PDF: A Chronology of Gustave Courbet`s THE STONEBREAKERS
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PDF: A Chronology of Gustave Courbet`s THE STONEBREAKERS
tipped in plate 1 A supplement to the exhibition, Critical Decor:What Works! by Jeffrey Charles Henry Peacock 23 January - 2 March 2014 2 A CHRONOLOGY OF GUSTAVE COURBET’S THE STONEBREAKERS 3 4 November 1849 Spring and Summer 1850 Letter to M. and Mme. Wey [Dijon, July 31, 1850] “That worked so well, imagine, in Besançon, yes in Besançon, two hundred and fifty persons produced fifty centimes from their pockets, their own pockets, imagine that!” 2. Concert Room of Les Halles, place de l’Abondance, Besançon, Tuesday, 7 May 1850 open from 10 to 5. 1. At the Seminary Chapel at Ornans, March/April 1850, no entrance fee was charged. While awaiting the opening of the 1850 Paris Salon, which had been indefinitely delayed, Courbet organizes 3 private exhibitions of new work – including The Stonebreakers and the Funeral at Ornans. Canvas badly primed.. This is the first painting Courbet paints in the new studio his father has placed at his disposal for the painting of large canvases, in a house in Ornans. While on the way to paint a landscape at the Chateau de Saint-Denis, Courbet notices two stonebreakers working on the road near Masieres: an old man-“le pere Gagey” – and a boy. Struck by the poverty that the figures engendered, Courbet decides to paint them and arranges for them to pose for him at his studio the following day. After painting some preliminary oil sketches.. Winter 1850/1851 October 1851 Spring 1855 5 For this reason The Stonebreakers is not among the works Courbet exhibits at his ‘Pavillon du Réalisme’ which includes the two rejected canvases and 41 other paintings. The Stonebreakers entry no.2801 is among the eleven paintings by Courbet which are accepted by the jury for the combined Salon of 1855 and the Exposition Universale{The Funeral at Ornans and the Studio having been rejected.] The Stonebreakers is exhibited at the Exposition Bruxelles. Due to repeated delays in opening the Salon of 1850 it was declared that it would be a joint Salon of 1850/51. The exhibition opened on 30 December 1850, the first public was admitted on 3 January 1851. Since Courbet won a medal in the Salon of 1849 all his works are automatically accepted. 3. The exhibition in Dijon, at a rented hall in a building that housed a socialist café, is cancelled after 3 days {because of the political question, which exercised everyone’s mind.…} Letter to M. and Mme. Wey [Dijon, July 31, 1850]“As the room was costing me ten francs a day, I felt it best to pack my bags, even though I was offered the foyer of a theatre, where I should have gone in the first place…” 6 1865 1867 1869 1871 1876 1882 May 1882 The Stonebreakers is entry no. 36 at the “Exposition des oeuvres de Gustave Courbet” held at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris.” April-May 1876 “Exposition des Casseurs de Pierres.” At 70, rue de Rocheouart in Paris. According to some sources {Aragon & Fernier}, The Stonebreakers is purchased in 1871 by M. Binant, who will own the painting until 1904, when it is sold to the Dresden Museum. However, catalogues of the May 1882 and 1929 exhibitions at the École des Beaux-Arts and Petit Palais, respectively, as well as a letter Courbet wrote in 1869, suggest that the painting belonged to a M. Georges Petit. The Stonebreakers is exhibited at Munich. The Stonebreakers is among the 136 works exhibited at Courbet’s private show at the Rond du Pont de l’Alma. It is bought by Laurent Richard for 16,000 francs. One commentator writes 20,000. The Stonebreakers is one of the paintings singled out for particular attention by P.J Proudhon in his book Du principe de L’art et de sa destination sociale. 1889 1904 1929 1935 1944 1945. 7 All traces of the painting are lost. It is stated in the literature that the painting was destroyed when a truck carrying 154 paintings from one depot to another, was caught in the bombing of Dresden on the night of 13/14 February 1945. However the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden report that it was not part of that transport, and is now considered missing, not destroyed. 1944 As the Russian army advances from the east, art-work from the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden are secured in 45 depots in the vicinity. The Stonebreakers is moved to the Wachau Castle. December 1935 March 1936 The Stonebreakers is entry no. 21 in the Courbet exhibition at the Zurich Kunsthalle. May – June 1929 The Stonebreakers is entry no. 36 at the “Exposition Gustave Courbet” at the Petit Palais, Paris. 20 April 1904 At the sale of the Binant collection, The Stonebreakers is purchased for the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen at Dresden for the sum of 50,000 francs by Herr Woldemar von Seidlitz 1889 At the Exposition Universalle Paris, The Stonebreakers is entry no. 201 of the paintings and sculpture in the Palais des Beaux-Arts. 8 13/14 February 1945 The first of the British aircraft took off at around 17:20 hours CET for the 700-mile (1,100 km) journey. This was a group of Lancasters from Bomber Command’s No._83_Squadron, No.5 Group, acting as Pathfinders, or flare force, whose job it was to find Dresden and drop magnesium parachute flares, known to the Germans as “Christmas trees”, to light up the area for the bombers. The next set of aircraft to leave England were the twin-engined Mosquito marker planes who would identify the target areas and drop [1,000-pound target indicators (TIs) which gave off a red glow for the bombers to aim at ] The attack was to be centred on the Ostragehege sports stadium, next to the city’s medieval Altstadt (old town), with its congested, and highly combustible, timbered buildings. The main bomber force, called “Plate Rack”, took off shortly after the Pathfinders. This was a group of 254 Lancasters carrying 500 tons of high explosives and 375 tons of incendiaries, or fire bombs. There were 200,000 incendiaries in all, with the high-explosive bombs ranging in weight from 500 pounds to 4,000 pounds — the so-called two-ton “cookies”, also known as “blockbusters,” because they had the power to destroy a city block. The high explosives were intended to rupture water mains, and blow off roofs, doors, and windows, creating an air flow that would feed the fires caused by the incendiaries that followed. The Lancasters crossed into French airspace near the Somme, then into Germany just north of Cologne. At 22:00 hours, the force heading for Böhlen split away from Plate Rack, which turned south east toward the Elbe. By this time, ten of the Lancasters were out of service, leaving 244 to continue to Dresden. 9 The sirens started sounding in Dresden at 21:51 (CET). Wing Commander Maurice Smith, flying in a Mosquito, gave the order to the Lancasters: “Controller to Plate Rack Force: Come in and bomb glow of red target indicators as planned. Bomb the glow of red TIs as planned.”. The first bombs were released at 22:14, the Lancasters flying in low at 8,000 feet (2,400 m), with all but one Lancaster’s bombs released within two minutes, and the last one releasing at 22:22. The fan-shaped area that was bombed was 1.25 miles (2.01 km) long, and at its extreme about 1.75 miles (2.82 km) wide. The shape and total devastation of the area was created by the bombers of No. 5 Group flying over the head of the fan Ostragehege stadium) on prearranged compass bearings and releasing their bombs at different prearranged times. The second attack, three hours later, was by Lancaster aircraft of 1,3,6 and 8 Groups, 8 Group being the Pathfinders. By now, the thousands of fires from the burning city could be seen more than 60 miles (97 km) away on the ground, and 500 miles (800 km) away in the air, with smoke rising to 15,000 feet (4,600 m). The Pathfinders therefore decided to expand the target, dropping flares on either side of the firestorm, including the Hauptbahnhof, the main train station, and the Großer Garten, a large park, both of which had escaped damage during the first raid. The German sirens sounded again at 01:05, but as there was practically no electricity, these were small hand-held sirens that were heard within only a block. Between 01:21 and 01:45, 529 Lancasters dropped more than 1,800 tons of bombs. CARTOONS OF THE STONEBREAKERS Cham [Amédée-Charles-Henry, Comte de Noé], (1818–1879) A man of the world forced to dress as a peasant to have his portrait painted by M.Courbet Un homme du monde obligé de s’habiller en paysan pour faire peindre son portrait par M.Courbet Revue Comique du Salon de 1851 10 11 Cham [Amédée-Charles-Henry, Comte de Noé], (1818–1879) M.Courbet ayant observé que les peintres ses confrères avaient eu jusqu’alors la coutume de mettre les jambes dans les culottes qu’ils avaient à peindre, a cru devoir s’affranchir de cette routine. - Un pareil trait de génie est au-dessus de tout éloge. M.Courbet having observed that his fellow painters had customarily put legs in the trousers they had to paint, felt obliged to get rid of this routine. - a stroke of genius above all praise. Le Charivari 1851 12 13 Cham [Amédée-Charles-Henry, Comte de Noé], (1818–1879) Les Casseurs de pierres, remarquable toile... de pantalons. The Stonebreakers, Remarkable Canvas...of Trousers Revue Comique du Salon de 1851 14 15 Cham [Amédée-Charles-Henry, Comte de Noé], (1818–1879) -Pourquoi donc, papa, qu’on appelle ça de la peintre socialiste? -Parbleu! parce qu’au lieu d’être de la peintre riche, c’est de la pauvre peinture!... Why do they call this painting socialistic, Dad? Parbleu! Because instead of being painting for the rich,it’s poor painting! Le Charivari 1851 16 17 Cham [Amédée-Charles-Henry, Comte de Noé], (1818–1879) Democritisation de l’art The Democritisation of Art L’illustration, 21 July 1855 18 19 Cham [Amédée-Charles-Henry, Comte de Noé], (1818–1879) M. Courbet ayant fait école, on ne trouvera en 1852, en fait de peintures, rien que des tableaux représentent des paysans. With M.Courbet founding a School.. Le Charivari, 7 April 1851 20 21 Cham [Amédée-Charles-Henry, Comte de Noé], (1818–1879) Récompense désernée a M. Courbet par le jury de peintre. Courbet’s prize, awarded by the painting jury. Le Charivari 4 May 1851 22 23 Léonce Schérer (1827 -1876) L’homme qui était un jour appelé à démolir la Colonne devait commencer par être casseur de pierres. The man who one day would be called upon to topple the Vendome Column began as a Stonebreaker. 24 25 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE STONEBREAKERS 26 That’s It! Two stonebreakers of the department of Doubs. That’s it! It is a subject with very little appeal. To render it even more unpleasant the artist has suppressed the two heads of the poor laborers, that is to say, the only things capable of preserving the interest of such an empty subject. The standing worker turns his back to us and we see only his nape; the other who kneels has his head hidden under his straw hat. What happens to the principal objects of a painting if they are not treated with the importance that is evidently accorded them, positioned with their relative legitimate value, expressive of a certain truth, and rendered with a vivacity suitable to display the artist’s talent for material execution? Instead of that wan and ambiguous glimmer of light spread throughout the scene, shouldn’t we feel the full effect of sunlight that the painter meant to put there, indicated by the cast shadows that, however, do not sufficiently achieve the aim of making it shine? A.J. Dupays (?-?), “Salon de 1850,” L’Illustration 31 January - 7 February 1851 27 June 7, 1850 28 The Alpha And The Omega, The Sunrise And The Sunset Of That Life Of Drudgery An advertisement for the exhibition of the Stonebreakers in Dijon. Max Buchon (1818 -1869), The painting of the Stonebreakers represents two life-size figures, a child and an old man, the alpha and the omega, the sunrise and the sunset of that life of drudgery. A poor young lad, between twelve and fifteen years old, his head shaven, scurvy, and stupid in the way misery too often shapes the heads of the children of the poor; a lad of fifteen years old lifts with great effort an enormous basket of stones, ready to be measured or to be interspersed in the road. A ragged shirt; trousers held in place by a brace made of a rope, patched on the knees, torn at the bottom, and tattered all over; lamentable, down-at-heel shoes, turned red by too much wear, like the shoes of that poor worker you know: That sums up the child. To the right is the poor stonebreaker in old sabots fixed up with leather, with an old straw hat, worn by the weather, the rain, the sun, and the dirt. His shaking knees are resting on a straw mat, and he is lifting a stonebreaker’s hammer with all the automatic precision that comes with long practice, but at the same time with all the weakened force that comes with old age. In spite of so much misery, his face has remained calm, sympathetic, and resigned. Does not he, the poor old man, have, in his waistcoat pocket, his old tobacco box of horn bound with copper, out of which he offers, at will, a friendship pinch to those who come and go and whose paths cross on his domain, the road? The soup pot is nearby, with the spoon, the basket, and the crust of black bread. And that man is always there, lifting his obedient hammer, always, from New Year’s Day to St Sylvester’s; always he is paving the road for mankind passing by, so as to earn enough to stay alive. Yet this man, who in no way is the product of the artist’s imagination, this man of flesh and bones who is really living in Ornans, just as you see him there, this man, with his years, with his hard labour, with his misery, with his softened features of old age, this man is not yet the last word in human distress. just think what would happen if he would take it into his head to side with the Reds: He could be resented, accused, exiled, and dismissed. Ask the prefect. From this scene, which, in spite of its fascination, is merely imperturbably sincere and faithful [to reality], from this scene, in front of which one feels so far removed from whimpering tendencies and from all melodramatic tricks, let us turn to Mr Courbet’s principal work of this year, A Burial at Ornans... Max Buchon: An Introduction to the Stonebreakers and the Funeral at Ornans “Annonce” Le Peuple, Journal de la Révolution Sociale 18 [ June 7, 1850 ] Written as an advertisement for the exhibition of the Stonebreakers in Dijon in July 1850. The text is a revised version of an article that Buchon had published earlier in Le Démocrate Franc-Comtois of April 25, 1850 to publicize the exhibition of the same work in Besançon. 29 1. 30 Would You Like Me To Give You A Description? Gustave Courbet in a letter to Francis Wey (1812 - 1882) November 26, 1849 in five translations. As I had taken our carriage and was driving on the way to the Chateau at Saint-Denis to paint a landscape. Near Maisieres, I stopped to consider two men breaking stones on the highway.It’s rare to meet the most complete expression of poverty, so an idea for a picture came to me on the spot.I made an appointment with them at my studio for the next day, and since then I’ve been working on the picture. It’s of the same size as Evening at Ornans. Would you like me to give you a description? On the one side is an old man, seventy, bent over his task, sledge-hammer in air, he is tanned by the sun, his head shaded by a straw hat. His trousers of poor material are all patched up, in the cracked sabots torn stockings, once blue, show his bare heels. On the other side is a young fellow with dusty head and swarthy skin, his back and arms show through the holes in his filthy tattered shirt, one leather brace holds up the remenants of his trousers, and his leather boots, caked with mud, gape dismally in many places. The old man is kneeling, the young one stands behind him, holding a basket of broken rock. Alas, in labour such as his, one’s life begins that way it ends the same way. Here and there is scattered their gear, a basket, a stretcher, a hoe, a country boiler, &c. All this happens in the blazing sun, in the open countryside, at the edge of a highway ditch, the landscape fills the canvas. Yes, M. Peisse, it’s necessary to encanailler art. For long the painters, my contemporaries, have produced art from an idea and cartoons. I had taken our carriage to go to the castle of St. Denis to paint a landscape. Near Maizieres I stopped to contemplate two men who were breaking stones on the road. It is not often that one encounters the most complete image of poverty, and so, right then and there, I got the idea for a painting. I told them to come to my studio the next morning and between then and now I have painted my picture. It is the same size as Evening at Ornans. Shall I describe it to you? [Lucky the man who has passed his rhetoric course! Indeed, but though I went to class, I still cannot spell.] On one side is an old man of seventy, bent over his work, his sledgehammer raised; his skin burned by the sun, his face shaded by a straw hat. His pants, of a coarse material, are patched everywhere, and inside his cracked clogs his heels show through socks that were once blue. On the other side is a young man, with dusty hair and a swarthy complexion. His filthy and tattered shirt reveals his sides and arms. A leather suspender holds up what is left of his trousers, and his muddy leather shoes show gaping holes on every side. The old man is kneeling, the young man is standing behind him energetically carrying a basket of broken stones. Alas, in that [social] class that is how one begins and that is how one ends up! Scattered here and there is their gear: a hod, a hand barrow, a hoe, a farmer’s cooking pot, &c. All of this takes place in bright sunshine, in the middle of the countryside beside a ditch next to a road. The landscape fills the canvas. Yes, M. Peisse, we must drag art down from its pedestal. For too long you have been making art that is pomaded and “in good taste.” For too long painters, even my contemporaries, have based their art on ideas and stereotypes. 2. 31 3. 32 I’d taken our carriage and was on my way to the Chateau de Saint-Denis to do a landscape. Near Maisieres I stopped to watch some men breaking stones by the roadside. It’s rare to stumble on such an expression of utter poverty. And at once a picture came to me. I arranged them to come to my studio the next day and the picture is already done… You can see an old man of seventy, bent over his work, his sledgehammer raised, his skin tanned by the sun, his head protected by a straw hat. His coarse trousers are patched everywhere and in his cracked clogs his heels show through the holes in his blue socks. And you see too a young man with brownish skin, his hair full of dust and his filthy ragged shirt leaving his arms and ribs exposed. A leather strap holds up the remains of his trousers and his muddy leather shoes are gaping open everywhere. The old man is kneeling, the young man is standing behind him, energetically carrying a basket of stones. Alas, when that’s your situation in life, that’s how you begin and that’s how you finish. All this is happening in the blazing sun in open countryside, by a roadside ditch. The landscape fills the canvas. Yes, Mr Peisse, art needs roughing up. For too long now you’ve been making nice art, perfumed art. For too long painters, my contemporaries, have been making art from ideas and from over-meticulous preliminary sketches. I had taken our carriage and was going to the Chateau of Saint Denis, near Maisieres to paint a landscape. I stopped to look at two men breaking stones on the road. It’s very unusual to come across such a total expression of misery and destitution. The idea of a picture came to me at once. I asked them if they would come to my studio on the next day, and since then I’ve been working on my picture. Would you like me to describe it to you? On one side is an old man of seventy, bent over his work, his hammer in the air, his skin tanned by the sun, his head covered by a straw hat. His trousers of coarse material are all patched, inside his cracked wooden shoes are faded blue socks through the holes of which his heels show. On the other side is a young man with a dusty head and a grey-brown complexion, through his filthy tattered shirt you can see his back and arms, one leather brace holds up the remains of a pair of trousers and his leather boots, mud covered, gape sadly in many places. The old man is on his knees, the young man behind him standing, carrying with vigour a basket of broken stones. Alas, in these jobs this is how you begin and how you end… All around is scattered their gear - a basket, a barrow, a pickaxe, &c. Everything takes place in full sunlight, out in the country, by the side of a ditch in the road… 4. 33 5. 34 There is an old man of seventy, bent over his work, pick in the air, skin burnt by the sun, his head in the shade of a straw hat; his trousers of rough cloth are patched all over; he wears, inside cracked wooden clogs, stockings which were once blue, with the heels showing through. Here’s a young man with his head covered in dust, his skin greyish-brown; his disgusting shirt, all in rags, exposes his arms and his flanks; leather braces hold up what is left of a pair of trousers, and his muddy leather shoes are gaping sadly in many places. The old man is on his knees, the young man is behind him, standing up, carrying a basket of stones with great energy. Alas, in this occupation you begin like the one and end like the other! Their tools are scattered here and there: a backbasket, a hand barrow, a ditching tool, a cooking pot, &c. All this is set in the bright sun, in the open country, by a ditch at the side of the road; the landscape fills the whole canvas. Here is an old man of seventy, bending over his work, with his hammer raised, his body burned by the sun, his face shaded with a wide straw hat; his coarse stuff breeches are all patched; and his heels are showing through his stockings, which once were white, in his broken old wooden shoes; near him is a young man with his hair thick with dust and his skin burned brown; his filthy ragged shirt shows his sides and his arms; a leather belt supports what is left of his trousers, and his muddy leather shoes are full of gaping holes. The old man is kneeling; the young man is standing behind him, holding a basket of broken stones. Alas! In such low life this is the beginning and the end! Rarely can one find so complete an expression of poverty and wretchedness. stretcher[brancard], a hoe [fossou], a rustic pot in which they carry their midday soup, and a piece of black bread in a scrip. All this takes place in full sunlight, by a ditch alongside a road. The figures are seen against the green background of a great mountain that fills the canvas across which move the shadows of clouds. Only in the right-hand corner, where the mountain slopes, can one see a bit of blue sky. I made none of it up, dear friend. I saw these people every day on my walk. Besides, in that station one ends up the same way as one begins. Courbet in a letter to Champfleury (Jules Francois Felix FleuryHusson, 1820- 1889) Feb-March 1850 I made none of it up, dear friend. So much for the hunt, let’s talk about paintings. I have already done more painting since I left you than you could shake a stick at. First, there is the painting of the Stonebreakers, which is composed of two very pitiable figures: one is an old man, an old machine grown stiff with service and age. His sunburned head is covered with a straw hat blackened by dust and rain. His arms, which look sprung, are dressed in a coarse linen shirt. In his red-striped waist-coat you can see a tobacco box made of horn with copper edges. At the knee, resting on a straw mat, his drugget pants, which could stand by themselves, show a large patch; through his worn blue socks one sees his heels in a cracked wooden clogs. The one behind him is a young man about fifteen years old, suffering from scurvy. Some dirty linen tatters are his shirt, exposing his arms and his sides. His trousers are held up by a leather strap, and on his feet he has his father’s old shoes, which have long since developed gaping holes on all sides. Here and there the tools of their work are scattered on the ground: a dosser [this needs some explanation why a translator would fancy using this description of une hotte..] , a 35 36 Close Your Eyes Now... You Are Deceived; Look... Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809- 1865) Du Principe de l’art et de sa destination sociale (Paris : Garnier Freres, 1865) The Stone Breakers is an irony addressed to our industrial civilization, which daily invents fantastic machines for plowing, sowing, mowing, harvesting, threshing, grinding, kneading, spinning, weaving, cutting, printing, and manufacturing nails, paper, pins, and cards; executing all kinds of work, often very complicated and delicate, and that is incapable of freeing man from the work that is the most rough, difficult, the most repugnant, an eternal cause of misery… The kneeling old man, bent over his rude task, who breaks stones on the side of the road with a long-handled hammer, certainly deserves your sympathy. His immobile body conveys a melancholy that goes straight to the heart. His stiff arms rise and fall with the regularity of a lever. Here indeed is the mechanical or mechanized man in the desolation caused by our splendid civilization and incomparable industry. Nevertheless, this man has seen his best days, since he is true to life; if the present is for him without illusions, without hope, he owed less to hold together his memories, his regrets, and it is not a small matter to have to remember something; while the unfortunate boy who carries the stones will never know the joys of life; chained to a life of drudgery from an early age, he has already torn himself up; his shoulder bent, his heavy gait, his baggy trousers; uncaring misery has made him lose interest in himself and the quickness of his eighteen years. Crushed in puberty, he does not live. Thus modern servitude devours generations in their formative years: There’s the proletariat for you. And we speak of freedom, of human dignity! We cry out against the slavery of blacks, whose treatment as beasts of burden at least guarantees protection against this excess of poverty. Pray to God that our proletariat be granted a material existence as good as blacks. Without a doubt, it would not be completely fair to judge this great nation of ten million sovereign voters by this sad example; but does that make it any less true that this is one of the shameful aspects of our society, and that there is not one of us, city dweller or peasant, worker or proprietor, who may not one day, by an accident of fortune, see himself reduced to this? The condition of the stone breakers is the same for more than six million souls in France; and you boast of your industry, your philanthropy, and your politics!” Courbet chose the naked main road, with its emptiness and its monotony: and in this he is right. The lonely road has a very different poetry to that contrasted in an affected opulence and misery. It is inhabited by undistracted work, without the celebration of poverty. Farmers, who had the opportunity to see the Courbet’s painting, wanted it placed, guess where? On the altar of their church. The Stone Breakers is worthy of a parable of the Gospel; it is a moral in action. 37 Let Me Begin with Descriptions... T.J Clark (1943- ) The Image of the People 38 Let me begin with descriptions. The Stonebreakers was painted first, in November; it was taken from life, two labourers from Maisières seen on the road and invited back to Courbet’s studio. It is, as Courbet stressed to Wey and Champfleury, a particular scene and also an image of a general condition. ‘It is rare’, he told Wey, ‘to encounter the most complete expression of wretchedness, so all at once a picture came to me.’ The same picture had come to many painters before him, and the task itself - breaking stones to surface the tracks and roads of the district - was almost as old as the rural community. The year before, in the Salon of 1849, Adolphe Leleux had painted a picture of ‘Aragonese road-men sleeping beside the road they are repairing’. It was not, in other words, a new subject, or a modern one - and it did not need to be. It is, like the paintings of the previous year, a simple image. But the more we look at it, the more that simplicity seems deceptive. There are two figures set against the dark green of a hillside, and their physical presence has been set down with the utmost care. Look at the leather strap across the young boy’s back and shoulder, and the puckered cloth of his shirt where the strap is pulled tight by his effort: the way these details register the substance of the body beneath them. Or the same effect, produced as the old man’s waistcoat rides up his back; or the thick, resistant folds of his trousers at knee and thigh. This is painting whose subject is the material weight of things, the pressure of a bending back or the quarter-inch thickness of coarse cloth. Not the back’s posture or the forms of cloth in movement, but the back itself and the cloth in its own right. Pressure, thickness, gravity: these are the words which come to mind, and which describe the Stonebreakers best. (The one satisfactory comparison - though it only goes to show Courbet’s originality - is with the painting of physical substance in Rembrandt’s last pictures. I am thinking of the father’s hands on the shoulders of the Prodigal Son, or the hands and sleeve in the Bridal Couple.) But the Stonebreakers is also a picture of action: not of physical presence merely, but of physical labour (the kind we call, with a cynical euphemism, ‘manual’). And this is where the painting stops being simple. In his letters Courbet talked of the boy ‘carrying his basket of broken stones with energy’, of the old man ‘bent overhis task, pick in air’. But the image he gave us is rather different from what this implies. It is an image of balked and frozen movement rather than simple exertion: poses which are active and yet constricted; effort which is somehow insubstantial in this world of substances. What Courbet painted was assertion turned away from the spectator, not moving towards him: it is this simple contradiction which animates the picture as a whole. Courbet swivelled the boy and his basket of stones into the picture; he drew the old man with averted gaze and a kind of hieratic (but also senile) stiffness. The force of their actions is implied in the pose, but also half concealed by it. Where, to put it another way, will the momentum of the stonebreakers’ actions carry them? Is the boy checked in his stride, the pannier balanced for a moment on his knee? Or is he striding vigorously back into the picture space? The clothes the men wear - for all their dense substance - actually prevent us from answering these questions. In the Stonebreakers the drapery (the very word seems out of place) articulates the figures’ presence but not their particular configuration in space, andleast of all does it indicate their movement. The man and the boy have no anatomy in the old sense; no point where the arm ends and the shoulder begins, no sharp and artificial distinctions between waist, torso, and pelvis. The clothes they wear mask or confuse these transitions: the holes torn in the boy’s shirt reveal flesh but not muscle, the trousers disguise his buttocks and hips, even the old man’s shoe seems a form quite separate from the foot inside it. (Which is true, of course, of clogs, or trousers made from cheap wool, or the physiognomy of rags.) Clearly enough, Courbet wanted to show an image of labour gone to waste, and men turned stiff and wooden by routine. In both his explanatory letters at the time he stated the scene’s simple moral: ‘in this occupation, you begin like the one and end like the other [dans cet état, c’est ainsi qu’on commence, e’est ainsi qu’on finit].’ Compare Yeats’s two-line poem Parnell: Fall of Icarus, watching nothing but the furrow turn; or to the two stonebreakers on the road to Maisières. At Maisières men are things, and the things ugly and monotonous. The Stonebreakers was (and is, in its prewar photograph) a grim picture, a picture that called for an antithèse psychologique, a counterweight, as Buchon put it in 1850. Parnell came down the road, he said to a cheering man: Ireland shall get her freedom and you still break stone! But the achievement here is that Courbet gets the moral down in paint, and does not lean on anecdote or pathos: he dissipates the weight his brushstrokes register, he turns the painting against itself. He concentrates on the task in hand: the action of labour, not the feelings of the individuals who perform it. And that is a rare achievement. There are pictures in plenty of worship, anguish, celebration, states of mind; but, for many reasons, there are few images of work. It is too obvious and too obdurate for form: painters avoid it. And when they paint it, they choose the dramatic action or the interlude, the sower’s outflung arm, harvesters resting, Arachne at her loom. If we look for work alone, in its own right, in detail, we have to go to Courbet or to Bruegel: to the ploughman on the cliff in Bruegel’s 39 In these conditions, the listless and sick ground spreads feverish miasmas; Francis Wey (1812 1882) Biez de Serine: Roman rustique. Feuilleton du National 1850 40 At midday especially, during these days of torpor between harvest time and grape harvest, nature appears dead. Crushed by the repeated strokes of the sun, it succumbs to the pain, it ceases to move, to breathe, it turns off its noises and its songs; and the earth inflamed from the day hangs over a world plunged into the silence of night. In these conditions, the listless and sick ground spreads feverish miasmas; the birds are silent, the breathless herds avoid the pastures; finally, man, bending his shoulders under the weight of the day, lowers to the bronze ground his eyes which are being devoured by floods of light, and in the unstocked fields he sadly wipes his brow bathed in sweat. Then, country-dwellers seek the shadows and ask for a little sleep in the absent breeze. Among the poor hardworking people it is only the most unfortunate, the most needy, those that use their arms, the poorest, that work during the hours of the most ruthless heat. This was the fate of two road menders who broke stones at noon, on a main road lined with those ribbons of grey rocks, which are so frequent in the foothills of the Jura plateau. One, bent by the burden of his age, was a very thin old man, crouched on a pile of stones, lifting his sledgehammer with two hands and bringing it down in turn on the pieces that he breaks up: he accompanied each blow with a dry and short groan. His flesh was suntanned and sweaty; his physiognomy gloomy; the ruins of a stitched straw hat protected his brow; his trousers of rough fabric were all patched; his socks, which had been blue, exposed his heels, badly kept by his cracked clogs. The other young man, with blue eyes, a flushed face with dust in his hair. His disgusting tattered shirt showed his chest, his complexion, his sides, his bony arms and black. A leather strap was holding the remains of his trousers, and shoes the color of mud laughed sadly many ways. Standing behind his companion, the young man has vigorously against his belly, a basket of broken stones:. . More stupid, the old, tireless and regular like a machine, works on his knees, alas! in this business there “s and the” we begin, c “and that” it ends. . “. “God! long before we seek to meet a more striking poverty, more sad emblem of the “misfortune.” “Therefore, my boy, you can neither sleep at noon, nor stand for more than five minutes, or eat your fill. While if the company does not pass through the prefecture, which seeks, above all, a rich to cover the liability of directors, we would bid directly to better account for the operator, the state would an economy; you would earn five francs instead of winning one and a quarter, and I would earn three francs instead of earning fifteen cents. “