partnership for regional development

Transcription

ROMANIAN REGIONAL SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION
WEST UNIVERSITY OF TIMISOARA
FACULTATY OF ECONOMICS
and
WEST REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
ORGANIZE
- Fifth International Symposium of
the Romanian Regional Science Association -
PARTNERSHIP FOR
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
TIMISOARA, June 10 – 11, 2005
ORGANIZING COMITEE
DANIELA LUMINIŢA CONSTANTIN,PH.D.
ACADEMY ECONOMIC STUDIES OF BUCHAREST,
PRESIDENT OF THE ROUMANIEN REGIONAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION
IOAN TALPOŞ,PH.D.
DEAN OF THE FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES TIMIŞOARA
SORIN MAXIM
DIRECTOR,REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY WEST
MARILEN PIRTEA, PH.D.
CANCELLOR OF THE FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES TIMIŞOARA
PETRU ŞTEFEA, PH.D.
VICE DEAN OF THE FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES TIMIŞOARA
CONSTANTIN NEGRUŢ, PH.D.
VICE DEAN OF THE FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES TIMIŞOARA
CARMEN BĂBĂIŢĂ, PH.D.
FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES TIMIŞOARA
VALENTIN MUNTEANU, PH.D.
SCIENTIFIC COMITEE
CORNELIA PÂRLOG, PH.D.
ACADEMY ECONOMIC STUDIES OF BUCHAREST
JAIME DEL JAIME DEL CASTILLO HERMOSA
INFORMATION Y DESAROLLO, SPAIN
TAMÁS GYULAI,
DÉL-ALFÖLD REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY, HUNGARY
DOREL AILINEI, PH.D.
ACADEMY ECONOMIC STUDIES OF BUCHAREST
EUGEN FALNIŢĂ, PH.D.
SIMONA DALOTĂ BIRIESCU, PH.D.
RALUCA CIBU BUZAC
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY WEST
SETIUNEA 1 - INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
CHAIRS:
TAMAS GYULAY, HARUNORI SHISIDO, CORNELIA PÂRLOG, PH.D.,
1. Simona Branişte, Mihai Pascaru
REPRESENTATIONS ON THE NEW REGIONAL REALITIES AT THE LEVEL OF THE LOCAL
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
2. Gheorghe Brânzei
CARPATHIAN EURO REGION AND CROSS BORDER COOPERATION BETWEEN IVANOFRANKOVSK REGION AND MARAMURES COUNTY
3. Liliana Bratu
PARTNERSHIPS-THE OPTIMUM SOLUTION FOR EMPLOYMENT
4. Marin Burtică, Matei Tămăşilă
THE PLACE AND ROLE OF SMEs IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
5. Maria Iuliana Cebuc, Emilia Iordache, Ramona Chitu
TRANSBORDERING COOPERATION THROUGH CUSTOMS COOPERATION
6. Iuliana Ciochină, Ramona Chiţu, Răzvan Decuseară
EUROREGIONS – TRANS-BORDERING COOPERATION STRUCTURES
7. Adela Coman
LABOR OCCUPANCY POLICIES FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE PUBLIC – PRIVATE
PARTNERSHIPS
8. Carmen Corduneanu
THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COHESION-FROM DESIDERATUM TO REALITY
9. Ioan Cozma
PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP AND CONCESSION, MEANS FOR URBAN ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
10. Zizi Goschin
COMPETITIVENESS AND INNOVATION IN THE SMES SECTOR
11. Gheorghe Zaman, Zizi Goschin
REGIONAL DISPARITIES IN ROMANIA AND THEIR DIMINISHING PERSPECTIVES
12. Izabella Gilda Grama
REREQUISITES FOR IMPROVEMENTS OF THE SHIPPING ON MIDDLE EUROPE – UKRAINE
LINK OVER THE BLACK SEA
13. Adriana Grigorescu
PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP BY MARKETING
14. Romeo Ionescu
COMPLIANCE OF ROMANIAN RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE WITH E.U. TECHNICAL AND
OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
15. Gabriela Marchiş
ROMANIAN INTERREGIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DISPARITIES ANALYSIS
16. Mihai Pascaru, Simona Branişte,
THE CONSTRUCTION OF REGIONAL IDENTITY: EXPERIENCES, REPRESENTATIONS,
PARTNERSHIP POLICIES
17. Carmen Beatrice Păuna, Ileana Dumitrescu
CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN UNION ENLARGEMENT
18. Mihaela Pirtea
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND DIRECT FOREIGN INVESTMENTS, SUPPORT FOR
INNOVATION: STUDY CASES FROM ROMANIA
19. Gabriela Prelipcean
MERGERS, AQUISITION AND INVESTMENT IN RESTRUCTURING INDUSTRIES IN ROMANIA
20. Dănuţ Rada
REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. DYNAMIC FACTOR OF LOCAL ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
21. Luiza Radu
THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP FOR SUPPORTING LOCAL COMMUNITIES
22. Cipriana Sava
INTEGRATING ROMANIAN TOURISM IN THE EUROPEAN TOURISM
23. Cipriana Sava
DISPARITIES CONCERNING TOURISTIC RESOURCES IN THE WESTERN PART OF ROMANIA
24. Tamás Gyulai
REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN A BORDER AREA OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
25. Yukari Ihara
URBAN GREEN SPACE AS THE RESOURCE FOR TOURISM - ITS POSSIBILITY AND ISSUES
-
SECŢIUNEA 2 - PARTNERSHIP AND COOPERATION FOR REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
CHAIRS:
DANIELA LUMINITA CONSTANTIN, PH.D., MARIN BURTICA, PH.D.,
ALEXANDRU JIVAN, PH.D.
1. Cristina Banica
THE ROLE OF LOCAL INITIATIVES FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SUPPORTING
REGIONAL POLICY
2. Sorin Blaj
THE TAX SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL INCOME IN EUROPE
3. Marin Burtică, Rada-Florina Hahn, Simona Sabou
THE DECISIONAL FRAME REGARDING THE DRAFTING OF POLICIES AT THE LOCAL LEVEL
4. Daniela-Luminita Constantin
THE SOCIAL-CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE EXTERNAL MIGRATION FROM THE
PERSPECTIVE OF ROMANIA’S ACCESSION TO THE EUROPEAN UNION*
5. Daniela-Luminita Constantin
DESCENTRALIZAREA APLICĂRII POLITICII REGIONALE ÎN JAPONIA : CAZUL ZONELOR
SPECIALE PENTRU REFORMA STRUCTURALĂ
6. Creţu Romeo Cătălin, Creţu Raluca Florentina
DURABLE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRO-TOURISM – ONE OF THE OPTIONS FOR SAVING
ROMANIAN VILLAGES
7. Fleser Nelu
PRINCIPLES AND PRIORITIES OF THE TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT APPROACH
8. Fleşer Nelu
BASIC PROBLEMS OF MOUNTAIN'S AREA DELIMITATION
9. Alexandru Folescu
STRATEGII DE DEZVOLTARE ÎN EUROPA CENTRALĂ ŞI DE EST
10. Peter Friedrich, Alina M. Popescu
FOCJ AS INSTITUTION FOR POPULATION POLICY
11. Nina Hanciuc
IMPORTANŢA POLITICII REGIONALE PENTRU ROMÂNIA DIN PERSPECTIVA TRATATULUI
INSTITUIND O CONSTITUŢIE PENTRU EUROPA ŞI A TRATATULUI DE ADERARE A ROMÂNIEI
LA UNIUNEA EUROPEANĂ
12. Laura Iacob
INTRAREGIONAL DISSONANCES THROUGH THE OCCUPIED POPULATION AND LABOUR
MARKET PERSPECTIVE IN THE SOUTH - EAST REGION - STUDY RESEARCH : DOBROGEA
COUNTY
13. Pompilia Idu
CONTRIBUTIA PROGRAMULUI PHARE - COEZIUNE ECONOMICA SI SOCIALA LA
CRESTEREA CAPACITATII DE ABSORBTIE A FONDURILOR STRUCTURALE
14. Mihaela Ioneci
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
15. Horia Irimia
TERRITORIAL DISPARITIES – FROM THE EUROPEAN CONSTITUTION TO THE ROMANIAN
LOCAL PUBLIC FINANCE
16. Melania Elena Miculeac
ANALIZA ECHILIBRULUI FINANCIAR PE ACTIVITĂŢI PE BAZA TABLOURILOR FLUXURILOR
DE TREZORERIE
17. Mirela Minică
THE NECESSITY OF ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF REGIONAL POLICIES
18. Valentin Munteanu, Petru Ştefea, Marilen Pirtea, Marius Ioan Pantea
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSABILITY – BASED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
19. Pârlog Cornelia, Andrei Tudorel, Isaic-Maniu Irina
DESCENTRALIZAREA DEZVOLTĂRII REGIONALE ÎN ROMÂNIA: VALORIFICAREA
EXPERIENŢEI EUROPENE
20. Ovidiu Ciorîcă, Ciprian Şipoş
OPTIMIZAREA BUNĂSTĂRII SOCIALE PRIN MAXIMIZAREA FUNCŢIEI DE UTILITATE
21. Gabriela Lucia Şipoş
CONSIDERAŢII PRIVIND EVOLUŢIA PERCEŢIEI ASUPRA PROCESULUI DE INOVARE
22. Someşan Cornel, Burtică Marin, Maniov Vichentie, Trif-Dan Simona
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL
COMMUNITIES
23. Maria Stanca, Ioana – Delia Pop
ECONOMIA INTERNET-O REALITATE A MEDIULUI ECONOMIC DIN ROMÂNIA
24. Petru Ştefea
FONDURILE STRUCTURALE ŞI IMPORTANŢA LOR ÎN DEZVOLTAREA REGIONALĂ
25. Marta-Christina Suciu, Andrada Rizea, Ramona Marian, Cristian Glodeanu
PARTENERIATUL PUBLIC-PRIVAT ŞI INVESTIŢIA ÎN EDUCAŢIE / PUBLIC-PRIVATE
PARTNERSHIP
&INVESTMENTS IN EDUCATION
26. Valerian Tobultoc
LABOR MARKET – THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS
27. Mariana Trandafir
THE COHESION POLITICS AND THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT– CHALLENGES FOR
ROMANIA ON THE EUROPEAN UNION EXPANSION BACKGROUND
28. G.Vârlan I.Bandu I. Goleţ
THE SUBSTANTIATION OF DECISIONS IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
29. Dan Marius Voicilaş
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES BY FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENTS –
PARTICULARITIES FOR AGRI-FOOD SECTOR
SECŢIUNEA 3- ECONOMIC MODELS FOR REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
CHAIRS:
MIRELA MINICA, PH.D., SIMONA DALOTA BIRIESCU, PH.D,
CONSTANTIN BOB, PH.D.
1. Carmen Băbăiţă, Eugen Falniţă
CREŞTERE ECONOMICĂ INTELIGENTĂ PRIN TURISM, ÎN CONTEXTUL DEZVOLTĂRII
DURABILE
2. Flavia Barna
THE IMPACT OF THE FOREIGN INVESTMENTS ON THE CAPITAL MARKET IN ROMANIA
3. Marius Bizerea, Ioan Petrişor
THE
ECOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNITY—ANTHROPOSYSTEM
OF
SUSTAINABLE
4. Mircea Boşcoianu
RISKY PROJECTS MANAGEMENT AND THE DISTORSIONS IN INVESTMENT DECISIONS
5. Angela Bretcu
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARAŞ-SEVERIN RURAL AREA
6. Persida Cechin–Crista
ANALYSIS OF BAD DEBTS’ IMPACT ON BANKS’ PROFITABILITY
7. Laura Cismaş, Lucia Negruţ, Adina Popovici, Mihai Părean
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ECOLOGIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
8. Simona Dalotă Biriescu
REGIONAL - INFORMATION SYSTEM’S DEVELOPMENT
9. Ljiljana Dmitrović Šaponja, Sunčica Milutinović, Goran Šijan
ACCOUNTING – THE BUSINESS LANGUAGE IN TERMS OF GLOBALIZATION
10. Vasile Dogaru
MIHAIL MANOILESCU – FORERUNNER FOR THE TOTAL PRODUCTIVITY’S CONCEPT
11. Vasile Dogaru
THE PRESENT OF MIHAIL MANOILESCU’S CONCEPT REGARDING THE EQUITY OF THE
SINGLE MARKET’S EXCHANGES
12. Lorant Eros-Stark, Ioan Marius Pantea
ABOUT THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCES OF THE ENTERPRISES FROM THE 5TH WEST
REGION
13. Lorant Eros-Stark, Ioan Marius Pantea
THE ANALYSIS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN MINIMUM WAGE AND EMPLOYMENT, BASED
ON THE COMPETITIVE STANDARD MODEL AND THE ALTERNATIVE MODELS ON THE
LABOUR MARKET
14. Simona Ghiţă
THE ANALYSIS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN MINIMUM WAGE AND EMPLOYMENT, BASED
ON THE COMPETITIVE STANDARD MODEL AND THE ALTERNATIVE MODELS ON THE
LABOUR MARKET
15. Simona Ghiţă
THE IMPACT OF THE JOINING PROCESS TO THE EUROPEAN UNION ON THE ROMANIAN
LABOUR MARKET
16. Giani Grădinaru
MATRICEA AJUSTĂRII RELAŢIEI ECONOMIE MEDIU
17. Alexandru Jivan, Laura Cismas, Adina Popovici
TERTIARY DISPARITIES IN ROMANIA’S ECONOMY IN COMPARISON WITH THE LAST
WAVE OF EU’S ENLARGEMENT COUNTRIES AND WITH OTHER COUNTRIES
18. Vichentie Maniov
CROSS BORDER PROJECT FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Case Study: PARTNER Project
19. Mirela Minică
METHODOLOGICAL CO-ORDINATES OF REGIONAL SCIENCE
20. Ileana Gabriela Niculescu-Aron
SPECIALIZATION AND TERRITORIAL CONCENTRATION OF EMPLOYED POPULATION IN
ROMANIA
21. Cornelia Parlog, Valerian Tobultoc
MANNERS TO IMPROVE THE CONTENTS AND THE METHODOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT
PLANS
22. Carmen Răduţ
THE SECURITY OF INFORMATIONAL SYSTEM. THE SECURITY AUDIT
23. Erika Tusa
REGIONAL PRIORITIZATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL INVESTMENTS IN ROMANIA
EUROREGIONS – TRANS-BORDERING COOPERATION
STRUCTURES
Conf. univ. dr. Iuliana Ciochină
Asist. univ. drd. Ramona Chiţu
Asist. univ. drd. Răzvan Decuseară
The regional development policy involves a totality of measures of local and central
public administration authorities whose purpose is the efficient utilization of the regional
and local potential through a sustainable and dynamic economic growth and through an
improvement of the living standard.
The regional development policy is a component of the general policy on national
or on the EU level. Its main objectives aim at a decrease in economic and social
disequilibrium, a balanced, general development of all regions, transbordering cooperation.
For new members of the EU, for Romania and Bulgaria, it is an important component of the
reform program, having also in view the development of the administrative and financial
procedures, necessary for the participation to the structural policies of the EU and the
efficient orientation of investments, in order to reinforce the capacity of the member states
to assume responsibilities. The development region is the implementation and evaluation
framework of the regional development policy.
At the EU level there has been raised the problem of an opportunity to apply and
continue a common regional policy. In its favor there have been brought very convincing
arguments, such as:
- economic results and investments by increasing the number of development
possibilities and a better geographical and political integration;
- the necessity of continuing the economic convergence program which should
lead to a modernization of the Gross Domestic Product/inhabitant in the EU
countries, by eliminating disappearances; the disequilibrium between structural
funds contributes directly to achieving the objectives of the European Council,
objectives that have in view competitiveness, sustainable development,
occupying the labor force, the development of the informational society.
All these, especially under the present conditions of the new extension, show that
the problem of abandoning the regional policy cannot be raised, but, on the contrary,
mention can be made of an underlined regional policy and of resource concentration,
especially, in the less-developed countries.
The reform proposals establish three community priorities: convergence, objective
designed for the less-developed countries; regional competitiveness and labor force
occupying, an essential element as well as the political, economic and social integration
process for a better involvement of public and private agents if achieving the EU
objectives; the European territorial cooperation, objective that contributes to the balanced
and favorable integration of all regions by supporting cooperation on transbordering,
transnational and interregional levels.
1
Within this context, as an institutional form of transbordering cooperation, the Euroregion may be an efficient solution in solving border regions economic-social development
problems of the coterminous countries.
Euro-regions contribute in order to support the European integration process, the
regional development, the implementation of the communitarian acquis, acting like
bordering cooperation structures. Initiated in the early 1990’s, trans-bordering cooperation
has in view the actions undertaken in common by the entities within the European Union,
as well as these ones and other regions located outside borders, at borders or farther.
All these have in view the fact that between regions there are certain traditional
relationships that have led along time to the homogenization of the existing problems,
problems that most times cannot be exclusively solved on the territory of a national state.
The analysis in the field concerns the political, economic, legal and institutional
framework of transbordering cooperation. The constitution of the EU, the political changes
in Central and East European countries and the EU integration of some of these, the
appearance of new independent states and of the interstates agreements, have intensified
and also facilitated the transbordering cooperation process.
Trans-bordering cooperation structures have in view the improvement of regional
and cohesion development policies, of the cooperation mechanisms according to the
community initiative, aiming to promote an integrated regional development. Based on
cooperation and partnership programs, trans-bordering investments, agreements, stability
treaties, it allows euro-regions to find support in order to attract European funds for
developing certain environment, infrastructure, borders security projects. The main
transbordering action fields are the economic development, tourism, environment,
agriculture, health, education, culture, social services, the labor market and the regional
development. Another high priority of trans-bordering cooperation is the development of
small and medium private business, of mix companies and commercial transactions at the
border, offering thus assistance to these regions.
For regions outside the European Union there is the perspective of improving the
opportunities of using the Union’s financial instruments (INFOREG/PHARE/TACIS),
specially created for private initiatives of economic trans-bordering cooperation, in order to
support a sustainable economic cooperation. On the one hand, they aim to develop transbordering cooperation and to assist intra and extra community bordering regions, to solve
specific problems that result out of their relative isolation within national economies and
the European Union. On the other hand, they aim to finance relative interventions regarding
competences development through the citizens of these regions, to develop certain common
investments programs in the economic and administrative field, to stimulate improvement
in the region. The European Union grants financial help for transbordering cooperation
through the INTERREG initiative, the PHARE and TACIS programs, while through the
Transbordering European Regions Association it grants technical assistance and
coordinates the activities developed within the Euro-regions, facilitating at the same time
the exchange of information and experience in this field.
On a political level, trans-bordering cooperation involves political responsibility,
both of the involved countries governments and of the European Union. Actually, the
community effort must be supplemented with the national effort in order to result a positive
behavior and attitude regarding the settled objectives.
2
At the European Union level the legal framework for coordinating and planning all
actions related to euro-regions development and transbordering cooperation has been
created in order to perform some common projects.
The EU integration of ten countries from Central and Eastern Europe, to which
other two will be added, enlarges the collaboration framework in Euro-regions. The
evaluation of the economic and social potential of these countries allows the identification
of new opportunities of transbordering cooperation: creating a common informational
space, developing collaboration relations in the educational and labor force preparing field
through common training, qualifying and hiring centers, cooperating in the researchdevelopment field.
They have to be held responsible to these regions’ needs, i.e. investments in infrastructure development, transport networks, communications networks, frontiers security
modernizing systems, local administration, managers, enterprisers, and business
community members education. All these programs will assure the means for a dynamic
economic development.
Regarding euro-regions development and trans-bordering cooperation, the European
Parliament admits difficulties that the bordering, outlying European Union regions confront
themselves with, but it estimates that the problems nature and the solutions that must be
found can be solved through their double coordination, as well as through coherent regional
strategies, specific for each geographical trans-bordering unity.
That is why the technical assistance granted by the EU will be directed to some
analysis studies in order to identify the possibilities of harmonizing legislations, to create
mutual information and communication networks, to develop some structures, some
development agencies, creation centers, associations for little and middle-size companies,
industrial parks, marketing centers. They require at the same time some training for the
euro-regions commission members in such fields as: local economy development,
elaboration, business and projects management and promotion and the elaboration of some
development strategies of transbordering cooperation.
Community interventions must satisfy the subsidiary principle. According to this
principle, the Union’s activities come to complete the actions put into practice on national,
local or regional level, if there are not enough resources to achieve the aimed objectives.
The EU encouraging actions in this field must correspond to the community demands and
to be the result of the authorities’ advice with a view to regional development strategies and
plans, to the local administration objectives, set up in accordance with those of the regional
and local collectivities. They are founded on a socio-economic and environment analysis of
the region that should settle the development basis, supplying information about the
financial resources necessary in order to achieve the objectives.
Focusing on the administrative capacity and on the system applicants’ training,
starting from management authorities and intermediary organisms to final beneficiaries, in
view of an efficient handling of resources, different kinds of improvements appear to be
necessary: the improvement of flexibility and co-financing capacity, of analysis and
evaluation mechanisms, of projects programming and identifying, as well as of the capacity
to prepare all these.
The principles of management and control that lay at the basis of the Euro-regions
development policies’ collaboration and application aim at decentralizing the decisional
process on central and regional level, at promoting partnership between the parties involved
in this field, planning and co-financing for a better use of resources in achieving objectives.
3
Having in view the economic activities impelling and diversification, investments
stimulation, unemployment decrease and last but not least the living standard improvement,
Euro-regions development will play a major role in a larger European Union, its efficiency
being conditioned by a common participation.
Bibliography:
1. Buchan David, Europee l’etrange superpuissance, Edition Apogee Paris, 1993.
2. Pierre le Mire, Droit de l’Union europeenne et politiques communes, 3e edition
2003, Dalloz, Paris.
3. Weidenfeld Werner, Wessels Wolfgang, L’Europe de A a Z, Commission
europeenne, 1997.
4. ***, Raportul periodic asupra progreselor înregistrate de România în vederea
aderării la Uniunea Europneană 2004, Comisia comunităţilor europene, Bruxelles,
6.10.2004.
5. ***, Problemes economiques, colecţia 2004-2005.
6. ***, Le nouvel economiste, ianuarie-aprilie, 2005.
7. ***, Tribuna economică, ianuarie-aprilie, 2005.
4
LABOR OCCUPANCY POLICIES FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
THE PUBLIC – PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS
Adela Coman, Ph.D.Professor
North University of Baia Mare
From the early 1990’s policies for labor occupancy in Romania had as starting point the
recognition of substantial re-allocation of labor between various sectors of the market. It
was to be expected that this restructuring would lead to high levels of unemployment,
however temporary, since unemployment in declining sectors were higher than job
demands in rising sectors and there were additional obstacles regarding the mobility of
labor force.
Within this framework, the key elements of policies should have been: the imposition of
budgetary constraints to companies to force restructuring; encouraging mobility and
flexibility within the labor force; ensuring compensations for those unemployed from the
state sector, encouraging early retirement by granting larger pensions, thus encouraging
individuals to leave earlier their jobs.
The policies adopted were, nevertheless, inadequate. Since policies aiming at the reduction
of unemployment (by retraining, community work, counseling for new jobs) were proven to
have a limited impact and do not stimulate the creation of jobs in Romania, what else was
to be done? As long as transition constitutes a restructuring and adaptation problem,
generated by the dissolution of the institutional framework (that of the command system) to
which employers and employees alike were accustomed, the players on the labor market
will not be able to adjust on their own to a new institutional environment, namely that of
the free market, where they would have to survive.
The present paper wants to bring forth arguments for the concept that government and
market alike have to remedy these structural and adaptation deficiencies. Where
mechanisms in the market are not able to provide the necessary conditions for the
adjustments it is the duty of the government, seemingly, to intervene. The solution of
public-private partnerships, based on the principles of selectivity and of complementarity,
as well as on negotiation is, undoubtedly, insufficiently exploited. Moreover, such
partnerships constitute a necessity in the framework of administrative decentralization and
growth of local autonomy.
Labor occupancy policies from the perspective of the public – private partnerships
The third millennium begins under the auspices of challenges for technological, economical
and social fields, deciding factors, civil societies. The challenges are legion and their
solutions cannot wait. Labor occupancy and all structures for labor occupancy, division of
labor and the content of activities, the design of technologies and production techniques are
all under tremendous pressure.
Models for occupancy change, as well as mechanisms for management and coordination of
labor, new activities arise demanding new competencies and training, while others vanish.
1
Continuous education becomes thus a sine qua non condition to adapt to the new
technological requirements, career growth and social integration. In the same manner,
continuous education massively contributes to personal growth, learning new competencies
and skills, to the participation in civic activities and to the reproduction at higher standards
of human capital. Ultimately, continuous education should become a political, economical
and social priority, a tool to create the society of knowledge, for the new economic and
social Europe. [1]
The EU strategy regarding the creation of new jobs in the society of knowledge designs the
new map of available jobs accenting computer usage as well as new informational and
communication technologies. The creative potential of Romania in order to approach the
informational society is immense if one considers the excellent skills and competencies
acknowledged in the West. On the other hand, it must also be noted that the education
industry is rather restricted by financial resources available and the incurred costs.
From the perspective of the mobility of labor and the adaptability of human resources, the
educational and training system has a dual character. On one hand, it creates a certain
compartmenting, a structuring of the qualification system, more or less rigid. On the other
hand, the dynamics of the social and economic fields impose a certain flexibility and
mobility to the occupancy structures for labor. The process was slow 50 years ago, but it is
becoming extremely vivacious in this third millennium. Moreover, numerous competencies
regarded as specific not so long ago turn into general educational competencies, whose
stepping stones are set at the level of primary and secondary education. These competencies
refer to linguistic skills, minimal computer skills, a series of behavioral skills, civic
education, community action and so on. All these involve a level of decentralization, of
shifting weight towards local communities, of assuming more responsibilities by local
public authority and companies with respect to education and professional training,
transforming every company, according to arising needs, into a sector of continuous
education. [8]
The correlation between education and labor occupancy.
The economy based on knowledge presupposes the usage of informational technologies and
communication as well as generating new knowledge and transferring these to the
economic activities. In the third millennium, generating new knowledge becomes the vessel
for economic growth, of social and economic cohesion more than ever before. [9]
The accelerated dynamics of growth in occupancy in leading sectors. The experience
of the EU*
In the second half of the last decade of the 20th century, given the economic growth, the
number of jobs available rose rapidly in sectors with high technology, high levels of
education but also in sectors of knowledge intensive services.
According to data from EUROSTAT [15], occupancy in the fields of computers and related
services grew at a rate of 13%, in business sectors a t a rate of 6%, in educational and social
services at a rate of 2.1% during 1995 and 2000. Thus, sectors of high technology become
main factors of economic growth; the net balance for creating these jobs was of 1.5 million,
at an average annual rate of 2.6%; the role of these sectors in the overall growth of jobs
opportunities being rated at 16% for the period of 1995-2000.
*
The EU of 15 member states is taken as reference, since there is not enough data available on the other (10)
new members of the Union.
2
In 2000, approximately 11.7% of the total occupied labor was working in high tech sectors
(a total of 17 million people). There are impressive variations for the member states: 3.9%
in Greece compared to 14.3% ion Germany. Over 1/10th from the occupied labor works in
high tech sectors in countries like Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, France, Ireland,
Italy and the UK.
EUROSTAT defines as high tech sectors the following:
(24) Chemistry and chemical products
(29) Machines and equipment
(30) Production of office machinery and equipment
(31) Electric appliances
(32) Radio, television and communication equipment
(33) Precision medical and optical instruments
(34) Engines and motors for vehicles
(35) Other means of transport
(64) Postal services and telecommunication
(72) Computers and related fields
(73) Research and development
Source: Employment in Europe, 2001. Recent Trends and Prospects, EC, Brussels.
According to the same source [14], in 2000 ¼th of the European labor was occupied in high
education sectors requiring high levels of competencies, with variations in different
countries from 40% in Sweden and 14-16% in Portugal and Greece. In countries like
Holland, the UK and Ireland, approximately 1/10th of the labor is working in high education
sectors. Between 1995 and 2000, the occupancy in these sectors grew with 3.8% average
per year, thus appearing over 1 million jobs. It is to be noted that in Germany, Austria and
Sweden occupancy growth was achieved solely on high education sectors.
EUROSTAT includes in high education sectors the following:
(30) Production of office machinery and equipment
(74) Other business opportunities
(80) Education
(91) Activities of communal organization
(99) Extraterritorial activities
Some sectors, namely 30, 72 and 73, according to the CAEN classification are common
with the high tech sectors. This constitutes a proof of the strong links between leading
technologies and high qualification of labor.
Labor occupancy also has a rapid growth in knowledge intensive services.
Between 1995 and 2000, according to EUROSTAT, there was a growth of 6.8% annual
average for occupied labor, compared to 1.3% in other sectors. Approximately 1.3 million
jobs were created in knowledge intensive services, representing almost 50% of the total
new jobs in the EU. In 2000 over 32 million Europeans were active in knowledge intensive
services, with variations between 45.9% in Sweden and 19.7% in Portugal.
EUROSTAT defines knowledge intensive services as:
(61) Water transportation (river and maritime)
(62)Air transportation
3
(64) Postal services and telecommunication
(65) Financial intermediation, except insurance and retirement funds
(67) Auxiliary activities for financial intermediation
(70) Activities related to real estate
(71) Renting of drone machinery/equipment and staff for husbandry
(80) Education
(85) Health and social care
(92) Leisure, cultural and sports activities
It is to be noted in this case as well, that there is a superposition of the 3 sectors discussed
in services (72) and (73) while (80) education is common to high education sectors and
knowledge intensive services.
The occupational structure of labor in the E.U.
Changes in the division of labor, in the qualification models and occupancy are
accompanied by transformation in the occupation and profession system. While some
professions and jobs disappear, others emerge. In a certain sense, education as system, but
also the categories of qualifications, occupation and profession are in constant renewal.
These changes occur differently as per age groups and occupation groups. [3]
The general trend is to increase the educational and training content for each profession
while raising the level of qualification of labor.
Data from EUROSTAT [16] is conclusive: in 1995 almost 36% of the population aged 1564 had low qualification. Between 1995-2000 the percentage of low qualified labor
decreased with almost 7%, being thus 29% for the age group 15-64. On the other hand,
medium qualified labor, comprised of people who completed their upper secondary
education increased with 5% in the same period.
The majority of highly qualified workers, graduates of secondary and higher education is
placed with the age group of 25-29 years and 30-34 years respectively. Thus, in the EU
27% of the population aged 30-34 had attended higher education, with notable differences
between countries: 40% in Finland, 34.5% in Belgium, 31.8% in Sweden, 33.1 in Denmark,
11.3% in Portugal and 11.6% in Italy.
With few exceptions (Estonia, Lithuania,Cyprus) the percentage of people with higher
education is lower in the new member states for the same age groups if compared to the 15
member states. Romania, as applicant state, rates with only 8.4% in 2000 for this category.
The mobility of highly qualified labor in the EU-15 (the Union’s first 15 members) is also
relatively high. It is to be noted that the mobility of the female working population is higher
than that of male working population. Thus, in 1999, female mobility varied from 5.4% in
Italy to 17.2% in Spain, while for males figures indicated 4.4% in Italy and 12% in Spain.
The conclusion of this scant analysis seems to be that people with high qualification
become more mobile, the labor market offering more opportunities. The information
available for the structure of labor with higher education, on categories of occupancy,
offers a conclusive image for the usage of highly qualified labor. The partition on age
groups underlines the connections between education, age and occupation. It is to be stated
that the analysis uses data from EUROSTAT, where the 10 professional categories from the
4
international classification of professions were grouped into 4 large groups for Europe,
which cover, nonetheless, all qualified jobs per economy. (annex 1).
From the perspective of the occupational structure of workers with higher qualifications, it
is obvious that the age groups of 25-34 is the largest represented in the first group
(professions like higher civil service, managers and liberal professions) which includes the
most qualified workers: 50% for the EU-15, with variations between 84.1% in Luxemburg
and 37.5% in Spain.
The second group, technical staff and assimilated categories have lower representation of
the group aged 25-34: 24.3% in the EU-15, figures varying from 12.1% in Luxemburg to
38.6% in Denmark.
Clerks, workers in services and sales comprise the third category with an average of 16.4%
in the EU-15, figures varying from 8.6% in Denmark to 26.9% in Spain.
The 4th category – skilled crafts, operators and basic professions have 6.2% average in the
EU-15 with variation between 1.8% in Holland and 11.7% in Spain.
The dynamics of occupancy, aspects and structural evolution in Romania. Statistical
indicators
As the active population decreased with 2.6% between 1999 and 2003 in Romania, the ratio
of activity for the population aged 15 and over dropped from 63.4% to 54.8%, more visibly
in the rural environment. This negative evolution is explained by the systematic reduction
of occupancy rates for the working age population. [12] Per genders, the situation is as
follows: the activity rate for the male population decreased from 70.9% in 1999 to 62.5% in
2003, while for the female working population the decrease went from 56.4% to 47.6% for
the same period. The working population of Romania decreased with 1,553,000 people in
the analyzed period. In the structure of working population, males rated at 54.8% while
urban workers had 50.4% in 2003.
The occupancy rate for the population aged 15 and over decreased with 8.1% between
1999-2003, the reduction being larger for the female working population.
The occupancy rate for the working population (age group 15-64) was 57.8% in 2003,
comparable to those of new member states in the EU – 55.8%, but lower than that of the
EU-15 – 62.9%. The level of occupancy for 2003 places Romania at 12.2% distance from
the objective set at Lisbon for 2010: a general occupancy of 70%. [7]
The following are to be noted for the occupancy structure for age groups:
- the age group of 15-24 registers a decrease with 7.8% for the mentioned timeframe,
being at 27.9% of the total working population for 2003, less than the average for
EU-25, of 36.7%, but higher than the figure for new members, 24.3%;
- the age group 25-54 registers a decrease with 5% for 1999-2003, 73.1% in 2003,
higher than new members, at 72.6% but lower than the average for the EU-25,
76.5%;
- the age group 55-64 registers a decreasing tendency of 11.8%. in 2003, the
percentage for this age group was 38.1% superior to the figure for new members,
31.7%, but lower than the average for the EU-25 – 40.2%. The occupancy rate for
this age group places Romania at a distance of 11.9% away from the Lisbon
objective for 2010 – an occupancy rate of 50% for the senior working population.
[7]
The occupancy structure according to levels of education shows an increase for the
population with medium education of 4.1% and 1.9% respectively, for the population with
5
higher education; there was decrease of 6% for the population with low education levels for
the analyzed period.
As per economic sectors, it is noticeable that 29.8% in 2003 represented people working in
industry and construction, an increase compared with 1999 – 27.6%. Comparatively, new
member states had 31.3% while the EU-25 had 25.5%.
In agriculture, the working population dropped from 41.8% in 1999 to 35.7% in 2003, a
much higher level than the average for the new member states – 12.4%, higher still than the
average for the EU-25 – 5.2%.
In services, Romania had 34.5% in 2003. Although the analyzed interval is characterized by
a general growth, Romania is well below the average for new members – 56.3% and the
average for the EU-25, 69.2%.
The sector of self employment (owners, self employed unpaid family workers) represented
37.5% in 2003.
The structure of occupancy for sectors, the large percentage of labor in agriculture represent
the consequences of the slow pace of economic restructuring, but also of the way the
restitution of agricultural property was carried out and of the means of restituting property
rights for land. There was a migration toward rural areas in the early 1990’s as part of a
“survival strategy”. The phenomenon resulted in an oversized occupation in agriculture and
this, in turn, allowed the avoidance of excessive unemployment rates. [3]
The EU strategy for job creation in the informational society, aside reiterating the long term
major objectives of the European Strategy for Occupancy (ESO)by launching e-Europe
type programs, maps out specific jobs for knowledge based economies. Characteristic for
our time is the interconnection between the processes of learning and creation on one hand,
and those of technology and globalization, which reshapes occupational structures,
eliminates regional disparities and changes power balances. The intersecting of these
processes led to the network era and to that of network organizing. Therefore, informational
and communication technologies reshape the traditional occupational map, economically
and socially, enlarging the horizon and creating human abilities to achieve progress in a
decade rather than generations. [5]
In Romania, the market for informational and communication technologies grew in the past
few years. Romania worked hard to achieve compatibility with EU standards in the field.
This is an effect assumed not only for the future integration in EU structures, but also to
create job opportunities in good conditions of performance and pay, for all working in
fields related to informational technologies. Romania wishes to participate in achieving the
Lisbon objectives for 2010, that is to make the EU-27 the most competitive and dynamic
economy of the world. It is considered that Romania has the necessary conditions, tradition
included, to leap forward to new jobs made available by new technologies, through
intelligent actions of public authorities (both local and central), social partners and civil
society in its ensemble. [10]
According to the available data [12], the dynamics of the market for informational
technologies in factories, public administration, nonprofit organizations and households in
2000 is encouraging. Thus, between 1998-2001, the number of IT specialists grew with
6.7%, reaching a total of 57.000 people. The number of PC’s grew 2.6 times and Internet
grew exponentially, in space and services. The number of Internet connected PC’s grew 3.9
times, the total number of Internet users being 340,000 in 2001. Up to the present the
evolution is still positive.
6
The regional distribution of informational and communication technologies displays some
zone characteristics. Thus, given the 6.1% national average, figures vary for regions
between 8.9% in the Bucharest area and 3.2% in the South Western Region.
As for the number of computers and IT specialists, Bucharest has almost 48% of the total
and over 1/3rd of the IT specialists.
Finally, for computers connected to the Internet, the first is the North Eastern Region, with
33.9%, followed by Bucharest, with 31.9% and the South Western Region with 30.8%. The
North Western Region has only 5.7% of companies connected to the Internet, the rest of the
region being well below the national average. [17]
IT indicators from the financial and economic sector in 2001. Itemized on regions*
Region
The percentage of
companies with an
internet
connection out of
the total number
of companies from
the region (%)
6,1
PC
Number
%
of
from
PC
total
Number of IT Professionals
PCs
Number
%
connected
of
from
to internet persons total
(%)
TOTAL
324.685 100,0
28,9
56.597 100,0
COUNTR
Y
North5,7
27.265
8,4
33,9
6.398
11,3
East
South4,2
23.065
7,1
30,8
3.231
5,7
East
South
5,5
25.568
7,9
18,3
4.456
7,9
South3,2
14.631
4,5
20,3
2.766
4,9
West
West
7,6
21.133
6,5
27,1
5.156
9,1
North5,7
29.348
9,0
24,7
6.679
11,8
West
Centre
5,7
29.225
9,0
26,2
7.310
12,9
Bucharest
8,9
154.450
47,6
31,9
20.601
36,4
*Industry and constructions, commerce, services, bank and insurance.
Source: The indicators of the informational society. Statistical information, Series:
Statistics for enterprises, INS, 2002.
Any strategy for the labor force, even in conditions of the integration and of the
globalization of economies, has three facets: a national one (macro-economical), a regional
one (local) and one at the level of the company. For each level there are specific
instruments, but all of them compliant with the mechanisms of the market economy.
The main objective of each strategy – the involvement of all social partners is required in
drafting and setting up a strategy – consists in offering opportunities for exercising the right
to work and the right to freely choose a profession. Briefly, this means - according to the
White Chart document “Growth, Competitiveness, Employment” turning the economic
growth into jobs “a remodeled, rational and simplified system of rules, capable to promote
7
occupancy, without setting the burden of change on those who already have a precarious
situation on the labor market.” [13]
In the context created by globalization and by the extension and penetration of the modern
technologies (information and communication) in all the areas of activity, we think that the
focus of occupancy must be moved to local communities, to the partnership of the social
actors (public authorities, institutions and companies). This is because the local authorities
are capable to involve in elaborating the conceptions and the mentalities of the community
with full knowledge. It is at the local level where strenghts and opportunities are known and
where one can identify areas that allow the creation of jobs, with positive impact on the
long-term development in that community.
The participation of the private sector, meaning small and medium size companies, in
creating new jobs, in this society of information and knowledge, is a necessity which arises
from the following elements: being close to the real needs of the enterprise, opening new
horizons for modularization, individualization and professional training, a more rigorous
way of managing the human resources of the company, development and preservation of
the human resources available in the company. [4]
Furthermore, the public-private partnership can contribute in an effective way to identify
the funding sources necessary for the new jobs which are specific for the economy of
knowledge. The following are to be kept in mind: the national budget, the local budget, but
also foreign or national funds. The co-participation in funding and the common
administration of the funds will grow the responsibility of the partners, but they will also
lead to the initialization and the close monitoring of the development projects in the
communities.
This partnership can lead to the creation, at local levels, of a special fund for supporting
occupancy and to promoting, based on this, some local forms of occupancy, needed in local
communities. [6]
In this context, we find it relevant and useful to briefly describe some initiatives regarding
the creation of modern jobs, initiatives based on the principles of the public-private
partnership and of decentralization.
We are referring to two projects initiated by the Mayor’s Office in Baia Mare, which aim to
create new jobs in the areas of information technologies and communication. Both projects
are concrete examples of setting up occupancy structures which are close to the European
models. [18]
The authorities of the local public administration from Baia Mare (Mayor’s Office) and
Cluj (Mayor’s Office and County Council), the small and medium sized companies from
the two areas and The North University of Baia Mare are involved in the project called
“Regional Network for Incubating and Promoting Businesses”. The projects consists in
developing a network of regional centers for promoting and developing businesses in areas
like Baia Mare and Cluj Napoca, as a regional model of business infrastructure close to
European practice. Another objective is to strengthen the regional business infrastructure in
order to support economic growth by creating a framework, which would be favorable for
local and / or foreign investors, and by creating a business infrastructure and possibilities to
access it.
It is estimated that the project will contribute to development of the entrepreneurial
potential of young persons, but also to re-direct the small and medium sized companies
toward big value-added services, preparing them for the competition from the EU. The
young people will also learn the mechanisms of developing and maintaining the
8
competition level in business and will offer general consultancy services, consultancy
regarding the quality and the know-how.
The suggested objectives include the development of two strategic areas with a potential of
maximizing the new jobs (Baia Mare and Cluj Napoca), providing opportunities for
extending the businesses and for the private foreign investors who want to settle in this
region, by offering support mechanisms for the sustainable development of businesses.
The project called “Computer Time” is initiated by the Baia Mare Mayor’s Office in
cooperation with the North University of Baia Mare and with IT companies. The objective
is to create about 1000 new jobs in the areas of advanced technologies (research-designcomputers). The beneficiaries of the program are the small and medium size companies
focused on research and development. The impact of the program in the local economy will
be visible by a growth in the competitivity of the local and regional industry as well as in
attracting foreign investors in the IT area.
The funding for the program is made from local sources.
The two projects are part of the national strategy for occupancy, as we can find in both
projects both part regarding the creation of new jobs, as well as the part promoting the
entrepreneurial spirit.
Conclusion
From the point of view of building an economy based on knowledge, Romania is in a
special situation. On one hand, according to relevant economic indicators, Romania is in
the group of potential leaders if the equipment and the access to Internet are widely
accessible. This depends on the efforts made from inside regarding intangible investments
and the creation of favorable opportunities for the highly qualified labor force.
On the other hand, compared with the EU members, Romania has a lot to catch up in the
areas of high technology.
Besides the figures, the increase of occupancy in the economy of knowledge is a major
challenge for Romania. The modernization of the occupancy structure and the improvement
of the economic performances should be on the agenda of every partner involved in the
economic development programs, including those at the community level.
9
Annex no.1
Structure on large professional categories for labor with higher education in EU-15 member countries on age groups, 2000
%Highly qualified
Technicians and other
Clerks, service and sales
Skilled crafts, operators
professionals (high civil
professionally assimilated
personnel
in factories, machinery
servants, managers and
categories
and basic professions
liberal professions)
25 – 34
35 – 64
25 – 34
35 – 64
25 – 34
35 – 64
25 – 34
35 – 64
years
years
years
years
years
years
years
years
EU
50,0
62,7
24,3
19,7
16,4
9,4
6,2
5,6
Belgium
56,2
67,9
17,1
13,2
22,0
15,5
2,8
2,0
Denmark
47,4
57,6
38,6
31,9
8,6
6,8
3,0
2,1
Germany
48,5
52,9
26,2
23,1
11,5
9,6
10,5
11,0
Greece
51,0
72,7
20,5
10,2
18,1
8,9
4,3
3,6
Spain
37,5
60,7
19,2
15,2
26,9
12,6
11,7
8,1
France
38,1
56,9
36,5
31,4
18,1
7,4
4,1
2,1
Ireland
47,5
62,4
21,8
19,8
22,0
12,3
7,2
4,6
Italy
50,5
74,7
27,7
14,8
17,0
8,3
3,4
1,2
Luxemburg
84,1
86,0
12,1
10,5
...
...
...
...
Holland
60,2
73,7
22,1
13,2
10,1
6,8
1,8
1,6
Austria
61,9
65,9
16,7
12,9
9,5
7,6
8,5
10,0
Portugal
67,0
76,2
20,6
22,5
10,8
4,6
...
...
Finland
56,1
64,3
18,9
18,5
16,2
11,8
4,1
2,3
Sweden
46,0
54,9
37,1
31,9
10,9
7,8
4,1
3,4
UK
65,0
73,3
13,8
11,3
14,5
9,8
4,5
3,9
Note: the international standard classification of occupation (ISCO), introduced by the International Labor Organization is cited by
Eurostat. The ten professional categroies in ISCO were grouped by Eurostat in the present chart in four large groups.
Source: Eurostat, Labour force survey.
10
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dobrescu, Bogdan – Policies for jobs occupancy, in the magazine „Labor reports”
no. 6/June 1999;
2. Machlup, F. – Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution and Economic Significance,
vol. 3: The Economics of Information and Human Capital, Princeton University
Press, 1984;
3. Pavelescu, Florin – New approaches of the occupancy structure, in the magazine
„Labor reports” no. 3/March 2000;
4. Perţ, Steliana – Job occupancy from the perspective of complying with the
coordinates from the European Occupancy Strategy (EOS), in „Economic
Problems”, CIDE, Bucureşti, 2002;
5. Perţ, Steliana – the European dimension of the professional training, in the
magazine „Labor reports” no. 10/October 1997;
6. Perţ, Steliana – Job Occupancy, in the magazine „Labor reports” no. 9/September
2000;
7. Perţ, Steliana – International society – a society of knowledge. Educating and
training labor force. In the collection „Biblioteca economică” (Economic Library),
series „Economic studies and researches”, vol. 17 – 18, CIDE, Bucureşti, 2004;
8. Popescu, Constantin – The growth that impoverishes, Tribuna Economică
Publishing House, Bucureşti, 2003;
9. Preda, Diana – Job occupancy and sustainable development, Ed. Economică
Publishing House, Bucureşti, 2002;
10. Răboacă, Gheorghe – Labour market and sustainable development, Tribuna
Economică Publishing House, Bucureşti, 2003;
11. van der Laan, Lambert – Setting the Stage. General Changes on the European
Labour Market, în „Institutions and Regional Labour Markets in Euprope”, Ashgate
Publishing Ltd., Aldershot, England, 1998;
12. The Romanian Statistical Yearbook – C.N.S., 2000 – 2002;
13. XXX – O.E.C.D. – Growth, Competitiveness, Employment. The Challenges and
Ways Forward into the 21st Century, White Paper, Luxemburg, 1994;
14. XXX – Employment in Europe, 2001. Recent Trends and Prospects, EC, Brussels;
15. XXX - EUROSTAT – Labour Force Survey;
16. XXX – EUROSTAT - Statistics in Focus: Population and Social Conditions, 1997.
Beyond the Predictable: Demographic Changes in the E.U. up to 2050;
17. XXX – The Indicators of the Informational Society. Statistical Information, Series:
Statistics for Enterprises, INS, 2002;
18. www.baiamarecity.ro.
11
THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COHESIONFROM DESIDERATUM TO REALITY
Professor,
CARMEN CORDUNEANU
Summary
The first extention and the economic depressions from The 70’s brought in present
the problem to elaborate some regional policies concomitantly with the financial
instruments reform which must ensure the implementation of those policies in practice.
The importance which is granted to the guarantee of the economic and social
cohesion it’s given by the fact that the less developed regions represent a risk in the
condition of the free circulation as part of European united market.
The cost which Roamnia will pay in the moment of the integration is determinated
by the risk of the lack of the application of some policies made to improve the economic
and social cohesion.
Regional and structural problems with which we confront will continue even after
the adheration.
If we expect only measures adopted at Bruxelles, then for all Romanian society the
cost of integration will be difficult to support.
In the speech of the Romanian political market the European desiteratum of
economical and social cohesion is almost absent.That’s why we mustn’t be surprised by the
lack of an own policy,of financial strategies and instruments able to to assure the
accomplishing of this desideratum. While the countries from the Western Europe got aware
of the fact that the elimination of the gaps between the regions depend on the common
effort and on every effort, the last states that joined and those to join prefer to capitalize on
the programms developed by the European Union.The lack of some complementary ,
national programms backed financially and the vicious management of the European funds
for pre-adherence explain the lack of progress and anticipate a grey horizon.
Aware of the importance and the effects of the balanced development of all the
component comunities in the functioning of a unique market,stable and ample and also on
its expansion, the founder states(France, Germany,Italy, Belgium, Holland,Luxemburg)
have anticipated initially the objective of economical and social cohesion in the treaty from
Rome. As each expansion brought new problems for all the member states and has
introduced region irregularities in the Union, the basic treaaty was provided with three
action directions:
• leading and coordination of the national economical policy of the member state to
strengthen the social and economical cohesion;
1
• the accomplishment of a unique internal market together with the working out and
the implementation of the region policy in order to strengthen the social and
economical cohesion by means of the structural funds of the European Bank of
investment and other existing financial instruments;
• the embracement of some specific actions which do not influence the measures
decided by the Council in other strategies of the Community at the suggestion of the
Comission and after asking the Parlament,the economical and social board and the
committee of the regions.
The temporal gap between establishing the action direction and the
implementation of a social and economical cohesion policy at the national level ,
emphasized by the inertia of the political market from Romania, is at the basis of the lack of
an evident progress in the direction of the attenuation of the economical and social gaps.
After so many years of transition and reorganization without efficiency to put the actual
economical and social distortion due to the forty years of centralized economy means no
courage to acknowledge our own mistakes.
The lack of a political will , the fear of the political market to lose its advantages if
it promotes a fast transition ,but also the fear not to have time to accumulate by corruption
as much as possible of the national heritage made the inherited gaps to get accentuated
instead of reducing them in some of the activity sectors , among social regions and
categories.Aditionally we are waiting just to capitalize on the European funds which we
don’t use commonly efficiently.
The evolution on the political field, the process in the economical and
demographical field determined the general crash of the economical and social cohesion,
determining the appearance of no trust in the capacity of the politics to manage correctly
and efficiently the accumulated tensions in the Romanian society. It requires to get our
attention to the effects produced by the economical,political and social reorganization for
the cohesion desiderata, unanimously acknowledged as being necessary.
The economical reorganisation put forward the amendament of the unbalance
between the offer based mainly on the production of investment goods and the solvable
request accumulated in time.This was achieved according to the own objectives and
priorities of each government.
Although the researchers and the specialists in economy have elaborated a
strategy to make the market economy in Romania, this was not applied.Additionally the
structural changes generated by the economical financial globalization produced effects on
all the states of the world , including the Romanian economy.
The lack of a coherent strategy, permanently applied in time,close related to the
global changes generated unwanted polarization which lead to the existence of :
P
zones with an economical regeneration potential represented by urban centers
where the activities are diversified and which need the implementation of os some
technological innovation programms;
2
P
zones where there is not the hope of an economical regeneration of the existing
structures, represented by the new urban centers created around some companies;
P
poverty zones made by the rural parts and also the urban ones with a falling
industry.
In the same time there have been changes on the labour market and the effects are
felt in the distribution of the incomes, the level of consumption and saving at the level of
the toftman sector:
P
a reduced population of qualified employed , well payed ,sure on establishing the
jobs;
a great mass of qualified employed , well payed , sure on the stability of the jobs;
P
a great mass of qualified employed but also not qualified ,badly payed, not sure
about the continuity of the jobs;
P
an encreasing number of young specialists next to others close to the pension who
get with dificulty jobs on the labour market;
P
an encreasing number of persons without training or inadequately training due to the
lack of some efficient government programms which assure the acces to the training of the
not favourized social categories.
The variability and unpredictability of the labour oportunities and the income
flux made that the insecurity got in focus.Accordingly to the lack of a coherent strategy of
reorganization thought in the context of the new regional and global evolution the social
insecurity appears through reduced labour costs (small wages), a reduced demand for
traditional crafts , the encrease of temporary jobs, the encrease of the working hours to
assure the current needs in a reduced manner for those with perspective , not correct
dismissals, the consolidation of unemployment on a medium and long period collateral with
the emigration of the active labour force.
The political reorganization brought the infliction of the market economy
principle,the reduction of the states part in the economy simultaneously with the emphasis
of the individual’s importance and his responsability in the political,economical,social
sphere.The privatisation of the national industry and of some public services was done
collateral with the appearance of the union organizations (which have a only a part of the
employed labour force) and the regulation of some sectors (especially of the financial
services), the compulsoriness in selecting the contracts through a public auction, the
austerity of the public ex apartenenţa penses and the tax overgrowth of the economy.
These are only some aspects brought by the political reorganization which lead to
new distortions in all the fields of the economical and social life.The social groups
economically disadvantaged and those spacially isolated became in the same time offcast
from the political life and slightly elective workable.In the same time an inflow of
immmigrants was produced which determined a cultural pluralist composition and
supplementary costs to manage this new phenomenon.
The fragmentation of the identities based on the affiliation to some social groups
as the old ones, the young ones ,skilled workers , half skilled workers , not skilled workers
,highly specialists , public employees , managerial structures, have determined a
3
polarization on the economical and social field of the Romanian society and brakings in the
social cohesion plan.
At the same time appeared a new pluralism at the level of some minority groups
under the ethnic,religious and sezual orientation aspect which wants to identify its interests
, to make them known and to defent them by promoting a politic of identity and
acknowledgement. One can affirm that the distinct interests and the appeared identities are
not preoccupied with the existence of a solidarity and global cohesion at the level of the
whole society.The balanced and durable development of the economical activity ,the
protection of the environment ,the stimulation of the competition, the usage of the available
human capital, the elimination of the social inequality need the reducing of the unbalance
between the development level of the different regions and areas and the elimination of the
under-privileged regions, the developing of the rural areas by means of sustaining financial
programms and instruments .As for the importance of the elaboration and application of a
coherent strategy at the level of the regions and of the national level there is needed the
promotion of a privat-public partnership to implement the programms.In the same time
there is to be assured a transfer of the competence to manage the programms at the
regional level to be more efficient used of the attached resources.
In order to assure the public financial resources there is necessary a special fund
for the economical and social cohesion fueld with some quotas form the actual taxes and
the taking over of the total fiscal income made by eco-taxes. We consider that the transfer
of the competences to get public incomes at the region level wouldn’t assure the necessary
income due to the fact that the regions that should benefit of these programms can not give
enough financial resources to support the given programms.
In the spirit of the cohesion the whole Romanian society must make an effort to
eliminate the inequalities, as otherwise the mechanism of the competitional market can not
fulfill its part at the level of the national market. To attract the private capital for
productive investments where the profitableness is inferior to other areas there can be
accepted some financial easyness according to a minimum limit , a minimum number of
new jobs created permanently for a given period , the technological innovation grade and
the loss of rentability aginst the national average.
Regarding new public expenses from the special economical and social cohesion
fund this has to be made with programms that corresponds to some objectives legaly well
established , compatible with the goals established at the level of the Eorpean Union.The
compatibility is needed so that the pre-adherence funds (from the Phare programm, the
special programm for adherence for agriculture and rural development SAPARD and the
structural instrument of pre-adherence ISPA) should complete the public nad internal
private funds also to solve the problems according to the European Union standards.
Due to the presented importance to protect the environment and the consumers ,
the incomes from the eco-taxes must lead only to finance the porjects or the parts to offer
ecological goods and for the recycling of the environment to its natural condition.To
support the programms with the best results , 5%from the national special fund should be
kept as a reserve at the beginning of each year.
4
The objectives of the national strategy for the economical and social cohesion and
the programms needed to be financed with the public-private internal partnership and
fulfilled with the extrnal financing are:
P
The developing and structural adjustment of the regions less developped which can
be economically renewed by means of target programms:
§ stimulating the investments in the economical activities with an innovating
character to use the natural resources specific to the area and to absorb the available
labour force;
§ to stimulate move the economical activities from the great urban centers;
§ to assure the basic infrastructure that’s missing in those areas and to regenerate and
complete the bad existing infrastructure in other areas;
P
The economical and social conversion with the destined programms of the areas
where there is no hope of the economical regeneration of the poor areas :
§ a durable development of the areas left behind and the help of the agricultural and
animal farms to adjust to the agricultural structures, to increase the eficiency and the
production structures, the processing and saleing of the agricultural goods with a high
grade of manufacturing;
§ the integrated development , the expoitation, the industrial process and
commercialization of the areas dependent on fishing and those that can be used for
aqua- culture;
§ the ecological exploitation of the forest areas in the integrated system: exploitation,
primary working aut, industrialization and commercialization;
§ turistic capitalization of the mountain areas, the Danube Delta, the Sub-Carpathians
together with the rearanging of the labour force and its trening to offer quality
service;
§ the economical re-aranging of the urban areas with industrial sectors that are going
down and those where the industrial sectors are to be reorganized;
§ new social-economical investments to offer goods and economical services;
§ stimulating the moving of some economical activities from the urban areas to the
next rural ones;
§ to assure transport networks and utilities to support the economical activities.
P
The adjustment of the education systems and structures, trening and emplying the
labour force in order to be integrated on the labour market:
§ the training of the unemployed and of the not active persons during the entire life in
a system corelated to the foreseen needs af the labour market in order to speed up the
chances to get employed and to reduce unemployement;
§ to assure some equal chances for the women and men, the physically or mentally
handicaped persons on the labour market together with the elimination of
discrimination and unequalities caused by age, ethnical origin and sexual orientation;
§ the introduction of active measurements of a fiscal nature to absorb the
unemployement among the young ones and the persons over 45 years;
§ the flexibility of the circulation of the labour force to relief the areas left behind in
reorganizing or recycling and to respond to the demands from other areas;
5
P
To modernize the transport network, to cooperate beyond the borders , to protect
the environment and the consumer by means of destined measures:
§ connecting the national transport networks, by air, by train to the trans-European
networks;
§ the exchange of experience between the area with similar economical activities;
§ to stimulate the appearance of some common economical activities in the areas next
to the borders with the neighbour states by means of common teritorial developing
strategies;
§ the protection of the environment and the preservation of nature with eco taxes to
finance the programms for regenerating the environment;
§ improving the quality of the goods and the local services offered to the population.
The establishing of public funds and national private ones together with the financial
resources from the pre-adherence funds lead to the completing and establishing the
priorities for each programm by the Committee for the economical and social cohesion ,
committee made by agents and representatives for the regional development, public local
authorities and from the Finance Ministry.
In the first phase thsese must assure the diagnosis of the existing situations at the
level of each region , the identification of the most critical economical areas and of the
social groups that are disadvantaged, the identification of the developing potential of the
areas and the conversion of the targeted social groups.For this target there will be followed
the level of the investments and their nature, the unemployment rate compared to the
national level and to the optimal admitted level, the lack of the services for the business
environment and for the population, the polution level, the physical waste of the existing
infrastructure and the areas where it is reduced or non existent.
After the diagnosis phase must come the programming phase where the
programms are established for each region, the corelation to the national level in the frame
of some plans for several years and developed at the level of the current year.At the level of
each region the programms must be analitical developed for each area in order to improve
the specific local problems.
In the next phase the programms will be launched by a public offer and will be
done the selection of the projects on the efficiency criteria.There will be done also the
detailed documentation , the approving of the projects and the assignation of the
resources.To avoid any subjectivism and the pursuance of some personal or group interests
the selection of the porjects must pursue the fulfillment of some criteria as:
§ the transparency of the selection process;
§ the concordance with the national programms and objectives;
§ how they correspond to the established needs in more national programms;
§ how they contrubute to the achievement of some actions forseen in other
programms;
§ to keep the competition principle;
§ to have a positiv impact on the environment and on the quality of the goods and
services offered when it is the case or to assure the reduction of the negative effects;
6
§ to have a suplimentary character and not a substitute for the activities and the
nexisting national expenses;
§ to be exactly identified and real the beneficiary areas and social groups;
§ to be achieved in the admitted time limit;
§ the goals must be detailed, workable and verifiable;
§ to have monetary and social results;
§ to assure the obtaining of the best values or the best results on the economical and
social field for the obtained financial resources.
In any way if the applicants who suggest projects are local public
authorities , other public organizations, non-governamental organizations or belong to the
private sector they must give detailed infos on how the project is done, to justify the info
with consulting reports, business plans or similar bookkeeping documents to show the
financial situation.The complete description of the project must have a complete evaluation
of the total necessary costs for their achievement and the eventual identified private
financing resources.
As the resources are limited ,after a preliminary selection of the best projects
offered for the making of the programms there must be done a detailed evaluation of the
info from the presented documentation and a final selection. It’s important that the reasons
for the approving or rejecting of the analysed projects are clear and precise by means of
standard statements.When they are approved one can proceed to the correlation of some
projects to respond better to fulfill the planned programms. Regarding the attributed public
resources they must be given as the expenses are honoured by the owner of the projects. If
for the making of the project is responsible a private company which is the owner of the
project or if the project starts to generate substantial profit the public payments will get a
proportional reduction.
This flexibilization will lead to minimum and maximum financing levels from the
public resources in the moment of closing the contract with the owner of the project.In the
same time there must be forseen the finacing backing if while executing the project are
established unfulfilled objectives.
We consider that the management of the implementation of the projects must be
descentralized at the regional level and the monitoring of the working aut of the financed
projects must be done by the regional developing agencies. They have to establish the
intermediate evaluation of the execution stage of the projects, the resources, some financial
audit to certify their usage in the best possible way of the resources and the economical and
social cohesion committee must be informed of the results.
The last phase represented by the usage of the resources must be of the
representatives of the public financial authorities at the local level. The checking is of the
structural analyses of the made costs according to their nature and the refund of the not
used amounts.According to the nature of the projects the costs of the capital can cover:
§ territorial investigation;
§ the deblocking and preparing of the amounts for the next economical and social
objectives;
7
§ the buying of grounds and the legal taxes and commision;
§ the building of economical and social objectives and their equipment;
§ the free access to the bought grounds and buildings;
§ the buiying of some cosntructions, their equipment, the legal taxes and commission;
§ the arrangement of the scenery.
The current costs for the administration of the projects resulted from offering
services can cover:
§ the wages for the employed;
§ the rent for the hired headquarters;
§ the leasing for the buildings necessary for the project;
§ payments for electricity and water, channal, keeping clean, heating;
§ payments for bookkeeping services.
Practically in the moment of the planing of some programms and later the whole
way of selecting the workable projects, the aproving, financing, watching the execution and
the checking of the usage of the resources, the risk of detoruning the funds must be avoided
and also must be avoided not to fulfill the objectives.So the established resources must
assure the expected performance.
The cohesion objectives must be established at the national level to eliminate the
polarization between regions or in their interior.The programm suggestions and the projects
must come form the local and regional level. The discentralization of the responsability in
managing the projects doesn’t contradict the reduced power of the resources at the regional
level. The cohesion itself gives a common effort to eliminate the unequalities which are
more or less localy for the advantage of the whole society.
8
PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP AND CONCESSION, MEANS FOR
URBAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
postgraduate Ioan Cozma
The Ministry of Administration and Internal Affairs
I. General consideration regarding the economic development and the functions of a
city
The economic recess, the changing shape of the problem of economic development
due to the tendency of globalization and regional issuing, the process of globalizing industrial
units, the development of various ways for communication, all these generated an increasing
concern in the economic development of a city.
Also, the urban economic development is submitted to the principles of local
autonomy and territorial decentralization, to the principle of decongesting the public local
logistics and the European principles of regional development.
The urban economic development is in close connection with a series of other
principles, like the local development, the lasting development of cities, city planning,
institutional development.
After the year 1989, a new strategy of urban development was adopted, a strategy
which regarded the social urban appearance and the aspect of urban economic development.
The cities – important spaces for people and social and economic activities - are the
main beneficiaries of projects which involve a public-private management, concerned with their
economic development, in accordance with the specific nature and the function of the city.
The function of the city is the prevalent profession present in the city, as it appears at
the exterior. For example, cars are produced in Detroit, Oxford and Uppsala are famous for their
universities, and Berlin is a capital etc.
The urban function, a product of economic specialization, is mainly the activity
which justifies the existence and the development of the city. This activity provides the
necessary resources for life, and many of these resources derive from the region which
surrounds the city1. In consequence, there are military and industrial functions, cultural
functions and functions generated by temporary residentship (retirement, bathing resorts and
hospitals).
The city which came into being or which developed in order to provide an
established function, is placed on the most appropriate site, where it can satisfy that function.
The placing of the city is based on three important criteria:
- placing it on a site (the spatial coordinate);
- the lasting principle (the temporal coordinate);
- the economic feature (the economic coordinate).
The urban economy employs three types of analysis:
- the analysis of economic activity;
- the analysis of economic administration of the city;
1
Garnier B.J and Chabot G., Urban Geography , Ed. Ştiinţifică Bucharest, 1971, page 111;
1
-
the analysis of the interurban and interspatial economic connections2.
City planning is a process of intensive and extensive development of cities, and a
very rapid process of growth of the number of cities and of the number of people living in cities.
All these are based on the economic and social development, and also on the political evolution
of the country (the development of production departments, the diversification of services and
the desire to increase their quality, the development of infrastructures etc.). Lately, the tendency
in Romania was to adopt some politics of city planning characterized by the transformation of
some cities into metropolis and the introduction of city-manager institution. New cities
appeared in the entire country, so the rate of urbanization in Romania is continuously
increasing.
The optimum performance of the economy in a city depends on the relation between
the role of the Government and of the central administration and the role of the local
administration. This relation is responsible for the harmonization of the national concerns with
the local ones.
The principle of subsidiarity restricts the intervention of the government in the
activity of the local authorities, allowing the setting up of a normative background for
partnership and strategy for local development.
The social and economic development of a city involved in a project or a program is
based on the internal resources, on the initiative and on the activity which takes place locally.
In order to stimulate the local resources, there is the need for a new form of
partnership meant to develop and to manage the local public services in a city. The authorities
of the public administration have the right to entrust the management of a public service to a
public or private entity.
There are a lot of means to manage a service or a public activity, whether it is done
by a public entity (the state, institutions, local communities), or by a private entiy (a person or a
legal entity).
The private entity can manage a public service in various ways:
- in francising system;
- on the basis of a booking contract;
- association with profit sharing;
- through delegation;
- concession;
- through public-private partnership.
The local partnership is characterized through the relation of association which is
established between the two parts of the urban development (the public and the private entity).
They both have their contribution, they both assume some risks and also take part in solving
problems of local interest.
Considering the specific nature of every city and the preponderance of a certain type
of public problem, those can be:
- problems of infrastructure;
- strategic problems of the system;
- socio-demographic problems3.
2
Patriche D. and others, Commercial City Planning, Ed. Uranus, Bucharest, 2002, page 12;
Pandele L.and Dăneţ A., Public-Private Management of Human Conglomerates, Ed.Economică,
Bucharest, 2003, page 46;
3
2
These problems are the concern of the public-private management and can be solved
through various instruments, one of them being the public-private partnership.
II. The definition of the public-private partnership; the reasons and the objectives of
the urban entities which get involved in a public-private partnership
In a city, the public administration and the private entities maintain their traditional
roles with respect at the projects of investments. The public-private partnerships appeared in the
80’s in the English-Saxon countries, but also in Japan, South Koreea and Taiwan, being
considered an important instrument in the urban projects, which appeal both to the public and
private sectors.
The public-private partnership was defined in different ways. Some definitions
emphasize the notion of cooperation between the public entity and the private entity, in order to
obtain a mutual profit (Holland, 1984); other definitions stress the idea of a coalition of interests
which is prepared and takes action based on a strategy (Bailey, 1994). As a conclusion of all the
definitions, there is a synthesis between the public entity and the private resources, both of them
being conscious of the risks they take.
The shapes of public-private partnership depend on the reasons and on the objectives
of the entities involved. There are a lot of combinations of public-private partnership which can
extend from a cooperation with no official connection to a mixed society with risks and profits,
which are shared by both parts.
McQuaid, 1994, makes a distinction between partnerships considering the criteria
used by the partners when they establish the partnership:
- the same interest;
- the complementary nature of the partners’ roles;
- sharing the investment, the profit and the risks;
- mutual financing.
The most inportant is the mutual profit, because the work of any of the partners can
improve the achievements of the others, in order to solve some social-economic problems of a
city4.
Some of the mutual objectives of the two partners are:
- obtaining profit, a good reputation and image for both partners;
- improving the quality of public urban services;
- sharing risks, obtaining some pecuniary advantages with direct influence on the budget of
the public entity and on the profit of the private entity.
III. The elements which are essential for the public-private partnership
The elements which influence the initiation of the public-private partnership are of
economic or social nature etc., and they can have a direct or indirect influence.
Some of these elements (some are identified with the elements of city planning) are:
- the strong economic development which is the result of the growth of population and
of the territorial expansion of cities;
4
Profiroiu A. and others, Local Economic Development, Ed.Economică, Bucharest, 1999, page 44;
3
-
the development of infrastructures and the administration of the public services by
the public entity;
- the presence of economic policies which are meant to improve the quality of life in
the city, to make it more modern;
- the tendencies of the public entities to delegate the administration of the activities
and public services to some private entities;
- the public entities do not have the necessary logistics to finalize projects of public
urban interest;
- the advantages that both partners have and the fact that they share the risks of the
projects;
- the experience in administration both partners get in the public-private partnership;
- the physical-geographical conditions, the characteristics of the forms of relief, the
quantity of technical instruments;
- the elements which are under the constrains of the local budget5.
In order to point out the characteristics of the public-private partnership, regardless of its
concrete form, one has to consider the following elements:
- the complex management of the way in which a public-private partnership should be
considered;
- the dynamics and the urban legislative authority;
- the policy, the procedures and the experience of the urban authority in the domain of
the public-private partnership;
- the urban strategy, problems of communication, the choice of the private partner made by the local authority;
- the evaluation, the supervision and the inspection of the project.
IV. The Romanian legislation in the domain of public-private partnership and of
concession. Differences between the public-private partnership and the concession.
Both the public-private partnership and the concession are methods applied in the
administration (delegate administration) of public local services (the urban ones) and in the
exploitation of the goods of the public and private domains. The notion of administration of
public services can be found in the bill no.215/2001, regarding the public local administration,
and and also in the European Charter of local autonomy.
The institution of concession appeared very early, from the historical point of view,
and it was settled earlier than the public-private partnership, in the bill no.219/1998.
This bill defines concession in the article 1, paragraph 2, as being that contract
"through which a person, named concedent, transfers the right and the obligation to exploit
some goods, some activity or some public service, on a determined period of the time, to a
person named concessionaire, who takes the risks".
From the point of view of the object, the concession can be:
- the concession of goods which are of public property or of private property of the
state, county, city or village;
- the concession of public services and activities of national and local interest.
5
Cândea M. and Bran F., The Romanian Geographical Space, Ed. Economică, Bucharest, 2001, page 359;
4
The concession is a good way to bring money to the budget, because the money paid
by the concessionaire go to the local budget or to the budget of the state. The concession is
important for the urban development through the sums of money which are paid to the budget
and which can be directed then for some projects of urban development. And it is also important
for the results the concessionaire obtains from the judicious exploitation of territorial goods or
of public services.
A contract of concession which has no object (goods or public services) is null and
void. So, if there are no goods involved in the contract, there is no concession. On the contrary,
the goal of a public-private partnership is to accomplish some goods of public interest which
can be exploited by the investor in order to pay off his investment. No contract of concession
can be employed if there is a need to create a new public service or to reorganize completely
some public service, because there will be no goods to lease. That is why it appeared the
necessity to pass the government bill no.16/2002, completed by the bill no.470/2002 with
further details and modifications. This bill settled the institution of public-private partnership,
also named project contract. The methodological standards were established in 2002, according
to this bill. The standards define the types of public-private partnership:
- designing-building-operation (DBO);
- building-operation–renovation (BOR);
- building-operation-transfer (BOT);
- leasing–development–operation (LDO);
- rehabilitation–operation–transfer (ROT);
It is really difficult to identify some differences because in the bill of concessions
there are some stipulations which are typical for the public-private partnership. Still, some of
them can be revealed:
- the fact that goods must be involved in a contract of concession;
- the way the public authority gets involved; in case of concession, both entities involved in
the contract have different interests: the concedent is interested to offer a public service with
low costs for him, while the concessionaire is interested in obtaining profit from the exploitation
of the concession. In the case of a public-private partnership the public authority participates
directly in the activity related to the project, assuming risks and advantages;
- the goal: in a concession, the goal of the public authority is to avoid the costs of
maintenance of a service or public activity, and at the same time to make sure that there will be
some incomes, and all these due to the fact that the public authority transfers the risks to the
concessionaire. The goal of the public-private partnership is to create goods which are of public
property, by using the financial resources and the know-how of the investor. At the same time,
the public authority is no longer interested in obtaining income from the concession, its interest
is to enlarge the patrimony, which is not subject of budget expenses and it can be made in
exchange of the exploitation right6.
- the procedure of concession needs less transparency for the private investor than in the
case of the public-private partnership, which is analyzed under the aspect of reputation,
economic-financial profit or other guarantees.
6
Rizoiu A., Considerations on the legal system of the products used in the process of employment of the
goods of the state, Pandectele Române Magazine no.5/2003, Ed. Rosetti, Bucharest, page 175.
5
V. Types of goods property which are involved in public-private partnerships and
concessions. Their juridical system.
Goods of the concession are considered all the goods used in the process of
concession by both entities, so there are many categories of goods with different juridical
systems. These goods can be of public property, belonging to the public domain of the
concedent, and goods of private property, which belong to the private domain of the concedent
or to the patrimony of the concedent.
But the classification of the goods into goods of public property and goods of private
property does not take into consideration the fact that the goods of the concession do not belong
only to the concedent but also to the concessionaire. So, the juridical system of concessions
stipulated the fact that there are three distinct categories of goods, without specifying if they are
of public or private property: goods to be returned, goods to be taken over or own goods.
The goods of the public-private partnership. The juridical system of the publicprivate partnership stipulates the designing, the financing, the exploitation, the maintenance and
the transfer of any public goods on the grounds of a public-private partnership. The bill also
stipulates the fact that the public goods belong to the public domain of the state, to the territorial
department, or it is a private good of a state.
Then, the bill refers to the public-private project, a project which is integrally or
partially carried out with own financial resources or with some investor’s financial resources, on
the grounds of a public-private partnership, from which public goods will emerge.
Different from concession, in the case of public-private partnership the right of the
investor appears only when the public good is finalized. And the right of property of the public
authority appears in the moment the goods are in exploitation, and not in the moment the
contract of public-private partnership ceases.
Other characteristics of the public-private partnership, related to the duration, the
publicity, the procedure of choosing the investor, the negociation, are stipulated by the bill we
already mentioned.
So, the juridical and institutional background related to public-private partnership
and concession was created in Romania, and this fact had as consequence a greater involvement
of the public authorities in urban development and in improving the public local services and
infrastructures. All these, in order to improve the quality life in cities. Also, these institutions
brought changes in the organization and in the vision on business opportunities the entities
involved in urban development have.
6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Cândea M., Bran F., The Romanian Geographical Space, Ed. Economică,
Bucharest, 2001;
2.Garnier B.J., Chabot G., Urban Geography, Ed. Ştiinţifică, Bucharest, 1971;
3.Matei L., Public Management, Ed. Economică, Bucharest, 2001;
4.Matei L., Strategies for Local Economic Development, Ed. Politeia-SNSPA,
Bucharest, 2004;
5.Pandele L., Dăneţ A., Public-Private Management of Human Conglomerates, Ed.
Economică, Bucharest, 2003;
6.Parlagi P.A., Iftimoaie C., Local Public Services, Ed. Economică, Bucharest, 2001;
7.Patriche D., Ristea L.A., Patriche L., Commercial City Planning, Ed. Uranus,
Bucharest, 2002;
8.Profiroiu A., Racoviceanu S., Ţarălungă N., Local Economic Development, Ed.
Economică, Bucharest, 1999;
9.Pandectele române Magazine, no.5/2003, Ed. Rosetti, Bucharest, 2003.
7
COMPETITIVENESS AND INNOVATION IN THE SMES SECTOR
Ph.D.Prof. Zizi GOSCHIN
Small and medium-sized enterprises -SMEs- are at the heart of the strategy
launched by the European Council in Lisbon in 2000, with the objective of the EU
becoming the most competitive and dynamic, knowledge-based economy in the world. In
the same year was adopted the European Charter for Small Enterprises, witch called upon
the Member States and the European Commission to take action to support and
encourage small enterprises.
SMEs competitiveness is strongly linked to its position in innovation,
entrepreneurship and the diffusion of ICT. A series of scoreboard indicators have been
launched to provide policy makers with relevant information to measure the performance
of each country as regards innovation, entrepreneurship, the use of technology and
competitiveness. The scoreboard measures innovation performance through a set of 17
indicators that cover four areas: human resources, knowledge creation, transmission and
application of new knowledge, innovation output.
The Community Innovation Survey provides information on innovation activity in
the EU. The survey defines innovators as enterprises that produced technologically new or
improved products, processes or services during the reference period. According to the
Community Innovation Survey there were just over 200000 enterprises with innovation
activity in the EU during the period 1998 to 2000, some 44% of the total survey.
The propensity to innovate was higher in the EU’s industrial sector (47% of
enterprises) that was in the services sector (40%). This relationship was reproduced across
three different classes of enterprises -small, medium-sized and large- in figure 1.
Small (20-49)
Medium-sized (50-249)
Industry
Large (250 +)
Services
Fig.1 Enterprises with innovation activity in the EU, by size class and by
sector, 1998-2000 (% of all enterprises)
The innovation intensity is defined as the ratio of innovation expenditure to
turnover. It includes all spending related to scientific, technological and commercial steps
that lead to the implementation of new or improved goods or processes. On average this
indicator represents 3.5% in the manufacturing sector and 2.8% in the service sector in EU.
1
Considering only enterprises that innovate, the small enterprises in the
manufacturing sector reported a higher rate of innovation intensity (5.1%) than large
enterprises (4.7%).
The proportion of innovative enterprises that are engaged in R&D cooperation (industry clusters, partnership, and centers of excellence) is higher in large
enterprises: 61% in industry and 47% in services in 2000.
Flash Eurobarometer survey on innovation was conducted in 2001 in order to
provide indication of innovation trends, concentrating in particular on factors that stimulate
or prevent innovation.
In EU 36% of large enterprises generated more than 10% of their turnover from
new innovations, compared to an average of 33% for SMEs. According to this survey,
market share and profitability were the most important drivers of innovation activity,
especially for large enterprises.
Labour Indicators
Apparent labour productivity, or value added per person employed can be used
as an indicator for an industry’s or a country’s competitiveness. Large enterprises report
higher apparent labour productivity than SMEs in the manufacturing sector. In other
sectors, such as business services, smaller enterprises have equal or higher productivity
than the large ones.
Combining the apparent labour productivity and the average personnel costs per
employee the resultant ratio is the wage adjusted labour productivity. It is a more
comparable indicator as it takes account of the differences of personnel costs, particularly
important in service sectors because of the high number of the self-employed and family
workers. Even when the relatively high average personnel costs paid by large enterprises
are taken into account, large enterprises tend to remain more productive.
Another way of studying the relationship between labour and other inputs is to
calculate a ratio of personnel costs relative to total purchases of goods and services.
In the manufacturing sector this ratio averages around 25% in the EU, large enterprises
usually reporting the lowest ratios.
Financial Indicators
Statistics suggest that the financial profitability of SMEs was similar to that of large
enterprises in the manufacturing sector, but was less volatile (figure 2).
2
SMEs
Large enterprises
Fig.2. Financial profitability in the EU in the manufacturing sector
European Commission-Directorate-General Economic and Financial Affairs, BACH data base
As financial markets became increasingly important from the mid-90s onwards,
the equity ratio of large enterprises grew at a rapid pace, while for the smaller enterprises
it remained fairly stable, even during the period of rapid expansion of economic activity.
In Romania, as in the UE countries, the overwhelming majority of enterprises are
SMEs, some 99.3% of the total in the year 2002.
Number of enterprises and number of persons employed, by sector and size in 2001
Table 1
UE 15
Acceding
countries
Romania
2476463
100,0
93,4
5,2
1,2
0,3
300310
Number of enterprises in industry and services
All sizes
Structure (%):
• micro
• small
• medium
• large
13447079
100,0
90,6
7,9
1,2
0,2
...
9,9
2,6
...
Number of enterprises in industry and construction
All sizes
3656464
729755
Structure (%):
100,0
100,0
84,0
88,7
• micro
13,2
8,0
• small
2,3
2,7
• medium
0,5
0,6
• large
Number of persons employed in industry, construction and services
All sizes (thousands)
96736
15617
Structure (%):
100,0
100,0
27,7
30,3
• micro
3
57753
100,0
67,0
21,2
9,0
2,8
3987
...
•
•
•
21,5
16,3
34,5
Number of persons employed in industry and construction
All sizes (thousands)
39939
Structure (%):
100,0
19,9
• micro
24,0
• small
20,7
• medium
35,5
• large
16,2
20,0
33,6
14,9
20,9
...
8034
100,0
17,2
15,2
25,5
42,0
2537
100,0
4,1
10,6
22,3
63,0
small
medium
large
Eurostat, Structural business statistics
The distribution of employment across the different enterprise size classes show no
important differences between UE15 and the acceding countries (table 1 and figure 3)
0
25%
micro
50%
small
57%
medium
100%
large
Fig. 3. Proportion of persons employed, by size, 2001(%)
Eurostat, Structural business statistics, 2003.
Regarding the proportion of persons employed by size, Romania and Slovenia
have a higher number of employed in large enterprises (63% and 58%), but fewer persons
in micro and small enterprises, comparing with the UE15 average and with the others
candidate countries ( figure 4).
micro
small
medium
large
Fig.4. Number of persons employed in the candidate countries as a percentage of
those employed in the EU, 2001 (%)
Eurostat, Structural business statistics, 2003.
Statistics (Eurostat – NewCronos) regarding research and development in the
candidate countries include data on innovation and patents applications.
4
Patent applications can be viewed as a measure of innovation output, with respect to
the protection of intellectual property rights.
Fig. 5. Patents applications per million inhabitants, 2001
Eurostat, NewCronos
In 2001 there were approximately 7.6 patent applications per million inhabitants
across the 10 acceding countries, compared to an average of 161 within the EU (figure 5).
Slovenia, having 41 patent applications per million inhabitants, is an important exception,
while Romania, with only one application, is situated on the last place.
It is worth considering that there were widespread fluctuations for this indicator as
a result of national differences. Not all inventions are patented and alternative means to
protect their inventions, for example, through industrial secrecy or rapid product
launches.
The apparent labour productivity, one of the most important innovation results, is
increasing in the candidate countries, although remaining below the UE15 average (figure
6).
Micro
Small
Industry and construction
Services
Medium
Large
Fig.6. Apparent labour productivity in candidate countries as a percentage of
the apparent labour productivity in UE, 2001 (%)
As an average the apparent labour productivity in the acceding countries
represents 34% of UE. Small and medium size enterprises are relatively better
situated, especially in services.
5
Apparent labour productivity (EUR thousand per person employed) by
enterprise size, 2001
Table 2
UE 15
ACC
Romania
Apparent labour productivity in industry, construction and services
All sizes
44,5
15,3
4,2
•
•
•
•
32,3
39,3
48,9
55,6
4,8
17,8
19,2
21,3
...
3,6
4,2
...
micro
small
medium
large
Apparent labour productivity in industry and construction
All sizes
• micro
• small
• medium
• large
Eurostat, NewCronos
50,5
16,2
3,7
30,7
37,9
48,9
71,0
4,4
12,9
16,3
22,2
2,2
3,0
3,7
4,0
The apparent labour productivity in Romania is very low, compared to UE
and acceding countries (table 2), but labour cost is low too. Romania has the smallest
level of average labour costs per hour (table 3).
Considering the enterprise size class, the highest salaries in Romania are in large
enterprises, similar to UE and candidate countries.
Average labour costs, 2000 (EUR per hour)
<10 employees
10+ employees
10-49 employees
50-249 employees
250-499 employees
500-999 employees
1000+ employees
UE 15
…
22,19
18,17
20,98
23,39
25,16
25,15
Acc
1,75
4,21
3,13
3,63
3,84
3,98
4,60
Table 3
Romania
0,66
1,51
0,91
1,15
1,23
1,36
2,05
Eurostat, Labour Cost Survey
Education and training of labour force are two key elements to raise the
competitiveness of enterprises. In Romania, in average only 11% of the enterprises
are offering the employed education programmes, compared to 62% in UE. This is
even worse in small enterprises (8%).
The comparative analysis of the average hours spend in continuing
vocational training (CVT) courses per employee in enterprises with/without ‘new
technologies ’, in 1999, proved once again the conexion between labour force
education and innovation (figures 7 and 8).
6
Small
Medium
Large
Fig.7. Average hours spent in CVT courses per employee in enterprises with
‘new technologies’, 1999 (units)
Eurostat, NewCronos
Small
Medium
Large
Fig.8. Average hours spent in CVT courses per employee in enterprises without
‘new technologies’, 1999 (units)
Eurostat, NewCronos
Broken down by enterprise size class, small enterprises tended to provide
somewhat more training for their employees in terms of average hours spent in CVT
courses, while a lower proportion of employees attended such courses.
7
8
Selective literature
Crowley P., Sources and resources for EU innovation, Statistics in focus, 5/2004, Eurostat
Larsson A., Innovation output and barriers to innovation, Statistics in focus, 1/2004, Eurostat
Schmiemann M., SMEs in Europe- competitiveness, innovation and the Knowledge-driven
society, Eurostat, 2003.
Schmiemann M., SMEs in Europe - candidate countries, Luxemburg, Eurostat, 2004.
Anuarul Statistic al României (colecţie)
Observatorul European al IMM-urilor (colecţie)
http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat
http://www.trendchart.cordis.lu/Scoreboard/scoreboard.htm
9
REGIONAL DISPARITIES IN ROMANIA AND THEIR
DIMINISHING PERSPECTIVES
Ph.D.Prof.Gheorghe Zaman
Ph.D. Prof.Zizi Goschin
Contemporary regional economic science offers a multitude of analysis and
forecast methods through which might be observed one or the other relevant aspects
pertaining to regional factors influencing the overall growth of a national economy.
The use of analyses and regional economic forecast methods has been lately
substantially facilitated by the use of information and communication technology their
capacity of collecting, processing and analysis increasing sensibly as of late. Taking into
account the need to make available for practitioners and economic decision factors
operative instruments of regional economic analysis, in the present study we intend to
suggest the testing of a method with the aid of which we can determine a typology of
regional economic evolution considering the development levels of regions or territorial
entities at a certain moment and their evolution on various time periods.
Typological categories of regional growth
The typology of regional growth might be employed for any result indicator
recorded at regional level under the static aspect – the absolute level of the indicator at a
certain moment – as well as dynamic – the growth pace of the respective indicator for a
given period. Correlating these information any region might be ranked into a particular
type of evolution (Table no. 1) depending on the position it holds in relation to the
average size of the domestic economy regarding the level and dynamics of the regional
indicator.
Level of
regional
indicator
against national
average
Above average
Under average
Table no.1. Typology of regional growth
Growth pace of regional indicator against national average
Above average
Under average
Developed regions on increase
(DRI)
Underdeveloped regions on
increase (URI)
Developed regions on
decline(DRD)
Underdeveloped regions
(URD)
The theoretic and practical interest of this method consists in the possibility of
combining the static and dynamic analysis for:
• performing a comparative analysis of regional levels of one result variable
against the average at national level at a certain moment (static aspect);
• comparing the evolution in time (growth pace) of regional levels against
the national average what confers to the analysis the dynamic dimension.
In this manner, we shall be able to do away with the unilateral gaps that are often
rebuked to analysis methods.
1
In order to characterise the growth quality at regional and national level, the most
used indicator is the Gross Domestic Product, the level and evolution of which is a
representative barometer for the favourable/unfavourable workings of the observation
units.
In event that the result indicator (GDP) is associated to population, at regional and
national level (for instance under the form of GDP per capita) we obtain a sui-generis
image of the economic-social development level. When a results indicator (such as GDP)
is associated to an effort indicator (for instance occupied population, investments, fixed
assets, research-development expenditures, etc.), we obtain an assessment of the regional
and national efficiency and development level as useful element of earmarking the
synthetic economic effects achieved as result of resources consumption lato sensu.
Applied to concrete data for various regional desaggregation levels, this method
confers to decision factors justifying elements for the economic policies mix depending
on the ranking of each region into a certain type of economic evolution.
When the regional typology is defined depending on the GDP per capita indicator,
the level of the indicator on each region (GDPR/cap) is compared to the national average
(GDP/cap), and the variation pace of GDP per capita at regional level (RGDPR/cap) to the
average pace recorded for overall economy (RGDP/cap) as well.
As result of corroborating the two level and dynamics indicators at regional level
against the domestic one, we shall obtain four region categories for which the main
earmarks shall be presented in the following.
a) Developed regions on increase are placed above the national average at the absolute
level of the analysed indicator (GDPR/cap >GDP/cap), as well as regarding its dynamics
(RGDPR/cap > RGDP/cap.).
These regions practically raise before the economic decision factors the issue of
continuing to maintain the swift dynamic on different time horizons, so as to avoid the
overheating phenomenon, but especially the one of slow-down and decline, taking still
into account the possible impact of the business cycle the determinants of which might be
of economic-social nature, but above all of technological or environmental nature just the
same.
As a rule, these regions have a strong drive effect and are regarded as
“locomotives” for the entire national economy.
b)Developed regions on decline have a GDP per capita level higher than the
average national level (GDPR/cap > GDP/cap), and the growth pace of GDP is under the
average pace on economy (RGDPR/cap < RGDP/cap). This pace slowness is caused by various
factors whose action could no longer be offset but which, with regard to the perspectives,
lay in front of the decision makers the duty of restructuring existing activities and of
creating some new competititive activities with dynamic effects.
c)Underdeveloped regions on increase are those aiming to recover the discrepancies
against the average level of GDP per capita by having a growth pace superior to the
average one (GDPR/cap < GDP/cap and RGDPR/cap > RGDP/cap). Their future development
strategy needs to maintain a dynamic that allows to partially or entirely recover the gap
and even to exceed the average level, a fact that would allow them to enter into the
category of developed regions on increase.
d) Underdeveloped regions have a GDP per capita level inferior to the economy average
and cannot diminish or recover this gap because their growth pace is lower than the
2
average one (GDPR/cap < GDP/cap and RGDPR/cap < RGDP/cap). As a consequence, the
distance separating them from the average level is continuously growing, these regions
representing the most unfavourable case, to which special attention should be given,
because the worsening of the economic-social situation in the respective region might
unfavourably influence the entire domestic economic complex. The problem of poor
developed regions is peculiar within the economic policies mix context as regards state
support at local and regional level, and the creation of an attractive business climate for
foreign investments, especially through specific economic areas, technological parks, free
zones, etc., as well.
These underdeveloped regions are a priority on the macroeconomic decision
board from the viewpoint of stimulating private business, and of avoiding possible
critical crisis situations and social tensions. In addition, the issue of investments in
education and social field emerges, and it cannot be solved but by means of some
efficient public-private partnership schemes, taking into account that the private sector
has as aim only to obtain profit.
Particular cases of regional typology
An absolutely special interpretation in the frame of the depicted regional typology
would require the cases in which the growth level and/or pace from a region is equal to
the national one. These particular situations are presented in the following:
average level regions on increase: GDPR/cap =GDP/cap and RGDPR/cap >
•
RGDP/cap or on decline: GDPR/cap =GDP/cap and RGDPR/cap < RGDP/cap are those
territorial entities that reached currently an average level of GDP per capita
either by climbing up the regional hierarchy from the position of
underdeveloped region, or down from the category of developed region;
stagnant developed regions: GDPR/cap > GDP/cap and RGDP/cap = RGDP/cap
•
maintain their relative advantage comparatively to the average level on
economy, without recording either progress or decline in the regional
hierarchy;
underdeveloped stagnant regions also maintain their relative position against
•
the average level, but contrary to the previous category, they are under the
average level of economic results per capita: GDPR/cap < GDP/cap and
RGDPR/cap = RGDP/cap.
In the above mentioned cases, a particular practical importance has the estimate
regarding the quality of the GDP level and average pace. If the average is high enough,
then we might qualify as satisfactory the evolution of regions placed around this average.
To the contrary, if this average is low, the regions coming close to this average cannot be
regarded as finding themselves in a favourable economic-social situation. A case with
obvious negative connotations for regions close to the average is when the growth pace at
national level is negative.
Another particular situation within the previously presented methodology is the
case when an economy on decline at regional and national level, as was the situation
during some transition periods towards market economy in Romania, brings up the
question of reinterpreting this typology (Table no. 2). From the viewpoint of economic
relaunch strategy or of solving economic crises just as important are also the means by
which are perceived and monitored various cases of economic decline.
3
Table no. 2
Regional
level
Above
average
Under
average
Typology of regional decline
Decrease pace of regional level
Above average
Under average
Developed regions on swift decline
Developed regions on slow decline
Underdeveloped regions on swift Underdeveloped regions on slow
decline
decline
The method offers the differentiated analysis and forecast possibility for
economic policies means and instruments without excluding, at more de-aggregated
levels the situation in which, simultaneously to higher or smaller increases of result
indicators for certain branches or regions, also decreases take place (negative evolution
paces of analysed indicators).
Typological categories of development regions in Romania
Starting from the theoretical premises depicted in the preceding paragraphs, we
have attempted to apply the previously presented methodology for the case of the
Romanian economic development regions in the period 1994-2001 divided, due to
availability reasons of comparable statistical data series1, into two under-periods: 19941998 and 1998-2001. The analysis was completed with calculations regarding the
development pace required for regions that remained behind in order to entirely recover
in an interval of two decades the discrepancies against the average level of GDP per
capita, as well as with the decomposition on influence factors of the relative GDP
variation and of labour productivity.
Table no. 3 Typological categories of the development regions in Romania
after the level and dynamics of regional GDP per capita in the period 1994-1998
Region
NorthEast
SouthEast
South
SouthWest
West
Typological
category*
GDPR/cap in 1998**
(ths. ROL constant
prices1998)
URI
12564,0
Percentage
increase/decrease of
GDPR/cap in1998
against 1994
+1,03
DRI
16555,1
+6,42
URD
URD
14199,8
14803,0
-11,09
-8,16
DRD
17294,9
-1,31
1
In 1998 the Romanian statistics made the switch from the European Account System 1979 to the
European Account System 1995 and this led to changes in the calculation manner of some of the
macroeconomic indicators.
4
NorthURI
15630,4
+3,93
West
Middle
DRI
17769,0
+4,92
Bucharest
DRI
26896,8
+10,03
National average
16495,4
+0,63
Source: calculations performed based on data from the Statistical Yearbook of Romania
1994-1999
*Remark: DRI – developed region on increase; DRD – developed region on decline; URI
– underdeveloped region on increase; URD – underdeveloped region on decline
** After the methodology SEC 79.
Table no. 4 Regional typology in Romania after the level and dynamics of
regional GDP per capita in the period 1998 – 2001
Region
Typological
GDPR/cap in ** (ths.
Percentage
category*
ROL constant prices
increase/decrease of
1998)
GDPR/cap in 2001
against 1998
North-East
URI
12773,0
-3,62
South-East
DRI
15345,2
-7,76
South
URD
14142,1
-0,72
South-West
URD
14962,7
+0,07
West
DRD
18869,3
+12,57
North-West
URI
16442,5
+3,67
Middle
DRI
18677,5
+6,22
Bucharest
DRI
37691,9
+39,88
National average
+7,21
1999-2003 and of the Territorial Yearbook 2004
**Remark: DRI – developed region on increase; DRD – developed region on decline;
URI – underdeveloped region on increase; URD – underdeveloped region on decline
The analysis of obtained results after ranking the eight development regions of
Romania (Figure no. 1) in the previously presented typology reveals significant mutations
with regard to the regions’ relative positions, as compared to the average level on
economy, to the GDP per capita indicator.
1. In both analysed under-periods (Tables 3 and 4), the dominant position is
held by the region Bucharest-Ilfov which has a GDP per capita level twice
as high as the average and a very high increase pace especially for the
period 1998 – 2001 (39.88%). It is the only region ranked constantly
among the category of developed regions on increase (DRI) and it
distances itself rapidly from the other areas, at the same time exercising an
important effect of increasing the national average for the analysed
indicator.
2. Into the category of developed regions on increase is included also the
West region which, even though it recorded a negative pace in the period
5
1994 – 1998, in the interval from 1998 to 2001 significantly exceeded the
average growth pace of GDP per capita (12.57% in the West region
against 7.21% for the entire country).
It may be asserted that the “forte” areas of the regional growth structure of
Romania for the analysed period were the regions Bucharest-Ilfov and the
Western one, they attracting as well the highest volume of direct foreign
investments (over 65% from their total volume) and having the greatest
weight in the industrial production and services of the country.
Figure no. 1. Development regions in Romania
(1=North-East, 2=South-East, 3=South, 4=South-West, 5=West, 6=North-West,
7=Middle, 8=Bucharest)
3. The South-East and Middle regions presented an unfavourable evolution
for the analysed period, both leaving the group of developed regions on
increase. The South-Eastern region had in the period 1994 – 1998 a GDP
per capita level a bit above average, but made itself remarkable through
the rapid growth pace (6.42%). In the following interval, the evolution
trend for this region reversed, the percentage decrease being the most
manifest of the entire economy ( - 7.76%).
4. The Middle region managed to keep its position as developed region, but
the growth pace decreased by one percentage point under the average, the
6
evolution of the area being thus recorded on a slightly slower growth trend
that attracts the decline within the regional hierarchy.
5. The lest favourable category, the one of underdeveloped regions on
decline comprised in the period 1998 – 2001 a number of 5 regions (NE,
SE, S, SV and NV) 3 more than in the preceding period. Even though the
period 1998 – 2001 was far better than the period 1994 – 1998 as shown
by the growth pace of the GDP per capita of 7.21%, comparatively to
0.63%, this situation is more due to strong regions with fast growth (the
West region and, especially, the Bucharest region), all other regions
having difficulties in ensuring an accelerated dynamic. Remarkable is
especially the North-East region that, although recording a favourable
evolution in the period 1994-1998 remains the area with the lowest GDP
per capita level from Romania.
Table no. 5
Region
Typological characteristics of Romanian regions after
the level and dynamic of labour productivity in the
period 1994 – 1998
Category
*
Labour productivity
** (ths. ROL constant
prices 1998 for an
occupied person)
1994
1998
25,52
33,97
36,48
44,03
36,99
37,09
35,85
37,29
38,41
42,60
32,97
37,05
37,56
43,36
52,33
70,08
37,21
42,12
Percentage
increase of
productivity in
1998 against
1994
33,11
20,70
0,27
4,02
10,91
12,37
15,44
33,92
13,195
Occupied
population in
1998 (ths.
persons)
North-East
URI
1406,1
South-East
DRI
1106,6
South
URD
1335,2
South-West
URD
958,5
West
DRD
832,6
North-West
URD
1205,6
Middle
DRI
1088,0
Bucharest
DRI
880,0
National
average
1994-1999
Table no. 6 Typological characteristics of Romanian regions after the level
and dynamic of labour productivity in the period 1998-2001
Region
Category*
Labour productivity **
(ths. ROL constant prices
1998 for an occupied
person)
1998
2001
7
Percentage
increase of
productivity
in 2001
against 1998
Occupied
population
in 2001 (ths.
persons)
NorthURI
35,83
34,97
-2,40
1401,8
East
SouthDRI
44,24
42,04
-4,97
1070,7
East
South
URD
37,20
38,52
+3,55
1270,4
SouthURD
37,66
37,96
+0,80
944,3
West
West
DRD
41,29
47,44
+14,89
808,8
NorthURD
37,59
39,69
+5,59
1176,9
West
Middle
DRI
42,91
47,19
+9,97
1044,8
Bucharest
DRI
70,21
101,46
+44,51
844,8
National
42,42
46,62
+9,91
average
1999 – 2003 and of the Territorial Yearbook 2004
** After the methodology SEC 95
The regional typology based on the level and dynamics of labour productivity
(Tables 5 and 6) is almost identical to the one previously determined starting from the
GDP per capita indicator for both considered under-periods. The only differences refer to
the Middle region for the period 1998 – 2001, and to the North-West region for the
period 1994 – 1998, which suggests a stronger influence of the labour force factor in
these two areas.
Determining the period of catching up (the “problem of leap-frogging”)
An important target of the regional policy is represented by the diminishment or
even elimination of the discrepancies between economic regions. Thus, a region with a
lower level of synthetic result indicators (for instance, GDP per capita) might equal in a
computable time period the level of the economic results from another region or the
average level on economy, if it has a quicker development pace. In Romania, none of the
underdeveloped regions has an above average growth pace, and this hinders such
calculations. Instead, there might be calculated the annual average growth pace needed
for an underdeveloped region in order to recover entirely during a given t time horizon
the gap separating it from the average level of the analysed indicator.
Hence, given a region i starting from an economic level y0i smaller than the
national average y0, but which might ensure a more rapid average annual growth index:
y0i < y0 şi Ii > I. Presupposing as constant the annual average development paces from the
previous period, over a time interval t the underdeveloped region might reach an average
level of the indicator y:
y1i = y1, where: y1i = y0i(Ii)t and y1 = y0(I)t.
From the equalising condition of the development levels at the moment t1 it
results that y0i(Ii)t = y0(I)t, and the unknown Ii might be determined by the expressing as
logarithm this equation:
8
log y0i + t log Ii = log y0 + t log I.
From the previous relation it results that:
log Ii = log I + (log y0 - log y0i) : t.
By means of the anti-logarithm the average annual increase index Ii might be
finally found, which is needed by the underdeveloped region i in order to recover the
discrepancy against the average development level and the additional resources required
in the region for reaching this target might be established.
In the period 1998 – 2001, GDP per capita increased in Romania with an annual
average pace of 2.35%. Extrapolating this evolution trend for the next period, we have
calculated the average growth pace needed for the 5 regions with a GDP per capita under
the average in order to recover entirely the gap in a 20 years period.
Thus, the North-East region with the lowest GDP per capita level would require
an average annual increase pace of 4.06% (with 1.71 per cent points above the average
pace on country) in order to reach the national GDP per capita level in the year 2021; in
the South-East region an annual average pace of 3.11% would be required, in South of
3.53%, in South-West of 3.20% and in North-West of 2.27%.
Taking the hypothesis of a more quicker development pace per year of 4% for the
entire economy, and of a gap recovery period of only 10 years, the growth paces needed
in the underdeveloped regions are much higher: 7,51% in North-East, 5,56% in SouthEast, 6,43% in South, 5,83% in South-West and 4,83% in North-West.
The regional dynamics from above represent real moving targets that must be
closely pursued by the decision factors at regional level in the frame of an efficient
public-private partnership that could underscore the operational autonomy of markets at
local level, as well as the existing productive potential.
Selective Literature
Ailenei D., Constantin D.L., Jula D. (coord.), Avantaje competitive şi dezvoltare regională,
Editura Oscar Print, Bucureşti, 2004.
Armstrong H. and Taylor J., Regional Economics and Policy, second edition, Harvester
Wheasheaf, New York, London, 1993.
Ciutacu C., Perţ S.(coord.), Study on Social and Economic at Regional Level- case studies,
Bucureşti, 2000.
Goschin Z., Statistică, Editura Expert, Bucureşti,1999.
Jula D., Jula N., Ailenei D., Gârbovean A., Competitivitatea şi dezechilibrele regionale,
Programul ESEN 2, Academia Română, CIDE, Bucureşti, 2002.
McCann P., Regional and Urban Economics, Oxford University Press, 2001.
Pascariu G., Stănculescu M., Jula D., EU Cohesion Policy and Romania’s Regional and Social
Development, Pre-Accession Impact Studies, European Institute, Bucharest, 2002.
9
Pindyck R.S., Rubinfeld D.L., Econometric Models and Economic Forecasts, 4th edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Pinelli D., Regional Competitiveness Indicators, Commission Europeene, 1998.
***
Anuarul statistic al României, INS, Bucureşti, 1995-2003
***
Anuarul teritorial, INS, Bucureşti, 2004
***
Legea nr. 151/1998 privind dezvoltarea regională în România,Monitorul Oficial nr. 265/
16 iulie 1998.
***
Green Paper.Regional Policy in Romania, Romanian Government and European
Commission, PHARE Programme, 1997.
10
REREQUISITES FOR IMPROVEMENTS
OF THE SHIPPING ON
MIDDLE EUROPE – UKRAINE LINK OVER THE BLACK SEA
Conf.univ.dr. Izabella Gilda Grama, Universitatea „Spiru Haret”
Facultatea de Contabilitate şi Finanţe – Constanţa
South-east European region that geographically comprises Balkan peninsula
together with surrounding seas – Ionian, Adriatic, Aegean, Sea of Marmara, Black Sea –
as well as the countries which come out these seas – at first place Ukraine, Russia,
Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria – represents one of traditional traveling directions and an
important cross-roads between West and East and North and South of the continent.
Just the fact that this part of Europe is practically surrounded from three sides
with the seas, imposed the traffic solutions where the participation of shortsea shipping1
is almost unavoidable.
The intention here is not repeat once more the list of unambiguous advantages of
shipping in comparison with the other transport modes, but to introduce some more light
on the trends of traffic in general and to find the realistic place of shipping, at the first
place shortsea and inland navigation, in future traffic’s development of the respective
region.
The general development tendencies of the particular traffic branches imposed
by the trade and technology demands, state of infrastructure, and of course the influence
of the ecological requirements, and also the political changes in the majority of
countries in the region, make the problem of finding long-term quality solution for
traffic integration between the region and the mid- and west Europe both complex and
actual.
From one side, the expansion of road traffic in the last two or three decades
according to the all estimates will not change trends nor in the near future, because,
besides all the weaknesses such as relatively high costs per ton/kilometer, high energy
consumption, accident risks and environmental pollution through exhaust gases
emission and noise (see Table no.1) – road traffic mode is the only one that completely
matches „door-to-door” concept.
The technology and international share of production, on the other side,
develops herself in such a way to bring the entire process from raw material to the
product suitable for further transport as near as possible to the location of finding place.
The logical consequence is that the trend of requirements for huge transport capacities,
traditionally liked with railroad and shipping, decreases.
The aforementioned is of course not applicable on raw materials or agricultural
products whose finding places and production centers respectively are concentrated only
in the particular world regions (crude oil, natural gas, various sorts of cereals). But in
case of mines, either metal or non-metal, due the economic reasons, process on spot at
least to the semi-product level, is highly recommended. Then, the further processing up
to the finalizing is possible anywhere because the increased price per mass unit makes
1
the performance of shortsea shipping (the navigation on short maritime routes) for Europen Union
owners, so it is standardize by European Council Rule 3577/92 is legal in Romania from 2003, January
1st, on reciprocity basis, in order of the enter obligations of our country to the endinig of Chapter 9 of
E.U. settlement – Transport policy
1
now such product or semi-product more convenient for containerization, but at the same
time by road truck, too.
To what general conclusion the fore statements could lead when applied on
considered European region? It is not irrelevant to remain that the region with its
geographical characteristics and state of infrastructure represents the ideal field for
research of the competition chances of all transport modes, as well as of their
combination. Such investigation should require the knowledge of current situation in
traffic, current and future transport needs – definition of traffic knots, vectors of traffic
flows – kind of goods to be transported, state of infrastructure – railroad, inland
waterways and road capacities – as well as harbours disposition, capacities and
equipment and a plenty of other details that may have an influence on traffic efficiency.
Table no.1
Specific energy consumption and external costs for inland navigation vessels,
railway trains and road trucks
Inland navigation
vessel2
Specific energy consumption (Wh/tkm)
18-30
Total external costs (EURO/tkm)
0,0036
Air pollution (EURO/tkm)
0,0034
Traffic accidents (EURO/tkm)
0,0001
Noise (EURO/tkm)
0.0001
Source: Danube Commission Annual for 2004
Railway
85-195
0,0115
0,0033
0,0012
0,0070
Road
truck
0,35
0,0501
0,0236
0,0178
0.0087
So, I expect that could be useful to describe the state of facts and their influences
on future chances of shortsea shipping in South-east European region, Middle Europe –
Ukraine link over the Black Sea.
Two of the biggest European rivers, Danube and Dnepr, represent the natural
waterway connection between these two regions. Mutual distance between Danube
mouth by Sulina and Dnepr mouth by Kherson, over the north-western part of Black
Sea, is about 300 km. Both on Danube and Dnepr exists relatively vivid river traffic.
The section over the Black Sea is too short to be considered separately as the route of
importance for shortsea shipping, but in conjunction with Danube and Dnepr an their
role in transportation shares of mentioned regions, the problems of shipping on this
section become very attractive. Therefore, this route will be treated together with its
fluvial prolongations.
The cargo that is usually transported in both directions is up today mostly the
iron and scrap. Among other goods that appear in significant amounts there are metal
semi-products – steel plates, profiles, wire, castings. Coal, timber and non-metal row
materials are mostly transported in direction East-West, while cereal and different final
products are being transported to the East. About 13 millions tons of all kinds of goods
have been exported and some 6.4 millions tons imported in Ukraine harbours alone in
the year 2004.
In the near future there to be expected that after certain period of recession, the
trade shall get the increasing trend, especially in European export to Ukraine. Due to the
lack of highways and different railway standards – in former USSR the track span is
1524 mm while European standard span is 1435 mm – the river and trans-seashipping
2
the similar values can be expected for coaster
2
will probably keep the huge part of transport shares. But due the great discrepancy in
kind of goods – in general, raw materials from east to west and high-tech products
suitable for containerization from west to east – the problem of exaggerated number of
empty containers on the east could involve difficulties. Supposing that this problem will
be solved through the future investments in Eastern regions economy – to bring their
export goods in form suitable for container transport – the conclusion is that always
more and more shares of container shall be introduced on this traffic route.
Danube is navigable for sea/river ships theoretically up Kelheim, Danube km
2414, i.e. along the whole length. But practically, due the shallow water on the upper
section, economical navigation of coasters – about 2.5 meters draught during at least
90% of the year – can be achieved eventually up to Budapest – Danube km 1647. For
reliable reaching of harbours further upstream, the draught must be limited even to 1.5
meters in certain periods of the year when extreme low water level occurs. It can be said
that for moderate size coaster, Danube probability navigable only up to Braila – 170
kilometers from the mouth by Sulina but through the 65 kilometers long Danube-The
Black Sea Canal. Upstream these two points, the traffic is usually performed using
various types of river barges assembled in pushed trains whose size depend on section
of the river. The most frequent barge type is so-called “Danube-Europe II” that differs
from standard “Europe II” barge at most in beam – 11.0 meters versus 11.4 meters.
River motor ships present bur their total carrying capacity is neglectful comparing with
that of barge trains.
On the other side, on Dnepr from the mouth up to Kiev, capital of Ukraine,
along about 870 kilometers, guaranteed draught of 3.65 meters is always provided.
River lock chambers on Danube have the variety of usable widths. Starting from
the mouth, on Danube-Black Sea Canal there are two river lock groups with chamber of
25 meters. In Iron Gate area there are another two groups with 34 meters width – one
auxiliary chamber has 14 meters in width. Further upstream in Slovakia the river locks
have also 34 meters width, and in Austria and Germany there are chambers with 24
meters width. The narrowest are located upstream Regensburg – Danube kilometer 2379
– and have width of 12 meters, as well the other lock chambers along the Main-Danube
Canal. For standard “Europe” ship of 11.4 meters beam – that also navigate on Danube,
especially after the opening of the Rhine-Main Danube Canal – river lock chambers of
12 + n x 11.4 meters width seem to be ideal to allow the trans-passing of more ships
packed abreast. River locks located on Iron Gate and in Slovakia allow the trans-passing
of only one 11.4 meters packed together with two 11.0 meters ships abreast. The
chamber lengths do not represent restriction for corresponding ship length.
All Dnepr river locks have the standard dimension of 270 x 18 meters. The
breadth of standard Dnepr vessels varies between 12 and 16 meters. It is obvious that
different standards for ship breadth do not allow the optimal utilization of lock
chambers on both rivers simultaneously.
The bridge heights over high water on Dnepr are approximately 10 meters and
more. On middle and upper Danube in periods of high water level, certain bridges have
the height of only 6 meters and represent unavoidable obstacles not only for sea going
ships but some types of river motorships and push-boats too. It is not the curiosity that a
great number of vessel are gathered on the both sides of e.g. bridge by Novi Sad –
Danube kilometer 1255 forced to wait decrease of water level.
In the last decade the Danube has been navigable practically during the whole
year. Only in couple of years the ice appearance that caused certain short lasting
restriction has been reported. But on Dnepr the situation differs because the ice period
and total stoppage of navigation lasts at least four months per year.
3
The Black Sea is relatively calm, but nevertheless the navigational conditions do
not allow the using of standard river-going vessels, especially those designed for
Danube. Insufficient freeboard and longitudinal strength, non-suitable deck equipment
and the body lines form not convenient for the waves, make Danube motorships not
applicable at all. Dnepr motorships are in general nearer to meet the requirements for
navigation over the Black Sea, but their commercial effects especially on middle and
upper Danube appear to be poor. The widely used pushing technology on Danube3 can
not be applied over the sea. Towing technology is possible, comprising that the barges
are designed and equipped for such area of navigation, but is up today not the case.
In such condition, I estimate that, there are three conceptually different solutions
for Danube-Dnepr transportation over the Black Sea:
1. using the existing fleet of sea-going ships in traffic between the Port of
Kherson on Dnepr mouth and harbours on Danube Delta;
2. building the ships of new design with particulars that will match the
navigation condition along the whole route;
3. building the special ships that could transfer the existing river barges
over the Black Sea between Dnepr and Danube estuaries.
The first solution involve the fact that in harbours on Danube Delta Galatz,
Braila, Cernavoda, Izmail, Reni or in of Constantza Port and in Port of Kherson on
Dnepr mouth, the cargo should be reloaded on river going barges and proceed to final
destinations upstream Dnepr and Danube respectively. Such approach requires two
additional loading/unloading procedures and thus the overall transport costs
significantly increase. As example it can be mentioned here that reloading of each 20
feet container from one transport carrier onto another, costs about 60 EURO in Rhine
terminals. Assuming here the reloading price twice cheaper regarding those on Rhine, it
is still about 30 EURO. The transport price per TEU4-kilometer with river-going ship is
on Danube between 0.15-0.37 EURO, dependable on cargo class and transport direction
– down- or upstream. The similar transport price can be expected on Dnepr too. That
means that on the overall distance of e.g. 1000 kilometers, total transport price per TEU
is about 300 EURO. This rough estimate shows that additional reloading costs is about
10% of total price, and when applied on the total amount of transferred TEUs during the
year, it bring to enormous sum of unnecessary expenses. Besides, the existing
infrastructure in above mentioned harbours requires further huge investments to
improve its efficiency.
The second solution must take into account that due to the numerous
restrictions regarding ships principal particulars in three different navigational areas, the
compromise should be achieved to design and construct a ship that could be convenient
and effective along the whole route. The idea to build a self-propelled vessel designed
respecting at the same time the draught and height restrictions on upper Danube and
freeboard and strength requirements for the Black Sea, would result in economically
non-effective unit with poor load to own weight ratio and overall capacity. Such vessel
would be too small for economical service on the huge section of lower Danube, the
Black Sea and Dnepr up to Kiev. Therefore, an idea has been born to design special
barges that be pushed along the river sections and towed over the sea. On each section,
another suitable tug – Danube and Dnepr push-boats and the Black Sea towing tugs
respectively – shall be used, and the take-over manoeuvre shall be quick and easy. The
barges shall be equipped for both pushing and towing. Their principal dimensions shall
3
just 9% of total cargo capacity of Danube fleet belongs to the self-propelled vessel
Twenty Equivalent Unit – international unit of measure for overall size of the containers, who is equal
with 20 feet (20’); 1 feet = 0,304 meters
4
4
be determined to match as good as possible the lock chamber lengths and widths on
both rivers. Such considerations have brought the length overall of 95 meters and the
beam of 16.5 meters. Two longitudinally aligned barges, together with corresponding
push-boat, can pass through all river locks between Regensburg and Kiev. Between
Komarno in Slovakia and Danube mouth, even 4 barges can be arranged in single
pushed formation.
Each barge would have about 3000 dwt5 with draught of only 2.5 meters, i.e.
could reach the harbours on upper Danube with pretty significant probability. Even in
the extreme low water periods, some 1500 dwt could be transported per barge with
draught of 1.5 meters only. The loading volume should allow the towage of about 240
TEUs in just three layers.
There is no doubt that such solution could decrease the specific transport price,
at least because of two main reasons – the necessity of additional reloading in harbours
on river mouths is avoided and because the bigger ship can offer the cheaper cargo
capacity.
The third attractive possibility to overbridge the Black Sea between Danube
and Dnepr mouth is to introduce barge carriers that could perform shuttle service
transfer of river barges between anchorages somewhere in vicinity of river mouths.
Plenty of existing barge carriers – LASH, BACO, BACAT I & II, SEABEE – have all
the same disadvantage – they are designed for transportation on long distances over the
sea, and the corresponding barge units are too small to be utilized economically on big
rivers like Danube and Dnepr. Besides, almost all these systems are designed for special
barge type and size (see Table no. 2). On Danube DNJEPR can be often seen so-called
“USSR Seabee” or “Interlighter” barges, the largest of all aforementioned, but with the
loading capacity of only 1070 dwt, i.e. about twice less as the standard “Danube-Europe
II” barge. Furthermore, the existing barge fleets on Danube and Dnepr, are too great to
be simply replaced with the new “standardized” units. Therefore, the basic request for
the new design shall be the adaptability to take aboard almost any existing barge types
and to perform service even so loaded, economically. Due the short distance, the barge
carrier should be able to be loaded and unloaded in very short time, not more tha couple
oh hours.
Table no.2
Standard barge size for overseas transport
LASH Seabee Interlighter
Length over all (m)
18,75
29.72
38,25
Breadth max. (m)
9,50
10,67
11,00
Depth (m)
3,96
3,81
3,90
Draugt(m)
2,75
3.20
3,22
Deadweight (dwt)
376
847
1070
Source: Danube Commission Annual for 2004
BACAT I
BACO
16,82
4,67 Up to 9,50
3,30
2,45 Up to 4,06
147
800
A very interesting and sophisticated concept has been recently offered by
German company NAVTEC CONSULT GmbH from Emden. So-called TSL – Trans
Sea Lifter – are vessels design with a lot of originals. Among the undoubtedly
advantage as e.g. low resistance in fast motion through the water, the TSL concept
enables the least possible amount of ballast water for sinking their platforms deep
5
deadweight tones – the ratio between the ship’s capacity in cubic feet and the capacity in metric tons
5
enough to accept the floating barge or even the smaller motorship. Of course, there is no
need for any harbour reloading device, i.e. the only investments is the barge carrier
alone.
Considering the arisen political changes in the region and expected needs for
cost effective and reliable transport of the goods along the route, it could be concluded
that serious investigation regarding the three mentioned solutions for the Black Sea
shipping between Danube and Dnepr have to be performed. Such investigation should
comprise analyses of investments costs, exploitation costs for a variety of different
kinds of cargo, reliability of each, as well the comparative analysis with alternative
traffic modes – railway and road trucks.
References
1. Betty Jane Punnett, Experience international business and management
second edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California, 1994
2. Richard S. Sloma, How to measure managerial performance, mac Millan
Publishing Co. Inc. New York, 1990
3. Donald F. Wood, James C. Jonson, Contemporary transportation, Pretice
Hall, New York, 1996
4. ***, „Cargo Systems” Review, I.I.R. Publication, London, UK, 1998-2004
5. ***, „Strategies for container ports” Review, I.I.R. Publication, London,
UK, 1998-2004
6. ***, „Container Terminal Productivity” Review, I.I.R. Publication, London,
UK, 1998-2004
7. ***, Annual bulletin of Transport Statistics for Europe, New York, 19982004
8. ***, Danube Commission Annual for 2004
6
PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP BY MARKETING
PhD. Adriana GRIGORESCU – Associate Professor
National School of Political Studies and Public Administration
Department of Management
Abstract:
European integration process, crossed by our country on the last time, will enter
into a new stage at the beginning of 2007 year, when it will become full rights member
of the European Union. This process determined deep changes on the institutional
structures and on the business environment.
One of the problems of the Romanian society is weak cooperation between
business environment and public administration. This also takes, sometimes, various
forms of disagreement, even acute forms of dispute.
There is a general agreement at the conception (theoretic) level about the
imperative of a public-private partnership and there are various efforts do it. It is also
taken into account the experience of other countries of the European Union or other
developed countries able and available to support local and central overtures.
We consider that an opportune form of these structures consolidation can be the
marketing theory and practice. This aims to high light the role of the two components in
general development of Romanian society, regional development, economic
development and company development as well. All of them subordinated to serve the
objective of satisfying the population economic and social requests or needs.
The promotion of public sector services and optimizing his relationship with the
tax payers could explain the relation ensemble between the components and the way of
mutual support they can offer.
Public sector marketing shows up as a necessity and it can use the tools of
business marketing, offering add value to the politic marketing which knows a faster
and stronger development.
Efficient communication establishment between the two environments will
conduct, for sure, to the development of a segment of satisfied citizens, employees,
owner and vice-versa.
The time from 1989 until present was carried on under the necessity of changes
state structures. This was determined by the changes of the socialist state system with
the democratic state system and simultaneously the centralized economy with market
economy. On the social and economic restructuring there were included a set of process
regarding legislation and regulation and also the changing of people conception.
Business environment knows a rapid development by the individual private
initiative and later by the privatization program. The conception of the private
entrepreneurs was adapted easier to the market economy expectations. This is because
of certain factors as we mention:
• know, at least theoretically, by certain entrepreneurships of the market
economy requests;
• appearance of the foreign investors, experts of the occidental business
environment;
• the courage of the private entrepreneurs to start business and to adapt
them and themselves on way;
•
the acquaintance of practical and then theoretical knowledge by the
managers.
The public central and local administration environment has a natural much
more slow changing process. The process of drawing up the legislation system, in
conformity with the expectations of market economy states, was a complex, difficult
and long term one.
From the human resources point of view the two sectors offers different
opportunities, so they were attractive for tow segments with different characteristics.
The attractiveness of the business environment was very high because of the
various methods of motivation the personnel by the company management, the most
important upon our opinion are:
• high level of salaries (compared with public sector);
• professional satisfaction;
• training and continuous learning for employees.
These factors attracted from the labor market the personnel with the highest
level of skills and field education.
The absence or weak usage of these three components of personnel motivation
on the public sector determined the remaining of an old and obsolete practice personnel,
attract the young with a low level of education or with out other options.
These relative polarization of the personnel between the tow sectors of activity
generates the appearance of the theory of incompetence and bureaucracy related with
the public sector and the arrogant and exaggerated aspirations in the private sector.
Because of this reason, at this moment, on the Romanian society there is a weak
cooperation between the public administration and business environment, with different
forms of disagreement, some time even acute.
The difference of the salary level, different work conditions, the absence of an
organizational culture and social and the non-existence of a civic self-awareness and a
weak communication make the disagreement stronger and form the antagonistic groups,
as well as the expression like „US-THEY”.
There is a unanimously vision, at the conception level regarding the necessity of
the public-private partnership and there are efforts in this direction starting with the
experience of other states from the European Union or other developed countries with
already experience and available to assist and support the local demarches.
So, the apply of the marketing concepts on the public sector promotion could be
a way that their beneficiary, majority parts of the private sector, to know better the
relationship aspect between the tow sectors and the mutual dependence of them.
The stronger marketing component with applicability in this process is “public
awareness” referring to various projects in which the role of each citizen is very
important. The absence of the founds needed for the implementation of different
policies and the social objectives is determined by the fact that the population majority
did not know the way of obtaining the public founds and also how they are spend. What
they are aware with the contact allocation without bids, corruption to all level, luck of
professionalism, bureaucracy, all of these generate a certain degree of mistrust with
regard of local and central authorities.
It is true that, at the same time the private sector has its share of contribution in
this unproper climate. For sure the corruption is increased by the continuous attempts to
obtain facilities: penalties exoneration, shortage or prolong of deadlines, unreal
declarations, so on could be reasons of perpetuations of these situation and its
development to large scale in public-private relationships.
It is create a spiral between the public and private environment supported by
both sectors through the individual or groups interests continues to generate an unproper
climate if it is reported to the whole society.
We consider that a consolidation form of these structures could be the marketing
theory and the marketing activities aimed to high light the role of these tow components
of general development of Romanian society, regional development, and economic
development on the whole or the each company development so that together to better
serve the population economic and social needs.
A start for redesign the public-private relationships could be represented by the
investment projects in infrastructure. They are, recently under regulation by the
Government Ordinance no. 16/2002, Government Ordinance Emergency15/2003 and
Low 293/2003 and these allowed the public-private partnership on the investment field.
These regulations have the reason to clarify the ways of designing, finance,
construct, exploitation, service and transfer of any public assets according to the publicprivate partnership.
Public-private partnership is a method to introduce the private management in
public services by the contractual links on long term bases between a private operator
and a public authority. Public-private partnership assure the public service totally or
partially, as a function f the private found involved and asks for the private sector know
how related to the efficient administration and offers of better quality public services.
Using the marketing tools in promoting these services and supporting the way of
offering them to high level of quality consolidates the link between public and private
environment.
The public-private partnership defining starts from the key words it includes:
- partnership for action is formed by tow or more partners joint to realize
together an activity, an objective, a subject, a fact, an institution, a business. On the
public-private partnership the main elements belong to the two sectors and have as aim
the public interest objectives.
- public presume that it belongs to the collectivity or to the local, regional or
national society. This determines the obligation to be conduct bas on specific lows and
regulation and it is handled by central or local authorities.
- private defines that it belong to the individual property, free initiative, market
economy and it is controlled by demand and offer rule.
The public-private partnership represents the association between the tow
components aimed to achieve public interest objectives joining characteristics and
principles of approaching from the business field, able to increase the efficiency.
The partnership is the opposite of opponent, fight, aggressive, based on
understanding, cooperation between partners to achieve common objectives.
The Romanian society hah the necessity of building a system of public-private
partnership starting with:
- joint the competences and principles of market economy and democracy;
- increasing the complexity of the problems that have to be solved;
- limits of the public sector in initiate, implement and handle projects;
- important changes on the evolution of state role, the report between „central”
and „local”, „national” and „regional”;
- easy achievement of objectives (legislation, investments, so on) by
communication between the exploitation and beneficiary.
The public-private partnership has to be analysed as a whole and it is requested
the high light of the components it could be developed on:
-
education and research by stimulating the academic autonomy and function
on the principle of educational demand and offer, on respect with the society
demand of education;
- stimulation of free initiative and customer protection;
- profitableness of public services, but avoid the monopolist consequences;
- assuring the social and health by free competition, assuring the protection of
disadvantageous categories;
- assuring the coherent policies on various activity sectors;
- evaluation on the needs of Romanian society and draw all the stakeholders to
contribute to their achievement.
The steps of building a public-private partnership are:
- initiating project by the public authority or at the private sector initiative
based on the society needs;
- elaboration of „pre-fesability” to after information about the possibility and
the effects on the objectives achievement;
- publish the advertise related with the initiation of a public-private
partnership for the project implementation and/or public debate;
- issue the „Letter of intention” regarding the involving in project
implementation;
- negotiations of the project implementation conditions with the selected
investors;
- concluding the “The project agreement” with the selected partners by the
public authority in charge to handle the project;
- elaboration by the public authority together with the partners form the
private sector of „Project fesability study”;
- hierarchy the investors offers by the efficiency technico-economic and
financial index;
- negotiation „Public-private partnership contract” with the investor firs placed
on the classification, in order of the offers hierarchy, until the best results is
obtained;
- exploitation of the project results according with the „Public-private
partnership contract” by the private partner;
- transfer to the public authority of the public assets obtained by the project at
the end of „Public-private partnership contract”.
The main types of investment project, that could by made by public-private
partnership, are:
1. Design-Build-Operate (DBO)
2. Build-Operate-Renewal of Concession (BOR)
3. Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT)
4. Lease-Develop-Operate(LDO)
5. Rehabilitate-Operate-Transfer (ROT)
6. Build – Own – Operate – Transfer (BOOT).
Public-private partnership is based on the next cooperation principles:
- free competition in investor selection;
- fix set of criteria, easy to be measured, transparent in investor evaluation;
- confidentiality;
- neutral and preventive about conflicts of interest;
- follow the schedule of the selection procedure and the project
implementation;
- clarity in communication;
- honesty in project implementation and transfer;
- fulfill the accepted obligations.
The public-private partnership is also base on the relevance and viability criteria:
- fulfill the public interest needs, but under the administration of the privat
sector tools;
- common objectives, evident and identificable by both parts;
- existence of the politic support for the project,
- public found availability and resources mobilization;
- previsions/perspectives related to the add value and project efficiency;
- existing interest from the private sector;
- possibility of risks transfer to the private sector;
- necessity of both sectors implication;
- procedures/regulation of project implementation.
Project implementation, by the public-private partnership, assume that, on the
first step, the results exploitation to be made on the business administration system.
According with the marketing principles, projects marketing takes specific forms
of the general functions, as per1:
a)
Market investigation, project needs. This function implementation
has the role of obtaining information about the potential and existing
markets, system of beneficiaries demands, local and international
finance supplies (grants), their motivation, customers behaviour,
competition, environment components related with the company and
market relevance, national and international strategic objectives.
b)
Company dynamic connection to the social-economic
environment. This function reflects the new vision of marketing
about the company-environment relation, base on the company
activity must be all time correlated with the environment demands.
Execution of it is represented by the renewing and resources
mobilization able to value the opportunities and also to influence the
environment. The project management promotion makes possible the
development on the complementary areas and focus on the objectivesresults link.
c)
Satisfying at high level of the environment demands. These could
have different forms of expression: consumption need, structural and
institutional change, information and socio-cultural need. This
function requests that by the project implementation to be obtained the
expected results, that gets material form by solution (projects) –
projects documentation in order to produce the expected change.
d)
Maximising the economic efficiency. This function has the role in
resources mobilization, optimizing the structures according with the
organization objectives for process carry on by a motivational climate
of project constraints.
Complexity and projects market evolution on one hand and projects ideas on the
other hand, but also the implied factors attitude influence the environment. These
include all actors and forces that influence the project marketing activity. Marketing
environment has a fluid, dynamic character, reflecting the opportunities and treats,
restrictions with strong effects, as an open system.
1
C.
Florescu
–
coordonator,
Bucureşti,1992, pg.25-27.
Marketing,
Editura
Marketer,
According with the extreme complexity and the different ways of behaviour it is
compulsory a clarification of environment elements, the nature and the influence of
them on the organization marketing activity.
Public sector services promotion and the optimizing of its relation with the
contributors could explain the rational ensemble that exists between the components and
the system of mutual support.
Public services marketing rise up as a necessity and could use the business
marketing tools, valuate simultaneous the politic marketing that had a faster and
stronger development in Romania.
Using the marketing principles in public-private partnership and in exploitation
of projects results on the efficiency, effectivnes and free competition principles will
conduct to increase the mutual reliance between tow sectors and to improve the
communication. At the same time it will conduct to a proper transfer o knowledge from
business to public environment and to realize the level of assumed risks that determine a
certain difference between the level of benefits.
Public sector marketing shows up as a necessity and it can use the tools of
business marketing, offering add value to the politic marketing which knows a faster
and stronger development.
Efficient communication establishment between the two environments will
conduct, for sure, to the development of a segment of satisfied citizens, employees,
owner and vice-versa.
COMPLIANCE OF ROMANIAN RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE WITH
E.U. TECHNICAL AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
University Professor Romeo Ionescu, Ph.D.
“Danubius” University, Galati
Romanian railway transport points out public interest national activities meant to
provide open rail and comply with state defence requirements.
Among other carriage operations, rail has the highest power outturn and traffic
safety as well as the lowest class of pollution if compared to road transport activities.
Rail is shaped up in a continuous netting pattern, geographically spread all over
the state territory, which ensures the connection to the entire mesh of railways in
neighbouring countries and in all the other East European states beyond.
Rail mesh is harmoniously located all over the state territory in a annular set of
two almost concentric hoops crossed by eight radial thoroughfares that leave the capital
city and head for the other state areas.
Its South-Eastern position in Europe turns Romania into a crossing ground for
international rail thoroughfares which interlink Northern to Southern Europe, on one
side, and Eastern to Western Europe, on the other.
Subsequently, the Pan-European Conference in Crete (1994) set out the transport
Pan-European corridors, which were to be further re-established in Helsinki (1998);
Romania is crossed by three such corridors as it follows:
• the 4th corridor: Berlin-Nuremberg-Prague-Budapest-Bucharest-ConstantzaThessaloniki-Istanbul;
• the 7th corridor: the Danube;
• the 9th corridor: Helsinki-Sankt Petersburg-Moskow-Pskov-Kiev-KishinewBucharest-Dimitrograd-Alexandroupolis.
The 4th and 9th Pan-European corridors have a multi-nodal structure with road
and rail components, with riverine harbours and seaports as knots and collecting centres
as well as inter-transport-knot distributing stations.
The 4th and 9th Pan-European rail corridors are highly significant in terms of the
structure of CFR (Romanian Railways) transport activities, as approximately half the
rail length stands for about half the total traffic.
Consequently, the main objectives aimed at by the Romanian railway
infrastructure modernizing programme, stipulated in the CFR rail mesh development
strategy for 2000-2010, are:
• the rehabilitation of Romanian railroads corresponding to the 4th and 9th PanEuropean transport corridors, in view of making the passage to introducing 160 kms/h
trains;
• modernizing the outfitting in the main railway stations all along the 4th and 9th
Pan-European transport corridors;
• modernizing railway stations;
• extending the optic fibre communication network.
As a signatory party to European agreements regarding large international
railroads (AGC) and mixed international railways with connected outfitting (AGTC),
Romania was to aim at the objectives considered by the agreements above, already
mentioned in the National E.U. Adhering Programme, and embanked upon the
preparation, planning, ad judgement and carrying out the rehabilitation works-using
state-guaranteed external credits-of the 4th Pan-European corridor, which, on Romanian
1
grounds, passes all along the 880 km double railroad across Curtici-Arad-Deva-SimeriaTeius-Sighisoara-Brasov-Bucharest-Constantza.
Besides the strictly rail impact of these works, there is also an impact on the
population, i.e. a social impact to be reflected in the cut in the volume of unemployment
within the geographical area of these operations.
According to Romanian Railroads (CFR) projects of modernizing Romanian rail
mesh, the technical and operational parameters to be considered in terms of CFR
modernizing works are those established by such agreements as AGC, AGTC, TER to
which Romania is a signatory party.
These parameters refer to the passenger train speed of 120 kms/h and, in the
future, to the 200 kms/h speed for passenger trains (by reconsidering rail infrastructure
in modernizing terms and and by using inclining gear rolling stock).
It is in the same way that CFR Joint Stock Company pays a great deal of interest
in reconsidering rail infrastructure on better grounds on 4th Pan-European corridors, but
mainly on Curtici-Arad-Simeria-Sighisoara-Brasov-Bucharest-Constantza corridor.
The feasibility study with respect to modernizing the 170 km double rail
Bucharest-North Station-Brasov, aim at increasing train speed up to 160 kms/h, was
worked out and sanctioned by CFR Public Corporation since 1998, the works being in
full process of development at the moment.
On the basis of this feasibility study, the European Investment Bank financed
Romania with EUR 220 million to be used in rebuilding the 95 km double railroad from
Bucharest to Campina (with an average rebuilding cost of EUR 1.158 million/km of
single rail).
As a result of the negotiations between MLPTL, CFR-Public Corporation and
the E.U. contingent, there turned up a possibility to use ISPA funds-as well as
supplement them with transfers from Romania state budget-in financing the rebuilding
of the 75 km double railroad from Campina to Brasov.
Nowadays, together with promoting this ISPA operation in Romania, the
working out of technical and economic documentation is performed in view of
rebuilding the Campina- Brasov railroad and making this reference work comply with
ISPA, PHARE, SAPARD Practical Guide requirements.
The far ahead works on the 225 km railroad between Bucharest-North station
and Constantza are as follows:
• the rebuilding the 7 km simple rail from Bucharest North station to BucharestBaneasa and the 86 km double rail from Fetesti to Constantza is financed with an
external credit issued by the Government of Japan, using JBIC (Japan Bank for
International Cooperation) and with Romanian state budget funds (up to 2008);
• the rebuilding of the 141 km Bucharest-Baneasa-Fetesti double railroad is
financed with ISPA sources and with funds from the Romanian state budget.
The reconstructing works are to be performed in between 2004 and 2006.
Another daring first-rate-objective to be achieved with E.U. support is the road
and rail bridge across Danube, at Calafat-Vidin, an objective included in the Stability
Treaty aiming at South-Eastern European countries. It is in this respect that the
Romanian party will rebuild the 108 km simply rail from Craiova to Calafat, this being
a component of Deva-Livezeni-Filiasi-Craiova-Calafat Southern branch of the 4th PanEuropean corridor.
Subsequent to these works, the technical parameters concerning rail traffic will
go up to that point when passenger trains develop an 80-200 kms/h speed and goods
trains-as 80-120 kms/h one, in compliance with the requirements of AGC, AGTC, TER
European agreements that Romania is known to have adhered to.
2
Another case in the point of reconstructing the Romanian mesh of railways has
been the fitting out of six station intervals all along CFR operating railroads, that are not
included in the 4th and 9th European corridors and with a total length of 39 kms i.e.
Brazi-Ploiesti Marshalling (4.8 kms), Cojocna Tunnel (5.0 kms), Mures-Golovat Bridge
(5.2 kms), Bucharest-North station-Chitila III (9.2 kms), Videle-MedgidiaI (84.2 kms)
their rebuilding cost amounting to EUR 230,000/ km of simple rail.
The Bucharest-North station (Ana Group) rail modernizing programme has also
been embarked upon with renewing the tracks by draining the embankment, by building
semi-high platforms for disabled persons, ensuring a proper lighting, providing fire
plugs, better demarcating platforms, a.s.o.
There has also been worked out the programme of modernizing 40 railway
stations in county chief cities, using a rich technical and economic reference material
and receiving an external financing of approximately EUR 60 million.
The inter-junction stations all along the international rail corridors have
witnessed:
• the putting to work of the Ferry Boat Constantza terminal, located in Southern
Constantza-Agigea Harbour, using the Constantza Ferry Boat railway station on the 4th
Pan-European corridor. Inter-junction transport activities such tracts as Constanza Ferry
Boat-Samsun-Derinca-Izmir and Constantza Ferry Boat-Botumi (a Grusinian city) are
performed using two triple deck vessels with 13 rails i.e. 1,680 metres gauge wagons or
of 125 trains of 40 tons each or other combinations.
• the RO-LA terminal in Arad, which censures the daily traffic of RO-LA trains
on Arad-Glogovat-Wels 9Austria) route and back, with 20-23 waggon trains equipped
with maximum tare of 21.3 tons, a maximum load of 55 tons and a 120 kms/h highest
speed, to be used in transporting trucks and a sleeping car for the latter’s drivers.
Appealing to European support funds, the CFR rebuilding project was pioneered in
1996 and was based on three financing sources:
• the 3976 IBRD loan of USD 120 million with CFR Public Corporation as
debtor;
• the 438 EBRD loan that totals USD 72.6 million, whose debtor i.e. SNCFR (The
National Corporation of Romanian Railways) was to provide further loans to CFR
Wares and CFR Passenger Commercial Companies). A BNP Paribas loan of EUR
31,068,419 and an ECA loan credit of USD 5,355,197 with security ensured by the
COFACE French Agency were contracted by CFR Passenger Company, in co-financing
with EBRD, for just one single component of this project;
• the 17,251 BEI loan, that totals EUR 200 million and is associated to the project
of rail rebuilding through financing the reconstruction of Bucharest-Brasov
thoroughfare. The works embarked upon cover the Bucharest-Campina section.
Brand new European-funded projects in the field at issue are now being
implemented:
• the 20,777 BEI loan of EUR 15 million meant to be used in purchasing
equipments for rail up-keeping and a system for issuing train tickets;
• the ROM-P3 JBIC loan and the ISPA non-repayable credit i.e. two major
financing operations meant to medernize and improve the Bucharest-Constentza
railroad (the funds total YEN 23 billion-no less than USD 200 million);
• the ECA financing meant to be used in rebuilding two railroads-ValceleRamnicu Valcea and strengthen rail support wall-blocks at Portile de Fier I hydropower plant, the work contract being concluded with an Italian firm;
• the 12,936 EBRD loan of EUR 24 million meant to be used in modernizing five
railway stations: Constantza, Cluj, Craiova, Iasi and Timisoara;
3
• the Credit Suisse First Boston commercial credit to be used in modernizing
several Romanian first-rate railway stations.
All these efforts taken by Romanian decision makers and meant to reach
European standards turn up to be no less than exceptional. Actually, the distance
between the Romanian rail mesh and connected infrastructure and its counterpart in
Europe is huge.
To be more specific, the Swiss rail mesh is to be further dealt with (it is worth
mentioning that Swiss railways are electrified at 100%). The largest Swiss rail
company, CFF, takes over its necessary power input from its own hydraulic plants, such
power to be used in transport being by no means liable to directly producing CO2.
Table 1st: The impact of Swiss rail transport on the environmental
protection
Year Non-mixed single
Cut in CO2 (t)
Rail Highway
Cut in CO2 (t)
transport
1994
163386
40675
42952
8467
1995
180982
43495
39664
7819
1996
180533
43174
38484
7586
1997
214053
51063
44985
8868
1998
223092
53512
48091
9480
1999
233372
56202
51733
10198
2000
277551
64610
53571
10453
2005
455000
112830
50900
12622
Table 2nd: Development of Swiss rail transport and the environmental protection
Yearl
No. of trains
Seats/train
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2300
4200
6600
8400
14000
25
25
25
25
25
Total no. of
seats
90000
105000
165000
210000
350000
Decrease in CO2 volume(t)
22318
26038
40916
52075
86792
In 2000, 99.75% out of the total amount of energy (power) to be consumed in
Swiss transport activity was of a hydraulic origin, while a 0.25 percentage-of a nuclear
origin, such energy forms not being directly polluting for the atmosphere.
To cut a long story short, one might conclude by noticing that Swiss rail is
completely environmental friendly. Moreover, unaccompanied combined rail transport
and the rail highway itself, as components of the Alpine rail wares traffic, contribute to
diminishing atmospheric polluting emissions.
One should also point that, considering only a slight share out of the total one
(i.e. that garaged by Hupac and Ralpin projects), environmental pollution was reduced
with apx. 91,031 tons of carbon dioxide until 2005. To consume this quantity of CO2
26,000 hectars of trees should be planted.
Until 2007, due to the increase in the trans-alpine transport capacity, with using
the Lotschberg tunnel and in the proficiency of Hupac and Ralpin projects, the quantity
of CO2 received by the environment will amount to 229,414 tons/year. This would mean
no less than 65,500 hectares of forest that is precisely twice as large as the district of
Geneva.
4
This case in point does nothing but emphasize the need to include transport
policy elements-rail carriage being also an issue-in the principle of long-lasting
development.
It is long-lasting development only that can ensure the instruments to be made
use of in implementing an efficient rail policy in Romania, with favourable effects in
terms of our integration into the European Union.
List of References:
***- “Revista Căilor Ferate Române”, Editura Feroviară, 2005
***-“Jurnalul feroviar”, Compania Naţională de Căi Ferate, 2004
***-“Rail International”, Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer, 2004
www.uic.asso.fr
www.b-rail.be
5
ROMANIAN INTERREGIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
DISPARITIES ANALYSIS
Gabriela Marchiş
„Danubius” University of Galati
With the view of drawing up regional development strategies that allow us to
take advantage of European Union human and financial resources, Romanian territory
organizational pattern consists in eight development regions on NUTS II criteria, as it is
showed in the following map:
Figure no.1 Romanian territory organizational pattern according to NUTS II criteria
Source: www.rgic.ro/img.harta.gif
This paper presents the main interregional differences that exist in Romania, as a
result of different methods of economic and social disparities analysis.
In sight of Romanian interregional disparities analysis, for an efficient allocation
of European funds priority meant to unless developed areas, NDP 2004-2006 suggests
an analytical model for characterizing the development level of each region apart.
Sequel, this study presents the results obtained from applying the NDP model to
available Romanian statistical data. This model begins with 4 indicators: population,
income, unemployment rate and infrastructure endowment. The correlation of these
indicators guide us to important information regarding:
1. Structural development level (aggregate analysis of GDP per capita and
population);
2. Employment level (concomitant analysis of unemployment rate and population);
3. Structural endowments (concomitant analysis of transport infrastructure (this
index includes: density of public roads per 100 km2 of territory, density of
railways per 1000 Km2 of territory and total area) and utilities infrastructures (this
index includes: total number of localities provided with natural gas, total number
of localities supplied with drinking water installations, total number of localities
with public sewerage installations and total number of localities).
In order to reflect properly interregional discrepancies, above indicators were
split in two categories: geo-demographic indicators and economic development
indicators.
1
NorthEast
Region
Table no.1 Indicators that reflect interregional disparities
SouthSouthNorthSouth
West
East
West
West
Centre
Bucharest
Romania
Geo-demographic indicators
Population
Area
Total number of
localities*
3743242
36850
2867936
35762
3374916
34453
2341074
29212
1954713
32034
2755931
34159
2546639
34100
2210342
1821
21794793
238391
2943
1820
2555
2498
1637
2250
2210
142
16055
Economic development indicators
Density of
public roads
Density of
railways
Total number of
localities
provided with
natural gas
Total number of
localities
supplied with
drinking water
installations
Total number of
localities with
public sewerage
installations
Unemployment
rate
GDP per
capita
36.3
29.5
34.4
35.5
31.8
33.9
29.6
46.7
40.9
37.2
49.3
34.3
62.8
48.2
42.7
194.4
62
44
147
42
98
211
560
18
375
582
522
286
294
765
390
22
130
89
93
53
79
106
111
18
10.8
10.0
9.2
9.4
6.6
6.8
9.0
3.3
37373852
44899977
41379815
43780931
55211613
48110836
54650268
110286431
Source: Romanian Statistical Yearbook, NIS, 2003
Note: *Municipalities, towns, communes and villages.
Next step assumes to normalize1 those groups of indicators, as follows:
Ø Geo-demographic indicators are normalized as a proportion between values
recorded at regional level and value recorded at national level.
Ø Economic development indicators are normalized as a proportion between values
recorded at regional level and the average.
The results of normalization process are represented in table no.2.
In the next stage, for each region and economic development indicator the
product between geo-demographic index and economic development index is computed
and the result ( I Rα ) is multiplied by a levelheaded coefficient ( C α ).
The formula of development index of the region is:
I R = C PIB × I RPIB + C ŞOM × I RŞOM + C DP × I RDP + C CF × I RCF + C GZ × I RGZ + C APA × I RAPA + C CAN × I RCAN
All calculations were performed using version 8.0.0. of the statistical software S.P.S.S..
1
s=
x
, in which x represents the input data, x R reference value and s normalized data.
xR
2
Table no.2 Normalized values of the indicators used for interregional disparities analysis
North- SouthSouthNorthRegion
South
West
Centre Bucharest
East
East
West
West
Geo-demographic indicators
Population
Area
Total number of localities
0.17
0.15
0.18
0.13
0.15
0.11
0.15
0.14
0.16
0.11
0.12
0.16
0.09
0.13
0.10
0.13
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.14
0.14
0.10
0.01
0.01
Economic development indicators
Density of public roads
Density of railways
provided with natural gas
supplied with drinking
water installations
with public sewerage
installations
Unemployment rate
GDP per capita
1.05
0.64
0.85
0.58
0.99
0.77
1.02
0.54
0.92
0.99
0.98
0.76
0.85
0.67
1.35
3.05
0.42
0.30
0.99
0.28
0.66
1.43
3.79
0.12
0.93
1.44
1.29
0.71
0.73
1.89
0.96
0.05
1.53
1.05
1.10
0.62
0.93
1.25
1.31
0.21
1.33
0.69
1.23
0.82
1.13
0.76
1.16
0.80
0.81
1.01
0.84
0.88
1.11
1.00
0.41
2.03
Table no.3 Explanatory calculations for compute the regional development index
α
Index ( I R )
Region
NorthEast
SouthEast
South
SouthWest
West
NorthWest
Centre
Bucharest
GDP
per
capita
Unemployment
rate and
population
Density
of
public
roads
and
total
area
Density
of
railways
and total
area
Total
number
of
localities
provided
with
natural
gas and
total
number
of
localities
Total number
of localities
supplied with
drinking
water
installations
and total
number of
localities
Total
number of
localities
with public
sewerage
installations
and total
number of
localities
0.12
0.23
0.16
0.10
0.076
0.1699
0.2807
0.11
0.16
0.13
0.09
0.033
0.1631
0.1188
0.12
0.18
0.14
0.11
0.158
0.2053
0.1743
0.09
0.12
0.13
0.07
0.044
0.1100
0.0971
0.09
0.07
0.12
0.13
0.067
0.0741
0.0949
0.11
0.11
0.14
0.11
0.200
0.2650
0.1750
0.12
0.21
0.13
0.04
0.12
0.01
0.10
0.02
0.521
0.001
0.1327
0.0004
0.1800
0.0018
α
Level-headed coefficient ( C )
*
0.5000
0.2500
0.0625
0.0625
0.0250
0.0500
0.0500
* Level-headed coefficient was established according with the importance of analysed indicators for
determining regional development index.
3
Final stage consists in forming a hierarchical system of regions depending on the
results acquired. Thus, according to the information from the table above, the
hierarchical system of regions that can be obtained is represented in the figure below:
0,16
0,14
21
0 ,1
15
0 ,1
33
22
5
79
24
0 ,1
Nord-Vest
Centru
Bucuresti
89
75
8
61
3
97
0,0
0,04
7
79
41
4
0,0
0,06
0 ,1
05
3
23
0 ,1
0,08
56
67
9
0,1
0,1
index value
0,12
0,02
0
Nord-Est
Sud-Est
Sud
Sud-Vest
Vest
development regions
Figure no.2 Romanian regions hierarchy depending on financial necessity
From the previously plotting of the results obtained from the NDP 2004-2006
model application we come to the conclusion that:
Economic development has an important geographical component, economic
growth following the West-East axis.
Regions with an important need of funds for regional development are: North-East
and South. These regions belong to unless developed areas of the country, being
characterized by a high level of unemployment rate. Also these regions depend on
primary sector of economy and are characterized by a reduced level of public
infrastructure development, facts that had an important contribution on classifying these
regions. The main difficulty of these regions is the incapacity of drawing direct foreign
investments.
Regions from the west side of Romania and from the centre benefit by the
advantageous position before west markets, reduced dependence upon agricultural
sector, as well as from the inflow of direct foreign investment.
The position of region 8 Bucharest-Ilfov can be explained by the mosaic structure
that describes the economic development at the intraregional level. The situation of
region Bucharest-Ilfov is no an exception. All the regions of Romania are characterized
by major social and economic development discrepancies at the intraregional level.
Thus, lots of urban centres, representing potential growing poles at regional level are
surrounded by unless developed areas.
In sight of analysing regional differences in our country the specialists in
regional science indicated to use a much large number of indicators. Guided on this we
present the result obtained from an analysis of the changing of Romanian regional
development pattern between 2001 and 2002. This model starts with the presumption of
setting up a general indicator that reflects properly the development level of some
4
regions, back and forth. This general indicator is a result of aggregation of following
categories of indicators:
Ø Employment per 1000 inhabitants; number of employees per 1000 inhabitants;
total revenues of the local budgets per inhabitant – for indicating economic
aspects of the regional development level;
Ø Infant mortality per 1000 live-births; supplied drinking water for household use
per inhabitant – for indicating the social aspects of development at regional
level.
The algorithm used in determining general indicator assume the transformation
of first value of each indicator in comparatively structural proportions2 and besides in
intelligence energy3.
Region
Table no.4 Main indicators that can used in regional disparities analysis
North- SouthSouthNorthSouth
West
Centre
East
East
West
West
Bucharest
Indicators that reflect economic aspects of regional development
Employment
per 1000
inhabitants
Number of
employees
per 1000
inhabitants
Total
revenues of
the local
budgets per
inhabitant
2001
508.49
449.50
493.82
549.50
457.00
484.72
440.35
411.73
2002
439.46
404.47
427.57
462.61
410.8
422.36
403.28
411.25
2001
165.76
195.08
174.92
177.46
229.24
207.69
232.68
312.75
2002
160.29
192.47
176.60
173.42
242.49
209.37
241.89
337.96
2001
2.72
3.06
2.60
2.75
3.09
3.10
2.91
5.92
2002
3.72
4.20
3.52
3.61
4.21
3.98
4.06
7.88
Indicators that reflect social aspects of regional development
Infant
mortality
per 1000
live-births
2001
22.8
20.00
21.10
15.20
17.30
16.50
15.20
12.10
2002
20.6
19.5
17.4
16.2
17.1
16.7
15.6
10.3
Supplied
2001
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.06
0.06
drinking
water for
household
2002
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.07
use per
inhabitant
Source: The results of calculations effectuated on available statistical data from “Romanian Statistical
Yearbook”, 2002 and 2003 editions.
2
Comparatively structural proportions reflect the weight (gi) of an element (xi) in collectively (
∑ x ).
i
i
3
Onicescu intelligence energy (E) – named after the academician Octav Onicescu – is computed as sum
of square weights of total parts of a collectivity as follow: E =
N
∑g
i =1
5
2
i
, E ∈(
1
,1).
N
General indicator can be reckoned in different ways according to the aim of the
study. Thus, in order to analyse the changes at the regional development level, the
general indicator must be determined at different periods of time, at the level of each
indicator (for pointing out the degree in which the indicator influences economic
development), on the whole country, respectively on the whole indicators.
Region
Table no.5 Intelligence energy and the general indicator value
North- SouthSouthNorthSouth
West
East
East
West
West
Centre
Bucharest
Intelligence energy of indicators that reflect economic aspects of regional development
Employment
per 1000
inhabitants
Number of
employees
per 1000
inhabitants
Total
revenues of
the local
budgets per
inhabitant
2001
0.126
0.018
0.014
0.017
0.021
0.015
0.016
0.013
0.012
2002
0.126
0.017
0.014
0.016
0.019
0.015
0.016
0.014
0.015
2001
0.131
0.010
0.013
0.011
0.011
0.018
0.015
0.019
0.034
2002
0.133
0.009
0.012
0.010
0.010
0.020
0.015
0.019
0.038
2001
0.137
0.011
0.014
0.010
0.011
0.014
0.014
0.012
0.051
2002
0.136
0.011
0.014
0.010
0.011
0.014
0.013
0.013
0.050
Intelligence energy of indicators that reflect social aspects of regional development
Infant
mortality
per 1000
live-births
Supplied
drinking
water for
household
use per
inhabitant
General
indicator
value*
2001
0.129
0.026
0.020
0.023
0.012
0.015
0.014
0.012
0.007
2002
0.129
0.024
0.021
0.017
0.015
0.016
0.016
0.014
0.006
2001
0.133
0.007
0.020
0.011
0.009
0.018
0.013
0.024
0.031
2002
0.134
0.008
0.018
0.010
0.009
0.016
0.012
0.015
0.046
2001
0.657
0.072
0.082
0.071
0.064
0.080
0.072
0.081
0.135
2002
0.658
0.068
0.080
0.064
0.063
0.082
0.071
0.076
0.155
Note: *For determining general indicator we assumed that all the aggregate indicators have the same
importance.
The results regarding social and economic development level of the Romanian
regions can be explained as follow:
F The indicator “total revenues of the local budgets per inhabitant” reflects, on one
hand, the possibilities of using them for providing best living standards to the
population and for increasing the employment rate and, on the other hand, the efficiency
of the activity performed. This study reflects that this indicator offers no important
fluctuations year by year and from one region to another, the regions “South-East” and
6
“West” recording similar values with the all country average. An exception is the
“Bucharest” region, the capital city being the most important economic centre of the
entire country. A positive evolution was recorded within the region “Centre”, in which
the increasing employment rate can be explained by growing the total revenues of the
local budgets. Region “West” although records an increasing of the total number of
wage earners, the employment rate remains unchangeable. This situation shows that the
economic activities are varied and the reorganization of some activities is accompanied
by new jobs creation in other fields.
F Analysing the social aspects of regional development, the indicator “Supplied
drinking water for household use per inhabitant” synthetically reflects on the one hand
the standards of living that public administration is able to provide in sight of the
development level of the cities’ drinking water piper-works and by the population’s
financial resources to accede to these standards, reflected by the incomes of each
family. Region “South-East” takes a better stands comparatively with the national
average level, the development level of the drinking water piper-works being mare
developed. At the same time, there is a straight correlation between the employment rate
and the supplied drinking water for households use per inhabitant. Regions in which the
indicators regarding the employment rate and total number of employees record
lowering values, the supplied drinking water for households use records the lowest
values – is the case of regions “North-East” and “South-West”.
F “Infant
mortality” essentially reflects the development level of the medical
service and the standards of living. Although this indicator records in most cases
lowering values, in the regions “North-East” and “South-East” it records values more
over national average. Excepting “Bucharest”, interregional differences regarding this
indicator are generally low.
The results of this study lead us to following hierarchy of Romanian
development regions as is showed in the figure 3.
,16
Mean Indicatorul de ansamblu 2002
,15
,14
,12
,10
,08
,08
,08
,07
,06
,08
,08
,07
,06
,06
,04
Bucuresti
Nord-Est
Centru
ROMANIA
Nord-Vest
Sud-Vest
Sud-Est
Vest
Sud
REGIUNI
Figure no.3 Interregional disparities in Romania, 2002.
7
As we can see, the region that records the best economic development level is
the “Bucharest” region. This region stands out against the economic development level
of the other regions and from the values recorded at the national level. Interregional
disparities are not very large into the country. The west side of the country is more
developed, at the opposite pole being the southern and region “South-East” records
similar values with the medium level of economic development of the country.
Increasing value of the general indicator for the analysed period emphasizes the
extending of the gap among regions regarding development level.
The changes recorded in Romania regional development within 2001-2002 are
illustrated by figure 4.
,16
,14
,12
,10
,08
Indicat. de ansamblu
2001
,06
Indicat. de ansamblu
2002
,04
Nord-Est
Sud
Sud-Est
Vest
Sud-Vest
Centru
Nord-Vest
ROMANIA
Bucuresti
REGIUNI
Figure no.4 General indicator variation within 2001- 2002.
The economic growth within 2001-2004 standstills in most regions and regions
“North-East”, “South” and “Centre” recorded a period of economic regression.
“Bucharest” is the only region that made economic progress, the capital being an
attraction pole of economic growth.
The conclusions of this model are very similar to that resulted from the NDP
2004-2006 model, precisely:
Regions “North-East”, “South” and “Centre” require a more important allocation
of regional development financial assistance.
Western regions as well as region “South-East” need to take advantage of theirs
potential growth.
Within region “Bucharest” the regional policy must be reformulated and focused
over diminishing intraregional disparities and over spreading economic growth
towards neighbour areas.
The fact that the results of different models guide us to the same conclusions
proves the opportunity of these models as well as the fact that indicators are
representative and properly used.
8
Select Bibliography:
Constantin D.L. (et al.), “The existent problems of Romania regional development”, in
Collection of papers – the 1st National Symposium of Romania Regional Science
Association, Oscar-Print, Bucharest, 2002.
Jaba E., Grama A., Statistical Analysis with S.P.S.S. for Windows, Polirom, Iasi, 2004.
*** The Statistical Yearbook of Romania, National Institute for Statistics, Bucharest,
the 2001, 2002 and 2003 editions.
*** Romania Development National Plan for 2004-2006, Ministry of European
Integration.
www.insse.ro
www.rgic.ro
9
THE CONSTRUCTION OF REGIONAL IDENTITY:
EXPERIENCES, REPRESENTATIONS, PARTNERSHIP POLICIES
Mihai PASCARU,
The University „1 Decembrie 1918” Alba Iulia
Simona BRANIŞTE,
The Agency for Regional Development „CENTRE”
1. INTRODUCTION
In the debate on the regionalization, identity is an important topic. Belonging to
a common space is a justification for economic, political, cultural and social actions of
the stakeholders in that territory.
In this context, the first part of the study presents a number of experiences,
opinions and policies on the construction of regional identity in some European states,
such as France.
In the second part, based on the data of a recent investigation, the study
researches the territorial identity of some public clerks in Alba County.
It has been found that there is a strong sentiment of regional pride for the people
born in Transylvania, motivated by the fact that there is a positive image abroad for this
region, an imagine so strong that it competes with the national image. The Romanian
national identity is naturally assumed by those who are not born in Transylvania, whose
image has faded. The national element generates a strong identity, and so does the
regional element.
However this type of identity is based on the connection between past and
present. In Europe today the issue of an identity that would link the present with the
future is being considered. It is an exciting and a problematic idea.
2. REGIONAL IDENTITY CREATION
As Helene Cardy was saying (1997), the expression “regional identity” appeared
in France at the end of the 1970’s, shortly after information was spread in different
regions to compensate for the lack of benchmarks of the public authorities and to
eliminate the shortcomings in the information system. And so, the communicational
policies became to the same degree a means of “selling”, (of valuing) the region as well
as a component of the economic development policy.
Since 1980 the communication and information services start to develop and
become integrated in the regional structures. They will form a new image both for the
region itself as well as for themselves. It was equally intended to attract investors and
tourists, but also to bring citizens to a certain identity, identified with the image.
Communicational policies focused also on a series of events with a regional character.
The construction of the identity started on the cultural attribute and moved on to the
economic one, being supported by the social stakeholders.
Cardy considered that the use of the idea of representation would permit the
understanding of the socially created reality: communicational policies and the media
would implement into society ideas which the society itself has created and therefore
regional identity is nothing else but a form of social representation.
1
The struggle for regional identity, the imposing of a vision of the social world
based on territorial differentiation, has united the citizens around this issue. Thus
between 1982 and 1992 a competition was seen between the regional communities for
their own valuing, which led implicitly to the strengthening of their own legitimacy.
At a conceptual level as well as at a practical level the position of local identity
versus regional identity is being discussed.
Candy noticed that the idea of local identity, so much used in politics, causes
debates which without revealing totally opposed positions show a diversity of
interpretations. The idea of identity itself is connected to formulations of the following
kind: identity crisis, difficulties in identification, etc. In this sense the identity of the
French regions was formed as a political purpose and expression in many studies
published by local leaders.
We must distinguish between the local identity pertaining to the region and the
local section which can refer even to a commune. “Local” is defined as being in contrast
to global and proximity, and it has the meaning of “regional” in the context of a territory
and a system of relations of power structured in a socio-economic system.
Candy considered that the feeling of belonging to a region of the administrative
personnel is different from the feeling of the citizens inhabiting a region which is in fact
the true feeling of belonging, important for the definition of the regional concept.
Differences can appear between institutional identity and the identity lived by the
inhabitants. These can be regulated through a consensual communicational policy which
would present the uniqueness of the territorial identity with its historical origins,
elaborated through the creation of a cultural patrimony, guided through social and
economic development, demarcated by symbols and monuments, carried on by oral
tradition.
For a society respectful of democratic principles the concept of public space
represents both the place where public opinion is formed and expressed, as well as a
social and citizen’s connector. The public space is the framework for political exercise.
Mass society, which is influenced by the media, has induced modifications to the public
space.
Candy noticed that French regional councils would engage in actions in the
public space, through which they would create identity, the feeling of belonging.
Although it might seem so, these actions are not individual subjects as they focus on the
creation of an entire community.
Even before 1960 the issue of a creation of a modern identity for the old
administrative regions has come up. The new regions inherit from the old ones but they
also form their own elements for integration, and characteristics.
The issue of identity was studied by political observers, by essay writers
together with sociologists, linguists, historians, geographers, etc. The studies for
regional identity were structured on issues like: temporality, opposition traditionmodernism, distinction between subjective and objective criteria. This last distinction
operates both on elements for the elaboration of a regional identity definition, as well as
on the elements necessary to the elaboration of a methodology for the creation of this
identity. The terms must be classified among themselves.
Candy tells us that Cristophe Charle suggests three themes for consideration, to
measure the existence or absence of a regional consciousness: □ migration movements:
uprooting phenomena, loss of interest in culture (these phenomena have an influence on
the regional stereotypes, which vary in the political environment and in literature usage)
□ stereotypes: the use of regional themes in parallel ways of expression: theater,
2
cinema, songs; □ cultural traditions: press, sport1. We must keep in mind also the
references to Pierre Bourdieu who considered that we must pay attention also to
objective properties (genealogy, territory, language, religion, economic activity, etc.) as
well as to subjective properties (the representation that the social subjects have on the
division of the territorial reality)2.
No matter which is the case, says Cardy, regional identities must be
continuously kept active. Sometimes the territories administratively divided into regions
do not overlap with the territories defined through other criteria. Subjective factors
interact with objective factors and through their correlation form a new specific regional
identity. A hierarchy among factors must however be established. Each region has its
own characteristics, its weak and strong points.
Candy thinks that collective memory serves as a starting point to the
reconstruction of an identity which does not really correspond to the history, and
contains themes capable of mobilizing a population. In this communication process used
by specialists, elements of substitution are used in order to equalize the deficit of
benchmarks in a region without memory or traditions. The old division of territory
disappeared or is unable to optimize the present situation and resources. This is why we
can observe the appearance of commercial purposes, invented traditions, etc., all
intended to better “sell” the region. Invented traditions contribute themselves to the
creation of an identity. It is true that some traditions can be very old and others very
new but rapidly accepted, therefore it is difficult to establish their time.
Although it is easy to distinguish between real traditions and the invented ones,
it’s hard to know if the reference to the latter is as efficient from the moment of their
revitalization as we are let to believe. In reality, they are invented by beginning with the
elements characteristic of the region. The only rule of the game is to make the
competent authorities understand the fact that they are the reconstruction of old
traditions, which are significant and productive for the regional identity.
Contrary to what we said before, noticed Cardy, the identity is neither given, nor
in permanent evolution. It is being created in an active manner. The most important
factors are the citizens who choose the image they want to offer about themselves,
image which reflects more or less what they really are. For the regional boards,
communication policy is a marginal one which they want to force into an identity by
imposing it. The policy interferes only to strengthen the ordered elements, and
eventually, it associates the civil society. Some studies conducted by Cardy herself,
indicated a clear tendency of not allowing any liberty and decisions for citizens.
Consulting public opinion before or after the actions is relevant to decisions, but in both
situations little comments are made on the results obtained. No matter what the
interpretations of the pools’ results or of pseudo-consulting are, we observed that they
do not originate from the wishes of the citizens; they are not a social demand.
Due to the difficulty of giving a satisfactory definition to the regional identity
characteristic for the French reality, Cardy uses the notion of “attributed identity”,
created by Raphael Drai, a well know French annalist of the phenomenon. According to
Raphael Drai, the regional identity can only be understood in two ways: either as a
whole and synthetic type-the ensemble of identities of all the French regions regarded as
homogeneous groups; or in a particular and singular way, at the intersection of two axes
of coordinates. The longitudinal coordinate separates the state authority from the
communal one, passing through the departmental level, and the transversal one is
1
2
Christophe C., Region et conscience régionale en France, in ARSS nr. 35, novembre 1980, p. 37-44
Bourdieu, P., Ce que parler veut dire, Fayard, Paris, 1982, p.144
3
formed of the interconnection of all the other regions of France, each having its own
singular identity.
These dimensions must take into consideration also the affective, the
psychological- conscious or unconscious components, inherent to the notion of identity.
Certainly, any identity cannot be created in a completely separatist manner that would
disregard other identities. A regional identity that can only be compared to itself would
have very little significance.
Returning to the “attributed identity”, the region faced a double difficulty: the
necessity to be imposed not only between the central state, commune and department, to
manage to create a significant institutional existence, but also to find a necessary
legitimacy for the emergence of its identity. The division did not especially favor this
insertion between spaces, and also inside the spaces, as the region had an effective
reality for recovering of different departmental and communal preexistent spaces. These
did not function more or less autonomously in this new territorial collectivity.
Evidently, this configuration did not make things easier.
The division resulting in “identity deficit”, noticed Cardy, makes the emergence
of a regional identity difficult. The territorial collectivity prior to the formation of the
region has an uneasy existence. If the commune is a place for the first existence, the
department itself has another advantage-its “charismatic” birth during the French
Revolution, connected to the “rational and free delimitation of the territories”.
This is the reason why the region existed for a long time in the middle of this
network of identities, an administrative entity without a specific basis, a creation of the
state in reconstruction. Today however the situation is quite different: the regional
identity is regarded as a new element.
3. IDENTITY LEVELS OF THE REPRESENTATIONS OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION CLERKS
The identity, in its territorial aspect is determined by a number of factors: the
birthplace, size of the locality where the subject was born or is currently living (factors
that make the identity relative), and only afterwards the prestige of the area, the
background, etc.
From our research conducted on clerks in Alba County we observed that there is
a strong regional pride for those who were born in Transylvania. This pride is motivated
by the fact that there is a positive image for Transylvania abroad: “What am I? I am a
Transylvanian. This would be a first option and I can give you a motivation. What I felt
participating at several international meetings in the EU was that the moment you said
you come from Romania, you created a certain opinion; however the moment you said
you come from Transylvania, a connection is made with a part of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire or with Dracula. It was a positive aspect. It was a positive connotation towards
Romania”. (DB, journalist, Head of the” Programs and strategies department”, County
Council Alba).
The Romanian identity is naturally assumed by those who are not born in
Transylvania and whose local identity has diminished. People originating in small
localities assume an identity at the level of the area, at the level of a town in the area,
where they presently live, if the town is of any importance on the regional or national
level ”It actually depends on the context. The identity is relative because when the
locality where you were born is small, then the pride is expressed at a greater level:
county, regional or national level. ” (DP, Engineer, Head of Investments Department,
County Council Alba).
4
In some cases, the area and its historical connotation is a strong identity element:
“Most of all I am proud of the fact that I am a <moţ3>”. ”(MA, Head of Budget-Finance
Department, Alba County Council).
The national element generates a strong identity, and so does the regional one.
A strong identity exists also on the level of locality (town), but is less emphasized than
the regional. A larger geographical area facilitates an easier identification for the simple
fact that it presents more elements of identity (existence of a renown culture, specific
mentalities).
The regional level responds best to a specific identification where regional
characteristic elements are easier identifiable (for example, the Transylvanians are
civilized, orderly people, etc).
One of the most important aspects of the territorial identity is connected to the
prestige of the area. We must notice the fact that among Transylvanians there is a strong
awareness of the superiority to the other historical regions. The differences between
regions and their inhabitants are elements that create a certain identity. The region is
characterized in terms of superiority by the following aspects, which are the strengths of
the Transylvania region: culture, high educational level, civilization, favorable geoeconomic position, geographical diversity, economic development, benefic historical
influences, progressive elements of administration, etc. Even more, it is positively
evaluated the fact that there is an ethnic diversity in this area: “Transylvania is a
multicultural inheritance which can be valued through Transylvanian socialization. The
Transylvanians are more exigent and maybe more liberal than most of the Romanians”.
(KL, geologist, Head of department “Regional development and European Integration,
County Council Covasna”).
There is a large diversity of opinion, generally favorably on this region of the
country and some fundamental differences are being noticed: “Moldova is mystic, they
are bohemians. Transylvania is characterized by pragmatism, rigor”. (MH, Lawyer,
Secretary of Alba County Council).
The values associated with Transylvania (location close to western countries,
greater economic development than the rest of the country, high level of
industrialization, pragmatism, rigor, modernity, civilization, Europeanism) they all
situate the region on a superior position compared to some of the regions. Every subject
has associated positive characteristics to Transylvania even when he/she came from
another region. The association of positive characteristics to the region emphasizes the
attachment to the region and facilitates the identification.
It is highly relevant that we find the existence of a well defined regional identity
(the case of Transylvania), grounded on elements which give identity (differences in the
sense of the superiority). Considering the fact that the Development Region “CENTRE”
comprises counties of Central Transylvania, we can state that within this geographical
artificial space there are premises for the consolidation of social cohesion based on
identity or on the conscience of belonging to the same historical, economic and cultural
space.
In conclusion, we emphasize the fact that the development regions are created
for the purpose of attaining economic objectives but they cannot exclude social
elements, of cohesion for their inhabitants.
Transylvania is a historical area differently perceived by the subjects. Here, the
history has created a unity of the region, whereas in other parts, history divided.
3
<moţ> is an inhabitant of Apuseni Mountains
5
Correlated with the theme of administrative regionalization, threatening
hypotheses are being launched in the media, referring to the possibility of a loss of
territorial integrity, loss of the unity of the Romanian state.
Among our subjects, the ones that assumed their regional identity as very
important considered themselves in an equal measure Romanians. This identity is
indestructible and is not subject to external factors such as another administrative
system.
The regional administrative division cannot remove the adherence elements, of
self identification. The inclusion of the regions in the same national space, under the
Romanian government is a condition for the preservation of the identity. The
communication through modern means plays the role of concentrating the people within
the same culture and of maintaining an intact identity.
4. CONCLUSIONS
As Michel Bassard observed, today the identity can no longer be based
exclusively on the cult of its roots and traditions. This tendency bears the germs of
asphyxiation. As a consequence, continues Bassard, the identity has no meaning unless
it constitutes a bridge between present and future. (Bassard, 1991).
Romania must start the administrative regionalization sooner or later. And of
course, the political decision for administrative regionalization will have to take account
of territorial identity. This will create consensus and will mobilize the social
stakeholders.
A very important question that we have to answer is: on what kind of identity
will the regional division be based? An identity established in the past or an identity that
would make the connection between the present and the future?
Where the identity is too strongly linked to history, the source of tendencies
towards independence is always very close. (See also Lelièvre, 2002). Where the
identity is too much linked to the future, the identity is presented in shadowy and
extremely difficult to define forms.
As we have seen in the case of France, a complex partnership is necessary. It
binds the region and its economic stakeholders with the interests, the mass media and
the citizens, in a multifunctional rectangular which is most often profitable for
everyone.
We believe that this type of partnership should be the start for the very probable
regional administrative structure that will be created in Romania.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bassand, M., ed. (1991), Identité et développement régional, Berne-Francforts.Main, New York, Paris, P. Lang Edition
2. Cardy, H. (1997), Construire l’identité régionale, Montreal, L’Edition Harmattan
3. Lelièvre, H., ed. (2002), Les régions en révolte contre les États?, Bruxelles, Édition
Complexe
4. Pascaru, M. (2001), Sociologie rurală şi regională (Rural and regional sociology),
Alba Iulia, printed by Star Soft
5. Pascaru, M. (2003), Toponimic and territorial identity. Communitarian-identity
strategies in rural areas, in Sociologia comunităţilor (Sociology of Communities),
Cluj-Napoca, printed by Argonaut, p. 139-160
6
CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN
UNION ENLARGEMENT
Carmen Beatrice Păuna, Ph.D.
Ileana Dumitrescu
Institute for Economic Forecasting, Bucharest
Romanian Academy
Allthough the fall of the „Iron Curtain” meant the end of political division in Europe, the
mirage of the welfare of Western Europe as well as the discrepancies between the two
parts of the Old Continent continued to exist. This situation incited to a revigoration of
scientific, political and even administrative activity (more or less institutionalized),
towards discovering the real development potential of central and east-european
countries.
In other words, this means that both political actors and authorities of the whole
European space become more and more aware of the need for an integrated policy of
spatial development in Europe.
European construction and moreover European integration, basically needs cross-border
spaces to demonstrate its reliability, authenticity and legitimacy; cross-border regions
become in a way „privileged laboratories” of European construction.
The basic principle of cooperation is the achievement of certain spaces1) in cross-border
areas whose development has to be monitorized by legal, economic and cultural projects,
valid for all neighboring countries – aiming at finding common solution to similar
problems, whereby statal entities do not ignore, in relation to their peripheric
colectivities, the peculiarities and characteristics of neighborhood problems they are
confronted with.
The history of the Old Continent stays as evidence for the influence exerted by crossborder cooperation on the evolution of the whole European space. As such, cross-border
international integration can be but an element of inspiration and possibly of correction
for decision-makers of European construction.
Cross-border regions group together geographic areas on both sides of the state borders,
related between each other by tradition, language, religion, culture etc.
1) In literature of speciality we sometimes find the concept of “contractual spaces” as a
generic name given to such spaces.
1
The regions within the structure of the states bear a special importance if they are looked
upon in the light of the stages which the EUROPEAN UNION member and the associate
member states have to go through. On one hand, an equal treatment is ensured from
the point of view of financial aid, that the EU provides to its member states and
their regions, and on the other hand, the possibility is created to develop efficient
collaborations among statal regions. The regions will actively participate in the
construction of unified Europe and they claim for a well defined place in the institutional
structures and decision processes. After the Maastricht Treaty came into force, the
regions became by fact and by right one of the pillars of European integration. At
present, Europe consists of a real mosaic of regions. Regions represent the result of
social-economic and cultural diversity of society. Europe will be able to exist only by
respecting this diversity.
Romania was actively involved in promoting a policy of regional cooperation on multiple
levels, as part of its endeavours of strengthening its positions in the process of European
and transatlantic integration. This policy aims at developing good relations with the
neighboring countries, among which also with those adhering to the EU and NATO, at
turning into account the potential of regional economic cooperation, the achievement of
projects regarding the development and the connection to infrastructures in the fields of
transports, communications, energy, environment etc.
Our country grants an increased importance to sub-regional cooperation, in the sense of
Romania’s interest towards extending the ways of cross-border cooperation, the creation
of Euroregions as a means of increasing confidence, economic development and as a
factor of stimulating democratic spirit at the local level. Cross-border cooperation
furthermore represents a tool for promoting an intercultural spirit and a spirit of interethnic harmony.
Government Ordinance No 120/1998 regarding the ratification by Romania of the
European Framework Agreement Regarding Cross-Border Cooperation of Collectivities
or Territorial Authorities, adopted in Madrid, on May 21, 1980, represents the legal
framework for the development of cross-border actions of cooperation by authorities and
local communities in our country. Furthermore, Romania is party to the European
Charter of Local Autonomy, adopted in Strasbourg, on October 15, 1985, and ratified by
our country by Law No 199/1997.
At present, Romania participates, with an important number of counties, in the activity of
Carpathian Euroregion (which comprises five counties in Hungary, nine in Slovakia,
four in Poland, four counties in the Ukraine and six counties in Romania – Satu Mare,
Maramures, Salaj, Bihor, Botosani and Suceava), Danube – Mureş - Tisa Euroregion
(the counties Arad, Caraş – Severin, Hunedoara and Timiş, the counties Bacs-Kiskun,
Bekes, Csongrad, Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok in Hungary and the autonomous region of
Voivodina in F.R. Yugoslavia), Lower Danube Euroregion (founded in August 1998).
After a short time the documents are to be finalized for the Upper Prut Euroregion (in
which administrative units are to participate from Romania, Republic of Moldavia and
2
the Ukraine) in which the last two represent the objective of priority in the trilateral
cooperation of Romania – Republic of Moldavia – Ukraine. Furthermore there is a
project under finalization regarding the development of cross-border cooperation as a
Euroregion in the area of the „Iron Gates” (in which there are to participate
administrative units of Romania, Bulgaria and F.R. Yugoslavia), as well as a project for
the foundation of South Danube Euroregion (in which there are to participate river-side
counties to the Danube in Romania and Bulgaria). More limited actions take place in the
Euroregion Giurgiu – Ruse, Danubius and Siret – Prut – Nistru.
After having analyzed the cooperation stage in these Euroregions, we may observe that
the potential offered by the vicinity of the borders between our countries is insufficiently
turned into account. This is why we consider that it is necessary to carry out a series of
actions meant to encourage and accelerate cooperation at the economic and socialcultural level.
The evaluation of the social-economic potential in these Euroregions identified for the
participating counties various opportunities of cross-border cooperation in numerous
fields, such as: the setting up of a common informational space regarding the economic
potential and business opportunities within the Euroregions; retraining the skills and
employment of manpower, organisation of an exchange of information within
Euroregions; coordination of environment protection programs, achievement in common
of projects and monitoring in common of pollution factors in the regions; development of
infrastructure so as to facilitate the crossing of borders and the access to international
road, railway, river and sea transport communications; setting up of common structures
regarding the facilitation of economic cooperation; coordination of commodities
certification, market development and product sales, turning into account and
development of the existing economic potential; development of cooperation in the field
of research and development, relations of cooperation between the institutions of
education, including universities, intensification of exchanges of students and teaching
staff in the Euroregions; setting up a common strategy for tourism development by using
touristic potential in the Euroregions; organization of cultural festivals, exhibitions, fairs
and regional sports contests.
According to reports throughout the territory, cross-border cooperation within the
Euroregions is a novelty both for local decision-makers and for citizens. The mass media
intended for disseminating the possibilities of collaboration for small enterprises, local
organisations etc. are not sufficiently used. The key for rhe promotion of this
collaboration nevertheless lies in the very use of modern means of information
communication and transmission. In order to supplement the limited budgetary
ressources i tis necessary to organize certain courses that will increase the abilities of
local authorities to use the opportunities of raising extrabudgetary funds.
Significant difficulties within cross-border cooperation are also caused by the differences
in the legal framework among the states involved. It is therefore necessary to carry out a
study in various fields regarding legal harmonization, which should be forwarded to
central bodies in all countries participating in this collaboration. Thus it is necessary to
find solutions to diminish non-tariff barriers in commodity trade among Euroregion
3
parties. A special importance lies in feasibility studies made in common in different fields
of collaboration, that would substantiate the need and justify the viability of the projects.
To conclude after having analyzed the state of cross-border cooperation between our
country and the neighboring countries, the most important steps of action have to be
mentioned which, in our opinion, could offer a basis for the overall economic
development of the Euroregions considered in the study: the enhancement of the
professional level of public officers and local representatives in the field of cross-border
cooperation, by training the officers, organizing study tours and exchanges of experience,
participation in conferences, symposia and workshops organized by the Association of
European Cross-Border Regions, the editing of teaching materials and syntheses,
addressed to all those involved and interested in cross-border cooperation; support
offered to establish departments for cross-border cooperation within County Councils and
their endowment with computer technique and modern means of communication;
development of a strategy to integrate counties into the Euroregion and assist public
authorities in the initial stage of strategy implementation; setting up centres of
information and documentation and of supporting business, meant to offer various
information to the public regarding opportunities of collaboration in various fields, to
grant technical adssistance to entrepreneurs for the establishment of enterprises
(including joint ventures), product promotion, the establishment of contacts with foreign
partners, export facilitation, management and accountancy; the creation of a Euroregional
information network that could include data bases, common information and
monitorization systems, that should unify from the informational point of view the
departments of county councils, the structures and decentralized services in the counties;
carrying aut studies in the field of law harmonization, as well as feasibility studies
regarding common projects of cross-border cooperation; supporting and promoting
business by organizing business forums, conferences and seminars on various topics,
analysis and looking for solutions for the elimination of existing barriers in business
development, as well as identification and turning into account of collaboration
opportunities within the Euroregion, organization of regional fairs and exhibitions;
promotion of the image of Euroregions and collaboration opportunities, by supporting
activities of information and promotion of the Euroregion in the mass media, supporting
the projects regarding the setting up of the WEB page of the Euroregion, broadcasts on
radio and TV, editing the newspaper magazine) of the Euroregion, the electronic bulletin
of the Euroregion, various publications having an information and promotion character.
Nevertheless we should not neglect the EU tools to promote cross-border and subregional cooperation and certain programs to finance the projects, such as the
INTERREG program (which stimulates the cooperation between the west-european and
their neighboring countries), Phare ACE program (for the period 2004 – 2006 intended
for Romania and Bulgaria) as well as Tacis program (for Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and
Moldavia). Relevant for this area is the program called „Small Project Facility” which
promotes cross-border cooperation as well as other forms of cooperation in an
interrelationship with the INTERREG program.
On 1st of May 2004, the European Union has extended its territory and its structure to the
west of Moldavia – a fact unprecedented in scope and complexity. Although the
4
extension as such will not add too much to the economic potential of the European
Union, the present stage of extension will be necessarily followed by a consolidation and
deepening of the integration , which will have positive implications also on the
consumption capacity of the unique market an on the production potential of the
integrated national economies. This in its turn will further increase economic attraction
exerted by the EU on Moldavia, especially considering that after Romania’s probable
adherence in 2007, the EU will extend exactly to the border with Moldavia. In the context
of EU extensiuon to its border, it is necessary for Moldavia to negotiate conditions as
advantageous as possible for itself and to be prepared to manage the problems arisen. It is
worth mentioning in this sense that it is necessary to renegotiate the free trade agreement
with Romania.
Another form of regional cooperation with positive impact for the stability and
development of the region is the network of trilateral cooperations developed by
Romania with Austria, Bulgaria, Greece, Moldavia, Poland, Turkey, Ukraine and
Hungary.
The European Union is interested in reducing disparities as well as in the economic and
social homogenization of regions in Europe. To this aim, the EU has at its disposal
structural funds, the fond of cohesion as well as a fund for the granting of subsidies for
certain small scale projects, especially in the field of environment protection, transport
and the diversification of energy sources.
The Phare program of cross-border cooperation represents one of the main instruments of
intervention for the European Union, which aims at accelerating the rate of development
in cross-border zones of the EU candidate countries.
As a result of the coming into force of the European Commission Regulation No
2760/22.12/1998 (which permitted the extension of the Phare program for cross-border
cooperation starting by 1999 also between Phare-Phare countries), Romania was declared
as eligible country. Mention has to be made that prior to this regulation, Romania was
involved in the running of a pilot program of cross-border cooperation with Hungary
(ZZ9624); the successful implementation of this program proved the experts’ adaptation
to the procedures imposed by its application.
At present, the European Union allocates to Romania 28 million Euro by the
Memorandum for the Financing of Phare Programes of Cross-Border Cooperation.
Against this amount, the government of our country will contribute with an additional
amount of 8,9 million Euro of the state budget.
This Memorandum includes 5 PHARE programs of cross-border cooperation (Romania –
Bulgaria, Romania – Hungary, Romania – Moldavia, Romania – Ukraine and Romania –
Serbia-Montenegro). Although the general objectives are similar, the programs contain
different measures of implementing them.
Among the specific objectives of the Phare programs for cross-border cooperation we
mention: the development of infrastructure systems that support cooperation, the
5
achievement of a system of common actions as a response to similar threats on the part of
the environment factors, the strengthening of economic relations among neighboring
regions in order to support in common durable development in the zone, the promotion of
urban development in view of strengthening the role held by towns in the development of
the regions, achievement of social and cultural cohesion among communities and people
on both sides of the border.
The components of the Program of Cross-Border Cooperation 2004 are the following:
•
The program of cross-border cooperation between our country and Bulgaria,
amounting to 8 million Euro that are derived from Phare funds and 2.65 million
Euro that are supposed to be obtained from the budget of our country, with the
aim of promoting good neighborhood relations, stability and cooperation between
the border zones and of maintaining the networks created, and the further
development of connections to other European zones
•
The program of cross-border cooperation of our country with Hungary, which will
use 5 million Euro of Phare funds and 1.58 million Euro from the state budget, for
the establishment and development of infrastructure systems, the consolidation of
social-economic links between the neighboring regions.
•
The program of neighborhood Romania – Moldavia that will be financed with an
amount of 5 million Euro of Phare funds and an amount of 1.59 million Euro from
Romania’s budget, a program that will be based on intensifying the efforts of
economic-social cooperation and the improvement of infrastructure in the border
areas.
•
The program of neighborhood Romania-Ukraine that will be financed with 6
million Euro from Phare funds and 1.9 million Euro from Romania’s budget with
the aim of improving economic cooperation between the two countries in the
border areas.
Program of neighborhood Romania – Serbia-Montenegro, that will receive 4
million Euro from Phare funds and 1.27 million Euro from the state budget for the
diminishing of economic disparities in the border areas and the intensification of
economic growth in the areas left in a state of economic decline in this area.
•
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Barro, R,J., Sala-i-Martin, X., “Convergence across states and regions”, Brooking
Papers, vol.1, 1991
Batey P.W.J., Rose A.Z. - Extended input-output models: progress and potential, în:
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International Regional Science Review, 13-1/2/1990
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*** Carta Verde. Politica de dezvoltare regională în România, Guvernul României şi
Comisia Europeană, Programul Phare, 1997
Constantin, D.L., Economie regională, Editura Oscar Print, Bucureşti, 1998
Constantin, D.L., Introducere în teoria şi practica dezvoltării regionale, Editura
Economică, Bucureşti, 2001
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de Prognoza, Bucureşti
Hallet, M., “National and Regional Development in Central and Eastern Europe:
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Commission
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economica, în Analele Institutului National de Cercetari Economice, anul V, vol. 15, nr.
1-2/1995, Centrul de Informare si Documentare Economica, Institutul National de
Cercetari Economice, Bucuresti
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1997, (ediţia a IIa)
Nica, N.A., “Politica de dezvoltare regională între necesitate internă şi cerinţa externă sau
Filosofia sprijinului european pentru dezvoltare regională”, în D.L. Constantin
(coordonator), Probleme actuale ale dezvoltării regionale în România.Lucrările Primului
Simpozion Naţional al Asociaţiei Române de Stiinţe Regionale, Editura Oscar Print,
Bucureşti, 2002
Nijkamp, P., “Northern Poland Regional Development Initiative and Project: Some
Theoretical and Policy Perspectives”, Department of Spartial Economics, Free
University, Amsterdam, mimeo
Păuna Carmen B., Trăistaru I, Regional structural change and groth in Romania, ERSA
Conference, Dortmund 2002
Sala-i-Martin, X., “Regional Cohesion: Evidence and Theories of Regional Growthand
Convergence”, in European Economic Review vol.40, 1996
Traistaru, I., “Regional Patterns of Private Enterprise Development in Romania”, the 40th
Congress of the ERSA, Barcelona, August 2000
Vanhove, N., Regional Policy: A European Approach, third edition, Ashgate, 1999
* * * Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament,
Brussel, 7 - 11.3.2003, Neighbourhood Programme
*** Manual de cooperare transfrontalieră – Uniunea Europeană
* * * Raportul naţional al dezvoltării umane - România
* * * Planul Naţional de Dezvoltare , 2000-2005, MDP
* * * Periodice economice – Adevărul Economic, Tribuna Economică, Capitalul,
Economistul
- cross-border cooperation (cooperarea transfrontalieră)
www.mie.ro
7
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND DIRECT FOREIGN INVESTMENTS,
SUPPORT FOR INNOVATION: STUDY CASES FROM ROMANIA
Ec. Drd. Mihaela PIRTEA,
The Agency for Regional Development “VEST”
1. Introduction
Innovation can be defined as a process of developing and implementing new ideas, a
process that relates a lot to change. A new society, called the knowledge society, a society
open for innovation, is taking shape in the developed countries and it is being prefigured in
the developing ones. The most obvious aspect of the new society is the speed with which the
new technologies are created, introduced, distributed and used, an aspect that needs to be
correlated with a major transformation of outlooks, structures, and institutions specific to the
industrial society. The innovative potential of organizations (both in terms of product
innovation, and in terms of process and organization innovation), correlated with the capacity
of absorption (acquisition and implementation) of the new technologies, represents the
companies’ own most important source of internal growth.
It is generally accepted the fact that innovation plays a key-role in insuring the
economical growth. The innovation theory’ pioneer, J. Schumpeter, thought innovation as the
second component (or state) of the technological changing process, next to invention (the first
component/state) and distribution (the third component/state). During the last seven decades
that passed since the first works of Schumpeter, governors, economists, engineers and
academics, all looked at innovation in different ways.
•
•
•
FDI consist from the transfer of an "industrial pack", including capital,
technologies, new products, different systems of industrial structuring,
management expertise and know-how - including marketing knowledge, all
these allowing the investor to control his investment.
Clasification of FDI’s
• "greenfield" – creation of a new branch
• “brownfield” – buying an existing company
• “equity joint-venture” – creation of a mix company
1. dominant
2. equable
3. minoritary
technology transfer by FDI represents more than the classical transfer,
which affects only some dimensions of the beneficiary organization, and
integrates an organizational, managerial, strategic and financial
dimension.
2. Literature review
In the largest present approach, innovation “can manifest itself through the new
products and services, through the new methods of output, packaging, marketing and
distribution, through new markets, new sources of supplies, as well as through the new
systems or methods of organization” (Tien, 1998). Thus, one may consider that innovation
1
covers “any policy, structure, method, process or opportunity on the market, perceved by the
manager of an innovative company as something new” (Nohria, Gulati, 1996). Closing area
on the meaning of the concept to the output activity, innovation then refers to “the bringing
into force of an invention for the first time, in a productive process that has lucrative purpose,
aiming to introduce new products and services into the assortment line or to use a new
method of production” (Shim, Giegel, 1995).
Beginning with the encompassment and the content of innovation, we can determine
forms of innovation, which represent its expressions, grouped by common characteristics.
In the case of the enterprise, as a "host" of several transformation processes of the
input elements (material, technical, human and informational resources) into output elements
(manufacture products or services), innovation can appear in one of the following forms
(Zhuang, Williamson, Carter, 1999; Sipos, 2004): input innovation (regarding raw and used
materials in the production processes, the sources and the methods of supply), process
innovation (including the innovation of the techniques and technologies used in the
transformation processes, in the organizing systems and administrative procedures involved
in the conversion of the input elements in output elements), output innovation (which refers to
the innovation of products and services, the manner of packaging and distribution channels,
this also being the direct form of innovation perceived by the market/clients).
According to the ways of supporting the competitive growth, innovation can be
found in two forms (Utterback, 1994; Sipos, 2004): product innovation (with reference to
changes regarding the final product or service offered by a company) and process innovation
(which includes the changing of the ways in which an enterprise obtains the final products
and services offered, this being the form which covers all internal aspects of the organization,
also having the role of globally improving its performances and allowing the firm to benefit
from the generated competitive advantages for a longer period of time).
Other taxonomic grouping criteria are (Sipos, 2004):
If one considers the degree of new as a criterion, determined by the intensity of the
strategic and structural change of the company, we can distinguish the following: radical
innovation (the application of an idea, of a practice or a method which represents an absolute
novelty for the industrial branch, determining fundamental changes in the activities of a
company), instrumental innovation (the application of an idea, of a certain practice or method
which represents something absolutely new for the company, but doesn't imply the same
thing for the economical branch).
In terms of the form in which the innovation materializes, we can identify six ways
of manifestation: the conception of a new product/ service, the introduction of a new method
of manufacture, the penetration of a new market/ development of a new market, the usage of
new raw materials, new ways of organizing an enterprise, the creation of a new image for the
company.
In terms of the impact on the industry and the degree of influence on the market, we
can identify the following: substantial innovation - a synthesis of a new technology or the
identification of new needs/requirements on the market (involves the obtaining of a new
product destined for a new market, having as an effect the outlining of a new technology's
cycle of life, as well as the development of new commercial relations, which replace the
existing ones), the uncover of new commercial segments - re-combination of known elements
in order to adapt the product to the market demand (involves the placement of an existing
product, adapted to the demand of a new market, having as effects the consolidation of the
existing technologies and the development of new commercial relations), current innovation the improvement of a current product (it refers to the situations in which the product is a
subject to current changes which are necessary due to the competition growth and easier to
make because of the knowledge progress, being destined to the current market and having as
2
an effect the consolidation of the existing technologies and commercial relations), the
revolutionary innovation - the changing in the way the product is developed, by keeping the
functions and the clients (it consists in the product development in a mostly new way, which
enables the company to supply the old clients with superior performances, having as an effect
the outlining of a new technology's life line).
The gradual increase of the innovation process's complexity can be presented in form
of five generations of approach models (Rosenberg, 1982; Rothwell, 1994): (i) the
"technology-push" model - the innovation process began with the scientific discovery, the
technical discovery, the production within the enterprises, and ending with the distribution of
a new product or process; (ii) the "market-pull" model - it stresses the acknowledgement of
the consumer's needs as a primal factor of influence on the innovation process, on the demand
- development - production - distribution chain on the market; (iii) interactive ("coupling")
model - which integrates the approach based on the technological pressure as well as the
approach on the market demand; it is centered around an interaction process that highlights
the feed-back effects between the upstream or downstream phases of the previous linear
models, as well as the integration between research-development and marketing at interface
level, the role of the two compartments being approximately equal; (iv) "chain of
connections" model - which presents the process of innovation as a combination of other
processes that take place at the same time or one after the other, as they are related between
them by a network of diverse and complex connections, in which the science and the
technology do not always have the leading role, but they are discriminatory factors; (v) the
"completely integrated" model - which involves a process that is oriented towards the
multidimensional capitalization of the organization's innovative potential, having the
following key-attributes: total integration, flexibility, network operation and parallel
information processing.
Having these complete and complex theoretical approaches as a starting point, the
strategies and policies are adopted and implemented at European and national level, so that
they enable the organizations to maximize the degree of usage of their innovation capacity in
order to obtain the expected synergic effects.
q
Main economical theories regarding FDI:
q Valorizing market's imperfections theory, based on the following
categories of market's imperfections, which could lead to monopol
types of advantages (Kindleberger):
• imperfections on the products market, which occur especially
because of the differences between marketing techniques and
products
• imperfections on the supplies market:
ü technology ownership (know-how and patents),
ü different access to capital
ü different managerial expertise
• Imperfections regarding the source of scale economy
ü mass production, which leads to increased efficiency, but
is different from the horizontal integration by aliances or cartels
ü coordination of several production stages as a result of
FDI, process which helps the vertical integration: speeding up of
the production, lowering the risks resulting from changing
technologies or delivery network.
•
Multi and transnational organizations are the one that can use
eficiently markets imperfections.
3
q
Monopoly or oligopoly advantage theory, according to which
investing companies have monopol advantages (superior know-ledge
and scale economy), that allow them to create branches abroad, more
profitable than national companies. The teory makes distinction
between
• Horizontal investments, regarding superior knowledge and
product’s life cycle
• Vertical investments, regarding scale economy advantages and
implying the transfer of advanced production technologies
q
Production internalization theory, sustains that the organizations
own discoveries and other advantages obtained from their own
activities, lead them to direct foreign investments when intraorganizational transfers are less expensive than the transactions on
the open market.
q
The eclectic theory, which sustains that the decisions regarding FDI
are the result of the contribution of a set of specific elements of
several theories, including international commerce, investments
localization, monopoly advantages of internalization, property
advantages etc.
3. Methodology and findings
The directions of the innovation policy and its concrete ways of application are parts
of the General Management's global context regarding the enterprise policies, started in
January 2000, and their coherent transpose in practice is one of the main objectives pursued
by the frame-programs regarding the research and the development.
The strategic objectives for the European Union's innovation policy have been
defined at the European Council's summit, which took place in Lisbon in March 2000.
According to it there are two strategic directions that are to be followed by the European
Union:
- the necessity of creating a healthy environment for innovative start-ups
- the dissemination of the innovation results for the Member States
There are two strategic areas of action foreseen by the Lisbon Strategy:
1. the European Knowledge Area, determined by the following:
- The development of a transparent European Environment, open to research,
innovation and education
- The creation of networks and excellence in research, innovation and education
centers
- The settlement of the premises for the growth of investments made in research
that come form private sources, the raising of the research and development
expenses of the private sector correlated with the existence of high levels of public
funds destined for researches in the prior areas
2. Border technology – the European Committee from Stockholm recognized that border
technologies as life sciences and biotechnology, together with the “clean”
technologies, represent a key-factor for the future development in an area that has
as a well developed knowledge over Europe, although it is way behind USA.
4
Ø In this paper we analyze mainly the nature and effects of the implant made by the
investing company, as well as the interactions of the new branches with the main
organization.
3.1 The components of the technology transfer
Ø Technological transfer by FDI does not imply only technology, but also
organizational and managerial knowledge.
Ø International transfer of technology can be logically defined as a process,
during which a technological system and knowledge are transmitted as an
objective for profitability, in order to offer to the receiver organization the
capacity of reproducing that technology (Ronach, 1999:10-11). In order to
transfer technology, one must transfer technique, professional skills, knowhow, and knowledge, elements that change the technique in technology.
3.2 Transition’s obstacles in the way of technology transfer
Ø the capacity of the organization to adapt and enrich the received technology
depends of the overtaking of the obstacles determined by the form of property
and the organization of the activity before transition.
Ø Table 1 presents the nature and the impact of the barriers on the technological
change, at the local organizations level
Obstacles in the way of technological changes from the command economies
Nature of obstacles
• Slow and limited flux of technical
information at organizational level
• Unfair process of selecting and
distributing of scholarships and
trainings
• Lack of stimulants for choosing
external
patents
for
national
technologies
• Low level of stimulus for choosing
local technological patents
• Un-adequate system of stimulus for
choosing between national and foreign
technology
• Long periods of negotiations with
foreign partners
• Difficulties in ordering a specific type
of equipment, small amounts of
superior quality inputs
• Deficiencies and delays due to the
particularities of the investment process
in centralized economies
• Delays in the case of imported
Impact of obstacles
• Delays in admitting the need for technical
changes in the industry from which the
organization is part of
• Delays in taking the decisions for choosing
adequate technology
• The risk of wrong choices
• Delays in introduction of technical changes,
the received technology is less and less
•
Supplementary delays in introducing
technological changes
• The received technologies are old, almost
useless
5
technologies by national branches
Delays due to the low quality of the • Delays in reaching the minimal level of
efficiency (high costs, low profitability,
local equipment and inputs
low quality of the products)
• Low quality of the out put, due to the
low quality input
of
expensive
and
• Lack of stimulation for improving • Production
technologically old products
and control received
• Lack of stimulations for reorganizing • Late entrance and short presence on the
international market
organizational resources
•
Source: Winiecki, 1998:11
3.3 Advantages and risks for foreign investors
Ø FDI gives foreign investors the possibility of benefiting of favorable supply
conditions in the host country: better access to local markets and inputs,
availability of factors.
Ø Among the risks for FDI, we mention:
• High costs, generated by: the slow pace of businesses, different kinds
of obstacles and demands from local bureaucracies, corruption, the
instability and weakness of the legal environment.
• Dificulties in identifing local parteners from the point of view of the
nature and accuracy of the information, technical level, market
shares, capital, profitability, existing agreements, skills of the work
force, productivity.
• In the case of not finding reliable parteners, the investing company
will have to use it’s own external competences: managers and
technicians, external supliers etc.
3.4
Level of implication and technology transfer
We define the “level of implication” of the foreign company in the host country, as being
expressed by its involvement, or its desire to remain in that country for medium period of
time. From the facts presented so far, we can associate the intensity of technology transfer to
the level of involvement of the investing company and to it’s form, which is based on the
criteria presented in the following table.
Level of involvement of the investing organization (TNC) and technology
transfer
Level of involvement/characteristics
Low
Medium
High
Preparedness
• Lacking
• Internal, for a small • Internal,
for
/training
of
part of the personnel
everyone
human resources
Organizational
• Low level of • Partial delegation of • Total delegation
Criteria
6
management
decision
autonomy
• High level of
foreign experts
• Usual,
controlled by
foreigners
• Limited to a
few
areas
(technical,
production)
Transferred
technology
Range
products
of
Integration
in
international
and/or regional
network of the
TNC
functions
• Low
level
foreign experts
• Medium presence of
foreign experts
of
Controlled
by • Controlled by local
employees
foreigners
level
of
• Internal forming of • High
transfer
(technical,
local labor
production,
• Medium
limitation
management,
(technical,
marketing,
even
management,
R&D)
production)
• Limited
in • Transfer of a part of • Total transfer of the
investing
the
investing
depth
and
organization’s range
organization
width
of products
• Low
• Forced integration in • Strong integration
integration in
the
international
in the international
the
network of the TCN
network of the TCN
international
network of the
TCN
•
Source: Adapted from Xavier, Fabry, Zeghni, 1999:14)
4. Cases from Romania
The term of “New Economy” has been used for the first time by the Business Week in
1996 as a conceptualization of a complex reality manifested in the most advanced economies.
There isn’t a precise definition, generally accepted, but one can say that the New Economy
refers to permanently improved products, commercialized by innovative agents who exploit
first new segments opened or created by themselves on markets that are globalizing. The
active policies of the New Economy are centered on stimulants aimed for knowledge creation
and distribution, on a creative management of the intellectual propriety, the intangible assets
of the organization becoming economic goods, although having absolutely new features. The
role of state changes, adjusts, which represents a real challenge to classic governance (Jinaru,
Caragea, Turlea, 2003). In its most profound and advanced meaning the New Economy is the
equivalent of “The Economy Based on Knowledge”, which means “the creation of
knowledge through continuous innovation, dissemination of knowledge done by all the
members of the society, the intensive usage of knowledge in all domains (and, in particular,
in technology and organization of human activities), education in favor of this kind of
economy throughout the framework of an education and professional formation system based
on innovation and research (World Bank Project for Romanian Academy, 2002)”. This
definition maybe corresponds the best with the type of society towards which tend most of
the countries, poor or rich, with social-democrat, liberal or Christian-democrat, mono-ethnic
or multi-ethnic governments. What differs is the implementation manner (Ferranti et, al,
2001). Concerning the central and east European countries, a double transition process took
(and takes) place: politics – from the imposed governance to legitimate and economicalsocial governance – from the rigid economy to market mechanisms economy, and later, to the
knowledge-based economy.
7
Taking into consideration that only recently (2004) Romania was included among the
countries with a functional market economy, it is very important for this country to focus
towards the strategies and European Union-promoted institutions, and at the same time
highlighting the transplant effect and specific adjustment measures that are necessary in order
to reach evolutions comparable with those of the new members group. A qualitative analysis
shows that Romania is in a comparable situation with the ones in Russia, Hungary, Poland,
Czech Republic or Slovakia (UNCTAD, 2002), although at the qualitative and structural level
of indicators appears a slowing down. The task of the construction of a new economy based
on knowledge cannot resume only to infrastructural ICT development. It has to include also
the synergy of the innovative and managerial potentials at organizational level and the
straight definition of the institutional environment and specific laws.
The general contribution of the Romanian innovators seems, at the first sight,
comparable with the European Union’s average and ever higher than the one of several
countries that adhered on My 1st, 2004. But this is an optimistic vision, which disappears
once taking into consideration of some extra elements. The structure of the innovation
expenses is dramatically directed mainly towards the acquisition of engines and machinery,
which shows that the main part of the product innovation process is delegated to a
continuously technological catching-up, based on encouragements for the import of
technology.
With a ratio higher than within the European Union, the main innovators are the large
enterprises, many of which are still property of the state or only recently private. This fact
suggests that innovation still follows the traditional ways of investment, and the filters based
on efficiency are still not functional. Many question marks can be raised regarding the
efficiency of implemented innovations and regarding the deepness of the generated impact on
the economic performances of the organizations.
Romanian legal frame for FDI
•
•
•
Law number 332/2001, regarding the sustainability of direct
investments with a significant impact on the economy. Direct
investments with a significant impact on the economy are defined as
being those investments whose value is higher than the equivalent of
one million $, realized in the forms mentioned within the law and
which contribute to the development and modernization of the
economical infrastructure of Romania, having an positive impact on
the economy and creating new jobs.
The law offers several facilities for the investors who bring more
than 1million $ in Romania.
In March 2002 was created The Agency for Foreign Investments,
that will coordinate all the activities regarding the promotion of
foreign investments and will assist the investors in the process of
crating new enterprises in Romania.
Representative cases of technological transfer by FDI
Dacia – Group Renault
From the elements of technology transfer realized or under implementation, we mention:
• training of technical personnel from the assistance network in new maintenance and
repair techniques
8
•
the introduction of cost controlling concept and the training of some employees in
France
• launching of extensive training programs for the employees
• creation of a selling force, for the launch of new products
• selling promotion by financial credits from BRD-Group Société Générale
• reducing of management levels, from 7 to 4
We also have to mention that the plans of Renault Group in Romania stimulated FDI from
important producers of car components; they created production branches, which now are
partners of Dacia – Renault Group.
4.2.2 Lafarge – Romcim
Including Romcim in the Lafarge Group implied working with two different organizational
cultures and the solutions adopted referred to:
• technical modernization of the factories
• skills transfer
• human resources integration by special trainings, adapted to the local culture,
improving communication by sending employees in France, for training and preparing
• implementation of a environment protection plan, with solution regarding: the
reduction of dust and gas emissions in the atmosphere, reduction of noise pollution
4.2.3 Technology transfer by transferring the European production of PCC at Sterom
Câmpina
The American company Precision Costparts Corp. (PCC), one of the leaders of the precisions
equipments producers industry, decided to transform its branch from Romania, PCC Sterom
Câmpina, in the European production center of the company. One of the factors that
determined the company to make such a move was the good result of the Câmpina’s branch
in managing a Reiss fitting production line, which came operational at the middle of 2001,
the production being destined for UK. The transfer of the PCC’s production lines at Câmpina,
will determine the diversification of the business portfolio of the new company – PCC EMC,
by challenging new industrial branches, such as: paper and cellulose industry, aerospace
industry and for the car and equipments industry.
5. Conclusions
The paper sustains that FDI favor, during the implementation, the transfer of advanced
technologies to the receiver organization, by:
• acquisition of modern techniques and technologies
• higher productivity in the local organizations
• professional training of the human resources from the industry and services
• introduction of modern methods of management and organization
• restructuring local organizations
• applying market mechanisms
9
At the macro economical level of the host country, the FDI contributes to the improving of
the supplies allocation and quality of products and services, allow the development of new
national and international markets.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
References
Caragea A, Gheorgiu R., Ţurlea G - Economia Bazată pe Cunoaştere în România.
Evaluarea progreselor recente. Blocaje. Recomandări de politică economică, Raport al
Grupului Consultativ al Centrului de Resurse pentru Economia Bazată pe Cunoaştere,
Univ. Al.I. Cuza Iaşi, 2004
Jinaru A., Caragea A., Ţurlea G. – Promovarea dezvoltării „Noii Economii” în România
în contextul aderării la Uniunea Europeană, Studiul nr. 14, Proiect PHARE RO 990702-01 – Studiu de impact al preaderării, Iaşi, 2003
Ferranti D. De, Perry G.E., Lederman D., Maloney W.F. – From Natral resources to
Knowledge Economy. Trade and Job Quality, World Bank, 2001
Nohria N., Gulati R. – Is slack good or bad for innovation?, Academy of Management
Journal, vol. 39, no. 5, 1996
Rosenberg N. – Inside th Black Box: Technology and Economics. University Press,
Cambridge, 1982
Rothwell R. – Industrial Innovation and Environmental Some Lessons from the Past,
Technovation, vol. 12, no. 7/1992
Rothwell R. – Successful Industrial Innovation: Critical Factors for the 1990s, R&D
Development, vol. 22, no.3/1992
Rothwell R. – Innovation and Firm Size: A Case for Dynamic Complemntarily; Or Is
Small eality so Beautiful?, Journal of General Management, vol. 8, 1983
Rothwell R. – Towards the Fifth Generation Innovation Process, International
Marketing Review, no. 1, 1994
Russu C. – Economie Industrială, Editura Economica, Bucharest, 2003
Schim J.K., Giegel J.G. – Dictionary of Econmics, Business Dictionary Series, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., 1995
Schumpeter J. – The Theory of Economic Development, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Mass., 1934
Schumpeter J. – Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Harper & Row, New York,
1942
Şipoş G. – Inovarea în întreprindere, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2004
Tien C. – Chief Executive’s Commission on Innovation and Technology First eport,
Chief Executive’s Commission on Innovation and technology, Hong Kong, 1998
Utterback J.M. – Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation, Harvard Businss Schhol Pess,
Boston, 1994
Zhuang L., Williamson D., Carter M. – Innovate or liquidate – are all organisations
convinced? A two – phased study into the innovation process, Management Decision
no. 37, 1999
*** UNCTAD, Country Export Potenial Profile. Information Technology, Romania,
2002
10
MERGERS, AQUISITION AND INVESTMENT IN
RESTRUCTURING INDUSTRIES IN ROMANIA
Prof. Dr. Gabriela PRELIPCEAN
Universitatea “Stefan cel Mare” Suceava
Abstract
In the restructuring process there are two broad categories of mergers and
acquisitions:
a) which exploits synergies and growth opportunities;
b) which seeks greater efficiency, consolidation and disinvestment.
This paper present a theory of the second type by using a continuos time real
option model, in which the managers can abandon its business if product demand,
falls to a sufficient low level. The managers may abandon voluntary or be forced to do
so by a takeover (mergers and acquisition). We analyse the managers behaviour
absent any takeover threats, then consider what happens if another company can bid
to takeover the firm. We note that few takeovers are undertaken solely to force
disinvestment.
1.Introduction
The literature on mergers and acquisition (M&A, or takeovers) has grown
significantly after Joel, Segal (1968) research, but most of this huge work is empirical,
testing hypotheses derived from qualitative economic reasoning. The hypotheses
relate to possible motives for M&A, their impact in stock market values, and the
effects of capital market conditions and legal constraints.
M&A (takeovers) could be classified in two categories:
- takeovers which exploits synergies and growth opportunities
- takeovers which seeks greater efficiency through layoffs, consolidation and
disinvestment (for this type is interesting to develop a theory dedicated for the
restructuring industries in transition economies).
The takeovers for growth and synergy are more likely to be effected as merger
of equals, because both firms’ management’s can share the value added without
paying a premium to shareholders of the target firm.
We are interested to analyse the second type of M&A by using a continuos
time, real option model, in which managers of the firm can abandon its business if
product falls at a critical, low level. The managers may abandon voluntarily or be
force to do by a takeover. We analyse the managers’ behaviour absent any takeover
threats, then consider what happens if the ”raider company” can bid to takeover the
firm.
There are only few takeovers and undertaken solely to force disinvestment.
Opportunities for disinvestment and synergy and growth may coexist in the same
deal, especially in transition economies. Takeovers undertaken primarily for
disinvestment are common, however (some examples are from the oil industry and
banking industry). Disinvestment is also used as a defence strategy against takeovers
(there are a lot of examples in the heavy industry, after the announcement of a hostile
takeover bid).
1
An easy answer such as the protection of manager’s jobs is not satisfactory for
the question about the necessity of takeovers to shrink declining industries. In the
golden parachute strategy, the closing of redundant plants could be better than
keeping them open. A closure strategy that ended up out of work as a result of
successful shutdown ought to be in demand o run other declining firms.
In transition economies, there are some reasons why incumbent managers may
not want to disinvest. Their human capital may be specialised to the firm or they may
be extracting more rents as incumbents than they could get by starting fresh another
firm. In this case, it results some other questions. Can a golden parachute or the threat
of takeover overcome the manager’s reluctance to shrink their firm? Does the
Grosman-Hart hold-up problem prevent efficient takeovers? And if another firm leads
a successful takeover, why do the new managers act to shrink the firm? Are these
incentives different than the strategy of old managers? Does it make a difference
whether the takeover is launched by a national firm multinational firm or by a raider
with purely short-term finial motives?
To analyse takeovers, we first identify and examine the reasons for inefficient
disinvestment. Thus we have to derive managers’ payout and closure decisions and
consider the possible disciplinary role of golden parachutes (GP) and debt. Our results
about payout, GP and debt policy are interesting in their own right for a transition
economy.
2. The actors in the takeovers market and how they act
This is a special market because there are a lot of particularities and another
philosophy of actions. If the firm carries sufficient debt, takeovers have no role to
play (for example at Sofert Bacau, Petrolsub Barcau, Electroputere Craiova). We
consider only the takeovers of undelivered firms. In this case the following types of
actors could launch the takeovers
a) Raiders are the purely financial investors and take over the firm at exactly
the optimal level of product demand and shut down the firm immediately. They
implement the first best outcome strategy, where abandonment maximises the overall
value of the firm (not the value to the managers or investors separately).
b) Another firm (national or multinational) Managers of another firm can
launch a hostile takeover. In this case, they act exactly like a raider unless they are
forced to preemt a competing bid. Preemption means that the takeover occurs too
early, at a too high demand level, or too late. Hostile takeovers require some
commitment mechanism to assure that the acquiring managers actually follow through
and shut down the target. After the bidding firm takes over, it also acquires the
incentives of the target management. The right amount of debt can force
dissinvestment. This procedure was very popular in Romanian economy. Equity
financed takeovers (M&A) will not occur unless there are some credible alternative
commitment mechanism.
c) Management buyouts (MBOs) In a transition economy there was a
procedure that allowed managers to buy out their own firm and this prompts them to
disinvest at higher levels of demand. Closure still happens inefficiently late, because
the managers lose he ability to capture cash flow when they take over and shut down
the firm. These buyouts can occur only if takeovers by raiders or other firm are
declined.
d) Mergers of equals. There is a situation when a firm could make a hostile
takeover that will be better off forcing the target to accept the strategy of mergers of
equals, in which the merger terms are negotiate by two firms’ managers without
2
considering the target in play. This procedure of mergers of equals reduces the power
of the target shareholders to extract value from the bidder. Since a merger of equals
does not change mangers’ incentives, disinvestment remains inefficiently late. The
raider could always contest such a merger and the result is ineffective.
2. The model
It is considered a firm with dispersed stockholders (and thus, we do not
considered an optimal financial contracting, optimal compensation or manager’s
effort, and neither the private benefits of control). We assume that managers try to
maximise the present value of the cash flows they can extract from the firm. This
aspect, together with the liquidity problem is very important in a high inflation
economy in transition. At the same time, managers have to pay out enough money to
prevent investors from exercising their property rights and taking control of the firm.
For mangers, the equilibrium payout policy is dynamically optimal. In good state of
economy, payout varies with operating cash flow. As demand falls, there is a
switching or a critical point where payout falls to a fixed, minimum amount, that is
proportional to the firm’s stock of capital.
The theoretical first best closure point is the level of demand where shut down
and redeployment of capital maximises the total value of the firm (defined as the sum
of present values of the managers’ and investors’ claims on the firm; here, efficiency
does not mean maximising shareholder value). It is shown that, in transition,
managers always too long, as the product demand declines, before abandoning and
allowing closure. The managers have no property rights to released capital and do not
consider its full opportunity costs but if demand keeps falling, the managers are
eventually forced to pay ”from their pockets” in order to keep investors at bay; sooner
or later they must give up. Decamps, Faure-Grimaud (2002) find other reasons for late
closure: empire multinationals buildings motives, private benefits or the benefits of
risk taking and delay for firms in financial distress.
Now we consider how the financial leverage and the resulting obligations to
pay out cash for debt service (this is critical in a high inflation economy), changes the
managers’ behaviour. Debt financing accelerates abandonment, especially at high
levels of interest rate, and thus improves efficiency. There is of course an optimal debt
level, which assures efficient abandonment. The question of efficiency of
abandonment is nor easy to estimate in a corrupted environment but the optimal level
is always linked to the liquidation value of the firm’ s assets and not to its operating
cash flow or market value. In an illiquid stock exchange, the stock market value is
different from the real value, because a narrow segment of an illiquid market is easy
to manipulate. The optimal level is linked to the liquidation value of the firm’s assets,
not to its operating cash flow or market value.
Our predictions about debt and payout policy could be interesting for
Romanian economy. These results can be viewed as a new expression of Jensen free
cash flow theory (at the management level there is always a preference in capturing or
investing cash flow rather than paying it out like dividends). Jensen suggested that
high level of debts help solve the free cash flow problem by forcing payout of cash.
The Jensen expressions of free cash flow are incomplete because there is a minimum
level of payout to investors and therefore some restriction on manager’s capture or
investment of cash flow, otherwise the firm could not raise outside financing in the
first place. This model could analyse the Jensen restriction explicitly, in a dynamic
setting.
3
4. An analysis of the models of takeover
Mello, Parsons (1992), Leland (1994), Morellec (2001) quantify the possible
impacts of taxes, asset liquidity and stockholder/ bondholder conflicts investment
decisions and debt policy of the firm.
Anderson, Sundaresan (1996) consider the role of strategic debt service on a
firm’sclosure decisions and the agency costs of debt. Lambrecht (2001) examines the
effect of product market competition and debt financing on firm closure in a duopoly.
Many authors after Jensen, Meckling (1976) have proposed the assumption
that mangers will overinvest (for example in empire building) and disinvest only if
they are forced to do so. Recent contributions (Leland, 1998, Decamps, FaureGrimaud, 2002) examine various aspects o this problem). Decamps, Faure-Grimaud
show that debt financing can give equity investors an interesting incentive to delay
closure in order to gamble for resurrection. We propose a relaxed assumption, in
which the managers decide to delay closure and debt financing accelerates closure.
The analysis is focused on agency problems between managers and the
dispersed outside atomised investors. Myers (2000) assumed that managers maximise
the present value of their stake in firm, subject to constraints imposed by the
investors. Papers by Stulz (2000), Morellec (2004) considered the same problem, but
with interesting differences. They assume that the manager derives private, nonpecuniary benefits room retaining control and reinvesting cash flow. Debt service
reduces free cash flow and constraints over-investment. In Zwiebel (2004), managers
are also constrained by threats of takeover and bankruptcy.
Formal models of takeover incentives and decisions are scarce. Lambrecht
(2004) presents an interesting real option model of mergers motivated by economies
of scale and provides a rationale for the pro-cyclically character of merger waves. In
this model there are no agency costs but he focuses on takeovers in rising product
markets. We consider takeovers in declining markets because this is a typical case for
transition economies. Morellec, Zdahov (2005) develop a very interesting real options
model that examines the role of multiple bidders and imperfect info on takeover
activity.
Jovanovic, Rousseau (2002) odel merger waves that are based on
technological change and changes at the Tobin’s Q level. We do not propose to
explain merger waves, which typically occur in a buoyant emerging stock markets,
but the release of capital in declining industries.
Gorton, Kahl, Rosen (2000) argue that mergers can be use as a defensive
mechanism by managers who don’t wish to be taken over. In this interesting model,
technological and regulatory change that makes acquisition profitable.
Shleifer, Vishny (2003) model takeover activity as a result of stock market
valuations by using the assumption that stock market may misvalue potential
acquirers, potential targets and their combinations. In this case, managers understand
stock market inefficiencies and take advantage from them, in part through takeovers.
Takeovers gains and merger waves are driven by market’s valuation mistakes.
Rhodes-Kropf and Viswanathan (2003) show those potential market value
deviations from fundamental values can rationally lead to a correlation between stock
merger activity and market valuation.
The empirical implications of our model are mostly in the line with the facts
about takeovers, for example target shareholders gain. But these gains are relatively
small. However we say that combined increase in the bidding and target firms market
values or the combined gain to raider and target, does not measure the economic value
added by a takeover. This is explained by the fact that gain to the target shareholders
4
includes their capture of the value of the target manager’s future cash flows. The
target manager’s stake in the firm s extinguished by takeover and shutdown. This new
mode also could predict that the gain to both target and acquired shareholders is zero
in the case of friendly mergers and this fact is consistent with the evidence.
We also predict that unlevered firms in declining industries are more likely
targets for hostile takeover attempts. It is possible to explain that an increase in
financial leverage (for example a leverage restructuring of the target) can be an
effective and efficient defence strategy. We also note that debt financing can precommit management to follow through with the restructuring of the target after
takeover.
5. A formal description of the problem those takeovers can potentially
solve
We model managers’ payout policies and closure decisions when takeovers
are excluded. In this case it is interesting to consider the effects of a golden parachute
and financial leverage.
Let consider a firm that generates a total operating profit of Kx t -f period
where f is the fixed cost of operating the firm, K is the amount of capital in place and
xt is a geometric Brownian motion representing exogenous demand shocks.
dxt = µxt dt + σxt dBt ,
(1)
where µ is a drift term, which can be assumed to be negative, and σ
measures the volatility of demand. As demand xt falls, the firm will at some point
close down. It can be assumed that closure is irreversible and that is releases the stock
of capital, K. Because in an economy with medium inflation’s the bond financing is
not preferred, it is also assumed that the firm is all equity financed. All capital is
returned to shareholder upon closure.
In the case of first best disinvestment policy, it is assumed that investors are
risk neutral, or the whole expected payoffs are certainty equivalents. The investors’
expected return from dividends and capital gains must equal the risk free rate of return
from governmental bills. Thus, the first best firm value Vt 0 satisfies the following
equilibrium condition:
rVt 0 = Kx t − f +
[ ]
d
Et Vt 0+ ∆
d∆
∆ =0
(2)
Applying Ito’s lemma inside the expectation operator gives the following
differential equation:
1 2 2 ∂V 0 ( x )
∂V 0 ( x )
σ x
+
µ
x
+ Kx − f − rV 0 ( x )
2
2
∂x
∂x
(3)
The first best closure policy, the corresponding firm values and payout policy
are as follows economic interpretation: it is the present value of operating the firm
forever plus the value of the option to shut it down. The discount factor can be
interpreted as the probability of the firm closing down in future given the current
demand level x.
5
Conclusions
M&A (takeovers) could be classified in two categories: takeovers which
exploits synergies and growth opportunities and takeovers which seeks greater
efficiency through layoffs, consolidation and disinvestment (for this type is interesting
to develop a theory dedicated for the restructuring industries in transition economies).
The takeovers for growth and synergy are more likely to be effected as merger
of equals, because both firms’ management’s can share the value added without
paying a premium to shareholders of the target firm. It’s interesting to analyse the
second type of M&A by using a continuos time, real option model, in which managers
of the firm can abandon its business if product falls at a critical, low level.
Our predictions about debt and payout policy could be interesting for
Romanian economy. These results can be viewed as a new expression of Jensen free
cash flow theory (at the management level there is always a preference in capturing or
investing cash flow rather than paying it out like dividends). The empirical
implications of the model presented are mostly in the line with the facts about
takeovers, for example target shareholders gain.
Reference
1. Anderson R., E. Sundaresan (1996): “Design and Valuation of Debt
Contracts,” Review of Financial Studies,10
2. Leland, H.E. (1994): “Corporate Debt Value, Bond Covenants, and
Capital Structure, ”Journal of Finance, 49
3. Mello, A., Parsons, S., (1992): “Measuring the Agency Cost of Debt,”
Journal of Finance, 47
4. Morellec, E., (2001) ”Asset Liquidity, Capital Structure, and Secured
Debt,” Journal of Financial Economic, 26
5. Shleifer, A., W. Vishny (1989): “Management Entrenchment: The
Case of Manager-specific Investment”, Journal Economics, 25
6
REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. DYNAMIC FACTOR OF LOCAL
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PH. D, Senior lecturer Dănuţ Rada
Drăgan European University from Lugoj
Faculty of Economics
1. The concept of regional economic development
Economic development is an objective process of factors of production
transformation from simple to complex, from inferior to superior, from old to new,
through a vast combination operation at micro and macroeconomic level.
At local level, economic development is a process of economic growth
accompanied by one of structural modification, whose goal and natural consequence is
the growth of living standards of local community members.
The concept of “local” generally refers to administrative territorial units,
counties, but the concept must also refer to smaller administrative entities,
municipalities, towns and villages; this way, development models can apply to a village,
town or municipality level or they can be expanded between villages, towns, counties or
regions.
An impediment to local economic and social growth is local autonomy, and
expecially the financial one. Thus, local policies that promote their own and immediate
interests related to infrastructure, human resources, territory arrangements, environment
protection, small and medium-sized companies stimulation, regional marketing
stimulation in order to promote the region, can also be solved through overborder
cooperation and regional economic development. Economic and social development at
regional level allows the creation of a favorable climate to the integration of local
economies into bi- and many-sized cooperation system having as consequence the
solving of some problems related to supply, sale, use of local natural resources and
work force.
To this goal, the Region V West was set up, ”Economic space of advantages,
open window of Romania”, whose main objectives are:
- To increase living standards;
- To create new jobs;
- To improve the quality of the environment;
- To have international competitiveness;
- To regenerate the environment.
The analyzing and planification instruments used to elaborate the concept of
Regional Development of Region V West emphasize in an equal measure the
stimulation of regional potentials as well as the consensus process and the planned
decision.
Otherwise, for this problem approach it is necessary to specify the directions of
action and the special steps that must be taken in order to realize the regional
development programme. Mainly, they are the following:
- SWOT analysis (Strenghts-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats), expanded on
certain points, with additional instruments of analysis, in order to identify the
important ”potentials of development”, with effects on all four counties of
Region V West;
1
-
analysis of identified potentials of development, with the help of a structural
matrix, in order to establish sinergies and the way they complete one another;
- establishment of ”domains of action” that present priority for regional
development strategy, which, in the case of a development polarity, stimulates
the growing trends in other domains too (spin-offs);
- description of measures/projects in each ”domain of action” which are parts of
chosen ”target domains”;
- description of hierarchycal system of regional development objectives; strategic
orientation and hierarhysation of individual measure priorities, in order to reach
strategic development objectives;
- description of a long-term development strategy, coherent and feasible in
regional context;
- elaboration of the regional programme of development’management structure, of
the carrying on chart and of an estimative budget;
- description of a system to monitor and evaluate the project.
The concept of regional economic development starts from the reality that
infrastructure is the key domain of the regional development strategic programme.
Physical infrastructural equipment has to be approached on the following categories:
traffic, communications, production, administration and support of economic and
institutional activity.
For the same goal of defining the concept of regional development, the main
target domains of regional economic development in Region V West must be kept in
mind:
√ the sector of small and medium-sized companies – productive activities and
services;
√ the industry sector;
√ the rural space;
√ the tourism to spas and in the mountains;
√ week-end.
2. Region V West – in national context
Region V West includes Caraş-Severin, Timiş, Arad and Hunedoara counties,
having a surface of 32, 033 square metres (the surface of the four counties). In this area,
formed from distinct administrative units, elements of material culture and civilization
intermingled during the time. Thus, we can state that Region V West represents
nowadays a good part of the historical region of Banat.
The region has a population of 2.9 million inhabitants, which represents 10.1 %
of all Romania population.
The distribution on counties is as follows: Timiş county 33.08%, followed by
Arad county with 26.2%, Hunedoara county with 23% and Caraş-Severin county with
17.9%.
Region V West has a relatively large surface, that’s why the density of its
population of 66.4 inhabitants on square kilometre is under the country average which is
situated at 95.7 inhabitants on square kilometre. In the extremities there are Timiş
county with 79.5 inhabitants on square kilometre and Caraş-Severin with 43.4
inhabitants on square kilometre.
Most of population is situated in urban areas, in the 36 towns of the region, in
county towns living 33.3.% of the population of those 4 counties that are parts of
Region V West. This aspect offers a high degree of urbanism to the region, degree
which exceeds with 7% the country as a whole.
2
During the last years, in this area a decrease in population is noticed, due to
migration as well as to negative natural growth registered beginning with the year 1992.
From the ethnic point of view, region demographic structure is as it follows:
Romanians 84.75%, Hungarians 7.45%, Germans 1.97%, Roma 1.97%, Serbians
1.23%, other ethies: 2.2 % (Slovaks, Bulgarians, Ukrainians, Czechs).
Available work force, represented by women with ages between 16 and 57 years
and men with ages between 16 and 62 years, as well as active persons younger or older
is formed from aproximatively 950 thousand persons, which represent 56-57% of the
region population.
The biggest number of employees is in agriculture: 30.2% and in industry: 29.2
%, followed by commerce and services. The degree of work force occupation on the
whole region arises to 79%, Timiş county having the smallest unemployment rate in the
country.
The environment quality of Region V West can be appreciated as positive, its
air, water and land being clean in general, exception making Reşiţa county town which
nowadays is strongly polluted by siderurgy.
Road infrastructure is superior to country average in this region counties: Timiş
and Arad counties are situated on the first place in the country with 2, 900 kilometres of
roads and, respectively, second place, with 2, 087 kilometres. The fact that in this region
there are five European roads represents a guarantee for the fututre development of this
community.
Also, rail transport in Region V West is well represented, for example, by Timiş
county, which has the highest density of railways in Romania – 90.5 kilometres on 100
square kilometres. The region is crossed by three international railways: two to
Yugoslavia and one to Hungary.
Another important fact is that these international railways are connected to those
transcarpathians, existing a connection with neighbouring counties and regions. Air
transport is present in every county, in each being an airport, essential for this type of
transport being the airport from Timişoara (which is an international one) and that from
Arad (which is prepaired for international flights).
The economic activity from this region is considered to be one of the most
dynamic in Romania, statement sustained by the fact that compared to Romania average
of 24 companies on 1, 000 inhabitants in the year 2000, in Timiş and Arad counties,
according to Chamber of Commerce and Industry Statistics Report, there were 27.7,
respectively 27.9 companies on 1, 000 inhabitants.
There are some economic and social aspects which are arguments for a sustained
regional cooperation, based on coherent strategies and programmes.
We will present some concrete actions which are to take place in Region V
West, according to ”Regional Development Concept” strategic programme.
3. Implementing stages of ”Regional Development Concept” strategic
programme
In the first stage, the development preparation, the total number of projects is
45, and the total value arises to 15, 000 million lei. The proposed projects are the
following:
Small and medium-sized companies: identification of training necessities;
complementarity research at regional level, between large-scale industry and small and
medium-sized companies; regional centre for business consultancy; research for
technological transfer; setting up of a regional data base; info-consultancy caravan;
identification of work force training and retraining necessities; regional centre for
3
retraining; regional information centre regarding business opportunities; regional
programme regarding development and promotion of regional potential; research
regarding storing and recycling problems at regional level.
Rural area: marketing research regarding internal and external market for
agricultural and food products; research of external market demand in the domain of
special crops; market research regarding the region supply and demand of animal
products; evaluation research of region agricultural potentials, other than classic crops;
setting up, by local councils in partnership with private companies, of acquisition
centres for agricultural products; setting up of a regional information and
communication centre on agricultural problems; setting up of a Regional Agency for
Rural Development.
Tourism: setting up of a regional centre for touristic development;
diversification of tourism services and alignment to international qualitative standards;
concept of marketing regarding the capitalization of regional touristic potentials;
implementation strategy of marketing concept in selected domains; training
programmes for guides; facility programme to fit out recreational areas; research
regarding public transport possibilities to touristic areas, for the week-end tourism;
establishment of tourism training necessities for different trades; setting up in the region
of tourism infocentres.
Services: research regarding the development of services which support the
development of target domain; research regarding the diversification of public services
in the area; evaluation of services quality and their alignment to international standards;
research regarding the setting up and development of necessary infrastructure in order to
connect the global network of services; information system which assures the link
between county development agencies and Regional Development Agency; data base
regarding the work force supply and demand for trades in the small and medium-sized
companies sector; research regarding cooperation possibilities between regions and at
international level in order to develop chains to offer services.
Industry: research of reconversion possibilities of monoindustrial areas; setting
up of a regional concept of development of complementary industries; development of
software industry in the region; research regarding business opportunities to cargo
system; research regarding business potentials and opportunities to develop some
industrial branches; research regarding the modernization of technical and economic
education infrastructure.
At this stage, the most important, from a qualitative and value point of view, is
the consultancy.
The next stage, the start of development, proposes 62 projects whose total
value arises to 45, 000 million lei. The proposed projects are:
Small and medium-sized companies: marketing programme in order to capitalize
the supply of land, buildings and production capacities; research regarding the
identification of areas with regional potential; training programmes to initiate business;
training programme for entrepreneurs; facility programme to set up small and mediumsized companies in disadvantaged areas; training programme for public administration
to support the sector of small and medium-sized companies; training and retraining
programme of work force; regional programme of open sessions to occupy the work
force in the sector of small and medium-sized companies; expansion programme at
regional level of business incubators; informing programme regarding overborder
business opportunities; programme of international business meetings; stimulation of
research and development potential in the small and medium-sized companies sector;
entrepreneur acknowledgement of advantages to cooperate with research; promotion of
4
regional traditional trades; informing and communication system between the sectors of
industry and that of small and medium-sized companies; setting up of regional
catalogue with products of small and medium-sized companies sector; setting up of a
regional network in order to promote small and medium-sized companies; programme
of advantageous small credits in Region V West for small and medium-sized
companies; programme in mass-media to sensitize the civic sense regarding
environment protection; programme of professional orientation towards small and
medium-sized companies sector for highschool and higher education graduates.
Rural area: programme of seminars regarding the setting up of integrated farms
addressed to agricultural producers and specialists; implementation of training
programmes with agricultural producers; regional concept of rural area development;
informing campain for agricultural producers regarding the necessity to wrap up
accordingly the agricultural products; expositions with ”clean” agricultural products;
realization of a regional informative journal regarding the prices of agricultural products
at local producers; publishing of a regional informative publication; consultancy for
councils from rural areas to implement SAPARD programmes.
Tourism: periodical seminars to prepair and specialize the staff that works in the
tourism sector; consulting programmes to develop business tourism; retraining
programmes for available work force, according to the demand from tourism sector;
network of individual assistance services for hunting and fishing tourism; promotion of
environment protection concept; acknowledgement of population on agrotourism
advantages and implications; promotional programmes for Băile Herculane, Buziaş,
Geoagiu, Moneasa, Vaţa spas, for spas and areas in the mountains; promotion of
agrotourism; promotion of urban tourism; promotional materials; catalogue which
presents balneary and treatment spas; presentation catalogue for spas situated in the
mountains; setting up of region agencies in the EU countries.
Services: regional programme of development; programme of commercial
measures in the sector of services; training and specialisation programme for the work
force specific to services.
Industry: consulting group to identify the most advantageous partnerships at
euroregional level; programmes to stimulate research and development; programme to
support the companies that apply innovative technologies; seminars with county
administration; improvement of free trade agreements; development of joint-ventures;
research to set up international business centres in the region; training programme for
managers; regional catalogue with products offered to exports; collaboration with
research institutions; regional catalogue regarding business opportunities.
The third stage, the development carrying on, was thought for a total number
of 47 projects, with the total value arising to 12, 500 million lei. The proposed projects
are:
Small and medium-sized companies: restructuring of monoindustrial areas to
develop small and medium-sized companies; setting up of a regional chamber of trades;
setting up of agencies in countries members of EU; promotion programme of regional
offer to set up small and medium-sized companies; setting up of a fund for environment
protection and support of small and medium-sized companies active in this sector;
programme of advantageous credits to buy modern equipment in order to reduce
pollution; regional fund to finance innovative small and medium-sized companies;
setting up of a credit system for craftsmen; programme to finance consultancy to start a
business; ”Der grüne Punkt” recycler; organisation of thematic actions in the
educational system, in environment protection domain.
5
Services: programme of seminars with services suppliers; programme with the
innitiatives of local administrations to create a stimulating development environment for
the financial and banking system; development of transport sector; development
programme for banking services.
Tourism: partnership programme to organise sporting and recreational
complexes in the towns of the region; development of overborder tourism programmes
in the DKMT region; partnership programme to modernize Buziaş, Geoagiu, Moneasa,
Vaţa spas; Agroland – regional project of tourism; mapping out and development of
touristic roads for travels in the mountains; association of alternative treatment system
with agrotourism.
Industry: setting up of special areas to store and recycle industrial waste
products; setting up of joint-ventures based on common resources in the fronteer area;
business meetings and symposia with industrialists from EU counties; periodical
brochures with information from the work force market; programme to promote joint
partnerships; setting up of an economic publication to promote the region; programme
of grants for projects that imply activities of material recycling.
Rural area: cooperation programme to buy reproduction materials and
qualitative seeds; setting up of a pilot integrated farm; setting up of pilot fruit growing
farms in areas with regional fruit growing potential; programme to promote efficient
methods for agricultural exploitation; programme of participation to international fairs
for fruit growers and wine growers; setting up of an informing and communication
network in the agricultural domain; programme of small credits to launch the production
of technical plants in the region; regional fund to stimulate the agricultural producers
that use modern methods in land exploitation; programme of small credits for
associations of agricultural producers; regional programme to equip the rural area with
means for emergency medical interventions.
Bibliography:
1. Bădescu C., Alexandri I. – Introduction to the study of cooperation process
between regions, Ed. All Beck, Bucureşti, 1997;
2. Constantin D.I. – Regional economy, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2000;
3. A.D.A.R., A.D.E.T.I.M., A.D.E.X., A.D.H. – Concept of regional development,
1998;
4. Ramboll Consultancy Group – The guide of regional development agencies,
Bucureşti, 1998.
6
THE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP FOR
SUPPORTING LOCAL COMMUNITIES
Luiza Radu
I.
Partnership - concept
The partnership represents one of the principles restated through the european
regulation regarding Structural Funds. These envisage a partnership among Commission,
the member state, authorities and organizations appointed by the member state taking into
account the national laws and their current practices. The partnership principles mast be
applied in all stages of the Structural Funds process. The Commission relieved that even
if the regional authorities partnership is a known and accepted practice, which generally
function satisfactory, the local partnership is less developed especially due to the
economic and social partners insufficient involvement.
When it works effectively, partnership adds value in many ways:
• in programme design, it helps to focus interventions on the needs of the region
or particular target groups;
• it stimulates ideas for projects, through partners communicating opportunities
in relation to Structural Fund requirements;
• it provides inputs to the monitoring process through knowledge of the
operation of the programme on the ground, so helping to identify solutions to problems of
implementation;
• it means that a broader range of views is brought to bear on the evaluation
process;
• it helps disseminate information on the Funds and their impact in the area
concerned more widely.
This way, on european scale, the partnership concept was enforced due to the
necessity of applying effectively the subsidiarity principle. This new direction takes into
consideration the advantages of a public – private partnership: local interest compliance,
investment cost and exploitation risks sharing, lack of local public administration
investments resources.
The public - private partnership concept represents a cooperation method
among public authorities and private sector, respectively non-governmental organization,
business association, companies for implementation of projects with positive effects on
labor market and local and regional development.
The partnership promotes cooperation between social and political actors,
aiming to legitimate a political action, due to the fact that are less involved in the
decisional process and policies monitoring.
1
The activities developed through partnership don’t necessary follow a profit
results, but also the social services realization, which contributes at general social
welfare.
Moreover, the partnership represents a collaboration instrument through which
may be implemented public services improvement project and may assure the
implementation programme coherence and their transparency. In the same time, the
partnership contributes at straitening the governing system and local development.
Within the european country doesn’t exist and wasn’t imposed a partnership
standard system, even if lately is influenced more and more by the English model through
two major objectives:
Ø labor market
Ø local development in order to assure the social and economic cohesion.
The partnership realized between different levels of administration (central,
county, local) and public sector plays an essential role in implementing the local and
regional development projects financed under pre-structural and structural funds.
II.
The partnership in Ireland and Great Britain
Within the European country the partnership represents the main method to attract
the national and communitary funds and to finance the development projects.
Ireland and Great Britain can become an example regarding the partnership
development as institutional structures for implementing local initiatives.
Ireland, european funds beneficiary country, developed partnership in order to
have a better absorption of allocated funds. This way, within the Communitary Initiative
Leader programme was developed the project “Mining experience Arigna ”, which
objective is solving the rural decline problemme and depopulation, caused by closing of
Arigna Mine. This project evolved in two stages: first between 1992-1995 and second
between 2002-2006, having as target groups the women and youth from rural areas.
There were organized training courses and were initiated promoting activities of the new
production technologies. The measures identified were:
- encouraging and promoting rural enterprises, services and local
utilities
- exploitation of agricultural, sylvan and fishy products
- encouraging the development of antrophic, social and cultural
environment
- protecting natural environment
- rural turism development through an attractive touristic offer
The implementation method of this project was the partnership evolved with
community representatives, social groups, state agency or elected representatives as well
2
as with regions from other countries (Poland, Sweden, France, Great Britain), within
programmes developed through communitary initiatives.
It mast be underline that the Leader programme helped to create a culture of
partnership and encouraged people and organizations on the ground to see local
development as a matter which concerns them and to feel responsibility for what happens
in their area.
A relevant programme for national development is “The drinking water scheme
in rural areas”, initiated by Ministry of Environment since 1998. The main objective of
this programme is to establish and implement a new legislative framework in order to
improve the water quality and to develop a national water network in rural areas. Taking
into consideration that Ireland was confronted with difficulties in respecting Water
Regulation, the proposed strategy aims the water supply from both public and private
sources and also to:
develop and implement measure to protect the water sources affected by
organic pollution
realize a measure plan for water conservation
continuous monitoring of implementing measures included in Water
supply programme
elaborate an investment plan for 2003-2006
implementing a project management system at national scale
ensuring the adequate staff at county council level.
Since now, were implemented 800 water scheme financed b public sector and
450 financed by private sector. The success of this programme was due to cooperation
and partnership set-up among the interested and involved actors in promoting this
project.
Also in Great Britain, the partnership represents the main method for attracting the
national and european funds and also for financing development projects. Due to the
geographic length, but especially the demographic growth London is managed as a
development region. Within the city, eligible under Objective 2, were created partnerships
among local authorities, Chamber of Commerce, non-governmental and voluntary
organizations, environmental organizations representatives, for the business infrastructure
in order to improve the small and medium enterprises competitiveness, to create and
maintain the jobs, to offer consultancy services.
In order to realize these partnerships was taken into consideration the uncertain
economic and social situation:
q Areas congestion (demographic diversity, over 300 of spoken languages
within schools)
q Low level of education
q Low level of professional skills
q Low level of infrastructure
3
q
q
q
High level of unemployment
Industrial decline
Socio-economic exclusion.
Regarding this, an example can be Inner East and Outer Thames Gateway
Area, where are implemented over 60 european financed projects aiming to improve the
efficiency of business environment, to set-up consultancy centers for cultural and
innovative initiatives, to develop industrial and commercial activities according to the
European legal framework and environment standards.
West London area is characterized by the settlement of large firms (BBC,
McVities, Guinness), but also by the lack of an adequate transport network and recruiting
difficulties due to insufficient professional skills. For this areas the proposed objectives of
the projects are:
q
q
q
q
q
Straightening the institutional capacity, creating networks for
entrepreneurial initiatives
Development of abilities requested in mass media and showbiz
Creating financial facilities for minorities and black communities
Promoting measure to encourage a better business practice and use of
performant technology in order to protect the environment quality
Improving transport network accessibility in areas that concentrates
economic activities
In this respect, within this area, through partnerships was set-up “The
Connections Communications Center” which promote cultural diversity and social
inclusion through media training programme (practical courses, vocational training. The
target groups are women, refugees, emigrants, disadvantages, minorities, generally all
those who wish for developing their practical abilities. Each cursant will obtain a diploma
with different levels of certifying. London Open College Network makes the qualification
accreditation, and in the most cases the graduated persons are employed (BBC) or tend to
continue studying.
Greater London Enterprise is a public utilities company which act as an
intermediary between financing authorities represented by European Commission,
Association of London Government, Learning and Skills Councils and London
Development Agency and small communities, beneficiaries of projects. The scope of this
initiative is to facilitate the access to European Social Fund for those beneficiaries that
don’t have other possibility to beneficiate of european financed programme. The target
groups are minorities, black people, refugees, ex-convicts, monoparental families, having
as objective jobs creation and preservation.
For a better structural funds valorization, in England was developed the
voluntary activities, planned through different organizations as London Voluntary Sector
Training Consortium. The aims of this organizations is to facilitate the voluntary sector
access at european funds under Objective 3 and to promote inter and intra sectoral
4
partnerships. The evolved activity follows to provide consultancy services by organizing
seminars, workshops, information newsletters, in order to enable the organizations to
assure co-financing, project management, monitoring and audit, to strength the
institutional capacity, to develop new partnerships.
Both Ireland and England experiences can become arguments to extend the
partnership in Romania, from programming to all the other stages of structural funds
management (implementing, monitoring, evaluation, internal audit).
Partnerships have a crucial role in decision-making process regarding the
development strategies which mast reflect the various actors economic interests. It mast
be underline that in all stages of european funds use there is and is applied central level
control.
III.
The partnership in Romania
Partnership in the design and implementation of programmes has become
stronger and more inclusive, involving a range of private sector entities, including the
social partners, as well as regional and local authorities. This has led to better targeted
and more innovative projects, improved monitoring and evaluation of performance and
the wider dissemination of information of their results, at the price, in some cases, of
additional complexity of programme management.
In the context of the partnership, regions would have the responsibility in the
first instance for concentrating financial resources on the themes necessary to address the
economic, social and territorial disparities at regional level.
In Romania, in the regional policy drawing-up process were used formal as well
as informal partnerships that shall ensure:
• the regular and correct implementation of approved programmes, together with
their consistency with established priorities and the general programming framework;
• a clear distribution of responsibilities of the socio-economic and institutional
partners as regards monitoring and evaluation of the use of the assistance;
• an appropriate emphasis on the environmental component of the assistance,
within a perspective of sustainable development, which ensures the use of public funds in
conformity with the policy and legislation for environment of EU.
The Government Decision no. 1323/2002, regarding the elaboration in
partnership of the NDP, ensures the legal basis for creating and developing the interinstitutional relations and the partnership structures at national and regional level,
establishing, also, more clearly the role of the ministries, Regional Development
Agencies and other institutions involved in drafting the NDP.
5
As a result of this government decision were set- up:
Ø The Inter-institutional Committee for drafting the NDP (ICP): the
membership consists of representatives from ministries, Regional Development Agencies
(RDAs), central public institutions, research institutes and higher education institutions,
as well as representatives of economic and social partners;
Ø Regional Committees for drafting the Regional Development Plans (RCP):
the membership consists of representatives from the Regional Development Agencies,
the Prefectures, the County Councils, the decentralized services of central public
institutions, representatives of research institutes and of higher education institutions, as
well as representatives of the economic and social partners.
The created partnership structures operate through thematic working groups,
corresponding to the analyzed issues, as well as through plenary meetings, in a format
which ensures a balanced representation of the central and local public administration,
and public and private partners.
The regional development programming process was materialized through the
National Development Plan 2004-2006. Nowadays, it’s elaborating the National
Development Plan 2007-2013, which will become a strategic framework for the
programmes financed under Structural Funds.
The Working groups set up for preparing the RDP, in the framework of the
RCP (Regional Committee for elaboration of the National development Plan), were
organized at county level, as well as by regional development priorities and became
functional through successive meetings, thus contributing to RDP preparation.
So far, the functioning of regional partnership structures materialized through
the drafting, at the level of each Region, of the first consultative document for RDP
preparation, comprising economic and social analyses at regional level, regional SWOT
analyses, first draft of regional development priorities and measures identified.
Also, the regional partnership structures assure inputs for Regional Operational
Programme (ROP) that will be financed under European Regional Development Fund,
cofinancing being provided by national sources. Through ROP is aimed to identify and
reduce the inter and intra regional disparities in order to eliminate the difficulties of
romanian global development. In this respect ROP will complete the investments
programme of Sectoral Operational Programme, by stimulating a bottom - up local and
regional development.
ROP will include development priorities and measures that will be applied in
all development regions on a basis of programmes selections criteria and quantifiable
targets of socio-economic development. The programme will provide regional
integration methods of european horizontal policies (environment protection, equal
opportunities, information and communication technology) thought the financed
activities.
6
Currently, drawing-up ROP process is based on Regional Programming and
Implementation Documents (RPID) prepared in partnership, at regional level. These
envisage not only development measures, but also the necessities for implementing.
RPID’s are vital for the programming process because they allow the examination of
proposed measures realism and sustainability.
In this regard, were organized partnership meetings with all Regional
Development Agencies’ representatives in order to discuss and decide the priorities and
measures that will be implemented through Regional Operational Programme financed
under Structural Funds.
For this reasons, the partnership mast be applied not only in the programming
process, but also in projects implementation in order to have a better absorption of
Structural Funds.
Considering the administrative structure and the romanian legal framework the
public – private partnership may have as potential advantages:
§ externalizing the public administration activities that may be better realized
through private sector (concession, sale),
§ the costs and risks distribution between public and private sector,
§ community business involvement in projects of communitary interest,
§ financial transparency during project implementation.
Mast be taken into consideration the risks that might appear during the
partnership, respectively:
§ the danger of partnership dissolving in a project implementation advanced
stage,
§ the doubtful legal status regarding the owner propriety,
§ the lack of transparency.
Public-private partnership arrangements appear to be particularly attractive for the
accession countries in view of their co-financing requirements, budget constraints, the
need for efficient public services, growing market stability and the process of
privatisation. Partnership, however, works only if there is an explicit policy commitment
by national government to involve the private sector in public sector projects. A clear
framework is needed for the application of partnership in different policy areas, since
specific arrangements need to vary from case to case depending, for example, on how far
costs can be recouped through user charges and the extent of social objectives. Any
partnership framework applied in the context of the Structural Funds should include an
obligation, for all projects above a certain scale, to evaluate the possibility of using some
kind of public-private partnership arrangement. The EIB and the EIF could provide a
valuable contribution in this regard.
Partnership remains a core principle for management, monitoring and evaluation
of the Funds and can add much value, particularly where the roles and responsibilities of
the participants are clearly delineated.
7
The Commission recommended that partnership be strengthened since it
contributes to the success of programmes by giving them greater legitimacy, by making
it easier to coordinate them and by increasing their effectiveness as well as transparency.
While there is broad agreement that partnership adds value to the effectiveness
and impact of the Structural Funds, it also introduces new layers of complexity into the
process of designing and delivering policies, which can slow down decision making.
There is, therefore, a trade-off between the additional complexity resulting from
partnership and the improvements in design and implementation, which it can bring.
8
INTEGRATING ROMANIAN TOURISM IN THE EUROPEAN
TOURISM
Cipriana Sava
Touristic areas are concentrated locations of an offered structured according to the
criterion of their forming and positioning in:
- traditional areas: - Western Europe;
- Eastern Europe;
- North- American countries;
- touristic locations of the third world.
- new areas having - peripheral location;
- remote location;
- pioneering location.
Western Europe which is the main traditional touristic area includes:
- the Mediterranean area, which attracts by its coastal regions, its islands, urban
centers and it holds 1/3 of the global touristic potential;
- The North Atlantic front area, which has scattered touristic location and its
offered is spread and oriented towards seaside resorts and traditional spa resorts, and also
towards urban centers (such as Paris, London, Amsterdam, Brussels);
- The alpine arch, which is situated in Central Europe and is considered to be the
most important mountainous touristic location in the world; it has a favourable
geographic position, taking into consideration the large touristic fluxes and its resorts are
localized in France, Switzerland, Austria and Italy.
The Eastern Europe area is restricted to rather limited areas, qualitatively
insufficiently developed because of different obstacles which existed until not long time
ago. Generally, the best known seaside resorts are those from the Black Sea and the
Baltic Coastline and also some urban centers.
Within the North American countries we include the offer found on the Atlantic
Coastline and on the shore of the Pacific Ocean, which extends from Santa Monica and
the Mexican border. The seacoast offer is completed by the urban centers including the
gambling capital, Las Vegas, and the natural sights (Niagara Falls, Colorado Canyon, the
Yellowstone Park).
The touristic locations of the Third World are set in the Caribbean Islands, the
Mexican spa resorts, Egypt (Nile Valley), towns such as Cairo, Port Said, and HongKong.
It is agreed that new areas have appeared close to the outgoing traditional regions
or, in other cases, very far away from them. The peripheral locations include:
- the North African seacoast with its touristic locations in Morocco and Tunisia;
- the South Eastern sector of the Mediterranean basin;
- the South Korean and Taiwan regions for shopping and congresses.
Remote location means:
- Western Africa, that is, Senegal and Ivory Coast;
1
- Asia and Oceania (Thailand, Colombo, Polynesia, the Philippines);
- Latin America (Brazil, Peru, Mexico).
The rise of new pioneering areas is the consequence of discoveries and
exploitation of new regions and it occupies a minor part in the global touristic offer.
These are:
the Arctic region;
the Sahara desert;
the Nepal mountain regions;
the tropical region of the Amazon.
In order to integrate tourism, first we must take into account the phenomenon of
present touristic integration which is realized on several levels, that is:
the individual level;
the touristic enterprise level;
the governmental level;
the international organization level.
The integration at the individual level is accomplished by the free circulation of
people. This right was stated at the Helsinki conference in 1975. In order to facilitate
traveling at the European level, formal, administrative and currency obstacles have been
reduced. Touristic trade inside the European Union has been encouraged, thus material or
formal obstacles being eliminated practically.
For the integration at the level of the touristic enterprise, we must take into
consideration the two centers of the European touristic industry. One center is situated in
the Northern part of Europe where large hospitality enterprises and traveling agencies
have strongly developed because this is an outgoing area. In the Southern part smaller
and more diversified companies have developed, as this is the in-going area. The
complementarities of these two regions sustain the touristic circulation inside Europe and
encourage the touristic integration in Europe. The consequences of the European touristic
integration are noticed when promoting an offer for the foreign customers. Professional
associations from the European Union, but also from other states help integrate tourism.
The third level of analysis in integrating tourism as a determinant of the
international touristic circulation refers to the integration of the governmental level or of
the public authorities. At present, joint policies in the field of both international tourism
and national politics are applied. The proof stands in the touristic facilities, joint projects
of modernizing or building the transport infrastructure, promotional campaigns.
Present European orientations are related to elaborating common principles and
strategies of durable regional development, of diminishing territorial disparities. These
were firstly defined in the European Regional/ Spatial Planning Charter, adopted at the
conference in Torremolinos (Spain, 1983), conference that reunited ministers responsible
with regional and spatial planning from the entire Europe (CEMAT). The organization
reunited 41 states from Europe and the northern part of Asia. The fundamental objectives
of the regional strategies from the point of view of the organization are:
diminishing existent territorial disequilibrium;
improvement of the living standard;
better management of the natural resources and protection of the
environment;
rational use of space.
2
The same organization has adopted another important document for the future of
Europe, at the Hanover conference in 2000: “General Principles for the Sustained Spatial
Development”. The document presents six chapters which refer to:
the role of general principles in the application of the social
cohesion strategy of the European Council;
the aspects which seem to be challenges and perspectives of the
regional and spatial planning for our continent;
the importance of the private sector in regional and spatial
planning;
principles of sustainable planning in Europe;
measures concerning characteristic areas inside the continent;
strengthening the cooperation between member states and
involving regional authorities and the population for a sustainable development.
This document has as an objective to identify measures for space planning and
their implementation should aim at the improvement of the living standard for the
population, which is necessary for consolidating democratic structures at the regional and
communitarian level in Europe.
A particular case is represented by detailed measures to plan: European cultural
places; urban areas; rural areas; mountainous areas; coastal and island areas; river basins
and alluvial valleys; reconversion areas; border regions; Euro- corridors.
Along with these general principles there is also another document which refers to
the space within the European Union and the perspective to extend it: European Spatial
Development Perspective (ESDP). Having a reduced spatial extension, it was adopted by
the informal council of ministers responsible with spatial planning in Potsdam, in May
1999. It is structured in two parts, that is:
•
Part A- Towards a balanced and sustainable development of the
territory of the European Union: the contribution of the spatial development
policy, a new dimension of the European politics.
•
Part B- the territory of the European Union: trends, opportunities,
challenges.
We have to understand that ESDP is “a document which does not impose legal
constraints, constituting a political framework to improve cooperation between sector
policies, having a significant impact on territories, as well as between member states,
regions and their towns.”
In the two parts the presented themes refer to:
The study of spatial approach at European level;
The influence of community policies on the territory of the
European Union;
Policy aims;
Achieve cooperation at the community, transnational and cross
border level;
Challenges due to the enlargement process of the European Union;
Spatial development conditions and trends in EU;
Analyze programs for the integrated spatial development.
For the accomplishment of the above issues there have already been cooperation
programs that have been running in the new member countries of the EU, but also in the
3
candidate countries, such as those for the Baltic states, for instance VASAB 2010+ and
those for countries from Central and South- Eastern Europe, the Adriatic area and the
Danube area (the CADSES area), VISION PLANET. Apart from these programs there
have also been constituted four main funds to help reaching the common economic and
social objectives on the European level. They are:
•
European Regional Development Fund – ERDF;
•
European Social Fund- ESF;
•
European Orientation and Agricultural Guarantee FundEOAGF;
•
Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance- FIFG.
To eliminate disparities among European regions, different interregional
organizations, known as working communities or Euro- regions have played an important
part. These are the result of some initiatives for cross border cooperation, such as:
•
Gronau Euro-region, from the former Federal Germany includes
one hundred Dutch and German villages;
•
Carpathian Euro-region- between the borders of five states:
Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania (Bihor, Salaj, Satu-Mare, Maramures,
Botosani counties) and Ukraine.
•
Danube- Cris- Mures- Tisa Euro-region (DKMT) including the
region V West in Romania, the regions Bacs- Kiskun, Bekes, Csongrad, JaszNagykun in Hungary and the region Voivodina in Serbia and Montenegro.
The treaties that represent the basis of these organizations present similar
structures and characteristics. There are five main working points:
economy and jobs;
transport, tourism and telecommunications;
culture and education;
health and social problems;
spatial and environmental planning.
All these mentioned above define the position that Europe’s Council and the
European Union have towards sustainable spatial development, including tourism.
Basically, there is a favorable framework for the European integration of Romanian
tourism.
Trends of European Touristic Integration
The intensity of the integration of tourism is dominated by:
the economic situation;
the demographic structure;
the available leisure time;
the international political relations;
the evolution of the means of transport;
the evolution of accommodation units;
communication technology;
the development of competing leisure activities.
4
Romanian tourism has developed extensively so far, without a unitary integrating
view; it has not taken into consideration all the resource categories and cannot address
both to national and international tourism at the same time.
Professor Cristoph Becker from the Geographic Institute in Trier, Germany, has
outlined the Romanian touristic image taken into account two types of criteria, positive
and negative:
exquisite landscape;
the peace from hotels and resorts;
pleasant and enjoyable air from resorts and touristic places;
interesting local culture and history;
the natives’ hospitality and understanding;
good condition of the environment in the rural areas;
the novelty and wilderness of some of the places.
The negative criteria are the following:
underdevelopment;
insufficiently explained customs to the tourists;
precarious infrastructure and poor touristic facilities;
insecurity of tourists;
inadequate cleaning services;
high pollution of the environment.
This image cannot be seen as an advantage for Romanian tourism on the
international touristic market. However, it can be changed in time, by applying modern
tourism policies.
The European integration of tourism represents a gradual and sequential process.
The integration program must be developed following four fundamental coordinates:
institutional restructure;
improvement of legal framework;
promoting local initiatives;
stimulating qualitative management.
In order to achieve European integration it is a priority to understand both
strengths and weaknesses of Romanian tourism. The first category includes natural and
anthropic touristic resources and the legal framework. The weaknesses that influence
negatively touristic activities are socio-economic and financial factors (less leisure time,
lower incomes, inflation, fewer funds for advertising and external promotion), ecological
factors and organizational deficiencies (outdated outlooks on organizing touristic
programs, lack of individualized touristic offer).
However generous the touristic potential of a country could be, the experience of
developed countries shows that the touristic potential may be exploited only when it is a
strong collaboration between private initiative and the governmental initiative.
It is necessary that general objectives in tourism should be economic, social,
related to the environment and regarding the development of the touristic and marketing
product.
The principles for the European integration of our country are quite numerous,
thus:
•
European touristic integration, a process to be achieved by:
5
simplifying customs formalities and improving the border control;
improving the air traffic control;
better professional training for the workforce in tourism;
increasing the social role of tourism;
raising the level of quality for touristic services.
•
Imposing legal conditions and specific general measures, requiring
assistance from WTO and other international organizations to help build the
structure of Romanian tourism should have the following aims:
emphasizing the cooperation with foreign companies;
participating to programs for improving professional training of
staff in tourism with the help of WTO and CEE;
creating organizations able to coordinate investments and to
modernize the infrastructure;
enlarging the activity of regional commissions (European
Commission for Tourism, Danube Tourism Commission, etc);
lining up to international standards for environmental protection;
space planning, systematization and division into zones, obeying
the principles of sustainability.
•
Increasing help from CEE allocated for:
an efficient institutional touristic infrastructure;
improvement of human resources;
development of touristic product;
promoting the Romanian offer on the touristic market;
equipping the institutions involved with the necessary technology
to reach the standard level of community.
•
Continuing the privatization process with the help of CEE
specialists.
•
Increasing the role of the state as a:
promoter;
incentive (creating infrastructure);
interventionist;
good coordinator;
•
Lining up to the measures adopted in the mountainous countries of
the Common Market regarding:
a wide distribution of touristic services in the territory;
ensuring access ways;
modernizing workforce rationally;
•
Eliminating the restrictions imposed on touristic travels to and
from Romania by:
free circulation;
operability in issuing visas for Romania;
allowing free flow of foreign currency into Romania.
•
Development of rural tourism;
•
Adopting measures established in the “Green Book” of CEE
regarding the planning strategy for urban tourism and the use of economic and
fiscal instruments in the field of environmental resources protection;
6
•
Creating new national parks and biosphere reservations;
•
Continuing the elaboration of “pilot studies concerning natural and
human environment and their value for tourism” by the Institute of Research in
Tourism with assistance from PNUE;
•
Development of tourism guarding the specific traits of a certain
geographical and historical area;
•
Implementing the global open information system, with unitary
indicators of the internal and international touristic organizations;
•
Continuing the necessary actions to create a documentation and
national touristic information centre within CEE, for each area and micro area;
•
Lining up to the pilot activities in CEE to apply innovations in
phasing holidays;
•
Adopting legislation concerning lands and constructions;
•
Attempting to attract foreign and local capital in touristic
investments;
•
Participating to promotions of European tourism on international
market;
•
Sustaining the European community in elaborating an
“International Behavioral Code” to plan and develop tourism under controlled
supervision;
•
Ensuring the protection of the tourist, as a consumer, by:
a legal framework;
informing tourists about protesters and intermediaries;
simplifying the solving of possible litigations;
•
Offering assistance for the activities of European Council in order
to:
know the cultural diversity of Europe;
train guides for European tourism;
exchange guides between East and West;
include theatre plays and musical shows in cultural touristic
programs;
develop the project “Memorial places”
attract students, young and old people to cultural tourism;
include Romania in the European programs and cultural itineraries;
•
Offering assistance for the strategic objectives of the reform and
restructure of tourism by WTO and CEE to:
modernize general and specific infrastructure;
finalize touristic objectives that have been begun and abandoned;
plan a new offer for Romanian touristic products;
•
Elaborating the National Unitary Program for Development and
Modernization of Romanian Tourism;
•
Reevaluating possibilities for Romanian space, taking as a
landmark:
the Danube- economic, transport and touristic axis of Europe;
the Carpathians – the axis of the structural unity of Romanian
space;
7
the Black Sea- which offers the chance to harmonize economic,
strategic, ecological and touristic interests for the riparian states.
Immediate responsibilities of the government, as it has been shown in the above
information are related to bringing into operation of national systems: of information
about touristic and transport facilities; of economic agents, referring to obtained results
and possible opportunities; of training and educating touristic personnel.
As a result of the European integration of Romanian tourism, a series of
advantages would follow, such as:
ensuring larger touristic fluxes;
special technical assistance offered by foreign experts;
decreasing exploitation costs by diminishing promoting expenses
(unique promotion on the European level);
a larger amount of foreign investment in tourism;
better knowledge of the country’s history and culture;
monitoring pollution;
Other advantages may occur due to haphazard factors.
8
DISPARITIES CONCERNING TOURISTIC RESOURCES IN THE
WESTERN PART OF ROMANIA
Cipriana Sava
People live in different environments and areas, geographically, socially,
economically and politically speaking. Thus, it is virtually unlikely to ask for a perfect
symmetry and harmony.
There are disparities on the level of Euro-regions, regions and on the level of
areas within regions (interregional). The main causes of inequalities are considered to be:
- size of property;
- production factors;
- economic growth policy.
In the European Union there is a regional policy which starts from the idea of
economic and social cohesion. The main aim is to minimize existent disparities on the
level of region development and it manifests itself either to prevent (to remove causes) or
to control (eliminate effects).
Regional economic development starts from knowing the reality within a territory and
it can be performed by:
- developing economic branches capable of capitalizing experience and existent
resources, of being competitive internally and externally;
- removing socially and educationally restrictive factors.
Tourism, economic branch of the tertiary sector may hold an important role in the
Touristic activity is influenced directly by the existence of touristic resources within a
territory. Other influence factors are general infrastructure, technical and material
facilities and the regional workforce.
The V West region is formed of four counties: Arad, Caras-Severin, Hunedoara,
Timis and it consists of an area of 32,034 km2 (13.44% of the total country area).
On the territory of this region there is a well- developed network of roads, distributed
relatively equally. The density of national roads on the level of km/100,000 inhabitants
situates this region on the first place (89.8 km/100,000 inhabitants) compared with other
developing regions of the country. As far as the railway network is concerned, the
situation is identical; the V West region has a density of 97 km/ 100,000 inhabitants.
Apart from the above mentioned there are also national and international airports that
facilitate the access to the area.
The technical and material facilities include accomodation, restoration and treatment
units, both old and new, having, however, smaller capacities. In this region there are 326
accomodation units (79 units).
It is a known fact that workforce in tourism has direct contact with tourists, that is
why they have to be well- skilled and –trained and the existence of education centers in
this domain is absolutely necessary and an encountered factor in this region.
Natural touristic resources of V West region are numerous and various, their
distribution within the region is, however, unequal.
Arad County has its natural touristic resources concentrated in the Eastern part where
there are Zarand, Codru- Moma and Bihor Mountains. There are here belvedere points,
mountainous landscape, karsts and calcareous shapes, thermal- mineral springs, a mild
1
climate, rich vegetation, endemic species and a rich specific fauna. The rest of the county
has only some mineral springs (Lipova, Mocrea, Cernei, Paulis, Socodor, Macea, carand,
Chisineu Cris and Vladimirescu).
The natural touristic potential of Caras-Severin County is special and is due to the
mountainous relief which prevails and due to the Danube River. We may speak about an
almost uniform arrangement of these resources. There can be remarked mountainous
landscapes, belvedere points, glacier tracks, karsts, gorges and narrow paths, lakes,
waterfalls, thermal-mineral waters, a sub Mediterranean climate, snow persistence
(Semenic, Tarcu and Mic Mountains), vegetation and fauna. Touristic areas in this
County are:
- Central Semenic;
- Anina Mountains;
- Mic Mountain and Poiana Rusca;
- Cerna Valley;
- Moldova Noua.
The third county of the region, Hunedoara, also has important natural touristic
resources, given especially by the mountainous relief (Paring Mountains, Godeanu,
Retezat, Sureanu, Poiana Rusca Mountains). There are also belvedere points,
mountainous landscapes, volcanic knolls, karsts, special epigenetic narrow paths, glacier
lakes (Bucura, Zanoaga, etc), mineral springs, waterfalls, different climate according to
the relief, various fauna and vegetation.
Timis County has an attractive natural touristic potential concentrated in its Eastern
part where there is a small of Poiana Rusca Mountains. Mineral water springs that exist in
the Westren part of this area such as: Buzias, Calacea, Ivanda, Lovrin, Banloc, Pischia,
Cebza, Timisoara, etc are also considered touristic resources.
From the presented information and facts we may asset that there are disparities of
touristic natural resources both within counties, in the obvious cases of Arad and Timis,
and within the V West Region. Caras- Severin and Hunedoara counties which belong to
the analysed region possess natural resources of a special touristic value.
On the entire territory of the region we encounter anthropic touristic resources
which may exert a strong attraction for the potential tourists. These belong to the
historical vestiges, religious settlements and cultural- artistic patrimony.
Anthropic resources in Arad County are usually encountered in the town of Arad
and in its South Eastern and Eastern part.
In Caras- Severin County the Dacian and Roman historical vestiges are numerous
and they attract attention; so does the traditional architecture from Tara Almajului, but we
cannot neglect the rest of existing resources.
Hunedoara County offers various historical vestiges and old religious settlements
from the Dacian and Roman people to the potential tourists.
Timis is a county where fields prevail, and anthropic resources are concentrated in
the town of Timisoara and in some of its Western and South- Western part.
As in the case of natural touristic resources, the anthropic ones are also dispersed.
In the Arad and Timis counties, the later are situated only in large cities and in a few
other places, whereas in Caras- Severin and Hunedoara counties they are encountered on
almost the entire territory.
2
Natural protected areas and natural monuments account for 38,597.5 ha from the
region, out of which the majority of this area is situated in Caras- Severin county
(32,092.2 ha), followed by Timis (3,454.1 ha), Hunedoara (2,488.4 ha) and Arad (562.8
ha).
Nevertheless, tourism in the region has not encountered an adequate development
and advertisement yet.
The multitude and variety of existing touristic resources has determined some
types of tourism.
Circulation tourism has appeared especially because of the geographical position
of the region and access ways. Part of this tourism there is itinerant tourism and transit
tourism. It can be realized using the main traffic thoroughfare by the passages of Mures,
Timis- Cerna Rivers, the narrow paths of the Danube and Jiu, the “Iron Gate” of
Transylvania, Cris Alb valley, Banat Mountains. Inside the Banat Mountains, Poiana
Rusca Mountains, Zarand and Metalifer Mountains touristic routes have been created,
each having a theme depending on existing resource categories.
Thermal and spa tourism has existed due to mineral water and thermal springs
within the region.
Leisure tourism has been put into practice in all touristic resorts, but also in places
having leisure facilities, by waters, on the edge of forests or in the clearing of forests, on
the occasion of holidays or at the weekend.
Business tourism has developed in this region because of existing economic
traditions and the possibility of exploiting under developed areas. Apart from big cities
there are also Petrosani, Brad, Calan, Moldova Noua, Anina, Ruschita, Ocna de Fier,
Nadrag, Tomesti, Marginea, Jimbolia.
Cultural and historical tourism is an important part because V West region has a
large network of historical sites and a valuable cultural and artistic patrimony.
Mountainous tourism is sustained by the relief in some areas and it is practiced
both during the summer (hiking, leisure) and during winter (winter sports).
Sports tourism is practiced in the mountains, as I have mentioned, as winter
sports, touristic orientation and mini golf in Timisoara.
Tourism for hunting and fishing may also be practiced due to the excellent
existing possibilities.
Dysfunctions in the regional tourism could also be:
- poor modernization of roads, especially in the mountains;
- lack of harbor facilities in Moldova Noua;
- poor utilization of mountainous potential, especially the skiing, climbing and
karsts potential in Caras- Severin and Hunedoara Counties;
- inadequate exploitation and utilization of spa resources;
- weak concern for the protection and preservation of the environment and of sites;
- Not signaling anthropic resources
- Old, inadequate infrastructure, which is concentrated in only some of the
locations;
- Poor marking of mountainous touristic routes;
- Poor quality of touristic services.
3
In order to reduce disparities among touristic resources in the Western part of
Romania, we consider that it would be necessary to identify policies and development
strategies for the touristic activity.
A better exploitation of resources and the initiation of some manifestations, such as
festivals having a regional, national, international character could be the solution to
diminish existing disparities.
REFERENCES:
1. Regional Geography
2. Famous Romanian Religious Monuments, Churches and Monasteries
3. Statistic Annuary of Romania
4. Act no.5
4
REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN A BORDER AREA
OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
Author: Tamás Gyulai,
Managing Director of Dél-Alföld Regional Development Agency,
Szeged, Hungary
Summary
The Regional Development Agency (RDA) of the Dél-Alföld (South Great Plain)
region was established in 1997 as a first of such regional organisation in Hungary. This
paper describes the results achieved and the experience obtained during the 8 years of
operation with special emphasis on the aspects of cross-border economic development.
The Dél-Alföldi RDA has been active in regional economic development planning from
its date of creation. First a comprehensive regional development concept with a longterm strategic focus was prepared in 1999 followed by the Strategic Programme of the
region, which was defined for a 7 year period. These planning documents have already
been modified slightly to incorporate the necessary changes but major change has not
been necessary even since their acceptance by the Regional Development Council in
2000.
Management of regional funds of the European Union has also been a key area for the
RDA. The Dél-Alföld region was one of the pilot area where the Phare programme in
Hungary has implemented a regional programme between 1997 and 2001. This „pilot
regional fund” was a very useful tool for regional development because it contributed to
the establishment of development regions in Hungary. The staff of the Dél-Alföldi RDA
has gained valuable experience in the management of Phare programmes that turned to
be very useful when the efficient management of Structural Funds became a national
priority in 2004.
Innovation has been a key element of the regional priorities therefore the Dél-Alföldi
RDA has managed to achieve that the regional Phare programme financed a project
aimed at fostering innovation among small and medium-sized enterprises (SME). The
project provided non-refundable grant for the creation of Technology Centres
throughout the region and also for the development of innovative new products or new
services.
The actions planned and implemented by the Dél-Alföldi RDA were done in the DélAlföld region in Hungary but some of them formed part of cross-border or European
networking actions. The professional co-operation has been particularly strong with the
Regional Development Agency of the West region of Romania: co-ordinated
preparation of the Regional Innovation Strategy, joint definition of the Euroregional
Concept and joint action within the TRANSVISION workgroup of the project
Blueprints for Regional Foresight are among the most successful co-operation actions of
the last few years.
1
Regional development planning and programme implementation
The Dél-Alföld region was among the first in Hungary to develop the complete set of
regional development plans: regional development concept (for the long term), regional
strategy (for a 7 year period) and operational programmes (for 3 year period). The DélAlföld RDA was the professional organisation that co-ordinated the work of the expert
groups involved in the planning process and organised the consultation process within
the region.
The regional plans were considered useful contribution to the planning process on the
national level. The proposals made on the basis of the Dél-Alföld regional plans were
incorporated into the yearly Phare programmes of Hungary and also into the first
National Development Plan (made for the period 2004-2006). The content of the
operational programmes are already somewhat outdated (part of the proposed
development measures have already been implemented by the Operational Programme
for Regional Development co-financed by the Sructural Funds) but the regional concept
and the regional strategy is still the basic document for the development of the DélAlföld region.
The next programming period 2007-2013 means a big challenge for the Hungarian
regions: decentralisation is a government policy now in Hungary therefore regions
could have a good chance for preparing and implementing their own Regional
Operational Programme. It requires not only a political decision from the Hungarian
government but it also obliges regions to re-consider their development strategy in order
to fit it into the national development policy framework. This work is going on
presently, the final result is expected by the end of 2005.
The Phare programme can be considered as the predecessor of the future regional
programmes in Hungary. The Dél-Alföld RDA was involved in the implementation of
Phare programmes since 1998. The last batch of projects co-financed by the Phare
programmes will be completed by the end of 2006. The total number of projects
managed by the Dél-Alföld RDA is close to 200, the amount of grant utilised is more
than 46 million euro and all this management work has been carried out by a team of 12
professionals within the RDA.
The Phare programme management provided useful experience to the RDA staff, which
is currently utilised in various programmes. It is now the 3rd year that the Hungarian
government assigns some of its regional development budget to the regions and the
administrative management tasks are handled by the RDA. The Managing Authority of
the Operational Programme for Regional Development also relies on the RDA expertise
because the formal and technical evaluation is carried out by the staff of the RDA. It
means that the RDA is already involved in the management process therefore it will be
realistic to plan for becoming the Managing Authority of the Dél-Alföld Regional
Operational Programme from 2007.
2
Planning and project implementation in regional innovation
The Dél-Alföld region is characterised – among other things – by the relatively high
number of researches and research institutes: the region has the second largest research
capacity in Hungary after Budapest. It means a big challenge for regional development
how to utilise this potential for economic development of the region.
The most important step towards a well-defined regional innovation policy was the
preparation of the Regional Innovation Strategy with the support of the 5th R+D
Framework Programme of the European Commission. We used the well-proven
methodology with the help of experienced professionals from England and France that
contributed to the planning process very efficiently. The planning process was very
much “partnership based”, which means that a lot of consultation took place with the
various “stakeholders” in the Dél-Alföld (South Great Plain) region. This approach
could guarantee that the final result (the developed strategy shown below) is
acknowledged and accepted by the key actors in the region.
Improvement of innovation capacities and
competitiveness of South Great Plain
Human resource
development
techni
cal
educa
tion
Training
for
innovati
on
manage
rs
Exchange
between
research
and
business
Institutional and
infrastructural
development
Biotech/
Meditech
technolo
gy centre
Enterpri
se Hub
Innovat
ion Info
Point
Innovati
on
support
offices
Improvement of
innovative awareness of
busiensses
Internatio
nalisation
of SMEs
FDI
support
office
Region
al
Innovat
ion
Award
Project
genera
tion
Informat
ion
dissemi
nation
Networks
Spinoff
progra
m
clusters
Network
of BSOs
interna
tional
networ
ks
The result of the project was not only the strategy itself but also it generated significant
institution development, as well. The Steering Committee of the project has grown to be
a regional forum of innovation professionals and later (in 2005) it became an
acknowledged element of the regional institution system serving as the Innovation
Committee of the Regional Development Council. The strategy itself includes several
institution development proposals that were used since the approval of the strategy
(August 2004) to create regional networks.
The first regional network in the innovation field was created in the framework of the
regional Phare programme. Technology Centres with specialisation in a particular
economic sector were established in the Dél-Alföld region and non-refundable financial
support was given to companies that planned to create innovation products or services
in the region. The planning phase of the programme was started in 2001, the
implementation of the individual projects was concluded in September 2004. These
centres will serve as bridges between the scientific world and the businesses.
3
The above two actions (Regional Innovation Strategy and regional network of
Technology Centres) gave very good starting point for the co-ordinated development of
regional institutions for innovation support. The real progress in this aspect, however,
was made possible by the creation of the Innovation Fund in Hungary. This fund
allocates 25% of its total budget for the development of regional innovation systems to
be implemented in conformity with the Regional Innovation Strategy of the particular
region. This is the first time in Hungary that such a financial instrument is made
available for the regions for the implementation of their own development policy.
International project and cross-border co-operation
The innovation oriented nature of economic development is not unique to the DélAlföld region. The West region of Romania also has a very dynamic Regional
Development Agency that – similarly to the Dél-Alföld RDA – has successfully applied
for support in order to prepare the Regional Innovation Strategy (RIS). The RIS projects
of the two regions in Hungary and in Romania have been completed as independent
projects but synergic actions have been implemented during the planning process. It
meant that the professional teams of the two RDA have exchanged information about
the interim results of the projects and the analysis documents were also done in a coordinated way.
Such co-operation made it possible that a Euroregional Innovation Concept was
developed as additional strategic document that defines the most promising cooperation areas in the innovation field (its brief summary is given below). The joint
Hungarian-Romanian professional team has also invited experts from Serbia, which
made the result of the project a real guideline for innovation development in the
Danube-Körös-Maros-Tisza euroregion.
Sustainable
development
Geothermic energy
utilisation
Alternative energy
sources
Cluster networks
Trans-regional knowledge
transfer
Cluster building in
agriculture and tourism
sectors
Linkage between
science and industry
Best practice sharing
Cross-border cooperation in tech.
transfer
This tri-lateral project also had institution development action line. The professional
seminars have been organised in Timisoara, Szeged and Palic (Serbia), respectively in
order to foster partnership building between the actors that are active in the three
countries concerned. The relationships created during the project has laid the foundation
for joint projects that are developed now and will be submitted for the INTERREG IIIA
in 2005.
The two partner RDAs from Timisoara and Szeged have been working together in other
projects in European level, too. One of them was the TECNOMAN Perspectives that is
a project for international business location development, which aims at developing
proposals for economic development actions in innovation, logistics, tourism and
renewable energy utilisation. The work started with the analysis of existing
transportation and business development infrastructure in European context therefore
4
the nature of the project calls for trans-border co-operation. The Dél-Alföld RDA has
been successful in obtaining co-financing for its participation in the project from the
Phare programme. The Romanian Phare programme, however, did not provide such
funding opportunity therefore the cross-border element of the project could not be
completed.
The joint development of the business and logistics infrastructure of the border zone is
very important since the border of the European Union is presently here and it will stay
so for several years. A network of co-operating towns could provide good business
opportunities for companies that are ready to exploit the potential benefits of crossborder trade. Bi-lateral co-operations have already been implemented with the support
of Phare CBC programme and the new instruments of the European Commission
planned to be made available from 2007 might provide even more potential
opportunities for this area.
The joint efforts for the two partner RDAs were completely successful, however, in the
TRANSVISION workgroup. The Blueprints for Regional Foresight project of the
European Commission brought together experts from various countries in Europe in
order to define blueprints for regional foresight activities in various scenarios. One of
the workgroups (under the TRANSVISION name) was devoted to deal with the special
problems and requirements of the “trans-border” areas (regions that are split by national
borders falling under different jurisdictions). Two pilot areas were selected for the
exercise: the “Large Region” that includes Luxemburg and regions from Belgium,
France, Germany and the DKMT euroregion covering the neighbouring regions in
Hungary, Romania and Serbia. Thus this initiative has acknowledged the pilot nature of
the cross-border co-operation actions carried out in this border area during the last few
years.
5
International networking for economic development
The Dél-Alföld RDA has been active member of European networks since the very start
of its operation. The European Association of Development Agencies (EURADA) has
accepted it as associate member in 1998 and full membership was obtained in 2004 with
the accession of Hungary to the European Union. This association has proved to be a
very useful source of information about the policies and programmes of the European
Commission and it served us also as a partnership building forum because the DélAlföld RDA became partner in various projects in partnership with other EURADA
members.
One of the most interesting projects is called TOWards the sustainable Excellence by
innovating Regions (TOWER) co-financed by the INTERREG IIIC programme. It is a
regional framework operation (RFO) that brings together regions from Sweden, France,
England, Nederlands and Hungary. The project aims to complement regional
technology transfer and infrastructure development by European networking actions.
The principle of sustainable development will be core element of the supported cooperative projects. The international co-operation should help Hungarian companies
from the Dél-Alföld region to enter the European market in partnership with more
experienced businesses from the partner regions. The joint actions on European level
should also help the fine-tuning of the regional development policies of the co-operating
regions.
The already running projects provide good basis for further development. Sereval
projects are under preparation for the Regions of Knowledge call and also for next
round of INTERREG IIIA. The Dél-Alföld RDA has joined the initiative of our
Romanian partner in Timisoara and the hopefully successful application can open a new
page in our co-operation. EURADA has organised a wide circle of RDAs from various
EU member states where the Dél-Alföld RDA is also participating. Special attention is
given to co-operation with Serbian organisations because the CARDS programme now
offers a new opportunity for co-financing for joint actions across the borders.
Conclusion
International co-operation and networking actions are a core element of the operations
of the Dél-Alföld RDA. The long term development strategy of the Dél-Alföld region in
Hungary can be planned and implemented in a professionally sound way only if the
vision for the region is developed in a European perspective. The various support
programmes of the European Commission have proven to be of catalytic nature for the
co-ordinated regional economic development within Hungary and across the national
borders, as well. Hungary’s accession to the European Union opened up new
possibilities for co-operation on European level and also put increasing responsibility on
regional development professionals not only for the actions they implement in their own
regions but also for the development of the DKMT euroregion as a whole.
6
Urban Green Space as the Resource for Tourism - Its Possibility and Issues Yukari Ihara, Post Doctor Special Researcher,
Graduate School of Environmental Science,
Okayama University, Japan
1 Introduction - Tourism Policy and Cultural Green Space
The recent policy for Urban Green Space in Japan can be classified into the following two types:
1) focusing on the natural functions, 2) focusing on the social and cultural functions. The former
functions are what contribute to Environment Preservation, such as air purification, microclimate
control and also maintaining ecosystem health and biodiversity On the other hand, the latter
functions are, for example, recreation and making urban landscape more beautiful. In addition, as
for a specific Urban Green Space, we can point out such functions as the cultivation of love for their
home town and the resource for tourism which contribute Regional Promotion. Therefore, in this
paper, we define this kind of specific Urban Green Space as the "Cultural Green Space" anew, and
then focus on it.
In recent years, the utilization of this "Cultural Green Space", which is scattered throughout
Japan, has been concerned from Tourism Policy especially. For example,
the Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport in Japan has decided to emphasize the urban parks,
which would be able to become the core of promoting tourism since 2003, as the target for special
maintenance. The following is one of the definition of such urban parks:
“the urban parks can contribute to Tourism Promotion, based on preservation and utilization of
the historical, natural, and cultural resources that the country must preserve－for example,
cultural property, the historic site, or the place of scenic beauty that are specified by the country,
etc１.”
That is, the "Cultural Green Space". In addition, the different attempts, such as the renewal by
restoration and planning and holding of various events, are promoted and advertised actively by the
initiative of the local there governments or the involvement and the cooperation with the public.
It can be conceived that such trend will be strongly influenced by the Tourism Policy, which was
positioned as the main National Strategy for the 21st century against the background of the recent
progress Globalism and Japan’s struggling economy. We can also point out the trend of current age
that "Sustainable Tourism", like "Eco-Tourism", might be well regarded as the most suitable way of
tourism from now on, which might be brought about by actively utilizing the resources inherent in
the region by the people in the local community and the region. Therefore, it can be well predicted
that the tendency to pay attention to the "Urban Green Space", as the resource that is rooted in
regional own history, culture and nature, must be furthermore intensified.
1
2 Shift from the Country Resource to the Regional One
- Change in Valuing as the Resource for Tourism –
Now, it should be noted that the phenomena to pay attention to cultural green space, in relation to
the emergence of tourism policy, have already seen in the past.
For example, we can readily point out the fact that the "International Tourism" have been widely
used as one of the key words so as to express the periods from 1920's to 1930's. In those days,
Japanese government made much of the tourism policy. Particularly after the Japan-Russian war and
the 1st World-War, spiritual uplift for nationalism had been emerged in Japan. Therefore, some trials
so as to enhance the international prestige, and not only to obtain foreign currency, but also to help
regional encouragement were highly required. As a result, various activities were promoted in
various districts in order to attract both foreign and domestic tourists.
Then, so many tourist-related institutes were founded. In addition, brochures and guidebooks for the
sake of tourist were so many published. Transport infrastructures such as rails were also
implemented. In relation to those current situations, some
"Discovery" of various landscape and affairs, which might be regarded as the potential resource for
tourism, were revealed in so many districts. In this process, several cultural green spaces were also
discovered as reviewed precious resource for tourism.
Well then, if we compare the past (i.e., the period from 1920's to 1930's) way of view, and the
present one, toward the cultural green space, is there any difference between the two? The answer to
this question is, conclusively, "No". According to the journal, entitled the first number issue of
"International Tourism", which was published in 1931, by the International Tourism Institute, whose
main purpose was to attract foreign tourists, the following descriptions were shown:
"Oriental countries quite differ from western countries in this respect. This kind
of different point will surely play a role of powerful moment to attract the
Westerners. Namely, it might be convinced that the most Westerners might be
surely met their curiosities by such fact that the Orient is geographically
located remotely, and also there still exist the Oriental and original beauty,
which is stemmed from our own country's religion, history, arts, and traditions,
etc.２"
In those days, the above-stated statements or remarks were frequently cited. Namely, whether it
is truly the Oriental and original brilliant beauty on not, seemed to be the general criterion for
discovering resource for tourism in those days.
For example, consider the case of "Ritsurin Park" in Takamatsu city, Kagawa prefecture, which
is known as the old Feudal Lord's Garden in Japan. The original property was lost after the Meiji
Restoration, and then the modern Museum was built in the center of the Park, together with any
other apparatus so as to promote the Westernization. But, when it comes to the period of 1920's to
1930's, the following evaluations were given in accompanying to the establishment of the role of the
resource for tourism.
2
"There are so many well-known parks as the so-called Japanese garden. But, it
should be noted that the "Ritsurin Park" has preserved the purely Japanese
style gardening-method. In this sense, it is not only proud of Takamatsu city
and Kagawa prefecture. Furthermore, we can be confidently proud of it, as
the Japanese for the world.３"
This is the descriptions from the articles related to the "Ritsurin Park", which was shown in the issue
of "Takamatsu in Tourism" (No. 1), which was published by the Takamatsu Tourism Institute in
1937. Furthermore, in this article, such expressions as the "Purely Japanese Image" are frequently
used. Fig. 1 shows the state of coexistence of the old historical gardening design and the Western
gardening design. But, we can say confidently by the change in evaluation that the former gradually
surpassed the latter with the lapse of time.
Fig.1 Ritsurin Park around in 1914
So far, it seems that the criterion for deserving resource for tourism in 1920s to 1930s depends on
whether it can be worth representing the "Nation" of Japan. At present, on the other hand, the
“Region” is made much of rather than the “Nation”, as
has been suggested in Chapter 1. “The Report of the meeting on the establishment of the nation by
tourism” shows directly the fact like this. This report positioned to activate the region as the main
purpose of the present tourism policy, and then use the word “Region” no less than 40 times. “One
tourism One Region”, “Let’s cultivate the charm which is rooted in the Region”, these quotations
show the logic consistently that to promote the project which is aimed to polish the identity of the
region connect to increase the identification of the residents, attract tourists from outside to the
region, and activate the region. Recently, the word “Regional own”, “Regional Treasure” will be
emerged from this logic.
According to the fact that the criterion for deserving resource for tourism changed from the
“Nation” to the “Region”, the kind or the content of the Cultural Green Space which was taken as an
object of that were also changed. In 1920s and 1930s, mainly the place where was easy to evaluate
because of the scale and/or the history, such as the large-scale historical garden. But at present, not
only that place, but also another Cultural Green Space newly was lighted up as “Regional Treasure”.
３ For the Discovery and the Utilization of Cultural Green Space newly
3
On the other hand, it is also the fact that we can often see such phenomena as the real hasn’t
caught up the ideal well. Even though various attempts, which are meant to contribute Regional
Promotion, are actively advanced at Cultural Green Space here and there, there are many cases
where such attempts cannot work well.
For example, there is the case where the number of users has not so increased, and the case where
visitor came there only one time, not repetitively. We often also see the case they can’t find an
effectual use of Cultural Green Space, because the concrete value of the place (especially the view
of the relation to the region ), which was found as Cultural Green Space, hasn’t be confirmed yet.
These phenomena can be explained by the confusion of the present view of this space with the
past one, because the change of the value from the “National” resource to the ‘Regional’ resource
remains at the policy level yet and such policy (ideology) doesn’t formed concretely at the project
level. Therefore, the question how to deal with the Cultural Green Space as the “Regional” resource
resolves itself into the following 3 points.
1. First, we have to grasp the relationship between the Cultural Green Space and the history, nature,
culture of the region correctly, and then position it as the ‘value’ of this place clearly.
2. Second, we need to consider how to do public relations on the “value” as the attractive one.
3. We need to consider how to include the total management, which contains above 1 and 2, in the
society and environment of the region (i.e., the new context of the region).
Finally, let us now refer to the possibility of Cultural Green Space in Timisoara where the 5th
National Symposium of the Rumanian Regional Science Association was held. In this city, we can
see the remains of the City Wall here and there (see Fig.2). The top and the surroundings of the wall
are Green Space generally, whose styles are various as follows the place which would be left as it is
(see Fig.3), the place which is used as the plant for tourists (see Fig.4), and the place which became
the botanical garden (we can see a piece of the City Wall there now) (see Fig.5, Fig.6).
We can regard such Green Space based on the City Wall as the Cultural Green Space which is great
valuable for Timisoara, because these styles reflect the history of this city itself.
In the Europe, though some cities retain most of the City Wall and use it as a tourist attraction,
many cities removed it and use the site as the promenade, the park, and the belt highway. Therefore,
it is possible that the Green Space based on the City Wall in Timisoara work as the effective resource
for tourism. It is noteworthy that we clarify the history peculiar to Timisoara which the present City
Wall shows and then advertise it widely as the attractive information.
4
Fig.2 ( photo Yukari Ihara)
Masaaki Takashina, promoting tourism and parks ”The New City” Vol.57No.9 City Planning Association of
Japan(2003),31
International Tourism Institute, “International Tourism” International Tourism Institute(1933), 1
Takamatsu Tourism Institute, "Takamatsu in Tourism"No.1 Takamatsu Tourism Institute(1937),56-59
Tatsuzo Iwasa, “The Landscape of Ritsurin Park”（ the1st Edition was published at 1914, this is the 9th Edition.）
Takamatsu City Library of Historical Documents
5
Deleted:
REPRESENTATIONS ON THE NEW REGIONAL REALITIES
AT THE LEVEL OF THE LOCAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Simona BRANIŞTE,
The Agency for Regional Development “CENTRE”
Mihai PASCARU,
The University „1 Decembrie 1918” Alba Iulia
1. INTRODUCTION
The present study is based on relatively recent research conducted at the level of
the local public administration in the Development Region “CENTRE”.
The study aims to identify some representations on the divisions in development
regions and also on administrative regions.
Our research begins with the premise that reality is socially constructed through
the interaction of the motivations, expectations, symbols, etc. of the individual and of
the group. Jean-Claude Abric in his study “Social representations-theoretical aspects”
says that the representations play a fundamental role in the dynamic of social relations
and in practice, by fulfilling some essential functions: a function of knowledge, by
permitting the understanding and interpretation of reality, a function of identity which
defines and maintains the specific characteristics of the group, a function of orientation
of behaviours and a function for justification of behaviours and decisions.
Although it is not a frequently debated issue in Romanian society, we
investigated a possible existence of administrative regions and the expectations of the
subjects.
The issue of regional development (the existence of development regions), is
relevant from a social point of view at least ideally. A region comes into existence
through partnerships and this has positive consequences for the society. The
partnerships are formed between counties for the purpose of elaborating development
projects. These projects exceed the administrative boundaries and their benefic effects
spread on a larger area. Thus new social connections are formed between the
representatives of the administration or different regional stakeholders. And in this way,
interests for development are being defined on a superior level of counties-regional
level.
The relationships established between the social partners, the perception of the
advantages brought by collaboration, and also the understanding of this type of
relationships in the context of a larger territory, are determined to a certain extent by the
pattern of the representations of the regions, by the degree of communication, by the
perception of a certain common identity and by the cohesion of the counties of the
region.
The present study will first describe the typology of the representations on the
development regions and particularly on the Development Region “CENTRE”.
Considering the fact that this issue is not frequently debated in Romanian society
and there are few people informed, we decided that a qualitative methodology, an in
depth analysis is more appropriate and more productive in order to obtain answers to the
questions of our research. The study itself requires a qualitative methodology that
1
would allow the collection of a rich material on which the theory could be constructed.
(See Agabrian).
Among the selection criteria we included the attendance of the subjects
interviewed in the working groups at the regional level, groups formed in every county
of the Region for consultancy in order to elaborate the Regional Development Plan. The
selection considered a “geographical coverage” of the data, however due to a shortage
of time and high costs, the other counties, except for Alba, have been less represented or
even not represented at all.
2. REPRESENTATIONS ON THE ASSOCIATION OF COUNTIES IN
DEVELOPMENT REGIONS
2.1. The association of counties in The Development Region “CENTRE”
The association of counties in development regions is generally seen as positive.
It is considered that it brings advantages. The most important advantages mentioned are
certainly the economic advantages, for which the development regions have been
created. And so, of these advantages will benefit especially the poorly economic
developed counties. They are being helped through the regional development policy,
which reduces disparities, in order to achieve an equilibrated development at the level of
the entire region (See Table 1).
Advantages of the association
Disadvantages of the association
Efficiency in use of funds
Insufficiency of European funds
Application of regional
development policies
(reduction of disparities)
Perspective of the access to
European funds
Greater competitiveness
Economic efficiency
Common economic space
Common infrastructure
Decentralization of European
funds allocation
Arbitrary and forced association of
counties
Inconsistency of regional organization
(incipient stage)
A reduced authority at regional level
Inadequate judicial framework
Inefficient decentralization
Partnerships, collaboration
Artificial connections between counties
Intraregional
Commu
nication
Judicial,
administrative
Economic
Table 1. Representations on the association of counties in development regions
2
Together with the economic advantages we have listed also the advantages
linked to the efficiency in resource management, improved competitiveness, creation of
a common economic space, decentralization of European funds management, the
construction of a common infrastructure through collaboration.
From the administrative point of view, in some answers there are references to
the reduced degree of decentralization: “We pretend that we want to create a region...
Seriously, if regional bodies would have real attributions for development, if there
existed a regional identity, if there were an efficient decentralization, then numerous
problems would emerge, and they could be most adequately solved at this level” (KL,
geologist, Head of department “Regional development and European Integration,
County Council Covasna”).
The judicial disadvantages are more frequently mentioned than the financial
ones, where the insufficiency of funds is invoked. The inadequate and restraining
judicial framework, the reduced degree of authority on regional level correlated with an
excessive centralization, forced association, the inconsistent and incipient stage of
organization in development regions are considered disadvantages of the association of
counties.
The creation of partnerships is considered positive in what regards the
intraregional communication, although the connections between counties are still
considered artificial.
In what concerns the Region “CENTRE”, we must notice the fact that the only
visible advantages of the six counties are the cultural ones. The general advantages are
added to the particular ones to which we will refer in our study. In the representation of
our subjects, the principal advantages of the association of these counties are the
following: diverse ethnic structure (referring to the Hungarian ethnics) which favors the
exchange of experience with Hungary, an EU member state, effects which are to be seen
in the regions with a larger percentage of ethnic Hungarian population. The ethnic
diversity, specific to the region is perceived as a cultural advantage: “...We are a region
that includes counties with a majority of Hungarian population. Hungary is already an
EU member state and its experience and expertise in this field will be given to the
Hungarians from our region and I personally consider it an advantage. There are also
German ethnics-it is a multicultural region. The diversity can be an advantage”. (DB,
journalist, Head of the”Programs and strategies department”, County Council Alba).
In the case of the Development Region “CENTRE”, geographical criteria are
considered important and relevant. They determine a common set of problems from
economical and social point of view.
Some of the subjects consider a cultural advantage the fact that the Development
Region “CENTRE” is formed of counties from historical Transylvania. It is perceived
as a disadvantage the fact that there is no regional identity, although, we might add,
there are conditions for its creation by the overlapping of the historical region with the
development one. The subjects also say that there are no common characteristics on
which a regional identity could be constructed. In another interview, the importance of
identifying common characteristics for the creation of a regional identity is emphasized.
Economic advantages are brought by the partnerships between counties, this
being the way in which their association works. Another advantage revealed by our
subjects is the possible creation of a common tourism market.
The association is also considered inefficient, as there is no social, economic and
cultural compatibility. This argument is raised by the supporters of historical regions. In
this way, they consider the region as a forced association of counties “a Stalinist
3
division of the territory” (DP, Engineer, Head of Investments Department, County
Council Alba).
Some disadvantages come from the fact that in the present region the central
office (The Agency for Regional Development “CENTRE”) is situated towards the
margin of the region. The region being too large, communication and establishing of
relations between counties is difficult: “We are so far apart, we do not collaborate on
programs, …, we are separated” (LM, Chief Architect of Alba County Council).
Poor communication among counties results in difficult collaboration, as it is
pointed out by our subjects. This is why the association in the development region
“CENTRE” is not sufficiently materialized through development projects that could
give a meaning to the association, and bring benefits. We observe that there is
information on the general advantages, the theoretical advantages, that should result
from the association in development regions, however only few advantages were
effectively found in the present regional context. An explanation could be the fact that
there were few partnerships and collaborations between counties. The region still
doesn’t work by the elementary principle for regional development: the partnership.
The associations between counties are wanted especially for offering solutions in
problematic areas. For example, in Alba County, the association with Cluj and Bihor
counties is desired for covering the Apuseni Mountains area, an area characterized by
common problems. We must notice however that this is a zonal approach and not a
regional one with the argument that the region is too large to function efficiently. (See
Table 2)
Table 2. Representations on the association of the Development Region “CENTRE”
(counties Alba, Braşov, Covasna, Harghita, Mureş, Sibiu)
Advantages of association
Disadvantages of association
Socio-economic incompatibility
Economic
Geographic
Intraregional
communication
Cultural
Pertaining to the same
historical region –Central
Transylvania- facilitates
cooperation
Transfer of know-how from
Hungary
Multiethnic diversity
4
Long distance between counties
Large size of the region
Peripheral localization of the
Region’s central office
The lack of geographical unity
and similarity
Poor connections between
counties
Difficult collaboration between
counties
Artificial connections between
counties
The lack of regional identity
Inexistence of common elements
Inexistence of cultural
connections between the counties
situated far apart
We also met representations which reflect an insufficient understanding of the
regional development. It is said that “counties should be of the same size and level of
development”(MA, Head of Budget-Finance Department, Alba County Council). The
model of association set by the European Union, of countries with very different levels
of development was not taken into consideration, although in this context regional
policies are being applied, as an expression of solidarity between regions.
The identity of the Region “CENTRE” is not well established historically and
geographically in the collective conscience. Some say that “the counties are not
socially, economically and culturally compatible-it is an imposed association of
territories…Regionalization should be based on historical regions ”(DP, 36 years, Civil
engineer, Chief of Investment Department, Alba County Council). In another interview,
an advantage for the Development Region “CENTRE“is considered the overlapping of
the development region with the historical region: “The central part of Transylvania is
situated in a development region. All counties were part of the same historical territory
and this should favor cooperation among them”. (MD, Economist, Alba County
Statistics Bureau)
We encountered a number of difficulties in the delimitation of the development
region, which is a simple association of counties and does not present a unity as a
region. Counties do not form yet a distinct territory for common action, with identity,
although common action is desirable. It is recommended that these difficulties are
diminished through mass media, so that the region would be presented as a common
area and less as a simple association of counties. Such policies proved successful in
western countries like France (See Cardy, 1997).
2.2. On the process of regionalization in general
The representations on the regionalization in Romania in general have been
studied, in order to create the image of the regions and of the regionalization on the
whole.
Generally the process of regionalization is known as an artificial process1
(regions are not natural), an imposed process, but its necessity is recognized especially
in a European context. It is admitted that there is a benefic effect of the regionalization
in development regions, however the results are difficult to quantify and are little
visible.
The process is critically evaluated; the subjects interviewed sense both the
positive aspects as well as the aspects resulting from limitations and errors. The opinion
exists among the subjects that the effects cannot be seen, that one of the outcomes is just
another institutional super-structure at regional level. The process of regionalization
took place from top to bottom, it was carried out without consulting the communities,
without taking into consideration cultural, ethnic and historical characteristics “the
creation of development regions is not the result of a spontaneous social, economic or
administrative evolution, it was caused by the political “pressure” of the European
Union” (KL, Geologist, Former Head of the department for “Regional development
and European integration Covasna County Council”).
1
We suggested at one time (Pascaru, 2004) the distinction between regionalization, as a natural socialhistorical process, and region-setup – the creation of regions based on artificial criteria. The result of
regionalization is the formation of historical regions and as a result of region-setup we can mention the
present development regions in Romania. The difference has to be studied, this is why we limit ourselves
only to mention it in this context.
5
The citizens of the region don’t know the region where they live, they have been
ignored when the regions were established and along this process. “Local communities
haven’t been sufficiently involved, people do not know in which development region
they live, they probably don’t know what a development region means” (KL). Although
the process was imposed from abroad, it is accepted and evaluated as positive.
“However, I consider the regionalization of the country as one of the main political
decisions after December ’89, with innumerable benefic effects” (KL).
Regionalization leads to development, and the development has only a benefic
influence “development protects identity” (MH, Lawyer, Secretary of Alba County
Council).
An important observation appearing in interviews is the fact that the way in
which the regions have been established did not take into consideration the territorial
characteristics and the traditions. In some interviews, the similarity is considered
positive as compared to diversity which is considered negative. However, we must
mention the opposite opinion in which diversity is seen as an advantage.
The process of regionalization focused only on the preparation of our country for
the absorption of pre-accession and structural funds “a theater play, staged to absorb
the pre-accession funds” (KL). Even so, the subjects feel that the regionalization
process is an incipient one, “it was an introduction to the concept of region,…, this
means an understanding of the principles on which the region functions, a regional
thinking was created” (KL). Some positive effects are connected to the formation of
teams for the elaboration of development projects.
Table 3. Representations on the global process of regionalization in Romania
Positive aspects
Negative aspects
Process required
Artificial
Benefic
Difficulties in implementation
Balanced development
Un-adapted legislation to internal realities
High level of acceptance
Lack of intraregional collaboration within
projects
Access to funds
The regional level lead to the formation of a
superstructure
Infrastructure development
The lack of internal necessity –imposed from
abroad (EU, government)
Alignment to the European model The lack of consultancy of local communities
New workplaces
Neglect of traditions and characteristics of the
territory
Collaboration possibilities with
Excessive centralization of regional institutions
other regions
The establishment of the grounds Local unsolved problems
for regional development
An important political fact
Short term process, reduced funds
Positive tendency
Reduced functionality
Un-adequate legislation at regional level
Incipient level of the process
Reduced effects
Costs-benefits discrepancy
Non-coordination strategies-financial resources
Lack of visible results
Action limits imposed at the regional level
6
The creation of development regions aimed to lead to a process of
decentralization. The decentralization is seen as critical: “Maybe, due to the fear
generated by the ignorance regarding the role and history of regionalization, even the
few attributions of the regional bodies are carried out under the strict control of the
central administration, which is the national institution with attributions in the field of
regional development” (KL)
The greatest inconveniences arise from the fact that there exists no adequate
legal framework which would confer greater power to the regions, in order to elaborate
development projects. (See Table 3).
The opinions on the impact of regional development are divided: from the denial
of any result to the consideration that this exists but is however insignificant compared
to the allocated funds. Existing results are less known, they are not popular topics in
mass media, this leads to a lack of information even in an environment that was
considered to hold information “It was not felt. Not seen, there is no impact on the
county”(GH, geographer, clerk, Alba County Council).
). There are skeptical opinions on the results: local unsolved problems “the effects are
positive, but cannot be easily noticed” (LB, Engineer, Head of Territorial Coordination
of Decentralized Public Service Department, Alba Prefecture), or “nothing can be
noticed, neither good, nor bad, only a superstructure” (LM). The problems that were
solved through funds were not real, they were of minor importance. The subjects say
that the possible reasons for the lack of visible effects of the funds invested in projects
are the fact that the funds were insufficient and squandered. There are also optimistic
points of view in what regards the impact of the regional policies.
2.3. On the administrative regionalization
The answers we received on the process of the administrative regionalization
referred mainly to its necessity. We assembled the pro and cons arguments in order to
better understand the representations of the subjects interviewed (See Table 4).
Table 4. Necessity of the administrative regionalization in Romania
Arguments pro
Raising more funds
Even distribution of funds
A better use of funds
Financial autonomy
Access to foreign funds
Enhances the development
Efficiency of regional level
Eradication of bureaucracy
A reduced administrative structure
Real decision making ability
Arguments against
Difficulties in managing a larger territory
Generates complaints
Generates imbalances
Insufficient advantages
Complicated process
Expensive process
The lack of prepared population
Costs greater than benefits
We underline the fact that there is a general consensus on the necessity of
decentralization, however, regionalization is not regarded unanimously as its solution,
and this role is attributed to local autonomy: “In general, I consider administrative
decentralization as a priority, but not under the form of regionalization” (MA)
7
A very important aspect related to the administrative regionalization process
refers to its consequences. (See also Table 5). After analyzing the interviews, we
concluded that a better understanding of the theme generates a positive attitude towards
regionalization and the expected consequences are optimistic. On a personal level, the
positive consequences are the greater opportunities to find employment within the
regional administration “as there would not be enough qualified personnel” (HG)
The regionalization could also have negative effects leading to a loss of
workplaces: “My life would be negatively influenced by the reduction of administrative
body, I would lose my job” (IF, Clerk, Coordination of Decentralized Public Services
Department).
Table 5. The consequences of administrative regionalization
Positive consequences
Negative consequences
Budget autonomy
Economic imbalances
Correlation between resources-needs
Uneven distribution of funds
Balanced economic development
Increasing of bureaucracy
Responsibility in territory
Better
life
standards,
reduced
unemployment
Permissive legal frame
Projects implementation
Increasing of bureaucracy
The answers denote a certain degree of uncertainty because the way in which the
regionalization will be conducted is not known. There is no idea which administrative
level will remain from the ones presently existing.
A highly debated consequence in Romania is related to the loss of territorial
integrity. Regionalization is associated with lack of unity of the state. Therefore, the
regionalization issue is considered “taboo” and few explanations are given: “the starting
point is not the documents but the pamphlet” (DB). This is why we introduced a
question in order to verify the existence of fear for regionalization in some
environments.
The answers unanimously excluded the possibility that Romania should lose
territorial integrity: “No, the state is unitary, no matter how much we divide it” (GH)
“This is a joke or a story meant to scare children. NO!”(KL), “Definitely not. The
regionalization hasn’t destroyed any EU state so far” (DB).
This possibility is perceived as demagogical, not grounded and it would suppose
the emergence of special situations: “The danger would appear only if the Constitution
would give to the region the possibility to exceed its attributions and make decisions
that only the state should make” (DB)
Table 6. Attitudes towards administrative regionalization
Arguments pro
Enhances development
Possibility to access funds
An efficient use of funds
Financial autonomy
Decentralization
Arguments against
Difficult administration
Complicated Process
Expensive process
Costs higher than benefits
Unsatisfactory preparation of
8
population
Responsibilities in territory
We can conclude that there is a large acceptance of the idea of administrative
regionalization. As our respondents say, there must exist however a very good
preparation in advance: “I would vote, if I were well prepared. Experiments must be
avoided. There can be dramatic, traumatic consequences” (MH); “I would like to see in
advance a legal framework under the form of a project and only afterwards I would like
to study the problem and express my opinion”(CV, Economist, Clerk Investments
Department, Alba County Council).
Some of the subjects say that the present frame for regional development based on
economic criteria is sufficient. They consider that the formation of administrative
regions is not necessary. A positive attitude towards regional development does not
necessarily imply a similar attitude towards administrative regionalization.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The representations of regionalization are determined also by the history of
regionalization in Romania. There is generally a positive attitude rather than a negative
one on the period of time when our country was organized in regions. The
representations are only to a very small extent determined by mass media as the
regionalization is not subject for analysis or debate. In general, only elementary
information about financing programs is delivered without their implication in the
regional context. From here arises the demand of the subjects for more information in
this field. The representations on regionalization are formed but they do not have a solid
informational support.
There are different degrees of understanding even among experts, although their
interest towards the issue of regions is great. From the interviews resulted that the
transition from a county level to a regional one in the approach of the problems of
development has not taken place yet. For instance, the Region “CENTRE” is not
considered a unit, but only an association of counties, although it has a certain regional
identity due to the fact that it is part of the historical region Transylvania. On a more
abstract level, the region through its economic functions is largely accepted by the
subjects.
The decentralization process is considered necessary, but the regionalization is
only an alternative and is only partially supported.
The receptivity and the high level of comprehension towards the partnership and
interregional collaboration are remarkable. The partnership is regarded as an
organizational form used for the elaboration of projects. Through partnerships the
consensus is obtained, necessary to common decision making for development. This is
the grounds for economic and social cohesion. There is a greater interest towards
intensified collaboration with counties from the region “CENTRE” than with counties
outside the region. The preference for the counties of the region can represent the
beginning of a new way of thinking-a regional level thinking.
Some of the clerks are displeased by the present form of association of counties
due to the fact that there was not enough transparency and local communities have not
been consulted.
The present political context announcing a change in the division of
development regions –a legally unrealistic project- and also the requests of some
9
Hungarian political parties give certain insecurity to efforts of creation of a regional
thinking in the Region “CENTRE”.
The debate on regionalization, which is considered necessary, must be lead by
experts due to the complexity and importance of the subject. The discussions must be
based on a systematic analysis of the criteria and types of indicators on which the
territorial delimitation will be based.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abric, Jean Claude, 1997, Social representations: theoretical aspects, in
Psychology of the social field : Social representations, coordinator Neculau A.,
printed by Polirom, Iaşi
2. Agabrian, Mircea, 2004, Cercetarea calitativă a socialului (Social qualitative
research), printed by the European Institute, Iaşi
3. Cardy, H. (1997), Construire l’identité régionale, Montreal, L’Edition
Harmattan
4. Iluţ, Petru, (2000), The illusion of localism and the localization of illusion.
Present psycho-sociology themes, Printed by Polirom, Iaşi
5. Pascaru, Mihai, (2001), Sociologie rurală şi regională (Rural and regional
sociology), Alba Iulia, printed by Star Soft
6. Pascaru, Mihai, (2004), Sociologie regională (Regional Sociology), University
« 1 Decembrie 1918 » Alba Iulia
10
CARPATHIAN EURO REGION AND CROSS BORDER
COOPERATION BETWEEN IVANO-FRANKOVSK REGION AND
MARAMURES COUNTY
Ec. drd. Gheorghe Brânzei
Manager National Bank of Romania,
Maramures Branch
1. General Considerations
The processes of economic interstates integration and globalising tendencies, which
national economies support, also trains the region dinamic. So, in the European integration
context, regional cooperation represents an adapting form of globalisation and of diminishing
of risks implied by this. This is considered to be a result and also a reaction to globalisation.
The regional development politics contains an ensemble of concepts, principles, purposes
and objectives, instruments and precise means of realisation through which it realises the joint
action of some governmental and nongovernemntal organismes which cooperate in an
institutional created environment.
This aims the elimination of discrepances in economic and social development betwen the
member states by the equilibration of the reginal development level.
The development globalisation monitorises the diminuation of the differencies between
areas, being an area from the interior of a country, or macroregions or any other territorial
entites considered as parts of some areas. Concretely, by regional politics, poor areas, areas
with a low prosperity level, there are distributed different resourses (material, financial,
human and informational) by institutional structures, publics and quasipublics specially
constitueted and in the component of which there are representatives of natonal governments
as well as local chosers. The resourses are being distribueted by competitive components, the
beneficiaries being forced to present their concrete projects through which are grounded
resourses using methods and also the development means of some local major issues.
Appeared in Europe, in tight connection with the evolution of local autonomy and of
regionalization, collaboration phenomenon in the framework of euroregions consists in
creating some direct connections between region and communities situated on the one part
and other of the state borders, by virtue of local authorities competences, as they are defined
in national legislation.
In Western Europe, they are functioning efficiently, the advantages of these forms of
cooperation being unquestionable: stimulation of commercial and economic relationships
between member parts, promotion of scientific, artistic and cultural exchanges, of contacts
between persons and human communities, cooperation in ecologic field, the assurance of
some swift and efficient communication and transport systems, development of transport
relationships in various fields. An accelerator role in euroregion development represents the
allocation by the European Union and other international financial structures of amounts
considerated destinated to the stimulation of investments and cooperation programs in this
kind of euroregions.
The collaboration model in the euroregion framework is supported by the European Union
as an previous exercise to the adhesion of European Union of the participant countries and as
1
an micro-experiment to implement community relationships between regions from candidate
states.
The advanced projects at the level of European Union between euroregions are fund
through structural fonds, in the framework of INTERREG program (to support interregional,
transnational and cross border cooperation as well as a stable and harmonious development of
the entire commun space), as well as through public funds of local communities and private
funds ( foundations, NGO’s, enterprises etc.)
2. Participation of Romania at the Regional Cooperation in the framework of
Euroregions
Government Urgency Ordinance (OUG), no. 120/1998 for the ratification by Romania of
the Frame European Convention on the cross border cooperation of colectivities or territorial
authorities, adopted in Madrid, the 21st of May 1980, constitutes the legal framework of
unfolding oftranborder cooperation actions by the local communities and authorities of our
country. Nevertheless, Romania is part of
EUROPEAN CHARTER OF LOCAL
AUTHONOMY, adopted in Strasbourg, the 15th of October 1985 and ratified by our country
through the Law 199/1997.
According to the stipulations of Madrid Convention, cross border cooperation aims the
enforcement and development of neighbourhood connections between collectivities and
terriorial authorities which depend of two or more contractand parts, as wella as conclusion of
agreements and useful aaccords for this purpose.
3. History of Organization
The Carpathian Euroregion consists the borders area of five countries: Poland, Slovakia,
Hungary, Ukraine and Romania with a population of over 14.7 million people and a surface of
160 thousand km².
It was created the 14th of February 1993, with the reunion of Debretin, of the Foreign
Ministers and representatives of local administration from Poland, Ukraine, and Hungary,
after many years of intense trans-border relationships, many of them bilateral. The new
economic and political situation from the beginning of 1990’s revealed inter-regional
cooperation and in the same time created the possibility of cooperation practice.
Romania is represented in the Interregional Association “Carpathian Euroregion” by the
departments Satu-Mare, Salaj, Maramures, Botosani starting with April 1997. From July
1999, respectively November 2000 Suceava and Harghita have the member quality with full
rights besides the regions from the other states> Hungary, Poland, Ukraine and Slovakia.
The Carpathian Euro region Council contents 3 members of each country, the Romanian
part being represented by the presidents and vice-presidents of the County Councils of
Maramures, Satu Mare, Botosani.
Between 2002-2004 the presidency of the Euro region was held by Romania. Nowadays,
Slovakia is the one who holds the presidency. In each member country there is a national
secretary ship that assures the current relationships with the General Secretary ship.
The Maramures County Council assures national Secretary ship of the Romanian part
from 2000.
There are also 5 work Commissions constituted by experts of the 5 member states,
commissions coordinated by a member state:
Commission for Regional Development
- Hungary
2
Commission for Tourism and Environment
- Poland
Commission for Commerce Development
- Romania
Commission for Social Infrastructure
- Ukraine
Commission for National Disasters Prevention - Slovakia
There are several objectives that serve as motivation of the participation of Romanian
counties in Carpathian Euro region.
This form of collaboration:
Helps to general effort of European integration of Romania, offering a model of
cross border cooperation under the form of Carpathian Euro region, modality
encouraged through the European Convention of Cross border Cooperation between
the Territorial Communities and Authorities, no. 106 of European Council, Madrid
1981;
Serves to the local interests of implied regions, through the strengthening of
economic, cultural, scientific, tourist relationships with the regions from the
neighborhood states;
Tries to influence the diminishing of tensions and building the relationships of good
neighborhood;
Exercise lobby to the national authorities for the fluidization of cross border traffic
by the opening of some new points of passing the border.
4. Aims and objectives of Carpathian Euro region
Carpathian Euro region is not a new organically structure, overstate or over national, is
rather a modality to promote interregional cooperation between its members. Its aim is to
organize and coordinate activities, to promote interregional cooperation between
economic, scientific, ecological, cultural, sports and educational actions, to ease the
contacts with organisms, organizations and international institutions. This activity is
according to the principles of European Convention over cross border cooperation
between the Territorial Communities and Authorities, no. 106 of the European Council
adopted in Madrid in 1981.
The basic role of the Carpathian Euro region is to prepare and inspire the preparation
of the necessary documents for the development of regions from this part of Europe. This
strategy is very important for the members of the region.
5. Activities
The activity of the Romanian part in euro region is rich, realizing, since it is a
member, to establish friendly and partner relationships with every parts. There are
cooperation programs taking place with the Hungarian and Ukrainian part and there is a
new series of programs on interethnic cooperation, the financing existing already through
the Carpathian Euroregion Development Fund.
Carpathian Euro region has been the beneficiary of a finance together with Euro
region Mass Rijn (NL/B/G) for a development project of cross border cooperation, project
unfolding over the 1998 and has a result the elaboration of a development strategy of trans
border relationships in the framework of Carpathian Euro region. Based on this strategy in
2000 the cooperation project with Euro region Mass Rijn, developing a series of bi and trilateral projects between member regions. Still in 1998 there took place another common
3
project EMR and EC on tourism topics, through which a Romanian delegation has
participated at an experience exchange in Holland and Belgium.
Cross border cooperation reduces physical distance between Western Europe and the
Eastern One, created access ways permitting to develop the commerce, the persons and
goods circulation.
All these activities may succeed depending on the active and direct involvement of
Carpathian Euro region representatives.
Carpathian Euro region, especially Working Commission of Economic Cooperation
and Regional Development had played an important role in coordination of the
information system, regarding the commercial laws between regions and creating
Carpathian Euro region Barter center,. These initiatives have as aim solving the problems
regarding cross border commerce. But Carpathian Euro region plays an important role not
only in the economic field.
The Association of Carpathian Euro region Universities, created in 1994 exists for
many years. Its mission is to ease the cooperation between universities members, tom
promote the cooperation relationships with the universities from Western Europe and
USA.
We can mention as realization from this field: Center for the Reform of the Public
Administration from the Ujgorod University, Ukraine, that has been created with the
support of the American universities.
Several clubs of Carpathian Euro region were created in schools, that popularize the
idea of cross border cooperation between youngsters et the establishment of contacts with
schools from other parts of Euro region.
Several books and publications were edited.
There is a continuous collaboration and cooperation at international projects Tisa Vie
and Carpatii Verzi.
In the year 2000 has started the cooperation with another euro region: Nord Pas de
Calais (F), Kent (Uk), Valonia (B), Flandra(B), Bruxelles (B).The representatives of this
euro region had been invited at the 5th Session UPREC from 13-14 December 2000,
Miercurea Ciuc.
In the year 2001 finalized a Tempus- Coned project, regarding the participation at
Internet courses in various fields.
In the year 2001, UPREC finalized successfully another project co-financed by the
Carpathian Foundation and UPRE-Experience exchange in Carpathian Euro region”.
Representatives of public administration from UPREC member counties participated in
this project.
In the year 2002 the Romanian Part of Carpathian Euro region has come with another
proposal: the unfold of International Festival” Days of Culture in Carpathian Euro region”
.The project financed partially by the Carpathian Foundation unfolded between 22nd of
July-3rd of August in Baia Mare and had a large participation. Almost every county of
Romanian part of Euro region, as well as member states have been represented.
Between 2002-2003 they collaborated alt an environmental project with Maas-Rijn
Euro region. The project started in the summer of 2002 with its first stage- Identification
Mission- in which a group of Holland specialists came in Romania (Baia Mare-Suceava)
In this stage there took place meetings and visits on the field, in which Romanian experts
along with the Holland ones identified the current problems in the field of environment
protection in the Romanian part of Carpathian Euro region. Both parties made brief
presentations of the existing situation in Holland, respectively Romania. For the second
stage/part there has been prepared a seminary in Holland between 18-23 of November
2002, where 14 Romanian representatives have been invited. In the framework of this
4
stage seminaries were organized in different institutions, as well as visits on the field.
Between 2-6 of June 2003 unfolded the III stage in Baia Mare and Nyiregyhaza, where
interactive exchanges between Dutch, Hungarian and Romanian specialists took place.
In the last stage 7 Romanian experts followed a stage for a week in Hungary, where
also took place the evaluation seminary in December 2003.
Also in 2003 it began the approaches to build the express route Baia Mare-Voia
(Szalolcs county – Szatmar – Bereg – Hungary), which is to assure the connection
between Baia Mare and the European highway network. The partnership with a UE
member will allow the access to the INTERREG program funds and for the development
of the infrastructure in the Romanian part of the Carpathian Euro region.
In 2004, the Commerce Development Commission, whose presidency is assured by
Industry and Commerce Chamber of Maramures County, realized an ample actions
calendar consisting of markets and exhibitions with participations from the Euro region.
(Representatives in the Commission). Examples: “2004 RIVULUS DOMINARUM
exhibition” (organizer – CCI Maramures), Stock exchange - for the companies
participating to 2004 Rivulus Dominarum from the ERC Region (Baia Mare, Ujgorod,
Szolnok).
The Carpathian Euro region’s role is to assure a cross border cooperation environment,
the regions having the duty to develop their relationships to a bi or tri lateral level. It is
difficult to realize projects to a euro regional level, which satisfy all the member regions
without the active implication of all of them, especially as our Euro region is the biggest
from Europe. This is why we consider that the concrete results may be improved by the
contribution and continuous and active participation of each member through propositions
and also finances.
6. Cross border Cooperation
The integration basis principle in civilized European society is to promote politics of
good neighborhood and regional collaboration.
Regional collaboration appears as a phenomenon that functions and develops in a few
principal directions:
Collaboration between countries in region
Collaboration between different regions of the state
Territories cross border collaboration around the borders
The cross border cooperation (collaboration) for Maramures county contains
project-programs for the border region Romania-Ukraine in fields like: economic
development, territory arrangement, environment protection and nature preserving,
socio-cultural cooperation, human resources, development of the local and regional
administration.
Despite of the progresses registered regarding the commercial relationships and
economic exchanges between Romania and Ukraine, in absolute volumes these maintains
at very low levels to the potential they constitute. However, some elements make that this
positive evolution be stopped, even it is about diplomatic relationships remained to be
solved, as the problem of Snakes Island, sea area of the Black Sea, Bistroe Channel, or
extreme commercial relationships (the issue of Romanian investment from Kryvoi Reg),
or the reciprocal acknowledgement of the real economic situation, of the business
environment, of opportunities and lack of information, made that Romanian and Ukrainian
investments avoid the reciprocal investments or business contracts.
5
The development of the economic relationships is prevented also by infrastructure
elements, especially in what concerns the northern common border. Despite the fact that
the border area between the two countries, from the north of Romania, measures 362 km,
on a such distance only 6 crossing points are functional, from which 5 are operational, the
crossing point Sighetu Marmaţiei (Romania) – Solotvino (Ukraine), will be done when the
Romanian part will finalize the arrangement works to the customs house and some
constructions tergiversated by the Ukrainian part.
Cross border cooperation actions in partnership Maramures – Zakarpatia – Ivano
Frankovsk, refers to:
a). Financing through Phare – Credo program;
Actions for the creation of Romanian – Ukrainian international reservation in
Maramures Mountains, project estimated to a total value of 48 930 EURO (42470
Euro contribution of Phare Credo);
Reconstruction of historical bridge over Tisa River (Sighetu Marmaţiei), project of a
total value of 372 000 Euro (298 000 Euro contribution of Phare Credo);
b). Proposed actions, for which it has not been yet mentioned the financing sources:
Romania-Ukraine cross border multifunctional center (bearer project: Local Coucil
of Leordina Commune, partner: Biserica Alba town hall- Zakarpathia Ukraine);
Traditions and cultural inheritances. Expressing modalities (holder: General School,
“George Cosbuc”, Baia Mare, partners: General school of medium culture, teaching
in Romanian language Solotvina – Zakarpathia and the Parents Association from
“George Cosbuc” General School, Baia Mare).
RURCED- Regional Center for Economic Development Romania – Ukraine
(holder: Maramures Commerce and Industry Chamber; partners: County Council
Satu-Mare, CCI Baia Mare, CCI Satu-Mare and Commerce and Industry Chamber
Transcarpathia).
For these actions to receive finances, it imposes consistent and permanent support
from the part of Romanian administrative and non-governmental organisms (Maramures
County respectively), on a side, and serious partnership and active implication from the
part of the authorities of Zakarpathia region (Ivano Frankovsk) Ukraine, on the other side.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Romania – Ministerul Afacerilor Externe. Conferinta Regionala asupra Managementului
si Securitatii Frontierelor (Ohrid, 22-23 may 2003).
2. xxx – Acord de colaborare regionala intre regiunea Ivano Frankivsk si judetul Maramures
pentru perioada 1999 – 2004.
3. xxx – Protocol de colaborare, incheiat intre Camera de Comert si Industrie Transcarpathia
si Camera de Comert si Industrie Maramures, 2002.
4. xxx – Raport de activitate al Comisiei de Comert a Euroregiunii Carpatice, 2004.
6
PARTNERSHIPS-THE OPTIMUM SOLUTION FOR EMPLOYMENT
Professor’s assistant Liliana Bratu
Ştefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Romania is a country which aims at the status of an European Union member and in
order to achieve this purpose it takes into account the correlation between national
strategies regarding employment and the European politics that can be applied in this
domain. Moreover it channels its efforts to find viable solutions on the long run in order to
diminish as much as possible the problem of unemployment which maintains itself, on an
average, at a high level.
In March 2002, the European Council from Lisbon, taking into consideration the
global changes of the present-day society, settled very clear strategic objectives for the next
ten years: creating within the European area the most competitive and dynamic society in
the world, based on knowledge, with a lasting economic growth.
The Council also established that the most important problem that most membercountries have to deal with is unemployment. As a result, the formulated objectives were
the improvement of labor force and the employment growth. More than that, one of its
priorities is creating a maximum number of job offers, a desideratum to be fulfilled only if
the European Union becomes indeed the most competitive economy. In order to achieve
this ambitious goal the European countries have come to an understanding on creating
some National Plans for Employment, correlating the realities which are specific to each
and every country with the European strategic orientations in the labor market domain.
Among the objectives of the European employment strategy one must mention the
partnership development through measures concerning employment which must be taken at
a regional and especially local level. This seems to be the starting point of our initiative to
support the partnership between the public and the private sector taking into account the
fact that regionalization, localization and partnerships have become a long-discussed point.
For the West European countries this is not something new; the partnership
development is considered the most efficient way to create job offers. But in the new
context of a regionalization and localization, the public-private partnership (PPP) attains
new dimensions. A greater tendency to decentralize the administration power leads to more
economic and social responsibilities for the local and regional authorities. They gain the
decision power over the local communities. The role of the governmental organizations
regarding employment becomes a coordinating one, facilitating thus these activities. The
local territorial agencies that deal with unemployment have gained independence and this
status allows for their implication in partnerships with local factors in order to create job
offers.
PPP was created as a consequence of a greater need of funds for the public
administration in order to solve the problems of the local community. For this purpose, one
must appeal to the private sector in order to complete these funds. In order to get itself
involved in such projects, it will benefit from some fiscal facilities or other advantages.
The public-private partnership represents a contractual mechanism, a form of
mutual cooperation between the public (the regional or local administration) and the private
sector in order to solve some problems of a local interest.
Among these we can mention:
1
•
The local public administration represented by the City-Halls, regional or
districtual committees,
•
Agencies dealing with employment,
•
Chamber of Commerce and Industry,
•
Universities, research centers, high-schools,
•
Trade-unions,
•
Non-governmental organizations,
•
Banks and financial institutions,
•
Private firms,
•
The central administration,
•
European Union organizations etc.
Signing a contract with PPP brings a lot of benefits not only to the involved parts
but also to the regional or local community.
We think that PPP is the optimum solution for solving the problem of
unemployment in Romania, one that can offer concrete solutions for creating numerous job
offers. The governmental officials responsible for the employment policy can transfer the
decisions at a regional or a local level. The local authorities, as a result of decentralization,
are capable of taking decisions and solving problems such as: diminishing the high level of
unemployment, preventing the labor force migration, developing the industrial sector by
creating IMMs, maintaining and creating job offers for persons with a high education at a
local level.
The government has tried to create programs and offer funds in order to solve the
problem of unemployment in Romania but these initiatives have had no real effect. PPP
would have more chances to succeed if these initiatives were taken at a local level.
Romania is in need of labor force but there are no coherent organization systems,
efficient programs, qualified staff with experience, able to create and coordinate such
programs to gather funds and turn them into actual jobs. Partnerships are the link that
would make the system work. We think it is a good idea to create a campaign at a national
level by mass-media means in order to support the local administrations, to explain the
importance of PPP and the Central Administration, ONGs, trade-unions would do this best.
Available
labor force
Private-public
Partnership
Job offer
Fig.1 – Partnerships – a stimulus for the economic growth.
Which is the mechanism of creating such a partnership? At a local or regional level
an Agency (Forum, Local Centre, Operative Centre, but we will call it a Local Agency) is
being created, an impartial non-profit organism which functions in order to improve the
development possibilities of an economic growth on the long run and having some general
objectives to attain:
•
studying and evaluating the local economy and the labor force which is not
included in the work field;
2
•
contacting the local institutions and the private firms and identifying their
necessities;
•
discussing with the local administration in order to identify the community’s
demands and to mobilize all factors in favor of supporting the development of the
local economy;
•
organizing meetings between local authorities, private firms, various
organizations, in order to evaluate the local economic state and finding solutions
for a lasting economic development. In this context, ideas and personal initiatives
are stimulated and thus a development program created. At the same time one
must designate the managerial structure which coordinates the program’s actions
and new ways to gather funds for the program to function till the end.
Such initiatives lead to the creation of public-private partnerships.
The Local Agency is a center for PPP. The objectives of a PPP concerning the
creation of job offers are:
-evaluating the local economy an making a SWOT analysis of the area;
-studying the local labor force market and employment by means of a continuous
monitorization;
-elaborating a coherent program of economic development and creating job offers
which include the necessary funds and finance resources, the persons involved and very
clear responsibilities for each;
-qualifying and re-qualifying the labor force according to the demand on the local
labor market;
-finding investors by offering different stimuli and facilities;
-creating research institutes in the technological domain, especially the superior
ones;
-stopping the population’s migration by offering new jobs at a local level;
-creating a data base concerning job offers and transforming these ideas into real
jobs;
-organizing advertising and selling campaigns for the local firms` products;
-creating a financial resources fund from partners to sustain the program;
-supervising the entire activity and offering assistance to all persons involve
In order to become efficient the Local Agency must divide its actions into more
sectors as follows:
1. Investors
2. Requalifying the labor force
3. Supporting the creation of MMI's
4. Searching for partners for the program.
Investors can get themselves involved by promoting the local image, the industries
specific to a certain region, turning to the best account the natural, human and cultural
resources by offering fiscal facilities and profitable credits from the local administration
and financial institutions, selling or granting lots at lower prices on which enterprises are
about to be built, tax exemptions on profits reinvested on the long run etc. Strategy
development proves to be a useful way to attract the big firms thus stimulating the creation
of new firms in order to divert the local industry.
As far as the local sector for the labor force is concerned, the Local Agency must
organize qualification courses for the unemployed. It is very important to take into
3
consideration the market demand. For this purpose it must permanently contact the firms, in
order to find out which is the market demand all the time. Moreover, the unemployed will
be offered assistance when looking for a job by means of access to a data base concerning
the labor market, when creating their curriculum vitae and will be given advice concerning
the interview they have to pass in order to get a job.
Those who haven't found a job for some time must be offered special attention
because they have become indifferent and discouraged when it comes to employment.
In order to create MMI's which are considered to be of a great help when looking
for a job one must stimulate the entrepreneur spirit for those unemployed who are willing to
make their own business. They will be advised to make a business plan and will be offered
assistance as far as financial administration and firm management are concerned. Otherwise
there is a certain risk for the business to fail due to the lack of experience. Moreover, they
can attend some courses organized by successful managers or by local education
institutions willing to join PPP.
Supplementary efforts are necessary in order to offer support and access to funds
and to build new local firms. Most of the times there are ideas but not enough funds or
experienced entrepreneurs. Because of this, banks often refuse to offer loans. They do not
have a guarantee that they will get their money back. The Local Agency's role is to
intervene with guarantees in favor of these MMI's.
It is necessary to look for partners for the program in order to get financial support
and technical assistance.Coopting the local firms' representatives can lead to solving two
problems:
1. it can easily gather funds from the local firms as they are familiar with the program
and its objectives and are actively involved in finding solutions;
2. these firms will be the first to employ people with the Agency's help.
One can ask for help from the central administration or EU, from people who have
experience in creating viable and coherent programs which provide with national finance
and European funds.
A few conclusions can be drawn by analyzing this initiative of creating PPPs in
order to diminish the number of unemployed:
•
the economic development on the long run is guaranteed by sustaining the
diversification of the local institutions. Stimulating the entrepreneurship is the key to
the development of new industries;
•
if the initiatives to create new job offers are taken at a local level, they have
more chances to get materialized because at this level the community's problems are
well-known. The necessary funds can be offered by local or national sources, by EU
but the decision must be taken at a local level;
•
most possibilities to create jobs imply a correlation between programs dealing
with creating job offers and those concerning the instruction of the labor force and
those financing MMI's;
•
if the Local Agency works by itself there are a few chances for success. The
partners involved (both public and private) must communicate, collaborate and
coordinate their initiatives. Their success depends on partnership.
4
Bibliography:
1
2
3
4
5
6
The Government Decision no. 759/2002 for PNAO, Monitorul Oficial, no637, 29
August,2002;
The law no 76/2002 regarding the insurance system for the unemployed and
stimulating employment
Prisecaru, Petre: Common Politics of the European Union, Economic Press, 2004;
Profiroiu, Alina, Racoviceanu, Sorina, Taralunga Nicolae: The Local Economic
Development, Economic Press, 1999;
Giarini, Orio, M. Liedtke, Patrick: The Employment Dilemma and the Future of
Work, All Beck Press, 2001;
www.europa.eu.int
5
THE PLACE AND ROLE OF SMEs IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Professor Marin BURTICĂ, Ph.D.
Assistant lecturer, Dipl. ing.-Ph.D. graduand, econ. Matei TĂMĂŞILĂ
Abstract
Within the context of the passage from the economy based on resources, which
favoured large businesses and great structures development, to the economy based on
knowledge, which requires more dynamical and more flexible structures, this paper
prposes to make an approach of small and medium enterprises on the one hand, from
the point of view of these systems evolution and characteristics, and on the other hand,
from the point of view of their influences over the regional development.
At the same time there will be suggested several directions that refer to fiscal
actions, banking, laws and institutions, etc. that shall be taken into account with a view
to support the development of small and medium enterprises, which are considered the
ideal prototype of enterprises based on knowlwedge, representing at the same time an
actual “locomotive” of the regional development.
1. Evolution and characteristics
Until the 18th, century the small enterprise was the dominant structure of the
productive system. Later, during the 19th century, technical progress and the increase of
the demand led to the appearance of the great industrial structure, higly mechanized,
concentrating capital and work force. The great structures were justified at that time
through the search for scale economies and the need to concentrate capital. In the 70s,
the great enterprise, which was considered for a long time the unique model, was
reconsidered, on account of several phenomena contributing to the rehabilitation of the
small enterprise:
• the social crisis, determined by structures that have arrived at “inhuman”
dimensions and by the Taylor management modes; small enterprises, through the nature
of the internal relations they proposed, promised to better answer the employees
aspirations;
• the transfer of a part of the economic activities to services, resulted in the
creation of small structures for the beginning;
• at the same time, as far as mass consumption was concerned, there appeared a
segmentation of the demand which brought about the increase of the number of small
markets, less accessible to large enterprises, while small enterprises seemed to far better
satisfy them;
• the scale economies reconsideration in connection with the increase of the
productive units dimensions.
There was observed that the small enterprise, being more flexible, more
“human” could better resist to a crisis, could represent a solution. Moreover, it can be
observed nowadays that small enterprises have the capacity to absorb the work force
when the disposals made by large enterprises are often spactacular.
This situation led to the consciousness of the potential role of small enterprises
in the economy, and to the creation of possible connections between small and large
enterprises, within a “duality” of the productive system.
The research group in economy and SMEs management refers to six
characteristics, as far as SMEs are concerned (GREPME – France), (Julien P.A., coord.,
1997):
1
• a small dimension;
• a centralized management, coordinated by the manager-owner;
• a low specialization of the enterprise internal functions, as well as of the
equipments;
• an intuitive or less formal strategy, without previous, real planning;
• a less complex or less organized internal informing system, turning to
account the opportunity of the direct contact;
• an extremely simple informing system;
SMEs are also characterized by the importance of the manager-owner role as far
as all the management aspects are concerned. Hence, they are not large enterprises “on a
reduced scale”.
a) SMEs advantages: they are easier to set up and manage; the required starting
capital is smaller; they enable a more effective and more economical management of the
human resources; the communication between employees is simple and efficient; they
have an increased flexibility and rapid adaptability; they exploit a specific know-how;
they have a particular capacity for innovation; they benefit from local solidarity;
b) SMEs disadvantages: the development capital may be insufficient; they may
have increased ”centralization”; they cannot benefit from scale economies; they may
have low negotiation power with the supplier; they may lack a strategic involvement;
they do not anticipate the technological and commercial evolutions; they are vulnerable
to the continuous changing of the economic environment;
In the course of time, the economic role of small enterprises was alternately
considered as either essential or secondary. At present, it is being accepted that small
and large enterprises have to coexist, the former not representing an alternative, but a
required complementary system.
2. SMEs weight and role at regional level.
Analysing the statistical data that refer to several national economic systems,
there can be easily highligted the great weight of small and medium enterprises among
the total number of enterprises, their contribution to export, to the creation of gross
internal product, and of the new work places (in the Europeam Union member states,
and not only in these states, SMEs represent 90% of all the enterprises, and ensure work
places ranging between 35-84%). Although SMEs are important for all regions, there
are great differences concerning their role in various economies (e.g. in Japan, China
and Thailand, SMEs ensure about 70% of the work places, in other economies the
percentage being greatly reduced).
As far as SMEs from Romania are concerned, they obtain 50% of the total
turnover, they operate with approximately 40% of the total number of employees, and
Table no.1. The distribution of SMEs according to sizes order and geographical
areas (%)
TYPES OF ENTERPRISES
SMEs
REGION
TOTAL
Micro
Small
Medium
Large
Bucharest-Ilfov
87.0
10.1
2.4
0.5
99.5
West
84.2
11.7
3.3
0.8
99.2
North – West
86.1
10.6
2.6
0.7
99.3
North – East
85.9
10.5
2.8
0.8
99.2
Centre
84.4
11.7
3.1
0.8
99.2
South – East
88.3
8.7
2.4
0.6
99.4
South
86.7
9.6
2.9
0.8
99.2
2
South – West
88.6
8.4
2.2
0.8
99.2
Source: INS 2004 and the author’s processings
obtain about 65% of the total profit.
As can be easily observed from the above table, the weight of the reduced
dimensions enterprises in our country is almost equal at the level of all the development
areas, being about 99.2%. Three regions are above average: Bucharest – Ilfov, where
the entrepreneurial phenomenon is most spread, as expected, due to the concentration of
the political power and of the influences in the economic sector; the South-East region
which includes, on the one side the Black Sea coastline and the Danube Delta, and on
the other side, the Danube-Black Sea Canal, but particularly Constantza sea port and
free zone; the North-West region, slightly advanced as compared to the average level,
on account of the fact that three of the five counties are border zones, and BorsaMaramures zone has an uncommon potential for agro-tourism.The West region belongs
to the general usual average, probably because of the relatively great number of large
enterprises, such as: Continetal, Coca-Cola, Pepsi-Cola, Siemens, Solectron, Zopas,
etc., that appeared following foreign investments.
As concerns structural distribution, as per the data presented in the same table, it
can be easily observed that “the basic nucleus” consists of micro-enterprises (with
weights ranging between 84,2% and 88,6%), being followed at a considerable distance,
in all regions, by small and medium enterprises.
Table no.2. SMEs density/1000 inhabitants
Crt.no.
Region
Index value
1
Bucharest-Ilfov
28.3
2
West
13.1
3
North – West
14.9
4
North – East
9.9
5
Centre
14.3
6
South – East
14.3
7
South
10.7
8
South - West
11.8
Source: Dinu M., Romania’s Economy-Small and Medium Enterprises,
“Economică” Publishing House, Bucharest 2002 and the author’s processings
An essential component of the development of small and medium enterprises,
also as concerns their territorial spreading, is their density per one thousand inhabitants,
an indicator of strategic analysis also used at the European level, because it best reflects
the degree of development of the entrepreneurial spirit of the region, and at the same
time the strictness of the phenomenon at the level of a certain area.
3
15.3
12.9
10.5
14.6
13.6
10.2
11.2
13.7
16.4
13.9
9.9
10.3
12.9
10.6
9.4
South
West
South
13.2
9.7
12.2
12.1
9.8
South
East
16.4
13.9
12.4
13.6
17.8
Centre
West
9.9
9.5
8.0
11.6
9.6
North
East
18.0
31.2
20.5
13.1
20.1
North
West
SECTOR
Industry
Buildings
Commerce
Tourism
Transport
Buchares
t Ilfov
Table no.3.The weight of SMEs in the development of the main fields of
activity (%)
REGION
6.5
6.6
9.4
10.2
6.3
Other services
Electrical, heat
energy, gases, and
water
51.2
13.5
9.4
8.1
13.3
8.1
8.3
6.0
12.5
14.1
9.7
4.3
6.7
7.7
4.9
6.4
As far as the level of our country is concerned, the situation is synthetically
presented in table no.2.
Consequently, there can be seen that Bucharest-Ilfov region is by far the most
developed one, at the level of all the fields of activity taken into account, with,
unfortunately, one exception, i.e. tourism, an aspect for which the South-East region
holds the supreme place with 16,4%. This fact is, of course, due to the natural
reservation of the Danube Delta and the Black Sea Coastline, the two zones with the
highest touristic potential concentrated in one area at the level of this region.
As regards the West region SMEs contribution to each activity field, the
following synthetic situation can be met with:
Table no.4.West region SMEs distribution (%)
TYPE OF ENTERPRISE
SMEs
SECTOR
TOTAL
Micro
Small
Medium
Large
Processing industry
64.8
21.8
10.7
2.7
97.3
Extractive industry
40.4
20.3
14.3
25.0
74.0
Energy, gas and water
13.6
13.6
37.9
34.9
65.1
Buildings
70.0
20.2
8.4
1.4
98.6
Commerce
90.1
8.9
0.8
0.2
99.8
Tourism
88.0
10.0
1.8
0.2
99.8
Transport
85.8
10.4
2.4
1.4
98.6
Other services
90.9
6.6
2.2
0.3
99.7
The situation is similar to the general distribution met with at the national level,
with remarkable positions for the commerce and tourism activities, which are developed
almost 100% on the basis of enterprises of relatively small dimensions. Within the same
context, there can be observed almost similar values as SMEs weight for the fields of
buildings, services and transport, the extractive industry and the energetic sector being
in disagreement, as expected, where small businesses stand for the smallest weight.
Out of the fundamental roles of these types of enterprises, mention should be made of
the following:
• SMEs stand for a high potential as concerns new work places creation.
• The distribution of the economic power through a system of small and medium
enterprises leads to a more favourable distribution of power in the society, in general.
• SMEs represent an important part of the infrastructure which in its turn
influences economy.
• SMEs contribute to the improvement of the competitive environment.
• SMEs encourage investments, namely by using certain economies which
otherwise may not be productive.
• SMEs enable the development of the entrepreneurial spirit, of the managerial
capacities.
3. Measures to be taken with a view to stimulate development
4
On account of the importance of relatively reduced dimensions enterprises
within the developed economies, most of the economic systems are interested in
stimulating the setting up and the operation of such enterprises. The measures capable
to stimulate the development of such economic-engineering systems may act in several
directions, such as:
• Financial-fiscal measures: the improvement of the legislation with
reference to the fiscal field for the reduction of the general fiscality level, and
consequently of the fiscal pressure over the small and medium enterprises: by annulling
the income tax for the business reinvested income; by fiscal facilities granting for the
sub-branches, processes and activities of long term for the technological and financial
cycle, etc..
• Banking measures: the simplification of the guarantees system for credits
by increasing the possibilities of the state granting the guarantees needed by small and
medium enterprises when requesting credits, when setting up a bank specialized in
small and medium enterprises, by differentiating the interests for the granted credits
according to the activities for which they are requested.
• Legislative measures: the simplification of the commercial companies
registering and of the forms required for SMEs setting up; the creation of a juridical
frame favourable to SMEs activities diversification and consolidation in rural areas.
• Informational measures and measures referring to communication: the
creation of a specialized body, at the level of a ministry, to work out the interface
between SMEs and the Government in a pragmatic manner; SMEs support concerning
business opportunities problems; the periodical issue of the criteria and of the
documentation that enable the access to the programs/funds for SMEs financing;etc.
• Training measures: the elaboration of a national program for the specific
training of small private entrepreneurs; the financing of SMEs personnel training
through modes inspired from other countries, where the training expenses are deduced
from the company gross profit; upgrading the secondary and the university training
according to the present day and future requirements as far as SMEs are concerned, by
introducing compulsory subjects, such as general management.
We conclude by maintaining that we support the assertion that SMEs are a true
“locomotive” of the society and can be a safe way of eliminating poverty, and the
economic and social problems.
Bibliography
1. Dinu M.- Romania’s economy-Small and medium enterprises-What shall we
integrate with?, “Economică” Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002.
2. Drucker P.- Innovation and the entrepreneurial system, “Enciclopedică” Publishing
House, Bucharest, 1993
3. Julien P.A., - Les PME:bilon et perspectives, Economica, Paris, 1997.
4. Nicolescu O.- Small and medium enterprises management, “Economică” Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2001
5. ***www. www.insse.ro/
6. ***www.cciat.ro/
5
TRANSBORDERING COOPERATION THROUGH CUSTOMS
COOPERATION
Ph.D. Univ. Senior Lecturer Maria Iuliana
Cebuc
Univ. Lecturer Emilia Iordache
Univ. Assistant Ramona Chitu
Initiated as far as the 80’s, transbordering cooperation aims to develop some direct
relations between regions and communities situated on both sides of state borders, by virtue
of the local authorities competence, the way it is defined in the national legislation. The
European structure, and moreover the European integration, really needs these
transbordering regions’ cohesion in order to prove its reliability and legitimacy, to find
common solutions for similar problems, the advantages of this form of cooperation being
unquestionable. Among these advantages, one can mention: the dynamic evolution of the
economic and commercial relations between parties, the promotion of cultural, artistic, and
scientific exchanges, the promotion of contacts between individuals and human
collectivities, the favorable and balanced development of the whole community space,
environment cooperation, assuring some quick and efficient communication and transport
systems, etc.
The conditions for the best development of this form of cooperation are ensured
from juridical point of view by the Europe Council Documents regarding transbordering
cooperation, but also by the instruments of the regional policy developed by the EU: the
European Fund of Economic and Regional Development and the Committee of Regional
Policy.
The EU projects that aim to support regions with a development level bellow the
community media are financed by structural funds, within the framework of the
INTERREG program, as well as by the public funds of the local communities and the
private ones. Funds are also allocated by means of PHARE-CBC program for projects
developed by countries now joining the EU.
Regarding our country, the legislative framework for transbordering cooperation
is ensured by OUG 120/1998 concerning Romania’s ratification of the European
Convention-framework about local collectivities and authorities transbordering
cooperation, adopted at Madrid, on 21st May, 1980. At the same time, Romania is
represented in the European charter of local autonomy, adopted at Strassbourg, on 15th
October, 1985. Romania’s agreement of association to the European communities underlies
the bilateral cooperation’s importance in view of a favorable development in Central and
Eastern Europe.
Pursuant to the agreement, customs cooperation represents one of the components
of the economic cooperation between Romania and the EU. Its main directions, in view of
developing a favorable relationship between the Romanian customs system and the
community one, aim to assure the exchange of information, the introduction of the single
administrative document and of the Combined Nomenclature, the interconnection of the
Romanian transit system and the community ones, the simplification of the checking and
1
goods transport formalities, organizing seminars and jobs for trainees, assuring technical
assistance.
In January 2005, nine “Neighboring Programs” were launched within the EU
regional policy, meant for some regions in the new EU member states, in the joining
countries and third party countries.
The purpose of these programs is the consolidation of the economic, social and
regional cooperation in the border and transbordering regions. As some border regions face
difficult problems regarding citizens’ economic and social conditions, these programs
belong to the EU’s commitment of improving its citizens’ life conditions.
For financing these programs, a total amount of 336 mil. Euro is granted between
2004-2006 as follows:
Ø 260 mil. Euro is allocated by the EU, divided in the following way:
- 215 mil. Euro come from INTERREG Transbordering Initiative of
the European Regional Policy;
- 45 mil. Euro come from the financial instruments for the joining
countries and the third party countries (Tacis, PHARE, CARDS);
Ø 76 mil. Euro come from national and regional sources.
Romania belongs to one of the nine regions together with Hungary, Serbia and
Montenegro1. The projects aim to develop border understructure, little and middle-size
companies, transport, tourism, environment, as well as to encourage local communities’
initiatives.
Taking into account the fact that illegal migration and transbordering offences
represent a serious problem both for the EU and for Romania, and also Romania’s position,
from the point of view of its joining to the EU, as the last border towards the former
Russian space, our purpose is to present several aspects related to the Schengen acqius and
to the border security integrated model. This model implications in the economic relations
are not direct, but they are very important for creating a common area of freedom, security
and justice, as well as for the Schengen space. This objective has an important place in the
EU process of consolidation.
The Schengen acquis, as well as the other measures adopted by institutions
within the acquis, are considered, according to art. 8 of Schengen Protocol, as a whole that
must be totally accepted by all countries now joining the EU.
Schengen acquis elucidation and its detailed description is realized by means of
“the Catalogue of the best practices and recommendations for a proper application of the
Schengen acquis”, that refers to borders checking, as well as to expulsion and readmission
proceedings. The catalogue has an explicative purpose and has no legal implications, it
presents, in separate columns, on the one hand, the necessary levels for adopting the acquis,
and on the other hand, the best practices already registered in some of the member states,
although they are not compulsory. The catalogue will act as a reference means for the
joining countries’ future evaluation, also being an indicator of the assigned tasks.
The system that covers all the aspects of the border policy is known as the
Border Security Integrated Model, being divided into 4 complementary levels:
1. Activities in third party countries, origin and transit countries;
1
The nine border regions are the following: Czech and Poland; Poland and Slovakia; Slovakia and Czech;
Poland, Belarus and Ukraine; Lithuania, Poland and the Kaliningrad Russian region; Hungary, Slovakia and
Ukraine; Hungary, Romania , Serbia and Montenegro; Slovenia, Hungary and Croatia; Italy and Malta.
2
2. Bilateral and international multilateral cooperation;
3. Measures at foreign borders;
4. Activities inside the territory.
The concept of Border Management includes both border supervision and its
checking, the latter being defined in art. 6 of the Schengen Convention.
The single border model represents an important instrument of domestic
security, especially of preventing illegal immigration. The set of complementary measures
must be implemented on different levels as the success of the border general model depends
on the coherence of these measures and on their way of application by the Schengen States.
Each level is extremely important, still we consider that levels 2, 3 and 4
deserve a special attention.
The second level has in view the bilateral and international multilateral
cooperation.
International cooperation in the field of border security may be divided into
multilateral , bilateral and local cooperation. The agreements with the neighboring
countries referring to cooperation in the field of border management represent an efficient
instrument of increasing borders security. It can be realized by establishing proper working
mechanisms, such as exchange of information, establishing adequate communication
channels, local contact points, emergency proceedings, objective way of action in case of
incidents in order to avoid political disputes, etc.
The regional structure of cooperation must be also established in the sea regions.
These initiatives can lead to the unification of the states in that region.
Regarding the cooperation with the neighboring countries, the active assistance
offered by the transit states is considered to be necessary, assuring thus the frontiers’
security.
The third level has in view measures at the foreign borders.
The centre of the border general strategy is represented by the border functional
management, that consists in border checking and supervision, based on risk analysis. Art.
6 of the Schengen Convention mentions the Common Handbook implementation
framework, the two acts being complementary.
The essential elements of border management are:
1) All persons that pass foreign borders to be regularly checked.
2) The border efficient supervision is realized between the checking points.
The fourth level has in view the subsequent activities on the inside of the
Schengen States territory.
The measures for preventing illegal immigration and transbordering offences
must be continued on the inside of the Schengen States territory by improving the searching
actions, the control and supervision based on information and in accordance with the
national law. If possible police cooperation agreements must be taken into account
according to art. 39(4) and (5) of the Schengen Convention.
Since problems regarding migration and offences are not bound by geographic
restrictions, international traffic routes must become – in the future – the main activity
areas for the national police forces in accordance with the own law. In case the adopted
policy and the national security require it, a Schengen state can, after consulting the other
Schengen states, adopt for a limited period a proper checking at the inside borders.
The last stage in the temporal and geographical succession is the repatriation –
according to the national law (art. 23; the Schengen Convention and the Directive
3
2001/40/EC on 28th May 2001) – of the citizens of a third country that have stepped on the
Schengen territory without authorization, if they have no right to stay and if there are no
impediments regarding compulsory humanitarian bases or the international law (the Geneva
Convention regarding the refugees, the European Convention of the Human Rights).
The key elements for properly applying the border security integrated model
refer to the following aspects:
ü The accent must fall on the coordination of the tasks among the
governmental commissions responsible with information, reports, preparation and lack of
receptivity at problems. The coordination in these fields must be also extended on regional
and local levels.
ü Another key element of this method is to focus on evaluating the situation.
Thus, the performance of border management must be in accordance with the border
dominant conditions. These thorough and trustful data must be part of a permanent
evaluation that could be shared with other Schengen States. If necessary, sources allocation
must be done adequately.
In order to increase mutual trust, any Schengen State must be able to supply
thorough and trustful data about the situation of its borders as well as about the checking
and supervisions that have been applied. Knowing the border situation relies on knowing
the performance of border management systems. The trustful estimations regarding border
checking and supervision must rely on the detailed knowledge of the local and regional
situation.
For achieving the above-mentioned objectives and facilitating the efficient use
of resources, different border methodologies will be applied. Terms like risk analysis,
information, the management of the informational flux, the situation knowledge, the
capacity of reaction and the exchange of information with other Schengen States may be
used in order to evaluate these methods development.
Risk analysis can be used as a means for optimizing border management as well
as a method of supplying trustful information regarding the border situation, a method
adapted to the type of border. Actually, this means individuals, vehicles, ships or planes
checking. This checking is done within the framework of the real tactical context, bearing
the name of the tactical risk analysis. At the foreign border, all individuals must be checked
according to the Common Handbook. In order to discover border offences, the checking
procedure for suspect objects will be reinforced. The staff will be supplied data about risk
indicators, risk profiles and the typical methods of presenting border offences. The staff
will be also presented certain objectives of supervision. Risk analysis and border
management must be supported by regular information. Border management system must
be able to gather information, to analyze and to use the results in that field of activity.
A realist definition of long and middle-size term operative management
purposes supposes that these estimations will be realized by having in view:
- the risk level defined by authorities regarding border illegal passing;
- the level of discovered disorders;
- the estimated level of discovered disorders.
These estimations are realized in view of the best distribution of resources along
the border, the purpose being to maintain a reasonable risk level of border illegal passing.
Moreover, at all manager levels, the management system will be evaluated in order to
discover the system lacks. Usually, they appear whether it is about an illegal passing over
the border with a low risk or without risk.
4
Romania state border integrated management national strategy (approved by HG
no. 471/1 April 2004) refers to proper border security and to the pre-joining the EU (1st
January 2004 -31st December 2006).
Mention should be made of the fact that the domestic borders control is
suspended, as a consequence of a unanimous Decision of the EU Council, the purpose
being to confirm Romania’s capacity to implement the Schengen acquis, not on the basis of
some bilateral agreements concluded by Romania with the neighboring countries.
When elaborating the Strategy Border Integrated Management, the following
risk factors were taken in view:
Ø Enlarging the action area of international organized crime groupings, by
attracting offenders from larger areas and by disseminating all types of embezzlements,
including the customs ones, smuggling and illegal goods traffic;
Ø The significant manifestation of some international experienced groupings
of organized crime;
Ø Illegal migration caused by the economic, social, and political situation in
the origin countries, leading to the existence of large groups of immigrants towards
Romania, their final destination being the EU member states;
Ø The dissemination of human beings dealers;
Ø The neighboring with some geographical areas characterized by a situation
of conflict from an ethno-religious or terrorist point of view;
Ø The presence on Romania’s territory of numberless foreign citizens,
involved in illegal actions, coming from areas with a major risk potential;
Ø The increase of illegal transit and the development of the drugs domestic
market, as a consequence of some international routes changing;
Ø The additional risk for the illegal immigrants that pass our country’s border
or that of other EU member states to perform smuggling activities with solicited products
on Europe illegal market;
Ø Terrorist groupings spreading with all their implications;
Ø The illegal trade with strategic products, radio-active substances, toxic
wastes or other dangerous materials;
Ø Commercial customs illegal actions, including the money laundering activity
that appears at the border;
Ø The amplification and diversification of corruption within state institutions
staff that work for the border integrated security and the delaying of giving solutions for the
noticed cases;
Ø Illegal customs operations that affect the legislation in the field of
consumers’ protection, environment, flora or fauna, intellectual property rights, national
patrimony belongings;
Ø The allowable legislation for setting up commercial companies whose
activity object is foreign trade activities and the lack of legal measures to fight against
illegal companies;
Ø The lack of cooperation from the part of other countries’ related institutions
in order to apply the common measures decided in concluded international acts, especially
regarding illegal migration and transbordering crime.
The activity of national authorities and of other public institutions involved in
achieving the objectives of the present strategy has in view the following principles:
o The principle of unitary cooperation;
st
5
o The principle of autonomous leadership;
o The principle of complementarity so that to avoid the lack of competence,
parallelism and the disputes regarding tasks performing;
o The principle of continuity – the activities performed for border management
are coherent, step by step, continual and in a sustained rhythm;
o The principle of professionalism and staff motivation;
o The principle of the staff moral integrity;
o The principle of transparency and democratic control – the development of an
open dialogue with the civil institutions in order to enforce the citizens’ help in border
integrated management;
o The principle of increasing efficiency and effectiveness in resources use
(human, technical, technological, informational, financial, logistic);
o The principle of the efficient end – in order to efficiently achieve the aimed
objectives, resources combinations and diverse actions are used, without singling out an
only solution.
The fundamental objectives – settled according to the results of the analysis of the
actual border management and the transbordering criminality dynamics – are the following:
• Accomplishing, until 1st of January 2005 and perfecting, until 31st of
December 2006, the coherent and unitary operational coordination legal and administrative
framework, on national, regional and local level of border integrated management;
• Settling by law the collaboration framework between national institutions
with attributions in the field of Romania border integrated management;
• Accomplishing in 2004, and efficiently using during the implementation
Strategy an efficient border integrated management supervision and evaluation mechanism
on all levels;
• Perfectly harmonizing, by 31st December 2006, a national legislation
specific to the EU acquis regarding borders protection, migration and shelter;
• Performing, until 31st December 2006, the administrative capacity
development process of border responsibilities institutions;
• Developing, until 31 st December 2006, a proper border infra-structure,
completing the communication, mobility, supervision, and control sub-systems, adapted to
the border specific (land, air, sea) and assuring the necessary equipment;
• Progressively implementing, by the end of the year 2006, the specific
proceedings regarding borders protection, migration and shelter, according to the process of
harmonizing the domestic normative acts with the community acquis;
• Intensifying international cooperation in the field of border management
with the EU Member States, countries joining the EU, neighbor countries, as well as other
countries.
In order to achieve these objectives, a unitary and coherent policy of the border
integrated management must be adopted, alongside the EU policy in the field, that should
comprise five interdependent components:
a) a common mechanism of coordination and operational cooperation;
b) the common integrated risk analysis;
c) inter-operational equipment and personnel;
d) a common legislation body;
e) the common effort of all institutions.
6
The instrument of implementation is represented by “the Program of Implementing
the National Strategy of Romania State Border Integrated Management, between 20042006”, that settles the proper actions and responsibilities for each ministry/institutions with
attributions in the field. According to the stipulations of the implementation Program and
with a view to its accomplishing, the ministries/institutions with border attributions will set
up own regional programs. The National Strategy of Romania State Border Integrated
Management, between 2004-2006, presents intentions and actions, progressive proceeding
and stages that should be regularly noticed. Taking into consideration that the Strategy
objectives are not only desirable but also sustainable, we consider that the implementation
of the present strategy will represent a real progress for Romania joining the EU.
A series of the above-mentioned aspects regarding the National Strategy of
Romania State Border Integrated Management, between 2004-2006, are also found in the
Regular Report about the progresses registered by Romania in view of its joining the EU
2004, in Chapter 24 “Cooperation in the field of domestic business justice” and Chapter 25
“the Customs Union”.
In the report there are also mentions of the following:
- in October 2003, Romania became part of a Protocol that sets a centre of
coordination and information at the Black Sea;
- the agreement with Hungary regarding the opening of some new border passing
regions was ratified in November 2003;
- in July 2004 a revised Schengen Action Plan was adopted;
- regarding foreign borders and Schengen Agreement the physical control and
supervision at the north and eastern borders with Moldavia and Ukraine should be primarily
approached; the cooperation with the neighboring countries in order to increase border
security is still unequal, sine no major progress with Ukraine or Moldavia has been
registered, both states being affected by a high illegal migration level;
- the Centre of three-lateral contact at Galati works just with the Romanian officials;
- no agreement with Ukraine regarding the continental platform delimitation or the
sea border has been obtained;
- Romania has concluded bilateral or multilateral cooperation agreements with
certain EU member states regarding the Border management matter;
- the operational capacity of the law applying structures, as well as the informational
flux between these ones should be improved, an integrated system of communications on
national level being necessary;
- in the field of customs cooperation it is necessary that the implementation of the
1996 common Action should continue regarding the cooperation between customs
authorities and business organizations in controlling drugs traffic;
- the preparations for adopting the CIS Convention of 1995 and the Nipple II
Convention of 1997 should be continued;
- the future inter-institutional cooperation improvement is necessary, especially
between the Border Police, the Financial Guard, the Customs National Authority and the
economic police specialized in offences relating to taxes and duties;
- two agreements of cooperation and mutual assistance in the customs field were
concluded with Russia and Albania;
- it is considered to be necessary a more efficient use of the existent criteria for the
risk analysis while routine controls should be intensified in comparison with the physical
ones.
7
Related to what has been mentioned so far, we could appreciate that, without taking into
account the way of puting into practice the transbordering cooperation objectives, through
customs cooperation or through promoting other cooperation forms, it determined an active
colaboration of Central and South-Eastern Europe countries, Romania having developed an
important activity within the framework of the nine Euro-regions, playing an important
regional leader role in view of sustaining the consolidation efforts for stability in this part
of Europe.
8
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1.
László Kovács, “Customs Co-operation – Facilitating trade and
promoting security in an enlarged union”, SPEECH/05/37, 25/01/2005, Seminar of
the Hungarian Customs and Finance Guard, Budapest, 25 January 2005,
www.europa.eu.int
2.
Miron D., «Economia Uniunii Europene», Editura Luceafărul,
Bucureşti, 2002
3.
Muşat V., “Nouă noi Programe de Vecinătate şi Cooperare
Transfrontalieră”(trad.), Jurnalul Afacerilor, nr.720/15.02.2005
4.
*** « Aspecte relevante pentru managementul integrat al frontierei
ce decurg din poziţia comună a Uniunii Europene», Bruxelles, 8 Decembrie 2004,
www.mie.ro
5.
*** “Catalogul Schengen- Controlul frontierelor externe, Extrădarea
şi readmisia: Cele mai bune practici şi recomandãri”, www.mie.ro
6.
*** «Convenţie de aplicare a acordului de la Schengen din 14 iunie
1985 privind eliminarea graduala a controalelor la frontierele comune», Schengen,
19 iunie 1990, www.mie.ro
7.
*** “Customs and Security”, DG Taxation and Customs Union,
www.europa.eu.int
8.
*** “Customs security at external borders: Frequently Asked
Questions”, Brussels, 24 February 2005, www.europa.eu.int
9.
*** “Douanes: la Commission se félicite de l’approbation de la
proposition concernant l’amélioration de la sécurité aux frontières extérieures”,
Bruxelles, 24 février 2005, www.europa.eu.int
10.
*** « Douanes: la Commission et les États membres accélèrent la
lutte contre la contrefaçon et la piraterie », Bruxelles, 8 février 2005,
www.europa.eu.int
11.
*** « Douane : la Commission propose
de
simplifier
l.administration et de renforcer la sécurité aux frontières extérieures », IP/03/1100,
24 juillet 2003, Bruxelles, www.europa.eu.int
12.
*** «Gestion du risque pour les douanes dans l'UE », Fiscalitè et
union douanière, Commission Européennée, www.europa.eu.int
13.
*** H.G.nr. 471/01 aprilie 2004 pentru aprobarea Strategiei
nationale de management integrat al frontierei de stat a Romaniei in perioada 20042006, M.O.nr. 325/15 aprilie 2004
14.
*** H.G.nr. 943/27 septembrie 2001 privind infiintarea Grupului
Interministerial Roman pentru Managementul Integrat al Frontierei de Stat, M.O.nr.
618/01 octombrie 2001
15.
*** O.G.U. nr. 105/27 iunie 2001- (actualizată) privind frontiera de
stat a Romaniei, M.O. nr. 352/30 iunie 2001
16.
*** « Programul de guvernare 2005-2008 »,Guvernul României,
www.mae.ro
17.
*** “Raportul Periodic asupra progreselor înregistrate de România în
vederea aderării la UE 2004”, COM(2004) 657 final, Bruxelles, 6.10.2004,
SEC(2004) 1200, www.mie.ro
9
18.
*** ”Standardised framework for risk management in the customs
administrations of the EU”, EU Commission, DG Taxation and Customs Union,
www.europa.eu.int
19.
*** «TVA: la Commission propose un système de guichet unique
parmi d'autres mesures visant à simplifier les obligations relatives à la taxe»,
IP/04/1331, 29 octobre 2004, Bruxelles, www.europa.eu.int
10
PRINCIPLES AND PRIORITIES OF THE TERRITORIAL
DEVELOPMENT APPROACH
Drd.ec.ing.Fleser Nelu
Prefectura Judeţului Alba
Basic principles of the territorial development
The knowledge, the research, the improvement and the development of a territory are
complex activities, both through the expressed dimension of the possessed area, as through
the rate of the population involved in productive activities, in social and cultural activities
social, logistics, tourism.
The development and the fitting-out of the territory is one of the most important
problems of the present day because it requires the achievement of a balance between
different demands and trends, such as conservation’s demand of an area and the expansion’s
trend of another (e.g.: the urban and the rural area), the aggressive development of industry in
the rural area, and, on the other land, the demand the maintain the rural area on its actual
sizes.
Basic principles regarding the territorial development can be systematized in ten
points, thus:
The lasting territorial development must have priority among development project
and should become a basic principle. An increasing part of the available resources should be
used for the achievement of local development and also for the environment’s protection in
infrastructure’s protection in infrastructure’s development project, in health assistance, in
education and telecommunication;
The incorporated approach of territorial development.
It presumes a complex development policy that contains all social, economic and
cultural activities. Thus, an unitary program should contain the management of the natural
resources of energy, the development of the agriculture adopted to the local realities, the
economical diversification trough the development of the small and medium industrial units,
logistics, to emphasis the nature’s and culture’s values. The development must be contained in
an unitary juridical and political frame, with clear territorial delimitation.
The creation of the diversification and of the varieties
The committal of the social and economical diversifications should lead to the creation
of the private and social initiative from capable to support themselves. The small two’s role
will tone up, having a great importance in rural development. At the sane time the viable
development of the rural communions and the village’s reinforcement are important, too.
Subsidiary
The basic principle of the development policy is a deeper decentralization of decisions
and a higher degree of partnership and collaboration between local, regional, national and
European levels. The accent should be on the initiatives coming from below and on the active
1
participation at the elaboration, realization and at the management of the project, because this
is the only way to turn to good account the creativity and the communion’s cohesion.
Simplicity
The settlements and the systems committal, especially those connected to the
agriculture’s development, should be more transparent and less bureaucrats.
Programming
The creation and the realization of the development programs should be a consistent,
transparent process, allowing each zone the possibility to draw up/ to elaborate there own
development strategy. These programs should be parts of on unique regional program.
Financing
It is necessary to increase the usage of the local financial resources, and, also the
committal of the development of sane credit techniques which assures the usage of both of the
private and budget funds.
It is important the decrease of the financial impediments of small industrial units, the
committal of productive investments and, of course, the economical diversification.
Guiding
The competence and the efficiency of local and regional administrations should be
increased, as well as of social organizations through technical help, a better communication
and developing partnership relations.
Research and evolution
The pursuit of the development project, the verification of the beneficiaries, the
professional arguments upon the new problems, the evolution of the gain experiences the
stimulation of scientific researches and innovations.
In order to increase local development in European context it is necessary to impose actions,
such as:
-the orientation of the public attention on the necessity for territorial
development upon new bases;
-the realization of a rural environment more attractive where people can live
and work with pleasure;
-the committal of the development project, by collaborating as partners at their
achievement.
-assuming an active rate on the international level in order to support durable
development.
Among specific features of the territorial developments we mention:
-Anthropocentrism.
The man sits in the center of the communion that lives in a territory. This feature
makes the principle of subsidiary a priority because the communions are active subjects of
development and not ally it passive objects.
-Complexity.
The development projects cants be reduced to one sector. These programs are meet to
create jobs, rural development, environment embellishment etc, that are aspects of human
live.
Specific directions for development: agriculture development, local infrastructure
development, small and medium enterprises development communion development,
environment protection, social programs.
2
-Micro region character.
Territorial fame is fixed to offer transparency to development programs. The priorities
and development strategies are determinate by the micro region’s situation, by it’s ecological,
economical, resources, by it’s cultural tradition.
Activity that involves more participants
The most important and active participants of the development projects of the micro
regions are local administration, social organization, enterprises and specialist.
Priorities and measurements
Priorities and measurements, which can be verified and finished during the
development process of a territory, are complex, each of them are having specific
characteristic of application and approach.
In order to decrease the consequences that are generated by the complex process of
economical restructuration it is necessary to develop the sector of small and medium
industrial units and to modernize economical activities, to tourism development, agriculture
and rural area development, logistics, environment protection.
The development of the small and medium enterprises and of the business
environment
The stimulating of the initiative represents a key role in the development of the
existing small and medium enterprises.
The promotion of the initiative will increase the number of the enterprises; witch will
generate new business ideas that will generate the development of business environment in
that region.
The development of the small and medium industrial units is very important because
this will generate create new jobs, and on the other hand, will create a competition spirit based
on flexibility and productivity.
Considering unemployment a burden for the national budget and a social pressure, the
solution to this problem can be found in the development and in the creation of the private
companies that are capable to absorb the labor forces.
The development of this process through the stimulation and the committal of some
viable private industrial units is a great necessity. There for it is very important to:
-create a regional system for economical information’s;
-sustain financially the appearance of new businesses;
-train and to create specialists and managers;
-support the industrial products promotion;
-sustain financially logistics and to improve to working conditions in the conditions in
the active industrial units;
-sustain financially the development of new techniques that will decrease the pollution
and will increase the environment’s protection and the ecological reconstruction.
Tourism’s development
It can be achieved trough the diversification and the beauty of the landscape, the
cultural tradition that can provide tenders to the mountaineers, the travelers, the hunters, the
skiers and to those interested in the nature’s monuments, architectural and ancient vestiges
and in traditions and in local habits.
Due to this important potential, the tourism in the rural area can be choused to be a
priority. Developing this sector will create new jobs and will improve the economical
performances in that region/area.
3
In order to develop this economical sector will need a good rehabilitation and
modernization policy, well guided tourism advertising and staff perfection in order to provide
quality services. The tourism development will generate news jobs for the unemployment’s
and will reduce seasonal characteristic of the jobs trough the jobs offers in the tourism
industry and, also, through the timeliness offered by the services companies and by the
increasing numbers of visitors.
In order to support the developing of this sector and to achieve the settled objectives it
is necessary to take same measures such as technical and financial assistance, training,
supporting company’s agents and:
-promoting and increasing the fame of the tourists objectives;
-financial supporting in order to improve the quality of the services;
-stimulating the development of the tourism’s collateral activities;
-modernizing or creating new tourists routes;
-supporting same protection and control activities for the natural tourist
objectives.
The development of the agriculture and of the rural area
Rural developments considered to be one of the most important directions of the
development strategies.
Throng this rural development is attending the realization of an integrate politics that
will allow giving emphasis to all kinds of aspects of the rural area: farming, milk and meat
processing, collection and processing of the forest’s fruits, pisciculture, bookkeeping,
practicing of the handicrafts etc.
Rural economy, based on agriculture and on processing the agriculture and nonagriculture products, is less efficient and registers a continuous decline which leads to an
acute sub development and to a significant discrepancy between the urban and the rural
European area.
For this reason the strategy is based on an integrate approach which contains the
agriculture’s organization and development, the economical variety through small and
medium industry’s stimulation, and of course of the rural services: natural resources
management, cultural and tourist promotion, relaxing activities.
It is obvious that in order to create the diversification of the economical and social
activities it is necessary to support individual and communion’s initiatives that will assures
new investments, technical assistance, adequately infrastructure, education and durable
development of localities.
To gain this goal it is necessary to take some measures:
-a study regarding the request and the offer of agriculture products;
-stimulating the increasing economical efficiency of the agriculture activities;
-supporting the development of collateral and non-agricultural activities in the
rural areas;
-encouraging private investments to turn to good account the local resources;
-supporting the training of the labor force in order to develop the agricultural
management;
-financing some infrastructure development projects for transportation and
communication in the rural areas;
-stimulating private initiatives for sanitary services in the rural area;
-supporting children’s access to education in the rural area;
-grants for conservation traditional buildings in the rural area.
Localities development and social logistics development
4
In order to support the development of the transportation infrastructure,
communication, social logistics in urban and rural areas it is necessary to involve the local
authorities in all kind of activities.
It takes in to consideration methodological and financial support for local public
administrations needed to elaborate development projects for transportation network,
communications, water supply, sewerage, electrical and terminal network.
It is necessary also to involve local population in the local development process, to
stimulate the appearance of new non- governmental structures that will take over some of the
local administration’s assignments and will improve the management capacity
administration’s to create social logistics in localities.
This goal can be achieved by following some measures:
-support for free initiatives to create some communion’s activities;
-financial support for studies and modernization projects of transportation
infrastructure and communication that will have regional and interregional
impact;
-support for partnership initiative between local public administration and
social structures;
-grants for supporting projects of social disfavored categories;
-financial support for town network extension;
-financial support for studies that will give emphasis to the architectural local
style.
Environment and Patrimony preservation
It is necessary to take in to consideration general principles of environment’s
protection, actual environment’s state and regional specific conditions in order to maintain
and to improve population’s health and life’s quality and to maintain and improve existing
nature’s potential.
Local activities carried out for environment’s protection will aim two directions:
reduced aggression on the surrounding by supporting non-palliating activities and by
ecological reconstruction in the palliated areas.
Another goal is to stimulate the development of recycling industries of rueful materials
and to promote education in the environment’s protection spirit.
Any activities of economical agents that will bring to normal the environment must be
encouraged through financial support, small interest credits, loan guaranties, publicity etc.
This goal can be achieved by following the next measures:
-financial support for collecting and recycling activities;
-financial support for investments in water- cleaning units and sewerage
network;
-financial support reforestation;
-financial support for buildings declared historical and architectural
monuments.
We intended to emphasis and to give an explanation for the problems considered being
important and fundamental for the development of a territory (region area or locality).
5
References :
1.Bran F. & Colab.Turismul rural. Modelul european, Ed. Economică, 1997
2.Buciuman E. Strategia si politica dezvoltarii economico-sociala a zonei montane, 1994
3.Constantin D. L. Economie regională, Ed. Oscar Print, Bucureşti, 1998
4.Dorna I. Economie rurală, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2000
5.Profiroiu A. & Colab.
6.Vincze M.
Clujeană, 2000
Dezvoltarea economică locală, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 1999
Dezvoltarea regională şi rurală. Idei şi practici, Presa Universitară
*** Annales Universitatis Apulensis. Series oeconomica, vol 2, Universitatea “1 Decembrie
1918”, Alba Iulia, 2001
*** Manual pe probleme de aderare la Uniunea Europeană pentru asociaţiile autorităţilor
locale şi regionale din România şi membrii lor, Editat de Ministerul Administraţiei Publice
Locale din România, 2000
6
BASIC PROBLEMS OF MOUNTAIN'S
AREA DELIMITATION
Drd.ec.ing. Fleşer Nelu
Alba Prefecture
Basic considerations about mountain area
The Romania’s mountain area represents about a third of the national territory, and
also the biggest mountain massif of Europe, as part of the same frontiers.
The surface is of 79 919 km, with 53,3% forests – having 74,4% forestation level
and 41,1% agricultural land, representing 46% of the teritory of 28 counties as part of 729
communes, with 3900 villages and 92 mountain towns.
In this structure, the hays and the natural pasture represents 71,7%, the arable 25,6%
fruit trees and vineyards 2,7% of the mountain agriculture area.
Population represents 3,6 mil inhabitants (45/km²) with area 2 millions farmers,
having about 1 millions private farms, mostly characterised by of subsistence, using a
traditional agriculture where the animal’s growth in extensive system prevails.
In the rural area the population’s incomes are from agriculture 30-40% and other
activities (forester, mines, processing industries, services, handicrafts). The farms represent
the basic purveyor of working places.
The used criterions in the mountaiǹ s area delimitation
The mountain area delimitation is made on a multi-criterion base, which is also very
relative in time and space. As base of this delimitation, we can use as criterions:
- the lythogical aspect;
- the geological and orographic characteristics;
- the climate and hydrographic characteristics;
- the vegetation and soil’s characteristics;
- access to the market, etc.
The most part of the countries consider as being in the mountain category, the lands
situated at high altitude with abrupt slopes, cold climate and plentiful rainfall used more as
lawns.
The E.C.C 's direction 75/269/1975 establishes the classification criterions of the
areas:
- the useful agricultural area covered at least 80% with grass;
- 400m altitude for at least half of the area;
- the number of the days with ant frost must be, not more than 150;
- the cows growth being under 70% of national average;
- the cereals' production output being under 80% of national average.
The mountain’s area delimitation requires another two complementary stages:
- the territorial delimitation;
- the territorial and administrative delimitation
1
The territorial delimitation
The basic criterion used in the European countries, was the altitude because it is
considered that all other natural characteristics depends on it.
The territorial and administrative delimitation
The regional studies, having a complex character have also an administrative and
territorial delimits which doesn't overlap, totally, with the natural delimitation. It is also
necessary to do this delimitation when studding the social and economic parts: the
population's density, the natural spore, the migration spore, the total spore, the land's usage,
the production indicators.
Considering the lithological aspect, the mountain's area delimitation with neighbour
units, can be determined by the meeting range of the systems (like crystal shale’s and
granite intrusive, line stones and sedimentary deposits) and of the neogen volcanism with
accumulated systems in the Neogene’s period.
Up to the geological structure criterion the geographical components create better
possibilities to establish mountain area delimitations, like: asymmetry and relief type’s,
hydrographical convergent and valleys network characteristics of mountain area up to
neighbour units, climate, vegetation and soils.
Considering the asymmetry, the range presents wide departure having values from
1000 m to 250 m even under 100 m limit.
Regarding the relief as delimitation criterion appears a very complex situation
because its genesis and evolution was different from a place to another, so that, many times
is hard to assign exactly, to whom of this major units to be ascribe an unit of lower class.
Regarding to the climate role and its reflection on vegetation and soils, we have to
consider the sense of the altitude and relief, which determines the climate aspects for every
single situation.
Usually, the mountain area begins at the appearance of the beech tree forests but
with prominent differences from one place to another determined by altitude and climate
influence.
Thus, we can find beech in lower altitudes, because of many rainfalls, and the oak
tree ascend to 12000-1300 m.
The pedogeographical component starts with the brown soils represented on a large
base.
A very important role, considering the geographical and human components, has the
land’s usage, the settlements position and the communication routes position. Considering,
the land's usage, we can ascertain that the arable fields, rarely, gets over 800 m altitude.
Having favourable physical and geographic conditions, the human settlements were
settled at the limit of the mountain with the neighbour units, so this outlines clearly the pass
from lower units to higher units.
The geological and orographic characteristics.
2
This characteristics define the major particularities of Romania geographical units.
Important aspects: formation and geological structure phase, seismology, altitude the
braking up, etc.
The geological structure is simply represented usually by a compact mass of
crystalline lens systems with sediment deposits.
Subsoil resources are mostly: energetic cool and all metalliferous (ferrous and nonferrous) non metalliferous (especially limestone, sand stones and other building materials),
mineral and thermal waters.
The seism have a higher frequency in the Carpathians' bend sector (Vrancea), where
hypocenter has big depths, which produces the suitable extensions.
The altitude's characteristics sets Romanian mountains in the middle mountain's
category. The average altitudes have 850-900 m (90% of area being situated under 1500 m
altitude)
The different phases of orogenessis and the intense neogen vulcanism, have
contribute to an increased breaking up of the mountain area, the action being conditioned
also by the hydrographical evolution.
Climatic flow and hydrographic characteristics
Represents a result of the Romania's geographical position. This results determine
suitable influences, especially, the influences-coming from the west, with moist air, coming
from north (Baltics, moist and cold) and coming from east (warm during summer and cold
in the winter). The south influences moderate the thermo and rain gauge conditions.
In the mountain area the number and the variety of the mountain's depressions and
volleys leads to frequent changes of temperatures and vegetation.
The hydrographical net is also not very compact because of the mountain's area
position and altitude. The rivers present, usually, a very good hydroenergetic potential, used
by complex arrangements (steady flows, production of electric power, water supply,
tourism).
The vegetation and soil's characteristics
Are connected with the relief's expressions (altitude, peaks orientation, depression's
presence and also with the climate (climate influences and the differences of altitude). As a
result of this, the vegetation and the soils presents different and clear levels. For a better
understanding, of this aspects, it is necessary to divide the mountain area in two groups:
- small and middle mountains;
- high mountains.
The small and middle mountains group includes a big area starting from a 100 m
altitude and going to 1800 m. This group includes 60% of Romania’s forests with 800-1200
mm/year rain falls.
In the interior part of this group (between 800-1200 m) grows the beech tree, a
mixture of beech tree and resins (1222-1400). In the superior part includes the coniferous
tree.
3
The suitable soils of this group gets high humidity (800-1200 mm/year) and the
average temperature starts at 7ºC and goes to 0ºC. As a result the decomposition process of
the mineral substances is very active.
Another characteristic of this group is the alternation of the peaks with the
depressions and valleys, and the diversity of the geographical elements. The fauna is
represented by species like: bucks, bears, wild bear, lynx, etc.
The high mountain's group is represented by the areas with 1700- 1800 m altitude
and it is known as alpine level or alpine area. Because of the altitude, the climate is cold
and moist, the average temperature being around 0ºC. The snow stays for like 200220day/year. The rainfall gets to 1200-1400 mm/year and the average wind's speed is 7-8
m/s. Another characteristic is the presence of the lakes.
The mountain's humanization
The mountain's humanization has taken a long time. The archaeological and written
documents prove the human presence starting with the Palaeolithic.
The settlements appeared and developed in connection with the geographical
factors, especially close to the water sources, shelter places, pasture lands etc.
According as social evolution the social activities had diversified:
- wood's processing, cool's processing, ferrous and non ferrous processing,
industry.
The geographical factors, combined with social and historical factors and
technologies, have determined a structural typology, the most part of the settlements
being very compact in the depressions zone but with dispersed villages in the
valleys zone and dispelled, on high altitudes.
4
BILBLIOGRAFIE SELECTIVĂ
Luduşan N.
Geografia judeţului Alba, Editura Aeternitas, Alba Iulia,
2003
Pop P. Grigore
Carpaţii şi Subcarpaţii României, Editura Presa Universitară,
Cluj Napoca, 2000
Rey Radu
Civilizaţia montană, Ed. {tiinţifică şi Enciclopedică,
Bucureşti, 1985
Dezvoltarea regională şi rurală. Idei şi practici, Presa
Universitară Clujeană, 2000
Carpaţii României în anul internaţional al muntelui 2002.
Editura Fundaţiei Culturale “Alexandru Bogza” Câmpulung
Moldovenesc, 2002
Dezvoltarea Rurală în România-Carta Verde Proiect Finanţat
prin Programul Phare al U.E. Bucureşti,1998
Infociv-Publicaţie periodică editată de Fundaţia Civitas,
Editura Design, Cluj Napoca, 2002
Planul Naţional de Dezvoltare 2001-2002, Bucureşti, 2003
Strategia de dezvoltare durabilă a microregiunii depresiunea
Trascău, Alba Iulia, 2002
Vincze M.
***
***
***
***
***
5
STRATEGII DE DEZVOLTARE
ÎN EUROPA CENTRALĂ ŞI DE EST
drd. Alexandru Folescu
Introducere
„Unitate în diversitate”. Acesta este motto-ul Uniunii Europene şi spiritul acesteia.
Fără îndoială, Uniunea Europeană este un sistem complex, funcţionarea acestuia depinzând
în primul rând de unitatea subsistemelor componente. Acest fapt face ca totul sa se bazeze
pe coerenţă, inclusiv strategiile de dezvoltare, politicile, planurile şi programele de
dezvoltare.
În cadrul acestui sistem, un loc aparte îl are planificarea macroeconomică.
Importanţa acesteia este deosebită deoarece vizează cu precădere direcţionarea resurselor
financiare Comunitare şi naţionale către acele proiecte ce sprijină dezvoltarea de ansamblu
a întregului areal al UE, respectând principiile dezvoltării durabile şi echilibrate.
În cazul ţărilor Central şi Est Europene, planificarea macroeconomică este strâns
legată de opţiunea acestora de aderare la UE. În acest context, toate aceste state şi-a
organizat planificarea macroeconomică în strânsă legătură cu cerinţele şi orientările
metodologice ale UE pentru planificarea Fondurilor Structurale. Principalul document de
planificare macroeconomică elaborat de către statele Central şi Est Europene este Planul
Naţional de Dezvoltare, document ce tratează într-o manieră comprehensivă coeziunea
economică şi socială a regiunilor prin includerea strategiei de dezvoltare şi planificarea
modului de utilizare a resurselor naţionale şi europene destinate sprijinirii acesteia în
conformitate cu cerinţele, orientările strategice şi domeniile de intervenţie agreate la nivelul
Uniunii Europene.
Astfel, politica de dezvoltare europeană contribuie activ şi la dezvoltarea economică
a ţărilor care şi-au manifestat intenţia de a adera la UE prin sprijinirea dezvoltării unor
domenii cheie (activităţi productive, protecţia mediului, transport şi utilităţi publice, resurse
umane).
Fără a avea pretenţia unei abordări exhaustive, această lucrare îşi propune analiza
strategiilor de dezvoltare adoptate de unele state Central Europene (Republica Cehă,
Polonia, Ungaria) şi identificarea principalelor zone de intervenţie ale acestora.
Deoarece toate cele trei state analizate au caracteristici similare ce cele ale
României şi se confruntă cu aceleaşi tipuri de probleme, considerăm că experienţa acestora
poate deveni un exemplu util pentru stabilirea strategiei de dezvoltare a României în
context european.
1
Strategia de dezvoltare a Republicii Cehe
În sine, întreaga strategie de dezvoltare a Republicii Cehe este centrată pe un singur
element cheie: „competitivitate”. Aceasta este ţelul şi motorul întregii politici de dezvoltare
economică, constituie elementul cheie atât al Planului Naţional de Dezvoltare, cât şi al
Programului Economic de Preaderare, precum şi esenţa obiectivului de dezvoltare naţională
pe termen lung („atingerea unei creşteri economice stabile”) care va determina apropierea
nivelului de dezvoltare a acestei ţări de media europeană. Pornind de la această viziune,
obiectivul global de dezvoltare în perioada 2004-2006 este „dezvoltarea durabilă bazată pe
competitivitate”. Pentru realizarea acestui obiectiv, Cehia îşi propune obţinerea unei
creşteri economice superioară mediei UE, îmbunătăţirea poziţiei în UE din punct de vedere
al competitivităţii şi accelerarea schimbărilor calitative în economie. În acest sens, strategia
acordă o importanţă deosebită modernizării sectoarelor economice cu potenţial ridicat de
creştere economică şi creării unui mediu favorabil creşterii economice.
În lumina acestor orientări, pentru atingerea obiectivului general au fost definite
patru obiective specifice: crearea condiţiilor favorabile creşterii economice prin întărirea
factorilor interni, îmbunătăţirea nivelului de calificare, competitivităţii şi mobilităţii forţei
de muncă, precum şi reducerea impactului creşterii economice asupra grupurilor de
persoane dezavantajate, introducerea standardelor UE în domeniul mediului înconjurător şi
dezvoltarea echilibrată a regiunilor.
După cum se poate observa primele două obiective specifice contribuie direct la
creşterea competitivităţii economice şi se completează reciproc, în timp ce celelalte două
obiective contribuie relativ indirect la creşterea competitivităţii, dar susţin dezvoltarea
durabilă, creşterea calităţii vieţii şi a stabilităţii interne prin diminuarea disparităţilor între
regiuni.
Deşi strategia de dezvoltare a fost articulată în jurul a şase axe prioritare1, aceasta
este focalizată în principal în jurul axelor prioritare 1 („creşterea competitivităţii industriei
şi serviciilor de afaceri”) şi 3 („dezvoltarea resurselor umane”). Contribuţiile acestora la
realizarea obiectivului global au o importanţă covârşitoare deoarece vizează realizarea
primelor două obiective specifice („Crearea condiţiilor favorabile creşterii economice prin
întărirea factorilor interni” şi „Îmbunătăţirea nivelului de calificare, competitivităţii şi
mobilităţii forţei de muncă, precum şi reducerea impactului creşterii economice asupra
grupurilor de persoane dezavantajate”), obiective direct legate de creşterea competitivităţii
economice. Comparativ cu aceste axe, celelalte patru axe, deşi au o contribuţie redusă
asupra competitivităţii, sunt strâns legate de contextul economico-social şi contribuie la
creşterea coeziunii economice şi sociale interne şi pe plan european prin: dezvoltarea şi
modernizarea reţelelor de transport de importanţă naţională şi regională, inclusiv a
legăturilor acestora cu Reţeaua Trans-Europeană (axa 2), rezolvarea problemelor de mediu
şi eliminarea efectelor negative asupra mediului înconjurător (axa 4), creşterea
competitivităţii agriculturii, îmbunătăţirea funcţiilor neproductive şi protecţia patrimoniului
natural (axa 5), dezvoltarea turismului (axa 6).
Axa 1. Creşterea competitivităţii industriei şi serviciilor de afaceri. Această axă are
ca scop crearea unor structuri economice competitive cu o productivitate ridicată, capabile
1
Axa 1. Creşterea competitivităţii industriei şi serviciilor de afaceri; Axa 2. Dezvoltarea infrastructurii de
transport; Axa 3. Dezvoltarea resurselor umane; Axa 4. Protecţia şi îmbunătăţirea calităţii mediului
înconjurător; Axa 5. Dezvoltare rurală şi agricultură multifuncţională; Axa 6. Dezvoltarea turismului
2
să facă faţă competiţiei pe Piaţa Unică Europeană. Aceasta presupune, pe de o parte,
stimularea dezvoltării sectorului industrial şi, pe de altă parte, restructurarea acestuia.
Pentru facilitarea dezvoltării industriale, se are în vedere cu prioritate sprijinirea dezvoltării
IMM-urilor şi a activităţilor inovative în domeniul industrial, inclusiv cooperarea firmelor
cu institutele de cercetări şi învăţământ superior. Totodată, măsurile au un puternic caracter
social (se concentrează pe crearea şi menţinerea locurilor de muncă), iar resursele
financiare sunt distribuite cu prioritate către regiunile mai puţin dezvoltate. În acelaşi timp,
este sprijinită restructurarea producţiei industriale. Aceasta are ca scop menţinerea sau
creşterea competitivităţii companiilor viabile prin sporirea productivităţii muncii, realizarea
de noi investiţii şi raţionalizarea sistemului de producţie. În paralel, restructurarea şi
dezvoltarea capacităţilor de producţie determină şi diminuarea consumurilor energetice,
fapt ce conduce la reducerea poluării mediului înconjurător. O atenţie specială este acordată
creării infrastructurii de sprijin a activităţilor productive şi a facilităţilor de producţie
moderne, în special a acelora capabile să dezvolte produse cu valoare adăugată ridicată în
domeniile microelectronică, biotehnologie, software. Totodată, se are în vedere şi crearea
unui mediu de afaceri favorabil dezvoltării activităţilor economice locale prin sprijinirea
serviciilor de consultanţă, informare, a activităţilor de cercetare-dezvoltare şi a creării
infrastructurii de afaceri. Această activitate este dublată de activităţi de sprijinire a
dezvoltării micilor întreprinderi productive locale, inclusiv a celor localizate în mediul rural
implicate în activităţi neagricole.
Axa 2. Dezvoltarea infrastructurii de transport. Această axă urmăreşte creşterea
calităţii infrastructurii de transport, îmbunătăţirea legăturilor cu reţelele europeane şi
reducerea efectelor negative ale activităţilor de transport asupra mediului înconjurător. Axa
vine în întâmpinarea nevoii de asigurare a unui sistem de transport adaptat noilor condiţii
economico-sociale, şi anume creşterea mobilităţii forţei de muncă şi a cererii de transport
rezultată ca urmare a dezvoltării activităţilor antreprenoriale. Pentru satisfacerea acestor
nevoi, se are în vedere îmbunătăţirea infrastructurii de transport regionale, în special,
extinderea şi modernizarea drumurilor publice, îmbunătăţirea serviciilor de transport,
precum şi dezvoltarea infrastructurii şi a serviciilor informaţionale şi de comunicaţii. În
paralel, sunt sprijinite proiecte de importanţă internaţională în domeniul transportului,
proiecte strict legate de coridoarele de transport trans-europene. Acestea vizează cu
prioritate modernizarea şi extinderea sistemelor de transport feroviar şi rutier, respectând
cerinţele în domeniul protecţiei mediului.
Axa 3. Dezvoltarea resurselor umane. Această axă urmăreşte obţinerea unui nivel
crescut şi stabil de ocupare bazat pe o forţă de muncă pregătită şi flexibilă şi reducerea
numărului persoanelor ameninţate de excluderea socială. Activităţile desfăşurate în acest
domeniu se axează pe dezvoltarea unei politici de ocupare active, capabilă să rezolve
problema şomajului, şi anume: crearea unui sistem de perfecţionare continuă a forţei de
muncă corelat cu necesităţile existente pe piaţa muncii şi dezvoltarea sistemelor de formare
şi învăţământ. Ca urmare, măsurile sprijină creşterea calităţii nivelului de educaţie iniţială şi
continuă, întărirea legăturii între cererea şi oferta de forţă de muncă, dezvoltarea instituţiilor
care acţionează pe piaţa muncii şi a activităţilor care sprijină integrarea socială, promovarea
egalităţii de şanse şi creşterea nivelului de ocupare în rândul persoanelor dezavantajate. În
paralel, se urmăreşte şi creşterea flexibilităţii pieţei muncii prin încurajarea mobilităţii
profesionale şi geografice a forţei de muncă, prin dezvoltarea societăţii informaţionale şi
prin crearea unor centre de informare şi consultanţă.
3
Axa 4. Protecţia şi îmbunătăţirea calităţii mediului înconjurător. Această axă
urmăreşte îmbunătăţirea calitativă a elementelor mediului înconjurător şi promovarea
principiilor dezvoltării durabile. Ca urmare, activităţile realizate se concentrează asupra
acelor proiecte de investiţii care conduc la îndeplinirea standardelor europene,
îmbunătăţirea managementului deşeurilor şi reînnoirea funcţiilor ecologice ale unor terenuri
sau ape. Între acestea, o atenţie sporită este acordată sistemelor de epurare a apei uzate,
avându-se în vedere o serie de măsuri specifice, şi anume: construirea unor noi staţii de
tratare a apelor uzate, extinderea sistemului de canalizare şi dezvoltarea unor noi facilităţi
de reciclare. Totodată, sunt avute în vedere şi măsuri de reducere a poluării atmosferice prin
sprijinirea proiectelor de modernizare a facilităţilor de incinerare sau a celor producătoare
de substanţe organice volatile. De asemenea, sunt sprijinite şi sistemele integrate de
colectare, selecţie şi reutilizare a anumitor tipuri de deşeuri.
Axa 5. Dezvoltare rurală şi agricultură multifuncţională. Această axă urmăreşte
îmbunătăţirea condiţiilor de viaţă ale populaţiei rurale, creşterea competitivităţii şi
productivităţii muncii în agricultură şi întărirea funcţiilor non-agricole ale acesteia. Pentru
realizarea acestor obiective, axa se concentrează pe creşterea productivităţi muncii în
industria alimentară, precum şi pe îmbunătăţirea calităţii şi competitivităţii produselor
agricole. Ca urmare, sunt sprijinite cu prioritate investiţiile în noi tehnologii, în dezvoltarea
capitalului uman, precum şi activităţile generatoare de locuri de muncă alternative. De
asemenea, o atenţie specială este acordată dezvoltării funcţiilor neproductive ale producţiei
agricole, inclusiv diversificarea agricolă şi finalizarea procesului de restructurarea a
acestuia. În domeniul dezvoltării rurale activităţile sunt concentrate pe îmbunătăţirea
facilităţilor, creşterea gradului de accesibilitate al acestora şi crearea unor noi locuri de
muncă.
Axa 6. Dezvoltarea turismului. Această axă urmăreşte sporirea participării
turismului la creşterea economică. Pentru a realiza acest deziderat se are în vedere atât
realizarea de noi investiţii, cât şi dezvoltarea elementelor de sprijin a activităţilor turistice.
Astfel, pe de o parte, sunt sprijinite firmele mici care asigură dezvoltarea unor noi forme de
turism şi, pe de altă parte, sunt sprijinite acţiunile de reabilitarea a monumentelor culturale,
de conservare a patrimoniului natural, de dezvoltare a sistemului informaţional integrat
pentru turism (la nivel naţional), de constituire a asociaţiilor profesionale în acest domeniu
şi de înfiinţare a unui sistem de control a calităţii serviciilor turistice existente.
Strategia de dezvoltare a Poloniei
Strategia de dezvoltare a Poloniei este circumscrisă obiectivului strategic general:
„dezvoltarea unei economii competitive, bazată pe cunoaştere şi antreprenoriat, capabilă să
asigure dezvoltarea armonioasă pe termen lung, creşterea ocupării şi îmbunătăţirea
coeziunii economice, sociale şi teritoriale cu UE la nivel naţional şi regional”.
Pornind de la punctele tari şi slabe şi oportunităţile şi riscurile cu care se confruntă,
precum şi de la provocările mondiale cărora trebuie să le facă faţă atât Polonia, cât şi
întreaga UE, pentru atingerea obiectivului general au fost definite cinci obiective specifice,
şi anume: 1) sprijinirea atingerii şi menţinerii unei rate ridicate de creştere a PIB; 2)
creşterea ocupării şi nivelului educaţional; 3) integrarea Poloniei în reţelele de transport şi
comunicaţii ale UE; 4) intensificarea procesului de creştere a sectoarelor cu valoare
adăugată ridicată în structura economică, dezvoltarea tehnologiei şi societăţii
4
informaţionale; 5) sprijinirea participării tuturor regiunilor şi grupurilor sociale la procesele
de dezvoltare şi modernizare.
Primul obiectiv specific presupune concentrarea politicii economice asupra
menţinerii echilibrului macroeconomic şi stabilităţii financiare, reducerea inflaţiei şi a
deficitului bugetar, continuarea privatizării unităţilor economice publice, eliminarea
barierelor legislative şi administrative care frânează dezvoltarea antreprenoriatului şi
afacerilor, precum şi direcţionarea ajutoarelor de stat către sprijinirea celor mai eficiente şi
competitive companii.
Cel de-al doilea obiectiv specific vizează implementarea mecanismelor de reducere
a costului forţei de muncă, reducerea barierelor administrative şi instituţionale, creşterea
flexibilităţii şi mobilităţii spaţiale şi profesionale a forţei de muncă, creşterea accesului la
învăţământul liceal şi superior, în special pentru populaţia rurală, precum şi concentrarea
politicii sociale către cele mai dinamice grupuri de persoane active.
Cel de-al treilea obiectiv specific necesită luarea unor măsuri legale şi instituţionale
destinate simplificării regulilor privind investiţiile în infrastructură, reducerea riscului de
mediu, precum şi realizarea unui program masiv de investiţii în infrastructura de transport
(drumuri, căi ferate, porturi) şi comunicaţii.
Cel de-al patrulea obiectiv specific presupune continuarea proceselor de ajustare
structurală şi sprijinire a ocupării forţei de muncă prin: reducerea ocupării în agricultură şi
creşterea productivităţii muncii în acest domeniu; creşterea ponderii producţiei industriale
în PIB, a productivităţii muncii şi ajustarea structurală a industriilor în declin; sporirea
ocupării în sectorul servicii şi, în special în serviciile de piaţă şi turism; creşterea
cheltuielilor pentru cercetare-dezvoltare, în special, în acele domenii în care rezultatele pot
fi folosite în mod direct pentru creşterea dinamismului dezvoltării întreprinderilor;
dezvoltarea societăţii informaţionale şi creşterea contribuţiei acesteia la intensificarea
procesului de adaptare structurală şi la asigurarea competitivităţii economiei Poloniei pe
termen lung.
Cel de-al cincilea obiectiv specific presupune contracararea adâncirii în continuare a
disparităţilor sociale şi teritoriale. Acest obiectiv este strâns legat atât de necesitatea
coordonării măsurilor de dezvoltare la nivel regional, cât şi de necesitatea sprijinirii
integrării sociale şi profesionale a grupurilor dezavantajate.
În afara măsurilor de natură legală, fiscală şi instituţională, obiectivele de dezvoltare
sunt realizate şi prin intermediul programelor şi proiectelor finanţate, pe de o parte, prin
intermediul Instrumentelor Structurale şi, pe de altă parte, prin intermediul programelor de
dezvoltare multi-anuale finanţate exclusiv din fonduri naţionale.
Astfel, în perioada 2004-2006, programele de dezvoltare sunt articulate în jurul a
cinci axe de dezvoltare, axe care cuprind domeniile principale de concentrare a investiţiilor
publice directe: 1) Sprijinirea competitivităţii întreprinderilor; 2) Dezvoltarea resurselor
umane şi creşterea ocupării; 3) Crearea condiţiilor pentru creşterea nivelului investiţiilor,
promovarea dezvoltării durabile şi a coeziunii teritoriale; 4) Ajustarea structurală a
agriculturii şi pescuitului, dezvoltarea rurală; 5) Revigorarea potenţialului de dezvoltare al
regiunilor şi combaterea marginalizării unor zone.
Axa 1. Sprijinirea competitivităţii întreprinderilor. Această axă răspunde nevoii de
sprijinire a întreprinderilor atât în ceea ce priveşte creşterea producţiei, cât şi în ceea ce
priveşte crearea unui mediu de afaceri propice dezvoltării acestora. Pentru impulsionarea
creşterii competitivităţii se are în vedere atât restructurarea economică, cât şi focalizarea
resurselor financiare către întreprinderile mici şi mijlocii care creează şi implementează
5
produse şi tehnologii inovative, stimulându-se astfel creşterea nivelului investiţiilor,
creşterea productivităţii, creşterea exportului şi cooperării internaţionale, creşterea ocupării
forţei de muncă, respectarea standardelor europene în domeniul protecţiei mediului şi
utilizarea mai eficientă a oportunităţilor oferite de Piaţa Unică Europeană. Totodată, sunt
avute în vedere şi acele întreprinderi mari al căror plan de afaceri indică o posibilă
profitabilitate. Pentru aceste întreprinderi sprijinul constă în oferirea de asistenţă pentru
dezvoltare şi restructurare. În paralel, este sprijinit şi mediul de afaceri, inclusiv institutele
de cercetare-dezvoltare care cooperează cu întreprinderile şi cele care asigură sisteme de
informare şi servicii publice on-line, ambele elemente fiind considerate a avea o importanţă
deosebită pentru creşterea competitivităţii economice a Poloniei.
Axa 2. Dezvoltarea resurselor umane şi creşterea ocupării. Această axă răspunde
nevoii de concentrare a politicii economice şi sociale asupra elementelor de bază pot
asigura dezvoltarea complexă a resurselor umane, şi anume: piaţa muncii, învăţământul şi
perfecţionarea continuă. Obiectivele acestei axe sunt creşterea competitivităţii resurselor
umane şi, în acelaşi timp, creşterea oportunităţilor de angajare pe piaţa europeană a muncii,
eficienţa măsurilor implementate condiţionând direct procesele de dezvoltare şi
modernizare economică. Totodată, această axă reprezintă unul dintre criteriile de bază ale
evaluării modului de folosire a oportunităţilor oferite de aderarea la Uniunea Europeană şi,
de aceea, este necesară îmbunătăţirea calitativă a pieţei muncii şi a modului de funcţionare
a sistemului de învăţământ, precum şi sporirea volumului resurselor financiare destinate
creşterii nivelului de calificare tehnică şi profesională a tinerilor şi adulţilor, creşterii
eficienţei şi calităţii sistemelor de învăţământ şi pregătire continuă, sprijinirii înfiinţării de
noi întreprinderi şi adaptării personalului la noile cerinţe ale Pieţei Unice Europene. În
acelaşi timp, sunt avute în vedere atât măsurile active pe piaţa muncii, cât şi politicile de
integrare socială şi profesională. Acestea vizează reducerea şomajului, ajustarea structurală
a forţei de muncă, asigurarea egalităţii de şanse şi reducerea impactului procesului de
aderare la UE.
Axa 3. Crearea condiţiilor pentru creşterea nivelului investiţiilor, promovarea
dezvoltării durabile şi a coeziunii teritoriale. Această axă vizează modernizarea şi
extinderea infrastructurii. Resursele financiare sunt însă concentrate asupra unui număr
limitat de proiecte care pot să asigure cel mai ridicat efect multiplicator pentru dezvoltarea
economiei. Ca urmare, acestea sunt îndreptate către acele programe şi proiecte de investiţii
care facilitează integrarea Poloniei în sistemele de transport şi mediu ale UE. În domeniul
transporturilor se are în vedere atât extinderea, cât şi modernizarea infrastructurii,
principalele măsuri fiind: continuarea proiectelor de modernizare şi extindere a reţelelor
rutieră şi de cale ferată de-a lungul coridoarelor de transport trans-europene, realizarea de
noi investiţii în infrastructura de transport şi cale ferată de importanţă naţională, aducerea
infrastructurii aeroportuare la nivelul standardelor internaţionale, dezvoltarea infrastructurii
portuare (inclusiv construirea de noi terminale de încărcare a mărfurilor şi containerelor) şi
îmbunătăţirea gradului de accesibilitate a porturilor. În acelaşi timp, o atenţie sporită este
acordată proiectelor care sprijină dezvoltarea urbană şi întărirea poziţiei competitive a
Poloniei în sistemul urban european. O altă direcţie a acestei axe este sprijinirea investiţiilor
în sistemele de siguranţă a traficului. Această direcţie are o importanţă deosebită deoarece
Polonia este una dintre ţările europene cu cele mai înalte rate a accidentelor rutiere. De
asemenea, având în vedere necesitatea de a asigura o creştere permanentă a nivelului de trai
şi de a utiliza în totalitate valorile spaţiale ale Poloniei, această axă vizează şi realizarea de
noi investiţii în infrastructura de mediu. Aceste investiţii sunt concentrate pe modernizarea
6
staţiilor de tratare a apelor uzate şi deşeurilor şi construirea unor noi astfel de staţii, dar şi
pe modernizarea şi extinderea reţelelor de alimentare cu apă potabilă şi a reţelelor de
canalizare în oraşele cu o populaţie de peste 1000 de locuitori. Totodată, se are în vedere şi
construirea unor sisteme complexe de stocare şi tratare a apei potabile, precum şi
modernizarea şi extinderea infrastructurii anti-inundaţii şi crearea unui sistem de
management integrat a deşeurilor.
Axa 4. Ajustarea structurală a agriculturii şi pescuitului, dezvoltarea rurală.
Această axă vizează asigurarea aceloraşi condiţii de competitivitate produselor agricole
poloneze pe piaţa UE şi creşterea standardului de viaţă al locuitorilor zonelor rurale.
Măsurile se concentrează în câteva zone cheie: îmbunătăţirea competitivităţii şi
profitabilităţii fermelor, modernizarea şi dezvoltarea sectorului alimentar, a pisciculturii şi
marketingului produselor agricole şi piscicole, ajustarea capacităţilor piscicole în
conformitate cu resursele acvatice, modernizarea flotei de pescuit, diversificarea surselor de
venit ale populaţiei rurale, precum şi dezvoltarea zonelor rurale şi a celor dependente de
pescuit astfel încât să se asigure creşterea nivelului de trai al locuitorilor acestor zone şi să
se stimuleze creşterea investiţiilor în domeniile economice non-agricole şi non-piscicole.
Realizarea acestei axe presupune totodată integrarea populaţiei rurale pe piaţa forţei de
muncă, creşterea formării profesionale a acesteia, dar şi asigurarea celorlalte condiţii care
pot facilita dezvoltarea de ansamblu a zonelor rurale, cum ar fi: îmbunătăţirea situaţiei
infrastructurii şi crearea condiţiilor necesare pentru creşterea activităţii antreprenoriale.
Axa 5. Revigorarea potenţialului de dezvoltare al regiunilor şi combaterea
marginalizării unor zone. Această axă răspunde nevoii de asigurare a participării la
procesele de modernizare şi dezvoltare a tuturor sectoarelor şi grupurilor sociale ale
Poloniei. În conformitate cu acest obiectiv măsurile sprijinite prin intermediul acestei axe
vizează, pe de o parte, sprijinirea creării „capitalului” regional care poate facilita ajustarea
potenţialului intern al regiunilor şi implementarea strategiilor de dezvoltare ale acestora şi,
pe de altă parte, contracararea marginalizării economice şi sociale a zonelor ce parcurg
ajustări structurale. Acestea sunt situate de regulă în zonele estice şi nordice ale Poloniei şi
includ în principal zone rurale, foste zone militare şi/sau industriale aflate în declin, precum
şi zone urbane dezavantajate. Ca urmare, resursele financiare sunt direcţionate către
dezvoltarea şi modernizarea infrastructurii (în special a infrastructurii zonelor
metropolitane), ajustarea structurală a economiilor regionale şi crearea condiţiilor pentru
diversificarea acestora, dezvoltarea resurselor umane, sprijinirea zonelor dezavantajate şi
creşterea cooperării internaţionale a regiunilor.
Strategia de dezvoltare a Ungariei
Strategia de dezvoltare a Ungariei este circumscrisă obiectivului pe termen lung
(„îmbunătăţirea calităţii vieţii”) şi obiectivului general pentru perioada 2004 – 2006
(„reducerea decalajului fată de media UE în ceea ce priveşte venitul pe locuitor”). Pentru
realizarea acestora, strategia de dezvoltare vizează atingerea a trei obiective specifice
(creşterea competitivităţii economice, îmbunătăţirea utilizării resurselor umane şi
promovarea unui mediu calitativ mai bun, dezvoltarea regională), obiective reflectate de
cele patru priorităţi de dezvoltare identificate: 1) îmbunătăţirea competitivităţii sectorului
productiv; 2) creşterea ocupării şi dezvoltarea resurselor umane; 3) îmbunătăţirea
infrastructurii şi mediului înconjurător; 4) întărirea potenţialului local şi regional.
7
Prioritatea 1. Îmbunătăţirea competitivităţii sectorului productiv. Această prioritate
este stric legată de lipsa de performanţă a economiei Ungariei comparativ cu UE, fapt
evidenţiat de productivitatea scăzută înregistrată în toate sectoarele economice. Pentru a
veni în întâmpinarea acestei deficienţe, strategia vizează o multitudine de măsuri:
sprijinirea activităţilor de investiţii, dezvoltarea IMM-urilor, sprijinirea cercetării şi
dezvoltării, crearea unor condiţii propice pentru dezvoltarea societăţii informaţionale,
creşterea performanţei agriculturii. În paralel, o atenţie specială este acordată atragerii
investiţiilor străine directe, factor ce poate impulsiona foarte rapid dezvoltarea economică.
După cum se poate observa, prioritatea abordează atât dezvoltarea economică în sine, cât şi
crearea condiţiilor favorabile susţinerii acesteia: dezvoltarea infrastructurii de afaceri,
creşterea utilizării noilor tehnologii, sprijinirea cercetării, dezvoltării şi inovării şi a
activităţilor în domeniul tehnologiei informaţiei. În domeniul economic sunt avute în
vedere atât activităţile industriale, cât şi cele agricole, şi piscicole, în ambele cazuri
strategia urmărind cu precădere creşterea competitivităţii acestor activităţi prin stimularea
proceselor de modernizare.
Prioritatea 2. Creşterea ocupării şi dezvoltarea resurselor umane. Această
prioritate abordează legătura directă între calitatea capitalului uman şi productivitate şi
competitivitate. Astfel, deşi, în prezent, nivelul calitativ al forţei de muncă este relativ
ridicat, acesta nu satisface cerinţele unei economii de piaţă axate pe activităţi cu valoare
adăugată ridicată. Mai mult, dezvoltarea economică nu atrage şi dezvoltarea automată a
nivelului calitativ al forţei de muncă. De aceea, prima direcţie de acţiune este dezvoltarea
capitalului uman prin măsuri destinate creşterii adaptabilităţii forţei de muncă şi a
participării populaţiei la procesul de învăţare continuă. Totodată, strategia vizează şi o serie
de măsuri active destinate creşterii ocupării (sprijinirea creării de noi locuri de muncă,
formare profesională, stimularea înfiinţării de noi întreprinderi etc.) şi combaterii
excluziunii sociale – prevenirea şi combaterea şomajului pe termen lung, reintegrarea
şomerilor şi persoanelor inactive pe piaţa muncii, îmbunătăţirea accesului la sistemele de
formare profesională a persoanelor dezavantajate (tineri, persoane în vârstă, rromi,
persoane cu disabilităţi etc.), creşterea participării femeilor pe piaţa muncii prin crearea
unor noi oportunităţi şi combaterea discriminării. Pentru a maximiza efectul măsurilor de
mai sus, strategia se concentrează şi pe modernizarea sistemelor de educaţie şi formare
profesională, inclusiv reabilitarea şi dotarea unităţilor de învăţământ, precum şi pe
reabilitarea şi modernizarea sistemului sanitar.
Prioritatea 3. Îmbunătăţirea infrastructurii şi mediului înconjurător. Această
prioritate abordează în mod integrat problemele infrastructurii de transport şi cele în
domeniul protecţiei mediului înconjurător, ambele domenii având un rol crucial în
dezvoltarea de ansamblu a Ungariei. În domeniul transporturilor, strategia este axată pe
extinderea sistemului de autostrăzi, pe îmbunătăţirea sistemului drumurilor publice, pe
extinderea, reabilitarea şi modernizarea sistemului de transport feroviar, pe îmbunătăţirea
infrastructurii portuare şi de transport aerian. În ceea ce priveşte protecţia mediului, zonele
de acţiune sunt marile oraşe, dar şi zonele în care se înregistrează decalaje semnificative
comparativ cu UE. Măsurile vizează reabilitarea sistemelor de canalizare, creşterea calităţii
apelor subterane şi de suprafaţă, dezvoltarea sistemelor de tratare şi colectare a deşeurilor
solide, reducerea poluării aerului şi fonice în zonele urbane şi industriale. În paralel, sunt
avute în vedere şi o serie de măsuri destinate creşterii calităţii vieţii şi îmbunătăţirii
siguranţei în domeniul protecţiei mediului (reducerea riscului de inundaţii, reducerea
poluării apelor), precum şi unele măsuri de protejare a mediului natural (inclusiv protejarea
8
biodiversităţii) şi de dezvoltare a sectorului energetic prin utilizarea unor tehnologii
nepoluante.
Prioritatea 4. Întărirea potenţialului local şi regional. Această prioritate urmăreşte
reducerea disparităţilor regionale şi socio-economice prin acţiuni menite să întărească
economiile regionale, să stabilizeze deculplarea oraşelor mici şi mijlocii de la procese de
creştere economică, să îmbunătăţească condiţiile de locuit şi crească ocuparea forţei de
muncă. Pentru realizarea acestor obiective, strategia abordează în mod integrat o
multitudine de probleme şi, ca urmare, cuprinde o largă listă de măsuri. Astfel, pe de o
parte, resursele financiare sunt direcţionate către sprijinirea activităţilor economice (turism,
întreprinderi, resurse umane) şi, pe de altă parte, către crearea unor condiţii favorabile
dezvoltării la nivel regional prin realizarea de investiţii în infrastructura de transport, în
reabilitarea zonelor industriale degradate, în infrastructura educaţională, de sănătate şi
urbană etc. Totodată, această prioritate sprijină şi eficientizarea sistemului administrativ,
dar şi întărirea organizaţiilor ne-guvernamentale, ambele având o contribuţie importantă
atât asupra mediului de afaceri, cât şi asupra nivelului calităţii vieţii.
Concluzii
Strategiile de dezvoltare ale celor trei state analizate sunt articulate în jurul
domeniilor de intervenţie stabilite la nivelul UE – sector productiv, resurse umane,
infrastructură. De regulă, după se poate observa şi în tabelul următor, acestea sunt centrate
pe îndeplinirea obiectivului strategic al economiei UE până în anul 2010 stabilit cu prilejul
Consiliului European de la Lisabona: "cea mai competitivă şi dinamică economie mondială
bazată pe cunoaştere, capabilă de o creştere economică susţinută cu locuri de muncă mai
multe şi mai bune şi cu o mai mare coeziune socială".
Obiective generale
Republica Cehă
Dezvoltarea durabilă
bazată pe
competitivitate
Polonia
Dezvoltarea unei economii competitive, bazată
pe cunoaştere şi antreprenoriat, capabilă să
asigure dezvoltarea armonioasă pe termen lung,
creşterea ocupării şi îmbunătăţirea coeziunii
economice şi teritoriale
Ungaria
Reducerea decalajului faţă
de media UE în ceea ce
priveşte venitul pe locuitor
Între cele trei state, se constată abordarea pragmatică a Ungariei, tară ce are o abordare
strategică centrată pe elemente concrete şi măsurabile. Această abordare nu este neapărat
disonantă cu celelalte state şi presupune, desigur, realizarea elementelor de dezvoltare
durabilă, competitivitate, cunoaştere şi antreprenoriat.
Ca şi obiectivele generale, axele / priorităţile de dezvoltare definite de cele trei ţări
analizate sunt similare şi urmează domeniile de intervenţie ale Instrumentelor Structurale.
Axe / priorităţi de dezvoltare
Republica Cehă
Creşterea competitivităţii
industriei şi a serviciilor de
afaceri
Polonia
Sprijinirea competitivităţii
întreprinderilor
9
Ungaria
Îmbunătăţirea competitivităţii
sectorului productiv
Dezvoltarea resurselor umane
Dezvoltarea infrastructurii de
transport
Protecţia şi îmbunătăţirea calităţii
mediului
Dezvoltare rurală şi agricultură
multifuncţională
Dezvoltarea resurselor umane şi
creşterea ocupării
Crearea condiţiilor pentru
creşterea nivelului investiţiilor,
promovarea dezvoltării durabile şi
a coeziunii teritoriale
Ajustarea structurală a agriculturii
şi pescuitului
Revigorarea potenţialului de
dezvoltare al regiunilor şi
combaterea marginalizării unor
zone
Creşterea ocupării şi dezvoltarea
resurselor umane
Îmbunătăţirea infrastructurii şi
mediului înconjurător
Întărirea potenţialului local şi
regional
Dezvoltarea turismului
Astfel, toate cele state acordă o importanţă deosebită creşterii competitivităţii
sectorului productiv, dezvoltării resurselor umane şi creşterii ocupării, dezvoltării
sistemelor de transport şi a infrastructurii de mediu, sprijinirii dezvoltării şi ajustării
agriculturii şi dezvoltării potenţialului local şi regional. În unele cazuri (de exemplu
„dezvoltarea turismului” în Republica Cehă), axele / priorităţile reprezintă o detaliere a
domeniilor de intervenţie, subliniind astfel importanţa acordată subdomeniilor respective şi
necesitatea direcţionării resurselor financiare către acele subdomenii.
10
FOCJ AS INSTITUTION FOR POPULATION POLICY
Peter Friedrich, Alina M. Popescu
University of the Federal Armed Forces of Germany Munich
Department of Economical and Organizational Sciences
Chair of Public Finance
Abstract
In this article we analyze whether FOCJs (functional, overlapping, competing
jurisdictions) are suitable institutions of population policy. After considerations on
appropriate demographic measures, FOCJs and their several types will be defined and
identified. Many regional measures to be applied overlap on the municipal or state level.
Cooperation has to be outlined, especially those that exceed state or municipal borders.
These measures are difficult within traditional institutional forms of collaboration
between public jurisdictions. Therefore FOCJs may help to overcome these difficulties.
A model of an FOCJ establishment refers to general economic problems as well as
population policy. It includes solutions of problems due to stipulations of competition
law. The competition in current activities of FOCJ is demonstrated within a purposely
design model of oligopoly. We conclude that FOCJ are suitable to cope with
demographic problems.
1.
Introduction
Germany is the country with the most numerous population of the European
Union with 83 million inhabitants. However, the Federal republic is affected by a
massive aging of the population. Since the beginning of the '70s, every child-generation
is by one third smaller than their parents’ generation. That means that in 30 years will
remain only 30 of 70 Germans. (Kröhnert, van Olst, Klingholz 2004) The serious
demographic problems in Germany were noticed quite late because the life expectancy
grew in the last century by 31 years and besides that more than 121 million people with
migration background live in Germany so that despites the decreasing number of birth
this problem wasn’t taken so seriously. The problems of the pension-insurance, nursingand health-insurance, unemployment as well as other economic and social problems,
which also result from the demographic changes in Germany. The competitive
capability of regions may also be compromised, because of decreasing regional demand
for goods and services (Gans, 2005). However, there is no institution in Germany to
counteract these problems of the German society with suitable measures. For this reason
we consider an FOCJ as a possible institution to handle the demographic situation in
Germany.
In this paper, we analyze whether an FOCJ (functional, overlapping, competing
jurisdiction) is suitable as an institution for population policy or not. After
considerations on appropriate demographic measures, FOCJs and their several types
will be defined and identified. Many regional measures to be applied overlap on the
1
In the 12 million people with migration background there are also German immigrants included, such as
from Russia, Romania, etc.. Between 1950 and 2002 there were about 4 Millions resettler back to
Germany. Most of them came in the 80íes during the period of the Iron Curtain (Bade, Oltmer, 2003)
1
municipal or state level. Cooperation has to be outlined, especially those that exceed
state or municipal borders. These measures are difficult within traditional institutional
forms of collaboration between public jurisdictions. Therefore FOCJs may help to
overcome these difficulties. The competition in current activities of FOCJ is
demonstrated within a purposely designed model of oligopoly. We conclude that FOCJs
are suitable to cope with demographic problems.
For the analysis, the following questions have to be answered:
► Which are the fundamental demographic problems in Germany?
► What is an FOCJ and which are the characteristics of this organizational
alternative?
► Which advantages and disadvantages do FOCJs have?
► How is a Population-FOCJ to be organized?
► How can the population-political activities of the FOCJ be transferred
into a model?
2.
Population-structure and requests for the population-politics in Germany
The demographic change in Germany represents an economic problem and is
acknowledged as such. The aging of the population entails in the first place a structural
change of the German society because of the decreasing of the labour force
participation. In the year 2030, the share of the people aged 60 years or older of the
population is amounted to approximately 35 percent and consequently almost double so
high as the share of the persons aged 20 years and younger (Lehr, 2003, Birg, 1987).
This means that the group of employed people which becomes smaller and smaller have
to face an increasing number of older people who needs pensions, special care or other
services. Labour force participation declines with age. Globally the number of people
aged 60 years or over is expected to triple since 2050. This ratio of older people to the
population is in developed countries by 20% but an increase to 32% until 2050 is
expected. (United Nations, 2005) A clear decrease of the population is expected in
Germany in the year 2040 with the death of the baby-boom generation of the 60íes
(Börsch-Supan, Ludwig, Sommer, 2003). According to all scenarios there will be a
population decrease of 6 million people in Germany. I.e. a population of 77 million
inhabitants instead of 83 millions is expected.
Indicators such as the natural population-development (relationship of the births
to the death-cases), the fertility (number of children per woman), the sex ratio (the ratio
of women to men) and share of number of persons aged 20 and younger at the total
population as well as the migration describe the evaluation of the demographic
development. In the Federal republic of Germany, very strong regional differences in
these indicators are observable. Germany's reunification entailed massive migrationstreams between East- (New Federal States) and West Germany. The demographic
situation in Germany is pictured in figure 1 (the best mark for a region is 1, the worst
one is 6, but there are only 19 counties between Munich and Stuttgart which have a
better grade than a 3) (Kröhnert, van Olst, Klingholz 2004). The differences between
east-west and north-south are well defined.
2
more than 3,00
3,00 to 3,29
3,30 to 3,59
3,60 to 3,89
3,90 to 4,19
4,20 to 4,49
4,50 to 4,79
4,80 and less
Source: Kröhnert, S., Van Olst, N., Klingholz R., 2004
Figure 1: Survey of the demographic situation in all German counties
A big migration between rural areas and the conurbations has been also observed
(Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend, 2005). There are regions
in the New Federal States where the rate of the migration balance per 1000 inhabitants
is –15, i.e. per 1000 inhabitants there are 15 persons more that move away from this
region than persons which migrate in this region. The situation of this migration is
shown in the right side of figure 2.The east's professionally underprivileged young
women migration can be observed in the first place in poor regions. The result of this
migration for these regions is a very low sex ratio, i.e. the probability for a growing
number of births decreases also. There are regions in East Germany, with a ratio of 80
women aged between 18 and 29 years to 100 men in the same age-class, while the
number of women in the west of the country excesses partially the number of men.
(Kröhnert, van Olst, Klingholz, 2004). This is also demonstrated in the left side of
figure 2.
3
84 and less
- 15 and less
84.1 to 88
- 14.9 to - 10
88.1 to 92
- 9.9 to - 5
92.1 to 96
- 4.9 to 0
96.1 to 100
0.1 to 5
100.1 to 104
5.1 to 10
104.1 to 108
10.1 to 15
more than 108
more than 15
Source: Kröhnert, S., Van Olst, N., Klingholz R., 2004
Figure 2: The ratio of women aged between 18 – 29 to men in the same age class and
the rate of migration balance per 1000 inhabitants
The same regional differences also concern the fertility. The differences between
East and West Germany are quite big. However, the average number of children per
woman of 1,37 in Germany (1,2 in the east and 1,41 in the west), is for East and for
West Germany as well very low. Every third woman in Germany remains childless.
These circumstances are no longer sufficiently for securing a stability of the population.
(Kröhnert, van Olst, Klingholz 2004).
1.3 and less
1.31 to 1.4
1.41 to 1.5
1.51 to 1.6
1.61 to 1.7
more than 1.7
Figure 3: Fertility rates in Germany
4
Decreasing fertility rates exists in the most developed countries. This can be
observed by considering the average total fertility rate for the OECD countries which
decreased by 1,3 in 30 years (1960 the fertility rate was 2,9 children per woman , by the
end of the 90íes decreased the same rate on 1,6). (Adserá 2003). Considering the
fertility world level, which stands at 2,65 children per woman (also declining), it can be
concluded that fertility decline in developed countries like Germany has been the rule.
(United Nations, 2005, Birg, 2005) The primary consequence of decreasing fertility
rates and increasing life expectancy is population aging. Besides the population aging,
the internal migrations of young people between east and west will have very negative
effects for some German regions. The consequences of this population decline will be of
economic, social as well as psychological nature. The prognoses for the year 2030 are
through the announcement of the decline population, the continuous decrease of the
fertility and further migrations, not optimistic. The expected number of 200.000
international migrants in terms of annual averages for the period 2005-2050 is not really
the solution of the problem, considering the fact, that migrants are not mainly moving in
regions, which are strongly affected by demographic problems. (United Nations, 2005)
They are going to regions where there exist communities of several nations, which are
big cities without strong population decline. (Detig, Feng, Friedrich, 2002)
The demographic development in Germany has sever consequences on the
economic and social development of the country. In the foreground of the political
discussion, are the effects of the population aging and decline on the systems of the
social aid, like health-, pension, nursing insurance. Above all those social insurances,
only that are affected by the demographic problems in which the employees pay
contributions that finance the benefits received by the older people. The public pension
system which takes the form of full pay-as-you-go system, i.e. pension tax revenues
from employees financing the pension benefits of the people who are retired, is in
Germany very affected by the aging of the population. The demographic problems are
putting growing pressures on pay-as-you-go systems of social security. (Bryant, 2004)
Benefit payments made to an increasing number of elderly retirees will exceed system
tax revenues. The pensions are hard to finance under these circumstances because a
smaller number of employees will have to face a growing number of retirees. (Birg,
2003) This means for the public pension system in Germany concretely an increase of
the employees contributions by 100% or a decrease of the pension payments for retirees
by 50%, if the public pension system remains the same. The public health insurance is
also affected by the population aging. The governments have to face increasing demand
for health-services, i.e. higher expenditures, and a decreasing number of contribution
payers, caused by the lower labour force participation. The rise of the expenditures in
the health sector can be explained by two factors: first of all there is the population
aging which accounts for this rise and secondly it’s empirical underlined that the per
capita expenditures for heath services increases with rising age, i.e. older people needs
more health care than younger persons. (Birg, 2002) The per capita health expenditures
for an older person are 8 times higher than the expenditures for a person aged 20 years.
(Ministerium für Gesundheit und Soziales, NRW, 1994)
Through the decrease of the number of persons in the employable age caused by
the population aging, a shortage of the labour force emerges. Scenarios in which the
female labour force participation rate is similar to the men labour force participation
rate, the retirement age is higher and the unemployment rate is 5%, predict for the long
term that there will be 8 million less employed people compared to the year 2000,
despite the increased employment rate.(Börsch-Supan, Ludwig, Sommer 2003). The
risen importance of capital results from the shortage of the factor work. This capital-
5
intensification is explained on the one hand through the substitution of the factor work
with capital and on the other hand through capital investments abroad in the form of
Foreign Direct Investments. The FDI could secure, that the unchanged consumptiondemand can be satisfied by imports. (Börsch-Supan, Ludwig, Sommer, 2003). High
capital flows in foreign countries with big economic potential caused by increased
labour force participation, cannot to be prevented. (Kinsella, Phillip, 2005)
The population aging in Germany is also important for explaining changes in
consumption demand caused by a postponement of individual preferences. The demand
for health and nursing services is rising while the demand for education decreases
because of smaller fertility rates. In East Germany can be observed the phenomenon of
empty apartments, explained by the missing of young families. Traffic-systems,
apartments, schools will shrink inevitably with the population. The demand for
expensive services in the health and nursing sector will rise in contrast.
The counties in Germany are also strongly affected by the demographic
development. The discussion about the introduction of a demographic component for
the better calculation of the fiscal equalization started in some counties with decreasing
population but constant or rising financial needs.
In principle there are two categories of policy measures for demographic
problems, on the one hand the support of fertility measures (support of families with
more than 3 children, offer of incentives for giving birth to children) and on the other
hand the international migration (integration services for migrants). According to
calculations of the United Nation concerning migration as policy measure for
demographic problems, Germany would have to receive 188 million migrants until the
year 2050 to be able to prevent the population aging. (United Nations, 2000) This
number of necessary migrants arises from the consideration that the population aging is
only stopped until the migrants are getting old by themselves. Considered by this
calculation is also the fertility rate of the migrants which is situated by 1,9 children per
woman and hence under for the population rejuvenation necessary fertility rate of 2,1
children per woman. (Birg, 2002) Most problematical about international migration is
that many migrants are migrating in the German social systems and not into labour. The
number of the inhabitants with migration background doubled between 1970 and 2002.
At the beginning of the 70íes there lived 3 million migrants in Germany, 2002 there
were 7,4 millions. It is very important to remark that the number of employed migrants
during the same period 1970-2002 remained almost the same (there were 1,8 million
employed migrants at the beginning of the 70íes and 1,9 in 2002). (Beckstein, 2004)
On the other hand, the support of measures for rising fertility alone won’t bring better
results than the migration solution, except the fertility rate will rise till 3,8 children per
women. (Birg, 2002) Such a high fertility rate is not conceivable considering the
increasing female labour participation rates, the bad childcare infrastructure and the
structural changes in families and society.
In Germany, a strong competition for inhabitants between regions can be
observed. High-qualified persons are recruited by other regions for the purpose to built
higher location advantages. This intensified competition leads to very big regional
differences that some regions cannot successfully face. The consideration, that a
cooperation of regions instead their competition would yield success regarding the
demographic problem, which is stronger through the national migration, is very
important. A Functional Overlapping Competing Jurisdiction could offer the
organizational platform for such cooperation.
6
3.
Characteristics of FOCJ
The concept FOCJ (Functional, Overlapping, Competing Jurisdictions) is
explained by itself and contains its four main qualities. (Frey, Eichenberger, 1995; Frey,
1997; Frey, 1999; Frey, Eichenberger 2000; Friedrich, 2002; Friedrich 2005) FOCJ are
functional, i.e. these organisations are concentrated on fulfilling one or only few tasks,
like education, traffic. The functionality secures a higher degree of the efficiency in
comparison with jurisdictions that fulfil several functions, since FOCJ can adapt better
and faster to the geographical conditions, to social conditions and to the preferences of
the members. The limitation of the FOCJ on only one function eases the evaluation of
the efficiency and the quality of the supplied services through its members.
FOCJs are overlapping, i.e. in a region there are several FOCJ with same or
different function.
FOCJs are competing for the members. The existence of several FOCJ is very
important because it gives potential members the option to choose between FOCJ. This
option increases the pressure on the FOCJ management to consider the preferences of
the members. The political competition within the FOCJ guarantees that the
management does not deviate from the wishes of the members, because impropriate
acting could be punished with exit of members or with loss of votes. The exit option of
members from the FOCJ therefore is one of the essential qualities of this organizational
form.
FOCJs are jurisdictions, in the sense that they have enforcement power and can
levy taxes, i.e. FOCJ finances itself through taxes. The membership of the citizens can
be voluntarily obligatorily. Individuals may be members in a FOCJ as citizens of a
county or as direct members.
The FOCJ may occur in form of public and private law, but especially in form of
public law, because with them it is more easy to levy taxes and contributions (Detig,
Feng, Friedrich, 2002, p. 88)
One of the essential advantages of the FOCJ refers to the fact that informationasymmetries between government and members can be avoided or at least reduced. The
members get the possibility due to the functionality of FOCJ to assess and to compare
the offered services more easily. The specialisation of one task field makes possible that
skilled workers can accede political positions. The incentive of the FOCJ government to
react adequately on the preferences of the members is higher than in other organization
forms because of the exit-option for members or the competition to other FOCJ. Since
the size of a local authority is dependent on its function, FOCJ can take advantage of
economies of scale and cost-efficiency in production. Cost-effectiveness arises also
because of the fiscal sovereignty due to the fact that the FOCJ government is forced to
manage the tax incomes very carefully.
One of the most important disadvantages of the FOCJ is the risk of high costs and
political crises through the exit of members’ and their migration. Another disadvantage
may arise through the overstraining of the members with a multitude of authorities and
too much information.
4.
The population - FOCJ
In this chapter we analyse by using a competition model whether the cooperation
in a FOCJ of regions which competed for inhabitants so far, may ease the demographic
problems in these regions or not. However, first of all the properties of such a
7
Population-FOCJ have to be established. For this purpose, the determination of the
competition for inhabitants between these regions is necessary. As a matter of principle,
there is horizontal competition under oligopolistic market conditions between federal
states and their governments or severally counties. With the establishment of a FOCJ
the cooperating counties or federal states may increase their competitiveness and face
the problems more successfully. A sort of “trust” may result and the market form may
change into a monopoly (Detig, Feng, Friedrich, 2002).
Since inhabitant-settlement does not take place explicitly in the framework of
population-political intents but in the context of political measures for the labour
market, the classification of the Population-FOCJ into regional competition is rather
difficult. The Population-FOCJ has to act necessarily as an institution of regional
competition for assuming tasks, which are disregarded by other institutions. The
Population-FOCJ could counteract the demographic development in Germany by
pursuing an active inhabitant-settlement policy as well as policies, which facilitate the
population growth and employment in the FOCJ territory. Such policy measures could
be supplied for example for providing support for families with more than three
children. Such support can consist for example in:
► Considerable price-reduction for living space, preservation of housing
estates, prevention of demolition, cooperation with local housingbusinesses
► Price-reduction public or private transport workplace, school etc. for
such families
► Reservation and allocation of places in kindergartens, schools and
education-centres for such families
► Support for activities in holydays and in leisure time-centres
Additionally there are necessary services for providing an increase of the fertility
rate. Adequate measures for this purpose could be the granting of amounts for the birth
of children, financial aid for single mothers or special pensions for people who
contributed to the population rejuvenation in the FOCJ area through their offspring. In
addition to these measures, the support of migrants with integration services may also
be very important. Through this kind of support of international migrants, it would be
possible to settle them down in regions with demographic problems instead their
settlement in big cities with high migration rates. Thus, considering the right
combination of policy measures, the Population-FOCJ could make some progress in
matter of the demographic situation for its region.
The starting point of the model is a situation in which two counties compete for
inhabitants. Both counties possess a utility-function, which depends positively on the
production in the county and the number of inhabitants. The utility of the counties
decreases with increasing utilization of production income, i.e. high expenditures for
demographic policy measures goes negatively into the utility function.
Utility-function of county 1
Utility-function of county 2
N 1 = g X1 ⋅ X 1 − g S1 ⋅ S1 + g A1 ⋅ A 1
N 2 = g X2 ⋅ X 2 − g S2 ⋅ S 2 + g A2 ⋅ A 2
= (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 ) ⋅ A 2 − g S2 ⋅ r2 ⋅ A 2 ≥ 0 ,
= (g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 ) ⋅ A 1 − g S1 ⋅ r1 ⋅ A 1 ≥ 0 ,
wobei
g X1 , g S1 , g A1 > 0 ,
X1 = a 1 ⋅ A 1 ,
wobei
g X2 , g S2 , g A2 > 0 ,
a2 > 0 ,
S 2 = r2 ⋅ A 2
a1 > 0 ,
S1 = r1 ⋅ A 1
8
X2 = a 2 ⋅ A2 ,
Ni:
Xi:
Si:
Ai:
i=1,2: Countyindex
gXi,gSi,gAi: Evaluation wheights
ai: Paramenter for the production
ri: Assistance rate
Utility
Production
Utilization of production
Population
Both, the production of the counties and the utilization of production for
assistance services depends on the number of inhabitants in each county, i.e. the bigger
the population the higher the production and the assistance services. The components of
the utility function can be weighted according to the preferences of the county
government. In each county, there is a fix number of inhabitants di , which represents
the minimal number of population in every county. Each county can increase its
population di by supplying different services, the assistance rate ri , which provides the
settlement of new inhabitants. If the other county also grants this kind of services in the
own area, the population increase in the first county will be smaller, even a decrease is
possible. The own population depends on the assistance rate in the own county as well
as on the assistance rate in the competing county. The success of the population policy
in county 1 depends on the supplied measures in county 2. The population dependent
values of the utility-functions and the corresponding indifference-curves can be derived.
Indifference-curves of the utility function
N1 = (g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 ) ⋅ A1 − g S1 ⋅ r1 ⋅ A1 ,
N 2 = (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 ) ⋅ A 2 − g S2 ⋅ r2 ⋅ A 2 ,
g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 N 1 1 ,
−
⋅
g S1
g S1 A 1
wobei ∂r1 = − 1 ⋅ 1 < 0 ,
g S1 A1
∂ N1
g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 N 2 1 ,
−
⋅
g S2
g S2 A 2
wobei ∂r2 = − 1 ⋅ 1 < 0 ,
g S2 A 2
∂N2
r1 =
r2 =
∂r1
N
1
= 1⋅
>0,
∂A 1 g S1 A 1 2
∂r2
N
1
= 2⋅
> 0,
∂A 2 g S2 A 2 2
∂ 2r1
2 ∂r
=− ⋅ 1 <0
2
A1 ∂A1
∂A1
∂ 2r2
2 ∂r2
=−
⋅
<0
A 2 ∂A 2
∂A 22
Assistance rate-population-curve
A 1 = d 1 + w 11 ⋅ r1 − w 12 ⋅ r2 ,
wobei d 1 > 0 ,
w 11 ≥ w 12 > 0 .
di: Fix population
A 2 = d 2 + w 22 ⋅ r2 − w 21 ⋅ r1 ,
wobei
d2 > 0 ,
w 22 ≥ w 22 > 0 .
wii,wij: Effects of policy measures
The assistance rate-population-curves result due to the own policy measures and
to those of the other county. The higher the expenditures for policy measures of the
other county, the higher the assistance rate-population-curves. If none of the
competitors pursue any population-policies (i.e. r1 and r2 are zero), it will result a
population value of A1 and A2 , which correspond d1 and d 2 . As long as the second
county does not supply any assistance, increases the own policy measures the
population of the first county. In case of existent policy efforts in the second county, the
development of the population value in the first county will depend on these efforts and
on the reaction of the second county on the policy measures of the first county. The
following illustration shows the tangential-point of the assistance rate-population-curves
and an indifference-curve, which represents the solution that gives us the most
favourable assistance rate for region 1 for a given assistance, rate of region 2.
9
Assitance rate-population-curve
r1
Utility maximizing
reaction-curve
(r2>0)
Utility maximizing-reaction-curve 2
Utility maximizing-reaction-curve 1
(r2=0)
r1(Launhardt-Hotelling)
Launhardt-Hotelling-Lösung
d1
A1
A1(Launhardt-Hotelling)
r2(Launhardt-Hotelling)
r2
Utility maximizing-reaction-curve
Indifference-curves
von N1 und N2
d2
A2(Launhardt-Hotelling)
A2
(r1=0)
(r1>0)
Assistance rate-population-curve
Figure 4: The Launhardt Hotteling Solution
The best solution for given assistance rates of the competitor is determined. The
series of the own best assistance rates for given policy measures of the competing
county are represented in the graph by the utility maximizing-reaction-curve. This curve
represents the reaction of county 1 on the demographic measures of county 2.
The mathematical solution results after inserting the assistance rate-populationcurve into the utility function and derivation with the assistance rate by given assistance
rate for the other county. We find the Launhardt-Hotelling solution of the competitionproblem with that combination of population-policy performances, which is optimal for
both regions under the assumption of the behaviour of the each other county.
Utility maximizing-reaction-curves
dN1 ∂N1 ∂N1 dA1
=
+
⋅
dr1
∂r1 ∂A1 dr1
dN 2 ∂N 2 ∂N 2 dA 2
=
+
⋅
dr2
∂r2 ∂A 2 dr2
= −gS1 ⋅ A1 + (g X1 ⋅ a1 + g A1 − gS1 ⋅ r1 ) ⋅ w11 = 0 ,
g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1
⋅ w 11 − w 11 ⋅ r1
g S1
1 g ⋅ a + g A1 d1
1 w
r1 = ⋅ ( X1 1
−
) + ⋅ 12 ⋅ r2 ≥ 0 ,
2
g S1
w 11 2 w 11
g
⋅
a
+
g
wobei X1 1 A1 − d1 ≥ 0
g S1
w 11
A1 =
= −g S2 ⋅ A 2 + (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 − g S2 ⋅ r2 ) ⋅ w 22 = 0 ,
g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2
bzw.
⋅ w 22 − w 22 ⋅ r2
g S2
d
1 g ⋅ a + g A2
1 w
r2 = ⋅ ( X2 2
− 2 ) + ⋅ 21 ⋅ r1 ≥ 0 ,
2
g S2
w 22
2 w 22
g
⋅
a
+
g
d
wobei X2 2 A2 − 2 ≥ 0
g S2
w 22
bzw.
A2 =
Launhardt-Hotelling-Solution
2⋅(
r1 =
g X1 ⋅ a1 + g A1 d1
w
g ⋅ a + g A2 d 2
−
) + 12 ⋅ ( X2 2
−
)
g S1
w11
w11
g S2
w 22 ,
w ⋅ w 21
4 - 12
w11 ⋅ w 22
10
2⋅(
r2 =
g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 d 2
w
g ⋅ a + g A1 d1
−
) + 21 ⋅ ( X1 1
−
)
g S2
w 22
w 22
g S1
w11 ,
w ⋅w
4 - 21 12
w 22 ⋅ w11
w ⋅ w 21
g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1
⋅ w 11 ⋅ (2 − 12
) + 2 ⋅ d1
w 11 ⋅ w 22
g S1
A1 =
w ⋅ w 21
4 - 12
w 11 ⋅ w 22
−
w ⋅w
g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2
⋅ w 22 ⋅ (2 − 21 12 ) + 2 ⋅ d 2
w 22 ⋅ w 11
g S2
A2 =
w 21 ⋅ w 12
4w 22 ⋅ w 11
w 12
g ⋅ a + g A2 d 2 .
⋅ ( X2 2
)
−
w 12 ⋅ w 21
g S2
w 22
4w 11 ⋅ w 22
−
w 21
g ⋅ a + g A1 d 1 .
⋅ ( X1 1
)
−
w 21 ⋅ w 12
g S1
w 11
4w 22 ⋅ w 11
If the two counties agree to establish an FOCJ for providing a common population
policy and thus to maximize the common utility, the solution will differ from the
competition solution. Another optimal combination of assistance rate and population
will result for each county. Through the common utility-maximization, a higher utilitylevel result for each county compared to the prior situation without policy coordination.
Common utility-function
N = N1 + N 2 = (g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 ) ⋅ A1 − g S1 ⋅ r1 ⋅ A1 + (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 ) ⋅ A 2 − g S2 ⋅ r2 ⋅ A 2
= (g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 - g S1 ⋅ r1 ) ⋅ (d 1 + w 11 ⋅ r1 − w 12 ⋅ r2 ) + (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 - g S2 ⋅ r2 ) ⋅ (d 2 + w 22 ⋅ r2 − w 21 ⋅ r1 ) ,
wobei A 1 = d 1 + w 11 ⋅ r1 − w 12 ⋅ r2 ,
A 2 = d 2 + w 22 ⋅ r2 − w 21 ⋅ r1
First order conditions of utility maximization
∂N
= −g S1 ⋅ (d 1 + w 11 ⋅ r1 − w 12 ⋅ r2 ) + w 11 ⋅ (g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 - g S1 ⋅ r1 ) - w 21 ⋅ (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 - g S2 ⋅ r2 ) = 0 ,
∂r1
w ⋅ (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 ) 1 w 12 g S2 ⋅ w 21
1 g ⋅ a + g A1 d 1
−
+
r1 = ⋅ [( X1 1
) − 21
]+ ⋅(
) ⋅ r2 ,
2
g S1
w 11
g S1 ⋅ w 11
2 w 11 g S1 ⋅ w 11
∂N
= −g S2 ⋅ (d 2 + w 22 ⋅ r2 − w 21 ⋅ r1 ) + w 22 ⋅ (g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2 - g S2 ⋅ r2 ) - w 12 ⋅ (g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 - g S1 ⋅ r1 ) = 0 ,
∂r2
w ⋅ (g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 ) 1 w 21 g S1 ⋅ w 12
1 g ⋅ a + g A2 d 2
r2 = ⋅ [( X2 2
−
) − 12
]+ ⋅(
+
) ⋅ r1 .
2
g S2
w 22
g S2 ⋅ w 22
2 w 22 g S2 ⋅ w 22
Solution
gX1 ⋅ a1 + gA1 d1
w
g ⋅ a + g A2 d2
w
g ⋅w
w ⋅ (g ⋅ a + g ) g ⋅ w
g ⋅a + g
d
−
) + 12 ⋅ ( X2 2
−
) - ( 12 + S2 21 ) ⋅ 12 X1 1 A1 − S2 21 ⋅ ( X2 2 A2 + 2 )
gS1
w11 w11
gS2
w 22
w11 gS1 ⋅ w11
gS2 ⋅ w 22
gS1 ⋅ w11
gS2
w 22
r1 =
w12 gS2 ⋅ w 21 w 21 gS1 ⋅ w12
4-(
+
)⋅(
+
)
w11 gS1 ⋅ w11 w 22 gS2 ⋅ w 22
g ⋅ a + gA2 d2
w
g ⋅a + g
d
w
g ⋅w
w ⋅ (g ⋅ a + gA2 ) gS1 ⋅ w12 gX1 ⋅ a1 + gA1 d1
2 ⋅ ( X2 2
−
) + 21 ⋅ ( X1 1 A1 − 1 ) - ( 21 + S1 12 ) ⋅ 21 X2 2
−
⋅(
+
)
gS2
w 22 w22
gS1
w11 w 22 gS2 ⋅ w 22
gS1 ⋅ w11
gS2 ⋅ w 22
gS1
w11
r2 =
w
g ⋅w
w
g ⋅w
4 - ( 21 + S1 12 ) ⋅ ( 12 + S2 21 )
w 22 gS2 ⋅ w 22 w11 gS1 ⋅ w11
2⋅(
g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1
w
w
g ⋅ w 21 w 21 g S1 ⋅ w 12
)] ⋅ d 1
⋅ w 11 ⋅ (1 - 21 ⋅ 12 ) + [2 - S2
⋅(
+
g S1
w 11 w 22
g S1 ⋅ w 11 w 22 g S2 ⋅ w 22
w
g ⋅ w 21 w 21 g S1 ⋅ w 12
4 - ( 12 + S2
)⋅(
)
+
w 11 g S1 ⋅ w 11
w 22 g S2 ⋅ w 22
g ⋅ w 21
w
g ⋅w
g ⋅ a + g A2
w
g
w
w 12 ⋅ [1 − S2
− ( 12 + S2 ⋅ 21 ) ⋅ d 2
⋅ (1 + 21 + S1 12 )] ⋅ X2 2
w 22 g S1 w 22
g S1 ⋅ w 11
w 22 g S2 ⋅ w 22
g S2
−
w 12 g S2 ⋅ w 21
w 21 g S1 ⋅ w 12
4-(
)⋅(
)
+
+
w 11 g S1 ⋅ w 11
w 22 g S2 ⋅ w 22
2⋅
A1 =
11
,
g X2 ⋅ a 2 + g A2
w
w
g ⋅w
w
g ⋅ w 21
⋅ w 22 ⋅ (1 - 12 ⋅ 21 ) + [2 - S1 12 ⋅ ( 12 + S2
)] ⋅ d 2
g S2
w 22 w 11
g S2 ⋅ w 2 w 11 g S1 ⋅ w 11
w
g ⋅w
w
g ⋅ w 21
4 - ( 21 + S1 12 ) ⋅ ( 12 + S2
)
w 22 g S2 ⋅ w 22
w 11 g S1 ⋅ w 11
g ⋅w
w
g ⋅ w 21 g X1 ⋅ a 1 + g A1 w 21 g S1 w 12
w 21 ⋅ [1 − S1 12 ⋅ (1 + 12 + S2
)] ⋅
−(
+
⋅
) ⋅ d1
g S2 ⋅ w 22
w 11 g S1 ⋅ w 11
g S1
w 11 g S2 w 11
−
w
g ⋅w
w
g ⋅ w 21
4 - ( 21 + S1 12 ) ⋅ ( 12 + S2
)
w 22 g S2 ⋅ w 22
w 11 g S1 ⋅ w 11
2⋅
A2 =
Assitance rate-population-curve
.
r1
Utility max.reaction-curve 2
Nutzenmaximale
Anpassungskurve
Utility max.
condition
(r2>0)
Utility max.reaction-cruve 1
(r2=0)
Utility max.
condition
r1(cooperation)
Launhardt-Hotelling-Solution
d1
A1
Cooperation
A1(cooperationl)
r2(cooperation)
r2
Utility maximizing
reaction-function
Indifference curves
of N1 and N2
d2
A2(cooperation)
(r1=0)
A2
1 g ⋅ a + g A1 d1
1 w
1
w 21
N
r1 = ⋅ ( X1 1
− ) + ⋅ 12 ⋅ r2 − ⋅
⋅ 2
2
gS1
gS1 2 w11
2 g S1 ⋅ w11 A2
1 g ⋅ a + g A2 d 2
1 w
1
w12
N
r2 = ⋅ ( X2 2
−
) + ⋅ 21 ⋅ r1 − ⋅
⋅ 1
2
gS2
gS2
2 w 22
2 gS2 ⋅ w 22 A1
(r2>0)
Assistance ratepopulation-curve
Figure 5: Cooperation of the two Counties
The utility maximizing condition results similar to reaction-functions of the
competition solution, as a series of solutions that maximize the common utility, i.e. for
given assistance rate of county 2, the first region chooses a behaviour which maximizes
the utility of both counties and not only the own utility. As long as the intersection of
the utility maximizing conditions of the loyal solution is graphically within the utility
maximizing-reaction-curves of the competition-solution, the cooperation entails an
improvement for both counties since higher indifference-curves are reached.
The policy coordination of the two counties through the FOCJ as well as the
different weights of the components of the utility-function, make it possible that each
county can pursue individual goals. The regions have the possibility to increase their
population or to lower the expenditures. For example, a county in East Germany with
big demographic problems caused by the migration in a county in West Germany has as
primary goal an increase of the number of inhabitants. The region in West Germany in
contrast would like to lower its expenditures for demographic policy measures. Both
regions can realize their goals if they cooperate. The county in the west of the country
12
will lower its expenditures as long as some of its inhabitants will migrate in the east
county despite of a small policy measures reduction in this county too.
5.
Conclusions
The establishment of a Population-FOCJ, proves itself as a helpful instrument to
avoid the ruinous competition for inhabitants, which intensifies the demographic
situation in Germany additional to the small fertility rate and the population aging. The
Population-FOCJ helps decreasing the internal migration and improves the position of
the members regarding the population-stabilization. Thus, the federal states or the
counties that are members in the FOCJ may improve their position in the competition
for inhabitants. The market-forms change in their favour on the other hand. The
necessary expenditures for demographic policy measures decrease. Competition
strategies and strategies for improving the demographic situation may be developed.
Some counties can cooperate over the FOCJ and only through this kind of cooperation
become effectively active. The consolidation of regional coalitions in the regional
competition against other regions is supported.
However, the foundation of such an FOCJ with members from different federal
states is problematic since a specific legal form that intends participation of federal
states is missing. With difficulties FOCJ, that includes several federal states in
Germany, would let themselves establish, by forming national treaty and
administration-agreements.
6.
References
Adserá, A., Changing Fertility Rates in Developed Countries. The Impact of Labor
Market Institutions, in: Journal of Population Economics, 17, 2004, P. 17-43
Bade, K. J., Oltmer, J., Zwischen Aus und Einwanderungsland: Deutschland und die
Migration seit der Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts, in: Zeitschrift für
Bevölkerungswissenschaft, 4, 2003, P. 263-306
Beckstein, G., Die demografische Entwicklung - eine Herausforderung für Staat und
Kommunen, in: Politische Studien, 399, 2005, P. 15-24
Birg, H., Koch, H., Der Bevölkerungsrückgang in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland,
Frankfurt am Main, 1987
Birg, H., Perspektiven der Bevölkerungsentwicklung in Deutschland und Europa –
Konsequenzen für die sozialen Sicherungssysteme. Gutachten für das
Bundesverfassungsgericht,
in:
Materialien
des
Instituts
für
Bevölkerungsforschung und Sozialpolitik, 48, Bielefeld, 2002
Birg, H., Dynamik der demographischen Alterung, Bevölkerungsschrumpfung und
Zuwanderung in Deutschland, in: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 20, 2003, P. 617
Birg, H., Dynamik der demographischen Alterung und Bevölkerungsschrumpfung.
Wirtschaftliche und gesellschaftliche Auswirkungen in Deutschland, in: Politische
Studien, 399, 2005, P. 24-36
13
Börsch-Supan, A., Ludwig, A., Sommer, M., Demographie und Kapitalmärkte. Die
Auswirkungen der Bevölkerungsalterung auf Aktien-, Renten- und
Immobilienvermögen, Köln, 2003
Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend, Die Zeit, Prognos,
Familienatlas 2005, Berlin, 2005
Detig, S, Feng, X., Friedrich P., FOCJ als Grundlage für Förderinstitutionen „AufabauOst und Bevölkerung-Ost“ in: P. Friedrich (Edt.), Öffentliche Unternehmen im
Standortwettbewerb für den Aufbau Ost, Discussion Paper Nr. 41, Lehrstuhl für
Finanzwissenschaft, Universität der Bundeswehr München, Neubiberg, 2002, P.
82-115
Frey, B. S., Eichenberger, R., Competition among Jurisdictions: The Idea of FOCJ, in:
L. Gerken (Edt.), Competition among Institutions, London 1995, P. 209-229
Frey, B. S., Eichenberger, R., Jenseits des Gebietsmonopols des Staates: Föderalismus
mittels des FOCJ, in: L. Gercken, G. Schick (Edt.), Grüne Ordnungsökonomik:
Eine Option moderner Wirtschaftspolitik, Frankfurt am Main, 2000, P. 331-348
Frey, B. S., Ein neuer Föderalismus für Europa: Die Idee des FOCJ, Tübingen 1997
Frey, B. S., The New Democratic Federalism for Europe, Cheltenham, 1999
Friedrich, P., Functional, Overlapping, Competing, Jurisdictions - FOCJ- An Instrument
of Regional Competition, in: Van Dijk, J., Elhorst, P., Oosterhaven, J., Wever, E.,
Urban Regions: Governing interacting economic, housing, and transport systems
development Nederlandse Geografische Studies 303, Ultrecht, 2002, S. 237-263.
Friedrich, P., FOCJ als Grundlage für Institutionen des Gesundheitswesens, in:
Schriften der Gesellschaft für öffentliche Wirtschaft, Baden-Baden, 2005
Gans, P., Räumliche Auswirkungen des demographischen Wandels auf die Regionalund Siedlungsentwicklung, in: Politische Studien, 399, 2005, P. 67-90
Kinsella, K., Phillips, D. R., Global Aging: The Challenge of Succes, in: Population
Bulletin, Vol. 60, Nr. 1, 2005, P. 3-42
Kröhnert, S., Van Olst, N., Klingholz R., Deutschland 2020. Die demographische
Zukunft der Nation, Berlin-Institut, für Weltbevölkerung und globale
Entwicklung, 2004
Lehr, U., Die Jugend von gestern – und die Senioren von morgen, in: Aus Politik und
Zeitgeschichte, 20, 2003, P. 3-5
Ministerium für Gesundheit und Soziales NRW, Gesundheitsreport 1994, Bielefeld,
1995
United Nations, Replacement Migration, New York, 2000
United Nations, World Population Prospects. The 2004 Revision, New York, 2005
14
IMPORTANŢA POLITICII REGIONALE PENTRU ROMÂNIA
DIN PERSPECTIVA TRATATULUI INSTITUIND O
CONSTITUŢIE PENTRU EUROPA ŞI A TRATATULUI DE
ADERARE A ROMÂNIEI LA UNIUNEA EUROPEANĂ
Lect.univ.dr. Nina Hanciuc,
Universitatea „Constantin Brâncoveanu”- Piteşti
Facultatea Management Marketing în Afaceri Economice – Brăila
- Rezumat –
Politica regională a U.E. se aplică doar statelor membre U.E. şi se bazează pe
solidaritatea financiară între statele membre, astfel încât regiunile mai puţin prospere
şi grupurile sociale defavorizate să primească fonduri comunitare care, adăugate
resurselor proprii, să le permită dezvoltarea unor proiecte care să contribuie la
creşterea economică şi recuperarea decalajelor între regiuni.
„Politica Regională şi Coordonarea Instrumentelor Structurale”
reprezintă capitolul 21 al Acquis- ului comunitar şi, de asemenea, face parte din
Partea a III- a a Tratatului instituind o Constituţie pentru Europa.
Stadiul implementării prevederilor acquis-ului în acest domeniu în legislaţia
românească este dat de Legea 151 / 1998 şi Legea 315 / 2004 privind dezvoltarea
regională.
Totodată, principiile politicii de coeziune: parteneriatul şi planificarea
multianuală sunt deja aplicate în gestionarea fondurilor de pre – aderare (PHARE,
ISPA şi SAPARD).
De asemenea, România a realizat Planul Naţional de Dezvoltare (PND)
2004- 2006 şi, în prezent, se lucrează la elaborarea PND 2007- 2013, care va stabili
direcţiile principale spre care se vor orienta fondurile comunitare. Totalitatea
sumelor angajate pentru acţiunile structurale destinate României în perioada 20072009 este de 5,974 mld. Euro (în preţurile anului 2004), împărţite astfel: 1,399 mld.
Euro în 2007, 1,972 mld. Euro în 2008 şi 2,603 mld. Euro în 2009.
The importance of the Regional Policy to Romania from the view of the
Treaty established a Constitution for Europe and of the
Treaty to Join Romania to the E.U.
Dr. Nina Hanciuc
„Constantin Brâncoveanu” University – Piteşti
The Faculty of Management Marketing in Economic Affairs – Brăila
- Abstract –
The E.U. Regional Policy it is apply only to the E.U. members and it is base
on the financial solidarity among the membership, there by the less prosperous
regions and social disadvantageous groupsto get communitary founds which added
to the personal resources, to allow them to develop some projects which to
contribute to the economic growth and to the recovery of the difference among
regions.
1
„Regional Policy and Structural Instruments Coordinnation” represent
the 21st chapter of the Acquis and, also, it is part from The 3rd Part of the Treaty
established a Constitution for Europe.
The implementation stage of the Acquis în this area into Romanian
legislation it is given by the 151 Low / 1998 and 315 Low / 2004 concerning the
At the same time, the principles of the cohesion policy: the partnership and
multiannual planning are already applied in administration of the pre- join founds
(PHARE, ISPA, SAPARD).
Also, Romania achieved the National Development Plann (NDP) 2004- 2006
and now it is working to elaborate the NDP 2007- 2013 wich will settle the main
directions to will direct to the communitary founds.
The total amount of the sums engaged for the structural actions to Romania
between 2007- 2009 is 5,974 billion Euro (in 2004 prices), shared like that: 1,399
billion Euro in 2007, 1,972 billion Euro in 2008 and 2,603 billion Euro in 2009.
Importanţa politicii regionale pentru România din perspectiva Tratatului
instituind o Constituţie pentru Europa şi a Tratatului de Aderare a României la
Uniunea Europeană
Lect.univ.dr. Nina Hanciuc,
Universitatea „Constantin Brâncoveanu”- Piteşti
Facultatea Management Marketing în Afaceri Economice – Brăila
Extinderea Uniunii Europene reprezintă cea mai mare provocare a Europei la
începutul secolului al XXI-lea, fiind şansa unică de a uni un continent şi de a creşte
prestigiul acestuia în lume.
După 1990, Consiliul European a pus în discuţie posibilitatea extinderii
Uniunii Europene prin cooptarea de noi membri din ţările Europei Centrale şi de Est.
În acest scop, toate ţările candidate la aderare au încheiat iniţial Acorduri de asociere
la Uniunea europeană, pentru ca, odată obţinut avizul conform din partea partea
comisiei şi a Parlamentului European, acestea să semneze şi Tratatele de Aderare la
U.E.
Pentru România, acest lucru s-a întâmplat recent, în data de 25 aprilie 2005
la Luxemburg, moment ce a marcat obţinerea unui nou statut de către ţara noastră şi
anume acela de „stat în curs de aderare la U.E.”, cu toate drepturile şi obligaţiile ce
decurg din acesta.
În acest context, organizarea teritoriului naţional în unităţi adecvate
implementării politicilor de dezvoltare regională şi dezvoltarea unui sistem statistic
corespunzător au devenit elementele cheie ale politicii de dezvoltare economică a
României în context european.
Punerea la punct a unui Plan Naţional de Dezvoltare integrator şi coerent
reprezintă baza unei politici naţionale de dezvoltare regională, prin care diferenţele
de dezvoltare să fie reduse între regiunile ţării, iar dezvoltarea economică susţinută
să fie, în acelaşi timp, durabilă. În acelaşi timp, rolul specific al politicii de
2
dezvoltare regională îl reprezintă alocarea de resurse financiare cu efect
particularizat asupra zonelor eligibile, pentru a răspunde cel mai bine cerinţelor
zonale de dezvoltare şi pentru a contracara efectele secundare negative ale altor
politici naţionale sau măsuri guvernamentale, legate mai ales, în situaţia actuală a
României, de restructurare economică şi de privatizare.
Programele regionale reprezintă modalitatea directă de realizare a unor
obiective de politică regională sau a unor obiective mai largi, ce urmăresc coeziunea
economică şi socială. Astfel, în conformitate cu prevederile Legii 315/ 28 iunie 2004
privind dezvoltarea regională în România, „obiectivele de bază ale politicii de
dezvoltare regională în România sunt următoarele:
a) diminuarea dezechilibrelor regionale existente prin stimularea dezvoltării
echilibrate, recuperarea accelerată a întârzierilor în domeniul economic şi social a
zonelor mai puţin dezvoltate, ca urmare a unor condiţii istorice, geografice,
economice, sociale, politice, precum şi preîntâmpinarea producerii de noi
dezechilibre;
b) corelarea politicilor sectoriale guvernamentale la nivelul regiunilor prin
stimularea iniţiativelor şi prin valorificarea resurselor locale şi regionale, în scopul
dezvoltării economico- sociale durabile şi al dezvoltării culturale a acestora;
c) stimularea cooperării interregionale, interne şi internaţionale,
transfrontaliere, inclusiv în cadrul euroregiunilor, precum şi participarea regiunilor
de dezvoltare la structurile şi organizaţiile europene care promovează dezvoltarea
economico-socială şi instituţională a acestora, în scopul realizării unor proiecte de
interes comun, în conformitate cu acordurile internaţionale la care România este
parte.”
În aplicarea politicii de dezvoltare regională, Uniunea Europeană foloseşte o
serie de instrumente financiare, specifice ţărilor membre şi respectiv ţărilor
candidate. Pentru ţările membre, instrumente eficiente sunt Fondurile structurale:
Fondul European de Dezvoltare regională (FEDER), Fondul European pentru
Orientare şi Garantare Agricolă (FEOGA) –componenta Garantare, Instrumentul
Financiar de Orientare a politicii pescuitului (IFOP), Fondul Social European
(FSE), programe derulate de Banca Europeană de investiţii (BEI) etc.
În România, obiectivele de bază ale politicii de dezvoltare regională se vor
realiza, conform legii 315/ 2004, prin programe care se finanţează din Fondul
naţional pentru dezvoltare regională şi din Fondul pentru dezvoltare regională,
care se constituie potrivit aceleiaşi legi.
Cadrului legislativ privind dezvoltarea regională în România i s-au adăugat,
de curând, două acte normative deosebit de importante şi anume Tratatul de
aderare a României la U.E. şi Tratatul instituind o Constituţie pentru Europa,
aflat în curs de ratificare de către ţările membre U.E.
Potrivit Documentului de poziţie (care consemnează, de fapt, rezultatele
negocierilor între România şi U.E. asupra acquis-ului comunitar), în ceea ce priveşte
Capitolul 21 – „Politica regională şi coordonarea instrumentelor structurale”,
„România acceptă în întregime acquis-ul comunitar şi va lua măsurile necesare
pentru implementarea efectivă a acestuia până la data aderării, nesolicitând perioade
de tranziţie sau derogări şi declară că va fi în măsură să aplice în întregime, la data
aderării, acest acquis. Infrastructura instituţională necesară implementării acquis-ului
va fi completă şi funcţională la data aderării României la Uniunea Europeană. „
3
România se aşteaptă ca, în momentul aderării, toate regiunile sale de
dezvoltare, respectiv întregul său teritoriu să fie eligibile pentru Obiectivul 1 al
Fondurilor Structurale, respectiv promovarea dezvoltării şi ajustării structurale a
regiunilor slab dezvoltate. România îşi declară interesul de a participa, de la data
aderării la UE, în toate iniţiativele comunitare.
În acest sens, în România au fost create, conform Legii 151/ 1998 privind
dezvoltarea regională, opt regiuni de dezvoltare, entităţi teritoriale specifice, fără
statut administrativ şi fără personalitate juridică, care urmăresc sistemul european
privind Nomenclatorul Unităţilor Teritoriale Statistice (NUTS) şi corespund
nivelului NUTS II (care au PIB / locuitor mai mic de 75% din media comunitară).
Ele reprezintă cadrul de concepere, implementare şi evaluare a politicii de
dezvoltare regională şi a programelor de coeziune economică şi socială, constituind
totodată şi cadrul de culegere a datelor statistice specifice, în conformitate cu
reglementările europene emise de EUROSTAT pentru nivelul de clasificare
teritorială NUTS II. Conform Ordonanţei de Urgenţă nr. 75/2001 privind
funcţionarea Institutului Naţional de Statistică au fost create 8 direcţii generale
pentru statistică regională, care, alături de cele 34 de direcţii judeţene de statistică,
au ca scop dezvoltarea statisticii regionale.
Actele normative cu privire la împărţirea teritorială a Româmiei definesc
structura teritorială în vigoare, asimilabilă NUTS, după cum urmează:
Nivel NUTS I:
România
Nivel NUTS II :
8 regiuni de dezvoltare, cu o populaţie medie de 2,8
milioane locuitori
Nivel NUTS III:
42 judeţe, care reflectă structura administrativ
teritorială a României
Nivel NUTS IV:
nu se foloseşte, deoarece nu s-au identificat asocieri de
unităţi teritoriale
Nivel NUTS V:
265 municipii şi oraşe, 2686 comune, cu 13092 sate,
care reflectă structura administrativ teritorială a
României.
Pentru a asigura stabilitatea clasificării provizorii NUTS, Legea 315/ 2004
privind dezvoltarea regională oficializează compoziţia regiunilor NUTS II, prin
precizarea judeţelor care compun regiunile respective.
Pentru realizarea programelor de cooperare transfrontalieră derulate la
graniţele României cu Bulgaria şi Ungaria, au fost delimitate două zone eligibile
(regiuni transfrontaliere, cuprinzând şapte, respectiv patru judeţe de graniţă), ale
căror teritorii nu coincid cu cele ale regiunilor de dezvoltare.
Documentele de programare ale politicii regionale naţionale în perspectiva
aderării la UE au ca document principal Planul Naţional de Dezvoltare (PND), ce
conţine priorităţile strategice de dzvoltare, regionale şi sectoriale, pentru o perioadă
dată. Până în prezent, România a elaborat trei planuri naţionale de dezvoltare (PND
2000 – 2002; PND 2002 – 2005 şi PND 2004 – 2006) şi lucrează la elaborarea PND
2007-2013. Planul Naţional de Dezvoltare 2004 – 23006 introduce câteva elemente
de noutate atât privind priorităţile de dezvoltare, cât şi privind finanţarea şi utilizarea
fondurilor nerambursabile ale Uniunii Europene. Astfel, sunt identificate cinci
priorităţi de dezvoltare, articulate pe trei piloni, şi anume:
4
1. stimularea sectoarelor generatoare de creştere economică;
2. adresarea constrângerilor pentru generarea de creştere economică din
perspectiva ofertei;
3. adresarea deficitelor sociale şi promovarea unei dezvoltări regionale
echilibrate. Fiecare dintre cei trei piloni este realizat prin implementarea uneia sau a
două priorităţi de dezvoltare.
Promovarea unei participări echilibrate a tuturor regiunilor din România la
procesul de dezvoltare socio – economică (pilon 3) reprezintă prioritatea 5 din PND
2004 – 2006. În cadrul priorităţii 5, următoarele măsuri vor fi finanţate cu prioritate:
§
dezvoltarea infrastructurii regionale şi locale, inclusiv a turismului;
§
dezvoltarea sectorului
întreprinderilor
§
reabilitarea spaţiilor urbane şi investiţii în servicii municipale
§
suport pentru investiţii în training vocaţional (TVET), orientat către
autorităţile locale din mediul rural
§
îmbunătăţirea protecţiei mediului la nivel local şi regional (măsură
finanţată complementar şi în cadrul altei priorităţi).
IMM-urilor,
cu
precădere
a
micro-
Dezvoltarea rurală este în prezent finanţată în cadrul unei alte priorităţi decât
prioritatea 5 privind politica regională. Totuşi, se preconizează ca începând cu 2007,
măsurile de dezvoltare rurală să fie finanţate în cadrul politicii regionale.
În PND 2004-2006, pentru prima dată, sunt identificaţi „indicatorii de
context”, care urmează să fie monitorizaţi în mod sistematic pentru a identifica
măsurile corective necesare la nivel regional.
Tabelul 1. Prioritatea 5- Dezvoltarea regională: Indicatori de context
Indicatori de dezvoltare regională
Valoare de
referinţă
(an)
Valoare
ţintă
(sfârşitul
2006)
1. Populaţia urbană % din populaţia totală
53,3
(2002)
53,3
2.Proporţia populaţiei active din alte regiuni
90,6
(2001)
93,0
2,96
(2000)
2,96
decât Bucureşti
3.PIB per capita Bucureşti-Ilfov/ PIB per capita
Nord-Est
Proporţia populaţiei din regiuni NUTS 2 al
căror PIB per capita este cu 15% mai mic decât
media naţională
5
43,2
43,2
(2000)
25,0
Proporţia populaţiei din regiuni NUTS 3 al
căror PIB per capita este cu 15% mai mic decât
media naţională
4.Ponderea FDI atrase în afara regiunii BucureştiIlfov
Ponderea satelor şi oraşelor cu sistem de apă curentă
din totalul de sate şi oraşe
5. Ponderea satelor şi oraşelor cu sistem de canalizare
din totalul de sate şi oraşe
27,8
(2001)
48,9
(2001)
53,0
24,2
(2002)
5,1
(2002)
Sursa: PND 2004-2006, cu date furnizate de INS.
Impactul direct al proiectelor finanţate din fonduri europene va fi monitorizat
prin următorii indicatori de impact, ce urmează a fi folosiţi şi pentru programarea
documentelor PHARE: spaţii de afaceri înfiinţate (m2), drumuri locale sau regionale
modernizate (km), suprafaţa zonelor urbane renovate (m2), numărul oraşelor mici şi
mijlocii cu sistem de apă sau sistem de management al deşeurilor modernizate,
numărul oraşelor cu sistem de transport extins sau modernizat, numărul centrelor
TVET dezvoltate sau renovate. Indicatorii de impact privind mediul local de afaceri
sunt de genul: numărul IMM-urilor nou create (dintre care în mediul rural), ponderea
investiţiilor productive pentru IMM-uri, numărul de locuri de muncă nou create în
IMM-urile asistate.
Priorităţii 5 privind politica regională îi sunt alocate 8,52% din totalul
resurselor financiare, din care, fondurile PHARE ESC reprezintă aproximativ 40%.
În perioada următoare , asistenţa financiară europeană va fi alocată, la nivelul
regiunilor de dezvoltare, pe baza unui indice complex, compus din următoarele
componente (PND 2004-2006: 265):
1.” Sub-dezvoltare structurală” estimată prin venitul per locuitor (PIB/
locuitor) şi volumul populaţiei, plus rata şomajului;
2.” Sub-dezvoltarea infrastructurii” evaluată prin indicatori referitori la
infrastructura de transport şi de utilităţi publice.
Pentru a reflecta difenţele regionale, modelul utilizează două categorii de
indicatori: indicatori demografici (volumul şi structura populaţiei, suprafaţa
teritoriului şi numărul total de localităţi) şi indicatori economici (PIB / locuitor, rata
şomajului, densitatea drumurilor şi a căilor ferate, numărul de localităţi conectate la
reţeaua de gaz, cu instalaţie de apă potabilă şi cu sistem de canalizare). Alţi
indicatori nu au fost incluşi deoarece s-au dovedit redundanţi (puternic corelaţi cu
cei prezentaţi) sau deoarece nu au fost consideraţi relevanţi, alegerea pentru perioada
2004-2006 fiind de orientare a investiţiilor către zonele urbane aflate în declin.
Pe baza unei metodologii de calcul (vezi PND 2004-2006: 266) elaborată în
cooperare cu reprezentanţii ADR-urilor, s-a convenit ca alocarea asistenţei europene
6
să fie concentrată în regiunile cu valori reduse ale Indicelui de dezvoltare, după cum
urmează:
Tabelul 2. Alocarea fondurilor regionale 2004-2006 în România, pe regiuni
Ţară / Regiune
Fonduri regionale 2004-2006
(% din total fonduri reionale)
România
100,0
1.Nord-Est
21,57
2.Sud-Est
13,92
3.Sud-Muntenia
16,07
4.Sud-Vest Oltenia
11,99
5.Vest
8,84
6.Nord-Vest
11,57
7.Centru
11,03
8.Bucureşti-Ilfov
5,01
Sursa: Ministerul Integrării Europene, (PND 2004-2006: 266)
Totuşi, dacă o regiune nu produce un portofoliu de proiecte eligibile suficient
pentru a absorbi fondurile disponibile (regiunile mai sărace au nevoi mai mari, dar şi
capacitate de absorbţie mai redusă), fondurile vor fi realocate la nivel naţional.
Astfel, pentru a maximiza capacitatea de absorbţie, mecanismul de alocare descris
mai sus va fi administrat într-o manieră flexibilă.
Problema fundamentală este în prezent pentru România, dezvoltarea
capacităţii de operare a acestui mecanism al politicii regionale pe axe
independente de arbitrariul şi influenţa dimensiunii politice. Acest fapt ridică un
semn de întrebare asupra capacităţii de a implementa în practică litera legii şi
angajamentele realizate faţă de instituţiile europene, în măsura în care, cel puţin din
punct de vedere formal, construcţia legislativă a fost relativ importantă ca şi efort.
Experienţa ţărilor în care a existat un regionalism dezvoltat (aşa cum sunt
Spania şi Irlanda) demonstrează că ele par a înregistra un succes mai ridicat în ceea
ce priveşte efectul economic general obţinut ca urmare a asistenţei structurale
europene. Acest fapt accentuează eforturile care trebuie făcute în România ca
asistenţa europeană să nu devină apanajul unor grupuri restrânse de influenţă, ci să
slujească intereselor de ansamblu ale economiei. Cu toate acestea, politicile de
dezvoltare regionale nu pot constitui în sine cheia dezvoltării de ansamblu a unui
stat. Ele rămân politici redistribuţioniste, a căror efecte reale asupra creşterii
economice sunt dificil de evaluat. Dimensiunea esenţială constă în natura sistemului
economic şi calitatea celorlalte politici publice care formează esenţa mix-ului de
politică economică al unui stat: regimul juridic al drepturilor de proprietate şi
ocrotirea economiei de piaţă, fiscalitatea, politica antitrust etc.
7
Totalitatea sumelor angajate pentru acţiunile destinate României în perioada
2007-2009 este de 5,974 mld. Euro (în preţurile anului 2004), împărţite astfel: 1399
mil. Euro în 2007; 1972 mil. Euro în 2008; 2603 mil. Euro în 2009.
Procedurile prin care România va primi fonduri comunitare după 2007 se vor
stabili în funcţie de acquis-ul comunitar la momentul respectiv. Suma negociată
pentru fonduri structurale şi de coeziune pentru perioada 2007-2009 nu se va mai
modifica, indiferent de negocierile la bugetul UE 2007-2013. Sumele alocate
României pentru perioada 2010 – 2013 vor fi negociate ulterior, în cadrul bugetului
UE (2007-2013). Programarea pentru perioada 2007-2009 nu va fi realizată însă
separat, ci va fi inclusă în programarea 2007-2013, pe baza Planului Naţional de
Dezvoltare 2007-2013.
Bibliografie
1.Constantin D. L. – Introducere în teoria şi practica dezvoltării regionale, Ed
Economică, Bucureşti, 2001.
2.Drăgan G. – Compatibilităţi între cadrul românesc al politicii regionale şi
reglementările UE privind ajutorul de stat, Studiul (, Studii de impact privind
aderarea, Proiectul PHARE RO 9907-02-01, Institutul European din România,
Bucureşti, 2003
3.Pascariu G. – Politica de dezvoltare regională în UE şi statele membre, în revista
„Sociologie Românească”, nr.3-4/ 2000, Bucureşti.
4.Pascariu G. Şi Trăistaru I. – Politica de dezvoltare regională, Institutul European
din România, Bucureşti, 2001.
5.Profiroiu M. Şi Popescu I. – Politici europene, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2003.
* * * Revista „Economie şi administraţie locală”, nr.7/ iulie 2004, editată de Ed.
„Tribuna Economică”, Bucureşti.
* * * Guvernul României – Programul Naţional de dezvoltare 2004-2006
- H.G. nr. 497/ 2004 privind stabilirea cadrului
instituţional pentru coordonarea, implementarea şi gestionarea instrumentelor
structurale.
* * * www.mie.ro: Tratatul instituind o Constituţie pentru Europa; Tratatul de
aderare a României şi Bulgariei la Uniunea Europeană.
8
INTRAREGIONAL DISSONANCES THROUGH THE OCCUPIED
POPULATION AND LABOUR MARKET PERSPECTIVE IN THE SOUTH EAST REGION - STUDY RESEARCH : DOBROGEA COUNTY
Author: Asist.univ.drd. Laura Iacob
Universitatea „Spiru Haret” – Constanţa
Facultatea de Contabilitate şi Finanţe
Development of the romanian economy and of the labour market, particularly on
Dobrogea county, reveals a national and regional set of problems.
I shall use below a serial set of economics and socials parameters in order to
prove the specific characteristics of the Dobrogea region by the labour market point of
view-generally and by the employment level of labour force resources - particularly.
Thus said, the population both to national and regional level between 1990-2004
has been recorded a decreasing trend which might affect in the future the employment
level generating a decreasing potential of the resources. If, at national level the quantum
of the population had been decreased with approx. 6,5% (1,5 million of persons), in
Constantza district the total of the population suffered a diminution of 5,3% and Tulcea
district of 7,4%, this being consequence of a natural negative trend due mainly to a
decreasing natality but to intra and interregional migration of the population too.
At national level, the quantum of the population selected on areas of interest
remained, along 1990-2004 period, relatively constant represented about 54%,
population located mainly in the cities area, for Constantza district the urbane
population have been recorded a fluctuation around 70% from the total, despite Tulcea
district population which is prevalent rural with 51%.
Being known that the development level in rural area is much under the urbane
one - at least for Romania -, we can estimate that at least regarding the distribution of
the population on areas between the above said counties both part to the same region
Dobrogea, Constantza district from economic, social and culture point of view is
superior to Tulcea district, but also leads regarding national average level.
Analising informations given in table no.1 we can appreciate that:
- regarding civil employment population degree in both districts Constantza and Tulcea,
there is a decreasing evolution; thus, Constantza district civil employment population
had been suffered a diminution from 353,1 thousands of persons (1992) to 274,2
thousands of persons (2002), in the past few years the situation gets slightly better; and
for Tulcea district this situation had been folowed an oscilating decreasing tendence,
from 109,5 thousands of persons (1992) to 91,9 thousands of persons in 2004;
- the total number of employees recorded in the end of the year in both districts shows
up distinguishing evolutions; if for Constantza district the increasement of the civil
employment population is folowed in the past couple of years by a diminution of the
total number of the employees - which give us the right to considered that the
increasement of the civil employment population has been done through the
contribution of the self employed workers, contributing family workers (category which
include also the workers inside agriculture branch - Dobrogea being a historical region
famous for its agriculture branch which represent 1/3 of the population), employers etc.,
for Tulcea district the output of the civil employment is the result, in particular, of the
increasement of the employee’s number;
- the unemployment decreased between 1992 - 2004 even in absolute value - number of
unemployed persons, but also in relative value - unemployment rate, parameters which
reveal that national economy start to settle down after the masive reorganizations from
1
1990 - 1992, under the reservation of the fact that this parameters are cuantifying only
the unemployed population which is the benefeciary of the unemployment indemnity
and exclude a very important number of persons which despite they are not working but
they are willing to work and they are searching for a job but they are not the beneficiary
of the unemployment indemnity or “discourageous”1 persons which they cannot be
considered like labour resources.
Labour potential indicators from Dobrogea county,
between 1992-2004
Table no.1
(thousands of persons)
Indicators
1992
1995
2000
2001
2002
2003 2004
Total population
Constantza
743,0
746,8
746,0
746,9
715,2 713,6
Tulcea
270,7
267,7
262,7
262,1
256,5 254,5
Civil employment
Constantza
353,1
308,5
275,6
276,5
274,2 276,1 278,3
Tulcea
109,5
112,1
93,3
92,9
86,3
89,2
91,9
Number of employees
Constantza
255,0
231,3
170,0
172,4
172,5 169,3 169,0
Tulcea
74,9
75,9
48,3
48,4
44,2
47,0
47,4
Unemployed population
Constantza
23,7
29,3
30,5
27,4
26,1
20,7
18,0
Tulcea
20,3
13,8
12,0
9,5
9,2
9,0
5,2
Unemployment rate(%)
Constantza
6,3
8,7
10,0
9,0
8,7
6,9
6,1
Tulcea
15,6
11,0
11,4
9,2
9,6
9,2
5,3
Source: National Statistics and Economical Research Institute - Labour force balance
1991-2004, National Agency for Employment, Monthly Reports 2005,www.insse.ro
The employment level is prevalent mainly in the primary sector, but
corroborated with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) collected from each individual
activity sector, the biggest contribution to added value is being brought by servicies,
such that the primary sector is constantly reducing it own contribution (same like
industry). This situation reveal a diminution of labour productivity in agriculture,
branch which despite is attracting a increasing number of persons inside, this persons
have weaker and weaker results, also consequence of the privatization of this branch
which had been generated a bad management of the land resources, the land being
worked with aged equipments and gear and with no contribution of the agriculture
specialists.
For developing the secondary sector in Constantza and Tulcea districts, ship
construction industry might be an insufficient exploited potential, which with a better
and sustainable promotion of the shipyards could reach higher performances in the field.
Development, supporting and stimulation of the small and medium enterprises (SME) in
1
Discourage persons – inactive persons who can work but they don’t try any more to find a job for the
following motives: they believed that aren’t any free job or they can’t find one; they don’t feel up to it
professionally; they believed that the age it’s a problem either they are trying to find a job a long time
before and can’t found it.
2
the industry production sector and close connected services might be another solution to
follow in the way of the settlement of employment on individual sectors of activity.
Laws and fiscal climate are empoverty, there are a lot of direct and indirect
taxes, regulations which the small and medium enterprises must obey to. Applicability
of the laws - which is constantly and continuesly changed and disputed - often leads to
the appearence of the coruption phenomenon. All those corroborated with the fact that
more often the banks are not addresing to the new born businesses and new companies
being at the beggining of the activity in the way of support them, waranty demands are
often hardly to fulfill by SME underevaluated which have inssuficient personal assets
for guaranteing the possible credits - some other forms for finnancial aids (risk capital
or leasing) still being less present on the market.
Regarding the employment evolution is being observed a extinction tendency for
nontipical employment which has it own positive effects but which reflected to the
employee person induced a prononced unsafety tendency, pressure, stress and financial
fluctuation in the family budget - which affect on medium and long term basis the
internal structure of the “cell base” of the society.
Already we can observe that at national and regional level there is a new born
tendency of impoverishing of the population generated by polarization of the economic
power in a small circle of the population which lead to emphasising of the economical
and social crisis promoting also the increasment of the criminality status and why not
feeding coruption phenomenon.
Despite Romania has the biggest touristic accomodation capacity among Eastern
European contries, she gain just the last place from the list regarding the next two
indicators: tourists arrivals in the structures of touristic reception and stayings overnight
in this structures. Taking in consideration that 40% from romanian touristic
accomodation capacity is represented by the Black Sea seaside resorts and 1% in
Danube Delta, for Dobrogea county the touristic activity represent one of the “hot”
problem of the region which could be transformed in one of the important economical
re-launching resources of the area.
At national level,average nominal monthly earning has constantly increased
from 7,460 lei in 1991 la 3,019,424 in 2001 reaching the intermediate level of 6,873,700
in October 2003 and 8,068,932 lei in December 2003, meanwhile real total salary
income from Romania despite in 1990 were recorded the lowest european levels, have
been constantly decreased so that, in 2000, had riched less than 60% from nominal
salary earning coresponding to 1990 reference year, thus in real terms the average salary
had been decreased. However, between 2000 - 2003, Romania had been recorded an
increasement of the real salary income of 12,9 percentage points, lower than Ungaria
and Estonia (21,5, respectively 20,0) but higher than the other new member state but
also to the new candidate states too.
Constantza district overpass the national average salary earning in most of the
areas of activity; Tulcea district is generally registering lower levels of salary income
than Constantza ones. Industry and transport branch there are the major areas of activity
which bring the highest salary incomes, but we have not to forget that Dobrogea’s
economy is prevalent based on agriculture and continuously follow a increasing
tendency of the importance of the primary sector related to regional economical system.
On occupation groups of interest, at national level, the highest weight registered
in 2002 reference year (according with Population Census) is being kept by agriculture
workers and those special qulified in agriculture (25,1%), craftmans and qulified
personal in craftman trade services (19,5%) folowed by tehnicians, foremans and
asimilated perssonel (10,5%), machinery and equipment operators and assemblers,
3
equipments and others (9,9%), scientifical and intelectual specialists (9,1%), operational
services, domestic trade and asimilated employees (8,8%), unqulified perssonel (7,3%),
administrative office workers (5,0%), legislative and top management perssonel (4,3%),
army forces (0,5%).
In Constantza district, in 2002, based on occupation groups of interest, the
employment population have the following structure: craftmans and qulified personal in
craftman trade services (21,5%), tehnicians, foremans and asimilated perssonel (13,2%),
operational services, domestic trade and asimilated employees (11,9%), scientifical and
intelectual specialists (11%), machinery and equipment operators and assemblers,
equipments and others (10,9%), unqulified perssonel (9,2%), administrative office
workers (7,8%), agriculture workers and those special qulified in agriculture (7,3%),
legislative and top management perssonel (6,5%), army forces (0,7%).
In Tulcea district on the same basis of comparision the employment have the
following structure: agriculture workers and those special qulified in agriculture
(20,1%), craftmans and qulified personal in craftman trade services (19,0%), machinery
and equipment operators and assemblers, equipments and others (14,5%), tehnicians,
foremans and asimilated perssonel (12,4%), operational services, domestic trade and
asimilated employees (10,0%), unqulified perssonel (7,5%), scientifical and intelectual
specialists (6,2%), administrative office workers (5,9%), legislative and top
management perssonel (3,8%), army forces (0,6%).
Comparing the up dates, the employment structure from Dobrogea, based on
occupation groups of interest, releves that are important differences betwen districts
Constantza and Tulcea, thus said in Constantza, characterized by a relevant percent of
urbanism, the most occupied population are in third and second branch, having 11% of
scientifical and intelectual specialists - overpass the national average. Concerning
Tulcea district, agriculture workers and those special qulified in agriculture are the
majority in occupied population of the area, the agriculture being the branch that
emploies the most part of population.
The occupied population structure based on educational statute releve that 2/3 of
this is having an medium and high studies, situation who qulified us to believe that
Romania has been having a high education level of labour force resources so that, in my
opinion, could be a good opportunity for medium and long terms development. Of
course that the education must be related to the labour market demands, so much so that
realizes the most efficient occupation of skilled labour force resources.
Another important aspect that is specific for the Dobrogea activity is the
seasonality phenomenon. Thus said, the tourism joint with the sporting fishing and
hunting spend only a shorter and shorter part of population work-time, this kind of
activities creating an employment flux as well in another economy branches (industry,
commerce).
To improving, if not resolving, even partial, the problems that I exposed till now
it should be taking, sooner as posible, a serial measures both national as county level.
Selective bibliography:
1. ***, National plan of development 2004-2006, made up by Ministry of
European Integration who is validated by NCRD and Government
2. ***, The Annual Report of Europeen Commission concerning Romania,
published on 5 nov. 2003
3. ***, Territorial Statistics, National Statistics and Economical Research Institute,
Bucharest, 2003
4. ***, http://www.insse.ro
4
CONTRIBUŢIA PROGRAMULUI PHARE - COEZIUNE
ECONOMICĂ ŞI SOCIALĂ
LA CREŞTEREA CAPACITĂŢII DE ABSORBŢIE A
FONDURILOR STRUCTURALE
Drd. Pompilia Idu
1. Contextul pregătirii României pentru utilizarea Fondurilor Structurale
Extinderea Uniunii Europene (UE) către estul Europei, la 1 mai 2004 cu zece noi state şi
în continuare, la 1 ianuarie 2007, cu Romănia şi Bulgaria, va determina accentuarea
disparităţilor sociale şi regionale, apariţia unor noi inegalităţi în plan teritorial, în special
între zonele urbane şi cele rurale. Deoarece slăbiciunile structurale nu se concentrează
numai în regiunile mai puţin dezvoltate, dar şi în interiorul oraşelor, unde disparităţile în
venituri pot fi semnificative, fenomenul sărăciei determinând apariţia condiţiilor pentru
marginalizare şi excludere socială. Politica regională a UE – unul dintre pilonii
construcţiei europene împreună cu Piaţa Unică şi Uniunea Economică şi Monetară –
este singura politică prin care sunt abordate explicit inegalităţile economice şi sociale.
Este o politică specifică prin care se realizează transferul resurselor între statele
membre, prin intermediul bugetului UE, pentru sprijinirea creşterii economice şi
dezvoltării durabile prin investiţii în oameni şi în capitalul fizic, dar nu în mod pasiv, ci
dinamic, prin stimularea factorilor de competitivitate economică şi ocupare a forţei de
muncă. Prin lărgirea UE centrul de gravitaţie al politicii regionale se va muta spre estul
Europei, prin alocarea de resurse substanţiale în vederea asigurării convergenţei
veniturilor din noile state membre către cele din Europa de vest.
Importanţa acordată de Comisia Europeană (CE) politicii de dezvoltare regională care
este considerată un instrument pentru dezvoltarea unui model în care solidaritatea şi
cooperarea joacă un rol central, mai mult decât transferul fondurilor, se reflectă în
pachetul financiar propus pe 10 februarie 2004 pentru o UE cu 27 de membri, pentru
perioada 2007 – 20131, în care politica de coeziune economică, socială şi teritorială2
reprezintă un element esenţial, având o pondere de 33,6% în bugetul total.
Cu un PIB3, în 2003, care reprezintă doar 29,5% din media UE 254, după aderare,
întregul teritoriu al României va fi eligibil pentru Obiectivul de Convergenţă al
Fondurilor Structurale, încadrându-se în criteriile propuse în cel de-al treilea Raport
asupra Coeziunii al Comisiei Europene, obiectiv accesibil acelor regiuni din statele
membre în care nivelul PIB pe cap de locuitor se situează sub 75% din valoarea medie a
Uniunii Europene.
Propunerea financiară pentru politica de coeziune a CE pentru perioada 2007 – 2013,
include o alocare de aproximativ 14,2 miliarde Euro (în preţuri 2004) pentru programele
României finanţate prin instrumentele structurale (Fondurile Structurale şi Fondul de
1
European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: Building
our common Future; Policy challenges and Budgetary means of the Enlarged Union 2007-2013, COM(2004) 101 final,
Brussels, 2004.
2 Dimensiunea teritorială a politicii regionale este inclusă în proiectul Tratatului Constituţional
3
PIB = Produs Intern Brut; este măsurat în Puterea Standard de Cumpărare prin utilizarea unei rate speciale de
conversie denumită Paritatea Puterii de Cumpărare care asigură comparabilitatea indicatorului, eliminând diferenţele
între nivelul preţurilor naţionale, care nu sunt reflectate prin rata de schimb.
4
Sursa: Eurostat, ianuarie 2005
1
Coeziune), comparativ cu bugetul alocat României prin instrumentele de pre-aderare
(Phare, ISPA5 şi SAPARD6), pentru perioada 2004-2006, de 2,8 miliarde Euro,
însemnând practic mai mult decât dublarea finanţării.
Foaia de parcurs7 pentru România şi Bulgaria stabileşte standarde de comparaţie pentru
fiecare capitol al acquis-ului comunitar, faţă de care se pot măsura progresele
înregistrate în procesul de aderare şi propune intensificarea asistenţei pentru aderare
prin creşterea treptată a fondurilor cu 20% în 2004, 30% în 2005 şi 40% în 2006 faţă de
media anilor 2001 – 2003. Se va ajunge astfel ca în 2006, România să beneficieze de un
buget de peste 1 miliard de Euro prin instrumentele de preaderare.
Figura 1 – Evoluţia fondurilor de preaderare alocate României
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Phare
+ ESC
ISPA
SAPARD
8
ESC = Coeziune Economică şi Socială
Sursa: Memorandum-urile de finanţare încheiate între România şi Comisia Europeană
Finanţarea dezvoltării regionale în România din partea UE şi a altor donatori va creşte
semnificativ în următorii ani. După aderarea la UE, alocările de la Fondurile Structurale
europene pentru România vor fi de câteva ori mai mari decât fondurile disponibile în
prezent în cadrul instrumentelor de preaderare. Fondurile de investiţii ale UE trebuie să
fie cofinanţate din surse naţionale şi regionale, şi pe măsura creşterii acestora, trebuie să
crească şi contribuţia României.
Politica naţională de dezvoltare regională este definită în Planul Naţional de Dezvoltare
(PND) şi are scopul de a contracara tendinţele de adâncire a disparităţilor regionale,
concomitent cu promovarea unei participări echilibrate a tuturor regiunilor la procesul
5
ISPA = Instrument Structural de Pre-Aderare
SAPARD = Structural Action Programme for Agriculture and Rural Development (Program Structural de Acţiune
pentru Agricultură şi Dezvoltare Rurală)
7
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: Roadmaps for Bulgaria and
Romania, COM (2002) 624 final, Brussels, November 2002
8
Din engleză: Economic and Social Cohesion
6
2
de dezvoltare socio-economică a ţării, precum şi diminuarea decalajelor faţă de nivelul
de dezvoltare al statelor membre ale UE. Politica regională este, în acelaşi timp, o parte
importantă a acquis-ului comunitar, constituind obiectul capitolul 21 de negocieri, în
vederea aderării României la Uniunea Europeană: „ Politica Regională şi Coordonarea
Instrumentelor Structurale”, negocieri încheiate în luna septembrie 2004.
Aplicarea politicii de dezvoltare regională în România a fost susţinută din diverse surse
de finanţare, dintre care programul Phare al UE prin componenta de Coeziune
Economică şi Socială (CES) a constituit sursa cea mai importantă. Începând din anul
2000, fondurile alocate CES au avut o pondere de aproximativ 40% din totalul finanţării
Phare pentru România. Programarea asistenţei Phare CES pentru perioada 2004 – 2006
reprezintă primul program multianual, care implementează măsuri – regionale şi
sectoriale - ce se circumscriu strategiei şi priorităţilor de dezvoltare stabilite prin PND
2004 – 2006, elaborat în concordanţă cu metodologia şi principiile fundamentale ale UE
de alocare a Fondurilor Structurale: concentrarea fondurilor pentru a obţine un impact
semnificativ; programarea prin organizarea procesului şi luarea deciziilor de finanţare,
derulat în mai multe etape pentru a derula programe multianuale; parteneriatul prin
implicarea pe parcursul întregului proces de planificare, programare, implementare şi
evaluare a tuturor celor interesaţi la nivel naţional, regional şi local, subsidiaritatea care
implică luarea deciziei la nivelul corespunzător de responsabilitate şi competenţă şi
adiţionalitatea prin asigurarea complementarităţii programelor finanţate de Guvern cu
cele ale UE, care nu substituie cheltuielile publice ale statului.
După aderarea României la UE, instrumentele de preaderare9 vor fi înlocuite cu
instrumentele structurale10. Făcând o asociere în linii mari, putem considera că
programul Phare prin componenta CES pune în aplicare proiecte similare celor finanţate
din Fondurile Structurale, respectiv Fondul European pentru Dezvoltare Regională
(FEDR) şi Fondul Social European (FSE), programul ISPA proiecte similare celor
finanţate din Fondul de Coeziune (FC) pentru infrastructura din sectoarele de mediu şi
transporturi, iar programul SAPARD proiecte similare celor finanţate din Fondul
European pentru Agricultură şi Dezvoltare Rurală (FEADR).
Dacă în general tipul activităţilor finanţate de cele două categorii de instrumente (de
preaderare şi structurale) sunt asemănătoare, regulile şi procedurile de punere în
aplicare, modalitatea de gestionare şi plată, aplicarea principiului parteneriatului şi
structura instituţională necesară pentru administrarea lor diferă substanţial, ca să nu mai
adăugăm faptul că regulamentele Fondurilor Structurale sunt în schimbare, ceea ce face
şi mai dificilă pregătirea instituţiilor şi a tuturor actorilor implicaţi şi cu atât mai mult în
perspectiva intensificării aplicării principiului parteneriatului.
Dezvoltarea capacităţii administrative de a realiza şi elabora programe de dezvoltare
naţională şi regională similare cu cele implementate în cadrul actualului Obiectiv 1
(viitorul Obiectiv de Convergenţă) al Fondurilor Structurale va avea un impact major
asupra absorbţiei fondurilor alocate României de către UE şi realizării obiectivului de
9
Phare, ISPA şi SAPARD
Denumirea de instrumente structurale este folosită pentru a desemna cele patru Fonduri Structurale (Fondul
European pentru Dezvoltare Regională - FEDR, Fondul Social European - FSE, Secţiunea Orientare a Fondului
European pentru Orientare şi Garantare în Agricultură – FEOGA-O şi Instrumentul Financiar pentru Orientare în
Pescuit- IFOP) şi Fondul de Coeziune.
Noile regulamente ale Fondurilor Structurale, aflate în dezbatere între statele membre, propun în locul FEOGA, Fondul
European pentru Agricultură şi Dezvolatre Rurală, iar în locul IFOP, Fondul European pentru Pescuit.
10
3
creştere a prosperităţii economice a regiunilor din România şi reducerii decalajului
ţării noastre faţă de statele membre.
2. Capacitatea de absorbţie
Capacitatea de absorbţie este o condiţie de alocare a Fondurilor Structurale, bazată pe
experienţa anterioară din statele membre în care s-a constatat că ţările au o capacitate
limitată de absorbţie a fondurilor externe pentru investiţii în dezvoltarea regională.
Capacitatea de absorbţie poate fi definită ca măsura în care un stat membru este capabil
să cheltuiască resursele financiare alocate din Fondurile Structurale în mod eficient.
În acelaşi timp, capacitatea de absorbţie este determinată de mai mulţi factori cum ar fi
situaţia macro-economică, posibilitatea de cofinanţare şi capacitatea administrativă:
a. capacitatea de absorbţie macro-economică se defineşte şi se măsoară în funcţie
de PIB; limita superioară a fost stabilită la 4 procente din PIB (inclusiv Fondul
de Coeziune). 11
b. capacitatea de absorbţie financiară reprezintă capacitatea de a cofinanţa
programele şi proiectele sprijinite de UE, de a planifica şi garanta contribuţia
naţională prin bugete multianuale şi de a colecta contribuţiile de la mai mulţi
parteneri interesaţi de un program sau proiect.
c. capacitatea administrativă poate fi definită ca abilitatea şi cunoştinţele
autorităţilor centrale şi locale de a face planuri realiste, de a pregăti programele
şi proiectele la termenul prevăzut, de a decide asupra finanţării programelor şi
proiectelor, de a coordona principalii parteneri, de a răspunde cerinţelor de
administrare şi de raportare şi de a finanţa şi implementa proiectele în mod
corect, cu evitarea iregularităţilor, pe cât posibil.
În ceea ce priveşte capacitatea de absorbţie macro-economică, pentru a primi un sprijin
cât mai mare din partea UE, România trebuie să înregistreze o creştere economică
susţinută care să-i dea posibilitatea de a beneficia de tot mai multe fonduri, care, la
rândul lor vor contribui la dezvoltarea ţării şi creşterea PIB. Situaţia macro-economică
însă, nu va putea asigura absorbţia fondurilor dacă nu există capacitatea de cofinanţare,
din diferite surse, a programelor de dezvoltare finanţate din Fondurile Structurale şi
mobilizarea acestora prin parteneriatele regionale şi locale încă din faza de programare
şi identificare a proiectelor, dar şi pe parcurs, prin asigurarea transparenţei procesului de
implementare şi prin monitorizarea rezultatelor. Pornind de la aceste premise, de pildă,
în perioada 2007 – 2009, alocările din partea UE vor înregistra o creştere graduală
corespunzătoare unei creşterii treptate a capacităţii de absorbţie, ajungâng în 2009 la
limita de 4% din PIB-ul estimat.
Cel de-al treilea factor, capacitatea administrativă, are un rol determinant în absorbţia
fondurilor, ea fiind necesară pentru realizarea managementului eficient al Fondurilor
Structurale, pentru a obţine o contribuţie maximă la coeziunea economică şi socială cu
resursele disponibile.
Întrucât măsura în care Fondurile Structurale au fost gestionate eficient se determină la
sfârşitul perioadei de programare (ex-post), performanţa Fondurilor Structurale în ţările
candidate nu poate fi măsurată. În teorie, se pot măsura rezultatele instrumentelor de
11
EC Regulation 1260/99, Article 7.8.
4
preaderare, dar şi acest lucru este dificil întrucât unele sunt relativ noi (SAPARD şi
ISPA) iar altele şi-au schimbat caracterul (reorientarea programului Phare CES spre
sprijinirea pregătirii pentru utilizarea Fondurilor Structurale).
În asigurarea unei bune performanţe, o condiţie esenţială o constituie definirea
sistemului de management al Fondurilor Structurale, care cuprinde trei dimensiuni
principale:
• Structurile instituţionale, care se referă la alocarea clară a responsabilităţilor şi
sarcinilor specifice Fondurilor Structurale instituţiilor, cum ar fi: managementul,
programarea, implementarea, evaluarea şi controlul, precum şi managementul şi
controlul financiar. Structurile mai cuprind şi organizaţii cu rol de supervizare
cum ar fi Comitetele de monitorizare, funcţiunea de audit, parteneriatul şi altele.
• Resursele umane se referă la alocarea sarcinilor şi responsabilităţilor în fişa
postului, asigurarea necesarului de personal cu calificările corespunzătoare şi la
capacitatea de a motiva şi reţine personalul în sistem.
• Sistemele şi instrumentele folosite în gestionare se referă la existenţa
procedurilor, metodelor, ghidurilor, manualelor, formatelor standard, listelor de
verificări şi reprezentărilor grafice care sunt utile în desfăşurarea activităţii şi
contribuie la creşterea eficienţei funcţionării sistemului. Ele permit organizaţiilor
să transforme cunoştinţele tacite şi implicite în cunoştinţe explicite care pot fi
împărtăşite în organizaţie, fac organizaţiile mai puţin vulnerabile (ex.: atunci
când pleacă personalul), reduc riscul de funcţionare eronată şi îmbunătaţesc
eficienţa în general.
Măsura în care aceste dimensiuni sunt proiectate cât mai adecvat cerinţelor de
implementare a Fondurilor Structurale determină capacitatea administrativă,
demonstrând importanţa proiectării şi dezvoltării sistemului de management al
Fondurilor Structurale, în special ca urmare a cerinţelor din regulamentele CE
1260/1999 şi 438/2001. În plus, abilitatea aplicanţilor de a genera proiecte este văzută
ca cerere faţă de capacitatea administrativă, care trebuie să asigure existenţa unui
portofoliu de proiecte pentru a fi finanţate.
3 Asistenţa Phare CES
Pentru a îndeplini angajamentele asumate prin Documentul de poziţie pentru Capitolul
21 „Politica Regională şi Coordonarea Instrumentelor Structurale” şi a pregăti premisele
creării, până la data aderării, a unui cadru instituţional operaţional, care să asigure
gestionarea eficientă a Fondurilor Structurale şi de Coeziune12, Guvernul României a
desemnat, prin HG nr. 497/2004, modificată şi completată prin HG nr. 1179/2004,
instituţiile şi organismele responsabile cu coordonarea, implementarea şi gestionarea
asistenţei financiare comunitare prin Instrumentele Structurale.
Acest act normativ crează cadrul legislativ necesar pentru ca instituţiile implicate în
managementul şi implementarea viitoarelor programe structurale să-şi poată defini
responsabilităţile şi atribuţiile specifice, precum şi măsurile necesare pentru dezvoltarea
capacităţii administrative, corespunzătoare regulamentelor UE. Astfel, au fost
12
În plus, în Parteneriatul de Aderare la UE, României i se cere să-şi dezvolte capacitatea administrativă de a realiza şi
pune în aplicare programe de dezvoltare naţională şi regională similare cu cele implementate în unele state membre ale
UE sub incidenţa actualului Obiectiv 1 (viitorul Obiectiv de Convergenţă) al Fondurilor Structurale.
5
desemnate Autoritatea de Management pentru Cadrul de Sprijin Comunitar, Autorităţile
de Management pentru Programele Operaţionale, Autoritatea de Plată, precum şi o parte
dintre Organismele Intermediare.
Programele Operaţionale, finanţate prin Instrumentele Structurale, care vor fi gestionate
de instituţiile desemnate prin actul normativ menţionat anterior, sunt următoarele:
• Programele Operaţionale Sectoriale pentru:
o Creşterea competitivităţii economice, finanţat prin FEDR
o Infrastructura de transport, finanţat prin FEDR şi FC
o Infrastructura de mediu”, finanţat prin FEDR şi FC
o Dezvoltarea resurselor umane, finanţat prin FSE
• Programul Operaţional Regional, finanţat prin FEDR
• Programul Operaţional pentru Asistenţă Tehnică, finanţat prin FEDR
• Programul Operaţional Sectorial „Agricultura, dezvoltare rurală şi pescuit”; este
probabil13 să nu mai fie finanţat în cadrul instrumentelor structurale, ci prin noile
fonduri FEADR şi Fondul European pentru Pescuit (FEP).
Corespunzător cu necesitatea de a intensifica eforturile pentru crearea şi dezvoltarea
capacităţii administrative de a gestiona eficient Fondurile Structurale, după aderare,
programul Phare CES a fost reorientat către sprijinirea autorităţilor de management
pentru programele operaţionale şi crearea unui cadru instituţional funcţional în scopul
creşterii capacităţii de absorbţie a programelor operaţionale ce vor fi finanţate din
Fondul European pentru Dezvoltare Regională şi Fondul Social European.
Ca urmare, Programul multianual Phare CES 2004-2006 urmăreşte realizarea a trei
obiective principale:
• Reducerea disparităţilor regionale prin sprijinirea investiţiilor în dezvoltarea
economică şi socială.
• Sprijinirea managementului şi implementării eficiente a asistenţei Phare pentru
coeziune economică şi socială în perioada 2004-2006, în condiţiile
descentralizării din partea CE a controlului ex-ante asupra implementării
programului către autorităţile române, prin trecerea la Sistemul Extins de
Implementare Descentralizată (EDIS).
• Dezvoltarea capacităţii instituţionale a viitoarelor structuri de management al
Fondurilor Structurale.
Priorităţile prin care se propune atingerea obiectivelor stabilite pentru perioada 2004 –
2006, sunt următoarele:
A. Îmbunătăţirea infrastructurii regionale în sprijinul dezvoltării economice;
B. Dezvoltarea resurselor umane;
C. Dezvoltarea sectorului productiv prin sprijinirea întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii
(IMM);
D. Protecţia mediului la nivel regional;
E. Dezvoltarea capacităţii administrative pentru managementul Fondurilor
Structurale, după aderarea la UE.
13
Noile regulamente ale Fondurilor Structurale, aflate în dezbatere, propun scoaterea în afară a FEADR şi a FEP şi
finanţarea măsurilor şi activităţilor aferente prin alte programe decât cele ale Fondurilor Structurale.
6
Pentru anul 2004, au fost alocate 160,1 milioane Euro prin programul Phare CES, la
care se adaugă 38,41 milioane Euro cofinanţarea de la bugetul de stat. Pentru întreaga
perioadă 2004-2006, bugetul alocat programului Phare CES este estimat la o valoare în
jur de 515 milioane Euro, la care se adaugă o cofinanţare naţională de aproximativ 135
milioane Euro. Distribuţia fondurilor pe cele cinci priorităţi se poate observa în graficul
de mai jos.
Structura programului Phare CES 2004-2006
Construcţie
instituţională
11%
Protectia mediului la
nivel regional
18%
Sprijin pentru IMM
8%
Infrastructura pentru
formare profesională
iniţială
17%
Infrastructură regională
şi locală
32%
Combaterea excluderii
sociale
5%
Măsuri active pentru
ocuparea forţei de
muncă
9%
Sursa: Memorandum de Finanţare pentru Programul Phare Naţional 2004, Documentul de programare
Phare CES 2004-2006 şi prelucrări ale datelor.
Se observă ponderea ridicată pe care o are prioritatea „Dezvoltarea resurselor umane”,
de 31% din total, prin măsurile active pentru ocuparea forţei de muncă, inclusiv
calificare si recalificare, combaterea excluderii sociale şi reabilitarea infrastructurii din
învăţământul profesional şi tehnic iniţial. Deşi prioritatea „Îmbunătăţirea infrastructurii
regionale în sprijinul dezvoltării economice” deţine 32%, aceasta rezultă ca urmare a
costurilor foarte mari pe care le implică refacerea categoriilor de infrastructură incluse
aici. În ceea ce priveşte „Protecţia mediului la nivel regional” pentru care o alocare de
numai 18% ar părea foarte mică, trebuie menţionat faptul că tipurile de proiecte care se
finanţează sunt de mică anvergură, cele mari fiind finanţate prin programul ISPA mediu.
Primele patru priorităţi sunt destinate, în principal, investiţiilor în domeniile aferente, iar
cea de-a cincea prioritate urmăreşte dezvoltarea instituţiilor care vor asigura
managementul Fondurilor Structurale, fiind denumită în graficul de mai sus
„Construcţie instituţională”. Deşi apare această delimitare, în realitate toate priorităţile
programului vor contribui la acumularea cunoştinţelor, crearea abilităţilor şi dobândirea
de experienţă practică în implementarea proiectelor similare celor finanţate din Fonduri
Structurale. Descrierea pe scurt a priorităţilor programului Phare CES 2004 – 2006 va
evidenţia principalele tipuri de proiecte şi activităţi finanţate şi structurile implicate în
gestionarea acestora.
A. Îmbunătăţirea infrastructurii regionale în sprijinul dezvoltării economice
În cadrul acestei priorităţi sunt finanţate măsuri care cuprind proiecte de reabilitare şi
dezvoltare a infrastructurii turistice (30%), a drumurilor judeţene şi locale cu includerea
7
măsurilor de siguranţă a traficului (25%), ecologizarea zonelor industriale degradate
(20%) şi dezvoltarea infrastructurii pentru afaceri în scopul facilitării accesului la piaţă,
la servicii şi tehnologie pentru a mări competitivitatea firmelor (25%). Beneficiarii
finanţării sunt autorităţile locale în administrarea cărora se află infrastructura respectivă.
Beneficiarii finanţării şi instituţiile care gestionează implementarea acestei priorităţi vor
fi susţinuţi prin asistenţă tehnică pentru revizuirea documentaţiei tehnice, întocmirea
documentaţiei de licitaţie şi supervizarea lucrărilor de construcţii pentru proiectele
selectate în portofoliul 2004 – 2006. În plus, se va demara crearea şi pregătirea
portofoliului de proiecte pentru perioada 2007 – 2009 care să asigure un flux continuu
de proiecte spre finanţare, imediat după aprobarea de CE a Programului Operaţional
Regional (POR).
Astfel, această prioritate contribuie la dezvoltarea capacităţii administrative a viitoarei
autorităţi de management pentru POR, organismelor intermediare şi beneficiarilor finali.
B. Dezvoltarea resurselor umane
Măsurile identificate în cadrul acestei priorităţi sunt în concordanţă cu orientările
Strategiei Europene de Ocupare a Forţei de Muncă. Proiectele, care vor fi finanţate, vor
contribui la punerea în aplicare a Planului Naţional de Acţiune pentru Ocupare şi la
soluţionarea problemelor identificate în Memorandumul Comun de Includere socială
încheiat între Guvernul Romîniei şi CE. Aacestea se circumscriu următoarelor măsuri:
- Măsuri active pentru combaterea şomajului, care se adresează şomerilor din rândul
tinerilor, şomerilor de lungă durată, precum şi persoanelor aflate în căutarea unui loc
de muncă din mediul rural.
- Calificarea şi recalificarea forţei de muncă în scopul îmbunătăţirii adaptabilităţii la
schimbările de pe piaţa muncii.
- Măsuri de includere socială, pentru sprijinirea integrării pe piaţa muncii a
persoanelor dezavantajate, în special a minorităţii rroma.
- Dezvoltarea serviciilor de asistenţă socială pentru grupurile vulnerabile.
- Îmbunătăţirea accesului la educaţie şi la învăţământul profesional şi tehnic, la nivel
regional prin investitţii în infrastructură şi pregătirea profesorilor.
Beneficiarii finanţării pot fi furnizori de educaţie sau formare profesională, asociaţii ale
furnizorilor de formare, camere de comerţ, asociaţii sindicale sau patronale, autorităţi
locale, universităţi, firme private, centre de cercetare şi alte organizaţii din domeniile
relevante, dar şi şcolile din învăţământul profesional şi tehnic.
Derularea activităţilor pentru implementarea priorităţii B contribuie la dezvoltarea
capacităţii administrative a viitoarei autorităţi de management pentru Programul
Operaţional Sectorial (POS) „Dezvoltarea resurselor umane”, a organismelor
intermediare şi a potenţialilor beneficiari finali, iar ultima măsură contribuie la
pregătirea structurilor aferente POR, avănd un caracter regional.
C. Dezvoltarea sectorului productiv prin sprijinirea întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii
Măsurile propuse în cadrul acestei priorităţi vor sprijini proiecte prin care se urmăreşte:
- Familiarizarea IMM cu tehnologia informaţiei şi de comunicare şi acordarea de
sprijin pentru realizarea strategiilor pentru afaceri în sistem electronic (e-business)
pentru facilitarea accesului la pieţe şi creşterea competitivităţii IMM-urilor.
8
-
-
Întărirea capacităţii furnizorilor de servicii pentru afaceri de a oferi servicii de
consultanţă şi instruire, de bună calitate, întreprinderilor nou create, microîntreprinderilor şi IMM-urilor inovative, în scopul creşterii capacităţii de
management şi a competitivităţii, creşterii contribuţiei IMM-urilor la crearea locurilor
de muncă, la creşterea economică durabilă şi îmbunătăţirea performanţei la export.
Susţinerea investiţiilor în întreprinderile nou create şi micro-întreprinderi pentru
crearea de noi locuri de muncă prin facilitarea accesului acestora la credite în
condiţii avantajoase; punerea în aplicare a schemei de credit depinde de rezultatele
unui studiu de fezabilitate care va analiza posibilitatea aplicării în condiţiile
programului Phare.
Dezvoltarea sectorului IMM poate fi susţinută, în cadrul Fondurilor Structurale, atât
prin programul operaţional regional cât şi prin cel sectorial „Creşterea competitivătăţii
economice” cu condiţia delimitării clare a acţiunilor din fiecare program. În derularea
priorităţii C a programului Phare CES 2004 – 2006 este implicată autoritatea de
management şi organismele intermediare pentru POR şi parţial, unul dintre organismele
intermediare al POS pentru competitivitate.
D. Protecţia mediului la nivel regional
Protecţia mediului este o condiţie importantă pentru promovarea dezvoltării durabile14 şi
de aceea prin această prioritate se vor finanţa măsuri pentru îmbunătăţirea
managementului deşeurilor care reprezintă o problemă critică pentru autorităţile locale
având în vedere impactul asupra sănătăţii populaţiei. După implementarea unei scheme
de grant-uri pilot în sectorul deşeurilor, sprijinul se va extinde şi la alte sectoare de
mediu, cum ar fi calitatea aerului şi conservarea biodiversităţii.
Beneficiarii finanţării sunt autorităţile locare, care au responsabilitatea asigurării
serviciilor în domeniul managementului deşeurilor sau de a întreprinde acţiuni privind
calitatea aerului şi conservarea biodiversităţii, dar pot fi şi companii private care îşi
desfăşoară activitatea în domeniul protecţiei mediului, cum ar fi de pildă cele care
realizează reciclarea deşeurilor. Pe lângă acestea, se sprijină realizarea studiilor de
fezabilitate pentru proiecte în domeniul protecţiei mediului, care să poată fi pregătite
pentru finanţare din diverse surse.
Prioritatea D contribuie la crearea capacităţii de administrare şi implementare a
proiectelor de mediu, în principal, pentru structurile de management ale POR şi
colateral implică autoritatea de management şi organismele intermediare pentru POS
Infrastructură de mediu.
E.
Dezvoltarea capacităţii administrative pentru managementul Fondurilor
Structurale
Dacă celelalte priorităţi includ în principal proiecte de investiţii, prioritatea E sprijină
structurile de management ale programelor operaţionale sectoriale15 şi regional, atât de
la nivel naţional şi regional, prin activităţi de instruire, schimb de experienţă sau
14
Din engleză: sustainable development, noţiune definită ca dezvoltarea care corespunde nevoilor prezente fără a
compromite posibilitatea generaţiilor viitoare de a răspunde propriilor nevoi. Dezvoltarea durabilă este o abordare
riguroasă a formulării politicii pe termen lung şi a interconexiunilor dintre diverse evoluţii şi acţiunile politice. Conceptul
dezvoltării durabile a fost utilizat prima oară în Raportul Comisiei Mondiale pentru Mediu şi Dezvoltare (Comisia
Brundtland) din 1987 şi ulterior la Conferinţa Naţiunilor Unite asupra Mediului şi Dezvoltării, de la Rio de Janeiro, 1992.
15
Cu excepţia programului operaţional sectorial „Agricultură, dezvoltare rurală şi pescuit” pentru care Ministerul
Agriculturii, Pădurilor şi Dezvoltării Rurale este Autoritate de Management şi se pregăteşte în cadrul programului
SAPARD
9
pregătire la locul de muncă pentru acumularea cunoştinţelor şi deprinderilor necesare
unui management eficient al programelor Phare în cadrul Sistemului Extins de
Implementare Descentralizată (EDIS) şi, ulterior al programelor finanţate din Fondurile
Structurale.
Acreditarea agenţiilor de implementare ale programului Phare pentru managemetul în
sistem EDIS, care implică existenţa unui sistem bine definit pentru managementul
fondurilor, cu proceduri interne de lucru, responsabilităti instituţionale şi ale
personalului implicat în derularea proiectelor, clar definite, separarea funcţiei de
contractare de cea de plată16, număr suficient de personal calificat, logistica adecvată
(spaţiu, echipamente, sistem informatic) şi existenţa unui control intern eficace,
constituie o premisă pentru managementul eficient al Fondurilor Structurale.
Pe lângă pregătirea instituţiilor menţionate, o parte a fondurilor este alocată pregătirii
beneficiarilor finali şi a unui portofoliu de proiecte care să asigure o un flux continuu de
proiecte pentru a nu crea sincope în gestionarea programelor.
4. Capacitatea administrativă pentru gestionarea Fondurilor Structurale
Se preconizează ca derularea măsurilor descrise să aducă o contribuţie concretă, reală, la
creşterea capacităţii de absorbţie a Fondurilor Structurale, prin abordarea celor două
laturi ale capacităţii administrative.
Prima latură care se referă la crearea cadrului instituţional funcţional, cu
responsabilităţi bine definite, personal suficient şi calificat corespunzător, precum şi
existenţa manualelor şi a altor instrumente de management, se realizează atât prin
seminarii de pregătire, studii de caz, sprijin pentru elaborarea procedurilor şi manualelor
necesare, dezvoltarea sistemului informatic unic de management al Fondurilor
Structurale, dar şi prin gestionarea implementării proiectelor de investiţii în cadrul
programului Phare CES.
Se pot identifica unele puncte slabe în dezvoltarea cadrului instituţional ca urmare a
faptului că nu toate viitoarele autorităţi de management şi organisme intermediare au
responsabilităţi în administrarea priorităţilor programului Phare CES şi ca urmare
pregătirea unora este mai mult teoretică neavând posibilitatea administrării ciclului de
viaţă al proiectelor, de la identificare şi concepere, evaluare, selecţie şi contractare la
monitorizare şi evaluare. În al doilea rând, experienţa existentă nu este la acelaşi nivel în
toate instituţiile, nivelul de cunoştinţe şi abilităţi fiind neuniform, ceea ce impune
realizarea de programe de pregătire orientate pe nevoile reale ale fiecărei instituţii. La
nivel regional cunoştinţele sunt chiar mai reduse, mai ales în cazul structurilor care abia
au început gestionarea proiectelor, iar capacitatea administrativă este mult mai greu de
organizat. În al treilea rând, cadrul instituţional pentru managementul Fondurilor
Structurale nu este complet definit, nefiind identificate încă, toate organismele
intermediare, iar beneficiarii finali17 sunt şi mai greu de identificat şi pregătit din cauza
varietăţii acestora: camere de comerţ, asociaţii de întreprinzători, autorităţi locale,
organizaţii neguvernamentale, bănci, acestea fiind doar câteva exemple.
16
Principiul separării puterii
Deşi noile regulamente nu mai folosesc noţiunea de beneficiar final, va exista o structură corespunzătoare acestui
nivel.
17
10
Punctele tari se referă, în primul rând, la acreditarea EDIS a agenţiilor de implementare
a programului Phare, cum sunt, de pildă viitoarele autorităţi de management pentru
programul operaţional regional şi cel sectorial „Dezvoltarea resurselor umane”, care vor
fi acreditate împreună cu organismele intermediare, având astfel un avantaj faţă de
autorităţile de management care nu îndeplinesc funcţia de agenţie de implementare.
Instituţiile care nu vor fi acreditate EDIS ar putea să obţină certificat ISO 9000, dar
această practică nu există în cultura organizaţională a administraţiei publice din
România. În al doilea rând, procesul de proiectare şi dezvoltare a sistemului informatic
unic de management al Fondurilor Structurale, care va include toate programele
operaţionale, va avea un aport concret în clarificarea atribuţiilor viitoarelor autorităţi de
management, a informaţiilor care vor fi gestionate şi a cerinţelor privind monitorizarea
şi raportarea utilizării Fondurilor Structurale. Procedurile Phare au fost greoaie, unii
specialişti considerându-le chiar artificiale şi sunt complet diferite de cele ale Fondurilor
Structurale ceea ce poate avantaja instituţiile care vor aplica direct noile proceduri, care
în majoritate vor avea la bază legislaţia naţională ca urmare a armonizării acesteia cu
acquis-ul comunitar.
Cei care vor fi implicaţi în implementarea dezvoltării regionale vor trebui să
dobândească competenţele necesare, nu doar pentru lucrul în cadrul structurilor de
implementare, ci şi în cadrul parteneriatelor, care cuprind o gamă largă de actori care
participă la dezvoltarea regională şi ale căror interese trebuie sincronizate. Crearea
parteneriatelor largi pe orizontală şi pe verticală este o condiţie pentru asigurarea
autonomiei procesului de luare a deciziei. Pe măsură ce ne apropiem tot mai mult de
Fondurile Structurale, apar îmbunătăţiri, referitoare la descentralizare, implicarea
partenerilor sociali şi a ONG-urilor în programare şi integrarea programelor sectoriale şi
regionale. Aceasta trebuie să se extindă şi pentru etapele de implementare, monitorizare
şi evaluare, scop în care se vor crea Comitete de Monitorizare pentru fiecare program
operaţional, în care trebuie să fie reprezentate autorităţile de management, organismele
intermediare, partenerii sociali (sindicate şi patronate) şi organizaţii neguvernamentale
din domeniul mediului, promovării şanselor egale şi alţii. Experienţa coordonatorului
programului Phare CES în conducerea Comitetului Naţional de Coordonare trebuie
transferată către toate autorităţile de management.
Cea de-a doua latură a capacităţii administrative o constituie crearea unui portofoliu de
proiecte care să poată intra la finanţare imediat ce programele operaţionale au fost
aprobate de CE şi să se asigure un flux continuu pe parcursul derulării programelor.
Problemele care apar sunt determinate de faptul că programele operaţionale nu au
stabilit care sunt priorităţile finanţării pentru perioada 2007-2013, ceea ce face dificilă
crearea unui portofoliu adecvat, fără a risipi fondurile şi aşa insuficiente.
Pentru ca România să aibă şanse reale de succes, este esenţială crearea unui parteneriat
operaţional în cadrul structurilor naţionale şi regionale, cu organizaţiile donatoare şi cu
toţi factorii care pot contribui la dezvoltarea regională, inclusiv la pregătirea proiectelor.
O campanie largă de informare urmată de îndrumarea potenţialilor beneficiari poate
ajuta la conştientizarea şi impulsionarea acestora. Diseminarea informaţiilor trebuie
astfel organizată încât să ajungă la cei interesaţi şi în acelaşi timp să determine o
mobilizare pe măsura fondurilor disponibile, dar nu mai mult, pentru a nu duce la
dezamăgiri sau chiar la contestarea utilităţii programelor, ca urmare a unor aşteptări
neîmplinite.
11
Mai mult, cadrul instituţional şi de reglementare pentru politica structurală şi de
coeziune viitoare a UE este încă în dezbatere. Oricum, o lecţie importantă din
implementarea Fondurilor Structurale în statele membre, în ultima decadă a secolului
trecut, este aceea că pregătirea şi administrarea eficientă a Fondurilor Structurale nu
este un proces care poate fi introdus uşor şi nici instantaneu. Curba învăţării este foarte
abruptă şi prezintă o sumedenie de provocări care depind de modelul instituţional din
fiecare ţară şi de dedicarea resursei umane, factor subiectiv care este greu de controlat,
dar poate fi influenţat, printr-o politică adecvată de management a resurselor umane.
Având în vedere atât resursele limitate ale programului Phare CES, cât şi timpul scurt
care a mai rămas până la aderare, nu trebuie neglijată opţiunea sprijinului pentru
dezvoltarea capacităţii administrative pe mai multe căi, pentru aplicarea planurilor de
acţiune18 care prevăd măsuri pentru ca instituţiile desemnate să gestioneze programele
operaţionale să fie pregătite să preia atribuţiile specifice la momentul aderării La 1
ianuarie 2007 structura pentru managementul Fondurilor Structurale şi de Coeziune
trebuie să fie funcţională şi să fie capabilă să administreze fondurile alocate, în mod
eficient, fără a avea posibilitatea de a exersa aceasta în prealabil, ci, in principal, prin
transferul de expertiză Phare. Să nu uităm că până şi vechilor state membre le-a trebuit
aproape un deceniu să ajungă la nivelul actual de performanţă.
Bibliografie
Alphametrics et Applica, Needs of objective 1 regions in the accession countries and in
existing EU 15 Member States in areas elligible for Structural Funds, Report for the
European Commission - DG Regio, 2004
Boeckhout, S., ..., Key indicators for Candidate Countries to Effectively Manage the
Structural Funds, Principal Report, Report for European Commission - DG Regio/DG
Enlargement, NEI Regional and Urban Development, Rotterdam, 2002
European Commission, Roadmaps for Bulgaria and Romania, COM (2002) 624 final,
Brussels, 2002
European Commission, Structural Actions 2000-2006 – Comments and Regulations,
Brussels, 1999
European Commission, A New Partnership for Cohesion: Convergence, Competitivity
and Co-operation. Third Cohesion Report, Brussels, 2004
European Commission, Building our common Future; Policy challenges and Budgetary
means of the Enlarged Union 2007-2013, COM(2004) 101 final, Brussels, 2004
European Commission, General report on pre-accession assistance (Phare – ISPA –
SAPARD) in 2002, COM(2003) 844 final, Brussels, 2004
European Commission, Proposal for a Council regulation laying down general
provisions on the ERDF, ESF and the Cohesion Fund, COM(2004) 492 final, 2004
European Commission, Proposal for a European Parliament and Council regulation on
the ERDF, COM(2004) 495 final, 2004
European Commission, Proposal for a Council regulation on support for rural
development by European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development, COM(2004) 490
final, 2004
18
În special “Planul strategic de acţiuni pentru îmbunătăţirea sistemelor administrative şi de management
al fondurilor nerambursabile alocate României de Uniunea Europeană”.
12
Sustainable development
Asist. univ. drd. Mihaela Ioneci
Universitatea „Constantin Brâncoveanu”
Durable development is a concept that has been used in the new theories of the
economic development, being a relatively new branch of the general economic theory.
Works on lasting development have appeared worldwide, because at level the
consequences of the development of mankind have been more eloquent. This desideratum
does not mean that some countries have not created elements which are the present
support for the future of the lasting development.
When analysing lasting development, one must first understand that the economy
of a country, the economy of all the countries represent the sum of the component parts.
If changes appear within a subsystem, general changes are determined because there are
interdependences between the components.
Lasting development1 can be defined by:
• a natural dimension,
• a human-social dimension,
• a national-stade dimension, a regional and an international one.
We can state that the purpose of development, from any point of view, is
represented by the human development, in other words, by the development concerning
man’s well being, man both nowadays and in the future. This type of development that
encourages progress, not only on short term but also on long term, and it targets a
reconciliation between economy and environment.
Using the term durable development in the economic vocabulary was imposed
and proved a necessity to make up a response, or, better said a measure against economic
and environmental crises the world has faced so far and still faces.
Lasting development represent the foundation on which a viable society is built,
which can meet its needs without jeopardizing the prospects of the future generations. A
new concept which will support lasting development appears here and it is the
intergenerations equity.
Lasting development proposes short and medium-term strategies, gliding towards
long-term ones, on a 20-25 year prospect. That is why policies on a regional,
international and planetary level are used, based on some criteria concerning the
improvements of people’s normal life conditions.
Durable development should become a key element in establishing the economic
and social polities of each state. Nevertheless we should take into consideration the
national specific elements when establishing and configuring the durable development
polities. By national specific element we understand the indices referring to:
• population;
• production;
• consumption;
1
Ciucur D., Gavrilă I., Popescu C. - „Economie”, Ed. Tribuna Economică, Bucureşti, 2004, pag. 340
1
• specific features of the environment etc.
Long lasting development means that the key element must not be the profit, but
the attention care for the environment in order to provide the population welfare. We
don’t say that the profit is not important, but it doesn’t mean everything.
Obviously, long lasting development means the development of present
generation without diminishing the development possibilities for the next ones, even if all
these generations live in the same teritory, having certain resources. There are two
categories of people in this situation:
Ø those being able to take advantage on the generosity of the nature;
Ø those living in places in which the nature generosity has been replaced by
stinginess.
That is why, long lasting development refers to measures for the entire world, not
just for certain teritories.
Durable development has in view the equality of chances of the future
generations, that is meeting the current needs without menacing the possibility of the
future generations of meeting their own needs. When establishing this idea, we start from
the premise that the basis a generation inherits is used to build the future. For this reason
it is our duty to offer our children at least the same chances as the ones we inherited.
The factors2 which interinfluence one another in the process of development are:
v population,
v natural resources,
v natural environment,
v agricultural production,
v industrial production,
v pollution.
An indispensable element for the development is represented by “being wellinformed”3. People should be aware of the threats which menace the world but before
some catastrophes take place. Another element is the environment, which seen from the
point of view of the lasting development shows that it supports progress just to the extent
in which it does not lead to the degradation of the conditions necessary to people in order
to have a normal, prosperous life.
We have to increase the level of culture and civilization of people in order to
conceive a new lasting development strategy. Mankind has faced two big risks of the
development so far, namely: the danger of the modification of the climate on the globe
and the loss of food safety.
We talk about durable development but we often do not take into account the gap
between the rich and the poor. The division of the world into these two categories is not a
recent one, but the aspect that draws our attention is the fact that the disparities between
the two world deepen more and more instead of attenuating.
For the developed countries, there are many possibilities to settle problems related
to pollution and the quality of life. On the other hand, in the less developed countries it is
not about the issue of life quality, but just of surviving and thus, long lasting development
is not a very important and significant aspect to be considered in the strategies and
polities of these countries.
2
3
Ciucur D., Gavrilă I., Popescu C. - „Economie”, Ed. Tribuna Economică, Bucureşti, 2004, pag. 340
Colectiv ASE - „Economie”, Ediţia a şasea, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2003, pag. 226
2
Durable development being defined as human development is influenced by the
population factor. Population has the tendency of growing faster than the possibilities of
meeting its needs. An important issue is establishing the number of people who can
survive on our planet. The issue of population is a recent one4, because:
v the rate of population growth is not always correlated with the rate of
economic growth;
v the density of population is not correlated with the structure, the fertility
and the efficiency of earth;
v the demographic explosion usually happens in the poor areas of the
world;
v in the areas where a demographic explosion has takes place a massive
urbanization occurs to the detriment of the environment and of the
agricultural areas;
v the growth of population happens with big discrepancies between
different areas, countries, continents.
When we refer to population we pay a lot of attention to the socio-professional
structure, to the level of professional training, because durable development can not be
achieved without well-trained people. As a rule, in the poor countries where an economic
growth is imposed in order to support the durable development, the population’s level of
education is low.
The population’s distribution into the two main areas: urban and rural is very
important from the point the view of durable development.
A specific characteristic of the economic growth, of the massive industrialization,
was the population’s massive exode from villages to cities, an exode determined by:
• the acceleration of the industrialization, with all its advantages: jobs,
cheap, abundand and high-quality services;
• the disfavouring of rural areas concerning the public and private
investments, but also from a social and cultural point of view.
We foresee a growth of the population in the next 50 years (approximately 10
billion people in 2050 world wide) and thus it is inconceivable for a future development
not to have durable development at the care of its concerns. Nevertheless, this
development will not be able to support a rate of growth if the environment keeps
degrading and it is thus necessary to pay more attention to the environment. Our county
will have to start paying more attention to the environment because it has centers of
industrial pollution which contribute significantly to degrating the environment, and also
to deforestations, and economic pollution structures, and to the attitude of indifference
towards the environment.
Problems related to environment facing our country are due to the fact that during
the comunist system there have been developed the industries intensively using energy,
not being considered the natural environment. We should understand that the relation
between industry and environment is very important in stating the strategies related to
lasting development. The relation between these refers first of all to their consistency and
non-consistency.
4
Pohoanţă I. – „Filosofia economică şi politica dezvoltării durabile”, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2003,
pag. 46
3
During the worldwide summit on durable development, at Johannesburg, South
Africa, in 2002, a definite way to achieve the objectives of durable development was to
eradicate the poverty in the rural areas by building up some modern infrastructures,
providing access to credit, to markets, favouring agriculture specific to the respective
area, distributing techniques and knowledge about agriculture etc.
The major threats of long lasting development5 refers to:
• weather changes that may produce extreme phenomena;
• serious threats to people health;
• poverty and social exclusion;
• the population growing old;
• crowding the transport networks.
Tourism by its specific is related to environment more than the other industries
and thus a special attention should be granted to the tourism developing measures. This
determines the idea of lasting tourism that should be understood and used from now on.
Tourism has an important role in long lasting development due to the fact that it is
about an industry influencing long lasting development due to resources, nature gift and
cultural inheritance of each company.
For Romania, a solution that can be applied is implementing a durable tourism in
the rural areas. By developing rural tourism we can attract both number of Romania or
foreign tourists in these picturesque areas in our country and the necessary resources for
developing these areas.
Rural tourism, including “agrotourism”, has developed more seriously in our
country only after 1990 and has know a better organization on the internal and external
market. This trend towards rural tourism includes two reasons:
ü relaunching and developing the rural areas;
ü this type of tourism as an alternative to the traditional tourism.
Not any village can become a touristic village. It has to be situated in an attractive
area, the access to it must be easy, it needs to have a general infrastructure, to keep some
customs and traditions and ethnographical values, to provide touristic resources and
households with a certain level of comfort.
It is to our advantage that the Romanian touristic village is not a serial touristic
product and that is has managed to keep its originality, its novelty, but, nevertheless, in
order to arrange and equip the rural areas we need to invest large amounts of money to
modernize and develop the infrastructure, to implement certain technological and public
utility endowments, sanitary endowments etc.
Durable tourism aims to meet the tourists’ needs and to protect the environment in
order for the future generations to benefit from there are areas which depend on the
revenues from tourism. Its economic role takes into consideration creating new jobs,
obtaining revenues for the population and for the budget, stimulating the less developed
areas.
5
Câmpeanu V. - „Dimensiunea europeană şi mondială a dezvoltării durabile”, Ed. Expert, Bucureşti,
2004, pag. 84
4
If we wish to ensure a lasting development of the rural tourism, we must take into
consideration the following activities6:
• the development of the rural communities both from a social and a
cultural point of view;
• the preservation and the reasonable use of both the natural resources and
of the environment.
A durable and favourable tourism stimulates financially and protects its
resources7: natural, archaeological and geographical sites, the art and culture, the
craftsmanship and the traditional customs, all the elements that motivate the tourism’
coming to the respective area. Nevertheless we have to take into account the drawbacks
of rural tourism. Too many tourists, abandoned materials, can endanger the small rural
areas, and the desire to cover the demand of accommodation or of products must not be
done through destorting and damaging the local culture. Developing tourism without a
plan or a well-organized strategy can endanger the rural landscape and the natural
ecosystems.
Developing tourism in the rural areas can also solve, besides achieving its main
objective (meeting the touristic motivation ) the economic problems of respective areas:
ü reducing the number of population, caused by the rural population’s
migration towards the urban centers;
ü creating the necessary conditions for other activities in the rural areas;
ü stimulating investments in these areas.
In order to be able to determine people to more to villages, we should provide the
necessary conditions for practising certain rural activities in villages, improving the life
conditions, protecting and preserving the environment.
A balance development of the rural space can represent a long-term improvement
of the existing conditions of a country, but without compromising or affecting the
interests of the future generations.
The period of time that mankind has covered up to the present is specific to a
nonviable international economy because it has unlimited growth phenomena at its basis.
6
7
Hanciuc N. - „Agroturism şi dezvoltarea durabilă”, Ed. Independenţa Economică, Piteşti, 2002,
pag. 109
Găvan V. - „Turismul rural. Agroturism. Turism durabil. Ecoturism”, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti,
2003, pag. 187
5
References
1. Câmpeanu V. (coord.)
2. Ciucur D., Gavrilă I.,
Popescu C.
3. Colectiv ASE
4. Georgescu G.
5. Hanciuc N.
6. Neacşu N.
7. Pohoaţă I.
8. Prelipcean G.
9. Glăvan V.
***
„Dimensiunea europeană şi mondială a dezvoltării
durabile”, Editura Expert, Bucureşti, 2004
„Economie”, Editura Tribuna Economică, Bucureşti
2004
„Economie”, Editura Economică, Bucureşti 2003
„Reforma economică şi dezvoltarea durabilă”, Editura
Economică
„Agroturism şi dezvoltarea durabilă”, Editura
Independenţa Economică, 2002
„Turismul şi dezvoltarea durabilă”, Editura Expert,
1999
„Filosofia economică şi politica dezvoltării durabile”,
Editura Economică, 2003
„Restructurare şi dezvoltare regională”, Editura
Economică, Bucureşti, 2001
„Turism rural. Agroturism. Turism durabil. Ecoturism”,
Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2003
Capital, nr. 14/2005
6
TERRITORIAL DISPARITIES – FROM THE EUROPEAN
CONSTITUTION TO THE ROMANIAN LOCAL PUBLIC
FINANCE
Drd.ec.Horia IRIMIA
Reşiţa
As a continuance of the EU’s preoccupations regarding the economical and social
cohesion, The European Constitution contains, in its 3rd part, Section 3, bearing the
title “Economical, Social and Territorial Cohesion”, including the articles III-220
to III-224. The above mentioned articles provide for:
- the principle of cohesion
- objectives, programmes and policies
- financial tools.
More exactly:
”Article III-220”
Aiming to promote a harmonious development of the Union in general, it is
developing and carrying on the actions for the consolidation of economical, social
and territorial cohesion. Mainly, the Union pursues the reduction of the
differencies between the development levels of various regions and the falling
back of the regions or islands less advantaged , including the rural areas. Among
the regions envisaged, special attention is given to rural areas.
Articolul III-221
The member states conduct their economical policy and coordinate it with the purpose
of reaching the objectives indicated in art. III-220. The formulation and setting into
application of the Union’s policies and actions, as well as the setting into practice of
the domestic market take into consideration these objectives and participate in their
achievement. The Union also sustains this achievement in the action carried out
through structural finality funds (The Agricultural Orientation and Guarantee
European Fund, the “Orientation” section; the European Social Fund; the Regional
Development European Fund), through the European Investment Bank and other
existing financial instruments. Every three years the Commission presents the
European Parliament, the Council, the Committee of Regions and the Economical and
Social Committee a report on the progresses in achieving the economical, social
and territorial cohesion, as well as the manner in which it was supported by various
means indicated in this article. If it is necessary, this report is accompanied by proper
proposals. The European laws or frame-laws can stipulate any specific means outside
funds, without prejudicing the measures taken within other policies of the Union.
These are adopted upon the consulting of the Committee of Regions and the
Economical and Social Committee.
Article III-222
The Regional Development European Fund is meant to contribute to correcting the
main regional disparities in the Union through participation in the development and
structural adjustment of the less developed regions and in the reconversion of the
declining industrial regions.
Article III-223
1. Without prejudicing the art. III-224, European laws define missions, priority
objectives and the organisation of structural finality funds, which can imply the
regrouping of funds, the general rules applicable to funds, as well as the necessary
1
instructions ensuring their effectiveness and the coordination of funds between
themselves and with the other existing financial tools. A cohesion fund, set up by
European law, contributes, financially, to the designing of projects in the field of
environment and the trans-European networks, in terms of transport
infrastructure.. In all cases, European laws are adopted upon the consulting of the
Committee of Regions and the Economical and Social Committee.
2. The first stipulations regarding the structural funds and the cohesion Fund to be
adopted after the ones that are in force at the date when the present Treaty is signed
will be included in a European law of the Council. The Council unanimously decides
after the approval is granted, in accordance to the European Parliament.
Article III-224
The European laws establish the enforcement measures regarding the Regional
Development European Fund. These are adopted upon the consulting of the
Committee of Regions and the Economical and Social Committee. As far as the
Agricultural Orientation and Guarantee European Fund, the “Orientation”
section and the European Social Fund, stipulations of art. III-231 and III-219,
paragraph 3 are applicable.
If in the European Constitution one can find 5 special articles on cohesion, in the
Romanian Constitution, there in only one sentence on this topic:
„ARTICOLUL 135 ARTICLE 135
“(2)
The
State
must
ensure:
…
g) The application of the regional development policies in accordance with the EU
objectives.”
Many times, in the “common” acception in Romania, when regional development
policies and attenuation of disparities are being talked/written about, the European
norms and principles are basically refered to.
In practice, in the field of disparities, there are two action axis:
- the regional development policy, adjusted to EU policies, enacted starting with
the 1999 Regional Development Law and then, the 2004 Law
- distribution of the local budgets with the help of a “balancing” formula, so that
“the poor” would receive more
The third Report on Economical and Social Cohesion published at the beginning of
2004, after the analysis of the progresses achieved, makes proposals for a reform of
the regional policy in an Europe extended to 27 members. For the programmed period
of 2007-2013, the allocation of a 0.41% of the EU27 gross product, accounting for
EUR 336.3 billion, is proposed.
A reform of the Objectives targeted and funded in the EU Regional Policy is
proposed. The new 3 Objectives are:
- The “Convergence” objective, which sustains growth and creation of new
jobs in the economically declining regions. This refers to the NUTS II level
regions, there where the Internal Gross Product is under 75% of the EU25
average. The allocation of 78% of the total Budget is proposed. By accepting
12 new members, the average internal gross product/inhabitant will decrease a
lot from the EU15 average to EU27 average. Under these circumstances many
regions currently below average, will reach, in 2007, an average above the
EU27 average. That is why, for a period of time, there will still be eligible
regions, and statistics on the EU15 will also be carried out.
2
-
The “Regional Competitiveness and Labourforce Engagement”objective
will favour the stimulation of European economy in accordance to the
Strategy adopted in Lisbon in year 2000. Unfortunately, up to present the
“Lisbon Strategy” has not reached its proposed objective, that is the creation
of the most innovative and competitive economy in the world. 18% of the
budget of Regional Policy will be allocated to this objective.
- The “territorial cooperation” objective. Based on the INTERREG III
initiative experience, the Commission proposed the setting up of a new
crossborder, transnational and interregional cooperation objective, that will
benefit by 4% of the budget.
If in the EU public policies of reducing the disparities have been underlined from
theoretical, legislative and budgetary standpoints – including principles, objectives,
institutions, instruments – in Romania this field “imports” only European policies. In
the last 15 years, national instruments for reducing the territorial disparities have
been very rarely created.
Less theorised, a certain alleviation of the disparities is being performed also by
budgetary policies adopted by Romanian authorities. Regardless if it’s about a
“balancing” between the counties, or between the localities in a county, the
Government, the County Councils propose/impose budget funds distribution criteria.
The ratio in which funds stay at the local level, the distribution criteria and the
concrete application manner, have been recently modified by an Emergency
Ordinance approved on the 24th of February, 2005.
Disparities – and implictly their alleviation – can be refered to at 5 levels:
- the state level. In the EU there are rich states and poorer states. The reporting
is done by comparison to the Internal Gross Product per inhabitant average
level.
- The regional level. The regional development policies are programmed at
NUTS 2 level, which for Romania means the Economical Development
Regions – set up by Law 151/1999, also included in Law 315/2004,
regarding the regional development in Romania.
- The county level. (NUTS 3) The county is the territorial-administrative unit,
established (re-established) in 1968. From the state budget, “balancing funds”
are distributed on counties.
- inside the counties. The County Councils distribute “balancing funds” on
territorial-administrative units – municipalities, towns and villages.
- Inside the territorial-administrative unit. – town, municipality, village –
there are districts, areas, richer villages and some disdvantaged ones. The
distribution of the local budget, done by local counselor, is carried out also by
taking into consideration the cohesion of the local community.
Many times, the public speech of some decision making people (but also the public
opinion and the “common” thinking) lacks consistency and is changeable, according
to the relative position he is in.
In this respect, a Romanian politician thinks it is natural that the rich countries in the
EU should finance Romania, but he can unruffledly argue that the rich
regions/counties should receive more money from the national budget.
We consider that in the spirit of the EU – which we shall shortly adhere to – we
should be consistent in applying the principle of Economical, territorial and social
cohesion to the other levels, as well. If at the EU level the conceptual frame, the fund
distribution criteria are well defined, in Romania both the “territorial cohesion”
3
concept and the territorial re-distribution of budgetary sources are not unanimously
accepted.
After 1990 the application of new “territorial budgetary balancing” formulas are
attempted in each election cycle. At present, the territorial financial balancing is done
on the basis of Government’s Energency Ordinance no. 45/2003, regarding the local
public finances, modified by Government’s Energency Ordinance no 9 from 2005.
The sums deducted from the income taxes are distributed to the counties by observing
two criteria :
- 70% in accordance to the financial capacity. The smaller the personal incomes
per inhabitant, the more money a county receives. The sums are in direct
proportion with the number of population.
- 30% in accordance to the area of the counties.
It is questionable whether the area is a fair criterion, if we take into account the
attributions of the local and county administrations. More important is the length of
the roads. In this case, too, the cost of a kilometer in a mountain road is several times
higher that a field one.
The sums deducted from the income taxes are distributed to municipalities, towns and
villages in accordance to 4 criteria :
- 30% financial capacity
- 30 % area
- 25 % population
- 15% other criteria established by the County Council that would make a
priority in sustaining foreign funding programmes requiring co-funding
In this case, too, we consider that area is not relevant. More relevant is the built-up
area. Or the length of the road that are in the administration of the village, town or
municipality. At the same time, the expenses of a commune are given by the number
of schools, number of villages.
Nevertheless, this budgetary “balancing” is far from being a coherent instrument.
There is no objective, no competition between the projects of local authorities.
. At the regional level, for the time being, The Regional Development Councils have
no budgets of their own to finance/cofinance the regionally significant projects. There
are only the budgets of the Regional Development Agencies. The funding sources of
some regional projects are only the budgets of County or Local Councils.
If at the EU level, a constitutional principle generates setting-into-practice
instruments, as well, it is necessary that in Romania the institutional and financial
frame to alleviate territorial disparities should be provided.
We propose a system of setting up a Development Fund at the Regional levels,
even though until 2007 the regions will be only economical development regions and
statistical units – NUTS 2. From the income taxes, in accordance to Government’s
Energency Ordinance no 9 from 2005:
- 47% is a source for the municipaliy/town/village budget (compared to 36%)
- 22% in a separate account, opened on behalf of the County Council to balance
the local budgets of villages, towns and municipalities of the county
- 13% for the county’s own budget (compared to 10%, previously stipulated)
We propose that 5% should remain at the Regional Development Council’s
disposal, for the funding of regionally significant projects. Up-to-date, the only
“regional fund” is strictly intended for the operation of Regional Development
Agencies, being the result of the collection of a certain amount from each County
Council, proportionally with the number of county inhabitants.
4
ANALIZA ECHILIBRULUI FINANCIAR PE ACTIVITĂŢI PE
BAZA TABLOURILOR FLUXURILOR DE TREZORERIE
Asist. Univ. Drd. Melania Elena Miculeac
Universitatea Europeană Drăgan Lugoj
Conceptul de trezorerie
Trezoreria este definită atât în cadrul unor norme legale cât şi în numeroase lucrări de
specialitate. Câteva dintre aceste definiţii sunt redate în continuare.
Norma internaţională IAS 7 nu defineşte noţiunea de trezorerie, deducându-se că
aceasta reprezintă ansamblul lichidităţilor şi echivalentelor de lichidităţi. Lichidităţile se
referă la disponibilităţile băneşti şi depozitele la vedere. Echivalentele de lichidităţi sunt
investiţii financiare pe termen scurt, cu un grad de lichiditate foarte ridicat, care sunt uşor
convertibile în sume cunoscute de numerar şi al căror risc de schimbare a valorii este
nesemnificativ. Scadenţa acestora ar putea fi mai mică sau cel mult egală ce trei luni de la
data achiziţiei.1
Planul contabil general francez defineşte trezoreria ca diferenţă între fondul de rulment
şi nevoia de fond de rulment, aceasta fiind măsurată ca diferenţă între disponibilităţile băneşti
şi creditele de trezorerie.
Norma americană SFAS 95 include la trezorerie lichidităţile sau echivalentele lor
(cvasilichidităţile), acestea fiind considerate investiţiile financiare pe termen scurt care
îndeplinesc condiţiile: sunt imediat convertabile în sume de bani perfect determinate, iar riscul
de schimbare a valorii datorită unei schimbări a ratelor dobânzii până la data lor de
exigibilitate este nesemnificativ. Conform standardului american, sunt definite trei condiţii
prin care se estimează că lichiditatea nu suportă nici o restricţie: existenţa unei pieţe care să
permită transformarea în numerar a activelor lichide, absenţa convenţiei de blocaj, risc
nesemnificativ privind variaţia ratei dobânzii.
În literatura de specialitate de la noi din ţară2 trezoreria este prezentată ca ansamblul
de activităţi specializate de organizare şi conducere a fluxurilor de intrare şi ieşire de monedă,
de administrare a lichidităţilor şi a creditelor pe termen scurt.
Alţi autori3 definesc trezoreria ca surplusul de surse de finanţare ce se degajă din
întreaga activitate economică a întreprinderii sau ca suma elementelor constitutive ale
acesteia, rezultat al diferenţei între active şi pasive de trezorerie. Elementul de bază îl
reprezintă lichidităţile, alături de care apar activele financiare de trezorerie, respectiv creditele
de trezorerie şi cele de scont.
Într-o altă lucrare4 trezoreria este prezentată ca imaginea disponibilităţilor monetare şi
plasamentelor pe termen scurt, la nivelul unei întreprinderi, apărute din evoluţia curentă a
încasărilor şi plăţilor, respectiv din plasarea excedentului monetar.
1
IAS 7, paragraful 6
Feleagă,N.(coord.), Contabilitate aprofundată, ED.Economică,Bucureşti,1996,pag.98
3
Stancu,I.,Finanţe. Teoria pieţelor finaciare. Finanţele întrepriderilor. Analiza şi gestiunea
finaciară,Ed.Economică,Bucureşti,1996,pag. 462
4
Mihai,I.(coord.), Analiza situaţiei financiare a agenţilor economici, Ed. Mirton, Timisoara, 1997,
2
În ţările anglo-saxone fluxurile de trezorerie sunt denumite cash-flow-uri, care
reprezintă creşterea sau descreşterea mărimii cash-ului sau echivalentelor cash-ului care
rezultă în urma tranzacţiilor.5
Urmărind această suită de definiţii, consider că ar fi necesară realizarea unei distincţii
între trezorerie determinată ca diferenţă între fondul de rulment şi nevoia de fond de rulment,
respectiv ca diferenţă între trezoreria de activ şi trezoreria de pasiv şi numerar, care se referă
la lichidităţile şi echivalentele de lichidităţi (practic trezoreria de activ).
Utilitatea tablourilor fluxurilor de trezorerie (T.F.T.)
Tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie reprezintă o situaţie a fluxurilor care exprimă realităţi
neconvenţionale, ce elimină efectele utilizării unor metode contabile diferite, permiţând o mai
bună comparare a rezultatelor diferitelor întreprinderi.
Printre argumentele care susţin superioritatea tabloului fluxurilor de trezorerie se
numără următoarele:
• Trezoreria reprezintă o problemă vitală pentru întreprindere. Pe baza ei, unitatea îşi
finanţează activitatea şi îşi asigură continuitatea. Trezoreria reprezintă un indicator
cheie pentru gestiune şi analiza financiară, atât pe termen lung (expresie a
necesarului de finanţare), cât şi pe termen scurt (reflectând solvabilitatea).
Mărimea trezoreriei (absolută sau relativă) şi semnul ei (pozitiv sau negativ)
caracterizează situaţia financiară a întreprinderii (poziţie solidă, vulnerabilă sau
risc de faliment);
• Conceptul de flux de trezorerie are un înţeles mai larg decât cel de fond de
rulment;
• Interesul pentru furnizarea de informaţii cu un înalt grad de obiectivitate susţine
opţiunea pentru trezorerie, deoarece evaluarea fondului de rulment se situează
uneori sub incidenţa convenţiilor contabile;
• Tabloul facilitează determinarea cauzelor care explică diferenţele între rezultatul
contabil şi trezorerie;
• Tabloul variaţiei facilitează analiza fluxurilor financiare de intrare şi de ieşire
grupate pe funcţii, prezentarea de date ce pot fi extrapolate într-un plan de
finanţare previzional, înscriindu-se în mod firesc în demersul bugetar al
întreprinderii;
• Informaţia referitoare la fluxurile de trezorerie este direct utilizabilă în modelele de
evaluare a întreprinderii;
• Evoluţia practicii contabile internaţionale demonstrează interesul pentru analiza
variaţiei trezoreriei, pe baza tabloului fluxurilor de trezorerie.
-
-
5
6
În literatura americană6 se apreciază că tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie serveşte
următoarelor scopuri:
permite previziunea fluxurilor de trezorerie viitoare; prin previzionarea acestora se
asigură folosirea eficientă a disponibilităţilor băneşti ale întreprinderii, estimarea
necesităţiilor de numerar în timp util pentru negocierea şi angajarea unui credit,
informaţii privind posibilitatea realizării investiţiilor din resurse proprii;
permite evaluarea deciziilor luate în gestiunea întreprinderii; analiza fluxurilor
financiare completează diagnosticul financiar;
Ristea, M., Contabilitatea societăţiilor comerciale, CECCAR, Bucureşti, 1995, pag. 497
Horngren,C., Financial Accounting, Prentice Hall, 2001.
-
-
permite determinarea capacităţii întreprinderii de a plăti dividende, de a rambursa
împrumuturile contractate şi de a plăti dobânzile aferente acestora; tabloul fluxurilor
de trezorerie ajută investitorii şi creditorii să prevadă dacă întreprinderea poate să
efectueze aceste plăţi la timp;
arată relaţia între rezultatul net şi fluxurile de trezorerie ale întreprinderii.
Avantajele informaţiilor cuprinse în tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie se referă la:
• tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie, utilizat împreună cu celelalte situaţii financiare,
permite evaluarea variaţiei activului net al întreprinderii, evaluarea structurii
financiare (inclusiv lichiditatea şi solvabilitatea);
• determinarea capacităţii întreprinderii de a influenţa valorile şi momentul apariţiei
fluxurilor de trezorerie, pentru a se adapta schimbărilor de circumstanţe şi oportunităţi;
• evaluarea istoricului fluxurilor de numerar şi posibilitatea generării de previziuni,
permiţând utilizatorilor să îşi elaboreze modele pentru compararea valorii actuale a
fluxurilor viitoare ale diferitelor întreprinderi;
• întăreşte comparabilitatea datelor referitoare la performanţele exploatării diferitelor
întreprinderi, eliminând efectele utilizării unor tratamente contabile diferite.
Importanţa trezoreriei prezentate în cadrul TFT poate fi argumentată astfel:
► Trezoreria reflectată cu ajutorul TFT este un indicator cheie pentru gestiunea
agentului economic, pe termen lung şi pe termen scurt.
► Importanţa trezoreriei pentru gestiunea agentului economic este relevată în lucrarea
lui H. Stolowy, care afirmă că „ea finanţează activitatea acestuia, îi asigură perenitatea şi
caracterizează situaţia sa financiară: soliditate, vulnerabilitate sau risc de faliment”.
Trebuie subliniat faptul că trezoreria joacă un rol fundamental în gestiunea financiară
a agentului economic, mai ales în condiţiile accentuării proceselor inflaţioniste, creşterii
dobânzilor şi insuficienţei resurselor proprii. Trezoreria este un indicator foarte sensibil al
ameliorării sau degradării situaţiei financiare.
► Importanţa trezoreriei apare şi din interesul terţilor agentului economic, mai ales a
investitorilor (acţionari şi creditori), faţă de ea.
Aceştia sunt mai interesaţi de aspectul monetar al operaţiilor desfăşurate de agentul
economic, de fluxurile de trezorerie decât de rezultatul contabil sau de alţi indicatori. Ei ştiu
că un agent economic poate să fie rentabil, lucru indicat de rezultatul obţinut, dar să nu fie
solvabil datorită lipsei de lichidităţi.
► Trezoreria are un caracter obiectiv, în timp ce alţi indicatori construiţi în cadrul
TFT pot fi influenţaţi de convenţii contabile sau de criterii de separare a elementelor de
resurse şi de utilizări care sunt criticabile.
► Fluxurile de trezorerie permit stabilirea unei legături cu modelul de evaluare a
agentului economic.
Acest lucru se poate explica prin faptul că fluxurile de trezorerie ale perioadei
trecute stau la baza previziunilor de trezorerie pe un anumit orizont de timp.
Acestea sunt apoi utilizate în cadrul metodelor de evaluare bazate pe actualizarea
fluxurilor de trezorerie (cash-flow-ului) ale agentului economic.
► Fluxurile de trezorerie ale perioadelor trecute servesc de asemenea previziunilor
în materie de politică financiară pe termen scurt sau lung ale agentului economic.
Fluxurile de trezorerie aferente unei perioade şi reflectate în tabloul de flux se pot
obţine în două moduri:
a) Prin diferenţa dintre utilizările şi resursele de trezorerie (lichidităţi şi credite pe
termen scurt).
Aceasta este o metodă directă care presupune ca în cursul perioadei de gestiune să se
ţină o evidenţă clară a încasărilor şi plăţilor aferente tuturor operaţiilor efectuate de agentul
economic. In acest scop este necesară utilizarea sistemului contabilităţii de trezorerie. Ori,
pentru ţările care utilizează o contabilitate de angajamente, aplicarea metodei directe de
determinare a fluxurilor de trezorerie ar conduce la două evidenţe paralele ale aceloraşi
operaţii economice. Din acest considerent, metoda directă este puţin operantă în practică.
b) Pe baza contului de profit şi pierdere corectat cu decalajele dintre angajarea
veniturilor şi încasarea lor propriu-zisă, respectiv dintre efectuarea cheltuielilor şi plata lor
propriu-zisă.
Aceasta este o metodă indirectă de determinare a fluxurilor de trezorerie, care conduce
la aceleaşi rezultate ca şi metoda directă, însă este mult mai puţin costisitoare şi mai rapidă
decât aceasta.
Veniturile şi cheltuielile contului de profit şi pierdere, înregistrate conform principiilor
contabilităţii de angajamente, li se alătură, în sensul scăderii, variaţiile din cursul exerciţiului,
a elementelor care induc decalaje de încasări şi plăţi. Aceste elemene aparţin activelor şi
pasivelor circulante sau, în limbajul analizei financiare, nevoii de fond de rulment ca diferenţă
dintre resursele şi utilizările temporare. În urma corectării elementelor rezultatului se obţine
fluxul net de trezorerie aferent perioadei analizate.
Fig. 1.1. Schema simplificată a tabloului bazat pe fluxuri de trezorerie
Operaţii de exploatare
Variaţia elementelor fără incidenţă
imediată asupra trezoreriei sau a
elementelor care nu generează =
fluxuri de trezorerie aparţinând
activităţii de exploatare
Operaţii de investiţii
imediată
asupra
trezoreriei =
aparţinând activităţii de investiţii.
Operaţii de finanţare
imediată
asupra
trezoreriei =
aparţinând activităţii de finanţare.
Flux de trezorerie aferent activităţii de
exploatare
investiţii
finanţare
Dintre numeroasele modele ale acestui tip de tablou de flux, elaborate şi utilizate pe plan
mondial, se va prezenta unul dintre ele şi anume : tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie.
Tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie
Tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie apreciază într-o logică financiară şi globală, coerenţa
decizilor stategice luate de întreprindere.
Conţinutul modelului
Structura tabloului fluxurilor de trezorerie este prezentată în figura 1.2.:
Figura 1.2. Structura tabloului fluxurilor de trezorerie
Excedent de
trezorerie
globală
Prelevări
obligatorii
Investiţii nete
Flux de
trezorerie
disponibil
Aporturi la
resursele stabile
Variaţia trezoreriei = Flux
de trezorerie disponibilă –
investiţii nete + aporturi la
resursele stabile
Modelul tabloului fluxurilor de trezorerie din punct de vedere al modului de
structurare al elementelor care îl compun, este prezentat în tabelul 1.1
Tabelul 1.1
Tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie
Explicaţii
Exerciţiul
N-1
N
Excedentul brut global
- Variaţia nevoii de fond de rulment
A = Excedent de trezorerie global (ETG)
-
Cheltuieli financiare (Dobânzi)
Impozit pe profit
Dividende plătite în cursul exerciţiului
Rambursări de împrumuturi financiare
B = Flux de trezorerie disponibilă (FTD) ( după prelevări obligatorii)
Investiţii productive
- Subvenţii pentru investiţii primite
+ Variaţia altor imobilizări în afara exploatării
- Cesiunea imobilizărilor
C = Investiţii nete
- Creşterea sau reducerea capitalului
+ Împrumuturi financiare noi
D = Aporturi la resurse stabile (aporturi externe)
E = Variaţia trezoreriei: (B+D)-C
= Variaţia disponibilităţilor
- Variaţia creditelor bancare curente
Contrucţia şi interpretarea tabloului
Structura tabloului prezentat, se fundamentează pe următoarele considerente:
• Tabloul urmăreşte să evidenţieze capacitatea întreprinderii de a genera trezorerie
(ETG) din întreaga sa activitate;
• Conservarea lichidităţii, în totalitate sau parţial, constituie un obiectiv prioritar al
managerilor, preocupaţi în a determina mărimea prelevărilor obligatorii care o
afectează, cât şi partea rămasă la dispoziţia întreprinderii, reprezentând fluxul de
trezorerie disponibil (FTD);
• Urmărirea îndeaproape a modului de utilizare a trezoreriei rămasă la dispoziţia
întreprinderii pentru finanţarea investiţiilor, efect al deciziilor luate în acest sens;
• Insuficienţa trezoreriei disponibile reclamă căutarea unor noi resurse stabile pentru
acoperirea investiţiilor nete.
Cele mai sus evidenţiate caută să reliefeze gradul de libertate de care dispune
întreprinderea în ceea ce priveşte gestionarea lichidităţilor de care dispune.
Excedentul brut global (EBG)
Excedentul brut global (EBG) se deosebeşte de capacitatea de autofinanţare, prin aceea
că nu ia în considerare cheltuielile financiare plătibile şi nici impozitul pe profit, considerate ca
fiind prelevări obligatorii.
Excedentul de trezorerie global (ETG)
Excedentul de trezorerie global (ETG) nu trebuie confundat cu fluxul de trezorerie din
exploatare. ETG pune în evidenţă rolul major al decalajelor temporare în formarea
rezultatelor şi chiar prin aceasta potenţialul unei afaceri, independent de structura financiară,
de incidenţa impozitului pe profit şi de politica de distribuire a dividendelor.
Ca indicator, ETG serveşte la evaluarea capacităţii întreprinderii de a genera
lichidităţi, indiferent de politicile financiare şi fiscale. El permite aprecierea la un prim nivel a
independenţei unei activităţi cu privire la partenerii săi externi.
Excedentul de trezorerie global este influenţat, pe de o parte, de nivelul rezultatelor, de
gradul de dezvoltare a activităţii întreprinderii, iar pe de altă parte, de structura nevoii de
fond de rulment.
Interpretarea variaţiei excedentului de trezorerie global trebuie obligatoriu precedată
de o analiză a rezultatelor întreprinderii şi a nevoii de fond de rulment. Orice creştere a cifrei
de afaceri se concretizează într-o creştere a nevoii de fond de rulment şi, implicit, într-o
diminuare a trezoreriei globale, în timp ce stagnarea sau reducerea activităţii contribuie la
diminuarea nevoii de fond de rulment, iar pe de altă parte, determină o creştere a trezoreriei
globale. În situaţia în care se optează în direcţia unei dezvoltări rapide a vânzărilor, trebuie
avut în vedere ca marjele comerciale să fie astfel dimensionate, încât să acopere creşterea
nevoii de fond de rulment.
Excedentul de trezorerie global serveşte acoperirii cheltuielilor financiare, plăţii
impozitului pe profit şi a dividendelor, precum şi rambursării împrumuturilor financiare.
Menţinerea echilibrului trezoreriei presupune un efort continuu de gestionare a nevoii de
fond de rulment.
În situaţia în care excedentul de trezorerie global este acoperitor pentru toate datoriile
scadente ale exerciţiului, aptitudinea de autofinanţare a întreprinderii este evidentă, în sensul
că sunt asigurate sursele proprii necesare finanţării investiţiilor interne şi investiţiilor externe.
Fluxul de trezorerie disponibil (FTD)
Acesta este soldul pivot al tabloului de flux. Indicatorul fluxul de trezorerie
disponibilă se utilizează pentru aprecierea coerenţei deciziilor financiare. Comparat cu
investiţiile nete, pe mai multe perioade indicatorul oferă, informaţii asupra coerenţei
politicilor urmate de întreprindere.
Flux de trezorerie disponibilă = ETG - Prelevări obligatorii
Dacă fluxul de trezorerie disponibilă înregistrează valori negative pe o perioadă
îndelungată de timp, atunci situaţia financiară a întreprinderii se află într-o stare de dezechilibru,
viitorul economic al acestuia fiind compromis. Cu cât fluxul este mai puternic, ca sens pozitiv,
cu atât mai mult creşterea este autofinanţată.
Investiţiile nete
Investiţiile nete condiţionează perenitatea întreprinderii. Fiind apropiate de fluxurile
de trezorerie disponibilă, ele arată capacitatea unei activităţi de a se autofinanţa.
Aporturile la resursele stabile
Acest sold permite aprecierea modului în care întreprinderea a acoperit nevoile de
finanţare reziduale sau dimpotrivă, a utilizat surplusul degajat la acest nivel. Deciziile
financiare de ordin managerial trebuie în permanent adaptate nevoilor de acoperit.
În situaţia în care fluxul de trezorerie disponibilă este pozitiv, recurgerea la îndatorare
este posibilă în măsura în care fluxurile de lichidităţi aşteptate vor permite rambursarea
împrumuturilor. În caz invers, întreprinderea se află în situaţia de a nu face faţă prelevărilor
obligatorii. Cu cât o astfel de situaţie se prelungeşte pe o perioadă de timp mai mare, cu atât
vulnerabilitatea întreprinderii creşte, independenţa acesteia fiind alterată.
Contribuţia pe care şi-o aduce tabloul fluxurilor de trezorerie constă în aceea că
furnizează informaţii relevante privind explicarea variaţiei trezoreriei, prin încasările şi
plăţile efectuate de întreprindere în cursul unui exerciţiu, servind utilizatorilor documentelor
de sinteză în evaluarea solvabilităţii acesteia.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. Fe1eagă N.
Contabilitate
aprofundată,
Editura Economică,
Bucureşti 1996
2. Horngren,C.
Financial Accounting
Prentice Hall, 2001
3. I.A.S.C.F.
Standardele
Internaţionale de
contabilitate2001
4. Mihai,I.(coord.)
Analiza situaţiei
financiare a agenţilor
economici
Contabilitatea
societăţiilor comerciale
Finanţe. Teoria pieţelor
financiare. Finanţele
întreprinderii. Analiza şi
gestiunea financiară
Ediţia în limba
română, Editura
Economică, Bucureşti,
2001
Ed. Mirton, Timişoara,
1997
5. Ristea, M.
6. Stancu Ion
CECCAR, Bucureşti,
1995
Ed. Economică,
Bucureşti, 1997
THE NECESSITY OF ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF
REGIONAL POLICIES
Deputy Professor dr. Minică Mirela
University „Eftimie Murgu” Reşiţa
In general, the ante factum evaluation of the regional policies impact aims at
measuring and dimensioning the major (predictable or expected) consequences of a certain
political or planning decision focused of a given spatial economic system. This assessment
enable us to determine the extent to which a political measures may trigger a change
towards the chosen direction, of one or several purpose-oriented variables. Undoubtedly,
the impact evaluation may also be performed post factum. This implies the existence of
certain information both on the exogenous and endogenous modifications. When analysing
the impact of a certain regional policy decision we should assess the effects exclusively due
to that very regional policy.
The problems occurring in connection with the research of the impact of a regional
policy are the following:
a) What would the situation of an area be if a certain decision of regional
policy hadn’t been made?
b) What is the influence of other variables, besides the instruments of
regional policy, upon the development of the undeveloped region?
The huge financial implications of economic regional policies and the confusion
regarding their results led to an increasing interest for the systemic analysis of regional
policies, both in theoretic research and in applicative ones.
We have witnessed lately the need to critically assess the success or failure of the
measures taken through regional policies, for two reasons:
-Firstly, many countries and regions within these counties are currently
passing through a process of drastic economic restructuring. This type of extremely
dynamic evolution highlights a rupture compared to the previous period, marked by
stability. Under the circumstances, the evaluation of the influences of regional policies is
more difficult to perform, as most current analytical models do not appropriately reflect the
present dynamics of economy.
-Secondly, this difficulty is brought by the weak economic growth or even
the decline of this growth and by the drastic reduction of public budgets in most countries,
which has triggered a more careful analysis of public expenditure efficiency.
The assessment of regional policies requires a systematic and accurate
methodology that should focus both on the design stage and on the stage of regional
policies implementing. It is equally important to systematically assess and deeply
understand the various effects of a certain political programme. For this purpose it should
be useful to elaborate an instrument able to assess the macroeconomic effects of regional
policies.
One may distinguish four levels at which one has attempted to assess the impact of
regional policies:
1
1. A usually qualitative evaluation of the contribution of regional policies to
the regional issues solving.
2. The examination of the opportunity, adequate character of the ensemble
of regional policy instruments, either in the light of the modified economic frame or in the
context of the controversies in the economic theory.
3. The measurement, within the existing possibilities, of the advantages
obtained through the set of regional policy set of measures.
4. The measurement of costs and benefits resulted from the regional policy.
Certain difficult aspects in the assessment of regional policy refer to the nature of
the regional policy tools. This regards both the goals of the policy and the effect of the tools
used to reach these goals. The effects may not always be measured in a clear, unambiguous
manner, because of the instruments of implementing the regional policy, that may be very
different: quantifiable instruments, qualitatively defined plans or legislative measures (in
the environmental policy). Similarly, the goals of the policy may range from quantifiable
goals to desires, political aspirations of a qualitative order.
The measurement of the value of goals and instruments may use different scales,
ranging from the metric information (cardinal scale) to the nominal or qualitative
information.
The reach and diversity of regional policy effects have a large range, covering a
multitude of sectors, spatial units and time horizons. Consequently, there is also a wide
variety of methods to assess these effects.
1. The main methods for researching the effects of regional economic policies
Different methods and models have been devised for assessing the efficiently of
regional policies, of the consequences of regional policies aimed at equalising living
standards and the impact of these policies upon a wider set of regional development goals.
The effects of regional policies may be measured with the help of various
indicators such as labour force, income, and investment. In general, the goals of regional
policy have a multidimensional configuration, so that, in principle, the assessment of
policies may rely on numerous indicators.
The studies performed until now on the impact of regional policies may be
classified according to different criteria: the type of instruments used by the regional policy
the study is focused on, the type of region subjected to the research, the national or
supranational level of implementation of the policy under scrutiny.
There are different modalities of classifying the variety of methods. Analysing
different classifications, we find that most favour a general subdivision of methods into
approaches at the micro and macro level.
As for the methods for the assessment of policy regional impact, a first subclassification is that if models based on ad-hoc an structured approaches . The “ad-hoc”
analyses on impact refer to measuring problems in case there is no possibility to elaborate
standardised operational models, due to the time restrictions, non-repeatable situations or
lack of data. These analyses may lie at the basis of structured approaches. One may
distinguish between two types of analyses:
-firstly, we may talk about the approach called „expert’s opinion”. This
technique involves a further examination or analysis of the results of a certain survey on the
effect of a policy by an expert of the region. This expert may be able to analyse the results
2
of the respective survey with more accuracy, although the subjectivity risk will always be
present.
-secondly, one may cite the approach called comparative analysis. This
approach is based on national and regional experiences, consisting of regional issues and
more or less similar political measures.
In spite of low costs and availability of use, ad-hoc analyses do not offer the
precision, reliability and transferability of the structured impact analysis. The surveys
performed on the basis of the impact analysis, spatially structured, based on formal
techniques and models (generally quantitative, i.e. econometric or statistic) are generally
classified according to the type of approach, i.e. micro or macro level approach.
Survey at the micro level
This survey deals with individual observations on subjects that are exposed and
allegedly affected by the measures of regional policies. The micro survey are connected to
inquiry methods, such as the interview.
In most cases, inquiries are performed in companies receiving subventions, within
the regional government programmes, or in those enterprises situated in a certain region
where they have obtained, indirectly an improvement of the localisation factors in the
region (especially with the help of infrastructure). It is intended to find out if the companies
decided to develop intensively, to expand or to relocate operations, partially or entirely, as a
results of certain measures of regional policy.
With these micro-level methods it is possible to collect very important data at a
dis-aggregated level. On the other hand, this type of information is expensive and timeconsuming. Moreover, due to the inquiry techniques the information might be deformed.
In order to know attitudes, manner of perceiving the issues under scrutiny, one
makes appeal to the managers of different companies to answer the questionnaire in the
survey. A series of studies signals the fact that they are tempted to use the inquiry in order
to manipulate the future decisions of regional decisions. There is also the risk that the
researchers interpret the results of the inquiry in a subjective manner.
When using this type of research, the instruments of research may appear
deformed, as certain political measures are not properly specified in all aspects.
These micro-level survey may be further classified into survey with controlled
experimenting, quasi experimenting and without experiments.
a)Controlled experimenting
Through controlled experimenting one aims at collecting detailed information
from two categories of subjects; one category of subjects who have never been subjected to
an experiment of regional policy, and another category, whose members have been
subjected to the experiment.
A major issue is the difficulty to find two categories of subjects with identical
characteristics so that the differences found be due only to the respective measure of
regional policy. That is why in practice this method may be used with difficulty in the
analysis of the regional impact analysis.
b)Quasi-experimenting
It is a general research method presented by Campbell and Stanley.
Quasi-experimenting in the domain of provisional research of regional policy is
based on inquiries applied to those subjects who have been, most likely, the most affected
by the existing measures of regional policy. The impact of the regional policy may be direct
3
or indirect, according to the type of instrument used, so that it is not easy to encircle the
amalgamated impact of different instruments. It is also difficult for the subjects questioned
to appreciate the effects resulting form different policies. Certainly, the direct effect of
certain measures of regional policies are easier to assess, and, in a less measure, the indirect
effects.
c)Non-experimenting
The third type of micro-surveys is called non-experimental. In this case no attempt
to control the effect of non-political variables is made. This approach may be used only if
one assumes that the effects of non-political variables lack, are uniform or if these effects
may be taken into consideration as exterior factors.
Macro-level surveys
The macro-oriented approaches are not completely separated from the micro
analyses, as the macro surveys rely on the aggregate results of inquires effected by statistic
offices. These inquiries do not usually refer in an explicit manner to issues of regional
policy and their impact, and thus it does not involve the risk of denaturing information, as
in the case of micro studies.
The macro-level surveys in the field of the analysis of regional policies impact are
statistic and econometric analyses, although one may encounter methods not using an
explicit model. Consequently the macro surveys may be classified into studies utilising an
explicit model and studies that do not. The methods using an explicit model may be divided
into one-equation models and multiple-equation models.
a),Macro-level survey without an explicit model
These range from: qualitative approaches of systems, numerical statistic analyses
without explicit model to quasi-experimental analyses, with control group.
The qualitative approach of systems is used in the case of insufficient information
and databases availability. In such a case one prefers a qualitative approach to complicated
mathematical models. Another reason for using this approach is represented by the fact the
impact of regional policy is not limited only to the economic impact, that can be read
through measurable monetary or other type of units.
The weak point of this method is its failure to offer quantitative estimations. In
most cases, the results are only indicative.
The numerical statistic analysis without an explicit model is based on differential
growth indicators. The possible explicative variables, besides regional policies, are not
explicitly included in this type of simple methods. The variables to be explained are
standardised, without dividing them into variables with influences resulted from regional
policies, and variables with endogenous influences. That is why the results may favour one
or the other of the instruments of regional policy.
Another type of statistic methods relies on the „shift and share” analysis. This is a
technique that subdivides a regional change (for instance the modification of labour force)
into two components. The first one is called the “shift” component, the second is the
“share” component. The former may be subdivided into a proportional component and a
differential one.
The „shift and share” method may be represented as follows:
G
= Sp + Sd
+
R
4
„Shift”
Regional share
In this equation, „G” stands for the absolute growth (for instance, the labour force)
in a given region A. ”Regional share” (R) represents the growth of the labour force if the
labour force growth rate in the region is equal with the national rate.. ”Sp” represents the
increase or decrease of labour force in region A, compared to the industrial structure of the
region. ”Sd” is the differential change or the regional component representing the increase
or decrease of the labour force, that cannot be explained by „R” or „Sp”, but possibly
through the specific regional policy.
This method is considered to offer an inappropriate representation of non-political
variables. It takes into account only the growth due to the national development and
industrial structure of the region, but three are many further variables that influence the rate
of labour force increase in region A. Moreover, the rate of the national increase may be
influenced by the regional policy.
Another problem is raised by the assumption that both the „shift” and the „share”
components remain constant in time. This depends nevertheless on the degree of data disaggregation and on the period analysed. For instance, due to a decisive advantage in the
development of a region, the „shift” component will be in decline.
b)Macro-level survey with explicit model
• Single-equation models
These models, used mainly as partial models, refer to the evolution of a variable,
relevant for the regional policy. The analysis is based on comparing the real situation of the
regional policy variable to that resulted through extrapolation. These models use different
type of times series, variants of the „shift and share” analysis.
Such models have several advantages. Firstly, they are easy to use. Secondly the
necessary data are relatively limited, compared to multiple-equation models, for instance.
This type of models though have numerous weak points: one may assess only the direct
effects of regional policies measures if one uses one equation only; one generally neglects
the interrelation between the regional and national effects, the difference between the shortterm effects and the long-term one, as well as the interdependence among independent
variables. These drawbacks lead to uncertainty in the conclusions regarding the effects of
regional policy measures.
Models based on one equation may be subdivided into: models with one equation
and with non-political variables; and models with one equation that include also
instruments of regional policy.
Models whose variables do not consider regional policy measures aim at
comparing the present regional situation to an extrapolated one. The instruments of regional
policy are not explicitly incorporated into the model.
One-equation models integrating instruments of regional policy are able to assess
the direct impact of regional policy measures on the regional economic objectives. With
this type of models one may assess for instance the effect of financial policies on the
labour force or the effects of regional policy instruments on industry.
• Multiple-equation models
They aim at forwarding a coherent image of direct and indirect impact of regional
policy measures on the purpose-oriented variables of regional economy. This type of
5
models enable us to consider the different effects of regional policies measures on different
elements of regional economy.
When using such a model to analyse the impact of regional policy, in most cases
one measures the effects of public expenditure and private investments in infrastructure
using spatial macroeconomic indicators, such as: income, labour force, gross domestic
product. The weak points of multiple-equation models result from neglecting the
interrelations between national and regional effects and from the distinction of the longterm and short-term effects.
An example of general model with simultaneous equations may be found also in
the economic-demographic models. These are useful especially for the analysis of regions
where rapid economic growth or, on the contrary, the economic decline, stimulate
immigration or emigration, respectively. For each type of regression it is important to
integrate submodels of the demographic and economic system, with the specification of
their interdependence.
Given the coherence and multidimensional nature of integrated regional models, it
is obvious that despite some deficiencies, such models are preferable in the empirical
analysis of regional policy. One should nevertheless underline that the data issue impedes
many a time the empirical estimation through such models especially in the case of “ad-hoc
impact analyses” of certain public projects.
In the context of integrated models, for regional policy it is useful using a
multimodular project in which the correlated goals of regional policy be treated as
modules. This goes both for the intercorrelated types of instruments of regional and for the
external variables. This enables us to know the actual effects and to tell them from
irrelevant stimuli, as well as from the effects of political measures packages. Such a model
that may be used in a multiregional context is the integrated multiregional model devised
by Isard and Anselin.
An appropriate integrated model of regional policy must comprehensibly measure
the effects, to incorporate also noneconomic effects and to be able to consider
“combinations” of different alternative policies. When discussing the multiregional aspects
an integrated model includes, it means interrelations among regions and / or between
regions and national economy.
2. Multidimensional techniques for assessing the effects of regional economic
policy
When assessing a certain measure of regional policy one should consider other
categories of effects as well, such as the effects on environment and social effects. Some of
the models already presented could be adapted for the assessment of other categories of
effects.
The main problem connected to environmental and social effects is: which
particular effects to include and how to measure them.
Among different types of techniques enabling the assessment of the
multidimensional impact of regional policies, three are considered to be extremely
important, i.e. the cost-benefit approach, the cost-efficiency approach and the multicriteria
analysis.
With the help of the cost-benefit method one measures the present net value of a
certain regional policy, considering all social costs and benefits, essential and predictable
6
for the future, expressed in financial terms. The alternatives to the net present value are the
internal exchange rate, the internal economic exchange and the cost- benefit ratio.
A characteristic and at the same time a strong point of this technique is that both
costs and benefits are represented through monetary values. This makes it relatively easy to
choose a better alternative.
One should also mention certain difficulties inherent to this approach. A first issue
occurring is the choice, the option for an adequate social discount rate. Furthermore, it is
difficult to evaluate certain social costs and benefits in financial terms. This is due to the
fact that in order to assess a regional policy one may take into account as well different
divergent effects of the policy. Besides the economic effects one must also look into the
effects linked to social, political and governmental issues. In order to evaluate these “noneconomic” costs and benefits, conventional cost-benefit techniques considering solely the
economic costs and benefits are not appropriate.
Within a regional context we should consider the costs and benefits of different
localisations, placements. As a matter of fact, the costs of a region become benefits for
other regions. This problem cannot surface if the effects of regional policy are analysed
only within an isolated region. Nevertheless in most cases regional policies are assessed
from a national or even supranational viewpoint.
Last but not least, one should point out that very detailed data are required for the
cost-benefit method.
Cost-efficiency approach may be defined as the simple form of the cost-benefit
analyses. In a cost-efficiency approach, benefits are not rendered in monetary values.
Consequently, this method is useful if one can neglect the measurement of the benefits of a
regional policy in monetary terms.
The main purpose of this methods is to reach certain previously set operational
goals. For each category of effects one assesses the operational goals. The overall strategic
objective consists in identifying the lowest cost of a given political measure for the
reaching of the selected operational goals. The strategic goal takes precise shape through
the examination of different means enabling its reaching.
The drawback of the method is the fact that, as the cost-efficiency analysis does
not consider the “benefits” of a certain policy, it is possible that the best cost-efficiency
option be too expensive. Besides, there is the risk of a first acceptance of a set goal, which
may lead to the dropping of a certain political measure, although it would have been
preferable, with certain amendments. That is why a certain flexibility is needed when using
this method. The mentioned weak point in the cost- benefit approach are the same for the
cost-efficiency one, but the latter is less expensive and requires less detailed data.
The multicriteria analysis takes into consideration all dimensions relevant to the
respective regional policy. With this analysis one may elaborate a comprising comparison
among different measures of regional policy, based on priorities granted or foreseen for
each of them.
The main difference from the cost-benefit and cost-efficiency approaches is that
the multicriteria analysis does not have the usually arbitrary difficulty to transfer specific
effects into monetary or other values. In general such a transformation is not necessary for
the results of a certain policy, as these results may be measured with any other appropriate
measuring instruments.
The major advantage of multircriteria analysis is that they may consider, in the
assessment, all criteria relevant for a given political measure and the analysis is not
7
necessarily limited to monetarily measurable criteria. Instead of transforming different
criteria in monetary values, these are evaluated through cardinal scaling or qualitative
ordering. There are many possibilities of assessing different effects, but it is always
difficult to gather objective data, necessary for assessing effects and for ordering political
priorities.
References
1.Jones, R. (1996) – The politics and economics of the European Union, Edward Elgar.
Cheltenham, UK.
2.Krugman, Paul (1991) – Increasing returns and economic geography, Journal of Political
Economy, Vol. 99, No. 3;
3.Neven, D., Gouyette, C.,(1995) – Regional convergence in the European Community,
Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1;
4.Petrin, Tea (2002) – Speaking notes for Tea Petrin, Summing up and conclusions,
Coehesion Forum, Brussels;
5.Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (1996) – Regional cohesion: Evidence and theories of regional
growth and convergence, European Economic Review, Vol. 40;
***Commission of the European Communities (2002)– Commission Communication :
First Progress Report on Economic and Social Coesion, Brussels;
***Coehesion Forum (2001) – The Future of Coehesion Policy, Ten Questions for Debate
Wishdale, Fiona, Yuill, Douglas (1997) – Measuring Disparities for Area Designation
Purposes: Issues for the European Union, Regional and Industrial Policy Research Paper,
No. 24
***Site-ul Portal al Uniunii Europene www.europa.eu.int
8
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSABILITY – BASED
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Valentin Munteanu, Petru Ştefea
Marilen Pirtea, Marius Ioan Pantea
Universitatea de Vest din Timişoara
Facultatea De Ştiinţe Economice
1. Introducere. Aspectul strategic al responsabilităţii sociale
Atingerea obiectivelor de creare a unui economii europene de înaltă
competitivitate se poate realiza doar prin aplicarea principiilor de dezvoltare durabilă,
care impune o convergenţă a competenţelor, energiilor, dorinţelor şi viziunilor întregii
comunităţi de afaceri, ale guvernelor şi societăţii civile. În acest proces, rolul
organizaţiilor de afaceri va fi evaluat şi apreciat într-un mod mai complex decât doar
pornind de la tradiţionala cuantificare a volumului de investiţii realizate, a numărului de
locuri de muncă nou – create sau a calităţii bunurilor şi serviciilor pe care le livrează
pieţei. Organizţaiile vor fi judecate şi prin modul în care
În definirea sau redefinirea misiunii unei companii, managementul strategic
trebuie să ţină seama de presiunile tot mai mari cu privire la creşterea rolului activ pe care
compania respectivă trebuie să şi-l asume în societate, actiune ce poartă numele de
“responsabilitatea socială a organizaţiei-RSO” (CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility).
Implicarea companiilor a devenit un subiect frecvent abordat datorită unor manifestării
unor factori cum ar fi: globalizarea competiţiei şi pieţelor, epuizarea resurselor, creşterea
pericolului poluării şi scăderea rolului sectorului public. RSO devine o componentă tot
mai importantă a interacţiunii mediului de afaceri cu societatea în care îsi desfăşoară
activitatea. Problemele de management, implicit responsabilitatea socială, devin mult mai
complexe pe măsură ce companiile trec de graniţele naţionale: dacă este dificil să se
ajungă la un consens despre ceea ce constitue un comportament responsabil social în
cadrul propriei culturi, cu atât mai dificil este să se determine valori etice comune tuturor
culturilor.
Sunt trei principii generale conform cărora manegeri trebuie să fie preocupaţi de
comportamentul responsabil al organizaţiei. În primul rând, dreptul non - unei companii
de a exista depinde de responsabilitatea sa faţă de mediul înconjurător. În al doilea rând,
guvernele pot introduce legi mai stricte dacă afacerile nu incud în aria lor standardele
sociale. În al treilea rând, o politică de responsabilitate socială duce la susţinerea
viabilităţii unei firme.
Responsabilitatea unei activităţi nu este un concept cu totul nou: majoritatea
întreprinderilor, în special cele mici, au fost întotdeauna aproape de comunităţi şi au
căutat să fie nişte buni cetăţeni corporativi, încă de la începuturile comerţului. De fapt,
mulţi întreprinzători ştiu instinctiv că „a face ceea ce trebuie” – a deservi clienţii, a avea
grijă de moralul personalului, a fi atenţi faţă de furnizori, a fi buni vecini şi a proteja
mediul – înseamnă bun simţ comercial. Totuşi, în anii din urmă au apărut şi alte
stimulente pentru responsabilitate mainifestate prin presiune din partea clienţilor, a
comunităţilor locale, a autorităţilor de reglementare, băncilor, finanţatorilor şi furnizorilor
de servicii de asigurare.
1
Implicarea companiilor a devenit un subiect frecvent pe agenda comunităţii de
afaceri şi a sectorului neguvernamental. Există o serie de motive pentru interesul crescut
faţă de acest subiect, de la nevoia de a găsi surse alternative şi flexibile de finanţare, la
încadrarea într-un context european şi global care impune companiilor să fie mai
responsabile şi mai transparente, la simpla dorinţă de a se apropia de un subiect pe care şi
partenerii sau competiţia îl abordează, la nevoia de a răspunde cât mai eficient şi mai
temeinic problemelor cu care se confruntă fiecare comunitate.
2. Retrospectivă bibliografică
Primul care face referire la acest termen este H.R.Bowen în lucrarea
“Responsabilitatea socială a oamenilor de afaceri”. H.R. Bowen argumentează că o
organizaţie are obligaţia de a “urmări acele politici, de a lua acele decizii, ori de urma
acele linii de acţiune care sunt dezirabile în termeni de obiective şi valori ale societăţii ”
(Bowen, 1953). Autorul susţine faptul că acest concept al responsabilităţii sociale are
două semnificaţii:
- afacerile există datorită societăţii, iar comportamentul şi metodele lor de
operare trebuie să coincidă cu cele ale societăţii;
- oamenii de afaceri trebuie să se comporte asemenea unor agenţi responsabili
moral faţă de societate.
De-a lungul timpului un număr tot mai mare cercetători, proveniţi fie din mediul
academic, fie din practica economică, au susţinut ideea că firmele nu mai pot fi
considerate doar ca instituţii private, ci şi ca instituţii sociale (Lodge, 1977; Freeman,
1984; Frederick, 1992). Carroll sugerează că responsabilitatea socială a corporaţiilor este
definită având la bază cererile economice, legale, etice şi sociale pe care societatea le are
faţă de afaceri (Caroll, 1979).
În general, RSO se situează la intersecţia dintre sistemele politic şi cel cultural
respective cel economic (Jones, 1983). Izvorul responsabilitatea socială este considerat
„obligaţia care decurge din creşterea puterii sociale ale unei firme”, iar necorelarea
acestei creşteri cu responsabilitatea socială ar putea duce în cele din urmă la pierderea
acestei puteri sociale şi implicit la declinul firmei (Davis, 1975).
Un alt punct de vedere aparţine lui T. Donaldson, care consideră responsabilitatea
socială drept o obligaţie contractuală pe care firmele o au faţă de societate. O firmă deţine
un rol central în societate şi acest rol îi permite să folosească atât resursele umane cât şi
cele naturale pentru a-şi exercita funcţiile productive şi pentru o obţine un anumit statut
de putere. În contrapartidă, societatea are drepturi sociale implicite: în schimbul
permisiunii acordate de a exploata resurse în procesele productiv, societatea poate să
ceară dreptul de a controla aceste procese (Donaldson, 1983). Specificul acestui tip de
contract se poate schimba pe măsură ce se modifică condiţiile sociale, dar în general
acesta rămâne baza legitimităţii cererii pentru responsabilitate socială (Epstein, 1987).
D. Wood extinde aceste idei, identificând 3 principii de urmat pentru
responsabilitatea socială (Wood, 1991):
(i) organizaţiile de afaceri sunt şi “instituţii sociale” şi aceasta le obligă să-şi
folosească puterea în mod responsabil;
(ii) organizaţiile de afaceri sunt responsabile pentru ceea ce oferă mediului în care sunt
implicate;
2
(iii) managerii sunt “agenţi morali” care sunt obligaţi să exercite în mod responsabil
prerogativele lor decizionale.
O completare la aceste argumente a fost realizată de Tuzzolino şi Armandi
(1981) care au formulat o teorie motivaţională a răspunsului social al organizaţiilor,
bazată pe piramida nevoilor a lui Maslow. Conform acestei teorii, organizaţiile adoptă
politici de responsabilitate socială după ce îşi satisfac nevoile aflate pe primele trei
nivele: nevoile de supravieţuire (sau de raţionalitate a activităţii economice) – obţinerea
profitului şi a dividendelor (nivelul 1), nevoile de securitate – obţinerea şi menţinerea
avantajelor competitive (nivelul 2) şi nevoile de afiliere – participarea în uniuni
comerciale sau patronale ori în grupuri de lobby (nivelul 3).
Toate aceste abordări pro-RSO au avut şi oponenţi. Cel mai de seamă este
economistul neo-liberal Milton Friedman, care considera că singura responsabilitate a
unei organizaţii de afaceri este de a maximiza profitul pentru a respecta drepturile
proprietarilor săi, singurele legitime. Din punctul de vedere a lui Friedman, managerul
unei companii care utilizează resursele acesteia pentru scopuri sociale, non – profit,
afectează eficienţa firmei şi lezează drepturile proprietarilor, ale căror eforturi au fost cele
care au determinat, în mod esenţial, existenţa firmei, iar organizaţiile sunt percepute pur
ca o entitate legală incapabilă de decizii bazate pe valori (Friedman, 1970). Friedman
susţine că “putine sunt tendinţele care pot dărîma fundaţia societăţii libere precum
aceptarea de către corporaţii a responsabilităţii sociale în loc să facă cât mai mulţi bani cu
putinţă pentru acţionarii lor”. De patru decenii de la aceste afirmaţii ale lui Friedman,
problema responsabilităţii sociale a organizaţiilor şi idea corolară conform căreia
afacerile au obligaţia de a servi atât societatea cât şi interesele financiare ale acţionarilora rămas foarte discutate. Managerii recunosc însă că extinderea şi aplicarea
responsabilităţii sociale este o decizie strategică.
Fiecare organizaţie diferă în ceea ce priveşte modul în care implementează RSO.
Aceste diferenţe sunt determinate de o serie de factori, cum ar fi: dimensiunea
organizaţiei, specificul industriei sau sectorului în care operează organizaţia, cultura
organizaţională, cererile stakeholder-ilor şi tradiţia adoptării de către organizaţie a
practicilor de responsabilitate socială. Anumite organizaţii se focalizează asupra unei
singure dimensiuni a RSO, aceea care este percepută ca fiind cea mai importantă sau în
care organizaţia are cel mai mare impact sau cea mai mare expunere – vulnerabilitate
(spre exemplu, drepturile omului sau protecţia mediului), pe când altele îşi definesc
obiective de RSO multi-dimensionale, care să cuprindă toate laturile activităţilor lor.
Pentru o implementare de succes, este esenţial ca principiile de responsabilitate socială să
devină parte a valorilor corporative şi a planificărilor strategice, fiind necesar
angajamentul spre respectarea lor atât din partea managementului, cât şi din partea
angajaţilor. Mai mult, este foarte important ca strategia de responsabilitate socială să fie
convergentă cu obiectivele specifice ale companiei şi cu nucleul său de competenţe –
forţa de muncă, capacităţile de producţie, know-how-ul financiar şi comercial, sistemele
informaţionale şi tehnologiile (Tsoutsoura, 2004; Krajewski, Ritzman, 1994; Cazan,
Munteanu, Pantea, 2005).
Responsabilitatea Socială a Organizaţiilor este defintă în variate modalităţi şi de
instituţii politice sau de către organizaţii de afaceri: “CSR reprezintă angajamentul
continuu pentru un comportament etic şi participare la dezvoltarea economică prin
3
îmbunătăţirea calităţii vieţii angajaţilor şi a familiilor acestora, dar şi a comunităţii locale
şi a societăţii în ansamblul ei” (World Business Council for Sustainable Development).
“A acţiona cu responsabilitate socială înseamnă nu numai a îndeplini prevederile
legale, ci a merge dincolo de acestea prin investiţii voluntare în capitalul uman, în
managementul mediului şi în relaţiile cu toate grupurile de interesaţi” (The European
Commission, 2001).
“CSR este un concept prin care companiile integrează, pe bază voluntară
obiective de afaceri, sociale şi de protecţia mediului în toate operaţiunile lor productive
sau comerciale sau în relaţiile cu grupurile de interesaţi” (The European Commission,
2002).
În concordanţă cu Business for Social Responsibility (bsr.org), responsabilitatea
socială a unei organizaţii este defintă ca „atingerea obiectivelor comerciale şi financiare
prin modalităţi care respectă oamenii, comunităţile, mediul şi valorile morale”. Un aspect
important al definiţiilor posibile este acela că RSO nu trebuie prevăzută prin acte
normative. Astfel, RSO este descrisă ca „totalitatea acţiunilor realizate pentru a promova
un anumit interes social, dincolo de interesul direct al organizaţiei şi dincolo de ceea ce
este cerut prin lege” (McWilliams, Siegel, 2000). Dar definitiile acestui termen nu pot fi
limitative şi să se incadreze intre anumite graniţe precise.
3. Raţiunea şi raţionalitatea responsabilităţii sociale a corporaţiilor. Cetăţeania
corporatistă
Investirea în societate nu este doar o problemă a guvernelor, ci şi a companiilor ca
parte integrantă din societate. Companiile oferă locuri de muncă, produse şi servicii şi
reprezintă un loc de întâlinire a oamenilor.
De asemenea, companiile au interesul de a investi în calitatea societăţi, în
îmbunătăţirea nivelului componentelor cocietăţii, întrucât societatea, la rândul ei, poate
oferi astfel afacerilor oportunităţi mai mari de dezvoltare şi expansiune. O societate
puternică dă posibilitatea unei companii de a creşte, de a atrage personal pregătit şi de aşi spori eficienţa. Este o viziune ce se potriveşte cu studiul asupra echilibrului dintre ”cei
3 P” - Persoane, Planetă şi Profit” (persoane însemnând oamenii din şi în afara
companiei sau organizaţiei, planeta cuprinzând tot mediul înconjurător, iar profitul
referindu-se la ansamblul beneficiilor tangibile şi intangibile pe care le înregistrează
organizaţia)
Cele mai importante motive pentru ca o companie să se implice în proiecte de
responsabilitate socială sunt:
- motive etice: profit, persoane, planetă - e lângă responsabilittaea de a realiza
profit şi a avea grijă de angajaţi sau clienţi, este important ă contribuţia la
îmbunătătţirea situaţiei comunităţi locale şi a mediului.
- crearea unei imagini pozitive - implicarea în proiectele de responsabilitate
socială va aduce o imagine favorabilă companiei participante.
- dezvoltarea complexă a comunităţilor, cu efect de creştere economică - din ce
în ce mai multi oameni vor fi capabili să cumpere produsele pe care compania
le oferă, şi acesti noi clienţi vor fi atraşi de companiile care contribuie la
bunăstarea societăţii.
4
-
îmbunătăţirea relaţiilor cu autorităţile locale - cooperarea cu autorităţile locale
influenţează pozitiv relaţiile viitoare ale companiei cu aceste autorităţi;
- ajută la identificarea angajaţilor cu compania - implicarea în proiecte de
responsabilitate socială creează un sentiment pozitiv puternic în rândul
angajaţilor; unele proiecte sunt realizate astfel încât grupuri de angajaţi să
lucreze împreună în anumite domenii, dezvoltând astfel spiritul de echipă.
- stimulează inovarea şi networkingul - companiile care colaborează cred că în
acest mod informaţia circulă, experienţele sunt împărţite.
Cetăţenia corporatistă este strategia de afaceri care înglobează valorile misiunii
companiilor şi alegerile pe care executivul, manageri si angajatii le adoptă zilnic pe
masură ce se implică în societate. Conceptul de cetăţenie corporatistă şi cel al
responsabilităţii sociale au definiţii complexe şi sunt folosite împreună.
Cetăţenia corporatistă în secolul 21 constitue o tranziţie de la un model care
cuprindea activităţii necorelate între ele la un model conţinând standarde globale
referitoare la promovarea activităţilor filantropice şi desfăşurate pe bază de voluntariat.
Provocările globale curente de transparenţă, aşteptările grupurilor de interese, încrederea
şi imaginea necesită o abordare stategică sprijinită la cele mai înalte nivele ale companiei,
integrate şi aliniate în întregul plan de afaceri.
Sunt identificate trei principii importante care definesc esenţa cetăţeniei
corporatiste şi pe care fiecare companie ar trebui să le aplice într-o manieră specifică
nevoilor proprii:
- minimizarea aspectele negative - a munci pentru a minimiza consecinţele
negative ale activităţi şi deciziilor asupra grupurilor de interese incluzând clienţii,
comunitatea, ecosistemul, angajaţii, acţionarii şi furnizori, prin: derularea de operaţiuni
de afaceri desfăşurate pe baze etice, sprijinirea eforturilor de stopare a corupţiei,
sprijinirea drepturilor omului, prevenirea poluării mediului, tratarea angajaţilor in mod
responsabil şi echitabil, implementarea unei conduite adecvate în relaţiile cu furnizorii,
asigurarea siguranţei angajaţilor, livrerea sigură, produse de calitate ridicată etc.
- maximizarea beneficiilor – a contribui la bunăstarea socială şi economică prin
investirea resurselor în activităţi de care beneficiază atât grupurile de interese cât şi
ceilalţi colaboratori, participarea voluntară la rezolvarea problemelor sociale (precum
educaţie, sănătate, dezvoltarea tinerilor, dezvoltarea economică, dezvoltarea resurselor
umane), asigurarea stabilităţii şi durabilităţii locurilor de muncă, plătirea de salarii
echitabile, realizarea de produse cu valoare socială ridicată etc.
-responsabilitatea faţă de colaboratorii cheie –a crea mecanisme pentru
includerea participării grupurilor de interese în guvernanţa organizaţională.
În cele din urmă, ceea ce diferenţiază o companie care practică o cetăţenie
corporatistă de celelalte este exprimat prin felul în care îsi implementează sistemul de
valori. Valorile devin un instrument strategic cu ajutorul căreia se clădeşte baza încrederii
şi cooperării.
Există o serie de motivaţii interne şi externe pentru practicarea cetăţeniei
corporatistă. Motivaţiile interne incud: tradiţia si valorile morale, reputaţia şi imaginea,
strategia de afacere, recrutarea şi menţinerea angajaţilor. Motivaţiile externe cuprind:
consumatori şi clienţii, cele aşteptate în comunitate, legi şi presiuni politice. Se identifică
patru nivele de activitate prin care o companie poate fi un bun cetăţean: (1) la nivelul
interesului comercial propriu, obţinut prin modul în care organizaţia se supune legilor şi
5
reglementărilor şi selectează acele activităţi care aduc beneficii grupurilor de interese şi
comunităţi şii care contribuie direct la realizarea profitabilităţii şi competitivităţii pe
piaţă; (2) la nivelul beneficiilor comunitare imediate, degajate ca urmare a modului în
care se implementează activităţi care trec dincolo de problelele uzuale de afaceri şi care
aduc beneficii grupurilor de interese şi comunităţii, obţinândiu-se astfel şi beneficii
măsurabile pentru companie pe termen scurt şi mediu; (3) la nivelul beneficiilor
comunitare pe termen lung, obţinute ca urmare a modului în care organizaţia sprijină
activităţile comunităţii, precum educaţia şi trainingurile, care vor avea un impact
important în realizarea succesului în afaceri; (4) la nivelul de ansamblu al promovării
bunăstării, realizată prin modul în care sprijină sau participă la activităţi care
îmbunătăţesc condiţiile în comunitate sau ale grupurilor de interese, fără a avea aşteptări
directe în beneficii tangibile pentru companie.
În general, cetăţenia corporatistă este atinsă prin activităţi selectate prin criterii
strategice de afaceri, prin filantropie corporatistă şi prin parteneriate afaceri-comunitate.
4. Cutia de viteze a responsabilităţii sociale
În ceea ce priveşte modul de aliniere la politicile şi practicile de responsabilitate
socială, se poate propune un model general al treptelor/etapelor de parcurs spre o
integrare deplină în viaţa socială. Acesta este denumit motorul Responsabilităţii Sociale a
Organizatiei (fig.1), fiecare viteză reprezentând un pas spre un nivel mai înalt de
responsabilitate socială. Pe măsură ce companiile şi organizaţiile se îndreaptă spre o nouă
viteză (optează pentru „schimbarea vitezei”), nivelul de angajament şi integrare se
ajustează. Uşurinţa cu care aceste schimbări se pot produce depind de gradul de
sincronizare a actiovităţii şi obiectivelor organizaţionale cu domeniul politic, instituţional
şi economic şi de gradul în care liderii pot pune în balanţă priorităţile lor interne şi
externe. Intrarea în a cincea treaptă de viteză corespunde cu gradul de încredere cel mai
înalt pe care o companie îl poate atinge în cadrul societăţii, fară a mai putea realiza
schimbări suplimentare în sistemul de ţintuire a obiectivelor de dezvoltare durabilă,
Inevitabil, anumite companii se vor îndrepta mai încet spre o viteză superioară, în timp ce
alţii se vor adapta mai uşor.
1
R
3
5
4
2
Fig. 1
6
•
•
•
•
Viteza 1: Îndeplinirea obligaţiilor - este etapa care reprezintă primul contact dintre
companie şi o agendă socială, marcată de percepţia că rolul sectorului de afaceri
este să primordial de a face afaceri, existând şi o oarecare recunoaştere a unui
impact asupra societăţii, manifestată prin donaţii caritabile. În această etapă:
- departamentele de relaţii publice şi cele juridice joacă un rol covârşitor, dar
defensiv;
- participarea grupurilor de interes este limitată la filantropia corporativă;
- relaţia cu guvernul este privită din perspectiva respectării obligaţiilor legale şi
a plăţii obligaţiilor fiscale;
- nu se percepe avanatajul economic al depăşirii obligaţiilor minime;
- principali factorii de motivare sunt mass-media şi guvernul.
Viteza 2: Iniţiativa proprie (voluntariatul) – este stadiul în care o parte din
companii depăşesc ideea de îndeplinire a obligaţiilor minime, începând să
perceapă responsabilitatea socială ca o chesiune legitimă, care necesită o abordare
constructivă. În această etapă, accentul cade pe măsurarea şi gestionarea
impactului direct al activităţilor operaţionale ale companiei. Viteza a doua se
caracterizează prin:
- aprofundarea ideei de responsabilitate socială, deşi aceasta este încă percepută
ca un exerciţiu de relaţii publice;
- implicarea grupurilor de interese este mărită, dar de cele mai multe ori este în
continuare unidirecţională;
- relaţiile cu guvernul se materilaizează primordial în taxe, respectarea
obligaţiilor legale şi a lobby-ului;
- apar standarde la nivel de sector, elaborate şi adoptate voluntar de către
companii;
- argumentul economic se axează pe managementul riscului şi eficienţă din
punct de vedere ecologic;
- presiunea din partea altor companii devine principalul factor de motivare.
Viteza 3: Parteneriatul – este etapa în care compania , precum şi alte companii din
acelaşi sector, încep să acţioneze cu adevărat sinergic. În acest stadiu, există o
multitudine de iniţiative, a căror număr şi diversitate poate creea confuzii. În
viteza a trei-a, fenomenul CSR se caracterizeauă prin:
- creşterea rolului şi importanţei experţilor în CSR, care devin principali actori,
în timp ce conducerea firmelor este doar o simplă prezenţă la evenimentele
majore;
- stabilirea unei comunicări bidirecţionale cu grupurile interesate;
- creearea unor relaţii cu guvernele, de tip parteneriat public-privat, sau chiar
multi-sectoriale;
- în acest stadiu argumentul economic se axează pe managementul riscului şi
construirea reputaţiei;
- principala forţă motrice este societatea civilă, anumite structuri
guvernamentale şi companii leader, dar media îşi pierde treptat influenţa.
Viteza 4: Integrarea - este o etapă în care temele legate de responsabilitate sunt
percepute ca având o importanţă strategică şi necesitând răspunsuri integrate.
Accentul cade pe integrarea responsabilităţii sociale în toate aspectele
operaţiunilor companiei.
7
•
•
Viteza 5: Re-proiectarea sistemului de business - este o “viteză” suplimentară,
care ia în considerare apariţiei unor noi actori şi forţe de schimbare, stadiu în care
responsabilitatea este percepută nu doar ca afectând produsele sau serviciile, ci ca
necesitând chiar re-examinarea modelelor economice cu care se operează. Este o
viteză de suprasolicitare.
Viteza 6: Marşarier - este o viteză care coexistă cu celelalte şi porneşte de la
ideea că cel putin o parte din timp, companiile vor dori să opereze potrivit
modelelor mai puţin progresive, cel putin în anumite aspecte ale activitaţii lor.
Exemplul oferit este cel al companiilor care îsi asumă o atitudine responsabilă faţă
de o problemă, dar prin asociaţiile profesionale sau cele de branşă, fac lobby
împotriva soluţiilor propuse la acea problemă. Aceasta este o viteza nedorită, care
diminuează încrederea în companii, spun autorii raportului.
1.5 Etape în abordarea responsabilităţii sociale
Motorul RSO prezentat este un model general care priveşte fenomenul
responsabilităţi sociale în ansamblu, dar pentru a integra cât mai bine practicile
responsabile în activitatea lor, companiile au nevoie de modele individualizate, care să le
permită atingerea de responsabilitate într-un mod specific fiecăreia. O nouă viziune
privind integrarea practicilor responsabile este dat de directorul instituţiei Accountability,
Simon Zadek. El susţine că procesul de însuşire a practicilor responsabile este unul de
învăţare, ce are două dimensiuni. O dimensiune care priveşte compania, pe care o
numeşte “organizaţională” şi alta care priveşta societatea, numită de el “socială”,
dimensiuni care împreună definesc felul în care compania îşi va înţelege şi asuma
responsabilitatea socială.
La nivel organizational procesul de responsabilizare trece prin cinci stadii:
• Defensiv. În stadiul defensiv, compania este ţinta unor atacuri sau critici din
partea mass-media sau a societaţii civile, sau uneori, chiar a clienţilor, datorită
felului în care îşi conduce afacerile, şi care nu respectă anumite standarde, sau
produce daune mediului sau unor persoane. Criticile acestea, de obicei
neaşteptate, sunt întampinate cu negarea veridicitaţii sau cu neasumarea culpei,
acestea fiind atributele mesajului comun al departamentelor juridice si de
comunicare.
• De aliniere. Stadiul de aliniere este unul al efortului minim. Compania supusă
presiunii publice înţelege că ar trebui să instituie o politică la nivelul companiei
pentru a evita acţiunile ce au dat nastere la critici. Alinierea este privită ca parte
naturală a costurilor unor afaceri, fiind vorba de a proteja imaginea companiei şi
de a reduce riscul unor procese. Instinctul companiilor este de a se limita la
această aliniere la standarde minime, fară a se angaja în a rezolva problema în
ansamblul său.
• Managerial. Nivelul managerial denotă o abordare mai matură a practicilor
responsabile, în care compania înţelege că problema este una de durată, care nu
poate fi rezolvată prin eforturi minime, şi că bunele practici necesită o schimbare
în managementul şi operaţiunile companiei de care sunt responsabili cei ce se
ocupă de ansamblul activitaţii companiei, nu un departament juridic sau de relatii
publice.
8
•
Strategic. Acest nivel se caracterizează prin întelegerea avantajului competitiv pe
care îl poate genera comportamentul responsabil şi a impactului practicilor CSR
asupra firmei pe termen lung. În unele sectoare atingerea nivelului strategic poate
fi vitală, spre exemplu în domeniul produselor alimentare, unde efectul acestora
asupra sanătăţii consumatorului poate influenţa succesul pe piaţă.
• Civic. La nivelul civic, compania urmareşte să se asigure că practicile
responsabile vor fi adoptate de tot sectorul / industria în care activează. O
asemenea "autoreglementare" poate urmări evitarea unei reglementări din
exterior, mai stricte, sau poate porni din întelegerea mai profundă a rolului pe care
sectorul de afaceri îl joaca în societatea globală.
La nivel social, procesul de responsabilizare se referă la capacitatea companiilor
de a anticipa şi a se adapta percepţiilor societaţii asupra unei anume chestiuni, percepţii
ce se află într-o continuă evoluţie. Companiile trebuie să înţeleagă acest proces de
evoluţie al opiniilor privind anumite teme, şi să îi răspundă într-un mod cât mai adecvat.
Zadek propune un model în 4 etape pentru a întelege stadiile prin care trece o
problemă/temă, pentru a intra în constiinţa publicului larg.
Potrivit acesteia, stadiile parcurse de diferite probleme sunt:
• Latenţa, stadiu în care problema este conştientizată doar de activiştii din
societatea civila, şi nu este documentată stiinţific.
• Dezvoltarea, stadiu în care problema pătrunde în sfera clasei politice şi a massmedia, şi începe să fie cercetată mai riguros, iar companiile de vârf
experimentează diverse modalitaţi de rezolvare a acesteia.
• Consolidarea, stadiu în care s-au dezvoltat deja un set de practici pentru
rezolvarea problemei, iniţiative voluntare, sectoriale care vizează soluţionarea
acesteia, standarde la care se aderă voluntar, şi o campanie publică pentru
standarde obligatorii, legislative.
• Instituţionalizarea, stadiul în care există o legislaţie sau norme privind problema,
iar practicile de soluţionare a acesteia sunt parte din modelele ideale de
funcţionare optimă a unei afaceri.
Dinamica acestor două procese de învatare defineşte felul în care o organizaţie înţelege să
fie responsabilă.
Spre deosebire de modelul “cutiei de viteze” care priveşte fenomenul CSR în
ansamblul său, viziunea propusă de Zadek este una individualizată, pentru fiecare
companie în parte, şi permite unei companii să-şi creeze o agendă CSR cât mai
sincronizată cu nevoile şi percepţiile comunitaţii în care activează.
9
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21. ***, Promoting a European framework for corporate social responsibility,
Green Paper, Industrial relations and industrial change, European
Commission, Luxembourg, July 2001, http://europa.eu.int
22. ***, Communication from the Commission concerning Corporate Social
Responsibility: A business contribution to Sustainable Development, COM
(2002) 347 final, July 2002, Brussels, http://europa.eu.int
11
DESCENTRALIZAREA DEZVOLTĂRII REGIONALE ÎN
ROMÂNIA: VALORIFICAREA EXPERIENŢEI EUROPENE
Prof. dr. Pârlog Cornelia
Prof. dr. Andrei Tudorel
Lect. Dr. Isaic-Maniu Irina
Academia de Studii Economice, Bucureşti
1. Modele de regionalizare în context european
În teoria şi practica europeană există diverse modele de administraţie
regională diferenţiate din punct de vedere al competenţelor autorităţilor regionale, al
instituţiilor regionale implicate, precum şi al descentralizării financiare1. Potrivit
acestor modele regiunile funcţionează pe principiul auto-organizării regionale,
respectiv dreptul de a-şi organiza propriile structuri şi funcţionarea lor în limitele
stabilite de constituţie.
Astfel, modelul 1este utilizat în regiunile care au puterea de a adopta legislaţie
primară în domeniul lor de competenţă, legislaţie care este garantată de constituţie
sau de un acord federal. Aceste regiuni pot avea dreptul de a adopta legislaţie
secundară în cadrul de acţiune a legislaţiei primare promulgate de parlamentul
naţional şi pot avea puteri delegate să legifereze sau să reglementeze, luând în
considerare condiţiile de particularitate ale fiecăreia.
Regiunile funcţionează pe principiul autonomiei financiare, resursele proprii
provenind din taxe şi alte surse. De asemenea, regiunile primesc transferuri de fonduri
din partea statului (granturi) sub formă de fonduri direcţionate (pentru proiecte sau
nevoi specifice) şi fonduri nedirecţionate (pentru acoperirea costului îndeplinirii
funcţiilor delegate). Acest tip de model este utilizat de Belgia, Germania şi parţial de
Italia.
Potrivit modelului 2, regiunile au dreptul de a legifera, în domenii în care
statul nu are competenţă exclusivă. Ele pot exercita puteri delegate de către stat.
Aceste regiuni primesc fonduri de la stat sau au propriile resurse. Resursele
proprii provin din fonduri nedirecţionate din partea statului, venituri ale statului din
taxe (exclusiv cele direcţionate către regiuni) şi venituri din taxele stabilite de către
fiecare regiune. Fondurile de la stat sunt sub formă de alocaţii (granturi) direcţionate
sau nedirecţionate.
În stabilirea fondurilor destinate regiunilor se ţine seama de numărul
populaţiei şi de nivelul de dezvoltare economică. Această categorie de modele de
administraţie regională se întâlneşte în Spania şi parţial în Marea Britanie.
În cazul modelului 3, regiunile au dreptul de a promulga legi în conformitate
cu cadrul stabilit de legislaţia naţională; existenţa acestor legi este garantată de
Constituţie. Regiunile au atât competenţe proprii stabilite în Constituţie sau dreptul
naţional cât şi competenţe delegate de către stat, ambele exercitându-se prin legislaţie
şi reglementări.
Regiunile au autonomie financiară în conformitate cu reglementările Cartei
Europene a Autoguvernării Locale. Resursele lor sunt formate din: resurse proprii
care provin dintr-un procentaj sau o sumă adăugată (fixată de regiuni) la anumite taxe
1
Modele prezentate la Conferinţa Naţională pe problemele descentralizării, Sinaia, decembrie 2003
1
sau venituri colectate de stat şi din taxele regionale şi din alocaţii generale sau
direcţionate pentru obiective specifice (în general necesare acoperirii costului pentru
implementarea sarcinilor delegate). Acest tip de model este utilizat de Republica Cehă
şi parţial de Italia.
În modelul 4, regiunile au puterea de a adopta legi şi/sau alte acte legislative
regionale, în conformitate cu legislaţia naţională dar a căror existenţă nu este garantată
de Constituţie. Şi în acest caz regiunile au propriile lor competenţe stabilite de lege şi
competenţe delegate de către stat, dar exercitarea competenţelor legislative poate fi
reglementată de către legislaţia de stat.
Aceste regiuni sunt în primul rând finanţate de către stat, ele neavând dreptul
de a percepe taxe pentru beneficiul lor. Resursele provin din fonduri nedirecţionate de
la guvernul central, fonduri direcţionate pentru proiecte sau programe specifice, un
anumit procent din anumite taxe naţionale, venituri din funcţionarea întreprinderilor
regionale, venituri din granturi direcţionate sau nedirecţionate. Ţări ca Ungaria şi
Marea Britanie (parţial) utilizează acest tip de model.
Conform modelului 5, regiunile au putere de decizie şi de reglementare,
neavând însă putere legislativă în implementarea competenţelor care le revin. De
asemenea regiunile pot avea puteri delegate lor de către autorităţile centrale şi pot să
împartă anumite competenţe cu autorităţile centrale (pe baza unui acord).
Veniturile acestor regiuni provin din resurse proprii (taxe, impozite sau alte
venituri fiscale) şi din transferuri. Fondurile primite pot fi parţial direcţionate.
Modelul se regăseşte în practica unor ţări precum: Danemarca, Franţa şi parţial Marea
Britanie.
În modelul 6, regiunile au putere decizională şi consilii alese de către
autorităţile locale. Nu au putere legislativă, deciziile lor bazându-se pe legislaţia
naţională şi decretele guvernamentale. Totuşi regiunile au posibilitatea să adapteze
exercitarea competenţelor la condiţiile lor specifice.
Regiunile sunt finanţate de către autorităţile locale din resurse proprii (dar nu
pot percepe impozite) şi prin alocaţii financiare de regulă cu caracter general. Acest
tip de model este utilizat de Finlanda.
2. Regionalizare şi descentralizare în România
2.1. Aspecte rezultate din Raportul anual al Comisiei Europene
Acceptând ideea că orice comunitate (locală) se configurează şi spaţial, astfel
încât printr-o structură spaţio-temporală să-şi poată păstra caracteristicile definitorii,
avem explicaţia faptului de ce, începând cu anii ΄60 ai secolului trecut, regionalismul
/regionalizarea a devenit o temă disputată şi abordată de către o serie de
discipline(regionalismul ca temă prioritară a dezbaterilor politice, poate fi considerat
un fel de barometru politic). Spaţiul post-totalitar prezintă, cum se întâmplă în foarte
multe împrejurări şi cazuri legate de tranziţia pe care o parcurge, simptome acute
privind abordarea temei, în primul rând datorită încărcăturii istorice pe care conceptul
regionalist o are de integrat în cele mai diverse interpretări (actualmente lumea
globalizată).
Abordarea politică poate avea în subsidiar latura ideologică şi, în continuarea
acesteia, cea cultural-tradiţională, adică cea identitară.
Abordarea administrativă ne conduce spre cea juridico-legislativă cu aspecte
ce vizează şi o istorie locală a instituţiilor publice.
2
Abordarea economică nu poate eluda şi nu poate fi desprinsă de analiza unor
aspecte sociale, de la cele demografice până la cele ale reţelelor de comunicare.
Aceste abordări ce-şi propun respectarea anumitor limite disciplinare, pot şi
trebuie completate cu cele datorate anumitor procese generale ale prezentului:
unificarea şi integrarea europeană, fenomene legate de sărăcie şi de migraţionismul
economic. În aceste condiţii, statul trebuie să intervină cu resurse financiare însemnate
pentru combaterea sărăciei şi reducerea dezechilibrelor, cu măsuri concrete împotriva
injustiţiei şi polarizării între bogaţi şi săraci care s-a accentuat şi în România.
Reducerea decalajelor, dezvoltarea armonioasă presupun, în principal, programe noi,
surse financiare suplimentare şi oameni noi pentru implementarea programelor de
dezvoltare regională. În acest sens o politică regională ancorată în realitatea
românească cu instituţii noi şi sănătoase, poate aduce un suflu nou pe linia
convergenţei noastre către Uniunea Europeană.
Politica regională poate fi apreciată şi din perspectiva utilizării de către
autorităţile publice centrale şi locale, a resurselor de care dispun; combinaţii de
instrumente de politică economică şi financiară în scopul stimulării investiţiilor,
creării de noi locuri de muncă şi al îmbunătăţirii condiţiilor de viaţă, într-o regiune
/teritoriu anume. Asemenea instrumente de politică economică acoperă o plajă largă,
de la cele cu caracter general ca de pildă, cadrul legal destinat să susţină dezvoltarea,
reglementările economice ale unor măsuri specifice, ca de exemplu, ajutorul de stat
acordat firmelor, cu scopul de a stimula investiţiile sau de a susţine proiecte de
restructurare.
Ajutoarele de stat reprezintă un instrument de tradiţie în Europa cu rol decisiv
pentru reducerea decalajelor, un echipament de intervenţie al decidenţilor politici de
oriunde, inclusiv în cele 25 state membre ale U.E.
În concepţia legiuitorului român, obiectivele politicii de dezvoltare regională,
care se materializează în ajutoare de stat, se localizează în următoarele direcţii
fundamentale :
• diminuarea dezechilibrelor regionale existente, prin stimularea
dezvoltării echilibrate, prin recuperarea accelerată a întârzierilor în
dezvoltarea zonelor defavorizate ca urmare a unor condiţii istorice,
geografice, economice, sociale, politice precum şi preîntâmpinarea
producerii de noi dezechilibre;
• pregătirea cadrului instituţional pentru a răspunde criteriilor de integrare
în structurile UE şi de acces la Fondurile structurale şi la Fondul de coeziune
ale Uniunii Europene;
• corelarea politicilor şi a activităţilor sectoriale guvernamentale la
nivelul regiunilor, prin stimularea iniţiativelor şi valorificarea resurselor
locale şi regionale, în scopul dezvoltării economico-sociale durabile şi a
dezvoltării culturale a acestora;
• stimularea cooperării inter-regionale, interne şi internaţionale, a celei
transfrontaliere, inclusiv în cadrul euro-regiunilor, precum şi participarea
regiunilor de dezvoltare la structurile şi organizaţiile europene care
promovează dezvoltarea economică şi instituţională a acestora, în scopul
realizării unor proiecte de interes comun, în conformitate cu acordurile la
care România este parte.
În contextul pregătirilor pentru aderare în 2007 (Capitolul 21 – Dezvoltare
Regională şi Coordonarea instrumentelor structurale fiind închis în mod provizoriu
în septembrie 2004), într-o ţară în care nu există o tradiţie consolidată în domeniul
3
dezvoltării regionale şi cu resurse limitate pentru intervenţii structurale, atât de
necesare, Legea nr.315/28 iunie 2004 reprezintă un progres deosebit de important.
În această lege sunt stabilite în mod clar obiectivele, competenţele,
instrumentele specifice pentru dezvoltarea regională şi cadrul instituţional viabil care
se aplică din 29 septembrie 2004. Principiile de bază ale legii sunt subsidiaritatea,
descentralizarea şi parteneriatul. În capitolul II al legii sunt prezentate regiunile de
dezvoltare în concordanţă cu obiectivele de coeziune economică şi socială, pentru
care Institutul European din România a efectuat studii de impact.
În anexa acestei legi sunt prezentate cele opt regiuni de dezvoltare care au în
medie, fiecare, circa 2,8 milioane de locuitori . După opinia noastră, o zonă de
dezvoltare regională ar fi mai potrivită cu 1,8 – 2 milioane de locuitori.
Consiliul Concurenţei manifestă o deschidere totală în vederea aplicării
imediate a Legii nr. 315/ 2004, cunoscând rolul jucat de noile reglementări în
asigurarea coerenţei şi convergenţei politicii regionale în cadrul U.E, pentru reducerea
decalajelor şi pentru o creştere economică durabilă, sănătoasă şi sustenabilă.
De menţionat că în domeniul dezvoltării regionale funcţionează Agenţiile
pentru Dezvoltare Regională care sunt organisme neguvernamentale, nonprofit, de
utilitate publică, dar cu personalitate juridică.
Programele şi cheltuielile de dezvoltare regională ale Agenţiei, se finanţează
din Fondul pentru Dezvoltare Regională, care are următoarele surse: alocaţii de la
Fondul Naţional pentru Dezvoltare Regională; contribuţii din bugetele proprii ale
judeţelor sau ale municipiului Bucureşti, după caz, în limita sumelor aprobate, cu
această destinaţie, prin bugetele respective; surse financiare atrase din sectorul privat,
de la bănci, investitori străini, Uniunea Europeană şi de la alte organizaţii
internaţionale .
În România sunt utilizate patru scheme de ajutor de stat de dezvoltare
regională:
1. Zonele defavorizate - „ D ”- care implică folosirea de instrumente fiscale;
2. Parcuri industriale - „ P ”- care asigură facilităţi fiscale companiilor
specializate din incinta parcurilor industriale : scutiri la plata taxelor, deduceri
la impozitul pe profit, reduceri la TVA;
3. Zonele libere - „ L ” – sunt create pe perioade determinate – maxim 49 ani şi
importanţa lor scade odată cu integrarea României în U.E. în 2007;
4. Zone „ R ”- zone de reconversie industrială şi profesională cu potenţial de
creştere economică.
2.2. Stadiul actual al descentralizării
Constituţia adoptata în 1991 a fost primul act legislativ al României post
comuniste care a recunoscut „autorităţile comunale şi orăşeneşti”, „pe baza
principiului descentralizării”(Art. 119) „drept autorităţi administrative autonome”(Art.
120/2).
Strategia privind accelerarea reformei administraţiei publice aprobată în 2001
de Guvernul României a identificat necesitatea descentralizării anumitor servicii
publice în vederea reducerii cheltuielilor şi a întăririi capacităţii manageriale a
administraţiei publice locale.
De asemenea, s-au elaborat strategii sectoriale însoţite de planuri de acţiune
aferente privind procesul de descentralizare în anumite domenii (de exemplu, asistenţa
socială – protecţia copilului). Câteva aspecte majore privind descentralizarea cum ar
fi: rolul asocierilor de unităţi teritorial administrative în furnizarea de servicii publice
4
(la nivel de judeţ, oraş, comună), rolul prefecţilor, implicarea autorităţilor locale în
procesul decizional, urmează a fi soluţionate.
În conformitate cu Constituţia revizuită şi adoptată în 2003 „Administraţia
publica din unităţile administrativ-teritoriale se întemeiază pe principiile
descentralizării, autonomiei locale şi deconcentrării serviciilor publice”(Art. 122/1).
Descentralizarea financiară este o componentă importantă a procesului de
descentralizare deoarece autorităţile publice locale deţin cele mai complete informaţii,
pe baza cărora pot lua decizii mai bine justificate decât organele de specialitate de la
nivel central, în legătură cu alocarea resurselor financiare locale. Evident,
descentralizarea financiară şi administrativă sunt strâns corelate.
În ultimul deceniu, România a obţinut rezultate importante în planul
descentralizării financiare, dar procesul de implementare a acestei politici a
întâmpinat multe probleme datorită absenţei unei strategii naţionale a descentralizării.
În cadrul acestui proces au putut fi identificate trei cicluri. În primul ciclu (19911994)2 au fost iniţiate schimbări importante în structura şi finanţarea autorităţilor
locale, care au inclus şi introducerea sistemului de taxe şi impozite locale. În ciclul al
doilea al politicii de reformă (1998-2000) s-au făcut noi paşi pentru realizarea
descentralizării administrative şi financiare. În acest sens, pe baza noii legislaţii
privind finanţele autorităţilor publice locale3 a crescut nu numai partea din PIB
referitoare la bugetele locale, dar şi proporţia corespunzătoare a cheltuielilor locale
din totalul cheltuielilor publice (între 1998-2001 procentul din PIB a crescut de la 3,6
la 6,5% şi cheltuielile locale au crescut de la 14,4 la 26,6%). În timpul celui de al
treilea ciclu (2001 – până în prezent) noile legi au adoptat şi stabilit noi reguli pentru
anumite funcţii ale autorităţilor locale4, în special privind serviciile /utilităţile
publice5.
În acest interval au existat tendinţe de centralizare şi de descentralizare.
Câteva prevederi legale noi au întărit controlul autorităţilor centrale asupra funcţiilor
autorităţilor locale, în timp ce altele au acţionat în direcţia descentralizării6. În iulie
2003, o lege nouă privind finanţele publice locale a abrogat-o pe prima, având
prevederi corelate cu cele ale Legii Finanţelor Publice nr. 500/2002 (armonizată cu
prevederile Reglementărilor Consiliului Europei (CEE) nr. 1605/2002) şi au crescut
procentul din impozitul pe profit aplicat individual (IPP) care se alocă autorităţilor
locale7.
Un studiu detaliat al stadiului actual al descentralizării financiare la nivelul
întregii ţări, precum şi pe cele mai importante sectoare de activitate (educaţie,
sănătate, asistenta sociala, ordine şi siguranţa publica, agricultura, cultura, servicii
publice de dezvoltare locala) a fost întocmit de Uniunea Naţională a Consiliilor
Judeţene din România şi Asociaţia Directorilor Economici din cadrul Consiliilor
Judeţene din România. De asemenea, o analiza a situaţiei descentralizării în sectoarele
2
Legea administraţiei publice locale nr. 69/1991, OG nr.15/1992 privind impozitele locale. Legea nr.27/1994
privind impozitele locale
3
Au fost făcute câteva amendamente la Legea nr.69/1991 şi la Legea nr. 189/1998 privind finanţele publice locale.
4
Legea nr. 215/2001 privind administraţia publică locală
5
De exemplu: Legea nr. 326/2001 privind serviciile publice de gospodărire comunală, OG nr.86/2001 privind
serviciile de transport public local de calatori, OG nr.84/2001 privind serviciile publice comunitare de evidenţă a
persoanelor, OG nr.88/2001 privind serviciile comunitare publice pentru situaţii de urgenţă, OUG nr. 202/2002
privind gospodărirea integrata a zonei costiere, OG nr. 21/2002 privind gospodărirea localităţilor urbane şi rurale,
OG nr. 32/2002 privind serviciile publice de alimentare cu apa şi de canalizare, OG nr.71/2002 privind înfiinţarea
de servicii publice locale pentru administrarea patrimoniului public şi privat de interes local.
6
Legea administraţiei publice locale nr. 215/2001
7
OUG nr. 45/2003 privind finanţele publice locale
5
privind educaţia, asistenţa socială, sănătatea şi siguranţa publică a fost realizată de
experţi ai programului GRASP al USAID.
Pe lângă aspectele pozitive, în derularea procesului de descentralizare au fost
înregistrate şi o serie de aspecte negative:
• Neacordarea unor drepturi importante autorităţilor APL, ceea ce limitează
capacitatea acestora de a organiza eficient oferta de servicii (de exemplu
dreptul de a stabili preţuri pentru aceste servicii8);
• Manifestarea, în unele domenii, a mecanismelor de control direct şi a
deciziilor discreţionare. Exista puţine domenii cu reglementari clare si
transparente. Acest lucru limitează atât planificarea şi previziunea
financiară cât şi posibilitatea de a experimenta şi de a introduce soluţii
locale creative pentru a oferi servicii mai eficiente. Indirect, acest aspect
limitează şi capacitatea de absorbţie a fondurilor Uniunii Europene;
• Limitarea autonomiei managementului financiar local de reglementările
privind alocarea veniturilor proprii, prin restricţionarea utilizării
transferurilor;
• Preponderenta alocărilor cu destinaţie precisă, ceea ce reprezintă un
obstacol pentru o eficientă cheltuire a banilor, deoarece limitează
coordonarea şi integrarea serviciilor locale;
• Mecanismele de echilibrare existente nu asigură echitatea sistemului;
• Transferul incomplet de proprietate este un obstacol în gestionarea efectivă
a bunurilor locale;
• Insuficienta precizare privind garanţiile legale şi constituţionale legate de
autonomia locala;
• Politici publice insuficient argumentate şi parţial implementate nu au putut
oferi soluţii raţionale pentru problemele existente;
• Înregistrarea unui decalaj între competenţele decizionale transferate către
autorităţile locale şi resursele alocate în vederea susţinerii acestora
(alocarea resurselor locale nu reflectă schimbările de responsabilitate).
Ca un răspuns adecvat la problemele identificate la nivelul sistemului
administraţiei publice din România în domeniul descentralizării şi deconcentrării
serviciilor publice, au fost identificate următoarele priorităţi:
§ Îmbunătăţirea sistemului de furnizare a serviciilor publice descentralizate
/deconcentrate (creşterea consistenţei acestuia);
§ Clarificarea competenţelor la diferitele niveluri şi structuri ale administraţiei
publice prin:
- Crearea grupurilor specifice de lucru pentru elaborarea strategiilor
sectoriale;
- Stabilirea de structuri de implementare la nivel central şi local cu
responsabilităţi şi relaţii bine definite;
- Coordonarea şi armonizarea strategiilor sectoriale;
- Stabilirea unui sistem standard de măsurare a performanţelor
serviciilor descentralizate.
8
De exemplu: Legea nr. 326/2001 privind serviciile publice de gospodărie comunala, OG nr.86/2001 privind
serviciile de transport public local de calatori, OG nr.84/2001 privind serviciile publice comunitare de evidenţă a
persoanelor, OG nr.88/2001 privind serviciile comunitare publice pentru situaţii de urgenţă, OUG nr. 202/2002
privind gospodărirea integrata a zonei costiere, OG nr. 21/2002 privind gospodărirea localităţilor urbane şi rurale,
OG nr. 32/2002 privind serviciile publice de alimentare cu apa şi de canalizare, OG nr.71/2002 privind înfiinţarea
de servicii publice locale pentru administrarea patrimoniului public şi privat de interes local.
6
§
§
§
Întărirea autonomiei financiare prin:
- Creşterea veniturilor proprii la nivelul administraţiilor locale;
- Introducerea sistemului de calcul bazat pe alocarea subvenţiilor
operaţionale;
- Proceduri şi reguli stricte pentru derularea finanţărilor pentru investiţii;
- Îmbunătăţirea sistemului de predictibilitate a alocărilor de la nivel
central;
- Îmbunătăţirea sistemului de egalizare a distribuţiei resurselor pe
orizontală;
- Îmbunătăţirea sistemului de management al bugetului şi de raportare la
nivel local.
Redefinirea competentelor prefecţilor, îndeosebi în coordonarea serviciilor
deconcentrate;
Crearea capacităţii, instrumentelor şi procedurilor necesare implementării
strategiei prin:
- Elaborarea unui sistem standard de proceduri şi norme care să sprijine
implementarea Strategiei;
- Întărirea capacităţii autorităţilor locale în gestionarea şi furnizarea
noilor servicii descentralizate;
- Pregătirea resurselor umane necesare susţinerii procesului de
descentralizare /deconcentrare.
2.3. Continuarea procesului de descentralizare /deconcentrare. Rolul
reformei administraţiei publice locale9
Reforma administraţiei publice în domeniul descentralizării şi
deconcentrării include trei elemente majore:
• continuarea descentralizării prin transferul de competente şi responsabilităţi
administrative şi financiare, de la nivelul autorităţilor administraţiei publice
centrale la nivelul autorităţilor locale;
• continuarea procesului de deconcentrare prin delegarea de responsabilităţi în
teritoriu funcţie de necesităţile pe plan local, în cadrul aceleiaşi structuri
administrative (serviciile deconcentrate funcţionează în subordinea
ministerului care le-a delegat responsabilitatea);
• transformarea serviciilor deconcentrate din teritoriu, funcţie de necesităţile
cetăţenilor şi pentru eficientizarea acestora, în servicii descentralizate în
responsabilitatea autorităţilor locale.
Strategia actualizată reprezintă cadrul general care creează premisele
continuării procesului de descentralizare /deconcentrare, asigurând coerenţa acestuia.
Responsabilitatea definirii şi implementării strategiilor sectoriale privind
descentralizarea /deconcentrarea revin fiecărei instituţii a administraţiei publice
centrale şi autorităţilor locale, care preiau competentele transferate din punct de
vedere financiar şi administrativ. Aceste strategii sectoriale vor fi însoţite de studii de
impact privind previzionarea efectelor induse.
Strategia privind procesul de descentralizare şi deconcentrare în România
a fost realizată de către Ministerul Administraţiei şi Internelor prin Unitatea Centrală
pentru Reforma Administraţiei Publice (UCRAP), cu sprijinul experţilor străini din
9
Vezi Strategia de reformă a administraţiei publice, Ministerul Administraţiei şi Internelor, 2003
7
programul de twinning light, programul GRASP al USAID şi de asemenea, cu
consultarea experţilor care pregătesc programul PAL.
Pentru asigurarea informării pe scară largă, exprimarea diferitelor puncte de
vedere şi asigurarea legitimităţii Strategiei, în perioada septembrie – decembrie 2003,
au fost organizate nouă reuniuni regionale şi naţionale cuprinse în cadrul Forumului
Naţional privind dezbaterea publică a proiectului Strategiei actualizate a Guvernului
României privind accelerarea reformei în administraţia publică.
La aceste conferinţe, organizate pe grupuri tematice, au participat
reprezentanţi ai administraţiei centrale şi locale, reprezentanţi ai asociaţiilor
autorităţilor locale (FALR, UNCJR, ADECJR), reprezentanţi ai ONG-urilor
(reprezentând societatea civilă), reprezentanţi ai partidelor politice, reprezentanţi ai
celor mai importanţi donori internaţionali, precum şi mass-media.
Contextul politic şi administrativ al derulării procesului de
descentralizare /deconcentrare. Descentralizarea şi deconcentrarea, implicând
transferul sau delegarea de competenţe şi noi responsabilităţi, reprezintă procese
începute din momentul adoptării Constituţiei României din 1991. Un pachet de legi
privind sectoare importante de dezvoltare precum organizarea administraţiei,
amenajarea teritoriului şi urbanismului, finanţele, impozitele, serviciile de sănătate,
asistenţă socială, educaţie etc., a fost pus în aplicare, reglementând în prezent atât
forma de descentralizare politică a unor servicii publice cât şi forma de
descentralizarea teritorială şi administrativă prin instituţia prefectului.
Reglementări ulterioare10 au îmbunătăţit prevederile privind serviciile publice
şi au extins aria responsabilităţilor şi în domeniile: financiar, managementul
patrimoniului imobiliar, servicii de infrastructură, atât la nivel de judeţ cât şi la nivel
local. În plus, legea privind finanţele publice locale din 199811 şi ultima ordonanţă de
urgenţă privind finanţele publice locale12 au crescut sau vor creste considerabil
alocările de resurse către Administraţia Publică Locală (APL) şi, de asemenea, au
crescut autonomia financiară a acestora.
Descentralizarea a reprezentat şi începerea unui proces de creare şi întărire de
noi forme de dialog între administraţia centrală şi locală reprezentata de Federaţia
Autorităţilor Locale din România (FALR), corpurile administrative profesionale sau
alte structuri asociative ale autorităţilor locale.
Procesul de descentralizare actual este justificat de necesitatea definirii rolului
administraţiei centrale faţă de administraţia locală, competenţele politice şi
administrative care vor fi delegate administraţiei locale, sursele necesare, precum şi
stabilirea unui cadru de referinţă privind performanţele procesului de descentralizarea
în perioada imediat următoare.
a)
Principiile şi regulile care susţin descentralizarea asigură următoarele:
În ceea ce priveşte transferul responsabilităţilor:
- aplicarea subsidiarităţii ca mijloc de asigurare a transparenţei şi eficienţei
serviciilor publice;
- stabilitatea drepturilor şi responsabilităţilor;
- respectarea standardelor de calitate în oferirea serviciilor publice;
10
Legea asigurărilor de sănătate începând cu 1997, Legea privind serviciile publice de gospodărie comunală nr.
326/2001 împreună cu câteva amendamente la Legea nr. 69/1991, Legea nr. 189/1998 privind finanţele publice
locale, Legea administraţiei publice locale nr. 215/2001
11
189/1998 Legea privind finanţele publice locale
12
OUG 45/2003 privind finanţele publice locale (va intra in vigoare începând cu 1 ianuarie 2004)
8
sistem stabil de reglementare privind încurajarea strategiilor locale şi
răsplătirea soluţiilor inovatoare;
- considerarea cetăţeanului drept “consumator” de servicii publice;
- acceptarea competiţiei ca mijloc de creştere a eficienţei şi eficacităţii
serviciilor publice.
b) În privinţa sistemului de finanţare a autorităţilor locale:
- alocarea veniturilor conform responsabilităţilor descentralizate;
- mecanism de finanţare respectat de administraţia centrală care să asigure
un standard minim pentru serviciile publice oferite de autorităţile locale;
- asigurarea transparenţei fondurilor alocate având în vedere criterii
obiective şi reglementari clar stabilite privind volumul sarcinilor alocate,
localizarea veniturilor şi elemente de regularizare;
- asigurarea transparenţei în procesul de elaborare a bugetelor locale şi a
procedurilor care asigură un management financiar corespunzător;
- simplificarea procedurilor de redistribuire a veniturilor;
- predictibilitatatea şi stabilitatea sistemului de alocare care să permită
planificări la nivel local;
- sistem eficient de control legal a utilizării fondurilor la nivel local.
c) Privind transferul competentelor decizionale:
- caracter stabil şi stimulativ al procesului de coordonare în locul
mecanismelor actuale de control şi a deciziilor discreţionare;
- autonomia decizională bazată pe resurse şi responsabilităţi proprii;
- limitarea controlului autorităţilor locale asupra managementului serviciilor
publice de către autorităţile de la nivel central, la prevederile legislaţiei
naţionale;
- transparenţa actului decizional bazat pe accesul publicului la informaţia
publică şi participarea acestuia la luarea deciziilor.
-
9
OPTIMIZAREA BUNĂSTĂRII SOCIALE PRIN MAXIMIZAREA
FUNCŢIEI DE UTILITATE
Lector dr. Ovidiu Ciorîcă
Lector dr. Ciprian Şipoş
Universitatea de Vest din Timişoara
Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice
Rezumat:
Problemele de optimizare neliniară sunt frecvent întâlnite în modelele de creştere
economică regională.
Obiectivul principal al acestei lucrări este de a determina existenţa unei traiectorii
optimale a stocului de capital şi a consumului în vederea maximizării funcţiei de utilitate a
consumatorului.
Procedeele folosite pentru determinarea soluţiei optime au la bază tehnici utilizate în
teoria controlului optimal.
Abstract:
Nonlinear optimization problems are frequently used in regional economic growth
models.
The main objective of this paper is to determine the existence of an optimal path of
the capital stock and consumption to obtain a maximization of consumer utility function.
The methods used to determine the optimal solution are based on techniques derived
from optimal control theory.
1. Descrierea modelului şi punerea problemei de optimizare a bunăstării sociale la
nivel regional
Scopul acestei lucrări este de a analiza existenţa şi unicitatea unei traiectorii
optimale a consumului care să optimizeze bunăstarea socială la nivel regional definită ca
utilitatea globală a consumului.
Se presupune că întreaga producţie se consumă sau se investeşte în cadrul
economiei. Se admite, de asemenea, că traiectoria consumului este determinată de
comportamentul de optimizare al consumatorilor. Consumatorii apar ca şi "nemuritori" şi
determină propriul consum prin maximizarea (sub anumite restricţii) a unei funcţii de
utilitate a consumului.
Pentru mărimile ce intervin în cadrul modelului vom folosi notaţiile:
t - variabila de timp
L(t) - forţa de muncă la momentul t
K(t) - capitalul la momentul t
Y(t) - producţia realizată la momentul t
I(t) - partea din producţie investită la momentul t
C(t) - partea din producţie consumată la momentul t .
1
Referitor la aceste mărimi se fac următoarele ipoteze:
(A1) Forţa de muncă evoluează în timp după legea:
unde n ≥ 0 reprezintă rata constantă de creştere a forţei de muncă.
(A2) Funcţia de producţie Y se presupune dependentă de factorii de producţie K şi L
şi are proprietăţile:
La momentul t valoarea producţiei Y(t) va fi:
şi se distribuie între investiţie şi consum. Adică
(A3) Vom presupune că deprecierea capitalului este proporţională cu valoarea capitalului
existent la momentul respectiv şi vom nota cu δ > 0 rata de depreciere a capitalului.
Prin urmare, ecuaţia de evoluţie în timp a capitalului va fi:
(A4) Se presupune cunoscut stocul de capital de care dispune economia la momentul iniţial:
2
Pentru analiza modelului este convenabil a se exprima aceste restricţii în termeni "per
capita".
Vom folosi mărimile:
Din proprietăţile funcţiei de producţie F rezultă proprietăţile funcţiei f:
Variaţia stocului de capital în termeni per capita verifică ecuaţia:
Pentru a formula problema de optimizare, vom presupune că zona regională analizată
dispune de o funcţie de utilitate a consumului notată cu U a cărei valoare U(c) în punctul
c ≥ 0 exprimă utilitatea unui consum de nivel c „per capita”.
"Bunăstarea socială la nivel regional" este definită ca utilitatea globală U dată prin:
unde θ > 0 este constantă şi reprezintă rata de actualizare.
Despre funcţia U se presupune că are următoarele proprietăţi:
3
Problema de optimizare dinamică cu control care trebuie rezolvată este:
Variabila k este variabila de stare, iar variabila c este variabila de control.
Rezolvarea problemei (P) revine la a determina o traiectorie optimală a controlului
notată c*(t) care maximizează utilitatea globală U.
Valoarea optimală a acestui obiectiv va fi dată de:
2. Rezultate obţinute
Definiţia 1. O traiectorie (k(t), c(t)) se zice admisibilă din k0 dacă ea satisface:
4
Teorema 1. O traiectorie admisibilă (k(t), c(t)) este optimală dacă şi numai dacă există o
funcţie λ (t ) astfel încât ea să verifice condiţiile:
Remarca 1. Condiţiile (i) şi (ii) din teorema precedentă pot fi combinate pentru a obţine
una care nu conţine variabila λ (t ) şi se obţine ecuaţia în variabilele c(t) şi k(t):
Teorema 2. O soluţie admisibilă a problemei (P) este optimală dacă şi numai dacă ea
verifică relaţiile:
Teorema 3. Sistemul de ecuaţii:
admite o soluţie staţionară notată (k*, c*) care este un punct şa.
Pentru a studia comportarea soluţiilor sistemului de ecuaţii diferenţiale de mai sus în
jurul stării de echilibru (k*, c*) am utilizat portretul fazelor în cadranul pozitiv al planului
(k, c).
Punctul de echilibru (k*, c*) fiind punct şa, există o varietate stabilă, notată Vs şi una
nestabilă, notată Vns.
5
Schematic comportarea soluţiilor este reprezentată în Figura 1:
3. Dependenţa de n a punctului de echilibru (k*, c*) şi concluzii
În încheiere am studiat influenţa parametrului n asupra punctului de echilibru şi am
stabilit concluziile economice asupra rezultatelor obţinute.
Funcţiile k*(n) şi c*(n), ca şi funcţii de variabila n sunt strict descrescătoare.
într-adevăr, conform relaţiei:
verifică
Derivând în funcţie de n ambii membrii obţinem:
adică
deoarece
6
Prin urmare, k*(n) este o funcţie strict descrescătoare.
Dar
Derivând în funcţie de n ambi membrii obţinem:
Dar
Prin urmare
Deoarece
adică c*(n) este o funcţie strict descrescătoare.
Din punct de vedere economic, ţinând cont că parametrul n reprezintă rata de
creştere a forţei de muncă, rezultatul obţinut în teorema precedentă poate fi interpretat în
modul următor: dacă forţa de muncă creşte în timp, atât nivelul optim al capitalului per
capita cât şi nivelul optim al consumului per capita vor scădea în timp şi reciproc, o
diminuare a forţei de muncă va conduce la o creştere a nivelurilor optime ale capitalului şi
consumului per capita.
Deoarece funcţia de utilitate a consumului este strict crescătoare, o scădere
(respectiv o creştere) a nivelului optim al consumului va atrage o diminuare (respectiv o
creştere) a utilităţii acestuia şi prin urmare a "bunăstării sociale la nivel regional".
7
CONSIDERAŢII PRIVIND EVOLUŢIA PERCEŢIEI ASUPRA
PROCESULUI DE INOVARE
Lector Dr. Gabriela Lucia ŞIPOŞ
Universitatea de Vest din Timişoara, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice
Rezumat: Inovarea este un proces complex, diversificat, ce implică mai multe componente,
faze şi legături între acestea şi care, de-a lungul timpului, s-a dovedit a fi un factor critic
pentru supravieţuirea şi dezvoltarea întreprinderilor într-un mediu aflat într-o continuă
schimbare. Conştientizarea importanţei reuşitei procesului de inovare în contextul
accelerării ritmului schimbărilor a determinat o adevărată polemică pe seama naturii
procesului de inovare şi a desfăşurării acestuia. În acest sens, scopul acestei lucrări constă
în evidenţierea evoluţiei schimbării percepţiilor asupra procesului de inovare de-a lungul a
peste jumătate de secol sub forma a cinci generaţii de modele de abordare a procesului de
inovare, de la modelul clasic de organizare liniară a acestuia caracteristic perioadei anilor
1950, la modelele sistemice dinamice în care procesul de inovare este abordat în toate
inter-condiţionările sale.
Abstract: The innovation process is very complex and diverse and implies many
components, phases and links. Therefore it became a critical factor for firm’s survival and
development in a changing environment. The complete understanding of importance of the
success of innovation process determined a real debate on the nature of this complete
process. The paper presents the evolution of changing innovation process meanings during
a half of century, from the classic linear model up to dynamic systemic models.
Lucrarea de faţă îşi propune să evidenţieze evoluţia percepţiilor asupra procesului
de inovare de-a lungul a peste jumătate de secol sub forma a cinci generaţii de modele de
abordare a procesului de inovare, de la modelul clasic de organizare liniară la modelele
sistemice dinamice în care procesul de inovare este abordat în toate inter-condiţionările
sale, după cum urmează:
1. Modelul caracteristic primei generaţii a procesului de inovare (perioada anilor
‘50 – mijlocul anilor ‘60). În primii 20 de ani după cel de-al doilea război mondial,
economiile de piaţă avansate au beneficiat de o creştere economică accelerată datorată
ritmului rapid al dezvoltării industriale. În societate, pe parcursul acestei perioade
atitudinea, în general, era favorabilă progresului ştiinţific şi inovării industriale iar ştiinţa şi
tehnologia erau privite ca având potenţialul necesar soluţionării celor mai grave boli ale
societăţii.
În întreprinderile producătoare accentul se punea pe activitatea de cercetaredezvoltare pentru crearea a noi game de produse şi creşterea producţiei, în vederea
satisfacerii cererii din ce în ce mai mare.
În aceste condiţii, nu este surprinzător că în perioada anilor 1950-1960 procesul
inovării era perceput ca fiind un proces simplu, cu o succesiune liniară, în care factorul
1
stimulator al inovării era presiunea tehnologică, şi în cadrul căruia accentul se punea asupra
cercetării-dezvoltării, piaţa nefiind decât un simplu receptor al rezultatelor cercetăriidezvoltării.
Procesul inovării începea cu descoperirea ştiinţifică, dezvoltarea tehnologică,
producţia în cadrul întreprinderilor, şi se încheia cu desfacerea unui nou produs sau proces.
Cunoştinţe
fundamentale
Proiectare
Producţie
Marketing
Desfacere
Figura nr. 1. Prima generaţie a modelului procesului de inovare (technology-push)
Susţinătorii acestei abordări (technology-push) consideră că cea care determină
schimbările în compoziţia produselor şi în structura proceselor este presiunea tehnologică.
Acest model al procesului de inovare este util pentru înţelegerea inovărilor radicale.
Conceptul de inovare în această abordare presupune că un efort sporit în cercetaredezvoltare se va concretiza într-un spor al noilor produse obţinute. Principala limită a
acestei abordări a procesului de inovare constă în neglijarea importanţei pieţei ca factor de
stimulare a inovării.
2. Modelul celei de-a doua generaţii a procesului inovării (mijlocul anilor ’60 –
începutul anilor ‘70). Spre cea de-a doua jumătate a anilor ‘60, se observă o accentuare a
concurenţei pe piaţă ce a determinat deplasarea importanţei acordată investiţiilor referitoare
la noile produse şi la extinderea schimbării tehnologice înspre investiţiile vizând
raţionalizarea schimbării tehnologice. Aceasta a fost însoţită de o accentuare a importanţei
strategice a marketingului, întrucât marile companii eficiente se aflau în competiţie pentru
obţinerea unor importante cote de piaţă.
Pe acest fond, sub presiunea “cerinţelor pieţei”, percepţia asupra procesului de
inovare a început să se schimbe, accentul transferându-se asupra factorilor de natura cererii:
piaţa. Aceasta s-a concretizat în apariţia modelului de inovare din cea de-a doua generaţie
(market-pull sau need-pull) care a avut configuraţia prezentată în figura nr. 2.
Cererea
pieţei
Producţie
Dezvoltare
Desfacere
Figura nr. 2. A doua generaţie a modelului procesului de inovare (market – pull)
Modelul pune accentul pe recunoaşterea nevoii consumatorilor ca un principal
factor de influenţă asupra procesului de inovare. În contextul accentuării concurenţei,
întreprinderile producătoare încearcă să lege eforturile tehnologice de satisfacerea acestor
nevoi. În cadrul acestui model secvenţial simplist sursa ideilor pentru orientarea activităţilor
de cercetare-dezvoltare este piaţa, cercetarea-dezvoltarea având doar un rol reactiv în cadrul
procesului. Unul din importantele pericole inerente ale acestui model a fost acela că putea
determina întreprinderile să neglijeze programele de cercetare-dezvoltare pe termen lung şi
să se blocheze într-un regim de îmbunătăţiri tehnologice nesemnificative. Procedând astfel,
întreprinderile riscă să-şi piardă capacitatea de a se adapta la orice schimbare radicală a
2
pieţei sau de natură tehnologică ce ar putea apărea. Acest model al procesului de inovare
este util în înţelegerea inovărilor incrementale, de îmbunătăţire.
Nici primul model de abordare (al “presiunii tehnologice”) şi nici cel de-al doilea
(“al cerinţelor pieţei) nu au reuşit să explice pe deplin procesul de inovare, absenţa unei
formulări clare în explicarea fenomenului fiind generată de natura liniară a acestor două
abordări. Modelul liniar de abordare a procesului de inovare, fie că are ca stimulator
“presiunea tehnologică”, fie “cerinţele pieţei”, prezintă următoarele limite majore:
q consideră inovarea ca fiind un proces ordonat, cu o singură direcţie de evoluţie,
fără bucle de reglare, ceea ce înseamnă că odată ce inovarea a avut loc nu se
permit acţiuni de adaptare sau modificare a produsului;
q omite invenţia şi proiectarea (analitică şi detaliată) ca surse de inovare,
înlocuindu-le cu cercetarea, ceea ce determină înţelegerea greşită a naturii inovării
şi a rolului ştiinţei şi a tehnologiei, precum şi a legăturilor dintre acestea.
În acest fel, se simplifică într-atât de mult realitatea asupra procesului de inovare
încât aplicarea modelului liniar deformează concepţia asupra acestuia. Aceste neajunsuri au
stat la originea modelului celei de-a treia generaţii a procesului de inovare, acesta
reprezentând un salt important în ceea ce priveşte percepţia asupra naturii inovării, a fazelor
acestuia şi a relaţiilor dintre acestea faţă de primele două modele. Confirmarea acestei
realităţi este dată de faptul că modelul celei de-a treia generaţii (modelul interactiv)
reprezintă fundamentul pe care s-au construit următoarele două modele, ce reprezintă
variante îmbunătăţite ale acestuia.
3. Modelul celei de-a treia generaţii a procesului de inovare (începutul anilor 1970
– mijlocul anilor 1980). Perioada anilor ’70 a fost marcată de rate ridicate ale inflaţiei, de o
creşterea accentuată a şomajului precum şi de saturarea cererii (stagflaţie), capacitatea
ofertei depăşind de regulă cererea. Întreprinderile au fost constrânse să adopte strategii de
consolidare şi raţionalizare, accentuându-se avantajele oferite de experienţă şi efectele de
scală. În acelaşi timp s-a observat o tendinţă de focalizare strategică asupra controlului şi
reducerii costului.
De-a lungul unui deceniu de constrângeri impuse de penuria de resurse, a devenit
din ce în ce mai necesară înţelegerea fundamentelor inovării reuşite pentru a reduce
incidenţa eşecurilor risipitoare de resurse. Dată fiind natura complexă a procesului de
inovare, pentru a obţine o imagine completă asupra procesului inovării care să explice atât
inovările radicale cât şi pe cele incrementale utilizarea exclusivă a modelului focalizat
asupra “presiunii tehnologice” sau a celui centrat asupra “cerinţelor pieţei” este inadecvată,
mult mai utilă fiind utilizarea simultană a ambelor modele. Astfel, procesul de inovare
poate fi explicat prin intermediul rolului atât al factorilor tehnologici cât şi ai pieţei.
Interacţiunea dintre ştiinţă, tehnologie şi piaţă, ca o activitate constantă, oferă o imagine
mult mai reală asupra procesului de inovare.
Această perioadă a constituit şi momentul publicării rezultatelor unor studii
empirice detaliate asupra procesului inovării, ceea ce a însemnat, că pentru prima dată,
pentru reuşita procesului de inovare, acesta ar putea fi modelat pe baza unui portofoliu de
studii sistematice care să cuprindă domenii largi, multe sectoare şi ţări diferite.
În 1978, rezultatele studiilor efectuate de Mowery şi Rosenberg au evidenţiat faptul
că modelul de abordare a procesului de inovare în termenii “presiunii tehnologice” şi cel al
“cerinţelor pieţei” sunt doar două exemple exagerate şi atipice ale unui proces mult mai
3
general grevat de interacţiunea dintre, pe de o parte, capacităţile tehnologice şi pe de altă
parte, nevoile pieţei.
În această abordare mai globală, inovarea este ceea ce în 1982 Freeman numea “un
proces de cuplare”, ceea ce evidenţiază faptul că o idee nouă poate apărea la nivelul
interfeţei în continuă schimbare dintre ştiinţă, tehnologie şi piaţă. Totodată, inovarea poate
fi caracterizată ca o reacţie faţă de o anumită nevoie sau cerere exprimată de consumatori şi
care poate implica cunoştinţele ştiinţifice şi tehnologice existente sau unele noi oferite de
cercetare-dezvoltare. În acest context, dezvoltarea experimentală şi proiectarea, procesul de
producţie şi marketingul implică un proces continuu de adaptare a posibilităţilor
tehnologice în raport cu cerinţele pieţei. Acesta a fost momentul şi cadrul apariţiei
modelului interactiv (de cuplare) al procesului de inovare. Acesta este în esenţă tot un
proces secvenţial, dar îmbunătăţit prin intermediul buclelor de feedback. Modelul celei de-a
treia generaţii a procesului de inovare (modelul interactiv) este ilustrat în figura nr. 3.
N oi
nevoi
G enerarea
ideii
N oi
tehno lo gii
N evo ile societăţii şi ale pieţei
Cercetare,
proiectare şi
d ezvo ltare
R ealizarea
p ro totipului
P roducţie
M arketing şi
desfacere
P iaţa
N ivelul de dezvoltare al tehno logiei şi prod ucţiei
Figura nr. 3. Modelul “de cuplare” (cea de-a treia generaţie a procesului de inovare)
Se observă că acest model ce integrează atât abordarea bazată pe “presiunea
tehnologică” cât şi pe cea referitoare la “cerinţele pieţei” este centrat în jurul unui proces de
interacţiune, în cadrul căruia se accentuează efectele de feedback dintre fazele ascendente şi
descendente ale modelelor liniare anterioare precum şi integrarea la nivelul interfeţei dintre
cercetare-dezvoltare şi marketing, rolurile celor două compartimente fiind aproximativ
egale. În urma studiilor efectuate, Rothwell a apreciat că modelul de cuplare poate fi
prezentat ca un proces secvenţial logic, nu neapărat continuu, ce poate fi împărţit într-o
serie de etape distincte din punct de vedere funcţional, dar care interacţionează şi sunt
interdependente. Modelul global al procesului de inovare poate fi prezentat ca o reţea
complexă de căi de comunicaţie, intraorganizaţionale şi interorganizaţionale, asigurând
legăturile între diferitele funcţii şi conectând firma atât la comunitatea ştiinţifică şi
tehnologică cât şi la cerinţele pieţei. Altfel spus, procesul de inovare reprezintă împletirea
abilităţilor tehnologice cu nevoile pieţei în cadrul firmei inovatoare.
4. Modelul celei de-a patra generaţii a procesului de inovare (începutul anilor
1980-începutul anilor 1990). O caracteristică esenţială a acestei perioade a fost
recunoaşterea în Occident a faptului că performanţele competitive remarcabile ale
companiilor japoneze pe pieţele mondiale nu s-au bazat doar pe simpla combinare a
4
imitaţiilor tehnologice, ci au avut la bază relaţiile cu furnizorii principali, fundamentate pe
tehnologia informaţiei, precum şi metodele de producţie eficiente, orientate spre calitate. Sa realizat atunci că, de fapt, întreprinderile japoneze erau inovatori puternici, şi nu doar
simpli imitatori, şi că succesul lor s-a fundamentat pe caracteristicile sistemului japonez de
dezvoltare a noilor produse care le-au permis să inoveze mai rapid şi mai eficient decât
întreprinderile occidentale similare.
Două dintre caracteristicile proeminente ale inovării care au călăuzit întreprinderile
japoneze şi constituie bazele modelului de inovare din cea de-a patra generaţie, sunt
integrarea şi dezvoltarea în paralel. Integrarea se referă atât la activităţile desfăşurate în
cadrul întreprinderii, cât şi la componentele mediului extern acesteia.
Întreprinderile japoneze inovatoare integrează într-o fază incipientă furnizorii în
procesul de dezvoltare a noului produs, în timp ce, simultan, integrarea activităţilor
diferitelor departamente a fost mai accentuată în cazul acelor activităţi de dezvoltare a unui
proiect care se desfăşurau simultan (în paralel), decât în cazul celor desfăşurate secvenţial
(în serie). Această aşa-numită abordare tip „rugby” a dezvoltării noului produs este unul din
factorii ce au contribuit la o eficienţă ridicată a producţiei japoneze prin procesul de
„proiectare pentru producţie”. Chiar şi atunci când dezvoltarea complet simultană nu este
posibilă sau în cazul sectoarelor bazate pe ştiinţă, cum ar fi cel farmaceutic, în care nu este
necesar, este esenţial un anumit grad de suprapunere funcţională cu un schimb intensiv de
informaţii.
Nivelul ridicat al integrării dintre diferitele compartimente ale întreprinderii,
dezvoltarea în paralel, cu echipe integrate precum şi legăturile strânse, în amonte cu
principalii furnizori şi în aval cu clienţii importanţi, sunt sintetizate de cea de-a patra
generaţie a modelului de inovare, în cadrul modelului lanţurilor de legături, de către
Stephen J. Kline şi Nathan Rosenberg în 1986 (figura nr. 5).
CERCETARE
k2
k2
k2
CUNOAŞTERE
D
k1
C
Piaţă
potenţială
k1
C
Invenţii
f
f
k1
C
Proiecte de execuţie
şi
testare f
C = lanţul central de inovare;
F = bucle de feed–back lungi;
f = bucle de feed–back scurte;
D = legături directe între invenţie şi cercetare;
C
Reproiectare
şi
producţie f
I = informaţii ştiinţifice şi tehnice;
E = echipamente de cercetare;
k1, k2 = legături de la cunoaşterea
ştiinţifică la cercetare.
Figura nr. 5 Modelul “lanţurilor de legături”
5
C
Distribuţie
şi
comercializare
Modelul “lanţurilor de legături” evidenţiază iteraţiile complexe, buclele de feedback
şi interdependenţa dintre marketing, cercetare-dezvoltare, producţie şi distribuţie în cadrul
procesului de inovare.
Se observă că modelul începe şi se sfârşeşte cu “piaţa”. În cadrul acestui model,
inovarea începe cu o prospectare a pieţei, adică cu evaluarea surselor ce ar putea îmbunătăţi
un produs sau proces existent sau ar putea determina obţinerea unui produs nou sau a unui
proces nou, care să corespundă cerinţelor pieţei.
Existenţa pieţei pentru un produs sau proces este hotărâtoare, inovarea fiind
condiţionată de existenţa unei pieţe potenţiale, spre deosebire de cercetare sau invenţie care
pot avea loc şi în absenţa unor potenţiali consumatori. În consecinţă, procesul de inovare
implică anumite obiective specifice denumite criterii de proiectare, condiţii ale pieţei sau
specificaţii privind produsul. Existenţa acestor obiective nu implică în mod obligatoriu
faptul că inovarea respectivă va constitui o reuşită, ci doar faptul că aceasta este utilizabilă.
Următoarele componente ale procesului de inovare sunt invenţia şi/sau etapa de
proiectare, proiectare de execuţie şi testare, reproiectare şi producţie iar în final, distribuţie
şi comercializare.
Parcurgerea tuturor aceste etape ale procesului de inovare, denumite şi lanţul central
al inovării, constituie cel mai lung posibil lanţ al inovării şi este specific produselor
aparţinând industriei grele, de exemplu automobilelor.
În producţia unor dispozitive mai simple sau a unora ce constituie doar o simplă
variaţie faţă de modelele anterioare, unele dintre aceste etape pot fi omise, scurtându-se în
acest fel lanţul inovării.
Astfel, numărul etapelor parcurse în procesul inovării variază de la o industrie la
alta, fiind dependent de timpul necesar pentru dezvoltarea produsului şi de costurile ce
revin producătorului şi utilizatorului, în cazul unor deficienţe în funcţionare.
În cadrul acestui model, reţeaua lanţurilor de legături cuprinde următoarele tipuri de
relaţii:
♦ relaţii de feedback, între procesele ce au loc în cadrul unei întreprinderi sau a
unui grup de întreprinderi cuplate într-o reţea;
♦ relaţii între întreprindere şi sistemul ştiinţific şi tehnologic în cadrul căreia
aceasta operează (relaţii cu sursele de cunoaştere şi cu cercetarea)
Se observă deci, că aproape în toate fazele dezvoltării ei, inovarea apelează la stocul
de cunoştinţe existent, pe care, la rândul său îl îmbogăţeşte permanent. De asemenea, se
poate observa modul în care un nou avans al ştiinţei poate facilita inovări radicale sau
maniera în care noile instrumente, maşini sau procedee pot fi utilizate pentru a susţine
cercetarea ştiinţifică.
Toate aceste tipuri de legături se regăsesc în întreprinderile productive moderne, iar
acele întreprinderi care au acordat o importanţă sporită acestui lanţ complex de legături au
avut succes pe piaţă.
Sintetizând, modelul lanţurilor de legături prezintă procesul inovării ca fiind o
combinaţie de procese ce se desfăşoară în paralel sau în serie, legate fiind între ele de o
reţea de legături diverse şi complexe, în cadrul căreia ştiinţa şi tehnologia nu au întotdeauna
rolul conducător, dar sunt factori favorizanţi.
6
Reînnoirea continuă a capacităţilor de inovare ale unei întreprinderi obligă la
reconsiderări în ceea ce priveşte lanţul central al inovării, în sensul creşterii rolului
cercetării în cadrul lanţului central de inovare, ceea ce permite identificarea a noi soluţii
tehnologice.
Aceasta evidenţiază unele limite ale modelului “lanţurilor de legături” şi permite
aprecierea că procesul de inovare trebuie abordat ca un proces total integrat.
5. Modelul celei de-a cincia generaţii a procesului de inovare (de la începutul
anilor ’90 până în prezent). În esenţă, modelul procesului de inovare din cea de-a V-a
generaţie, este o versiune evoluată a modelului celei de-a patra generaţii şi are următoarele
atribute-cheie:
• integrare totală;
• flexibilitate;
• operare în reţea;
• procesarea informaţiilor în paralel (în timp real).
Multe dintre caracteristicile modelului de inovare specific celei de-a cincia generaţii
au fost deja utilizate de inovatorii ce au experimentat procesul celei de-a patra generaţii:
operaţii paralele şi integrate, structuri flexibile, conexiuni timpurii şi eficiente cu furnizorii,
implicarea principalilor clienţi şi alianţe orizontale.
Originalitatea modelului de inovare din cea de-a cincia generaţie constă în utilizarea
unui sofisticat echipament electronic pentru a îmbunătăţi eficienţa acestor operaţii. În timp
ce măsurarea electronică, procedeele numerice şi echipamentele analitice au fost mulţi ani
caracteristici importante ale inovării industriale, cea de-a cincia generaţie reprezintă un
proces mult mai cuprinzător de “electronizare a inovării” de-a lungul întregului sistem de
inovare.
Multe întreprinderi utilizează deja tehnologia informaţiei şi a comunicării pentru a
uşura activitatea de inovare şi cele legate de aceasta. Oricum, pentru a capta toate
potenţialele avantaje ale tehnologiei informaţiei şi comunicării, întreprinderile vor trebui să
dezvolte strategiile adecvate şi să aloce resursele necesare pentru achiziţionarea
echipamentelor şi, ceea ce este cel mai important, pentru susţinerea programelor de
instruire adecvate, în special în cazul companiilor multinaţionale ce operează cu strategii
globale. Practica a evidenţiat faptul că, în domeniul tehnic, strategiile incrementale de
învăţare sunt mai adecvate decât cele ce vizează mutaţiile radicale.
Unele întreprinderi utilizează deja de mult timp şi stăpânesc echipamentele
electronice din cea de-a cincia generaţie şi au adoptat strategiile adecvate:
Astfel, în 1992, Rothwell aprecia că inovarea industrială poate fi descrisă ca un
proces de acumulare de know-how, sau un proces de învăţare, implicând elemente de
învăţare internă şi externă (figura nr. 9).
Echipamentele electronice de dezvoltare a produsului pot ele însele deveni un factor
important în învăţarea companiei. Însăşi experimentarea procesului celei de-a cincia
generaţii va implica în mod considerabil învăţare, incluzând şi învăţarea organizaţională, iar
aceasta va atrage după sine costuri în termeni de timp, echipamente şi cheltuieli cu
instruirea personalului.
7
Infrastructura tehnico – ştiinţifică
Concurenţa
P1
Furnizori
principali
P3
Clienţi
principali
P2
Literatură de
specialitate,
inclusiv patente
Parteneriate strategice,
colaborări de marketing etc.
Învăţare internă:
q
q
q
q
q
q
Cercetare – dezvoltare şi proiectare:
învăţare prin dezvoltare;
Învăţare prin testare;
Învăţare prin producţie efectivă;
Învăţare din greşeli;
Învăţare prin utilizarea întreprinderilor
integrate pe verticală;
Învăţare inter–proiecte.
Achiziţii şi
plasamente în
acţiuni
Învăţare externă sau îmbinarea învăţării interne şi
externe:
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
Învăţare de la sau împreună cu furnizorii;
Învăţare de la sau împreună cu clienţii principali;
Învăţare prin parteneriate pe orizontală;
Învăţare de la sau împreună cu infrastructura
tehnico–ştiinţifică;
Învăţare din literatura de specialitate;
Învăţare din acţiunile concurenţei;
Învăţare din angajarea de personal nou;
Învăţare prin încercări de prototipuri;
Învăţare din activitatea de service şi descoperire a
defecţiunilor.
Figura nr. 9. Procesul de inovare – proces al acumulării de know–how
Oricum, potenţialele avantaje pe termen lung sunt foarte importante. În principal,
avantajele esenţiale ale modelului procesului de inovare specific celei de-a cincia generaţii
derivă din procesarea eficientă şi în timp real a informaţiei în cadrul întregului sistem de
inovare, incluzând funcţiile interne, furnizorii, clienţii şi colaboratorii. De aceea, modelul
procesului de inovare din cea de-a cincia generaţie evidenţiază că acesta este un proces de
prelucrare paralelă a informaţiei, în cadrul căruia procesarea electronică a informaţiei
operează într-o manieră complementară cu contactul uman, informal, faţă în faţă, o formă
mult mai tradiţională.
Informaţia formalizată conţinută de sistemele electronice completează cunoştinţele
tacite întrupate în cei implicaţi în inovare, în timp ce sistemele expert pot reuşi să capteze o
parte din aceste cunoştinţe tacite. În general sistemele electronice vor acţiona pentru a
îmbunătăţi eficienţa cu care se desfăşoară know-how-ul tacit.
8
Un factor important în obţinerea succesului pe piaţa concurenţială este calitatea
schimbului informal de informaţii de-a lungul dezvoltării produsului, incluzând schimburi
reciproce la interfaţa cu furnizorul, conducând spre procese de dezvoltare (şi producţie)
rapide, eficiente şi flexibile.
Dincolo de evoluţia percepţiei asupra procesului de inovare sintetizată sub forma
celor cinci modele, fiecare cu avantajele şi dezavantajele sale, realitatea este mult mai
complexă.
Chiar şi astăzi toate modelele procesului de inovare continuă să existe sub diferite
forme. Într-o anumită măsură această diversitate este rezultatul diferenţierilor sectoriale, de
ex. în cazul unor bunuri de consum inovarea are o puternică orientare spre cerinţele pieţei
(market-pull), în situaţia produselor din industriile de montaj inovarea are o natură din ce în
ce mai integrată şi paralelă, în timp ce în industriile bazate pe ştiinţă cum ar fi cea
farmaceutică, inovarea are o orientare dată de presiunea tehnologică, sintetizată în aceea că
„ştiinţa descoperă, tehnologia propulsează”. Oricum, chiar şi în domenii bazate pe ştiinţă, o
orientare pură dată doar de presiunea tehnologică ar avea puţini adepţi şi probabil modelul
de cuplare cu buclele sale de feedback şi conexiunile cu piaţa, caracterizat şi de o
suprapunere funcţională limitată, este cel mai adecvat.
Ţinând seama de această complexitate a mediului economic, de accelerarea vitezei
schimbărilor şi de modificarea naturii acestor schimbări, apreciem că întreprinderile care
astăzi alocă importante resurse în experimentarea procesului de inovare caracteristic celei
de-a cincia generaţii, vor fi inovatorii deschizători de drumuri, de mâine.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Rothwell R., Towards the Fifth-generation Innovation Process, International Marketing
Review, No 1, 1994
2. Slappendel C., Perspectives on innovation in organizations, Organization Studies, Vol.
17, No. 1/1996
3. Şipoş G., Inovarea în întreprindere, Editura Mirton, 2004
4. * * * Ştiinţa şi societatea, Buletin de informare şi documentare, INID Nr.1,2/1998,
Bucureşti
9
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL
COMMUNITIES
Someşan Cornel
Burtică Marin
Maniov Vichentie
Trif-Dan Simona
UNIVERSITATEA DE VEST VASILE GOLDIS ARAD
Strategic planning for social and economic development of local communities is a
systematic process that has a the major objective to improve the capacity of increasing and
development of local communities – economical, educational, social and cultural level. In the
process of communities strategic planning, the experience of American specialists in
communities’ development confirms the necessity of joining the philosophy of communities’
development with organizational development. The need of joining the two development
philosophies is based on the assumption that the attractively of a community depends on the
communities factors such as: the quality of life, positive image and efficient marketing, available
material resources and the capacity of economic development and also economic factors such as:
accessible technologies, qualified, motivated and adaptable human resources, available financial
capital.
The success of strategic communities planning depends on fulfilling of the following conditions
during the process of the elaboration of the plan:
• Participation in public-private partnership of the representative institutions from research,
regional development, local administration, civil society and also local companies
• The utilization of the specific methods and instruments for economic activities planning,
taking into consideration the competition of local communities for the resources
The strategic planning of economic and social development of local communities represents a
process that has to follow some steps such as:
• Communities audit
• Definition of the conceptions regarding the future of community and its purpose
• Elaboration of the strategy for social and economic development
• Elaboration of action plan
• Implementation of the strategy
• Monitoring the implementation
• The evaluation and periodic actualization
The work analyses the main concepts and instruments used in each stage of strategic planning
process, highlighting their specific in rural communities
1
Key words: SWOT analysis, structural matrix, development objectives, strategic orientation,
development strategies, action plans, implementation mechanism, monitoring and evaluation
INTRODUCTION:
A major objective of National Development Plan is to promote economical and social progress,
well-balanced and durable, by strengthening economic and social cohesion of administrative
units.
An important role in this process is conferred the local communities, seen as spaces the most
closer to the inhabitants.
One of the trends that is very pregnant during the last two decades is the decentralization of
economical and social development and the amplification of orientation towards local and
regional development to the purpose of eliminating economic and social gaps between regions
and local communities, rural or urban.
Local communities are not defined only through budgets and economic enterprises, but also
through: people, cultures, historical inheritance, material values and opportunities.
Continuously, a high number of local communities are in the situation “with problems”. The
problems of local communities do not only refer to their state of “fiscal health” but also to their
economic situation.
Local communities can have periods of economic weakness, both cyclic and prolonged. Both
cases local communities thrive or decline together with the fields of activities that are specific to
the place, but in other cases economic and social decline depends mostly on technological and
competitional changing.
But, local communities with problems are not only those of whose main activities or economic
sectors are declining but also all those whose communities’ management does not realize that
changing might appears and sometimes this changing appears even not from one day to another
but also from a period to another.
In the world, both national and local level, there are many examples of explosive development
where planning, strategy and marketing are well implemented by communities’ management.
2. THEORETIC FUNDAMENTS
Any local community has periodical cycles of evolution and involution, consequences of internal
factors –which can be controlled and also of external factors – which cannot be controlled.
We will present both categories of factors:
2.1 Internal factors, that create problems to local communities
Among internal factors that generates “growing of local community” we ca mention:
q The enterprising spirit of some of the members of communities that are materialized in the
apparition of new sectors of activity that are attractive
q The attractiveness of localities, due to a historical inheritance, of natural beauties and quality
of life
q Community management with “market orientation” and competent to interpret and turn to
good account the changing from local communities macro environment;
q The existence of consistent labor
2
Direct effects of the action of these factors are the afflux of new residents and tourists and on the
other hand the afflux of investments and new enterprises. The main indirect effects of these
factors’ action will be the increasing of real estate costs. The maximum exploitation of
infrastructure, the increasing of social needs, effects that mark the beginning of decline.
Other factors like: bad administration of economic activities, lakes in public administration and
deterioration of communities’ infrastructure generate direct effects such as: migration of
population especially of young people, migration of enterprises, declining of tourism, business
and socio-cultural meetings. Indirect effect of this category of factors is the deterioration of
socio-economic environment and on the other hand deterioration of local communities’ image.
2.2 External factors, that cannot be controlled and create problems to local communities
We will characterize the main external factors, that cannot be influenced by local communities
and who change the social-economic balance of communities.
2.2.1 Fast technological changing that are produced in the context of globalization
Starting XXI century, Euro-Atlantic developed societies are changed into societies of knowledge
and services, functioning especially based on computerized and electronic techniques.
The revolution in technology and communication has impact also on communities. So, the fax, email, Internet, portables and teleconferences allow to the enterprises to migrate in territories with
lower costs and more attractive labor conditions.
There is so called “de-localization of production of goods and services” phenomenon that has as
premises hard competition of multi and transnational companies and incapacity of companies to
satisfy local demand.
As consequences, it can be identified a normal cycle in economy and business of communities
having the result a restructuration of activities, by replacing industrial and tertial sectors that are
not competitive with new others, that add more value to the products and services.
2.2.2 Global competition
Starting the last decade of last century, a major influence factor on evolution of communities is
represented by globalization of economy and its consequences on the quality of community’s’
members’ life.
National, regional and local economies that were independent and autonomous until that moment
become interdependent components of a world integrated economy. Implicitly, economic
competition become global, being amplified by substantial progress from global system of
communications, transport and finances accelerating rhythm, intensity and area of influences of
socio-economic changing even in the smallest and farthest communities.
In the context of global economy each community has to compete with other communities in
order to obtain economic advantages. As a consequence, the communities find different solutions
to attract commercial and production enterprises, headquarters of some companies capital for
investments, tourists and attendants to conferences, sportive competitions etc. with the purpose of
creating more jobs, higher incomes, more commercial exchanges, more investments and finally –
development.
So, communities are not only the places for business. On the contrary, each community has to
become a sales agent of products and services, an active promoter of its own products and its
values.
3
With other words, communities have to be some offers of whose identities and values ask to be
projected, promoted and sold. Those communities that do not succeed to impose on the market as
attractive offers risk stagnating and declining.
From what we presented result that to the old realities of competition in business new realities, of
global competition’ pressure are added.
2.2.3 Decentralization of governmental authorities from local communities’ economies.
Changing from the area of market and associated problems generated by technological progresses
and global competition is happening in a rhythm that is more rapid than the capacity of reaction
of governmental authorities in communities and sectors with problems.
The continuous globalization of markets determined apparition in Euro-Atlantic countries of the
following three political orientation regarding the role of governmental authority in counteract
communities’ problems:
q Protectionism that promotes increasing of taxes and reducing import contingents in order to
protect industries-those that are declining, and communities in general and those consecrated
in special-against reducing markets in the favor of foreign competitors
q The policy of governmental activism that promote the need of involvement of governmental
authority in a industrial active strategy directed to support the branches and communities
with problems
q The policy of free market that promotes abstaining of governmental authority both from
protectionism and activism and let the phenomenon to manifest according to the market’s
low.
The approaches of implementing first two policies is confronted with the restrictions imposed to
the governmental resources and frequently with their insufficiency for supporting public services
and on the other hand with incapacity of authorities to observe the big difficulties to identify
sectors with development potential, in an world economy marked by rapid changing.
Globalization affects also the efficiency of macro and microeconomic policies, adjustments from
regions or localities proved to be difficult to be sustained, the level of competencies of these
authorities proved to be to high to make this efficient.
Due to these difficulties the assistance of governmental administrative bodies for local
administrative bodies was reduced gradually through a process of decentralization of
responsibilities regarding administration of communities’ problems generated by rapid changing
from their economy.
2.2.4 Conclusions regarding external factors
The aspects that were mentioned in this paragraph demonstrate that both communities and
territories were and continue to be more influenced by external and uncontrollable factors out of
which the most important are: rapid technological changing, global competition and
decentralization of governmental authorities. Communities must identify the threats of these
influences and to react rapid to these threats with a well preparation and anticipating their
occurrence. With this purpose many communities created and developed agencies for economic
development specialized in distinctive activities: planning, financing, tourism and not the last,
communities’ marketing.
4
3. METHODOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTS
Strategic planning of the development of local communities represents a project that propose
socio-economic development of community, in correlation with socio-economic development of
the county and region of development that belongs to. For the elaboration of strategy it has to be
used modern instruments of planning and also participate methodologies orientated towards
cooperation.
With this purpose the instruments of analysis and planning used during elaboration of strategy
belong to the method for internal development planning based on the stimulation of local
potential and the consensual procedure for decision and planning (meetings, symposia etc).
For the elaboration of strategy is requested a large cooperation between: different political
factors, local administration authorities, representatives of companies, local experts,
representatives of civil society that should involve active by participation to the meetings of
working groups organized with this purpose.
The elaboration of the project means to follow the next steps:
q SWOT analysis to identify local development potential
q To analyze the identified development potential using a structural matrix to emphasize
synergies and complements
q To establish priority action fields for the community development strategy that stimulates
increasing trends in other domains
q To define measures for each domain from target domains established by sectorial
development strategy
q To define a system of communities’ objective correlate with county and regional objective of
development
q Strategic orientation and hierarchy of priorities for individual measures in order to realize
objectives of strategic development
q Defining development strategies on short and medium term coherent and feasible in county,
regional and national context
q To elaborate management structures of communities development program
q To define a system for monitoring and evaluation of project
The content of project will put accent also on the elaboration of measures regarding
communities’ development. Because process of communities’ development involves a large
participation of al local actors, public and private and civil society, these have the possibility to
propose their own projects and programs that lead to the realization of foreseen measures and
implicitly to become direct interested in implementation of strategy.
An important role in elaboration of the project has Local Council of the community as a catalyser
of socio-economic development, as a coagulant of efforts of all local actors that are interested in
communities’ development.
The approaches of methodology of cooperative and consensual planning allows the utilization of
the elaborated plan as a guide in the selection of projects of public and private interest, project
that based on socio-economic development strategy of the community can be addressed to
different programs for financing.
5
4. THE PROCESS OF STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR A DURABLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES
4.1 The premises of project
q
q
q
q
Strategic planning has as major objective the elaboration and materialization of the answers
of local communities to the request of European integration and international trends
Strategic planning represents a continuous process developed by local communities in order
to be sure that the policies, strategies and programs that are adopted by community
management correspond to the needs of economic development of communities within the
limits imposed by local resources that are available
Strategic planning assures the unification of a series of smaller projects in a synergic
approach designed to rich feasible economic purposes/objectives a higher area
Strategic planning represent an instrument of community management for the optimization of
the administration of community problems and durable development
4.2 The steps of strategic planning process
Strategic planning of durable development is a systematic process by whom the community can
elaborate its vision of the future and the necessary steps for its materialization depending on the
local resources and potential.
This process has the following main steps:
q The evaluation of economic and social environment and of local potential
q The elaboration of Strategic plan of economic and social development with the stages:
q Formulate the mission, purpose, objectives and realistic strategies
q Identify, evaluate, and order the measures and projects based on priorities
q Implementation of Strategic plan, with the stages:
q Development of plans and action program
q Implementing plans and programs
q Monitoring and evaluation of the results
q Periodic evaluation
We will present below the essence of the steps and stages
4.2.1 The evaluation of economic and social environment and local potential
This step is necessary to create and implement strategies and programs, based on local
opportunities and addressed to local needs. The premises of the approach is based on the
understanding the fact that the determinant forces of local development are economic base and its
capacity of development, considering the trends form macro and micro environment and also the
events that ca have impact on these forces.
Analysis domains
The analysis will be focused on:
-The municipality of the community and cities that belong to it
-Community as a whole and analysis of the sectors, involving economic, social and public utility
Domain of analysis will be grouped as follows: economic state, demographic characteristics,
human resources characteristics, geographic position, physic and communication infrastructure,
q
6
business environment, educational resources, social system, public utilities, quality of life, the
mixture of localities and interaction between them.
The domains that we mentioned above will be divided in sub-domains to have a more complete
and representative reflection of economic and social life of communities.
Collection of data and information
Collection of data and information – key phase of the designing of economic and social profile of
communities is based first on availability and access to data and statistical information that are
relevant for this purpose. We can remark that in the case of rural communities the specificity of
data is more pregnant.
In the situation that the data and information –statistical or collected from different institutions
and organizations- will be not enough empirical data will be collected with the help of with the
support of project partners’. It will be taken into consideration also the fact that it is not necessary
to collect a very big and detailed volume of information, the attention being concentrated on the
simplicity. It will follow the processing and presentation of data and information so that they are
relevant and easy to understand for the decision factors. All this conditions will be considered for
the final design of the evaluation and local diagnose-analysis.
q
SWOT analysis
After the collection and processing of data and information local possibilities will be analyzed –
their identification and characterization is done by SWOT analysis
SWOT analysis is an efficient method, very important in the process of strategic planning for
identification and establishing hierarchy of priorities and for the creation of a common vision of
realization of development strategy. SWOT means: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats.
SWOT analysis will answer to the question: “Where are we?” an answer possible to get after the
analysis of internal environment of communities and general external environment.
Strengths for a community are those values and factors that give it a competitive advantage and
give it attraction.
Weaknesses for a community are those trends or those factors that create obstacles to the social economic development and can be of social nature, physic, financial, legal, operational and
others.
Weaknesses can be considered to be in the category of those that can be eliminated in a short and
medium time (3-5) years and those that need long time- that can be eliminated with difficulties.
The analytic answer for weaknesses is to elaborate concrete measures that can eliminate obstacles
and intensify strengths.
Strengths and weaknesses represent internal factors of community. Opportunities are those
external factors that facilitate the development of a competitive advantage (strengths).
Threats are unfavorable trends, developments that are external from the community and can
determine decline of competitive advantage. Changing in external environment represent
opportunities or threats depending on local condition of communities. Opportunities and threats
represent external factors.
The evaluation of external environment and external factors is one of the distinctive
characteristics of strategic planning of community development, referring to international
community, including European community, at national plan and regional plan. Changing in this
area cannot be controlled and influenced by community but the possible impact of those changing
on the community generates legitimitate preoccupation.
q
7
Identification and characterization of development potential will be realized under the
coordination of a project team by the specialists of local partnership, using specific forms of
which filling will allow also the identification of the measures that specialists consider proper for
the elimination of weaknesses.
After this, by the consent of local partnership it will be elaborated the criteria for the selection
and prioritization. Using these criteria there will be set up the priorities of strengths and
weaknesses. After these activities it will be possible the elaboration of the profile and structure of
diagnosis analysis of local communities.
The result of these activities will be the subject of a first conference entitled “Durable
development of local communities”. The “Catalogue of identified development measures” will be
realized.
4.2.2 Elaboration of Strategic Social and Economic Plan
Elaboration of mission, development direction and development objectives
Based on the realism of diagnosis –analysis of local communities, project team will realize
through public debates having as main purpose the formulation of mission for the next strategy of
durable development of the communities and the conception of hierarchic system of objective
whose achieving will permit the fulfilling of the mission. By consent it will be established that
the elaborated strategy will cover a period of 7 up to 10 years, answering to the question: “Where
do we want to arrive?” The conception of durable development strategy’s system of objectives
will allow to outline the general vision for the period of 7-10 years and of the desired result of
strategic planning process.
In the same time, strategic directions that are defined will allow a proper grouping of the
identified development measures and will lead to the realization of strategic mission of durable
development. The system of objectives will also permit the measurement of the results of
implementation due to the fact that measures, objectives and sub-objectives are measurable by
indicators.
Practically, for the realization of estimated result the team project will work with specialists in
local partnership to finish the system of objectives and after that the measures of development
from preliminary catalogue-identified by SWOT- will be reanalyzed giving up some of them and
identifying new others. In this way it will result “The catalogue of objectives and development
measures” that will be the base of development strategy of local communities.
In the context of the activities and the results mentioned above it will be taken into consideration
the fact that one of the main purpose of the strategic development plan of local communities is
also those of being an instrument for the economic promotion of local communities. The concept
of economic promotion has a lot of definitions. The implementation of this concept involves a
large spectrum of measures targeted towards the improvement of economic development of
communities and increasing its attraction.
In any context, economic promotion has measures of improvement of factors that influences:
-The choice of the location for the enterprises that process local resources
-Stimulation of the development of existing enterprises
-Realization of the investments in location and local infrastructures (ex. the extension of
traffic networks, measures of qualification of the labor, modernization of houses etc)
q
8
Formulation of strategic alternatives and final strategy
To the purpose of choosing optimal strategic alternative, the team project together with
specialists from local partnership will analyze four directions of strategic action:
-SO Strategies that use all the advantages of communities and take maximum profit on
the opportunities of external environment
-WO Strategies that minimize weaknesses of the communities and take maximum profit
on the opportunities of external environment
-ST Strategies that use all the advantages of communities to avoid or minimize the
threats of external environment
-WT Strategies that minimize weaknesses of the communities and avoid or minimize the
threats of external environment
q
It is known that comparative analysis will conduct to the decision of the elaboration of
development strategy as SO strategy that fit to the highest possible way to the performance
criteria, synergy, complements, efficiency, feasibility and impact. The elaborated strategy will
respond to the question “How to get there?”
In the same time it will proceed to the estimation of strategic budget and the definition of
decision criteria that give priorities for the realization of development measures
4.2.3 Implementation of strategic alternative for development
In order to assure implementation of development measures included in the strategic alternative
for development that was selected and evaluated, it will be necessary to create a Management
Implementation Unit (MIU)-a very important instrument for the implementation of development
strategy and to assure continuity for strategic planning of communities’ durable development.
By the specific mechanisms of cooperation and partnership cooperation, MIU will assure:
-Prioritization of development measures, using specific criteria
-Elaboration, application and actualization periodically of action plan
-Gradual implementation of development measures
-Monitoring the process and periodic evaluation of the result and objectives, giving the
possibility to adapt and reorient the strategy in time, during implementation
In the same time, it will be elaborated a new model for the attraction of financial resources
needed for the implementation. In this way the question: “Did we arrive where we wanted?” will
get an answer.
5. CONCLUSIONS
q Local communities are different by culture, history, geographic conditions, natural
resources, community management system and specific ways of administration of the
relations between public and private sector
q These sectors influence the approaches of communities regarding the choice of strategies,
utilization of local resources, establishing offers and implementing own strategic plans
q The potential and chances of a community do not depend so much on the geographic
localization, climate and natural resources that exist; they depend even more on:
-The public-private partnerships
-The synergy of the approaches of local authorities, enterprises, NGO’s, civic and
volunteer association, local political forces
9
q
q
-The willingness, talent, energy, values and organizational skills of the inhabitants
In their approaches, the members of the team count on a mix of economic theories, prognosis
of demographic and industrial trends, understanding of politic aspects, case studies and
practical experience
Essential elements of the impact and influences of the project will be:
-To stimulate public participation
-To stimulate the capacity of adaptation of the inhabitants to the culture of changing
-To emphasize the advantages of local partnership
-The involvement of institutions, enterprises, civil society in the multiple process of public
life
-The attraction and rational use of financial funds (public and private, domestic and
international)
-The orientation and concentration of local communities resources in the domains that give
maximum effects
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Burtică M., Vârlan Gh., Erös-Stark L., (2002), Economic prognosis: Theory and
applications, Ed. Orizonturi Universitare, Timişoara
2. Constantin D.L., (2000), Introduction in the theory and practice of regional development, Ed.
Economică, Bucureşti
3. Georgescu G., (1995), Economic reform and durable development, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti
4. Kotler Ph., Haider H.D., Rein L., (2001), Marketing of places, Ed. Teora, Bucureşti
5. Maniov V., (2001), The Basis of durable development management, Ed. Presa Universitară
Română, Timişoara
6. Naisbitt J., Aburdene P., (1990), Megatrends 2000, Avon Books, New York
7. Nicolae V., Constantin L.D., Grădinaru I., (1998), Prognosis and economic orintation, Ed.
Economică, Bucureşti
8. Ristea A.L., Franc V.I., (2003), Arranging urban territories between regional development
and globalization, Rev. Marketing – Management, vol. 4-5, Bucureşti
9. Someşan C., (2000), Global marketing, Ed. Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca
*** The low regarding regional development in Romania, (151/1998)
*** National Development Plan, ANDR, Bucureşti
*** Romanian national economic development strategy on medium term, 2000 –
2007, Guvernul României, 2000, Bucureşti
10
ECONOMIA INTERNET-O REALITATE A MEDIULUI
ECONOMIC DIN ROMÂNIA
Asistent Dr. Liana – Maria Stanca
Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice,
Universitatea“Babeş – Bolyai”
Cluj–Napoca, România,
[email protected]
Lector Dr. Ioana – Delia Pop
Facultatea de Horticultură,
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi
Medicină Veterinară
Cluj-Napoca, România
Abstract: În cadrul acestui articol se vor prezenta conceptele de bază, caracteristicile, şi
principiile de funcţionare ale economiei Internet. Autorii au optat, din multitudinea de
termeni folosiţi în literatura de specialitate pentru desemnarea fenomenului economic
conturat pe reţeaua Internet, pentru folosirea termenului de Economie Internet aducând,
argumente în sprijinul alegerii făcute. În prezentul articol se sublinează importanţa
dezvoltării Economiei Internet în România.
Keywords: Internet, economie Internet, e-business, e-commerce, e-banking, cerere-ofertă
1. Introducere
Apariţia şi dezvoltarea reţelei Internet a schimbat radical natura creşterii economice
ducând la apariţia unei economii bazată, atât pe calităţile intrinseci ale reţelei cât şi pe
conceptele fundamentale ale economiei clasice.
Economia Internet a apărut la sfârşitul mileniului II şi începutul mileniului III în
SUA, acolo unde tehnologia informaţiei şi a comunicaţiilor a condus la explozia
creşterii productivităţii în această ţară.
2. Determinarea denumirii corecte fenomenului economic conturat pe reţeau
Internet
Prima problemă pe care încercăm să o abordăm în acest context este aceea de a determina
denumirea corectă a fenomenului economiei Internet. Termenii folosiţi pentru acest concept
în literatura de specialitate sunt foarte diversificaţi [site2] şi anume: economie inteligentă,
economia interponderabilă, economia virtuală, economia Internet, economia digitală.
Economia digitală este o economie bazată pe digitizarea informaţiei şi pe infrastructura
informaţională şi de comunicaţii corespunzătoare [site4].
În literatura de specialitate [site4] se face distincţie între termenul de economie digitală şi
cel de economie informaţională deoarece: economia digitală se concentrează asupra
bunurilor sau serviciilor a căror concepere, producţie, vânzare sau procurare este esenţial
dependentă de tehnologiile digitale. Deci, economia digitală poate include anumite forme
de producţie care sunt excluse din economia informaţională. Economia informaţională
include toate bunurile şi serviciile de natură informatică, inclusiv publicaţii, divertisment,
cercetare, servicii legale şi de asigurări, învăţământ, sau servicii juridice, în toate formele pe
care le poate lua aceasta. Deci, economia informaţională poate include servicii care sunt
doar parţial incluse în economia digitală, cum ar fi, de exemplu serviciile juridice.
1
Cea mai frecvent întâlnită definiţie a sintagmei de “noua economie”, în literatura de
specialitate este următoarea [site6]:”impactul sectorului tehnologiei informaţiei şi
comunicaţiilor, într-un cuvânt a Internet-ului, asupra creşterii explozive a productivităţii în
SUA”. Autorii nu se opresc aici, ei consideră că termenul de noua economie este folosit
într-un sens mai larg, referindu-se la o serie de evoluţii interdependente legate de creşterea
economică puternică, stabilă şi neinflaţionistă din economia Statelor Unite începând cu anii
1990, evoluţii care includ pe lângă tehnologie şi un management macroeconomic mai bun,
un nivel scăzut al şomajului şi fenomenul de globalizare.
Având în vedere definiţiile prezentate mai sus, considerăm că nu se poate stabili o
delimitare precisă între termenii de economie informaţională, economie digitală, noua
economie şi economia pe Internet. Părerea noastră este că formularea “economia Internet”
este mai cuprinzătoare şi reprezintă în cea mai mare măsură acest fenomen care se
manifestă, atât în lumea economică cât şi în cea informatică. La baza punctului nostru de
vedere, stau următoarele argumente:
k Internet-ul este inima noului mediu economic;
k Internet-ul s-a transformat dintr-un mediu de comunicare într-un mediu de afaceri,
constituind piatra de temelie a economiei Internet;
k Internet-ul a determinat trecerea de la formele de afaceri tradiţionale la afacerile
electronice.
Economia Internet nu înseamnă înlocuirea, în adevăratul sens al cuvântului a economiei
clasice, ea doar transformă economia clasică adăugându-i noi domenii, noi instrumente, îi
creşte eficienţa, face ca totul să se realizeze mult mai rapid, mult mai exact şi mult mai
simplu.
3. Prezentare conceptelor de bază a Economie Internet
Economia Internet a rezultat ca urmare a interacţiunii dintre calculatorul personal,
telecomunicaţii, Internet şi electronică. Economia Internet a provocat crearea unor noi
modele de afaceri (e-business, e-commerce, e-banking, etc.) prin intermediul Internet-ului şi
Extranet-ului, care schimbă radical eficienţa acestora, în sensul reducerii costurilor pe baza
relaţiei afacere/afacere (B2B), afacere/cumpărător (B2C), afacere/angajat (B2E),
afacere/guvern (B2G), guvern/afacere (G2B), etc.
Economia Internet aduce în prim plan cererea, nevoile consumatorilor care se implică
într-o măsură din ce în ce mai mare la conceperea, realizarea şi utilizarea bunurilor şi
serviciilor, începând încă din stadiul cercetării şi dezvoltării acestora.[site11] Conform
acestei noi orientări, economia Internet are un caracter interactiv, participativ, realizând
interfaţa dintre ofertă şi cerere. În cadrul noii economii, epicentrul devine clientul/
consumatorul, şi mai puţin produsul, ceea ce va provoca mari modificări în procesele,
sistemele operaţionale şi chiar în cultura firmelor. Rolul consumatorului creşte, mai ales în
sensul că acesta poate deveni o importantă sursă de idei inovatoare pentru producător, în
scopul menţinerii sau extinderii pieţei, al sporirii gradului de confort sau al ridicării
nivelului dezvoltării economice.
Concurenţa şi cooperarea reprezintă două laturi inseparabile ale economiei Internet,
ţinând cont de interacţiunea dintre cerere şi ofertă. Formele de manifestare a concurenţei
între producători sunt, radical schimbate de prioritatea care se acordă unui consumator, ale
cărui nevoi sunt în continuă şi rapidă schimbare, astfel încât acesta îi obligă pe competitori
să coopereze [site11].
Economia Internet [site11] presupune un consum mai mare de muncă de concepţie, fapt
ce creează o valoare adăugată mai ridicată, noi locuri de muncă, segmente practic nelimitate
de oportunităţi de afaceri şi creativitate, prin existenţa unor standarde flexibile şi
interconective care facilitează nevoia integrării şi/sau individualizării diferiţilor
2
consumatori.
Diminuarea consumului de resurse, mărirea spiritului novator şi întreprinzător, creşterea
productivităţii muncii, a vitezei producerii şi schimbării fenomenelor şi proceselor
economice, sporirea valorii adăugate, reprezintă doar câteva dintre efectele economice care
au impus economia Internet ca formă superioară a economiei în general.
Economia Internet are la baza principiul:”cu cât se implică mai multe persoane, cu atât
avantajul pentru fiecare este mai mare” [site11].
Principiile economiei Internet sunt [site11]:
1. convingere (awarness);
2. accesibilitate (accessibility);
3. disponibilitate (availability);
4. existenţa resurselor necesare (affordability);
5. adecvare (appropriatness).
Dezvoltarea economiei Internet are ca efect [site11]:
• liberalizarea furnizorilor monopolişti care ţin costurile ridicate;
• legislaţie specifică pentru “Tehnologia informaţiei şi a comunicaţiilor şi Internet”
(semnătura digitală şi altele);
• acces la reţele de comunicaţii;
• evitarea suprareglementărilor;
• legea proprietăţii intelectuale şi a drepturilor de licenţă;
• piaţă de capital solidă;
• infrastructură conformă cu standardele internaţionale;
• libertate de acces la informaţie;
• interacţiuni între agenţii economici, guvern, industrie, academie şi cetăţeni;
• concurenţă şi competiţie.
4. Caracteristiciile Economiei Internet
Caracteristicile economiei Internet stau la baza formării mediului de afaceri şi proceselor
economice virtuale. Aceste caracteristici sunt: [Kapolnai2002]
costul de producere a informaţiei are o tendinţă descrescândă apropiindu-se spre zero
deoarece costurile multiplicării şi difuzării ei sunt mici;
tendinţă descrescândă a costurilor pentru depozitarea, prelucrarea şi transmiterea
informaţiei;
utilizarea mai eficientă a informaţiilor şi a cunoştinţelor în noul mediu de afaceri;
informaţia este bogată şi accesibilă în acelaşi timp;
în economia Internet, spre deosebire de cea tradiţională în cadrul căreia concurenţa
există numai între firme cu acelaşi profil, aria concurenţei se lărgeşte cuprinzând atât
firme cu acelaşi profil cât şi firme cu profiluri diferite;
principiul creşterii debitului volumetric constă în faptul că participanţii la e-business
au avantajul de a face parte dintr-un sistem cu mare popularitate, folosit de un cerc
foarte mare de participanţi. Conectarea la sistem demarează un sistem autogenerativ,
concentric, ceea ce înseamnă că deşi atragerea cumpărătorului are un cost ridicat
acesta se amortizează în proporţie inversă cu creşterea cercului de cumpărători;
simplificarea procesului de schimbare a partenerilor de afaceri. Acest lucru a devenit
posibil prin dezvoltarea tehnologiei informaţiei. Prin dezvoltarea tehnologiei
informaţiei pieţele devin mai transparente şi schimbarea partenerului de afaceri
devine mai uşoară. Pentru a contracara această situaţie firmele depun eforturi mult
mai mari pentru a-şi păstra partenerii de afaceri;
creşterea importanţei standardelor economice ca urmare a procesului de extindere a pieţelor.
Firmele îşi manifestă un interes deosebit pentru stabilirea unui standard general, ducând o
3
luptă acerbă pentru ca produsele proprii să fie declarate produse standard. În procesul de
stabilire a standardelor un rol important îl joacă “aşteptarea”.
5. Concluzii:
Din punctul nostru de vedere, România ar putea să facă paşi importanţi în ceea
ce priveşte dezvoltarea economiei Internet prin adoptarea următoarelor măsuri:
1. dezvoltarea infrastructurii informaţionale într-un ritm alert, însă asociat cu realizarea
condiţiilor de valorificare a infrastructurii prin servicii cu valoare adăugată care să
încurajeze investiţiile, mai ales pe cele ale statului sau pe bază de garanţii
guvernamentale;
2. completarea şi consolidarea cadrului legislativ cu reglementări specifice domeniului
Tehnologiei Informaţiei şi Comunicaţiilor;
3. acordarea unor facilităţi fiscale prin care să se încurajeze dezvoltarea internă a acestui
sector precum şi atragerea unor firme străine de prestigiu care dispun de capital şi
tehnologii avansate;
4. pregătirea unui număr mai mare de specialişti în domeniul Tehnologiei Informaţiei şi
Comunicaţiilor şi motivarea materială a acestora, cu scopul de a dezvolta producţia de
bunuri şi servicii specifice domeniului Tehnologiei Informaţiei şi Comunicaţiilor în
partea superioară a ierarhiei de valori adăugate. Această ierarhie cuprinde următoarele
trepte: specificare, concepţie şi proiectare. Rezultatul dezvoltării producţiei de bunuri
şi servicii în partea superiară a ierarhiei de valori adăugate ar fi scutirea firmelor
româneşti de cheltuieli suplimentare şi pierdere de timp în raport cu competiţia, la
livrarea de produse şi servicii pe piaţa internă şi la export.
Bibliografie:
1.
[site2] Kiel Institute of World Economics, The New Economy-Trends, Causes
and Consequences, Internet: www.uni-kiel.de;
2.
[site4]www.businessmedia.org/netacademy/glosary.nsf/kw_id_all/714;
3. [site6]Rob Kling, Behind the e-curtain, www. slis. lib. indiana. Edu /kling /
pubs / webinfra.html;
4.
[site11]www.academiaromana.ro/pro_pri/doc/st_g04.doc;
5. [Kapolnai2002] A. Kapolnai, A. Nemeslaki, R. Pataki, eBusiness strategia
vallalati felsovezetoknek, Editura. Aula, 2002.
4
FONDURILE STRUCTURALE ŞI IMPORTANŢA LOR
ÎN DEZVOLTAREA REGIONALĂ
Conf. Dr. PETRU ŞTEFEA
Universitatea de Vest Timişoara
Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice
Abstract:
EU Structural Funds are managed by the European Commission, their destination being funding of
structural aid measures at communitarian level, with purposes like promoting regions with
development delays, re-conversion of areas affected by industrial decline, long term unemployment
control, youth professional integration or rural development policy. Structural funds consist of:
European Fund for Agricultural Orientation and Guarantee – “Orientation” component, European
Fund for Regional Development, Social European Fund and Financial Instrument for Fishery
Orientation. In addition, there is Cohesion Fund, created in 1993. Structural Funds represent, as at
year 2000, 37% of the European Union Budget of approximately 90 billion Euro/year, resulting that
in 2000 – 2006 period to be allocated a total of 286 billion Euro.
Structural Funds together with pre-adherence ones are financial instruments that assure regional
development and are considered regional solidarity instruments, this giving their major importance
in the process of implementation and sustaining regional development.
Politica de dezvoltare regională este una dintre politicile cele mai importante şi mai
complexe ale Uniunii Europene, statut ce decurge din faptul că, prin obiectivul său de
reducere a disparităţilor economice şi sociale existente între diversele regiuni ale Europei,
acţionează asupra unor domenii semnificative pentru dezvoltare precum creşterea
economică şi sectorul IMM, transporturile, agricultura, dezvoltarea umană, protecţia
mediului, egalitatea de gen etc.
Concepută ca o politică a solidarităţii la nivel european, politica regională se
bazează în principal pe solidaritate financiară, adică pe redistribuirea unei părţi din bugetul
comunitar realizat prin contribuţia Statelor Membre către regiunile şi grupurile sociale mai
puţin prospere (pentru perioada 2000-2006, suma aferentă reprezintă aproximativ o treime
din bugetul UE111 ). De fapt, se poate spune că politica de dezvoltare regională are un
pronunţat caracter instrumental, iar prin fondurile sale de solidaritate (Fondul de coeziune,
Fondurile structurale, Fondul de solidaritate) contribuie la finanţarea altor politici sectoriale
– cum ar fi politica agricolă sau politica de protecţie a mediului. În plus, politica regională
este corelată şi cu politica de extindere a Uniunii Europene, prin crearea fondurilor speciale
de pre-aderare PHARE (fond de sprijin pentru reconstrucţia economică), ISPA (instrument
al politicilor structurale, ce prefigurează Fondul de coeziune) şi SAPARD (program special
pentru agricultură) la care au acces ţările în curs de aderare şi prin care este sprijinită
tranziţia acestora la standardele şi structurile de organizare ale UE.
Caracterul complex al politicii de dezvoltare regională este subliniat şi de modul în
care aceasta integrează trei dintre obiectivele prioritare ale UE: coeziunea economică şi
socială, extinderea aplicării principiului subsidiarităţii şi dezvoltarea durabilă.
Coeziunea economică şi socială nu numai că este prezentă la nivelul obiectivelor
fondurilor structurale, dar importanţa sa este reflectată prin crearea unui fond omonim
1
Este vorba de 35% din bugetul UE (http://europa.eu.int/comm/regional_policy).
1
(Fondul de coeziune) ce sprijină grăbirea procesului de convergenţă şi atingere a nivelelor
medii de dezvoltare ale UE.
Principiul subsidiarităţii – care reprezintă gradul crescut de implicare a Statelor
Membre în dezvoltarea şi implementarea politicilor comunitare – este prezent şi la nivelul
altor politici. În contextul de faţă, acest principiu are aplicabilitate în negocierea finanţării
din fondurile de solidaritate de către fiecare stat în parte (în funcţie de priorităţile naţionale
şi regionale) precum şi în responsabilitatea ce revine acestora din urmă în implementarea,
monitorizarea şi evaluarea programelor stabilite de comun acord.
Strategia dezvoltării durabile22 este prezentă ca prioritate a programelor de
solidaritate europeană, în special prin accentul pus pe protecţia mediului şi pe dezvoltarea
de măsuri în această direcţie. Însă această strategie nu este numai europeană, ci există ca
strategie globală promovată în toată lumea prin variate acorduri internaţionale, ceea ce
subliniază o dată în plus caracterul complex al politicii de dezvoltare regională şi coerenţa
internă a obiectivelor comunitare.
1. Fondurile structurale ale Uniunii Europene
Fondurile structurale (FS) sunt instrumentele de solidaritate cu ajutorul cărora se
implementează politica de solidaritate a Uniunii Europene. Pilonul principal al acestei
politici îl constituie Fondurile structurale, alături de care stau două fonduri speciale:
Fondul de Coeziune Socială şi Fondul European de Solidaritate (Fondul European de
Solidaritate şi Fondul de coeziune fiind numite şi instrumente structurale).
Spre deosebire de Fondul de solidaritate şi de Fondul de coeziune, care
funcţionează pe proiecte, Fondurile structurale – dată fiind amploarea lor – funcţionează
pe bază de programe, acestea fiind la rândul lor structurate în funcţie de domeniile şi
obiectivele prioritare ale politicii regionale.
Principiile care stau la baza operaţionalizării fondurilor structurale au fost
modificate în urma reformei din 1999, fiind întărite sau devenind mai specifice. Principiul
concentrării nu se mai regăseşte în mod explicit, fiind însă principiul director al reformei3.
Astfel, dacă pentru perioada 1994-1999 principiile operaţionale erau: parteneriatul,
programarea şi coerenţa internă, adiţionalitatea (sau coerenţa externă) şi concentrarea, în
noua variantă reprezentată de Agenda 2000, acestea au devenit:
a) principiul programării,
b) principiul parteneriatului,
c) principiul adiţionalităţii,
d) principiul monitorizării, controlului şi evaluării.
a) Principiul programării este unul din elementele esenţiale ale operaţionalizării
Fondurilor structurale şi se referă la pregătirea planurilor multianuale de dezvoltare4 care
se realizează pe baza deciziilor luate în parteneriat cu statele membre şi printr-o serie de
etape succesive, finalizându-se cu asumarea de sarcini de către organismele publice sau
Dezvoltarea durabilă în sensul promovării dezvoltării economice ţinând cont de impactul acesteia asupra
mediului şi asupra conservării resurselor naturale, ca responsabilitate faţă de generaţiile viitoare.
3
Cele 7 obiective ale perioadei 1994-1999 au fost concentrate în 3 obiective pentru perioada 2000-2006.
4
Aceste planuri se realizează pe perioade variabile (vezi 1994-1999, 2000-2006), cu o revizuire intermediară
ce permite operarea de modificări.
2
2
private. Astfel, într-o primă etapă, statele membre vor înainta Comisiei Europene planuri
naţionale de dezvoltare şi conversie bazate pe priorităţile naţionale şi regionale şi care vor
conţine:
ü descrierea detaliată a situaţiei curente în regiunea/statul respectiv;
ü descrierea strategiei celei mai potrivite pentru realizarea obiectivelor;
ü indicarea formei şi utilizării contribuţiei la fondurile structurale.
În etapa următoare, statele membre trebuie să înainteze Comisiei documentele de
programare, documente realizate conform criteriilor trasate de acestea şi care pot fi de două
tipuri: (1) Documente Cadru de Sprijin Comunitar (DCSC) - care sunt apoi transpuse în
Programe Operaţionale (PO), sau Documente Unice de Programare (DUP), diferenţa fiind
dată de amploarea lor şi nu de natura acestora. Pe baza acestor documente de programare
are loc un proces de negociere între comisia Europeană şi statele membre, proces care se
finalizează cu alocarea orientativă a fondurilor structurale pentru fiecare stat în parte.
b) Principiul parteneriatului presupune o strânsă colaborare între Comisia
Europeană şi autorităţile naţionale, regionale şi locale, parteneri economici şi sociali şi alte
organisme competente, în special prin implicarea acestora în toate etapele Fondurilor
Stucturale – de la elaborarea şi aprobarea planurilor de dezvoltare la implementarea şi
monitorizarea acestora. Acest principiu subliniază gradul de descentralizare ce
caracterizează întreaga politică regională şi aplicarea subsidiarităţii.
c) Principiul adiţionalităţii are în vedere completarea asistenţei comunitare prin
finanţare naţională, astfel încât fondurile comunitare să nu înlocuiască fondurile naţionale
pentru dezvoltarea unui anumit sector, ci să vină în completarea acestora.
d) Principiul monitorizării, evaluării şi controlului este elementul de noutate adus de
reforma din 1999 în domeniul fondurilor structurale. Astfel, conform noului regulament,
statele menmbre au atribuţii administrative şi au obligaţia de a desemna:
ü o autoritate naţională corespunzătoare fiecărui program al Fondurilor
Structurale;
ü comitete de monitorizare.
Obiectivele care trasează liniile de acţiune ale FS sunt specifice fiecărei perioade de
programare a acestora şi se stabilesc în funcţie de principalele priorităţi identificate în
vederea reducerii discrepanţelor economice şi sociale la nivel comunitar. Astfel, ele apar
sub denumirea de obiective prioritare şi trimit în mod direct la sectoarele ce necesită
intervenţie structurală5.
Pentru etapa 2000-2006 au fost identificate următoarele 3 priorităţi:
1) competitivitatea regională,
2) coeziunea economică şi socială,
3) dezvoltarea zonelor urbane şi rurale (inclusiv a celor dependente de pescuit),
5
Menţionăm că obiectivele prioritare nu sunt obiective strategice ci au un caracter operaţional, ele desemnând
ariile de acţiune ale FS pentru o anumită perioadă de programare.
3
Obiectivele perioadei 2000-2006 sunt specifice priorităţilor menţionate şi se
prezintă astfel:
§ Obiectivul 1 (teritorial): dezvoltarea regiunilor rămase în urmă;
§ Obiectivul 2 (teritorial): reconversia economică şi socială a regiunilor cu
dificultăţi structurale;
§ Obiectivul 3 (tematic)6: dezvoltarea resurselor umane.
Obiectivul 1 Pentru ca o regiune să se califice pentru asistenţă comunitară în cadrul acestui
obiectiv trebuie să fie caracterizată prin:
- nivel redus al investiţiilor;
- rată a şomajului mai mare decât media UE;
- o slabă activitate de prestări servicii pentru afacere şi persoane;
- infrastructura de bază redusă.
Obiectivul 2 se adresează acelor zone care, deşi situate în regiuni ale căror nivel de
dezvoltare este apropiat de media comunitară, se confruntă cu diverse tipuri de dificultăţi
socio-economice ce generează o rată ridicată a şomajului, de exemplu:
- evoluţia slabă a sectorului industrial şi a sectorului prestări servicii;
- declinul activităţilor tradiţionale în zonele rurale;
- situaţie de criză în zonele urbane;
- dificultăţi în sectorul pescuitului.
Obiectivul 3 sprijină modernizarea sistemelor de educaţie şi formare, precum şi a politicilor
de ocupare a forţei de muncă pe întreg teritoriul UE, cu excepţia regiunilor eligibile sub
obiectivul 1. Obiectivul 3 are în vedere:
- combaterea şomajului pe termen lung;
- integrarea tinerilor pe piaţa muncii;
- integrarea celor ameninţaţi cu excluderea de pe piaţa muncii;
- adaptarea forţei de muncă la schimbările de producţie.
Descrierea Fondurilor structurale. Dacă obiectivele prioritare reprezintă cadrul
operaţional al politicii regionale a UE, Fondurile structurale reprezintă cea mai importantă
parte a instrumenteor financiare7 ce servesc la implementarea acesteia.
Există patru fonduri structurale, fiecare putând finanţa mai multe obiective şi fiecare
obiectiv putând fi finanţat din mai multe fonduri, după cum urmează:
1. Fondul European de Dezvoltare Regională (FEDR) – contribuie la finanţarea
obiectivelor 1 şi 2;
2. Fondul Social European (FSE) – contribuie la finanţarea obiectivelor 1,2 şi 3;
3. Fondul European de Orientare şi Garantare pentru Agricultură (FEOGA):
contribuie la finanţarea obiectivului 1 (secţiunea de orientare a fondului);
4. Instrumentul Financiar de Orientare în domeniul Pescuitului (IFOP): contribuie
la finanţarea obiectivului 1.
Finanţarea se face, în cea mai mare parte, sub forma unui ajutor nerambursabil (şi
mai puţin ca ajutor rambursabil, ex: subvenţionarea ratelor dobânzilor, garanţii, etc.) şi
respectând anumite plafoane aşa cum reiese din Tabelul 1.
6
7
Obiectivul 3 mai este numit şi obiectiv sectorial.
Alături de Fondul de solidaritate, Fondul de coeziune, Banca Europeană de Investiţii(BEI).
4
Tabelul 1: Corelaţia financiară dintre FS şi obiectivele prioritare
Obiectivul 1
- 75%-80% din totalul costurilor eligibile
- max. 35-50% pentru investiţii în afaceri
şi infrastructură
Obiectivul 2
- max. 75% din totalul costurilor eligibile
- max. 15-25% pentru investiţii în afaceri
şi infrastructură
Obiectivul 3
- max. 75% din totalul costurilor eligibile
FEDR
X
FSE
X
X
X
FEOGA
X
IFOP
X
X
1) Fondul European de Dezvoltare Regională a fost înfiinţat în 1975 şi are cea mai mare
pondere în cadrul fondurilor structurale. FEDR are drept scop reducerea disparităţilor dintre
regiunile UE şi are ca direcţii de intervenţie următoarele ( conf. reglementării Parlamentului
European şi Consiliului nr. 1783/1999):
§ investiţii productive pentru crearea şi menţinerea unor locuri de muncă durabile;
§ investiţii în infrastructură;
§ iniţiative de dezvoltare locală şi activităţi de afaceri ale întreprinderilor mici şi
mijlocii;
§ investiţii în educaţie şi sănătate.
2) Fondul Social European (FSE) a fost creat în 1958 şi a constituit, încă de la început,
principalul instrument al politicii sociale comunitare. FSE pune accent pe îmbunătăţirea
modului în care funcţionează piaţa muncii în diferite ţări şi pe re-integrarea şomerilor pe
piaţa muncii, prin finanţarea a trei tipuri de acţiuni: formarea profesională, reconversia
profesională şi unele măsuri ce duc la crearea de locuri de muncă.
3) Fondul European de Orientare şi Garantare pentru Agricultură a fost stabilit în 1962
pentru finanţarea politicii agricole comune a UE şi consumă cea mai mare parte a bugetului
comunitar. FEOGA sprijină dezvoltarea regiunilor rurale şi îmbunătăţirea structurilor
agricole, fiind structurat în două secţiuni:
Ø Secţiunea de orientare: finanţează scheme de raţionalizare. Modernizare şi
ajustare structurală a sectorului agricol din zonele rurale;
Ø Secţiunea de garantare: finanţează măsuri de organizare comună a pieţelor şi de
susţinere a preţurilor produselor agricole.
4) Instrumentul Financiar de Orientare în domeniul Pescuitului a fost creat în 1994, prin
gruparea tuturor instrumentelor comunitare privind pescuitul. Ca ţi celelalte fonduri, IFOP
a trecut printr-un proces de reformă în 1999, însă noul regulament adoptat atunci pentru
perioada de programare 2000-2006 a suferit modificări şi noi măsuri au intrat în vigoare la
1 ianuarie 2003. Obiectivele IFOP au rămas însă neschimbate şi au în vedere88:
8
Council Regulation (EC) No 1263/1999 of 21 June 1999 on the Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance.
5
•
•
•
•
contribuţia la realizarea unui echilibru de durată între resursele piscicole şi
exploatarea lor;
întărirea competitivităţii şi dezvoltarea unor activităţi de afaceri viabile în industria
pescuitului;
îmbunătăţirea ofertei de piaţă a valorii adăugate a produselor piscicole şi de
avacultură;
sprijinirea revitalizării zonelor dependente de pescuit şi avacultură.
Obiectivele finanţate din fondurile structurale sunt completate de patru Iniţiative
comunitare care încurajează pe întreg teritoriul Uniunii europene, cooperarea transfrontalieră, trans-naţională şi inter-regională (INTERREG III), revitalizarea zonelor urbane
aflate în criză (URBAN II), egalitatea pe piaţă forţei de muncă (EQUAL) şi dezvoltarea
zonelor rurale (LEADER+).
Fondurilor structurale le este alocată aproape o treime din bugetul total al UE, ceea
ce face ca nivelul lor pentru perioada 2000-2006 să se ridice la 195 de miliarde de Euro
pentru UE 15, la care se mai adaugă alte 15 miliarde Euro destinate noilor state membre. În
plus mai trebuie menţionat că la aceste fonduri se adaugă dotarea pentru Fondul de
coeziune în sumă de 25,6 miliarde, sumă alocată pentru Europa 25.
Tabelul 2: Bugetul acordat Fondurilor Structurale – perioada 2000-2006*
(în miliarde Euro, angajamente în preţurile anului 1999)
Obiectiv 1 Obiectiv 2 Obiectiv 3 INTERREG URBAN EQUAL LEADER Pescuit F. Coeziune
UE 15
137,800
22,040
24,050
4,875
0,700
2,850
2,020
1,106
18,000
UE+10
13,230
0,120
0,110
0,420
0,000
0,220
0,000
0,003
7,590
UE 25
151,030
22,160
24,160
5,295
0,700
3,070
2,020
1,109
25,590
[*]
În martie 2004, Comisia europeană a alocat o sumă suplimentară („rezervă de performanţă”) de 8 miliarde de euro
resursele totale – ansamblului programelor reuşite (Obiectivele 1,2,3 şi programele „Pescuit”).
Total
213,441
21,693
235,134
– adică 4% din
Pentru perioada 2007-2013, Comisia îşi propune să-şi concentreze priorităţile pe trei
componente, având la dispoziţie un buget global de 336 de miliarde EURO. Componenta
„Convergenţă” va stimula creşterea economică şi ocuparea forţei de muncă în regiunile
mai puţin dezvoltate (în special în noile state membre), care vor continua să beneficieze de
Fondul de Coeziune. Componenta „Competitivitate” va anticipa schimbările care au loc în
restul UE. Aceasta va cuprinde o parte regională, care va permite fiecărui stat să aleagă
zonele beneficiare, şi o parte naţională, bazată pe Strategia europeană pentru ocuparea
forţei de muncă. La rândul ei, componenta „Cooperare” va pleca de la experienţa
acumulată prin intermediul INTERREG pentru a favoriza o dezvoltare armonioasă pe
întreg teritoriul UE.
2. Instrumentele de preaderare: PHARE, ISPA, SAPARD
Politica de solidaritate a UE este o politică complexă, ce nu se limitează numai la
nevoile actualelor state membre ci, în concordanţă cu strategia de extindere a Uniunii, are
în vedere şi ţările în curs de aderare. Pentru acestea au fost create instrumente financiare
specifice, ce au rolul de a reduce decalajele de dezvoltare dintre acestea şi statele
comunitare şi de a pregăti încă înainte de aderare aceste state pentru utilizarea fondurilor
6
structurale, din punct de vedere instituţional şi al managementului. Ţările în curs de aderare
se încadrează în două mari categorii: ţările Europei Centrale şi de Est (Bulgaria şi România)
şi ţările Europei Mediteraneene (Turcia)9. Astfel, alături de „Parteneriatele de Aderare” au
fost create instrumente financiare şi aranjamente specifice, pentru a răspunde nevoilor acute
ale acestora în domeniile infrastructurii, restructurării industriei, serviciilor, sectorului
IMM, agriculturii şi a protecţiei mediului.
Foaia de parcurs pentru aderarea României la UE a fost adoptată cu ocazia
Consiliului European de la Copenhaga din decembrie 2002, iar în cadrul acesteia se
prevedea creşterea anuală a asistenţei financiare pentru pre-aderare cu 20%, 30% şi 40%
pentru 2004, 2005 şi 2006.
Pe parcursul acestei perioade, România va beneficia de o asistenţă financiară
europeană de 3637 milioane Euro. Această asistenţă financiară este alocată prin intermediul
a trei instrumente de pre-aderare:
Ø PHARE (include aprox. 50% din asistenţă);
Ø ISPA (include aprox. 33% din asistenţă);
Ø SAPARD (include aprox. 16% din asistenţă).
Programul PHARE a fost creat în 1989 pentru a contribui la restructurarea economică
a Poloniei şi Ungariei („Pologne, Hongrie, Aide à la Restructuration Economique”) şi este
cel mai vechi program de asistenţă tehnică pentru ţările din Europa Centrală şi de Est.
Începând cu anul 2000, activităţile programului PHARE se concentrează pe două priorităţi:
§ asistenţa acordată administraţiilor publice din statele candidate în vederea dotării cu
capacităţile necesare în vederea punerii în practică a acquis-ului comunitar şi a
organelor de reglementare şi monitorizare, facilitându-le acestora familiarizarea cu
obiectivele şi procedurile comunitare;
§ adaptarea industriei şi infrastructurilor de bază la normele comunitare prin
mobilizarea investiţiilor necesare (mediul înconjurător, transporturile, industria,
calitatea produselor, condiţiile pe piaţa forţei de muncă, etc.).
Fondurile alocate României prin Programul PHARE se ridică la 1539 milioane de Euro
pentru perioada 2004-2006.
Programul ISPA (Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accesion) sprijină
investiţiile de mare amploare în domeniul infrastructurilor de transport şi de mediu.
România va primi 1 026 milioane Euro în cadrul ISPA pentru perioada 2004-2006.
În sectorul transporturilor, se acordă prioritate îmbunătăţirii reţelelor rutiere,
feroviare şi fluviale, dar şi modernizării reţelelor trans-europene care traversează teritoriul
României.
În materie de mediu, România întâlneşte probleme grave în ceea ce priveşte
poluarea aerului, apei şi a solului, sectoare care necesită investiţii publice şi private extrem
de importante. ISPA contribuie în acest sens, concentrându-se în special pe finanţarea
sistemelor de tratare a apelor uzate şi de gestionare a deşeurilor.
Incepand cu 2007, asistenta financiara prin ISPA va fi înlocuită în mod automat de
Fondul de Coeziune şi întregul sprijin financiar va creste substanţial.
9
Acestea pot fi diferenţiate şi în funcţie de semnarea Tratatului de Aderare, respectiv: Turcia (care nu a
semnat încă), România şi Bulgaria (data de aderare 01.01.2007).
7
Programul SAPARD („Special Accession Programme for Agriculture and Rural
Development”) a fost lansat în 2000 în scopul de a facilita adaptarea infrastructurilor
agricole şi a zonelor rurale ale statelor candidate din Europa centrală şi de est.
Acordul Multianual de Finanţare 2000-2006, semnat pe 2 februarie 2001 între
Guvernul României şi Comisia Europeană şi ratificat prin Legea 316/2001, este documentul
oficial prin care se decide acordarea de către Comisia Europeana a unei contribuţii
financiare nerambursabile României de 1072 milioane EURO, angajată pe perioada 20002006, în vederea implementării programului SAPARD.
Programul SAPARD are ca principal scop îmbunătăţirea competitivităţii sectorului
agro-alimentar şi a infrastructurilor rurale, dezvoltarea şi diversificarea economiei rurale şi
formarea resurselor umane.
Tabelul 3: Asistenţă financiară de pre-aderare pentru România – perioada 2000-2006
(în milioane Euro, angajamente în preţurile anului 2004)
PHARE
1.539
ISPA
1.026
SAPARD
1072
Total
3.637
33.. A
E
UE
maattiiccee,, tteennddiinnţţee şşii pprroovvooccăărrii ppeennttrruu U
Assppeeccttee pprroobblleem
Atunci când vorbim de aspectele problematice ale politicii de dezvoltare regională
trebuie să ţinem cont de dinamismul accentuat al politicilor comunitare din ultimii ani şi
de provocarea fără precedent a aderării unui grup mare de ţări candidate, fapt ce determină
una dintre cele mai mari extinderi din istoria Uniunii. La acestea se adaugă aspecte ce ţin
de evoluţia Pieţei Europene şi de noile tendinţe în domeniile revoluţiei tehnologice şi a
societăţii informaţionale, acestea reprezentând, deocamdată, provocări cu care se confruntă
politica regională în perioada programatică 2000 – 2006.
Referitor la procesul de extindere a Uniunii ce a avut şi încă mai are loc în
momentul de faţă, se poate spune că acesta reprezintă provocarea cea mai dificilă din punct
de vedere a menţinerii idealului coeziunii economice şi sociale la nivel comunitar, datorită
a trei factori11100:
a) creşterea fără precedent a disparităţilor economice existente între regiunile UE,
prin aderarea ţărilor Europei Centrale şi de Est;
b) modificarea modelului de distribuţie a disparităţilor geografice, dat fiind că
25% din populaţia UE va trăi în regiuni cu PIB mai mic de 75% decât media
comunitară, din care 60% va fi reprezentată de populaţia noilor state membre;
c) scăderea gradului de ocupare a forţei de muncă în cadrul Uniunii extinse.
Aceste trei aspecte reprezintă provocări serioase la adresa menţinerii gradului de
coeziune economica şi socială la nivel comunitar, însă acestea au şansa de a fi contracarate
de constantul progres economic înregistrat de aceste ţări la ora actuală şi de existenţa , în
10
Aşa cum reiese din „Second progress Report on Economic and Social Cohesion”, European Commision,
COM (2003).
8
cadrul acestora, a unei forţe de muncă tinere şi bine educate. În mod particular, se
evidenţiază nevoia schimbării adresabilităţii Fondului de coeziune – creat pentru a sprijini
Grecia, Portugalia, Spania şi Irlanda în procesul lor de integrare în cadrul UE, şi prefigurat
a sprijini integrarea noilor state membre. Acest proces de adaptare a instrumentelor politicii
regionale la noua situaţie comunitară creată de extindere, face obiectul Declaraţiei de la
Leipzig (2003) şi defineşte deja soluţii la adresa provocărilor amintite.
O altă provocare a politicii regionale în acest moment este reprezentată de creşterea
accentuată a competiţiei dintre firme, ceea ce face ca din ce în ce mai multe companii să
caute să îşi desfăşoare activitatea în regiuni cu infrastructură eficientă, calitate ridicată a
serviciilor şi lucrători bine pregătiţi (ceea ce trimite la avantajele comparative ce pot
decurge din prezenţa unor noi State Membre). Astfel, fondurile de dezvoltare regională
trebuie să fie eficient direcţionate către regiunile cele mai puţin favorizate ale Uniunii iar
noile state membre trebuie sprijinite în dezvoltarea infrastructurii şi serviciilor, în scopul
atragerii unor astfel de companii şi creşterii potenţialului lor economic.
Nu în ultimul rând, revoluţia tehnologică şi dezvoltarea societăţii informaţionale
provoacă, la rândul lor, obiectivul politicii regionale (de a reduce disparităţile economice şi
sociale între regiunile UE) prin necesitatea adaptării cetăţenilor, sectoarelor public şi privat
la utilizarea reţelelor de informaţii şi de telecomunicaţii. Regiunile şi organizaţiile bine
conectate la aceste reţele şi familiare cu utilizarea tehnologiilor informaţionale beneficiază
astfel de un avantaj consistent în eficientizarea economiilor lor datorită economiei de timp
şi costurilor de comunicare reduse astfel prin accesul crescut la reţele informaţionale.
Se poate astfel afirma că este mai fezabil să vorbim de provocări şi nu de probleme
cu care se confruntă politica de dezvoltare regională la nivel comunitar, iar argumentul cel
mai potrivit în acest sens este dat de prefigurarea , deja, a strategiilor şi modalităţilor de a
le face faţă.
Perspectiva financiară României în perioada 2007-2013
În perioada de programare 2007-2013 România va beneficia de ajutor financiar
individualizat pe două etape:
• etapa 2007-2009 se acordă României aprox. 6 miliarde Euro;
• etapa 2007-2009 se acordă maxim 4% din PIB-ul anual al României.
Pachetul financiar propus pentru România în perioada 2007-2009 este următorul:
• Agricultură
– Măsuri de piaţă – 732 milioane euro
– Plăţi directe – 881 milioane euro
– Dezvoltare rurală – 2 424 milioane euro
• Fonduri structurale şi de coeziune – 5 973 milioane euro
• Politici interne - 765,8 milioane euro
• Cheltuieli administrative - 242,2
• Total angajamente: aprox. 11 miliarde euro
Total plăţi: aprox. 6,3 miliarde euro
9
Cadrul legislative al României, necesar pentru accesarea fondurilor structurale, se
compune în momentul de faţă din următoarele acte normative:
− HOTĂRÂRE Nr. 497 din 1 aprilie 2004 privind stabilirea cadrului instituţional
pentru coordonarea, implementarea şi gestionarea instrumentelor structurale
− HOTĂRÂRE Nr. 1.179 din 29 iulie 2004 pentru modificarea şi completarea
Hotărârii Guvernului nr. 497/2004 privind stabilirea cadrului instituţional pentru
coordonarea, implementarea şi gestionarea instrumentelor structurale
Conform Hotărârii nr. 497 din 1 aprilie 2004 se desemnează Ministerul Finanţelor
Publice ca autoritate de management pentru Cadrul de sprijin comunitar, având
responsabilitatea coordonării implementării asistenţei comunitare prin fondurile structurale.
Din cele prezentate mai sus se poate observa că întregul sprijin financiar acordat
României în perioada 2007-2009 va creşte substanţial, provocând autorităţile române să
pregătească şi să consolideze structuri administrative şi de coordonare adecvate, în vederea
creşterii capacităţii de absorbţie a acestor fonduri.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
D
Diiaaccoonneessccuu M
Miihhaaii,, D
Diiaaccoonneessccuu M
Miirreellaa,, AAssoocciieerreeaa RRoom
mâânniieeii llaa U
Unniiuunneeaa EEuurrooppeeaannăă..
IIm
Buuccuurreeşşttii,, 22000033
miiccăă,, B
meerrcciiaallee,, EEdd.. EEccoonnoom
miiccee şşii ccoom
mpplliiccaaţţiiii eeccoonnoom
M
Buuccuurreeşşttii,, 22000033..
Unniiuunniiii EEuurrooppeennee,, EEdd.. LLuucceeaaffăărruull,, B
miiaa U
miittrruu ((ccoooorrdd)),, EEccoonnoom
Duum
Miirroonn D
SSuuttăă N
miiccăă,, B
miiccăă eeuurrooppeeaannăă,, EEdd.. EEccoonnoom
Niiccoollaaee,, IInntteeggrraarreeaa eeccoonnoom
M
miiccăă rreeggiioonnaallăă,, EEdd.. SSyyllvvii,, B
miittrruu,, IInntteeggrraarreeaa eeccoonnoom
Duum
Miirroonn D
D
miiccăă,, B
moonnddiiaallăă,, EEdd.. EEccoonnoom
miiee m
Annaa,, EEccoonnoom
Baall A
miittrreessccuu SStteerriiaann,, B
Duum
tthh
B
VIIIIth
meennttss,, V
Off TThhee SSttrruuccttuurraall IInnssttrruum
Coooorrddiinnaattiioonn O
Maarriiuuss,, RReeggiioonnaall PPoolliiccyy aanndd C
Beenneeaa M
IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall SSyym
Huunneeddooaarraa,, 22000033
Reesseeaarrcchh,, H
Reeggiioonnaall R
m IInntteerrddiisscciipplliinnaarryy R
mppoossiiuum
A
B::
WE
EB
EW
RE
ESSE
DR
AD
http://www.cor.eu.int/
http://www.clube.ro
http://www.ecb..int/
http://www.eib.org/
http://www.esc.eu.int/
http://www.euractiv.com/
http://www.euobserver.com
http://www.europa.eu.int
http://www.europarl.eu.int
http://www.mie.ro.infoeuropa
10
ASOCIAŢIA ROMÂNĂ DE ŞTIINŢE REGIONALE,
UNIVERSITATEA DE VEST DIN TIMIŞOARA
FACULTATEA DE ŞTIINŢE ECONOMICE
AGENŢIA PENTRU DEZVOLTARE REGIONALĂ VEST
Al V-lea Simpozion Internaţional al Asociaţiei Române de
Regionale“PARTENERIATUL ÎN DEZVOLTAREA REGIONALĂ”
Ştiinţe
TIMIŞOARA, 10 – 11 iunie 2005
Domeniul de interes sugerat: "Soluţii ale parteneriatului
ocuparea forţei de muncă"
public–privat
privind
Tema sugerată:
Parteneriatul public-privat şi investiţia în educaţie / PublicPrivate Partnership & investments in education
Autori:
Prof.univ. dr. Marta-Christina Suciu, drd. Andrada Rizea,
drd. Ramona Marian, drd. Cristian Glodeanu, Academia de
Studii Economice Bucureşti1
Rezumat
Această lucrare încearcă să sublinieze importanţa parteneriatului public-privat în susţinerea
investiţiilor în educaţie insistandu-se în mod special asupra economiilor aflate în tranziţie. În ţările
dezvoltate există multe exemple de bună practică legat de experienţa acumulată în ceea ce priveşte
creearea unui mediu favorabil parteneriatelor dintre sectorul public şi cel privat. Experienţa
internaţională şi, în special exemplele de buna practica pot fi utile pentru economiile emergente aflate în
tranziţie pe drumul către o economie şi o societate bazate pe cunoaştere.
Abstract
This paper tries to highlight the importance of private-public partnership in supporting
investments in education mostly in the transition economies case. In the developed countries there are a
lot of examples of good practice used in order to create an environment conductive for Private-Public
Partnerships. International experience and mostly examples of good practices can be useful for emergent
and transition economies on their road to a knowledge-based economy and society.
Cuvinte cheie:
Parteneriat public-privat (PPP), investiţia în oameni şi în
competenţe,
investiţia în educaţie, investitorii în oameni,
parteneriatele contractuale, parteneriatele publice-private locale.
Key words:
Public-Private Partnership (PPP), investing in people and skills,
investments in education, investors in people, contractual
partnerships, local Private-Public Partnerships.
1
Primul autor este membru al Asociaţiei Române de Studii Regionale şi profesor la ASE Bucureşti.
Ceilalţi trei co-autori sunt doctoranzi la ASE Bucureşti şi lucrează la: ORACLE (Andrada Rizea),
Inspecţia Muncii (Ramona Marian), Autoritatea locală Miercurea Ciuc (Cristian Glodeanu).
1
Trăim într-o lume dominată de schimbare în care baza teoretică dedicată
studiului sistemelor economice în condiţii de stabilitate şi liniaritate nu mai este
suficientă. Schimbările profunde propagate în sistemele tehnologice, economice, sociale
şi politice fac ca lumea să evolueze într-un ritm mai accelerat decât oricând. Pentru a
înţelege lumea care ne înconjoară, guvernată de complexitate şi globalizare, cunoaşterea
devine esenţială. Cunoaşterea devine,,componenta numărul unu a dezvoltării
economice”, aşa cum a definit-o laureatul Premiului Nobel, Herbert Simon. Ţările
dezvoltate ale lumii sunt în proces de evoluţie către ,,societăţi bazate pe cunoaştere”.
Principala caracteristică a unei economii şi societăţi bazate pe cunoaştere este că acestea
sunt centrate pe oameni, factorul uman fiind principala fortă motrice a noii economiei.
În prezent, investiţia în oameni şi în competenţa acestora devine cruciala. Investiţia în
oameni înseamnă investitia în propriul viitor2. Înseamnă implicit a investi în creşterea
economică, a avea o viziune prospectivă pe termen lung a proceselor economice ale
lumii privite holistic, ca întreg. În condiţiile dinamicii contemporane foarte accelerate-în
care schimbarea este singura constanta a universului-a investi în oameni înseamnă
simbolic a o lua "înaintea" timpului tau.
O componentă importantă a investiţiei în oameni o reprezintă investiţia în
educaţie3. Deoarece educatia este un proces de bază pentru dezvoltarea personală,
investiţia în educaţie devine un punct nodal în procesul îndelungat şi crucial al
dezvoltarii mondiale si, implicit, al dezvoltarii economiei.
Investiţia în educaţie
În ultimile decenii numeroase studii de cercetare au demonstrat că productivitatea
obţinută de către persoanele cu un înalt nivel de educaţie şi de competenţă devine cel mai
de încredere motor al creşterii economice. Dar investiţia în educaţie îşi amplifică şi îşi
propagă avantajele în multe alte forme-contribuie la modernizarea modului de gandire şi de
percepere al realităţii, promovează noi atitudini şi consolidează încrederea în schimbare.
Stimulează o mai largă implicare şi participare la viaţa "cetăţii"şi sprijină procesul de a
înlocuire în sistemele noi a ceea ce este neadecvat în vechile sisteme cu ceea este bun.
Conduce la conştientizarea unor noi idei şi noi alegeri. Creşte vârsta medie la care se
căsătoresc oamenii facând din planificarea vieţii de familie un factor important.
Zeci de descoperiri rezultate în urma unor cercetări bine fundamentate au
demonstrat cu regularitate că investiţia în educaţie, începând încă de la educaţia primară
poate aduce rezultate semnificativ mai mari atât în planul progreselor sociale, cât şi în cel
al creşterii economice. În pofida acestui fapt, în majoritatea ţărilor în curs de dezvoltare,
cheltuielile guvernamentale afectate educaţiei sunt mai degrabă alocate pentru
învăţământul superior decât pentru cel primar (se preferă în general educaţia de nivel
superior pentru o pătură mai îngustă a populaţiei educaţiei de bază a maselor).
Politica educaţională a Uniunii Europene
Noul obiectiv strategic al Uniunii Europene, stabilit la Lisabona în cadrul
Consiliului European din data de 23-24 martie 2000, este "de a deveni cea mai competitivă
şi cea mai dinamică economie bazată pe cunoaştere din lume, capabilă de creştere
economică sustenabilă asigurând mai multe şi mai bune locuri de muncă şi o mai mare
coeziune socială". Investiţia în oameni este o prioritate pentru Uniunea Europeană, fiind
unul dintre punctele cheie pentru implementarea strategiei şi agendei Lisabona.
2
3
C. Suciu, Investiţia în educaţie, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000
C. Suciu, Economics Part II ,Editura A.S.E, Bucharest, 2004,p.593
2
We live in a world dominated by change in which the theoretical basis for studying
the economic systems in stable and linear conditions is not enough anymore. The profound
changes in technology, economy, social and political systems make the world to go faster
than ever. In order to understand the world surrounding us, governed by complexity and
globalization, knowledge becomes essential. It becomes the “number one component of the
economic development”, as the Nobel Prize winner Herbert Simon defines it. The
developed countries of the world are evolving towards “knowledge-based economies”. The
main characteristic of the knowledge-based economy and society is that people are in the
middle of everything; human factor is the main driving force of the new economy. Thus,
investing in people and skills becomes crucial nowadays. Investing in people means
investing in our own future wealth2. It means investing in economic growth, it means
having a long-term view of the economic processes and of the world as a whole. At the
speed everything changes nowadays, investing in people means being "ahead" of the time.
One important ingredient of investing in people is investing in education3. Because
education is an important process in personal development, investing in education becomes
the starting point of a long and crucial process of the world development and thus the
development of the economy.
Investing in education
Over the last decades many research studies have demonstrated that the
productivity of an educated work force is the most reliable engine of economic growth. But
the investment in education yields its dividends in many other forms. It modernizes
attitudes and builds confidence in change; it stimulates broader participation in the civil
life; it assists the process of allowing what is good in the new to replace what is bad in the
old; it brings an awareness of new ideas and new choices. It raises the average age of
marriage and makes family planning more likely.
Decades of research findings have regularly demonstrated that investment in
primary education yields significantly higher returns in both social progress end economic
growth. Despite this, government spending in almost all developing countries is heavily
biased towards higher education for the few rather than basic education for the many.
European Union Educational Policy
The new strategic goal for the European Union, which was set out at the Lisbon
European Council of 23 and 24 March 2000, is to "become the most competitive and
dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth
with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion".
Investing in people is a priority for the European Union, as it is one of the main
points in implementing both Lisbon Strategy and Lisbon Agenda.
2
3
C. Suciu, Investiţia în educaţie, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000
C. Suciu, Economics Part II ,Ed.ASE, Bucharest, 2004,p.593
3
Una dintre căile prin care UE intenţionează să atingă acest obiectiv este încurajarea
investiţiei în oameni şi în competenţă. Uniunea Europeană recunoaşte importanţa educaţiei
şi a învăţării permanente, precum şi nevoia de a învăţa mai multe limbi străine şi de a
dobândi abilităţi tehnologice. Pe baza unei propuneri venite din partea Comisiei UE,
Consiliul a adoptat pe data de 12 februarie 2001 Raportul asupra obiectivelor viitoare
concrete ale sistemelor educaţionale şi de formare. Acest document schiţează în linii mari
o abordare comprehesivă şi consistentă a politicilor europene de educaţie în Uniunea
Europeană. Această abordarea se bazeaza pe trei obiective majore:
• îmbunătăţirea calităţii şi eficienţei sistemelor educaţionale şi de formare în U.E.;
• facilitarea accesului la educaţia şi formarea permanentă;
• deschiderea sistemelor educaţionale şi de formare către o perspectivă mondială.
Există o diferenţă importantă între ceea ce stabileşte Consiliul European ca politică
şi modul concret de implementare. Cele mai importante sunt acţiunile concrete întreprinse
de leaderii Uniunii Europene pentru a face faţă noilor "provocări" educaţionale.
Cine este responsabil să investească în educaţie? Pledoarie pentru parteneriatul
public privat (PPP)
Statelor le revine responsabilitatea asigurării investiţiilor de bază în oameni şi în
special celor dedicate educaţiei şi sănătăţii. Statul este responsabil pentru dezvoltarea unui
sistem naţional educaţional capabil să ofere oportunităţi egale tuturor membrilor societăţii.
Trebuie însă să conştientizăm faptul că toţi oamenii implicaţi în proces pot face ca şi
contribuţiile lor individuale să fie relevante şi să conteze. Profesorii, organizaţiile nonguvernamentale, companiile interesate de sprijinirea dezvoltării viitorilor angajaţi–toţi
aceşti actori pot fi consideraţi ca investitori în oameni.
În anumite situaţii statul conştientizează importanţa capitalului uman şi decide să
investească în acesta, dar consideră că acţionând numai pe cont propriu nu va putea fi pe
deplin eficient; ca atare acceptă ajutorul oferit de sectorul privat. Astfel ia naştere
Parteneriatul Public-Privat (PPP).
Pentru sectorul educaţional ideea implicării parteneriatului public privat nu este
tocmai nouă. Universităţile, cu tradiţionala lor autonomie, au fost printre pionierii care au
promovat parteneriatele de afaceri în sectorul educaţionla. Dezvoltarea ştiinţei, a afacerilor
şi a parcurilor de cercetare exemplifică lunga istorie a legăturilor mutual benefice între
universităţi şi colegii, pe de o parte şi industrie şi comerţ, pe de altă parte.
Parteneriatele aduc beneficii reale tuturor actorilor implicaţi:
• Sectorul public beneficiază de infrastructura necesară pentru a-şi perfecta
serviciilor (pentru copii şcolari, studenţi, adulţi sau şomeri pe perioada căutării
unui loc de muncă).
• Sectorul privat beneficiază de oportunitatea de a intra in contracte pe termen
lung definite în termen de rezultate, contribuind la maximizarea interesului
pentru inovaţie, dezvoltare şi profit. Aceste oportunităţi nu vor trebui neglijate.
Parteneriatele Publice-Private acoperă o gamă largă de activităţi, cu actori dintre cei
mai diverşi, care fac relativ dificilă definirea riguroasă a PPP. Parteneriatul Public-Privat
se refera la reunirea sectorului public şi a celui privat prin asamblarea resurselor atât la
nivel financiar cât şi la nivelul cunoştinţelor în scopul atingerii urmatoarelor obiective:
(a) costuri mai mici;
(b) servicii de mai bună calitate;
(c) îmbunătăţirea mecanismelor de livrare şi de ofertă.
4
One of the ways in which EU is intending to achieve this goal is to encourage
investment in people and training. The European Union recognizes the importance of
education and lifelong learning, the need to learn several foreign languages and to have
technological skills. There is a very important difference between what European Council
establishes as policy and the way of implementing this policy. The most important are the
concrete actions taken by the European Union leaders to meet the educational challenge.
On the basis of a proposal from the Commission and contributions from the
Member States, the Council adopted the "Report on the concrete future objectives of
education and training systems" on 12 February 2001. This document outlines a
comprehensive and consistent approach for national policies on education in the European
Union. The approach is based on three objectives:
• improving the quality and effectiveness of education and training systems in the EU;
• facilitating the access of all to "lifelong" education and training;
• opening up education and training systems to the wider world.
There is a very important difference between what European Council establishes as
policy and the way of implementing this policy. The most important are the concrete
actions taken by the European Union leaders to meet the educational challenge.
Who is responsible for investing in education? Plead for Public Private
Partnership (PPP)
It is the responsibility of the state to ensure basic investments in people and
especially in education and health care. The state is responsible with the development of a
reliable national education system, capable to offer equal opportunities for all the members
of the society. But we have to be aware that all people involved in the process can make
their individuals contributions count. Teachers, non-governmental organizations,
companies interested in supporting the development of their future employees, all of them
can be perceived as investors in people. In some cases the state is aware of the importance
of human capital and decides to invest in it, but considers that by itself it would be not
totally efficient; so it accepts the help offered by private sector and so the Public-Private
Partnership (PPP) is born.
For the education sector the ideea of Public-Private Partnership involvement in not
quiete new. Universities, with their tradition of independence, have been at the forefront of
promoting business partnerships in the education sector. Development of science, business
and research parks exemplifies the long history of mutually beneficial links between
universities and colleges, on one hand, and industry and commerce, on the other hand.
Real partnerships bring real benefits to all the partners:
• The public sector gets the infrastructure it needs to deliver its services (for
school children, students, adult or long-term unemployed jobseekers).
• The private sector gets the opportunity to enter into long-term contracts which
are defined in terms of outputs, so maximising the scope for innovation,
development and profit. These opportunities should not be neglected.
Private-Public Partnerships encompass a wide range of activities and actors which
makes a clear-cut definition difficult. PPP is about the public & private sector joining
resources with both financial as well as knowledge resources with the objective to:
(a) lower costs;
(b) provide higher quality services;
(c) to improve the delivery mechanisms.
5
La întâlnirea de lucru a Comisiei Europene, Grupul Expertilor pe tema ,,Folosirea
la maxim a resurselor”, 22-23 mai 2003 au fost identificate 4 tipuri diferite de
parteneriate:
1) parteneriate pentru implementarea acţiunilor fondate de sectorul public şi
executate de sectorul privat;
2) parteneriate publice-private care au obiective, capital şi venituri comune;
3) parteneriate non-contractuale care îşi distribuie implicit obiectivele;
4) donaţii concentrate pe parteneriate contractuale. În această privinţă ariile
prioritare vor fi învăţământul superior şi educarea şi formarea vocaţională.
Obstacole pentru PPP în economiile de tranziţie
Pentru constituirea unor parteneriate public-privat funcţionale este nevoie ca
acestea să fie construite de parteneri care au fiecare viziuni clare asupra rolului şi
obiectivelor urmărite. Aceasta înseamnă că se manifestă încredere între parteneri şi că
există reguli clare de interacţiune. Părerea noastră este că, în acest moment, majoritatea
ţărilor din Europa Centrală şi de Sud-est, inclusiv România, nu îndeplinesc aceste
condiţii. Interacţiunile guvernelor cu sectorul privat sunt adesea caracterizate ca o
interfaţă birocratică fără a se putea evidenţia în mod explicit conştientizarea rolului
corespunzător în acest tip de relaţii şi în particular a costului economic al acestei
interfeţe.
Crearea unui mediu adecvat pentru Parteneriatul Public-Privat
Incurajarea PPP în ţările emergente aflate în tranziţie trebuie să ia în considerare
aceste obstacole. Unele experienţe negative au demonstrat că depăşirea obstacolelor este
posibilă numai dacă PPP operează într-o societate civilă puternică; în acelaşi timp
asemenea parteneriate constituie o parte esenţială a societăţii civile.
Economie reginală şi dezvoltarea iniţiativelor în plan local
În ţările în tranziţie la nivel local trebuie să aibă loc un progres considerabil în
domeniul PPP. În ţările membre OECD guvernele sprijină şi uneori chiar creează
organizaţii locale cu responsabilităţi atât în sectorul economic cât şi legat de
dezvoltarea pieţelor locale ale muncii. Astfel de responsabilităţi au în vedere:
fundamentarea unor strategii de dezvoltare locală; implementarea politicilor şi oferirea
unor servicii care ţin cont de nevoile locale. În zonele care sunt afectate în mare măsură
de un şomaj ridicat parteneriatele locale se concentrează în mod particular pe politicile
active de ocupare specifice pieţei muncii.
Aspectele de mediu ale dezvoltării reprezintă o altă sarcină critică a
parteneriatelor publice private regionale. În general, aceste organizaţii şi instituţii (din
sectorul privat, public şi non-profit incluzând sindicatele şi asociaţii ale angajaţilor la
nivel regional, ca si la nivel de firmă) pot avea un impact semnificativ asupra situaţiei
economice şi, respectiv a celei a ocupării şi şomajului în regiune. În ţările membre ale
OECD rolul Parteneriatelor Publice-Private locale a devenit semnificativ în ultimii ani.
Asigurarea infrastrurii şi a unor servicii publice (sănătate, educaţie) prin PPP
Asigurarea infrastructurii şi a unor servicii publice eficiente (de exemplu
educaţia şi sănătatea) sunt o pre-condiţie pentru creşterea econonomică sustenabilă şi
pentru dezvoltare în cele mai multe ţări aflate în tranziţie. Promovarea unor astfel de
parteneriate implică gestionarea unor relaţii foarte complexe între sectorul public şi cel
privat.
6
On the European Commission Meeting of the Expert Working Group on
"Making the best use of resources", 22-23 May 2003 there have been identified 4
different types of partnerships:
1) partnerships for the implementation of actions funded by the public sector and
executed by the private sector;
2) public-private partnerships with shared objectives, capital and returns;
3) non-contractual partnerships with implicit sharing of objectives;
4) donations with a focus on the contractual partnerships. With this respect
priority areas will be higher education and vocational education and training.
Obstacles for PPP in transition economies
Functioning Private-Public Partnerships need to be built on partners who each
have a clear vision of their role and objectives. That means that trust exists between the
partners and there are clear rules of interaction. It is our oppinion that most of the
Central and Southeast Europe countries including Romania do not fulfil these
conditions. Government interaction with the private sector is often characterised as
bureaucratic interface with no vision of its appropriate role in the relationship and in
particular with no understanding of the economic cost of this interface.
Creating an environment for Private-Public Partnerships
Encouraging Private-Public Partnerships in countries in transition needs to take
into account these obstacles. The negative experiences have shown that overcoming the
obstacles is only possible if PPP operate within a strong civil society; at the same time
such partnerships are considered to be an important part of the civil society.
Regional economics and local initiatives development
Considerable progress in Private-Public Partnerships in transition countries
needs to take place on a local level. In OECD member countries, governments support
and sometimes create locally based organisations to pursue tasks in the field of
economic and employment development. These tasks include: designing development
strategies, implementing policies and delivering services based on local needs. In areas
suffering from high unemployment local partnerships cast a particular focus on
employment policies and active labour market policies.
Environmental aspects of development are another critical task of area-based
Private-Public Partnerships. In general these organisations group together delegates
from institutions (in the private, public and non-profit sectors including trade unions and
employer associations on a regional level as well as on firm level) which can have an
impact on the economic and employment situation in their area. In OECD countries the
role of local Private-Public Partnerships has become prominent in recent years .
Provision of infrastructure and public services like health and education through
Private-Public Partnerships
The provision of infrastructure and efficient public services (for example
education and health care) are a pre-condition of successfully creating the conditions for
sustainable economic growth and development mostly in the transition economies.
Promoting such partnerships successfully implies that a number of highly complex
relationships between the private and public sector need to be handled.
7
Parteneriatul Publi-Privat vizează în esenţă unele acorduri şi înţelegeri stabilite
între administraţia publică şi entităţile din sectorul privat cu scopul de a oferi servicii
publice. Acest tip de înţelegere este mai benefic pentru publicul larg decât o activitate
unilateral organizată, fie de către sectorul public, fie de cel privat, deoarece sporeşte
calitatea serviciilor oferite iar implementarea este în mod evident mai eficientă.
Acest tip de înţelegere prezintă unele avantaje pentru părţile implicate şi de
asemenea pentru beneficiarii parteneriatului. Astfel, partenerii îşi distribuie între ei
eforturile legate de investiţii, riscurile, responsabilităţile şi rezultatele. În anumite cazuri
rolul sectorului public poate fi mai important sau, din contră, partenerul privat poate
avea mai multe responsabilităţi, la un moment dat. Indiferent cât de mult este implicat
sectorul privat în proiectul iniţiat în parteneriat, statul, ca parte publică, continuă să fie
cel care poartă responsabilitatea pentru a facilita disponibilitatea serviciilor publice şi
pentru implementarea proiectelor într-o manieră în care interesul public să fie protejat.
Exemple de bună practică în promovarea Parteneriatelor Publice–Private în
Romania
În Romania PPP în domeniul susţinerii investiţiilor în educaţie se afl abia la
început. Evidenţiem totuşi două exemple de bună practică.
Un exemplu de Parteneriat Public-Privat este proiectul denumit ,,PAL-TIN”,
iniţiat de Asociatia "Master Forum" urmând un model de succes francez: Consiliul
Local al Tinerilor.
Proiectul a fost iniţiat în anul 1997 şi a avut ca scop constituirea unor consilii
locale formate din tineri-consilierii fiind votati de persoane tinere sub 18 ani.
Sectorul public (Primăriile sectoarelor 2, 5 şi 6 şi Ministerul Educatiei) a fost
implicat în proiect prin facilitarea posibilităţii de a organiza campanii electorale si un
sistem de votare apropiat de cel real de către tineri, oferindu-le tot suportul logistic
necesar (Primăria fiecarui sector s-a angajat să asigure un spaţiu de votare, să informeze
mass-media despre proiect, să numească vizitatori şi observatori în ziua alegerilor, să
asigure multiplicarea materialelor necesare pentru pregătirea voluntarilor implicati în
proiect şi desigur participanţii la vot).
Chiar şi numai rezultatele obţinute în Bucuresti au fost foarte încurajatoare: în
anul 1997 primele alegeri au avut loc în sectorul 2, unde din cei 10 281 de copii aflaţi în
clasele V şi VI, 7 345 au participat la vot, alegând 69 de consilieri din 39 de şcoli.
Sectorul 6 a răspuns provocării în anul 1998, atunci când 6 015 dintre cei 8 445
de copii din 31 de scoli au luat parte la alegeri. Un an mai tarziu 6 291 dintre cei 8 326
elevi din sectorul 5 şi-au exprimat preferinţele şi au fost aleşi 57 dintre cei 644 de
candidaţi. Proiectul a fost implementat în 18 oraşe din România, sub diferite nume şi a
fost foarte popular în rândul tinerilor, servindu-le ca o simulare a sistemului real de
alegeri. Cu toate că aceste consilii nu au supravieţuit în toate oraşele proiectul s-a
dovedit util, deoarece a pregatit viitorii alegători pentru viitoarele alegeri reale.
Un alt exemplu de parteneriat public-privat este proiectul iniţiat de Institutul
Naţional de Administraţie în septembrie 2004 şi intitulat ,,Participarea tinerilor la
procesul de decizie”. Evenimentul a avut ca parteneri privat ASER-o organizaţie
studenţească- şi a avut ca scop să îi aducă împreună pe reprezentanţii administraţiei
publice şi pe cei ai organizaţiilor non-guvernamentale pentru a facilita iniţierea de
parteneriate în viitor. Proiectul a fost implementat pe o perioada de 5 zile şi a avut ca
teme de discuţie: crearea de organizaţii de tineri, grupuri de comunicare şi de decizie,
participarea tinerilor la proiecte. Proiectul a fost urmat dupa cateva saptamani de o
scurtă sesiune de feed-back.
8
The Public-Private Partnership is an agreement between the public
administration and entities from the private sector with the purpose of offering public
services. This kind of agreement is more beneficial to the wide public than a one-sided
activity organized by other the public or the private sector, as it increases the quality of
the services offered and the implementation is sensibly more efficient. This type of
agreement has several advantages for the parts involved and also for the beneficiaries of
the partnership. Thus, the partners share the investing effort, the risks, the
responsibilities and the results. In some cases the role of the public sector can be more
important or, on the contrary, the private partner could have more responsibilities. No
matter how deeply is the private sector involved in the project initiated in partnership,
the state, as the public party, continues to have its one role, as it is the one who makes
the public services available and who is responsible for implementing the projects in a
manner in which public interest is protected.
Examples of good practice in promoting Private-Public Partnerships in Romania
In Romania PPP regarding investments in education is just on the beginning.
However we found two examples of good practice.
One example of Public-Private Partnership is the project called “PAL-TIN”,
initiated by the Master Forum Association following a successful French pattern of
Local Council of Youngsters. The project began in 1997 and had as purpose to establish
local councils which would of youngsters, the counselors being supposed to be voted by
young people under 18 years old. The public sector (the City Hall of districts 2, 5 and 6
and the Ministry of Education) was involved in the project by offering the young voters
the possibility to make their electoral campaign and the voting system as close to reality
as possible, by providing them all the needed logistic support (the City Hall of each
district engaged to ensure the necessary space in which the elections took place, to
inform the mass-media about the project, to appoint guests and observers in the day of
the elections, to offer the multiplication of the material necessary for training the
volunteers involved in the project and the participants to the vote).
The results in Bucharest alone were extremely encouraging: in 1997 the first
elections took place in district 2, where from the 10281 children in the 5th and 6th grade,
7345 participated to the vote, choosing 69 counselors from the 39 schools.
District 6 answered the challenge in 1998, when 6015 from 8445 children took
part in the elections, from 31 schools. One year later it was the turn of 6291 children
from the 8326 of district 5 to express their preferences, 57 of the 644 candidates being
elected. The project was implemented in 18 cities in Romania, under different names,
and was very popular among young people, serving them as a simulation of the real
electing system. All in all, although the councils did not survive in all cities, the project
proved helpful, as it trained the future voters for the future real-life elections.
Another example of public-private partnership is the project initiated by the
National Institute of Administration in September 2004, project entitled “The
participation of young people to the decision-making process”. The event had as
private sector partners ASER-a student’s organization-and its purpose was to bring
together the representatives of public administration and of non-governmental
organizations in order to facilitate their collaboration in initiating future partnerships.
The project was implemented during 5 days and had as topics of discussion the issue of
youth organizations, decisions and communication at the level of groups, the
participation of young people to projects. The project was followed by a short feedback
program after a few weeks.
9
Chiar dacă acestea sunt numai "puncte de start" in susţinerea PPP în România
consideram că aceste tipuri de iniţiative vor trebui dezvoltate în viitor în România.
Parteneriatul Public-Privat constituie o posibilă alternativă de extindere şi de
manifestare a disponibilităţii pentru îmbunătăţirea calităţii serviciilor publice în general.
Parteneriatele Publice-Private locale pot contribui si ele din plin. Prin stabilirea unor
Parteneriate Publice-Private în sectorul educaţiei şi sănătăţii guvernele pot asigura o mai
bună corelare între nevoia în creştere pentru servicii de calitate-în condiţiile acutizării
restricţiilor bugetare-şi beneficiile care decurg din expertiza, managementul şi
finanţarea privată.
Bibliografie selectivă
Forysth, P., Developping your staff, Kogan Page Ltd. Publishing House, 2001
Human Development Report 2004, http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004
Ion, Raluca, Boala de genii, în "Cotidianul", year XV, new series, no 53 (4119), first
edition, 5th March 2000
Montanheiro, Luiz, Florian Kuznik, Artur Ochojski, PPP: Sustainable Success, în
International Journal of Public-Private Partnership 2003, pp.523
Montanheiro, Luiz, Sune Berger, Gunnar Skomsřy, PPP: Exploring Co-operation,
Montanheiro Luiz, Mirjam Spiering, PPP: The Enterprise Governance, International
Journal of Public-Private Partnership 2001, pp.571
Montanheiro Luiz, Margaret Lineham, PPP: The Enabling Mix, International Journal
of Public-Private Partnership 2000, pp.658
National Progress in Implementing the ICPD Programme of Action 1994-2004-Investing
in people, global survey of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), online version.
The Investor in People Srandard. How to get started?, UK, London, 1995
Young Money, no 1, 2005
http://europa.eu.int/pol/educ/index_en.htm
http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/s19001.htm
www.ilrt.bristol.co.uk/iip
http://www.publicprivatefinance.com/pfi/
www.lsc.gov.uk
www.hefce.ac.uk/finance/PFU/
http://www.4ps.co.uk/
www.partnershipsuk.org.uk
10
Even these are just initial "start-up" intiative in supporting PPP we consider that
these typese of initiative have to be developed in the future in Romania.
Public-Private Partnerships is a mean to expand the availability and quality of
public services in general. Local Public-Private Partnerships can contribute a lot. By
establishing a Public-Private Partnerships in the education & health sectors governments
can bridge the need for increased services under budget constraints with the benefits of
private sector expertise, management, and finance.
Selective References
Forysth, P., Developping your staff, Kogan Page Ltd. Publishing House, 2001
Human Development Report 2004, http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004
Ion, Raluca, Boala de genii, în "Cotidianul", year XV, new series, no 53 (4119), first
edition, 5th March 2000
Montanheiro, Luiz, Florian Kuznik, Artur Ochojski, PPP: Sustainable Success,
Montanheiro, Luiz, Sune Berger, Gunnar Skomsřy, PPP: Exploring Co-operation,
Montanheiro Luiz, Mirjam Spiering, PPP: The Enterprise Governance, International
Journal of Public-Private Partnership 2001, pp.571
Montanheiro Luiz, Margaret Lineham, PPP: The Enabling Mix International Journal of
Public-Private Partnership 2000, pp.658
National Progress in Implementing the ICPD Programme of Action 1994-2004-Investing
in people, global survey of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), online version.
The Investor in People Srandard. How to get started?, UK, London, 1995
Young Money, no 1, 2005
http://europa.eu.int/pol/educ/index_en.htm
http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/s19001.htm
www.ilrt.bristol.co.uk/iip
http://www.publicprivatefinance.com/pfi/
www.lsc.gov.uk
www.hefce.ac.uk/finance/PFU/
http://www.4ps.co.uk/
www.partnershipsuk.org.uk
11
LABOR MARK ET – THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL
ASPECTS
Valerian Tobultoc, lector doctoral candidate
The modern economy, which took shape following the victory of bourgeois revolutions in
the most developed countries from the political and social standpoint, is largely defined as a
market. In other words, the modern economy is an economy of merchandise exchange, in
monetary terms, made up of a large number of relationships of selling/purchasing goods,
services, capitals, labor, etc. In addition, over the past few decades of the 20th century and
in the early 21st century, it could be asserted, without any shadow of a doubt, that the
market became all-inclusive. It encompasses both economic goods and the most valuable
spiritual goods such as the good, the beautiful, the truth1.
In a large presentation, which also refers to the features of the emergence of modern
market, this term is defined as follows [Eugenio Scalfari]: “A market is a complex system
of institutions, customs, rules, behaviors. The liberty of decision-making is, indeed, a
necessary, albeit not sufficient, condition. It takes a long time to create the market, as well
as gradual, sustained efforts, with no shortcuts and miracles”. In a nutshell, “a market is a
competition driven by auctions and tenders” (Paul Heyne).
The magnitude and intricacy of economic and social phenomena and processes included in
the term “market” urged the identification of several types of markets. The best known is
that based on production factors. Thus, one can identify the goods-and-services market,
capital market, labor market. Definitely, in the recent past, one cannot ignore a further
diversification, leading to financial and market, money market, stock market etc.
The following looks into some aspects regarding the labor market.
•
Labor market or labor force market?
In the professional literature, unfortunately, there is still prevailing, with few exceptions2,
the confusion between work and labor in their capacity as production factors and market
object3. Some analysts even concede that a distinction is not worthwhile4.
1
The author seems to agree with Pope John Paul II, who described the Western society as “a new totalitarian,
anti-evangelistic regime that has neither rhyme nor reason”, a “mockery of democracy” in his book <<Memorie
şi identitate: Conversaţie între milenii>>, apud Lumea magazine, No. 4/2005, p. 5.
2
Adumitrăcesei, I.D., and Niculescu, N.G. (coordonators): “Piaţa forţei de muncă“, Ed. Tehnică, Kishinew,
1995.
3
The confusion appears to be based on the three English terms that have almost the same meaning, i.e., labor,
manpower and work.
4
Răboacă, G., “Piaţa muncii şi dezvoltarea durabilă“, Ed. Tribuna Economică, Bucharest, 2003, p. 36.
1
Identifying labor as a production factor and, hence, a market object is critical in ensuring
sustainable economic growth; moreover, it is the greatest challenge of our times as regards
the peaceful, thriving future of mankind. Therefore, one must distinguish between work and
labor in terms of resources, production forces and labor market object.
“Most papers on production and value theory deal chiefly with the distribution, for several
uses, of a given amount of resources and with the conditions which, in the case of using up
the amount of resources, entail their respective retributions and values of their products.
A description was also made for the issue of the amount of available resources, i.e., the size
of population that could be employed, the size of natural assets and the capital equipment.
Yet, the theory of factors determining effective use of resources available was seldom
subject to detailed dissertations… It was not ignored, however, its underlying theory was
deemed so unsophisticated and self-evident that it was at best referred to5.”
J. M. Keynes makes no clear difference between resources and production factors, and not
in the least the implicit identification between resources and stocks or production factors
and flows. In the classical sense, the author is of the opinion that production comprises
three production factors, namely land (nature), work and capital. J.B. Say, regarded as the
godfather of the theory of the three production factors, holds that every production factor is
awarded for the provision of services, i.e., rent in the case of land, wage in the case of
work, and profit in the case of capital. Certainly, each of the production factors constitutes
“a factor with factors”. The higher the complexity of modern production, the higher the
aforesaid feature of those factors.
One of the most famous meanings of “work” is the following:
Work, seen as a primary production factor represents the conscious activity whereby
people by handling certain tools turn natural resources according to their capabilities,
knowledge and experience to economic goods needed to fulfill their needs.
Hence, work can be regarded as a flow, representing a kinetic element. Potentially, this
element is matched by labor force.
Labor force is the total of physical and mental capabilities of people which can be used to
produce goods and services.
Accordingly, labor force could be included in the same category, i.e., potential production
factors, along with land (nature) and capital.
As far as economic theory is concerned, the existing differentiation between the two terms,
i.e., work and labor force, appear to be stemming from some of the most famous
Neoclassical economists abandoning, even rejecting, the work-value theory. Particularly
that developed by Karl Marx.
5
J. M. Keynes: “The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money “, E. S., 1970, p. 42.
2
It should not be however ignored that one of the most prominent figures of Neoclassical
thinking – Böhm-Bawerk – regarded labor force and land as the primary production factors
and, the same as Marx did, held capital as a means of production able of transferring only
the value of the product; he denied that “abstinence” is a factor disregarding production and
that interest is attributed to the activity of capitalists. According to Böhm-Bawerk, the
„holding gain” (and implicitly value) is produced only by labor force and land, but results
from the passing of time alone. Workers are paid in fact the entire present value of the
future product, less interest…”6 (the author’s underlining).
As a matter of fact, even Marx, in his book “Critique of the Gotha Program” said, “work is
not the source of any wealth. Nature is the source of useful values (since they are basically
the constituents of material wealth) the same as work, which is nothing else but the result of
a natural force, of human labor. The previous sentence is to be found in any textbook and it
is accurate as long as it is supposed that work is made with proper objects and means”.7
To support labor force as a production factor, not a work factor, several other arguments in
the professional literature can be provided.
Thus, the real object of economic transactions performed on the labor market is the
capability, the work potential of the human being, not work, which is performed, as an
activity, subsequently, in the production process and tightly connected to the other
categories of production factors, i.e., nature and capital. The mere fact that a person, a
company employee, is paid wages after working for some time paints a distorted picture,
according to which work is the subject of the labor contract. In fact, the subject of
bargaining was labor force, i.e., its capacity to carry out a certain activity implying
professional skills and, rather frequently, a certain amount of expertise (the author’s
underlining).
Moreover, it must be borne in mind how and what uses the person who leads another
person into the labor market. Considering that the company hired the labor force, it should
use it rationally in order to get the highest possible productivity and the largest possible
profit. In modern economy, this does not mean that each person should carry on the hardest
work, but a certain amount of work, well established depending on biological, economic
and social criteria, which should materialize in the amount of efficiency stipulated by
contractual terms.
Last but not least, the term labor force, not work, is supported by the object of social
protection. The social security system represents, in developed countries (and theoretically
speaking in all democratic countries), a set of measures, established along the years, which
comprises measures governing the age limits of working population and, consequently,
prohibition of child labor, the work of mothers, paid leave, sick leave and related benefits,
6
Quotation from Mark Blaug: “Economic Theory in Retrospect“, E.D.P., R.A., Bucharest, 1992, p. 277-278.
The statements of Böhm-Bawerk, as well as of other “bourgeois“ economists, prove that the work-value
theory developed by Adam Smith was not studied nor connected with other economic streams from Marx
onwards, with few exceptions.
7
K. Marx and F. Engels: “Opere“, Vol. 19, Bucharest, E.P., 1964, p. 15.
3
unemployment benefit, occupational advice on retraining, etc. Such measures are meant to
ensure adequate conditions for recovery and steady accommodation with fast-paced of
economic activity, which is spurred by the increasingly swift technological progress.
Based on the above-mentioned arguments, it can be asserted that labor force is the proper
representation of the human factor in the economy. Labor force is different from work and,
along with nature and capital, defines the main categories of production factors. Therefore,
labor force market should be used to define the markets of production factors.
Labor force market is the system of relationships between the entrepreneurs hiring labor
force as buyers and labor force owners as bidders, in which by means of wage bargaining to
set the price of labor force demand for and supply of labor force tend to be matched.
•
Labor force market features
The multitude of labor force market makes it compulsory to present only part of them,
without going into further details.
Labor force market is in nature defined by some features that make it unique among the
other types of markets. Thus, demand for labor force changes little in the short run; job
creation urges the development of economic activities by fresh investment, which translates
into a gap between the time of investment and that of starting operations.
On the other hand, supply of labor force takes a long time to get trained and needs, against
the backdrop of accelerating technological progress, a steady accommodation to the
requirements imposed by the latter. Moreover, supply of labor force is less elastic than other
production factors. As for its psychological and social features, labor force is circumscribed
not only to the economic climate, but also to a social and cultural one, materializing in the
affection for the place of living, the region of education, of developing family, friendship
relationships, etc.
The heterogeneous feature of demand for and supply of labor force, the incompatibility in
terms of their nature, which are even sharper by the day, causes a low replaceability of its
various components and renders labor force highly intricate.
If the replaceability within labor force is very sticky owing to its nature, its relationships
with the other key production factor, i.e., capital, are different. It is self-evident that
modern technologies and the swiftness they a re assimilated by all segments of the society –
from production to entertainment – entail a widening gap between demand for and supply
of jobs. This led the open minded Jeremy Rifkin to herald “The End of Work” 8 more than
a decade ago.
8
J. Rifkin, „The End of Work. The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market
Era”, New York, 1995.
4
Disproportions and dysfunctions of labor force market could become manifest shortly, and
they may turn to social unrest in poorly developed countries. It is the case of Romania as
well.
In the near term, until full integration with the European Union, a large part of the
unemployed in Romania will be absorbed by fast growing Member States. In the long term
however, the conditions ruling in the Romanian labor market will aggravate employment.
Besides the above-mentioned features, which are rather related to its nature, some other
features will emerge, as follows:
-
-
accelerated loss of professionalism following brisk deterioration of education
system. There will be many formal changes, yet the direct effects will be a higher
rate of school abandonment and weaker professional background of graduates;
delay in entering the “knowledge economy” due to the aforesaid feature and to
limited funds;
widespread migration from villages to towns and from poorly developed regions to
developed ones, leading to worsening living conditions in important towns (to
mention only the thorny issue of ensuring dwellings).
In dealing with the intricate processes mentioned above, the regional, county, municipal,
town and even village authorities play a decisive role. In the near term, they can accomplish
rather little. Nevertheless, it will take a great deal of time for the local authorities to get an
accurate picture of the reality and realize that their future depends primarily on their
achievements.
5
THE COHESION POLITICS AND THE REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT– CHALLENGES FOR ROMANIA ON THE
EUROPEAN UNION
EXPANSION BACKGROUND
lecturer dr. Trandafir Mariana
“DANUBIUS” University Galaţi
1. Differences among the states and regions on the european extension
background.
The European Union is , basically, a vast and ambitious project, at the same political,
social and economical, registered in a the continental tradition of common democratical
values that take into account the long term development in a social market economy,
focused on the fight against social exclusion and discriminations, the diversity respect
and solidarity among the states members.
A vast literature, structured on the european integration theme, points out four basically
challenges the European Union faces on the backgroundof the expansion to 25 states in
may 2004 and to 27 states in the 2007 perspective, challenges related to :
§ Regional and social differences, the European Union expansion means also
doubling the differences between the economic perfiormances of the regions,as
well as the decrease of the medium income per person, expressed in IGP per
inhabitant, to 12.5%. In the 25 states Union , we estimate 123 million people
living in regions in which IGP is 75% under the union average, and in the
perspective of the Romania and Bulgaria adhesion their number will be close to
153 millions ; a general feature of the new states economy are the low work
productivity and a low degree of modern technologies used in the production
processs;.
§ The new territtrial differences, the most oriental regions of the European Union
expanded to 25 states are those who register the lowest values og IGP per
inhabitant , in the last ten ywears , for instance, in the new member states, the
urban areas have known superior increase rythms to the rural areas, difficult to
access to, in which the infrastructure and the communication systems are not
enough to support the economy development;.
§ The persistance and even the agravation of the social exclusion, the poverty
state thet affects almost 55 million people, the most exposed categories beiing
the old people who live alone, single women, unemployed and inactive people,
that live mostly in South Europe, ireland and new member states;.
§ The resolution of the population from the european projec, after 1992, beiing more
and more obvious, for more europeans the integration is a distant and birocratic
project..
In this context, it becomes more and more obvious the fact that , meanwhile before
the integration of the new states, the most dynamic ten regions of the European
Union had a prosperity level that, in terms of Igp per inhabitant, was threee times
1
bigger than the level registered in the least developed regions , the economical
performances of the ten new member states of the European Union were gathering
only 43.7% from the european average, a lot under this level beeng Romania (25%),
Bulgaria (28%) and Turkey (22%). As you can see even from the data in Tabel 1, if
we take as a referance basis the leverl of the IGP per inhabitant in the Europe of the
15 states, the level of this indicator is by far superior to the one registered in the new
10 member states that is 43.7 from the reference basis. If you add to this Romania
and Bulgaria, the IGP per inhabitant is 38%. The important differences are to be
taken into account regarding also the unemplolyment ratio, the work force weight
involved in agriculture, industry and services.
Tabel no. 1
Performance indicators registered in the states members of the European
Union and România and Bulgaria in 2000
IGP/inhabitant*
%
E
151
E
102
E
123
E
254
E
275
Unemployment
ratio
%
The ratio
The weight
of the
of the work
work force
force
involvment involvment
(precent of
in
the
agriculture**
population
between
15 and 64 )
%
%
The weight
of the
work force
involvment
in
industry**
The weight
of the
work force
involvment
in
services**
%
%
100
8,4
63,8
4,3
28,9
66,5
43,7
15,5
58,4
17,6
31,0
51,4
38,0
12,4
60,8
21,6
31,7
48,1
90,7
9,6
62,8
6,5
29,8
63,7
86,5
9,3
63,2
63,2
29,5
62,6
* IGP/inhabitant in the European Union before the 2004 expansion is considered as a reference
basis. (level 100%);
** procent din total;
E1 = European Union of the 15 member states ;
E2 = The 10 states that became members of the European Union in 2004 ;
E3 = The 10 states that became members of the European Union in 2004, plus România and
Bulgaria;
E4 = The European Union of the 25 member states;
E5 = The European Union of the 27 member states.
Source
„Regional nequalities in the enlarged Europe”,
http://esp.sagepub.com/cgl/content/abstract/13/4/313;
2
2. The economic and social cohesion politics : between challenges and
opportunuties
As a concept, the cohesion, applied at the european level, is an essential pawn of
the european construction , and is seen, in the plan of the practical accomplishment
of the cohesion politics, the only politics of the European Union that treats in an
obvious way the economical and social differences and implies a transfer of
financial resources through the union buget, with the purpose of sustaining the
economical growth and the and the long term development at national and regional
level.
The economical theory on the european integration is unanimous in recognasing that
the effects such as the increase of the wealth can be expected only when the regions
and the countries have a similar level of development and where, prior to the
formal integration, there is already a dense network of proffesions. The big
differences between the development levels implicate different profiles in
production and services. The economic community adopts more easily the trade
diversion than the trade creation.
After the setting of the cohesion politics in 1988, as recognition of the necessity of
the Union`s following the objective of decreasing the differences betwen the
regions, every step of the european construction, the cohesion politics had the
objective of counter balancing the effects of the community decisions, in order to
open the only market and preparing the Economical and Currency Union. Even from
1961, Robert Mundell1 has stated the relationship between the efficiency of a sole
european currency and the economical performances of the different states. A
single currency at european level means price transperancy and the decrease of the
cost of the transactions, and such improving the economical competitivity and
generating the benefits for some territories, as well as significant cost for others, on
the trend of the demand changes for specific products and the banks` interests.
In the present context, marked by the expansion to 25 states of the European Union
to which will join, in the perspective of 2007, România and Bulgaria, the
stimulation of the interregional competitivity and the realisation of the internal
cohesion of the Union represents brand new challenges, represented mainly by:
§ The increase of the social and economical interregional differences and at the
same time the decrease of the average IGP per inhabitant;
§ The faster rythm of economical restructuring undeer the globalisation impact;
§ The free circulation of goods, capitals and work force;
§ The effects of the technological development;.
§ The society development based on knowledge;
§ The effects of the aging of the european population and the immigration
growth..
The differences at the income levels ad the occupation of the work force between
regions and states have lowered starting eith the half of the last decade, although
there still are differences between the economical performances of the european
states. The european cohesion politics has the objective of contributing, through
1
Winner of the Nobel Prize for Economy in 1999;
3
stimulation political measures in the regions in which there still are unused
economical potential and work force , to the fulfilling the cohesion of the economy
of the whole European Union.
In a perspective vision, at the level of political decision, are introduced the
opportunities that the unified europe offers to its citizens, from which we draw
attention to those related to:
§ Economical increase and intensification of trades, the opening , in 1996, of the
market of industrial products for the candidate dountries which is an attraction
force towards the candidate countries of the investment flows and intensfies the
bilateral changes, the commerce of the countires in Central Europe almost
tripled in the last 10 years. The expansion of the Union is associted with the
increase of the demand of products of consumption made in the old community
countries, the investments made in the new member states constitutes the basis
of the products exports, especially cars, in the old community states;.
§ A new expansion of the European Union, for which preparation it is necessary
to impose the insurance of the necessary adaptations, from the legal and social
point of view, brings a potential market with almost 70 millions of consumers,
important opening or the european products;.
§ The constitutional Treaty project , that insures the action background for
security, justice and external actions, brings to the social and economical
cohesion of the member countries , the territorial cohesion, thus a legitimation
of the major intervention of the European Union of compensating eventual
geografic handicaps, sa well as checking the the manner in which the legislation
of the different states affects the situation of the disadvantaged regions..
3.
The reform of the european cohesion politics
In practice, the cohesion politics offers a range of instruments of whose utility is
well recognised in the countries that aspire to the integration in the European Union.
In march 2000, at the meeting in Lisbon, the european leaders declaired as their
objective the transformation of Europe, in the 2010 perspective, in the most
competitive and dynamic economy based on knowledge of the world, capable to
sustain a long term economic increase and capable of offering more and better work
places. For this goal to be reached there have been set a series of high priority
actions2:
§ Creating a strong realtionship between the research and industry institutions,
through developing good conditions for research, the improvement of the access
to finance and know-how and encouraging new business, at the same time with
the development of a politics of promotion and innovation;.
§ Insuring the whole use of work force, marking the necessity of offering new
opportunities of work places that allow the increase of the productivity and of
work quality;.
2
European Commission: „Third Report on Economic and Social Cohesion”
http://europa.eu.int/comm/regional_policy/sources/docolfie/official/reports/cohesion3.
4
§
§
§
Insuring a labour maket that provides more work places, including for the
citizens of the new member states in a manner that allows the decrease of
differences both regional and social;
The „connecting „ of Europe, through integration and perfecting the transport
network, telecommunications and energy;
The enviroment protection, the stimulation of the innovatour spirit and
introduction of new technologies, in the energy and transport fields.
Met in Gôteborg in June 2001, the European Council aproved the adopption of a
strategy of solid development that „complete the political promise of the Union
regarding the economical and social development and adds to the Strategy from Lisbon
a third dimension, that of enviroment protection”3, the new architecture of the cohesion
politics is structured on three esential coordinates:
§ The convergence , through sustaining the economical increase and creating new
work palces in the member states and the less developed regions;.
§ Regional competivity and work places;
§ European territorial cooperation, with the purpose of promoting a balanced and
harmonious development of the territory of the bigger Europe..
The reform of the european cohesion politic, concentrated around the three priorities –
convergence, competitivity and territorial cooperation, implicates :
§ Programs of comunitary initiative, in the context of the interregional cooperation
at communitary level, adding up to almost 4.3 billion euro, on themes adapted
by the big Union that have as goal the modernising of the public institutions,
urban regenaration, establishing the relationship between rural and urban;
§ The reservation of an identical regime to the states that want to join the Union
and to those already members, action for which there are 6 billion dollars
allocated, for soothing the effects of the enlarging by decreasing the alomonies
received from numerous states;
§ Mentaining a sinergy between the competitivity in the rural areas and the
structural funds, by identifying the most adequate strategical orientations ;
§ Establishing bugets including all expenses, public and private, the level of the
comunitary contributions which leaves out private co-financing ;
§ The promotion of the cooperation beyond border through the froniier and not
through the countries, and with the purpose to encouraged the innovation in the
matter and to offer us a new dynanmic of cooperation;
§ Reestablishing the intermediary evaluations by programs in the regions of
convergence;
§ The two raports every year regarding the progress accomplished in the national
plan;
§ Establishing seriuos checks every four years, in order to revise the community
priorities and the regional startegies, to bring out the progress made and the
difficulties met; the economical and social evaluation of the new member states,
under the aspect of thei capacity to obtain advantages by using the structural
funds . This, however, remains difficult to estimate;
§ Reintroducing the conditioning over the results of the structural interventions
and not on the macroeconomical evolutons that are not related to the programs.
3
European Parliament – The department of structural and cohesion politics : “ The adaptation of the
cohesion politics to the bigger Europe and to the objectives from Lisbon and Gôteborg”, Bruxelles,
January 2005;
5
For the period 2004 – 2006, the cohesion politics was changed to responde to the
necessaties of the new member countries, the cohesion funds for the transport and the
enviroment are of almost 30 % from the total, while the rural development were given
18 % from the total.
The main objectives of the cohesion politics will beneficiate , during 2007 – 2013, of
financial resources of almost 337 billions euro- between the 15 countries which take
51,7%, 173 825 million of euro and the new members România and Bulgaria – that
will be given through the European Fund for regional development (EKRD), the
European Social Fund (ESF) as well as the cohesion funds. The new state members will
have structured funds and cohesion funds up to 162 387 millioan euro (48,3% of the
total funds), in a structure explained in tabel 2.
Tabel no. 2
Structural funds and cohesion funds for the new members ,
România and Bulgaria , between 2007 - 2013
Countries
Funds given
millioan euro
Estonia
Lethonia
Lithuania
Poland
The Check Republic
Slovenia
Slovakia
Hungaria
Malta
Cipru
TOTAL
România
Bulgaria
TOTAL
2 534
5 482
2 976
63 453
25 940
4 654
9 494
24 609
754
274
140 170
16 050
6 167
162 387
Source: The European Parliament – The department of structural and cohesion politics :
“ Adapting the cohesion politics of the enlarged Europe and the objectives from
Lisbon and Gôteborg”, Bruxelles, January 2005;
4. Challenges for România
The experience of the last four years point out the features of the new members of the
European Union regarding the implementation of the european cohesion politics, are
usefull lessons for România, in the integration perspective, from which we mention :
§ The low capacity to get immediate benefits from the structural funds
§ Difficult birocracy and the weakness of the public institutions
§ Damaged enviroment, due to the industrial polluting production , in the
conditions of the imigration of young well trained people;
6
§
§
§
The confruntation with problems regarding the manner in which to allocate the
structural funds by concentrating the structural interventions in the increasing
reagions or allocating the funds according to the investments of the deprived
reagions. And all this on the background of privatisation and unequal foreign
investment;
The lack of a coherent development strategy with defining the long term
objectives;
The lack of a trained personnel and of efficient administration means,
coordination, following the programs evaluation, mostly at regional level;
The experience of the new EU members and the instruments prior to the aderation point
out as important the challenges for Romania in the aderation perspective :
§ The construction of the institutional frame that allow the adoption and
implementing the cohesion politics economically and financially, regardless of
the influence of the political dimension and the arbitration, as well as beeing
constirnt of the reality according to which a cohesion politics, not tailored on a
national politics that can insure the finish of the economical reform process,
cannot insure the development and the economical progress as well as social, at
national and regional level;
§ The difficulties of puting into practice the regional politics principles of the EU,
generated by:
- The persistance of differences between the data on the field and those in
reports, that stops from respecting the multiannual scheduling.
- Collecting and processing the information regarding the social and
economical evolutions that proves to be an expensive process, the
statistic data not beeing capable of pointing out the changes that appear
at a certain point in a certain region, distorting the reality with
consequences in unadequate sollutions.
- The major difficulties appling the aditionality principle, according to
which the transfer of community funds have just a complementary role
and do not replace the financial effforts of the benefiaciaries.
- The difficulties in setteling partnerships and cooperation between the
factors implicated
- The lack of a trained personnel in this field
§ The relatively small degree of using the european funds, taking from the
regional economy the financial resourcesthat can be used for investing in the
economical and social development
§ Apreciating in the Common Position of the EU according to which the
romanian authorities do not have yet the right administration capacity for the
structural instruments. Althought the financial instruments created by EU for
România in the period prior to the aderation were conceived on the pattern of
the structural and cohesion funds, in order to prepare the authorities for the
reality of beeing a member. This will allow România between 2007- 2009
access to the structural funds and the cohesion funds from an amount of 6 346
million euro, the proposal for 2009 -2013 are of 9 704 million euro which is
60,5% of the communitary resources.
The gradual evaluation of România preparation, from the perspective of the
economical and social cohesion politics , in order to respond to the demands
implicated by the status of EU member, is a difficult process that means the
7
analysis of the capacity of România to insure the economical and social
development of the regions fast and balanced , of the institutional capacity of
implementing the european law package. We also have to mention that the highest
degree of preparation in found in the legal and institutional plan , and a series of
problems are waiting for their sollutions in the background of the preparation for
EU aderation.
Selective biography:
1. Ciupergea Constantin (coord):”Evaluarea costurilor şi beneficiilor aderării
României la UE”, Institutul European din
România”, Bucuresti, 2004;
2. Martin Heiderreich:
3. Rolf Bergs:
„Regional inequalities in the enlarged Europe”,
http://esp.sagepub.com/cgl/content/abstract/13/4/313;
„EU Regional Cohesion Policy and Economic
Integration of the Accesion Countries” , Policy
Research Consultancy”, Discussion Paper,
2001;
4. Parlamentul European:
: “ Adaptarea politicii de coeziune Europei lărgite
şi obiectivelor de la Lisabona şi Gôteborg”,
Bruxelles, ianuarie 2005;
5. European Commission:
„Third Report on Economic and Social
Cohesion”,
http://europa.eu.int/comm/regional_policy/sou
rces/docolfie/official/reports/cohesion3.
8
THE SUBSTANTIATION OF DECISIONS IN REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
Professor G.Varlan, Ph.D.
Professor I.Bandu, Ph.D.
Assist. Drd. I. Goleţ
FACULTY OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
WEST UNIVERSITY OF TIMISOARA
The experience got in time has proved that the differences existing between the
development levels of the counties have brought about the important disfunctionalities
of the economy in any country of the world, becoming a drag in the developing
countrie. The differences existing between the development standards of the countries
are less significant but they get a greater importance, the less developed the countries
are. Under such circumstances, a balanced development of all the counties of a certain
country, turns into an economic matter as well as a socio - political one having a special
importance for the strategy adopted by the governing party in almost all the countries
of the world.
The ways the county development strategy is put into practice are specific for
each county. By practicing such a policy, some countries give attention only to some
parts of their areas while other countries are interested in their whole territory. During
the last decades, the regional development policy has been directed towards activities
that use the labour, the raw material and the finances peculiar to each region. By means
of such a policy, structural movemens will take place on the level of each region and on
the national level too; it will bring about a standardizing of the socio - economic
development of all the counties of a certain country.
On the background of the preoccupations regarding the development of each
country, the insurance of almost equal living conditions for the inhabitants living on the
whole national territory, has become, in our days, a target of any government in all the
states of law of the world. Under these conditions, the use of the most adequate
economic - financial levers specific to each place, area, region and so on, as well as the
promotion of some appropriate legal initiatives cannot be supported if they are not well
known.
The great variety of the activities carried on within the administrative units
makes impossible their evaluation by means of a single indicator. So, one may use
several economic and social indicators.
Each indicator points out one side of the activity and it is expressed in a certain
unit of measure. So it is compulsory to use a synthetic indicator. This one must establish
the place each administrative territorial unit occupies within the national socioeconomic frame, the movements that take place on their standards within a given
interval of time.
On such grounds, the bodies that have the power to take decisions, have the
chance to found their alternatives regarding the possibilities for the development of the
counties.
1
Both the Romanian bibliography and the foreign one, present different methods
used for the “creating” of such an indicator: the rank method, the methods of relative
distances, a factorial analysis, the method of standardized deviation and so on.
We consider that all these methods are anachronical now and the informational
statistics is very much in practice.
Against the possibilities offered by the informational system of territorial
statistics, the economic and social indicators are used, they point out more accuratey
the sides of the development of administrative territorial units.
In order to offer a better presentation of the respective domain or field, each
indicator is given against a number of inhabitants, they being the direct beneficiaries of
the given process, or against another element so characteristic for a certain domain on
field. Here are some examples: industrial, agricultural productions, goods selling retail,
services, and so on will be presented against a number of inhabitants, number of
physicians, beds for medical assistance, radio and TV licences for 1.000 inhabitants,
whereas the length of highway systems, lightning mains a.s.o. are for a square unit
(100 km2 ).
All these elements will be introduced in a table having an uneven number or
rows and columns: the rows will contain the names of the countries and the columns
will have the indicators. The crossing of the two will present the indicators for a certain
county. Here is the pattern:


x11 x12...... xlj ....... xln 
x x ...... x ...... x 
2j
2n
 21 22

............................. 


X= xi 1 xi 2...... xij ....... xin 


..............................




xml xm2...... xmj ..... xmn 


X - the pattern of indicators per regions;
xij - indicator “j” for “i” regions;
n- number of indicators;
m - number of territory regions.
The indicators are measured in differed units, their totalizing is possible only by
on columns, on the level of each indicator. For avoiding such a shortcoming, we will
change the indicators from absolute units into relative units of structure, each indicator
being presented against the level of the corresponding county, its total sum (amount), in
column.
In their turn, the relative dimensions of structure are changed into informational
energies according to the relations:
eij =
( x ij ) 2
 m

 ∑ x ij 
 i =1 
2
2
where:
eij
- informational energy corresponding to the "i" regions and the "j" indicator;
xij
- dimension of the "j" indicator of the "i" region;
i= 1, m - number of territory regions;
j= 1, n
- number of indicators.
At the level of each region, it is possible to add up all the indicators that are expressed
in different units of measurement getting a final general synthetic indicator.
The corresponding informational energy to “m” regions and “n” indicators is
represented in the follwing pattern :


e11 e12...........eij .........e1n 


e21 e22...........e2 j .........e2n 


....................................... 
E = e e ...........e ..........e 
ij
in 
 i1 i 2
........................................


em1 em2........emj .........emn 


Under these circumstances, thein formational energies are abstract units, the
summing up of the indicators can be done not only on the level of each indicator but
also on the level of each region. So it is possible to estimate the influences of all the
indicators for each region in one synthetic indicator, the value of which is given by its
own informational energy. Such a synthetic indicator can be summed up on the level of
each indicator as well as on the whole unit of the “m” regions and “n” indicators. The
synthetic indicator on the level of each region is determined by means of the next
formula:
n
Ii =
∑e
ij
j =1
For the level of each indicator, there is
n
Ij =
∑e
ij
i=1
As a whole, the synthetic indicators may be expressed by:
3
m
I=
n
∑ ∑e
ij
i =1
j =1
or
I=
n
m
j =1
i =1
∑ ∑e
ij
Each of the indicators obtained in the above mentioned way, has a special
significance. In the case of a certain region, the synthetic indicator points out the
position of the respective region within the national economic framework, in the light of
all these indicators; obtained on the level of each indicator, the synthetic one
characterizes the way a certain indicator has been reflected for obtaining the final
results.
Because the sense of the evolution of some activities does not always match the
mathematically one, it is necessary that the totalizing of the informational energy
specific to each indicator, should be done in algebraically way. The dimensions of the
general synthetic indicator point out the development of each region within the national
economic complex.
The indicators are considered to be of equal importance for the development of
the territory units.
Because each phase of development gives an answer to some specific
desideratum, specific to the respective period of time, it is necessary to make a
difference between the indicators in accordance with the target in view. For this
purpose, it is recommended to balance the indicators with certain coefficients, making
reference to the importance each indicator has within the adopted strategy regarding the
regional development in the respective unit of time.
The importance of each indicator must be seen in the context of all the other
indicators. In this sense, one can use, with relative good results, the so called "matrix
method of selected criteria".
For eliminating some possible subjective options of the person who decides, regarding
the importance given to each indicator in the respective epoch, it is recommended to
carry out some researches among the famous specialists in the field, using the intuitive
techniques such as Delphi and Brainstorming. The results of the researches will point
out the group options of the specialists regarding the importance order offered to each
indicator.
On the number scale, one will matriculate the indicators taking into account the
importance they represent in the respective period of time. The value of each indicator
will be determined by the correlation of the respective indicator’s importance with the
place occupied within the established value hierarchy.
The indicators can be differentiated by balancing each of them with the values obtained
from the reckoning done regarding the importance given to the indicator.
Under these conditions, the informational energy, corresponding to each region and
indicator, will be re reckoned by means of :
4
e' ij =
( x ij λ j ) 2
 m

 ∑ x ij λ j 
 i =1

2
where:
e' ij - informational energy re reckoned, corresponding to "i" region and the "j" indicator;
λ j - importance offered to the "j" indicator
The general synthetic indicator re reckoned on the level of the regions allows the
establishment of the place each region has in the hierarchy not only from the point of
view of the all indicators but also of the importance given to the different aspects of the
development expressed by means of these indicators.
There reckoning of the synthetic indicators for each indicator underlines the
different contribution of some activities to the leveling or deepening of the
discrepancies between the development level, of the regions, not only for the point of
view of the priorities offered to some side of the policy for regional development but
also from the point of view of the importance offered in the respective period of time.
On the other side, the general synthetic indicator, being re reckoned, quantifies
the cumulated influence of the indicators and the importance given to some side of the
regional development strategy.
By re reckoning the general synthetic indicator at the level of regions, indicators
and regions assembly, the possibility is created of establishing a direct connection
between certain sides of the development, measured by means of different indicators
and the importance offered to them, the change of quantitative aspects of the
development in to qualitative elements, of quantity in to quality.
Summed up in different interval of time, the synthetic indicators underline the
meaning and sizes of the movements that took place in the level of each result of the
development policy promoted during that interval of time.
REFERENCE
Boldur - Lăţescu Gh.
Logica decizională şi conducerea sistemelor,
Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1992
Intriligator, M.D., Bodkin, R.G.,
Hsio, C.
Econometric models, techniques and
applications. 2nd, ed., Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice – Hall, 1996.
Onicescu, O., Botez, M.
Incertitudine şi modelare economică.
Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică,
Bucureşti, 1985.
Opriş, I.
.
„Caracterizarea sintetică a dinamicii
unui sistem folosind corelaţia
informaţională de tip Onicescu”,
Revista Română de Statiscă.N0.7, 1994.
5
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES BY FOREIGN DIRECT
INVESTMENTS – PARTICULARITIES FOR AGRI-FOOD
SECTOR
Dan Marius Voicilaş, PhD. Trainee
Institute of Agricultural Economics, Bucharest
The role of the foreign direct investments in the agri-food and regional policies
During the transition period, in Romania have developed different concepts
about regional development and asserted frequently the role of a solid and clear policy
upon the future economic stability, in pre-accession period and after the integration into
European Union structures. Unfortunately, our decision-makers showed us a totally lack
of consistency, with negative effects on the next decision steps.
A very good start and impact on the regional and rural development have had the
international programmes and projects in which Romania is taking part, under the
authority of international financial institutions or European Union organizations. In
spite of many difficulties met in the last years, some programmes and projects were
already finished or they are in the last stage of implementation. The transnational
projects between Romania and other countries, even that small projects between
different counties, have a good impact on the national economy and branches. In this
equation, the agri-food sector and rural development concept have an important role.
Many international projects have a direct applicability in this field or in fields close to it,
like environment and ecology. Besides these international funds, appear as an important
pillar of development the effects generated by the foreign investors during their activity.
The investment activity has a central position in the economic life, being the
factor of stimulation by influence the demand and supply of goods and services.
Investments are the main instrument for achieving economic growth. At social level,
investments have a regulation/compensation role in labour employment and life quality
improvement. The implementation of certain investment projects results in
modifications on labour market, thus generating an additional need of labour force in
the sectors preparing and carrying out investment actions, i.e. research – design or
constructions, that operate the new production capacities.
Investments may be also considered as a link between generations, by creating
new jobs for the young generation, as well as by the fixed capital this receives from
previous generations. The investments generally and the investments in rural area
especially acquire a special importance, as they are closely linked to the natural
environment and the population that is mostly sensitive to the weather, ecological and
economic modification, i.e. the rural population.
These are only part of the arguments that support the idea that, the foreign direct
investments in the Romanian agri-food sector and the international regional
programmes, are welcome and necessary for the recovery of this activity sectors, to
improve the state of the regions in Romania and to exclude the disparities between
them.
The analysis of the Romanian agri-food sector, together with the regional policy
and foreign capital flow evolution in economy, in different regions and in rural area
especially, by sources and destinations, will strengthen the above-mentioned issues and
will reveal the present drawbacks and the need to accelerate the investment process.
Romania’s place on the international market
1
At the international level, the foreign direct investments (FDI) flows suffered
important changes in the last 15 years. Thus, from our point of view, there are two
important moments which have influenced the international FDI flows (we take into
consideration the influences on European market). One of them is the appearance of a
new market on the international map, in Central and Estern Europe (CEECs) and the
second is the event which took place in USA, in September 2001.
Generally speaking, the studies show us that, at the end of 2001 the repartition of
the FDI was almost the same like 15 years ago, the repartition of the FDI flows in the
World is not very different then `80th, but is not similar the volume of investments
made at the global level. Before 2001 appeared a plus of resources used by the investors
because of the economic boom, globalization and the new favourable conditions on the
international markets. The year 2001 reduced the investment activity, but the investors
kept the conquered market in their portfolio at a low level (Figure 1). Thus, about 50%
from FDI were in EU, 20% in the USA, 15% in Asian Countries, 10% in Latin America
and only 2.5% in the transition countries from CEECs. Among the latter Poland, The
Czech Republic and Hungary have attracted 50-60% from the total in this region.
Figure 1 – Foreign direct investments flows - global trend, in the period 1990-2003
Source: UNCTAD, 2004, Prospects for foreign direct investment and the strategies of
Transnational Corporations, 2004-2007, United Nations, New York and Geneva
At Europe’s level, the two distinct entities (European Union – EU, Central and
Eastern European Countries - CEECs) have parallely developed, but from different
positions. EU was an important investment source for CEECs, their volume grew
gradually and had as preferred destinations only some countries from CEE, but at the
same time, it was always an investment destination preferred by the investors from all
over the world. Also, the CEECs tried to intensify foreign investments, but from another
scale, not having such a big share on European market. In this period, their main
concern was the attraction of more foreign investors, from this point of view existing a
very strong competition (Table 1).
Absorbency of the FDI was totally different in CEECs, from country to country.
Some countries had a higher volume of inflows per year as you can see in the Table 1
(for instance Czech Rep. compared with Romania). For Romania, the start of the
competition in attracting foreign investors was late (1997-1998) and the evolution of the
process was slowly, therefore the psychological limit of 10 bil USD was passed only in
2003. From the FDI volume point of view, nowadays Romania is situated at the level of
Poland and Hungary in the years 1995-1996 (or Czech Rep. in 1998). But, if we speak
2
about FDI per capita, the Romanian situation is more dramatically because, the level is
above the value in many CEECs (except some countries like Moldova Rep.).
Table 1 – Foreign direct investments in Europe, in the period 1996-2003 (bil. USD)
FDI Inflows
Group/Country
World
European Union:
- Germany
- United Kingdom
- BelgiumLuxembourg
- Netherlands
- France
Central and Eastern
Europe + Russia:
- Romania
- Bulgaria
- Czech
- Hungary
- Poland
- Slovakia
- Russia
1996
389
111
7
24
14
17
22
1997
488
127
12
33
12
11
23
1998
691
250
25
74
23
37
31
1999
1.087
479
56
88
120
41
47
2000
1.388
671
198
119
89
64
43
2001
818
357
21
53
88
52
50
2002
679
374
36
28
132
26
49
2003
560
295
13
15
117
20
47
14.7
0.3
0.1
1.4
3.3
4.5
0.4
2.6
21.1
1.2
0.5
1.3
4.2
4.9
0.2
4.9
24.3
2.0
0.5
3.7
3.8
6.4
0.7
2.8
26.5
1.0
0.8
6.3
3.3
7.3
0.4
3.3
27.5
1.0
1.0
5.0
2.8
9.3
1.9
2.7
26.4
1.2
0.8
5.6
3.9
5.7
1.6
2.5
31.2
1.1
0.9
8.5
2.8
4.1
4.1
3.5
21.0
1.6
1.4
2.6
2.5
4.2
0.6
1.1
World
European Union:
- Germany
- United Kingdom
- France
- BelgiumLuxembourg
- Netherlands
- Spain
Central and Eastern
Europe + Russia
395
184
51
34
30
8
32
5
474
221
42
62
36
7
24
13
687
415
89
123
49
29
37
19
1.092
724
109
201
121
122
58
42
1.187
806
50
254
176
242
71
55
721
429
43
39
83
67
44
28
596
351
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
612
337
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
L.D.
1
4
2
2
4
4
5
7
FDI Outflows
Note: L.D. = No data
Source: UNCTAD Database, World Investment Report, years 2001-2004
On the basis of this information we can elaborate The Matrix “FDI –
potential/performance”, by which it is determined the place held by Romania among the
world’s state, both from point of view of performances in the plan of foreign
investments, and of the potential it has in the attraction of these investments. Among the
countries which were candidates to the EU accession or wishing to start the negotiations
in a near future, only Turkey and Ukraine are part of the same group with Romania (the
sub-performant states’ group), all the other countries from the region being placed much
more favourably.
Foreign direct investments in Romania
The economic opening after 1990, the invitation of economic reforms, of
restructuring and privatization of state enterprises, the switchover from command to
market economy have produced important mutations both in the legal structure of
economic operators and in capital structure.
3
Regardless the form of FDI, as privatization receipts, contribution to nominal
capital at the establishment of commercial companies, in cash or in kind equivalent,
Romania is placed after Poland, The Czech Republic and Hungary on the list of former
socialist countries as regards the attracted foreign capital. Data provided by the
Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Romania and Bucharest Municipality - National
Office of the Trade Register “C.C.I.R.M.B. - O.N.R.C.”), show us the state of the
investment process and attractiveness for foreign investors.
The structure of FDI in Romania (Figure 2) is a clear result of the Romanian
policy in this field. In the same time, we can see a huge disproportion between branches,
with a lack of interest for some of them, very important in the process on integration
into EU and the development of the economy (in agriculture 1% from the total).
Figure 2 - The structure of the foreign direct investments in Romania (2003)
transports
8%
tourism
2%
trade
17%
constructions
2%
agriculture
1%
industry
54%
services
16%
Source: data from the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Romania and Bucharest
Municipality – National Office of the Trade Register (CCIRMB – ONRC), Statistical Bulletin
Inevitably, the rural development in Romania is closely correlated with
agriculture’s development, food industry and all the activities connexed or collateral to
these. The structural characteristics of Romania make necessary the elaboration of a
national policy which should have in view the sustainable development of the rural and
the promotion of the national regional development or the international one, in
conformity with the European principles. According to them, the rural development
policy has to be closely linked to the sectoral (agricultural) policy and to the regional
policy, having in view three dimensions: the restructuring and development of the
agricultural sector, the promotion of the economic and social cohesion of regional type
and the integrated development of the rural area. In all this equation, foreign
investments and especially foreign direct investments have a main place, under
conditions in which the internal financing sources are momentarily limited. The agrifood sector has a special importance at the macro-economic level due to its features and
the connections with the other branches of the economy. For Romania, this sector
acquired more importance because of the size of the Romanian market (the population
in Romania is 22 mil), the rural population (47% from the total), or the persons involved
in agriculture (about 30% from the active population). From these reasons, but not
exclusively, the development of the rural area in Romania is an important issue and a
big challenge. Unfortunately, the place of this sector in the “FDI equation” is not
significant because of its lack of attractiveness, high risks involved and low
4
profitableness. These are the reasons why the foreign investors do not consider this
sector as a priority in their activity (Table 2).
Table 2 - The Romanian agri-food sector attractiveness for foreign investors
Total FDI (10 billion USD), out of which:
Agriculture
Food industry
4.1
5.1
1.0
9.0
Year 2003
Number of investors (%)
Value of investments (%)
Source: CCIRMB – ONRC Data, Statistical Bulletin
Analyzed in their dynamics, FDI in the agri-food sector express the attitude of
the investors and in the same time, the preoccupation of the decision makers in solving
the problems appeared in the transition period (Figure 3). Both in agriculture and in
food industry FDI had the same trend. These yearly fluctuations cannot provide a basis
for a conclusion related to a distinct and clear policy of the government as regards a
certain product, but we can see that, in the last years (starting with 1997) the level of the
foreign investments was very low.
Figure 3 – The evolution of the foreign direct investments in Romanian agri-food sector
(1991-2003)
20000
thou USD
15000
10000
5000
0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
-5000
agri-food sector
agriculture
food industry
Source: CCIRMB – ONRC, Statistical Bulletin
The territorial analysis of the foreign direct investments
The territorial repartition of the FDI for all activity sectors of the economy puts
into evidence some of the trends manifested by the investors in the 90’s. As result, there
are emerging centers of concentration for the foreign investors in those geographical
areas and historical provinces with a rich economic and infrastructure potential or with
historical traditions in certain activity branches.
If we analyse the repartition of the foreign investors in function of the number of
commercial companies (Table 3), we can see, that more than half (55%) have been
founded in Bucharest, which anyhow has the supremacy regarding the value of the
invested capital, with about 50%. On the subsequent places are: the West Region and
North-West Region. The fewest commercial companies were founded in the South
Region and South-West Region. If we take into consideration the value of the
investments made, after Bucharest is following the South Region and South-East
5
Region. These three regions gather almost 75% of the total of foreign investments in
Romania. On the last places are the North-East Region and South-West Region.
Following these two criteria, we can conclude that the Bucharest Region is
concentrating the greatest part of the foreign investments in Romania, the rest (almost
50%), being shared by the other seven regions of economic development, existing a
great economic imbalance manifested in all domains of activity. The least attractive
region for the foreign investors is South-West, which is on the last position in function
of both criteria. It is in fact one of the poor regions in Romania, together with the NorthEast region with a rural majority and a strong agrarian character. If we take into account
also the rural population share in total population on each of the regions of economic
development, we can see that the regions North-East, South and South-West are
majoritary rural. Except for the South Region, which has important investments, the
foreign investors generally avoid the other two. If we consider the population on
economic development regions, we can observe that 10.2% from the Romanian
population, as Region Bucharest has, benefit of about 50% from the total FDI in
Romania. On the opposite side is North-East Region with a numerous population but
with low level of investments.
Table 3 – Foreign direct investments in Romania by economic development regions (19912003)
Development
regions
North-East
South-East
South
South-West
West
North-West
Center
Bucureşti
Investors
No.
3868
5589
3758
2373
10112
9454
8591
53484
%
4.0
5.7
3.9
2.4
10.4
9.7
8.8
55.0
Capital
(thou. USD)
Value
%
385,126.9
3.7
1,247,697.8
11.9
1,267,175.9
12.1
345,471.1
3.3
743,598.0
7.1
775,296.6
7.4
467,671.9
4.5
5,269,744.1
50.2
Rural
population
%
59.5
44.8
59.5
55.8
38.4
49.9
41.5
11.3
Regional
population
%
17.1
13.2
15.6
10.8
8.9
12.6
11.6
10.2
Source: National Institute of Statistic (INS); CCIRMB – ONRC Data, Statistical Bulletin
A classification on counties by the size of the foreign attracted capital,
comprises in the first 10 position, after Bucharest, the followings: Galati with 6.2%
(Region South-East), Arges with 5.9% (South Region), Ilfov with 5.6% (Region
Bucharest), Constanta with 4.7% (Region South-East), Timis with 3.9% (Region West),
Cluj with 3.7% (Region North-West), Prahova with 3.7% (Region South) and Bihor
with 1.8% (Region North-West). Except the two counties in the South Region, all the
others are in the regions with bigger concentration of the population in the urban area.
On the last positions, in function of this criterion, there are: Ialomita (Region South),
Botosani (Region North-East), both with 0.1% and Gorj (Region South-West) with less
than 0.1%, which are those regions with a majoritary rural population.
Following this short analysis we could conclude that the foreign investors
avoided generally the rural environment, the regions of economic development mostly
rural, preferring the towns or the adjacent areas. The regional distribution of the foreign
direct capital in Romania is characterized by great inequalities, the one between the
Bucharest Region and the other regions being most obvious. For the future, it is possible
that the present discrepancy to be diminished and the poorest counties of the country to
implement certain development programmes based on the analysis of the comparative
advantages for the foreign investors, first in agriculture, food industry and rural tourism,
6
under the conditions in which the local labour force is cheap, and the employers are
enjoying of facilities on behalf of the state, if they hire the unemployed.
Rural and agri-food development programmes
The international financial bodies and other categories of institutions have
developed a series of programmes in support of agriculture, agri-food sector,
programmes for rural development, regional programmes, programmes for developing
the private sector, the small and medium size enterprises etc. These ones have as a goal
either the increase of investment effects, or the approach to the EU structures, or the
increase of the qualitative level of life. Most important programmes are developed
through World Bank (WB), The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(EBRD), or other financial institution of EU.
By loans, consulting in matter of policies and technical assistance, The World
Bank supports a large scale of programmes for poverty reduction and increase of the life
standard in these countries. The loan programmes are following the strengthening of the
social protection system, increase the investments in health system, education and rural
development, consolidation of the business environment or the development of the
environmental protection capacity. The World Bank Projects in Romania are developing
in very different fields. An important project is the “Private Sector Adjustment Loan” –
PSAL with its two components PSAL I and PSAL II, which helped to the efforts for
macroeconomic stabilization of the government through its four main components: the
reform and privatization of the financial sector; the state enterprises’ privatization; the
consolidation of the business environment in Romania; the further development of the
programmes for social protection of the workers unemployed.
In the financial year 2001, The Executive Board Directors of the WB approved
six projects in a total value of 230 mil. USD. They are referring to aspects prioritary of
the Romanian economy:
- The project for the restructuring of the mining sector and the alleviation of the
social impact (45 mil. USD);
- The project for services in agriculture (11 mil. USD);
- The project for trade and transport facilitation (17 mil. USD);
- The project for reform of the health sector (40 mil. USD);
- The project for rural financing (80 mil. USD);
- The loan for the social sector development.
To all this, there are added also six projects in the preparation stage:
- The project for irrigation system rehabilitation;
- The project for pollution reduction in agriculture;
- The project for developing the forestry sector;
- The project for rural development;
- The loan for the social sector development;
- The loan for the private sector adjustment (PSAL II);
- The Romanian Fund for energetic efficiency.
Schematically, the World Bank’s programmes are presented in Annex 1.
For Romania’s accession to the EU there are used at present three pre-accession
instruments: the programmes PHARE, ISPA and SAPARD. The financial support is
given prioritarely for complying the criteria necessary for the accession into EU.
The PHARE Programme
The assessment of the programmes with financial assistance from EU was made
until September 2001 by the OMAS Consortium, and further by the ECOTEC
7
Consortium. There were assessed the Phare programmes in the fields: “Public Function
and Public Finances”, “Transports”, “Agriculture and Rural Development”, for which
the qualification given was “satisfactory” and there are also developing now the
programmes in the sector “Financial services and the internal market”.
The Programme Phare 2000 comprised a non-reimbursable financial assistance
of 255.62 mil. Euros (215 mil. Euros for the National Phare Programme, 13 mil. Euros
for the programme of cross-border cooperation with Hungary and Bulgaria, 27.6 mil.
Euros for the community programmes).
The Programme Phare 2001 benefited from a financial support of 286.69 mil.
Euros, with the following distribution: 148.89 mil. Euros for the National Phare
Programme, 24.8 mil. Euros for the supplementary investment facility, 13 mil. Euros for
the programmes of cross-border cooperation with Bulgaria and Hungary.
In the Year 2001, there was launched the exercise for Programmes Phare 2002,
which has as priorities the same chapters as in the previous years. The National
Programme Phare 2002 includes also the participation to the community programmes,
Romania showing a great interest for participating into 25 programmes and one
European Agency: Leonardo Da Vinci II, Socrates II, The V-th Framework Programme
in the research and technological development field, Youth, Culture 2000, Life III,
Fiscalis, Customs 2000, Save, Altener II, Etap, Sure, a multi-annual programme for the
enterprises and entrepreneurship etc, and also The European Agency for Environment.
The ISPA Programme represents for Romania an important financial support in
view of rehabilitating and modernizing the environmental and transport infrastructures
but, at the same time, it is a fundamental instrument for complying the criteria for
accession and development of some policies, convergent and coherent with the
community policies, as a preliminary phase of the integration in the EU structures and
procedures in these fields. Within the developing of this programme Romania is
benefiting, in the period 2000-2006, of non-reimbursable financial assistance from the
EU of about 1.5 bil. Euros, both for accomplishing the objectives foreseen in the
Partnership for the Accession, and for the modernization of the environment and
transport infrastructures. Until the year 2002, The European Commission had approved
for Romania 22 ISPA projects in value of 1.050 bil. Euros (65% of the funds allocated),
being situated on the first place among the states candidate to the EU integration.
The SAPARD Programme is the financial instrument for pre-accession in
agriculture and rural development, which has as prioritary objectives the facilitation for
implementing the communitarian acquis in the candidate countries and the consolidation
of the framework necessary for a sustainable development of the agricultural sector and
rural areas, following the progressive adapting of the intervention mechanisms to the
main principles which are governing the Common Agricultural Policy. It comprises a
set of measures (11), which will be developed in the pre-accession period, and the
effective financial support will be of 153.2 mil. Euros annually, for seven years, under
the form of non-reimbursable credits. Romania being the second country, after Poland,
which receives the most important funds. At the same time, it is necessary a
governmental co-financing (around 50 mil Euros/year), but also a local/a private one.
Besides the above mentioned programmes, the Ministry of Agriculture is
developing and implementing a series of programmes and is also the coordinator of
some of them, both with internal and external sources. This way, in the period 20012005 there will be developed the following projects, with sources received from the
IBRD, WB: “Rural Development”, “The Development of Rural Financing” and
“Control of Agricultural pollution”, with a total financing budget of 256 mil. USD.
Bodies as FAO, FIDA, PNUD had also in view for the period 2001-2002, other three
8
projects: “The Rural Development of the Apuseni Mountains”, “The Strategy for the
Development of Agriculture and Rural Area in Romania” and “The Economic
Affirmation of Women in the Romanian Rural Area”, with a total financing budget of
290 mil. USD. Negotiation and debates regarding the development of more programmes
with external financing, through WB or other financial institutions are held
permanently, such as there is hope that in short time the gaps present between
agriculture and the Romanian rural environment on one hand and the EU ones, on the
other, to diminish considerably.
Conclusions
This short FDI study in Romania helps us to formulate the following final
conclusions:
- There is a weak investment potential;
- There is a weak capacity of investment absorption;
- The sub-investment syndrome is still present especially in rural area;
- There is no positive impact on the agri-food sector and rural development;
- The regional distribution of the foreign direct capital in Romania is characterized by
great inequalities.
The effects generated by the sub-investment phenomenon in the agri-food sector
and rural area are the following:
- High costs of the production due to the obsolete technologies;
- Low productivity;
- High level of hidden unemployment in agriculture and rural area;
- The lack of environment protection measures;
- Romania became a net importer of agri-food products;
- The negative effects spread in other branches of economy.
References
1. Voicilaş, D.M., 2004, Foreign direct investments flows in transition countries and the
impact on the rural development, 3rd Conference for Young Researchers, Szent Istvan
Egyetem - vol II, Godollo, Hungary, 385-391;
2. Statistical Bulletin, The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Romania and
Bucharest Municipality – National Office of the Trade Register;
3. World Bank Database;
4. UNCTAD Database.
9
Annex 1
Projects portfolio (year 2002)
Name of Project
Loan
(mil. USD)
Future projects
Date
Draw
(mil. USD)
Non-reimbursable financing
GEF Project for financing programmes
for energy preservation
05/15/2001
5.00
Loans
PSAL II
Project for forestry sector development
24.35
Project for rural development
150.00
Project for rehabilitating the irrigations
75.00
Present projects
Grant for preparation of the project for
forestry sector development
Improving the public information
capacity
Improving the institutional capacity for
macroeconomic analysis
The management of biodiversity
preservation
Project for pollution reduction in
agriculture
08/14/2000
0.432,670
0.186,408
01/26/01
0.400,000
0.305,604
10/21/1999
0.350,000
0.144,595
10/15/1999
5.5
0.933,842
5.5
0.0
02/23/2000
0.30
0.215,188
Second project for roads modernization
10/24/1997
150.00
127.10
Cadastre
05/20/1998
25.00
2.70
Preservation of cultural patrimony
02/11/1999
5.00
0.84
Social sector development
10/26/2001
50.00
0.00
Development of services for agriculture
08/24/2000
11.00
0.95
The social development fund
03/30/1999
10.00
9.87
28.6
0.0
10/14/1999
25.00
9.92
12/05/1995
55.40
27.08
Pollution reduction in agriculture
Loans
The Romanian fund for social
development II
Loan for building the institutional
capacity in the private sector - PSIBL
Labour force and social protection
10
Project for financial markets
development in the rural area
Project for facilitating trade and
transport in the South-East of Europe
08/28/2001
80.00
0.00
11/06/2000
17.10
1.95
08/15/1996
120.00
91.35
08/29/1994
175.60
104.09
10/07/1994
50.00
43.03
Child rehabilitation
10/28/1998
5.00
3.00
School rehabilitation
01/23/1998
70.00
31.80
Rehabilitation and modernization of
energetical sector
01/24/1996
77.00
17.84
The reform in education and research
01/23/1997
50.00
36.17
The reform in health sector
11/02/2000
40.00
15.38
Restructuring of the mining sector
01/27/2000
44.50
3.30
Support for the reform and privatization
in telecommunication
09/28/1998
19.00
7.64
Project for railways rehabilitation
Project for rehabilitating the oil subsector
Project for pre-university educational
reform
Ended-up projects
Reduction of pollution in agriculture preparing project
02/23/2000
0.30
0.215,188
11/25/1996
25.00
17.60
Loans
Improvement of water supply for
Bucharest
Source: World Bank Database - Romania
11
THE ROLE OF LOCAL INITIATIVES FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN
SUPPORTING REGIONAL POLICY
Prep. Gina Cristina Banica
Academy of Economic Studies
1. The local economic development and its correlation with the regional
development
The local development is interpreted as a dependent process of innovation and
contractor. The development is the process of intern growth and structural changes which
follow the growth of standard life at the local community improving the capacity of
transformation, adaptation and stimulation of the innovation. The relation between regional
and local development is a relation of complementary and convergence where we
acknowledge typical elements, social, economic, cultural, traditional of the regional entity.
The local economic development has as general objective the development of the
institutional and operational capacities of the local authority about the utilisation of the
existent opportunities using the partnership in the planning and the participative
implementation of the projects with impact in the local economic development.
The general objective of the local development could be obtained as:
• Put in evidence of the existent and potential resources ensemble of visa territory;
• The encouragement of all initiatives who could contribute to the utilization of these
resources in a specific dynamic of the local level;
• The promotion of the actions which responsibility is of the local level and at the
investment who visa with priority the local objectives for the improvement quality’s
life at the local population.
The theory and the practice proves that where exist these dynamic and transparency and
where the local and regional collectivises have an high level of organization and autonomy,
the local development and the local initiative could have an important place in the economy of
a region and/or of a country. And that because they allow to:
§ Find a better modality of adaptation at the technologic evolution;
§ The fight against unemployment;
§ The social and professional insertion of the population answering at
hers necessities at the local level;
§ The help of urbane districts or the rural zones;
§ Keeping equilibrium between the rural and urban development.
2. Local initiatives and their role in supporting the regional policy.
The initiatives of local economic development could bee appreciate as a compact
class of actions with economic, social, cultural and political character.
With all the variety of the using terms for the definition, the local initiatives of
development (the initiatives of local engagement, the initiatives of manpower occupancy,
economics strategies etc.) the term Local Economic Initiatives is useful because it identified
the three fundamental features who define these kind of actions:
ü Setting up the new places of working-the fundamental objective of the
intervention;
1
ü The local dimension-the visa level of intervention;
ü Enterprising and innovation spirit-the fundamental features of the intervention.
The local initiative of the economic development appears in very different context,
having also at the base actors very different. At this point of view it must be considered three
aspects:
-the existence of a problem;
-the expression of a necessity;
-the discovery of a opportunities as important factors at the local initiative;
-local groups organized or not in associations communities;
-“agents of local development”;
-volunteers of local development;
-local collectivises;
-local authorities;
-Industrial units or industrial units groups;
-Universities;
-State;
-European Union Commission, as initiative actors.
European Union supports the local initiatives of economic development in two kinds:
1. On the one hand the majority programs of development which it promote suppose also
actions of local development;
2. On the other hand the European Community encourages some projects, networks of
experience change which present a little importance at the financial point of view, but
where the local initiatives have an importance place.
Among the instruments with the most noticed in the local initiatives supporting used at
European Union level is:
ü Cohesion and Structures Funds who function with strictly rules and support
some prioritar objectives;
ü BICs - Business and Inovative Centres, a product of a partnership at the local
level between all involved actors in economic development in order to
stimulate or to regenerate local economies of the zone with a industrial
potential.
ü European Business Network (EBN), international organization non-profit
who coordinate the network BICs, and it accords training, promotional services
and of the informational distribution;
ü SCF-Seed Capital Funds, a capital form of risk adequate to the needs of a
new business;
ü Euro-partnership is a form of co-operation promoted by the European
Commission in order to stimulate the development of unfavourable regions
using the co-operation between IMM at these regions and partners of other
country of European Union.
In Romanian the support and stimulate activity of local initiatives at economic
development is at her beginning. In this way it was already elaborated and adopted a series of
law which have direct implication in the stimulation of local or regional initiatives.
The Romanian reality and the European reality proves the fact that the regional and
local development are direct conditioned by the achievement of some local projects, managed
at this level by persons, enterprising, local and regional organizations and which know the
problems and opportunities that exist.
On the other hand without direct implication and local authority support it can’t be
obtained a process based on the local lasting development.
2
A plan is just a simple theoretic draft if it is not supported by real objectives, accepted
as such and promoted by individuals having the power of decision, if it doesn’t use the
available resources on local area and if the effort and the results obtained are not know and
accepted at different levels by the target groups interested in it.
3. The experience of the countries of the European Union in supporting the
initiatives of local development.
The experience of the European Union countries related to the importance of the
initiatives of local development points out the following issues:
Ø
the most frequently experiences met in the basic sector occur in the (agricultural,
forest, f) production scope, in its accomplishment as well as in processing and
marketing agricultural products;
Ø
the interventions within the industrial sector were divided depending on the intentions
of action: restructuring an already existing industrial network or developing small and
medium size enterprises and art craft enterprises;
Ø
in the tertiary sector there were set out three large activity branches that were more
frequently met: tourism, services and constructions;
Ø
upon the launching and putting into practice of the local development actions, three
categories of personnel took part: chosen local authorities, development agencies,
analysts;
Ø
in connection with the approach type used, it was found out the use of some social,
economic and mixed approaches; the identified forms of actions were: the local global
development, professional training (re-qualification), social and professional input,
enterprise support;
Ø
the experiences were also analyzed by the method they reported to the natural
environment or the absence of concerns for ecology in the strict sense of the term.
An example of the concrete method of supporting the local initiatives is represented by
PFIL (Les Plates-Formes d’Initiative Locale) which, within FIR (France Iniative Reseau)
in France represents a tireless partner for creating enterprises. This organization has only one
objective; supporting the people who want to create an enterprise and to concentrate the
project and to improve the surviving capacity of the newly created enterprise. The support is
materialized in training the person interested in starting the business, before creating the
enterprise, the consolidation during the business development and, not the least, for those who
don’t have the necessary funds available, a financial aid in the form of a “prêt d’honneur”.
The force of FIR network consists in the mobilization of the local competences for
supporting the enterprisers and in the support of an already existing structure (local
collectivity, development committee, consular chamber). The affiliation to a national network
guarantees a proper use of the funds mobilized and the respect for the values existing at local
level, and it is part to PFIL, a viable partner by the compliance of some principles such as:
§ the respect for the enterpriser, the acknowledgement of the initiative right, personal
liability and several engagement;
§ a high level of professionalism plus the mobilization of local professional competences;
§ the joining of three instruments supporting the founders of enterprises: the financial aid,
accompanying during the carrying out of the business and partnership.
PFIL is materialized in an important instrument in the service of durable local
development because:
ü
It is the expression of an organized economic solidarity (these
organizations may have different forms of organization depending on the existing needs,
3
that may modify their intervention field, maintain relations of exchange and capital,
knowledge and experience with the outside);
ü
It has a big autonomy of decision and administration (the funds are
mobilized and administered at local level, each organization defines the profile of
enterprises and the activity type he wishes to support, mobilizes a great number of actors,
financing bodies and experts of the association or partners).
The basic principles based on which PFIL actions and that constitutes its Ethic Book
and of its members are the followings:
Ø
PFIL is subject to the service of enterprisers; in this sense, it complies with the
autonomy, personal dignity of each enterpriser, striving only to provide the best
chances of success;
Ø
PFIL is subject to the service of a territory; in this sense, the organization directs its
action towards a measure of local development and mobilization of available
competences;
Ø
PFIL has as objectives the economic development, stimulation of innovation, creation
of work places and social cohesion. At the same time, it turns into account the
capacity of economic development of each enterpriser, support for creating other work
places and its capacity of innovation;
Ø
PFIL follows the accomplishment of a collective solidarity and for it is solidary with:
other organizations of the same type, other operators supporting the foundation of
enterprises, economic agents within its territory;
Ø
PFIL is subject to the service of a democracy of initiative and civil responsibility, thus
watching the democratic quality of life and the maintaining its independence and of
the enterprisers.
4. Measures of stimulating the local economic development in Romania
Romania must turn into account the experience of the European Union and comply
with the conditions necessary for setting in motion the local development:
§ The local community must be involved in a partnership that would bring
together public bodies, different levels of the administration and private sector,
so that in would be obtained maximum advantages from using the existing
human and financial resources. The establishment of close contracts between
the public and private sectors has a decisive importance in order to provide
efficiency to the regional aids;
§ A great importance must be granted to the involvement of the relevant
agents, since the stage of preparing the regional plans, but also further on, so
that it would be the safety that the measures have a maximum impact in the
respective area. For this it is absolutely necessary that the information be
distributed, to be received by all agents capable to elaborate projects of local
development;
§ In order to ensure the active participation at the local level to the monitoring
and evaluation of the political measures it is imposed the existence of a
technical assistance for the periodic evaluation of the impact of the measures
proposed;
§ Achieving an institutional background for coordinating the measures as well
as to stimulate and support technically the elaboration and implementation of
projects: an Independent Development Agency and a regional forum for
different initiatives;
4
§
§
§
§ A comprehensive approach of the local development implies the followings:
- common projects that are preferred to the individual or sector projects;
- a strategic conception of development;
- integration of inside and outside factors of the development in the considered area;
- a comprehensive process integrated “step by step”, that would include:
a diagnosis of the situation;
a set of coherent priorities;
a feasibility study;
- an assistance agreement that would set out the methods of the project and the results
expected;
- implementation and assessment.
§ The methods of requesting development aids are divided in four categories that
must be used in combination to be proper for the stage reached;
- awareness is the phase that must prepare the conditions necessary by awakening the
local conditions and the encouragement of involvement in the local development;
- consulting on issue of management, development, training and education;
- localization – drawing the companies in the area and the encouragement of creating
new companies by providing a physical and intellectual environment adequate for
their activity;
- incentives that would help to the preparation, starting and development of businesses.
References :
1. Alban, Richard, Networking Strategies of Firms and Regional Development,
International symposium, october 2002, Chişinău, Republica Moldova,
2.
*** «The experience of the countries of the European Union in supporting
the initiatives of local development, in Probleme economice, no. 23-24-25/2000
3.
*** “The updated strategy of Romanian Government concerning the reform
in public administration”, may 2004
4. www.europa.eu.int
5. www.infoeuropa.ro
6. www.interreg3c.net
7. www.regione.vda.it
5
THE TAX SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL INCOME IN EUROPE
University Lecturer, Ph. D. Researcher Sorin Blaj
European University "Drăgan" from Lugoj
Faculty of Economics
At the end of year 2004, in Romania, there were two points of view concerning
the tax reform of individual income taxation:
1. To keep the progressive taxation by reducing the number of income
brackets (from 5 to 3) and the number of tax rates (from 18%, the lowest
tax rate, 23%, 28%, 34% and 40%, the top tax rate, to 14%, the lowest tax
rate, 26% and 38%, the top tax rate).
2. To introduce a 16% flat tax on income.
In order to analyze objectively these two points of view, we must consider the
tax system of individuals’ income from other European countries.
Taking into account the fact that Romania is in the full process of joining the
European Union, this period (March - April 2005) being decisive for our country
process of joining it at 1st January, 2007, we shall classify the states of Europe as it
follows:
1. States which were members of the European Union at 30 April, 2004 (15 states –
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Great Britain, Holland, Portugal, Spain and Sweden).
2. States which became members of the European Union at 1st May, 2004 (10
states – Czech Republic, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland,
Slovakia, Slovenia and Hungary).
3. States which are in the process of joining the European Union (2 states –
Romania and Bulgaria).
4. States which want to join the European Union (Turkey and Croatia).
5. Other states from Europe (Switzerland, Macedonia, Norway, Russia, Serbia,
Ukraine).
Analyzing the tax system of personal income from these countries, a few
conclusions can be drawn concerning the option of Romania to introduce a 16% flat tax,
beginning with 1st January, 2005.
The research is based on the type and level of tax rates applied in the states of
Europe and their comparison. All the charts that present the tax rates were taken from
the site of the European Union (http://www.europa.eu.int/).
1. THE TAX SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL INCOME IN THE
MEMBERS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AT 30 APRIL, 2004
15
STATES WHICH WERE
AUSTRIA
Income tax is payable as it follows:
Taxable income bands (EUR)
1 – 3.640
3.641 – 7.270
7.271 – 21.800
21.801 – 50.870
Over 50.870
1
Tax rates (%)
0
21
31
41
50
BELGIUM
The tax rates for the period 2002 – 2006 are the following:
Tax rates (%)
1 – 6.495
6.496 – 9.246
9.247 – 15.419
15.420 – 28.260
Over 28.260
25
30
40
45
50
DENMARK
There are two types of taxes, state and local. The tax rates published in the year
2001, for the incomes realized in 2000, are the following:
Taxable income bands
(DKK)
1 – 164.300
164.301 – 267.600
Over 267.600
State tax rates
(%)
7,5
13
28
Local tax rates
(%)
32
32
32
Total tax rates
(%)
39,5
45
60
FINLAND
There are three types of taxes: state, local and on religion.
The income bands to establish the state income are the following:
1 – 11.500
11.501 – 14.300
14.301 – 19.700
19.701 – 30.900
30.901 – 54.700
Over 54.700
Tax rates (%)
0
13
17
23
29
36
The local taxes are different for each municipality, being situated between 15 %
and 19,75% on taxable income, with an average rate of 17,78% (for example, in
Helsinki the rate is of 16,5%).
The tax on religion varies from 1% to 2,25% from the taxable income according
to each municipality decision (for example, in Helsinki the rate arises to 1%).
These three taxes are cumulated. Theoretically, a top tax rate of 60% can be
reached. Married persons are taxed separately.
FRANCE
The tax rates for the year 2002 are as the following:
1 – 4.055
4.056 – 7.976
7.977 – 14.039
14.040 – 22.732
22.733 – 36.987
36.988 – 45.613
Over 45.613
GERMANY
Tax rates (%)
0
8,25
21,75
31,75
41,75
47,25
53,25
2
Income exceeding the personal allowance is taxable income and is taxed at the
following progressive rates in the first tax band:
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
Taxable income
Single persons (EUR)
7.236 – 9.251
7.427 – 12.755
7.427 – 12.755
7.665 – 12.739
Taxable income
Married persons (EUR)
14.472 – 18.503
14.854 – 25.511
14.854 – 25.511
15.330 – 25.479
Tax rates (%)
19,90 – 23,00
17,00 – 24,97
17,00 – 24,97
15,00 – 23,97
Income in the next tax band is taxed at the following progressive rates:
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
Taxable income
Single persons (EUR)
9.252 – 55.007
12.756 – 52.292
12.756 – 52.292
12.740 – 52.151
Taxable income
Married persons (EUR)
18.504 – 110.015
25.512 – 104.585
25.512 – 104.585
25.480 – 104.303
Tax rates (%)
23,00 – 48,50
24,97 – 47,00
24,97 – 47,00
23,97 – 42,00
GREECE:
Scale (a): Salaried persons and pensioners
1 – 10.000
10.001 – 13.400
13.401 – 23.400
Over 23.400
Tax rates (%)
0
15
30
40
Scale (b): Non salaried persons – self employed
1 – 8.400
8.401 – 13.400
13.401 – 23.400
Over 23.400
Tax rates (%)
0
15
30
40
IRELAND
Over the last six Budgets, the Government has introduced significant reforms
with regard to taxation policy and PPF taxation commitments have been implemented.
The standard rate and top rate of income tax have been reduced by six
percentage points each since 1997. The standard rate of tax currently stands at 20% and
the top rate stands at 42%.
The standard rate band has been widened with a view to establishing
progressively a single standard rate income tax band for all individual taxpayers and to
facilitate a move towards the target where at least 80% of income earners pay tax at no
more than the standard rate.
The bands currently stand at:
Single
EUR 28.000
Married One-Earner EUR 37.000
Married Two-Earner
EUR 56.000 with transferability limited to EUR
37.000
Incomes higher than this limit are taxed with a 42% top tax rate.
3
After Budget 2003 it was estimated that 29,77% of income earners were paying
at the top rate of tax.
In 1997 a single person was liable to tax at the higher rate on an income of
approximately 90% of the value of the average industrial wage as it stood then.
Currently, in the light of further widening of the standard band, the same person is not
liable for the top rate of tax until his or her income reaches EUR 28.000 which is above
the average industrial wage for 2003.
ITALY
The tax rates on individuals income were reduced in the period 2001 – 2003, as
it follows:
2001
18
24
32
39
45
1 – 10.329
10.330 – 15.494
15.495 – 30.987
30.988 – 69.722
Over 69.722
Tax rates (%)
2002
18
23
32
38,5
44,5
2003
18
22
32
38
44
LUXEMBOURG
Taxpayers are divided into three classes according to the number of their
dependants. There is a graduated scale with 17 income bands, to each of which
corresponds a rate of tax ranging from 0 to 38%; application of the rates varies
according to the class to which the taxpayer belongs.
For the first band from 0 to EUR 9.750, the rate is 0%; for the second band from
EUR 9.750 to EUR 11.400, the rate is 8%. Thereafter the rate is 10%, subsequently
increasing by 2% per band.
For income exceeding EUR 34.500, there is a uniform rate 38%. This basic scale
is adjusted periodically to variations in the weighted consumer price index.
As regards extraordinary income, the rates applied range from 0 to 22,8%.
GREAT BRITAIN
The tax rates on individuals’ income are the following:
Taxable income bands (GBP)
1 – 1.880
1.881 – 29.400
Over 29.400
Tax rates (%)
10
22
40
The rates of tax on savings income are 20 % for income above the starting rate
limit (GBP 1.880) and up to the basic rate limit (GBP 29.400) and 40 % above that
limit. The rates of tax applicable on dividends are 10 % for income up to the basic rate
limit (GBP 29.400) and 32,5 % above it.
HOLLAND
There are three categories of taxes. The amount of tax to be paid is calculated by
applying the designated rate to the taxable income from each of the three boxes.
Box 1. World income is taxed in 2001 at the following rates with the following
income tax bands:
4
1 – 14.870
14.871 – 27.009
27.010 – 46.309
Over 46.309
Tax rates (%)
32,35
37,6
42
52
For individuals aged 65 or over, the first two rates are different, because social
security contributions are not due any more. They are respective 14,45 % and 19,70 %.
Box 2. There is a fixed rate of 25 %.
Box 3. There is a fixed rate of 30 %. The amount of tax calculated by applying
the fixed rate to the "assumed return", which is based on the assumption that the
taxpayer has a (annual) return of 4 % on his or her capital.
PORTUGAL
Marginal rates range from 12% to 40%:
Up to 4.100
4.101 – 6.201
6.202 – 15.375
15.376 – 35.364
35.365 – 51.251
Over 51.251
Tax rates (%)
12
14
24
34
38
40
SPAIN
There are two categories of taxes: general tax and complementary and
autonomous community (local) tax. The tax rates are:
Tax rates (%)
general
local
12,060
5,940
16,080
7,920
18,961
9,339
24,924
12,276
30,150
14,850
32,160
15,840
1 – 3.678
3.679 – 9.195
9.196 – 12.261
12.262 – 15.326
15.327 – 26.973
Over 26.973
total
18
24
28,3
37,2
45
48
SWEDEN
There are two categories of income taxes: state tax and local tax. All taxpayers
pay SEK 200 as state tax on income.
The rates of local tax vary between 28 and 34%. On average, the municipal tax
stands around 31% according to municipality.
The rates of total tax on income obtained through the addition of state and local
taxes are:
Taxable income bands (SEK)
Tax rates (%)
national
local
0
31
20
31
25
31
1 – 252.000
252.001 – 390.400
Over 390.400
5
total
31
51
56
2. THE TAX SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUALS INCOME IN THE 10 MEMBER STATES OF THE
EUROPEAN UNION AT 1ST MAY, 2004
ESTONIA:
A 26% flat tax on income beginning with 1st January, 1994. Separate tax rate of
10% for certain pensions. In the period 2004 – 2007 is forecasted a reduction of the flat
tax rate, as it follows:
• until the year 2004: 26%;
• income tax rate of the year 2005: 24%;
• income tax rate of the year 2006: 22%;
• income tax rate of the year 2007 and onwards: 20%.
LATVIA:
A 25% flat tax on income beginning with 1st January, 1995.
LITHUANIA:
A 15 percent tax is levied on income from distributed profit, interest, seamen
income, income from sporting, artistic activities, royalties, income from rent or sale or
any other form of transfer of property, pensions paid out of Lithuanian pension funds,
life insurance payments. Other items of income (not listed in the Law) are subject to 33
percent tax rate. The income derived from activity performed with business certificate is
subject to the fixed amount of tax which is determined by municipalities.
SLOVAKIA
The current fundamental tax reform is one of the most important initiatives of
the Slovak government toward creating a highly competitive and non-distortive market
environment in Slovakia. In its Policy Statement, the government undertook to reduce
income tax rates and to analyze the possibility of implementing a flat tax rate. In fact,
the actual reform goes even beyond these original ambitious objectives. Its ultimate goal
is to transform the Slovak tax system into the most competitive one in the entire EU and
OECD area.
In the area of direct income taxation, the tax reform is centered around the
implementation of the flat tax rate.. In accordance with the principle of taxing all
incomes of individuals and corporations equally, only one linear percentage rate of
19% is applied since 1st January, 2004. The new legislation eliminated the 21 different
types of taxation of direct income that were in force in Slovakia until now, including
five different personal income tax rates (10%, 20%, 28%, 35% and 38%.)
HUNGARY
The tax rates, according to the income band, are:
Taxable income bands (HUF)
Up to 800.000
800.001 – 1.500.000
Over 1.500.000
Tax rates (%)
18
26
38
6
3. THE FISCAL SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUALS INCOMES IN THE STATES THAT WILL JOIN
ST
THE EUROPEAN UNION AT 1 JANUARY, 2007 (EXPECTED DATE)
ROMANIA
Since 1st January, 2005, there has been produced an important fiscal relaxation
through the introduction of a 16% flat tax rate on individuals income. Thus, it
renounced to global taxation, with progressive tax rates, in favor of separate taxation,
with proportional rates.
BULGARIA
The annual tax rates for 2004 are the following:
Taxable income bands (BGN)
Up to 1.440
1.441 – 1.800
1.801 – 3.000
3.001 – 7.200
Over 7.200
4. THE FISCAL SYSTEM
JOIN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Tax rates (%)
0
12
22
26
29
OF INDIVIDUALS INCOME IN THE CANDIDATE STATES TO
CROATIA:
The annual tax rates are the following:
Taxable income bands (HRK)
Tax rates (%)
Up to 36.000
36.001 – 81.000
81.001 – 252.000
Over 252.000
15
25
35
45
5. THE FISCAL SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUALS INCOME IN OTHER STATES OF EUROPE
SWITZERLAND
In general, Swiss income tax rates are progressive. Very often different rates
apply for married and single taxpayers, as the income of husband and wife is aggregated
and taxed together. The maximum federal income tax rate is 11.5%. A taxable income
of CHF 100.000 is taxed at about 4% (singles) and 3% (married). The rates for CHF
200.000 are 8% and 7.5% respectively.
MACEDONIA
The income tax is paid according to the following progressive rates:
Taxable income bands (MKD)
Up to 360.000
Over 360.000
Tax rates (%)
15
18
NORWAY
Statutory tax rates on ordinary income:
7
Tax rates (%)
Standard tax rate
Tax rate for individuals in Finnmark and Northern Troms
2003
28%
24,5%
2004
28%
24,5%
Central government income surtax:
Tax rates (%)
Tax bracket 1
Threshold, Class 1
Threshold, Class 2
Rate
Tax bracket 2
Threshold, Class 1 and 2
Rate
2003
2004
NOK 340.700
NOK 364.000
13,5%
NOK 354.300
NOK 378.600
13,5%
NOK 872.000
19,5%
NOK 906.900
19,5%
1. The tax system operates with two classes. Most taxpayers are taxed in class 1.
Single parents and married couples may be taxed in class 2 on income. Married
couples will always be taxed in class 2 on wealth.
2. The tax rate in tax bracket 1 is 9,5 % for taxpayers resident of the counties of
Finnmark and Northern Troms. Tax bracket 2 is also valid for residents of the
counties of Finnmark and Northern Troms.
RUSSIA
SERBIA
A 14% standard income tax and for incomes that exceed USD 10.799 a 24% tax.
These rates apply beginning with 1st January, 2003.
UKRAINE
A 13% flat tax on income, beginning with 1st January, 2004.
CONCLUSIONS
The 15 member states, that were part of the European Union until 30 April,
2004, have progressive tax rates, only Ireland thinks of introducing a flat tax on income.
In Ireland, the standard rate and the top rate of tax have been reduced with 6%
since 1997. The standard rate band has been widened with a view to establishing
progressively a single standard rate income tax band for all individual taxpayers and to
facilitate a move towards the target where at least 80% of income earners pay tax at no
more than the standard rate. Maybe not by chance Ireland has the most important
economic growth in the European Union.
At the level of each state, there are some characteristics:
• In five states, Austria, Finland, France, Greece and Luxembourg, there is an
income bracket which is not taxed, where the tax rate is 0%;
• Three states have applied important tax cuts on individuals incomes, reducing
the lowest tax rates and the top tax rates:
– Belgium reduced the top tax rate with 5% (from 55% to 50%), reducing too the
number of tax brackets, from seven (25, 30, 40, 45, 50, 52,5 and 55%) to five
(25, 30, 40, 45 and 50%);
8
– Germany reduced the top tax rate, with 6,5% (from 48,5% to 42,0%), as well as
the lowest tax rate, with 4,9% (from 19,9% to 15%);
– Italy reduced the top tax rate with 1,0% (from 45% to 44%), while lowest tax
rate remained at the same level of 18%;
• One of the simplest fiscal system is that of Great Britain where there are three
tax rates, 10% the lowest, which is the smallest in the European Union, 22% and
40%, the top tax rate;
• Three tax rates are in Denmark too, and the highest in the European Union,
39,5%, the lowest tax rate, 45% and 60%, the top tax rate;
• Holland and Sweden also have high tax rates. The former has the tax rates
between 32,35% and 52%, and the latter between 31% and 56%;
• Another country that reduced tax rates is Portugal, where the lowest tax rate is
12%, and the top tax rates is 40%;
• Spain has tax rates between 18% and 49%, the top tax rate.
Taking into account the important deductions applied in each country and the
changes concerning the level of tax rates, it can be stated that, with a few exceptions, in
the 15 member states that formed the European Union until April 30, 2004, there can be
noticed a fiscal relaxation, the most important being registered in Ireland and Germany,
where have been applied important tax cuts on individuals incomes.
As for the states that joined the European Union in 1st May, 2004, we can
distinguish three categories of states:
• The first category includes the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and
Slovakia which started a radical and complex process of fiscal relaxation
through the introduction of a flat tax rate, of significant reductions and of tax
rate on profit, as it follows:
– Estonia and Lithuania were the first states to introduce the income flat tax in
Europe, in 1994. Estonia has a 26% flat tax rate, and until 2006 it will be
reduced to 20%, the same thing going to happen to the profit tax rate, the two tax
rates reaching the same level. Lithuania has a higher tax rate of 33%, reducing in
exchange the tax rate on corporations, where the profit tax rates is 15%;
– Beginning with the year 1995, Latvia has a 25% flat tax on income, and a 15%
tax rate on profit;
– The last state to apply the flat tax on individuals’ income was Slovakia,
beginning with 1st January, 2004. Slovakia simplified very much the fiscality: in
the past there were three important categories of taxes, on income, on profit and
value-added tax, nowadays there is a single one of 19%;
• The second category of states includes Hungary and Poland, which are studying
the idea of introducing a flat tax on income;
• The third category includes the other four states, namely Cyprus, Malta,
Slovenia and Czech Republic, which have progressive tax rates on individuals’
income, like Hungary and Poland.
Romania decided to introduce a 16% flat tax on income, joining the other states
that introduced a flat tax.
As it follows there are presented some of expected advantages of flat tax
introduction:
• It is a popular and efficient tax for taxpayers, all taxpayers taxes being reduced;
9
•
It encourages work, because every taxpayer can estimate their earnings in case
they want to increase their incomes taking a second job, thing impossible in the
case of global taxation;
• It was applied especially by countries in transition to market economy, and the
results registered after at least a year are encouraging;
• It doesn’t come in conflict with the acquis of the European Union; on the
contrary, it represents the tendency of the countries that recently joined the
European Union.
We have to wait optimistically the effects of the flat tax on individuals’ income
as well as on the Romanian economy.
In Bulgaria still there is a progressive taxation, the tax rates being situated
between 0% and 29% (there are five brackets of 0, 12, 22, 26 and 29%). It can be said
that in the case of Bulgaria too there is a reduced taxation of individuals’ income, due to
the top tax rate, which at 29% is much reduced. In fact, Bulgaria could adopt that flat
tax very quickly without running the risk of important deficits in budget.
Other states that adopted the flat tax on income are Russia, in 2000, and
Ukraine, in 2003, where the lowest tax rate reaches 13%. These countries registered the
most important growth of collection at the budget, thanks to this tax rate.
For other states from Europe, the data concerning the taxation of individuals that
we have studied didn’t allow us to make an objective presentation of their fiscal system.
At this moment, in Europe, seven states have separate taxation on individuals’
incomes, with the flat tax on income.
The final conclusion resulted from the analysis of tax rates applied in the states
of Europe is that emerging states have the tendency to prefer a simplified fiscality on
individuals incomes by adopting the flat tax. On the contrary, developed countries still
prefer progressive taxation. But, it is possible that in the near future some surprises may
appear and some developed states of the European Union may adopt this simplified
system of taxation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. The Government Decree no. 138 from 29 December, 2004 to amend the Law.
No. 571/2003 regarding the Fiscal Code, published in Monitorul Oficial (the
Official Gazette) no. 1281 from December 30, 2004.
2. INTERNET: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/taxation;
3. INTERNET: http://www.editionslegislatives.fr/;
4. INTERNET:
http://www.cfe-eutax.org/FRAMES_TOTAL/total_fiscal_issues.html.
10
THE DECISIONAL FRAME REGARDING THE DRAFTING OF POLICIES AT
THE LOCAL LEVEL
Professor Marin Burtica, Ph.D.
Lecturer Rada-Florina Hahn
Lecturer Simona Sabou
Territorial development must be understood as a process which refers to the economic and
social segment, in a certain territory, with the aim of raising the quality of life. This can be realized
only based on economic growth, by valorizing the resources and the role of the actors of the territorial
economic and social development.
The actions which should be in the territorial development programs in Romania, like in the
majority of the EU countries, refer especially to the control of localization (focalizing on locating the
less busy areas), to distributing economic activities and the level of the “map” for these activities, to
financial facilities provided for different types of enterprises within the state, to building the needed
infrastructure, as well as to point out the
important changes in the territorial policies.
The concern regarding the development of economic activities is materialized through the
assistance provided for the development of business in the problematic areas.1
Another instrument widely used in the EU countries and worth to be considered for the case of
Romania as well regarding the application of territorial policies is that of financial facilities provided
for the problematic regions, in order to stimulate productive investments. These facilities can consists
of loans, subsidies for investments or for the interests of loans taken for investments, tax reductions or
exemptions, facilities in order to recover the capital, subsidies for using and hiring labour force etc. The
choice for a certain facility (meaning the decision) will be made according to some criteria, from which
we can mention:
The sector where the project will be applied
The location of the project
The type of the project
The size and the viability of the project
The financial situation of the applicant
The need for assistance
The social and economic impact of the project
Experience shows that the most important tool in territorial policies is “the Fund for Regional
Development”, created on the co-financing principle. The funds come from:
The central budget
The local budget of municipalities and communes from different regions
The private sector
Different international financing agencies.
We think that these aspects are important in elaborating policies at the local and central level,
fact which is shown below.
The local development policies can be classified in:
a) policies initiated at the central level
b) policies which support the development of private enterprises
c) policies initiated at the local level
1
Matei Lucica, - Strategies for local economic development. Managerial approach. Politeia Publishing House – SNSPA,
Bucharest, 2004, p 42
1
The local development policies initiated at central level was common practice for various countries, in
a stable economic climate, consequent to WW II, and implies central redistribution of resources.
However, this did not lead to satisfying results for a long time, due to their limits, which would be:
- the sectorial distribution of the resources lead to the fragmentation of the results
- the turbulent economic climate from the 70’s, which transformed the activity of supporting the
local and individual entrepreneurship and innovation into an activity to stop tem. Thus, the market
became rigid, including the labour force market
- the regions with difficulties, characterized by classical technologic and organization structures,
which cannot develop by central policies of resource allocation, as they are not suited for the
regional problems
The policy that advocated for the development of the private enterprises was successful at the end of
the 70’s and the beginning of the 80’s and it is based on the way the market mechanisms work, being
an alternative for the first type of policy. The local development seen through this policy allows the
entrepreneur to be positioned in the economic, social, political, regional and local environments where
markets are discovered and innovation is introduced. The investor takes the risk and adjusts easily to
the circumstances.
The third type – the development policy at the local level, is used by the economies that are weak from
the structural point of view, with no results form trying the two aforementioned policies. In this case,
the role of the local communities in stimulating the local development initiatives is obvious, as well as
in attracting their exogenous resources.
The policies for local economic development are an element of dynamics of the new urban policies2.
After 1990 one could notice the evolution of the urban policies, under the impact of the importance
given to the social and urban aspect and under the impact of the urban economic development.
The local development policies that have as main purpose to provide support for the enterprises at the
local level are also in a direct relation with the industrial policies. Thus, the local development, seen as
a result of the local level strategies, is neither incompatible, nor opposed to the traditional industrial
policies. Moreover, it must be an addition for them in supporting small and medium enterprises to
create new enterprises.
On the other hand, the local development which is based on the coherence of a micro-society, on the
solidity of the persons who are part of the community, has numerous common points with the social
policies, regarding the help given to the development of commerce and services in the rural areas, the
creation of new jobs close to the rural areas and in realizing stable economical and social activities.
The local development is closely liked to the intervention of local communities, which involves public
funding.
It is rather difficult to create a unique pattern of local development. Within this pattern, the local level
policy can change the things that already exist. Still depending on a relatively limited freedom to act,
the local agents have the intervention means and the means to adjust to the changes that take place in
the economic and social environment as long as they do not consider themselves powerless in facing
unavoidable obstacles which appear and as long as they use different strategies in order to adjust to
changes.
The local development in the Western Europe countries, in its basic conception, was based on strong
ties between the enterprises situated on the territory of the same community. Should these relations not
appear spontaneously, the local authorities were able to take action in order to facilitate them, but the
role of each agent of local development was never established definitely, because these public
interventions are necessary only if the enterprises do not develop their relations spontaneously.
But the intervention of local communities could not develop, in the true sense of the word, unless they
started with decentralizing. The process of decentralization had to comply by EU limitations. Thus, the
role of each local community was defined slowly, using experience in practice.
2
Porfiroiu Alina, Racoviceanu, S., Taralunga, N. Local Economic Development, Editura Economica, Bucharest, 1998, p.8
2
Local development was modified accordingly influenced by the emergence of experts in the field, as
well as the creation of specific structures. The strategies for development for local communities require
more and more expertise and specialists. Thus, new jobs were created, such as responsible for
economic departments and communication, specific for the future ‘’managers” for the territory.
These evolutions, coupled with the gap between the purely theoretical role of some agents and their
effective interventions led to the necessity of defining the roles for agents and their intervention
activities, such as enterprises, local communities, Chambers of Commerce and Industry, the state, the
EU. Thus:
Enterprises can be involved in reconverting labor, activating within the Chambers of Commerce
and Industry and Unions of Employers; it being vital to create and develop enterprises especially in
areas with a network of small enterprises2;
Local communities small or strong communities, or the intermediate range for counties or
departments being engaged ion local development
The same is valid for municipalities and particularly urban conglomerates who filter economic
activities.
Chambers of Commerce and Industry occupy a fairly important part in local economic
development, their action being important and very close to that of local communities, with whom
they have to cooperate although they are independent of government power; their action can take
various forms:
- by legal decision of constituency they are defined as public organizations, with legal
personality and financial autonomy; they are responsible for representing the interests of
commerce and industry; they have a broad range of action, regarding more or less local
intervention;
- they have a representative role and a cumulative role, providing the government with notice
and information regarding commerce and industry issues
- they favor social and economic development of their assigned region
- contribute actively to the training of professionals at all levels
The EU frame by which the EU has the obligation to solve a series of issues regarding the
diversity of local revenues and an eventual harmonization of these.
Article 92 of the Rome Treaty, the foundation of European competition, underlines that, except
derogations from the Treaty, are incompatible with the Common European Market, inasmuch as they
affect member states, support schemes granted by the states or by resources available at state level, in
any form they may take, if they jeopardize or change the nature of competition, favoring certain
enterprises and/or products. The terms of the article leave no doubt about economic intervention of
local communities, assimilated to state granted support.
Local support, often of little importance, do not interfere with the conditions of competition at
European level, and are not to be scrutinized as objections. The juxtaposition of various authorities and
control mechanisms raise the issue of compatibility between local norms and EU norms, but also that
of control over support. If EU norms are not respected, member states are responsible for the behavior
of local communities.
The issue of harmonizing revenue regulations is raised only for member states. Differences in revenues
between countries are explained by varying rates of taxation, as well as various definitions for local
fiscal structures and taxation bases.
If one was to examine the role of various partners in local development, it could be proven that they
are defined in rapport with each other. But local development presupposed the existence of cooperation
agreements between agents, which are more difficult to establish.
Local policies of the state. Generally speaking, the state is interested in the issue of local development
only from the perspective of regional policies. In Western European countries, acknowledging and
2
Porfiroiu Alina, Racoviceanu, S., Taralunga, N. – op.cit., p 30-31
3
emphasizing the role of local communities regarding enterprises, alongside decentralization did not
lead to a complete withdrawal of the state. However, the effective role the state may and does ascertain
remains an open issue.
Communities do not, as of yet, possess enough financial means to engage in activities regarding local
development and the state has to assume the role to openly support local initiatives, to create a proper
environment where communities can adapt and, moreover, to favor information activities regarding
local initiatives3.
We consider that the principles of management within local development as well, are:
- the principle of increased efficiency
- the principle of economic management
- the principle of responsibility
- the principle of professional competency and motivation
- the principle of flexibility
Naturally, the order of these principles is not necessarily the best, there being different opinions. Our
opinion was expressed based on the above principles and it is summarized in figure 1, below.
SCIENCE
MANAGEMENT
ART
•
•
•
Organization
Adaptation
Optimization
Sytem stability
through
operationalisation
•
•
•
•
Inovation
Risk
Creativity
Development
System dynamics
through
innovation
•
•
•
Prevision
Planning
Marketing
Orientation
to
future
through
provisioning
operaţionare
•
•
•
•
Animation
Motivation
Communication
Participation
Quality of
personnel
through human
resource
management
Figure 1. Decision, component of management of teritorial development
3
Porfiroiu Alina, Racoviceanu, S., Taralunga, N. – op.cit., p. 34
4
•
•
•
•
•
Information
Decision
Strategies
Tactics
Control
System
efficiency
through self
management
An example of a dynamic model for decision taking in the management in teritorial
development is the following (figure 2):
Deciding
body
SPECIFYING
THE
PROBLEM
PREPARING
THE DECISION
DOCUMENTING
AND
PREPARING
DATELOR
DREFTING
DECISIONAL
VARIANTS
Situation
stimuli
APPROVING
VARIANTS
Decisional
process
Adopting a
decision
CHOOSING
VARIANT
APPROVING
VARIANT
DRAFTING
THE ACTION
PLAN
REACHING A
DECISION
EESTABLISHIN
G METHODS
AND WAYS
CONTROL OVER
EXECUTION AND
ASSESSMENT
Deciding
factor
Figure 2. Dynamic model for decision taking
5
Environm
ent
Considering the high level of the information flow at the base of management for territorial
development, the manager (the deciding factor) needs the capacity to identify constraints (forces)
acting in that context of the study, they being highly important for adopting a strategy for development.
The decisions being taken serve the purpose to improve a certain situation in a territory. For this end
we think important to consider the risk factors:
• The demographic situation, as:
- Explosive population growth;
- Drop in the birth rates;
- Population aging;
- relocation;
- rise of the education level of the population.
• The economic environment, by:
- Inflation pressure;
- Dropping tendency in population savings accounts.
• The natural environment, by:
- Diminishing of natural resources;
- Rise of energy costs;
- Rise in pollution;
- Intensified government intervention in human resources management.
• The technological environment, by:
- Accelerated technological growth and change;
- unlimited opportunities for innovation;
- large budgets for research and development.
• The political environment, by:
- Increased legislative regulations regarding territorial development;
- The activity of government agencies;
- An increase in the activity of groups with public interest.
•

partnership for regional development

Transcription

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