov, 6
but elsewhere
(so Nestle uniformly; W H in 3 Jn. 1,
Talos).
garment, IpaTiov, -ov, TO, cloak, mantle; x T& j
-COVOS,
6,
tunic, (under) garment, coat,
gift, dcopov, -ov, TO, present; Scoped, -as, r) (free) gift,
give, Sldcopt, f. 86)crco, 1 a. edcoKa, pf. 8e5coKa, 1 a. ps. edoOrjv.
glory, S6£<x, -rjs, f).
go, iropevopat, proceed, advance; epxopai, go, come; ayopai,
lead one's self, proceed; -fialvco, go, walk,
go away, diripxopai.
go down, KaTafiaivco.
God, 0e6s, -ou, 6
good, ay ados, -97, -6? (in inner nature); KOXOS, beautiful (outwardly) ; diKaws, -a, -ov, right,
gospel, evayyehiov, -ov, TO (good news),
grace, x&P s> X&P °s> V> evirpeireia, -as, r), beauty, comeliness,
great, peyas, peyaKrj, peya.
Greek, n., "EXX?^, -rjvos, 6; adj. 'IZWrjvLKos, -17, -ov, Grecian,
grieve, to, \vweco.
guide, odrjyeco.
I
tT
l
have,
exco,
2 a.
v
impf.
elxov;
durative. f.
evxov; pf. eVx^Ka.j
e^co;
puncti/iar f.
axvo"co}
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
341
he, expressed by vb. endings; emph. "he," OVTOS, -f)\ -bv.
heal, tdo/zat, f. Idcro/zat, 1 a. lavaprjv; pf. ta/*at 1 a. ps.
t
iddrjv; depaireva), cure,
hear, aicovco.
heart, napSia, -as, 97.
heaven, ovpavbs, -ov, 6 (never used in pi. in cl. Gr. (LS)).
Herod, 'Hpc^drjs, -ov, 6.
himself, auros, -4], -6.
his, avrov; t'Stos, - a , ov, his own.
holy, cVytos, - a , -oz>; tepos, -a, -bv, sacred; ocrtos, - a , -ov, pious,
hope, eX7rts, -tSos, r).
house, oLKta, - a s , r) (the dwelling); OXKOS, -OV, b, house(hold),
oiK7]Tf)piov, -ov, TO, habitation,
how? 7rcos (interrogative adv.); OTTCOS (adv. of manner).
I , indicated by vb. end'g; emphatic I , €70?.
idle, apybs, -97, bv (inactive) fipabvs, -eta, -v, slack, slow;
vcodpbs, -a, -bv, slothful, sluggish,
idle, to be, apyeco.
if, et (also "whether," usually w. ind.); eav (w. subj. or
fut. ind.).
in, ev w. loc. only; els w. acc, into.
in fact, Kal 7ap (etenim, namgue, for truly), /cat, 7ap, Se, dXXci
(Man)
in order that, tz>a.
indeed, pev, Se, ovv, yap, all postpositive particles (Man.),
inform, KaTrjxeoo, instruct; epPavifa, manifest, exhibit,
inquire, irvvdavopat; f^re'co, seek (for); epcordco, ask (for),
instruct, naTrjxeo), 1 a. KaT7]xyo~a; 7rat5evco, teach, correct,
into, els, always w. acc.
is, be, am, elpi, yivopai (yiyvopai, Att.), begin to be.
jailer (jailor), beapoipvKa^, -a/cos, 6.
James, Id/ccojSos, -ov, 6; cf. 'Ia/ccb/?, 6 (indeclinable), Jacob
Isaac's son.
342
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
x
Jerusalem, 'lepoabXvpa, -tov, ra (N., Th., G.); Iepovaa\f)p
(Th., N.,G.), 4Jesus, 'Irjcrovs, -ov, 6.
Jew, 'lovdaios, -ov, 6 (subst. of 'IouSaTos, -a, -ov, Jewish).
John, 'Itoavrjs, -ov, 6.
Jordan, Iop8avrjs, -ov, 6.
journey (n.), 6S6s, -ov, r), way, road; journeying, bboiiropia, -as*
9
journey, to, bbevto, travel; iropevopai, go, pass; bbonropeto, go
on a journey,
joy, %apd, -as, 17.
Judas, Iovbas, gen. abl. -a, 1. i . d. -a, acc. -av, 6.
}
keep, T77peo> (referring to the result); (pvKaacrto, guard
(refers to the means),
kill, airoKrelvto.
king, PaauKevs, -etos, 6
kingdom, paaiKeia, -as, r) (cf. /WlXeia, 17, queen (LS), royal
palace (LXX)).
lamb, apvbs, -ov, b (used 4 t. of Christ); dpviov, -ov, ro>
(little) lamb (used only in Jn. 21:15 and Rev.).
Law, vbpos, -ov, 6.
least, eXaxwros, -rj, -ov (smallest: superlative fr. eXaxvs).
leave, Xel7ra>.
leper, \eirpbs, -ov, 6.
let, edto (allow, permit); acpirjpi, omit, let go, let be.
life, £tor), -77s, r); /3los, -ov, b; jStos is naturally (classically)
used of men, but N T usage exalts the feminine word
£tor), and so tends to debase the masculine word /3cos
(G.). "fori) is the nobler word" (Trench. NT Syn. 90).
live, fao) (really live, from ftor) above); /ftoco, exist ("live . . .
in flesh," 1 Pt. 4:2).
lodge, pass the night (in open), avKi^opac; entertain
strangers, ^evl^to.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
343
lord, sir, nvpios, -ov, 6.
love (noun), dyairrj, -rjs, fj, esteem plus the expression of it.
love, ctyairao) (voluntary, rational); <piXe'to (emotional).
Luke, AOVKCLS, AOVKCL, 6 (declined like f3oppas, -a, -6).
Macedonia, MaKe8ovia, -as, r).
make, create, cause to be, do, iroieo); make war, iroXepico.
man (male or female, L . homo, human being), avdpuTos, ov,
6. dvrjp, avhpbs, 6, man (in the sense of male, husband,
gentleman, L . vir, hero).
many, use the plural of iro\vs, iroWr), TTO\V.
master, eTaardrrjs, -ov, 6 (superintendent, overseer);
SeairoTrjs, -ov, 6, lord.
may, as Engl, auxiliary, Gr. subj. or ind.; iaxvo), be strong;
e£ecrn, is permitted.
message, dyyeXta, -as, r); ewayye\la, -as, r), promise, announcement.
Messiah, Mecrcrias, -ov, 6 (only in Jn: 1:41 and 4:25).
mighty, Kparaibs, -d, -bv, bwarbs, -97, -bv, powerful; icrxvpbs,
-d, -bv, strong.
ministry, bianovia, -as, r); \etrovpyia,
-as, r), public religious
and social service,
most, see Man. on Adverbs.
multitude, irXrjdos, -ovs, TO; 8%XOS, -OV, b, crowd, throng,
mixed multitude, common people.
must (it is necessary), Set, is meet morally; XPV) eet circumstantially (both are impersonal vbs. followed by inf).
my (adj.), ejuos, -f), -bv (my own, mine); epov (emphatic);
JJLOV (unemph.), my, mine.
m
name, bvopa, bvbparos,
TO.
nation, e0j>os, Wvovs, TO; yevos, yevovs, TO, race.
near, eyyvs.
near (at), by, irpbs w. loc. (w. acc, toward, to; w. abl. for).
344
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR'
necessary, is (Gr. idiom for Eng. "must"), Set indicates
divine obligation; and XPV indicates circumstantial
necessity (followed by inf.).
never, ovbeirore, prjbeTrore (ov pr) ircoTore, Jn. 6:35; ov pr)
els rov ai&va, Jn. 10:28).
night, vv^, VVKTOS, r) (Ger. Nacht, L. nox, noctis, fem.).
no one, none, ouSets, prjbeis.
not, ov (with ind. only, denies positively; negates a single
word). Written ov before consonants; OVK before a
smooth breathing; ovx before rough breathing; written
ov only when final (end of clauses) or emphatic, pf) (w.
subj., opt., inf., impv., ptc. and sts. ind. conditions and
when denial is a matter of thought, not fact; G. §401).
Indicates a hesitating denial, or "according to the
judgment, opinion, will, purpose, preference, of some
one," in distinction from ov; which "denies the thing
itself (simply, absolutely, directly, categorically, objectively)."
O (as sign of Voc), <S, 2 Cor. 12:21, Rom. 11:33.
oath, pledge, op/cos, -ov, 6 (bpKcopoala, -as, r), taking an oath),
obey, VTCLKOVCO; ireidapxeo), obey God (rulers), 1 a. ireidf)p~
Xrjva.
of, denoted in Gr. by gen.; when denoting source or separation by e/c (e£) w. abl.
officer, Synag. or Sanh., attendant, vTrrjperrjs, -ov 6; irpaKTtop,
-opos, 6, court officer.
olive (tree and fruit), eXata, -as, 97.
on, upon, eVt, w. gen., loc, and acc. in sense of onto (on
i.e., in, ev w. loc).
on account of, bid, w. acc.
one, els, pia, ev; one . . . another, 6 pev . . . 6 Se,
os pev . . . os Se; pbvos, pbvrj, pbvov, alone,
ordain, biardaaco,
bpi£to.
}
p
our,
rjperepos,
-a, -ov;
r)pcov.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
345
out of, IK (e£), w. abl. only, from within, out of; dirb, w. abl.,
away from (exterior).
part (vb.), diapepifa,
1 a.
Siepeptaa.
Passover, iraaxa (indecl.), TO.
Paul, IlauXos, -ov, 6.
people, Xaos, -oi;, 6.
persecute, Sico/cco.
Peter, IleVpos, -ov, b.
Pharisee, Qapiaalos, -ov, 6.
Philippi, <i>lXi7r?Tot, -COJ>, oi.
plain, STJXOS, -7], -ov, evident; (pavepbs, -a, -ov, visible,
play, waifa (1 Cor. 10:7, quoted from the Septuagint).
please, dpeaKO), f. apeaoo, 1 a. 77peaa; used w. dat.
plot against, ewif3ovkevG).
poor, irrcoxbs, -f), -ov (beggar); 7rivrjs, -TJTOS, b (penniless
worker, 2 Cor. 9:9).
praise (noun), 'liraivos, -ov, 6; (vb.), aiveco (w. dat. and acc. of
person).
pray, irpoaevxopai,
1 a. 7rpoarjv^dprjv.
prayer, irpoaevxy, -rjs, r).
preach, proclaim, Krjpvaao), 1 a. eKf)pv^a, pf. KeKr)pvx<t»
preach the gospel, evayyeKi^opai,
1 a.,
evrjyyeKiaaprjv.
preaching, Krjpvypa, -TOS, TO (proclamation, M M . announce^
ment).
present, to (vb.), irapiaTrjpi,
-Laravco.
priest, lepevs, -ecos, 6.
prophet, irpocprjTrjs, -ov, b.
providence, irpbvoia, -as, r).
publican, rekiovrjs, -ov, b (tax collector).
pure, KaOapbs, -a, -bv (clean, free); dyvbs, -f), -bv (holy).
question, ^rjirjpa,
-aros,
TO
(inquiry); ^rjrrjais,
-ecos, r)
(questioning).
quickly, raxecos, rax^. (See Man. on Adv. for superlative.)
346
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
really, OVTCOS (actually); yap (for); bf) (indeed); -7rep (indeed)
apa (then, therefore),
rebuke, eiriTipato (award a penalty).
receive, Sexopai; dwobexopai, accept; Ttapa\ap^dvco, or
\apfidvco,
take, receive,
redeem, XvTpbco.
redeemer, \VTPCOTTJS,
-ov, 6.
rejoice, x ^pw, f. xwhvopai
(punct. stem for earlier x
prjaco) w. instr.
remain, (eVi) pevco, abide (stay), f. (eiri) pevco; 1 a. (eV) epeiva.
vepent, peravoeco (change of mind, purpose, life); peTapZkopai
(change of feeling).
return, vitocrTpecpco (turn back); airoSidcopi (give back, return, render).
revelation, &7roK&Xut/as, -ecos, r).
righteous, just, evfonos, -ov, bUaios, -a, -ov, just.
righteousness, biKaioavvrj, -rjs, r).
river, irorapbs, -ov, 6.
run, rpexco (cf. Engl, trek), 2 a. ebpapov (fr. obs. bpdpco).
a
aLA
sabbath, ad^ara,
-tov, rd; vdfifiaTov, -ov, rb.
saint, ayLOS, -ov, 6 (subts. fr. ayios, -a, -ov, holy).
salute, to, d<nrd%opai (greet, bid farewell), 1 a. rjo-iraadprjv.
salvation, o-corrjpia, -as, r); acorf)piov, -ov, TO.
same, (adj.), very, self, he, she, it, avrbs, -rj, -b.
Savior, acorrjp, acoTrjpos, b.
save, crco^co.
say, <prjpi (declare); Xeyco, say, speak, tell; \a\eco, speak
out (in cl. Gr., chat, babble, prattle),
scribe, ypapparevs, -ecos, b.
sea, dd\aacra, -rjs, r); weKayos, -ovs, rb, high sea, deep.
see, to, bpdco, f. bypopai, 2 a. elbov, Alexandrian 2 a. elba (fr.
obs. pres. elbco); jSXeVco, physically look, behold,
seem, seem best (lit. seem good), SoKeco; commonly used in
impersonal construction.
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
347
eeize, eirikapfiavopai, 2 a. eTreXafio prjv; /care'xco, hold back,
possess,
send, 7reju7rco; awocTeWo).
servant, hamvos, -ov, 6, r), minister; 8ov\os, slave,
serve, 8ov\evco.
service, ScaKovia, -as, r), ministry; Xeirovpyia, -as, r), social
or religious service,
shepherd, iroiprjv, -evos, 6.
should (it is necessary), Set w. inf.
silence, to, <pt,p6oo.
sin (noun), dpapria, -as, r); to sin (vb.), dpapravo), f. dpaprrjao), 2 a. rjpaprov.
sinful, sinner, dpaprcoXos, -ov.
sing, aSco; 1 a.
J ^aXXco, sing to a harp, sing psalms;
vpveo), sing a hymn,
sit, uddrjpai ( G . §367); (?rapa)Ka0lfco, make to sit down, set,
sit.
slay, acpafa (Attic acpdrro)), slaughter; diroKTtivu, f. -evco, 1
a. aireKreiva,
1 a. ps.
direKrdvdrjv.
so, ye; so that, &are, consequence, result; w. inf. and in N T
twice with the ind.
soldier, crrpartcor^s, -ov, 6.
some (one), rls, rl (note grave accent, indicating enclitic
and distinguishing this word, an indefinite pronoun, fr.
the interrog. ris, ri).
some, others, aXXoc . . . aXXot.
son, vldsj -ov, 6.
soul, fax*), -rjs, r).
speak, XaXeco, speak out, talk, chat, babble, prattle; Xeyco,
consecutive expression,
spirit, irvevpa, -ros, TO (wind, Jn, 3:8; breath, 2 Th. 2:8,
Rev. 11:1).
Stephen, ST^a^os, -ov, 6„
stone, to, Xt0af co.
348
A MANUAL
GRAMMAR
stop, (ppaaaco (fence in); TCLVCO (in mid., cease).
submit, vwelKco (yield); vwoTao-aco (subject); vroTiOrjpt, lay
down; submit,
suffer, TaaxcOj f. ireicropai, 2 a. eiradov.
take, \apf3dvco; aipeco, grasp, choose (in N T only mid.,
alpeopai).
take counsel, crvpfSovXevopai.
teach, fabao-KLo (waibevco, correct, teach; KaTrjxito, instruct.)
teacher, SiSdcr/caXos, -ov, b.
temple, lepbv, -ov, TO; vabs, -ov, 6, sanctuary.
teaching, bibaxv, -rjs, r).
thanksgiving, evxapwria, -as, rj.
that, eiceTvos, -rj, -o, that one (demonstr.); 6s, rj, 6, who, which
(rel.); Iva, conj. followed by subj. of purpose; OTL
(expletive.)
the, 6, r), TO.
therefore, apa, accordingly; differs from ovv, then, in "denoting subjective impression, rather than a positive conclusion"; apa ovv, so then; Touyapovv, wherefore then;
Toivovv, accordingly.
this (one), OVTOS, avTrj,
TOVTO.
thither, e/cetcre.
thou, (TV.
though, Kalirep; kdv Kal, if even (see "even though"),
three, rpeis, rpta.
throne, Opbvos, -ov, b ("official seat, chair of state"—MM),
through, bid, w. gen. (mediate agent),
thus, OVTCOS (186 times, WH), OVTCO (10, WH, all before consonants),
thine, cos, af), <rbv.
Titus, TITOS, -OV, b.
to, dat. without prep., acc. w. 7rp6s, toward; els, into (acc.
only), 7rapd w. acc.
together^ apa,
THE
GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
34b
Troas, Tpcods, -dSos, r).
trouble, rdpa%os, -ov, 6.
true, aKrjdrjs, -es (truthful, L. verax); aXrjdivbs, -f), -ov, real,
genuine (Eng. adjective "very"),
trust, -iricrTevQ), have faith in, believe, entrust; w. dat.
truth, aXrjdeia, -as, r).
twelve, 86)8eKa, ol, al, rd (indecl. numeral),
under, virb w. acc.
understand, avvlrjpc, f. avvrjao), 1 a. avvrjica.
until, till, ecos.
unto, until, ecos (prep. w. gen, R. 643), as far as (place and
time); 7rp6s, to, toward,
upon, €7rl, w. gen., loc, and acc
uproar, 8bpvj3os, -ov, 6.
vain, /xdratos, -a, -ov; Kevbs, -rj, bv, empty,
vision, bpapa, -ros, rb, sight, birraala, -as, r), act of exhibit-,
ing; bpaais, -ecos, r), seeing.
wait, eKSixo^ai; 7repipevoo, wait for, await.
want, varepeco (be in want, lack); 0&co, wish, will.
war, irbXepos, -ov, 6.
way, road, 656s, -ov, 6, journey; irapoSos, -ov, r); iropda, -as,
r), journey, going,
we, rjpeis.
weak, dadevrjs, -es, infirm, feeble; dSu^aros, -ov, impossible.
what? rls; r l (simple interrogative pron.), preserves its
acute unchanged to distinguish i t from indefinite pron.,
rls, rl, any one, an enclitic.
what? of what kind? TOWS, irola, irolov (inter, pron. of quality; L. qualis).
what land of? 67rotos, birola, biroZov (indefinite rel. pron.; L.
qualis, what sort of),
wheat, euros, -ov, 6.
350
A
M A N T J A L
G R A M M A R
whenever, orav (ore + av) (Ger. dann warm, warm irgend);
r)vUa av, whensoever,
wherefore, 816.
while, until, ecos.
who, which, os, rj, 6.
who? rls; which? what? ri; (inter, pron.).
wilderness, desert, eprjpos, -ov, fj.
wilderness, waste place, eprjpia, -as, r).
win, gain, icepdaivco.
with, instr. case without prep, or associational instr. w. ovv.
without, avev (opp. to avv) w. abl.; arep, without, apart
from; x^P^s, apart from,
woman, yvvf), yvvaiubs, r) (wife).
word, X670S, -ov, 6 (word, reason, sermo, ratio) prjpa, f>f)paros
TO, word, speech.
work, epyov, -ov, TO. epyaaia, -as, r), work, working, business.
work, to, epyd^opai.
world, Kocrpos, -ov, 6; oinovpevrj, -rjs, r), inhabited land,
worthy, a^ios, & £ t a , a^iov.
write, ypd(pco.
f
wrong, to, to do wrong,
abucico.
yea, vai.
year, eros, ZTOVS, T6.
yield, vweiicco.
you, sg. av, thou; pi. vpeis, ye; or second per. pi. vb. endings
zeal, £rj\os, -ov, 6.
ENGLISH INDEX
Topic
Ablative case
Accent
acute
circumflex
importance of
length of syllable in
methods of
principles of
Accusative case
Active voice
Adjective
agreement of
declension of
forms of comparison
function of
origin of
syntax of comparison
Adverb
comparisonof
formation of
nature of
scope of
Alphabet
Aorist tense
Article
absence of
declension of
function of
origin of
position of
regular uses of
special uses of
Articular infinitive
Aspiration
Section
91
35-40
38
39
35
37
40
36
96
153
127-132
129
51
52
130
128
132
204r-208
208
207
205
206
23
179-181
144r-150
149
50
146
145
150
147
148
191,192
33
Topic
Breathings
,
Section
32
79-96
,, 79-82
relation to
inflectional
43
forms
.,254-256
, . 255
256
Celtic branch of language—
9
Classification of languag<es...
2
.243-290
Clauses
245
general character of. .
moods in
246
structural relation of. ..247-248
Commands and Prohibitions
286-290
288
287
289
in the present tense...
257-259
259
258
particles used in
1
Comparative philology..
Concession, participle used to
, 279
277-279
277
278
271-276
271
275
. . . . 276
Cases
352
A MANUAL
Topic
Section
Conjugation
57-71
high development of, in
Greek
57
Conjunctions
209-223
Connecting vowels
64,69
Consonants and vowels, distinction between
24
Contract verbs
60
Contraction
34
Crasis
28
Dative case
92,93
Declension
41-56
definition of
41
divisions of
46
First
47
relation to case
42
Second
48
Third
49
Demonstrative pronouns.... 136
Diphthongs
25
Elision
Future tense
27
178
Gender in substantives
45
Genitive case
85-90
significance of
85-89
uses of
90
Greek branch of language, the 5
Greek language, history of— 14
modern, relation to New
Testament
18
of the New Testament ....16,17
unity of.. •
15
History of the grammar of
the Greek N. T
Preface
Imperfect tense
175-177
GRAMMAR
Topic
Section
Imperative mood
165
Indefinite pronouns
143
Indian branch of language,
the
4
Indicative mood
162
Indirect discourse
283-285
types of
285
verb forms in
284
Indo-European languages
3
Infinitive
187-195
articular
191,192
history of
189-190
origin of
188
substantive uses of
195
terminations of
71
uses of
193-195
verbal uses of
194
Inscriptions
18 (4)
Instrumental case
95
Intensive pronoun
137
Interrogative pronoun
142
Iranian branch of language,
the
10
Irregular verbs
59
Italic branch of language, the 6
Koin6, literary witnesses to 18,19
types of
20
Language, definition of
75
Robertson's classification of 13
Language study, modern
method of
1
Languages, classification of..
2
Local clauses
260-262
moods used in
262
particles used in
261
Locative case
94
Middle voice
Monosyllabic languages
154
12
'THE
GREEK
Topic
Mood
Movable consonants
NEW
Section
160-165
29-31
New Testament Greek, elements in
21
Nominative case
83
Number in substantives
44
verbs
159
Numerals, declension of
56
Optative mood
Orthography
164
22-40
Papyri
18(3)
Participle
196-203
adjectival
200
adverbial
201
classification of
199
compared with inf
198
declension of
54
origin and nature of
197
periphrastic use of
203
tense of
202
terminations of
71
Particles
224-242
emphatic or intensive
226
negative
239
Passive voice
157
Perfect tense
182-184
Personal pronouns
134
Person in verbs
159
Pluperfect tense
185
Possessive pronouns
139
Prepositional phrases
123
Prepositions
97-126
function of
101
origin of
98-100
significance of
102-104
Present tense
172-174
TESTAMENT
353
Topic
Section
Prohibition, aorist subjunctive and present imperative in, compared .. 290
Pronouns
133-143
declension of
53
Proper names, declension of.. 55
Purpose clauses
266-268
character of
267
constructions in
268
Reciprocal pronouns
Reflexive pronouns
Regular verbs
Relative, nature of
uses of
Relative clauses
indicative in
subjunctive in
Relative pronouns
Result clauses
constructions in
definition of
141
140
58
250
251
249-253
252
253
135
269-270
270
267
Semitic family of language,
the
11
Slavic branch of language, the 8
Spelling
26
Subjunctive mood
163
Substantival clauses
280-282
constructions in
281
definition of
280
moods in
282
Syntax, definition of
74
distinguished from accidence
7t
fundamental elements of... 76
importance of a proper apprehension of
73
the noun in
77
the verb in
78
354
A MANUAL
Topic
Temporal clauses
character of
constructions in
Tense
analysis of
elements in
interpretation of
Tense stem
classification of
formation of
Section
263-266
264
265
166-186
171
167-170
186
63, 66
68
67
GRAMMAR
Topic
Section
Transitiveness in verbs
151
Teutonic branch of language,
the
7
Verbs of -pi conjugation
61
Verb stem
62
Verbal suflaxes
65,70
Vocative case
84
Voice
152-158
irregularities in
,
158
GREEK I N D E X
dXXd
aprjv
av
avd
avri
Section
211
227
228
105
106
CtTTO
108
apa
yap
ye
212
213
229
214
230
109
215
216
217
Se*
hf)
Sid
8i6
ed*>
el
el prjv
231
els
Ill
110
112
218
113
219
220
€K
ev
eVel
eVl
fl. . .?}
Iva
Kai
Kara
pev
perk
pf)
vai
vf)
on
oh
ov pf)
ovv
7rapd
7rep
Trepl
7rore
TOV
irpb
7rp6s
7TC0S
<rvv
TOL
UTrep
vird
Section
224
Ill
232
115
241
234
233
222
240
242
223
116
235
117
230
237
118
119
237
120
238'
121
122
INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES
Page
Matthew
1:11
107
17
145
18
282
19
275
20
302
21
192,243
22 ...102,112(2)
162,249
23
107
2:1
141
2
214
3
138
4
186
5
105
7
141,224
9
109,125
278,281
10
227
12
110
13
284
14
249
22
81,100
3:1
185,228
3
127,141
4
130
6 ..116,187,227
7
106,132
8
256
9
252
10
256
11 ....83,104(2)
123,261
Page
12
107,162
189,219
14
217
15
101,276
16
198
17
294
4:3
10
191
208
11
108
13
249
14
113
17
77,92
21
155
24
145
5:3
145
4
88
8
17 ..214,240,284
273
19
.172,267
20
22
127,244
28 ..123,145,284
35
112,248
100
38
43
299
175
44
45
156
48
277
6:1 ..110,215,284
2
276
, . 283,299
5
175,244
6
124
9
13
171
355
Page
14
244
16
228
19 ..124,131,278
20
124,244
23
244,273
25
101,171
27
228
28
132
32
252
34
171
7:1 ..248,283,301
3
130,132
4
171
15
275
17
183
20
242,260
22
144
23
250,252
24
116
28
280
8:1
124
3 ..131,148,196
4
104
5
108
9
112
16
89
18
109
19
136
20
144
24
286
25
182
32
176
34
104
356
9:1
2
4
5
9
15
21
22
30
33
36
38
10:2
4
8
9
10
19
22
24
26
30
32
33
37
42
11:5
6
8
14
21
25
29
12:10
12
21
22
27
28
31
A MANUAL
Page
.
131
74
..
249
..
, , 133,243
300
.
113,282
..
290
.
72,128
..
295
..
80
,
276
..
294
142
.,
225
.,
93,154
..
99,300
.
.,99,248
..
133
.
161
,
112
258
.
251
..
. .256,273
..
127
. , 112,225
..
119
161
260
284
..
292
290
252
..
88
.., ,138,246
.
256
165
286
106
106
.,
.
79
GEAMMAE
Page
33
248
41
104
43
151
44
278
50
260
13:3
84
4 ..105,138,216
5
216
21
110
23
261
25 ....99,282(2)
27
267
29
147
46
204
51
262
55
265
14:3
138
4
188
14
282
31
113
32
282
15:24
79
28
71
32
110
16:11
109
13
168,171
24
300
27
101
17:5
152
16
109
20
172
27
100
18:1
242
8
120
10
113
13
106
14
294
18
233
19
109
25
275
26
28
32
35
19:1
5
8
12
17
22
24
20:3
5
6
9
19
21
22
23
28
21:1
25
35
41
46
22:1
3
34
23:4
31
37
39
24:4
28
33
38
25:5
6
8
27
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.,
..
..
..
..
..
..
.,
. ,
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
..
.
..
.
.
..
,
.,
Page
84
247
247
108
280
14
110
102
109
228
276
109
109,276
93,109
99,109
87
102
132
102,240
100
280
102,113
147
272
247
230
284
200
244
85
277
113
294
278
281
279
80
, 77
182
169
T H E
G R E E K .
Page
40
113,274
45
113
26:2
185
4
132,160
15
291
23
105
24
289
25 ..144,265,267
28
109,148
32
216
34
282
38
109
43
232
44
129
45
176
46
154
51
76
67
128
27:1
284
4
299
5
158
6
247
8
245
21
80
23
243
24
169
33
231
46
144
48
80
49
226,285
57
23
28:5
230
19
135
Mark
1:2
272,284
4
76
5
102
7 ...126,219(2)
10
101,103
13
108
17
19
20
24
27
29
36
44
2:4
11
12
16
18
19
21
22
26
27
3:7
11
28
31
34
4:1
5
6
16
17
21
22
23
26
28
31
38
41
5:4
7
11
13
N E W
..
..
..
.,
..
..
..
,,
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
,.
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.,
..
..
.,
..
..
..
..
,,
..
..
..
..
T E S T A M E N T
Page
291
119
108
146,168
285
108
108
109,295
278
300
285
252
104
282
247
247
107
102
165
280
252
285
71
110
278
213
250
250
265
240
247,289
277
119(2)
83,152
294
94,286
89,216
95,121
110
107
357
Page
14
298
23 ..229,249,302
24
165
32
190
39
240
6:8
298
10
278,281
16
126
23
79
34
94
35
149
45
281
56
278
7:4
158
25
110
26
248
31
99
36
121
8:2
70
12
246
24
154
34
247
9:6
297
11
252
21
281
22
176,240
23
145
26
215
28
80,252
29
247
37
240
42
120
10:5
110
8
103
18
95
22
225
32
232
43 ..260,272,273
45
100,155
11:25
280
A MANUAL
358
11:31 ..
28
34 ..
37 ..
41 ..
41-44
13:5 ..
11 ..
20 ..
30 ..
14:5
14
17
19
30
36
48
51
15:6
16
20
23
30
44
16:2
20
Luke
1:1
3
4
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Page
102
217
171
82
294,295
151
187
,, 199
294
, ,246,281
290
232
281
248
169
273
185
97
.87,215
133
106
,91,111
188
126
94
128
156
,. 246,298
106
229
197
72
126
• 134,138
85
7
213
9 ..
224
10 ..
13 .. 169,192,245
224
17 ..
..
..
..
GRAMMAR
Page
20
100
21
216
29
123,174
30
108
34
14
35
245
39
119
42
14
43
286,295
47
106
51
105
54
285
56
Ill
59 ...94,106,189
60
267
61
252
62
174
64
228
77
214
2:1
219
4
160,275
5
160
7
245
14
106
15
261
18
82,102
19
Ill
21
70,95
26
232,282
31
107
41
107
44
82
49
188,252
3:2
107
9
185,251
10
171,188
11
227
15
297
16
261
18
251(2)
Page
4:1
244
3
294
15
229
16
85
17
278
29
215,284
41
206
5:3
76,190
7
107,286
9
Ill
10 ..145,146,232
17
225
27
108
34
105,113
6:1
89
20
252
32
292
34
172
37
172
39
265
41
131
42
171
7:1
280
3
294
4
273
7
245
14
175
18
134
35
197
39
289
40
218
44
106
8:1
107
2
206
4
102
6
275
27
90
29
206
48
103
54
71
THE
9:7
28
32
36
41
52
57
10:1
4
7
24
25
29
36
39
40
11:1
3
4
6
8
9
11
18
28
34
35
12:1
2
3
4
5
10
11
12
14
15
32
42
47
GREEK
Page
135
108
Ill
126
110
215,284
270,278
99,108
107,300
..129,144,301
250
136
251
103
128
218
280
146
302
270
292
301
100
251
261
281
265
131,215
Ill
100,113
108
216,299
103
281
129
132
301
104
242
110
NEW TESTAMENT
Page
49
133,246
51
240
52
233
53
106
58
281
13:1
130
2
120
4
108
6
231
7 ..183,249,281
9
291,299
11
Ill
17
250
22
107
23
246
34
277
14:7 ..132,160,189
8
302
18
231
27
243
28
243
30
144,153
33
256
34 ..106,253,255
15:4
281
16
187
18
103
25
81
27
182
16:1
275
3
222
8
112,115
15
156
16
279
24
78
26
105
17:5
176
6
291
8
133
18:4
106
359
Page
77
7
298
36
121
39
70,123
19:2
77,78
4
247
8
231
20
70
29
110
37
245
40
232
47
145
48
248
20:4
232
6
283
10
14
12
129
19
215
20
102
42
97
21:4
70,74
6
256
7
258
14
232
17
124
19
24 ..113,232,281
70
37
283
22:11
267
16
267
18
Ill
19
Ill
20
174,297
23
263
32
134
35
252
37
93
41
133
45
246
49
156
54
360
A MANUAL
Page
22:67
267
68
267
23:8
188
15
161(2)
19
231
28
302
24:11
165
17
99
19
273
20
295
21
Ill
23
296,298
46
202
John
1:1 ..110,140,148
150,168
3
102,162
6
70,85
7
283
10
102
12
219(2)
14
92
15
204
18 ..103,118,203
20
252
21
264
25
123
29
185
30
112,252
38
168
42
123
2:6
99
8
126
10
118
16
302
20
196
21
79
22
258
24
275
25
296
GRAMMAR
Page
3:1
70
2
77
3
259
302
7
123
10
270,286
16
101
17
244,295
19
253
23
254
24
69,105
35
4:5
253
254
6
243,254
8
108,254
9
141
11
253
12
126
14
248
15
126
18
241
23
149,254
27
254
28
265
29
31
,113,188
253
33
34
270,294
253
40
131,243
44
45 ., ., 227,258
47 ..249,254,294
48
254
215
49
93
52
153
53
109,182
5:7
300
8
276
23
130
30
35
110
37
6:6
7
14
15
16
19
20
37
50
51
52
53
64
66
68
69
71
7:2
6
12
16
19
27
28
32
35
41
47
8:13
16
19
25
26
38
46
57
9:2
3
Page
203
244
286
126
94(2)
.
100
..
93,258
..
,,,, 175
..
272
..
225
..
.. ,., 113,149
254
..
254
..
230
..
103
..
193
..
118
.
77
.,
244
..
254
261
,
254
..
250
241
.,
254
..
225
..
286
..
243
254
..
254
.. ..,,244,246
292
254
,.
254
,.
241
,
258
92
..
254
.
.,
249
165
.,
..
.,
THE
GREEK NEW
Page
4
281
9
296
10
254
16
101,254
17
254
18
258
20
254(2)
21
254
22 ..132,155,160
206
25
154,254
26
254
30
243
32
254
38
254
56
254
1 i;l
128
8
109
11 ..116,151,152
12
264
27
165
32
186
36
294
38
195
40 ...119(2), 120
11:6
258
21
169
27 ..262,294,298
32
290
36
188
49
230
50
Ill
12:1
254
2
111,254
3
254
9
254
10
270
17
254
21
254
29
254,258
TESTAMENT
Page
112
43
249
13:8
83
16
121
27
198
31
249
34
185
14:3
127
13
274
19
94,192
26
282
29
197,295
15:8
270,295
12
94
15
289
19
272
20
289
22
183,186
27
127
16:23
109
26
249,250
32
112,162
17:7
144
10
176
11
71
25
258
18:11
110,206
16
254
23
253,254
24
101
26
258
27
94
19:2
189
3
99
12
302
24
77
39
110
20:12
302
17
250
29
30 ..251,253,255
21:6
8
15
23
Acts
1:1
3
4
5
6
10
11
13
15
17
18
2:10
16
20
25
27
31
33
38
42
45
46
3:2
5
8
17
24
26
4:11
16
17
21
32
34
36
361
Page
101
87
77
103
126,230
216,282
82
252
128,246
206
277
77
105
105
254
107
128
215
103
103
103
256
104
110
276
107
189
134
190
113
244
226,285
149
244,261
103
106
230
244
225
362
A MANUAL
Page
5:3
,, 215,285
.,.132,197
4
196
5
148
19
224
25
203
28
134
36
110
6:1
, . 261,284
3
103
11
250
7:5
12
298
115
13
281
18
215
19
94,124
21
189
26
138
30
70
40
218
42
103
53
161
58
300
60
8:4
128
282
6
90
11
260
19
173
20
21
248
22
242,298
23
228
• , 253,254
25
285
27
241
30
31 ..174,243,245
102
39
216
9:3
298
6
15 ...72,115,215
254
19
GRAMMAR
Page
21
206
31 ..188,254,261
34
184
39
153
42
107
10:1
224
2
145
5
108
10
110
29
254
32
254
33
256
34
298
35
225(2)
41
272
11:1
107
18
242
23
90
26
103
28
106
12:2
162
3
275
7
113
18
242
13:1
107
2
261
9
142
11
109
13
109
22
77,103
34
244
36
243
50
106
14:4
128,147
15:1
160
4
101
10
218
11
145
12
196
13
196
17
19
23
27
28
29
35
36
16:16
18
19
28
36
37
17:11
15
16
18
22
28
32
34
18:3
5
9
10
13
25
19:1
2
10
13
22
26
34
35
37
40
20:3
16
Page
126
143
• 102,107
226
218
227
165
....134(2), 261
,
228
184
,
103
131
,
243
,
90,244
174
,
121
,
108
174
,
71
136
147
Ill
243
,
88
102
215,285
108
... .95,115,15514a
.
.. . 241,246
106
95,142
,
,
103
,
78,196
,
101,
244
,
24S
.
251
,
82,285
93,243
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
THE
GREEK NEW
Page
21
148
24
159
33
81
37
82
21:4
298
16 ...87,126,284
21
87,298
29
232
36
116
22:16
162
28
251(2)
30
161
23:19
113
30
198
24:12
107,248
19
169
25:3
298
4
256
11
256
16
280,297
22 ..169,190,256
26
138
26:3
95(3)
13
112
18
284
20
298
32
169,289
27:1
213,285
9
251
12
247
20
109
26
103
29
263
33
93
34
110
28:3
101
5
256
Romans
1:4
130
5
103
TESTAMENT
Page
8
261
9
149,274
10 ..106,215,247
11
284
17
103
18
105,107
19
245
20
119,286
21
245,274
24
105,245
25
108
26 ..108,146,245
28
219
2:1
129
4
119
5
105
6
125
12
272
13
108
14
148
19
298
21
258
23
150
3:2 ..163,244,261
4
276,277
6
193,248
19
144
21
161
23
197,208
30
103
4:10
227,256
11
79
12
115
16
146,245
19
263
20
88,103
23
102
24
102
5:5
203
7
193
363
Page
9
119,256
10
227,293
12 ...106(2), 113
14
106
6:2 ...85,192,272
275
6
76
12
207
14
192
17
126
21
106
7:2
290
3 ......215,285
18
217
21
241
24
71
8:1
140,241
3
95
12
85
14
91,112
16
130
17
262
18
120,232
18f
243
24
136
26 ..130,146,276
277
32
260
35
78
36
184
39
152
9:3
169,190
9
76,127
28
138
10:1
130
4
103
14 ..171,193,258
17
241
21
110
11:1
258
364
A MANUAL
Fage
U:2
91
6
248
11
249,286
14
263
22
247,248
24
108
28
102
30
90
32
104,111
33
71
12:2
99
3
230
5
132
9
229
15
216
17
100
13:9
247
10
145
11
219
14:8
248
22
107
23
202
15:2
103,110
4
82
9
285
13
82
22
188,213
25
226
27
90,243
33
259
16:6
93
19
103
25
78,90
I Corinthians
1:1
70
4
106
6
79
12
244
18
148,152
22
274
GRAMMAR
Page
25
121,274
2:7
153
3:3
241
4
135
6 .. .156(2), 188
7
134
13
273
18
112
19
70
22
248
4:1
276
2
270
3
241,294
8
91,169
15
240
17
272
18
198
21
105,133
5:3
244
6
151
8
130
9
84
6:5
99
7 ..132,160,255
9
175
12
85
20
261
7:7
128
15
176
19
116
29
249
37
118
39
219
8:4
247
5
247,274
13 ..156,245,267
9:2
241
18
295
25
93,254
10:1
243
Page
4
188,190
14
245
17
274
21
81
29
249
30
90
11:5
90,152
6
160
6f
243
12
102
15
100
18
182
19
243
20
256
21 ...128,184(2)
22
171,244
24
104
12:13
251,252
13:2
215,285
4
142
8
159
13
121,165
14:5
120
6
244,246
8
252
10
290
12
270
16
259
19
251
20
87
22
103
26
Ill
27 ....93,99,107
15:8
276
9
121
15
242,247
21
142
30
93
31
184,262
34
150
THE
GREEK
Page
230,290
37
273
48
149
56
95
16:6
171
11
158
16
132
20
I I Corinthians
80
1:7
212,213
8
243
12
240,241
13
113
14
242,262
17
262,295
18
19 • ,,102,262
262
20
295
23
85
3:1
289
2
90
7
247,272
10
104
12
13 ..205,213,216
218,227
225,231
17
131
3:1
251
10
241,281
15
..112,162
18
,.,232,251
4:3
82
7
102
8
251
10
251
11
129,245
13
124
16
79
5:1
251
2
106,251
4
NEW TESTAMENT
13 . . . .
14 . . . .
15 . . . .
19 . . . .
7:5 . . . .
8 ....
11 . .
12 . . .
13
14 . . . .
8:2 . . . .
7 ....
9 ....
11 . . . .
12 . . . .
18 . . . .
23 . . . .
9:6 . . . .
7 ....
10:1 . . . .
2
11:1 . . . .
10
16 . . . .
23
25 . . . .
12:7 . . . .
9 ....
17 . . . .
18 . . . .
13:3 . . . .
13 . . . .
Galatians
1:1 . . . .
6 ....
7 ....
8 o...
Page
85
78,112
,, 112
252
252
153,292
.,. 107
, , . . 216
.101,107
247
115
., 249
, , 196
•,,, 217
277
. . . . 148
112
.. 113
, , . . 183
, .,, 69
244
251
295
,. , 283
,. 96
, ., , 196
111
183
203
70
, , 246
113
102
182
• ., 247
292
. 289
184
11 . . . .
248
365
Page
22
224,232
24
105
2:6
134
7
155
11
107
12
282
14
298
3:1
107
7
241
13
111,286
16
270,272
18
162
23
213
4:4
112,162
10
108
11
265
15
169,274
20
169,190
24
138
25
136
5:3
219
4
186,272
10
260
14 ..137,144,145
17
249,286
18
91,289
24
147,198
6:1
292
5
193
10
277
17
236
Ephesians
1:9
124
16
228
18
95
2:2
263
3
263
4
196,244
8
142,162
10
152
366
A MANUAL
Page
2:11
263
12
82
13
263
14
69
20
153
3:6
295
8
145,295
13
126
4:1
168
13
281
15
70,93
17
295
24
150
5:9
150
12
135,217
19
132
24
241
29
262
31
193
32
244
6:21
107
23
98
Philippians
1:10
286
15
135
18
192
22
133
27
160
2:6
217,294
9
Ill
13
298
17
292
20
273
28
198
3:1
119,293
8 ..241,251,255
261
9
130
10
284
15
134
GRAMMAR
Page
16
216
21
192
4:7
Ill
8
247
10
251,263
11 ..107,197,294
15
251
Colossians
1:6
231
7
123
16
91,201
21
105
22
76
27
72,115
2:5
247
8
294
10
125
18
265
20
150
3:5
127
8
251
16
132
4:3
215
4
251
8
198
11
142
I Thessalonians
1:3
72
2:7
168
13
251
15
153
19
251
20
69
3:1
87
4
251
5
215
8
245
10
Ill
4:3
218
6
Ill
Page
9
130
10
252
15
149
5:3
172
4
249
5
149
16
175
27
95
I I Thessalonians
1:7
72
2:1
112
2
248
15
162
3:4
192
5
173
11
298
14
148
I Timothy
1:12
228
14
Ill
2:8
294
3:2
144
13
148
4:4
291
8
227,230
13
281
5:9
138
21
172
I I Timothy
2:4
160
7
244
20
128
3:17
110
4:7
94,203
11
229
15
159(2)
Titus
1:1
106
16
110
2:2
216
THE
13 ..
3:14 ..
Philemon
1:13 ..
Hebrews
2
4
5
7
9
6
7
9
13
15
16
3:1
4
5
8
10
12
13
14
4:2
3
6
12
14
5:1
G E E E K NEW
Page
109
, 115,147
Ill
104
190
106
102,106
90,108
273,276
103,262
..
110
..
108
..
101
227
286
..
108
..
111,225
..
233
..
.. .90,209,213
.. , 261,263
274
..
113
183
..
88,230
..
171
..
88
..
247
78
..
281
..
262
..
108
246
.. .72,232,276
247
..
293
..
112,120
171
110
..
..
..
TESTAMENT
Page
247
2
109
3
262,276
4
218
5
101
7
8 ..126,262,293
87,219
11
12 ...94,213,227
228,293
78
13
290
6:3
138,149
7
195,230
10
261
14
127
7:1
284
9
254,264
11
131,151
24
113
25
116
8:2
273,284
3
254
4
254
9:1
Ill
5
159,230
12
105
25
247
26
113,293
27
109
10:11
76
39
155
11:2
286
3
293
4
107,196
13
190
17
282
21
171
12:1
100
2
279
4
275
6
8
16
22
13:7
20
24
James
1:6
8
13
18
19
27
2:8
367
Page
242
100
138
82
152
145,147
202
101
78,101
134
286
218,295
169,192
261,263
10
273
18
103
22
103
25
89
3:1
301
5
273
4:2 ..159,213,216
3
159
13
128,272
14
272
5:12
110
I Peter
1:2
173
5
219
6
227
8
266
11
151
24
197
2:3
105
6
156
18
229
3:1
229
3
264
14
290
21
79,93
368
A MANUAL
Page
4:8 ..110,131,151
5:2
94
I I Peter
1:1
147
4
121
10
262
13
113
14
82
21
262
2:20
147
22
70
3:4
186
I John
1:9
249
2:1
195
2
244
7
188
3:2
246
4
152
8
186
9
195
13
246
4:6
103
7
132,171
8
69,149
15
5:3
9
15
20
I I I John
1:1
Jude
1:8
Revelation
1:4
7
9
13
17
2:1
3
22
3:3
9
12
14
17
4:8
9
GRAMMAR
Page
149
249
294
245
283
113
261
38,70
106
102
110
153
128
102
246
255
249
124
136
153
99
280
5:4
5
7
6:8
7:2
17
8:7
9:4
11
20
11:18
12:6
13:10
14:1
15:1
6
8
16:18
17:17
19:10
20:15
21:2
21
27
Page
301
301
204
105
127
99
79
248
70
249
219
101
105
138
141
141
281
113
281
30
289
82,85
97,99
247