Material Snapshot TENCEL
Transcription
Material Snapshot TENCEL
Material Snapshot TENCEL ® Material Scenario Undyed woven TENCEL®1 textile. TENCEL® is a regenerated cellulose fiber (similar to rayon2) produced from dissolving wood pulp with an organic solvent using an air gap (also called dry-wet) spinning process. The generic name for this fiber type is Lyocell. Its development in the 1980s was partially motivated by concern over environmental impacts associated with rayon (Kadolph, 2007, p. 137). TENCEL® is the branded version produced by Lenzing from plantation eucalyptus and other trees. Unit processes begin with cultivation of trees which are processed into chips and pulped. This pulp is dissolved and spun, washed, and dried. It is then drawn and woven or knit. Data is on global production, with specific data on TENCEL® used where available. Common Uses In Apparel And Footwear TENCEL® may be used for knits, shirting, active wear, denim and other apparel applications (Lenzing, n.d.(a)). Its properties are similar to that of cotton and it is valued for softness and breathability (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). TENCEL® is often blended with cotton, wool, polyester, and other fibers. Alternative Textiles That May Be Substituted For Material • Acetate • Acrylic • Cotton • Modal • Polyester • Rayon Life Cycle Description Functional Unit 1 kilogram of woven fabric System Boundary Cradle to undyed fabric. The data include all steps required to turn the raw material or initial stock into woven fabric, including energy inputs but excluding transportation. Capital equipment, space conditioning, support personnel requirements, and miscellaneous materials comprising <1% by weight of net process inputs are excluded. Geographic coverage is a mix of locations depending on the data source. 1 This Snapshot describes the life cycle of TENCEL®; generic lyocell may differ in some process aspects and in the data for unit and aggregate processes. 2 In Europe, rayon is more commonly referred to as viscose. © 2016 2 Allocation System expansion for acetic acid in pulping; economic value for pulping by-products xylose, furfural, and thick liquor (lignosulfonate) (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 13). A combination approach is used for waste heat for incineration. A mass approach is used for sodium hydroxide production from electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride. Unit Process Descriptions Material Sourcing The basic raw material of TENCEL® is wood, typically from relatively fast growing species such as eucalyptus (Fletcher, 2008, p. 30), pine, and beech (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 6). In the case of TENCEL®, wood is sourced from plantations in multiple countries; some of which is certified to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards and some to Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) standards (Fletcher, 2008, p. 32; NRDC, 2012; Lenzing, 2012). Eucalyptus is commonly used due to a maturity rate of 5-15 years (Clay, 2004, p. 308). Trees are grown on cultivated plantations from seeds raised in large nurseries, often from cloning or vegetative propagation to ensure genetic similarity (Clay, 2004, p. 313). Agricultural chemicals may be used in growing nursery stock, but plantations that provide wood fiber for Lenzing’s TENCEL® fiber are managed without synthetic pesticides or fertilizers (NRDC, 2012). Once trees are mature, they may be clear cut or selectively harvested, though species such as eucalyptus will regenerate for two to three cycles after harvest without replanting (Clay, 2004, p. 313). Due to the mass of the harvest, pulping mills are often located nearby. Once harvested, the wood is mechanically debarked in field or at the mill. Bark may be used for fuel, mulch or returned to the soil. Debarked wood is fed into chipping machines and then processed in a digester usually using the acid sulfite process (bisulfite) to remove the lignin, resins, and most of the hemicellulose that binds the cellulose fiber; the kraft process (sodium sulfate and sodium hydroxide) typically does not reduce hemicellulose to desired levels (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 8; Clay, 2004, p. 316; USEPA, 1995, Chapter 10, Flickinger et al., 2011). The resulting dissolving pulp is greater than 90% cellulose (specialty grades can be as high as 96%) and can be used for textiles, cellophane, tire cords, acetate production and other applications (Sappi, 2014, p. 2). The pulp is then shipped to customers for use as an input material in the fiber production facility. Lenzing sources pulp for its TENCEL® products either from market pulp in long-term contracts with selected suppliers or from its own pulp mills in Austria and the Czech Republic (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 6; Lenzing, 2015a). Beech wood is transported via rail or truck to Lenzing’s pulping facility in Austria; spruce wood is supplied to the pulp factory in the Czech Republic. Market pulp is mainly eucalyptus sourced from the southern hemisphere which is transported to fiber production sites via transoceanic ship to fiber manufacturing in Asia and Europe (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7). TENCEL® production utilizes co-products from the wood as fuel for pulp production (Lenzing, 2010, p. 30). Annual production capacities at Lenzing’s four sites are: 65,000 tons at Heiligenkreuz, Austria, 67,000 tons at Lenzing, Austria, 50,000 tons at Mobile, AL, USA and 40,000 tons at Grimsby, UK (Lenzing, 2015b, pp. 10-11). © 2016 3 Processing Pulp Into Fiber The wood pulp is wetted out with a dilute amine oxide solvent (Kadolph, 2007, p. 137), typically NMMO (N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide), followed by evaporation of excess water to create a viscous cellulose dope for spinning (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 9; Woodings, 2001, p. 65). The dope solution is filtered to remove remaining intact pulp fiber and any inorganic compounds (sand, etc.). It is then extruded through multiple spinneret jets into an air gap where the fibers are drawn to condition the fibers and cooled by a controlled gas flow before being sent through a dilute amine oxide spin bath where the solution coagulates (regenerates) into fiber. All the fibers from the spinneret (which may number in the thousands) are gathered into a single tow and washed in water to remove the solvent; the wash water is purified, and then reused in the spin bath system to maintain liquor concentrations (Kadolph, 2007, p. 137, Woodings, 2001, pp. 68-69). An estimated 99.5% of the solvent is recovered and recycled within the process (Fletcher, 2008, p. 30). Temperatures must be carefully controlled to prevent exothermic degradation of NNMO (color changes and degradation products that include N-methyl morpholine plus other amines). Specially designed ion exchange systems and thin film evaporators are used in solvent recovery; recovered solvents contain a stabilizer such as propyl gallate to chelate copper and iron that would catalyse the degradation under elevated temperatures (Woodings, 2001, p. 72). Washed filaments receive softening and antistatic treatments and can be bleached as well. Following drying, the filaments are crimped and may then be cut into staple form for shipment to yarn mills (Woodings, 2001, pp. 69-70). In staple form, TENCEL® is spun into yarn similar to cotton to produce yarns of various properties. As filament yarn, TENCEL® is smooth and uniform and relatively little twist may be imparted to improve the lustre of the fabric (Kadolph, 2007, p. 214). Textile Construction TENCEL® fibers have a relatively high tendency to fibrillate when wet; they peel into individual hairlike fibrils. Depending on the intended use, the fibrils may be enhanced to produce a particular aesthetic in the final textile or controlled to produce a smooth surface. Lenzing offers two crosslinked fiber types (TENCEL® A 100 and TENCEL® LF) that limit fibrillation; non cross-linked fibers may be mechanically polished to reduce fibrillation through a tumbling process and a resin finish after reactive dyeing (Lenzing, 2010, p. 22). This cross-linked resin utilizes Reaktant DH, made of dimethyloldihydroxyethylene urea (Blackburn, 2006, p. 114). TENCEL® requires very little processing to prepare for weaving/knitting and finishing, as it has no contaminations and does not require bleaching (Lenzing, 2010, p. 43). Dye uptake is high, reducing inputs into the dyeing process (Taylor, 2011). Woven textiles are produced on looms that combine warp yarns with filling yarns to produce a stable fabric. The type of loom used in the weaving process determines the environmental impacts: waterjet looms have high water usage, though it is reclaimed, but the fabric must be dried before storage, increasing energy consumption (Kadolph, 2007, p. 221). Projectile looms are low energy, accounting for half as much energy as rapier looms, and a third as much as air-jet looms (Kadolph, 2007, p. 221). Knitting is done by machines that loop yarns together to create a more flexible textile. Knitting requires significantly less energy than weaving, with a 20 fold decrease in energy demand (van der Velden, 2013, p. 347). Vibration, lint, noise and energy are all lower on knitting machines than for weaving looms (Kadolph, 2007, p. 270). End-of-use TENCEL® is 100% bio-based. Biodegradability and compostability, under industrial as well as home compost conditions, are proven by standard procedures (Lenzing, 2015c). © 2016 4 Figure 1: Cross Section Of Lenzing TENCEL® Fibers Source: Lenzing, 2010, p. 16 Process Inputs3 Energy Harvesting of European beech is done entirely by machine, which requires energy to operate (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7). Ecualyptus for producing market pulp is mostly harvested by hand (80%) with the remainder harvested by machine. Machinery is estimated to require 0.3-3.6 kg diesel/ha for harvesting (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 35). Production of TENCEL® staple fiber requires an estimated 101 MJ/kg of energy use (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 19). The energy requirements for spinning of staple fiber into a yarn is highly dependent on the yarn fineness (van der Velden, 2013), and on the region where the operation takes place, due to the efficiency of the electric grids. A typical 200 dtex (Nm50) yarn requires 19.4 MJ/ kg under Western European conditions (Austria). (Appendix Table A, Terinte et al. 2014). Weaving energy is as well dependent on the fineness of the yarn and ranges between 229 MJ/kg textile for 70 dtex yarn to 53 MJ/kg textile for 300 dtex yarn (270 denier); (van der Velden, 2013, p. 350). Cradle to gate energy for a typical unfinished woven textile based on a 200 dtex yarn is estimated to be 196 MJ/kg (Appendix Table A). 3 The primary data source (Shen and Patel, 2010) uses 1 kg of staple fiber as the functional unit. Data are for TENCEL® Austria. © 2016 5 Figure 2: Cumulative Energy Demand - NREU (Non-renewable energy use) & REU (Renewable energy use) Note: Gigajoules per metric ton (GJ/t) equal megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). TENCEL®, Austria represents the current average situation of energy requirements. Water Neither European beech or spruce trees nor southern hemisphere eucalyptus trees use irrigation for cultivation (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7). However, the process of pulp wood can be a water intensive activity (NRDC, 2012, n.p). Process water in the form of softened, deionized water or tap water accounts for 20 L/kg TENCEL® staple fiber production (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 23).4 Water use is very limited in yarn spinning and weaving. Estimated water use in spinning is 0.4 L/kg yarn; weaving is 1.7 L /kg textile. Total water use from cradle to gate unfinished woven textile is estimated to be 265 L/kg, most of which is cooling water (Appendix Table B). Chemical The European beech and spruce trees used to produce TENCEL® are not fertilised and have no chemical inputs, however market pulp from eucalyptus may utilize small amounts of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7). Fertilizer use is 42 kg/ha/yr (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 35). Caustic soda (NaOH) and sulfur dioxide are used to produce pulp (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 15). NMMO (N-methyl morpholine oxide) is used as the solvent for turning wood pulp into spinning dope. Other chemicals include the use of softeners and antistatic agents. Propyl gallate is used as a stabilizer with NMMO to minimize degradation in solvent recovery. 4 Cooling water is 243 L/kg TENCEL® staple fiber, primarily for energy production (Lenzing, 2010, p. 23). © 2016 6 Physical Physical inputs for production of TENCEL® are the seeds used to cultivate and grow the eucalyptus and spruce trees (beech regenerate naturally), and chemicals used in the processing of wood pulp to fiber (Shen and Patel, 2010, pp. 6-8). Land-use Intensity Production of TENCEL® requires pulp from trees, typically grown as plantations. Land intensity for TENCEL® is estimated to be 4,167 kg TENCEL®/ha (Appendix Table C). Eucalyptus trees grow quickly in dense stands on low-grade land, requiring significantly less land per tonne than cotton (NRDC, 2012, n.p.). Tree plantations for pulp can be established on nearly any type of land, including exhausted cropland or degraded and heavily logged areas (Clay, 2004, p. 313). The trees used for TENCEL® are grown on marginal land that would not otherwise be used to produce food crops (Smith, 2008, p. 11). The plantations used for eucalyptus as well as the beech and spruce forests maintained for production of TENCEL® have been managed since before 1990 and are not considered conversion of wildlands (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7; von Carlowitz, 1713/ 2013). Beech and spruce forests in Central Europe have been managed sustainably for centuries (von Carlowitz, 1713/ 2013). Process Outputs Co-products & By-products Wood grown for processing into pulp creates a co-product of bark, which has no economic value but may be used to amend the soil or as a fuel (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 5; Clay, 2004, p. 316). Lenzing’s pulping process produces 39% pulp, 11% acetic acid, furfural and xylose, and 50% thick liquor and bio-sludge (Lenzing, 2012, p. 43). This liquor and sludge is used for recovery of pulping chemicals and combusted for energy production (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 8). The acetic acid, furfural and xylose are all co-products that have various uses; acetic acid and xylose as food ingredients and furfural as a basic chemical for synthesis (e.g. in plastics production). Market pulp processes for TENCEL® generate a smaller quantity of by-products than Lenzing pulp and do not yield xylose, furfural and acetic acid (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 8). Solid Waste The Shen and Patel (2010) LCA did not contain any explicit information on solid waste generation; no other source of solid waste LCA information was identified for regenerated cellulose fibers. Lenzing estimates that solid waste from yarn spinning and weaving is less than 5%.5 Hazardous Waste/Toxicity Furfural has evidence of carcinogenic activity and may be toxic (Irwin, 1990, p. 43). NMMO, the solvent for turning wood pulp into spinning dope, is in concentrated form (100% monohydrate) classified as a flammable solid and may intensify fire. (Huntsman, 2015, p.2). The traded form of a 50% solution in water is not classified as dangerous according to Directive 1999/45/EC and its amendments. (Huntsman, 2015, p.1). Propyl gallate is used as an antioxidant and is as such listed as a cosmetic ingredient (European Commission, 2006, p. 403). 5 Lenzing communication from K. Christian Schuster, August 20, 2015 © 2016 7 Wastewater Pulp processing mills are known to produce effluent that is highly polluting, containing low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), though most mills now treat their wastewater (Clay, 2004, p. 323). Lenzing’s pulp mills and TENCEL® production plants have reduced their wastewater effluent to very low levels (Lenzing, 2010, p. 31). Efficient dye processes for TENCEL® result in higher uptake of color and reduced unfixed dye in wastewater (Taylor, 2011). Emissions The majority of Lenzing group’s energy usage comes from non-fossil fuels, with a companywide average of 52% and a site specific sourcing of 83% non-fossil fuels, reducing their carbon emissions (Lenzing, 2015b, p. 39). Approximately 1.1 kg CO2eq/kg TENCEL® staple fiber are emitted, after subtraction of biogenic carbon embedded in the fibers (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 24). These fossil emissions are due to the burning of natural gas for process heat (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 25). Emissions caused by spinning of staple fiber into a yarn are due to electric power use and as such highly dependent on yarn fineness and the regional electric grid. A representative yarn spinning process to make a 200 dtex (Nm 50) yarn is estimated to generate 0.8 kg CO2 eq/kg (Appendix Table A). Weaving emissions are also dependent on the fineness of the yarn and range between 10.7 kg CO2 eq/kg textile for 70 dtex yarn to 2.5 kg CO2 eq/kg textile for 300 dtex yarn (270 denier); 3.5 kg CO2 eq/kg textile are emitted for a woven fabric based on 200 dtex (180 denier) yarn (van der Velden, 2013, p. 351). Cradle to gate GHG emissions for an typical unfinished woven textile (based on 200 dtex yarn) is estimated to be 5.4 kg CO2 eq/kg (Appendix Table A). Other emissions associated with TENCEL® production include VOCs and ozone depleting compounds from energy production and sulfur dioxide from pulp production and energy production (Shen and Patel, 2010, pp. 26-28). Table 1. Inputs And Outputs For 1 Kg Of TENCEL® Cradle to Gate Unfinished Woven Textile Energy (MJ) 196 Water (L) 265 Waste (kg) < 0.05 GHG emissions (kg CO2) 5.4 Note: See Appendix Tables A-C for sources and calculations Performance And Processing Functional Attributes And Performance • • • • • • • • Typically stronger than cotton Durable Very soft Very breathable Non-irritating on skin Reduced bacterial growth Strong dimensional stability Rapid and deep dyeing © 2016 8 Table 3. Mechanical Attributes Of TENCEL® Melting Temp (oC) N/A (Cellulose does not melt) Tenacity (cN/tex) Dry 37 Wet 30 i Tensile Strain (%) ii 14 - 16 Tensile Strength (kg/cm²) Not available Young’s Modulus (kg/cm²) Water Retention (%) ii 10 60 - 70 i Natural moisture content at 65% r.H (%) 11 Intrinsic Viscosity (dL/g) Not available Breaking Stress (kg/cm²) Degree of polymerization Not available i Breaking Strength (MPa) 850 Not available References i Lenzing, 2010, p. 6 ii Kadolph, 2007, p. 134 Mechanical Attributes The fibers are round with a smooth longitudinal appearance and unlike rayon will not collapse on itself (Kadolph, 2007, p. 137). It can be produced in a variety of deniers and lengths, and yarns may be produced for staple fibers and tow in ranges from 1 to 15 denier per filament. It may be mechanically crimped or textured for use in blends and other products. TENCEL® is 100% cellulose and has a longer polymer chain than rayon, but shorter than that of cotton (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). Similar to all cellulosic fibers, TENCEL® tends to swell in water (Lenzing, 2010, p. 14). Processing Characteristics As it is a manufactured fiber, the characteristics such as lustre, length, and diameter of TENCEL® may be altered depending on purpose (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). It may be blended with any natural or synthetic fiber to produce a variety of textiles, and can be finished in many processes depending on desired effect. TENCEL® performs similarly to cotton and is the strongest of cellulosic fibers, with exceptional strength when wet. Good durability and soft hand make TENCEL® long lasting and attractive for apparel applications (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). TENCEL® tends to split lengthwise when wet and abraded and form tiny fibres, called microfibrils, on its surface (Goswami, 2004, p. 70). This can produce pilling and a fuzzy texture that is undesirable on smooth fabrics (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138), but can be ideal for producing a peached affect (Goswami, 2004, p. 70). Enzymatic treatments to remove fibrils before weaving or knitting have been developed to reduce fibrillation before home washing (Fletcher, 2008, p. 32). TENCEL® A100 and TENCEL® LF are cross-linked TENCEL® types that exhibit significantly less fibrillation (Kadolph, 2007, p. 139; Lenzing, 2010). This is achieved by using a crosslinking agent that blocks disruption of the hydrogen bonding that causes splitting (Lenzing, 2010, p. 23). © 2016 9 Aesthetics A very soft fiber, TENCEL® is also known for having an attractive drape, fluidity, and wrinkle resistance (Goswami, 2004, p. 70). It is highly dyeable and can be produced in vibrant colors. It can be used as 100% TENCEL® textile, or blended with cotton to produce a stronger textile, wool for a higher absorbent textile, rayon for better stability than 100% rayon, or with polyester or polyamide for functional sportswear (Goswami, 2004, p. 71, Schuster, 2006). TENCEL® does not attract static and has high absorbency, but has poor thermal retention (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). Apparel, sportswear and home textile applications made with TENCEL® exhibit excellent comfort properties (Schuster, 2006). TENCEL® is moderately resilient, and can wrinkle. However, it maintains dimensional stability well, and has superior elastic recovery to rayon and acetate. It may shrink when washed (Kadolph, 2007, p. 139). Due to its sensitivity to abrasion, it is recommended to dry clean or wash on a gentle cycle. Potential Social And Ethical Concerns Pulp produced from eucalyptus trees raises possible risks from monoculture plantations that may have potential impacts on biodiversity and deforestation of natural habitat, as well as cause soil erosion and nutrient loss (Clay, 2004, p. 320). These are often located in developing tropical countries due to low costs of land, laxity of environmental regulations, and ideal growth conditions (Clay, 2004, p. 312). Monoculture plantations face higher risks from disease and pests and may require chemical control (Clay, 2004, p. 315). Plantations may reduce harvest pressure on natural forests and land-use intensity. There are also concerns over displacement of people, and impacts on local populations from pesticide application (Clay, 2004, p. 324). Risks associated with pulp used by Lenzing are minimized by sourcing forest products that are 100% certified or controlled according to FSC and PEFC standards. Dry cleaning is sometimes recommended, which is associated with toxic and polluting solvents. Availability Of Material TENCEL® is widely available in Europe, the U.S. and Asia. The TENCEL® brand is owned by Lenzing and licensed to manufacturers that meet their requirements, when a chain of custody can be assured (Lenzing, 2015d). Availability Of Certified Materials Wood sources that are used in pulp destined for TENCEL® production are available with certificates from the Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC), Sustainable Forest Initiative (SFI), and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC); certification to these standards are done by a variety of entities. TENCEL® fiber is available with FSC or PEFC certification. All TENCEL® fiber is certified to Oeko-Tex Standard 100 to be free of harmful substances, and has received the European Eco-Label (Lenzing, 2012 , p. 53). Questions To Ask When Sourcing This Material Q: What type of wood was sourced for this fiber? Q: Are the forests used to produce this fiber certified by FSC or PEFC? Q: Is this TENCEL® or generic lyocell? Q: What factory and country was this produced in? Q: Is this TENCEL® protected against defibrillation or are processsing routes or end products suitable for fibrillating fiber? Q: What treatments and dyes were used on this fabric? Q: Is this blended with any other types of fibers? © 2016 10 Figure 1. System Diagram Of TENCEL® Trees Water Water Chemicals Dissolving Pulp Water Chemicals Dissolving In NMMO Solvent Recovery Energy Water Recovery Water Water Chemicals Wastewater Spinning Washing Softening & Other Treatments Greenhouse Gas Emissions Fuel-related Emissions Wastewater Drying, Crimping, Cutting Into Staple Yarn Spinning Weaving 1 kg Unfinished Textile © 2016 11 Appendix Calculated Data Table A. Energy And GHG Emissions TENCEL® Austria Staple Fiber NREU MJ REU MJ Total kg CO²eq/kg Source Cradle to gate staple fiber 42 59.0 101.0 1.1 Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 19 TENCEL® yarn spinning (200 dtex) 19.4 0.8 Terinte, , 2014 Weaving (200 dtex) 75.8 3.5 van der Velden, 2014, p. 351 Cradle to gate undyed textile total 196.2 5.4 Calculation Table B. Water TENCEL® Austria Staple Fiber Units Process Cooling Total Quantity Source Cradle to gate staple fiber L/kg 20.0 243.0 263.0 Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 19 Electricity production water use factor L/MJ 0.0 Plastics Europe, 2005, p. 7 TENCEL® yarn spinning (200 dtex) energy MJ/kg 19.4 Terinte, 2014 TENCEL® yarn spinning (200 dtex) water L/kg 0.4 Calculation Weaving (200 dtex) energy MJ/kg 75.8 van der Velden, 2014, p. 351 Weaving (200 dtex) water L/kg 1.7 Calculation Cradle to gate undyed textile total water L/kg 265 Calculation Table C. Land Use Units Quantity Source ha/a/t fibre 0.24 Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 22 t fiber/a/ha 4.17 Calculation kg fiber/a/ha 4,167 Calculation © 2016 12 References Blackburn, R., Abdullah, I., Russell, S., Taylor, J. (2006). Lenzinger Berichte. Vol. 85: 113-123. Retrieved from: http://www. lenzing.com/fileadmin/template/pdf/konzern/lenzinger_berichte/ausgabe_85_ 2006/LB_2006_Blackburn_19_ev.pdf. Cashore, B., et al. (2006). Forest Certification in Developing and Transitioning Countries. Environment 48(9): 7-25. Retrieved from: https://environment.yale.edu/files/biblio/YaleFES-00000147.pdf. Chapagain, A.K., Hoekstra, A.Y., Savenije H.H.G., Gautam R. (2006). The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption: An Assessment of the Impact of Worldwide Consumption of Cotton Products on the Water Resources in the Cotton Producing Countries. Ecological Economics. Volume 60 (1): 186-203, ISSN 0921-8009. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0921800905005574. Clay, J. (2004). Wood Pulp. In World Agriculture and the Environment. (305-331). Washington DC, USA: World Wildlife Fund, Island Press. Donald, J. (1963). The Demand for Textile Fibers in the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Technical Bulletin No. 1301. European Commission (2006). Decision 2006/257/EC amending Decision 96/335/EC establishing an inventory and a common nomenclature of ingredients employed in cosmetic products. Official Journal of the EU Commission, 5.4.2006, p. 403 Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable Fashion & Textiles: Design Journeys. London, UK: Earthscan. Flickinger, et al. (2011). Dissolving Pulp PEERS. METSO. Retrieved from: http://www.tappi.org/content/events/11diss/flickinger.pdf. Goswami, B., Anandjiwala, R., Hall, D. (2004). Textile Sizing. New York, NY, Marcel Dekker, Inc. Huntsman. ( 2015) Safety data sheet N-Methylmorpholine oxide 50 Irwin, R. (1990). NTP Technical Report on the Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Furfural in Rats and Mice. United States Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Health, Publication No. 90-2837. Kadolph, S.J. (2007). Manufactured Regenerated Fibers. In Textiles. (41-50). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Lenzing. (2010). Leading Fiber Innovation. Retrieved from: http://www.stepitn.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Bartsch_Lenzing_ Group_Leading_Fiber_Innovation.pdf. Lenzing. (2012) Focus Sustainability. Sustainability in the Lenzing Group. http://www.lenzing.com/en/press/publications/ sustainability-reports.html Lenzing (2015a). Retrieved from: http://www.lenzing.com/en/responsibility/ecological-responsibility/wood-and-pulp.html Lenzing (2015b). Focus on Value. Lenzing Group Annual Report 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.lenzing.com/fileadmin/ template/pdf/konzern/geschaftsberichte_gb_ugb_jfb/GB_EN/GB_2014_EN.pdf. Lenzing (2015c). Retrieved from: http://www.lenzing.com/en/responsibility/ecological-responsibility/eco-labelsawards.html Lenzing (2015d). Lenzing branding program. Retrieved from: http://branding.lenzing.com/ Lenzing. (n.d.(a)). Applications. Retrieved from: http://www.lenzing-fibers.com/en/applications/. Natural Resource Defence Council. (2012). Choosing Between Organic Cotton and TENCEL®. Smarter Living. Retrieved from: © 2016 13 http://www.nrdc.org/living/stuff/choosing-between-organic-and-cotton-TENCEL®.asp. Pimentel, D. et al. (1992). Environmental and Economic Costs of Pesticide Use. BioScience, Vol. 42, No. 10: 750-760. Sappi. (2014). Dissolving Wood Pulp. Retrieved from: http://www.sappi.com/group/Sustainability/FAQs/Sappi-FAQs-Dissolvingwood-pulp.pdf. Schuster, K., et al. (2006). Functional and comfort properties of textiles from TENCEL® fibres resulting from the fibres’ waterabsorbing nanostructure: a review. Macromolecular Symposia 244: 149-165. Shen, L. and Patel, M. (2010). Life Cycle Assessment of Man-Made Cellulose Fibres. Lenzinger Berichte 88: 1-59. Retrieved from: http://www.lenzing.com/fileadmin/template/pdf/konzern/lenzinger_berichte/ausgabe_88_2010/LB_88_2010_paper_1.pdf. Smith, R. (2008). Cellulose – Nature’s Polymer. Lenzing Fibres. Retrieved from: http://www.lenzing.com/fileadmin/template/pdf/ nonwoven_fibers/presseinformationen/Vorschau_LCA.pdf. Taylor, J. (2011). Environmental Best Practice in Dyeing And Finishing of TENCEL® and Lenzing Modal®. Lenzinger Berichte 89 (2011) 30-36. Terinte, N., Manda, B.M.K., Taylor, J., Schuster, K.C., and Patel, M. (2014). Environmental assessment of coloured fabrics and opportunities for value creation: spin-dyeing versus conventional dyeing. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 72: 127–138 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1995). Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fifth Ed. Vol. 1. Chapter 10: Wood Products Industry. January. Retrieved from: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch10/index.html. van der Velden, N., Patel, M., Vogtländer, J. (2013). LCA Benchmarking Study on Textiles Made of Cotton, Polyester, Nylon, Acryl, or Elastane. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. Vol. 19: 331–356. von Carlowitz, H.C. (1713/2013). Sylvicultura oeconomica oder Hauswirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung zur Wilden Baum- Zucht. Reprint editied by J. Hamberger, Oekom, Munich. © 2016 Developed by: Proudly sponsored by: VF Corporation Prepared in collaboration with: Brown and Wilmanns Environmental, LLC This guide is one of 29 Material Snapshots produced by Textile Exchange in 2015 with financial support from VF Corporation and in collaboration with Brown and Wilmanns Environmental, LLC. They are an extension of the original series released by TE in 2014. The content of this snapshot is designed to provide general information only. 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