foreword - ICBC 2015

Transcription

FOREWORD
The entrepreneurship spirit plays a significant role in the global
competition nowadays. When world becomes borderless in space and time
because of the information and communication technology (ICT), everything
changes and moves so fast. These changes should be faced by all business entities
with their proper strategic management so they will survive and win the
competition. Discussing about strategic management, it is a must that we involve
all aspects of the business entity. A dynamic adjustment is necessary considering
the tough competition should be faced. It is a competition that demands an
involvement of all resources in global scale (megacompetition), requires a control
of information technology thatis inevitable and gives special attention to business
aspects.
The effectiveness of a company is an important part in facing the
competition challenges. That effectiveness is influenced by various factors of
resources such as capital, machines, materials, methods, and human. Among
them, human resourves is the main one because it drives all resources factors.
Thus, the situation changes that have happened directly or indirectly require the
companies in various scales to pay more attention to and prepare their human
resources. Regarding with this, entrepreneurship becomes an important part of the
driving wheel of the business.
Creativity, innovation, quick and appropriate
decision making, and responsibility in risk management are the prime
characteristics of entrepreneurship spirit, particularly in a role of someone as a
leader in various businesses
In response to the recent situation and condition in global business and the
role of the entrepreneurship spirit, a book has come out with the title
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“Enterpreneurship in Global Competition”. This book offers many creative
thoughts on entrepreneurship spirit related with business aspects. With their
strong analysis of the writers involved, the book can be a scientific or practical
reference in strategic management.
Associating various ideas into a red line and pursing them into a point
where the entrepreneurship spirit becomes the essence of all discourses, we may
pack them and make it as an umbrella of some aspects of business that can be
grouped into four concentrations of ideas as follow:
-
International Business in Global Competition Era
-
Management of Human Resources through Alternative Education &
Entrepreneurial Spirit
-
Aspects of Marketing Management
-
The Role of Communication & Media in Winning Competition
The above groupings are served systematically with the hope that they can give
comprehensive
description
about
various
business
aspects
that
need
entrepreneurship spirit to win the competition.
Upon the publishing of the book, an appreciation is kindly granted to all
writers coming from various fields and universities or colleges who have shared
their ideas and knowledge. An appreciation is also given to Dr. Nia Sarinastiti,
Meilina Sintawati MM, dan Felix Lengkong Ph.D who have spent time to edit the
papers to be easier to understand and enjoyable to read. In spite of that, special
thanks are delivered firstly to Dr. Ati Cahayani for her hard work as a ‘traffic’ in
charge person who has been responsive in accomplishing the book; next to Drs.
Dominikus Dolet Unaradjan, M.A., as Dean of Faculty of Business
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Administration and Communication, Atma Jaya University, who has given an
opportunity and support for the realization of the book’s publishing; and last to
the Atma Jaya Centre of Publishing for their cooperation in publishing and
distributing the book to come widely to the readers.
As an effort to take part in giving contribution of knowledge and insights
to the society, there is still, certainly, a space where correctives are needed for an
improvement. Therefore, any criticism and suggestions from all readers are
welcomed to make other similar publishing that will better in the future.
Jakarta, November 2011
Dorien Kartikawangi, Dr.
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CONTENTS
PART ONE: International Business in Global Competition Era
1
Alamanda Dini
Institut Manajemen
Marketing Strategy of Low-End Markets to
Turipanam
Telkom
Compete with Large Retailers
“A study of the Balubur Shopping Center
Vendor’s attempts to overcome the impending
threat of Globalism”
2
Edy Wahyudi
Universitas Jember
(AIABI)
Inter-firm Linkage and Transfer Innovation
Model On SME’s with High Competitive
Advantage
(Empirical Study On Tulungagung’s Small
Businesses)
3
Somchanok
Passakonjaras, Ph.D.
Chulalongkorn
University
Managing through Recession and PostRecession: A Case Study of Gem and Jewelry
Exporters from Thailand
4
Linda dan Yeterina
UKSW
Myths and Realities
of WomenEntrepreneurs Access to Bank Loans
PART TWO: Management of Human Resources through Alternative Education &
Entrepreneurial Spirit
1
Aristo Surya
FIABIKOM
Analysis of Entrepreneurial Intentionality of
Students in Faculty of Business Administration
and Communication Sciences, Atma Jaya
Catholic University
2
Ati Cahayani,
Pradewi, Kurnianing
FIABIKOM
Analysis of Leadership Characteristic of Women
Entrepreneurs
3
Pradewi Iedarwati,
Ati Cahayani,
Kurnianing
Sutarjo
FIABIKOM
The Characteristics of Women’s Powerfulness
in Entrepreneurship Dimension
Business
Administration Study
Institut Manajemen
Telkom
A Literature Study From Developing and
Developed Countries: How SMEs Gain
Business Competitive Advantages to Grow
Business Through Entrepreneurial Orientation
(EO)
Ni Ketut Ayu
Ambarini, SE,
MHRM
Achmad Hidayat
Sutawidjaya,
Tuti Widiastuti, dan
Suharyanti
Fandy Tjiptono dan
Yohanes Siyamta
Universitas
Mahendradatta
Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Motivasi
Kerja Perempuan Pengusaha
Univ. Bakrie (Dept.
Of Communication
Science)
Antecedents and Consequences of
Entrepreneurial Leadership In a Service Industry
Setting
UAJ Jogjakarta
Cultural Entrepreneurship: An Accidental
Entrepreneur Experience
4
5
6
7
4
8
Maya Malinda dan M.
Jimmy Hasugian
Universitas
Maranatha
Entrepreneurship Class: Between Theory and
Reality
9
Budi Santoso
UGM
Examination of Self-Efficacy and Supervisor
Supports to Transfer Intention with Motivation
to Learn as an Intervening Variable
10
Sri Sedianingsih
Universitas Terbuka
Analyzing Distance Learning Methods as a
Public Service Sector in Terms of Shaping And
Changing Education Society's Perception
11
Nila Krisnawati
Hidayat
Hotel Tourism
Management, Swiss
German University
Analysis of The Adoption of ASEAN MRA
on Tourism Professional at Jakarta Five Star
Hotel towards The Human Resources Global
Competitiveness
12
Efendi
Marketing Skills in the Era of Web 2.0
13
Widjaja Hartono
FE UNIKA Atma
Jaya
Univ. Ciputra
14
Riant Nugroho
Universitas
Pertahanan
Membangun
Indonesia
15
Ruth Alas
Estonian Business
School
Human Resource Management, Change
Management and Leadership in Estonian
Organizations
PART TREE: Aspects of Marketing Management
1
Alamanda Dini
Institut Manajemen
Turipanam
Telkom
Role of Higher Education and Policy Makers
in Promoting Entrepreneurship in Indonesia
Entrepreneurship
Untuk
Media Strategy for SIM Card Advertisement
Product Category
2
V. Rachmadi P. dan
Indira Sari Astuti
FIABIKOM
PENGARUH KONTEKS ORGANISASIONAL,
PROSES INTERNAL DAN KELUARAN
DALAM TIM LINTAS FUNGSI TERHADAP
MUTU PELAYANAN TERPADU
3
Bambang Sukma
Wijaya
Universitas Bakrie
(Communication
Science)
BRANDERPRENEURSHIP:
BRAND DEVELOPMENT-BASED
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
4
Tuti W.
Universitas Bakrie
(Dept. Of
Communication
Science)
Application Of Cause-Related Marketing (CRM)
Communication In Creating Brand Loyalty
5
Sambudi Hamali dan
Ida Nurnida Relawan
Institut Manajemen
Telkom
PENGARUH KEPUASAN PELANGGAN
DAN BRAND IMAGE TERHADAP
LOYALITAS PELANGGAN PADA TOPAS
GALERIA HOTEL BANDUNG
5
6
Avianto
Ogilvy
Personal Branding in Entrepreneurship
7
Erna dan Meilani
YAI (Faculty of
Communication
Science)
Strategi Publisitas Melalui Media Online
pada Institusi Jasa Pendidikan
(Studi pada Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi
Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI),
Jakarta)
8
Albert & Hersinta
STIKOM The
London School of
Public Relations
Jakarta
SHOPPING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA:
A STUDY ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN
FACEBOOK’S ONLINE SHOP PAGE
9
Arif Sugiono
Business
Administration
Departement,
Lampung University
Memahami Perilaku Pemilih di Indonesia
( Sebuah Kajian dari Perspektif Political
Marketing)
10
Helpris Estaswara
Fakultas Ilmu
Komunikasi
Universitas Pancasila
Brand Management Mapping:
An Integrated Marketing Communications
(IMC) Perspective
PART FOUR: The Role of Communication & Media in Winning Competition
1
Suharyanti
Universitas Bakrie
Value Creation Through Relationship in
(Dept. of
Entrepreneurial Marketing – A Public
Communication
Relations Perspective
Science)
2
Fiona dan Sherly
LSPR (ASPIKOM)
Pembentukan Cyber Culture Melalui Interaksi
Simbolik dalam Forum Komunitas Online
3
Rahab
Management
Department, Faculty
of Economics,
Jenderal Soedirman
University
The Role of Social Identity and Altruism on
Acceptance and Actual Use of Social Network
Services
4
Ruth Alas, Peeter
Lorents, Ülle Übius,
and Erika Matsak
Estonian Business
School and Talinn
University
Corporate Social Responsibility: European and
Asian Countries Comparison
5
Dessy Kania
Universitas Bakrie
(Dept. Of
Communication
Science)
Peranan New Media Dalam Memfasilitasi
Kewirausahaan pada Sektor Pariwisata – Studi
Kasus: Mempromosikan Pulau Komodo di Nusa
Tenggara Timur
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PART ONE
7
Marketing Strategy of Low-End Markets to Compete with Large Retailers
“A study of the Balubur Shopping Center Vendor’s attempts to overcome the
impending threat of Globalism”
Alamanda, Dini Turipanam
Institut Manajemen TELKOM
One case in which a large local market has to compete with some large retailers
would be in the case of the Balubur Shopping Center near the Kebon Bibit area.
These local market vendors had to compete with nearby large megastores such as
the Carrefour in Paris Van Java Mall or the Hypermart store in Bandung Indah
Plaza, both not more than five kilometers away from the markets. These large
retailers such as Carrefour and Hypermart are cutting down prices to the lowest
possible price by selling at a large amount of volume. In an attempt to protect
these small markets the local government decided to localize and cluster the
markets into a single large building, which is the Balubur Shopping Center.
How the process of localization would affect the market’s ability to compete with
large megastores would be a topic of discussion as many of the large stores made
it difficult for these markets to compete in terms of price. Using qualitative
approach and marketing mix this research is to evaluate what kind of marketing
strategies the vendors of Balubur would use to compete with the large megastores
such as Carrefour and Hypermart.
Keywords: marketing strategy, Balubur shopping center, qualitative approach
I.
Introduction
With the ever-rapid development the city of Bandung is experiencing, many
businesses are beginning to flourish and expand in both size and quantity. From
these many growing industries lies the retail market business, vendors who resell
products which are simply their inventory and not the products they actually made
themselves. In the past this industry has been managed by local shops and vendors
who provide goods to markets which are geographically nearest to them. These
small vendors often rely on market cooperation to survive and thrive, helping each
other by forming an inner-market symbiosis. However the modern government
policies and bureaucracy has made it difficult for local vendors to thrive as many
of it enforce strict quality control as well as costing fines, taxes, and
administrative costs which most market vendors could not afford. Unlike the local
vendors, however, large brand supermarkets which are rapidly expanding to the
Bandung market are capable of procuring such investments. Likewise, an
explosion of large brand supermarkets is beginning to consume the Bandung
market and cripple the local vendors. Nowadays we see more brands such as
Carrefour, Hypermart, Giant, and even Superindo rather than areas of local market
vendors within the Bandung marketplace.
In the case of advancing large retail supermarkets in Bandung, a lot of small local
markets are beginning to lose sales and eventually go out of business. These large
retailers such as Carrefour and Hypermart are attracting mass market, procuring
large volumes of customers from various locations in Bandung. The wide
selection of goods and services these supermarkets provide satisfy the customer’s
wish of a one-stop shop. On the other hand local vendors commonly specialize in
a specified line of product and do not sell more than what they could procure. This
case of homogeneity becomes a downfall point in the local vendor’s attempt to
attract the market.
One case in which local market has to compete with these large retailers would be
in the case of the Balubur Market near the Kebon Bibit area. This local market has
existed for quite a long time, yet several infrastructural plans have tossed the
marketplace around. During the early years of 2005 the market was evicted and
moved to the Gelap Nyawang area because the Kebon Bibit area was being
transformed to become a path for the Pasopati Flyover. Only then in 2010 the
market was moved back to the Kebon Bibit area into a single large building
complex called the Pusat Dagang Balubur. Now these local market vendors had to
compete with nearby large megastores such as the Carrefour in Paris Van Java
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Mall or the Hypermart store in Bandung Indah Plaza, both not more than five
kilometers away from the markets. With the five years lost in their interaction to
their old markets, these are now hard times for Balubur vendors.
The government attempts to localize a traditional local market into a single
modern building, equipped with many modern facilities such as escalators and air
conditioning. One question remains: how will the localized Balubur Market
compete with large supermarkets?
Analyzing this question as well as the localization factor of Balubur, our team has
decided to analyze the problem through several points of view. The point of view
we would be using is the Marketing Mix as it is the most plausible method of
knowing how a business attempts to compete in the market. Marketing strategies
are created through using the 4Ps of Marketing Mix to enable a business to create
a stance or image to the marketplace, be it through Product, Price, Place, or even
Promotions (not necessarily in that order). We will then analyze how Balubur
vendors use these mixes to compete against large supermarkets such as Carrefour,
Hypermart, and many more.
II.
Literature Study
2.1. Balubur Profile
There are two famous traditional markets near ITB and familiar with the life of
college student which are Simpang Dago Market and Balubur Market. Both of
these markets are known really well for college student as they are located near
college student dormitory. Near Balubur Market there are college dormitory such
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as which located at Jl. Kebon Bibit, Jl. Kebon Kembang, Jl. Plesiran, Jl. Taman
Hewan, Jl. Tamansari Bawah, and others.
Balubur Market is located exactly in the front of rectorate building of ITB at Jl.
Tamansari. Balubur Market actually at that time (since 2003-2010) was small and
dirty but it is considered very important to college student. During ITB reregistration, this market would be crowded as college students bought map,
stationary, and use photocopy service. In this market there are many cheap food
stalls. During night, college student would wander around this market looking for
cadger selling different kind of food.
The reason that Pasar Balubur was located at Jl. Gelapnyawang because
government would built the Pasopati flyover. When Pasopati flyover was build
and across this market, thus make Balubur Market dismantled. Merchants then
being temporary located in the land of PDAM at Jl. Gelap Nyawang (Near Jl.
Ganesha). This temporary location was very vile, small, and not as many people
as before shopped.
In 2003 there is temporary relocation of Pasar Balubur, which actually being at Jl.
Gelap Nyawang for 7 year, Balubur Market at that time had 238 commercial
space and 178 active merchants and 5 inactive merchants (Dinas Pasar Kota
Bandung, 2003). The problem actually is not because sudden appearance of
market at a community but garbage which produced by Balubur Market. Balubur
Market–such as other markets- have plenty of garbage every day and the garbage
is thrown away behind stall at west Gelap Nyawang. Unlike garbage from
Simpang Dago Market which had taken every day, garbage in Balubur market left
for days until car trash arrived. This actually make consumer afraid to have meal
4
at in west Gelap Nyawang because strong garbage smell, in addition the garbage
is organic garbage from few days.
After Pasopati flyover was finishes being build, therefore in the old ground of
previous Balubur Market there is a build of new market in the shape of mall or
plaza. The name is no longer Balubur Market but is changed into Balubur
Shopping Centre. In new Balubur Market building, there are three 3 floors and
one basement. Senior merchants who sold products such as vegetables, spice,
chicken, meat, and others would be located at basement. Their fate would be
similar with merchants at Mall Cicadas which located at basement. In past,
Cicadas traditional market is crowded with people, but nowadays after it was
changed into mall, merchants in basement feel the number of their consumers are
decreasing.
2.2 Marketing Mix and Competition
Marketing mix is a definition of the four elements which most marketers use to
define and produce their product and/or service. There are four primary elements;
Product, Price Place, and Promotion. These four elements are commonly used in
various mixtures to enhance a product’s image to the market as well as produce a
strong brand image in the public (Kotler and Amstrong, 2004).
Riley (2006) implied that microeconomics theory distinguished between perfect
competition and imperfect competition, concluding that no system of resource
allocation is more efficient than perfect competition. Competition, according to
the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and
technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products.
Pfeffer and Sutton (1999) inferred competition does not necessarily have to be
between companies. The degree of competition in any company is largely a matter
5
of choice. Companies vary dramatically in how much they use competition to
organize what people do. A manager who copies from a competitor is perceived
as being engaged in competitive benchmarking. A manager copying someone
outside the firm does not have to worry about the consequences of demonstrating
that another person is superior because the two are not in direct competition inside
the firm. In contrast, borrowing from someone inside signals to everyone inside
the company that there is someone else who is better, at least on some dimensions.
Copying others inside the firm is perceived to have negative career consequences.
There is little internal learning because competition for status and management
attention interferes with the transfer of better ways of doing things.
According to an article from MediaData.co.id, alongside with this growth, retail
business is showing significant growth in Indonesia, signing from the increasing
rate of turnover per year. Most of these retailers are mainly foreign hypermarkets
such as Carrefour, which manages to dominate Jakarta and other big cities, with
outlet ownership until the end of 2008 by 70 units. Hero supermarket has shown
signs to position itself as hypermarket after reading the trends. However, this
rapid growth attracts pros and cons from many points of view.
Traditional markets are gaining their shares of troubles as customers begun to
shift their interest. This not only because the advancement of technology, but also
cheap price in nine basic goods, which the retail business sells.
III.
Methodology
This research takes up on qualitative research to measure how traditional market
competes with super- and hyper-mart. Although there were researches, which
regarded on the impact of hyper- and/or super-markets on low-end business, a
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good number of researches specified in Bandung area were never done; hence, the
low supporting grounded theories.
IV.
Results And Discussion
This research used coding method to analyze the data, as shown below:
Figure 1 Coding Process
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The super-category of this research is the Balubur Business Strategy, as what
we’re generally trying to identify is how the market compete against supermarkets
alike. Below it, two categories expands: the 5Ps, best known as marketing theory,
and other factors which affects the area.
Defining the key information inside the 5Ps group, the business in Balubur could
be seen from five different aspects: promotion, product, place, price, and people.
Types of promotion are categorized as two different groups: direct and indirect.
Types of product sold in the market are categorized into two groups as well:
primary and secondary needs. As the place never really changed in past years, the
subcategories if grouped based on timeline structure: place before, trans-, and
after relocation of Balubur Shopping Center. The price categories are divided into
two groups: overpriced and underpriced. These categories refer to the price of
products in Balubur Shopping Center compared to super- and hypermarkets alike.
The category ‘people’ refers to how the business manages its human resource.
The figure below is a conceptual model which summarizes the whole findings:
Figure 2 Conceptual Model
The Marketing Strategy of Balubur Shopping Center has depends on two major
factors. Marketing Mix refers to the marketing method which the Balubur
Shopping Center applies to market its goods. Other factors refer to outer,
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unrelated factors to the 5Ps of Marketing Mix and played significant roles, if any,
to build efficient business. These factors composed of three categories: market,
technologies, competition.
Market refers to the dynamics of the people who usually shop at Balubur
Shopping Center. This aspect focuses on how old are they and what kind of jobs
are they taking--to see the details about who are the customers of this market.
Technology refers to how the owner uses traditional means/tools to run business,
be it in traditional means or modern ones. Competition refers to how the business
faces and competes with other same-line business.
The 5P Factors refer to how the business in Balubur Shopping Center approaches
the market, redefined from Neil H. Borden 4P model (with added factor of people
in the mix). These factors, alongside with competitive factors, determines the
competition between Balubur Shopping Center and hypermarkets (and
supermarkets alike) in the area. These factors eventually build up a marketing
strategy to deliver products to the customers. From the interview, it’s subtly
explained that the Balubur Shopping Center is slowly losing its competitive
drives, decreasing marketing efficiency.
V.
Conclusion, Suggestions and Further Research
5.1 Conclusion
Our research goal was to verify whether or not clustering traditional markets in
large commercial buildings such as the Balubur Shopping Center would increase
the competitive ability of traditional markets against large retailers such as
Carrefour and Hypermart (through the assistance of the 5P of Marketing Mix). So
far our qualitative research has not managed to gather sufficient data to verify this
9
research impact in a more detailed and precise report. However with the data we
have already acquired, we have managed to conclude several accounts:
•
The Balubur Shopping Center is losing customers as most of its market
moved residential location (surrounding citizens)
•
Balubur Shopping Center is using the Pricing method of the Marketing Mix
as its primary value to attract customers
•
Balubur vendors have inside cooperation and competition and usually depend
on loyal customers instead of attracted customers
5.2 Further Research
The interviewees in this research are selected at random, but proved to be the key
character of this research. Further interviews suggest that the interviewees were
members of Balubur Market, prior and after its relocation. As such, personal
recollections and opinions about the current place may not really deviate much
from one another. Also to receive comprehensive information, quantitative
approach is recommended to be applied.
References
Kotler, P and G. Armstrong. (2004). Dasar-dasar Pemasaran Jilid 2 (Eds Bahasa
Indonesia from Principles of Marketing 7th). Jakarta: PT. Prehalindo
Media Data Riset. (2009). Competition Map of Modern Retail Business in
Indonesia. http://mediadata.co.id. Accessed 1 October 2011.
Pfeffer, Jeffrey and Sutton, Robert I. (1999). The Knowing-Doing Gap: How
Smart Companies Turn Knowledge into Action, Harvard Business School
Press, Cambridge.
Riley, Geoff. (2006). Perfect Competition. http://tutor2u.net. Accessed 1 October
2011.
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INTERFIRM LINKAGE AND TRANSFER INNOVATION MODEL ON SME’S
WITH HIGH COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
(EMPIRICAL STUDY ON TULUNGAGUNG’S SMALL BUSINESS)1
Edy Wahyudi2
Abstract
Tulungagung is one of the region in East Java which served as the backbone of East Java Small
Medium Entreprises (SME’s) Economic development. This Notion tends to drives Tulungagung
SME’s embraces innovation as a way to coping with the giant industry player. This paper will
mainly disscuses the emergence of interfirm linkage among the Tulungagung SME’s, as well as
the giant industry player. The findings has suggets interfirm linkage and networking are some of
the important factors that positevely contribute to the process of inovation transfer between
SME’s, this process can be initiate by the local government or universities. The enacment of
inovation center are important steps that courages the link and match of applied technology as
well as the medium that meets the industry giants and SME’s actors. The interfirm linkage
between the SME’s in Tulungagung means to gain few positive effect such as minimizing the
cost of transportation and transaction, saving a production cost by a join purchase of a material,
increasing flexibility on market respon, and creating a competitive environment betweeen SME’s
Keyword: Interfirm Linkage, Inovation Transfer, Competitive Strategy
Permasalahan dan Tantangan Klasik Usaha Kecil
Base Line Economic Survey (BLES) yang dilakukan Bank Indonesia (2007) secara umum
menemukan bahwa permasalahan Usaha Kecil Menengah (UKM) adalah 1) Masih terbatasnya
koordinasi antar instansi pemerintah yang terkait dengan pengembangan dan pemberdayaan
UMKM 2) Keakuratan data UKM tangguh dan mandiri masih rendah, 3) Belum optimalnya
pemanfaatan teknologi tepat guna, 4) Belum adanya pembatasan masuknya produk impor,
khususnya dari Cina, 5) Belum adanya rencana induk (master plan) penataan dan pembinaan
industri kecil/kerajinan rakyat/PKL yang bersifat utuh dan terpadu, 6) Belum akuratnya base
data indutri kecil/kerajinan rakyat/PKL (terutama non formal), 7) Kepercayaan lembaga
keuangan (besar) masih rendah.
Peningkatan daya saing usaha kecil sering menemui kendala karena skala ekonomi dan
sumberdaya mereka yang kecil dibandingkan dengan perusahaan besar. Kompensasi dari
1
Presentation Paper in the first International conference on business administration and communication, November
23 and 24, 2011 on atmajaya university
2
Lecturer in business administration, FISIP Universitas Jember
11
kelemahan tersebut, usaha kecil mampu menerapkan fleksibilitas karena organisasi internal
mereka yang sederhana, yang memungkinkan mereka merespon dan beradaptasi dengan
perubahan (Sanchez and Marin, 2005).
Situasi baru seperti ini membutuhkan proses efisiensi manajemen yang memungkinkan
usaha kecil dapat mampu memaksimalkan aspek strategis yang berdampak pada peningkatan
kinerja. Pendekatan ini menggunakan literatur resource based teory (Prahald and Hamel, 1990)
yang menekankan pada aspek sumberdaya internal yang menjadi faktor determinan dalam daya
saing bisnis.
Ada beberapa hal penting dalam pendekatan resource based teory yang dapat
meningkatkan daya saing usaha kecil. Grant (1991) menyebutkan bahwa peningkatan daya
saing ditinjau dari aspek perubahan struktur organisasi. Sementara Bacon et al. (1996) lebih
menekankan pada aspek manajemen sumberdaya manusia. Penelitian yang dilakukan Hitt et al.
(2001) menemukan bahwa inovasi dan sumberdaya teknologi menjadi faktor penentu dalam
meningkatkan daya saing bisnis. Sinergi antara teknologi dan inovasi akan mampu
menghasilkan produk berkualitas yang berorientasi pasar dan dapat menekan harga (low cost).
Desain organisasi pada usaha kecil yang fleksibel memungkinkan usaha kecil
beradaptasi terhadap perubahan orientasi pasar (Feigenbaum and Karnani, 1991). Apabila
diperbandingkan dengan usaha besar, usaha kecil mampu mengimplementasikan secara baik
manajemen praktis seperti fleksibilitas promosi, contohnya mendapatkan subkontrak kerja,
menggunakan tenaga kerja paruh waktu, dan pembuatan regulasi pekerja sesuai dengan
kemampuan usaha kecil tersebut (Ruigrok et al., 1999)
Hal lain yang dapat meningkatkan daya saing bisnis adalah manajemen sumberdaya
manusia. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada pengaruh yang kuat antara manajemen
sumberdaya manusia dengan peningkatan kinerja organisasi (Huselid et al., 1997). Studi yang
dilakukan Camison (1997) menunjukkan bahwa usaha kecil akan dapat meningkatkan daya
12
saing bisnis mereka dengan memaksimalkan kemampuan dan memanajemen sumberdaya
manusia mereka sehingga mampu berinovasi terhadap kebutuhan pasar.
Desain Metodologis Riset
Salah satu daerah yang dijadikan BLES Bank Indonesia adalah Tulungagung.
Tulungagung merupakan salah satu daerah yang menjadi kekuatan pengembangan ekonomi Jawa
Timur. Saat ini di Tulungagung ada 31.628 UMKM yang tersebar di 19 kecamatan, di 271
desa/kelurahan yang terdiri dari beragam UMKM meliputi Handicraft, batik, marmer, logam
pandai besi, kulit, dan makanan ringan.
Permasalahan yang muncul adalah bagaimana mentransfer inovasi secara berkelanjutan
dan berdaya guna kepada usaha kecil karena seringkali mereka dihadapkan pada permasalahan
biaya, antipati, pasrah, dan cepat berpuas diri yang berimbas pada terpuruknya usaha mereka.
Transfer inovasi pada usaha kecil sering menemui beberapa kendala diantaranya 1) pelaku usaha
kecil hanya memiliki kapabilitas inovasi yang rendah, baik dalam inovasi produk maupun
proses, 2) tingginya biaya - membuat risiko tinggi – yang berhubungan dengan aktivitas inovasi,
3) Rasa takut – atau malah antipati – yang berimbas enggan untuk melakukan inovasi, 4)
rendahnya informasi yang didapat dari pelaku usaha tentang manfaat inovasi bagi kelangsungan
usaha mereka (Caputo et al., 2002).
Penelitian ini penting untuk dilakukan karena usaha kecil membutuhkan desain
metodologis yang tepat untuk mentransfer inovasi agar secara kontinyu mereka dapat
meningkatkan usaha kecilnya. Model interfirm Linkage antar usaha kecil ataupun dengan
perusahaan besar menjadi solusi alternatif untuk memperkuat market position sekaligus
innovation transfer sehingga usaha kecil mampu berdaya saing tinggi. Kemampuan usaha kecil
juga diharapkan mampu bersaing dengan produk impor sehingga usaha kecil di Tulungagung
13
mampu menerapkan harga rendah, mampu melakukan inovasi dan diferensiasi produk yang
berorientasi pasar.
Riset
dilakukan
dengan
pendekatan
kualitatif
sehingga
diharapkan
mampu
mendeskripsikan secara lebih indepht kendala usaha kecil melakukan inovasi, menemukan
model transfer inovasi yang tepat, dan model interfirm linkage antar usaha kecil maupun
partnership dengan perusahaan besar.
Kapabilitas Inovasi Usaha Kecil Tulungagung
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, permasalahan internal yang dihadapi dalam pengembangan
UMKM di Tulungagung adalah : 1) Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM); pelaku usaha bertahan
dengan kondisi apa adanya, tidak mau bersinggungan dengan birokrasi (enggan memformalkan
usaha mereka, enggan mengurus NPWP karena tidak ingin terkenan pajak), membuat pelaku
usaha lebih lambat dalam mengembangkan akses pasar, terutama pasar ekspor, 2) Modal;
UMKM yang tidak mampu berinovasi dan melakukan kerjasama seringkali mengeluhkan
tentang keterbatasan modal, 3) Manajemen tata kelola yang tradisional, nyaris tidak mengenal
teknologi modern dalam berproduksi, sehingga beberapa UMKM di Tulungagung yang mampu
mengakuisisi teknologi mampu meningkatkan daya saingnya. Beberapa UMKM yang tidak
mampu mengakuisisi teknologi bekerja dengan durasi kerja lebih lama, produktivitasnya rendah,
dan harga yang tidak kompetitif, 4) Pemasaran; rendahnya akses pasar, lemahnya sistem
informasi pemasaran membuat UMKM kesulitan dalam mengembangkan pemasaran produknya.
Seringkali pelaku usaha mengetahui bahwa produknya di butuhkan di daerah tertentu, namun
mereka kesulitan untuk masuk ke daerah tersebut karena sudah ada produk pesaing, 5) Bahan
Baku; kesulitan atau hambatannya adalah bagaimana mendapatkan bahan baku yang
murah/terjangkau dari sisi harga. Karena seringkali bahan baku produksi harus didatangkan dari
luar Tulungagung, sehingga berat di ongkos produksi. Hal itu terjadi pada UMKM marmer/onyx,
14
meskipun Campur Darat/Besole terkenal dengan marmer dan onyx, namun sebagian besar batu
onyx masih didatangkan dari Bawean. Juga kulit untuk sabuk, dompet dan tas, masih mengambil
dari surabaya. Industri logam, sebagian masih bergantung kepada limbah industri logam dari
surabaya. 6) Sistem Informasi Manajemen (SIM); pelaku usaha merasa belum perlu
menggunakan sistem informasi yang rapi atau modern berbasis teknologi, alasan mereka adalah
mereka harus mengalokasikan teknologi dengan biaya mahal, padahal mereka saat ini sudah
dapat berproduksi dengan alat yang ada. Riset yang dilakukan Blumentritt and Dannis (2006)
juga menemukan bahwa permasalahan usaha kecil dalam berinovasi dipengaruhi oleh faktor
lingkungan internal dan eksternal usaha kecil, yaitu 1) keterbatasan ide-ide inovasi, 2) hambatan
manajemen, 3) budaya organisasi, 4) keterbatasan modal, 5) keterbatasan sumberdaya manusia,
6) lingkungan persaingan dan 7) keterbatasan teknologi.
Berdasarkan hasil riset, permasalahan eksternal dalam pengembangan UMKM di
Tulungagung adalah: 1) Pesaing; banyak sektor unggulan UMKM di Tulungagung di jumpai
juga di daerah lain. Misalnya batu onyx yang juga ada di Bawean. Juga untuk produk makanan,
misal jajanan memiliki kemiripan dengan daerah lain seperti Madiun, Trenggalek, Blitar dan
Ponorogo.2) ACFTA: Sebelum ada kebijakan tersebut, UMKM lokal sudah merasa tersaingi,
sekarang dengan kebijakan tersebut produk China akan semakin mendominasi karena lebih
murah. Beberapa sektor UMKM yang tersaingi secara langsung adalah industri konveksi, batik,
dan logam. Meskipun dari sisi kualitas produk lokal masih mampu bersaing, bahkan lebih
unggul. Namun kenyataannya, pembeli tidak begitu paham terhadap kualitas, tetapi lebih kepada
harga yang murah.
Struktur perusahaan yang formal dalam usaha kecil menjadi dasar penguatan akses pasar
yang lebih luas, karena dengan formalisasi struktur organisasi usaha kecil, mereka
berkesempatan mengikuti program pelatihan dan pameran dari berbagai dinas yang ada di
pemerintahan daerah. Camison (1997) dalam penelitiannya mengatakan bahwa struktur
15
organisasi yang tepat akan dapat membentuk tim kerja yang dapat mengeksploitasi inovasi,
pengembangan produk, desain, engineering, produksi dan pemasaran. Penguatan akses tersebut
juga dapat diperoleh dari buyer domestic maupun asing yang ingin “aman” dalam proses
transaksi mereka, sehingga biasanya mereka hanya akan bermitra dengan perusahaan yang legal
dalam ijin usaha dan memiliki basis organisasi yang kuat. Hasil temuan ini mendukung hasil
riset yang dilakukan peneliti sebelumnya, dimana usaha kecil diharapkan memformalkan usaha
mereka jika menginginkan akses pasar yang lebih kuat (Wahyudi dan Julianto, 2009).
Kepemilikan dan kapabilitas sumberdaya internal tersebut meliputi aspek teknologi yang
digunakan perusahaan. Hitt et al. (2004) menunjukkan bahwa derajat inovasi perusahaan diukur
dari tingkat penggunaan teknologi baru, prinsip peningkatan penggunaan teknologi, dukungan
terhadap aktivitas perusahaan.
Inovasi perusahaan juga harus didukung dengan infrastruktur intangible inovasi
(kompetensi, model bisnis, dan knowledge management) dalam mendukung proses inovasi
(Dobni, 2006). Blumentritt and Dannis (2006) menjelaskan bahwa inovasi dan kemampuan
perusahaan akan sangat ditentukan dari perilaku inovasi dan kemampuan perusahaan
menghilangkan hambatan inovasi. Hivner et al. (2003) dalam penelitiannya menemukan
pentingnya strategi fasilitasi, akselerasi dan keberlanjutan inovasi pada organisasi bisnis. Goyal
and Pitt (2007) menegaskan bahwa dalam membentuk budaya inovasi membutuhkan dukungan
pemimpin yang mampu memfasilitasi dan membuat inovasi menjadi perilaku positif karyawan.
Interfirm Linkage sebagai Penguatan Akses Pasar
Keunggulan bersaing organisasi yang lain adalah kemampuan organisasi dalam
melakukan kerjasama. Sedikit sekali perusahaan yang mampu memaksimalkan potensi
sumberdaya yang dimiliki untuk melakukan kerjasama, termasuk didalamnya adalah usaha
kecil (Hoffman and Schlosser, 2001). Kemampuan melakukan kerjasama terbukti dapat
16
meningkatkan daya saing usaha kecil, karena mereka mampu mengakses sumberdaya dalam
jumlah besar tanpa harus melakukan merger. Usaha kecil hanya perlu menjaga fleksibilitas
mereka, yang memungkinkan mereka beradaptasi terhadap perubahan lingkungan (Glaiser and
Buckley, 1996).
Perusahaan dengan basis pengetahuan tidak lagi menggunakan organisasi hierarkis yang
lamban, tetapi mengutamakan bentuk organisasi jaringan (Setyawan, 2002). Interfirm Linkage
merupakan hubungan antara UMKM atau antara UMKM dengan Perusahaan Besar. Melalui
kerja sama ini UMKM diharapkan dapat mengatasi kendala sehubungan dengan skala mereka
yang kecil (size related constraint). Inter firm linkage merupakan bentuk kerjasama strategis
yang memungkinkan partisipasi UMKM dalam pertukaran sumberdaya dalam kerangka
mutual benefit, mengurangi beban persaingan dan mengelola lingkungan secara kolektif.
(Astley dalam Mirza, 2002).
Interfirm linkage dapat dilakukan antar usaha kecil untuk memperkuat posisi tawar dalam
mengakses pasar. Pola interfirm linkage antar usaha kecil mendatangkan beberapa keuntungan,
diantaranya : a) meminimalisasi biaya trasportasi dan transaksi dengan memperpendek jarak
secara fisik, b) menghemat biaya produksi dengan pembelian bersama, c) meningkatkan
fleksibilitas terhadap fluktuasi pasar, d) inovasi atau perbaikan produk atau prosesing melalui
pembentukan suatu competitive milieu (lingkungan kompetitif) dan pertukaran informasi.
Interfirm linkage sangat potensial dilakukan untuk penguatan akses pasar. Upaya
kerjasama antar usaha kecil harus dilandasi semangat membangun kekuatan dan kebersamaan
sehingga dalam implementasinya tidak mudah dikacaukan dengan kehadiran pedagang besar
yang menjanjikan kemudahan dan harga yang tinggi. Harus disadari bahwa kerjasama ini
dilandasi tidak hanya kepentingan jangka pendek, namun secara jangka panjang akan dapat
meningkatkan bargaining position terhadap perusahaan besar yang potensial menjadi mitra.
17
Keberadaan sentra usaha kecil dimaknai sebagai trigger (pemicu) terjadi iklim kompetitif
yang diharapkan melahirkan inovasi-inovasi baru (Julianto dan Wahyudi, 2010). Berdasarkan
hasil riset, sentra industri pendukung yang ada di Tulungagung mampu menjadi pemicu,
diantaranya adalah usaha kecil marmer, keberadaan industri pendukung mulai dari tumbuhnya
sentra industri kecil marmer di daerah Besole dan sekitarnya, baik dalam skala mikro, kecil
maupun menengah mampu melahirkan iklim kompetitif sekaligus partnership yang baik.
Melahirkan iklim kompetitif karena ada persaingan harga, kualitas dan akses pasar yang
memungkinkan mereka untuk menerapkan strategi keunggulan bersaing. Akan tetapi, iklim
persaingan tersebut dapat berubah menjadi partnership yang saling mendukung, karena berbagai
order tidak dapat dikerjakan sekaligus oleh satu perusahaan. Keberadaan usaha kecil yang
tersebar di berbagai lokasi membuat upaya partnership dirasa sebagai solusi untuk mengalihkan
persaingan menjadi kemitraan yang strategis.
UMKM yang memiliki teknologi tinggi dalam proses produksi akan lebih mampu
melakukan efisiensi dan lebih siap menghadapi persaingan. Penggunaan teknologi juga
memungkinkan Usaha kecil melakukan inovasi berkelanjutan (Mohannak, 2007). Jaringan
kerjasama yang dilakukan mampu mereduksi ketidakpastian melalui akses informasi, sharing,
pemilihan prioritas, dan dapat menyusun agenda kerjasama jangka panjang yang dapat
meningkatkan kapabilitas usaha kecil. Jaringan kerjasama juga memungkinkan mereka
menciptakan peluang dalam pasar global, menyerap teknologi baru, mengembangkan proyek
bersama, dan berbagi sumberdaya manusia dan material agar lebih efisien (Saarenketo et al.,
2004).
Kendala Interfirm linkage sebagai pengungkit daya saing disebabkan tidak ada kesamaan
orientasi antar pelaku usaha, sehingga mereka gagal membangun komitmen, kepercayaan antara
sesama pelaku usaha. Imbas terparah adalah kebangkrutan karena mereka tidak mampu bersaing
dengan daerah lain yang mampu menjalin interfirm linkage. Riset membuktikan, bahwa sentra
18
usaha kecil kulit di kecamatan Pakel bangkrut karena mahalnya bahan baku, keterbatasan
sumberdana dan lemahnya akses pasar, sehingga mereka enggan melakukan inovasi-inovasi.
Interfirm linkage mampu meningkatkan daya saing dan penguatan akses pasar usaha
konveksi di Tulungagung. Pelaku usaha tidak mampu menampung besarnya order sendirian.
Mereka membentuk kemitraan dengan usaha kecil lain agar order dapat dikerjakan di rumah.
Pelaku usaha memberikan modal berupa mesin jahit, obras dan juga bahan baku setiap pagi
untuk di kerjakan di rumah mereka. Model kemitraan ini sebagai alternatif keterbatasan
perusahaan dalam menyediakan tempat produksi. Hal ini didukung pendapat Mohannak (2007)
dimana dalam jaringan kerjasama, informasi dapat disalurkan lebih horizontal dan lebih
resiprokal sehingga dengan kapabilitas organsasi yang dimilikinya, usaha kecil lebih mampu
berinovasi dan meningkatkan daya saingnya.
Tahapan Transfer Inovasi
Beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam proses transfer inovasi adalah meningkatkan
proses kreativitas. Berdasar hasil penelitian, usaha kecil di Tulungagung sangat mengandalkan
kreativitas, baik dengan orisinalitas tinggi, maupun tingkat imitasi yang tinggi. Tahapan transfer
inovasi lebih merupakan siklus transfer inovasi dengan pendekatan internal resources.
Gambar 1. Model siklus transfer inovasi dalam pendekatan internal resources
Imajinasi
Intuitif
Transfer Inovasi
Inovatif
Inspiratif
Proses Imajinatif dimaknai bahwa pelaku usaha harus memiliki mimpi, merancang mimpi
agar berhasil, membayangkan sesuatu yang belum ada, dan mewujudkan supaya ada. Dalam
19
perkembangan proses imajinatif ini, nampak bagaimana pengajin marmer di tuntut berimajinatif
dalam menghasilkan produk. Segumpal batu harus dijadikan apa, menjadi keahlian yang tidak
ternilai bagi perusahaan. Tidak semua batu dapat dibentuk sesuai pesanan, harus dilihat kontur
batu, dan kecenderungan batu tersebut dapat dibentuk menjadi apa. Peran imajinatif dari
pengrajin sangat menentukan dalam menghasilkan produk, termasuk kualitas produk itu sendiri.
Proses imajinatif ini juga nampak dari usaha konveksi. Proses menghasilkan ide dapat dilakukan
dengan melihat lingkungan sekitar, peristiwa alam, ataupun secara serius melihat trend motif
konveksi yang ada.
Intuitif dimaknai bahwa dalam proses kreatif, sangat mengandalkan rasa, fell, peka
terhadap lingkungan dan tidak selalu berdasarkan data. Riset membuktikan pelaku usaha
kerajinan logam di desa Kaliwungu, kecamatan Ngunut, Kabupaten Tulungagung memiliki
aspek intuitif yang kuat dalam menangkap peluang pasar. Penggunaan bahan baku berupa logam
limbah, penentuan desain dan harga produk, dan melatih karyawan untuk dapat mengerjakan
desain, semua dikerjakan dengan mengandalkan intuitif pelaku usaha. Hal tersebut dilakukan
agar dapat menekan harga jual produk itu sendiri. Proses imitasi tingkat tinggi dan pengalaman
yang memadai, sehingga intuisi tersebut sangat minim terhadap kesalahan dan kerugian.
Inspiratif dimaknai sebagai proses kreatif yang dapat dijadikan contoh/panutan, dengan
memberikan keterbukaan ide, membagi visi (share vision) dengan karyawan. Peran pelaku usaha
sekaligus pemimpin perusahaan sangat penting dalam berbagi pentingnya inovasi .
Inovatif dapat dimulai dengan menemukan hal hal baru (invention), proses menemukan
hal baru tersebut tentunya tidak selalu orisinal, namun dapat melalui proses imitasi. Imitasi
menjadi proses kreatifitas. Hasil riset membuktikan bahwa usaha kecil di Tulungagung dapat
eksis karena dominasi proses inovasi. Perusahaan batik di Tulungagung dapat berkembang
karena desain yang mengikuti trendsetter yaitu Solo, Yogjakarta, dan Pekalongan. Baru dalam
perkembangannya pelaku usaha batik mengembangkan desain sendiri, dengan perspektif batik
20
modern dan mengembangkan jaringan pemasaran untuk tetap eksis. Demikian juga untuk pelaku
usaha marmer, riset membuktikan bahwa perusahaan marmer dalam melayani pasar ekspor,
didasari atas permintaan pelanggan dengan menunjukkan contoh desain yang ada. Ketika
mendapat pesanan westafel dan bathup untuk pasar eropa, maka pelaku usaha di tuntut untuk
dapat membuat desain sesuai pesanan. Orisinalitas muncul dalam proses perkembangannya,
disebabkan pelaku usaha sudah mulai berimajinasi, menggunakan intuisinya dengan
mengembangkan model-model baru. Pada usaha marmer, proses pembuatan patung berbagai
bentuk mengandalkan sisi orisinalitas desain. Pelaku usaha marmer sadar bahwa orisinalitas
desain dalam proses pembuatan patung memiliki harga jual tinggi.
Elemen Pendukung Transfer Inovasi
Berdasar hasil riset, transfer inovasi dapat dilakukan dengan mempertimbangkan
berbagai macam faktor, dengan beberapa elemen pendukung transfer inovasi. Diantaranya adalah
:
1. Laboratorium riset. Laboratorium riset yang fokus terhadap pengembangan usaha kecil
meliputi pengembangan teknologi, manajerial administrasi UMKM dan riset tentang
pemberdayaan potensi UMKM. Keterkaitan antara laboratorium dengan UMKM
membutuhkan beberapa dukungan, antara lain : 1) pemerintah daerah, 2) pekerja
penyuluh yang menjadi prototype inovasi, 3) academic institution/university
2. Kapabilitas manajerial. Tidak hanya inovasi teknik yang mendapat perhatian dalam
metode transfer inovasi, seperti namun juga mempertimbangkan kapabilitas manajerial.
Beberapa hal terkait kemampuan manajerial/internal antara lain : 1) pengetahuan/ transfer
inovasi, seperti dokumentasi, paten produk, pertukaran informasi, dan lembaga riset
untuk kestabilan kerjasama, 2) adanya transfer tenaga ahli dari lembaga riset kepada
UMKM untuk transfer pengetahuan dan analisis kebutuhan riil pelaku usaha. 3)
21
keberlanjutan pendidikan dan menyeleksi kebutuhan pelatihan yang dibutuhkan, 4)
kerjasama sinergi antara lembaga riset eksternal dengan divisi R&D internal perusahaan ,
5) memperhatikan aspek legal dalam proses bisnis, fiskal/pajak, dan 6) pengelolaan
keuangan dan pemasaran.
3. Innovation center (pusat inovasi). Lembaga yang berfungsi sebagai pusat inovasi sangat
penting untuk ada. Hal ini berkonsekuensi pada dibutuhkannya penyelenggara inovasi
yang dapat di pelopori oleh swasta, universitas dilingkungan sekitar ataupun oleh
pemerintah melalui SKPD yang ada. Swasta dapat
berperan dalam proses
penyelenggaraan inovasi dimana secara langsung akan berdampak pada kepentingan
produk atau layanan yang dihasilkannya. Peran universitas dilingkungan/daerah tersebut
dapat diposisikan sebagai mitra dalam hal riset dan pengabdian, sehingga dapat fokus
menciptakan pusat inovasi. Peran pemerintah dapat dilakukan secara lebih konkrit
dengan dukungan perencanaan dan dana akan dapat sekaligus menggandeng pihak
swasta, universitas dan pemerintah sendiri sehingga pembagian peran tersebut dirasa
sebagai simbiosis mutualisme dan sesuai kompetensi dan wewenang yang dimiliki.
4. Dinamisasi penyelenggara inovasi. Ketika penyelenggara inovasi terbentuk, maka
dinamisasi implementatif dibutuhkan, antara lain dengan melakukan: a) pilot project
transfer inovasi. Hal ini dibutuhkan untuk menentukan inovasi apa yang sebenarnya
dibutuhkan usaha kecil dan memberikan aspek kepercayaan dari pelaku usaha bahwa
inovasi yang dilakukan akan berdampak terhadap kinerja usaha kecil mereka. Hal ini
secara motivasional akan mempengaruhi keinginan pelaku usaha untuk melakukan
inovasi karena dari pilot project dapat diketahui bahwa inovasi yang dilakukan
menguntungkan.
22
Gambar 2. Key Success factor sustainability innovation transfer
Laboratorium
riset
Kapabilitas
manajerial
Innovation
sustainability
Innovation
center
Dinamisasi
Penyelenggara
Inovasi
Simpulan
Berdasarkan hasil riset, dapat disimpulkan bahwa interfirm linkage yang dilakukan antar
usaha kecil dapat meningkatkan kapabilitas produksi, mereduksi biaya produksi, meningkatkan
fleksibilitas dan penguatan akses pasar. Iklim persaingan berubah menjadi partnership yang
saling mendukung. Interfirm linkage juga semakin menguatkan akses pasar, sehingga mampu
mengalihkan persaingan menjadi kemitraan yang strategis.
Proses imajinatif, intutitif, inspiratif dan inovatif menjadi alur transfer inovasi dimana hal
tersebut diawali dengan imitasi, mengembangkan desain sendiri, dan mampu menciptakan
inovasi dengan orisinalitas tinggi. Keberadaan laboratorium riset, kapabilitas manajerial,
innovation center dan dinamisasi penyelenggara inovasi menjadi kunci transfer inovasi yang
berkelanjutan
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24
Managing through Recession and Post-Recession:
A Case Study of Gem and Jewelry Exporters from Thailand
Somchanok Passakonjaras, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of International Business
Faculty of Commerce and Accountancy, Chulalongkorn University
Phyathai Road, Patumwan
Bangkok 10330, THAILAND
Abstract
Many businesses have been suffering from the global economic slowdown which
started in the U.S. since 2008. Although the effect is not only limited in the U.S., the
U.S. economy seems to have the highest downturn impact. Since the U.S. is one of
the biggest consumer markets, the economic slowdown results in many ripple effects
throughout the world. One of the most highly effected parties is the exporting
business to the U.S. Thailand has highly relied on the U.S. market. The difficult time
in the U.S. thus causes a big problem for Thai exporters who are not well planned for
the recession.
The main purpose of this paper is to illustrate the preparation for businesses in
managing through business cycles. The gem and jewelry (G&J) sector in Thailand is
used as an exemplar in the study as it is one of the main Thai exporting sectors to the
U.S. The paper starts with understanding business cycles, planning for dealing with
an economic downturn, predicting changes in both customer and consumer (end user)
behavior, and ends with managing through business cycles and the discussion of
future study.
Understanding Business Cycles
Any manager needs to know about fluctuations in his/her business (Conerly, 2007).
Each industry has different business cycles. For example, consumer services are the
most stable part of the economy while consumer spending on durable goods or
discretionary items and housing construction are highly cyclical and volatile sector.
The following questions need to be addressed (Conerly, 2007):

When are downturns and upturns coming?

When the economy accelerates, how steep will be the increase? And how
long will the boom last?
25

When the economy slows down, how deep will be the decline? And how
long will the downturn remain?
The above questions are not certainly easy to answer. And even a manager
can find the perfect answers for that, it’s not guaranteed that the sales will be in line
with the economy. The economy is an external or uncontrollable factor. Sales are
dependent on the economy and the quality of a company’s products, services,
marketing, and strategic actions.
However, it is important to understand business cycles in the sector involved.
In this paper, the business cycle of G&J sector in the U.S. is used as an example. It is
found that G&J sales in the U.S. have highly correlated with GDP. While GDP
increases, G&J sales also increase instantly. On the other hand, when GDP decreases,
G&J sales also decline sharply. Figure 1 illustrates GDP and G&J sales in the U.S.
during 2005-2015.
Interestingly, Jewelry Industry Research Institute (JIRI) in 2010 found that
G&J sales/demand is not directly related with any single factor that affects an increase
or decrease of GDP. When plotting G&J sales with any factor such as unemployment
rate, personal savings, consumer confidence level, or changes in stock market index,
there is no direct relationship found. The easiest way to understand the business cycle
of G&J sales in the U.S. is by using forecast GDP data.
26
()
20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
90
85
17,490.34 18,249.5680
16,048.20
75
16,761.26
1
4,7
99
.5
6
1
4,44
1.43
13,398.9314,077.65
15,397.16 70.5 71.9 72.6 70
65
67.7
14,256.28
12,638.38
6
5.1
60
62.3
56.2 59.6 61.6 60.0 59.0
55
50
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
G&JSales
GDP
Figure 1: GDP and G&J Sales in the U.S. Market (2005-2015)
Note: 2010-2015 are estimates.
Planning for Dealing with an Economic Downturn
Once understanding business cycles, a manager needs to plan for a downturn
(Conerly, 2007). The first step is to build flexibility in the business. The second step
is to develop a contingency plan, which is often called as ‘worst case scenario’ in
financial projection.
In this section, only the first step is mentioned. The second step, contingency
plan development, is discussed in later section on managing through business cycles.
For Thai G&J exporters to the U.S., there are possible alternatives of building
flexibility as follows:
Building Flexibility in the Business
27

Material sourcing
Due to the price volatility of gold, silver, and gemstones, it results in a
more difficult time for G&J exporters. An exporter may enter forward/future
contract or option for buying gold and silver to hedge the risk.

Labor
An exporter may reduce the labor burden by using a part-time contract
for the new hires.

Relationship marketing with suppliers and customers
Conerly (2007) suggested having good relationships with both
suppliers and customers during the good times with an eye to survival purpose
in the bad times. More focus should be given to good customers whom are
defined by profitability not by volume.

Capital spending
Capital spending is a big area that should be developed with a
flexibility manner. If an expansion is planned for an economic boom, they
should also keep an eye on recession. A project may be built in stages, while
the next stage is optional, rather than building all at once.

Financial flexibility
Companies should also evaluate the sources of funding whether they
will have adequate funds during recession (Conerly, 2007).
Predicting Changes in Customer/Consumer Behavior
28
Recession affects businesses in distinctly different ways (Kay, 2010). Kay
(2010) illustrated that while local jewelry stores may be negatively affected, pawn
shops, second hand stores and shoe/clothes repair shops may actually enjoy the
economic downturn.
Kotler and Caslione (2009a, 2009b) summarized three possible consumer
behaviors during recession as follows (p. 188):

A move toward lower-priced products and brands

A reduction or postponement of discretionary purchases (such as
automobiles, furniture items, major appliances, and expensive vacations)

A cutback in driving and a tendency to shop from places nearer to home or
office
Thus, it is inarguable that G&J products will be one of the most negatively
affected items during recession. Although G&J products are mainly for medium- to
high- income people, these people are also affected by the recession. They feel poorer
as their return on investments (e.g., stock market, property) is lower than during
normal period.
In this G&J exporting from Thailand case, Thai exporters do not deal directly
with end users or so-called consumers. They normally sell through importers,
wholesalers, distributors, or agents. These intermediaries are direct customers of Thai
G&J manufacturers. However, it is important to understand behavioral changes of
both customers and consumers.
Customer Behavior
29
From a field survey/observation/interview in the U.S. in June 2009, it was
found that G&J importers/wholesalers/distributors/agents in the U.S. ordered fewer
items from their suppliers. They also asked for credit term extension.
Consumer Behavior
From a field work in the U.S in June 2009, it can be summed up that there are lots of
changes in consumer behavior of Americans in G&J products. Some of these changes
are not completely based on recession but are also due to demographic change.
Demographic change and 4Ps of changing G&J consumer behavior are as follows:
Demographic Change

Increased population
U.S. Census Bureau estimated that the number of population will
increase from 310.23 million in 2010 to 325.54 million in 2015. And
good news is that the number of target group (26-35 years old) who
has high purchasing power will increase for 3 million within 5 years.

Increased household income
Despite recession, the household income is predicted to increase
along with an increase in GDP. Average household income in 2010 is
approximately US$ 119,261 and it’s expected to increase with an
average growth of more than 3% in the next five years.

Growing wedding market
Wedding market is expected to increase to 2.6-2.7 million couples
in 2016. The value of wedding market is large with 72 US$ billion in
30
year 2007 (The Knot Inc., 2007). The market covers not only
engagement and wedding rings but also other jewelry items for the
brides and parents/friends of both brides and grooms.

Decreased divorce rate
With an expected decrease in divorce rate in the U.S., it is good for
G&J businesses as people will have more pocket money left to spend
for luxurious products.

Increased working women
The ratio of working women to the total number of women in the
U.S. has increased rapidly from 45% in 1970s to 60%. This female
self-purchaser group is a big driving force for the optimistic G&J sales
in the U.S. despite the recession.
4Ps

Product
From the field study, it’s found that American people are still fond
of diamond. Nothing can replace diamond especially in the wedding.
Precious gemstones, such as ruby, sapphire, and emerald, are getting
less popular since they are not less expensive than diamond. However,
semi-precious stones, e.g., tourmaline, aquamarine, are getting more
popular as they are much cheaper than diamond.
Gold jewelry market is also on the rise as the wedding market is
getting bigger. In addition, more people are buying gold for saving
31
and speculation purposes. Silver jewelry is also an alternative that
people are looking for during recession. Silver jewelry manufacturers
in the U.S. have responded to the market by offering a large collection
of silver jewelry with diamonds which change the mindset of people
that silver has to go with only cheap gemstones.

Price
According to IDEX Online Research (2010), average ticket sales in
2009 decreased around 10%. Jewelry items with price higher than
$15,000 decreased from 12.4% of total G&J sales in year 2008 to 9.1%
in year 2009. Those with price range of $10,000-$15,000 were stable
while those of $5,000-$10,000 decreased. Interestingly, jewelry items
with price lower than $5,000 were on the rise especially those less than
$2,000.

Place
Specialty jewelers are much less popular distribution channels than
40 years ago. TV is also on the down trend as young generation who
are the new major G&J consumers in the U.S. watch TV less than their
parents. Catalogue selling is less popular as well due to the high
printing costs. On the contrary, value-priced retailers and online sales
are getting more popular.

Promotion
32
Young people who are a major target market of G&J in the U.S.
are watching less TV than their parents. TVs are thus becoming less
popular promotion channel. Internet has become one of the most
effective promotion channels.
Managing through Business Cycles
Many scholars and practitioners argued that companies should increase their
marketing budgets during a recession because they can increase brand awareness
while competitors are using wait and see approach (Aaker, 2009; Hudak, 2009; Kotler
& Caslione, 2009a, 2009b). This recommended strategy is quite an ideal. It is rather
difficult for small- and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) which have limited
financial resources to pursue. Hudak (2009) suggested some tips for SMEs to remain
visible during a recession with low-cost methods. Hudak’s (2009) probable tips for
SMEs are (p. 5):

Getting the most from existing customers
The rationale behind this tip is that gaining a new customer would cost
twice as retaining the existing ones. A company should utilize the existing
customer base which is the most valuable asset. It is recommended to
communicate with customers more frequently, offering them special deals,
and establishing ongoing relationships.

Creating an economical option
A company should provide product/service offers that match the economic
climate. This is to show customers that they are well taken care of and
well responded even during the bad time.
33

Networking
While maximizing the advantages from existing customers, a company
should not forget to network with potential customers. These prospects
may turn to be customers when an economy is on the upside.
This section discusses how to manage through business cycles in two stages, i.e.,
managing through recession, and managing through post-recession.
Managing through Recession
Conerly (2007) classified the contingency plan in managing through recession in three
steps according to the degree of severity of an impact of a recession on each company.
And once a company survives, it can take advantage of the recession.
1. Easy steps
When the monitoring system signals a slowdown in sales, a company should
start fine tuning its contingency plans. A company may limit new hires to key
positions, reduce or eliminate capital spending plans, monitor inventories
more closely, and set up credit lines if possible.
2. Moderate steps
Actually, the moderate steps are similar to the easy ones. They are just taken
further from the easy steps. That is, managers should review a company’s
employment, capital spending, and financing. They should also keep lenders
fully apprised of financial conditions.
3. Survival steps
If the impact of recession is very severe, a company must take the survival
steps. Those steps described previously in fact have to be taken very seriously
34
now. A company may consider bringing in a turn-around specialist or a
consultant to fix the problem. In addition, a company may consider selling the
business if it’s worth the value more than continuing the operation, with
possible bankruptcy.
Taking advantage of recession steps
Once a company survives from the recession, it should plan ahead to take
advantage of recession. Conerly (2007) suggested that a recession provides a lot of
opportunities for companies that are optimistic in looking forward. Smart companies
perceive not only threats but also opportunities in a recession (Williamson & Zeng,
2009). The goal of these companies is to grow so they will emerge more strongly out
of the downturn. A study shows that 9% of companies come out of a recession
stronger than ever (Gulati, Nohria, & Wohlgezogen, 2010). Conerly (2007) also
warned of avoiding price wars as they are normally adopted in recessions. In G&J
sector, firms can take advantage of recession as follows:
Spending more on Marketing Research
Kotler and Caslione (2009a, 2009b) argued that businesses should not stop spending
on marketing research. In fact, they should spend more because buying behavior
changes a lot during recession. Since most Thai G&J manufacturers are SMEs, they
probably won’t have enough financial resources for running marketing research by
themselves. In practice, they can collaborate with their association in sharing the
marketing research expenses.
Expanding to other Markets
35
Market diversification is a strategy that a company should pursue to take advantage of
recession. While competitors are struggling with recession, it is wise to think out of
the box. Expanding to other markets strategy seems to be an easy one but it is often
overlooked especially during tough times. Emerging markets such as China, India,
and Indonesia are worth it for Thai G&J exporters to explore. They shouldn’t rely on
only the U.S. market.
Managing through Post-Recession
Piercy, Cravens, and Lane (2010) argued that new opportunities in a couple with risks
and challenges coming from economic recovery will demand new strategies. Kotler
and Caslione (2009a) had argued that during turbulence, a firm needs to change its
business model at least every 5 years. Otherwise, it cannot survive. What Thai G&J
manufacturers can do are:
Get more finances to increase credit lines
Through post-recession period, firms will definitely need more finances to increase
their credit lines. If flexibility is well planned in the former stage, they can get more
finances easily.
Manage customers
Relationship marketing is a must strategy to keep customers loyal. Firms may
classify their customers based on the profitability of each customer. More focus shall
then be given to those contributing high profitability.
Prepare for the next downturn
As the global economy is currently turbulent, Thai G&J exporters should be
well prepared for the next downturn.
36
Discussion
The paper discusses the strategy for G&J businesses in the U.S. market. It can
be argued that the results cannot be generalized. Shama (1993) found that the
meaning of a recession to marketing managers depends highly on company size and
economic sector. Therefore, future research should expand to other sectors and
conclusion has to made with care depending on the size of the firm.
References
Aaker, D. (2009). Aggressive recession marketing: When does it make sense?
Marketing News, 08.30.09: 11.
Conerly, W. B. (2007). Businomics. Platinum Press: Avon, MA, U.S.
Gulati, R., Nohria, N., & Wohlgezogen, F. (2010). Roaring out of recession.
Harvard Business Review, March 2010: 63-69.
Hudak, T. J. (2009). Surviving an economic downturn. Business & Economic
Review, April-June: 3-5.
International Diamond Exchange (IDEX) Online Research. (2010).
http://www.idexonline.com
Jewellery Industry Research Institute (JIRI). (2010).
http://www.kennethgassman.com/
Kay, M. J. (2010). Marketing during a recession: Social effects and marketing
opportunities. Proceeding of Northeast Business & Economics Association:
587-589.
Kotler, P., & Caslione, J. A. (2009a). Chaotics: The Business of Managing and
Marketing in the Age of Turbulence. AMACOM: U.S.
Kotler, P., & Caslione, J. A. (2009b). How marketers can respond to recession and
turbulence. Journal of Customer Behavior, 8 (2): 187-191.
Piercy, N. F., Cravens, D. W., & Lane, N. (2010). Marketing out of the recession:
Recovery is coming, but things will never be the same again. The Marketing
Review, 10 (1): 3-23.
Shama, A. (1993). Marketing strategies during recession: A comparison of small and
large firms. Journal of Small Business Management, 31 (3): 62-72.
The Knot Inc. (2007). http://www.theknotinc.com.
Williamson, P. J., & Zeng, M. (2009). Value-for-money strategies for recessionary
times. Harvard Business Review, March 2009: 66-74.
37
Myths and Realities: Women – Entrepreneur to Bank Loan Access
Linda Ariany Mahastanti
Yeterina Widi Nugrahanti
Economic Faculty Satya Wacana Christian University
ABSTRACT : Women-owned business are often thought to face difficulties in applying
for and securing bank loans. They face any systematic non-economic discrimination
in applying for credit. We tes question related to the success of women owned
business in accessing commercial bank financing. Are women-owned business less
likely to bank loan access than business owned by men?.Using Harvard framework to
explores bias gender in applying bank loan at SMEs in Salatiga.. In this research
indicated that there is no bias gender in bank loan access for women own business.
Keywords: Women entrepreneur, bank loan access, SMEs, Harvard framework
INTRODUCTION
Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) proved able to contribute 66% of gross
domestic product (GDP) in 2009, outside petroleum and gas. SME Business Sector
are mostly dominated by women. Business activities carried on by this women turned
out to represent 60% of the total micro-entrepreneurs and provide a major
contribution to Indonesian economic growth. (www.depkop.go.id).
The phenomenon of women–entrepreneur also occurs in Salatiga. Based on
data from CEMSED (2011), SMEs in Salatiga that owned by women usually
dominated in convection and food sectors. The proportion of SMEs owned by women
is 45% of the total listed SMEs. Their business growth is smaller than the male
entrepreneurs. These data indicate that women faced more difficultness to run their
businesses than men.
There is a pervasisve belief that women own of small firm face
disproportionality gretaher difficulty obtaining bank credit than do men. Mahastanti
and Nugrahanti (2008) stated that the main obstacle of a women's entrepreneurs in
developing their business is access to capital.
Research result conducted by the Program For Eastern Indonesia SME
assistence (2008) who done their research in the banking states that the bank does not
consider women as the main target of their products, although the level of credit
worthiness of women are not much different from the male borrowers, even in some
38
cases women actually have a better credit worthiness. The bank also tend to view
women's business plan is more critically than men because it is considered a greater
risk
Some statements that support the existence of gender bias in access to bank
loan come from Colemen (2000) states that women entrepreneurs will discrimination
in doing credit to the banks. This discrimination can be seen in the requirement form
from the bank, such as collateral, interest that is still quite high, a letter of consent
from the husband.
Several other studies also support the bias gender in bank loan access
phenomenon . It is happened because women entrepreneurs have a lower level
education and experience than men. Women have no relation with bank, started their
business in retail business, their business growth is lower than men. Bank have
perception that women have higher risk than men because these characteristics
(Carsky and Colemen 1996: Haines et al 1999: Colemen, 2000; Rob and Wolken
2002)
Conversely, there are significant empirical findings that do not support the
gender bias in access bank loan. Muravyev, Talavera and Schafer (2009) stated that
currently there is no more gender bias in bank loan access specially in developed
countries. This happens because the competition between bank is more tight. The
bank no longer see gender as a reason for determining the credit decision, but rather
on the ability of the business capabilities. This statement is also supported by Belluci,
Borisov.Zazzaro (2010).
The result from previous research can be changed, because in Indonesia have a
new rules about credit for SMEs this name is Kredit Usaha Rakyat (KUR). Some
banks such as Mendiri, BRI, BNI has a special division for the development of SMEs.
Also in a recent years Women entrepreneurs in Indonesia have many opportunities to
develop themselves as: seminars on women entrepreneurs, business association,
women's empowerment program. It is able to provide greater insight to them.
Therefore, this study will review whether there is still a gender bias in bank
loan access or not, because women in Indonesia currently has a better chance in
developing their business. With the analytical Havard Framework in measuring
gender . This framework can measure gender in four perspective : participation,
access, and control.
39
LITERATURE REVIEW
Gender Theory
Gender is defined by FAO as ‘the relations between men and women, both
perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual
characteristics of either women or men, but is constructed socially. It is a central
organizing principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and
reproduction, consumption and distribution’ (FAO, 1997). Despite this definition,
gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of women only. However, as
we see from the FAO definition, gender issues focus on women and on the
relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over
resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Gender relations affect household
security, family well-being, planning, production and many other aspects of life
(Bravo-Baumann, 2000).
According to the theory of nurture, the differences women and men are
essentially constructed by social and culture so it produce different tasks. These
differences cause women are always become a second class in the community, family,
society, nation,(Sulistyo,2007).Gender is the difference in the role, functions and
responsibilities between men and women who are socially constructed . Gender roles
according to Myers (1996) is a set of behaviors expected behavior (norms) for men
and wome
Credit Access
credit Access is ability to get credit from the bank in a certain amount, period of time
and certain interest rates. (www.encyclopedia.com).
Gender Bias to Bank Loan Acess
The process of banking credit is viewed by nine items questions such as: the
decision to credit, look for credit information to the bank, come to the bank, met with
the marketing, fill out a credit application, the approval of bank credit. Based on this
stage it will be seen a differences in participation, access, control benefit among
women and men.
40
Women's are more careful in running their business so their participation for credit
will be lower than men. Robb and Wolken (2002) argues that women entrepreneurs
typically have a smaller scale compared with men and their assets and sales were also
lower. Therefore when applying for a loan to banks will have difficulty. Besides this
women entrepreneurs often make business in service and retail industries ,while male
entrepreneurs are not. There for the bank is often assumed that retail industries are
less convincing if credit is given. The main source of funding that can be used by
women entrepreneurs mostly from savings and family loans (Colemen, 2000).
Meanwhile, to meet with the bank marketing men usually have more access
and control than women. This occurs because males have a better networking as
compared to women. With this relationship men " is making more participation and
control in the process of negotiating with the banks marketing. Brau (2002) suggests
that the relationships with lenders affect the least number of credit and term loan
Haines et al (1999) stated that women entrepreneurs usually not given credit
by the bank because it was considered more risky. women entrepreneurs are
considered higher risk due to age level business is shorter on average than male
entrepreneurs, so that experience in menaging the business is also much less.
This statement is also supported by Colemen (2000) which states that women
entrepreneurs will have discrimination in doing credit to the banks. This
discrimination can be seen form the rejected women entrepreneur application to get
credit or if credit acceptable the amount of funds approved relatively fewer in number
than men. The results of this study was also supported by Treichel and Scott (2006)
states that the amount of credit the bank declined more for women entrepreneurs than
male entrepreneurs than that amount of credit approved for women entrepreneurs are
also less than the male.
Based on this statement the hypothesis is proposed
H2 : women entrepreneur have lower participation, access, and control than
men to bank loan access
Research Framework
Participation
Bank Loan Process
Men and Women
Entreprenur
Access
41
Control
METHODOLOGY
Purpose of Study
This research includes the study of descriptive and explanative research
because the research is trying to explore more information that can describe the
existence of gender bias in the process of bank loan. The research was conducted in
Salatiga, Central Java with a population of small and medium entrepreneurs.
Sample
The data consists of primary and secondary data. Primary data obtained
through direct observation in the field with guidance on using research instruments
questionnaire, while the secondary data obtained from various reports and relevant
publications from the study.. Data were collected with cross-sectional technique. Data
collected at the same time but different place. In addition, also compare with depth
interviews with some of key person. Samples to be used as the unit of analysis will be
taken by using purposive sampling techniques. The sample in this study is SMEs
registered in the database CEMSED Salatiga.
Technique Analysis
This study uses a survey method with questionnaire instrument for sevenstages in credits process, which used empirical indicators adapted to Harvard
Framework. The gender analysis framework Harvard is more concerned with making
gender division of labor, role in decision-making, the level of control, are seen in
relation to access to bank loan (Lasssa, 2006). The steps used in the Harvard method
is as follows:
1. Who, when, where, and how much the allocation of time is required? This is
known as the "Activity Profile". Activity profile in this study can be seen from
the activities undertaken in menaging its business
2. Who has access and control (such as policy-making) over certain resources?
This is often known as "Profile Access and Control" Who has access and
control to capital, money, etc.?. Access and control profile is more focused on
access to bank loan.
42
The Harvard Analytical Framework offers one of the first efforts to
disaggregate data by gender and capture differences in men’s and women’s positions
and roles. Data is collected on the activities that men and women engage in at the
individual and household level, according to their “reproductive” or “productive”
nature. These activities are then assessed in terms of access and control over
resources to better understand how household (or community) distribution will
influence program outcome
Each item in question Harvard method (participation, access, control and
benefits) using a score of 1 to 3 (1 = Women lower than men, 2 = women equal to
men, 3 = women higher than men). For the H1 to H3 used Anova to analysis the
differences between participation, access, control.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
This study used a sample of 66 SMEs located in Salatiga with various types of
business sector.
Picture 4.1 Sexual
Characteristics
Source: Primary data 2011
Based on this picture the respondents in this study are mostly women .It can be
described that recently women entrepreneur is growth more rapidly. In Salatiga there
are many women own business in small medium scale near our campus. Usually they
are started their business in feminist industry like salon, boutique, restaurant and have
cooperation with their friends. Recently in Javanese culture, women not become a
second class in their family. They want to make own money to fulfill their daily need
not just to depend with their husband.
43
Picture 4.2 Type of business
While most respondents have feminine business like open food stalls, fruit
shops, fashion, salon. While that is in the masculine line of business (shop and service
computers, garages, shops and service HP, fodder) is still less. This happens because
most of the respondents in this study were women, so they prefer to try business in
feminine characteristics such as cooking, body treatment, and fashion design.
The next table will show other characteristics such as age of business, sales
omzet and education level of respondents
Table 4.1
Age of bussiness and Sales Revenue
Avarage Sales revenue
Average Age of Business
Women
Rp1,672,619.05 Women
Men
Rp1,777,463.77 Men
10.83
9.36
From the table4.1 can be seen that sales revenue between women and men
entrepreneur are not different. It is mean that businesses run by women was not less
competitive with a business carried on men. As for the age of the business it is
interesting that women age business is older than men. I suggest it happened because
my respondent in this study for women entrepreneurs have long business over 20
years.
44
Tabel 4.2 Level Education
LEVEL EDUCATION
Women
Elementary
school
Men
Elementary
8 school
2
Junior School
11 Junior School
2
High School
10 High School
15
Diploma
4 Diploma
7
Bachelor degree
1 Bachelor degree
3
No school
3 No school
0
Women-entrepreneurs in small and medium enterprise have a lower level education
than men. In our data women entreprenur mostly graduated from elementary and
junior school. It is different than men who have higher level education in high school
and diploma. In javanese culture, they have perseption that women is not necessary to
have higher level education because when they were married women become passive
just in home take care their family.
Discussion
This table shows the Harvard framework analysis to see whether there is gender bias
in bank loan access.
Table 4.7
Participation: credit process
45
(I)
(J)
Mean Difference
Std.
KATAGORI
KATAGORI
(I-J)
Error
Sig.
Lower
Equal
-7.11
2.67
0.04*
Higher
-16.33
2.67
0.00*
Lower
7.11
2.67
0.04*
Higher
-9.22
2.67
0.01*
Lower
16.33
2.67
0.00*
Equal
9.22
2.67
0.01*
Equal
Higher
Source: Primary data 2011, level sign 5%
Based on table 4.7 can be seen that the credit participation who responded
with high scores is significant different with respondents who answered with a score
lower or equal. Other results showed that respondents who score equal significantly
higher with low scores.
Process of banking credit by women entrepreneurs have a minimal
participation equal or higher compared with men. Women have high participation in
the search for information about the bank credit , met with the bank marketing, fulfill
their credit applications, company bank employee to survey their business location,
and credit approval. High participation is possible because banks have special
program for SMEs like KUR and now bank become closer to the SME as some of
Corporate Social Responsibility program, like bank have subsidiary office in
traditional market to help SMEs not just to fulfill their capital but also help SMEs to
make good production and marketing with mentoring program. It is make women
entrepreneurs more easily to get credit information from the bank.
Another possibility reason is women entrepreneur have several community groups
such as "KOMPAK" . With this group they can sharing information and knowledge to
make their business more growth up. They usually have monthly meeting in this
group who always have mentoring from CEMSED ( Centre Study In SMEs who
owned by Economic Faculty Satya Wacana).
Picture 4.3
Monthly Meeting “Kompak”
46
With this Group, they can build social capital. Social capital is necessary for
women entrepreneur who have lower level education and experience because they can
sharing information about how to make good marketing, production, and another
information like how to joint exhibition to market their product in this group. Another
thing that will be important from this group is they can help each other when some of
their participant have problems to run their business.
Table 4.8
Access: Credit process
Mean Difference
Std.
(I)
(J)
KATAGORI
KATAGORI
(I-J)
Error
Sig.
Lower
Equal
-6.67
2.84
0.07
Higher
-19.56
2.84
0.00*
Lower
6.67
2.84
0.07
Higher
-12.89
2.84
0.00*
Lower
19.56
2.84
0.00*
Equal
12.89
2.84
0.00*
Equal
Higher
In terms of access, the high score also significantly different compared with a
low score and equal. This suggests to searching credit loan from bank is not to hard
to be done for women entrepreneur. Bank Policy that has begun to want to be closer
to SMEs with provide a soft loan for SMEs , it make women entrepreneurs no longer
have problems in finding information to get credit in the bank. information to Access
bank credit also can be easily obtained by women entrepreneurs through the
community that they follow. The benefits of this community is very big for them,
because every meeting there are several parties who are willing to provide counseling
47
companion including about bank credit. Community group become social capital for
women entrepreneurs in business development (Gatewood et al, 2009)
Several studies have shown that the access to bank credit there is no gender
bias among women and maen entrepreneur (Belluci, Borisov.Zazzaro: 2010). While
Muravyev, Talavera, Schafer (2009) states that women entrepreneurs in developing
countries do not faced gender bias in access to bank credit because bank competitions
is high. There for it make easier entrepreneurs both men and women in bank loan
access. Bank will be approve their loan based on the capability from the borrower not
just from the gender.
Table 4.9
Control : Credit Process
Mean Difference
Std.
(I-J)
Error
Sig.
(I)
(J)
KATAGORI
KATAGORI
Lower
Equal
-12.67
4.17
0.02*
Higher
-6.56
4.17
0.28
Lower
12.67
4.17
0.02*
Higher
6.11
4.17
0.03*
Lower
6.56
4.17
0.28
Higher
-6.11
4.17
0.03*
Equal
tinggi
In contrast to the aspect of participation and access, control aspects has result show
that equal score significantly different with low and high score. This shows that when
women entrepreneurs want to make decisions related to the loan, they will be always
ask for consideration of their husbands. Credit decisions are taken is a joint decision
between husband and wife. This is also supported by the procedures of the bank that
requires agreement letter from the husband when women entrepreneurs do credit.
Table 4.10
Bank Loan between Woman and Men
48
Table 4.10 show that women entrepreneur usually have lower proposal and
approval in amount of credit than men. This occur not because Bank done some bias
gender when appraisal their proposal. Characteristic women that always have more
risk averse in make decision, it make their loan will be more smaller than men
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The conclusion of this study is gender bias does not occur in bank loan access.
This happened because of a business group that they follow can increase knowledge
and insight of women entrepreneurs. With this group make the banks do not reluctant
to give loans to women entrepreneurs. Another reason is bank more aggressive to
disburse loans for SMEs. It make the process of bank credit is now much easier.
Another conclusion can be drawn from this study is the presence of some of the
community formed by the entrepreneurs of SMEs, making easy access to information.
In addition there are companion agencies make this groups more enhancing their
capability to help women entrepreneur run their business.
Based on results can be seen that some of the myths that exist about women
entrepreneurs is not be exist again like women have gender bias to bank loan access.
When women have lower amount loan it happened because they have risk averse
preference. For the future research are expected to see gender bias not only in terms of
credit demand, but also the supply side of credit (bank credit application selection)
REFERENCES
49
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Criteria and Processes Use by Bank Loan Officer in Assesing Application.
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Chaganti, R., DeCarolis, D. and Deeds, D. (1995) Predictors of capital structure in
small ventured, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 20, pp 7-18
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women-owned small business, journal of Small Business Menagement, 38,
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Kabupaten Semarang). Jurnal Siasat Bisnis Vol 14 :1-100.
Muravyev,A.,Talavera,O.,&Schafer.,D.(2009). Entrepreneur Gender and Financial
Constraints: Evidence from International Data. Journal of Comparative
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perempuan pengusaha di Indonesia. Ringkasan Eksekutif.
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Sulistyo, 2007. Konsep dan Teori Gender. Pusat Pelatihan Gender dan Peningkatan
Kulaitas Perempuan Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional
50
PART TWO:
Management of Human Resources through
Alternative Education & Entrepreneurial Spirit
51
Analysis of Entrepreneurial Intentionality of Students in Faculty
of Business Administration and Communication Sciences, Atma
Jaya Catholic University
Aristo Surya and Ati Cahayani
Faculty of Business Administration and Communication Sciences
Atma Jaya Catholic University
Abstract:
Entrepreneurship has becoming an important thing recently. Most people already
notices that entrepreneurship is one of the effective ways to diminish unemployment.
University, as the place to produce skilled labors, also realizes that entrepreneurship is
one of the best ways to create successful graduation. That consideration makes most
of university has entrepreneurship classes. But, not all university that has
entrepreneurship classes does know the factors that encourage their student to take
entrepreneurship classes. These entrepreneurial intentionality factors will drive their
willingness to study more specific on entrepreneurship and encourage them to become
young entrepreneur. This study aimed to determine what factors that encourage
student to take entrepreneurship class at FIABIKOM UAJ.
A. Preface
Imbalance of college/university graduates and job opportunities has resulted large
number of unemployment graduates. The data of Central Statistic Agency (BPS)
in 2009 on Open Unemployment has shown that approximately 12 percent of the
open
un-employments
are
college/university
graduates
(Diploma/College/University). Looking at this fact, entrepreneurship school seem
to have to change its graduates’ mind set from looking for a job (being an
employee) to finding and running their own business (being entrepreneur). Being
challenged by that condition, colleges and universities now are actively placing
entrepreneurship curriculum in their program to offer career alternative for the
graduates to be entrepreneurs. This entrepreneurship curriculum makes an effort
52
to change students’ mind set from looking for a job to creating a job and lead them
to have independent attitude and mentality and the foremost is to find and take the
business opportunities.
On another side, in the point of view of students, the mind set, attitude and
mentality changing is not enough to encourage them to be young entrepreneurs.
There are some distracting factors for them to start to become entrepreneurs.
These factors are known as barriers to start up. Previous study from Aristo (2007)
that was conducted to the students of Business Administration Science University of Atma Jaya (FIA-UAJ)3 has revealed that among those barriers are
lack of business ideas, talent or inherent spirit of entrepreneurship from the
family, fear of failure, and capital matter (Aristo 2007).
Based on the researcher’s observation, as an entrepreneurship tutor in
FIABIKOM-UAJ, it is found that only some of FIABIKOM-UAJ students who
take entrepreneurship program are willing to jump into entrepreneurial business.
The reasons of just following friend’s decision, final-paper problem avoidance,
lecturer preference, and some other reasons inevitably become the driven factors
of the students to take entrepreneurship major. The researcher sees that only
students, who from the beginning have strong motivation, will be ready to be
young entrepreneurs soon after they graduate. The motivation is their willingness
and desire to run entrepreneurial business. The intention to be an entrepreneurial
person comes from individual’s interest or desire to be an entrepreneur. This is
what is called entrepreneurial intentionality (Bird 1989).
3
It has been changed into Faculty of Business Administration and Communication Science Catholic
University Atma Jaya (FIABIKOM-UAJ)
53
Related to the background above, the researcher, in this study, is trying to find
out: “How far entrepreneurial intentionality is able to create students’ interest toward
entrepreneurship or lead the students or graduates to be entrepreneurs.
B. Conceptualization
The definition of entrepreneurship, according to Robert D. Hisrich (2005), is “the
process of creating something new and assuming the risks and the rewards”.
Meanwhile, Robert D. Hisrich (2005) has given the definition of entrepreneur as
“a kind of behavior that includes initiative, resources organizing, and acceptance
of risks”. According to Kristanto (2009), the essential points of entrepreneurship
are: knowledge, art, behavior, traits, characteristics, and nature of someone who is
able to actualize his/her innovative ideas into reality creatively. Generally, it can
be said that entrepreneurship is a dynamic process in doing planned economic
activities and efforts for the prosperity.
The definition of entrepreneurship can help us figure out what has been going
inappropriately in our entrepreneurship education so that the colleges/universities
aren’t able to bring out young entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship is defined by
Stevenson and Jarillo (1990) as: “a process by which individuals – either on their
own or inside organizations – pursue opportunities without regard to resources
they currently control”. To set in the values of entrepreneurship to the students,
there are some ways can be done4:

Curriculum improvement
4
It is as stated in the Material Paper of Entrepreneurship Research and Development, The Central
Bureau of Curriculum Research and Development, The Ministry of National Education 3-4 June 2010,
where the researcher is one of the paper formulating team members.
54
Curriculum improvement is carried out to set in the spirit of entrepreneurship
to the
students by adding in entrepreneurial characteristics to the existed
curriculum materials and the course plan.

College/Universitiy’s Role Enhancement in Preparing ”The Entrepreneurs”.
Colleges/universities are demanded to be active in developing or forging
entrepreneurial mentality to the students to form them as dynamic and creative
individuals who have a desire to develop and reach achievement.

Improvement in Organizing Teaching - Learning Process
What is meant by Improvement in Organizing Teaching - Learning Process in
this point is the creating of teaching – learning process that gives more
opportunities for the students to learn actively from their daily life in the
society. Theoretical teaching – learning process should be equipped with the
process and field experience of doing business. The example of it is that the
students are trained to produce or market a product or service in the campus.
Refering to the above description, college/university doesn’t need to consider
heavily on the teaching – learning process that is applied in the curriculum or
teaching – learning method therefore the students can run into the process of
getting meaningful experience with the hope that the process they have gone
through will continue when they do business.
There are many reasons presented by the entrepreneurs when they are starting
up their business. The following are some of them, according to Meggison and
Byrd (2000).
1. Meeting Personal Objectives. The factors among others are:

Being independent
55

Earning more income

Supporting the family’s life

Finding new products
2. Achieving Business Objectives. Some factors are as follow:

Providing people’s need for products or services

Having profit

Having a concern on social life of either community or environment

Experiencing growth
In the theoretical term, entrepreneurial interest is called as entrepreneurial
intentionality (Bird 1989) that is defined as “a conscious state of mind that directs
attention (and therefore experience and action) toward a specific objective (goal)
or pathway to achieve it (means)”. The concept of entrepreneurial intentionality
can be considered more comprehensive than entrepreneurial propensity. Based on
entrepreneurial intentionality, the real entrepreneurship has to be started from an
intention of oneself and not only from a propensity. Further, Bird (1989) has
stated that “individuals with the intention to start a business not only have a
propensity to start, but in addition, adopt a rational behavior to reach their goal”.
It is clear that the individuals who have entrepreneurial interest will be able to
survive and succeed compared to those who only have propensity or other
tendencies.
Various former studies on entrepreneurial intentionality have tried to explain the
entrepreneurial interests from several points of view. One of the earliest is The
Shapero’s Entrepreneurial Event model (SEE) (Shapero 1982) presenting three
entrepreneurial intentionality factors that are: perception of the desirability,
56
propensity to act and perception of feasibility. Another famous entrepreneurial
intentionality model is based on planned behavior by Ajzen (Ajzen 1991) that
states three entrepreneurial intentionality factors as of subject’s attitudes toward
the behavior, subjective norms, and subject’s perception of behavioral control.
This research goes deeper into entrepreneurial intentionality that is based on
the model developed by Bird (1988) with dengan entrepreneurial intentionality
variables explained by five factors as in the study of Volery et.al (1997):
1. Invest, that is a motivation to start a business such as: need of job, desire of having
unlimited or extra earnings (other source of earnings out of monthly salary), as
well as a freedom of being appraised (having income) in accordance with hard
work and personal performance, or other kinds of motivation.
2. Creativity, that is a willingness to do something different, such as: developing
talent, making dream come true, creating something new and having challenging
or interesting job or others.
3. Autonomy, that is a desire to be free, independent and not be bound, like: being a
boss for him/herself, having flexibility in doing work in terms of place of work,
working hours, and others.
4. Status, that is related with the situation or external responses toward the
entrepreneur individual, such as: having a desire to continue family’s business,
upgrading status or prestigious image and having a pride as entrepreneur, and
others.
5. Market Opportunity, that is dealt with economic condition in the country that still
is developing and creating business opportunities.
57
C. The Methodology of Research
Respondents in this research are the students who have taken the course offered in
the entrepreneurship major in each even semester in the year 2010/2011 and the
graduates of FIA UAJ, and the total number of them is 120 people. Among 120
respondents, 12 informants were taken to be the participants of FGD (Focus
Group Discussion). Those are the students who have choosen entrepreneurship
major and the graduates who took entrepreneurship major and run their own
business after finishing the school.
Collected data are primer data. In this study, the primer data gained are
quantitative. The data were collected by distributing questionnaires to the
respondents with the criteria mentioned above.
In order to enrich the existing quantitative data, the researcher also collected
qualitative data. Qualitative data collection was conducted through FGD. In the
guideline of FGD implementation, the interviewer delivered questions asking
respondent’s opinions about entrepreneurial intentionality.
Sampling technique used is non probability sampling, particularly accidental
sampling and purposive sampling, either for quantitative or qualitative data. This
sampling technique is chosen by the researcher because the researcher considers
that this technique matches the target that is those respondents who can give
information needed by the researcher.
Quantitative data analysis technique used is:
1. Average statistical scale
58
Average statistical scale method is gained from the total of respondents’
response frequency multiplied by the scale then divided by the total of
respondents.
 Xi Yi
OMS = 
Notes:
OMS = average score of variables tested
Xi
= scale score
Yi
= respondents’ response frequency
n
= the number of respondents
2. Scale Range
In order to get the position of respondents’ response results from the
questionnaires, a scale range is used as described in the following formula:
RS =
(m - 1)
Notes:
RS
=
Scale Range
m
=
The number of response alternatives of each item
Scale Range in this research is:
RS = (5 - 1)
= 0.8
59
5
The interpretation of OMS value is as follow:
If OMS 4.21 – 5.00  Strongly agree
If OMS 3.41 – 4.20  Agree
If OMS 2.61 – 3.40  Moderately agree
If OMS 1.81 – 2.60  Less agree
If OMS 1.00 – 1.80
 Disagree
Further, the researcher applied technique of qualitative data analysis by using
content analysis.
D. The Analysis of Research Data on Entrepreneurial Intentionality factors
a. “Invest” factor.
Referring to the scale range, the OMS score of ”invest” factor in
entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,95. The most prominent factor of ”invest”
variable is that entrepreneur never retires and can do any works he likes to do.
Furthemore, the respondents also mention that they want to be entrepreneurs
not because they are forced or doen’t have any choices because of having no
office job. This findings affirm strongly the factor ”invest” as a driven factor
or motivation that emerges early to be in entrepreneurship and it is not because
of external forces, conditions or any influences.
b. “Creativity” factor.
60
Referring to the scale range, the OMS score of ”creativity” factor in
entrepreneurial intentionality is 4,28. All questions/sub-variables that are
tested have similar OMS scores. This shows more clearly that the respondents
have similar point of view that is entrepreneurship is interesting, challenging,
and allows them to develop their potentials or talents maximally. This findings
are interesting because they negates the assumptions that someone jumps into
entrepreneurship more because of trapped or under pressure condition. The
respondents who are highly educated and equipped with entrepreneurship
course have changed their point of view or mind set about entrepreneurship
itself. In spite of that, there is a small number of FGD participants who think
that either employees or entrepreneurs need creativity although in different
portion.
c. “Autonomy” factor.
Pointing to the scale range, the OMS score of ”autonomy” factor in the
entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,97. There are two interesting variables in
which the respondents seem not too see the factor of disliking of inferior and
doing other’s command as a driven factor toward entrepreneurial
intentionality. With their high education background, they really understand
that recent working world gives more opportunities for them to be free and put
themselves away from superior’s directives. Therefore, ”autonomy” factor is
understood as not the main driven factor of intentionality, and moreover they
also tend to say that there is a factor of ”bond” or ”lack of freedom too.
d. “Status” factor
Pointing to the scale range, the OMS score of ”status” factor in
entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,76. The appealing finding about this factor
61
is that the respondents have a pride or feel as real entrepreneurs because they
can get there independently and not just simply continuing family’s business.
The respondents also state that, in spite of the pride, the influence from the
family plays role, too.
It also can be seen from the research that the
respondents tend to prepare their generations to be entrepreneurs of their own
not of family’s business inheritance.
e. “Market Opportunity” factor
Referring to the scale range, the OMS score of ”market opportunity” factor in
entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,76. The interesting point in this factor is that
the respondents don’t count the big capital or money as their stimulus to be
entrepreneurs. They do it more because they realize that they have come to the
entrepreneurial era and have business ideas to make into reality. Another
enticing finding at this point is that all FGD participants don’t feel the benefits
of government programs of entrepreneurship. They would say that that the
programs might be good but still and all not on the target.
Looking at the OMS scores of those five entrepreneurial intentionality factors
above, it can be noticed that according to the respondents, ”creativity” variable
has the highest meanwhile ”market opportunity” variable has the lowest. We can
assume that the respondents are attracted or interested to be entrepreneurs because
they see it as something attractive, challenging, and potential for them to develop
themselves matched with their skill and competence. Moreover, it is interestingly
found that they have a belief that the opportunities will always come, nevertheless,
they are challenged to create opportunities for themselves and other people.
E. Summary
62
The entrepreneurship education in colleges/universities should put their emphasis in
changing the mind set or paradigm that sees entrepreneurship as the last or forced
choice or other reasons but because it is a professional alternative that is interesting
and challenging and allows someone to develop him/herself in maximum without
dependency to other party. Nevertheless, it also should be considered to provide real
and factual insights of globalization for the students outside the class so they will be
aware of millions of business opportunities in this country as well as other countries.5
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Ajzen, I. (1991), The Theory of Planned Behavior, Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Process, 50:179-211.
Aristo Surya (2007), Persepsi Mahasiswa Fakultas Ilmu Administrasi Unika Atma
Jaya Jakarta Terhadap Kurikulum Kewirausahaan Dalam Mempersiapkan
Sarjana Lulusannya Untuk Menjadi Young Entrepreneur Serta Mengatasi
Hambatan-Hambatan Dalam Memulai Usaha, penelitian belum dipublikasikan,
Fakultas Ilmu Administrasi Unika Atma Jaya Jakarta.
Aristo Surya dan Ati Cahayani (2011), Faktor-faktor yang Mendorong Timbulnya
Minat Berwirausaha Mahasiswa FIA UAJ dan Bagaimana Tingkat Kepuasan
Mereka Terhadap Proses Mengajar serta Materi Kuliah Peminatan
Kewirausahaan, penelitian belum dipublikasikan, FIABIKOM, Unika Atma
Jaya Jakarta.
Bird, B.J (1988), Implementing Entrepreneurial Ideas: The Case For Intention,
Academy of Management Review, 13 (3), 442-453.
Bird, B.J (1989), Entrepreneurial Behavior, Glenview IL, Scott, Foresman and
Company.
Boyd, N.G. and Vozikis, G.S (1994), The Influence of Self-Efficacy on the
Development of Entrpreneurial Intentions and Actions, Entrepreneurship Theory
& Practice. 18(4). 62-77.
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International Business School (JIBS) Sweden.
Endang Mulyani et.al (2010), Bahan Pelatihan Pengembangan Pendidikan
Kewirausahaan, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pusat Kurikulum
Kementrian Pendidikan Nasional.
5
Tampaknya pola pendidikan di Indonesia masih sangat kurang akan insight “melihat dunia”. Di era
globalisasi saat ini, sudah waktunya pola pendidikan kita di Indonesia mendorong para
siswa/mahasiswa untuk memiliki insight globalisasi pula. Sangat perlu untuk mengenal budaya, tradisi
berbagai negara di dunia, karakter serta gaya hidupnya serta bergaul dengan berbagai suku bangsa.
Semuanya ini akan menciptakan pribadi manusia yang mandiri, “gaul” (bukannya manusia yang
“kuper”) dan bisa mengeksplorasi berbagai peluang bisnis yang ada baik di negaranya maupun di
negara-negara lain di dunia. (Rhenald Kasali, Jawa Pos 8 Agustus 2011. Artikel lengkap dapat disimak
di lampiran)
63
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Utama, Jakarta.
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Education.
64
Analysis of Leadership Characteristics of Woman Entrepreneurs
Dr. Ati Cahayani
Dra. Pradewi Iedarwati, Msi, dan Kurnianing Isololipu, S.Sos., M.Com
Abstract
Even though women emancipation has been acknowledged since the era of RA
Kartini, but women’s position in the business-sphere still is still underestimated. It is
because of the stigma that business is a masculine thing that is fitter for men. In fact,
according to IWAPI, there are about 18.000 business women who become the
members of this association of which 85 % members deal in small and micro
businesses, 13% run medium business and 2% control big business. Moreover, about
30% private business in the world is run by women. This proves that women have
entrepreneurship.
For those women leading the businesses, they have to play role as leaders.
And, they also have responsibilities to the development of business and the
achievement of business goals. Seeing this important position of woman
entrepreneurs who also act as leaders in the business, the study about leadership
characteristics of woman entrepreneurs is conducted. The result shows that leadership
characteristics adhere in woman entrepreneurs
A. Introduction
Being an entrepreneur is not as easy as it looks, because there are a number of
obstructing factors, which are, knowledge and appropriate skills of entrepreneurship.
For woman entrepreneurs, there are more obstacles. It's not easy for a woman who
wants to be an entrepreneur because they should double her energy. In everyday life,
there are so many structures and system barriers that must be faced by women. In the
social structure or order, the women have been marginalized so that it can be said that
women’s access is nearly closed in various fields. We can see that only few women sit
at the top management level in the companies. In the meantime, an existing patriarchy
system also discriminates against women so that women's access in many areas is
increasingly difficult.
Although the system and structure are not friendly to women, but those do not
dampen the desire of women to be entrepreneurs. A study conducted in five major
cities (West Sumatra, West Java, East Java, West Kalimantan and South Sulawesi)
65
shows that the developments of micro, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have
been achieved by women entrepreneurs with business volume from 2.6 billion until
35 billion per year (Anonymous, 2006). Furthermore, the data reveals that the number
of women in the business reach 50.1 percent (National Portal of the Republic of
Indonesia, 2009). It shows that women have an important role in the business world.
The Women Empowerment Ministry has noted that of 46 million SMEs, about 60%
of them are managed by women (Femina, 2010). Although it seems woman
entrepreneurs are more engaged in small and medium businesses, but it still provide a
meaningful contribution in both domestic and national scale.
Normally, woman has little role as decision maker. In general, the most likely
decision and often done by women is related to household spendings because more
than 80% percent of women hold the family’s money (Fazriyati and Dini, 2011). But,
as entrepreneurs, women have a big role in decision making. Decision making is
precisely a part of the activities to be conducted by woman entrepreneurs. Sustainable
and successful entrepreneurial activity cannot be separated from the power-owning
character of the women. When women become leaders, they normally demonstrate
their ability as leaders with strong characters.
B. Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of Entrepreneurship
The term of entrepreneurship has lately more and more often been discussed, because
entrepreneurship is considered as one of the most effective ways to reduce
unemployment. The definition of entrepreneurship according to Robert D. Hisrich
(2010: 6) is “process of creating something new with value by devoting the necessary
time and effort; assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks and
uncertainties; and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal
66
satisfaction.” From that definition, it can be seen clearly that entrepreneurship is a
process, not a result. Entrepreneurship also inquires time and effort from the
entrepreneur. Meanwhile, the definition of entrepreneur according to Robert D.
Hisrich (2010) is: “an individual who takes initiatives to bundle resources in
innovative ways and is willing to bear the risk and/or uncertainty to act.” So,
entrepreneur is a person who has initiative to pool the resources innovatively and is
willing to take a risk and bear uncertainty.
The definitions of these entrepreneurs actually include three-dimensional
characters of entrepreneurship according to Wickham. Wickham (2004: h. 7) explains
that an entrepreneur can be considered as a manager who does an activity (within the
context of specific tasks and the way he/she performs the task), an agent of economic
change (in the context of the influence he/she has in the economic system and the
changes brought about by him/her) and an individual (in the context of psychological
condition, his/her personality and personal characteristics).
Characteristics of an entrepreneur are a bit more detailed described by John
Kao. Kao, as quoted by Kuratko and Hodgetts (2007: p. 118) explains that there are
11 characteristics of entrepreneurs, those are total commitment, determination and
perseverance; drive to achieve and grow; opportunity and goal orientation; taking
initiative and personal responsibility; persistent problem solving; realism and a sense
of humor; seeking and using feedback; internal locus of control; calculated risk
taking and risk seeking; low need for status and power; integrity and reliability.
Further, Hornaday (1982, as quoted by Kuratko dan Hodgetts, 2007: p. 119) describes
in details 42 characteristics that often arise in an entrepreneur, those are confidence;
energy and diligence; creativity; courage; egotism; and aggressiveness.
67
The results of research that has been done by Pradewi, Kurnianing, and
Cahayani of woman entrepreneurs who are the members of koperasi in Bojonegoro East Java, in 2010, obtained data that the respondents have a 3-dimensional female
entrepreneurship based on Wickham approach that also includes the 42
entrepreneurial characteristics of Hornaday. From the results of this study, there are
10 characters which are possessed by woman entrepreneurs in Bojonegoro, i.e.
confidence (3.72), honesty and integrity (3.39), positive response to challenges (3.38),
maturity and balance (3.35), optimism (3.31), orientation to clear goals (3.31),
responsibility (3.27), resourcefulness (3.26), time efficiency (3.26), perseverance and
determination (3.22). More data can be seen in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3 below.
Table 1 Personality Characteristics Based on Mean
No
Personality Characteristic
1
Confidence
2
Perseverance and determination
3
Ability to influence others
4
Ability to get along with others
5
Intelligence
6
Independence
7
Responsibility
8
Accuracy, thoroughness
9
Sense of power
10 Pleasant personality
11 Egotism
12 Courage
13 Sensitive to others
14 Honesty, integrity
15 Maturity, balance
Mean of Personality Characteristics
68
Mean
3,72
3,22
2,57
2,81
3,15
3,20
3,27
3,19
3,07
2,99
3,05
3,18
3,04
3,39
3,35
3,15
Table 2 Managerial Characteristics Based on Mean
No
Managerial Characteristics
1
Orientation to clear goals
2
Resourcefulness
3
Ability to take calculated risk
4
Optimism
5
Need to achieve
6
Versatility
7
Flexibility
8
Energy, diligence
9
Time competence, efficiency
10 Ability to make decision quickly
11 Cooperative
12 Profit orientation
13 Commitment
14 Ability to trust workers
Mean of Managerial Characteristics
Table 3 Agent of Change Characteristics Based on Mean
No
Agent of Change Characteristics
1
Dynamism
2
Creativity
3
Initiative
4
Positive response to challenges
5
Responsiveness to suggestion and criticism
6
Foresight
7
Ability to learn from mistake
8
Imagination
9
Perceptiveness
10 Toleration for ambiguity
11 Aggressiveness
12 Capacity for enjoyment
13 Efficacy
Mean of Agent of Change Characteristics
Mean
3.31
3.26
3.01
3.31
3.14
2.94
2.99
3.19
3.26
3.01
3.09
3.03
3.04
2.93
3.11
Mean
3.02
3.13
2.81
3.38
3.17
3.05
3.04
3.15
2.93
2.93
3.15
2.96
3.07
3.06
C. Leadership
A good leader should have leadership spirit. Northouse says, “Leadership is a process
whereby an individu influences a group of individu to achieve a common goal” (2004:
69
3). Northouse opinion is in harmony with the opinion from Robbins. Robbins stating,
“Leadership is the process of influencing a group toward the achieving of goals”
(Stephen P. Robbins et al., 2006: 568). Northouse and Robbins assume leadership as a
process of influence to achieve a goal. From the definition, it can be concluded that
there are a number of components of leadership, which are the process, the attempt to
influence others, the achievement of objectives. An attempt to influence can not run
properly if the leader does not understand the characters of subordinates and the
situation at hand, so it can be concluded, there are three main variables in the theory
of leadership, namely the characteristics of a leader, follower characteristics, and
situations. Yukl states, there are some characteristics of leaders, namely traits
(motives, personality, values), confidence and optimism, skills and expertise,
behavior, integrity and ethics, influence tactics, attributions about followers (Yukl,
2006: 14).
Meanwhile, Dubrin et al. said, there are some leadership characteristics, as
shown in the table below:
Table 4 Leadership Characteristics
Innovative
Dependability
Urgency
Integrity orientation/honest
Need for achievement
Conformity
Sound relationships/good interpersonal skills
Agreeableness
Adaptability
Persistence
High energy levels
Verbal facility
Relevant knowledge
Self-confidence
Credibility-through achievement or status
Self acceptance
70
Self control
Source: Dubrin et al., Leadership, 2003.
Comparison of the characteristics of entrepreneurship and leadership characteristics
generates the following data:
Table 5 Leadership Characteristics and Entrepreneurship Characteristics
Leader
Entrepreneurship
Innovative
Dependability
Urgency
Integrity orientation/honest
Need for achievement
Conformity
Sound
relationships/good
interpersonal skills
Agreeableness
Adaptability
Persistence
High energy levels
Verbal facility
Relevant knowledge
Self-confidence
Credibility-through
achievement or status
Self acceptance
Self control
Creativity
Responsibility
Aggressiveness
Honesty, integrity
Need to achieve
Ability to get along with others;
cooperative; pleasant
personality
Sensitive to others
Dynamism; flexibilities
Perseverance and determination;
sense of power; commitment;
efficacy
Intelligence; Versatility
Confidence
Ability to learn from mistake
Maturity, balance
From Table 5 above, it can be seen that most of the characteristics of a leader is
owned by a woman entrepreneur. Thus, it can be said that the characteristics of
leadership is also in the entrepreneurial characteristics.
D. Resume
71
It is almost impossible if an entrepreneur does not have the characteristics of
leadership because entrepreneurship must also have the ability to lead in all aspects of
its business. Although an entrepreneur does not have employees or subordinates who
are led, but at least, an entrepreneur is required to be able to lead him/herself in
managing the business. The ability to lead is more necessary when an entrepreneur
has to lead a number of employees, so she can more concentrate on business
development and strategic matters, rather than on operational matters. For woman
entrepreneurs, characteristics of leadership also are absolutely essential for the
business development and success.
References:
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Menengah dan Koperasi”, Jurnal Pengkajian Koperasi dan UKM, no. 1,
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Dubrin, Andrew J et al. (2003). Leadership, 2nd Asia-Pacific Edition. Queensland:
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Fazriyati, W. and Dini (2011). “Celah Bisnis dari Kekhawatiran Perempuan”
(http://female.kompas.com/read/2011/03/30/12511555/Celah.Bisnis.dari.Kekh
awatiran.Perempuan). Retrieved at October 3, 2011.
Femina (2010). “Perempuan Sukses Berbisnis karena Pakai Hati.”
(http://www.langitperempuan.com/2010/07). Retrieved at August 3, 2011.
Hisrich, R. D., Peters, M. P., & Sheperd, D.A. (2010). Entrepreneurship, 8th ed.
Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Iedarwati, Pradewi, Ati Cahayani, dan Kurnianing Isololipu (2010).
“Jiwa
Kewirausahaan Di Kalangan Wirausaha Perempuan Anggota Koperasi di
Kabupaten Bojonegoro, Jawa Timur”, Hasil Penelitian.
Kuratko, D.F. & Hodgetts R.M. (2007). Entrepreneurship: Theory, Process, Practice,
Seventh Edition, Ohio: Thomson.
Northouse, Peter G (2004). Leadership: Theory and Practice. California: Sage
Publication.
Robbins, Stephen P., et al (2006). Management. 4th ed., New South Wales: Pearson
Education Australia.
Simon, Herbert A (1997). Administrative Behavior. 4th ed., New York: The Free Press
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Global. (Document ID: 2238861151).
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(http://www.deptan.go.id/bdd/admin/uu/UU-25-92.pdf). Diunduh August 3,
2011.
Wickham, P. A. (2004). Strategic Entrepreneurship, Third Edition, Essex: Prentice
Hall.
Yukl, Gary (2006). Leadership in Organization, 6th Edition, New Jersey: Pearson
International Edition.
73
The Characteristics of Women’s Powerfulness in Entrepreneurship Dimension
By
Pradewi Iedarwati, Ati Cahayani, Kurnianing Isololipu
Abstract
It is an inevitable situation that half of Indonesia’s population experiencing
marginalization because they are women. Indonesia’s GEM rank at about 96 out of
109 was an expression of marginalization of Indonesian women. However,
marginalization did not discourage of women out of the powerlessness situation that
has plunged them into poverty.
Women’s participation in the activity of female entrepreneurship is a breakthrough
effort to escape from powerlessness and poverty. Women’s Ministry records of 46
millions micro, small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Approximately, 60% of
managers are women. Infact, percentage of women in doing business is higher then
men. It is about 50.1 percent versus 49.9 percent. The active role of women in
entrepreneurship becomes the starting point for improving their productive role in the
public sphere.
The dimensions of entrepreneurship which include personality traits, managerial traits
and agent of change traits reflect the character of women’s empowerment. Women
Entrepreneurship Study explained that the scope of the attitude of confidence, honest
and wise, responsive to the challenges as well as having clear goals and optimistic
become the dominant characteristic of women entrepreneurship.
I. Introduction
The women existence in the economic life is, indeed, perceptible in Indonesia.
Nevertheless, the importance of women role and their potential in the process of
economic development aren’t truly realized. In spite of that, a lot of women have
brought up the solutions to the family’s economic problem. Since the era of
Kartini up to today, a creative economic phenomenon has been carried out by
women so they are able to show their existence in their business or
entrepreneurship. Besides, when Indonesia’s economic was in the crisis and a
74
large number of labors were cut off, the women took over the economic sectors by
running in the informal sectors. It seems that women take glance more to informal
sectors because of their comfortability and quick gain. Since five years ago,
informal sectors that have been the most attractive for women are the hospitality
and trade sectors. This fact is supported by the number of women labors’
participation that is 52 percent in the developed countries, although it’s still under
men’s that reach 84 percent, according to Gender World Bank consultant, Yulia
Immajati (Maftuhah, 2011).
In the event of Women and the Economy Summit (WES) in the APEC
framework in San Francisco, USA, on 16 September 2011, Marty Natalegawa,
The Minister of Foreign Affairs of The Republic of Indonesia, as one of the major
speakers, delivered Indonesia’s viewpoint in High Level Policy Dialogue at the
WES Plenary closing – San Francisco Declaration: “Inclusion of Women as an
Economic Growth Strategy”. This series of events yielded San Francisco
Declaration that covers four points of cooperation plan to improve the women’s
role in economy; they are: a) the increasing of the access to capital b) access to
market c) capacity and skills d) leadership. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Republic of Indonesia representing the government stated that the increasing of
public’s awareness on the importance of women’s role in economic matters,
particularly in overcoming global crisis which has been occurring until now and
creating international society’s restlessness, needs to be executed. To make the
improvement of women’s role into reality, it’s a must that there’s a leadership and
cooperation as well as collaboration among all parties. Further, Marty Natalegawa
said, “It’s proven that women give their contribution in the process of recent
global economy recovery.” In Indonesia, women’s role in the economy is
75
sufficiently big. They involve themselves in 39 percent of overall micro and small
businesses and 18 percent of the middle and large businesses. The number of
middle businesses (UKM) carried out by women has increased in the last decade.
In Indonesia, the women’s role in arousing economy especially in small and
middle business sectors can’t be denied. Indonesia plays its active part in the
women and economy discussion in the APEC framework (The Ministry of
Foreign Affairs’ website, 2011).
The Ministry of Women Empowerment has recorded that 60 percent of the 46
million of micro, small and middle businesses (UMKM) are managed by women
(The Ministry of Women and Children Empowerment, 2009). Furthermore, the
percentage of woman entrepreneurs reaches 50.1 percent compared to men that is
49.9 percent(The National Portal of The Republic of Indonesia, 2009). The active
role of women as economy actors put themselves in the position that has the equal
opportunity and space to act in the public where dominantly occupied by men.
Behind the women’s eagerness and capability as well as public’s role involvement
in the entrepreneurship, there can be seen the characters of women empowerment
as women’s powerfulness (keberdayaan).
II. Women Power
Developing is a process and an effort of change to reach the man’s more
prosperous life without looking at genders. Millenium Development Goals
(MDGs) becomes the direction of women’s life quality improvement. Millenium
Declaration that was signed by 188 country members of The United Nations is a
commitment of leaders in the world to actualize eight goals of Millenium
Development that involve a) fight against poverty and hunger
education to all
b) realize basic
c) encourage gender equality and women empowerment
76
d)
reduce children mortality
e) reduce death number because of maternal
combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other contagious diseases
environment and
f)
g) conserve the
h) promote global partnership for development. Indonesia is
one of the countries that will sign MGDs in 2015. The quality of women’s life that
is not quite satisfying is a result of the development approach which ignores
gender equality and impartiality as women’s empowerment variable. This starts
from the women discrimination that leads the women to not have access,
opportunity, and control on development as well as not feel the benefits of the
development which are fair and equal as what men get (Haryanto, 2011).
Based on the population cencus, the number of Indonesian women came to
118,048,783 in 2010 or similar to 49 percent of the total population which was
approximately 238 million. This large number of women population in Indonesia
isn’t in line with its quality. Facts often find out that women are behind in the
process of development because the awareness of the importance of women’s
quality improvement as human resources is still low. Gender Empowerment
Index (GEM) becomes a marginal sign of women. Indonesia’s GEM is in the
position of 96 among 109 countries (UNDP’s website, 2010) so that it makes
Indonesia have to work hard to improve its women’s quality which is now still in
the poor condition of poverty and hunger, low education, high rate of maternal
death and vulnerability from contagious diseases.
The increasing women’s capacity has a large coverance including education,
health, economy, politic, law, religion and culture. The improvement of women’s
capacity is an effort to empower women so they get the same opportunity of
having the development benefits in various sectors. Women’s powerfulness
(keberdayaan) and equal position is one of the indicators of wealth improvement
77
of a country. Ana Revenga, Co-Director of The World Development from World
Bank gave her statement on gender equality that economic development policy
has to encourange gender equality. She said, “There should be a good economic
development policy that leads women to the access of labors, market, and
entrepreneurship.” This can yield better economic growth by giving support and
creating the economic opportunity for the women especially in industrial and
informal sectors as well as in entrepreneurial business. In the meantime, Andrew
Manson, The Coordinator of Gender Regional World Bank for East and Pacific
Asia exposed the problems faced by Pacific Asia countries in developing
economic opportunities for women; they are access to land, capital-credit (loan),
education, domestic and economic interest conflicts as well as social-cultural
norms that put women in a discriminative position. Therefore, it is essential to
eliminate those problems and lead women to the productive economic sectors
(JIBI, 2011).
The micro, small, and middle businesses (UMKM) that are mostly managed
by women can significantly
help Indonesia to be resistant to global crisis’
impacts. Indonesia has 51.21 million of UMKMs, which 60 million of them are
managed by women. Women have contributed themselves to 55.6 percent of
Gross Domestic Product, according to Jonhar Johar, The Asisstant of The Third
Division of Women and Children Empowerment, The Ministry of Women and
Children Empowerment. Further, Jonhar said that micro business was able to
provide job opportunity for 91.8 million people. This number equals to 93.33
percent of the total women labors in Indonesia (Suprapto dan Suryani, 2011).
Central Statistic Bureau (BPS) recorded that the number of women as smallmiddle business actors have shown a significant increase from 40.79 percent in
78
2000 to 60-80 percent of overall 46-49 million of small-middle business (UKM)
actors in 2008. Bambang Ismawan (2003, as quoted in the Ministry of Women
and Children Empowerment, 2009) said that the development intervention has
been given by women through their meaningful role that gives multiple effects to
the solutions of family’s problems such as family nutrition, health, and children
education. Women are considered as a proactive group that has predominance in
managing the economy of the households and utilizing economic opportunities
optimally in dealing with economic crisis’ impacts by creating employment and
providing products and services in reasonable price to overcome poverty. Meutia
Hatta (2008, as quoted in the Ministry of Women and Children Empowerment’s
website, 2009) explained that women are a proactive and realible group in
managing economy and potential to be disciplined and trackable in their ability to
repay loans that nearly have reached 100 percent. Women will not be a burden or
object but a potential and productive asset in the development if they have
powerfulness (keberdayaan).
III. Entrepreneurship Dimensions
The subject of Entrepreneurship has become a wide discussion lately but it is
rarely admitted that most of the micro, small and middle entrepreneurs (60
percent) are women. Women entrepreneurs in Indonesia, who run in the small
business, reach 85 percent, middle 13 percent and two percent in large business
(Women in Business, 2011). It is no more the time to do nothing with the big
potential that it will result loss when that potential and opportunity are not
utilized. Women have to be able and willing to motivate themselves and show
their existence. Therefore, they deserve to get special attention because of their
79
involvement in entrepreneurial activities to meet the goals of improving family’s
prosperity.
So many previous studies have been conducted to see the entrepreneurial
business and its aspects. Wickham (2004, p. 7) explained that an entrepreneur can
be considered as a manager handling an activity (in the context of certain task and
how to accomplish it), an agent of economic change (in the context of their
influence to the economic system and the impacts resulted by them), and an
individual (in the context of their psychological condition, personality, and
personal characteristics).
In conclusion, those three roles mentioned previously
are carried out by an entrepreneur in accordance with its function.
John Kao (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2007, p. 118) mentioned about 11
characteristics of entrepreneurship which are total commitment, determination and
perseverance; drive to achieve and grow; opportunity dan goal orientation;
taking initiative and personal responsibility; persistent problem solving; realism
and a sense of humor; seeking and using feedback; internal locus of control;
calculated risk taking and risk seeking; low need for status and power; integrity
and reliability. Stevenson and Gumpert (1985, as quoted in Kuratko dan Hodgetts,
2007, p. 118) stated imagination, flexibility dan willingness to accept risk as the
characteristics of them who have entrepreneurship spirit in the organization.
Further, Hornaday (1982, as quoted in Kuratko dan Hodgetts, 2007, p. 119)
explained in details about 42 characteristics of an entrepreneur such as
confidence; energy and diligence; creativity; courage; egotism and aggresiveness.
With those many characteristics of entrepreneurship spirit, it can be said that
everybody can be an entrepreneur. What makes it different between the successful
and the unsuccessful one is how he/she process the imagination and creative
80
thinking with the ability of working systematically and logically (Kuratko dan
Hodgetts, 2007, p. 143).
The research done by Pradewi, Kurnianing dan Cahayani to three women
entrepreneurs of cooperatives in Bojonegoro – East Java revealed the 3
dimensions of woman entrepreneurship based on Wickham’s approach (2004, p.7)
that involve personality, managerial, and being change agent.
Those three
dimensions cover 42 characteristics of entrepreneurship (Kuratko dan Hodgetts,
2007, p. 119). That research also found 10 predominant characters based on their
average scores gotten by the women entrepreneurs who were examined; those
characters are self-confident (3.72), honest and moral (3.39), responsive (3.38),
wise (3.35), confident in achieving success (3.31), purposeful (3.31), responsible
(3.27), competent in managing time (3,26), competent in managing the business
(3.26), and tough (3.22). Those 10 characters of women entrepreneurs are
grouped into three dimensions of entrepreneurship as it can be seen in the
following table:
The Dimensions of Woman Entrepreneurship
No
1
Personality
Confidence
Managerial
Change agent
Have confidence to Be responsive to challenge
succeed
2
Honesty and Morality
Have clear objectives
3
Responsibility
Have ability to run
the business
81
4
Persistence
Be able to manage
the time
5
Wisdom
Based on the points of view of Zimmerer, and Scarborough, 1998;
Kuratko&Hoodgets,
2007
(Anonymous,
2011),
the
following
analysis
of
entrepreneurship dimensions explains the power and powerfulness of the women as
entrepreneurs:
a. Personality Dimension
Women entrepreneurs have confidence of self-ability to succeed. They are able to
control themselves based on ethics and honesty and to be responsible personally for
the results of their efforts. An ability to maintain the successful business for a long
period shows women’s toughness. Women entrepreneurs have an ability to accept
the environment diversity that affects their business’s success and certainly needs
wisdom to run the business. In accordance with Meutia Hatta’s point of view saying
that nearly100 percent of women entrepreneurs are able to repay the loan assistance.
b. Managerial Dimension
Women entrepreneurs have a competence of running business with clear objectives
by working hard, spending time and money even experiencing failure but they are
still optimistic to maintain the business and get the success at the end despite a long
process. In line with what has been said by Bambang Ismawan that women is a
proactive group that has predominance in taking care of household’s economy and
utilizing economic opportunity optimally to deal with the impacts of economic crisis
82
by creating employment and producing products and services in reasonable price to
overcome poverty.
c. Dimension of being change agent
Women entrepreneurs have flexibility to accept changes and responsiveness to face
environment change influencing on their businesses. The success of maintaining
business can’t be separated from the ability of adjusting oneself and business to be
safety valve in the critical condition and situation. Women entrepreneurs have their
part in encouraging women’s role to be change agents because it becomes a
considerable economic activity in creating employment moreover contribute 55.6
percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Micro, small and middle businesses (UMKM) which most of them are managed by
women can significantly help Indonesia to be resistant to the impacts of global
crisis. Indonesia has 51.21 million of micro, small and middle businesses and 60
percent of them are managed by women, as Jonhar Johar stated.
The analysis of research’s results about the Entrepreneurship Spirit of the Women
have yielded conceptual abstract that women’s powerfulness is adhered to women
entrepreneurship dimensions.
IV. Conclusion
The involvement and contribution of the women in economic activities as business
actors are not deniable. The tendency of the increasing women number as economic
actors in various sectors has shown their ability to break through the belief that the
public’s space dominantly belongs to men. Moreover, the inadequate presence of the
country doesn’t stop the women to find way-outs.
The problems of system,
83
structure, and culture do not weaken their spirit of entrepreneurship to overcome their
life problems to survive. Although the economic system is not friendly to the
women’s entrepreneurial business, they still have their confidence to set a strategy to
deal with the rigidity of the system. Even they keep being existent in the business
while the structure obviously set them aside.
The stiffness of culture that women
often face never stop their steps to withstand, work, and act.
Women’s
entrepreneurial activities shows their power and powerfulness giving big contribution
to the family’s wealth improvement that encourage the achiement of MGDs
(eliminating poverty and hunger as well as encouraging gender equality). Therein, a
way for women to break through the system, structure and culture that marginize and
tire them exists .
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Anonimus, 2011, ‘Karakteristik Kewirausahaan’
http://indofolder.info/karaktersitik-kewirausahaan.html. Diunduh tanggal 13
Juni 2011
Haryanto, R., 2011, ‘Pemberdayaan perempuan untuk perkembangan ekonomi’.
http://www.wrp-diet.com/pemberdayaan-perempuan-untuk-perkembanganekonomi/ Diunduh tanggal 23 September 2011
Iedarwati, Pradewi, Ati Cahayani, dan Kurnianing Isololipu, 2010, “Jiwa
Kewirausahaan Di Kalangan Wirausaha Perempuan Anggota Koperasi di
Kabupaten Bojonegoro, Jawa Timur”, Hasil Penelitian.
JIBI, 2011, ‘Bank Dunia: Kesetaraan gender akan dorong pertumbuhan ekonomi
Indonesia’, 20 September 2011.
http://bisnis-jabar.com/index.php/2011/09/bank-dunia-kesetaraan-genderakan-dorong-pertumbuhan-ekonomi-indonesia/.
Diunduh
tanggal
23
September 2011
Kementrian Luar Negeri, 2011, ‘RI dorong peran perempuan dalam perekonomian
untuk
atasi
krisis
global’,
17
September
2011.
http://www.kemlu.go.id/Pages/News.aspx?IDP=5149&l=id.Diunduh tanggal
23 September 2011
Kementrian PP dan PA, 2009, ‘Membangun semangat kewirausahaan berbasis
kesetaraan gender strategi dalam menanggulangi kemiskinan’, 14 Desember
2009.
http://www.menegpp.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id
=212:membangun-semangat-kewirausahaan-berbasis-kesataraan-genderstrategi-dalam-menanggulangi-kemiskinan&catid=36:pressrelease&Itemid=87. Diunduh tanggal 9 juni 2011
84
Kuratko, D.F. & Hodgetts R.M, 2007, Entrepreneurship: Theory, Process, Practice,
Seventh Edition, Ohio: Thomson.
Maftuhah, G. N., 2011, ‘World Bank: Perempuan RI berjaya di bisnis informal’, 20
September 2011
http://economy.okezone.com/read/2011/09/20/320/504710/world-bankperempuan-ri-berjaya-di-bisnis-informal. Diunduh 23 September 2011
Perempuan Berbisnis, 2011, ’Motivasi bisnis bagi perempuan’, 22 Maret 2011.
http://perempuanberbisnis.com/motivasi-bisnis-bagi-perempuan.html.
Diunduh tanggal 9 juni 2011
Portal Nasional Republik Indonesia, 2009, Perempuan Pebisnis Jadi Barometer
Kesetaraan Gender.
http://www.indonesia.go.id/id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id
=9688&Itemid=708. Diunduh 8 September 2009
Statistics of the Human Development Report, 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistic
Diunduh 28 Juli 2010.
Suprapto, H., & Suryani, R.K., 2011, ‘Perempuan sumbang 55,6 % PDB’, 22 Juni
2011.
http://bisnis.vivanews.com/news/read/228433-perempuan-sumbang-55-6-pdb. Diunduh 22 Juni 2011
Wickham, P. A., 2004, Strategic Entrepreneurship, Third Edition, Essex: Prentice
Hall.
85
A LITERATURE STUDY FROM DEVELOPING AND DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES: HOW SMEs GAIN BUSINESS COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES
TO GROW BUSINESS THROUGH ENTREPRENEURIAL ORIENTATION (EO)
Sutarjo, Ir., MM., MBA.
Business Administration Study, Institut Manajemen Telkom, email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper to discuss the result on research papers conducted in USA, Europe, Africa and
Asia based on literature study; which is expected to be useful for insight for SMEs
development in Indonesia since entrepreneurial activity is important to overcome
unemployment.
Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) reflected in organizational processes, behavior and
decision-making style such as innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, autonomy, and
competitive aggressiveness. They suggested that EO effects directly, indirectly, independently
and jointly on SME’s business performance. Firms with EO continuously scan their
operating environment to define new business and opportunities. Innovative and proactive
traits help SMEs survival during turbulent times. EO dimensions are important to enhance
capabilities to build network, to pursue growth strategy and to improve marketing
performance.
Considerable scope for future research and important implication for government,
universities, and development agencies is to focus on assistances in the development of
organizational capabilities to increase EO which will be effective in enhancing SMEs’
competitive advantages to grow business.
Keywords:
Entrepreneurial orientation, SME, competitive advantages, innovativeness, pro-activeness,
risk-taking, autonomy, and competitive aggressiveness
Introduction
Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) play an important role in economic
development and income growth, and account for more than 99.8% of the total number of
enterprises in Indo-nesia. Some SMEs in Indonesia have the potential to contribute to
international trade (Kusuma-wardhani et al, 2009). SMEs employ 96.2 percent of the total
workforce (Tambunan, 2011), significantly promotes new jobs, new business, and contributes
heavily in reducing poverty, which reflect how Indonesia really depends on SME growth and
SME will become a key factor to develop Indonesian economy (Pribadi and Kanai, 2011).
Increasing business competition, in particular against large and modern competitors, put
SMEs in a vulnerable position (Indarti and Langenberg, 2004), hence it is important to learn
how entrepreneurial orientation (EO) help the SMEs increase their competitive advantages
and grow their business.
EO represents developing cumulative body of knowledge, and
refers to the strategy making processes that provide organizations with a basis for
entrepreneurial decisions and actions (Rauch et al, 2009).
Literature Review
Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are different from large firms by
uncer-tainty, innovation and evolution while they are operating business in more
uncertain exter-nal environment than large firms. SME need more resources to compete in
the business envi-ronment so they need help and support to compete and survive in
their business (Thri-kawala, 2011). SMEs’ competitiveness in Indonesia scored below 4
from scale of 1-10 which is lower compared to those in Philippines, China, Malaysia and
Thailand, while innovation is difficult for entrepreneurs as they face more constraints in
accessing the resources to implement new processes and techniques (Tambunan, 2011). Some
of the weaknesses of SMEs in Indonesia is weak in entrepreneurial spirit, low
commitment of leadership to implement market orientation in the organization and lack of
training (Suliyanto, 2011).
Entrepreneur Orientation (EO)
"Entrepreneurial" is often associated with venturesome or creative in acquiring
the resources to build and grow the business (Birley in Teoh and Chong, 2007). Given the
importance of entrepreneurship for the firm’s performance, entrepreneurial orientation (EO)
could be an important measure of the way a firm is organized (Matanda, 2008). EO is a
construct that addresses the mindset of firms engaged in the pursuit of venture creation; it
87
refers to the processes, practices, and decision-making activities, such as firm’s strategic
decision-making styles and business practices (Naldi et al, 2007). EO may be intensely
related to performance when it com-bines with the appropriate strategy and proper
environment conditions (Tonesakulrungruang, 2009). There are five dimensions of EO:
autonomy, innovativeness, risk taking, proactiveness, and competitive aggressiveness which
have been useful for characterizing and distinguishing key entrepreneurial processes
(Lumpkin and Dess, 1996).
Autonomy is the independent action undertaken by entrepreneurial leaders or teams
to bring new venture (Matanda, 2008) in bringing idea or vision and carrying it through to
completion; or the ability to be self-directed in the pursuit of opportunities (Lumpkin and
Dess, 1996). Entrepreneurs who have the autonomy make strong and decisive decisions and
guide the direction of the business (Coulthard, 2006). Innovativeness reflects a firm's
tendency in engaging new ideas, novelty, experimentation, and creative processes that may
result in new products, services, or technological processes (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996), it can
be accessed through the indicator of involvement in R&D, the extent of innovation and
qualifications of the workforce (Quince & Whittaker, 2003). Risk-taking dimension measure
the degree to which managers are willing to make large and risky resource commitments
(Coulthard, 2006). Entrepreneurs are individuals who bear risks and risk-taking, it is decisive
for both entrepreneurs and firms to evaluate factors of risk compared to the resources and
then carefully strategizing in order to minimize the risk uncertainty (Osman et al, 2011).
Proactiveness defined as acting in anticipation of future problems, needs, or changes, and
crucial to an EO because it suggests a forward-looking perspective that is accompanied by
innovative or new-venturing activity (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996); by shaping the environment;
introducing new products and brands ahead of competition; eliminating declining stages of
88
product life cycle; participating in emerging markets; and by anticipating and pursuing new
opportunities (Coulthard, 2006). Competitive aggressiveness is the intensity of a firm’s
effort to outperform rivals and is characterized by a strong offensive posture or aggressive
response to the actions of competitors (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996), which is accomplished by
setting ambitious market share goals and taking bold steps to achieve them, such as cutting
prices or profitability (Coulthard, 2006).
EO and Performance
Increasing the EO of the firm is related positively with financial performance
(Lumpkin and Dess, 1996). EO is strongly associated with a motivation to engage in
entrepreneurial activities and contributes to the firm’s performance, which is defined as a
compound measure incorporating dimensions of growth as well as financial performance; it is
regarded as a key ingredient for a firm’s success. A firm’s EO is the company's top
management’s propensity to take calculated risks, to be innovative, and to demonstrate
proactiveness. In short, EO is an entrepreneurial process comprising of the methods,
practices, and decision-making styles managers use to act entrepreneurially (Thai, 2010). EO
enhances performance through focusing attention on the utilization of these resources to
discover and exploit opportunities (Wiklund and Sherpherd 2003) and developing new
products and services as changes in the environment provide opportunities for the enterprises
such as technological, social or market (Fang et al, 2009).
Methodology
This study is based on the literature review. The research studies that have been
conducted in the developed and developing countries are taken into consideration and
discussed in this study. It is on purpose to include both developed and developing countries
89
and different kinds of industries in which SMEs operate to understand the insight on how EO
help SMEs gain competitive advantages to grow the business. According Frank et al (2010)
to understand impacts of EO to business performance, it is a need to consider the background
in which the relevant firms are embedded; relative impacts on business performance vary
over the different stages of the industry’s life cycle and relation between EO and performance
varies substantially according to national culture.
Results
Country
#
Research By
USA
Patel and D’Souza
(2009)
Netherlands
Kraus et al (2010)
Sweden
Respondents
270
SMEs’ Field Activities
Result of the Study
SMEs in export activities
Risk taking & innovative reduce impediment and
support export performance
164
Operate in the manufacturing
industry, average age of the firm
is 43 years.
Proactive firm behavior positively contributes to SME
performance during the economic crisis; innovative
SMEs perform better in turbulent environments.
Wiklund and
Shepherd (2005)
465
Firms from knowledge-intensive
manufacturing, labor-intensive
manufacturing, professional
services, and retail
Austria
Frank et al (2010).
85
SME’s(incl. micro-businesses).
Components; distribution and
control apparatus; motors,
generators, and transformers;
and communication technology.
Age more than 10 years, 40%
more than 40 years.
EO (i.e., proactiveness, innovativeness, and
risk-taking) positively influences small business
performance. Using financial capital and environment as
moderators, EO accentuates small business performance
positively and strongly.
Environmental dynamism and firm age: newer firms
consider their environment to be more dynamic than do
older firms. There is a relatively high and significant
correlation between business performance, as a
dependent variable, and access to financial capital. There
is consistently significant influence of firm age and
access to financial capital.
Canada
St-Jean et al (2010)
717
Taiwan
Chen et al (2007)
104
Forestry contractor: logging,
transportation, forest road
construction, age 18 years
Start-ups venture in Taiwan
Turkey
Gürbüz and Aykol
(2009)
221
Small manufacturing firms in
Istanbul.
Zimbabwe
& South
Africa
Krauss et al (2005)
248
Firms in scrap, metal merchants,
garages, furniture mfg, grocery,
tailors, soap mfg and up-market
businesses in urban office
buildings. Firm’s age is >1 year
Kenya
(Matanda, 2008)
384
Pakistan
Osman et al (2011)
303
Small-scale earthenware
manufacturers
182 manufacturing, 65
services and 56 retail/trade
firms
Sri Lanka
Eriksson and
73
Their core business is within
EO firm seek simultaneous growth in farm industry, then
diversify to back up and sustain in farm industry
Autonomy, proactivity, innovative support new venture
growth shows significant relationship between social
capital and entrepreneurial performance for new
ventures. There are strong interactions between social
interaction and autonomy
Proactive combined with organic structure support sales
growth, instead of risk taking they adopt calculated risk.
EO affects firm growth. EO achieves better results when
it is supported by the appropriate management activities.
EO and its components are valuable predictors for
business’ success. Risk taking & innovative support
growth, however mostly lack of proactiveness and risktaking. Most important EO components for performance
are the owners’ achievement orientation and personal
initiative.
There is a positive and statistically significant
relationship between EO and new market entry.
Innovativeness & proactiveness significantly and
positively related to all three dimensions of MO, that is,
customer orientation, competitor orientation and interfunctional coordination. Risk-taking is positively
associated to all three dimensions of MO (marketing
orientation).
EO and resources are correlated to some extent,
90
Thunberg (2006)
software development and
services. Most of the firms, due
to the nature of the industry, also
export products and
services internationally.
China
Fang et al (2009)
199
Manufacturing sector (57%),
wholesale, retail, construction,
education, chemicals,
telecommunications, finance,
insurance, established in 3 years.
Thailand
Ussahawanitchakit
(2007)
140
Textile businesses in Thailand
Malaysia
Awang et al (2007)
615
Agro based: fishing, agriculture
service, livestock
Malaysia
Zainol and
Ayadurai (2011)
162
78% services, 6% Information
& Communication Technology
(ICT), 5.6% were manufacturing, 4.9% primary agriculture,
4.3% manufacturing related
services and 0.6% agro-based.
Most firms operated between 1
to 3 years (98%bumiputera
/Malaysia indigenous).
Indonesia
Anggraeni (2009)
24(small
study)
SMEs in creative industry in
East Java, owners are Petra
University’s alumni.
Indonesia
Suliyanto (2011)
200
Small and Medium Enterprises
(SMEs) running food and
beverage sector in the
residency Banyumas areas.
especially the technical resources together with that one
concerned with labor flexibility. Technical knowledge
creates correlation between EO and knowledge based
resources (managerial experience, marketing and
customer knowledge with technical and product
development skills) important in explaining growth. EO
has correlation to sales growth. Proactiveness and
autonomy shows significant and strong relation to the
sales levels. The right combination of knowledge based
resources is important in creating competitive
advantage.
For new ventures, the difficulty of acquiring resources
has not prevented their entrepreneurial activities. On the
contrary, new ventures, which find it more difficult to
acquire resources, have stronger EO. At the same time,
formal organization could promote proactiveness in the
competition.
All innovativeness, capacity to innovate, and willingness
to change have a significant positive effect on Thai
textile businesses' export performance. Gain
understanding how textile businesses in Thailand utilize
their innovation capability to improve business
operations, gain competitive advantage, and achieve high
global competitiveness.
EO dimension-effectiveness SMAE. EO dimensions
among SMAEs entrepreneurs showed strong relationship
to knowledge base elements of human capital development and knowledge and network variables (consist of
strategic alliance and social’s networking capabilities).
EO has a direct relationship with the firm’s performance.
Bumiputera or indigenous Malay entrepreneurship
differs slightly from the conventional Western concepts
of entrepreneurship, the differences contributed by the
background of the Malays as a communitarian
society of Muslims. Malays are still divided along class
lines and status conscious, the study reveals that
developing an entrepreneurship culture in a historically
agrarian society, is challenging as well as time requiring
and relentless efforts.
SMEs in the creative industry with formal venture
having higher EO compared to sole proprietorship,
SMEs with higher degree of EO have higher sales
turnover.
EO has a positive effect on customer orientation and
competitor orientation, marketing reward system has
a positive effect on customer orientation and
competitor orientation, customer orientation has
positive affect marketing performance.
Discussion
Developed countries
USA, Netherlands, Sweden, Austria and Canada are developed countries or advanced
economies, while Taiwan is Newly Industrialized Asian Economies which categorized as
developed country (IMF, 2011).
Studies in the developed countries provide learning that there are various dimensions
of EO which influence SMEs competitive advantages depending on the industry/sector, age
91
of the firm and the environment dynamic. For example in the USA, proactivity and risktaking play a role in enhancing export performance of SMEs and proactive in nature are
better at reducing export impediments. This study provides insight how policy maker and the
agency will help SME’s in Indonesia to improve the performance in export market by
fostering proactiveness. Proactiveness is significantly and positively correlated with business
performance which is based on the study in Netherlands, interaction of innovativeness with
turbulence such as 2009 economic crisis in Europe are having significant positive relation to
business performance. In Sweden, EO (i.e., proactiveness, innovativeness, and risk taking)
positively influences SMEs’ business performance; using financial capital and environment
as moderators, EO accentuate SMEs’ business performance positively and strongly. In
Austria using environmental dynamism and firm age, newer firms consider their
environment to be more dynamic than do older firms. There is significant correlation between
business performance and access to financial capital; and significant influence of firm age
and access to financial capital. In Canada EO firm seek simultaneous growth in farm
industry, then diversify to back up and sustain in farm industry. Study in Canada is important
learning for development of SME’s in Indonesia in rural area, because most of them still
depend on agro-based activities. St-Jean et al (2010) found that agro-based SMEs will strive
to sustain business then diversify, however the diversification is held more to back up the
revenue of their agricultural based industry. In Indonesia, we may adopt by considering the
high fluctuation on the agriculture commodity price; agro-based SMEs running their business
on rubber, onion, potato need to adopt diversification approach to back up their business
revenue and sustainable during bad season or low price.
In Taiwan, there are significant relationships between social capital and
entrepreneurial performance for new ventures; there are strong interactions between social
92
interaction and autonomy. There are strong interactions between relationship quality and
marketing capability. It implies if the management of new ventures ignores relationship
quality among suppliers or buyers, it tends to damage new venture’s marketing ability. As
the new ventures’ relationship quality and external network become more favorable, the
profit rises.
Autonomy, innovation, and proactivity positively influence new ventures’
growth and profit. Study in Taiwan provide insight that SME’s in Indonesia to improve
performance should develop social capital or intensive and positive interaction with suppliers,
agencies, financial institution and most importantly with the market or customers.
Developing Countries
These following countries: Turkey, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Kenya, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, China, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia are categorized as Emerging and
Developing Economies (IMF, 2011).
Small business success largely depends on inventing and executing competitive
strategies in response to the challenging business environment. Investment in employing an
EO and MO (marketing orientation) strategy will assist SMEs in gaining success not only in
short-term but over the longer period of time as well (Osman et al, 2011). In Turkey,
proactiveness, organic structure and reward philosophy revealed significant and positive
results on SMEs. For Turkish small firms calculating risk is more important than taking risk.
To strive for sales growth, SMEs to be recommended to be proactive and take calculated
risks; to promote entrepreneurial culture and organic structure (Gürbüz and Aykol, 2009).
Study in Zimbabwe and the South Africa found the most important EO components
for performance are the owners’ achievement orientation and personal initiative. Zimbabwe
and South Africa are highly collective societies, autonomy orientation and competitive
93
aggressiveness could be generally lower and restricted in variance. Assertiveness is also low
in both countries and could affect learning orientation, competitive aggressiveness, and
innovative orientation (Krauss et al, 2005). This situation is familiar with SME’s in Indonesia
which are growing in collective societies especially in rural areas, low of innovation and
assertiveness; hence the development to increase innovation and to be assertive to market is
necessary. Furthermore,
the
strong
relationship between performance with the EO
components which are achievement orientation and personal initiative open up a new
perspective in the training for micro and small business owners; psychological training
methods enhance individual achievement orientation as well as personal initiative.
In Kenya earthenware maker rely on the local market, they have constraints to
earnings because the customers are poor and generally buy limited range of products.
Insight to SMEs in Indonesia which most of them rely to local market, this means that entry
into new markets can be described as an aspect of entrepreneurial outcomes. Entry into new
markets offers expanded opportunities for disposing off surplus products. It is also an
important way that entrepreneurs can use to gain access to critical resources since it
encourages the adoption of technology and best business practices which underlie the
improved performance. It also found that younger earthenware manufacturers are more
likely to access new markets, which shows that younger people are predisposed towards
accessing new markets; because younger people are not conservative and have energy and
impetus to venture into new markets. For the development of SMEs in Indonesia, there are
critical success factors to entry new markets: business expertise, innovativeness, networks,
marketing and understanding of customers, flexibility, creativity, good reputation,
advertisements and trade fairs. Risk-taking, innovation, autonomy have significant relation
with the new market entry. Matanda (2008) suggested that attending trainings is positively
94
and statistically related with the accessing of new markets. Training improves the attitude,
skills and knowledge of the entrepreneurs which makes them more likely to identify and
exploit new market outlets, training also enhances the ability to identify market opportunities
and broadens one’s network density.
There is significant role of women who owne small and medium sized businesses
in conservative and transitional economies in employment creation, international trade and
domestic wealth. In Pakistan, proactiveness significantly and positively related to all three
dimensions of MO (marketing orientation), meaning that they are driven to identify potential
opportunities ahead of competitors and creating products and services based on the
customers needs (Osman et al, 2011). However in other study, the degree of EO of most
SME owners’ are low caused by economic, social and political instability in Pakistan, which
pose a negative impact on existing and potential entrepreneurs (Ullah et al, 2011). Mirroring
to those situations in term of economic and social situations, there is a need of
entrepreneurship education to individual; team work, networking and proper social support
system are also necessarily required; further development of entrepreneurial talent and
opportunities for an entrepreneurial class in Indonesia to emerge should be explored. In Sri
Lanka knowledge based resources (managerial experience, marketing and customer
knowledge together with technical and product development skills) are found to be important
in explaining growth. The right combination of knowledge based resources is important
in creating competitive advantage. Technical and product development skill, adaptive
flexibility and creativity in terms of new product and service ideas have significant
importance in explaining the EO of firms. Developing key technologies and driving change in
that direction may not be recommended, aims is focused on finding niche markets and
technologies in which products and services can be created with the knowledge unique to Sri
95
Lanka. It is recommended to adapt new technologies fast, and take on the improvement and
innovations instead of revolutionary development. The more the environment is hostile and
dynamic, the more will firms act entrepreneurially. The more ‘technocrats’ the industry has,
the more entrepreneurship is present strengthen the link between environment and
entrepreneurial activity further. Small firms obtain higher financial performance in a hostile
environment if holding an entrepreneurial strategic posture (Eriksson and Thunberg, 2006).
In China, there is significant relationship between acquisition of resources, formal
organization and EO of new ventures from those of established firms. For new ventures, the
difficulty of acquiring resources has not prevented their entrepreneurial activities. New
ventures, which find it more difficult to acquire resources, have stronger EO (Fang et al,
2009). Fang et al suggests that new ventures need to balance between formal organization
and organizational flexibility in a highly uncertain environment. The study gave insight that
SME’s in Indonesia should not focus on the lack of resources issues; SMEs in China have
shown their strong competitive advantages due to entrepreneurial activities driven by
difficulty in acquiring resources which did not prevent their entrepreneurial activities. In
Thailand, SMEs in textile business survive during the Asian economic crises because their
strategic reactive behavior. EO positively links to firm growth, because the EO constructs
nature to facilitate innovation and competitiveness, and in result improves performance in the
context of SMEs (Ussahawanitchakit, 2007).
Study of SMAEs (Small and Medium Agro-Based Enterprises) in Malaysia found
that risk-taking and competitiveness are significantly related to SMAEs effectiveness. To be
successful, the firms should exercise autonomy and proactiveness. For social network, risk
taking, innovativeness and proactiveness orientations are the main determinants. EO
dimensions are critical to boost human capital development and knowledge endowment
96
among SMAEs entrepreneurs in Malaysia while social network and EO are directly related
to firms’ effectiveness (Awang et al, 2007). Another study by Zainol and Ayadurai (2011)
suggest there is significance relationship between personality traits and competitive
advantage in Malaysian SMEs. There is no significant relationship between age, sex, race,
religion and respondents’ state of origin to EO; but the difference of residential areas has a
positive correlation with EO. The study provides the empirical test in understanding
indigenous entrepreneurship in Malaysia. The Malay's attitude towards money is still
underdeveloped, instead of investing, they use it for consumption, pleasure and “adat”
(“kenduri”). Traditionally, the Malays were peasant farmers and considered land as the
most sought property. Misconceptions about this principle of destiny have led some Malays
to lack initiatives; they hindered by misconceptions (faith, money) and lack of financial
management knowledge. “Dependency” mentality that inhibits initiatives has been cultured
in community that receives government assistance; while a community who does not
receive assistance, are more likely to act cohesively and proactively, and more successful
in the entrepreneurial venture. Privileges do not contribute much in enhancing
entrepreneurship culture and business competitiveness in Malaysia (Zainol and Ayadurai,
2011).
Small study by Anggraeni (2009) in Indonesia found that SMEs in the creative
industry with formal venture have higher EO compared to sole proprietorship, SMEs with
higher degree of EO have higher sales turnover, indicating that by formalize the venture, the
owner is ready to run the business and pay full attention to the business activities, while sole
proprietorship owner still considers that the business activities are side job which the
attention to grow the business is not fully in place. Other study on SMEs in Indonesia
engages on food and beverages by Suliyanto (2011). EO has positive influence on customer
97
orientation and competitor orientation, market-based reward system affects positively to
customer orientation and competitor orientation and customer orientation gives correlation
positively to marketing performance. However, similar to the result of the study in Zimbabwe
and South Africa (Krauss et al, 2005), SMEs in Indonesia lack of proactiveness and risktaking, hence it is recommended to formulate managerial strategy to improve performance by
increasing the degree of taking business risks, being more proactive in developing business,
increasing awareness of the importance of innovation and autonomy in running its operations.
There may be a question of whether the findings are specific to each country or more
universal as questioned by Frank et al (2010), which is based on their replication study, they
argued that inconsistencies in findings concerning the relation between EO and performance
may be due to incomplete consideration of the influence of configurations of EO, internal
resources, and the external environment. However, by learning those findings, the policy
makers and agency may adopt different approaches to build competitive advantage using EO
dimension depending on the stage of firm establishment, form of the venture either formal or
sole proprietorship, the sector of the industry such as agriculture, manufacturing, services or
export based.
Conclusion
Empirical studies presents valuable information in the preparation of entrepreneurship
development programs by borrowing the term from Ullah et al (2011), “Entrepreneurs are
not born, they are made; psychological characteristics can be learnt or changed.” Results of
those studies imply that EO does not constitute a “secret weapon” under all environmental
98
conditions and developments in a firm, however EO might preferably be pursued in rapidly
changing environments that offer new opportunities. Most important EO components for
performance are the owners’ achievement orientation and personal initiative, meaning that
successful SMEs are generally associated with owner’s EO. Vocational training may be
adopted by Indonesian’s policy makers and the development bodies to develop EO among
SMEs’ owners or managers.
It is common phenomenon in Indonesia that SMEs which are operated for agriculture
products spend their fortunes mostly for consumption purposes and other unproductive or
celebration activities during good season or good price; then sell their belongings during bad
season or low price of commodities. By combining research’s result from Canada and
Malaysia, policy maker can create an understanding on EO concepts and emphasis on the
necessity of business diversification to back up the agro-based industry during bad season or
low price.
Implications for researchers, government, universities & development bodies
Comparative international studies are necessary to improve our ability to assess
whether country-specific research findings can be generalized. Referring to the study on the
software developers in Sri Lanka, the right combination of knowledge based on resources is
important in creating competitive advantage; future research and important implication for
government, universities, and development agencies and that EO should be holistically
embedded into SMEs, they should also proactively facilitate resource combination that is
capable of producing synergy with a clear entrepreneurial mind-set operating in an
entrepreneurial culture to foster entrepreneurial leadership among SMEs in Indonesia. Such
an innovative entrepreneur must have the capacity to analyze the variables like skills,
motives, attributes, competence, socio-political, technological and economic influences in the
99
internal and external environments to discover the distinctive offer in the market, distinctive
competence and unique capability that can generate the desired competitive advantage.
To reduce personal barriers, the government needs to focus more on the readiness and
motivation aspects of building entrepreneurs by offering selective specialized training
programs. Policy makers interested in enhancing the entry of small businesses into new
markets are advised to focus on the measures that can improve the EO of SMEs’ owners by
providing an enabling environment, entrepreneurial conception and non-financial
promotional policies to accompany a credit policy or other financial infrastructure supports.
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Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Motivasi Kerja Perempuan Pengusaha
Oleh. Ni Ketut Ayu Ambarini, SE, MHRM
Paper ini akan dipresentasikan pada;
The First ICBC: International Conference of Business and Administration
23rd-24th November 2011, Jakarta
Abstrak
Biro Pusat Statistik Bali pada tahun 2010 menunjukkan bahwa populasi wanita berusia 15
tahun atau lebih yang melakukan bisnis sendiri atau menjadi pengusaha adalah sejumlah
190.167.000 perempuan Bali, dari total 387.377.000 orang-orang yang melakukan pekerjaan
itu. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa hampir 50% dari total masyarakat Bali yang melakukan
aktivitas kewirausahaan adalah perempuan. Fakta ini cukup menarik karena Bali sebagai
salah satu daerah di Indonesia dikenal karena budaya yang didominasi oleh laki-laki, dan
seringkali dianggap menempatkan perempuan sebagai warga kelas dua di wilayah ini. Namun
fakta ini menunjukkan bahwa perempuan Bali mampu bersaing dengan laki-laki Bali untuk
menjadi pengusaha. Tulisan ini akan melihat lebih dalam dan menemukan motivasi yang
melatarbelakangi mengapa perempuan Bali memilih untuk menjadi pengusaha atau
menjalankan usahanya sendiri. Variabel independen dalam penelitian ini akan dibagi
menjadi motivasi ekonomi (untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang lebih baik, menjadi lebih
mandiri dalam hal keuangan, dan mendapatkan penghasilan yang lebih besar), motivasi
bekerja (sulit untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan, frustasi bekerja dengan orang lain, adanya
hambatan untuk berkarir dalam dunia kerja), motivasi keluarga (keseimbangan waktu antara
bekerja dan kehidupan pribadi, fleksibilitas waktu untuk keluarga, permintaan suami, bisnis
keluarga turun temurun), motivasi sosial (adanya pengakuan dari masyarakat, terlibat di
dalam kegiatan adat dan budaya, dipandang sebagai kelas menengah atas). Penelitian ini akan
fokus untuk mengeksplorasi lebih dalam motivasi mengapa banyak wanita memilih Bali
untuk menjadi pengusaha. Dengan menjaga keberadaan perempuan Bali dalam dunia
kewirausahaan akan menunjukkan adanya kesetaraan dan juga memberikan gairah baru bagi
perekonomian Bali dan Indonesia.
Latar belakang
Pada saat ini khususnya di Indonesia memang perkembangan perempuan untuk
terlibat di segala bidang pembangunan mulai menggeliat dan menunjukan eksistensinya.
Perkembangan perempuan Indonesia untuk menjadi manusia Indonesia yang berprestasi
dengan mempertimbangkan kesetaraan gender semakin menunjukan arah. Tujuan
pemberdayaan perempuan adalah untuk tercapainya kesetaraan gender dan adanya sikap
keadilan serta kesempatan yang rata untuk perempuan berkembang di dalam berbagai jenis
kegiatan.Namun, potensi-potensi yang dimiliki perempuan bangsa ini seringkali terabaikan
karena faktor budaya dan struktur yang terbentuk di masyarakat.
Ditengah peran-peran tradisional yang
dijalankan perempuan, justru muncul
kekuatan-kekuatan yang membawa banyak perubahan-perubahan paradigma terhadap asumsi
umum terkait sosok seorang perempuan sebagai sosok nomor dua dibawah laki-laki. Salah
satu peran dan kegiatan yang mengalami kemajuan cukup pesat adalah munculnya sosok
perempuan pengusaha dalam berbagai sektor kegiatan ekonomi bangsa ini. Industri kerajinan
rumah tangga, usaha kecil menengah, makanan daerah, perdagangan umum, industri jasa dan
banyak lagi sektor bisnis lainnya yang mulai dirambah oleh kaum perempuan untuk
memenuhi kebutuhan ekonomi rumah tangga dan meningkatkan kualitas hidup diri dan
keluarganya. Sebuah studi menunjukan bahwa 18-30% pengusaha di wilayah Asia termasuk
di dalamnya Indonesia, Malaysia, Philipina, Singapore dan Thailand adalah perempuan
(Licuanan, 1992)6.
Penelitian lainnya di tahun 2004, yang dilakukan oleh Global
Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)7 juga menunjukan bahwa 1/3 orang-orang yang terlibat di
dalam kegiatan wirausaha (entrepreneurial activities) adalah perempuan.
Perkembangan perempuan yang memilih menjadi pengusaha di Indonesia cukup
menarik, dan mengalami pertumbuhan yang signifikan. Dari data yang dirilis Kompas.com
(2011)8, menunjukan bahwa BNI (Bank Negara Indonesia) menemukan sebuah fenomena
menarik yang terjadi di Indonesia dalam empat (4) tahun terakhir, yaitu terjadinya lonjakan
pengusaha perempuan di Indonesia lebih dari 40 persen. Menurut catatan BNI pada bulan
6
Licuanan , V,.S 1992,’ Women Entrepreneurs in Southeast Asia’, Asian Institute of Management and Canadian International Development
Agency.
7
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2004, Women and Entrepreneur Centre for Women’s Leadership, Banson College, MA, USA.
8
Fazriyati, W 2011,Pebisnis Perempuan Jarang Terkena Kredit Macet,
http://female.kompas.com/read/2011/03/24/12031459/Pebisnis.Perempuan.Jarang.Terkena.Kredit.Macet. dilihat pada tanggal 30 Oktober
2011.
104
Maret 2011 terdapat sekitar 58.000 usaha kecil, dan 25 persennya (12.000) di jalankan oleh
perempuan. Walaupun perempuan cenderung mengambil tempat untuk menjalankan sektor
usaha kecil, namun banyak penelitian yang menunjukan perempuan lebih waspada dan
berhati-hati dalam menjalankan bisnisnya.
Pada tahun 2002, ADB (Asian Development Bank)9 dalam penelitiannya terhadap
usaha kecil dan menengah menunjukan bahwa pertumbuhan usaha yang dikelola oleh
perempuan cenderung lebih maju dari usaha yang dikelola laki-laki. Hamilton (2002)10 juga
menemukan bahwa bisnis yang dikelola perempuan cenderung lebih kecil daripada bisnis
yang dikelola laki-laki, namun bukan berarti dikelola dengan manajemen yang tidak serius.
Menariknya perempuan pengusaha biasanya mempunyai karakter yang lebih termotivasi oleh
tujuan-tujuan yang kurang ekonomis, oleh sebab itu mereka cenderung tidak terlalu agresif
untuk membuat pertumbuhan usahanya menjadi besar (Chaganti, 1986)11. Banyak perempuan
yang memilih menjalankan usahanya karena bisa dilakukan bersama-sama dengan mengurus
keluarganya sehingga ada keseimbangan waktu untuk keluarga dan bekerja di perusahaannya
serta tetap mampu menunjukan aktualisasi dirinya.
Jika dilihat secara keseluruhan dengan menggunakan perbandingan keseluruhan
penduduk Indonesia, jumlah pengusaha perempuan di Indonesia ini masih berada di kisaran
0,1 persen dari total penduduk Indonesia (Kompas.com, 2011)12. Namun, hal itulah juga yang
mendorong Ikatan Wanita Pengusaha Indonesia (IWAPI) berupaya memotivasi khususnya
kaum perempuan untuk menjadi pengusaha. Pada tahun 2012 IWAPI menargetkan pengusaha
9
Asian Development Bank 2002, SME Development Bank’s Technical Assistance Survey, Report
10
Hamilton, L. C, 2002. ‘Female Entrepreneurs: Overcoming Problems and Reacting to Challenges’. Proceedings of the 47 the
International Council for Small Business World Conference.
11
Chaganti, R., (1986). Management in women-owned enterprises. Journal of Small Business Management, vol. 24, no.4, pp.18-29
12
Candra, A 2011, Jumlah Wanita Pengusaha Masih Minim,
http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/01/29/21141062/Jumlah.Wanita.Pengusaha.Masih.Minim dilihat pada tanggal 29 Oktober
2011.
105
perempuan Indonesia bisa mencapai 2% dari keseluruhan penduduk Indonesia13. Kenaikan
jumlah pengusaha perempuan ini dianggap bisa berkontribusi di dalam pembangunan
ekonomi bangsa. Mentri Perdagangan Mari Eka Pangestu menyatakan keyakinannya pada
besarnya kekuatan ekonomi yang dimiliki wanita khususnya di Asia Pasifik, oleh karenanya
menghilangkan
hambatan
bagi wanita
untuk
berpartisipasi
dalam
pembangunan-
pembangunan ekonomi merupakan isu yang strategis, misalnya saja dengan membuka akses
modal dan asset terhadap wanita, melibatkan dalam penyusunan kebijakan, mengembangkan
kapasitas dan membuat regulasi bisnis yang tidak menyulitkan wanita untuk terlibat
(Maftuhah, 2011)14. Salah satu contoh kontribusi perempuan dalam perekonomian terjadi di
Canada menunjukan bahwa keberadaan perempuan sebagai pengusaha mampu menyumbang
$18 milyar terhadap perekonomian Canada di tahun 2003 (Canada, 2003)15.
Tantangan Perempuan Pengusaha Bali
Hal yang menarik dari perkembangan perempuan pengusaha di Indonesia ini juga terjadi di
beberapa wilayah di Indonesia. Salah satu yang menarik terkait perkembangan pengusaha
perempuan ini juga terjadi di Bali. Biro Pusat Statistik Bali pada tahun 201016 menunjukkan
bahwa populasi wanita berusia 15 tahun atau lebih yang melakukan bisnis sendiri atau
menjadi pengusaha adalah sejumlah 190.167.000 perempuan Bali, dari total 387.377.000
orang-orang yang melakukan pekerjaan wirausaha di Bali. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa
hampir 50% dari total masyarakat Bali yang melakukan aktivitas kewirausahaan tersebut
adalah
perempuan.
13
2011, IWAPI Dorong Jumlah Pengusaha Wanita jadi 2 %, http://bataviase.co.id/node/717005 dilihat pada tanggal 29 Oktober 2011.
Maftuhah 2011, Perempuan perlu dilibatkan dalam pembangunan ekonomi Asia Pacifik, www.economy.okezone.com, vdilihat pada
tanggal 20 Oktober 2011
15
Canada, 2003, Prime Minister’s Task Force on Women Entrepreneurs , Ottawa: Canada, http://www.liberal .parl.gc.ca/entrepreneur
/documents/031029_final_report_en.pdf/ dilihat pada tanggal 3 Oktober 2011.
16
Badan Pusat Statistik Propinsi Bali 2010, Penduduk 15 Tahun ke Atas yang Bekerja Menurut Status dalam Pekerjaan Utamanya Tahun
2009
14
106
Walaupun dari data yang muncul tersebut tidak mengkategorikan identitas perempuan Bali
dengan details, namun asumsi yang muncul terhadap perempuan Bali di dalam data ini adalah
perempuan Bali yang berasal asli dari Bali, dan memiliki latar belakang adat istiadat tradisi
Bali.
Fakta ini cukup menarik karena Bali sebagai salah satu daerah di Indonesia dikenal
karena budaya yang didominasi oleh laki-laki, dan seringkali dianggap menempatkan
perempuan sebagai warga kelas dua di wilayah ini. Ideologi gender yang berkembang di
masyarakat telah menentukan bahwa rumah tangga atau ranah domestik adalah dunianya
perempuan sementara ranah publik merupakan dunianya laki-laki. Keadaan ini semakin tidak
menguntungkan dengan adanya budaya patriarkhi yang cenderung menjadi salah satu faktor
penyebab terjadinya perlakuan yang kurang menguntungkan bagi kaum perempuan.
Khususnya di Bali dalam hal ini ketimpangan gender pada beberapa bidang pembangunan
masih relatif menonjol, seperti di bidang pendidikan, ketenagakerjaan, dan di bidang politik.
Di bidang pendidikan saja contohnya, kesenjangan gender terutama terlihat pada
jenjang pendidikan SMU ke atas. Pada tahun 2009 jumlah penduduk perempuan yang tamat
SMU hanya 128.872.000 penduduk, sementara jumlah penduduk laki-laki yang tamat SMU
hampir dua kalinya yaitu sebesar 263.350.000. (Bali dalam angka,2010)17. Contoh lain terjadi
di bidang politik, belum banyaknya perempuan Bali yang terlibat dalam politik adalah
karena banyak perempuan Bali tersandung dengan beberapa kendala yang dilihat dari
perspektif adat dan budaya, salah satunya adalah dari segi hukum adat, perempuan Bali masih
terikat dengan upacara keagamaan yang berkesinambungan dan banyak awig awig di Bali
yang hanya berbicara tentang laki-laki, contoh yang paling sederhana adalah perempuan Bali
17
Bali Dalam Angka, 2010, Penduduk 15 tahun Menurut Pendidikan Tertinggi yang Ditamatkan Tahun 2009
107
tidak pernah diikutsertakan di dalam rapat-rapat di banjar (Bali Post, 2008)18.
Banyak
perempuan Bali yang berpikir bahwa tradisi adalah sebuah dilemma untuk mengembangkan
dirinya, selain itu dalam prakteknya banyak keputusan-keputusan penting yang menyangkut
kehidupan desa mengesampingkan peran perempuan Bali. Di dalam adat dan tradisi Bali,
dianut sistem garis keturunan ayah atau dikenal dengan sistem patrialisme. Sehingga posisi
laki-laki lebih strategis sebagai penerus keluarga, dan juga dalam pengambilan keputusan
rumah tangga.
Perempuan Bali memiliki multi fungsi dalam kehidupannya, baik fungsinya sebagai
sosok perempuan di dalam rumah tangga, maupun fungsinya di dalam adat masyarakat
Bali. Oleh karena itu, sosok perempuan sebagai pengusaha di Bali akan mengalami tantangan
yang
berat. Tantangan ini muncul karena perempuan tersebut tetap harus menjalankan
usahanya seperti laki-laki, khususnya bagi perempuan pengusaha yang sudah memiliki anak,
ia juga harus mengurus dan memastikan anak-anaknya dalam keadaan baik dan bahkan tidak
jarang pula mereka melakukan usahanya dengan membawa serta anaknya di dalam
kegiatannya. Posisi perempuan sebagai pengurus rumah tangga dan memastikan semua
kebutuhan rumah tangga sudah terpenuhi juga menjadi tantangan. Bahkan, tidak jarang
perempuan Bali yang hidup secara komunal bersama keluarga besar “pihak lelaki” ini harus
mengurus keluarga besar pihak lelaki tersebut.
Di Bali, perempuan juga mempunyai peran cukup signifikan dalam tugasnya
“menyama braya” di banjar dan lingkungan sosial adatnya. Perempuan yang terdaftar aktif di
banjar
harus meluangkan waktunya untuk “mengayah atau meluangkan waktunya
mempersiapkan sebuah upacara adat atau keagamaan” di waktu-waktu tertentu, misalnya
18
Bali Post 2008 Terbentur banyak kendala - Perempuan Bali ke Kancah Politik,
http://www.balipost.co.id/balipostcetak/2008/2/27/b27.htm dilihat pada tanggal 2 Oktober 2011.
108
untuk upacara “odalan” keagamaan di Pura, upacara keagamaan lainnya, upacara pernikahan,
kematian tetangga, keluarga dekat dan banyak upacara-upacara adat lainnya lagi.
Fakta dimana banyak perempuan Bali terjun menjadi pengusaha bisa menunjukkan
bahwa perempuan Bali mampu bersaing dengan laki-laki Bali untuk menjadi seorang
pengusaha. Meningkatnya jumlah perempuan yang berkiprah di dunia publik tidak terlepas
dari adanya berbagai faktor pendorong baik yang datang dari dalam diri perempuan itu
sendiri atau faktor internal, maupun
yang datang dari luar
atau faktor ekternal
(Arjani,2000)19. Faktor internal yang mendorong perempuan untuk berperan di ranah publik
antara lain adalah adanya keinginan dari perempuan untuk bisa membagi waktunya untuk
keluarga dan kegiatan adat masyarakat Bali, menjadi
mandiri secara ekonomis, dan
memenuhi kebutuhan hidup utamanya kebutuhan ekonomi. Soesilawati (2000)20 menyatakan
bahwa faktor internal seorang perempuan yang memiliki usaha akan menjadi pendorong dan
juga penentu kinerja usaha dagang mereka. Diungkapkan juga bahwa faktor internal yang
utama adalah motivasi kerja.
Sedangkan faktor ekternal antara lain karena adanya
terbuka, kemajuan teknologi terutama yang berkaitan dengan
kesempatan yang semakin
kebutuhan wanita dalam
menjalankan peran reproduktifnya seperti kulkas, microwave, mesin cuci, dan lain- lain
serta adanya program keluarga berencana (KB). Sehingga Hal ini dapat
mendukung
perempuan untuk memanfaatkan waktu secara lebih efisien dalam melaksanakan kegiatan
reproduktif terutama pekerjaan rumah tangganya.
Dengan beragam tantangan yang ada di depan mata, sangat menarik untuk dilihat
lebih jauh apa motivasi yang melatarbelakangi pengusaha perempuan Bali ini terjun menjadi
19
Arjani 2000, Potensi dan Hambatan Sosial Budaya Perempuan Bali dalam era Transformasi,
http://ejournal.unud.ac.id/abstrak/potensi%20dan%20hambatan%20sosial%20budaya%20perempuan%20bali%20dalam%20era%20transfor
mas1.pdf dilihat pada tanggal 5 Oktober 2011.
20
Soesilawati 2000, Upaya Pengembangan Motivasi Kerja pada Wanita Pedagang Kecil, elib.pdii.lipi.go.id/katalog/index.php/.../5751.pdf
dilihat pada tanggal 1 Oktober 2011.
109
pengusaha. Motivasi kerja seorang pengusaha merupakan faktor yang cukup penting yang
harus dimiliki oleh seorang pengusaha karena sebuah usaha tidak akan berjalan dan
mendapatkan sukses tanpa sebuah motivasi (Robertson, Collins, Medeira and Slater, 2003)21.
Fokus Penelitian dan Data
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang memotivasi perempuan
Bali untuk bekerja sebagai pengusaha. Dengan mempertimbangkan ketersediaan data
penelitian dan waktu penelitian, maka penelitian ini hanya akan dibatasi pada faktor-faktor
yang memotivasi perempuan pengusaha di Bali untuk melakukan usahanya. Untuk membuat
penelitian ini lebih fokus, maka penelitian ini juga hanya mengambil sampel penelitian dari
pengusaha perempuan Bali yang berada di wilayah Bali dan memiliki latar belakang adat
istiadat Bali.
Beberapa penelitian terkait motivasi kerja telah dilakukan sebelumnya, namun
penelitian terkait motivasi kerja seorang yang berlatar belakang profesi sebagai pengusaha
masih cukup jarang ditemukan. Pada umumnya penelitian terkait motivasi adalah
dihubungkan dengan motivasi seorang pekerja sebuah organisasi atau karyawan. Beberapa
penelitian terdahulu yang berhasil ditemukan terkait motivasi pengusaha antara lain adalah
dilakukan oleh Kavitha Raman, Anantharaman, R.N, Faculty of Business and Law,
Multimedia University dan Sharmila Jayasingam, Faculty of Business and Accountancy,
University of Malaya pada tahun 200822, hasil temuan penelitian ini adalah perempuan yang
mempunyai latar belakang pendidikan yang bagus lebih cenderung memilih menjadi
pengusaha karena mereka ingin menjadi lebih mandiri. Menariknya 88,4 persen pengusaha
21
Robertson , M, Collins, Medeira, N & Slatter, J 2003, ‘Barriers to Start Up and Their Effect on Aspirant Entrepreneurs’, Education and
Training,vol. 45, no.6, pp. 308-316.
22
Raman, K, Anantharaman, R,N, Jayasingam, S 2008, ‘Motivational Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Decision: A Comparison between
Malaysia Women Entrepreneurs and Women Non-Entrepreneurs’, Communication of IBIMA, vol.2, pp. 85-89.
110
perempuan tersebut mempunyai pengalaman bekerja sebelumnya, keinginan untuk menjadi
pengusaha adalah karena didorong karena adanya ketidakpuasan saat bekerja dan akhirnya
timbul keinginan untuk berusaha sendiri. Sehingga disimpulkan motivasi bekerja adalah yang
utama yang mendorong pengusaha perempuan Malaysia ini melakukan kegiatan wirausaha..
Penelitian tersebut dianalisa menggunakan analisa statistika faktor.
Penelitian terdahulu lainnya yang berhasil ditemukan adalah berjudul Exploring
motivation and success among Canadian women entrepreneurs, yang dilakukan oleh Karen
D. Hughes, University of Alberta pada tahun 200023, dari hasil penelitian ini ditemukan
perempuan pengusaha Canada lebih banyak dimotivasi oleh faktor klasik antara lain merasa
tertantang, ingin menjadi lebih mandiri dan juga ingin mendapat kebebasan keuangan dalam
arti lebih baik dalam hal keuangan. Penelitian ini didapatkan dari penyebaran survey nasional
Canada yang berjudul “The Survey of Self Employment” yang diolah dengan teknik statistika
SPSS.
Dari beberapa teori motivasi dan penelitian terdahulu yang dikemukakan diatas, maka
peneliti mencoba merangkum sebuah kerangka penelitian konseptual dengan menghimpun
beberapa variabel yang akan dipergunakan di dalam penelitian ini yaitu:
a. Motivasi ekonomi; motivasi untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang lebih baik,
menjadi lebih mandiri dalam hal keuangan, dan mendapatkan penghasilan yang lebih
baik
b. Motivasikarena pekerjaan lainnya; motivasi ini muncul karena sulit untuk
mendapatkan pekerjaan, frustasi bekerja dengan orang lain, adanya hambatan untuk
berkarir dalam dunia kerja
23
Hughes, K,D 2000, ‘Exploring Motivation and Success Among Canadian Women Entrepreneurs’, University of Alberta
111
c. Motivasi keluarga; motivasi ini muncul karena membutuhkan keseimbangan waktu
lain antara bekerja dan kehidupan pribadi, permintaan suami, bisnis keluarga turun
temurun.
d. Motivasi sosial; motivasi ini muncul karena membutuhkan adanya pengakuan dari
masyarakat, ingin terlibat di dalam kegiatan sosial adat dan budaya masyarakat dam
keinginan dipandang sebagai warga menengah keatas.
Kerangka pemikiran tersebut kemudian dihubungkan dengan motivasi kerja yang
melatarbelakangi pengusaha perempuan dalam melakukan usahanya. Kerangka pemikiran
tersebut bisa dilihat pada
Kerangka Pemikiran Konseptual Penelitian
1.
Motivasi Ekonomi
2.
Motivasi Pekerjaan Lain
3.
Motivasi Keluarga
Motivasi Kerja Perempuan
Pengusaha asal Bali
Sumber: olahan data penelitian, 2011
Jenis penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kuantitatif. Nazir (2005)24 menyatakan bahwa
penelitian deskriptif adalah metode dalam meneliti status kelompok manusia, suatu
pemikiran, ataupun suatu peristiwa di masa sekarang yang bertujuan untuk membuat
deskripsi, gambaran, atau lukisan secara sistematis, faktual dan akurat mengenai fakta-fakta,
sifat-sifat serta hubungan antar fenomena yang diselidiki. Sedangkan Arikunto (2006)25
menyatakan bahwa penelitian kuantitatif memiliki kejelasan unsur yang dirinci sejak awal,
langkah penelitian yang sistematis menggunakan sampel hasil penelitiannya, memiliki
hipotesis, memiliki desain yang jelas dan langkah-langkah penelitian dan hasil yang
diharapkan, dan juga memerlukan pengumpulan data serta analisa data yang dilakukan
24
25
Nazir, M 2005, Metode Penelitian, Penerbit Ghalia, Jakarta
Arikunto, Suharsimi 2006, Prosedur Penelitian:Suatu Pendekatan Praktek, Edisi Revise, Penerbit PT. Rineka Cipta, Jakarta
112
setelah data terkumpul. Penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif eksplanatori. Sugiono (2004)26
mengatakan bahwa penelitian eksplanatori merupakan penelitian yang bermaksud
menjelaskan kedudukan variabel-variabel yang diteliti serta hubungan antara satu variabel
dengan yang lain.
Karakteristik Responden
Rata-rata responden berada di antara rentang umur 23 tahun sampai dengan 60 tahun.
Data tersebut menunjukan bahwa responden yang terlibat dalam penelitian ini merupakan
responden yang matang dan dewasa dari segi umur, dan diharapkan kemampuan mereka
dalam menjawab pertanyaan di kuesioner dapat dipertanggungjawabkan.
Hal ini sesuai
dengan hasil penelitian pada tahun 2008 yang menunjukan bahwa pengusaha perempuan
adalah perempuan yang matang dari segi usia yaitu berumur 20 tahun keatas (Raman,
Anantharaman, Jayasingam, 2008)27.
Responden yang terlibat di dalam penelitian ini tersebar di lebih dari 30 jenis usaha,
dan karakteristik terbanyak adalah responden yang memiliki jenis usaha restaurant yaitu
sebanyak 11,3 % dari total responden. Dari data juga menunjukan bahwa pengusaha yang
terlibat dalam penelitian ini merupakan pengusaha sektor usaha kecil. Perusahaan yang
memiliki jumlah karyawan di bawah 50 orang di golongkan di dalam industri atau usaha
kecil. Jumlah karyawan yang dimiliki perempuan pengusaha tersebut paling banyak adalah
40 orang. Menurut Stanley dan Morse28 di dalam Rosid (2010) dinyatakan bahwa industri
kecil memiliki jumlah karyawan 10-49 orang. Berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan terakhir
pengusaha tersebut menunjukan 92,5 % responden merupakan lulusan universitas (diploma
26
Sugiyono 2004, Metode Penelitian Bisnis, Penerbit Alfabeta, Bandung
Raman, Anantharaman, Jayasingam 2008, ‘Motivational factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Decision: A Comparison between Malaysia
Women Entrepreneurs and Women Non Entrepreneurs’, Communications of the IBIMA, vol. 2. Pp. 85 – 89.
28
Rosid, A (2010), Modul Manajemen UKM, http//pksm.mercubuana.ac.id/.../31013-1-96027733787... dilihat pada tanggal 2 November
2011.
27
113
ataupun sarjana strata 1 dan strata 2). Hal ini menunjukan pengusaha yang berlatar
pendidikan lulusan universitas lebih dominan terlibat di dalam penelitian ini, tentunya ini
berpengaruh pada kemampuan intelektual para pengusaha tersebut untuk menjawab
pertanyaan yang diberikan peneliti. Hal ini juga menunjukan bahwa pengusaha pada
umumnya memiliki pendidikan yang cukup tinggi untuk mendukung kemampuannya dalam
berusaha.
Pendidikan yang cukup tinggi identik dengan proses pembelajaran yang cukup tinggi
juga, dan hal ini dapat diasumsikan bahwa bahwa orang yang memiliki pendidikan yang
cukup tinggi juga mempunyai orientasi belajar yang baik. Seperti yang diungkapkan oleh
Andri Wongso (2011)29 yang menyatakan bahwa orang yang hidupnya berorientasi belajar
memiliki peluang untuk menjadi pengusaha yang sukses. Hal senada juga diungkapkan oleh
Welsch dan White (1982)30 yang menemukan bahwa perempuan pengusaha cenderung lebih
berpendidikan dibanding yang bukan pengusaha. Dari status pernikahannya ditemukan,
bahwa 77 orang responden atau sebanyak 96,3 % responden telah
menikah, 2 orang
responden atau sebanyak 2,5 % responden belum menikah, dan 1 orang responden atau
sebanyak 1,3% responden bercerai. Data ini menunjukan bahwa status pernikahan tidak
menghalangi perempuan sebagai responden penelitian ini untuk beraktivitas sebagai
pengusaha.
Motivasi Ekonomi
71,25% pengusaha perempuan tersebut terdorong menjadi pengusaha karena ingin
memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang lebih baik, setelah itu disusul dengan indikator ke dua yang
menunjukan bahwa 70% pengusaha tersebut ingin menjadi lebih mandiri dalam hal
29
30
Wongso, A 2011, Ternyata Pengusaha Sukses Punya Faktor X, www.andriwongso.com, dilihat pada tanggal 5 November 2011.
Welsch, J,A & White, J,F 1982, The entrepreneurs’s Master Planning Guide, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, New York.
114
keuangan. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa 70% responden meyakini bahwa mereka terdorong
menjadi pengusaha adalah karena didorong oleh motivasi ekonomi, dimana lebih dari 50%
responden menyatakan sangat setuju bahwa motivasi ekonomi ini mempengaruhi motivasi
kerja mereka menjadi seorang pengusaha.
Motivasi Pekerjaan Lain
Dari olahan data indikator-indikator yang menunjukan motivasi akibat pekerjaan
lainnya menunjukan bahwa sebagian besar responden memilih menjadi pengusaha bukan
karena terdorong oleh pekerjaaan lainnya. Hampir 100% responden menyatakan bahwa
mereka menjadi pengusaha bukan karena kesulitan mendapatkan pekerjaan lainnya, tetapi
menariknya 93,75% responden juga memilih menjadi pengusaha karena mereka menyadari
hambatan di dalam mengembangan karir mereka sebagai seorang Ibu, sehingga mereka
memilih menjadi pengusaha. 72,5 % responden mengungkapkan mereka memilih menjadi
pengusaha karena merasa frustasi bekerja dengan orang lain. Hal ini menunjukan bahwa
pengusaha ini tidak kesulitan mendapatkan pekerjaan lainnya, hanya mereka terbentur dalam
pengembangan diri mereka dan frustasi jika bekerja dengan orang lain. Hasil olahan data
SPSS dari keseluruhan indikator ini menunjukan bahwa 80% responden secara jelas
memastikan bahwa motivasi mereka menjadi pengusaha bukan karena dimotivasi pekerjaan
lainnya.
Motivasi Keluarga
Dari olahan data indikator motivasi keluarga diatas yang menarik adalah 100%
pengusaha perempuan tersebut menyatakan bahwa mereka memilih menjadi pengusaha
karena mereka membutuhkan keseimbangan waktu untuk bekerja dan kehidupan pribadinya
dalam hal ini untuk keluarganya. Namun 61,25% responden menyatakan bahwa mereka
115
menjadi pengusaha bukan karena permintaan suami, dan juga bukan karena bisnis turun
temurun (60%).
Motivasi Sosial
Hasil analisa indikator motivasi sosial menunjukan bahwa 100% perempuan
pengusaha tersebut termotivasi karena membutuhkan ruang dan waktu untuk terlibat dalam
kegiatan sosial adat dan budaya masyarakat Bali. Namun hampir 100% juga mengatakan
bahwa mereka menjadi pengusaha bukan karena ingin di pandang sebagai masyarakat
golongan menengah keatas Dari hasil olahan keseluruhan menggunakan SPPSS ternyata
mengindikasikan bahwa motivasi sosial ini juga menjadi pendorong yang cukup memotivasi
perempuan Bali menjadi pengusaha (91,3%).
Motivasi Kerja Pengusaha
Hasil olahan terhadap setiap indikator dan keseluruhan indikator seara umum terkait
motivasi kerja perempuan pengusaha ini sangat menarik karena peneliti mendapatkan 100%
pilihan responden terhadap tiga (3) buah indikator yang ditanyakan. Keseluruhan pengusaha
memang mempunyai motivasi kerja sebagai pengusaha karena mereka menyenangi
pekerjaan, selalu berpikir kreatif dan mempunyai inisiatif dalam pengembangan usahanya,
mereka juga loyal dan mempunyai komitmen terhadap pekerjaannya dan selalu berupaya
meningkatkan mutu hasil pekerjaaannya.
Hasil Penelitian
Peneliti di dalam membahas faktor-faktor motivasi yang mempengaruhi motivasi
kerja pengusaha perempuan di Bali menggunakan empat model motivasi yang berpengaruh
terhadap motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan tersebut. Namun dikarenakan semua faktor di
116
variabel independen menunjukan nilai positif, maka uji hipotesis tidak bisa dilakukan.
Sehingga peneliti hanya berkonsentrasi melakukan olahan data setiap faktor motivasi
menggunakan analisa statistik SPSS dan perhitungan persentase dari setiap indikator
motivasi. Jika dilihat perbandingan dari jawaban setuju dan sangat setuju dari setiap jenis
motivasi, maka bisa dilihat pada diagram dibawah ini:
Figur 4.16 Diagram Faktor MotivasiPengusaha Perempuan Bali
Sumber: Hasil olahan data primer, 2011
Dari diagram tersebut diatas menunjukan motivasi sosial menduduki peringkat pertama yang
memotivasi perempuan pengusaha di Bali, dan selanjutnya adalah motivasi ekonomi, lalu
diikuti dengan motivasi keluarga dan motivasi berusaha karena pekerjaan lain.
Kesimpulan dan Saran
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan pembahasan yang telah diuraikan sebelumnya, maka dapat
ditarik kesimpulan sebagai berikut:
-
Dari hasil pembahasan dapat dilihat motivasi utama adalah karena dorongan motivasi
sosial, dan kemudian diikuti dengan motivasi ekonomi sehingga pengusaha
117
perempuan di Bali melakukan usahanya. Kedua motivasi tersebut dapat digolongkan
sebagai faktor internal yang muncul dari dalam diri pengusaha tersebut.
-
Motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan menunjukan nilai yang sangat positif, hal ini
mengidentifikasikan bahwa mereka benar-benar termotivasi dan menyenangi
pekerjaan sebagai pengusaha. Pilihan menjadi pengusaha adalah pilihan yang datang
dari diri mereka langsung dan tidak dipengaruhi paksaan pihak luar. Hal ini
merupakan modal utama bagi pengusaha tersebut mengembangkan usahanya.
-
Karakteristik pengusaha perempuan Bali ini adalah mereka lebih terlibat di dalam
jenis usaha kecil, berpendidikan, berkeluarga dan matang dari segi usia.
-
Tidak dapat ditarik hubungan antara empat buah faktor motivasi yang diujikan
terhadap motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan, hal ini di karenakan hasil kuesioner
dari data variabel independen (motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan) menunjukan
nilai positif (sangat setuju sekali) untuk keseluruhan indikator, sehingga tidak ada
pembanding jika dilakukan uji hipotesis.
Berdasarkan kesimpulan di atas, disarankan:
-
Menambah sampel penelitian sehingga tingkat akurasi hasil penelitian semakin tinggi
dan mampu mewakili populasi, dan dengan perhitungan sampel yang baru nantinya
dilakukan uji hipotesis ulang terhadap penelitian ini sehingga bisa ditarik
hubungannya antara variabel dependent dan variabel independent dalam penelitian
ini.
118
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120
APPROACH OF ANTECEDENT AND CONSEQUENCES OF
ENTREPRENEURIAL LEADERSHIP IN A SERVICE INDUSTRY
SETTING
(Case Some Phone Provider in Indonesia)
by
Achmad Hidayat Sutawidjaya
Tuti Widiastuti
Suharyanti
Faculty Economic and Social Science, University of Bakrie,Jakarta
ABSTRACT
Entrepreneurship generally refers to the process by which new opportunities are discovered and implemented.
The background of this study was the situations service industry in Indonesia, while heavily
emphasized within service industry organizations (Some Phone Provider), little is understood
regarding the role of entrepreneurial leadership in the development, growth, and
sustainability of those service industry. The fundamental logic of entrepreneurship is less
apparent in this context given the social mission and multiple stakeholders involved. Building
on findings regarding entrepreneurial orientation (EO) within service industry organizations,
a model of antecedents, correlates, and outcomes of entrepreneurship in service industry
developed and tested. Emphasis is placed on the relationship between entrepreneurial
orientation(EO) and the market orientation (MO) of the service industry. The findings
demonstrate that entrepreneurship has a legitimate role in service industry, and the work
climate can be designed to affect levels of entrepreneurship. Further, entrepreneurial
orientation (EO) is associated with aspects of market orientation with financial performance
implications are drawn for theory and practice.
Keywords: Entrepreneurial leadership, financial performance, market orientation (MO),
entrepreneurial orientation (EO).
121
Introduction
The cellular industry is currently experiencing significant upheavals as the result of
mergers and acquisitions among its largest carriers (Carleen Maitlandand Andrea Hoplight
Tapia).Competition on cellular industry is happening anywhere in the world, since too many
operators, Indonesia also faces this situation like price combat, subscribers chum, capacity
issues, etc. As you might know, today there are more than 10 wireless operators in our
country. According to third quarter two thousand nine data from annual report of respective
operators today’s subscriber number is about 180 million users out of two hundred and forty
million population or about seventy five percent. Actually the market almost saturated
especially from voice services in urban sub urban areas. Sooperators are looking for revenue
from other service that is data services. The largest number of users as a whole user in
Indonesia is Telkomsel, then the second Indosat and the third XL Axiata.Telkomsel’s market
share is over 43% of total subscribers or around 80 million users. For CDMA systems,
TelkomFlexi is the biggest of market share with 15 mill subs or around 9%, followed by
Bakrie Telecom with 9 million subs or about 6%. The two last operators are not as full
mobility but the limited mobility operators.In Indonesia we have two kinds of technology that
used in mobile operators those are CDMA and GSM. It the first time CDMA technologybased network was used as limited mobility license operator, but as government released
regulation no.1/2010, the license is canceled and it is automatically changing become cellular
license. Many industry analysts say that those operators will predictably merge for
consolidation
In dynamic and resource demanding globalized market environments, offering
successful innovative products is a key ingredient for business success. The logic supporting
this notion is that new products, services, or technologies especially those that are radically
innovative, provide international new ventures with the opportunity to generate early market
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share, enhance cash flows, boost external visibility and legitimacy, and increase the
likelihood of survival (Zahra 2005; Schoonhoven et al. 1999; Tellis et al. 2009; Tellis et al.
2009; Henard and Szymanski 2001). Researchers believe that innovative products that offer
relative advantage over competitive offerings and that significantly reduce consumers’
perceived risks are often associated with healthy financial performance (Henard and
Szymanski 2001). However, the literature has very little to offer by way of theoretical and
empirical evidence that verifies the complexity of the product innovation success –
performance. The majority of the existing literature on product innovation success has been
designed to suit business organizations that are far well established (Oviatt and McDougall
1994).
Here we define research problems, they are: (1).Is there relationship between
entrepreneurial orientation towards entrepreneurial leadership? (2).Is there relationship
between market orientation toward entrepreneurial leadership? (3).Is there relationship
between market orientation towards entrepreneurial orientation? (4).Is there relationship
between entrepreneurial leadership towards financial performance?.
Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development
The concept of entrepreneurial leadership involves fusing the concepts of
"entrepreneurship" (Schumpeter, 1934), "entrepreneurial orientation" (Miller, 1983;
Covin&Slevin, 1988), and "entrepreneurial management" (Stevenson, 1985) with leadership
(Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). It emphasizes taking a strategic approach to
entrepreneurship, so that (he entrepreneurial initiatives can support development of enhanced
capabilities for continuously creating and appropriating value in the firm (Gupta, McMillan
&Surie, 2004). Thus, entrepreneurship can form a basis for competitive advantage and
technological growth in all types of firms that are oriented towards leadership and excellence
123
in the new global economy (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). Entrepreneurial leadership is
defined as leadership that creates visionary scenarios that are used to assemble and mobilize a
'supporting cast' of participants who become committed by the vision to the discovery and
exploitation of strategic value creation (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). This definition
emphasizes the challenge of mobilizing the resources and gaining the commitment required
for value creation that the entrepreneurial leader faces, which involves creating a vision and a
cast of supporters capable of enacting that vision (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004).
The two challenges of forging a vision and building a cast of competent and
committed supporters are interdependent since the former is useless without the latter (Gupta,
McMillan &Surie, 2004). Thus, entrepreneurial leaders envision and enact a proactive
transformation of the firm's transaction set (Venkataraman& Van de Ven, 1998).
Entrepreneurial leadership has much in common with transformational leadership in that the
leader evokes super-ordinate performance by appeals to the higher needs of followers (Gupta,
McMillan &Surie, 2004). However, the entrepreneurial leader's ability to evoke such
performance is founded in the context of the firm's need to adapt to emerging environmental
contingencies (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). Thus, the basic challenge is to create a
willingness in followers to abandon current conventional but career-secure activities for
creative, entrepreneurial action (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004).Entrepreneurial leadership
can also be thought of as leading, through direct involvement, a process that creates value for
organizational stakeholders by bringing together a unique innovation and package of
resources to respond to a recognized opportunity (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). In
fulfilling this process, entrepreneurs function within a paradigm of three dimensions:
innovativeness, risk-taking and proactiveness (Morris, Schindehutte&Laforge, 2004).
Innovativeness focuses on the search for creative and meaningful solutions to individual and
operational problems and needs (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). Risk-taking involves the
124
willingness to commit resources to opportunities that have a reasonable possibility of failure
(Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). Proactiveness is concerned with implementation, and
helping to make events happen through appropriate means, which typically include the efforts
of others (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). The practice of successful entrepreneurial
leadership is thereby fulfilled within an array of exciting activities and new creative
developments that are full of innovations and evolving concepts, constantly changing, and in
many cases eluding classification (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007).
Entrepreneurial leadership is all about breaking new ground, going beyond the
known, and helping to create the future (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). What makes a truly
successful entrepreneurial leader is not narrowly focused on only intelligence, education,
lifestyle or background (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). A principal factor that seems to
determine success is the entrepreneur's ability to deal with opportunities through the
dynamics of organizational setting, thereby enabling and motivating the people concerned to
be actively and enthusiastically involved and successful (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). The
basic challenge of entrepreneurial leaders (McGrath and MacMillan, 2000) is to envision
future possibilities and enable the organization to transform its current transaction set
(Venkataraman& Van de Ven, 1998). Moreover, such adaptation must be accomplished
without overstraining the unit's resource endowments (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). In
addition, this must often be done in the face of conservative and risk-averse attitudes
stemming from followers' lack of confidence in the gains from innovation in uncertain
environments (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004).Grant (2000) defined proactive behavior as
taking initiative in improving current circumstances or creating new ones; it involves
challenging the status quo rather than passively adapting to present conditions. Employees
can engage in proactive activities as part of their inrole behavior in which they fulfill basic
job requirements (Grant, 2000). For example, sales agents might proactively seek feedback
125
on their techniques for closing a sale with an ultimate goal of improving job performance.
Extra-role behaviors can also be proactive, such as efforts to redefine one's role in the
organization. For example, employees might engage in career management activities by
identifying and acting on opportunities to change the scope of their jobs or move to more
desirable divisions of the business (Grant, 2000). Grant (1995) demonstrated that proactive
personality accounted for incremental variance in the job performance of real estate agents
after controlling for both extraversion and conscientiousness. Proactive personality seems
more specifically tailored to predicting motivation in learning contexts than the more general
Big Five factors and facets (Major, Turner, & Fletcher, 2006).
Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) has become an important and extensively researched
topic in the literature. Empirical results suggest that EO may influence firm performance.
However, it is important to determine whether the EO-performance relationship is sustainable
since EO can be a resource-consuming strategic orientation. This research examines the
sustainability of the EO performance relationship; i.e., whether EO affects performance
during an extended period of time or is a "quick fix" where performance is only temporarily
affected. Entrepreneurship is presently a very popular term and there is a tendency to regard
entrepreneurship as something inherently good, something firms should always pursue. This
may bias us to favor anecdotal evidence in favor of, rather than against, a positive
relationship
between entrepreneurial activities and firm performance. Dess, Lumpkin, and
Covin (1997) observe a strong normative bias toward the inherent value of entrepreneurship
and suggest that the popular press encourages the belief that entrepreneurship is good. As a
result, managers may experience considerable pressures to behave more entrepreneurially in
order to improve or maintain the performance of their firms.
126
Market orientation is a business philosophy, which connects all the functional areas of
theorganization to environment in which operates and ensures long-term profitability. Market
orientation was defined in many ways, thus: (1).We use market orientation for emphasize the
implementation of marketing concept within the Organization, (Kholi and Jaworski, 1990).
(2).Market orientation is a business philosophy which finally ensures superior value creation
for the customer” (Narver and Slater,1990). (3).We can say that a firm is market orientated
when firm’s culture is governed by values, which systematic ensure superior value creation
for customer. Practically, this mean gathering the information about customers and
competitors and using this information for building superior value for the customers”
(S.Slater, 1994). (4).Market orientation is a source of building competitive advantage. If in
the past it was considered that competitive advantage is the result of a higher power on the
market, economy of scale or the diversity of products range, today it is considered that
building and delivering superior value is the key of obtaining competitive advantage. Slater,
through his researches, demonstrated that firms which have market orientate culture better
manage to build and deliver superior value to the customers. (5).The newest approach of the
concept refers to the market orientation from value chain point (Baker, 1999, Grunert, 2002,
Simpson, 2001). Market orientation degree of one member from the chain could affect
market orientation degree of the others members of the chain. The competitiveness of the
entire chain in serving the customers depends on implication of all chain’s members in
gathering the information about consumers needs and uses this information for building
superior value.
Kouzes and Drucker principles/strategies relate to entrepreneurial leadership.
Entrepreneurial leadership is a complex style of leading. Individuals who practice this style
are generally; driven, risk taker, aggressive and can recognize when change will give the
advantage. Peter Drucker (1985) discusses several strategies of entrepreneurs, but “Fustest
127
With the Mostest” is one that looks to the future. Entrepreneurs are looking to the future of
creating a new marketor industry with their innovation. James Kouzes (2008) highlights his
five practices of exemplary leadership. The transactional leadership style developed by Bass
is based on the hypothesis that followers are motivated through a system of rewards and
punishment. The transactional leader's view of the leader / follower relationship is one of
this for that.
If the follower does something good, then they will be rewarded.
If the
follower does something wrong, then they will be punished. Transformational Leadership
starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future that will excite and convert
potential followers. This vision may be developed by the leader, by the senior team or may
emerge from a broad series of discussions. The important factor is the leader buys into it,
hook, line and sinker. Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and
uplifting.
Hypothesis Development
Based on the previous discussion, the proposed hypotheses can be summarized in the
following hypotheses, they are:
H1:
Entrepreneurial orientation has a positive impact towards entrepreneurial
leadership
H2:
Market orientation has a positive impact toward entrepreneurial leadership
H3:
Market orientation has a positive impact towards entrepreneurial orientation
H4:
Entrepreneurial leadership has a positive impact towards financial performance
Research Methodology
128
Questionnaire items were developed based on those used previous study (Babin et al.,
1994; Batra and Athola, 1990; Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Park, 2004) and the data were
collected over a two months period from a convenience sample of 120 manager of some
companies phone provider in Jakarta. The questionnaire consisted of entrepreneurial
orientation and market orientation (Babin et al., 1994; Batra and Athola, 1990; Babin and
Attaway, 2000). Entrepreneurial leadership dan financial performance (Bigne et al., 2004;
Donovan and Rossister, 1982), Multi-item scales were used to measure the study constructs,
respondents were asked to rate 16 items using a seven point Likerts type scale (1=extremely
disagree; 7=extremely agree).
A structural analysis was conducted using the maximum likelihood estimation
method. Overall, the fit indices indicated an adequate model fit (X² = 210.85, df = 118,
p<0.001; EO= 0.068; MO= 0.93, EL= 0.99; FP= 0.98). Relationship between entrepreneurial
orientation and entrepreneurial leadership was also significant (Coefficient = 0.89; t = 6.31,
p<0.01), supporting H1. This finding that indicates that entrepreneurial orientation has a
significant
impact
towards entrepreneurial leadership.Relationship between market
orientation and entrepreneurial leadership was also significant (Coefficient = 0.78; t = 5.41,
p<0.01), supporting H2. This finding that indicates that market orientation has a significant
impact towards entrepreneurial leadership. Relationship between market orientation and
entrepreneurial orientation was also significant (Coefficient = 0.55; t = 6.67, p<0.01),
supporting H3. This finding that indicates that market orientation has a significant impact
towards entrepreneurial orientation. Relationship between entrepreneurial leadership and
financial performance was also significant (Cooficient = 0.83; t = 6.31, p<0.01), supporting
H4. This finding that indicates that entrepreneurial leadership has a significant impact
towards financial performance.
129
Discussion and Conclusion
Research Implication
The
purpose
of
this
study
was
to
examine
the
relationship
among
entrepreneurialorientation and market orientation towards financial performance mediating
by entrepreneurial leadership. In sum, SEM analysis revealed that the proposes model could
well predict financial performance (R² = 0.79) of some companies provider in Jakarta. The
study results provide both theoretical and practically benefit. First, theoretically, this study
demonstrates the usefulness of entrepreneurial orientation and market orientation towards
financial performance mediating by entrepreneur leadership. Second, The ability for
practitioners to identify individuals that will successfully lead innovation in the workplace is
very beneficial for organizations. As previously stated individuals with a prototypical
proactive personality identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and
persevere until meaningful change occurs (Grant, 2000, p. 439) and this has tremendous
implications because these individuals may be more successful in becoming leaders in the
workplace because of their desire to take action and to create a positive change in their work
environment. Practitioners may want to identify employees that identify with an organization
because they may be more likely to remain with the organization and to expend effort on
behalf of the organization (Dutton, Dukerich, &Harquail, 1994); this has implications
because employees who strongly identify with an organization may strive to create value for
the firm. It may also be beneficial to identify those proactive individuals who are politically
skilled because of their ability to read others and suitably adjust their behavior in accordance
with the situation to achieve favorable outcomes such as creating a vision and a cast of
supporters capable of enacting that vision (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004).Third, the
fundamental logic of entrepreneurship is less apparent in this context given the social mission
and multiple stakeholders involved. Building on findings regarding entrepreneurial
130
orientation (EO) within for-profit organizations, a model of antecedents, correlates, and
outcomes of entrepreneurship in profits is developed and tested. Emphasis is placed on the
relationship between EO and the market orientation (MO) of the profit. The findings
demonstrate that entrepreneurship has a legitimate role in profits, and the work climate can be
designed to affect levels of entrepreneurship. Further, EO is associated with aspects of market
orientation.
Conclusion
Dispositional characteristics have not been emphasized in previous studies, which
have tended to rely more heavily on situational variables (Naquin & Holton, 2002). The goal
of this study is to show the importance in the context of entrepreneurial orientation, market
orientation towards financial performance mediated by entrepreneurship leadership.
Individual differences such as personality may be useful in predicting entrepreneurial
leadership and it has several implications for practice. Leadership research indicates that the
trait approach facilitates the selection of leaders. Viewed from a selection perspective,
organizations can determine the desired employee profile to meet their needs (Naquin &
Holton, 2002).
The concept of entrepreneurial leadership has become increasingly important because
organizations must be more entrepreneurial to enhance their performance, their capacity for
adaptation and long-term survival (Gupta et al., 2004). Proactive individuals may be more
successful in entrepreneurial leadership and may contribute more to the organization.
Proactive personality, which is the tendency to show initiative and take action in one's
environment in order to effect meaningful change, may be more specifically tailored to
predicting entrepreneurial leadership in firms than the more general Big Five factors and
131
facets. The proactive personality construct fits well conceptually with the current emphasis
on entrepreneurial leadership and has been linked empirically to a number of career outcomes
(Seibert et al., 1999).
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134
CULTURAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP:
An Accidental Entrepreneur Experience
Fandy Tjiptono
Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta
Yohanes Siyamta
Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta
Abstract
Why and how an individual becomes an entrepreneur has attracted many attentions
among business academics and practitioners. Most researches tend to focus on intentional
entrepreneurs who have entrepreneurial background, managerial skills, and/or abilities to
develop a sound business plan. However, it is just a part of the whole picture of
entrepreneurship world. Many people never expect to be self-employed or considered
themselves as entrepreneurs. They are called ‘accidental entrepreneurs’ because they
become entrepreneurs “by chance or reluctant choice”. Interestingly, this phenomenon
seems to be under researched.
The current research presents a case study of a Javanese artist who started as a
columnist and contributor of Javanese literature sections in several local media in Daerah
Istimewa Yogyakarta and eventually has emerged as an accidental entrepreneur. When he
was trying to publish his collection of articles in a form of a book, he faced negative
responses from all publishers he approached. Being frustrated by the rejections, he decided
to self-finance the publication of his book and later he even started his own publishing
company. When he experienced how difficult it was (and still is) to sell a Javanese literature
book, he came out with several ideas to create marketing sensations, such as ‘Maca Buku
Kanggo Munyuk’ (“reading a book for monkeys”) at Gembira Loka zoo. Several key insights
from this case study in relation to cultural entrepreneurship were drawn at the end of this
paper.
Keywords: accidental entrepreneur, cultural entrepreneurship, Javanese literature.
1.
Introduction
Entrepreneurship as a field of study, research, and business practice has attracted
many attentions for the last two decades (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). It can be seen in the
mounting papers, lectures, speeches, news, and seminars on why and how an individual
becomes an entrepreneur. In line with these, several Indonesian universities focus on
entrepreneurship as their “unique selling propositions”. Such decisions are actuated by
establishing entrepreneurship research centers, offering entrepreneurship subjects at most
135
faculties, proposing business plans as an alternative thesis, creating an entrepreneurial
community service program (KKN Tematik Kewirausahaan) and so forth.
Nevertheless, most entrepreneurship researches tend to emphasize on intentional
entrepreneurs who have entrepreneurial background, managerial skills and/or abilities to
develop a sound business plan. It is a ‘necessary but not sufficient’ condition to fully
understand the entrepreneurship world. Many people never expect to be self-employed or
consider themselves as entrepreneurs. They are called ‘accidental entrepreneurs’ because they
become entrepreneurs “by chance or reluctant choice” (Urquhart-Brown, 2008, p. 1). This
under-researched context is the main focus of the present study.
The paper proceeds as follows. First, a brief literature review is provided. Second, the
research methodology is explicated. Third, research findings and discussion are presented.
Finally, insights and conclusions are drawn.
2.
A Brief Literature Review
2.1
Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs
Although entrepreneurship research has developed for many decades, there is still no
universally-accepted definition of entrepreneurship (Gartner, 1989; Hisrich, Peters &
Shepherd, 2008; Kobia & Sikalieh, 2010; Venkataraman, 1997). Historically the word
‘entrepreneur’ is adopted from a French word, which literally mean “between-taker” or “gobetween” (Hisrich, Peters & Shepherd, 2008).
Kobia & Sikalieh (2010) classify the entrepreneurship conceptualization into three
approaches: trait, behavioral and opportunity identification. The traits approach has
concentrated on the personality traits of the entrepreneur, such as the need for achievement,
locus of control and risk-taking propensity. The main focus is understanding who is an
entrepreneur (Gartner, 1989).
136
The behavioral approach has focused on what the entrepreneur does, especially in
creating a new organization (Carland, Boulton & Carland, 1984; Gartner, 1985). Meanwhile,
the opportunity identification approach tries to understand how to discover, create, and
exploit opportunities which bring into existence ‘future’ goods and services (Shane &
Venkataraman, 2000; Venkataraman, 1997). The development of the three approaches
indicates that entrepreneurship is a dynamic multi-disciplinary concept.
2.2
The Domain of Entrepreneurship
The domain of entrepreneurship could be defined in five dimensions called 5As:
Actors, Aspiration, Activities, Arena, and Achievement (Tjiptono, 2008). The first dimension,
actor (actresses), focuses on the ‘who’ aspect of entrepreneurship, including traits, physical
characteristics, skills, talents, competences, and biological atau genetic factors. The second
dimension, aspiration/ambition, concentrates on the ‘why’ aspect of entrepreneurship, such as
the need for achievement, entrepreneurial orientation, and other specific reasons for being an
entrepreneur.
The third dimension, activities (action), highlights the ‘how’ aspect or the process of
entrepreneurship, i.e. from identifying to exploiting opportunities. This dimension tries to
reveal four main issues (Tjiptono, 2008). First, how can an opportunity be identified:
intentionally (planned); structured and/or systematic; or accidentally? Second, what factors
lead an individual who already identified an opportunity to exploit it immediately; to ignore
it; or to postpone its exploitation? Third, what factors and situations influence an individual
to be an entrepreneur, non-entrepreneur, ex-entrepreneur, and reborn entrepreneur. Fourth,
how can an entrepreneur overcome liability of newness, liability of smallness, and liability of
foreignness when she/he enters the market for the first time? Are the key success factors
generic or idiosyncratic?
137
The fourth dimension, arena, is about the competitive landscape of entrepreneurship.
It includes (1) geographical scope (local/domestic, regional, national, and global); (2)
business scale scope (micro, small, medium, and large); (3) online versus offline businesses;
(4) knowledge-based, skill-based, capital-based, and ‘muscle-based’ businesses; and (5)
product types (goods, services, ideas, places, organizations, and people).
The fifth dimension, achievement, refers to the measures and measurement of
entrepreneurship successes or failures. The criteria used are both economic (such as
profitability, market share, growth, business size, and efficiency) and non-economic (such as
long-term survival, family pride, and so forth).
2.3
Cultural Entrepreneurship
There are many definitions of cultural entrepreneurs. Isar & Anheier (2010, quoted in
http://culturalentrepreneur.org, accessed on 21 October 2011), for instance, see cultural
entrepreneurs as “cultural change agents and resourceful visionaries who organize cultural,
financial, social and human capital, to generate revenue from a cultural activity.” Ploeg
(1999, cited in Klamer, 2006) argues that cultural entrepreneur is a person who integrates two
aspects: (1) knowledge of and sensitivity towards the arts and creative processes; and (2)
knowledge and comprehension of the potential public and marketing techniques. A simpler
definition is provided by Ong (2006, quoted in www.mediaenterprise.co.uk, accessed on 21
October 2011) who defines cultural entrepreneurs as “those who selectively deploy business
management in combination with cultural forms in an individualistic, instrumental manner”.
2.4
Accidental Entrepreneur
Literature on accidental entrepreneur is relatively scarce (Aldrich & Kenworthy,
1999; Urquhart-Brown, 2008). However, an accidental entrepreneur can be defined as a
138
person who never expected to be self-employed or thought of herself or himself as an
entrepreneur (Urquhart-Brown, 2008). An accidental entrepreneur is not a born or natural
entrepreneur who has entrepreneurial or managerial backgrounds. She or he becomes an
entrepreneur “by chance or reluctant choice”.
3.
Research Methodology
The present study focuses on the experiences of Mr. Yohanes Siyamta, a Javanese
artist who started as a columnist and contributor of Javanese literature sections in several
local media in Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta and eventually has emerged as an accidental
entrepreneur. His experiences are unique as he clearly shows that the process of being an
entrepreneur does not always follow the common intentional approach (“by design”). Instead,
the process can be accidental (“by chance or even reluctant choice”).
Following the traditions of case study approach (Yin, 1989), the present study used
multiple data sources, including interviews with Mr. Yohanes Siyamta and archival data (i.e.
videos and newspaper clippings). The interviews were conducted several times to confirm the
the data collected. The videos and clippings are about Mr. Siyamta’s sensational marketing
activities, i.e. reading his Javanese literature book in front of several animal cages as well as
reading it while walking from Tugu to Alun-Alun Utara.
According to Yin (1989, p. 23), “a case study is an empirical enquiry that:
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context especially when the
boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident and in which
multiple sources of evidence are used”. The strength of such approach is that it can provide
an understanding of the general from the specific case (Easton, 2010).
4.
Research Findings and Discussion
139
4.1.
Javanese Language in the Globalization Era
Paul Lewis, the editor of Ethnologue: Languages of the World, reported that Javanese
language was the 12th most widely spoken language in the world, with about 85 million
speakers or 1.2% of world population (cited in Safra & Aguilar-Cauz, 2010). The top five
were Mandarin (845 million speakers), Spanish (329 million speakers), English (328 million
speakers), Arabic (221 million speakers), and Hindi (182 million speakers). However, the
high number of speakers does not positively correlate with the market potential for Javanese
literature books, even in the Java island.
Franz Magnis Suseno, a well-known Javanese philosophy and culture expert, stated
that Javanese cultural values have weakened due to modernization effects (Harian Jogja, 31
January 2011). He argued that one of the indicators is the infrequent Javanese language usage
in daily life, especially among young people.
In practice, it is not easy to maintain local languages in the midst of globalization
trend. For instance, as a compulsory local content subject in Central Java and Daerah
Istimewa Yogyakarta (DIY), Javanese language has been less popular than Bahasa Indonesia,
English, and even Mandarin. Ironically, many Javanese descent students struggle to pass this
subject.
4.2.
Profiles of Mr. Siyamta
Mr. Yohanes Siyamta (46 years old) is a graduate of Local Language and Education
Program at IKIP Karangmalang (now Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta). In addition to his
position as the owner of Nalawening publisher, currently Mr. Siyamta works as a librarian
candidate at Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta. In his spare time, he usually becomes an MC
(in Javanese), plays ketoprak, teaches Javanese language, and many other Javanese-related
activities.
140
4.3.
Preserving Javanese Culture
For many years Mr. Siyamta has actively published geguritan (poetry), short stories,
tembang (songs), and other Javanese literature works in several local media in DIY. As a
young Javanese, he was eager to participate in the preservation and development of Javanese
literature. Because his publications had been numerous, he planned to document them in a
form of a book. Then he tried to approach publishers to explore the possibility of publishing
his works.
However, as one may predict, he could not get an approval from any single publisher.
All publishers he contacted refused to publish his book. The reason was the same:
economically not feasible. All of them have learned their lesson. They were not interested in
printing and distributing Javanese literature books.
In a book discussion event in early 2008 at FISIP UAJY, Mr. Siyamta read one of his
poetry entitled “Layang Kanggo Udin”. After finishing reading, he met one of the publishers
who attended the event. He asked him, “What do you think about my poetry?” “Very good”,
answered the publisher. “Can a compilation of my works be published?” asked Mr. Siyamta.
The answer was “No”. When he asked why, the publisher told him that it was because the
poetry was in Javanese. The market was not potential and the publisher had a bad experience
in marketing such book.
4.4.
Becoming an Accidental Entrepreneur
Despite being disappointed with the refusals, Mr. Siyamta did not give up. He learned
that Suparta Brata, a Javanese literature writer from East Java, had the courage to use his own
money to finance the publication of his books and won the “Rancage”, a literature prize,
several times.
141
Inspired by the Brata story, Mr. Siyamta decided to self-finance the publication of his
first book. The title of the book is Donganing Maling (The Prayer of a Thief) and it contains
geguritan, tembang, short stories, and many other Javanese literatures (see Figure 1). Some
of them had been published in Djoko Lodang and Praba, two Javanese language publications.
The book title is taken from the poetry about the prayer of a thief who wishes to be able to
send his kids to school by stealing from corrupt police and government officers.
Mr. Siyamta asked Penerbit Piss to design the cover, set the layout, arrange for ISBN,
and print the book. Published in June 2008, the marketing of Donganing Maling was handled
by CV Diandra Primamitra Media.
Figure 1. The First Book: “Donganing Maling”
The second book, Lodheh Kahanan, focuses on social critiques, such as the
unfinished drafts of Undang-Undang Keistimewaan DIY (RUUK DIY) and the initial
misidentification of the death of Noordin M. Top (one of the most wanted terrorists) (see
Figure 2). The book title has a special meaning. Lodheh is a name of a meal (i.e. vegetable
dish cooked with coconut milk), while kahanan means conditions or situations. Therefore,
lodheh kahanan refers to a mixture of commentaries on many situations, such as social,
culture, economy, politics, and so forth. The book is written in many Javanese styles, from
ngoko, krama, krama madya, to krama inggil.
142
For his second book, Mr. Siyamta initially tried to submit his manuscript to another
publisher. The hardcopy and softcopy of the manuscripts were received and then reviewed by
the publisher. After a month from the submission, he contacted the publisher and asked for
the publication prospect of his manuscript. The answer was something that he was very
familiar with: “Not promising and we are not ready to market Javanese language books”.
Figure 2. The Second Book: “Lodheh Kahanan”
Mr. Siyamta withdrew his manuscript and once again planned to self-finance the
second book. He contacted CV Diandra Primamitra Media to help lay-outing, arranging for
ISBN, printing, and marketing the book. However, this time CV Diandra Primamitra Media
informed him that everyone can publish his/her own books independently. Based on this
information, Mr. Siyamta eventually decided to establish his own publishing company,
Nalawening (it means “pure heart”). He has become an accidental entrepreneur. He did it
without any entrepreneurial or managerial backgrounds. Nalawening locates at Sidomulyo
TR IV/345 Yogyakarta 55243.
4.5.
Marketing Sensations
143
Establishing a publishing company is one thing, selling the Javanese literature books
it produces is another thing. It is like a ‘double trouble’ situation. However, Mr. Siyamta has
chosen unusual promotional strategies to help marketing his books.
When he launched his first book, he followed conventional promotional strategies. He
held a book launching event on a campus. The responses, however, were not as expected. He
then came up with a ‘crazy’ idea. On 9 November 2008 he held an event called “Maca Buku
Kanggo Munyuk” (reading a book for monkeys). For about two hours, he and a 10 years old
boy read by turns his book, Donganing Maling, in front of several animal cages, such as
orang utans, chimpanzees, and elephants, at Kebun Raya dan Kebun Binatang (KRKB)
Gembira Loka (see Figure 3). The event was covered by several media, including Kedaulatan
Rakyat Minggu (Mekar Sari), Kompas (national and regional), Harian Jogja, Radar Jogja,
Djaka Lodang, Praba, Jogja TV, and TA TV.
Figure 3. Reading a Book at Gembira Loka Zoo
Sumber: www.krjogja.com
When reporters asked him, “Why did you read your book in front of the monkeys?” He
replied with a big smile, “Who knows that after I read the book in front of the monkey cage,
many people will be interested in listening to me. If a monkey can listen, why can’t people?”
Dressed-up in a full Javanese style, Mr. Siyamta succeeded in attracting the attentions of
Gembira Loka visitors. He admitted that his actions had a positive impact on the sales of his
book. As a result, the publication costs were covered by the sales.
144
With a help from one of his friends, his book has been available in the National
Library of Australia, KITLV Netherland, and Republic of Suriname. Besides, Mr. Siyamta
was invited by the Provincial Government of DIY to read a poetry from his book at
Kepatihan in front of Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X and guests during the Christmas
celebration of DIY Province on 7 January 2009.
The second book, Lodheh Kahanan, was also launched in an unconventional fashion
(see Figure 4). Mr. Siyamta and his friend Bambang Nursinggih read the book while they
walked from Tugu to Alun-alun Utara on Saturday morning, 12 December 2009. Wearing
Javanese outfits, they sold the books (Rp 20,000 per book) during the event. They stopped at
several places, such as Kedaulatan Rakyat, Stasiun Tugu, Hotel Garuda, DPRD, Malioboro
Mall, Kepatihan, Beringharjo, Gedung Agung, Alun-Alun Utara, and Pagelaran Kraton.
Mr. Siyamta claimed that his mission is encouraging the usage of Javanese language
among people in DIY. He does not want Javanese to lose their own language. He invited
everyone: “Ayo bebarengan kita kabeh, para pandhemen sastra Jawa tansah mbudidaya
mekarake lan ngudi lestarine budaya Jawa”.
Figure 4. Reading a Book from Tugu to Alun-Alun Yogyakarta
145
Sumber: www.krjogja.com
5.
Concluding Remarks
The
Yohanes
Siyamta
case
provides
several
important
insights.
First,
entrepreneurship is a multiplication of opportunity identification and opportunity
exploitation. An excellent idea without execution is simply nothing. It takes courage,
persistence, dedication, creativity, and speed in exploiting a business opportunity.
Interestingly, sometimes economic pressures, constant rejections and other external factors
might trigger someone to be creative. However, “no pain, no gain”.
Second, cultural entrepreneurship needs both commitment and competence. Passion
for Javanese culture and idealistic mission could provide an opportunity for Javanese cultural
entrepreneurship. A creative promotional strategy to create marketing sensations might be
helpful in serving a niche market like Javanese literature books.
Third, sometimes a business opportunity comes to us. It all depends on us to exploit
or ignore it. Therefore, not all entrepreneurs are intentional. Some (if not many) entrepreneurs
are accidental.
Fourth, the case study presented in this paper might be summarized as in Figure 5. It
provides a framework to understand how the accidental entrepreneur emerged.
Figure 5. The emergence of an accidental entrepreneur
ACTOR
ACTION
Background
Arena
 A columnist, writer &
officer
 40+ years old
 S1 degree in Javanese
language
 A Javanese
Motivation
 Publishing industry
Process
ACHIEVEMENT
 Sales (break-even point
plus some profits)
 Media coverage
 International network
 Being rejected by
publishers
 Self-financing the first
book, but collaborating
146
with a publisher
and a
distributor for the design,
 Preserving the Javanese
print, and distribution.
language
 Refused by another
 Documenting all his
publisher.
previous works
 Self-financing
the (http://www.novapdf.com)
second
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148
Entrepreneurship Class: between theory and reality
Maya Malinda and M. Jimmy Hasugian
Maranatha Christian University
Bandung, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Most of the syllabus taught during the Entrepreneurship class in the Economics Faculty at
Maranatha Christian University only covers theories of entrepreneurship. In this research
paper, we experiment using experiential learning strategies during the course and examined
whether the strategy can help students to effectively relate theory to reality. One and a half
years after the end of the class, we used a questionnaire to get feedback from 21 students who
participated in this exercise. According to statistical analysis, we found that all the
respondents agreed that the strategy helped them relate the theory of entrepreneurship to reallife practices.
KEYWORDS
Entrepreneurship, learning process, experiential learning, business plan
introduction
The Entrepreneurship class conducted at the Economics Faculty generally uses lecturing
methods in teaching. The teachers tend to be a prime resource in the student’s learning
process, which results in minimal student participation in class. This condition has given rise
to students having difficulties relating the theories they learn to reality.
In our research, we assume that the experiential learning strategy will help students gain more
knowledge and insight into entrepreneurship. According to Kolb (1984), learning is “a
process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge
results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (p. 41). One of the
propositions in Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is that “learning is a holistic process of
adaptation to the world. It is not just the result of cognition but involves the integrated
functioning of the total person – thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving” (Kolb, 2005,
p.5).
Learning activities
We experimented with experiential learning strategies during one such class. We divided
students into groups comprising 5 to 6 members. We gave each group an assignment
comprising 3 steps as shown:
149
1.
2.
3.
Students were expected to make a simple business plan where:

It should be about a products-based sale.

It can be run using no more than IDR 500,000 as start-up capital.

No reselling of business plans was allowed.
Students had to execute the plan based on the following requirements:

Students were expected to sell the products themselves.

The products cannot be sold to classmates or family members.

No ‘force-feed’ strategy was allowed.
Students had to present a summary report of their project where:

They had to submit a printed report describing their activities, feelings and
reflections during the process.

Each group was to present their report to the class.
Evaluations of the students’ learning outcomes were taken from the following:

20% of the mid-term marks, which comprised 75% of their involvement in class
activities and 25% of the mid-term test.

30% of the final-term marks, which comprised 75% of their involvement in class
activities and 24% of the final-term test.

50% from the 3-step assignment mentioned earlier.
For the project, each student was graded based on his or her:

Involvement in conceptualising the business plan and product.

Participation in selling the product to the market they proposed.

Involvement in preparing and presenting the final report, as well as his or her
ability to answer or handle questions from the class.
150
Methodology
Based on the activities described, we were interested in addressing these questions:
1.
Did the students’ knowledge about entrepreneurship increase?
2.
Did the learning process meet students’ expectations?
3.
Are they able to design a simple business plan after this project?
4.
Are they able to relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship after this project?
5.
Are they inspired by this experience to be entrepreneurs?
One and a half years after the project was completed, we gave students a questionnaire to get
their feedback about the learning process. 21 students who participated in the activity were
asked to fill the questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised ten Likert-scaled questions and
two open-ended questions.
Hypotheses
By using the statistical approach, we proposed the following hypotheses:
Null hypothesis
The learning process does not help students relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship.
Alternative hypothesis
The learning process helps students relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship.
Results
The result of the one-sample T-test is shown in Table 1. According to Table 1, all the
significant values are less than 0.05. Based on the table, which has a degree of freedom (df)
of 20 and confidence level of 95 %, we obtained a t-value of 2.086. Since all the t-values in
Table 1 are greater than the t-table value, the null hypothesis was rejected.
Table 1
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 3.45
151
t
q1
q2
q3
q4
q5
q6
q7
q8
q9
q10
df
Mean
Sig. (2-tailed) Difference
95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Lower
Upper
7.817
20
.000
1.026
.75
1.30
4.700
20
.000
.788
.44
1.14
4.934
20
.000
.931
.54
1.32
2.186
20
.041
.407
.02
.80
3.888
20
.001
.740
.34
1.14
5.950
20
.000
.836
.54
1.13
4.062
20
.001
.788
.38
1.19
5.539
20
.000
.693
.43
.95
4.934
20
.000
.931
.54
1.32
7.504
20
.000
.979
.71
1.25
Based on the results, we can conclude that the learning process significantly helped students
to relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship.
Here included some comments from students about what they have learned during the
activities:

“By using small amount of money [given,] I can make an innovative business [plan]
and [break even] easily.”

“[I found it] creative to start a business.”

“I [learned] how to set a target market [to] meet the purchase intentions of
consumers.”

“I experienced how to sell directly. We [got to] know each other in our group and
[are] still friends until now.”
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
“I learned how to make ‘sop buah’ (a fruit drink), how to sell it directly and how to
manage funds.”

“I got many business ideas and [learned] how to make a business plan.”

“In these activities, I learned how to run a business and plan strategies to deal with
market and competitors.”

“I learn step by step how to start a new business.”
conclusion
The results infer that students in the Entrepreneurship class could relate the theory or concept
of entrepreneurship to real-life practices, which would inspire them to be entrepreneurs.
references
Kolb, D.A., 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as The Source of Learning and
Development, Prentice-Hall,
Kolb, A.Y.; Kolb, D.A. 2005. Learning styles and learning Spaces: Enhancing experiential
learning in higher education.
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EXAMINATION OF SELF-EFFICACY AND SUPERVISOR SUPPORTS TO
TRANSFER INTENTION WITH MOTIVATION TO LEARN AS AN INTERVENING
VARIABLE31
Budi Santoso
Faculty of Economics and Business, Gadjah Mada University
Abstract
This study examines that motivation to learn as an intervening variable may determine
whether self-efficacy and supervisor support affect positively to transfer intention. This study
adopts the works of the planned behavior theory. Individuals have an intention to perform
organizational tasks if they can do them well and obtain supports from the influential persons.
Data collected from a training program of a national bank (n= 113) demonstrates a correlation
between self-efficacy, supervisor support, motivation to learn, and transfer training by
hierarchical regression. The results are in the line with the theory of planned behavior and the
motivation to learn which contributes partially as an intervening variable for the model. In
addition, the results also show agreement with the previous studies that underline the
importance of individual and organizational factors to increase the effectiveness of the
trainings. In particular, employee’s creativity can be encouraged from development of selfefficacy and supports from management or supervisor by building positive expectation and
providing feedback to create better performance.
Key words: self-efficacy, supervisor support, motivation to learn, the intention of training transfer,
and theory of planned behavior
Introduction
Training is one of strategic instruments for the organizations to improve or enrich the
knowledge and working skills, increase performance and productivity, or prepare employees
to meet the qualifications in the new place of work and career development program.
Because of the recognition of strategic role of training for organizations, the effectiveness of
training program becomes critical thing that need to be paid attention by the management by
ensuring the employees readiness to attend the training program, providing organizational
31
Penelitian ini dibantu oleh Akhmad Fandy Muhammad sebagai pengumpul data di lapangan (SENDIK BRI
Yogyakarta) dan Lizamul Widad sebagai pengolah data. Saya mengucap terima kasih atas kesediaan mereka
membantu penelitian ini.
154
support, and designing the relevant program suited with employees’ and organization’s
needs.
The Model of Effective Training Evaluation that is widely accepted fulfills four
principles which are reaction, learning, behavior, and training’s (Kirkpatrik di Al-Eisa et al,
2009). Generally, this model stresses on the behavior change after attending the training by
transferring the training to the tasks implementation for the sake of employees and
organization (Yimnill dan McLean, 2001). This model also emphasizes on the measurable
results to find out the effectiveness of the training. However, some critical arguments have
come out for the model especially on the emphasis of training success as transfer of training.
Holton (1996) mentioned that if the training effectiveness only focuses on transfer of training
without paying attention to the process that results qualified transfer of training, the company
has ignored organizational and individual or employees condition that can affect the success
of qualified transfer of training. To respond Holton’s point of view, this research argues that
the indication of transfer of training intention should be able to be detected by the
management so that the management can predict the more potential possibility to achieve
training effectiveness. The interesting issue on the transfer of training is to find out how and
why the intention to transfer of training can occur. Conditional requirements need to be
elaborated to know that employees intend to transfer the training for their own interest as well
as organization’s.
Some studies have given some propositions on organizational condition. Swartz
(2002) confirmed that goal orientation and initiation are the predictors of the continuity of
training transfer. Further, goal orientation is determined by goal intention and the
implementation of that intention (Machin and Fogarty, 2004). This goal intention will appear
when the favorable condition or situation is available for the individual (a desired end state)
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and the actions leading to goal achievement (goals-directed actions). The intention to achieve
something wanted through transfer of training is considerably influenced by the individual’s
belief to transfer of training. The individual’s belief to transfer of training sources from the
high level of individual’s self-efficacy in the context to the training carried out and the
organizational activities supporting the transfer of training (transfer enhancing activities).
In line with experts’ arguments on the source of training effectiveness (Machin and
Fogarty, 2003; Foxon 1996), this research is sure that the transfer intention is a crucial thing
to predict how far the training is successful for the organization and employees. Some
empirical studies have revealed the predictors of the increasing of training transfer intention
by focusing on individual and organizational factor. In this case, individual and
organizational factors involve
self-efficacy (Machin and Fogarty, 2004; Schwoerer et al.,
2005), positive job attitudes (Tannenbaum et.al., 1991), organizational climate and design
(Tracey et.al., 2007). Specifically, organizational climate directs more to create the condition
of supervisor support to employees in the process of transfer of training.
This research adopts the framework of theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen,
1991) to predict the level of the intention of transfer of training (Al-Eisia et Al, 2009). TPB
gives strong and tested basic of the process of the emerging of behavioral intention based on
the individual factor and organizational environment. Briefly, the behavioral intention is
affected by the perception on that behavior in the context of the ability of making action and
the benefits of that behavior for oneself in the organization (the effect on the easiness and the
simplicity of performance improvement). In specific, Al-Eisia et. Al. (2009) put self-efficacy
factor as individual factor and supervisor support as organizational factor that become the
predictors of the intention of transfer of training. In TPB framework, this research includes
motivation element as an intermediary predictor or intervening variable to reach a certain
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intention of transfer of training. Including motivation element as intervening variable also
responds the necessity of motivation’s role validation to transfer as a preliminary prediction
of the emerging of training transfer intention (Mathieu and Martineau, 1997).
This research, in addition, examines the role of self-efficacy and supervisor support in
influencing intention to transfer of training through motivation to learn as intervening
variable. In particular, empirical research can give significant contribution to the study of
training effectiveness because this research focus on individual factor and organizational
environment
rather than training design aspect and instructor’s role to create a successful
training through intention to transfer of training factor than behavior change after training.
This research is also trying to examine the validity of the importance of training process as a
training effectiveness predictor rather than (1967). This empirical research has a unique
characteristic because it takes Indonesian cultural context in which collectiveness and power
range aspects are dominant (Hosftede, 1997). The implication with dominant individual
dimension and low power range is that the intention to transfer of training is very affected by
individual factor (intrinsic motivation), while Indonesian culture in general in Hofstede’s
perspective tends to combine individual support and organizational support. The out-comings
of the research can validate the power of individual and organizational factors in the context
of different culture to achieve the training (research) effectiveness.
The Antecedent of the Intention to Transfer of Training
According to the planned theory approach, intention is a representation of individual
cognitive aspect in forms of a willingness to act a certain behavior and becomes an actual
behavior mediation or one that will be implemented (Ajzen, 1991). Foxon Model (1993)
explains five steps of transfer process in sequence, starting from the first to the last as
intention to transfer, initiation, partial transfer, conscious maintenance, and unconscious
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maintenance. In this model from Foxon, it is evident that intention to transfer is the beginning
of the process of training transfer. The low level of intention can result low initiation of
training transfer (a behavior of actual transfer of training). Foxon Model gives more focus on
the process rather than see the product of training as a proof of training transfer existence.
The transfer intention is different from the motivation to transfer. Transfer intention is
more related with the tendency of training participants to initiate the transfer rather than their
motivation to apply the knowledge or skills that have been obtained in the training.
Motivation to transfer refers to a willingness to transfer, while intention to transfer refers to a
commitment to transfer. Both of them strongly correlate and can influence one to another.
Self-efficacy
Bandura (1986, p.391) defines self-efficacy as “people’s judgments of their
capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of
performances.” That definition explains about the individual’s belief in his/her ability to carry
out a certain task successfully based on the desired performance. In the perspective of
training, self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in his/her ability to do a successful training
(Guthrie and Schwoerer, 1994). That understanding can underline the role of self-efficacy as
a beginning condition or pre-requisite needed by the individuals for them to participate in a
training and learn new competence and skills. The level of self-efficacy will later motivate
them to learn and develop their skills and knowledge during the training and finally will
create a willingness to transfer the training into his/her work. In other words, high selfconfidence on the ability to learn tends to show high self-confidence on the ability to apply
the skills and knowledge obtained from the training into work after the training process is
accomplished. This is also affirmed by some empirical researches as Wilson et.al (2007) dan
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Al-Eisa et.al (2009) that reveal positive impacts of self-efficacy to the intention of training
transfer.
H1: Self-efficacy correlates positively to the intention to transfer of training.
Supervisor Supports
Supervisor supports refer to how far the supervisor encourage the participants in the
training and knowledge acquisition and give a recognition to the employees involved in the
activities mentioned (Tracey dan Tews, 2005). Supervisor supports also include certain
behavior that can optimalize the application of new knowledge and skills gained from the
training into employees’ work (Nijman et. Al, 2004). Supervisor support is also an effort to
increase the employees’ or training participants’ awareness to transfer the training. In this
case, supervisor support plays its role as a subjective norm that influences the employees to
initiate or improve their willingness to transfer the training.
H2: Supervisor support has a positive correlation to the intention to transfer of training.
Motivation to Learn
Motivation to learn is a specific willingness of a training participant to learn about the
content of the training and get the whole experience from that training program (Noe dan
Schmitt, 1986; Carlson et al., 2000). This empirical study shows that motivation to learn
affects the willingness of the participants to play their parts in the training program (Noe dan
Wilk, 1993), be ready to do more efforts to learn and find the benefits of the training (Chuang
et.al, 2005), and to transfer the knowledge and skills into their work (Cheng dan Ho, 1998,
2001). Foxon (1993) states that motivation to learn has an effect to the learning itself and the
intention to transfer. The participants of the training with high motivation will make great
efforts to obtain new knowledge and skills in the training program. Later, that condition will
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encourage the improvement of the intension to training transfer by enriching the participants’
knowledge and skills in the training program.
H3: Motivation to learn correlates in s positive way to the intention to transfer of training.
Further, the level of motivation to learn is considerably affected by self-efficacy and
supervisor support (Chiaburu dan Marinova, 2005; Chiaburu et.al, 2005; Factaeu et.al, 1995).
The training participants have high motivation to learn because they fell sure about their
ability to follow the training program successfully (the effect of self-efficacy). The level of
self-efficacy encourages high self-confidence to involve fully in the training program to gain
optimal benefits from the training. The most recent research of Al-Eisa et.al. (2009) affirms
that the role of self-efficacy gives positive influence to the improvement of motivation to
learn.
H4: Self-efficacy correlates positively to motivation to learn.
Besides self-efficacy, supervisor support also affects positively to motivation to learn.
Supervisor supports includes giving feedback to the performance during the training, positive
expectation and support for the participants to implement the training essence into their work
(Ismail, et.al, 2010). Such supervisor attention influences effectively to the willingness to
participate completely in the training program so the acquisition of new skills and knowledge
through the training program can be obtained.
H5: Supervisor support gives positive correlation to motivation to learn.
The explanation above doesn’t directly affirm the role of motivation to learn as intervening
variables of self-efficacy and supervisor support to affect positively the intention to transfer
of training. The intention to transfer of training is improved because the participants of the
training feel that they get meaningful experience during the training program through the
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acquisition of new skills and knowledge that will be useful for their work. To obtain optimal
result in the training can be realized because of high motivation to learn in the training. The
motivation to learn is improved because of high self-efficacy that participants are sure to be
able to play parts in the training and acquire skills and knowledge optimally. Besides by high
self-efficacy, motivation to learn is also increased because of the supervisor attention and
supports by giving positive feedback and expectation to the training participants. This will lift
up the motivation to learn of the training participants.
H6: Motivation to learn correlates the effect of self-efficacy to the intention to transfer
of training.
H7: Motivation to learn intervenes the effect of supervisor support to the intention to
transfer of training.
The Methodology of Research
Research Context: This research was conducted at (SENTRA) BRI Yogyakarta by taking
BRI temporary (outsourcing) employees as the respondents of the research. BRI Yogyakarta
has a policy of having 80 percent outsourcing employees. This research ran in JanuaryAugust 2011.
The Testing of Model’s Variables: The instrument of this research is a set of questionnaires
consisting of 19 items of closed-questions about self-efficacy, supervisor support, and
intention to transfer of training variables.
All the question items are valued in Likert’s five
scales that start from 1 = strongly agree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly
disagree. Self-efficacy is defined as the training participants’ valuation on their ability to
follow the training successfully. There are six items of self-efficacy element developed
Guthrie and Schwoerer (1994), such as “I believe that I will be able to do this training.”
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Supervisor support refers to support perceived by the training participants from their
supervisor to directly involve themselves in the training, innovation, and the application of
the new skills and knowledge in the work place. The supervisor supports consist of six items
developed Tracey and Tews (2005) such as “My supervisor gives his recognition and
appreciation to those who apply the new skills and knowledge from the training in the work
place.” Transfer Intention (NT) is explained as a willingness to apply the knowledge and
skills in the work place. Three statements suggested by Clemenz (2001) such as “I have an
intention to use the knowledge and skills I get from the training program as I go back to my
work later.’ Motivation to learn (MB) is defined as a willingness of an employee to
participate him/herself in the training program and fully get the experience from the program.
There are four items of question construct the motivation to learn variable that was developed
by Yi and Davis (2003) such as “O am interested in learning the materials or the content of
this training program.’
Data and Analysis
Respondents Profile: Using random sampling in the outsourcing employees training
program in BRI, the researcher found out that the total number of the respondents were 113
people with female employees (65%) dominate the sex category. In the category of age, the
respondents are averagely in the young and productive ages (see table 1). The description of
respondents in Table 1 shows that the group of young respondents is the one who has high
spirit of being developed especially for their careers. The training can be a valuable
opportunity for them to obtain knowledge and skills as much as they can to improve their
performance.
Table 1: Respondents Profile
Profile Elements
Category
Number of
Percentage
162
Sex
person
40
73
59
54
Male
Female
21-23
24-26
Age
35%
65%
52%
48%
Average Description and Correlations between Variables: Table 2 shows positive results
that each variable has same average score and deviation standard that tend to have similar
perception from “agree” to “strongly agree”. Respondents also tend to have high scores for
self-efficacy, supervisor support, motivation to learn, and intention to transfer training. Ecah
variable has significant correlation showing relatively similar correlation.
Table 2: Descriptive Statistic
Research
Variable
Intention to
transfer of
training (NTP)
Learning
motivation (MB)
Self-Efficacy
(ED)
Supervisor
suport(DS)
N
Average
113
4.732
Deviation
Standard
.393
113
4.507
.402
113
4.317
.408
113
4.379
.455
Correlation between variables
NTP
MB
ED
1
0.572*
0.459*
1
DS
0.505*
0.539*
0.552*
1
0.568*
1
Validation dan Reliability: The testing instrument for statistic validity is Confirmatory
Factor Analysis (CFA), while reliability test uses Conbach’s Alpha 0.60 (Hair et al. 2006).
The results of validity test reveals that KMO Sampling adequacy is 0,852 showing the sample
taken are representative (cut off: 0,4). The items of question have significant loading factor
and has more than 0.40 score. In the reliability test, the instrument indicates that the
instrument used in the research is Cronbach’s Alpha and in each construct the score is (Cut
Off: 60%).: intention of training: 0.77, Motivation to learn: 0.70; Self-efficacy: 0.82, and
supervisor support : 0.86
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Model Test by Hierarchy Regression: Table 5 shows an indication that all hypothesis
proposed in this research are tested and accepted sifnificantly. With the significance all of
paths, all hypothesis are supported. In particular, the role of motivation to learn evidently
intervenes the correlation between self-efficacy and supervisor supports to the intention of
training transfer. The score β = 0.459 in self-efficacy directly correlates to the intention of
training transfer compared to when it is intervened by motivation to learn (β self-efficacy =
0.281). The similar results can be seen in score β of supervisor support = 0.505 which is
directly related to the intention of training transfer compared to when it is intervened by
motivation to learn with the score β 0.335. All causal relations between variables match with
the proposed hypothesis and are tested significantly.
Table 5: Hierarchy of Regression Results
Step
A.Self
Eficacy
1
2
3
4
Dependent
Independent
Beta (sig)
Intention
Intention
Motivation
Intention
Efficacy
Motivation
Efficacy
Efficacy
Motivation
0,459**
0,499 **
0,493 **
0,281**
0,360**
0,210
0,249
0,243
0,308
0,098 **
B.Support
Intention
Intention
Motiv
Intention
Support
Motivation
Support
Support
0,505 **
0,499 **
0,527 **
0,335 **
0,255
0,249
0,277
0,330
0,075 **
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Motivation
** significant at the level of 1%
0,322 **
Data Results Summary: In general, all the results of Regression Hierarchy test are in line
with the previous empirical studies. Motivation to learn becomes the main factor to create the
improvement of training transfer intention. High or increasing motivation to learn is
influenced by someone’s belief or self-confidence to be able to follow and participate the
training. Motivation is also advanced if there is a positive support from the supervisor. Given
a special condition, Indonesian cultural context that is different from those from developed
countries where the model developed doesn’t give any different results and indeed strengthen
the role of that model to predict the training effectiveness from the first step that is when
there is a change of behavior after the training. Indirectly, the respondents profile who are in
the category of young and productive ages (21-26 years old) affect the high score of all
variables tested. Enthusiasm to develop becomes as an asset for them to motivate themselves,
added by their high education, to improve their self-efficacy. On the other side, the dominant
respondents who are women also influence the tendency of individuals in their work place to
rely on subjective norms through supervisor supports to transfer the training into their work.
Loyalty to the superior is indicated stronger in women to transfer the training than the men
who tend to transfer the training because that training is important to improve their
performance and their career progress.
Although statistically, self-efficacy and supervisor support as well as are
independently and individually give positive and significant influence to the intention of
training transfer, the interaction of individual (in this case self-efficacy) and organizational
factor
(supervisor support) are really needed, based on the concepts of interactionist
perspectives (Greenberg, 2011). Individual behavior is a function of individual and
organizational factors interaction. The training for improving the employees’ creativity will
165
be effective in results if the self-efficacy development can be lifted up through the training of
self-development and inputs from management. Generally, management requirements on the
improvement of employees’ development can be done not only through the training but
mainly through the self-confidence creation and supervisor’s inputs on all those aspects that
need to be improved to escalate their creativity.
References
Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 50, 179-211.
Al-Eisa, A.S, Furrayan, MA dan Alhemoud, A.M (2009). An Emprical Examintaion of the
Effect of Self-Efficay, Supervisor Support,d an Motivation Learn on Transfer Intention.
Management Decision, 47(8), 1221-1224
Chiaburu, D.S dan Marinova, S.V (2005). What Predicts Skill Transfer? Exploratory Study of
Goal Orientation, Training Self-Efficacy and Organizational Supports. International Journal
of Training and Development, 9(2), 110-123.
Facteau, J.D, Dobbins, G.H., Russel, J.E.A., Ladd, R.T., & Kudisch, J.D. (1995). The
Influence of General Perceptions of the Training Environment on Pre-Training Motivation
and Perceived Transfer of Training. Journal of Management, 21, 1-25
Foxon, M (1993). A Process Approach to the Transfer Training Australian. Journal of
Educational Technology, 9(2), 130-143.
Greenberg, J (2010). Behavior in Organizations. 10th edition, New Jersey: Pearson PrenticeHall.
Guthrie, J.P. dan Schwoerer, C.E. (1994). Indivdiual and Contextual Influence on SelfAssessed Training Needs. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 405-422
Hair, W.C.Black, B., Anderson, and Tatham. (2006). Data Analysis Multivariate. 6th edition,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.l
Ismail, A., Mohamed, H.A.B., & Sulaiman, A.Z. (2010). Supervisor’s Role as an
Antencedent of Training Transfer and Motivation to Learn in Training Programs. ACTA
Universitatis Danubius, 2, 18-37.
Machin, M.A. & Fogarty, G.J (2004). Assessing the Antecedents of Transfer Intention in a
Training Context. International Journal of Training and Development, 8(3), 222-235.
Nijman, D.J.J.M., Nijhof, W.J, Wognum, A.A.M., &Veldkamp, B(2006). Exploring
Differential Effects of Supervisor on Transfer of Training. Journal of European Industrial
Training, 30, 529-549.
Tracey, J.B., and Tews, M.J. (2005). Construct Validity of a General Training Climate Scale.
Organizational Research Model, 8(4), 353-374
166
Analyzing of distance learning methods as a public service sector
in terms of shaping and changing education society's perception
Sri Sediyaningsih
Abstract
Distance learning system in Indonesia are realized by the government in 1984, known as
PTJJ, with the main aim to give opportunities to all high school graduates or the equivalent
can obtain higher education, without thinking about time and place. PTJJ is relatively new
learning method when compared with face-to-face learning systems in general that already
exists in Indonesia. Through this system, which does not require the room to learn, making
the cost of education less than other colleges which uses face to face methods , especially
with private college. But it turns out that this cheap cost of education, perceived by education
for the economically incapable or lower class. The interaction is not face to face is
interpreted to have a much lower quality than a face to face. Paradigm of PTJJ must change
and this can only be done through the communication approach. Through this paper, we
discuss how to shape and change people's perception of distance education using the
approach from the side of management customer relationship management (CRM) and public
affairs communication through interpersonal communication, mass communication theory
and social media.
Key words: CRM, inclusion, affection and control, social media theory
INTRODUCTION
Competition to find customers not just occurs in the business area alone, but the college
now also experiencing the same thing. The number of existing universities faced with the
emergence of new competitors led to increasingly diverse emerging. Open University (UT) as
the only university with distance education methods in the country, really do not need to
worry about the growth of new universities face to face in the vicinity that use different
learning methods. But in fact, although the growth of the college has different characteristics,
it indirectly provides an opportunity to decrease in student enrollment at UT. Service is the
167
main thing that must be considered in the management of an institution that sells intangible
products in the form of services such as Open University. Therefore, this paper wants to give
an overview on the implementation of the services in a framework of CRM through student
services both in face to face and online to become an important activity in supporting the
formation, shaping and maintenance of the college image. With in-depth analysis of the CRM
implementation will be made CRM procedures in accordance with the characteristics of
higher education, especially distance higher education.
Open University as the only university in Indonesia which was formally implements remote
method or Open Distance Learning (ODL). UT inaugurated in 1984 with the main goal to
open the opportunity for the Indonesian people as possible to follow the higher education,
without having constrained by time, age, residence and year of graduation. This is different to
other universities where time, age, residence, year of graduation and the availability of places
is a constraint. With different educational system than others, making UT as a university
which is quite a dilemma in dealing with various questions about patterns of learning, in this
dilemma is there are some people who think that the pattern of long distance is difficult to
provide quality graduates, on one side of the UT is considered as a large university because it
gives an opportunity for anyone who wants to continue their studies.
Even the State agency has the right to provide an assessment to the universities Badan
Akreditasi Nasional Perguruan Tinggi (BAN PT) have yet to find an appropriate indicator to
include elements of assessment, because the majority of the accreditation team and the
assessors come from universities face to face. This makes UT's position in society
unfavorable because there is no reference or benchmark system of distance education in
Indonesia. However, in the international arena, where almost all States have a long-distance
college, UT get awards or recognition as a mega-university that has implemented the system
with a good distance from the International Council of Distance Education (ICDE). The
different assessment conditions are what makes the problems in the writing of this paper
appeared. How should the strategy of communications made to enhance the image of a
university that has a different method in the learning process, to the people who since long
time ago has been introduced to the university community face to face.
To address these problems, there are several theories that are used include CRM,
Interpersonal Communications, and Quality Service and Customer Satisfaction. So the
168
discussion in this paper is directly based on those theories are applied in the process of CRM
in Higher Distance Education Open University.
Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
CRM is a strategy that integrates the key business functions and processes of internal and
external networks to create and communicate corporate values to customers, based on
customer data and information technology. CRM can be said to manage all aspects of the
interaction process between companies and customers or prospective customers, including
prospects, sales and service by attempting to repair the relationship between companies and
customers from various points of view into one view of a product from the company. (Francis
Buttle, 2009). He continued that the main characteristics of CRM is a strategy, key business
strategies to help take the profitable customers, by creating and delivering more value owned
by a product to the customer. Philip Kotler identifies three business orientation that is product
oriented, production oriented and sales oriented. (Kotler, 2000). Operations to implement
this, focus on operational processes ranging from sales, marketing and service, analysis, must
be done to see how the development of a product and a strategy that should be done and
collaboration, here defined as the optimum technology to minimize barriers to companies
optimize the value -value of the company, partners and customers. The term CRM is actually
referring to the concept of marketing, however, the concept of CRM cannot be seen from one
perspective only, because the CRM is essentially contained three perspectives namely
Information Technology, Customer Life Cycle and Business Strategy. Viewed from the
perspective of technology, every company is always trying to achieve goals effectively and
efficiently, therefore the development of technology is always underlies each policy. This is
not just about software technology, but rather the three main elements consisting of customer
touch points, applications and data stores. From the perspective of the customer life cycle is
more seeing how the company relates to its customers who are more focused on the needs of
customers or customer oriented. The third perspective is more a look at business strategy that
includes customer acquisition, customer retention and customer extension in the context of
marketing, shareholder value and innovation of information technology. At the core of CRM
thinking about how to establish, develop and maintain good relations between companies and
169
customers in the long term. So basically there are on how to build a meaningful relationship
in the long run. ( http://www.marketing teacher.com)
. The CRM can be seen depicted in the figure below:
Interpersonal communication mediated
Interpersonal communication is a form of communication process that can be viewed from
two perspectives, namely contextual consider how the person in the communication, how
close they are, and how the feedback and the means or channels are used. Interpersonal
communication is different from other forms of communication because the number of
participants involved in it, and the physical proximity of its immediate feedback. While the
second is the development, which saw the communication of how the relationship that occurs
between two or more persons who interact with each other by looking at individual
characteristics (Borchers,2011).
Fundamentally interpersonal communication has several major functions of gaining
information, the more priority to how we find out about other people so we are not wrong
communicating, building a context of understanding, in this case every form of interaction is
always based on the place or environment in which communication occurs. Some are called
Content message or content of the message itself and Relationship message, which is
message content associated with this form of interaction that occurs, Establishing identity, to
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communicate we can position ourselves as to establish the identity of each one of us. And the
last is the interpersonal needs are basic human needs which consist of inclusion, affection and
control. (Brochers,2011)
There are three theories that underlie how the formation of a relationship, namely
Uncertainty Reduction theory, which describes a process of reduction of uncertainty about
the other party. The higher the level of uncertainty, it can be said closer ties between the two
sides.(Berger,1975)
We have the Social Penetration theory, which emphasizes the depth dimension of the
relationship. And Rules Theory, which describes one's relationship has always been based on
a mutually acceptable rules.(DeVito,2004) This term appears because of the development of
communication technology such as internet, email, chat and also Blackberry messenger
(BBM). The tools used in activities such interactions indeed have two sides perspectives, one
is a mass media is a tool used can also send information to everybody (mass), but on the
other hand only use personally. Therefore the same as the term computer mediated
communication or Computer Mediated Communication, known as CMC. While
terms
of
media or interpersonal communication Interpersonal Mediated Communication (MIC), has
the same meaning but a very different form of interaction. This is one area of communication
is very clear because of the influence of technologies that reflect how individuals use
technology in every interaction.
Interaction through the media is already changing the
way we interact as also revealed by Bailenson, 2006 that the social transformation that has
occurred can be seen from three dimensions namely, self-representation, sensory Abilities
and situational context.
Today everyone uses technology to interact with others, casual and informal than in
face to face. Including the time when such as a special holiday greeting, Christmas or
birthdays. Even now rarely spoken on the phone, we prefer communicate via SMS or BBM.
The most widely used is the telephone cellular or known as mobile (hp), the email, sms and
bbm replaces an opportunity to understand the other person is good or meaningful. One
reason we use email, sms or bbm because it is quick and easy to interact and even do not
want to give full attention in interacting. Some people think that technology can show our
quality of life standards, such as what is revealed by Matsuba, 2006 that the people who are
always in contact with the sophistication of the technology will improve the quality of life in
171
terms of internet usage, cell phones, video games, but will indirectly reduce the force
communication between family members. (Matsuba, 2006; Kraut and colleagues, 1998 in
Hoffman, 2009).
Ericson says Most individuals need to interact with others in a variety of social and
community based activities When individuals do not engage in social activities, they typically
fail to achieve a sense of "wellness" and happiness in other aspects of their lives. (Erikson,
1968 dalam Hoffman, 2009). This suggests that the community still needed interacting fellow
community members will create a state of happiness and fun, so everyone should be united in
the existing social activities.
Quality Service and Customer Satisfaction (QSCS)
Quality of service can be seen from what is disclosed Parasuraman, 1988 which consists of
several dimensions, namely responsiveness, how will we provide service to customers and
give according to what customers want, assurance, all employees have the ability to boost the
confidence of what is presented or can be trusted, empathy, and want to pay attention and
listen patiently to complaints or concerns of customers, tangibles representing all existing
conditions and which can be observed from its personnel, completeness and condition of the
room where the service provided and the main thing is reliability, that is what is given is
accurate .
How to see the emotion in the customer satisfaction PTJJ system, the authors use a model
study of Huseyin Gungor, 2007 as follows:
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From the picture above, try to see how the CRM application to the pattern at the Open
University. Starting from Price in this case is the price offered for students who take classes
at UT, relatively very cheap compared to other PT in person. The concept of price has also
been influential in the selection of a product. Second is the concept of products, a product of
teaching materials teaching materials both print and non print, the third is the quality of
services provided, then the treatment and the last is the feeling for the firm. This is the basic
concept referenced in seeing how CRM can be implemented in PTJJ. Under the process of
changing the level of emotion and cognition conducted online customers via email or
community UT Online on the website are available. Establishment of cognition is easier than
the formation of his emotions. Cognition is supported by the existing products in the UT,
while the emotions are influenced by the surrounding community where the student resides.
From the above concept, which most need attention is the sense of "brand" that exists. So far
majority society have not known the UT’s learning system , in the minds of those who name
173
the school in the PT is coming to campus, attend lectures, and so on. Social Promotion UT’s
research results showed nearly 60% of visitors knew UT from friends or family, they rarely
know the UT from the mass media promotion. This suggests that the dissemination of
information by word of mouth is very effective in promoting UT. Many people are not
familiar with UT as a public university, they do not understand how studying at UT, even
among graduates UT 2011 which stated that he felt college at UT, it still felt strange, because
it has no campus, never active or attend college classes as a method to PT in general, and is
often used to talk about them with the surrounding environment. On the other hand the
concept of interpersonal communication people always need to feel accepted valued and
controlled.
In UT, CRM implementation is done through the UT student service center or Pelayanan
Mahasiswa (PELMA), They should consider three factors above. Students or the community
generally feel less a part of the UT, in the absence of the campus, as this is perceived by one
of UT graduates. There are two factors in the customer satisfaction in terms of physical or
rational values dimension in the form of cash and products as well as from the non-physical
or emotional value dimension in the form of trust, relationship and convenience.(Robinette,
2001) . Which is difficult to achieve is the emotional side, for example, when we choose a
university, which exist in our mind first is the "name" or brand of the university. Parents feel
proud if their children received at prestigious state universities, there is a "trust" is so great in
it. It is inevitable that in order to achieve a big name is also necessary struggle, but people
forget that the big names must remain accompanied with a good product as well, or values
that are rational.
From a theoretical overview and discussion can take an assumption that in the
implementation of CRM in the public higher education, especially higher education distance
learning is a relatively new method, then what is done based on the concept of CRM is as
follows: in terms of information technology, UT already use fully, the utilization of
information technology to reach customers are spread throughout the country. Ironically
conditions of each region are very different, so the use of technology can only be felt by those
who are in areas of affordable or can access the internet. The products produced by the UT
has not been fully able to give satisfaction to the customer, be it a real product in the form of
printed materials or non-print, online tutorials and face to face as well as products that are not
apparent in the form of service, is still required by the customer.
174
As illustrated by the number of students who are more than 500 thousand people,
PELMA UT Center only has 7 staff that routinely provides services to customers, they were
assisted by staff
located in 37 UPBJJ spread throughout Indonesia. Business strategy,
conducted UT still felt very lacking in maintaining relationships with customers, especially in
terms of information services. Added by Peppers and Rogers (1996) in building better
relationships with customers through the process of identity, of knowing exactly who our
customers, differentiate, understanding the customer is not maximized, we can provide
treatment in accordance with the character of the customer, Interact a good interaction with
based on an understanding of the expectations of our customers and customize, meaning that
the similarity between expectations and reality of the customer.
CONCLUSION
CRM is essentially the process of developing relationships with customers in a long
time, by maximizing the utilization of technology, by providing added value to customers and
profits for the University. But in fact the implementation of CRM in Indonesia State
Universities in general have not gone well, this is due to the high level of demand and
willingness of the place of the existing state universities. On the other hand the large number
of students at distance state universities (UT) made the implementation of CRM do not
provide maximum results. This is due to a lack of understanding of CRM and CRM
competence of staff in the field itself. CRM must be seen from the 3 strategies (technology,
product and strategy), all three cannot stand alone but should complement each other.
The main thing that it is currently facing UT today is an understanding of distance
education system Indonesian society is still relatively low, so the "brand" UT is less known,
even if aware, they do not understand what and how to study at UT. CRM in Indonesia
especially in the higher education has not been implemented well, this is due to a lack of
coordination that occurs internally of the PT itself. In principle the CRM activities are
internal activities that generate customer satisfaction through its activities. CRM activities not
fully get the attention of the government agencies in general. Forming people's perceptions of
different learning systems is not easy, it takes the cooperation and coordination of various
parties, particularly the directorate of higher education as a formal institution to support the
existence of the open university which was formed with the primary mission of opportunity
175
for anyone to take higher education, or in accordance with the UT’s sound bite, making
higher education open to all.
Discussions about the existence of distance education is still rarely carried out by the
government, whereas the existence of distance education itself is the government's efforts to
provide an opportunity for anyone who wants to continue to higher education without the
constraints of space and time. Distance education is not a competitor of face to face PT, but a
partner in helping the mission of government in education.
REFERENCES:
Bailenson,JN., Garland,P. Iyenger,S & Yee.N, 2006, Transformed Facial Similarity as a
Political Cue: A Preliminary Investigation, Political psychology,27
Berger, Charles R, and Richard J. Calabrese, Some Exploration in Initial Interaction and
Beyond,:Toward a Theory of Interpersonal Communication. Human Communication
Research 1 (winter): 99-12, 1975
DeVito,A.Joseph, The Interpersonal Communication Book, Wesley Longman, 2004
Tim Borchers, diunduh 7 Februari 2011
Gungor,Huseyin, 2007, Emotional Satisfaction of Customer Contacts, Amsterdam University
Press
Oliver.M, Sandra, 2004, Handbook of Corporate Communication and Public Relations,
Routledge, London
Ormeno, Marcos, 2007, Managing Corporate Brand, A New Approach to Corporate
Communication, Gabler Edition Wissenschaft
Lerbinger,Otto, 2006, Corporate public affairs, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publisher,
London
Kotler,Philip, Nancy Lee, 2007, Marketing in the Public Sector, Whartoon School Publishing
Francis Buttle, 2009, Customer Relationship Management, Elsevier
Kotler P, 2000, Marketing Management The Millenium Edition, Englewood
Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall International
Parasuraman, A.,Zetihaml, V.A & Berry,L.L, 1988, SERVQUAL: a Multiple-Item Scale for
Measuring Customer Perceptions of Service Quality. Journal of Retailing.
Robinette, Brand and Lenz, 2001,Emotion Marketing:The Halmark way of winning
customer for life,New York,McGraw Hill
Hoffman, August John, Wallach,Julie,Sanchez.Eduardo,Afkhami,Hasti, 2009, Improving
interpersonal
Communication
through
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service,
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4057.
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customer a t a time, London
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ANALYSIS OF THE ADOPTION OF ASEAN MRA ON TOURISM
PROFESSIONAL AT JAKARTA FIVE STAR HOTELTOWARDS THE
HUMAN RESOURCES GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS
Nila Krisnawati Hidayat
Faculty Business Administration and Humanity – Hotel Tourism Management, Swiss
German University
Abstract
A key step towards achieving the successful of an ASEAN MRA in Tourism is
the adoption of consistent competency standards as described in the ASEAN Common
Competency Standards for Tourism Professionals (ACCSTTP) Framework, including in
Indonesia.
Utilizing methodology of focus group discussion, as well as secondary data, this
paper aims to identify the steps taken in the implementation of MRA, benefits, obstacles
faced by government and industries, and measure the level of perception of Jakarta 5 star
hotel operators. It has been analyzed that there are obstacles faced such as the gaps in
standards qualification for tourism in each hotel industries; and also limited role of
National Tourism Body to socialize the adoption of ASEAN MRA for Tourism. The
study uses deductive-evaluative approach, with combination of qualitative and
quantitative method.
The results confirm that the adoption of ACCSTP must be recognized as an
essential step to facilitate wider use for employment of tourism and hospitality sector. It
is also found that the MRA in Indonesia until today has derived a negative perception
from 5 star hotel establishments in Jakarta.It is recommended to monitor the adoption
progress of the competency standards regularly, the third-party certification’s
involvement and adjust the goal accordingly.
Key words: adoption, competency standard, tourism and hospitality, human
resources
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background
The increasing number of tourists to ASEAN as well derives a greater demand for
tourism labor forces. In ASEAN, hotel industry as a part of tourism sector constitutes an
important part of the total national employment percentage.
Figure 1 ASEAN Employment Percentages by Sector
Source: ACIF 2010
ASEAN Tourism Agreement was signed by the leaders of ASEAN state members, at the 8th
ASEAN summit which was held in November 2002. Upgrading tourism education curricula
and skills were among the schemes of this agreement, involving the formulation of
competency standards and certification procedures which are accepted mutually among the
ASEAN member states, herein after referred to as a Mutual Recognition Agreement. Later in
2009, ASEAN Connectivity is formulated as a realization of ASEAN leaders' vision to build
an integrated ASEAN Community by 2015. MRA then become among the key elements of
the ASEAN Connectivity. The categories of ASEAN Connectivity coverage include physical
connectivity, people-to-people connectivity, and the institutional connectivity (including
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MRA). This Mutual Recognition Agreement supports the process of trade liberalization in
tourism sector by facilitating a flow of tourism professionals, establishing an integrated
network of tourism and travel services as a means to narrow the development gap among
ASEAN Member States as well as in fostering mutual understanding and regional stability. A
key step towards achieving MRA will be the adoption of consistent competency standards in
vocational education and training systems for the tourism sector across ASEAN as described
in the ASEAN Common Competency Standards for Tourism Professionals (ACCSTP)
Framework. Today, the adoption of MRA is on-going. Programs and activities are
continuously conducted by Indonesian government to socialize and get both the employers
and the workers engaged in tourism industry to be aware of the importance and benefits can
be gained through the actualization of MRA. Ironically, Indonesia falls slow in the adoption
process of MRA, when in fact Indonesia was one of the leading member states in the
formulation of the curriculum adopted. This situation thereby generates an interest to bring up
this issue for this thesis through a further study and analysis.
B. Research Purpose
There are four purposes of this thesis:
1. To measure the perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels towards MRA
2. To determine the steps taken by both government and hotel establishments in the
adoption of MRA including its potential benefits
3. To identify the obstacles faced by both Indonesian government and hotel establishments
within the adoption of MRA
C. Research Problem
Indonesia is expected to have fewer difficulties in terms of adoption of MRA since the
curriculum was originally much adopted from Indonesia's SKKNI. Apart from the fact that it
was established first in 2002, there is still a lack of knowledge and awareness of the people
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engaged in Indonesian tourism industry towards the ASEAN MRA, with very small portion
of them understand the potential benefits it will lead to.
D. Significance of Study
The study is significant for three reasons:
1. To serve as a guideline to improve the labor force quality of Indonesian tourism sector,
particularly in hotel field, in order to face the global competitiveness
2. To create greater awareness of the importance and benefits of MRA that can be gained by
public sector, private sector, and individual tourism workforce.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Managing Human Resources in Service Industry
Global economy is one in which goods, services, people, skills, and ideas move
freely across geographic borders (Hitt et al., 2010). In the business world today, where
industries are tremendously affected by the global economy, many start to see human
resources as assets that need to be managed more conscientiously. In managing human
resource, continuous change and improvements are essential as they are important to shortand long-term competitiveness and survival of a firm. Managing human resources for the 21st
century involves: The people management activities, policies, and practices that firms can
use to compete effectively and The many changing forces (e.g. Technology, business
restructuring, and legal and social concerns) that organizations need to attend today in order
to ensure they are positioned to compete effectively in the 21st century (Hitt et al., 2010).
Human resources falls under the category of intangible resources, for it provide firms with
knowledge, trust, managerial capabilities, and organizational routines (Hitt et al., 2010). In a
service industry, where both tangible and intangible products are sold to consumer, the
importance of workforce quality becomes even greater. Not only the taste and cleanliness of
food sold that matters, but courteous, well-mannered and highly trained staff are often the
180
factors which determines the satisfaction of guest in a Hotel. The service profit chain is
displayed in Figure 2 illustrates how the employees of an organization are central to
attracting and retaining customers and thereby ensuring organizational success. What can be
seen from the service profit chain is that conditions within the internal working environment
of employees affect their level of satisfaction, loyalty, productivity, and this impacts on the
level and quality of services they provide to customers during service encounters, and
therefore affect the level of customer satisfaction and loyalty. Customer loyalty through
repeat business and referrals is an essential requirement for revenue growth and profitability
of the organization (Amos et al., 2009).
Figure 2. Service Profit Chain
Source: Heskett et al., Accessed May 25 2011
In the context of globalization, employment opportunities are wide open which
stimulates the international mobility of workers. The quality of the labor forces and
conditions of labor market in one country and another however will vary and thus affecting
the mobility of the international labor market. Thus, aspects that are closely related to
international labors are labor quality, labor quantity, labor mobility, and labor markets. The
quality of labor immigrants, as were described by Foders (2006), is the education, ability,
occupation, and language skills that are rewarded in the labor market. Both labor quality and
181
quantity are crucial in the international labor mobility. Employers in international business
must be efficient, profitable, and competitive; because of this, the quality and quantity of the
labor force become of great importance (Ball et al., 2006). Labor quality considerations lead
to the importance of labor quantity. Labor quantity is the amount of available prospective
employees that have the skills required to help meet the business’s needs (Ball et al.). Labor
quantity differentials can determine wage scales, production counts, effect training cost, and
management levels. Labor mobility is "the movement of people from country to country or
area to area to get jobs" (Ball et al., 2006). Labor mobility can impact international
businesses in both negatively and positively. Positively, skilled workers from other areas
seeking jobs bring companies experience and education that is needed in many areas and
departments. A negative impact of labor mobility among others is educated and skilled
workers leaving to different areas or countries (Seazone, 2008). Labor markets, described by
Ball et al. (2006) as the pool of available potential employees with the necessary skills within
commuting distance of the employer. These labor markets should be evaluated by researching
the work histories, culture, religion, language, and histories of strikes (Ball et al.). The labor
market is a strong labor force for international business and these businesses should be well
informed on how foreign country's labor markets work or how they are being developed
(Seazone, 2008).
B. Hospitality Industry Employment in Globalization Era
Tourism has become a major export industry in many countries and become the
world’s largest export industry, from the enormous cross-border flows of people and capital it
generates. It is also one of the world¹s largest employers and arguably one of the largest
traders of foreign currency. In essence, the hospitality industry plays an important part in
bringing people physically together in the global community. Therefore Hospitality is often
considered not only as an industry; but as well a concept, and a major force in the rapidly
182
evolving global marketplace, the very core of the globalization of international business.
Hospitality companies therefore need to consider the impact of the global context in which
they operate and must be prepared to answer questions that arise from the changing
environment. The globalization of business and lifestyles is characterized by communicating
over vast distances in foreign languages, frequent travel to overseas countries, dealing in
many currencies, and coping with a variety of political and social systems, regulatory
environments, cultures and customs (Cline, Accessed May 13). Choi et al. (2000) added that
the diversity in the hospitality industry includes both the types of job it offers and the nature
of the individual it requires, with occupations ranging from the unskilled, i.e. bellboys and
porters, to the highly skilled managers. Waiters and waitresses with professional foodservice
skills, clerical and commercial staffs, cooking staffs require the semi-skilled laborers. Choi et
al. (2000) further identified that hospitality industry is the world's largest employer of
unskilled workers, which means that there are many positions in the hospitality industry
available to guest workers. According to Waldinger and Lichter (2003), employers prefer to
hire newly arrived immigrants because they are different from the local work force and have
the right attitude toward low wage and difficult jobs which are common in the hospitality
industry. These newcomers use conditions in their home country as a basis for evaluating bad
jobs in the new country which makes these jobs acceptable while the local work force
considers low wage and difficult jobs as unacceptable (Taylor and Finley, 2010). According
to Choi et al. (2000), most people move for economic reasons in general; they move to take
better-paying jobs or to search for jobs in new area (WTTC, 1995). Others move in seek of
fulfilling personal interest. Regardless of the motives, migrants generally seek better lives. In
hospitality industry, the factors that cause migration are generally categorized into “pull
factors” and “push factors”. Push factor refers to a number of negative factors in the country
of origin that cause people to move away (Erf and Heering, 1995). This would include poor
183
wages, long or unsociable hours, highly individualized job functions, strong competition,
sexual discrimination, awkward shifts, and lack of respect from the public. Whereas the pull
factors refer to positive ones that attract migrant to receiving country, including flexible
hours, opportunities for females and minorities, and opportunities to learn particular skills.
C. Labor Competencies
Competencies are the state or quality of being adequately or well qualified to perform
a task. A person gains competency through education, training, experience, and natural
abilities. While there are many definitions of competency, most of them have two common
components:

The competencies are observable or measurable skills, knowledge, and abilities.

The KSAs (knowledge, skills, attitude) must distinguish between superior and other
performers.
Competencies are behavioral and observable, since they are based on what a person
does. The result from competency of a person is effective or possibly outstanding job
performance. Building a competency model require identifying a successful performance for
a role or a job responsibility, and then defining the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that relate
to that performance (Competencies and Performance, Accessed May 28, 2011).
Knowledge is defined by Davenport and Prusak (1998) as, "a fluid mix of framed experience,
contextual information, values and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating
and incorporating new experiences and information." The fluid mix of framed experience,
contextual information, values and expert insight involve a number of things a person have
within, such as experiences, beliefs, values, motivation, and information (Knowledge,
Accessed May 18, 2011). Skill is defined as ability and capacity acquired through deliberate,
systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carryout complex activities or job
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functions involving ideas (cognitive skills), things (technical skills), and/or people
(interpersonal skills). (Business dictionary, Accessed May 18, 2011)
According to Sims (2002), an attitude is a positive or negative feeling or a mental state of
readiness, leaned and organized through experience that exerts specific influence on a
person's response to people, objects, and situations.
Some attitudes are persistent and
enduring; yet, attitudes are subject to change. (Sims, 2002)
Breckler (1984) identified that attitude has three separate but related parts:

Cognitive. Perceptions and beliefs about the object of the attitude; the person's perception
of the distinguishing features of the objects.

Affective. Evaluations and feelings about the object of the attitude; a person's feeling of
like or dislike for the object.

Behavioral intentions. How the person wants to behave and what the person says about
his behavior toward the object. It is not always the same as the behavior observed
following the expression of the attitude.
Competency Standards
An Industry competency standard is a determined specification of performance
which sets out the skills, knowledge and attitudes required to operate effectively in
employment. Competency Standards are made up of elements of competency, together with
performance criteria, a range of variables and an evidence guide (ASEAN Common Core
Standard Competency for Tourism Professionals). There are 3 types of standards in general:
Industry Standards , Enterprise (Company) Standards and Cross- Industry Standards
Dimensions of Competency
There are 5 dimensions of a competency, namely:

Task Skills: Ability to undertake the specific task/s required to complete a work activity
to the required standard.
185

Task Management Skills: Ability to manage a number of different tasks to complete a
whole work activity.

Contingency Management Skills Ability in responding to problems and irregularities
when undertaking a work activity, such as breakdowns, changes in routine, unexpected or
atypical results or outcomes, and difficult or dissatisfied clients.

Environment Skills: Ability to deal with the responsibilities and expectations of the
work environment when undertaking a work activity, such as working with others,
interacting with clients and suppliers, complying with standard operating procedures, and
observing enterprise policy and procedures.

Transfer Skills: The capacity to transfer skills and knowledge to other contexts.
(ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism Professionals)
Figure.3 Dimensions of Competency
Source: ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism Profession
III. METHODOLOGY
This study is descriptive and attempts to find out whether the adoption of MRA in
Indonesia has so far been well executed accordingly to the pre-designed plan and target, by
first analysing the perception of Jakarta 5 star hotel operators towards MRA and identifying
the obstacles faced by within the adoption. It also aims to discover the benefits to the tourism
stakeholders, as well as their contribution made to support the goal of MRA. The focus of this
research will be 5 star hotel operators in Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia.
186
The
respondents of this survey are employees of the Human Resources Department from 13 five
star hotels located in Jakarta. The respondent groups consist of Human Resources
Managers/Directors, Training Managers, Employee Relation Managers, Human Resources
Coordinators, etc. This research took one to three respondents representing each hotel. The
secondary data used in this thesis are collected from various sources, mainly to present
numbers such as the number of actual and targeted certified workers from year to year. The
respondents of the interview are the Human Resources Managers or representatives of
Human Resources Department of certain 5 star hotels in Jakarta. And the participants for the
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) are Board of Directors and/or Human Resource Manager of
tourism business operators (hotel, travel agent) Lembaga Sertifikasi Profesi (LSP) and
associations, Press, Tourism educational institutions, Tourism observers in society. The
questions are valued using the nominal scale and ordinal scale (Likert) with five-level Likert
item is 1 to 5, From Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. T-test is used in order to verify the
survey conducted from a sample group is able to represent the whole population. This thesis
uses one sample test T-test for the mean with unknown sigma. The sampling technique is
convenience sampling with the sample size is 50.
IV RESULT & DISCUSSION
A. Perception Level from Five Star Hotels towards Adoption of MRA
It is very crucial to determine the level of Perception from Five Starts Hotel in
Jakarta, therefore we could identify further the effort to solve the problem accurately.
T Test Result
187
Data
Null Hypothesis
m=
Level of Significance
Sample Size
Sample Mean
Sample Standard Deviation
3
0.05
1050
2.099047619
0.987866835
Intermediate Calculations
Standard Error of the Mean
0.030486232
Degrees of Freedom
1049
t Test Statistic
-29.55276235
Lower-Tail Test
Lower Critical Value
p -Value
Reject the null hypothesis
-1.646307511
1.9319E-140
Confidence Interval
Interval Lower Limit
Interval Upper Limit
2.04
2.16
Table 4.3 T-Test and Confidence Level Result on the Perception of Jakarta 5 Star Hotels on
MRA
Source: PHStat2
H0:
The perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels on the implementation of MRA is positive
H1:
The perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels on the implementation of MRA is negative
Interpretation:
The t value gained on Result on the perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels on the implementation
of MRA is – 29.55
That means: - 29.55
-1.64 ► reject the H0.
Critical Value
= - 1.64
Region of Rejection
0
Region of Non Rejection
t = -29.55
Figure 4.9 Statistic Area of Jakarta 5
188
Source: PHStat2
It can be concluded from the result of questionnaires that Jakarta 5 star hotels have negative
perception towards the implementation of MRA. Thus, the established H0 is rejected, and H1
is accepted
1
2
3
4
Perception of Jakarta 5
2.04
2.16
star hotels on MRA
Figure 4.10 Statistic Area Summary of Jakarta 5 Star Hotels on the Implementation of MRA
Source: PHStat2
B. MRA Strategic Adoption in Indonesia
Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA) is an arrangement of efforts to mutually
recognize the competency and qualifications of tourism professionals of ASEAN member
countries. To facilitate mobility of tourism professionals is the main objective of the creation
of this arrangement. Moreover, MRA aims to allow exchanging information about
experiences in education and competency-based training for tourism professionals and
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provide an opportunity for cooperation and capacity building in all ASEAN member
countries.
The adoption of MRA in Indonesia involves two parties in general; public sector
and private sector. Public sector refers to the government as well as relating entities that plan,
control, and monitor the implementation of MRA, whereas the private sector consists of
tourism businesses which act as the employers of the tourism workforces and tourism
educational and training institutions whose role is to prepare the prospective tourism workers.
There are some crucial efforts to adopt the MRA on Tourism Professional at Jakarta Five
Stars Hotel, as followings:
1.
The socialization of UU No. 10 Tahun 2009 is a law on tourism issued by the
Government of Republic Indonesia.
It is emphasized in this law that tourism is an integral part of national development is
done in a systematic, well-planned, integrated, sustainable, and responsible way while
providing protection to religions, cultures that live in the community, sustainability and
quality of the environment, as well as national interests Further in this Chapter, Article 53
states that ; Employment in the tourism sector has the standards of competency, Competency
standards referred in paragraph (1) is conducted through the competency certification,
Competency certification is conducted by the Professional Certification Board that has been
licensed in accordance with the provisions of legislation. The government has to increase
their great effort persistently in terms of socializing to the public.
2
Familiarization of Mutual Recognition Agreement
Familiarization to hotel establishments is done as the solution to create awareness and
understandings toward MRA, among others by sending written and verbal notification to the
Human Resources Department of hotel establishments, and socialization through forums and
associations such as Hotel Human Resources Managers Associations (HHRMA).
190
3. Creating Awareness Internally including its Potential Benefits
Considering that some of MRA objectives are to their advantage, many hotel
establishments have started to introduce MRA to their employees. In order to create positive
perceptions, hotel establishments give clear understanding about the desired goal and benefits
of MRA to their employees. Furthermore, socialization on the government's law regarding
competency certification has also been conducted, as the first step to encourage their
employees to take the competency test, by as giving clear information relating to the content
of the law and any penalties will be imposed to the violence of the law in the future.
Some Potential benefits from the MRA adoptions are: Adequate Number of Qualified and
Competent Workers, Freer Movement of Qualified Tourism Professionals, Motivation for
Self-improvement of the Tourism Workers and Easier and More Effective Employee
Screening and Recruiting
C.
MRA Obstacles Analysis
A number of obstacles occur in the implementation of MRA. However, these obstacles
are not necessarily considered as problems, instead, they become the challenges that can still
be resolved. The Obstacles of MRA is as well categorized into two; general and specific
obstacles such as ; Lack of Public Knowledge of MRA, Limited Assessor Resources, Poor
Media Optimization, Financial Issues, Resistance from Hotel Owners
V. CONCLUSION
The Adoption of Mutual Recognition Agreement is found to be potentially bringing
several benefits to the Indonesian tourism industry. However, a number of obstacles have
occurred in the road to implement MRA. The obstacles include lack of public knowledge of
MRA, poor media optimization, limited resources, financial issues, and resistance from hotel
managements. The adoption of MRA has created a negative perception from the 5 star hotels
191
located in the capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta. The Mutual Recognition Agreement does not
appear to be at their interest. At the earlier stage, it is an urgent to familiarize ACCSTP as an
essential step to facilitate wider use for employment of tourism and hospitality sector.
Therefore we could combine the both of the ACCSTP as industry standard and the enterprise
standards to be made use in order to fulfill the obligation of being a part of one industry, but
still can have their own standards to be exceptional compared to others. It is recommended to
monitor the adoption progress of the competency standards regularly, the third-party
certification’s involvement and adjust the goal accordingly. This way, the hotel
establishments will still be able to experience the positive impacts of MRA, will not receive
penalties from the government, as well as still can perform their enterprise standards to gain
profit as desired.
ABBREVIATION
ACCSTP
:
ASEAN Common Competency Standards for Tourism
Professionals
ASEAN
:
the Association of South-east Asia Nations
ATSP
:
ASEAN Tourism Strategic Plan
BNSP
:
Badan Nasional Sertifikasi Profesi
FGD
:
Focus Group Discussion
HHRMA
:
Hotel Human Resources Manager Association
LEPPI
:
Lembaga Profesional Pariwisata Indonesia
LSP
:
Lembaga Sertifikasi Profesi
LSPP
:
Lembaga Sertifikasi Profesi Pariwisata
MRA
:
Mutual Recognition Agreement
NTO
:
National Tourism Organization
192
NTPB
:
National Tourism Professional Board
SKKNI
:
Standar Kompetensi Kerja Negara Indonesia
SPSS
:
Statistical Package for the Social Science
TPCB
:
Tourism Professionals Certification Board
GLOSSARY
Adoption
:
To take and follow (a course of action, technology, system) by
choice or assent. To choose as standard or required in a course
Certificate
:
A document attesting to the truth of certain stated fact.
Certification
:
(1) The act of certifying or state of being certified. (2) Confirmation
that some fact or statement is true through the use of documentary
evidence. (3) A document attesting to the truth of certain stated
facts. (4) Validating the authenticity of something or someone.
Competence
:
The state or quality of being adequately or well qualified; ability.
Consist of specific range of skill, knowledge, or ability.
Competency Standard:
The quality of being adequately or well qualified physically and
intellectually competence. Elements of competency, together with
performance criteria, a range of variables and an evidence guide
(ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism
Professionals).
Corporate Culture
:
A blend of the values, beliefs, taboos, symbols, rituals and myths
all companies develop over time.
Curriculum
:
(1) All the courses of study offered by an educational institution.
(2) A group of related courses, often in a special field of study.
Enterprise
:
A business organization.
193
Globalization
:
Process of interaction and integration among people, companies,
and governments of nations.
Human Resources
:
The persons employed in a business or organization;
field of
personnel recruitment and management. The workforce of an
organization
In-depth Interview
:
A qualitative market research interview with a single respondent.
Such interviews vary greatly in content and interviewing approach
as well as in dimensions such as length and location.
Likert Scale
:
A method of ascribing quantitative value to qualitative data, to
make it amenable to statistical analysis. A numerical value is
assigned to each potential choice and a mean figure for all the
responses is computed at the end of the evaluation or survey.
Module
:
(1) A standard or unit of measurement. (2) A short course of study,
especially of a vocational or technical subject, that together with
other such completed courses can count towards a particular
qualification.
Professionals
:
(1) of, relating to, suitable for, or engaged in as a profession. (2)
Extremely competent in a job. (3) A person who belongs to or
engages in one of the professions.
Qualitative Research :
Research that does not emphasize on the collection and Analysis of
statistical data, and usually tends to obtain in-depths insight into a
relatively small number of respondents or observations.
Quantitative Research :
Research that is mainly based on the collection and analysis of
Statistical data, and hence tends to obtain a limited amount of
194
information on large numbers of respondents or observations.
These results are then extrapolated to the wider population of the
subjects matter.
Questionnaire
:
A set of questions on a form, submitted to a number of people in
order to collect statistical information
Tourism and Hospitality :
The sum of the industrial and commercial activities that
produce goods or service wholly or mainly for tourist consumption.
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196
Marketing Skills in the Era of Web 2.0
Efendi
Economics Faculty, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia
Abstract
With the popularity of internet and social networking, consumer behavior has changed
significantly. Nowadays, the consumers are able to search for a large amount of information
and to share their consumption experience to a wider audience. In this condition, marketers
need some new skills to be able to serve their customers satisfactorily. Abilities to provide
up-to-date and clear information and to engage with the consumers are just two examples of
the skills needed. Other skills needed would be further discussed.
Keywords: web 2.0, social networking, purchase decision, to engage
1. Introduction
Internet penetration in Indonesia is growing rapidly. The percentage of internet users has
doubled from 8% in 2005 to 17% in 2009. The growth is coming from the migration of users
from other media, such as radio and newspaper. The people are moving their habit of
listening to music from radio to music download from the internet. Newspaper readers are
also migrating to online news which is more update than newspaper.
As internet users, Indonesians are highly sociable. They use the internet more for social
motives than for information search. In 2009, the highest traffic website in Indonesia was
Facebook, which surpassed Google. Many Indonesians access social networking sites through
their mobile phones. In the meantime, we have seen that Chinese mobile phones with social
sites features are flooding Indonesian market. A big part of Indonesians’ first experience with
internet is through social sites.
Given the above mentioned condition, this current paper tries to find out how the
consumer behavior has changed in web 2.0; how marketers can capitalize on the new
behavior; and what are the new skills needed to thrive in the new landscape.
197
2. What web 2.0 is
Internet has become an important communication media aside of traditional media such as
television and newspaper. For some companies, internet communication may serve as the
complement to the traditional communications. For others, internet has become the major
instrument to reach the market. The influence of internet has become more compelling with
the rise of web 2.0.
Web 2.0 is the development of web 1.0 technology. In web 1.0, the content of
communication is only created by companies who want to sell their products to the
consumers. Thus, the flow of information is only one-way, from the owner of the site to the
viewers or consumers. On the other hand, web 2.0 facilitates two-way communication. In
web 2.0, the viewers or consumers can also create their own information in the social media
(web 2.0 is also termed as social media). There are several applications of web 2.0, which
include participation, openness, conversation, community, and connectedness (Spanner
Works, 2007). Examples of web 2.0 include social networking sites, blogs, wikis, hosted
services, video sharing sites, etc. In this era, the companies no longer monopolize the
communication to the mass consumers, but the individual consumers can now communicate
freely to other consumers. The consumers are now allowed to speak up their opinion on
company’s product and broadcast the information to wide viewers, such as in a social
networking site, like Facebook.
Constantinides and Fountain (2008) have categorized social media into 5 categories. First is
blogs (online journals), which is the most known category of social media. Blog is usually
combined with podcasts (digital audio or video sharing). Second is social networks, which
are the applications for exchange of personal information and communication. Third is
communities, which are the websites organizing and sharing particular content. Fourth is
forum/ bulletin boards, which are the sites for exchanging ideas and information around
198
special topics. Fifth is content aggregators, which are the applications allowing users to
customize websites they wish to access.
3. How web 2.0 has changed the consumer behavior
Web 2.0 has changed the consumer behavior significantly. In this era of two way
communication, each consumer can also influence the marketing information received by
other consumers. Figure 1 describes that consumer’s decision making is influenced by
controlled marketing stimuli (traditional marketing mix and web experience) and
uncontrollable marketing factors (online uncontrollable marketing factors and consumer’s
background and tendency (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). Online uncontrollable
marketing factors are the factors which differentiate traditional marketing and marketing in
web 2.0. For example, consumer’s negative or positive opinion on blogs, social networks or
forums can influence the decision made by a consumer, such as in buying a smart phone. In
traditional marketing, the influence of peers is only found off-line, such as through face-toface interaction. Other part of the model, which is customer decision making, will be further
discussed below.
199
Figure 1. Factors influencing consumer decision making in the era of web 2.0
Source: Constantinides and Fountain (2008)
The decision making process is divided into 5 steps, which is depicted in Figure 2. The
social media have also changed the way consumer behave in the decision making process.
Firstly, the consumers may get some stimuli from the social media which trigger the
recognition of certain need, such as for a table PC. Secondly, with the enhanced information
capability, the consumers can now search for different purchase alternatives on their
fingertips (Singh, 2002). Thirdly, the consumer relies more on the opinion of his or her peers
and networks rather than on the experience of encounter with the supplier (Smith, Menon and
Sivakumar, 2005). Fourth, the consumer can now more efficiently post their post purchase
experience on the social media.
Therefore, there are several consequences on the marketing landscape brought by web 2.0.
The consumers are more empowered. On the other hand, some consumers are also becoming
more depended on peer opinions and persuasion. Consumer empowerment can result in lack
200
of control and accountability. An unknowledgeable consumer may spread word of mouth
communication which is degrading a company. Or, a competitor may launch a negative
campaign against other company (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). On the other hand,
Gillin (2007) proposes that we should see the social media from the positive side, which is as
the source of consumer creativity, influence, and empowerment. Further, the perception of
value of consumers has also changed. Their sense of value is now depended more on the
feeling of personal gratification (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008).
1. Need
Recognition
2. Information
Search
3. Evaluation of
Alternatives
4. Purchase
Decision
5. Post-purchase
Behavior
Figure 2. Decision making process
Source: Kotler and Armstrong (1996)
4. How the marketers can capitalize on the new behavior and the new skills required
The new marketing landscape has brought new challenges and opportunities for the
marketers. Therefore, some new perspectives, approaches and skills are needed to thrive in
the market:
201
• Companies need to put more attention on their product quality. If a company is engaged
with its customers on a social media and they fail to deliver good product quality, then the
customers can badly punish the former.
• Marketers need to learn how to advertise in the new environment effectively. They may
advertise in social networking sites, blogs, forums, search engines, etc (Constantinides and
Fountain, 2008). For instance, many companies are making account on Facebook and Twitter
to communicate with their consumers. Web 2.0 has brought the opportunity to advertise and
also to converse with the consumers with low cost, but high impact. The skill to update online
information and to provide clear information is the basic skill needed. The marketers also
need the skills to converse with its consumers. Public relation skill is a must. Another skill
required is online marketing research. Some marketing research can be carried out on social
media which can save some cost and effort compared to doing a formal and off-line
marketing research.
• Marketers need to listen to (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008) what the consumers are
saying on the web and they also need to join the conversation (Jaffe, 2007). Marketers can
use search engine and specialized parties to detect and collect online content. Marketers are
now using paid virtual agents to listen to what consumers are saying in blogs, podcasts,
forums, and online communities. Besides listening, they also do the PR activities for the
company they represent.
• Marketers can also use the social media to deliver one-to-one marketing to their
consumers (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). Marketers can use social media to encourage
user-generated content and to generate community and social networking among consumers.
By doing so, each consumer can have a personalized experience as he or she converse with
the community. This is the tactics to use individual consumers to serve as marketer’s
advocate.
202
5. Conclusion
Web 2.0 has brought the challenges and opportunities the business haven’t seen before. The
essence of web 2.0 is the liberation and empowerment of consumers. Nowadays, they
(especially young people) command (demand) an ability to speak up for them-selves and
influence others in the same time. Wise marketers will see the new marketing landscape as an
opportunity to interact with their consumers in a different and value-enhancing way.
Therefore, developing some new perspectives and skills is a must.
References
Constantinides, E. and Fountain, S.J. (2008). “Web 2.0: Conceptual foundations and
marketing issues”, Journal of Direct, Data, and Digital Marketing Practice, Vol.9 No.3,
pp. 231–244.
Gillin , P . ( 2007 ). The New Infl uencers, A Marketer’s Guide to the New Social Media,
Quill Driver Books, Word Dancer Press, Inc, CA, USA .
Jaffe, J. (2007). Join the conversation : how to engage marketing - weary consumers with the
power of community, dialogue, and partnership, John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.
Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. (2010). Principles of Marketing, Pearson Education, New Jersey,
USA
Singh, M. (2002), “E-services and their role in B2C e-commerce”, Managing Service
Quality, Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 434-46.
Smith, D., Menon, S. and Sivakumar, K. (2005), “Online peer and editorial
recommendations, trust, and choice in virtual markets”, Journal of Interactive
Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 15-37.
SpannerWorks . ( 2007 ) ‘ What is social media ’ , www.spannerworks.com/ebooks .
203
Role of higher education and policy maker in promoting entrepreneurship
in Indonesia
Widjaja Hartono
Ciputra University, Surabaya
Entrepreneurship is the spirit, attitude and behavior which lead to the search for creating
and implementing a way of working, new technologies and products to improve efficiency in
order to provide better service and / or earn a bigger profit. In the other words,
entrepreneurship is also a knowledge of the values, spirit, attitude and actions which guided
by the spirit of added value, which is reflected in thinking, behaving and acting that promotes
innovation, creativity and independence attitude.
This paper addresses the important role of higher educationsand policy makers in order to
promote entrepreneurship in Indonesia. The increasing universities are producing massive
graduates who create workforce and competitiveness in the labor market. Policy-makers and
higher educations need to come together to raise standards, increase the volumes of
participation and find appropriate local, regional and national solutions so that
entrepreneurship can have a positive impact at the grass roots.
Key words: Role of higher education, Role of policy maker, Entrepreneurship in Indonesia
Pendahuluan
Sekolah, kuliah, melamar pekerjaan, adalah pola konvensional yangmenjadi kebiasaan bagi
hampir setiap orang sebelum ia memasuki duniakerja. Di antara ratusan ribu atau bahkan
jutaan pencari kerja tersebut,akhirnya yang lolos dan mendapatkan pekerjaan sesuai yang
diharapkan,barangkali tidak lebih dari 20%.Kalau begitu sisanya yang 80% ke manamereka
kemudian?Menganggur, menunggu panggilan dari lamaranberikutnya yang serba tidak jelas,
kursus, sekolah lagi, kuliah lagi, ataubarangkali bagi yang frustrasi ada yang memilih bekerja
pada pekerjaan yang tidak membutuhkan ketrampilan khusus atau pekerjaan kasual.Pilihan
menjadi wirausaha, sesungguhnya merupakan salah satualternatif yang paling menjanjikan
untuk kehidupan yang akan datang.Sayangnya pilihan menjadi wirausaha ini belum begitu
banyak tumbuh dikalangan generasi muda kita.Untuk itu pelatihan kewirausahaan
bagigenerasi muda harus terus menerus dilakukan oleh siapapun yang peduliterhadap
kesejahteraan masyarakat untuk melahirkan sebanyakbanyaknya calon wirausaha baru. Disini
204
peranan dunia pendidikan dan pemerintah sangat penting dalam menumbuhkembangkan
entrepreneurship di Indonesia
Metodologi
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif analisis, dimana data diambil dari secondary
resources yang dikumpulkan, diolah dan disimpulkan.
Hasil dan Pembahasan
Definisi entrepreneurship
Norman M. Scarborough (2010)mengemukakan definisi wirausaha sebagai berikut:“
Anentrepreneur is one who creates a new business in the faceof risk and uncertainty for the
purpose of achieving profit and growth byidentifying opportunities and assembling the
necessary resources tocapitalize on those opportunities”.
Kewirausahaan adalah fungsi yang mencakup eksploitasi peluangpeluangyang muncul di
pasar. Eksploitasi tersebut sebagian besar berhubungan denganpengarahan dan atau
kombinasi input yang produktif. Seorang wirausahawan selaludiharuskan menghadapi resiko
atau peluang yang muncul, serta sering dikaitkan dengantindakan yang kreatif dan
innovatif.Wirausahawan adalah orang yang merubah nilaisumber daya, tenaga kerja, bahan
dan faktor produksi lainnya menjadi lebih besardaripada sebelumnya dan juga orang yang
melakukan perubahan, inovasi dan cara-carabaru.Selain itu, seorang wirausahawan
menjalankan peranan manajerial dalamkegiatannya, tetapi manajemen rutin pada operasi
yang sedang berjalan tidakdigolongkan sebagai kewirausahaan.Seorang individu mungkin
menunjukkan fungsikewirausahaan ketika membentuk sebuah organisasi, tetapi selanjutnya
menjalankanfungsi
manajerial
tanpa
menjalankan
fungsi
kewirausahaannya.Jadi
kewirausahaan bisabersifat sementara atau kondisional.Kesimpulan lain dari kewirausahaan
205
adalah proses penciptaan sesuatu yangberbeda nilainya dengan menggunakan usaha dan
waktu yang diperlukan, memikulresiko finansial, psikologi dan sosial yang menyertainya,
serta menerima balas jasamoneter dan kepuasan pribadi.
Entrepreneurship di Indonesia
Peranan Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional
Program Pengembangan Budaya Kewirausahaan (Entrepreneurship) di PerguruanTinggi pada
hakekatnya merupakan tindak lanjut dari programPenelitian dan program Pengabdian
kepadaMasyarakat,yang selama ini telah dilaksanakan oleh berbagai perguruan tinggimelalui
pendanaan dari Dikti. Tidak dapat dipungkiribahwa keberhasilan program penelitian dalam
mewujudkanpenguasaan Ipteks yang dibuktikan dengan bertumbuh-kembangnyabeberapa
konsep dan produk orisinal serta keberhasilan programpengabdian kepada masyarakat, yang
dicirikan oleh antusiasmemasyarakat dalam menanggapi hasil karya penerapan Ipteks
yangdibutuhkannya, memberikan inspirasi kuat diselenggarakannyaprogram Pengembangan
Budaya Kewirausahaan di Perguruan Tinggi,yang telah berjalan sejak 1997.Budaya
wirausaha yang tumbuh secara alami dalam suatukeluarga atau kelompok masyarakat
Indonesia
merupakan
suatu
Indonesia.Dinamikaperekonomian
asset
yang
bangsa
sangat
yang
berharga
bertumpu
pada
bagi
bangsa
pertumbuhan
budayakewirausahaan tradisional ini, perlu dipadukan dengan penguasaanIpteks dalam suatu
kegiatan pendidikan khususnya di perguruantinggi.Penumbuhkembangan budaya wirausaha
dalam pendidikanperguruan tinggi menjanjikan harapan cerah bagi terciptanya sumberdaya
manusia yang mandiri dalam berfikir dan bertindak, mampumenerapkan Ipteks yang
dipahaminya untuk kesejahteraan diri danmasyarakatnya.
Berdasarkan tujuan yang ingin dicapai, Program PengembanganBudaya Kewirausahaan di
Perguruan Tinggi dirancang meliputi 5(lima) kegiatan saling terkait sebagai wahana
206
diwujudkannyawirausahawan lulusan perguruan tinggi, yaitu: Kuliah Kewirausahaan(KWU),
Magang Kewirausahaan (MKU), Kuliah Kerja Usaha (KKU),Konsultasi Bisnis dan
Penempatan Kerja (KBPK), dan InkubatorWirausaha Baru (INWUB).Bagi seorang
mahasiswa pemula dalam wirausaha,keikutsertaan dalam KWU akan merupakan inisiasi
penumbuhan danpemahaman jiwa kewirausahaan. Pada kegiatan MKU, mahasiswadapat
mempelajari kewirausahaan secara nyata di mitraindustri/pengusaha, sedangkan kegiatan
KKU dilaksanakan untukmendalami kewirausahaan sambil berperan serta membantu
mitrausaha rumah tangga, baik dalam proses produksi maupun dalampemasaran dan
penjualannya. Kegiatan Karya Alternatif Mahasiswa(KAM) yang dulu tercakup dalam
Program Pengembangan BudayaKewirausahaan, mulai tahun 2002 dilaksanakan dalam
lingkupProgram
Kreativitas
Mahasiswa
Kewirausahaan
(PKMK).Kegiatan
KBPK
dilaksanakan untukmembantu masyarakat pengusaha kecil dan menengah serta alumnidalam
berwirausaha dan memperoleh akses pasar dan modal.Penempatan kerja memberikan peluang
kepada alumni untuk memilih
industri atau perusahaan yang dapat dijadikan tempat
belajarberwirausaha sesuai dengan bidang keilmuannya, sebelum mengelolaindustri atau
perusahaannya sendiri. Kegiatan INWUB merupakanajang terakhir pembentukan jiwa
kewirausahaan mahasiswa danlulusan baru, sebelum terjun ke dalam dunia nyata
berwirausahasebagai wirausahawan mandiri.
Untuk membangun semangat kewirausahaandan memperbanyak wirausahawan, Pemerintah
telah mengeluarkan Instruksi PresidenNomor 4 Tahun 1995 tentang Gerakan Nasional
Memasyarakatkan dan MembudayakanKewirausahaan. Instruksi ini mengamanatkan kepada
seluruh masyarakat dan bangsaIndonesia untuk mengembangkan program-program
kewirausahaan.Selanjutnya, dalammendukung Pengembangan Ekonomi Kreatif (PEK) tahun
2010-2014,
yaknipengembangan
kegiatan
ekonomi
berdasarkan
pada
kreativitas,
keterampilan, dan bakatindividu untuk menciptakan daya kreasi dan daya cipta individu yang
207
bernilai ekonomisdan berpengaruh pada kesejahteraan masyarakat Indonesia. Pemerintah
menyadari betulbahwa dunia usaha merupakan tulang punggung perekonomian nasional,
sehingga harusdiupayakan untuk ditingkatkan secara terus menerus. Melalui gerakan ini
diharapkanbudaya kewirausahaan akan menjadi bagian dari etos kerja masyarakat dan
bangsaIndonesia, sehingga dapat melahirkan wirausahawan-wirausahawan baru yang
handal,tangguh, dan mandiri. Hal itu sangat penting mengingat bahwa sebenarnya
aktivitaskewirausahaan tidak hanya berada dalam tataran micro-economy, melainkan masuk
juga
pada tataran macro-economy.Semua itu adalah dalam rangka pembangunan insan cerdas
komprehensif dan seutuhnyasebagaimana yang ditegaskan dalam Rencana Strategis
Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional2010-2014 bahwa yang dimaksud dengan insan Indonesia
cerdas adalah insan yang cerdaskomprehensif, yaitu cerdas spiritual, cerdas emosional, cerdas
sosial, cerdas intelektual,dan cerdas kinestetis.
Case Study: Universitas Ciputra
Universitas Ciputra merupakan perguruan tinggi swasta yang memiliki visi untuk mencetak
entrepreneur.Universitas yang memiliki moto “Creating World Class Entrepreneurs ini dari
awal berdiri pada tahun 2006 sudah konsisten dengan pengajaran yang berbasis
entrepreneurship. Dari wisudawan pada bulan September 2011 yang berjumlah 288 orang,
telah tercipta 125 usaha baru yang menyerap dan mempekerjakan ratusan tenaga kerja.
Visi universitas ini merupakan cikal bakal dari “mimpi” pendirinya yaitu Ir Ciputra yang
ingin melahirkan 2% entrepreneur di Indonesia melalui pendidikan entrepreneurship, baik
melalui sekolah-sekolah dan universitas yang dikelola Yayasan Pendidikan Ciputra maupun
melalui pelatihan entrepreneurship yang dilakukan oleh Universitas Ciputra Entrepreneurship
Center ( UCEC). Lembaga ini memberikan pelatihan ke sekolah dan universitas baik swasta
208
maupun negeri dan bahkan memberikan pelatihan entrepreneurship ke para tenaga kerja
Indonesia (TKI) di luar negeri.
Universitas Ciputra sendiri memiliki kurikulum yang disesuaikan dengan visi awal untuk
mencetak entrepreneur dengan tidak meninggalkan standar akreditasi dari Kemendiknas dan
DIKTI itu sendiri. Perbedaan itu salah satunya berada pada projek bisnis mahasiswa yang ada
sejak mahasiswa berada di semester awal.Projek ini sendiri merupakan keharusan.Tujuan dari
projek ini adalah untuk melatih mahasiswa sejak dini untuk mengenal dan belajar dunia usaha
melalui praktik langsung. Dengan difasilitasi oleh para mentor baik dari dosen maupun para
praktisi bisnis yang terlibat di dalamnya membuat para mahasiswa belajar langsung dari para
pelaku bisnis dan mereka yang kompeten di bidangnya. Selain itu mahasiswa juga dibekali
dengan pelatihan retail bisnis, benchmarking, entrepreneurial mindset building dan exim
(export-import).Pembelajaran kompetensi ini dilakukan secara bertahap.
Di dalam kampus sendiri juga ada lembaga yang bernama incubator bisnis yang memiliki
peranan untuk membantu proyek makasiswa baik dari segi pelatihan sesuai bidang usaha
mahasiswa, permodalan hingga pemasaran baik ke dalam maupun ke luar negeri.
Entrepreneurship dan Suku bangsa
Tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa golongan dan suku tertentu di Indonesia
ternyata telah
memiliki budaya dan tradisi berwirausaha atau entrepreneurship sejak dari awal, seperti
Tionghoa, Padang dan Bugis.
Sejak kedatangan nenek moyang mereka ke Indonesia pada abad ke 18, orang Tionghoa
berdagang dan mencari penghidupan yang lebih baik. Mereka menghindari peperangan dan
kelaparan yang melanda Tiongkok di masa Dinasti Ching untuk pergi ke Netherland East
Indies(sebelum bernama Indonesia).Pada saat itu yang mereka tahu adalah untuk bertahan
hidup ke tanah yang baru (Nanyang). Apalagi politik colonial Belanda pada waktu itu
209
membedakan mereka dari bangsa asli dengan mengkategorikan mereka sebagai bangsa asing
Asia Timur.
Mereka memiliki
“tugas dan tanggung jawab ” untuk membantu politik
perdagangan colonial Belanda. Sehingga tidak heran sampai masa kemerdekaan mayoritas
orang Tionghwa menjadi pedagang yang tangguh baik di kota-kota kecil maupun kota-kota
besar di tanah air.Ditambah lagi dengan politik Orde Baru yang mendiskotomikan mereka
hanya boleh masuk jalur bisnis untuk mata pencahariannya.
Orang Padang dan Bugis juga memiliki budaya berdagang sejak kecil. Mereka banyak
merantau ke daerah lain untuk berdagang mulai restoran, kain/pakaian dan bahkan banyak
dari mereka menjadi pengusaha nasional. Tidak sedikit lahir para pengusaha sukses dari
kedua suku ini. Bahkan di Singapura ada daerah bernama Bugis Junction yang asal
muasalnya merupakan tempat orang Bugis berkumpul dan berdagang sejak zaman negara
pulau tersebut masih bergabung dalam konfederasi Malaya (sekarang Malaysia).
Pemerintah dan Gerakan Entrepreneurship
Sejak Orde Baru, pemerintah
telah menyadari pentingnya entrepreneurship terhadap
pertumbuhan ekonomi dan kesejahteraan rakyat.Pada Nasional Summit tahun 2009, Presiden
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono mengatakan bahwa salah satu restrukturisasi di bidang
pendidikan adalah perlunya mulai mengajarkan pendidikan entrepreneurship di Indonesia
(Antara,2009). Hal ini dilakukan sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengurangi jumlah
pengangguran dan pengentasan kemiskinan sebagai program pembangunan dalam kurun
waktu lima tahun ke depan pada Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu.Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan
Tinggi (Dirjen Dikti) juga mendorong pembelajaran entrepreneurship di Indonesia, hal ini
bisa dilihat dari acara Workshop Kewirausahaan Perguruan Tinggi yang merupakan program
100 hari Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional, DIKTI menyatakan bahwa pendidikan
kewirausahaan di perguruan tinggi merupakan sesuatu yang tidak bisa ditawar lagi. Bahkan
210
Menteri Pendidikan Nasional, Mohammad Nuh pada kesempatan yang sama juga
mengatakan bahwa seharusnya dunia pendidikan memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat melalui
pendidikan entrepreneurship. Pendidikan tinggi dapat menjadi penyumbang terhadap
meningkatnya jumlah wirausahawan yang pada saat ini masih sekitar 0,18% dari jumlah
penduduk Indonesia. (Kompas 7 Nov 2009)
Global Entrepreneurship Program Indonesia (GEPI) bertujuan untuk mengkatalisis strategi
kewirausahaan di Indonesia dengan bekerja dalam kemitraan dengan program yang ada dan
menghubungkan calon pengusaha Indonesia untuk perkembangan global dan prospek
investasi.GEPI secara resmi dimulai pada Januari 2011 oleh sekelompok dari 13 pemimpin
bisnis terkemuka di Indonesia yang salah satunya adalah Ir Ciputra yang dan sekarang
mereka merupakan Dewan Pendiri. GEPI adalah organisasi payung yang bertujuan untuk
bekerja dalam kemitraan dengan banyak organisasi dan perusahaan yang berfokus pada
pengembangan kewirausahaan di Indonesia untuk melakukan beberapa hal termasuk:
1. Meningkatkan kesadaran kewirausahaan dan inovasi di Indonesia
2. Bekerja sama dan membentuk ekosistem yang tepat untuk pengusaha yang baru
memulai bisnis
3. Bekerja sama dengan kelompok-kelompok kewirausahaan dan Pemerintah Indonesia
untuk meningkatkan lingkungan yang kondusif bagi kewirausahaan
4. Bekerja sama untuk memastikan bahwa pengusaha yang muncul dapat memiliki akses
ke keuangan dan angel-investor domestik dan internasional dan
5. Membantu untuk memfasilitasi bisnis pengusaha dan inovator ke level regional dan
global
GEPI juga merupakan bagian dari inisiatif global yang lebih luas disebut Global
Entrepreneurship Program (GEP), yang tumbuh dari inisiatif Presiden Barack Obama dan
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sekarang program inti di Departemen Luar Negeri Amerika Serikat yang dipimpinoleh
Hillary Rodham Clinton, untuk mempromosikan kewirausahaan sebagai pilar utama
pembangunan ekonomi antara negara-negara berkembang.
Kesimpulan
Pengembangan entrepreneurship merupakan suatu program nasional yang tidak bisa
dikerjakan sendiri-sendiri, tapi memerlukan usaha semua pihak dari dunia pendidikan hingga
pemerintah selaku pengambil kebijakan.Sejak zaman Orde Baru, pemerintah menyadari
program ini untuk kesinambungan pembangunan dan usaha berkelanjutan program
kesejahteraan nasional.Pengembangan Pendidikan Kewirausahaan yang merupakan salah satu
program KementerianPendidikan Nasional pada intinya adalah pengembangan metodologi
pendidikanyang bertujuan untuk membangun manusia yang berjiwa kreatif, inovatif, sportif
danwirausaha.
Program
metodologipembelajaran,
ini
ditindaklanjuti
pendidikan
karakter,
dengan
pendidikan
upaya
mengintegrasikan
ekonomi
kreatif,
pendidikankewirausahaan ke dalam kurikulum sekolah dan perguruan tinggi.
Daftar Pustaka
Antara Website (http://www.antaranews.com/berita/1256371571/national-summit-bahaspembangunan-indonesia-lima-tahun)
Andria Harefa dan Eben Ezer Siadari (2010), The Ciputra Way, Elex Media
Computindo, Jakarta
Ciputra (2002), Ciputra Quantum Leap , Elex Media Computindo, Jakarta
Collete, Henry&Hill, Frances (2002), Entrepreneurship Education and Training, Ashgate
Publishing, London, UK
GEPI Indonesia (www.gep-indonesia.org)
Greene, Patricia & Rice, Mark(2007), Entrepreneurship Education, Edward Elgar
Publishing Ltd, MA, USA
Norman M. Scarborough (2010) Effective Small Business Management (10th Edition) ,
Prentice Hall: New York
Prinsip-prinsip Pengembangan Pendidikan Kewirausahaan (2010), Kementerian
Pendidikan Nasional (Diklat)
Riant Nugroho (2002), Entrepreneurship Ciputra, Elex Media Computindo, Jakarta
Kompas 7 Nov 2009, Entrepreneurship di Indonesia
212
dan
MEMBANGUN ENTREPRENEURSHIP UNTUK INDONESIA
Dr. Riant Nugroho
Pengajar Universitas Pertahanan Indonesia
Abstract
It was in 1980s when 1% of economic growth created 400.000 of employments. Today, 1% of
economic growth creates 120.000 employments only. Developing entrepreneurs is the most
promising solution. The problems are not merely the “need to be revised” of assumptions
that underlying economic and education policies, but the fundamental understanding of
entrepreneruship. Entrepreneur as a concept is having five level of undestanding: activities,
expertise, profession, orientation, and value.
“The entrepreneurial mystique? It’s not magic, it’s not mysterious, and is has nothing to do
with the
genes. It’s a discipline. And, like any discipline, it can be learned.”(Peter Drucker)
Setiap
perguruan
meluluskan
tahun
tinggi
300.000
alumnus diploma dan
sarjana.
2005/2006
mencatat
Tahun
Depdiknas
323.902
diploma dan sarjana negeri dan swasta. Agustus 2006 pengangguran terdidik mencapai
673.628 orang (tumbuh 6,16% dari satu semester sebelumnya), dan pada februari 2007 jumlah
ini naik menjadi 740.206 orang (naik 7,02% dalam satu semester)32. Mempergunakan taksiran
pertumbuhan 10% pengangguran terdidik (dikoreksi 4,04% dari persentase 2007), maka pada
tahun 2009 setidaknya terdapat 896.000 pengangguran terdidik! Pada tahun 2011,
diperkirakan terdapat lebih dari 1 juta penganggur bergelar sarjana. Jumlah ini belum
termasuk pengangguran berpendidikan sekolah dasar dan menengah (dan menengah atas).
32
Status pekerjaan lulusan PT berdasarkan Susenas Februari 2007 75,29% pekerja/karyawan/pegawai/buruh, 5,17% berusaha dibantu
pekerja/karyawan/buruh tetap, 7,12% berusaha dibantu pekerja/karyawan/buruh tidak tetap, 6,17% bekerja sendiri atau tanpa
pekerja/karyawan/buruh, dan 5,49% menjadi pekerja tanpa dibayar.
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Jika untuk menghasilkan 1 orang sarjana diperlukan investasi Rp 50 juta –dengan perhitungan
sarjana sosial pada universitas kelas menengah ke bawah dan taksiran biaya minimal per
keluarga-- maka setidaknya terdapat Rp 50.000.000.000.000 (lima puluh trilyun) dana yang
ditanamkan masyarakat dan belum dipastikan kapan akan kembali.
Pemerintah biasanya membuat perkiraan penyerapan tenaga kerja dengan asumsi
pertumbuhan ekonomi. Hitungan sederhana adalah dari pertumbuhan ekonomi. Pemerintah
sendiri (melalui Biro Pusat Statistik -- Deputi Bidang Neraca dan Analisis) mengemukakan
bahwa seharusnya pertumbuhan ekonomi menyerap paling sedikit 400.000 orang tenaga
kerja. Pada saat ini menyerap sekitar 120.000 orang saja.
Pemerintah telah mempunyai data tentang tenaga kerja terdidik yang menganggur.
Pemerintah juga mengetahui bahwa asumsi setiap 1% pertumbuhan tidak lagi menciptakan
400.000 tenaga kerja, tetapi hanya 120.000. Pemerintah juga mengetahui bahwa pertumbuhan
ekonomi saat ini dan ke depan akan didorong oleh ekspansi sektor-sektor keuangan dan
sektor-sektor yang padat modal-padat teknologi, sehingga tidak ada ruang gerak yang leluasa
untuk mempergunakan asumsi pertumbuhan ekonomi dengan penyerapan tenaga kerja.
Masalahnya,
Pemerintah
tidak
cukup inovatif untuk melihat di mana jalan
keluarnya. Mari kita rinci permasalahannya
kemudian mencari jalan keluarnya.
Pada awal tahun 2008 ini saya
berkesempatan untuk melakukan dialog
panjang dengan Ir Ciputra dan saya menemukan ada yang benar dan sangat relevan dari
pemikirannya. Ciputra mempunyai premis bahwa Indonesia tidak kunjung maju karena tidak
cukup punya entrepreneur. Ia mempergunakan konsep dari David McClelland berpendapat
bahwa suatu negara akan menjadi makmur apabila mempunyai entrepreneur sedikitnya
214
sebanyak 2% dari jumlah penduduk. Singapura, menurut laporan Global Entrepreneurship
Monitor (GEM) tahun 2005, memiliki jumlah entrepreneur sebanyak 7,2% dari total
penduduk, padahal tahun 2001 hanya tercatat sebesar 2,1%. Jumlah ini dibandingkan dengan
Amerika Serikat, lokomotif ekonomi selama satu abad terakhir ini, pada tahun 1983 dengan
penduduk 280 juta sudah memiliki 6 juta entrepreneur, atau 2,14% dari seluruh penduduknya.
Di Indonesia hari ini, menurut data statistik, hanya 400.000 orang yang tercatat menjadi
pelaku usaha yang mandiri, atau sekitar 0,18% dari populasi (Moko Astamoen, Bisnis
Indonesia, 4 April 2005). Bandingkan dengan jumlah pelaku usaha Indonesia yang berjumlah
45 juta, ternyata hanya 0,88% saja yang benar-benar entrepreneur dalam kategori kita.
Indonesia memerlukan 12 kali entrepreneur lebih banyak dari yang ada hari ini.
Masalahnya, mengapa kita tidak cukup punya entrepreneur. Ada tiga kemungkinan.
Pertama, kita tidak punya cukup anak-anak bangsa yang berfikir merdeka sehingga berani
menjadi entrepreneur. Belanda sangat efektif menjajah Indonesia. Pertama, ia menguasai
bisnis dan perdangan. Ke dua, ia melarang pribumi masuk (apalagi mengusai) perdagangan,
dan memberikan kepada etnis yang terhitung “marjinal”, yaitu kelompok Cina –karena mudah
dikontrol, bahkan seringkali “diperas”. Ke tiga, saya mengutip pendapat Djokosantoso
Moeljono, Belanda mendorong Kerajaan-Kerajaan di Jawa (terutama Jawa Tengah) untuk
memberikan berbagai gelar kebangsawanan kepada lingkungan keraton dan orang-orang yang
dinilai perlu diberi gelar. Bersamaan dengan itu, dikembangkan (dan akhirnya berkembang
secara alami) pemahaman bahwa pribumi adalah bangsawan, dan bangsawan adalah tabu
berdagang, mereka paling pantas menjadi ambtenaar alias pegawai negeri. Di Jawa bertahuntahun berkembang pemahaman bahwa berbinsis apalagi berdagang itu tabu, jahat, menipu,
licik dan seterusnya. Pemahaman ini menjadi stereotip dari suku-suku bangsa di Indonesia
yang ahli dalam bisnis dan dagang. Bahkan, di Jawa selama bertahun-tahun ada kepercayaan
tahyul, bahwa mereka yang kaya pasti punya tuyul. Mereka tidak perduli dengan kerja keras.
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Dengan demikian, tidak berkembang pemikiran untuk menjadi pelaku bisnis, entrepreneur.
Menurut Ciputra, mengapa ia, dan rata-rata anak-anak keluarga keturunan Cina menjadi
pengusaha, minimal pedagang, karena sejak kecil tinggal di toko, bekerja membantu orang tua
di toko, setiap hari bergaul dengan toko. Ia merasa “in” dengan kepengusahaan, kebisnisan,
kedagangan. Anak-anak Jawa jarang ada dalam kondisi itu, kecuali yang berada di dalam
naungan pemahaman Muhammadiyah yang sangat sukses mengembangkan bisnis pribumi.
Ke dua, sejak Orde Lama, Orde Baru, dan kini, terjadi pengerucutan bisnis kepada
mereka-mereka saja, dan tidak cukup membuka ruang bagi mereka-mereka yang lain. Bisnis
selalu “kejam”. Seperti teori competitveness dari Michael Porter, mereka yang masuk dulu
(berbisnis) berusaha agar new entrance tidak masuk, atau jika masuk segera mati atau kalau
tidak mereka “makan” (akuisisi, baik dengan sukarela, ataupun paksarela). Sedikitnya ruang
bagi the new entrepreneur ini membuat para pelaku usaha baru tidak muncul dalam jumlah
dan kemampuan yang diperlukan. Di sisi lain, Pemerintah masih enggan membangun business
incubator policy yang memberikan ruang bagi new entrances entrepreneur yang bukan dari
keluarga penguasa besar untuk mengembangkan bisnis –lihat, Kadin pun lebih banyak
mengurusi new entrances yang berasal dari keluarga-keluarga pebisnis besar. Juga perbankan.
Ke tiga –dan ini yang relevan bagi kita di sini-- paradigma pemerintah adalah bahwa
lembaga-lembaga pendidikan harus menghasilkan tenaga kerja, atau tenaga kerja siap pakai,
atau yang link and match, yang tepatnya adalah konsep PENDIDIKAN YANG MENCETAK
PARA PENCARI KERJA, bukan –seperti istilah Ciputra—PENCIPTA KERJA.
Dengan fakta bahwa pertumbuhan 1% hanya menciptakan sekitar 120.000 lapangan
kerja baru, konsep ini SUDAH KETINGGALAN JAMAN. Pendidikan hari ini harus
berkonsep ganda: MENCIPTAKAN PELAKU KERJA DAN SEKALIGUS PENCIPTA
KERJA.
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Bagaimana? Pertama, saya mempergunakan pemikiran yang dikembangkan oleh Tanri
Abeng dan tim kita sekitar tahun 1996, bahwa di setiap jenjang pendidikan, utamanya di
Perguruan Tinggi, di setiap jurusan, diberikan matakuliah manajemen, karena manajemen
membantu setiap siswa dan mahasiswa untuk tahu bagaimana memenejeni setiap fakta, setiap
peluang, bahkan diri mereka sendiri agar menjadi insan yang efisien (menghargai setiap
sumberdaya) dan efektif (menghargai keharusan untuk memberikan kontribusi). Ke dua,
seperti gagasan Ciputra, memasukkan mata ajar kewirausahaan, barangkali satu jam dalam
satu minggu, di setiap sekolah dasar dan menengah, dan di tingkat perguruan tinggi ada mata
ajar entrepreneurship untuk setiap jurusan, tanpa kecuali, dan membangun pusat pendidikan
kewirausahan setelah lulus bagi mereka yang ingin menjadi pelaku usaha, sekaligus
membangun business incubator dalam bentuk kerjasama antara Perguruan Tinggi-PebisnisPemerintah. Ke tiga, Depdiknas, melalui institusi pendidikan non-formal atau luar sekolah,
mengembangan program pendidikan entrepreneurship bekerjasama dengan Depnakertrans dan
Deperind, memanfaatkan fasilitas BLK-BLK yang kini mulai terbengkalai. Pengajarnya
jangan para dosen, tetapi para pelaku usaha yang mau mengkontribusikan sebagian waktunya
untuk MERAH-PUTIH. Pengajar dosen, birokrat, dan sejenisnya, tidak memadai. Jika hendak
mengajar kuda berlari, pakailah kuda. Tepatnya, kuda yang benar, yang bisa berpacu –bukan
“kuda kepang”.
Konsep pendidikan sebagai shorcut pembangunan wirausaha, dengan dasar pemikiran
bahwa pendidikan dengan misi membangun pekerja menjadi tidak relevan untuk dunia kita
hari ini. Kita memerlukan pendidikan yang membangun mereka yang siap tidak menjadi
pekerja, tetapi menjadi pencipta kerja. Jadi, pendidikan yang membangun a quantum leap
seperti yang digambarkan berikut ini.
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Lembaga
persekolahan
Pencari kerja
Pemberi kerja
Entrepreneur
mandiri
Pemberi/
Pencipta kerja
Sistem
pemagangan di
Perusahaan
Ke dua, sekolah adalah lembaga pendidikan yang sangat dipercaya oleh masyarakat,
sudah memiliki reputasi atau track record di tengah masyarakat sebagai “paspor” untuk masa
depan yang lebih baik. Kalau ingin sukses, belajarlah setinggi mungkin atau carilah sekolah
yang baik, adalah nasihat yang senantiasa kita dengar dan camkan. Ke dua, jaringan sudah ada
si seluruh pelosok negeri. Ke tiga, melalui sekolah kita juga bisa menjangkau dan
mempengaruhi keluarga-keluarga dari mana anak-anak didik berasal. Jadi, menjadikan
sekolah sebagai lembaga mempersiapkan entrepreneur adalah tepat, karena sekolah menjadi
lembaga yang diberikan kepercayaan penuh oleh keluarga sebagai lembaga untuk
mentransformasikan anak-anak menjadi pribadi yang baru, yang lebih kuat, tangguh, dan
tidak dimakan oleh zaman, yaitu pribadi entrepreneur.
Itulah sebabnya, agenda yang disarankan bagi negara berkembang dan/atau miskin
adalah memgembangkan pendidikan entrepreneur di pendidikan formalnya, sejak tingkat dini
untuk menciptkana pencipta-pencipta kerja, sebagai mata pelajaran yang wajib. Pilihan ini
disarankan karena kondisi negara berkembang berbeda dengan negara maju.
Di negara maju, pendidikan entrepreneurship diberikan tidak sebagai suatu kewajiban
karena dua hal. Pertama, jumlah entrepreneur sendiri sudah cukup banyak. Ke dua, sistem
pengkaderan entrepreneur sudah berjalan. Alasan ke dua ini kita tekankan, karena
memberikan kita justifikasi mengapa perlu membangun entrepreneurs di sekolah. Di negara218
negara maju, setiap siswa SMU atau setingkat, dan mahasiswa mempunyai kesempatan untuk
magang di perusahaan-perusahaan. Sehingga, sejak awal mereka mengenal bisnis in practice.
Sementara itu, sejumlah besar lulusan pendidikan di negara maju masuk ke perusahaan, dan
setelah bekerja beberapa lama, mereka keluar dan mendirikan bisnis. Dengan demikian,
mereka mendapatkan second-school untuk entrepreneurship. Siklus entrepreneurshipnya
dapat digambarkan berikut ini.
Generasi muda
Lembaga
Persekolahan
Karyawan
Perusahaan
Entrepreneur
mandiri
Sistem
pemagangan di
Perusahaan
Bagaimana dengan negara berkembang. Kita mengambil contoh Indonesia, negara di
mana kita berkarya. Pertama, jumlah entrepreneur memang jauh di bawah kebutuhan,
sebagaimana kita kemukakan di depan. Ke dua, karena entrepreneur kurang, tidak cukup
banyak perusahaan yang memberikan ruang magang bagi siswa dan mahasiswa. Ke tiga,
karena tidak cukup banyak perusahaan, maka semakin sedikit orang yang diterima ke
perusahaan-perusahaan, dan semakin sedikit lagi orang yang keluar dari perusahaanperusahaan tersebut untuk menjadi entrepreneur. Selain itu, mereka yang telah menjadi
karyawan perusahaan, biasanya cepat masuk ke kawasan comfort zone, atau merasa puas diri
dengan pendapatan yang diterima, dan kemudian tidak mau menjadi entrepreneur. Jadi,
diperlukan shorcut dari lembaga persekolahan ke entrepreneur, karena lembaga pemagangan
dan perusahaan tidak mencukupi untuk dijadikan sebagai second school untuk entrepreneur.
Dengan demikian, shortcut tersebut digambarkan sebagai berikut.
219
Generasi muda
Lembaga
Persekolahan
Karyawan
Perusahaan
Entrepreneur
mandiri
Sistem
pemagangan di
Perusahaan
Pertanyaannya adalah bagaimana membangun entrepreneurship di setiap sekolah?
Pada saat ini di sejumlah guru telah dididik dan dilatih tentang kewirausahaan dengan harapan
mereka dapat mengajarkan cara-cara menjadi pengusaha. Pada hemat saya cara ini baik,
tetapi tidak efektif.
Pertama, karena kewirausahaan yang pertama-tama bukanlah “pengetahuan” tentang
pengusaha dan menjadi pengusaha; kewirausahaan bukanlah “cara” menjadi pengusaha
atau mendirikan usaha. Kewirausahaan adalah nilai untuk menemukan sesuatu yang baru
untuk kemudian diperkenalkan kepada masyarakat dan diterima sebagai sesuatu yang
membaikkan masyarakat. Karena tentang nilai, maka sulit untuk diterima seorang guru
“murni” yang menerima gaji bulanan, hidup dengan gaji tersebut, selain barangkali “nyambi”
mengajar di tempat lain, memberikan “nilai” kewirausahaan. Guru tersebut tidak mampu
mengerti nilai “desakan perubahan”, “kecemasan akan kegagalan”, “keyakinan untuk sukses
meski jatuh bangun”. Diperlukan “transformator” yang mengerti tentang mengembangkan
kewirausahaan.
Jadi, disarankan agar setiap guru yang disiapkan mengajar kewirausahaan dikuatkan
dengan bekal untuk menjadi “perubah”, termasuk kesiapan untuk idenya “ditantang”
muridnya. Jadi, pelatihan pertama-tama bagi guru adalah pelatihan nilai untuk bersedia
menerima perubahan. Selama guru-guru menjadi sosok yang ditakuti di kelas, karena jika ada
220
murid yang bertanya “aneh-aneh” akan “dihabisi”, maka kewirausahaan sebagai subyek ajar
sulit menjadi kekayaan pelajar.
Ke dua, pemahaman bahwa ada tiga jenis entrepreneur. Pertama, pedagang, yaitu
mereka yang mengambil sebuah produk dari pembuat (produsen) dan kemudian menjual ke
pengguna (konsumen). Pelaku ini mendapatkan keuntungan dari selisih harga jual dan beli,
dikurangi biaya “transportasi”, atau Laba = Harga Jual – (Harga Beli + Ongkos
Transportasi). Mereka adalah pedagang sayur di pasar tradisional, penjual voucher
handphone, hingga makelar (atau calo) tiket. Tipe ini disebut sebagai “pre-entrepreneur”.
Biasanya, kita membiarkan keberadaan mereka dalam definisi “entrepreneur”. Pada dasarnya,
sebagian besar dari mereka adalah entrepreneur yang subsisten, atau “mati segan, hidup tak
mau”. Atau, “hanya begitu-begitu saja”. Tipe ke dua adalah entrepreneur, yaitu ketika pelaku
tersebut tidak sekedar mengambil barang kemudian menjual dalam bentuk yang sama,
melainkan memberikan “nilai tambah” yang membuat harga jual meningkat beberapa kali
lipat daripada harga asalnya. Pedagang bakso membeli daging, terigu, dan rempah, untuk
kemudian diolah menjadi bakso, dan dijual sebagai bakso. Pengusaha warung tegal berbelanja
di pasar dan mengolah menjadi makanan yang dijual dengan harga 2-3 lipat dari harga bahan
bakunya. Pedagang membeli pakaian tanpa merek di pasar Tanah Abang, Jakarta, kemudian
memberi merek internasional, kemudian mengekspornya ke luar negeri dengan harga jauh
lebih tinggi. Bankir menerima simpanan dari nasabah kemudian diolah dan diberi merek
produk perbankan, untuk kemudian dijual dengan harga yang jauh lebih tinggi lagi, dan
memberikan keuntungan berlipat-lipat. Dan seterusnya, dan seterusnya. Biasanya, kita
berhenti mendefinisikan “entrepreneur” pada titik ini saja. Padahal, ada entrepreneur jenis ke
tiga, yaitu mereka yang menicptakan kemudian memasarkan, dan berhasil. Mereka adalah
pelaku yang memulai dari sesuatu yang baru; mereka berinovasi untuk menemukan solusi
baru bagi kehidupan bersama, dan mendapatkan keuntungan karena inovasinya diterima oleh
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masyarakat. Mereka seperti Bill Gates yang menemukan operating system paling diterima di
dunia, yaitu Microsoft;
Steve Jobs yang menemuka Ipad, generasi paling kini dari
perkawinan antara komputer, telepon, buku, kamera, dan berbagai gadget lain dalam satu
kemasan yang compact; hingga penemu google, facebook, twitter, bahkan juga JK Rowling
yang “menciptakan” Harry Porter atau Andrea Hirata yang menciptakan “Laskar Pelangi”;
mereka juga termasuk Ciputra yang “menciptakan” Ancol, Pondok Indah, hingga “Citraland”;
mereka termasuk PK Ojong dan Jakob Oetama yang “menciptakan” harian Kompas. Mereka
bukan lagi entrepreneur, tetapi the real entrepreneur.
222
223
Pertanyaannya, bagaimana dengan orang-orang seperti “para makelar proyek
pemerintah yang ‘menilep’ sebagian nilai proyek untuk kepentingan pribadi dan kemudian
membuat bangunan-bangunan yang dibuat dengan proyek pemerintah cepat ambruk?” Mereka
yang kemudian dinamakan sebagai “koruptor?” Dalam terminologi entrepreneurship, mereka
adalah juga entrepreneur, karena dasarnya adalah mencari peluang, menemukan, dan
mengeksploatasinya. Namun, ini adalah entrepreneur jahat, karena untuk menjadi
entrepreneur, ada dua syarat yang perlu dilengkapi:
1. Integritas: pada awalnya ia melakukan untuk kebaikan diri sendiri tetapi untuk
kebaikan masyarakat luas, atau kehidupan manusia. Air Asia dibentuk untuk
mendapatkan kentungan yang besar, tetapi dasar dari bisnisnya adalah untuk
memberikan pelayanan penerbangan bagi semua orang, khususnya yang
sebelumnya dianggap “tidak mampu”.
2. Kehormatan: memastikan bahwa yang dilakukannya, meski pada awalnya
membuatnya dicela, tetapi pada akhirnya membuat kehormatannya diterima oleh
publik. Pada saat Ciputra memulai membangun Ancol, banyak fihak mencibir,
karena “bagaimana mungkin tempat jin buang anak kok mau dijadikan tempat
wisata?” Hari ini Ancol mempunyai pengunjung sekitar 12 juta per tahun, nomor
tiga setelah Disneyland Amerika dan Disneyland Jepang.
Entpreneur jahat adalah kelompok yang akhirnyanya membuat makna entrepreneur
menjadi cemar dan membuat para pelaku usaha mendapatkan stiga publik sebagai: penipu,
penjahat, dan penjarah.
Ke tiga, memahami bahwa makna entrepreneur tidak identik dengan pengusaha atau
melakukan bisnis. Entrepreneur mempunyai lima jenjang pemahaman. Pemahaman paling
dangkal dari entrepreneur adalah kegiatan; artinya seseorang atau beberapa orang melakukan
224
kegiatan usaha ekonomi atau berbisnis. Mereka adalah yang kita definisikan di depan. Ada
yang gagal kemudian mati, ada yang gagal tetapi bertahan, ada yang gagal tetapi terus
berrjuang akhirnya selamat, yang berhasil, dan ada yang sangat berhasil.
Sisi, yang lebih dalam adalah bahwa entrepreneur adalah ketrampilan yang ahli.
William Soeryadjaya adalah pebisnis sejati, karena ahli dalam mengembangkan industri
otomotif. Eka Tjipta Widjaya adalah pebisnis sejati, karena mereka ahli dalam
mengembangkan industri kertas. Bakrie adalah pengusaha sejati, karena mereka ahli dalam
industri perpipaan –pipa adalah core bisnis pertama yang terkuat dari Grup Bakrie.
Sudwikatmono adalah pebisnis sejati karena mengembangkan industri film di Indonesia –film
yang didukungnya antara lain Tjut Nyak Dien, Ibunda, Catatan Si Boy, dll —dan
mengembangkan
sinepleks.
Jakob
Oetama
juga
pebisnis
sejati,
karena
berhasil
mengembangkan “supergrup” industri media. Yang lain-lain seperti Sudamex membangun
industri kacang olahan. Alim Markus mengembangan industri alumunium. Demikian juga
dengan Mochtar Riady, Soedono Salim, hingga Ciputra.
Pemahaman ke tiga, yang lebih dalam lagi adalah bahwa entrepreneur adalah suatu
profesi, yaitu mereka yang mampu membangun sebuah kegiatan sebagai suatu profesi.
Mereka adalah Tanri Abeng, Robby Djohan, Cacuk Sudarijanto, Rini Suwandi, Agus
Martowardojo, hingga Dahlan Iksan. Mereka adalah profesional pengelola usaha, dan bukan
pemilik usaha. Jika kemudian mereka kemudian mempunyai usaha sendiri, itu adalah
konskuensi logis dari perluasan kapasitas profesional yang telah dimilikinya.
Ke empat, entrepreneurship adalah orientasi, atau paradigma, atau cara pandang.
Mereka adalah orang-orang yang berorientasi kepada peluang, kesempatan, dan rekayasanya
untuk kebaikan. Jika 100 tahun yang lalu –atau 1911-- inovasi lahir setiap bulan, maka hari ini
inovasi lahir setiap detik, dengan inovasi terbesar adalah inovasi di bidang informasi,
termasuk di dalamnya informatika, komputer, program atau software, dan perangkat keras;
225
dan hiburan, termasuk di dalamnya musik, lagu, film, sinema, drama, fotografi, seni lukis,
pahat, dan seterusnya. Perekonomian akan terus tumbuh dengan sehat jika banyak individuindividu dan kelompok-kelompok yang terus berorientasi kepada penciptaan sesuatu yang
baru yang baik untuk masyarakat.
Pada akhirnya, di inti pemahaman tentang entrepreneurship adalah nilai.
Kewirausahaan adalah sebuah nilai, sebuah keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh individu dan
kelompok, bahwa dengan melihat dunia sebagai sebuah kenyataan yang harus dikelola dan
diberi nilai (value), bukan sebagai sesuatu yang sudah jadi, atau senantias dipertahankan,
status quo, dan seterusnya. Bahwa kehidupan adalah sebuah nilai yang harus diperjuangkan;
sebagai kebaikan yang harus ditingkatkan kualitasnya dari hari ke hari.
Barangkali
dengan
pemahaman
di
pemahamanatas,
maka
pengembangan kewirausahaan dan
pendidikan
kewirausahaan
akan
menjadi lebih “kena”, dalam arti
dapat diselenggarakan secara efisien
dan memberikan kemanfaatan yang
ekstra maksimal. Karena itulah yang
kita perlukan hari ini. Bukan sekedar
kebutuhan agar ekonomi kita tumbuh, atau agar pengangguran makin hapus, namun yang
lebih penting lagi, membangun kewirausahaan merupakan upaya “tidak nampak” dari usaha
“membangun pertahanan nasional”; pertahanan yang disebur Prof. Juwono Sudarsono pada
saat menjabat sebagai Menhan sebagai “pertahanan nir-militer”.
226
227
Human resource management, change management and leadership in Estonian
organizations
Ruth Alas, József Poór, Zsuzsa Karoliny
Every organization has forces for change and forces for stability (Leana and Barry, 2000). In
order to survive in changing environment organizations should change there practices.
Human resource management is one part of management practices of organisations,
responsible for training service providers (Little, Little 2009).
The aim of this paper is to examine human resorces management (HRM) practices in
Estonian organizations and to find connections between, implementation of organisational
changes and leadership.
The term human resource management (HRM) refers to design and applications of formal
system in an organisation to ensure effective and efficient use of human talent for achieving
goals of organisation (Mathis and Jackson 2002). Three board activities of HRM are to
attract, develop and maintain an effective workforce (Daft 2006) or human capital.
Organizational change has been seen as an individual-level phenomenon because it occurs
only when the majority of individuals change their behavior or attitudes (Whelan-Berry et al.,
2003). Dopson and Neumann (1998) have perceived change as a necessary evil for survival
in the context of uncertainty.
Survey results in 45 companies indicated that during crisis human resource planning was
considered most critical among HR areas, being a little ahead of performance evaluation and
the issue of compensation and benefits. The responding subsidiaries deemed training and
development, and talent management just almost as critical. Recruitment and selection were
one of the least critical areas despite the fact that many of them operate with quite high
fluctuation rate. However, this opinion is hardly surprising, considering the high national
unemployment rate during the crisis.
From the list of HRM competency areas identified by Dave Ulrich et al. in 2009, the
respondents considered the following three areas to be the most important: (1) change
management (64%), teamwork (60%) and personal credibility (50%). The perceived
criticality of quick decision making and knowledge sharing were followed, with respect to
importance, by business knowledge.
Results of current study indicated that HRM influence the success of the implementation of
change and attitudes toward leadership.
Introduction
Multiple-interacting changes in a global environment have led to a highly complex, confusing
and unpredictable state. For survival in the context of uncertainty change as a necessary
(Dopson & Neumann 1998). Organizational change has been seen as an individual-level
phenomenon because it occurs only when the majority of individuals change their behavior or
attitudes (Whelan-Berry et al. 2003). This has shifted the focus of the change process from
product innovation and technological change, to people (Bergquist 1993). Therefore human
228
resource management and leadership have crucial role in during organisational changes. In
this paper, authors analyse connections between change management, leadership and human
resources management.
The aim of this paper is to explore possibilities of using human resource management and in
implementation of organizational changes. Paper starts with overview of change
management, leadership and human resources management, followed by analysis of
empirical study in Estonian organisations.
Theoretical framework
Change management
Organisation is a complex system that produces outputs in the context of an environment, an
available set of resources, and a history (Nadler & Tushman 1989). Most theorists divide
organizational change into two types according to scope: change taking place within the
given system, and change aiming to modify the system itself. Ackerman (1986) describes
three types of organisational change: (1) developmental change, (2) transitional change, and
(3) transformational change. Developmental change improves what already exists through the
improvement of skills, methods, or conditions. Transitional change replaces current ways of
doing things with something new over a controlled period of time. Transformational change
means the emergence of a new state, unknown until it takes shape, out of the remains of the
chaotic death of the old state. Burke and Litwin (1992) have developed a model for making a
distinction between two types of deeper change. Transformational change occurs as a
response to the external environment and directly affects the organisational mission and
strategy, the leadership and the culture. Transitional change deals with psychological and
organisational variables that predict and control the motivational and performance
consequences of the work group climate (Burke & Litwin 1992).
229
According to the positioning of change in relation to key external events, change can be
divided into reactive changes and anticipatory changes (Nadler & Tushman 1989). Reactive
change is the response to an external event or series of events. Anticipatory change is
initiated in anticipation of events that may occur. To achieve a competitive advantage in the
21st century, organisations should move from having a reactive to a proactive attitude. Here
leadership and human resources have crucial role.
Human resources management
The term human resource management (HRM) refers to design and applications of formal
system in an organisation to ensure effective and efficient use of human talent for achieving
goals of organisation (Mathis & Jackson 2002). The concept of (HRM) gained importance
when it became clear, that strategic decisions are more and more related to human resource
considerations (Daft 2006) and human resource management has impact on an organisation´s
strategic capability (Fombrun et al. 1984; Wright et al. 1994). There are two human resources
management conceptions: Michigan and Harvard model (Kaarelson 2010). The Michigan
model (Fombrun et al. 1984) emphasizes that people are resource as any other resource in
organizations and the utilization of this resource must be closely linked with the strategic
objectives of the company. According to the Harvard model (Beer et al. 1985) developers,
people are the most valuable, specific, and critical resource in an organization. Both models
connect human resources with business strategy. Authors of this article define HRM as set of
practices in organisation to ensure effective and efficient use of human capital for achieving
goals of organisation. Three board activities of HRM are to attract, develop and maintain an
effective workforce (Daft 2006) or human capital. During changes the main focus is on
developing human capital, also the other HRM functions are involved, especially planning,
selection, performance appraisal, salaries and termination.
230
Thus, managing the human resource has become one of the critical success factors in most
organisations. Both the existence of proper personnel and the ways how people are managed
is the basis for achieving the competitive advantage.
Leadership
Leaders achieve results through the others’ work. Stogdill (1974) argues that “there are
almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define
the concept”. Bales (1950) introduced the most common distinction of leadership styles: taskoriented style, defined as a concern with accomplishing assigned tasks by organizing taskrelevant activities, and interpersonally oriented style, defined as a concern with maintaining
interpersonal relationships by tending to others’ morale and welfare. This distinction of
leadership styles was developed further. Into the task-oriented style the following behavior
was included: encouraging subordinates to follow the rules and procedures, maintaining high
standards for performance, and making leader and subordinate roles explicit. The behaviors
are such as helping and doing favors for subordinates, looking out for their welfare,
explaining procedures and being friendly and available was included into interpersonally
oriented style.
Transactional leaders use reward and cohesion power in exchange process in order to satisfy
immediate needs (Burns 1978). They ensure through the use of rewards and sanctions that
followers the followers perform the required behaviors. It is like social exchange: leaders can
offer resources to followers in exchange for the followers’ compliance and the loyalty to the
leader (Kanungo & Mendonca 1996). The focus of the transaction influence process is solely
on the leader’s objectives, needs and concerns (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996). Transactional
leadership involves reinforcement: leaders either make assignments or consult with followers
about what is to be done in exchange for implicit or explicit rewards and the desired
231
allocation of resources (Bass & Steidlmeier 2004). The central traits of this style can be
summed up as follows: reward-based, exchange-based, importance of self-interests.
Transformational leadership, in contrast, concentrates on satisfying higher needs (Burns
1978). It is about bringing a change in the followers’ attitudes and values (Kanungo &
Mendonca 1996). Transformational leadership is motivating, uplifting and more ethical
(Burns 1978). Transformational leadership consists of charisma (idealized influence),
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized considerations (Bass
1985).
Empirical study
In this research we examined the HR functions and practical applications of Multinational
Company (MNC) subsidiaries in Estonia. The current research is part of a long-term
cooperative research consortium – the Central and Eastern European International Research
Team (known hereafter as CEEIRT) – that is composed of researchers from different
universities from the Central and Eastern European (CEE) Region and aimed at examining
the changing Human Resource (HR) practices and roles in MNC subsidiaries. We seek to
understand what trends have emerged in the professional practice of HR and the key roles of
HRM in our geographic area in response to the socio-economic changes in the region.
Survey was conducted among human resource managers of 50 Estonian companies. 45 were
subsidiaries of multinational companies. The examined subsidies employ the 13% of the
employees of the foreign owned Estonian companies. The majority of the companies in
current study (67%) were small enterprises based on the number of their employees (under
250 persons). 22% were middle-size companies with number of employees between 251 and
1000, and 11% were bigger. The participating companies entered Estonia from 18 different
countries. Some 70% of the companies surveyed came from the following six countries:
Finland (24%), Sweden (24%), Denmark (7%), Germany (7%), Austria (4%), and France
232
(4%). The remaining 30% represent another 12 countries. The majority (46%) of the
organizations examined is engaged in manufacturing while the others (54%) in trade, tangible
and intangible services.
The gender distribution of the professionals participating in the interview is almost equal (4852%). Some 53% of the participating individuals are over 40 years of age, another almost
36% are between 30 and 40 and only a few (21%) of the professionals are very young.
Almost all the interviewees participating in the survey have university, college or equivalent
qualifications, one of them also has a PhD degree. The majority of the interviewees obtained
qualifications in social sciences (52%) or engineering and natural sciences (16%). Almost
three quarter (67%) of the individuals participating in the survey are top HR managers. 24%
of respondents work in HR. Nearly 40% of the respondents have worked in their current
positions for less than three years. However, the majority have spent longer time, typically 3
to10 years in their positions.
If we take a look at the management culture of the companies, the highest proportions of
companies in the sample analyzed belong to the so-called Northern (57%) and the Germanic
(13%) management cultures. Note that in Estonia besides the groups of traditional MNCs
(93%) (American, Western European and Japanese), companies from the so-called emerging
and transitional countries (7%) have also appeared
Results
Human resource management function
In the participating companies nearly 71% of the total number of HR staff carried out
administrative tasks while 24% were HR professionals. The HR departments of the
companies examined are relatively large as the number of HR staff was higher than 5 persons
in the case of more than 37% of the respondents and in the case of 9% it was higher than 20
233
persons. Only five organizations participated in the survey that did not have a HR
department, moreover they did not even employ a single HR professional.
About one third of the subsidiaries participating in the survey had the labor cost ratio is
higher than 35%. The vast majority (65%) of the companies operated with a relatively low
(under 30%) labor cost ratio.
The results of our survey in this respect do not confirm the common view that there is no
room for employees over 45 years of age in multinational companies as more than 10% of the
employees of the subsidiaries participating in the survey fell within this age group. The
proportion of employees under 25 years of age was around 25% and the body consisted of the
employees between 25-45 years of age – with a percentage over 60%.
In around 55% of the companies examined, the relative size of the training budget was under
3% of total labor costs. Only about one third of the companies examined spent 3-7% of the
annual labor budget on training employees. Moreover, there were some respondents (13%),
whose expenditures on trainings were higher than 7%.
Survey results indicated that human resource planning was considered most critical among
HR areas, being ahead of performance evaluation and the issue of compensation and benefits.
Training and development, and talent management were also important. Recruitment and
selection were one of the least critical areas.
The respondents considered the following three areas to be the most important: (1) change
management (64%), teamwork (60%) and personal credibility (50%). The perceived
criticality of quick decision making and knowledge sharing were followed, with respect to
importance, by business knowledge.
The majority of the respondents regard most of the interventions in the key functions of HR
as the result of a joint decision in which the final decision is made by the local line
management, based usually on consultation with the HR department. External service
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providers were most often used in training and these external providers were also often
involved in recruitment and selection and in the area of compensation and benefits
(BCG&EAPM, 2009).
The respondents found local training to be the most important method of professional
development and they thought that mobility between the parent company and its subsidies
also play a very important role.
Organizational changes
The analyses of change taking place in Estonian companies are based on Burke-Litwin’s
model of organizational performance and change (Burke & Litwin 1992). Respondents
received a list of areas of change: transformational factors strategy, culture and leadership;
and transactional factors structure, task requirements, individual skills of employees and
systems. They entered the symbol‘+’ if they had made changes in this area. Respondents
were also asked to evaluate changes in every area on a 10 point scale, where the number 10
means the most successful change.
They received a separate question about leadership. Respondents had to evaluate leadership
at different levels – involving supervisors, middle managers, top management teams and top
managers - on a 10 point scale. The highest grade was 10.
In order to find connections between different variables a correlation analysis was carried out.
Correlations between the success of changes and leadership
Table 1 includes correlations between strategic orientations, the success of changes and
leadership. Almost half (48%) of the respondents indicated that they were seeking stability
during the period under examination. Some 39% of the companies surveyed were
characterized by growth and portfolio expansion strategies. Changes were most successful in
companies which had experienced cut-backs. Leadership was evaluated most highly during
the stability phase (Table 1).
235
Correlations between the success of changes and leadership indicate that transactional factors
were more strongly connected with leadership in the company than transformational factors.
Higher evaluations granted to the leadership of supervisors were connected with more
successful changes in the individual skills of employees (r=0.536), leadership (r=0.489) and
changes in task requirements (r=0.443). Furthermore, the success of changes in systems
(r=0.398) and strategy (r=0.327) correlated with the leadership of supervisors.
Similar results appeared in the group of middle managers, where almost the same sequence
of correlation was found. One difference did emerge, however. Higher evaluations given to
the leadership of middle managers were connected with successful changes in the structure
(r=0.357), compared to the same category for the group of supervisors (r=0.121).
The higher grades granted to top management teams were most strongly connected with more
successful changes in the individual skills of employees (r=0.670) and in leadership
(r=0.558), followed by more successful changes in structure (r=0.460) and task requirements
(r=0.406). Higher evaluations for top managers were most strongly connected with successful
changes in task requirements (r=0.358), followed by organizational culture (r=0.230) and
structure (r=0.198).
Correlations between HRM, success of changes and leadership
Respondents were asked to mention the competitive factor in the company. 48% of
respondents chose the workforce as the most important competitive factor. The changes were
most successful if the competitive factor was financial resources, with the next most
influential competitive factor being management (Table 2). Change in leadership was
successful if the workforce was viewed as a competitive factor simultaneously. A protected,
regulated market and production technology did not have an impact on the success of the
236
changes. If the competitive factor was management, changes in transactional factors were
successful.
Leadership was evaluated highest at all levels if Management was considered as a
competitive factor. The next competitive factor influencing the evaluations of the leadership
in a positive way was the workforce.
Respondents were asked to mark the critical Human Resource (HR) issues for the company
(Table 3). Successful changes in mission and leadership were connected with Training and
Development and Recruitment. Evaluations of the leadership of managers (especially middle
managers) were highest if the focus was on Performance Evaluation. Training and
Development were connected with the higher evaluations granted to Supervisors (r=0.185).
Table 4 shows the correlation between the corporate headquarters (HQ) and the local HR.
Changes were more successful if the HR role played by corporate headquarters (HQ) was
more advisory and supportive rather than directive. The provision of resources and advice
when requested was the most beneficial for changes. Providing detailed HR models, policies,
procedures and rules was not useful.
From the key competencies for HR executives and HR services, Knowledge sharing,
Teamwork and Change management competencies had the most positive impact on the
success of changes (Table 5). Change in the culture required Change management
competencies and also teamwork.
The leadership of top managers was evaluated highest when teamwork was considered to be a
key competency of HR executives. This indicates that if the HR manager is himself/herself
good at teamwork he/she will also evaluate his/her superior more highly. Change
management as a competency was connected with higher evaluations granted to the
leadership of the top management team. Business partnership as a competency resulted in
higher evaluations of the leadership of supervisors (Ulrich et al, 2009).
237
Respondents were asked how significant the modes of gaining personal competencies in the
field of HRM were (Table 6).
Local training, Cross-cultural training and both Formal and Informal learning had the most
positive influence on changes and leadership. Training in the headquarters had no impact on
changes in the subsidiary, but had a positive impact on evaluations of the top management
team and top managers.
Knowledge flow enablers in Table 7 are the conditions needed to transfer knowledge about
HR practices and techniques between the parent company and the subsidiary. Respondents
were asked to indicate the importance of the following knowledge flow enablers in the field
of HRM. Results indicated that motivation to transfer knowledge was most important for the
success of changes.
The respondents ranked knowledge flows within their own subsidiaries as the most important
when compared to the different HR knowledge flows, and knowledge flow from the parent
company was ranked only second (Table 8). Many respondents pointed out that the parent
company welcomed the HR experiences and action proposals coming from the subsidiaries.
Both knowledge flows from and to the parent company have a positive impact on the success
of change in the task requirement and structure. Knowledge flows to the parent company
were useful for strategic change. Knowledge flows within subsidiaries had a positive impact
on the evaluations of the leadership of top managers.
In Table 9 respondents predicted the major issues, patterns or trends effecting HRM within
their own subsidiary for the next 24 months. Companies with the most successful changes
planned Eastern expansion. Eastern expansion and efficiency improvement were positively
connected with better leadership.
Table 10 shows how companies improve the business efficiency of HR professionals.
238
In order for a change in culture to be more successful the business focus of HR staff needs to
have been improved by measuring and providing incentives based on business performance
(r=0.707) and next by hiring people from outside of HR(business people) (r=0,577). In
addition, prioritizing business knowledge in HR staff selection (r=0,408) and offer training on
business issues (r=0,412) are useful for changing culture.
Conclusion
In order to survive in a changing environment, organizations should change their practices.
Human resource management is one part of the management practices of organizations
responsible for training service providers (Little & Little 2009). Survey results from 50
companies indicated that during a crisis human resource planning was considered the most
critical among HR areas, being slightly ahead of performance evaluation and the issue of
compensation and benefits. The respondent subsidiaries deemed training and development,
and talent management almost just as critical. Recruitment and selection were one of the least
critical areas despite the fact that many of them operate with quite a high fluctuation rate.
However, this opinion is hardly surprising, considering the high national unemployment rate
during the crisis.
From the list of HRM competency areas identified by Dave Ulrich et al. in 2009, 64% of
respondents chose the management, 60% chose teamwork and 50% of respondents chose
personal credibility. The perceived criticality of quick decision making and knowledge
sharing were followed, in order of importance, by business knowledge.
Although the 48% of respondents chose the workforce as the most important competitive
factor, financial resources and management were the most important for the implementation
of changes. Change in leadership was successful if workforce was seen as a competitive
factor simultaneously. The protected, regulated market and production technology did not
239
have an impact on the success of changes. If the competitive factor was management,
changes in transactional factors were successful.
Successful changes in mission and leadership were connected with Training and
Development and Recruitment. Evaluations on the leadership of managers were highest if the
focus was on Performance Evaluation. Training and Development were connected with the
higher evaluations given to Supervisors.
Changes were more successful if the HR role played by corporate headquarters was limited to
the provision of resources and advice when requested. Providing detailed HR models,
policies, procedures and rules was not useful.
HR executives’ key competencies as HR services, knowledge sharing, teamwork and change
management competences had the most positive impact on the success of changes. A change
in culture required change management competencies and also teamwork. The leadership of
top managers was evaluated highest when teamwork was considered to be the key
competency of HR executives.
Local training, cross-cultural training and both, formal and informal learning had the most
positive influence on changes and leadership. Training in headquarters had no impact on
changes in the subsidiary, but had a positive impact on evaluations of top management team
and top managers.
To conclude, the results of the current study indicated that HRM has a significant impact
upon the success of the implementation of change and attitudes towards leadership.
Leadership influenced change in transactional factors – structure, task requirements,
individual skills and systems - more than change in transformational factors – strategy,
culture and leadership.
The research was supported by ETF grant 7357.
240
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Tables
Table 1. Connections between strategic orientations, success of changes and leadership
Strategic orientations
Growth, market expansion Stability Cut-back, outsourcing
What was changed
Strategy
-0,259
0,191
0,178
Mission
-0,296
-0,148
0,296
Culture
-0,147
-0,282
-0,014
Leadership
-0,038
-0,114
0,342
Structure
-0,158
0,119
0,193
Task requirements
0,046
0,156
0,248
Individual skills
0,213
-0,068
0,266
Systems
0,080
0,181
0,080
Leadership
Supervisors
0,124
0,439
0,008
Middle managers
-0,081
0,342
0,292
Top management team
0,278
0,125
0,060
Top manager
0,004
-0,080
0,113
Table 2. Connections between most competitive factor, success of changes and leadership.
Competitive
factor
Optimal plant / Workfo Financial Manage Production Protected,
organization
rce
resources ment
technology
regulated
size
market
What was changed
Strategy
-0,118
-0,218
0,122
-0,032
-0,032
-0,462
Mission
-0,191
0
0
-0,270
0,296
-0,296
Culture
-0,368
0,063
0,397
-0,491
-0,022
-0,147
Leadership
-0,417
0,255
0,240
0,017
-0,342
-0,522
Structure
-0,113
-0,167
0,370
0,091
-0,140
-0,695
Task
-0,103
-0,203
-0,043
0,300
0,109
-0,124
requirement
Individual
-0,230
-0,017
0,053
0,272
-0,238
-0,206
skills
Systems
-0,157
-0,270
0,464
0,254
-0,468
-0,377
Leadership
Supervisors
0,105
0,204
-0,163
0,134
-0,080
0,180
Middle
0,043
0,275
-0,233
0,272
-0,211
-0,261
managers
Top
-0,132
0,266
-0,378
0,433
0,225
0,039
management
team
Top manager
-0,116
-0,092
-0,343
0,350
0,327
0,074
242
243
Table 3. Connections between Human Resource issues, success of changes and leadership.
Human
Resource
Planning
Recruitm Performan Training
Compensa Industrial- Employee
ent
ce
and
tion and
Labour
Communi
Evaluation Developm Benefits
Relations
cation
ent
-0,297
-0,233
-0,337
-0,288
0,084
-0,296
0,837
0,068
0,540
0,795
0,357
-0,105
0,114
-0,267
0,112
0,143
-0,493
-0,081
0,506
-0,163
0,005
0,229
0,122
-0,162
0,016
-0,484
-0,286
-0,084
-0,328
-0,144
0,110
0,006
-0,150
0,025
-0,085
-0,151
0,067
-0,276
-0,269
-0,098
-0,152
-0,171
-0,226
-0,448
-0,578
-0,308
-0,234
-0,311
0,064
0,267
0,185
0,056
-0,145
-0,360
0,203
0,417
0,033
-0,209
-0,181
-0,147
-0,125
0,193
-0,009
-0,273
-0,365
0,141
0,231
0,053
-0,165
0,019
-0,244
0,129
1
-0,052
2
0,429
3
-0,353
4
-0,157
5
-0,483
6
-0,031
7
-0,304
8
-0,514
9
-0,105
10
0,002
11
0,168
12
-0,176
NOTE:
1 Strategy
2 Mission
3 Culture
4 Leadership
5 Structure
6 Task requirements
7 Individual skills
8 Systems
9 Supervisors
10 Middle managers
11 Top management team
12 Top manager
Table 4. Relationsip between headquarters (HQ) and local HR, success of changes and
leadership.
Relationship
between
headquarters
and local
HR
Hands off,
source of
last resort
in case of
a local
problem
What was changed
Strategy
-0,451
Mission
-0,592
Culture
-0,061
Provide
resources
and advise
when
requested
Provide
general
guidelines
and
framework
for actions
0,168
0,810
0,316
-0,025
0,675
0,458
Solicit
informati
on and
reports auditor’s
role
Provide
detailed HR
models,
policies,
procedures
and rules
0,120
0,148
0,368
-0,031
0
0,196
244
Source of
all
remotely
significant
HR
decisions
N/A
N/A
N/A
Leadership
Structure
Task
requirements
Individual
skills
Systems
Leadership
Supervisors
Middle
managers
Top
management
team
Top manager
-0,411
-0,174
-0,411
0,174
0,200
0,387
0,224
0,059
0,234
0,190
0,193
-0,009
-0,009
-0,273
-0,235
N/A
-0,095
0,081
-0,617
0,221
0,112
0,428
-0,019
N/A
-0,550
0,249
-0,020
0,155
0,226
0,206
-0,362
-0,323
-0,014
0,037
-0,085
-0,146
0,022
-0,126
-0,122
-0,146
N/A
N/A
-0,128
-0,059
0,067
-0,017
-0,444
N/A
0,163
-0,219
0,019
-0,094
0,004
N/A
Table 5. Connections between key competencies for HR executives, success of changes and
leadership.
Business Quick Team
partners decision work
hip
-making
Change Knowle Knowle
manage dge of dge
ment
foreign sharing
languag
es
Strategi Persona HR
c
l
services
contribu credibili
tion
ty
Usage
of
HRMIS
(IT)
What was changed
Strategy
0,055 0,264 0,248 -0,434 -0,031 0,628 -0,128 -0,702 0,533 0,237
Mission
0,080 0,561 0,405 0,148 0,314 0,917 N/A -0,466 0,466 N/A
Culture
-0,064 -0,086 0,196 0,472 -0,063 0,066 -0,198 0,173 0,186 0,478
Leadership
-0,065 0,220 -0,038 0,348 0,081 0,233 -0,272 -0,104 -0,045 0,062
Structure
-0,116 0,156 0,472 -0,092 0,148 0,378 -0,297 -0,276 0,125 0,281
Task
0,215 0,410 0,367 -0,088 0,140 0,383 -0,097 -0,250 0,439 0,278
requirements
Individual
0,087 0,276 0,111 0,011 -0,055 0,259 -0,531 -0,349 0,424 0,328
skills
Systems
0,028 0,441 0,310 -0,303 -0,322 0,004 -0,338 -0,281 0,400 0,461
Leadership
Supervisors
0,228 -0,047 -0,130 0,048 -0,156 -0,234 -0,041 -0,152 0,465 -0,026
Middle
0,129 0,131 -0,128 0,129 0,245 -0,078 -0,089 -0,106 0,290 0,048
managers
Top
-0,037 0,102 -0,021 0,216 0,192 0,042 -0,544 -0,060 -0,090 -0,266
management
team
Top manager -0,030 0,144 0,329 0,150 -0,012 0,038 -0,327 -0,062 0,282 0,213
245
Table 6. Connections between modes of gaining personal competencies, success of changes
and leadership.
Modes of
Mobility
Mobility
Training Local
gaining
between
between
in HQ
traini
personal
parent and subsidiaries
ng
competencies
subsidiary
What was changed
Strategy
-0,373
-0,211
-0,465 0,013
Mission
-0,575
-0,360
-0,550 0,127
Culture
-0,105
-0,055
0,069 0,060
Leadership
-0,115
-0,140
0,041 0,233
Structure
-0,041
-0,285
-0,033 0,259
Task
0,041
-0,096
0,140 0,346
requirements
Individual skills
-0,081
-0,235
0,007 0,378
Systems
0,283
0,030
-0,157 0,008
Leadership
Supervisors
0,075
0,089
0,071 0,232
Middle
-0,096
-0,244
0,061 0,209
managers
Top
0,091
-0,156
0,393 0,319
management
team
Top manager
0,177
-0,025
0,258 0,226
Form
al
learni
ng
Inform Crossal
cultural
learni training
ng
0,243
0,324
0,316
0,348
0,566
0,380
0,007
0,475
0,635
0,487
0,201
0,254
-0,241
0,039
0,538
0,401
0,539
0,360
0,358
0,301
0,202
0,286
0,578
0,231
0,087
0,112
0,306
0,239
-0,048
0,332
0,151
0,098
0,354
0,346
0,442
0,269
Table 7. Connections between Knowledge flow enablers, success of changes and leadership.
Knowledge
flow enablers
Content/Kind
of knowledge
What was changed
Strategy
Mission
Culture
Leadership
Structure
Task
requirements
Individual
skills
Systems
Leadership
Supervisors
Middle
managers
Top
Motivation to
Ability to
transfer knowledge transfer
knowledge
Form of
knowledge
transfer
-0,137
-0,135
0,195
0,187
0,022
-0,051
0,081
0,142
-0,056
0,142
0,171
0,239
0,370
-0,113
-0,100
-0,067
0,337
0,204
-0,043
-0,405
-0,272
-0,057
0,358
0,279
-0,014
0,165
0,131
0,207
-0,069
0,126
0,313
0,207
0,207
0,089
0,264
0,278
0,254
0,137
0,075
0,281
0,064
0,175
-0,002
0,422
246
management
team
Top manager
0,023
0,202
0,197
0,253
Table 8. Connections between Knowledge flows, success of changes and leadership.
Knowledge
flows
Knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge flows
Knowledge flows
flows from
flows to
between
within your
parent
parent
subsidiaries
subsidiary
What was changed
Strategy
-0,008
0,246
0,030
0,217
Mission
-0,519
0,531
0,157
0,459
Culture
-0,176
-0,078
-0,066
-0,066
Leadership
-0,315
0,009
-0,042
-0,156
Structure
0,142
0,234
0,047
0,060
Task
0,236
0,333
0,163
0,134
requirements
Individual
0,077
0,124
0,062
-0,153
skills
Systems
0,192
0,154
0,116
0,028
Management
-0,251
-0,064
-0,101
-0,191
practices
Leadership
Supervisors
0,232
0,032
0,313
0,142
Middle
-0,016
-0,008
-0,012
-0,070
managers
Top
0,190
0,083
0,077
-0,012
management
team
Top manager
0,054
0,164
0,187
0,284
Table 9. Connections between key business challenges in the next 1-2 years, success of
changes and leadership.
Conform
to
globaliza
tion
What was changed
Strategy
-0,221
Mission
-0,105
Culture
-0,086
Leadership
0,184
Structure
0,091
Task
-2,3E-17
Effici
ency
impro
veme
nt
-0,150
-0,444
-0,233
0,085
-0,076
-0,073
Compan
y
develop
ment
Company
reconstruc
tion
0,150
N/A
0,589
0,111
0,133
0,100
0,008
-0,314
-0,179
0,0219
-0,337
0,196
Eastern
expansion
Distribution
developmen
t
EU
change
s
0,071
0,177
0,212
0,106
0,284
-0,230
-0,040
-0,418
-0,713
-0,604
-0,335
-0,477
0,505
0,642
0,327
0,503
0,565
0,331
247
requirement
s
Individual
skills
Systems
Leadership
Supervisors
Middle
managers
Top
management
team
Top
manager
-0,172
0,159
0,213
0,065
0,688
-0,008
-0,257
-0,291
0,320
0,429
0,203
0,221
-0,045
0,329
-0,106
0,048
0,150
-0,081
0,307
0,112
0,217
0,301
-0,335
-0,246
0
-0,233
0,099
0,172
0,361
6
0,060
-0,226
0,249
0,414
-0,161
0
-0,175
0,113
0,054
0,202
0,055
-0,292
0,401
Table 10. Connections between, success of changes and leadership.
Offer
training
s on
busines
s issues
Offer
training
s on
specific
HR
fields
What was changed
Strateg -0,667
-0,5
y
Missio
N/A
N/A
n
Cultur
0,412
N/A
e
Leader
0,343
0
ship
Structu -0,486
-0,242
re
Task
0,127
-0,248
require
ments
Individ -0,064
0,023
ual
skills
Syste
N/A
0,191
ms
Leadership
Superv
0,030
0,156
isors
Middle -0,059
0,239
manag
ers
Offer rotation
programs
(outside the HR
department) for
HR staff
0,971
N/A
Measure and
provide
incentives
based on
business
performance
-0,667
N/A
Prioritize
business
knowledge
in HR staff
selection
N/A
N/A
0,408
Hire people
from
outside of
HR
(business
people)
-0,971
N/A
-1
0,707
-0,408
-0,456
N/A
0,408
0,535
-0,183
N/A
-0,548
0,264
-0,262
0,076
-0,611
0,052
-0,452
0,158
-0,337
0,242
-0,669
-0,132
-0,087
0,234
-0,011
-0,060
-0,161
-0,451
0,048
N/A
248
0,577
-0,505
Top
manag
ement
team
Top
manag
er
0,087
-0,026
-0,476
-0,039
-0,090
0,164
0,638
0,273
-0,593
-0,184
-0,273
0,115
249
PART TREE:
250
MEDIA STRATEGY FOR SIMCARD ADVERTISEMENT
PRODUCT CATEGORY
Alamanda, Dini Turipanam
Institut Manajemen Telkom Bandung
Abstract
This research was conducted to examine television media strategy for SIMcard product
category. In order to extent comprehension on how TV advertisers select TV spot, it is
important to understand what factor being considered by TV advertiser for selecting the
suited TV spot particularly for SIM card product category.
The source of data for this study was obtained from A. C. Nielsen, using Arianna software. It
is consisted TV advertisement data every day for one month (March 2010). The factors which
are evaluated are television rating, rate, program, time (day and hour), and category of a
brand/product. This research covers 10 national TV stations in Indonesia, which are RCTI,
SCTV, Trans TV, Trans 7, Global TV, ANTV, TPI (MNC), Metro TV, Indosiar and TV One.
Finding in this research include that in some of television station, advertiser did not always
considered advertisement cost, or the timing of advertisement. Some advertisers tend to
consider other aspects such as rating and the number of viewer, not only about the television
rate. But still, a television program that has high rating not always attract more ads.
Keyword: Advertising, Television, SIM card Category, Media Selection
I.
Introduction
In recent years, national ad spending continues to increase sharply. Data of PPPI (Association
of Indonesian Advertising Company) records ad spending continues to increase. In 2007
reached Rp35, 1 trillion, in 2008 reached Rp41 trillion, in 2009 reached Rp48, trillion, and
the first half of 2010 reached Rp28, 5 trillion or 58 percent of total spending in 2009 (Lubis,
2010). Wahyudi (2010) states that advertising expenditure reached 62 trillion and
telecommunications companies are the largest contributors followed by banking and some
consumer goods companies. Wahyudi also expressed in terms of quantity, 60 percent of ad
spending spread to television and the remaining 30 percent spread to the print media and
radio.
Managing Director of Nielsen Audience Measurement of Nielsen stated that television
advertising is dominated by telecommunications service providers. The largest advertising
251
expenditure allocation incurred by PT XL Axiata worth Rp 593 billion with a 66 percent
increase compared with 2009. Then, Telkomsel (all SIM card) worth Rp 538 billion,
Telkomsel SIMpati worth Rp 438 billion, Telkomsel AS worth Rp 398 billion, Axis worth Rp
396 billion, and Indosat worth IM3 Rp 320 billion (Pratignyo, 2010).
In general, television has two target consumers (as a source of income), the audience
(viewers) and the advertiser. Knowing the desired target market and show a better program is
the key to the success of a television. If a program has a lot of viewers, it will automatically
increase the rating of the program itself. The programs that have high rating usually attract
great attention from advertisers to invest their money there.
However, the rating is not the only thing to be considered by the advertisers. There are many
other factors that influence, such as day part and ad rates. It is very important to understand
the behavior of the advertiser (company SIM card) in choosing a television station as an
advertising medium with the restrictions the following issues:
a. Variables used in this study consists of time (day and hour), television ratings,
advertising rates, and brand / product category
b. Source data obtained from A. C. Nielsen, using Arianna Software with time period
February 2010.
c. This study includes 10 national television in Indonesia, including RCTI, SCTV, Trans
TV, Trans 7, Global TV, SCTV, TPI (MNC), Metro TV, Indosiar and TVOne
II.
Literature Study
According to Kotler (2003:814), advertising is a form of impersonal presentation and
promotion of ideas, goods or services by a specific sponsor needs to be paid. In this case
could mean that advertising is a form of impersonal communication with the costs incurred
by the company in the use of mass media to persuade and influence potential customers.
252
Peter and Olson (2000:222) stated that in practice advertising is able to create emotional to
consumers. External stimuli that create positive emotions can be paired with the product so
the product gets positive effect.
According to Farbey (1987), television is a medium that preferred among advertisers because
of its effects. Television uses color, sound, movement, and music. Additionally viewers can
be selected according to the type and time of the program. Television is a medium capable of
reaching vast areas, and can be used by all advertisers to test marketing or launching a new
product.
Like other media used in advertising, television also has strengths and limitations. Rhenald
Kasali (in Durianto and Liana, 2004) concluded that and presented in Table 1.
Table 1. The Strengthen and The Weaknesses of Advertising in Television
Strengthen
Cost efficiency
Strong Impact
Strong Influence
Weaknesses
Big cost
Unselected target market
Technical difficulty
Some advertising experts argue that in order for an advertising campaign to be effective,
advertising must contain great ideas that attract the attention of consumers, get a reaction, and
separating the products and services that are advertised other products in the competition
(Lee and Johnson, 1999). Shimp (2000) states that invest heavily in advertising suggest that
many companies have confidence in the effectiveness of advertising.
These SIM card companies currently are the largest television advertising users in Indonesia.
Director of Telecom Practice Group Nielsen, Viraj Juthani in Seputar Indonesia (2010)
mentions that the telecommunications industry for ad spending up 43% after a decline of 11%
in 2009. While the telecom operator company that issued the largest advertising expenditure
is Telkomsel (Rp1, 4 trillion), followed by Indosat (Rp639 billion), XL Axiata (around
253
Rp631 billion), Natrindo Cellular Phone (Rp396 billion), Bakrie Telecom (Rp296 billion),
Telkom Indonesia (Rp295 billion), and Hutchinson 3G (Rp278 billion).
III.
Methodology
This study used exploratory method. The purpose of exploratory method is to obtain
information relating to research and deep understanding of things that are not yet known.
Figure 1 is a flow chart of this study.
Figure 1. Research Flow Chart
Data obtained from Arianna software. Arianna is another invention in the innovation process
analysis software of AGB Nielsen Media Research, where Arianna changed the face and the
ability of the AGB Workstation.
IV.
Results and Discussion
254
Figure 2 Chart of Total SIMcard Ads
Figure 3 Chart of Total SIMcard Ads (In
Percent)
Total number of SIM Card ads in February 2010 for 10 television stations is 3393. The
average number of SIM Card ads per day is 121 ads, and 5 ads/hour. Based on the chart in
figure 2, Global TV has the greatest number of ads by 581 advertisements, followed by Trans
TV (467 ads), TPI (432 ads), SCTV (421 ads), RCTI (321 ads), Indosiar (313 ads), ANTV
(280 ads), Trans 7 (276 ads), TVONE (218 ads) and Metro TV (84 ads).
The total number of SIM Card ads in February 2010, in all television stations, in the form of
percentage can be seen from figure 3. Global TV was superior with 17%, followed by Trans
TV (14%), TPI (13%), SCTV (12%), RCTI (10%), INDOSIAR (9%), ANTV and Trans 7
(8%), TVONE (6%) and Metro TV (3%).
Figure 4 Ads in February 2010 based on Day of Week
Figure 4 above shows that the highest number of Ads is on Thursday (982) and Friday (906).
While the lowest number of Ads is on Sunday (697). Next, this research will analyze more
detail about ads based on Day of Week per television station.
255
256
Figure 5 Total Food Ads in February 2010 All Channels
Figure 6 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on Day of Week in February 2010
Based on Figure 6 above, it can be seen that all television stations have the greatest number
of SIM Card Ads on weekday.
257
Figure 7 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on TVR in February 2010
Figure 7 shows the relationship between program TV rating (x) and total number Figure 7
SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on TVR in February 2010
Figure 7 shows the relationship between program TV rating (x) and total number of ad (y) on
all television stations. The figure indicates that SIM Card product choose low rating
programs.
258
choose low rating programs.
Figure 8 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on Dayparts in February 2010
Figure 8 shows the relationship between hours and total number of Ads. From the Figure 8
SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on Dayparts in February 2010
Figure 8 shows the relationship between hours and total number of Ads. From the figure
above, it can be seen that SIM Card category ads are advertised 24 hours.
259
5. Conclusion, Suggestions and Further Research
5.1 Conclusion
1. On the average, all television stations (RCTI, SCTV, TPI (MNC), Indosiar, Global TV,
Trans TV, Trans 7, TV One, Metro TV, and TV One) have the highest number of Ads at
the middle of the week, which is on Thursday (982 ads) and Friday (906 ads). There are
very significant difference between the number of ads on weekends and workday. On
weekend the number of ads is about 600 advertisements only, but on workday almost
reached the number of 1000.
2. Most corporate advertisers prefer to make advertisement on workday than weekend. In this
research found that all of the television stations have more expensive average rate on
weekend than on workday. This may be one reason why the number of ads on workday is
more than on weekend, it is because the price is cheaper.
3. Some television stations still have more ads in the higher rate (more expensive), than the
regular rate. This finding represent that some advertisers tend to consider other aspects
such as rating and the number of viewer, not about the advertising rate. So, although the
price of best performance time is higher, it still has the highest number of ads.
5. Each television stations have the highest number of ads in at a certain time. It is different
one to another station. In conclusion, television stations have the highest number of ads
not always in the prime time (18.00-19.00).
6. A television program that has high rating not always attracts more ads.
5.2 Suggestions
To maximize awareness and be effective, the advertising must reach the maximum number of
the target audience. The advertiser can concentrate commercials in areas where market
260
potential is greatest. By choosing higher rating program, advertiser could reach larger viewer.
So, it would optimize the effectiveness of the Advertising.
Another consideration of corporate advertiser in buying TV time is selecting the right period
and program for advertiser’s commercial messages. The various day part segments attract
different audiences in both size and nature, so advertising rates varies accordingly. This is
important to advertisers since they attract different demographic groups. Advertisers must
decide when to air commercials and on which programs.
5.3 Further Research
For further research, a longer period of research can be used (yearly data processing). Further
research could also measure the relationship between variables using tools such as crosstab
analysis which is better than using excel graphic processing.
References
Durianto, Darmadi & C. Liana (2004). Analisis Efektivitas Iklan Televisi Softener Soft &
Fresh di Jakarta dan Sekitarnya dengan Menggunakan Consumer Decision Model.
Jurnal Ekonomi Perusahaan. 11: 35-55
Farbey,AD (1987). How to Produce Succesful Advertising, Marketing in Action Series.
Jakarta: Gramedia
Juthani,Vijay (2010). Analisa Penetrasi Ponsel Indonesia 2010 3 Kali Lipat 2005.
www.okezone.com. Diunduh 12 Oktober 2011.
Kotler, Philip (2000). Marketing Management : Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and
Control, Tenth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall International,Inc.
Lee, Monle & Carla Johnson (1999). Prinsip-Prinsip Pokok Periklanan Dalam Perspektif
Global. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group.
Lubis, Anggraini (2010). Belanja iklan capai Rp62 triliun. www.waspada.com. Diunduh 17
Agustus 2011
Peter & Olson (2000). Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy. Jakarta: Erlangga
Pratignyo,
Irawati
(2010).
Belanja
Iklan
2010
Capai
Rp60
Triliun.
www.ciputraentrepreneurship.com. Diunduh 17 Agustus 2011
Wahyudi, Mufid (2010). Belanja iklan capai Rp62 triliun. www.waspada.co.id. Diunduh 2
Agustus 2011
261
KELUARAN DALAM TIM LINTAS FUNGSI TERHADAP
MUTU PELAYANAN TERPADU
Studi pada Jasa Pelayanan Kesehatan
V.Rachmadi Parmono
Indira Sari Astuti
Abstract
In health service company, the existence of cross functiona team is common. This study is
intended to examine the influence of cross functional team to total quality service. Path
analysis is used toinvestigate the influence between the dimensions of cross functional team
on total quality service. The dimension of cross functional team are: organizational context,
interna process and outcome. The findings of this study revealed that only outcome is
significantly influence the total quality service. The implication will be discussed.
Keywords: cross functional team, total quality service, path analyses
I. PENDAHULUAN
A. Latar Belakang Masalah
Studi mengenai manajemen pelayanan terpadu dalam industri kesehatan
adalah studi yang berkembang pesat. Studi-studi yang dilakukan oleh Kyun Kiam et
al (2008), Chahal (2008), Moxham dan Wiseman (2009), Lonial et al (2010),
Sureshchandar et al (2002) dan Camgoz-Akdog dan Zineldin (2010) menunjukkan arti
penting mutu pelayanan terpadu memiliki makna signifikan dalam industri pelayanan
kesehatan.
Total Quality Service (TQS) adalah sebuah sistem manajemen mutu pelayanan
strategik, yaitu sebuah pendekatan sistem untuk merumuskan strategi mutu pelayanan
sebuah organisasi. Tjiptono (2002) mendefinisikan TQS sebagai sistem manajemen
strategik dan integratif yang melibatkan semua manajer dan karyawan, menggunakan
262
metoda kualitatif dan kuantitatif secara berkesinambungan, agar dapat memenuhi
kebutuhan, keinginan dan harapan pelanggan. Dalam TQS, diperlukan keterlibatan
seluruh anggota organisasi dalam menunjang pelaksanaan strategi. Oleh karena itu
dibutuhkan alat (tools) atau kendaraan untuk implementasi dan operasionalisasi
strategi perusahaan.
Organisasi Lintas Fungsi (OLF) adalah
organisasi yang
memberdayakan dan memanfaatkan keterlibatan dari seluruh anggota organisasi
sehingga dengan kombinasi sistem manajemen strategi TQS dan Organisasi Lintas
Fungsi, maka organisasi dapat memiliki strategi yang baik dan mampu pula
mengimplementasikan dan mengoperasionalisasikan dengan baik (Mulyadi, 2007).
Prinsip-prinsip organisasi lintas fungsi ini sesungguhnya memiliki kesamaan
dengan prinsip-prinsip manajemen mutu terpadu. Prinsip manajemen mutu terpadu
menyatakan bahwa manajemen mutu berorientasi pada pewujudan kebutuhan
konsumen yang dilakukan oleh seluruh komponen dalam organisasi dan dilakukan
dalam bentuk perbaikan terus menerus.
Berdasar latar belakang permasalahan tersebut di atas, maka penulis
bermaksud mengkaji peran organisasi lintas fungsi terhadap manajemen mutu
pelayanan. Organisasi lintas fungsi didekati dengan proksi konteks organisasional,
proses internal dan keluaran dari kelompok lintas fungsional (Denison et al, 1996).
Mutu pelayanan terpadu didekati dengan proksi persepsi mutu pelayanan terpadu oleh
seluruh anggota organisasi (Sureshchandar et al, 2002).
Pertanyaan penelitian yang diajukan dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai
berikut:
1.
Apakah konteks organisasional dalam kelompok lintas fungsi mempengaruhi
mutu pelayanan ?
2.
Apakah proses internal kelompok lintas fungsi mempengaruhi mutu pelayanan ?
263
3.
Apakah keluaran dalam kelompok lintas fungsi mempengaruhi mutu pelayanan?
II. TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
A. Manajemen Mutu Pelayanan Terpadu (Total Quality Service)
Berbagai studi yang menyatakan bahwa terdapat keterkaitan antara
manajemen mutu terhadap kinerja perusahaan menunjukkan bahwa manajemen mutu
menjadi sebuah tool atau resep tanpa memberikan penjelasan yang memadai tentang
bagaimana manajemen mutu perlu dilakukan dalam wadah organisasi (Sureshchandar
et al, 2002). Selanjutnya Sureshchandar et al (2002) menawarkan model sistem
struktural dari manajemen mutu yang memandang pentingnya aspek konteks mutu,
manajemen mutu aktual, manajemen mutu ideal dan kinerja mutu. Berkaitan dengan
hal tersebut, Powell (1995) dalam Sureshchandar et al (2002), menemukan bahwa isuisu lunak (soft issues) dari manajemen mutu memiliki peran signifikan dibandingkan
dengan isu-isu tradisional yang selama ini dikenal seperti pelatihan karyawan,
benchmarking dan seterusnya. Dalam studinya, Powell (1995) justru menemukan
bahwa komitmen pimpinan, pemberdayaan, keterbukaan, kolaborasi antar unit justru
sangat vital bagi peningkatan mutu organisasi.
Terdapat perbedaan cara memandang kinerja mutu organisasi manufaktur dan
organisasi yang berbasis pelayanan. Sejalan dengan paradigma service dominant logic
(Vargo dan Lusch, 2008), maka industri pelayanan sesungguhnya merupakan suatu
“game of person”, maka pokok perhatian pada industri ini harus dipusatkan pada
keberadaan para pribadi yang terlibat dalam proses bisnis, yaitu para penyedia jasa
dan konsumen. Dalam konteks ini, definisi produk yang baik adalah produk yang
mampu memenuhi keinginan dari konsumen (Sureshchandar et al, 2002). Kepuasan
konsumen merupakan ukuran utama dari kinerja usaha. Keberhasilan usaha pada
264
dasarnya dipengaruhi oleh persepsi konsumen terhadap mutu pelayanan yang
diberikan oleh organisasi bisnis (Parasuraman et al, 1994).
Jika dalam organisasi manufaktur dikenal adanya perangkat manajemen mutu
terpadu (TQM) maka dalam organisasi berbasis pelayanan dikenal perangkat
manajemen pelayanan terpadu (TQS). Riset utama mengenai manajemen pelayanan
terpadu dilakukan oleh Waldman dan Gopalakhrisnam (1996) dalam Sureshchandar et
al (2002). Mereka menemukan bahwa dimensi operasional, organisasional dan
manajemen sumber daya manusia dari manajemen pelayanan terpadu memiliki
hubungan signifikan dengan persepsi konsumen mutu pelayanan suatu organisasi.
Sureshchandar et al (2002) menunjukkan bahwa terdapat tiga dimensi kritikal yang
mempengaruhi manajemen pelayanan terpadu. Ketiga dimensi tersebut adalah:
pertama, dimensi yang bersifat kritikal baik bagi organisasi manufaktur maupun
pelayanan. Kedua, dimensi yang semakin dipertimbangkan konsumen dan ketiga,
dimensi yang bersifat unik bagi organisasi berbasis pelayanan.
Dimensi mutu yang bersifat khas dan unik bagi organisasi yang berbasis
pelayanan adalah budaya pelayanan dan lingkungan fisik yang ramah terhadap
pelanggan maupun karyawan. Di sisi lain, Gronroos (2000) menyederhanakan
dimensi manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu menjadi dua yaitu dimensi teknikal dan
dimensi fungsional. Dimensi teknikal berkaitan dengan segala sesuatu yang apa yang
dibeli dan kesesuaiannya dengan acuan pelayanan yang dijanjikan. Sedangkan
dimensi fungsional adalah karakteristik pelayanan yang dilakukan oleh organisasi
terhadap konsumen. Dimensi fungsional juga meliputi hubungan antara konsumen
dengan organisasi penyedia pelayanan yang bersangkutan.
B. Tim Lintas Fungsi dalam Manajemen Mutu Pelayanan Terpadu
265
EFQMs (European Foundation for Quality Management) dalam Oakland dan
Oakland
(1998)
menyebutkan
bahwa
untuk
mewujudkan
organisasi
yang
berkomitmen terhadap mutu pelayanan maka dibutuhkan upaya dan strategi yang jelas
untuk memampukan seluruh personal dalam organisasi untuk mengeluarkan segenap
potensinya. Upaya tersebut dapat dilakukan dengan cara membangun komunikasi,
komitmen dan partisipasi, teamwork, pemberdayaan dan pengembangan. Upayaupaya tersebut mengimplikasikan bahwa persoalan mutu bukan hanya persoalan
pimpinan, persoalan salah satu departemen, persoalan seseorang semata, namun
menjadi persoalan seluruh komponen dalam organisasi. Salah satu cara untuk
meningkatkan koordinasi dan integrasi seluruh komponen dalam organisasi adalah
terwujudnya suatu tim lintas fungsi (Denison et al, 1996). Tim lintas fungsi
mengandaikan organisasi berbentuk seperti kelompok kerja dan menghubungkan
berbagai departemen dalam organisasi. Organisasi lintas fungsi ini dibangun sebagai
jawaban atas semakin meningkatnya tantangan yang dihadapi oleh organisasi.
Tim lintas fungsi telah banyak berhasil diterapkan dalam industri kesehatan di
Amerika Serikat (Alexander et al, 2005). Tim lintas fungsi dalam industri kesehatan
terbukti mampu memberikan wadah terjadinya sintesis pengetahuan dari berbagai
disiplin ilmu untuk menyelesaikan berbagai permasalahan yang kompleks. Denison et
al (1996) menandai ciri tim lintas fungsi antara lain: pertama, bahwa setiap anggota
tim sesungguhnya merupakan perwakilan dari setiap unit yang ada dalam organisasi.
Setiap anggota tim memiliki tanggung jawab dan identitas sosial terhadap unit asal
tersebut, kedua,tekanan pekerjaan dalam tim sangat besar sehingga titik kritis
pembentukan tim berada dalam masa awal pembentukan tim lintas fungsi, ketiga
harapan terhadap kinerja tim lintas fungsi lebih besar dibandingkan terhadap
kelompok konvesional. Kinerja tim akan diukur dalam bentuk kemampuannya
266
mempersingkat waktu siklus kerja, membangkitkan dan berbagi pengetahuan baru
serta penyebaran pembelajaran organisasi (Nonaka, 1991).
Ciri tim lintas fungsi ini kemudian diadaptasi dalam tingkat organisasi menjadi
ciri yang harus dimiliki apabila organisasi hendak menjadi organisasi lintas fungsi
(Mulyadi, 2007). Menurut Mulyadi (2007), organisasi lintas fungsi dicirikan sebagai
organisasi yang memiliki sifat sebagai berikut: komunikasi yang lancar antar unit,
aksesibilitas data, keterlibatan semua fungsi dalam organisasi, fleksibilitas,
akuntabilitas, lingkungan yang kondusif terhadap pembelajaran organisasional
(learning environment), berorientasi pada pelanggan, perbaikan terus menerus,
penghargaan pada nilai-nilai pribadi (personal value), pembentukan tata berpikir yang
berorientasi pada sistem (system thinking) dan pemanfaatan teknologi informasi.
Koura (1991) menunjukkan bahwa tim lintas fungsi sudah menjadi bagian yang
integral dalam pengembangan manajemen mutu pelayanan di Jepang. Meningkatnya
kebutuhan akan mutu dan efisiensi tidak lagi mampu diantisipasi melalui koordinasi
yang bersifat horizontal. Keterbatasan koordinasi horizontal ini diperbaiki melalui
mekanisme koordinasi yang bersifat lintas fungsi. Sehingga pembentukan tim lintas
fungsi menjadi bagian yang diperlukan dalam pewujudan manajemen mutu.
Studi tentang organisasi lintas fungsi didasarkan atas studi tentang tim lintas
fungsi. Terdapat dua aliran besar penelitian tentang tim lintas fungsi (Denison et al,
1996).
Aliran
pertama
adalah
aliran
studi
mengenai
tim
dan
konteks
organisasionalnya. Aliran kedua mempelajari tim lintas fungsi dalam kontek proses
internal dan keluaran yang dihasilkannya. Proses internal adalah proses yang terjadi
dalam tim dalam menggunakan berbagai sumber keahlian untuk menghasilkan
keluaran tertentu.
267
III. METODE PENELITIAN
A. Strategi Penelitian
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian yang bersifat eksplanatori. Penelitian
eksplanatori adalah penelitian yang menjelaskan pengaruh suatu variabel independen
(eksogen) terhadap variabel dependen (endogen).
B. Model Penelitian
Model penelitian yang diajukan akan dirumuskan dalam bentuk persamaan
matematika sebagai berikut :
y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + e
Variabel penelitian yang digunakan adalah sebagai berikut :
1. Variabel dependen (y)
Variabel dependen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah manajemen
mutu pelayanan terpadu. Manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu diukur dengan
mengadaptasi pada kuesioner yang dibangun oleh Sureshchandar et al (2002).
2. Variabel independen yang terlibat dalam model ini adalah sebagai berikut :
a. Variabel konteks organisasional (x1)
Kuesioner diadaptasi dari kuesioner Denison et al (1996).
b. Variabel Proses Internal (x2)
c. Variabel Keluaran (x3)
C. Definisi Variabel
268
1. Konteks organisasional adalah segala sesuatu yang berada dan melingkupi
keberadaan tim. Konteks bisa berupa peristiwa, pernyataan dan fakta yang
menjadi latar belakang keberadaan tim (Denison et al, 1996).
2. Proses internal adalah proses manajemen yang terjadi di dalam tim (Denison et
al, 1996)
3. Keluaran adalah hasil yang didapatkan oleh tim sebagai implikasi dan
keberadaan tim lintas fungsi (Denison et al, 1996).
D. Populasi dan Sampel
Populasi dari penelitian ini berjumlah 44 orang. Populasi tersebut terdiri dari level
direksi, manager, kepala unit dan staf. Pengukuran akan dilakukan secara sensus,
yaitu melakukan pengukuran terhadap seluruh anggota populasi.
IV. TEMUAN DAN ANALISIS DATA
A. Profil Responden
Penelitian dimaksudkan untuk mendapatkan respon dari seluruh responden..
Sehingga penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan sensus dan bukan sampling. Dari
sejumlah 44 orang karyawan tersebut, hanya 32 orang (72,7%) yang bersedia mengisi
kuesioner penelitian.
Responden terdiri atas 12 orang laki-laki (37,5%), dan 20 orang perempuan
(62,5%). Jenjang pendidikan responden tersebar sebagai sebagai berikut: 2 orang
berpendidikan SMU (6,25%), 10 orang berpendidikan D3 (31,25%), 17 orang
berpendidikan S1 (53,12%) dan 3 orang berpendidikan S2 (9,37%). Sebaran posisi
manajerial terdiri atas 2 orang manajemen puncak (6,25%), 8 orang manajemen
269
menengah (25%) dan 22 orang pelaksana (68,75%). Jumlah tenaga medik berjumlah
16 orang (50%), seimbang dengan jumlah tenaga nonmedik, yaitu 16 orang (50%).
B. Temuan dan Analisis Data
Tujuan dari penelitian ini untuk mengetahui relasi antara variabel konteks
organisasional, proses internal, dan keluaran terhadap manajemen mutu pelayanan
terpadu. Variabel konteks organisasional , proses internal dan keluaran merupakan
indikator dari tim lintas fungsi.
Analisis data yang dilakukan dengan menggunakan bantuan SPSS 15
menghasilkan temuan penting yang disajikan dalam Tabel 1 sebagai berikut :
Tabel 1
Ringkasan Hasil Penelitian
Informasi
Nilai
Arti
Koefisien
determinasi (R2)
47,5%
Secara bersama,variabel-variabel
independen memiliki pengaruh
sebesar 47,5% terhadap variabel
dependen
ANOVA
8,43 (sig =0,00)
Secara bersama,variabel-variabel
independen fit mempengaruhi
variabel dependen.
Uji F
(df=3,α=5%)
Uji t

(Uji pengaruh
variabel
independen
secara parsial
terhadap variabel
dependen)

t=1,45;
sig=0,157
b1 = 0,257

konteks
organisasional→manajemen
mutu pelayanan terpadu tidak
signifikan

proses internal→manajemen
mutu pelayanan terpadu tidak
signifikan
270



Analisis korelasi


t= 0,60;
sig=0,553
b2 = 0,106
t= 2,91;
sig=0,007
b3 = 0,462
rx1x2=0,60 ;
sig = 0,00

rx1x3= 0,45;
sig = 0,00

rx1y= 0,53;
sig = 0,00

keluaran→manajemen mutu
pelayanan terpadu signifikan.

korelasi antara variabel
konteks organisasional
dengan:
o variabel proses
internal bersifat kuat
dan positif
o variabel keluaran
bersifat lemah dan
positif
o variabel manajemen
mutu pelayanan
terpadu bersifat kuat
dan positif
proses internal dengan:
o variabel keluaran
bersifat lemah dan
positif
mutu terpadu bersifat
lemah dan positif
keluaran dengan:
mutu terpadu bersifat
kuat dan positif



rx2x3 =
0,45;
sig = 0,01

rx2y= 0,47;
sig = 0,01
271


rx3y= 0,63
sig = 0,00
Analisis jalur yang dilakukan adalah sebagai berikut:
e
Konteks organisasional
(x1)
d
a
b
Manajemen mutu
pelayanan terpadu (Y)
Proses internal (X2)
f
c
Keluaran (X3)
Dari analisis jalur dapat diringkas sebagai berikut:

Kuat hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional dengan variabel
manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu (a) = 0,39

Kuat hubungan langsung variabel proses internal dengan variabel manajemen
mutu pelayanan terpadu(b) = 0,24

Kuat hubungan langsung variabel keluaran dengan variabel manajemen mutu
terpadu (c)= 0,31

Kuat hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional dengan variabel
proses internal (d) = 0,6
272

Kuat hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional denganvariabel
keluaran (e) = 0,45

Kuat hubungan langsung variabel proses internal dengan variabel keluaran (f)
= 0,45

Kuat hubungan langsung :

Kuat hubungan tak langsung: bf + ae = 0,24 x 0,45 + 0,39 x 0,45 =0,29

Kuat hubungan total = kuat hubungan langsung + kuat hubungan tak langsung
= 0,6.
c = 0,31
.
C. Kesimpulan
Dari hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa variabel keluaran memiliki peran yang
paling penting dalam mempengaruhi manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu. Variabel
konteks organisasional memiliki hubungan yang kuat dan positif mengindikasikan
adanya pola pergerakan yang sama dan searah diantara variabel konteks
organisasional dan variabel manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu. Bahkan kuat
hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional terhadap variabel manajemen
mutu pelayanan terpadu merupakan hubungan yang terkuat dibandingkan kuat
hubungan variabel independen lainnya.
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276
BRANDERPRENEURSHIP:
BRAND DEVELOPMENT-BASED ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Bambang Sukma Wijaya
Department of Communication Studies, Bakrie University
ABSTRACT
In this era of tight competition nowadays as well as greater consumer power, developing a
business can not solely rely upon the strength of funds and human resources, but should also
be built synergistically with brand communications. Most entrepreneurs regard branding
activity merely as a cost, not as an investment. Hence, branding activity has always been on
bottom priority despite the fact that strong brands will provide added value to a business,
increase competitive advantage and potentially mobilize market faster. This paper describes
how entrepreneurial spirit can be grown in synergy with the mindset of branding in
developing a business. We propose some steps that need to be pursued in developing the
brand in order to synergize with business development, e.g. identify, create, deliver,
communicate, evaluate and upgrade values.
Keywords:
branderpreneurship,
wirausahawan
pengembangan
merek,
merek,
kewirausahaan,
.
PENDAHULUAN
Kapferer (2008: 51) mengajukan ungkapan retoris dalam bukunya The New Strategic
Brand Management:
“Does branding affect all companies? Yes. Are all companies aware of this? No. For
many industrial companies or commodity sellers, the concept of the brand applies
only to mass markets, high-consumption products and the fast-moving consumer
goods (FMCG) sector. This is a misconception. A brand is a name that influences
buyers and prescribers alike.”
Hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa seringkali seorang wirausahawan atau sebuah
perusahaan terjebak dalam dilema antara memprioritaskan pengembangan usaha atau
pengembangan merek. Banyak pengusaha, terutama pengusaha yang bisnisnya tidak
menyasar mass markets atau lebih cenderung bersifat business-to-business company,
akhirnya memilih yang pertama, yakni fokus pada pengembangan bisnis dan mengabaikan
strategi maupun aktivitas pengembangan merek. Tentu saja pilihan tersebut sangat mudah
277
dipahami, sebab pengusaha harus memikirkan Break Event Point (BEP) dari usahanya. Lebih
cepat BEP kembali adalah lebih baik. Padahal, pengembangan bisnis dan merek dapat
disinergikan, apapun jenis bisnisnya, karena keduanya dapat saling menunjang. Bisnis
berkembang baik karena performa merek yang dimiliki oleh perusahaan berkembang baik,
begitu pula sebaliknya. Merek dapat berperforma baik karena didukung oleh sumber daya
perusahaan yang baik.
Doyle (2008: 227) memberikan ilustrasi bagaimana pentingnya sebuah merek bagi
perusahaan:
In today’s information-based economy, intangible assets are usually much more
important than the tangible assets that appear on corporate balance sheets.
Intangible assets are of various forms, but in many industries, the equity in the
company’s brand is the most important. The value arises from the trust that customers
place in the company’s brand. This trust creates a relationship between the brand and
the customer that encourages preference, brand loyalty and a willingness to consider
the new products and services that the company may offer in the future under its
brand name.
Paper ini bertujuan memaparkan bagaimana seorang wirausahawan atau sebuah
perusahaan berpeluang untuk dapat mengembangkan bisnis dan merek secara sinergis,
melihat keuntungan yang muncul dari pengembangan usaha berbasis pengembangan merek,
dan langkah-langkah penting apa yang dibutuhkan dalam mengembangkan nilai merek
sehingga memberi dampak baik terhadap perkembangan usaha.
PEMBAHASAN
Kewirausahaan (Enterpreneurship)
Kewirausahaan merupakan penerapan kreativitas dan inovasi untuk memecahkan
masalah serta upaya memanfaatkan peluang-peluang yang dihadapi orang setiap hari
(Zimmerer, 2008: 43). Dari definisi ini dapat dikatakan bahwa hal paling utama dalam
kewirausahaan adalah (1) kreativitas dan inovasi untuk memecahkan masalah, dan (2) upaya
memanfaatkan peluang-peluang yang ada.
Kreativitas
dalam
perspektif
kewirausahaan
merupakan
kemampuan
untuk
mengembangkan ide-ide baru dan menemukan cara-cara baru dalam melihat persoalan dan
peluang-peluang. Ketika kaum urban terlalu disibukkan oleh pekerjaan dan kegiatan rutin
278
sehingga menipiskan kesempatan bersosialisasi, maka timbul ide bagaimana membuat
jaringan sosial tanpa harus meninggalkan tempat kerja. Ketika banyak pria bertanya-tanya
tentang status dan berbagai hal berkaitan dengan wanita yang ditaksirnya namun hambatan
psikologis dan sosial menjadi kendala, maka diperlukan sebuah media yang dapat mengakses
berbagai informasi penting mengenai status dan kegiatan terkini seseorang.
Sedangkan
inovasi adalah kemampuan untuk mengaplikasikan atau mewujudkan
solusi kreatif terhadap persoalan dan peluang-peluang untuk meningkatkan atau memperkaya
kehidupan masyarakat. Dari ide-ide yang muncul oleh problem dan kebutuhan sosialisasi
tanpa meninggalkan tempat serta kebutuhan untuk mengetahui status dan kegiatan seseorang
yang ditaksir tanpa perlu repot memanfaatkan jasa mak comblang, maka lahirlah Facebook
sebagai solusi kreatif yang membantu banyak orang dalam memecahkan persoalan dan
membuat hidup mereka lebih nyaman. Facebook adalah inovasi.
Setidaknya ada tiga ungkapan kunci dalam kewirausahaan (Tranggono, 2011: 7),
yaitu: pertama, mengejar kecenderungan dan perubahan lingkungan yang tak dilihat serta
diperhatikan orang lain. Kedua, inovasi perubahan, perombakan, pergantian bentuk dan
memperkenalkan pendekatan-pendekatan baru, produk baru, serta cara baru dalam
melakukan bisnis. Ketiga, mengejar pertumbuhan melalui kerja keras sambil terus mencari
berbagai kecenderungan, inovasi, dan pendekatan baru. Pendek kata, tiga hal utama yang
mendorong pertumbuhan kewirausahaan adalah ide, sumber daya manusia dan uang (Lodish,
et al., 2001: 203).
Sementara itu, wirausahawan, menurut Zimmerer (2008: 5) adalah orang yang
menciptakan bisnis baru, siap menghadapi risiko dan ketidakpastian untuk tujuan mencapai
keuntungan dan pertumbuhan dengan mengidentifikasi peluang-peluang yang signifikan serta
mengumpulkan sumber daya yang diperlukan untuk dikembangkan semaksimal mungkin
sehingga menghasilkan keuntungan yang lebih besar.
Dengan demikian, seorang
279
wirausahawan adalah seseorang yang memiliki mental kuat dalam menghadapi tantangantantangan berupa risiko dan ketidakpastian, tapi juga sekaligus memiliki intuisi dan visi
dalam melihat peluang-peluang yang dapat dimanfaatkan untuk mencapai keuntungan dan
perkembangan usaha yang digelutinya. Pengusaha memiliki keyakinan yang kuat tentang
peluang bisnis dan mengatur sumber daya mereka secara efektif untuk mencapai hasil yang
mengubah interaksi yang ada (Sharma, et al., 2010).
Salah satu peluang yang dapat dimanfaatkan oleh seorang wirausahawan dalam
mengembangkan usahanya adalah peluang menciptakan nilai lebih melalui pengembangan
merek usaha (corporate/ business brand) atau produk (product brand), bahkan dirinya sendiri
(personal brand). Pengembangan merek dengan strategi komunikasi yang terarah, cerdas dan
terpadu akan memberikan keuntungan yang lebih bertahan lama, karena merek yang kuat
berpotensi menciptakan ekuitas merek (brand equity) yang pada akhirnya memberi nilai
merek (brand value) yang menguntungkan perusahaan maupun konsumen secara terusmenerus.
Pengembangan Merek (Brand Development)
Merek (brand) adalah tanda jejak yang tertinggal pada pikiran dan hati konsumen,
yang menciptakan makna dan perasaan tertentu (brand is a mark on people’s mind and heart
that creates certain meanings and feelings). Dengan demikian, maka merek lebih dari
sekadar logo, nama, simbol, merek dagang, atau sebutan yang melekat pada sebuah produk.
Merek adalah sebuah janji (Morel, 2003). Merek merupakan sebuah hubungan (McNally et
al., 2004) –yakni hubungan yang melibatkan sejenis kepercayaan. Sebuah merek adalah
jumlah dari suatu entitas, sebuah koneksi psikis yang menciptakan sebuah ikatan kesetiaan
dengan seorang pembeli/ calon pembeli serta penawaran, dan hal tersebut seringkali
mencakup lapisan nilai tambah yang dipersepsikan (Post, 2005: 10).
280
Sedangkan pemerekan (branding) adalah proses penciptaan atau peninggalan tanda
jejak tertentu di benak dan hati konsumen melalui berbagai macam cara dan strategi
komunikasi sehingga tercipta makna dan perasaan khusus yang memberikan dampak bagi
kehidupan konsumen (branding is a process of placing a mark on people’s mind and heart
through communications hence creating meanings and feelings that impacts on their lives).
Aktivitas branding merupakan implementasi dari strategi pengembangan merek (brand
development).
Butuh waktu tidak sedikit untuk membangun sebuah merek agar benar-benar kuat.
Kapferer (2008, 55-56) menyebutkan dua rute atau dua model dalam melakukan
pengembangan merek (yang dalam perspektif brand management disebutkan bahwa merek
memiliki dua kaki), yakni: merek berkembang dari pengembangan produk, komunikasi fokus
pada kelebihan fungsional (functional benefit) produk, lalu bergerak menuju kelebihan
emosional (emotional benefit) yang merupakan nilai-nilai yang tak nyata (intangible values),
atau sebaliknya, dari nilai-nilai dan misi produk yang biasanya tak nyata menuju
pengembangan (fitur-fitur/ atribut) produk (dari intangible values ke tangible values) seperti
tergambarkan dalam diagram berikut.
Intangible added values
Values, mission
Personality
Benefits
Attributes
Ingredients
Tangible added values
Time
Gambar 1. Dua model pengembangan merek sepanjang waktu
Sumber: Kapferer, 2008
Model pertama, pengembangan merek dimulai dari produk dengan mengembangkan
ingredients-nya, atribut dan fitur-fitur produk, keuntungan-keuntungan atau benefit produk,
lalu membentuk kepribadian produk/ merek, disempurnakan dengan nilai-nilai dan misi
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merek sehingga produk memiliki nilai lebih yang tak nyata (intangible added values) bagi
konsumen. Contoh untuk model pertama adalah produk-produk komoditas yang kemudian
dikemas dengan sebuah merek tertentu dan terkomunikasikan secara alami yang dengan
berjalannya waktu kemudian menjadi terkenal, hingga akhirnya mereknya dikelola secara
profesional (misalnya: Teh Botol Sosro, dan lain-lain). Model kedua dimulai dari konsep atau
ide.
Contoh untuk ini adalah merek-merek yang sejak awal menjual gaya hidup (parfum,
branded fashion, rokok, dan lain-lain) ketenaran sebuah nama (Harry Potter, Disney, dan
lain-lain) atau merek-merek yang lahir dari pemahaman mendalam terutama sisi psikologis
konsumen melalui consumer insights sehingga cenderung menawarkan emotional benefits.
Seiring berjalannya waktu, merek-merek ini kemudian mengembangkan fitur-fitur dan
kelebihan fungsionalnya sehingga memberikan nilai tambah nyata (tangible added values)
bagi konsumen.
Sementara itu, dalam perspektif komunikasi merek, proses branding memiliki
tingkatan-tingkatan tertentu yang sekaligus mengindikasikan sejauh mana perkembangan
merek dalam hubungannya dengan kedekatan terhadap konsumen. Tingkatan ini disebut
hierarchy of branding.
Mind share
Market share
Gambar 2. Hierarchy of Branding
Heart share
Ketika merek pertama kali diluncurkan, merek masih dalam tahap mengetuk
kesadaran konsumen, sehingga kemungkinan konsumen hanya sebatas mengenal atau
mengetahui sedikit mengenai merek tersebut. Tahap ini disebut brand awareness. Semakin
dikenal, semakin banyak pula atribut maupun benefit-benefit merek yang diketahui oleh
konsumen, sehingga konsumen tidak lagi sekadar mengenal, tetapi juga mengetahui lebih
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banyak tentang merek atau produk tersebut. Tahap ini disebut brand knowledge. Seiring
berjalannya waktu dan intensifnya komunikasi, konsumen kemudian memiliki persepsi
tertentu atau mengasosiasikan sesuatu terhadap merek tersebut sehingga membentuk citra di
benak konsumen (brand image). Seiring berjalannya waktu dan gencarnya komunikasi pula,
konsumen tentunya telah mencoba produknya atau bersentuhan langsung dengan merek,
sehingga konsumen memiliki pengalaman khusus berkaitan dengan merek tersebut yang
membentuk makna-makna dan perasaan baru berkaitan dengan merek tersebut. Tahap ini
disebut brand experience. Kombinasi antara citra positif dan pengalaman menarik yang
memberi makna dan perasaan khusus akhirnya menguatkan posisi merek di benak dan hati
konsumen, sehingga merek memiliki ekuitas yang baik (brand equity). Merek yang memiliki
ekuitas yang bagus cenderung mengikat loyalitas konsumen sehingga konsumen tidak mudah
untuk pindah ke lain merek. Tahap ini disebut brand loyalty. Pada akhirnya, konsumen tidak
hanya menyetiai sebuah merek, tapi juga memiliki sense of belonging yang kuat terhadap
merek, merasuk menjadi bagian dari nilai-nilai hidup yang dianutinya dan mempengaruhi
cara pandangnya terhadap kehidupan. Pada tahap ini, kebahagiaan rohani dan nilai-nilai
hidup yang diperolehnya berkaitan dengan merek yang dicintainya tersebut kemudian
berusaha dibagi dan disebarkan kepada konsumen lain, agar konsumen ikut merasakan dan
mengalami seperti yang dialaminya, menjadi bagian dari lingkungan kehidupannya dan
bersama-sama mencapai kebahagiaan bersama dalam komunitas yang kuat. Inilah puncak
pencapaian sebuah merek di hati konsumen ketika sebuah merek menjadi jawaban atas
kebutuhan rohani atau menjadi bagian dari nilai-nilai hidup konsumen, yakni brand
spirituality.
Sepanjang perjalanan merek dari tahap brand equity hingga brand spirituality
merupakan ultimate journey bagi pemilik merek atau share holders, karena pada tahap
tersebut merek telah memiliki nilai (brand value) yang tinggi. Brand value mewakili apa
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yang merek (brand) berikan atau berkontribusi bagi pencapaian tujuan perusahaan (Srivasta,
et al. dalam Raggio, et al., 2007), dan itu tergantung pada kemampuan pemilik merek (brand
owner) untuk meningkatkan ekuitas merek (brand equity), sementara nilai merek tentu saja
mempengaruhi nilai bagi pemegang saham (shareholder value) (Raggio, et al., 2007).
Dengan demikian, maka dapat dikatakan bahwa pengembangan merek memberi keuntungan
yang signifikan bagi pemilik merek atau pengusaha, karena merek yang memiliki nilai tinggi
berkontribusi sangat besar bagi kemajuan usaha.
Branderpreneurship dan Pengembangan Nilai (Value Development)
Sharma, et al. mengatakan bahwa seorang wirausahawan memiliki kesempatan untuk
membangun bisnisnya berdasarkan janji merek yang kuat melalui entrepreneurial branding.
Enterpreneurial branding adalah suatu hal yang berkaitan dengan kesinambungan,
keseluruhan (melihat dan mencoba berbagai teknik branding, bukan hanya satu), bertanggung
jawab terhadap banyak hal, berpikiran terbuka, memahami bisnis secara keseluruhan baik
dalam lingkungan kerja sendiri maupun dalam lingkungan bisnis afiliasi, dan sebagainya
(Sharma, et al., 2010).
Di sini Sharma mencoba menggabungkan antara praktik branding dan sikap maupun
perilaku kewirausahaan, namun belum memaparkan secara rinci langkah-langkah atau
strategi apa yang harus dilakukan untuk memadukan keduanya dalam suatu sinergi
pengembangan usaha berbasis pengembangan merek atau branding.
Sebagaimana disampaikan sebelumnya, bahwa Zimmerer, et al. mendefinisikan
kewirausahaan sebagai penerapan kreativitas dan inovasi untuk memecahkan persoalan dan
memanfaatkan peluang-peluang. Hal tersebut melibatkan strategi yang fokus pada ide-ide dan
insights baru untuk menciptakan produk atau servis yang memuaskan kebutuhan konsumen
atau memecahkan masalah mereka (Zimmerer, et al., 2008: 44). Namun demikian, memiliki
sebuah produk yang hebat (berkualitas tinggi) tidak cukup dalam era kompetisi moderen
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dewasa ini (Kapferer, 2008: 57). Diperlukan pengembangan merek karena merek
menciptakan nilai bagi konsumen (consumer value) yang membantu mereka dalam proses
pemilihan suatu produk (Doyle, 2008: 231). Karena itu penerapan branderpreneurship
merupakan hal yang patut dipertimbangkan oleh para wirausahawan.
Branderpreneurship adalah suatu penerapan strategi pengembangan merek yang
terarah dan terpadu dengan memaksimalkan sumber-sumber daya yang ada dalam menunjang
pengembangan usaha sehingga memberikan nilai tambah bagi kewirausahaan.
Berikut ini adalah langkah-langkah strategis dalam pengembangan dan pengelolaan
nilai (value development) yang merupakan inti branderpreneurship, sehingga merek yang
dikelola dapat menunjang pengembangan suatu usaha. Proses ini disebut the circle of value
development.
Gambar 3. The circle of value development
Identifying Values
Sebelum memulai usaha atau menelurkan sebuah produk/ servis, seorang
wirausahawan sebaiknya menggali informasi dari konsumen atau pasar mengenai apa yang
sesungguhnya diinginkan, dibutuhkan, didambakan, diobsesikan, baik secara sadar maupun
tanpa sadar oleh konsumen berkaitan dengan ide usaha/ produk/ servis yang akan
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diluncurkan. Proses ini disebut consumer insights. Pemahaman yang baik dan mendalam
terhadap konsumen akan meminimalisir the failure of product launching, sekaligus
berpotensi menimbulkan emotional bond secara efektif, karena konsumen merasakan apa
yang ditawarkan seolah mengerti dirinya yang sesungguhnya.
Creating Values
Berdasarkan consumer insights yang baik, seorang wirausahawan kemudian mulai
mengembangkan bisnis/ produk/ servisnya dengan melakukan modifikasi dari ide awal. Hal
ini dapat berupa penambahan atau penggantian fitur dan atribut produk, modifikasi lokasi,
waktu, kemasan atau the way of consume maupun the way of involve. Pendek kata, value
yang diciptakan berdasarkan consumer insights dapat berkaitan dengan konten maupun
konteks produk. Dalam tahap ini juga seorang wirausahawan mendialogkan hasil temuan
dengan situasi kompetisi, sehingga apa yang diputuskan untuk ditawarkan kepada konsumen
tidak hanya sesuai dengan insights konsumen, tetapi juga memiliki diferensiasi yang tajam
serta keunggulan yang kompetitif (competitive advantage).
Delivering Values
Setelah modifikasi ide dan kreasi penawaran dari usaha/ produk/ servis telah final,
maka seorang wirausahawan kemudian mengemas dan menyampaikannya kepada konsumen
melalui berbagai saluran yang sesuai dengan insights konsumen. Di sini fungsi distribusi dan
saluran penjualan/ pengantaran nilai merek memegang peran utama. Dengan memahami
kebiasaan konsumen dan tempat-tempat maupun cara penyampaian yang membuat nyaman
konsumen (baik online maupun offline, tangible maupun intangible), seorang wirausahawan
dapat menjalankan bisnisnya secara lebih efisien dan efektif, karena wirausahawan tidak
perlu melakukan trial and error untuk mendapatkan dampak atau respons yang baik dari
konsumen. Sekali lagi, peran consumer insights di tahap identifying values sangat penting
dalam menunjang kesuksesan di setiap tahap pengembangan nilai.
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Communicating Values
Jika penyampaian produk/ servis telah pasti dan lancar, yang tak kalah pentingnya
adalah komunikasi. Nilai-nilai berupa penawaran dan benefit yang akan diperoleh konsumen
dikomunikasikan secara tepat dan kreatif, sehingga merek lebih cepat dikenal (brand
awareness), diketahui lebih banyak (brand knowledge), dipersepsikan bagus (brand image)
dan dirasakan/ dialami secara baik (brand experience), sehingga membuat konsumen menjadi
pelanggan yang setia (brand loyalty) dan bahkan membantu menjualkan nilai-nilai yang
dirasakannya kepada konsumen lain dan masyarakat secara luas melalui berbagai medium
(baik online berupa social media dan personal media maupun offline berupa traditional
word-of-mouth serta media-media komunikasi lainnya). Pemilihan media tentunya tak
terlepas dari consumer insights. Jika konsumen pengguna atau calon pengguna produk kita
lebih sering dan nyaman menggunakan social media, maka media tersebutlah yang sebaiknya
menjadi media utama. Jadi brand communication tidak harus menggunakan traditional mass
media seperti televisi, koran, radio dan sebagainya. Sementara itu, alat Komunikasi
pemasaran dan merek yang dapat digunakan pun tidak harus berupa iklan konvensional di
media massa yang cenderung berbiaya besar. Pemilik merek dapat menggunakan iklan-iklan
di media alternatif dan kreatif seperti iklan ambient media, online direct mail, creative
publicity, sponsorships, brand placement, guerilla advertising, dan banyak lagi. Kuncinya
adalah fokus, kreatif dan terpadu berdasarkan consumer insights yang baik.
Evaluating Values
Dalam periode tertentu, seorang wirausahawan harus melakukan evaluasi terhadap
apa yang telah dilakukannya. Apakah tawaran-tawaran yang diberikan masih relevan?
Apakah ada perkembangan baru (teknologi, bencana, dan lain-lain) yang mengubah cara
pandang konsumen dalam memaknai apa yang ditawarkan produk/ servis/ usaha? Bagaimana
dengan kompetitor? Follower? Me-too product? Bagaimana respons konsumen terhadap
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mereka? Semua memerlukan evaluasi berupa audit merek (brand audit) dan riset konsumen.
Fungsi ini dapat diintegrasikan dengan fungsi consumer insights. Tidak harus berbiaya besar.
Seorang wirausahawan dapat melakukannya sendiri atau memanfaatkan sumber daya yang
ada.
Upgrading Values
Dari hasil evaluasi tersebut kemudian dilakukan peningkatan nilai penawaran produk/
servis/ usaha sehingga konsumen senantiasa memperoleh sesuatu yang baru dan
menyenangkan. Hal-hal baru dan menyenangkan dari apa yang ditawarkan kepada mereka
pada akhirnya akan membuat hidup mereka pun lebih segar dan bernilai, sehingga
menguatkan ikatan emosional dengan merek yang mereka gunakan. Upgrading Values dapat
berupa penambahan fitur dan benefit fungsional, emosional, simbolik dan sosial, atau dapat
berupa pembaruan kemasan, lay-out ruangan, penambahan cabang, franchising, maupun cara
komunikasi baru yang lebih kreatif sehingga member nilai tambah baru (new added values)
bagi konsumen.
KESIMPULAN
Kewirausahaan dapat bernilai tambah dengan menyinergikan strategi pengembangan
usaha dan pengembangan merek atau branding. Beberapa wirausahawan melihat branding
sebagai cost, bukan investment, karena bagi mereka branding adalah berkomunikasi lewat
media-media konvensional yang berbiaya tinggi. Padahal medium komunikasi yang
digunakan tidak harus berbiaya tinggi, karena pilihan medium yang berdasarkan consumer
insights dapat lebih efektif dan efisien. Medium yang dipilih dapat benar-benar tepat dan
fokus sesuai khalayak konsumen, misalnya pemaksimalan word-of-mouth, social media,
guerilla media, creative publicity, dan banyak lagi.
Sebagian wirausahawan juga menganggap branding hanya untuk produk-produk
consumer goods atau FMCG (fast moving consumer goods), sehingga usaha yang bersifat
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business-to-business (B2B) tidak memerlukan branding. Padahal branding sebenarnya
diperlukan bagi segala macam usaha, dengan target khalayak maupun konsumen sesuai jenis
usahanya. Bagi FMCG, khalayak dan konsumennya adalah mass market, sehingga merek
yang dikembangkan kebanyakan adalah product brands, sedangkan bagi B2B, konsumennya
adalah korporat atau SME (small medium enterprise) sehingga merek yang dikembangkan
adalah corporate brand atau service brand dan personal brand pemiliknya. Apapun bentuk
mereknya, semua memerlukan strategi pengembangan merek agar dapat memberi nilai
tambah bagi usaha.
Untuk itu, langkah-langkah yang terdapat dalam the circle of value development dapat
dijadikan acuan bagi para wirausahawan dalam menyinergikan pengembangan usahanya
dengan pengembangan merek yang dimilikinya, sehingga tidak hanya membuat usahanya
lebih efisien dan efektif mencapai tujuan, tetapi juga dapat memberi keuntungan yang
sustainable melalui nilai merek (brand value) yang dimilikinya.
Konsep branderpreneurship ini sebaiknya ditindaklanjuti melalui penerapan yang
sistematis di dunia kewirausahaan, serta pengembangan konsep melalui riset-riset berikutnya
untuk menguji berbagai dimensi terkait praktik branderpreneurship pada berbagai kasuskasus nyata di lapangan. Studi kasus dalam penerapan branderpreneurship, baik yang sukses
maupun gagal akan memberikan kontribusi penting baik bagi ilmu kewirausahaan maupun
ilmu komunikasi merek atau pemasaran.
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Small Business Management. 5th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson
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APPLICATION OF CAUSE-RELATED MARKETING (CRM)
COMMUNICATIONIN CREATING BRAND LOYALTY
Tuti Widiastuti
Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi, Universitas Bakrie
Kampus Universitas Bakrie
Abstract
Corporate communication strategic is related to social responsibility concerning to
external demand on corporate influence in their society. It can be more significant when an
institution core business is in supplying public needs, for example Aqua supplies drinking
water. Application of social responsibility through Cause-Related Marketing
(CRM)communication can be created a basic to strengthen brand or product differentiation.
A case from CRM communication is program of “Aqua Satu untuk Sepuluh”. CRM
communication is a marketing program used to increase corporate performance and support a
meaningful cause in a way connecting fund rising on corporate products and services. This
article is a purpose to analyze application of CRM communication to create brand loyalty
within case study approach. Findings of this study are CRM communication program can
increase consumer’s affection and behavioral aspect toward brand loyalty. People seen CRM
communication program can be additional value that support existing brand in
society.Otherwise, duration of application this program is not indicating corporate
commitment to social responsibility.
Key words:
cause related marketing communication, brand loyalty, corporate social
responsibility
Introduction
Aqua on strategic marketing takes one literAqua equal to ten liters clean water as a
tagline. This advertisement takes setting on Nusa Tenggara Timur community that known
hard to find water sources. The popular quotation we can find from this advertisement is:
”Sekarang sumber air sudekat. Beta sonde pernah terlambat lagi. Lebih mudah bantu Mamak
ambil air untuk mandi adik. Karena mudah ambil air, katong bisa hidup sehat.”This
advertisement is evidencethat Aqua produces packaging drinking water aware about their
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corporate social responsibility within create Cause Related Marketing(CRM) program
through helping water supply.
CRM program “Satu untuk Sepuluh” invites people to buy or use Aqua product
whereas part of their profit will be donated to support society within difficulty water
resources such as Nusa Tenggara Timur. The program is very specialized, which is Aqua try
to attain a certain aim clean water supply for community of Timor Tengah Selatan, Nusa
Tenggara Timur. This CRM Program is related to image Aqua Company as a mineral water
producer.
On Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) theory, program of "Satu untuk Sepuluh",
Aqua will be categorized as a form of Cause-Related Marketing (CRM). This is caused Aqua
has moral and ethical responsibility to develop and empower Indonesia society, especially at
Nusa Tenggara Timur. The CRM program is held with invite people to buy or use Aqua
productby means to collect some donation to support their program in coping water scarce.
In the middle of drinking water business highly competitive, a company should search
strategic to differentiate their products. A strategic took by Aqua is combining social activity
in business activity as a corporate social responsibility. In global context, word of CSR
starting used since 1970s and become popular especially after book launchedCannibals with
Forks: the Triple Bottom Line in 21st Century Business, written by John Elkington (1998).
CSR is developing three important components on sustainable development, that is:
economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity. The three componentsare
presented on Brundtland Report (1987), The World Commission on Environment and
Development. According to Elkington (1998),a good company not only catches economical
advantage (profit), but also cares about environment harmony (planet) and people welfare
(people). This jargon is called 3P: profit, planet, and people.
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In the other sides, the highly competitive business and the scarcely differentiation
product, CRMprogram is one alternative that innovative and hard to be adopted by
competitor in a way to maintain good relationship with customer. Just because every
corporate has different strategy in implementing their program, like CRMprogram from Aqua
certainly will be different from other water drinking companies CRM program.
For that reason, this article want to explore whether CRM program CRMwill be
affected significantly to consumer behavior, especially impact on brand loyalty to related
product. Base on this description then research question that will be formulated in this
research is: “How is application of Cause-Related Marketing (CRM) communication in
creating brand loyalty?”
Literature Review
Cause Related Marketing (CRM) Communication
Currently, social responsibility has been implemented by corporate. This is because
external corporate demand to prove their social responsibility above impact of corporate
performance to their social environment. However, the implementing of social responsibility
basically could be choosing as one alternative to strengthen brand or product differentiations
that are produced. Porter dan Kramer (2002) support this statement with their opinion that
economical profit in business will gain through implementing social responsibility program.
Communication is a relationalprocess of creating and interpreting messages that elicit
a response. Messages could be present as a text. Text is record of a message that can
be analyzed by others; for example, books, films, DVDs, phonographs, or any transcript or
recording (Griffin, 2012: 6-7).
Generally, social responsibility is held through corporate social responsibility
activities. The extension of this activity, CSR results an embryo that is social alliance. Social
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alliance tries to increase non economical goal without sacrifice corporate economical
goal.Social alliance form that often implemented is Cause related Marketing (Smith, 1994).
Varadarajan dan Menon (1998: 60) state that CRM seen as a process formulating and
implementing corporate marketing activities that characterized with offer to give amount of
fund to a cause when customer involve in exchange transaction that can satisfy organization
and individual objectively. Such was the case;cause could be understood as social activity
that supported by corporate through fund collection activity (Mareta, 2006: 2).
Afterwards, Miller (2002) explains that in other way, Cause Reated Marketing is as an
effective tool to create image and customer loyalty to related brand with a special cause. The
comprehensive understanding about Cause Related Marketing could be started by reading
CRM definition from Varadarajan and Menon (1988: 60).They define Cause Related
Marketing as:
The proses of formulating and implementing marketing activities that are
characterized by an offer from the firm to contribute a special amount to a designated
cause when customer engage in revenue providing exchanges that satisfy
organizational and individual objectives.
Varadarajan and Menon (1988) said basically CRM is a marketing program that used to
increase corporate performance and support cause by means in a way connect fund raising on
product purchase and/or from corporate. There are two indications that motivate marketing in
CRM. First, as big part of charity contribution that is given by corporate through CRM
program is not from philanthropy activity. Second, amount of fund that is used by corporate
to promote CRM then stimulate bigger demand than maximum contribution has been
donated.
Adkins (2004: 51) quoted Business in The Community, defineCRM as: “A comercial
activity by which business and charities or good cause form a partnership with each other to
market image, product or service for mutual benefit.”With this definition, Adkins (2004)
triedstressing that are several important things in CRM,thus commercial activities,
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partnership, marketing in order to catch mutual benefit relationship. Then, Adkins (2004)
explained that to get successes so partnership in CRM should be a representative from
business values and ethics.
The elaboration was told by Adkins (2004) then could be explained by statement from
Marconi (2002). According to Marconi (2002), there is special partnership connected
between business and their stakeholders in CRM. Basically, partnership relations could be
seen on corporate action that donates some of portion from every action of customer purchase
to be given on special cause. Because of that reason, Lafferty (1999) gave perspective that
CRM comprehension in micro perspective didn’t highly different from brand alliance. But,
there still a crucial differentiation is brand alliance seen clearly on several brands or products
which are converged in a way to collect profit and a tangible program.
Marconi (2002) explained that special partnership relationship sometime showed on
corporate activities in order to create awareness and educate some of cause. Besides that,
Marconi (2002) said special relationship created by CRM could be formedonly if it is a good
corporate and has clear position.
Some benefits from this CRM have been declared by Lafferty (1999). According to
Lafferty (1999), every party involved in CRM program can find profit. Corporate can
increase their product selling; create relationship with consumer; and recovery corporate and
brand image. Besides, CRM can difference corporate from their competitor with create
emotional and spiritual band with customer.
In term of CRM, consumer not only donates their money for the cause but also take
something on corporate products and services.This is because donation activities to some
cause automatically convergent in product or brand purchases.
Cause Related Marketing (CRM) is a form of activity that has elements or stages
which is Philip Lesly (1993: 106) called as “New Question” within formula 5 W + 1 H. This
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formula content should be organized solidly start from planning a program. Those elements
are:
a. What, this element relates to form of activity, format, and impression or message that want
to performed. In this case, CRM want to be held better to have appropriate stage between
causeswith product line, product image, brand positioning, or market oriented in corporate
perspective.
b. Why, includes goal of activity implementation.
c. When, includes items that connect to frequency of CRM activity. One factor that can show
corporate commitment is intensity on implementing CRM program. The duration would
be categorized in short, middle, and long period. CRM focuses on middle to long period
have bigger potential to increase consumer perception to corporate product.
d. Where, relates to location of action implementation and support facility.
e. Who, relates to target audience, who is involved and siapa saja yang terlibat dan be took
responsibility.
f. How, relates to how the program implemented. Commonly, resources investment in CRM
program is focused on charity form of donating some portion from each consumer
purchasing to somespecial cause. But, type of resources on CRM program could be
increased with investing time or staff skill, volunteer, and other non-monetary alternatives.
Brand Loyalty
Brand loyalty takes important role especially on market condition with level of
competitive is tight. This is because exist loyal customer is needed in order to make corporate
survive. There are some definitions about brand loyalty, such as:
a. Aaker (1997:56) defines brand loyalty as a standard consumer to a brand. This standard
should give description about possibility consumer to change into other brand that is
296
offered by competitor, especially if they find the product or service different about price
or other attributes.
b. Mowen (1995:531), brand loyalty is defined as the degree to which a customer holds a
positive attitude toward a brand, has a commitment to it, and intends to continue
purchasing it in the future as such, brand loyalty is directly influenced by the customer
satisfaction dissatisfaction with the brand.
c. Schiffman, brand loyalty must be measured by attitudes toward a brand rather than by
purchase consistency.
d. Assael, brand loyalty is represent a favorable attitude toward and consistent purchase of
single brand over time.
Base on those definitions is taken understanding that brand loyalty could be seen as
tendency to make purchase consistency to the brand satisfaction. In term of brand loyalty,
there as several stages about loyalty, such as: (Aakar, 1997: 58)
a.
Switcher
Consumer on this stage of loyalty could be told as consumer on lower level. More
frequent customer to move their purchase from one brand to another brand is indicated
they are as customer without any loyalty to some brand. On this stage, they see every
brand proper to buy and the product has little impact on their purchase decision. The real
characteristic from this stage is they buy some product because of the cheap price.
b.
Habitual Buyer
Customer in this loyalty stage could be categorized as customer that satisfies with product
brand they consume or at least they don’t satisfy in consuming this product. On this stage,
there is not enough reason to create desire to buy other brand product or move to other
brand, especially if this transfer need some effort, cost, or other sacrifices. So it is
conclusion that customer buy some brand is based on their habitual.
297
c.
Satisfied Buyer
On this stage, buyer some brand come to this categorize if they consume those brands,
even though they switch their purchase to other brand with carry on some cost as a
switching cost related to time, money, or performance risk inherent in their switching
brand action. To get customer interest in this stage could be done with offering some
bigger benefits as compensation is called switching cost loyal.
d.
Likes the Brand
Customer in this stage is the real customer that really likes this brand. On this stage, there
is emotional involvement to brand. Customer feeling could be based on association relate
to the symbol, experience series on prior used that happen personally as well as by their
peer or because highly quality impression.
e.
Commited Buyer
On this stage, there is loyal customer. They have pride as user some brand and moreover
these brands become an important to them in term of functional aspect and some
expressions about who they are. One actualization from customer loyalty on these stages
is showed by recommendation action and promotion these brand to other people.
Lu Ting Pongand Tang Pui Yee (2001) said about indicators to know the real loyal
customer, such as:
a.
Repeat Purchase Behavior
Tendency to purchase in consistent frequently is as one action to show loyalty.
b.
Word of Mouth
In loyalty context, word of mouth could be understood as to recommend other people to
make purchasing for some brands. For that reason, loyal customer not only uses some
brand product but also they pleasure to tell positive things about this brand.
c.
Price Tolerance
298
Loyal customer will be ready to pay with premium price. This is because high perceived
risk so that make customer willing pay on higher price to avoid risk.
d.
Choice Reduction Behavior
Choice reduction behavior is a real result from loyalty. This is because customer within
high loyalty can reduce motivation to search another alternative.
e.
First in Mind
Idealy, the loyal customer has only one choice that is first option in their mind.
Method
Research method used in is a case study. Case study is a research strategy which
focuses on one case (an individual, a group, an organization, etc.) within its social context at
one point in time, even if that one time spans months or years, or a design with a long and
respected history. In case study, generalizability is limited due to relatively small numbers of
participant (Clark, 2011: 178-181). For data collection techniques, this research applied indepth interview.
Findings and Discussion
Application of Caused-Related Marketing (CRM) Communication
Based on information from informant, most of them agree that CRMprogram "Satu
untuk Sepuluh" implemented by Aqua has connection with their own business is mineral
water. This information indicates majority of informant deal with CRM program related to
Aqua image product that cares to health environment.
299
Picture 1. Aqua’s CRM Program "Satu untuk Sepuluh"
Regarding to message on media advertising says: ”Sekarang sumber air su dekat.
Beta sonde pernah terlambat lagi. Lebih mudah bantu Mamak ambil air untuk mandi adik.
Karena mudah ambil air, katong bisa hidup sehat,” informantcan repeat this message
fluently. They say this message is simple so that not take any effort to make them come into
their mind. Thus, informant agree with the assumption which is key message from Aqua’s
CRM Program "Satu untuk Sepuluh" is easy to be understood.
From the indicator of attractiveness, key message from CRM program "Satu Untuk
Sepuluh" could be perceived as attractive message. This media advertising takes setting on
society of Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia that has unique pronunciation. Compare to
presidential election which was tagline “Inga…inga….ting”, Aqua’s CRM program also
obtain positive impression from audience.
As we know, Indonesia has several locations within scarce water resources, such as
Gunung Kidul, Flores, etc. Nusa Tenggara Timur is territory within much location could be
identifies as scarce water resources. Most of informant agrees that Nusa Tenggara Timur
society is identified stronger scarce water resources than other location in Indonesia, and then
this location could be picturingsome scarce water resource locations in Indonesia.
The intention to support scarce water society with water supply from this CRM
300
program, Aqua will help people to get clean water. On program CRM "Satu untuk Sepuluh",
Aqua is perceived as a company within charity orientation, not only selling product but also
supporting people with clean water.
Regarding to corporate commitment to help people in their CRM program, more than
half informant said that they didn’t agree if CRM program is identic with it is. This data is
very important because generally our assumption predicts charity program as a commitment
to support some society to help them out from their program. The implementation of CRM
program doesn’t directly connect with corporate commitment to make this program running
for long time. Informantneed more evidences to convince them that Aqua truly commits to
support scarce water society.
In order to ask information about appropriate duration in held CRM program, not all
informants agree. Most of them said that Aqua need more advertise their CRM program in
other location, so that could be stronger their program. Aqua until know, is not yet
implementing their CRM program in another scarce water resources in Indonesia, or CRM
program "Satu untuk Sepuluh" is the only one program from Aqua.
Most of informan said that Aqua as mineral water producer has shown that support
people in scarce water recources is important. Support people to coping with their problem
could be done in methods, one of them is through CRM program. Aqua’s Management show
to us that by means of support people could be along with collecting profit.
From all reasons above, this research indicates that Aqua as a profit institution could
package their program through CRM program. Aqua creates corporate image seriously more
than just a corporate social responsibility program. Advertisement message also can bring
other message about corporate marketing communication strategic in a way to promote their
product on CRM program.
301
Impact of CRM Communication to Brand Loyalty
Regard to product satisfaction, most of informant said that they satisfy with Aqua’s
drinking water mineral. They use this product more than one year. It indicates that
informantloyal to Aqua brand, but it doesn’t mean all of them arecommitted buyer. To
become committed buyer, customer should want to use this product for long period and have
pride as user some brand and moreover these brands become an important to them in term of
functional aspect and some expressions about who they are, and show by recommendation
action and promotion these brand to other people.
As a loyal buyer, informant showstheir loyalty by intention to buy Aqua product
frequentlythan other brand but they still have a chance to buy other products in case Aqua is
not in market. They say there are some alternatives products to replace Aqua in market, such
as Fit and Ades. But, they are highest priority still Aqua than others products.
More information that showscustomer loyalty is through top brand on informant
perception. If informant is asked about first brand that come to their mind when asked
drinking water mineral,they will answer Aqua on the first time. It is not surprising because
Aqua is pioneer of water drinking mineral in Indonesia. Once Aqua came to market, some
people underestimate that it product will be success. Aqua proves they will be a leader in
tight competitive among water drinking producers.
In CRM program implementation, big a chance to customer pays more than ordinary
price. This is because some companies put their CRM cost to customer. When these items ask
to informant, most of them don’t want to pay higher than usual. Standardize price could be
significant factor in term of maintain customer loyalty. A company can’t determine their
price only because they have to add more cost on production. For that reason, a company
should calculate production cost and benefit that they can obtain.
Regarding to brand loyalty in the future, not all of informant wants to buy Aqua
302
product but more than half of them still want to use it. Trend to use same brand in the future
indicates brand loyalty. Brand loyalty could be seen as tendency to make purchase
consistency to the brand satisfaction, within several stages start fromswitcher, habitual buyer,
satisfied buyer,likes the brand, and commited buyer. To get customer interest in every stages
could be done with offering some bigger benefits as compensation, explainingassociation
relate to the symbol, giving experience series on prior used that happen personally as well as
by their peer or because highly quality impressionto get emotional involvement to brand.
Customer in stage of habitual buyer could be categorized as customer that use some
brand frequently. Customer in this stage is hoped to increase one or two stages level to
satisfied buyer and likes the brand. On satisfied buyer, customer has not enough reason to
create desire to buy other brand product or move to other brand, especially if this transfer
need some effort, cost, or other sacrifices. Customer on likes the brand is feeling could be
based on association relate to the symbol, experience series on prior used that happen
personally as well as by their peer or because highly quality impression. Finally, if customer
switches to like the brand stage, they could be a commited buyerwith recommendationaction
and promote the brand to other people.
Half of informant wants to recommend other people to buy and to use Aqua drinking
water mineral, but rest of them doesn’t want. Intention to recommend purchase behavior not
only determinedby product image, but also by experience on using it. Then, tendency in
usingAqua product can influencepeople to ask others in using it but doesn’tdirectly. There are
some prerequisites to ask other people to buy and use some product, like as:

experience in using product,

product image,

availability on market, and

competitor
303
Water is basic need for all of us, but not all people can access clean water resources in
their daily lives. Some areas in the world—includes Indonesia, have scarce water supply
because type of topography. For people in this topographyneed water supply infrastructure
system to make them able to access it. Access to clean water, sanitasion, health environment,
and community prosperityescalation are important and interconnected.Water is important for
our lives, sanitation is a key for health; both of them support achieving sustainability health
environment. All of them at the endgive contribution on world prosperity.
Many areas in Indonesia have scarce clean water, whereas clean water is a significant
factor to prove health life. In many areas in Nusa Tenggara Timur most of people have
difficulty to access clean water. To get clean water, seldom they must walkfar though in
remote area. Many children loss their time to play,because they must collect clean water for
their family. One village in Timor Tengah Selatan (TTS), Nusa Tenggara Timur, and distance
among community home is far. At least one hour take to get water in jerry can every day.
Based on this fact, Aqua chooses village of Amanatun Utara and Boking, Nusa Tenggara
Timurto implement Aqua’s CRM program “Satu untuk Sepuluh.”
After running program for one year, now more than 12.000 people at Amanatun Utara
andBoking villages could enjoy better access to clean water. This program is arranged for
nest ten years. In a way running this program, Aqua collaborates with their partner—
Nongovernment Organization; Action Contre La Faim (ACF). Besides, in order to support
sustainability of local community empowerment, Aqua collaborates with Yayasan Ndua Ate
(YASNA)and Timor Timur Selatan local government.
When a corporate states that part of their profit or selling of their product will be
donated to special social activities, then this corporate have been implemented Cause-Related
Marketing (CRM) program. Cause is viewed as social activity that supported by corporate
through fund raising. In this term, Aqua collects some funds from their product selling.
304
Conclusion
Corporate social responsibility should be a program that becomes responsibility for a
company. A corporation should put corporate social responsibility as their annual program
without asked by government law. It is because of every institution has social awareness and
responsibility to their society. Based on thosereasons and research findings, the conclusions
on this research are:
There is significant relationship between Cause Related Marketing (CRM) programand
brand loyalty.CRMprogram can elevate customer’s affection and behavioral toward brand
loyalty. Case study on Aqua’s CRM program “Satu untuk Sepuluh” indicates
positiveresponse on customer brand loyalty. So that the advantages could be obtained in a
way implementing CRM program are:
a. Attract new customer, which is people in beginning, has been attracted to do some cause
then promoted by corporate.
b. Fund avaibility to implement some social actions. This social action could be definiteby
corporate who find connection between their product and some social actions.
c. A corporation which is implementing CRM program can gain their market space
accurately. Because, CRM program can connect product with social issue, and people
will be interested in its issue. Finally, they will grab association between certain product
and some issue that become their interest when promotions have been held correctly.
d. Selling output rises because of additional customer and market space.
e. Formed partnership with other parties which have mutual interest.
f. Corporation obtains brand identity positively.
305
From those conclusion above, relationship between Cause Related Marketing (CRM)
program toward brand loyalty could be maintain through giving serious attention to some
indicators such as duration (period) and cost budgeting CRM program implementation.
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PENGARUH KEPUASAN PELANGGAN DAN BRAND IMAGE TERHADAP
LOYALITAS PELANGGAN PADA TOPAS GALERIA HOTEL BANDUNG
Ida Nurnida Relawan
Mahasiswa Program Doktor Ilmu Administrasi Universitas Padjadjaran, Ketua Program Studi
Administrasi Bisnis Institut Manjemen Telkom
Sambudi Hamali
Mahasiswa Program Doktor Ilmu Ekonomi Universitas Padjadjaran, Universitas Nasional
Pasim; Program Studi Administrasi Bisnis Institut Manjemen Telkom
ABSTRACT
This research is conducted at Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung, was aimed to know how
customer satisfaction, brand image and customer loyalty, and also to know the influence of
customer satisfaction and brand image to customer loyalty either through jointly or severally
at Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung.
Respondent in this research are 98 people, sampling technique use accidental
sampling and processed by descriptive and associative method, where testing influence
between independent variable with dependent variable use multiple regression analysis.
Result from this research indicate that the Customer satisfaction pursuant to spanning
incoming classification in good category, Brand image pursuant to spanning incoming
classification in good enough category, and Customer loyalty pursuant to spanning incoming
classification in good category. Result test by partial indicate that the customer satisfaction
and brand image have an effect on to customer loyalty. While result test the multiple linear
regression by together (simultan) show there customer satisfaction influence and brand
image to customer loyalty at Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung, where Adjusted Coefficient of
Determination (Adjusted R2) = 0,445 = 44,5% at level significant 5%.
Keywords: Customer satisfaction, brand image, customer loyalty
PENDAHULUAN
Pada prinsipnya hotel adalah salah satu bentuk perdagangan jasa. Sebagai industri jasa
setiap pengusaha hotel akan berusaha memberikan pelayanan yang maksimal bagi para
tamunya. Tidak ketinggalan dalam hal menyambut wisatawan domestik dan mancanegara,
perkembangan hotel tumbuh dengan pesat di Kotamadya Bandung. Dari tabel 1.1 terlihat
bahwa jumlah hotel di Kotamadya Bandung begitu banyak, mereka akan saling berebut
pelanggan yang datang ke kota Bandung.
Tabel 1.1
Data Hotel di Kodya Bandung
Klasifikasi
Jumlah
Hotel Bintang 5
6
307
Hotel Bintang 4
20
Hotel Bintang 3
29
Hotel Bintang 2
16
Hotel Bintang 1
9
Hotel Melati I
52
Hotel Melati II
56
Hotel Melati III
81
Jumlah
269
Sumber : Dinas Pariwisata Kota Bandung, 2010
Untuk memenangkan persaingan yang ketat di bisnis perhotelan tersebut, maka usahausaha untuk memanjakan pelanggan harus ditempuh. Memuaskan pelanggan merupakan hal
yang terbaik dalam menghadapi persaingan. Perusahaan yang berhasil menjaga agar
pelanggan selalu puas menyebabkan pelanggan menjadi lebih setia (loyal), dalam arti
pelanggan tersebut lebih sering membeli, rela membayar lebih banyak untuk menggunakan
layanan badan usaha itu.
Selain memuaskan pelanggan, cara lain yang efektif untuk mencapai loyalitas pelanggan
adalah meningkatkan pengetahuan akan brand dan membangun kesadaran akan merek.
Menurut Ogba & Tan (2009) brand image secara positif dapat mempengaruhi loyalitas
pelanggan ke pasar dan menawarkan kemungkinan meningkatkan komitmen pelanggan
Topas Galeria Hotel merupakan salah satu hotel berbintang di Kota Bandung, yang
terletak di Jalan Dr. Junjunan 153 yang didirikan pada tanggal 14 September 1994. Hotel
yang bernuansa seni ini memadukan unsur bisnis dan galeri, sehingga para tamu yang
menginap diharapkan dapat menikmati suasana Bandung Tempo Doeloe. Fenomena yang
penulis dapatkan pada survey awal, terlihat bahwa tingkat hunian kamar mengalami
penurunan pada awal tahun 2010 dibandingkan akhir tahun 2009. Secara eksplisit dapat
dilihat pada tabel 1.2 berikut :
Tabel 1.2
Rekapitulasi Data Tamu Menginap dan Kamar Terjual Awal Tahun Pada Topas
Galeria Hotel Bandung Nopember 2009 – Maret 2010
Bulan
Jumlah Kamar
Jumlah Tamu
Terjual
Menginap
308
Nopember 2009
2.347
Desember 2009
2.607
Januari 2010
1.606
Pebruari 2010
1.706
Sumber : Topas Galeri Hotel, 2010
3.520
4.141
2.988
2.898
Sehubungan dengan paparan dan keterangan di atas, maka dapat dirumuskan
permasalahan yang ingin dikaji yakni bagaimana kepuasan pelanggan, brand image dan
loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung dan apakah ada pengaruh kepuasan
pelanggan dan brand image baik secara sendiri-sendiri maupun bersama-sama terhadap
loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung
TUJUAN PENELITIAN
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah:
a). Untuk mengetahui kepuasan pelanggan, brand image dan loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas
Galeria Hotel Bandung
b). Untuk mengetahui apakah ada pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image baik
secara sendiri-sendiri maupun bersama-sama terhadap loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas
Galeria Hotel Bandung
LANDASAN TEORI
Perusahaan berupaya untuk meminimalisir ketidakpuasan pelanggan dengan memberikan
pelayanan yang semakin baik. Pada saat yang bersamaan perusahaan diharuskan pula untuk
memperhatikan konsumen yang tidak puas (Fandy Tjiptono, 2004:146). Usaha untuk
memuaskan pelanggan dengan mengembangkan kualitas produk atau jasa sesuai dan
melebihi kriteria yang diharapkan pelanggan, karena kepuasan pelanggan secara garis besar
tergantung pada pelayanan perusahaan yang berhasil memuaskan pelanggan dengan baik.
Kepuasan pelanggan menurut Westbrook dan Oliver (1991) dalam Giese and Cote (2000)
: “a postchoice evaluative judgment concerning a specific purchase selection”. Kepuasan
309
pelanggan dapat dilihat sebagai pemenuhan tujuan konsumsi konsumen yang dialami dan
digambarkan oleh konsumen (Oliver, 2006 dalam Marteson, 2007). Respon konsumen
terhadap evaluasi ketidaksesuaian yang dirasakan antara harapan sebelumnya (atau beberapa
norma kinerja) dan kinerja aktual produk yang dirasakan setelah mengkonsumsinya (Tse &
Wilton, 1998:204 dalam dalam Giese and Cote, 2000). Kepuasan adalah "penilaian bahwa
suatu produk atau fitur layanan, atau produk atau layanan itu sendiri, yang disediakan (atau
memberikan) memenuhi tingkat menyenangkan konsumsi terkait, termasuk tingkat di bawah
atau di atas pemenuhan konsumen "(Oliver, 1997:13 dalam dalam Marteson, 2007)
Selanjutnya Oliver dan Swan (1989) menggunakan 6 dimensi dalam pengukuran
kepuasan pelanggan yaitu Pleased, Contented, Satisfied, Wise Choice, Unhappy, Good job.
Pada penelitian menggunakan dua dimensi saja yaitu dimensi Contented indikatornya (1)
puas dan (2) senang, dan dimensi Wise Choice indikatornya (1) Pilhan yang tepat dan (2)
Memenuhi harapan.
Brand Image merupakan persepsi pelanggan tentang merek seperti tercermin oleh
asosiasi merek yang diadakan di memori konsumen (Herzog, 1963; Keller, 1993a, b dalam
Ogba & Tan, 2009), mereka berpendapat bahwa asosiasi ini bisa berasal dari pengalaman
pelanggan langsung atau dari informasi yang diperoleh pada penawaran pasar atau karena
dampak pra-asosiasi yang sudah ada dengan organisasi itu pada konsumen. Brand image
merupakan gambaran mental atau persepsi merek atau produk bermerek atau jasa dan
termasuk makna simbolik bahwa konsumen mengasosiasikan dengan atribut tertentu dari
sebuah produk atau jasa (Dobni and Zinkhan, 1990; Padgett and Allen, 1997; Aperia and
Back, 2004 dalam Ogba & Tan, 2009). seperangkat keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh pelanggan
tentang merek tertentu, didasarkan pada beberapa atribut intrinsik dan ekstrinsik dari
penawaran pasar yang dihasilkan untuk persepsi kualitas, dan kepuasan pelanggan (Garcia
Rodriguez dan Bergantinos, 2001 dalam Ogba & Tan, 2009). Sedangkan brand image
310
menurut Aaker (1996:71) : bagaimana sebuah merek dirasakan oleh konsumen yang
merupakan singkatan dari himpunan asosiasi merek di ingatan konsumen ". Konsumen yang
terbiasa menggunakan merek tertentu cenderung memiliki konsistensi terhadap brand image.
Jadi apabila suatu konsep merek yang kuat dapat dikomunikasikan secara baik kepada pasar
sasaran yang tepat, maka produk akan menghasilkan brand image yang dapat mencerminkan
identitas merek yang jelas.
Berdasarkan definisi brand image menurut David A.Aaker (1996:71), dimensi brand
image :
1). Merek yang dirasakan
2). Asosiasi merek
Loyalitas didefinisikan oleh Oliver (1999) dalam
Ogba & Tan (2009) sebagai:
“Komitmen yang mendalam untuk membeli kembali atau belanja ulang produk/jasa yang
lebih disukai secara konsisten di masa depan, sehingga menyebabkan pembelian berulang
merek yang sama atau pengulangan merek yang sama, meskipun pengaruh situasional dan
usaha pemasaran memiliki potensi untuk menyebabkan perilaku berpindah kepada pesaing”.
Oliver (1999) dalam Ogba & Tan (2009) juga menunjukkan bahwa loyalitas pelanggan
utamanya adalah fungsi dari keunggulan produk yang dirasakan, ketabahan pribadi, ikatan
sosial, dan efek sinergis mereka. Peneliti lain mengatakan loyalitas merupakan aspek
komitmen yang disebut komponen sikap atau emosi dari komitmen (Meyer dan Allen, 1991,
1997; Meyer et al, 1993;. Ogba, 2008 dalam Ogba & Tan, 2009). Uncles et al. (2003) dalam
Ogba & Tan (2009) melihat loyalitas pelanggan dari 3 perspektif dimensi, pendekatan yang
tampaknya berasal dari Meyer dan Allen (1991) studi tentang komitmen karyawan; menurut
Uncles et.al : Pertama, loyalitas disebut sebagai sikap yang mendukung atau keyakinan untuk
satu merek yang tampaknya dapat menjadi keterikatan emosional pada merek itu. Kedua,
311
loyalitas dapat dilihat sebagai faktor perilaku, misalnya, perilaku pembelian untuk satu merek
khusus dan Ketiga, loyalitas sebagai pendekatan asiden yang mengandaikan korelasi antara
sikap
dan
perilaku.
Dari defenisi mengenai Loyalitas pelanggan yang telah dijelaskan di ats, pada penelitian ini
ada dua dimensi loyalitas pelanggan yaitu dimensi perilaku dan dimensi sikap.
Menurut Obga dan Tan (2003) brand image positif dapat mempengaruhi kualitas yang
diterima pelanggan, kepuasan, loyalitas pelanggan dan komitmen. Menurut Caruana (2002)
dalam Henry (2006:23) loyalitas dipengaruhi oleh kepuasan pelanggan.
HIPOTESIS
Hipotesis 1 :
Kepuasan pelanggan berpengaruh signifikan secara parsial terhadap terhadap loyalitas
pelanggan
Hipotesis 2 :
Brand image berpengaruh signifikan secara parsial terhadap terhadap loyalitas
pelanggan
Hipotesis 3 :
Kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image berpengaruh signifikan secara bersama-sama
terhadap terhadap loyalitas pelanggan.
METODE PENELITIAN
Berdasarkan tingkat eksplanasinya jenis penelitian yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah
deskriptif dan asosiatif. Penelitian menurut tingkat ekplanasi adalah penelitian yang
bermaksud menjelasankan kedudukan variabel-variabel yang diteliti serta hubungan antara
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variabel yang satu dengan variabel yang lain. Penelitian deskriptif adalah penelitian yang
dilakukan untuk mengetahui nilai variabel mandiri, baik satu variabel atau lebih (indepeden)
tanpa membuat perbandingan, atau menghubungkan dengan variabel yang lain. Sedangkan
Penelitian asosiatif merupakan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara
dua variabel atau lebih (Sugiyono, 2008).
Populasi dari penelitian ini adalah diambil pelanggan Topas Hotel yang bermalam di
bulan Desember 2009, karena di bulan ini jumlah pelanggan yang tertinggi, maka jumlah
populasi adalah 4.141 orang.
Dalam industri perhotelan dikenal istilah tamu (guest) dan pelanggan (client atau
customer). Penggunaan istilah tamu kalau yang datang adalah pengguna jasa yang baru
pertama kali menginap di hotel. Kalau tamu itu sering datang dan menginap di hotel tersebut,
mereka disebut pelanggan (Oka A. Yoeti, 2004). Pada penelitian ini sampel yang diambil
adalah pelanggan yaitu yang bermalam di Topas Galeri Hotel lebih dari satu kali. Untuk
ukuran sampel digunakan rumus Slovin (Husein Umar, 2001) seperti berikut :
N
1  N (e) 2
Keterangan : n
= Jumlah Sampel
N = Jumlah Populasi (= 4.141 orang)
e = Kelonggaran ketidaktelitian karena kesalahan pengambilan sampel yang
dapat ditolerir (= 10%).
Jadi jumlah sampel pada penelitian ini sebanyak 98 orang.
n
Teknik penarikan sampel yang dilakukan secara non probability sampling dengan teknik
Sampling Insidental, adalah teknik penentuan sampel berdasarkan kebetulan, yaitu siapa saja
yang secara kebetulan/insidental bertemu dengan peneliti dapat digunakan sebagai sampel,
bila dipandang orang yang kebetulan ditemui itu cocok sebagai sumber data (Sugiyono,
2008:67).
Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah sumber data primer dan data sekunder.
Data primer yaitu pengumpulan data yang dilakukan secara langsung terhadap objek yang
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diteliti untuk memperoleh jawaban dari responden, sedangkan data sekunder adalah data yang
diperoleh dari perusahaan, literatur dan informasi lain yang dianggap relevan dan menunjang
dengan penelitian ini. Metode yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data menggunakan
metode kuesioner dengan sistem tertutup, artinya setiap pertanyaan
telah disediakan
jawabannya. Kuesioner yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini menggunakan skala Likert.
Skala dibuat dengan gradasi dari sangat tidak setuju (skor = 1) sampai dengan sangat setuju
(skor = 5).
Dalam penelitian ini terdapat dua variabel, yaitu variabel independen (bebas) dan
variabel dependen (terikat). Variabel independen atau varibel X adalah kepuasan pelanggan
dan brand image, sedangkan variabel dependen atau variabel Y adalah loyalitas.
Data yang diperoleh dari responden melalui kuesioner selanjutnya dilakukan pengujian
validitas dan reliabilitas. Pengujian validitas menggunakan teknik Korelasi Pearson Product
Moment dan pengujian reliabilitas menggunakan teknik Alpha Croncbach’s.
Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis deskriptif dan analisis asosiatif. Analisis deskriptif
mengunakan
analisis pembobotan. Untuk mencari nilai bobot standar dapat dilakukan
dengan mencari panjang rentang bobot. Untuk mencari nilai bobot standar dapat dilakukan
dengan mencari panjang rentang bobot kelima klasifikasi. Adapun langkahnya sebegai
berikut:
R
(Skor tertinggi x jumlah sampel) - (Skor terendah x jumlah sampel)
5
R
(5 x 98) - (1x 98)
5
R  78,4  79
Keterangan : R
= Rentang klasifikasi
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Kemudian pembobotan dibagi ke dalam lima tingkatan berdasarkan pengklasifikasian di
atas, dimulai dari tingkatan terendah ke tingkatan tertinggi dengan panjang rentang yaitu 53.
Klasifikasi nilai bobot standar yang dihasilkan adalah sebagai berikut :
Tabel 3
Nilai Bobot Standar
Nilai Bobot
Kategori
98 – 176
Tidak Baik
177 – 255
Kurang Baik
256 – 334
Cukup
335 – 413
Baik
414 – 490
Sangat Baik
Analisis asosiatif dilakukan untuk melihat bagaimana pengaruh antara variabel
independen dengan dependen dalam hal ini pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan (X1) dan brand
image (X3) terhadap loyalitas (Y), pada penelitian ini digunakan analisis regresi berganda.
Sebelum dilakukan analisis regresi dilakukan perubahan data dari ordinal ke interval
menggunakan MSI, selanjutnya diilakukan uji asumsi klasik : normalitas data,
multikolonieritas, heterokedastitas dan auto korelasi. Selain itu juga dilakukan analisis
korelasi untuk melihat kekuatan hubungan diantara variabel X dengan variabel Y
menggunakan teknik Korelasi Pearson Product Moment.
Model regresi berganda mengambil bentuk :
yi   0   1 X 1   2 X 2  ei
di mana
0
adalah konstanta;
1,
2
dan
3
adalah koefisien regresi berganda yang ditaksir
dari sampel dan e adalah kekeliruan. Sedangkan variabel-variabel yang dimaksud dalam
model tersebut adalah :
X1 : Variabel kepuasan pelanggan
X2 : Variabel brand image
Y : Variabel loyalitas
Analisis data pada penelitian ini menggunakan bantuan software SPSS versi 15.
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HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN
Hasil uji validitas dan uji reliabilitas instrumen dari semua variabel X (X1 dan X2) dan
variabel Y menyatakan semua valid dan reliabel. Hasil uji asums klasik menunjukan datanya
normal, tidak ada multikolonieritas, heterokedastitas dan auto korelasi.
Hasil deskripsi rata-rata pembobotan untuk variabel Kepuasan pelanggan menunjukkan
nilai bobot rata-rata sebesar 393 dengan klasifikasi baik. Secara keseluruhan hasil ini
mencerminkan bahwa pada prinsipnya kepuasan pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel
Bandung adalah baik. Namun demikian dimensi Contented memiliki nilai bobot dibawah
bobot rata-rata variabel Kepuasan pelanggan, indikator yang memiliki nilai dibawah bobot
rata-rata variabel Kepuasan pelanggan adalah puas dan memenuhi harapan.
Hasil deskripsi rata-rata pembobotan untuk variabel Brand image menunjukkan nilai
bobot rata-rata sebesar 302 dengan klasifikasi cukup baik. Secara keseluruhan hasil ini
mencerminkan bahwa pada prinsipnya Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung memiliki brand image
yang cukup baik. Namun demikian dimensi Asosiasi Merek (Brand Association) memiliki
nilai bobot dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Brand image. Indikator yang memiliki nilai
dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Brand image adalah dekat pusat kuliner dan mall.
Hasil deskripsi rata-rata pembobotan untuk variabel Loyalitas menunjukkan nilai bobot
399 dengan klasifikasi baik. Secara keseluruhan hasil ini mencerminkan bahwa pada
prinsipnya pelanggan Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung memiliki loyalitas yang baik. Namun
demikian masih ada indikator yang memiliki nilai dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Loyalitas
adalah Keinginan menginap kembali dan Konsisten untuk komit
Selanjutnya hasil regresi linear berganda dengan pengujian secara parsial atau sendirisendiri (pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image terhadap loyalitas secara parsial)
hasil perhitungan menunjukkan bahwa nilai masing-masing t hitung yakni kepuasan
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pelanggan (X1) sebesar 5,509 dan brand image (X2) sebesar 2,651 melebihi t tabel (=1,990)
pada level signifikansi 5%. Korelasi kepuasan terhadap loyalitas sebesar r = 0,645,
berdasarkan kriteia Champion (Akdon dan Hadi, 005) termasuk hubungan yang kuat.
Sedangkan Korelasi brand image terhadap loyalitas sebesar r = 0,531, berdasarkan kriteia
Champion termasuk hubungan yang cukup kuat.
Tabel 4
Hasil Uji Secara Sendiri-sendiri (parsial)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Satisfaction
Brand Image
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
1.621
.930
.476
.086
.270
.102
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.506
.244
t
1.744
5.509
2.651
Sig.
.084
.000
.009
Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance
VIF
.678
.678
1.476
1.476
a. Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty
Correlations
Correlations
Satisfaction
Cusomer Loyalty
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Satisfaction
1
.
98
.645**
.000
98
Cusomer
Loyalty
.645**
.000
98
1
.
98
Brand Image
Cusomer Loyalty
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Brand Image
1
.
98
.531**
.000
98
Cusomer
Loyalty
.531**
.000
98
1
.
98
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Hasil regresi linear berganda dengan pengujian secara bersama-sama (pengaruh kepuasan
pelanggan dan brand image terhadap loyalitas) hasil perhitungan menunjukkan bahwa nilai F
hitung = 39,817 melebihi F tabel (= 3,03) untuk derajat bebas pembilang 2 dan derajat bebas
penyebut 95 (98 – 2 – 1 = 95) dan level signifikansi 5%. Karena F hitung lebih besar dari F
tabel, maka variabel-variabel bebas (X1 & X2) secara bersama-sama mempunyai pengaruh
yang signifikan terhadap variabel terikat Y. Hal ini memiliki makna bahwa variabel-variabel
kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image secara bersama-sama mempunyai pengaruh yang
signifikan terhadap loyalitas. Dengan nilai multiple correlation 0,675 yang mengandung
makna keseluruhan variabel bebas (kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image) memiliki keeratan
hubungan dengan variabel terikat (loyalitas pelanggan) menurut kriteria Champion termasuk
hubungan yang kuat. Sedangkan koefisien determinasi yang disesuaikan (Adjusted R2)
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sebesar 0,445 memiliki makna bahwa 44,5% kemampuan model atau seluruh variabel bebas
(kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image) yang digunakan dalam persamaan regresi ini secara
bersama-sama mampu memberikan kontribusi terhadap loyalitas pelanggan. Sedangkan
sisanya 55,5% dijelaskan oleh variabel independen yang berada diluar penelitian ini.
Tabel 5
Hasil Uji Secara Bersama-sama
Model Summaryb
Model
1
R
.675a
R Square
.456
Adjusted
R Square
.445
Std. Error of
the Estimate
2.358640
Durbin-W
atson
2.045
a. Predictors: (Constant), Brand Image, Satisfaction
b. Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
443.014
528.503
971.517
df
2
95
97
Mean Square
221.507
5.563
F
39.817
Sig.
.000a
a. Predictors: (Constant), Brand Image, Satisfaction
b. Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty
Keterbatasan penelitian
Walaupun penelitian ini berdasarkan kepada literatur sebelumnya dan analisis data
menggunakan alat statistik komputer, ada beberapa keterbatasan termasuk diantaranya
mengenai ukuran sampel penelitian dalam kaitannya dengan populasi yang sebenarnya dari
pelanggan Topas Galeria Hotel; kendala ini mungkin memiliki dampak langsung terhadap
kemungkinan generalisasi hasil penelitian dan oleh karena itu, untuk penelitian selanjutnya
dapat menggunakan ukuran sampel yang lebih besar. Keterbatasan lebih lanjut dapat
diidentifikasi dari metode analisis data menggunakan regresi linear berganda, untuk
penelitian selanjutnya dapat menggunakan analisis SEM (Structural Equation Modelling)
selain itu juga dapat melihat sejauhmana hubungan kepuasan secara langsung terhadap
loyalitas maupun tidak langsung dengan melalui brand image, disamping itu juga dapat
dilihat hubungan timbal balik antara kepuasan pelanggan dengan brand image.
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Implikasi Manajerial
Dari hasil penelitian ini, manajer sebaiknya terus melakukan peningkatan dari segi kualitas
dan kuantitas kepada karyawannya melalui program-program pendidikan dan pelatihan,
terutama dalam hal yang berhubungan langsung dengan pelanggan, selain itu dari sisi brand
image, manajer terus melakukan strategi public relation kepada masyarkat agar dapat
meningkatkan pengetahuan akan brand dan membangun kesadaran akan merek, yang
kemudian secara otomatis brand tersebut berada di dalam ingatan yang pertama dalam
pikiran masyarakat dan Menciptakan produk perusahaan memiliki perbedaan kualitas yang
lebih baik dari produk pesaing
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Aaker, David A.. 1996. Building Strong Brand. New York : The Free Press
Akdon dan Hadi, Sahlan. 2005. Aplikasi Statistika dan Metode Penelitian untuk Administrasi
& Manajemen, Cet. 1, Bandung: Dewa Ruchi.
Fandi Tjiptono. 2004. Manajemen Jasa. Yogyakarta : PT. Andi Offset.
Giese, J. and Cote, J . 2000. Defining Customer Satisfaction. Academy of Marketing Science
Review. Available at www.amsreview.org/theory/giese00-01.html
Henry Adhi Nugraha. 2006. Pengaruh Service Quality dan Customer Satisfaction Terhadap
Service Loyalty Pada Nasabah Bank Danamon. Tesis Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas
Indonesia. Tidak diterbitkan
Husein Umar. 2001. Metode Penelitian untuk Skripsi dan Tesis Bisnis. Jakarta : PT.
RajaGrafindo Persada.
Obga, Ike-Elechi. and Tan, Zhenzhen. 2009. Exploring the impact of brand image on
customer loyalty and commitment in China. Journal of Technology Management in
China, Vol. 4, No.2, pp. 132-144. (c) Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Oka A. Yoeti. 2004. Strategi Pemasaran Hotel. Cetakan Ketiga. Jakarta : PT Gramedia
Pustaka Utama.
Oliver, Richard L and Swan, John E. 1989. Consumer Perception of Interpersonal Equity and
Satisfaction in Transactions : A Field Survey Approach. Journal of Marketing, Vol 53
(April), pp. 21 – 35.
Marteson, Rita. 2007. Corporate brand image, satisfaction and store loyalty : A study of the
store as a brand, store brands and manufacturer brands. International Journal of
Retail Distribution Management. Vol. 35, No.7, pp. 544-555. (c) Emerald Group
Publishing Limited
Sugiyono. 2008. Statistik untuk penelitian. Bandung: Alfabeta
LAMPIRAN-LAMPIRAN
1. Pendapat Responden Tentang Kepuasan Pelanggan (X1)
319
No.
PERNYATAAN
1.
Puas menjadi pelanggan Topas Galeria
Hotel
Senang menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel
Menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel
merupakan pilihan yang tepat
Menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel dapat
memenuhi harapan saya
2.
3.
4.
JAWABAN
SS
S RR TS STS
2. Pendapat Responden Tentang Brand Image (X2)
No.
PERNYATAAN
SS
1.
2.
3.
4.
JAWABAN
S RR TS STS
Memilih Topas Galeria Hotel karena hotel
galeri
Topas Galeria Hotel yang diingat bila ke
Bandung
Saya memilih Topas Galeria Hotel karena
serasa di rumah sendiri
Saya memilih Topas Galeria Hotel karena
dekat pusat kuliner dan mall
3. Pendapat Responden Tentang Loyalitas Pelanggan (Y)
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
PERNYATAAN
SS
JAWABAN
SS SS SS SS
Saya ingin menginap kembali di Topas Galeria
Hotel di lain kesempatan
Saya akan setia terhadap Topas Galeria Hotel
Akan merekomendasikan kepada pihak lain
untuk menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel
Saya akan konsisten untuk komit kepada Topas
Galeria Hotel
320
Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual
Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty
1.00
Expected Cum Prob
.75
.50
.25
0.00
0.00
.25
.50
.75
1.00
Observed Cum Prob
Scatterplot
Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty
Regression Studentized Residual
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
Regression Standardized Predicted Value
321
Personal Branding in the Entrepreneurship
Avianto Nugroho Putro, S.Sos., MSi.
Abstract:
The general perception of ‘entrepreneurship’ is that of starting new business. In the case of
new business opportunity development, there are some aspects that sometimes would make
people reluctant to pursue their will to be an entrepreneur, which are: ideas, innovations,
opportunities, and investment. However in the digital era nowadays, especially in
communications field, the opportunity to be an entrepreneur is widely open and people can
really start small to be an entrepreneur. The study cases based on the theories of
entrepreneurship and communication strategy show how the personal branding could be one
of key factor that will support the success of an entrepreneurship. This study would help
people to have a new perspective in how to start to be an entrepreneur.
Key words:
Entrepreneurship, Business Opportunity, Communication, Personal Branding
Introduction
It is very common that many questions come across our mind when we were challenged to
start to be an entrepreneur. The first question might what and how would be the product or
service is going to be sold. In this case, sometimes we tend to think too hard to find the
product and it would end up in a dead end. While the fact we can actually start with what we
heave. We can start with ourselves. Start it with the question: What do I really capable in?
What do I love? What is my passion in life? Try to explore what we have and develop it as
your product. Then, the next step would be “Who”. Who is going to be your target market? In
this step, just looking around your surroundings, your family, close friends, and relatives
could be your first market. And the other rule that we have to prepare is “how”. How would
you sell the product? Those steps were just some part of homework we have to do as part of
the real business plan we have to develop. Because how small your business is, still it needs a
comprehensive business plan. However in this paper, we will discuss more on how to sell the
product through personal branding.
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If we are looking at the steps above, what-who-how, in a way they sounds like basic
communications theory itself. Communication theory based on Laswell model: "who says
what to whom in which channel with what effect”, it describes a simple communications
model with a sender transferring the message to a receiver. Linked with the “how do we have
to sell the product?” it is clear that how to communicate the product or brand would play a
key role in the success of your business. Your product is your message that needs to be
communicated to the target market through the most effective channel.
Previously mentioned, to start a business we may explore what we have. Product or brand
discovery is about figuring out what you want to do for the rest of your life, setting goals,
writing down a mission, vision and personal brand statement (what you do and who you
serve), as well as creating a development plan. In the other way, you represent the brand.
You are the brand itself, and when you communicate the brand that is you, that is Personal
Branding.
Personal Branding
Personal branding is, for some people, a description of the process whereby people and their
careers are marked as brands. It has been noted that while previous self-help management
techniques were about self-improvement, the personal branding concept suggests instead that
success comes from self-packaging. Further defined as the creation of an asset that pertains to
a particular person or individual; this includes but is not limited to the body, clothing,
appearance and knowledge contained within, leading to an indelible impression that is
uniquely distinguishable. The term is thought to have been first used and discussed in a 1997
article by Tom Peters.
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Personal branding, self-positioning and all individual branding by whatever name, was first
introduced in the 1981 book: "Positioning: The Battle for your Mind", by Al Ries and Jack
Trout, as stated "Positioning Yourself and Your Career - You can benefit by using
positioning strategy to advance your own career. Key principle: Don’t try to do everything
yourself. Find a horse to ride". In case of entrepreneurship, your product or brand could be
positioned as your positioning. For the example is one of Indonesian businessman Aburizal
Bakrie uses his last name as the brand itself: Bakrie Telco, Bakrie Land, etc. or a smaller
business scale like notable traditional fried chicken “Ayam Goreng Nyonya Suharti”.
However there is also tendency that many people think that personal branding is just for
celebrities such as Paris Hilton or Britney Spears, yet each and every one of us is a brand.
Personal branding, by definition, is the process by which we market ourselves to others. As a
brand, we can leverage the same strategies that make these celebrities or corporate brands
appeal to others. We can build brand equity just like them. Your personal brand is a
combination of who you are and how you can solve someone’s problems. And having a
consistent and compelling brand will help you throughout your career.
Now, how the personal branding should start? First, there are some guidance to develop our
own brand:
1. Know your brand or product story
It is about what is behind your brand. Brand should know the reason why it is exist, the
origin of the idea, and how the product would benefit the consumer. The single biggest
mistake people make is that they either brand themselves just for the sake of doing it or
that they fail to invest time in learning about what’s in their best interests. The key to
success, and this isn’t revolutionary, is to be compensated based on your passion. In
order to find your passion, you need a lot of time to think, some luck and you need to do
some research online to figure out what’s out there.
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Brand discovery is about figuring out what you want to do for the rest of your life, setting
goals, writing down a mission, vision and personal brand statement (what you do and who
you serve), as well as creating a development plan. There the story of your brand can be
developed.
2. Know what is your brand or product Unique Selling Point (USP)
Have you ever got compliment because of the way you dress from others? Or people
think that you are good in motivate others? Or you may start to question: What is
unique to your value that cannot be duplicated or replaced? Those kinds of
compliments are your unique selling point. We may use and develop it as the base of
your product or you may develop your product and put a unique attribute on it, which
could be the name, the appearance, or the packaging that people will easily remember
and connected to your brand. Your unique value proposition emerges from the
combined needs, skills, and competitor matrix. Your personal brand’s “competitors”
are people with a similar skill set, both domestically and internationally, automation,
and other substitutes for your skills, personality, and presence.
3. Know what is your target consumer needs
People will not buy our product or brand if it doesn’t give any benefits to them. In starting
the business, it would be better if your brand answers the niche market needs. It is in line
with the USP point above. Niche market needs a unique brand or product that can answer
their special need as well. It is also will be hard to compete with the established mass
product in the market. With the niche product, you may also be more mastered in the
field.
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4. Build your networks
Network is one of the key of personal branding success. At the moment you may not
famous, but you can connect and build networks with other people who has greater
network than you. Joining certain club or organization, active in discussion board on
social network, or engage with the people that can endorse you, will put you in the greater
network. Or in the other hand, you may help other people brand first by become a
“connector” of two other people who could mutually benefit each other. It is easier to
build relationship and your brands, when you help people out first.
5. Start small
In starting a business, there are many considerations to think about. The amount of
investment you can make, and also your capability in fulfill the demand. Start small, you
can mastering your product, have a better quality control, and gradually learn how to
handle the growing customer along with developing the existing business plan. It is also
minimize the risk for instance. However keep on think big, while you are start small.
At most traditional way, personal branding based business will work effectively through
word of mouth. The positive recommendation about your specialties or unique product to one
another in the network will bring success to the business. Though this practice still become
the root to build the personal branding, but today’s emerging digital communications tools
will make the personal branding process much easier. These are some tools that can be your
“Personal Branding Toolkit”:
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1. Yourself: You represent your brand or you are even the brand itself. So equip yourself
with as much knowledge about the expertise or product you sell and wrapped it in an
original, nice and warm personality to inspire people.
2. Wardrobe: Your personal style is tangible and is extremely important for standing out
from the crowd. Select clothing that best represents you because it will be viewable
through your pictures/avatars online, as well as when you meet people in reality. You
don’t have to be a trendsetter, but you may create your own trademark and become
noticeable in a positive way.
3. Business card: It doesn’t matter if you’re a college student, CEO, or a consultant,
everyone should have their own business card. Complete your business card with your
picture or your product picture, your personal brand statement, as well as your clear
contact information and the logo if necessary. Always bring your business card
everywhere you go, because everyone can be your next customer. You also can create
your own business card and share it through your mobile phone using mydropcard.com or
rmbrme.com. On the web, BusinessCard2.com is a great social network for creating and
distributing your personal business card.
4. Resume/cover letter/references document: These are typical documents that you need
for applying for jobs and when you go on interviews. But in personal branding and
developing your business, resume can help you sell yourself in the higher step. Let people
know about your experiences and expertise. There also possibilities that people will ask
you to be a speaker on their event based on your resume. So be sure to prioritize each
document with information custom to the target position. Take your resume online and
add social features to it to make the ultimate social media resume, promoting your
personal brand to the world and making it shareable.
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5. Portfolio: You may use a CD, web or print portfolio, it’s a great way to showcase the
work you’ve done in the past, which can convince someone of your ability to accomplish
the same results for the future. Figdig.com and carbonmade.com are social networks for
people who want to show off their creative skills to the world.
6. Blog/website: Create your own yourname.com or a website that aligns with your name in
some fashion. Depending on who you are, how much time you have on your hands and if
you can accept criticism, you should either start a blog or stick with a static homepage.
Don’t just share about your brand and product, but also share your thought on any related
topics to your business. Show to your blog readers that you really understand your
business and brand. Those who blog will have a stronger asset than those who don’t
because blogs rank higher in search engines and lend more to your expertise and interest
areas over time. For better exposure you may link your blog to other’s blog with related
business and also your own other social page account such as facebook or twitter.
7. LinkedIn profile: Compare to any other social networking page, LinkedIn is more into
professional and serious type page. A LinkedIn profile is a combination of a resume, cover
letter, references document and a moving and living database of your network. Buiold
your good reputation and develop your professional network here to get any endorsement
for you and your brand. Also create your own personal advertising, to search for jobs or
meet new people.
8. Facebook profile: Indonesia is in the first rank in the world in term of Facebook users.
More than 160 million people all over the world have profiles, but almost none of them
have branded themselves properly using this medium. When you start a personal branding,
be sure to include a Facebook picture of just you, without any obscene gestures or
unnecessary vodka bottles. Also, input your work experience and fill out your profile,
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while turning on the privacy options that disable the ability for people to tag you in
pictures and videos. Please re-think before you post any status or comments to other page,
be wise and avoid unnecessary comment. You may create your brand or product account
in Facebook to make it more focus.
9. Twitter profile: Twitter now is another powerful tool for personal branding. Your Twitter
profile could have an avatar that is carved out of your Facebook picture and used in your
LinkedIn profile that people will remember you easily. Share small thought or fun facts
about your brand and link it to your blog and or website for further details about the
information. Since it is an open social page, there is possibility people will disagree with
your thought and give harsh critics. Accept it. All you have to do is avoid the tweet war,
though you are in the right position, it rarely helps you to build your brand. Provide any
supporting articles or writing from sites or more credible blogs to support your tweet.
10. Video resume: A video resume is a short video of you talking about why you are the best
for a specific job opportunity. Make your video short interesting, entertaining, but also
informative to give best description about your brand or product. Upload it in YouTube,
and link it with your any other social page to invite more people to see it.
11. Email address: Don’t overlook your email address as not being a significant part of your
toolkit. Most people use email over all social networks and when you connect with
someone on a social network, you are notified via email, so get used to it. Your email
address poses a great opportunity for your brand. I recommend using gmail because of the
acceptance of Google and since GTalk allows you to form tighter relationships with
others. For your address, use “[email protected].”
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Those are some basics to start your personal branding. Maintain all your tools and keep on
exploring the possibilities to maximize the use of the tools. Beside the social pages
mentioned above, nowadays, the digital social networking is getting more and more specific
and skewed to the niche market. Pick as much as possible to branding your brand. You can
share your thoughts and ideas, slide presentations, picture, design, or even sell anything
through the internet.
The key in starting your entrepreneurship with personal branding is the originality, a unique
point of difference (your differentiation) and continuously innovate around it. The key as
with any brand is to also have integrity and ‘walk your talk’. So the brand promise —the
person’s content, delivery and dialogue are all critical factors to providing a brand experience
that consumers believe is unique and enduring.
Bibilography
1. Lair, Daniel J.; Sullivan, Katie; Cheney, George (2005). "Marketization and the Recasting
of the Professional Self". Management Communication Quarterly 18 (3): 307–
343. doi:10.1177/0893318904270744.
2. Jeffrey Scott Sherman (2009). Creating a Truly Unique Money Making Asset the Art of
Personal Branding
3. Tom Peters (August 1997). "The brand Called You". Fast Company (Mansueto Ventures
LLC.) (10): pp. 83.
4. Ries, Al; Trout, Jack (1981). Positioning: The Battle for your Mind. McGrawHill. ISBN 9780071359160.
5. Barnlund (1968), D. C. Interpersonal Communication: Survey and Studies. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
6. Dan Schwabel, www.personalbrandingblog.com
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Strategi Publisitas Melalui Media Online
pada Institusi Jasa Pendidikan
(Studi pada Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi
Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta)
Disusun oleh:
Erna Mariana Susilowardhani, S.Sos., M.Si.
Meilani Dhamayanti, S.Sos., M.Si.
ABSTRAK
Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta was
established on 1972. Based on service activities, of course LPT YAI wants to achieve the
satisfaction of service users. The satisfaction to be achieved is not only related to education
services, but also information services. Especially in the era of information, the community is
very easy to access the information. The improvement and advances of technology also
encourages the use of online media as a proposition for distributing and accessing
information. Therefore, the utilization of online media really needs to be optimized to support
the marketing communications activities, which can also support marketing activities,
especially in publicity. In the competition era, publicity hold important role to get client,
build image, etc. This study aims to learn how the strategies of education services publicity
activities are implemented by Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia
(LPT YAI), Jakarta by the using of online media. This research was supported by the theories
and concepts related to marketing communication, specifically the concepts of publicity,
public relations functions, and about online media. By doing a qualitative-descriptive
approach, the authors hope that the aim of this research can be achieved. Therefore, the
authors conducted in-depth interviews to obtain the integral information to several informants
who have the competencies related to this study. The implications of this study are expected
to provide inputs to Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI)
and other education institutions in optimizing the online publicity.
1. PENDAHULUAN
1.1 Pengantar
Kemajuan teknologi, khususnya di bidang informasi dan komunikasi membawa
dampak di segala aspek kehidupan. Tak terkecuali pada aspek sosial kemasyarakatan dan
juga institusi. Terutama lahirnya teknologi media baru, yaitu internet yang berbasis pada
media online, menjadikan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan komunikasi tidak lagi terhalang oleh
jarak dan waktu. Imbasnya, tentunya arus informasi semakin cepat dan mudah didapat.
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Keberadaan media online ini juga dimanfaatkan oleh institusi jasa pendidikan, seperti
Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), yang berlokasi di
pusat Ibukota Negara Indonesia, yaitu Jakarta.
Berbasis pada kegiatan pelayanan, tentunya hal yang ingin dicapai adalah kepuasan
dari pengguna jasa. Kepuasan yang ingin dicapai tidak hanya terkait dengan pelayanan
pendidikan, tetapi juga pelayanan informasi. Apalagi di era keterbukaan informasi ini, di
mana masyarakat sangat mudah mengakses informasi, utamanya yang berbasis media online.
Karena itu, pemanfaatan media online sangat perlu dioptimalkan guna menunjang kegiatan
komunikasi pemasaran, yang lebih lanjut dapat pula menunjang kegiatan pemasaran. Terlebih
di arena kompetisi yang semakin tinggi di antara lembaga pendidikan tinggi.
1.2 Tujuan
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui bagaimana strategi yang diterapkan
Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta dalam
melakukan kegiatan publisitas dengan memanfaatkan media online. Hal-hal apa saja yang
mereka optimalkan terkait penggunaan media online tersebut.
1.3 Signifikansi Penelitian
1.3.1 Signifikansi Ilmiah
Penelitian ini diharapkan dapat menambah jumlah kajian tentang fungsi public
relations, terutama dalam mendukung kegiatan komunikasi pemasaran dengan berbasis pada
pemanfaatan media online.
1.3.2 Signifikansi Praktis
Hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan gambaran tentang pemanfaatan media online
sebagai bagian dari kegiatan publisitas di Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi
332
Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta. Selain itu, tentunya diharapkan dapat memberikan masukan
kepada LPT YAI dan juga institusi jasa pendidikan lainnya agar dapat lebih mengoptimalkan
pemanfaatan publisitas melalui media online.
2. KERANGKA KONSEP
2.1 Komunikasi Pemasaran
Komunikasi pemasaran merupakan aplikasi komunikasi yang ditujukan untuk
membantu kegiatan pemasaran sebuah perusahaan. Aplikasi tersebut sangat dipengaruhi oleh
berbagai bentuk media yang digunakan, daya tarik pesan, dan frekuensi penyajian. Penerapan
komunikasi bisnis sangat penting, khususnya dalam menyampaikan pesan-pesan komunikasi
yang dihadapkan pada berbagai persoalan, seperti: perbedaan persepsi, perbedaan budaya,
dan keterbatasan media yang digunakan (Soemanagara, 2008: 4).
Komunikasi pemasaran dapat juga dinyatakan sebagai kegiatan komunikasi yang
ditujukan untuk menyampaikan pesan kepada konsumen dan pelanggan dengan
menggunakan sejumlah media dan berbagai saluran yang dapat dipergunakan dengan harapan
terjadinya tiga tahapan perubahan, yaitu perubahan pengetahuan, perubahan sikap, dan
perubahan tindakan yang dikehendaki (Soemanagara, 2008: 4).
2.2 Public Relations
Dalam buku Effective Public Relations, Scott M. Cutlip, Aleen H. Center, dan Glen
M. Broom (dalam Ardianto, 2009: 3) menuliskan salah satu definisi public relations, yaitu
fungsi manajemen yang menilai sikap publik, mengidentifikasi kebijakan-kebijakan dan
prosedur-prosedur dari individu atau organisasi atas dasar kepentingan publik dan
melaksanakan rencana kerja untuk memperoleh pengertian dan pengakuan publik.
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Sementara John E. Marston mendefinisikan public relations sebagai kegiatan
komunikasi persuasif dan terencana yang didesain untuk mempengaruhi publik yang
signifikan (Kriyantono, 2008: 4).
Cutlip & Center (dalam Kriyantono, 2008: 22) menyebut fungsi public relations
sebagai berikut:
a. Menunjang kegiatan manajemen dan mencapai tujuan organisasi.
b. Menciptakan komunikasi dua arah secara timbal balik dengan menyebarkan informasi
dari perusahaan kepada publik dan menyalurkan opini publik kepada perusahaan.
c. Melayani publik dan memberikan nasihat kepada pimpinan perusahaan untuk
kepentingan umum.
d. Membina hubungan secara harmonis antara perusahaan dan publik, baik internal
maupun eksternal.
2.3 Marketing Public Relations
Konsep Marketing Public Relations (MPR) diperkenalkan oleh Thomas L. Haris
dalam buku The Marketer's Guide to Public Relations. Menurut Haris, Marketing Public
Relations bekerja karena ia memberi nilai tambah pada produk melalui kemampuannya yang
unik dalam memberikan kredibilitas pada pesan produk (Kriyantono, 2008: 58).
MPR didefinisikan sebagai sebuah proses perencanaan, eksekusi, dan evaluasi
program-program yang mendorong atau menganjurkan pembelian dan kepuasan konsumen
melalui komunikasi yang kredibel dalam menyampaikan informasi dan menciptakan impresi
yang mengidentifikasi perusahaan dan produknya dengan kebutuhan, keinginan, perhatian,
dan kepentingan konsumen. Dengan demikian, upaya menjual produk jangan hanya
berdasarkan profit-oriented, tetapi juga consumer's oriented (Kriyantono, 2008: 58).
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Di saat efektivitas iklan di media massa dirasa makin menurun, belakangan pemasar
lebih memalingkan perhatiannya kepada MPR. Mereka menyadari bahwa MPR sangat efektif
dalam membangun awareness dan brand knowledge, baik untuk produk lama maupun baru.
MPR juga sangat efektif untuk berinteraksi dengan masyarakat setempat dan menjangkau
kelompok atau etnis tertentu. MPR juga lebih efektif dari segi biaya ketimbang iklan
(Sulaksana, 2007: 129).
2.4 Cyber Public Relations
Cyber Public Relations kini sudah semakin dikenal. Bidang PR ini sangat terkait
dengan perkembangan teknologi komunikasi mutakhir (terutama munculnya media online
atau internet) (Ardianto, 2009: 150).
Penggunaan Internet oleh para profesional merupakan cikal-bakal dari perkembangan
teknologi Internet. Pemakaian Internet sangatlah efektif, terutama pada masa krisis
komunikasi, mengidentifikasi masalah, manajemen, dan komunikasi interaktif. Kegunaan
lainnya adalah untuk pembuat newsletter (terbitan berkala) elektronik, pengiriman pesan
kepada khalayak sasaran, dan aplikasi Internet dan web one to one dalam kegiatan marketing
dan komunikasi (Holtz dalam Ardianto, 2009: 150).
Kini, dunia PR memasuki masa keemasan karena teknologi Internet ini telah
membawa praktisi mampu mencapai publik sasaran secara langsung tanpa intervensi dari
pihak-pihak lain, seperti redaksi atau wartawan di media massa, yang biasanya bertindak
sebagai penjaga gawang pesan komunikasi, dan melakukan penyensoran terhadap pesan
informasi PR bagi khalayak (publik) (Ardianto, 2009: 151).
2.5 Publisitas
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Menurut Lesly (dalam Iriantara dan A. Yani Surachman, 2008: 190), publisitas adalah
penyebaran pesan yang direncanakan dan dilakukan untuk mencapai tujuan lewat media
tertentu dari organisasi dan perorangan tanpa pembayaran tertentu pada media. Sementara
menurut Cutlip dan Center (dalam Iriantara dan A. Yani Surachman, 2008: 190), publisitas
adalah penyebaran informasi secara sistematis tentang lembaga atau perorangan.
Publisitas merupakan salah satu teknik yang biasa digunakan dalam public relations
(PR) sehingga fungsi publisitas pun pada dasarnya merupakan fungsi PR, yaitu menjaga citra
positif, menangani publisitas negatif, dan meningkatkan efektivitas unsur-unsur dalam bauran
promosi (promotion mix).
3. METODOLOGI
3.1 Pendekatan Penelitian
Penulis menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dalam penelitian ini. Secara mendasar,
peneliti kualitatif mencoba menganalisis dan menjaga format situasi, konten, dan pengalaman
dari tindakan sosial (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002: 18).
Menurut Bogdan dan Taylor (dalam Moleong, 2004: 3), metodologi kualitatif
didefinisikan sebagai prosedur penelitian yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata
tertulis atau lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang dapat diamati. Menurut mereka,
pendekatan ini diarahkan pada latar dan individu tersebut secara holistic (utuh). Jadi, dalam
hal ini, tidak boleh mengisolasikan individu atau organisasi ke dalam variable atau hipotesis,
tetapi perlu memandang sebagai bagian dari suatu keutuhan.
Pada penelitian kualitatif, Neuman (1997:14) menyebutkan bahwa fokus penelitian
kualitatif terletak pada proses interaktif, konstruksi realitas sosial, otentisitas merupakan
kunci, value are present and explicit, situationally constrained, analisis tematik, dan peneliti
terlibat.
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Dalam penelitian kualitatif, desain dapat disusun sebelumnya secara tidak lengkap.
Ketika desain tersebut sudah mulai digunakan, maka desain tersebut dapat dilengkapi dan
disempurnakan. Adapun desain dapat senantiasa diubah dan disesuaikan dengan data yang
diperoleh di lapangan dan disesuaikan pula dengan pengetahuan baru yang ditemukan
(Moleong, 2004: 20).
3.2 Jenis Penelitian
Jenis penelitian yang penulis lakukan adalah penelitian deskriptif. Sesuai dengan
artinya, penelitian deskriptif hanyalah memaparkan situasi atau peristiwa. Penelitian ini tidak
mencari atau menjelaskan hubungan, tidak menguji hipotesis atau membuat prediksi
(Rakhmat, 1999: 24).
3.3 Teknik Pengumpulan Data
Dalam mengumpulkan data, penulis melakukan wawancara mendalam kepada para
informan yang telah penulis tetapkan, yaitu Bagian Humas LPT YAI yaitu Ibu Ratna dan
Bagian Pengelola Sistem Informasi LPT YAI, yaitu Bapak Thantawi. Tujuannya adalah
mendapatkan keterangan yang dijadikan data primer sebagai bahan analisis. Selain itu,
penulis melakukan observasi, terutama terkait dengan situs website resmi yang dimiliki LPT
YAI guna mengetahui format-format dan tools yang disajikan dalam website resmi tersebut.
Studi pustaka juga penulis lakukan guna mendukung kajian analisis secara konseptual.
3.4 Kriteria Kualitas Penelitian
Kriteria
kualitas
penelitian
yang
penulis
gunakan
adalah
trustworthiness.
Trustworthiness yaitu menguji kebenaran dan kejujuran subjek dalam mengungkapkan
realutas menurut apa yang dialami, dirasakan, atau dibayangkan (Kriyantono, 2008: 70).
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Trustworthiness mencakup dua hal, yaitu authenticity dan triangulasi. Authenticity penulis
gunakan dengan memberikan kesempatan seluas-luasnya kepada informan dalam
memberikan informasi kepada penulis sebagai sumber data primer. Sementara yang terkait
dengan teknik triangulasi, penulis menggunakan triangulasi sumber. Triangulasi sumber yaitu
membandingkan atau mengecek ulang derajat kepercayaan suatu informasi yang diperoleh
dari sumber yang berbeda (Kriyantono, 2008: 70).
4. ANALISIS
4.1 Pemanfaatan Media Online di LPT YAI
Pemanfaatan media online dilakukan sebagai upaya meningkatkan pelayanan. Sejak
tahun 2010 LPT Yai telah melakukan berbagai upaya untuk meningkatkan pelayanan kepada
publik internal, yaitu mahasiswa. Hal ini dapat dilihat dengan adanya fitur-fitur online yang
dapat dimanfaatkan oleh mahasiswa, yaitu di antaranya adalah pengisian KRS dan daftar
ulang.
Terkait dengan pelayanan khususnya untuk mahasiswa, tentunya dapat memudahkan
mereka dalam mendapatkan informasi tentang kampus di mana pun mereka sedang berada.
Berikut menurut Bapak Thantawi,
”... hal ini (pelayanan via media online) diharapkan dapat mempermudah
mahasiswa bila mereka tidak sedang di Jakarta.”
Sebenarnya pula menurut Bapak Thantawi, untuk nilai melalui siskamaya sudah lebih
dahulu dilakukan. Setidaknya menurut Bapak Thantawi akan mempermudah mahasiswa
untuk melihat nilai tanpa harus datang ke kampus.
Hal yang sama juga disampaikan oleh Ibu Ratna. Bahkan, ke depan mereka telah
mempersiapkan alamat email untuk mahasiswa dan dosen. Sebagai upaya mengoptimalkan
pelayanan kepada publik internal, khususnya mahasiswa, pihak UPI YAI berencana akan
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memfasilitasi setiap mahasiswa memiliki e-mail pribadi mereka yang terintegrasi dengan
sistem jaringan komputerisasi UPI YAI. Kegunaannya antara lain, agar arus informasi
menjadi lebih lancar, langsung, terjaga secara konten, dan cepat diterima oleh mahasiswa via
e-mail mereka.
4.2 Peran Public Relations Dalam Menjalin Hubungan via Media Online
Berdasarkan fungsinya, PR sangat berperan penting dalam membina hubungan. Cutlip
& Center (dalam Kriyantono, 2008: 22) menyebut fungsi public relations, yang salah satunya
adalah membina hubungan secara harmonis antara perusahaan dan publik, baik internal
maupun eksternal.
Salah satu yang dilakukan PR dalam membina hubungan adalah dengan pemanfaatan
media, baik media internal ataupun media eksternal. Seiring dengan kemajuan teknologi, PR
juga dituntut untuk dapat memanfaatkan berbagai media online yang saat ini banyak menjadi
perbincangan. Pemanfaatan media online memiliki banyak keuntungan, di antaranya
menjangkau publik yang lebih luas serta respons yang cepat.
Sangat disayangkan dalam praktiknya, LPT YAI belum memanfaatkan media jejaring
sosial. Sesuai penuturan Ibu Ratna selaku humas yang menjelaskan bahwa :
”Kami sadar bahwa media jejaring sosial sangat besar manfaatnya. Hanya saja
keterbatasan SDM membuat kami belum dapat memanfaatkan media tersebut.”
Apalagi facebook sifat medianya terbuka. Karena administrasinya belum jelas, dikhawatirkan
terjadi misalnya, perang komentar. Facebook belum ada administratornya, dikhawatirkan
tidak terkontrol. Padahal, keberadaan media jejaring sosial ini dapat diperuntukkan misalnya,
dalam menjaga image organisasi. Namun, jika belum ada yang menangani secara khusus,
penggunaannya dikhawatirkan justru tidak mendukung image organisasi.
Disampaikan pula oleh ibu Ratna bahwa sebenarnya pernah ada salah satu organisasi
mahasiswa di lingkungan YAI yang bersedia untuk meng-handle facebook.
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”Sangat disayangkan mereka hanya mau facebook tersebut untuk fakutas
mereka sendiri bukan untuk semua. Karenanya kami tidak menyepakati.”
4.3 Upaya Membangun komunikasi dua arah
Cutlip & Center (dalam Kriyantono, 2008: 22) juga menyebut fungsi public relations,
yaitu menciptakan komunikasi dua arah secara timbal balik dengan menyebarkan informasi
dari perusahaan kepada publik dan menyalurkan opini publik kepada perusahaan. Hal ini pun
selalu diupayakan pihak LPT YAI. Terkait dengan pemanfaatan media online, pihak LPT
YAI berupaya membangun dan terus mengoptimalkan sarana media online tersebut.
Salah satu cara dalam membangun komunikasi dua arah adalah terciptanya
interaktivitas yang dilakukan via media online. Misalnya saja, pengumuman nilai,
perpustakaan online (kataloging buku), dan E-learning.
4.4 Kendala Dalam Pemanfaatan Media Online
Pengembangan website yang dilakukan LPT YAI bukan tanpa hambatan atau
kendala. Berikut beberapa kendala yang ditemukan sebagaimana pemaparan Ibu Ratna dari
divisi humas, yaitu:
(1)sentralisasi. Hal ini terlihat dari beberapa hal yang masih terpusat di yayasan, misalnya
pembayaran kuliah. Menurut ibu Ratna,
”Akan sangat membantu sekali bila mahasiswa yang telah melakukan pembayaran
langsung dapat konfirmasi secara online. Sebaliknya yang terjadi bila mahasiswa
telah melakukan pembayaran, pihak humas harus mengecek dulu ke bagian
keuangan.”
(2)koordinasi. Kendala koordinasi menjadi faktor penting dalam semua aktifitas
pengembangan materi di website. Minimnya koordinasi antara organisasi mahasiswa di
setiap fakultas dengan Bagian Humas membuat tidak semua event dapat ter-update
dengan cepat.
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Disampaikan oleh ibu Ratna bahwa,
”Saya sering kewalahan bila ada event. Apalagi mahasiswa tidak proaktif”.
Masalah koordinasi juga terlihat kemiripan peran dan tanggung jawab dalam
pengembangan
materi
website
antara
Bagian
Humas
dan
Puskom
(Pusat
Komputerisasi).
(3)Secara resmi pengembangan materi di website merupakan tanggung jawab humas.
Hanya saja pengembangan materi di website sering tidak tertangani karena Humas LPT
YAI hanya 1 (satu) orang. Tidak hanya itu, hal ini juga berdampak pada kurang
optimalnya pemanfaatan media sosial seperti facebook, twitter, dan Yahoo Messenger
yang sebenarnya memiliki nilai lebih bagi sebuah media online.
(4)Skill pengguna. Tidak setiap staf memiliki kemampuan untuk menggunakan media
online. Kadang ada staf yang kurang menguasai teknologi, sehingga menghambat dia
untuk menggunakan media online
5. PENUTUP
5.1 Kesimpulan
(1) Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), telah
memanfaatkan website sebagai media online dalam publisitas. Pemanfaat media online
dilakukan untuk membentuk image serta meningkatkan pelayanan.
(2) Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI) belum
memanfaatkan media jejaring sosial secara optimal. Hal ini dapat dipahami karena adanya
keterbatasan SDM yang sulit untuk menangani seluruh media.
(3) Pengembangan materi website dilakukan oleh Bagian Humas dan Puskom. Hanya saja
antara keduanya tidak jelas sejauh mana peran dan tanggung jawab masing-masing.
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5.2 Saran
(1) Akan sangat baik jika Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia
(LPT YAI) dapat meningkatkan pemanfaatan media online tidak hanya bagi mahasiswa
tapi juga bagi para staf pengajar. Hal ini mengingat staf pengajar menjadi ujung tombak
dalam berinteraksi dengan mahasiswa.
(2) Pemanfaatan media jejaring sosial sangat penting dalam meningkatkan komunikasi
antara seluruh lapisan. Akan sangat baik jika ada staf yang khusus menangani hal
tersebut.
(3) Lebih diperjelas sejauh mana peran, tanggung jawab, dan koordinasi yang harus
dilakukan oleh antara Bagian Humas, dan Puskom. Hal ini sangat memudahkan dalam
penyelesaian tugas yang tertangani.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Ardianto, Elvinaro. 2009. Public Relations Praktis. Bandung: Widya Padjajaran.
Iriantara, Yosal dan A. Yani Surachman. 2008. Media Relations. Konsep, Pendekatan, dan
Praktik. Bandung: Simbiosa Rekatama Media.
Kriyantono, Rahmat. 2008. Teknik Praktis Riset Komunikasi. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada
Media Group.
________________ 2008. Public Relations Writing: Teknik Produksi Media Public
Relations dan Publisitas Korporat. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group.
Lindlof, Thomas R. and Bryan C. Taylor. 2002. Qualitative Communication Research
Methods. Second Edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Moleong, Lexy J. 2004. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Cetakan ke-18. Bandung: Penerbit PT
Remaja Rosdakarya.
Newman, W. Lawrence. 1997. Social Research Methods. Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Third Edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Rakhmat, Jalaluddin. 1999. Metodologi Penelitian Komunikasi. Bandung: Penerbit PT
Remaja Rosdakarya.
Soemanagara, Rd. 2008. Strategi Marketing Communication: Konsep, Strategis, dan
Terapan. Bandung: Penerbit Alfabeta.
Sulaksana, Uyung. 2007. Integrated Marketing Communications: Teks dan Kasus.
Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Pelajar.
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SHOPPING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA: A STUDY ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
IN FACEBOOK’S ONLINE SHOP PAGE
Albert
STIKOM The London School of Public Relations Jakarta
Hersinta
STIKOM The London School of Public Relations Jakarta
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, social media like Facebook and Twitter, showed increasing number
rapidly from time to time. In Indonesia, Facebook has become the largest social media, being
the second place in user number, comparing to other countries.
As a result, one of the aspects that affected by this social media phenomena is
business. The development of social media provides a developing prospect for E-marketers
and digital enterpreneurs. If E-marketers know the insights on their buyers’ characteristic,
they could get insights on how customers interpret and receive stimuli
(messages/informations), which could affect customers’ decisions.
This paper focuses on interpreting factors which affect young people’s online
shopping in Facebook, as well as finding consumers online characteristic factors which
include cultural, social, personal and psychological factors.
In this research, 15 consumers from various online shop in Facebook were
interviewed and observed as informants. Those informants are in Y generation category (age
20-30) who had experienced shops online, male and female, to see if there any differences
between gender in their psychological characteristics.
From interviews and observations, male and female have different perceptions;
female’s reasons to buy are more because of convenience, while male’s reasons are mainly
because of customer service factor, such as uniqueness and safetyness. While safetyness and
reliabilities are main concern for male consumers, female did not have the same concern.
Keywords: Online Shopping, Consumer Behavior, Social Media
1.
Introduction
With the existence of web 2.0, online user behavior becomes more complex. The
development of online social media, like forum, microblogging and social networking sites
that very much appreciate liberty of speaking, required more insight to consumers’ behavior.
And marketing consultant has to be more careful in doing communication approach to their
consumers. Understanding online user behavior and how they interact is something they have
to do before they decide how they want to communicate.
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Based on research by IBM ASEAN, respondents who are from the Y generation (2030 years old) are very much willing to use various of technology and alternative channels.
They are also following the retail company in the social media. From that phenomena, IBM
concludes that customer trend nowadays are instrumented, interconnected and intelligent.
Instrumented because customer want to use various kind of technology. They have instant
access information about the retail. The information could be about the product, other
customers’ testimonials through technology. Interconnected because customers are connected
with not only other customers but also the retailers themselves. They use various type of
technology to interact one another. Intelligent because customer knows what they want. They
clearly defined their expectation to the retailer about current condition and in the future.
This fact is also changing human behavior in real world. One of the best examples is
consumer buying behavior. Nowadays, consumer buying behavior is changing from offline to
online shopping. Actually this change was already happening in western country, and now is
adapting in eastern country especially in Asian region. Moreover, with the forthcoming of
mobile internet era which can gives possibilities to the user to access the social media
anytime and anywhere.
According to Lauren Boyer, CEO of Underscore Marketing, consumers spend less
time actually going to stores, many are seeking out virtual interactions as a replacement for
the face-to-face contact they crave. Through brand sites that create a community of users, or
websites that actually bring shoppers together, consumers are finding a way to create their
very own store-like experiences (www.mashable.com). With social networking sites like
Facebook, consumers not only could make an online purchasing, but they could also giving
comments, message, testimonials and pictures, as well connect directly with the shop’s owner
and share their buying stuffs with friends.
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As a result, there are now many digitalpreneurs set up their business through social
media. The term “digitalpreneur” is given to someone who builds his/her own business with
internet as its main base. The development of telecommunication infrastructure, and the
increasing numbers of internet users in Indonesia, have speed up the growing of
digitalpreneurs or “ICT-preneurs”. In an article from SWA magazine, it is stated that the
success of social networking sites like Facebook, has inspired, and led to the birth of new
generation of digitalpreneur. In an interview with the magazine, Richardus Eko Indrajit, the
chairman of APTIKOM (Asosiasi Perguruan Tinggi Informatika dan Komputer) said that the
ICT-preneur phenomena increased because of some factors, such as: (1) they only required
small capital to start the business; (2) the risk of doing this kind of business is relatively low;
and (3) the business could in-line with personal interest or hobbies.
As the number of Facebook user in Indonesia keep increasing from time to time, from
Socialbakers.com we can see Indonesian Facebook users has reach more than 35.000.000
users (which is in second place after United States). And this is also means that as a company
who wants to enter online market they have more than 35 million potential customers.
Based on the fact above, this research sets out to analyze online consumers’ behavior,
of how and why they shop online on social networking sites like Facebook. Based on
psychological online characteristic defined by Smith and Rupp (2003), there are
psychological characteristics of consumer behavior, which act as questions the online
consumer would ask himself before making a purchase. For this research, we interviewed 15
informants from Y generations (20-30 years old), who shops regularly on Facebook online
shop.
Our goal is to interpret factors which affect young people’s online shopping in
Facebook shop, based on categories in psychological online characteristic, such as
motivation, perception, personality, attitude and emotions.
2.
Related Literature
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The term online shopping is meant as an umbrella term covering a relatively wide
semantic field of different practices starting from spending leisure time, having fun, searching
for information about products and services, browsing the selection, making bookings, to
completing actual purchases, which is
synonymously with the concept of e-shopping
(Raamat, et.al., 2008).
From a study on consumers’ attitude toward online shopping in New Zealand, it is
stated that online shopping is, however, a different experience from shopping in a physical
retail store (Shergill & Cheng, 2005). The absence of store atmospherics [Engel et al., 1990,
in Shergill & Cheng, 2005] have a direct effect on customer mood and behavior, with store’s
physical aspects such as colours, music and layout of products. Web stores so far cannot fully
simulate the ambience of a physical store on account of the limitations of devices. So, the
system design of the E-retailing experience must compensate for the loss of traditional instore ambiance (Shergill & Cheng, 2005).
One of the factors which could compensate the loss of the physical store ambience is
convenience. Compared to traditional way of shopping, in online shopping consumers have
the ability to view and purchase products at any time (Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005).
They could also visualize their needs with products, and discuss products with other
consumers (Joines, et.al, 2003 in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005). With so many
informations and opinions on the internet, consumers have many access to suppliers and
product/service opinions (Smith and Rupp, 2003 in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005).
Shen, et.al (2006) identified the key factors from previous literature that contributes to
people’s choosing to do online shopping, such as; (1) informativeness, consists of visual
appeal and information accessibility; (2) customer service, which means reliability, security
and efficiency; (3) convenience, which means ease of use and payment, also speed of
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delivery; and (4) experimental uniqueness, which could also means the fun factor,
entertainment value, as a means of escapism, and personalization for consumers.
The increasing number of users on social networking sites (SNS), such as Facebook,
had already made companies, organizations and individuals create a presence on SNSs. In
these SNSs, companies can create profiles and fan pages, stage events, and follow or fan
potential consumers (Jansen, Sobel & Cook, 2011). Moreover, users of SNSs can also
purchase gifts to send to friends or business associates. These gifts can be virtual and free (or
with a virtual currency), while other gifts can be real and purchased with actual money.
While SNS like Facebook has a main function as a place to connect and engaged with
other friends, which provides features such as giving comments, message, testimonials,
pictures, and album which we can share it with our friend, marketers and individual
entrepreneurs see this as a potential way to reach customers. Rutledge (in Jansen, Sobel &
Cook, 2011) reports that younger internet users desire low-cost and convenient online
methods to purchase products like music, books and apparel. Tapscott (in Jansen, Sobel &
Cook, 2011) also believes teenagers are a crucial part of online buying, with students (in
2006) earning almost $200 billion a year and purchasing $190 billion worth of goods.
Based on a study on influencing factors of online shopping (Wang, Liu & Cheng,
2008), it is found that culture, social, personal and psychological factors still had influencing
role. Cultural online characteristic identified by Smith and Rupp (in Hasslinger, Hodzic &
Opazo, 2005) as the difference social class creates a difference in purchasing online behavior.
Consumers from a higher social class generally purchase more and have a higher intention to
purchase online because there is a higher probability that they posses computer and also
greater access to the internet, while consumes from lower social class would not have the
same opportunities.
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Social online characteristics are also important in order to understand online
consumer behavior. Social online characteristic refers to social influence on the online
consumer comes from new media reference group. For the online consumer were identified
as virtual communities, consisting of discussion of groups on a website. The consumer can
read about other people’s experience and opinion which have shown to have effect
(Christopher & Huarng, 2003 in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005).
Personal online characteristic based on Monsuwe, Dellaert and Ruyter (2004)
explored the personal online consumer characteristic and concluded that income has a vital
role for online purchasing behavior. Age factor also identified as a determinant for online
purchase intentions. They think older people had no frequent interaction with the internet and
computer would not use the internet as a medium for purchase, while most of the young adult
would do that.
Psychological online characteristic defined by Smith and Rupp (2003) in Hasslinger,
Hodzic & Opazo (2005), as psychological characteristic of consumer behavior as question the
online consumer would ask himself before making a purchase. There are some categories in
psychological online characteristic:
1. Motivation – the consumers are reasoning for incentives to engage in a particular
behavior. He may ask himself a question like “should I look for better price?”,
“should I shop more often?”, or “How much do I really need this product?”.
2. Perception – the consumer is interpreting acquired information by closing it.
Question such as “I think this site is very secure, it seems has a good product but how
can I be so sure?”
3. Personality – the consumer is adapting to influences of his cognition. The question
could be “what type of website are best suits for my personal buying preferences?”
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4. Attitude – the consumer is working out what his like or dislike is in respect to a
particular situation. The consumers may ask themselves “should I really be buying
items from the internet?” or “if I do not buy the item online, how can I get it?”
5. Emotions – the consumer is without conscious effort detecting how he is being
affected by his cognitive choice. He may ask himself “last time I ordered from the
internet I had bad experiences, should I try to buy it again?” or “what is the future of
buying online?”
3.
Methodology
This research uses case study research with qualitative approach, as a means to
explore as much data as possible about the research subject by using some methods,
including interview, observation, document investigation, and any kind of data to
elaborate a case in detail.
The data used in this research primarily compiled by interviewing 15 informants, by
online and offline (face-to-face) interviews. To gain a deeper understanding on online
consumer behavior, informants were chosen by a specific criteria, those are in Y
generation category (aged 20-30), who shop regularly on Facebook, to . answer on
questions regarding their online shopping habit. The questions mainly based on four
dimensions which influence online shopping behaviors, including informativeness,
convenience, customer service and experiential uniqueness. Moreover, informants also
been interviewed regarding the psychological characteristic of online consumer behavior,
such as motivation, perception, personality, attitude and emotion.
4.
Results and Findings
Based on interviews, we tried to to observe the behavior of the informants in relation
of their buying pattern, the item they bought, key dimensions which influence online
shopping behaviors and the psychological characters. We separated the answers based on
349
gender, in order to seek any differences or similarities that will come out from each
answers. From datas that we have observed, we could conclude into the table below:
Table 1
Observation on Buying Behavior Based by Gender
Buying
Female
Male
factor/Gender
Introduction to Facebook - Friend’s references
-Try out
online shop
- Friend’s references
- Already know the owner
Sites
Item bought
Facebook
Kaskus
Kaskus
Facebook
Twitter
Gaming forum
Webstore
Webstore
Clothes
Gadget/gadget accessories
Fashion accessories
Clothes
Snacks
Fashion accessories
Dietary supplement
Gaming Voucher
Gadget/gadget accessories
Books
Snacks
Handphone voucher
Houseware
Cosmetics
Budget Spent Online
Reasons to buy
Rp.200.000 – 2 million
Rp. 500.000 – 1,5 million
- Convenience/Ease of use
- Product Uniqueness
- Experience Uniqueness
- Customer Service:
(Fun)
Competitive pricing, Special
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Difficulties
- Product Uniqueness
offer/discount
- Customer Service:
- Convenience
(Flexibility, Special offer,
- Security, reliability
discount, free shipping)
- Experience Uniqueness
- Security
(Fun)
- Problems in shipping
Nothing, only sometimes
- Being deceived by false have to wait for re-stock
account
Recommend to friend
Yes
Yes
Special offer
Yes
Yes
From the table above, we could conclude that there are similarities and differences on
online buying behavior between male and female. From 15 respondents, only 4 are male
while 11 others are female. At the beginning of data collection process, when we started
to post this topic on Facebook wall in order to find informants, some other male
respondents stated clearly that they were interested to see items on Facebook online shop,
especially gadget and shoes, but since the reliability and security are still big issues for
them, they have not make a purchase decision yet.
From the observation, we also found some facts about the characteristic of the online
products which consumers often bought. The products usually is not on the high price list,
packable, not a daily needs product, not too big in term of size of the product, mostly not
an easy broken product such as glass.
Another characteristic of the product they usually they do not buy is daily need
product such as FMCG. Most consumers in Y generation which we interviewed do not
look for this product online. In term of the size of the product, the product sold online
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usually is not very big, otherwise this would lead to difficulties in terms of shipping. And
on top of female shopper’s list are clothes and fashion accessories, while male’s interest
are gadget and its accessories, as well as clothes.
Preferences of sites to do online shopping are also different between the two genders.
While male prefer Kaskus more than Facebook because of the items offered (online
games voucher) and more reliability (Kaskus has a rating system for the sellers, such as
“cendol” for positive ratings and “bata” for negative ratings), female prefer Facebook
more because of its convenience and ease of use.
According to research found in the Journal of Electronic Commerce, if one focuses on
the demographic characteristics of the in-home shopper, in general, the higher the level of
education, income, and occupation of the head of the household, the more favorable the
perception of non-store shopping (Enrique, 2005).
Demographically speaking, most of the online consumers interviewed here are
university and high school graduate, with various jobs ranging from freelancer, teacher,
secretary, dentist to entrepreneur. Their budget for doing online shopping were also
various, ranging from 200.000 – 2 million rupiahs. They also likely to recommend their
experiences on online shopping to friends and relatives. Female shoppers tend to
experienced more problems in online shopping, ranging from minor (such as shipping
problem) to major (being deceived by false online shop’s account). While male states that
no serious problem occurred, only very minor, such as items ordered were not in stock
yet, so they have to wait for longer time until the items arrived.
5.
Discussion
From the interview and observation being done, we did some analysis
according to theories and concepts used in this research. As serve as the objective of this
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research is to analyze online consumers’ behavior, of how and why they shop online on
social networking sites like Facebook.
The identified characteristics are some key characteristic in regard to online
consumers, which include: Cultural online characteristic, Social online characteristic,
Personal online characteristic, and Psychological online characteristic. Cultural online
characteristic identified by Smith and Rupp (2003) in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo (2005)
as the difference social class creates a difference in purchasing online behavior. From
what we found, some informants who come from upper social class still do some
comparison in order to get the best price, and they are still really price sensitive.
From the social characteristic, Social online characteristic refers to social influences
on the online consumers, which usually comes from new media reference group. For the
online consumer were identified as virtual communities, consisting of discussion of
groups on a website. From the research findings, we can say that all of the informants
influenced by their social communities at the lowest influence. At least, all the informants
were introduced to online shopping world by their friends whether that particular friend is
a shop owner or they also shop at the same place. Even more, after the informant had
done some online shopping, they still ask for their friends for some references like most
informants do in “mutual friend” feature in Facebook.
Personal characteristic concluded that income has a vital role for online purchasing
behavior and also identified age factor as a determinant for online purchase intentions.
From this research we can say that money or income has the most vital part of all. For the
simplest logic, the one with higher income have the budget more than the lower income.
Not only from the buying power we could also see that people with higher income buy
things differently. People with higher income tend to buy items with higher price such as
353
gadget, shoes, or watches but the one with lower income tend to buy something which are
not really expensive such as clothes, handphone casing, accessories, etc.
The last characteristic and consider as the most important parts in affecting
consumer behavior is psychological characteristic. Motivation, is the consumers’
reasoning for incentives to engage in a particular behavior. From this research, we can see
that most informants were using the term “smart shopping” which refers to compare all
shops to find the best price offer. From the urgency level, we can say that most of the
informants shop when they think they really need that product, but some of them are still
shopping just for the fun of it, or entertainment value. This value is called “experiential
uniqueness”, which refers to how the Web is unique from other shopping channels, and
emphasizes some features only provided by the Internet. Entertainment value is the
appreciation for the retail “spectacle” or those who shop for the sake of entertainment.
Some of the informants said that they were enjoying looked at the “cute stuffs” on
Facebook online shop page, sometimes ended in purchase decision.
The second is perception, means the consumer is interpreting acquired information by
closing it. From the findings we can say most of the informants, especially male, trying to
convince themselves about the security not only from the site but furthermore “is it secure
if we buy in this shop?” or “can I trust the shop owner?” all of that question they answer
by asking for references from someone they believe trustworthy.
The third is personality, means the consumer is adapting to influences of his/her
cognition. Most of the informants starts their online shopping behavior from Kaskus
because Kaskus is the largest community forum in Indonesia and it is more well known if
we would like to buy something, but after some certain time period most of the informant
choose to change their source of shop. Facebook has become their destination to shop
because so many reasons behind it.
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Attitude is the fourth dimension of psychological characteristic, means the consumer
is working out what his like or dislike is in respect to a particular situation. We can say
this category is relating on the doubt in credibility of internet. From the research we can
see that most of the informants try to buy something in cheap price such as clothes,
accessories, handphone casing, etc for they believe it is some kind of testing because they
think it is better to lose money in few than much.
The last is emotion, means the consumer is without conscious effort detecting how
they were being affected by their cognitive choice. In this category, we found that
informants who experienced problems in online shopping, choose not to buy anymore
from the page/site, but they still buy it from another site which they think is more safe.
We could conclude that the key dimension which affect people to do online shopping,
in this case is convenient factor, that often refers to the opportunity to shop on a flexible
24/7 schedule from home (Hofacker, 2001) in Shen, et.al (2006). According to the same
source, convenience is regarded as one of the most frequently identified antecedents of
consumer adoption of online shopping, because it includes the opportunity to search and
compare a large number of alternatives at a relatively low search cost (Alba et al., 1997)
and eliminates frustrating encounters such as traffic, lack of parking, avoidance of check
out lines and travel to and from various stores (Childers, Carr, Peck, & Carson, 2001).
However, in this research, female consumers stated that convenience is the highest factor
that motivates them to do online shopping, while male consumers regarded that customer
service dimension which includes reliability and selection as the most important thing.
6.
Conclusions and Implications
After looking at all the findings and analyses, we could come to the conclusion and
implications in which:
355
1. Convenience, customer service (completeness, safety, competitive price), product and
experiment uniqueness are some factors that affect consumer’s behavior in online
shopping.
2. From those factors, convenience and customer service are two main factors that give
the most significant effect on the behavior.
3. From this research, the researcher believes that there is a big chance for company or
entrepreneur who like to starts business online by knowing some facts:
a. Better understanding of their online consumer behavior will help entrepreneur or
company to market online.
b. There are some differences between offline and online consumer.
The most
significant difference between online and offline consumer is their psychology
characteristics, how they think and act tends not to be the same.
c. Improve the customer service dimensions. For example, more focus on the
selection and uniqueness of the product type not only product line. Like, it is
better for shop owners to sell only shoes but we have many type of shoes, rather
than we sell shoes and sandals for both man and women but with only one or two
varieties.
Make the price reasonable for the item and give special offer like personalized
item or custom made that could contributes to purchase and re-purchase intentions
of the customers
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358
Memahami Perilaku Pemilih di Indonesia
( Sebuah Kajian dari Perspektif Political Marketing)
Oleh:
Arif Sugiono
Lecturer in Business Administration Departement, Lampung University
Email : [email protected]
The main problem discussed in this research is how far the influence of external factor to choosing decision in
determining the choose of President and Vice President candidates in second round year 2004 from Political
Marketing Perspective. This research uses external variables in order to understand the large of its external
factors to choosing decision which includes (1). Public policy/program (2). Social image (3) Emotional feeling
(4). Candidate image (5). Outstanding event (6). Personal event and (7). Epistemic issues.
The research methods being used are descriptive and explanatory survey. While research area being
chosen is Woro Village, Kepohbaru Subdistrict, Bojonegoro Regency. The population is people who have used
their election rights in the General Election. The data was analysized by using SEM/Structural Equation Model.
After testing the influence among variables, this study has conclusions, First, there are influence to
choosing decision in General Election of President and Vice President year 2004. Second, choosing decision on
first round shows the work of AIDA concept chronologically. Meanwhile, on second round, it was experienced
heuristics from previous process.
Keywords : Voter Behavior and Political Marketing.
I. Pendahuluan
Salah satu implikasi logis dari tatanan baru di era reformasi, adalah semakin dominanya
peran ilmu marketing dalam dunia politik. Hadirnya ilmu marketing dalam dunia
politik/political marketing, baik di Indonesia, mapun dinegara-negara lain tidak lepas dari pro
dan kontra. Kekhawatiran hadirnya industrialisasi politik, yang disebabkan hadirnya ilmu
marketing dalam dunia politik,
lebih pada terbagunnya sebuah skeptisme peran ilmu
marketing dalam dunia politik itu sendiri, Firmanzah (2004). Berbagai skeptisme tersebut
muncul lebih pada permasalahan trust (Laczianak & Michie, 1979), etika (Lock & Harris,
1996) , ketakutan adanya gejala Amerikanisasi dalam kehidupan politik (Elebash, 1984
dalam Firmanzah, 2004), dan dominanya komersiaisasi dunia politik yang akan mereduksi
arti dari berpolitik itu sendiri (O’saughnessy, 2001). Seiring dengan kekhawatiran para
peneliti di atas, beberapa pihakpun telah meyakinkan kepada kita, betapa pentingnya peran
ilmu pemasaran dalam dunia politik. Beberapa peneliti tersebut diantaranya, Bagozzi
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(1974,1975) ; Levy & Kotler (1979) ; O”Cass (1996, 2001) ; Hayes & McAllister (1996) ; O”
Shaughnessy (2001) dalam Firmanzah (2004)
Di satu sisi, dalam perkembangannya setiap individu dalam perannya sebagai pemilih, lebih
senang memposisikan sebagai seorang customer/voter, bukan lagi sebagai pengikut. Sebagai
seorang customer,seorang individu lebih memposisikan
pada terbangunnya hubungan
transaksional. Ketika seorang pemilih memilih seorang kandidat, setiap individu pasti
mempunyai ekspektasi tertentu, dengan tujuan ekspektasi tersebut dapat terpenuhi apabila
memilih kandidat tersebut. Pemahaman tentang perilaku pemilih, terutama faktor-faktor yang
mempengaruhi perilaku pemilih menjadi sangat penting. Karena dengan berbekal
pemahaman yang cukup tentang perilaku pemilih, maka seorang kandidat dan sebuah partai
politik
akan dengan mudah dalam merumuskan, menetapkan, menerapkan, serta
mengevaluasi strategi dan metode pendekatan untuk memenangkan pemilihan umum secara
efektif dan efesien.
Peneliti-peneliti baik yang berasal dari Eropa, Amerika, Asia dan Indonesia yang
memfokuskan pada perilaku pemilih, terutama faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan
memilih diantaranya Berelson (1954) ; Cambell (1960) ; Rieker & Ordenshook (1968) ;
Butler & Stoke (1969) ; Watanuki dalam La Palombara (1974) ; Ferejhon & Fiorina (1974) ;
Muller, Tollison, Willet (1976) ; Thomassen (1974) & Kaase (1976) dalam Niemi (1984).
Sementara peneliti-peneliti yang fokus pada perilaku pemilih diantaranya Geertz (1982)
Affan Gaffar (1988), J Kristiadi (1993) Muhammad Asfar (1997 ; 2004).
II. Kajian Pustaka & Kerangka Pikir
2.1. Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Perilaku Pemilih.
Penelitian di bidang perilaku pemilih, terutama faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku
pemilih, telah banyak dilakukan oleh para peneliti dari Eropa, Amerika, Asia dan Indonesia
sendiri. Studi pustaka yang dilakukan penulis tentang faktor - faktor yang mempengaruhi
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perilaku memilih, menunjukkan bahwa para peneliti berusaha menjelaskan perilaku pemilih
berdasarkan faktor-faktor
sosiologis / ekternal , psikologis / internal , faktor-faktor
sosiokultural.
2.1.1. Faktor Ekternal.
Peneliti-peneliti yang menfokuskan pada faktor-faktor sosiologis, pada umumnya
berangkat dari sebuah asumsi bahwa kepartaian dan pengelompokkan pemilih pada umumnya
didasarkan pada kelas sosial. Sebagaimana menurut Van der Muijezenberg dan Bambang
Gunawan dalam J Kristiadi (1993), Lipset (1985), Butler & Stoke di Inggris (1996). Lijphart
(1990 ) Rose (1974) menunjukkan juga, bahwa variabel-variabel budaya, agama, dan sosial
juga mempengaruhi keputusan memilih di beberapa negara, diantaranya Italia, Belgia, dan
Jerman Barat.
Sedangkan di beberapa negara Asia, seperti
Jepang dan India juga
menunjukkan hal yang sama. Sebagaimana dikemukakan Watanuki dan Rajni Kothari, dalam
La Palombara (1974).
Sementara, penelitian Lipset dalam Sherman dan Aliza Kolker (1987 : 205), menunjukkan
hubungan agama dengan perilaku pemilih di beberapa negara, di mana partai tidak
mempunyai batas yang jelas dengan agama, kelompok minoritas, di bidang ekonomi, politik
atau diskriminan-diskriminan tertentu cenderung untuk memilih partai yang berpaham liberal
atau partai yang berhaluan kiri. Sementara kelompok mayoritas cenderung untuk memberikan
suaranya pada partai konservatif atau partai sayap kanan. Di AS misalnya, penganut agama
Katholik dan Yahudi, kulit hitam Hispanic (keturuanan latin) merupakan pendukung setia
partai Demokrat. Sementara kaum Protestan Anglo Saxon memberikan dukungan pada partai
Republik. Pada pemilihan presiden tahun 1984, 68 % orang yahudi di Amerika Serikat
memberikan suaranya untuk partai Demokrat di banding dengan 39 % suara dari kaum
protestan.
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2.1.2. Faktor Internal
Muhammad Asfar (1996) melakukan telaah kritis terhadap penelitian-penelitain yang hanya
memfokuskan pada faktor-faktor ekternal/sosiologis, Asfar mempertanyakan, apakah benar
variabel-variabel utama dalam pendekatan sosiologis, itu memberi sumbangan pada perilaku
pemilih. Tidakkah varibel-variabel itu baru dapat dihubungkan dengan perilaku pemilih
ketika sudah melalui proses sosialisasi. Untuk itu sosialisasilah yang sebenarnya menentukan,
bukan karaktersitik sosiologis. Muhammad Asfar, juga mengkritik bahwa faktor-faktor
sosiologis terlalu deterministik, sehingga hanya menempatkan individu hanya sebagai obyek
dari struktur, baik struktur dalam pengertian budaya maupun lembaga
dan seolah-olah
individu tidak mempunyai kehendak bebas.
Selanjutnya, banyak peneliti-peneliti yang memfokuskan pada faktor-faktor internal, yang
berangkat dari sebuah asumsi bahwa pada dasarnya teori perilaku pemilih dilandasi oleh
konsep sikap dan sosialisasi. Sikap seseorang sangat mempengaruhi perilaku politiknya.
Sikap tersebut dipengaruhi oleh proses sosialisasi yang berjalan cukup lama. Proses
sosialisasi bisa melalui berbagai cara, diantaranya, perilaku bisa dipengaruhi dari perilaku
politik orang tua, kelompok acuan, seperti kelompok pekerjaan, kelompok olah raga dan lainlain. Proses-proses sosialisasi seperti ini yang akan membentuk ikatan yang kuat terhadap
sebuah partai politik. Proses inilah disebut sebagai proses identifikasi partai yang merupakan
variabel inti untuk menjelaskan perilaku pemilih.
Cambell (1960) dalam J Kristiadi (1993: 30), menjelaskan proses terbentuknya perilaku
pemilih dengan istilah “Funnel of Causality”. Pengandaian itu dimaksudkan untuk
menjelaskan fenomena voting yang di dalam model terletak paling atas dari “funnel” /
cerobong. Digambarkan bahwa di dalam cerobong terdapat as (axis) yang mewakili dimensi
waktu. Kejadian-kejadian yang saling berhubungan satu sama lain bergerak dalam dimensi
waktu tertentu mulai dari mulut sampai ke ujung cerobong. Mulut cerobong adalah latar
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belakang sosial (agama, ras, etnik, daerah), status sosial (pendidikan, pekerjaan, kelas) dan
watak orang tua. Semua unsur tadi mempengaruhi identifikasi kepartaian seseorang yang
merupakan bagian berikutnya dari proses tersebut. Pada tahap selanjutnya, identifikasi partai
akan mempengaruhi penilaian terhadap para kandidat dan isu-isu politik. Sedangkan proses
yang paling dekat dengan perilaku pemilih adalah kampanye sebelum pemilu maupun
kejadian-kejadian yang diberitakan oleh media massa. Dan akhirnya masing-masing unsur
dalam proses tersebut akan mempengaruhi perilaku pemilih.
Dalam perkembangannya beberapa peneliti, seperti Affan Gaffar (1988), melakukan
penelitian tentang perilaku pemilih di Yogyakarta, J. Kristiadi (1993) melakukan penelitian
tentang perilaku. Kemudian Abdul Munir Mulkan (1989) dan Muhamad Asfar (1997).
2.2. Proses Keputusan Memilih.
Berkaitan dengan keputusan memilih, Antropolog James Spradley (1993) menjelaskan
bahwa, setiap individu dalam memutuskan sesuatu, pada umumnya dimulai dari kognitif
seseorang. Kognitif menurut Spradley adalah apa yang tertanam dalam benak seseorang.
Yakni sesuatu yang dipercayai dan diterima sebagai sesuatu yang benar oleh seseorang atau
komunitas tertentu atau masyarakat dalam budaya tertentu. Spradley juga menekankan
bahwa, prinsip - prinsip kognitif mucul dari persepsi. Persepsi menurut Spradley adalah
gambaran mental dari tanggapan manusia terhadap seseorang. Terbentuknya Persepsi
seseorang sendiri disebabkan karena rangsangan / stimulus luar berupa obyek atau peristiwa
tertentu, menjadi simbol-simbol yang disalurkan ke satu atau beberapa organ panca indra,
lalu disampaikan oleh sel-sel saraf ke otak. Simbol-simbol tersebut diolah diotak dengan
mengaitkan kepada suatu rujukan tertentu, dan kemudian terbentuklah persepsi. Proses
selanjutnya adalah terbentuknya makna subyektif yang tertanam dalam benak orang tersebut
dan menjadi dasar orientasi perilaku.
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Para peneliti perilaku telah memformulasikan sejumlah model berurutan / sequence
model untuk menjelaskan proses yang dilalui konsumen dalam mengambil tindakan
pembelian. Ada empat model tahapan respon konsumen dalam memutuskan pilihannya, yang
oleh Kotler disebut dengan “response hierarchy models” . (Kotler ,2003:568) keempat model
tersebut adalah Model AIDA, model efek hirarki / hierarchy of effects model, model AdopsiInovasi / Innovation-Adoption Model dan model komunikasi / Communication model. Lebih
jelasnya keempat model tersebut dapat di lihat dalam gambar 1 (Lihat Lampiran 1.)
2.3. Kerangka Pikir
Terkait dengan dinamika politik yang menunjukkan bekerjanya gejala political marketing.
Maka kajian-kajian perilaku pemilih tidak hanya dimonopoli oleh peneliti-peneliti yang
berlatar belakang pendidikan ilmu politik. Tapi juga melibatkan beberapa peneliti yang
berasal dari berbagai disiplin ilmu, diantaranya mereka yang berlatar belakang keilmua
pemasaran dan psikologi. Bukti keterlibatan ahli-ahli marketing dalam kajian perilaku
pemilih adalah sebagaimana ditunjukkan Newman & Sheeth (1985) yang menghasilkan teori
perilaku pemilih yang memfokuskan pada faktor ekternal, yang terdiri dari 7 domain terpisah
diantaranya Program / Kebijakan Publik, Citra sosial, Perasaan Emosional, Citra Kandidat,
Peristiwa Mutakhir, Peristiwa Personal, dan Faktor-faktor epistemik.
Penelitian ini memfokuskan pada pengaruh faktor-faktor eksternal/personality candidat di
atas terhadap keputusan memilih dalam Pilpres RI 2004, Putaran Kedua. Alasan dipilihnya
ketujuh varibel eksternal yang bersifat personality kandidat, karena adanya kecendrungan
bahwa individu dalam perannya sebagai pemilih, selalu berusaha untuk melihat secara utuh
sang kandidat, Newman (1999).
Penelitian dilakukan di Desa Woro, Kec. Kepohbaru, Kab. Bojonegoro. Alasan dipilihnya
daerah tersebut, karena secara sosial politik menunjukkan miniatur dari pemilih di Indonesia,
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yang pada Pemilu 2004, masih ditandai dominannya trikotomi Gertz, dengan mempolakan
pemilih di Indonesia dengan tiga kelompok, yakni priyayi, santi dan abangan. Walaupun
dalam perkembangannya (Pilpres RI 2009 dan Pemilukada dibeberapa daerah, yang penulis
amati, Seperti Kab. Bojonegoro, Tuban, Lamongan ) kondisi masyarakat semakin mencair,
dan semakin menunjukkan lunturnya trikotomi tersebut. Adapun Paradigma Penelitian lebih
jelasnya dapat di lihat dalam Lampiran 2.
III. Metodologi Penelitian
Tipe metode penelitian ini adalah explanatory survey. Selain menggunakan metode
tersebut, digunakan juga
metode deskriptif. Penggunaan metode ini bertujuan untuk
mengambarkan sifat sesuatu yang tengah berlangsung pada saat riset dilakukan dan
memeriksa sebab-sebab dari suatu gejala tertentu. Penggunaan metode ini dimaksudkan
untuk melengkapi metode explanatory. Sebagaimana pendapat Babbie (1995) yang
berpendapat, “Description is precise measurement and reporting of the caracteristic of some
population or phenomenon under study”.
Untuk menguji model digunakan SEM / Structural Equation Model. Sebagai alat analisis
multivariate hanya mengenal dua jenis skala metrik (interval/ratio) dan skala non metrik.
Oleh karena skor yang diperoleh mempunyai tingkat pengukuran ordinal, maka sebelum
dianalisis,
indikator-indikator
tersebut
ditransformasikan
menjadi
interval
dengan
menggunakan program statistik LISREL. Dalam pengujian model dengan menggunakan
SEM.
Jenis data yang dibutuhkan dalam penelitian ini adalah data sekunder dan data primer. Unit
analisis dalam penelitian ini adalah masyarakat yang memiliki hak pilih di Desa Woro,
Kecamatan Kepohbaru, Kabupaten Bojonegoro, Jawa Timur. Berdasarkan data dari Panitia
Pemungutuan Suara / PPS di tingkat desa, jumlah pemilih di lokasi penelitian sejumlah 1482
pemilih. Menurut Hair dalam Augusty Ferdinand (2000 : 43) berkaitan dengan pedoman
ukuran sampel dalam SEM, meyatakan bahwa :
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“Besarnya sampel sangat tergantung pada jumlah indikator yang digunakan dalam seluruh variabel laten.
Jumlah sampel adalah jumlah indikator dikali 5 sampai 10. Sebagai contoh, bila terdapat 20 indikator, besarnya
sampel adalah 100 sampai 200. Bila ukuran sampel menjadi terlalu besar misalnya lebih dari 400 maka metode
“sangat sensitif” sehingga sulit untuk mendapatkan ukuran-kuran goodnes-of-it yang baik. “
Bantler dan Chou dalam Schumacher dan Lomax (1996) menyarankan minimal 1 : 5 (satu
berbanding lima) antara jumlah indikator dengan jumlah responden untuk penelitian yang
menggunakan SEM. Oleh karena itu, berdasarkan dalam operasionalisasi variabel di atas,
jumlah indikator dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 40 Indikator. Sehingga jumlah sampel dalam
penelitian ini sebesar 200. Penarikan sampel menggunakan teknik sampling acak sederhana /
simple random sampling. Operasionalisasi variabel penelitian, lebih jelasnya dapat di lihat
dalam Tabel 1. Lampiran 3.
IV. Hasil Penelitian
4.1. Pengaruh Faktor Eksternal Terhadap Keputusan Memilih
Sebagaimana telah dijelaskan dalam bagian terdahulu, alat analisis yang digunakan adalah
SEM, maka akan dijelaskan structural model dan measurement model. Model struktural atau
structural model adalah merupakan model yang menjelaskan hubungan kausal diantara
variabel / konstruk / Variabel Laten.
Pengujian ini merupakan uji hipotesis penelitian.
Sedangkan Model Pengukuran atau measurement model adalah model yang menjelaskan
hubungan antara indikator dan konstruknya.
Adapun secara lengkap hasil estimasi
persamaan struktural disajikan pada gambar 3 dalam lampiran 4.
Berdasarkan
gambar tersebut, dapat di lihat nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik pengaruh
variabel program terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.4484 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji
statistik sebesar 5.5252, citra sosial terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.1520 dengan nilai
t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.0569, perasaan emosional terhadap keputusan memilih
sebesar 0.1572 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.2162, citra kandidat terhadap
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keputusan memilih sebesar 0.1427dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.0035,
peristiwa muthakir terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.2102 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk
uji statistik sebesar 2.8864, peristiwa personal terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.1520
dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.1982, dan isu-isu epistemik terhadap
keputusan memilih sebesar 0.2157 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 3.0399.
Untuk penelitian sebesar 0,05, nilai untuk batas dinyatakan uji signifikan adalah 1,965.
Lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat dalam tabel 2 Lampiran 5.
Jadi dapat disimpulkan pengaruh program, citra sosial, perasaan emosional, citra kandidat,
peristiwa muthakir, peristiwa personal, isu-isu epistemik secara parsial tehadap keputusan
memilih signifikan secara pengujian statistik karena nilai t-hitung untuk setiap pengujian
lebih besar dari t-tabel 1,965. Hasil Pengujian secara statistik mengenai pengaruh program
(1), citra sosial (2), perasaan emosional (3), citra kandidat (4), peristiwa muthakir (5),
peristiwa personal (6), isu-isu epistemik (7) tehadap keputusan memilih () dengan
menggunakan structural equation modeling menunjukan secara parsial terdapat pengaruh
nyata (signifikan). Adapun besarnya pengaruh masing-masing faktor eksternal (program,
citra sosial, perasaan emosional, citra kandidat, peristiwa muthakir, peristiwa personal, isuisu epistemik) tehadap keputusan memilih dapat di lihat pada tabel 3 Lampiran 6 :
Berdasarkan hasil penelitain di atas, dapat dijelaskan bahwa pengaruh parsial dari
ketujuh variabel di atas secara berturut-turut terhadap keputusan memilih adalah program dari
sang kandidat, isu-isu epistemik, peristiwa muthakir yang terjadi menjelang pemilihan umum
putaran kedua, perasaan emosional yang muncul dari sang kandidat, citra sosial dan peristiwa
personal (mempunyai besar pengaruh yang sama), kemudian yang paling kecil adalah citra
kandidat.
4.2. Keputusan Memilih.
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Setelah dianalisis, secara sederhana, proses keputusan memilih dalam Pilpres RI
2004, putaran ke dua, dapat dilihat dalam table 4. Berdasarkan tabel di atas, terlihat indikator
Y3 (Desire) memiliki bobot faktor yang lebih besar dibanding 2 indikator lainnya. Kondisi
ini mengindikasikan bahwa Y3 menjadi faktor dominan dari variabel keputusan memilih.
Selanjutnya Indikator pembentuk Keputusan memilih secara berturut-turut adalah Y1
(Attention) dan Y2 (Interst). Lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat dalam Tabel 4 Lampiran 6.
Pemilih dalam memutuskan untuk memilih pada putaran kedua ini menunjukkan adanya
heuristic / penyederhanaan dalam penentuan pilihan. Penggunaan penyederhanaan diyakini
memudahkan bagi pemilih untuk menentukan pilihan dengan informasi yang tersedia tanpa
harus menunggu kelengkapan informasi. Hal ini berbeda dengan keputusan memilih pada
putaran pertama. Pemilih pada putaran pertama masih menjalankan fungsinya sebagai
individual information process dengan baik, yang ditandai dengan bekerjanya domain
kognitif, afektif, behavior secara berurutan. Terjadinya heuritic / penyederhanaan dalam
proses pengambilan keputusan dikarenakan untuk menghindari penumpukkan informasi /
overload information. Sebagaimana dijelaskan juga oleh Kanuk (2003).
Berkaitan dengan karakteristik proses pengambilan keputusan dalam dunia politik yang
sering mengalami proses heuritic, Popkins dalam Firmazah (2005) lebih senang
menggunakan terminologi ”low information rationality” yang menekankan bahwa keputusan
politik didominasi oleh proses short cut kognitif. Kompleksitas, ketaatan kebimbangan, dan
ketidak pastian adalah ciri khas yang selalu hadir pada saat pemilih harus menentukan
pilihannya, Aldrich (1982). Hal ini lebih sering disebabkan oleh penggunaan bahasa legal
oleh kandidat yang sangat sulit untuk dimengerti, ketiadaan waktu dan keterbatasan
kemampuan analisa atas konsekwensi logis dari program yang diajukan sang kandidat dan
tanggapan isu-isu yang berkembang oleh kandidat. Sedangkan sang kandidat sering berusaha
memposisikan diri seluas mungkin atas isu-isu yang berkembang dan permasalahan politik
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yang sering kali muncul. Hal ini ditujukan agar sang kandidat bisa diinterpretasikan dan
dinilai (melalui bekerjanya kekuatan kognitif) oleh masyarakat yang memiliki skala prioritas
yang berbeda-beda atas sebuah isu politik dan permaslahan politik tersebut. Selain itu,
ketidakjelasan posisi juga bisa disebabkan kurangnya kemampuan seseorang kandidat dalam
memposisikan dirinya terhadap isu dan permasalahan politik yang berkembang.
Melimpahnya informasi dan pesan politik menjelang pemilihan dan pada saat kampanye,
kadangkala menyulitkan pemilih untuk mengolah dan menganalisanya. Selain itu juga,
informasi yang tersedia sering kali bertolak belakang dari kenyataan sebenarnya. Hal ini bisa
diakibatkan oleh teknik manipulasi politik untuk menyudutkan lawan politik, janji-janji
politik dan sebagainya. Sementara para pemilih memiliki keterbatasan kognitif / bounded
rasionality, sehingga penggunaan penyederhanaan diyakini memudahkan si pengambil
keputusan untuk menentukan pilihan dengan informasi yang tersedia tanpa harus menunggu
kelengkapan informasi. Starbuck & Milliken, dalam Firmazah (2005).
V. Kesimpulan & Saran
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian di atas, maka kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah :
1. Besarnya Pengaruh Program yang ditawarkan para kandidat terhadap keputusan
memilih pada putaran kedua sebesar 20,11 %. Hal ini menunjukkan, produk dari sang
kandidat yang berkaitan dengan program di berbagai bidang mempunyai pengaruh yang
relatif kuat. Indikator pembentuk variabel pada putaran kedua meliputi program di
bidang politik menjadi indikator pembentuk dominan, kemudian diikuti hukum, sosial,
ekonomi, luar negeri dan budaya.
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2. Besarnya pengaruh citra sosial terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan presiden
putaran kedua sebesar 2, 31 %. indikator pembentuk pada putaran kedua, juga
mengalami perubahan. Gender menjadi indikator dominan kedua, baru kemudian etnik.
3. Besarnya pengaruh perasaan emosional / emosional feeling, terhadap keputusan
memilih dalam pemilihan presiden putaran kedua sebesar 2,47 %. Indikator pembentuk
variabel ini. Secara berurutan adalah ketegasan dar sang kandidat, sosok yang mampu
melindungi, dan kandidat yang mempunyai jiwa patriot.
4. Besarnya pengaruh citra kandidat terhadap keputusan memilih citra kandidat terbentuk
atas kesopanan tetapi oleh kesehatan, kesopanan dari para kandidat, kejujuran, energik
dan stabil.
5. Besarnya pengaruh peristiwa muthakir terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan
presiden putaran kedua sebesar 4,42 %. Selain itu, temuan studi ini menunjukkan pada
pemilu presiden putaran kedua yang sangat diperhatikan dan menjadi indikator
pembentuk variabel peristiwa muthakir adalah adanya pro konta yang berkembang
tentang netralitas survei dan intervensi asing dalam survei tersebut, kemudian koalisi
dan bagi-bagi kekuasaan yang akan dilakukkan ketika menang pemilu yang dilakukan
para kandidat juga menjadi indikator pembentuk kedua. Selain itu penolakan presiden
wanita menjadi indikator pembentuk ketiga, baru kemudian berakhirnya politik aliran.
6. Besarnya pengaruh peristiwa personal terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan
presiden putaran kedua sebesar 2,31 %. Selain itu, temuan studi ini menunjukkan pada
putaran kedua pendidikan tidak lagi menunjukkan domiansinya, tapi indikator yang
paling dominan dalam membentuk variabel ini adalah seorang kandidat yang telah
menjadi korban pemerintahan terdahulu.
7. Besarnya pengaruh isu-isu epistemik terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan
presiden putaran kedua sebesar 4,65 %. Temuan studi ini menunjukkan pada pemilu
370
presiden putaran kedua, Isu-isu yang menajdi fokus dari para pemilih ketika dikaitkan
dengan kemampuan para kandidat menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan mengatasi krisis
menajdi indikator utama. Setelah itu diikuti oleh kemampuan meningktakan
kesejahteran rakyat, dan mampu memberikan jaminam keamanan.
8. Berkaitan dengan keputusan memilih, pada putaran kedua terjadi heuritic /
penyederhanaan, bekerjanya proses response hierarchy dalam menentukan keputusan
memilih.
Sesuai dengan temuan studi di atas, maka dapat disarankan beberapa hal, yang meliputi :
1.
Sebagaimana yang telah dikemukan pada bab terdahulu, bahwa kajian political
marketing adalah sesuatu yang baru, diawal kemunculannya di Indonesia. Hasil
studi ini menunjukkan bahwa pengaruh di luar variabel ini masih sangat besar,
sehingga peluang bagi peneliti - peneliti lain yang tertarik dengan fokus kajian
political
marketing
dapat
mengembangkan
konfigurasi
teorits
dengan
memunculkan variabel-variabel lain (faktor eksternal diluar ini serta faktor internal)
baik melalui studi eksploratif maupun exsplanatory tentang voter behavior di
Indonesia dari perspektif political marketing
masih sangat terbuka. Selain itu,
peluang penelitian yang memfokuskan pada perilaku non voting (Faktor yang
mempengaruhi dan besarnya pengaruh faktor tersebut ) dari perspektif political
marketing juga sangat terbuka.
2.
Bagi partai politik yang akan mencalonkan para kandidatnya sebaiknya
mempersiapkan dengan baik program-program yang akan ditawarkan oleh kandidat
tersebut. Oleh karena itu, kehadiran tim sukses yang benar-benar berkualitas dari
berbagai pakar dibidangnya sangat dibutuhkan. Diharapkan tim tersebut, akan
mampu melakukan analisis dan merumuskan strategi melalui penciptaan program
yang mampu menjawab kebutuhan dan permasalahan pemilih.
371
3.
Memposisikan seorang kandidat dengan menempatkan sang kandidat tersebut
merupakan representasi kelompok, golongan atau kelas tertentu sudah kurang begitu
efektif. Akan lebih baik pada bagaimana seorang kandidat harus lebih terfokus pada
pentingnya Management issue dalam menanggapi peristiwa-peristiwa yang terjadi,
dengan memperhatikan kajian-kajian psikologi massa dan komunikasi massa
menjelang pemilihan umum berlangsung, dengan tetap mengedepankan etika
political marketing. Hal itu didasarkan pada temuan studi di atas dimana pengaruh
peristiwa muthakir dan isu-isu epistemik mempunyai pengaruh yang cukup besar
dalam keputusan memilih dibanding citra sosial.
4.
berkaitan dengan emotional felling, disarankan seorang kandidat harus berusaha
make your voter fall in love with you. Ketika seorang kandidat membuat para
pemilih jatuh cinta pada kandidat tersebut, tentu sang kandidat akan berusaha keras
untuk memenuhi segala keinginan para pemilih, dengan memunculkan sisi-sisi
emosional. Untuk itu sang kandidat harus memastikan bahwa desain produk dan
materi komunikasi didukung dengan
bahasa tubuh yang harus menyentuh dan
merangsang otak kanan para pemilih, dengan menyentuh sisi emosional pemilih.
Selain itu, SDM yang akan mendukung para kandidat pun harus memperhatikan EQ
dan bukan sekedar IQ.
5.
Berkaitan dengan citra kandidat, sang kandidat harus menciptakan aura, dengan
menjalankan emotional branding secara konsisten. pencitraan kandidat tidak dapat
diperoleh dengan cepat dan instan, oleh karena itu dibutuhkan kesabaran dan
konsisten.
6.
Selalu berusaha menjalankan komunikasi politik, dengan mengedepankan prinsipprinsip efesien, dan efektif untuk menghindari terjadinya overload information, yang
berakibat terjadinya heuritic dalam pengambilan keputusan.
372
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374
Lampiran 1.
Gambar 1.
Response Hierarchy Models.
Stage
AIDA
Hierarchy of
Innovation-
Communication
Model
Effects Model
Adoption Model
Model
Awwarness
Cognitive
Exposure
Attention
Awwarness
Reception
Knowledge
Stage
Cognitive
Response
Interst
Interst
Liking
Attitude
Affective
Preference
Stage
Conviction
Intention
Desire
Evaluation
Trial
Behavior
Stage
Action
Behavior
Purchase
Adoption
Sumber : Kotler (2006 :568)
375
Lampiran 2.
Gambar 2. Paradigma Penelitian
X1
X2
X3
Y
X4
(Keputusan
Memilih dalam
X5
X6
X7
( Epistemic Issues)
Lampiran 3
376
Tabel. 1
Operasionalisasi Variabel, Dimensi dan Indikator
Variabel/
Dimensi Variabel
Indikator
Satuan Ukuran
Skala Ukur
Sub variabel
1
2
3
Program /
Kebijakan
Kebijakan
program-program
Publik
ditawarkan
apabila
dia 
memenangkan
pemilihan
yg
X1
-
kebijakan
/ 
yang
akan berlangsung.
4
Kebijakan
di
bidang
Tingkat
Persetujuan
5
pemilih
Terhadap
Ordinal
Indikator program / kebijakan publik yang
ekonomi.
Kebijakan
di
bidang
ditawarkan
calon
presiden
dan
wakil
presiden
politik.

Kebijakan
di
bidang
Kebijakan
di
bidang
di
bidang
hukum.

budaya.

Kebijakan
sosial.

Kebijakan di bidang luar
negeri.
Citra Sosial
X2
Citra kandidat dalam pikiran 
Demografi
:
pemilih mengenai berada dalam
Usia (contoh ; mewakili orang
posisi apa, tergolong kelompok
muda),
sosial mana, sebuah partai atau 
(contoh
kata lain, penciptaan stereotip
bangsa dari kaum hawa),
sebuah
seorang
partai
kandidat,
menciptakan
kandidat atau
:
calon
atau 
dengan
asosiasi
antara
partai
dengan
Persetujuan
pemilih
Terhadap
Ordinal
Indikator citra sosial
Gender
seorang kandidat. Atau dengan
terhadap
Tingkat
pemimpin
Etnik (contoh
: partai wong Jawa)
segmen-segmen tertentu dalam
masyarakat
Perasaan
Dimensi
emosional
yang 
Patriotik.
Tingkat Persetujuan pemilih Terhadap
Emosional
nampak dari seorang kandidat, 
Tegas.
Indikator perasaan emotional pada saat
X3
yang pada umumnya terlihat dari 
Pelindung
menentukan pilihannya.
Ordinal
pendapat yang dikemukakan dan
kebijakan yang diambil
Sifat-sifat pribadi yang penting 
Sehat
Citra kandidat
yang dianggap sebagai karakter 
Sopan
Indikator citra kandidat pada saat
X4
kandidat. Beberapa sifat yang 
Jujur,
juga
Stabil,
merupakan
candidat 
personality.

Peristiwa
Meliputi
Muthakir
peristiwa yang terjadi selama
X5
masa
menjelang
pada
pemilihan
Penolakan Presiden
sampai 
umum.
Indikator peristiwa-peristiwa muthakir pada
Militer
Penolakan Presiden
saat menentukan pilihannya
Wanita
Peristiwa mutakhir dapat di bagi 
menjadi Peristiwa domestik dan
Peristiwa luar negeri
Energik.
kumpulan 
kampanye
Pro Kontra Tafsir
Kesehatan Capres.

Ordinal
Konvensi partai Golkar.
377
Ordinal
Variabel/
Dimensi Variabel
Indikator
Satuan Ukuran
Skala Ukur
2
3
4
5
Sub variabel
1

Munculnya Golongan
Putih

Gugatan Tim Wiranto –
Wahid.

Akhir Politik Aliran.

Intervensi Asing dan
Netralitas Survei

Koalisi dan Bagi-bagi
kekuasaan.
Mengacu
pada
kehidupan 
Seorang kyai / ulama,
Putri Mantan Presiden,
Indikator peristiwa personal pada saat
Tokoh reformis,
Peristiwa
pribadi
Personal
pernah di alami secara pribadi 
X6
oleh seorang kandidat selama 
karier yang dijalani sebelum
Menjadi korban rezim
dan
peristiwa
yang 
menjadi seorang kandidat
Ordinal
tertentu,

Mantan Jenderal / Bekas
TNI

Pernah Aktif & kader
dari NU
Pernah Aktif & Kader dr
Muhamadiyah

Seorang Profesor

Seorang Pengusaha
Isu-isu pemilihan yang spesifik 
Isu-Isu
yang
dapat
keingintahuan
Epsitemik
X7
mengenai
memicu
Mampu memberantas
para
pemilih 
kemampuan
sang
Ordinal
Indikator isu-isu epistemik pada saat
Korupsi.
Mampu mengatasi
Krisis.
kandidat dalam menangani isu 
tersebut.
Mampu memberikan
jaminan keamanan.

Mampu meningkatkan
kesejahteraan rakyat.
Serangkaian proses yang
Keputusan
dilakukan oleh calon pemilih
Pemilih
dalam memutuskan tindakan
Untuk

adanya Attention atau Perhatian
Y
sampai pada Action pada pemilu
presiden dan wakil presiden
putaran pertama dan kedua.

yang diberikan oleh pemilih

memilih yang dimulai dari
Memilih
Perhatian / Attention

Timbulnya keinginan /

akan
Ketertarikan
pemilih
Ordinal
Tingkat
disebabkan manfaat yang ditawarkan.
Desire untuk memilih

perhatian
kampanye kandidat.
Rasa Tertarik / Interest
pemilih

Tingkat
Tingkat
melakukan
presiden
Tindakan memilih
tindakan
dan
wakil
untuk
memilih
calon
presiden
yang
ditawarkan.
pasangan calon presiden dan wakil

presiden.
keinginan
Pilihan thd pasangan calaon
presiden
378
Nominal
Lampiran 4
Gambar 3. Persamaan SEM
379
2
0.7
67
0.4719
0.4309
0.4310
0.6577
0.4484
0.2936
0.5162
0.5876
X1.3
0. 7543 (t
X1.5
X2.2
X2.3
0 .74
0.2006
0.3693
X3.2
X3.3
X4.1
0.5382
0.5382
0.5668
X4.2
0 .84
11,5
973
1
x
2
x
3
80 7)
(t = 1 50)
.4
= 11 10,6
05 (t
355
)
0.6956 (t = 95435)
0.6422 (t
= 8. 83
3 (t =
10 .92
70)
36 )
0.8941(t = 14.2703)
0.7941
(t
)
62
21 72
.
=2 5
(t 0.1
)
36
.61
12
= 12
= .3
106)
t
0(
96
)
0.7
1 73
.9
1
1
0.7 6
t
41 (
=
0.7258 (t =1
1.1130 )
X4.4
0.6555 (t =
9.7221)
X4.5
0 .70
35 (
X4.3
x
4
Y
10.6
5990 )
2 )
0 .7
t =1
84 (
0.70
9)
0.655
(t = 1
8
4
0 .70
0 .2
10
(t = 2
2 .8
864
)
X5.2
0.3540
X5.3
0. 8037
X5.4
(t =12
x
5
x
6
0.4015
0.3410
0.4444
0.4175
0.4031
0.3741
0.1865
0.4194
0.3641
8
0.7
X6.2
X6.3
X6.4
X6.5
X6.6
X6.7
X7.1
0.
t=
7(
773
(t =1
0.8118
12.
603
)
3.5361
0.7454 (t = 11.9495)
0 .76
32 (
t =1
2.3 5
79 )
0.7
72
6
(t =
12
6 25)7 85
2.89
)
t=1
12 (
0.79
0.9020 (t
Y2
0.3143
Y3
0.4719
30
)99
0.3801
0.2840
.0
5t(1
=
2
2
1. 0
89
2
)
t 93
6 ( 2.
48(t = 1
7
.
0 73
3)
X6.1
0.7 5)
544
(0.7412
t 1=.2 7567
1
(t =
= 11.5572
7121 )
.
(t 0 .86
75
)
6985)
)
32
.02 )
2
=1 0 2
0.4396
Y1
t=
0.8182 (t = 13.0108)
0.3305
.1043257 )
0.0
(t =2
0.6170
X5.1
0.4981
0.5033
x
X3.1
0.4165
0.3759
24 (t
=
0 .6
0 .718
0.4840
4)
= 11,838
0.5851 (t = 8,50
94)
X1.6
X2.1
09)
)25 484 ) 9 02
25 4 65 51
.
5
= t(.0 0.2= .0
t(
0.5138
0.75
X1.4
4
11 ,8
=
44 (t
X1.2
)
45
,2 4
11
2(.0
t
1
5
=
.37
X1.1
(t =
2)
= 15.693
X7.2
x7
X7.3
X7.4
0.7620 (t =
12. 2224)
0.79
74 (t
= 13
.04 3
9)
Lampiran 5.
Tabel 2.
Uji Hipotesis Pengaruh Secara Parsial Faktor Ekternal Terhadap Keputusan Memilih
dalam Pilpres Putaran Kedua.
No
Hipotesis
Koefisien
Jalur
1
Program berpengaruh
tehadap keputusan memilih
0.4484
t tabel
T hitung
5.5252
>
1,965
Kesimpulan Statistik
H0 ditolak terdapat pengaruh
380
No
Hipotesis
Koefisien
Jalur
2
Citra social berpengaruh
3
0.1520
2.0569
Perasaan emosional
berpengaruh tehadap
t tabel
T hitung
0.1572
2.2162
0.1427
2.0035
Kesimpulan Statistik
>
1,965
>
1,965
>
1,965
>
1,965
>
1,965
>
1,965
keputusan memilih
4
Citra kandidat berpengaruh
5
Peristiwa muthakir
berpengaruh tehadap
0.2102
2.8864
keputusan memilih
6
Peristiwa personal
berpengaruh tehadap
0.1520
2.1982
keputusan memilih
7
Isu-isu epistemic
berpengaruh tehadap
0.2157
3.0399
keputusan memilih
Sumber : Hasil Penelitian.
Lampiran 6
No
Tabel 3.
Besar Pengaruh Parsial Faktor Ekternal Terhadap Keputusan Memilih
dalam PILPRES Putaran Kedua. (Berurutan Sesuai Besarnya Pengaruh)
Koefisien
Variabel
Jalur
Pengaruh
1
Pengaruh program terhadap keputusan memilih
0.4484
20.11%
2
Pengaruh isu-isu epistemik tehadap keputusan memilih
0.2157
4.65%
3
Pengaruh peristiwa muthakir tehadap keputusan memilih
0.2102
4.42%
381
No
Koefisien
Variabel
Pengaruh
Jalur
4
Pengaruh perasaan emosional tehadap keputusan memilih
0.1572
2.47%
5
Pengaruh citra sosial tehadap keputusan memilih
0.1520
2.31%
6
Pengaruh peristiwa personal tehadap keputusan memilih
0.1520
2.31%
7
Pengaruh citra kandidat tehadap keputusan memilih
0.1427
2.04%
Tabel 4.
Hasil Estimasi Variabel Keputusan Memilih Pada Putaran Kedua
Error
Parameter
Loading Faktor
R2
Y1
0.8179
0.6690
0.3310
Y2
0.7975
0.6360
0.3640
Y3
0.8313
0.6911
0.3089
Variance
382
Brand Management Mapping:
An Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) Perspective
Helpris Estaswara
Fakultas Ilmu Komunikasi Universitas Pancasila
Abstract
In the communication era, brand can no longer be viewed simply as a part of the product,
such as packaging, colors and so on. Nor it is merely a name, symbols or words. Brand
should be understood as “beyond the product”. It is because brand is a promise and provides
internal focus. In fact, brand management becomes an important topic today. No doubt that
writings and researches on brand are widely publicized in a significant amount and number of
brand concept is also increased and become more complex, and it was expanding from
product-brand to corporate-brand based on corporate-level marketing. Conversely, writings
that give details on how relating between one brand concept to another in a thorough
understanding based on IMC perspective is still limited. This paper aims at elaborating on
how all significant brand concepts work together in the context of integrated brand
communication to create brand loyalty and equity.
Keywords: Brand management, Corporate-brand, Product-brand, Brand identity, Integrated
Marketing Communications (IMC)
Pendahuluan
Brand management sebagai sebuah disiplin ilmu telah melahirkan banyak konsep, seperti
brand value, brand awareness, brand positioning, brand image, brand identity, brand
personality, brand relationship, employee branding, brand activation, sampai brand culture,
brand loyalty serta brand equity dan masih banyak lagi (Heding et al, 2009:9-17). Di
samping itu, menurut Heding et al, (2009:20-21)―yang telah mempelajari secara mendalam
perkembangan sejarah penelitian seputar brand management yang pernah dilakukan oleh para
akademisi dan diterbitkan di berbagai jurnal ilmiah internasional selama 20 tahun lebih
(1985-2006)―mengungkapkan ada tujuh pendekatan (school of thought) yang dibangun
dalam tiga periode waktu yang berbeda. Di sisi lain, teridentifikasi pula terdapat dua
paradigma besar yang melingkupi perkembangan penelitian tentang brand management
383
(Heding et al, 2009:26).
Lebih lanjut, selama ini pemahaman tentang brand management selalu hanya
didudukkan pada level produk yang dikerangkakan dalam perspektif traditional marketing
(product-level marketing). Menurut Brexendorf dan Kernstock (2007:33), dari hasil
penelitiannya menunjukkan adanya persamaan antara corporate behaviour dan brand
behaviour. Muncullah kemudian konsep corporate brand management yang merupakan
gabungan dari brand management dengan corporate identity yang dibangun dalam perspektif
corporate-level marketing (Brexendorf & Kernstock, 2007:33).
Pemahaman di atas juga mendukung pemikiran Burmann dan Zeplin (2005:282-283)
yang menyatakan bahwa corporate behaviour sebenarnya merupakan representasi dari
employee behaviour di mana employee sendiri dikatakan sebagai “part-time marketer” bagi
perusahaan (Madhavaram et al, 2005). Muncullah kemudian ide yang mengaitkan antara
organisational citizenship behaviour—di mana employee sebagai elemen utama, dengan
brand citizenship behaviour—dengan brand sebagai fokus utama kajiannya (Burmann &
Zeplin, 2005:283).
Uraian di atas menunjukkan bahwa pembahasan tentang brand management sampai
saat ini sudah sedemikian kompleks. Mulai dari sisi sender, kemudian bergeser ke receiver
dan terakhir mengulas dalam konteks budaya (Heding et al, 2009:26). Di samping itu, fokus
brand management juga tidak lagi hanya seputar product-brand, di mana sekarang sudah
bergeser ke arah corporate-brand (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1041; Wallström, et al, 2008:4041). Hal yang sama juga terjadi dengan konsep brand equity yang sudah tidak lagi dipelajari
hanya sebatas pada level produk (Ahonen, 2008; Juntunen et al, 2011).
Terkait dengan kompleksitas ide-ide tentang brand management di atas, pertanyaan
yang muncul kemudian adalah bagaimana bangunan kerangka konseptual atas brand
management yang mampu memberikan big picture yang menyeluruh (totalitas deskripsi)—
384
atau yang disebut dengan brand management mapping—yang relevan di era komunikasi hari
ini. Mengingat bahwa mengelola brand hingga menjadi merek yang didambakan oleh
konsumen, pelanggan maupun stakeholders lain bukanlah suatu pekerjaan yang mudah,
karena bersifat lintas departemen dalam jangka panjang yang membutuhkan keterpaduan
antarbagian dan memerlukan juga keselarasan antara internal dan external brand
communication (Balmer & Wilkinson, 1991; Punjaisri & Wilson, 2007; Estaswara, 2008),
maka untuk menjawab persoalan ini, Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) akan
digunakan sebagai pendekatan yang utama dalam tulisan ini.
Brand Management: Pergeseran Perspektif
Brand management sendiri dapat didefinisikan sebagai, “A total approach to managing
brands that is sometimes extended, by those who understand the power of brands, to cover
the whole approach to managing the company” (Gupta, 2009:1). Berdasarkan definisi
tersebut, brand management pada dasarnya bukan sekedar cara mengelola merek an sich.
Lebih dari itu, brand management juga merupakan persoalan “pengelolaan perusahaan”.
Bicara mengenai brand, dari banyak kasus yang terjadi di Indonesia, seringkali hanya
diletakkan pada tataran produk. Brand selalu identik dengan produk. Padahal, pemahaman
brand pada tataran produk (product-level brand), bagaimanapun juga sudah banyak
ditinggalkan. Sekarang ini, banyak pemikiran tentang brand yang dibawa ke ranah corporate
(corporate-level brand) (de Chernatony, 2001; Harris & de Chernatony; 2001; Knox &
Bickerton; 2003; Leitch & Richardson, 2003; Balmer & Greyser; 2006; Wallström, et al,
2008).
Gagasan ini bersumber dari pemikiran bahwa perusahaan-perusahaan yang bergerak
di bidang jasa kenyatannya memiliki product-brand yang sama dengan corporate-brand,
seperti Garuda Indonesia. Selain itu, perusahaan-perusahaan besar yang memiliki banyak
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sekali produk di mana setiap produknya juga mempunyai merek sendiri-sendiri—seperti
Unilever (multi-brand firms) yang memiliki sekitar 400 product-brand (Sudarmadi & Palupi,
2006)—membutuhkan sebuah brand umbrella yang dapat mengomunikasikan identitasnya
secara jelas, yaitu corporate brand. (Balmer, 2005; Brexendorf & Kernstock, 2007). Lebih
lanjut, product-brand based juga teridentifikasi tidak mampu memberikan penjelasan yang
memuaskan terkait dengan persoalan brand extension dan perluasan unit bisnis yang ingin
dilakukan oleh suatu perusahaan. Berbagai kondisi seperti inilah yang kemudian
melatarbelakangi gagasan tentang pentingnya pemahaman terhadap corporate-brand dalam
konteks brand management.
Pemahaman bahwa brand bukanlah semata persoalan produk sebenarnya sudah
tersurat dalam beberapa definisi. Salah satunya adalah definisi yang pernah diungkapkan oleh
Duncan (2002:13), yang mengatakan bahwa brand merupakan a perception of an integrated
bundle of information and experiences that distinguishes a company and/or its product
offerings from the competition. Dari definisi ini teridentifikasi secara jelas bahwa brand juga
merupakan masalah pada tataran perusahaan, tidak hanya sekedar produk.
Memang, tinjuan dari berbagai literatur (Fombrun, 1996; Ind, 1997; Keller, 2000;
Knox & Maklan, 1998; Knox et al, 2000; Olins, 2000) menunjukkan bahwa persoalan
branding antara produk dan corporate pada dasarnya memiliki perbedaan, dan—dalam
konteks Indonesia—banyak pemikir yang masih tetap membedakkan keduanya. Bahkan,
ketika membicarakan brand, banyak yang menganggap hanya merupakan persoalan produk,
sedangkan persoalan corporate branding merupakan wilayah public relations, karena terkait
dengan masalah corporate identity, corporate reputation, corporate image, dan corporate
communications, dengan alasan bahwa konsep-konsep tersebut merupakan tradisi intelektual
dalam disiplin public relations dan selama ini telah dipraktekkan dalam aktivitas profesinya.
Namun, satu hal penting dari pemahaman ini adalah fakta pergeseran pemikiran
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tentang brand management dari yang dulunya hanya berfokus kepada produk menjadi
corporate. Di samping itu, kaitan antara produk dan corporate bagaimanapun juga tidak bisa
dilepaskan,
mengingat
bahwa corporate-brand kenyataannya dapat
secara efektif
memberikan nilai tambah (value added) yang signifikan kepada semua produk yang
ditawarkan oleh perusahaan (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1044).
Lebih lanjut, terkait dengan perbedaan fokus antara corporate-brand dengan productbrand, harus diakui akan banyak bersinggungan dengan public relations. Perkembangan
terkini, pemikiran tentang corporate-brand telah diperluas tidak hanya sekedar berfokus pada
konsumen atau pelanggan, namun juga melingkupi semua stakeholders (significant public)
perusahaan. Hal ini terkait dengan lingkungan bisnis yang berubah cepat akibat globalisasi
dan perkembangan teknologi informasi—dari mulai banyaknya merger, akuisisi, public
offering, implementasi good corporate governance, sampai regulasi pemerintah dan
tingginya tekanan publik atas corporate social responsibility serta tuntutan green company—
yang membuat kompleksitas kepentingan bisnis perusahaan dalam menciptakan profit
(wealth) menjadi semakin tinggi.
Di sisi lain, bagaimanapun juga dengan pemahaman tentang corporate-brand seperti
ini, mampu menjawab fenomena pengelolaan brand secara lebih realistis dalam merespon
berbagai tuntutan perusahaan di era komunikasi hari ini, di banding hanya berputar-putar
dalam konteks product-brand. Dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa sifat dari corporatebrand lebih strategis, di mana keterlibatan CEO mutlak dibutuhkan (Hatch & Schultz,
2003:1045).
Memahami perbedaan di atas, terkait dengan pengelolaan komunikasinya, productbrand umumnya hanya berbasis pada marketing communications yang mengandalkan
elemen-elemen promotion mix. Lain halnya dengan corporate-brand yang membutuhkan
totalitas corporate communication (Balmer, 2001). Dalam product-brand, pengelolaan
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komunikasi pemasaran kebanyakan dilakukan dengan cara menggabungkan antara corporate
advertising, corporate storytelling, customer relations management dan marketing
communication tools lainnya yang relevan, serta penggunaan berbagai teknik public relations
seperti press conference, media event dan sebagainya (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1050).
Walaupun pada titik ini dapat dikatakan sebagai IMC, namun IMC yang sebenarnya lebih
dibutuhkan dalam konteks corporate-brand, di mana melibatkan interaksi dinamis antara
komunikasi internal dan eksternal perusahaan berdasarkan prinsip multi-audience, multimedia, tetapi single message. Dengan demikian, pemikiran Balmer (2001; Hatch & Schultz,
2003) di atas dapat dikatakan juga sebagai IMC—pengelolaan corporate brand
communication secara terintegrasi (Estaswara, 2008)—yang berbasis perspektif corporatelevel marketing (Brexendorf & Kernstock, 2007).
Pertanyaannya kemudian adalah apakah product-brand tidak diperlukan lagi?
Product-brand tetap relevan untuk diangkat. Ada dua alasan yang mendasari pemikiran ini.
Pertama, pada kenyataannya tidak semua perusahaan bersifat multi-brand atau multibusiness. Banyak perusahaan yang memiliki satu produk (dalam artian barang), yang
umumnya adalah perusahaan yang sedang berkembang, kompleksitas kepentingannya tidak
setinggi perusahaan-perusahaan besar. Perusahaan seperti ini masih berfokus pada productbrand, penjualan dan konsumen.
Kedua, product-brand dan corporate-brand sejatinya harus selaras dan saling
memerkuat satu dengan yang lain. Ketika sebuah perusahaan sudah berkonsentrasi pada
pembangunan corporate-brand, bukan berarti persoalan product-brand tidak lagi relevan.
Berdasarkan prinsip bahwa semakin high profit sebuah perusahaan, maka, akan semakin
tinggi pula inovasi produk, merek, dan bisnis yang dilakukan. Inovasi produk terbatasi oleh
product life cycle (PLC) dan kecepatan perubahan needs and wants konsumen, namun tidak
dengan brand. Dengan demikian, pengembangan merek, seperti brand extension ataupun
388
pengembangan unit bisnis merupakan arah dan tujuan dari banyak perusahaan yang mapan.
Sebagai contoh, Telkom yang melakukan repositioning atas corporate-brand-nya
menandakan adanya persoalan strategis terkait dengan pengembangan unit bisnis yang tidak
lagi dapat direpresentasikan dengan image lamanya.
Walaupun teridentifikasi adanya pergeseran perspektif dalam brand management, dan
berangkat dari dua alasan yang telah dijabarkan di atas, tulisan ini tetap mengakomodasi
kedua perspektif tersebut dalam suatu kerangka integrated brand communication yang
berbasis IMC.
Brand is a Promise
Mengutip Michael Maskus, Head of Group Marketing dari Allianz Group, terkait dengan brand
management, pernah mengatakan bahwa “you have to deliver what you promise” (Burmann &
Zeplin, 2005:279). Berangkat dari titik ini maka dapat dikatakan bahwa brand adalah janji, a
brand is a promise (Gupta, 2009; Estaswara, 2011). Brand adalah janji perusahaan, bukan janji
produk. Janji perusahaan tentang produk (barang, jasa dan ide) yang ditawarkan ke pasar.
Sebuah janji yang mampu memberikan arah dan kredibilitas perusahaan dalam mencapai
tujuannya, yaitu penciptaan profit jangka panjang. Janji merek bersifat intangible (tak
berwujud) yang akan menjadi “sangat nyata” jika janji tersebut dikomunikasikan oleh
perusahaan. Namun, janji tersebut juga harus bisa dipenuhi oleh perusahaan. Jangan sampai
muncul ungkapan “janji-janji manis tanpa kenyataan” atau “high promise, low delivery”
(Estaswara, 2011c). Dengan demikian, untuk menciptakan brand yang kuat, janji merek harus
jelas, konsisten dan selaras dengan apa yang diberikannya (Aaker, D.A., 1996:340).
Brand promise delivery ini pada dasarnya terkait dengan brand identity yang
menunjukkan hubungan keterkaitan antara brand, customer dan stakeholder lainnya melalui
penciptaan proposisi nilai. Intinya, brand identity adalah proposisi nilai yang dapat menciptakan
389
asosiasi-asosiasi yang menguntungkan merek (brand associations) terkait dengan bagaimana
sebuah merek ingin dikenal, dicitrakan, dan diingat yang secara inherent, menyiratkan janji
kepada pelanggan (Kapferer, 2007:99) dan juga stakeholder lainnya (Hawabhay et al, 2009:3).
Secara umum, brand identity dapat dikatakan sebagai kesatuan asosiasi yang unik, terbedakan,
dan terekspresikan secara jelas tentang merek yang ingin distrategikan dan dikomunikasikan
perusahaan, yang mencerminkan visi merek jangka panjang dan mampu menggerakkan aktivitas
branding perusahaan (Estaswara, 2011).
Pemikiran tentang brand promise delivery di atas menyiratkan persoalan strategic vision
of the brand. Menurut Collins dan Porras (1994) visi adalah “what the organisation aspires to
be in the future”. Menariknya, hasil riset yang dilakukannya menunjukkan bahwa banyak
perusahaan yang sukses ternyata membangun visi mereka dari pendefinisian dan penemuan
kembali nilai-nilai inti perusahaan daripada melakukan perubahan revolusioner. Artinya,
walaupun visi bisa dibangun untuk mencapai tujuan baru (new goals) ataupun pencapaian yang
lain, pada dasarnya akan terkait dengan masalah “nilai-nilai budaya” (heritage) perusahaan
(Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1048). Dengan demikian, brand promise harus menjadi visi tentang
what the organisation aspires to be in the future yang terinternalisasi sebagai budaya
perusahaan. Sebagai contoh, Garuda Indonesia (GI) memberikan janji “keyamanan dan
pelayanan” dalam penerbangan kepada pelanggannya. Di mana janji atau proposisi nilai tentang
“kenyamanan dan pelayanan” tersebut harus dapat di-deliver oleh GI. Namun, janji tersebut
akan dapat dapat di-deliver dengan baik jika “keyamanan dan pelayanan” menjadi budaya
perusahaan di GI.
Contoh lainnya adalah Unilever, corporate-brand yang dilambangkan dengan huruf “U”
dan didesain menggunakan elemen gambar kecil-kecil yang mewakili konsep ratusan productbrand-nya, dibangun berdasarkan konsep vitalitas (kekuatan) yang menyimbolkan ‘U’ can make
a difference dengan visi bahwa Unilever selalu percaya akan kekuatan brand dalam
390
meningkatkan kualitas kehidupan orang-orang dan dalam melakukan hal yang benar (www.
unilever.co.id). Visi corporate-brand tersebut memayungi visi setiap merek produk yang
ditawarkan. Di samping itu, konsep atas visi ini juga menjadi dasar pembangunan budaya
perusahaan. Dengan memahami konsep brand promise delivery semacam ini, maka janji yang
tersirat dalam visi merek akan dapat dapat di-deliver dengan baik.
Brand promise tidak hanya semata-mata dikomunikasikan kepada pelanggan ataupun
external stakeholders, namun yang terpenting dan utama harus dikomunikasikan kepada
karyawan (internal stakeholders). Nilai-nilai merek yang dijanjikan oleh perusahaan, harus
dipahami dan menjadi pedoman bertindak (culture) bagi karyawannya. Dengan demikian, brand
promise delivery sangat terkait dengan persoalan keselarasan dan hubungan dinamis antara
vision dan value yang terinternalisasi dalam budaya perusahaan (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1048).
Upaya ini sering disebut dengan employee branding atau “memerekkan” karyawan dengan
tujuan menciptakan living the brand.
Living the brand sendiri merupakan konsep branding di mana karyawan dianggap
sebagai pihak yang paling penting dalam “menghidupkan” brand, terutama ketika mereka
sedang melayani stakeholders. Living the Brand artinya membuat karyawan mampu menjiwai
dan hidup dengan values and vision of the brand sehingga mampu mengomunikasikan brand
with spirit and passion (Heding et al, 2009:16).
Brand Identity Menuju Brand Relationship
Living the Brand sangat berhubungan dengan brand identity. Brand identity pada dasarnya
bersifat internal atau diupayakan oleh perusahaan, baik terkait dengan brand visualisation
(Duncan, 2002) maupun proposisi nilai (positioning) (Aaker. D.A., 1996). Secara umum brand
identity dapat juga dikatakan sebagai kesatuan asosiasi yang unik, terbedakan, dan
terekspresikan secara jelas tentang brand yang ingin distrategikan dan dikomunikasikan
391
perusahaan, yang mencerminkan brand vision dalam jangka panjang dan brand values yang
terinternalisasi dalam budaya perusahaan.
Dewasa ini, gagasan tentang membangun merek secara internal sebagai sebuah proses
penyelarasan antara perilaku para employee dengan brand identity dalam perusahaan telah
menjadi perhatian para akadimisi di seluruh dunia (de Chernatony, 2001; Keller, 1999; LePla &
Parker, 1999; Macrae, 1996; Mitchell, 2002; Tosti & Stotz, 2001). Perhatian ini dicurahkan
dalam rangka mengurangi kesenjangan antara brand identity yang ingin dibangun oleh
perusahaan dan apa yang dirasakan para stakeholders perusahaan (Urde, 1994; Harris & de
Chernatony, 2001; Balmer & Soenen, 1999). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa karyawan memainkan
peran yang penting. Konsep ini disebut dengan brand behaviour. Dengan demikian, brand
behaviour yang konsisten mendukung pengembangan brand identity dan penciptaan brand
image perusahaan, merupakan determinan faktor keberhasilan dalam brand management
(Vallaster & de Chernatony, 2006). Pemikiran ini juga dipertegas oleh Burmann dan Zeplin
(2005:282), yang menyatakan bahwa, “the crucial role of employees in brand building is due to
the fact that all sources of brand identity are based on the decisions and actions of employees.”
Menurut Kapferer (2007:99), brand identity merupakan cara perusahaan (sender)
tentang bagaimana brand ingin dipersepsikan. Cara ini kemudian akan mengarahkan brand
image atau bagaimana brand diasosiasikan (brand associations) dan dipersepsikan (brand
perception) yang terletak pada sisi receiver (Rindova, 1997; Balmer, 2001; Hatch & Schultz,
2001; Hawabhay et al, 2009:3). Oleh karena itu, brand perception―atau dengan kata lain brand
image―selalu berada di sisi receiver. Brand image memang dengan mudah berubah dari waktu
ke waktu. Namun, tidak demikian dengan karakter brand identity. Brand identity mampu
mewakili nilai-nilai merek dalam jangka panjang. Brand image sering dianggap tidak lebih dari
sekedar aset taktis, sedangkan brand identity merupakan aset strategis perusahaan (Kotler &
Pfoertsch, 2006:94).
392
Bahkan, identitas dari suatu perusahaan yang direpresentasikan dalam brand identity
diakui sebagai sumber daya strategis dan menjadi sumber keunggulan kompetitif (Melewar &
Jenkins, 2002:76). Pentingnya identitas perusahaan dan kaitannya dengan brand image dan
brand strategy juga disintesiskan oleh van Rekom (1997:412), dengan pernyataan sebagai
berikut, “in the long term, management can influence the organization’s identity, and,
depending on management’s chosen corporate strategy, can realize an improved or
repositioned corporate image.”
Dengan demikian, kaitan dinamis antara brand vision, brand values (keduanya
membentuk brand identity) dan brand image akan menciptakan apa yang disebut dengan brand
personality. Brand vision memberikan arah jangka panjang dan proposisi nilai (positioning)
bagi corporate-brand maupun product-brand. Sedangkan brand values yang terinternalisasi ke
dalam budaya perusahaan akan menciptakan living the brand bagi employee (brand behaviour).
Terakhir, brand image merupakan persepsi konsumen dan stakeholders lainnya tentang
perusahaan dan apa yang di-“jual”-nya.
Pembangunan brand personality sendiri melibatkan brand communication yang bersifat
internal dan eksternal. Komunikasi atas brand identity merupakan internal brand
communication. Sedangkan brand image merupakan external brand communication (outcome).
Keselarasan antara brand identity yang dikomunikasikan oleh perusahaan dengan brand image
yang dipersepsikan konsumen, pelanggan dan stakeholders lain, pada akhirnya akan
menciptakan brand personality. Secara umum, inti dari brand personality adalah kemampuan
brand identity dalam membangun brand image, sehingga personalitas merek dapat terbedakan
secara jelas.
Menurut Jennifer L.A. (1997:347), brand Personality didefinisikan sebagai a set of
human characteristics associated with a brand. Di samping itu, brand personality juga dapat
dikatakan sebagai satu kesatuan karakteristik manusia yang melekat pada merek. Selain itu,
393
brand personality bisa dianggap pula sebagai sesuatu yang dapat memberikan alasan bagi
stakeholders untuk menjalin hubungan baik dengan merek. Relationship pada intinya adalah
exchange (pertukaran), di mana perusahaan berupaya untuk memberikan keuntungan kepada
pihak lain untuk mendapatkan sesuatu, dan sebaliknya. Pada titik ini, brand vision dan brand
values yang telah terinternalisasi dan menjadi budaya kerja bagi manajemen serta employee
beserta citra baik perusahaan yang telah terbentuk, merupakan kunci penentu dalam menjalin
hubungan (relationship) dengan stakeholders. Seperti dikatakan de Chernatony (2001),
Harris dan de Chernatony (2001), Hatch dan Schultz (2001), serta Wilson (2001), bahwa,
“employees are key to building relationships with all the company’s stakeholders as well as
contributing to the meaning of the brand.”
Menurut Heding et al (2009:152-153), brand relationship pada dasarnya terkait
dengan teori tentang loyalitas. Loyalitas sendiri merupakan sensasi atas hubungannya dengan
merek. Menciptakan brand loyalty merupakan suatu pengelolaan brand-consumer exchange
dalam jangka panjang, bukan sekedar masalah transkasi penjualan jangka pendek. Dengan
demikian, ketika sebuah perusahaan mampu mengelola brand-consumer exchange secara
tepat, akhirnya brand loyalty akan dicapai dan pada gilirannya akan menciptakan brand
equity yang kuat.
Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC): Brand Management Mapping
Mengingat pembangunan brand identity menuju brand relationship membutuhkan keselarasan
antara komunikasi internal dan eksternal, maka akan lebih efektif jika dikelola melalui IMC.
Menurut Madhavaram et. al. (2005:74) ada dua faktor yang dapat secara efektif digunakan
untuk mengintegrasikan brand communication, yaitu IMC synergy dan IMC effectiveness.
Bicara IMC memang tidak pernah lepas dari istilah “sinergi”. Sinergi sendiri dapat diartikan
sebagai sebuah fenomena di mana efek gabungan dari beberapa kegiatan komunikasi merek
394
melebihi jumlah dari efek masing-masing (Belch & Belch, 1998; Naik & Raman, 2003). Hal
senada juga dikatakan oleh Reid (2003), di mana melalui IMC, sinergi dari semua komunikasi
dapat dicapai oleh perusahaan, yang pada gilirannya akan meningkatkan kinerja merek. Hal ini
karena sinergi bisa menjamin berbagai aktivitas komunikasi merek dapat saling memerkuat satu
dengan yang lainnya (Duncan & Moriarty, 1998; Eagle & Kitchen, 2000; Hines, 1999; Reid,
2003; Estaswara, 2008a).
Dalam IMC synergy, ada tiga hal yang perlu diperhatikan, yaitu interactivity, strategic
consistency, dan complementary. Menurut Duncan dan Moriarty (1998), interaktivitas mengacu
pada proses komunikasi yang dapat menghubungkan antara stakeholders dengan merek dan
juga perusahaan. Sedangkan strategic consistency mengacu pada koordinasi atas semua pesan
dalam komunikasi merek dan penciptaan efek ‘one voice’ (Brown, 1997; Estaswara, 2008b).
Terakhir, menurut Madhavaram (et. al., 2005), complementary atau saling melengkapi atas
berbagai aktivitas komunikasi merek merujuk pada efek yang memperkuat semua aktivitasaktivitas komunikasi merek yang dilakukan perusahaan. Sedangkan faktor yang kedua, IMC
effectiveness, menyatakan bahwa sinergi dari semua aktivitas komunikasi merek melalui
pendekatan IMC, memiliki potensi besar untuk tercapainya efektivitas tujuan yang telah
ditetapkan (Madhavaram et. al., 2005).
Konsepsi tentang IMC di atas tidak hanya digunakan sebagai dasar dalam merumuskan
strategi IMC yang bersifat eksternal saja. Namun juga digunakan untuk komunikasi internal.
Hal ini mengingat bahwa internal communication juga membutuhkan sinergi dan efektivitas
IMC dengan tujuan untuk menyelaraskan brand perception dari semua internal stakeholders
(Estaswara, 2010, 2011c). Gambaran pendekatan IMC dalam pembangunan brand identity
menuju brand relationship guna menciptakan brand loyalty dan equity dapat dilihat dalam
Gambar 1 di bawah ini.
IMC
SYNERGY
IMC
EFFECTIVEN
ESS
395
BRAND
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IMC
SYNERGY
IMC
EFFECTIVEN
ESS
Mengacu pada gambar di atas, pemahaman bahwa brand adalah promise yang dibangun
melalui brand vision dan values merupakan persoalan bagaimana proposisi nilai harus
dirumuskan dan dikomunikasikan kepada karyawan (employee branding), sehingga tercipta
living the brand. Ini semua akan memberikan dasar bagi terciptanya brand identity yang
berbasis budaya perusahaan. Gagasan ini merupakan bentuk dari internal IMC atau internal
brand communication.
Selanjutnya, merespon komunikasi merek dari perusahaan, external stakeholders,
termasuk pelanggan, akan melakukan reflection terhadap brand. Hasil dari perilaku ini akan
membangun persepsinya tentang brand identity yang telah dikomunikasikan oleh perusahaan
(penciptaan brand image). Tidak hanya itu, juga akan membangun asosiasi-asosiasi (brand
associations) serta kepercayaannya tentang brand. Semua respon ini selanjutnya akan
396
menciptakan eksternalisasi merek ketika berhubungan dengan suatu merek (interactivity dalam
IMC synergy―Madhavaram et. al., 2005) berdasarkan atas brand associations serta
kepercayaannya atas merek tersebut (Kapferer, 2007). Konsepsi ini disebut eksternalisasi atau
“pembudayaan” nilai-nilai merek yang berasal dari eksternal. Semua proses ini dikatakan
sebagai external IMC atau external brand communication, yang merupakan respon terhadap
komunikasi brand identity (outcome) menuju terciptanya brand relationship. Terakhir,
outcomes dari interaksi dinamis yang berbasis two-way communications antara brand
communication internal dan eksternal akan menciptakan brand loyalty (Estaswara, 2011a,
2011b) yang pada gilirannnya brand equity akan terbentuk.
Penutup
Brand management sebagai sebuah disiplin ilmu telah melahirkan beragam perspektif, salah
satunya adalah apa yang telah dijabarkan dalam tulisan ini yang mengadopsi pendekatan
brand identity dan tetap mempertahankan perspektif klasik, yaitu sender-focused dalam
kerangka paradigma positivis. Namun demikian, tulisan ini juga mencoba membedah dari sisi
receiver (konsumen, pelanggan dan stakeholders) dalam merespon komunikasi merek
perusahaan. Hal ini mengingat bahwa brand management hari ini harus memahami needs dan
wants audience-nya.
Di sisi lain, walaupun tulisan ini telah menjelaskan brand management mapping
secara holistik, namun sifatnya hanya umum dan masih banyak ruang yang perlu untuk
dikembangkan, seperti penajaman pemikiran terkait dengan hubungan antara product-brand
dengan corporate-brand, kaitan antara brand personality dengan brand relationship yang
menyertakan konsepsi tentang stakeholder relations, dan lainnya, sehingga mampu
menghasilkan big picture of reality secara lengkap dan mendalam.
397
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400
PART FOUR:
The Role of Communication & Media in Winning
Competition
401
VALUE CREATION THROUGH RELATIONSHIP IN ENTREPRENEURIAL
MARKETING – A PUBLIC RELATIONS PERSPECTIVE
By: Suharyanti
Department of Communication Studies
Faculty of Economics and Social Science – Universitas Bakrie
Due to the tough competition and the increasing demand of customers, firms need to improve
its entrepreneurial marketing as an anticipation of a rapid changing environment.
Entrepreneurial marketing prior research found that value creation through relationship and
alliance are the one of the characteristic of entrepreneurial marketing behavior. Therefore,
the traditional marketing which is entrepreneurial emphasizing only on transactional
relationship may not be adequate for today’s dynamic business environment. Instead of
transactional relationship, the concept of relationship marketing which concerning of
valuable mutual relationship creation between firms and broader stakeholders, is more
suitable. In communication perspective, the important of relationship building with
stakeholder is the domain of public relations concept. The contribution of public relations in
entrepreneurial marketing which is focused on creating stakeholder value is the concern of
this paper. “Relations” in public relations encompass an external and internal stakeholder of
the firm. Related to the concept of entrepreneurial marketing and relationship marketing,
public relations also concern with building and maintaining reciprocal communication and
mutual understanding with firm’s stakeholder, in order to create long term and valuable
relationship
Key Words: Entrepreneurial marketing, , Value creation, Public relations, Relationship
.
I.
Pendahuluan
Semakin ketatnya persaingan dalam dunia bisnis dan situasi dunia usaha yang bergejolak
dan seringkali sulit diprediksi mengubah paradigma di bidang pemasaran , dari bisnis yang
berorientasi pada produksi pada awal abad ke-20, menuju bisnis yang berorientasi pada
membangun dan mempertahankan hubungan. Paradigma baru ini menggambarkan telah
terjadi pergeseran orientasi bisnis dari yang semula bersifat transaksional dan berorientasi
pada kepentingan perusahaan menjadi bisnis yang lebih bersifat relasional dengan
mementingkan hubungan jangka panjang dan berorientasi pada kepentingan stakeholder.
402
Seiring dengan kondisi diatas, salah satu hal yang perlu diantisipasi perusahaan adalah
meningkatkan kemampuan entrepreneurial marketing. Konsep entrepreneurial marketing
merupakan sinergi dari dua konsep yang berbeda namun saling terkait satu sama lain, yaitu
konsep pemasaran dan entrepreneurship.
Backbro dan Nystrom
yang melakukan penelitian tentang entrepreneurial marketing
menyatakan bahwa :
“Entrepreneurial marketing is the overlapping aspects between entrepreneurship
and marketing; therefore it is the behavior shown by any individual and/or
organization that entrepreneurial marketing is to establish and promote market
ideas, while developing new ones in order to create value.” (Backbro, Nystrom,
2006).
Entrepreneurial marketing
juga
didefinisikan sebagai, the proactive identification and
exploitation of opportunities for acquiring and retaining profitable customers through
innovative approaches to risk managentrepreneurial marketingent, resource leveraging and
value creation.” (Morris et al., 2002) . Dari dua definisi tersebut tampak bahwa value
creation atau penciptaan nilai merupakan salah satu aspek penting dalam entrepreneurial
marketing. Studi
mengenai entrepreneurial marketing yang pernah dilakukan oleh
Kilenthong, Hills, Hutman dan Sclove menunjukkan bahwa value creation melalui
relationship dan strategic alliance merupakan salah satu karakteristik dari perilaku
entrepreneurial marketing (Kilenthong et al.,2005). Karakteristik tersebut sesuai dengan
paradigma relationship marketing yang penekanannya pada value creation melalui hubungan
timbal balik yang setara dan saling menguntungkan antara perusahaan dengan stakeholder
nya .
Dalam perspektif ilmu komunikasi, pentingnya membina hubungan baik dengan stakeholder
sering menjadi pembahasan dalam ranah public relations. Substansi dari berbagai kajian
403
tentang konsep public relations pada dasarnya bermuara pada creating valuable relationship.
Makalah ini khusus membahas tentang kontribusi public relations dalam entrepreneurial
marketing, khususnya yang terkait dengan stakeholder value creation.
II.
Value Creation dalam Entrepreneurial Marketing
Beberapa penelitian terdahulu mengenai entrepreneurial marketing
tentang value creation (Hills, Hansen, Hultman, 2005).
banyak membahas
Value creation menjadi fokus
penting dalam entrepreneurial marketing karena dalam situasi bisnis yang tidak menentu dan
terus bergerak dinamis diperlukan langkah-langkah yang proaktif, inovatif dan berorientasi
pada stakeholder , dimana salah satu konsep penting dari langkah-langkah tersebut adalah
value creation. Beberapa penelitian terdahulu mengenai entrepreneurial marketing juga
mengedepankan pentingnya value creation dari berbagai perspektif yang berbeda. Backbro
dan Nystrom menekankan pada pentingnya value creation yang inovatif khususnya untuk
usaha kecil dan menengah (Backbro, Nystrom, 2006). Kemampuan untuk menangkap
peluang usaha, juga merupakan salah satu aspek dalam value creation yang menjadi pokok
bahasan dalam penelitian Hills, Hansen dan Hultman. (Hills, Hansen dan Hultman, 2005)
Peneltian Kilenthong, Hills, Hultman dan Sclove membahas value creation dalam studi
kuantitatif mengenai relasi sistematis antara beberapa karakteristik - dalam perusahaan yaitu
firm’s age, size dan operator dengan karakteristik entrepreneurial marketing , dimana salah
satu karakteristik yang dibahas adalah value creation melalui relationship dan strategic
alliance (Kilenthong, Hills, Hultman dan Sclove, 2010).
Seperti telah dikemukakan
sebelumnya, makalah ini akan membahas value creation dalam entrepreneurial marketing
dari perspektif public relations. Secara spesifik makalah ini akan menelaah keterkaitan
antara value creation melalui relationship dan strategic alliance, entrepreneurial marketing
404
dan public relations , serta bagaimana kontribusi konsep-konsep public relations dapat
memperkaya kajian entrepreneurial marketing .
III. Apa yang menjadi Value dalam Public Relations?
Di dalam organisasi, public relations menjembatani antara kepentingan perusahaan dengan
kepentingan stakeholder
agar tercipta hubungan harmonis antara kedua belah pihak.
Hubungan timbal balik yang harrmonis dapat dibangun hanya jika terjadi komunuikasi dua
arah antara perusahaan dengan stakeholder. Public relations didefinisikan sebagai planned
process to influence public opinion, through sound character and proper performance, based
on mutually satisfactory two way communication (Seitel, 2011). Disamping itu definisi dari
Public relations Society of America (PRSA) yang dikutip oleh Frank Seitel menyebutkan
bahwa: Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other
(Seitel, 2011).
Dari definisi-definisi diatas dapat diambil benang merah bahwa inti dari kegiatan public
relations adalah segala sesuatu yang terkait hubungan perusahaan dengan stakeholder. Pada
sisi
stakeholder hubungan yang baik dengan perusahaan akan menciptakan kepercayaan bagi
stakeholder yang pada gilirannya akan berkontribusi pada kinerja perusahaan, baik yang
terkait dengan produktivitas, profit dan dalam jangka panjang adalah reputasi perusahaan.
Hon dan Grunig mengaitkan relationship ini dengan efektivitas organisasi sebagai berikut;
Effective organizations choose and achieve appropriate goals because they develop
relationships with their constituencies, which public relations practitioners typically call
publics. Ineffective organizations cannot achieve their goals, at least in part, because their
publics do not support and typically opposemanagement efforts to achieve what publics
consider illegitimate goals. goals (Hon, Grunig, 1999)
405
Stakeholder dalam perusahan sangat bervariasi antara satu perusahaan dengan perusahaan
lainnya, tergantung pada jenis usaha yang ditekuni oleh perusahaan yang bersangkutan.
James Grunig, menyebutkan bahwa secara umum satu perusahaan mentrepreneurial
marketingiliki enam kelompok publik atau stakeholder seperti yang terlihat pada gambar 1.
(Grunig, Hunt 2000)
Gambar 1. Publik (stakeholder) pada Organisasi, (James Grunig dan Tod Hunt)
Overseas
Customers
Governments
Int bank
Int agency
Business
partners
Government
Central
Regional
local
relations
dalam
perusahaan
Publics
Broad based
grouping
Opinion formers
Pressure Groups
Media
Financial
Financial
media
Shareholde
rs/
owners
Banks
Compan
y
Commercial
Suppliers
Wholesalers/R
etailers
Customer
Potential Cust
Internal
Entrepreneur
ial
marketingplo
yees
Managentrep
reneurial
marketingent
bertanggung
jawab
Public
untuk
mengelola hubungan dengan seluruh stakeholder tersebut. Dalam implementasinya, hal ini
tidaklah semudah membalik telapak tangan, karena karakter, kepentingan dan ekspektasi
setiap stakeholder dalam perusahaan seringkali berbeda-beda satu sama lain bahkan
kadangkala justru kepentingan dan ekspektasi diantara mereka saling bertentangan satu sama
lain. Dalam kondisi yang lebih ekstrim friksi diantara perusahaan dengan stakeholdernya
akan mengarah pada munculnya isu-isu dan bermuara pada terjadinya krisis. Memenuhi
406
kepentingan dan ekspektasi seluruh stakeholder yang terkait dengan perusahaan dan
meyelaraskannya dengan kepentingan perusahaan bukanlah hal yang mudah. Oleh karena itu
Grunic dan Hon dalam penelitiannya mengenai hubungan dengan stakeholder menyatakan
bahwa dari sekian banyak stakeholder yang harus dikelola hubungannya, public relations
harus dapat membuat skala prioritas untuk menentukan stakeholder- yang paling stategis bagi
perusahaan. Public relations makes an organization more effective, therefore, when it
identifies the most strategic publics as part of strategic management processes and conducts
communication programs to develop and maintain effective long-term relationships between
management and those publics. (Hon, Grunig, 1999)
Ketika public relations dapat mendukung perusahaan untuk membangun hubungan yang baik
dengan stakeholder-stakeholder utama , maka resiko timbulnya friksi yang menyangkut
masalah litigasi, regulasi, boikot, kampanye yang menyudutkan perusahaan atau kerugian
finansial dapat ditekan. Di sisi lain hubungan baik dalam bentuk dukungan dari stakeholder
seperti konsumen, donor, pemegang saham dan pemerintah secara tidak langsung dapat
membantu meningkatkan profit. (Hon, Grunig, 1999). Dari uraian tersebut dapat dilihat
bahwa value dari public relations , baik secara konseptual maupun pada tataran praktis
terletak pada relationship.
IV. Kontribusi Public Relations dalam Entrepreneurial Marketing
Suatu relationship yang sukses dalam public relations memiliki beberapa dimensi, yaitu
(Hon, Grunig, 1999)
 Control Mutuality; organisasi dengan stakeholder mempunyai kekuatan untuk saling
memengaruhi
 Trust; stakeholder memiliki keyakinan dan kesediaan untuk membuka diri kepada
pihak lain atas dasar:
407
o
integrity – percaya bahwa organisasi bertindak dengan adil dan terbuka
(fair.)
dependability – percaya bahwa organisasi memiliki
o
melakukan apa yang seharusnya
o
niat baik untuk
dilakukan.
competence – percaya bahwa organisasi memiliki kemampuan untuk
melakukan apa yang seharusnya dilakukan.
 Satisfaction; organisasi dan stakeholder merasa puas satu sama lain karena adanya
ekspektasi yang positif dari penguatan hubungan antara kedua belah pihak.
 Commitment; stakeholder yakin bahwa hubungan yang terjalin layak dan berharga
untuk dipertahankan. Dimensi ini terdiri dari dua aspek, yaitu continuance
commitment yang berorientasi tindakan nyata dan affective commitment yang lebih
menekankan pada hubungan emosional.
 Exchange Relationship; organisasi memberikan sesuatu pada stakeholder hanya jika
stakeholder dapat memberi manfaat atau diharapkan dapat memberi manfaat bagi
organisasi
 Communal Relationship; organisasi merasakan manfaat atas hubungan yang terjalin
tanpa mengharapkan imbalan dalam bentuk apapun dan semata-mata karena adanya
tanggung jawab sosial
Pembahasan mengenai value creation dalam entrepreneurial marketing sering dibahas dari
perspektif, manajemen, pemasaran atau kepemimpinan (Mc.Daniel, B. A. 2002), (Hollensen, S.
2004).
Sejauh ini masih jarang penelitian
yang menjelaskan hubungan
antara
entrepreneurial marketing dengan public relations , padahal jika dilihat dari perspektif public
relations khususnya mengenai valuable relationship, terdapat keterkaitan yang erat anatar
kedua konsep tersebut.
408
Perilaku (behavior) entrepreneurial marketing mensyaratkan adanya pola pikir yang bersifat
Entrepreneurial. (Hills, Hutman, 2002). Adapun pola pikir entrepreneurial yang diadaptasi
oleh penelitian-penelitian terdahulu, (Miller & Friesen, 1983), (Covin & Slevin,1994),
(Krzner, 1973), oleh Hill dan Hutman meliputi ; innovative, calculated risk takes, proactive
dan opportunity. Keempat pola pikir inilah yang menjadi dasar bagi terbentuknya perilaku
entrepreneurial marketing.
menyatakan bahwa
Seperti telah dikemukakan sebelumnya,
Hills dan Hutman
salah satu karakterisrik perilaku entrepreneurial marketing
adalah
relationship dan strategic alliance . Implementasi dari karakteristik ini tentunya juga harus
didasari pola pikir innovative, calculated risk takes, proactive dan opportunity.
Jika dikaitkan dengan konsep public relations, relationship dan strategic alliance yang
berdasarkan pola pikir innovative, calculated risk takes, proactive dan opportunity dapat
dielaborasi melalui enam dimensi successful relationship yang dikemukakan oleh Hon dan
Grunig, yaitu control mutuality, trust, satisfaction, commitment, exchange relationship dan
communal relationship, seperti terlihat pada gambar 2.
Gambar 2. Kontribusi Public Relations dalam perilaku Entrepreneurial marketing
Entrepreneurial Thinking
Relationship
 Innovative
 calculated risk takes
 proactive
 opportunity
Entrepreneurial Marketing Behavior
Relationship and
Strategic Alliance
Succsesful






Sinergi antara entrepreneurial thinking dan succesfull relationship
control mutuality
trust
satisfaction
commitment
exchange relationship
communal
relationship
melebur dalam
409
karakteristik relationship and strategic alliance. Dari sudut pandang entrepreneurial
thinking, valuable strategic alliance dapat dibentuk
apabila organisasi secara proaktif
mampu mengoptimalkan peluang untuk menciptakan ide-ide yang inovatif dalam mengelola
hubungan dengan tetap memperhitungkan berbagai resiko yang ada.
Sementara dari perspektif public relations, value dari karakeristik relationship dan strategic
alliance terletak pada bagaimana organisasi menjalin hubungan yang berorientasi jangka
panjang, Hal ini tercermin dari sejauh mana organisasi mampu mengelola hubungan yang
setara serta
saling menguntungkan dengan stakeholder berdasarkan komitmen dan
kepercayaan (trust), Disamping itu, pada kondisi-kondisi tertentu, organisasi juga perlu
mempertimbangkan unsur tanggung jawab sosial dari sebuah hubungan .
Dari uraian diatas dapat dikatakan bahwa kontribusi konsep public relations
entrepreneurial marketing, adalah mengenai valuable relationship
pemikiran
lebih komprehensif
pada
yang memberikan
dalam menganalisis salah satu karakteristik perilaku
entrepreneurial marketing, yaitu relationship dan strategic alliance.
V.
Kesimpulan
Value creation
dalam konteks perilaku entrepreneurial marketing , khususnya pada
karakteristik relationship dan strategic alliance erat kaitannya dengan esensi konsep public
relations, yaitu ‘relationship’. Jika latar belakang pemikiran perilaku entrepreneurial
marketing; innovative,
calculated risk takes, proactive dan opportunity lebih mengarah pada
bagaimana
menciptakan relationship dan strategic alliance, perspektif public relations mengajinya dari
sisi bagaimana mengelola dan mempertahankan hubungan tersebut dengan mengacu pada
410
dimensi controllable mutually, trust, satisfaction, commitment, exchange relationship dan
communal relationship.
Elaborasi yang lebih komprehensif maupun spesifik mengenai
keterkaitan antara entrepreneurial marketing , relationship dan strategic alliance dalam
perilaku entrepreneurial marketing serta public relations tentunya perlu dilakukan melalui
studi lanjut baikdalam bentuk pemikiran konseptual, maupun melalui penelitian studi kasus
di suatu organisasi.
Daftar Pustaka
Bäckbro, Johan, Nyström, Hampus and Gustafsson, Karl Erik. (2006), “Entrepreneurial
Marketing; Innovative Value Creation”, Jonkoping Interational Business School.
Dees, J. Gregory.(1998), “The Meaning of Social Entrepreneurship, Stanford University.
Grunig, James and Hunt Todd. (1984), Managing Public Relations, Wadsworth Publishing; 1
edition.
Hills, Gerald E., Hansen, David J. and Hultman, Claes, (2005), “International Journal
Entrepreneurship and Small Business”, Vol 2, No 4.
Hollensen, S. (2004), “Global Marketing, a Decision-Oriented Approach”, 3rd ed. Pearson
Education: England.
Hon, Linda Childers and Grunig, James E., (1999), Guidelines for Measuring Relationship in
Public Relations, Institute of Public Relations.
Kilenthong, Pitsamorn, Hills, Gerald E., Sclove, Stanley L. and Hultman, Claes, (2005)
“Entrepreneurial Marketing Practice: Systematic Relationships with Firm Age, Firm
Size, and Operator’s Status”, University St Gallen, Swiss.
McDaniel, B.A. (2002), “Entrepreneurship and Innovation, an Economic Approach. New
York, U.S.A.: M. E. Sharpe Inc.
Morris, M., Schindehutte, M. and La Forge, R. W. (2002) “EntrepreneurialMarketing:
A construct for Integrating Entrepreneurship and Marketing Perspectives”, Journal of
Marketing Theory and Practice, Vol. 10, No. 4.
Seitel, P. Fraser. (2011), “The Practice of Public Relations”, Pearson Education, Inc. New
Jersey.
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Pembentukan Cyber Culture dalam Forum Komunitas Online Kaskus
Fiona Suwana
Sherly Haristya
STIKOM The London School of Public Relations - Jakarta
ABSTRACT
The existence of a unique phenomenon in which Internet community forums have grown
includes Kaskus.us from Indonesia that has nearly 4 million members. In this forum, there are
symbolic interactions of words and the rules which eventually form a culture marked by cohesion
and solidarity between the members of kaskus. Theories that have been used are the symbolic
interaction, new media, online forum, and online community. This study applies a
phenomenological approach, in other words, research that focuses on the true meaning of a
phenomenon based on actual experiences of individuals. Data collection methods were through
participant observation and in-depth interviews. This study tries to find out how the formation of
cyberculture through symbolic interaction in the online community forums.
Keyword: symbolic interaction, new media, online forum, online community
A.
Latar Belakang
Fenomena yang ada dalam perkembangan media baru adalah maraknya forum komunitas
online, salah satunya adalah Kaskus.us. Forum komunitas online yang asli Indonesia ini memiliki
member terbanyak dibandingkan dengan forum-forum lainnya, yaitu hampir 4 juta member.
Segala interaksi simbolik member di dalamnya, terjadi dengan menggunakan simbol, kata-kata,
dan peraturan sehingga pada akhirnya membentuk suatu kultur yang ditandai dengan kohesivitas
dan solidaritas di antara member terhadap forum komunitas online itu sendiri. Kaskus.us adalah
salah satu situs Indonesia yang paling banyak dibuka di dunia dengan menyediakan tempat untuk
saling berbagi berbagai macam hal.
Pada bulan November 1999, Andrew Darwis, mahasiswa Indonesia yang berkuliah di
Seattle, Amerika Serikat mendirikan sebuah forum komunitas online sebagai pemenuhan sebagian
dari tugas kuliahnya. Andrew mendirikan forum ini berfungsi sebagai wadah bertukar informasi
dan menyalurkan hobi dengan leluasa bagi para mahasiswa Indonesia yang menjalani kuliah di
Amerika. Forum tersebut diberi nama Kasak Kusuk kemudian disingkat menjadi Kaskus.
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Berikut ini adalah kutipan hasil wawancara dengan Andrew Darwis yang diambil dari
Koran Topsoccer “Pada mulanya Kaskus dibuat untuk menyalurkan hobi saya berkomunitas di
internet, kebetulan pada waktu itu hampir tidak ada situs komunitas di Indonesia” (Edisi Kamis, 8
April 2010: 16). Seiringnya waktu Kaksus semakin berkembang dan diminati oleh masyarakat
Indonesia sehingga komunitas online ini bisa dibilang besar mengingat jumlah anggotanya yang
terus bertambah.
Kaskus memiliki kultur unik di dalamnya yaitu simbol-simbol kata, aturan tidak tertulis,
kohesivitas, dan loyalitas di tengah-tengah anggotanya yang beragam. Istilah di kalangan
komunitasnya seperti sebutan “Kaskuser” bagi para pengakses Kaskus.us, “bata” sebagai penanda
reputasi negatif bagi Kaskuser nakal yang melanggar aturan di Kaskus, “cendol” sebagai bentuk
penghargaan bagi reputasi baik Kaskuser dan thread yang dipostingnya, “pertamax” sebagai
kebanggaan seorang Kaskuser akan keberhasilannya memberikan respon di peringkat pertama
pada suatu thread, aturan larangan untuk memposting thread yang sama lebih dari satu kali, dan
lainnya. Contoh tersebut adalah bentuk nyata akan simbol berupa kata-kata yang dimiliki
komunitas Kaskus dan peraturan tidak tertulis yang bergulir begitu saja dan dipertukarkan secara
meluas dari mulut Kaskuser satu ke mulut Kaskuser lainnya tanpa adanya sosialisasi dan kontrol
ketat dari Andrew. Semua itu merupakan hasil interaksi dan komunikasi antar anggotanya.
Penggunaan berbagai istilah dan peraturan tidak formal tersebut membentuk suatu kultur di
dalam forum komunitas online Kaskus.us. Member kaskuser yang mendapatkan reward cendol
dari Kaskuser lainnya akan semakin dipercaya, namun sebaliknya jika mendapatkan punishment
bata justru akan tidak dipercaya ketika dia berinteraksi dan memposting suatu thread. Secara
hukum alam di dunia Kaskus, dengan adanya bata kaskuser akan tidak dipercayai (tersingkir)
bahkan akunnya bisa diblokir oleh moderator (momod). Momod adalah member Kaskus yang
memiliki hak dan kewajiban lebih di dalam menenggarai suatu forum di dalam Kaskus.
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Dari pemaknaan tiap individu akan simbol-simbol dan peraturan yang berlaku di Kaskus,
kemudian akan membentuk kohesivitas di antara sesama Kaskuser, bahkan lebih jauh dari itu akan
membentuk cyberculture di dalam komunitas Kaskus. Ada rasa bangga yang melekat di diri
Kaskuser ketika menggunakan istilah-istilah tersebut yang kemudian menjadi pemersatu dan
menimbulkan solidaritas di antara mereka sehingga dengan senangnya mereka berbagi informasi
penting, serta dengan mudahnya mempercayai Kaskuser lain ketika berkomunikasi atau
melakukan transaksi jual beli. Fenomena unik Kaskus ini begitu dahsyatnya sehingga mengalami
perkembangan tidak hanya sebatas pada saat pengaksesan Kaskus.us, tetapi juga menular pada
komunikasi di media online lainnya bahkan hingga terbawa di dunia nyata, seperti pengakuan ini:
Ada beberapa istilah yang menarik seperti ‘gan’ singkatan dari juragan untuk menyapa
sesama anggota Kaskusers, ‘cendol’, ‘bata’, dan lain sebagainya. Nampaknya hal ini sudah
menjadi budaya bahasa tersendiri di dunia maya dan kadang terbawa ke kehidupan nyata
yang dapat mencirikan bahwa ia adalah seorang Kaskusers. Ada kebanggaan tersendiri
ketika sesama Kaskusers berbicara dengan bahasa Kaskus di dunia nyata. Memang forum
online ini memiliki bahasa, kelas sosial, dan etika yang tercipta secara tidak sengaja dan
dapat dikatakan mirip sebuah Kultus. (http://yepiye.wordpress.com/2009/04/21/kaskusforum-komunikasi-online-indonesia-yang-nyaris-menjadi-budaya/, Senin, 4 Juli 2011).
Menurut Cerulo dalam Thomsen (1998) perlunya penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai kualitas
interaksi yang terjadi dalam komunitas online dengan komunitas pertemuan fisik,
sehingga
melalui uraian di atas, maka permasalahan yang akan dikaji adalah bagaimana praktek interaksi
simbolik yang berlangsung diantara para anggotanya dan bagaimana terbentuknya cyberculture
melalui interaksi simbolik tersebut di dalam forum komunitas online Kaskus.us.
A. Teori dan Konsep
Potensi Teori Interaksi Simbolik dalam Media Baru
Simbol merupakan konsep utama Interaksi Simbolik yang memiliki 4 makna, yaitu simbol
adalah objek sosial, simbol penuh makna, simbol untuk komunikasi dan representasi, dan simbol
sengaja digunakan. Ada kata yang paling mudah dikenali sebagai simbol. Ada body language
414
yang bisa dijadikan simbol untuk merepresentasikan sesuatu dan ada objek fisikal seperti warna,
pakaian, aksesoris, bendera, serta lainnya bisa dijadikan simbol (Charon 2007:141).
Menurut Charon, bahasa merupakan simbol yang istimewa karena diproduksi dan mampu
merepresentasikan realitas sebenarnya. Bahasa merupakan sistem simbolisasi yang didefinisikan
dalam interaksi sosial, digunakan untuk berkomunikasi, dan merupakan kumpulan kata yang
memiliki makna ketika sudah distandarisasi berdasarkan pada aturan yang berlaku. Dalam Kaskus
ada banyak sekali bahasa “gaul” yang digunakan, seperti sebutan Juragan untuk menyapa anggota
lainnya, Pertamaz jika berhasil menjadi komentator pertama, Cendol diberikan pada mereka yang
memiliki Good Reputation, Bata Merah diberikan pada mereka yang memiliki Bad Reputation.
Tiga konsep pemikiran Mead dalam Interaksi Simbolik (mind , self, dan society)
Society, masyarakat (organisasi) manusia itu selalu dimulai dengan interaksi sosial, dimana
bergantung dengan kerjasama, dan saling memupuk ketergantungan. Masyarakat bisa Mind,
merupakan bagian dalam interaksi simbolik. Dalam interaksi simbolik, mind merupakan jenis dari
tindakan, maka Charon menyebut mind sebagai “mind action” karena mind mempengaruhi segala
tingkah laku manusia. Ketika orang berbicara pada dirinya sendiri maka itu tergantung mind,
ketika orang memaknai sebuah simbol maka mind ikut terlibat. Mind selalu aktif untuk
menghubungkan konsep self dan simbol dalam interaksi (2007:152).
Charon (2007) menjabarkan proses terbentuknya Self,
dimulai dengan Preparatory
stage: interaksi yang dilakukan oleh self hanya sebatas imitasi dimana self belum mengerti
mengenai suatu makna. Play stage: self dimulai dikenali oleh significant other dan self sudah
mampu menyatakan suatu objek dengan kata yang memiliki makna bersama. Game stage: self
mulai menggabungkan beberapa significant other menjadi satu generalized other (society).
Interaksi dengan society membawa self berhadapan dengan peraturan dan perspektif yang berlaku
untuk bertindak. Reference stage: self berinteraksi dengan society, mulai terikat dengan kelompok
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yang opininya dinilai penting sehingga memiliki banyak social self. Keberadaan setiap kelompok
akan mempengaruhi, memaknai diri, bertindak, serta bisa memutuskan mengenai rujukannya.
Society terus berlanjut dikarenakan budaya dikembangkan, dimana itu menjadi penting
bagi individu-individu yang membangun masyarakat. Untuk sampai pada interaksi simbolik,
terdapat 3 kualitas penting yang dapat membuat masyarakat tetap hidup (Charon, 2007:155), yaitu
1. Society Is Symbolic Interaction
Shibutani menekankan dunia sosial dibuat oleh individu-individu yang berkomunikasi
dengan simbol-simbol dan berbagi perspektif. Dunia sosial ini kurang terikat secara geografis
namun diselenggarakan melalui komunikasi dan berbagi realitas. Secara logika, dunia sosial
dengan masyarakat tidak terikat dengan kesatuan geografis tapi melalui interaksi simbolik dan
komunikasi yang berlangsung melalui pengertian dari simbol. Suatu kelompok dibentuk dari
individu-individu yang bertindak kepada lainnya, mereka memperhatikan tindakan terkait; ikut
serta; saling bergantung; tidak saling meniru; dan setiap tindakan dari indivdiu lainnya menjadi
penting. Revolusi dunia dalam interaksi sosial terus berjalan melalui handphone, kemudahan
berpergian, kabel optik fiber, kerjasama multinasional, dan internet yang secara meningkat telah
membuat satu masyarakat dunia yang belum pernah ada sebelumnya (Charon, 2007:157-158).
2. Society is Symbolic Interaction that is Characterized by Cooperation Action
Masyarakat melibatkan keterikatan aksi kerjasama. Masyarakat terdiri dari koordinasi atas
aksi (coordination of action), turut serta (join action), tindakan dimana para aktor bekerja sama di
samping tujuan masing-masing. Masyarakat eksis selama orang-orang bekerja sama di samping
perbedaan mereka, terdapat ketergantungan dalam interaksi sosial dimana orang-orang mencapai
tujuan-tujuannya yang cocok, melengkapi, dan terkadang sama. Suatu masyarakat dapat tebentuk
ketika saling berinteraksi secara kooperatif (Charon, 2007:159).
3. Society is Social Interaction that is Symbolic, that is Characterized by Cooperation and
that Develops Culture
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Cultural Is a Shared Perspective, interaksi simbolik yang kooperatif menghasilkan
budaya, setiap masyarakat memiliki budaya. Budaya bisa untuk menghasilkan pemandu untuk
beraksi. Budaya bisa berarti konsensus dari suatu kelompok, perjanjian, tujuan, pengetahuan,
pemahaman, nilai-nilai, berbagi bahasa yang muncul bersama-sama. Culture is a Generalized
Other, budaya tidak dapat dianggap sebagai suatu cara untuk mendefiniskan realitas tapi harus
diperluas untuk mencakup suatu aturan. Generalized other berisi hukum yang harus ditaati seperti
sistem, adat, aturan formal/informal, prosedur, hal yang tabu, tradisi, moral. Itu bisa berarti suatu
panduan untuk berperilaku yang baik dalam kelompok. Culture Maintains Society, produk dari
budaya itu penting karena menjadi kontinuitas dari society, bisa terjadi karena masyarakat datang
untuk berbagi. A generalized other itu menjadi penting untuk mengkontrol dan mengarahkan diri,
dimana membuat aksi konsisten melalui apa yang dilakukan orang lain, disepakati, dan dibangun
dalam interaksi daripada keinginan mendadak dari setiap individu (Charon, 2007:162-164).
Peran Media Baru dalam Perkembangan Komunikasi Online
Media baru yang dalam hal ini diekspresikan dalam teknologi Internet, mengacu pada
pengunaan publik seperti berita online, iklan, penyiaran, aplikasi (berupa music downloading, dan
lainnya), forum/aktivitas diskusi, world wide web, pencarian informasi, dan potensi pembentukkan
komunitas tertentu. Pergerakan menuju era komunikasi digital telah menghasilkan lingkungan
media baru yang bersifat interaktif dan memungkinkan berbagai macam fungsi komunikasi
dilakukan melalui komputer (McQuail,2005:136,140).
Karakteristik Media Baru
Istilah ‘media baru’ merujuk pada jangkauan yang luas terhadap perubahan dalam media
produksi, distribusi, dan penggunaan. Perubahan ini termasuk teknologikal, tekstual,
konvensional, dan kebudayaan. Syarat utama dalam wacana tentang media baru adalah digital,
interaktif, hipertekstual, virtual, jaringan, dan simulasi. (Lister, et al., 2009)
417
Forum Online
Forum diskusi yang melibatkan kelompok yang besar atau khalayak yang bertemu sebagai
hasil dari kegiatan lain. Forum digunakan untuk mengumpulkan opini publik atau mendengarkan
keluhan warga kota karena melibatkan sejumlah orang, walau bertele-tele tetapi bermanfaat untuk
mencapai tujuan yang berguna untuk mendorong keterlibatan warga kota (Curtis, Floyd, dan
Windsor,2002:168). Ada hal yang dianggap amat penting dalam forum diskusi online yaitu
interaktivitas. Interaktivitas penting untuk memfasilitasi keterlibatan dan menyangga kestabilan
keanggotaan kelompok. Menurut Rafaeli dan Sudweeks (Thurlow and etc 2007:67), interaktivitas
dapat didefinisikan sampai batas mana rangkaian pesan terhubung saling terhubung, dan
khususnya sampai batas mana pesan terakhir dapat menjelaskan pesan sebelumnya. Teknologi
internet sebagai pendukung interaktivitas merupakan keuntungan luar biasa bagi komunikasi
melalui media komputer (Thurlow, Engel, and Tomic, 2007:66).
Komunitas Online
Kemunculan komunitas online yang termasuk dalam teknologi komunikasi internet
dianggap dapat “menghilangkan” komunitas yang sesungguhnya. Komunikasi dengan media
komputer (Computer Mediated Communication) juga dianggap oleh Sproull dan Kiesler dapat
merusak norma dan pengaruh sosial dimana orang tidak merasa harus menaati peraturan dan
berperilaku dengan pantas (Thurlow, Engel, Tomic, 2007:61). Menurut McQuail (2005:149),
beberapa ciri dari komunitas yang “asli” memang dapat ditemukan dalam komunitas online
seperti interaksi, tujuan umum, identitas dan sense of belonging, berbagai norma dan aturan tidak
tertulis. Pendapat ini diperkuat McLaughlin dan koleganya (Thurlow, Engel, Tomic, 2007:65)
yang memberi contoh bahwa orang yang tergabung dalam newsgroup atau mailing list sering
menegur siapapun yang melanggar aturan kelompok. Dalam forum kaskus, anggota yang berada
di dalammnya bisa saling menegur satu sama lain dengan memberikan komentar kepada anggota
yang menggunakan bahasa kasar mengandung SARA, menipu di dalam forum jual beli (FJB).
418
Namun hanya admin dan moderator yang bisa memberikan aksi langsung seperti membuang
posting dan mem-banned profil anggota yang melanggar.
B.
Metode
Metode yang bisa digunakan adalah wawancara mendalam dan observasi. Teknik
pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah data primer dari hasil wawancara mendalam dan
observasi. Observasi dimana peneliti berusaha memperhatikan objek penelitian secara seksama
akan aksi, karakter, bagaimana cara mereka berinteraksi serta argot yang mereka gunakan. Argot
adalah bahasa khusus atau terminologi yang digunakan member sebuah kelompok yang
berinteraksi secara rutin. (Neuman, 2006:396-398).
Sampling penelitian ini adalah purposive sampling, yang digunakan untuk memilih
anggota yang sulit dijangkau, populasi yang khusus. (Neuman, 2006: 222). Pengambilan sampling
ini dilakukan dari Internet (World Wide Web) dengan menggunakan forum komunitas, di mana
pengambilan sampling dari Internet bisa menjanjikan dalam memberikan sampel secara luas.
Menurut Boster dan Sherry, Internet dapat menyediakan akses ke kelompok yang terlibat dalam
perilaku komunikasi tertentu. Kelompok-kelompok ini sering menjadi target untuk penelitian
berbasis CMC dan mudah ditemukan karena mereka memilih untuk menempatkan dirinya di situssitus internet berdasarkan kontennya (Berger, 2010: 57-58). Seperti halnya dalam penelitian ini,
yang menyasar kaskuser dalam forum komunitas Kaskus.us sebagai narasumber yaitu Adi
Baskoro menjadi Kaskuser sejak tahun 2009 dan Mirza Basyiruddin sejak tahun 2004.
C. Analisis
Interaksi dalam Kaskus.us
Saat pertama bergabung di Kaskus, Adi Baskoro mengaku bahwa dirinya tidak berani
langsung mem-post thread di forum-forum yang didatanginya. Status keanggotaannya sebagai
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newbie-lah yang mengurung dirinya melakukan post thread. Selama masih menyandang status
newbie, Informan hanya memulai interaksinya dengan memberikan komentar di thread yang
diikutinya. Senada dengan Adi, Mirza pun mengaku awal dia memulai interaksi dengan penghuni
Kaskus lainnya dengan memberikan komentar di thread yang diikuti. Hal ini serupa dengan
preparatory stage, tahap awal konsep pengembangan diri yang dikemukakan oleh Mead (Charon,
2007), dimana interaksi yang terjadi hanya berupa imitasi, sedikit makna, dan pemahaman
simbolik sehingga hanya berani mengimitasi tindakan Kaskuser lainnya dengan cara memberikan
komentar di thread orang lain, tetapi belum berani memulai thread dari diri sendiri.
Posting pertama Adi Baskoro terjadi di Forum Jual Beli (FJB) yang didasarkan pada
kebutuhannya akan pembelian atau penjualan laptop dan telepon genggam. Mirza beberapa kali
bertransaksi di FJB untuk membeli DVD band kesukaannya yang sulit ditemukan di pasaran.
Yang menarik adalah keduanya sama-sama percaya untuk bertransaksi dunia maya yang rentan
akan penipuan. Mirza mengatakan apa yang membuatnya yakin bertransaksi di Kaskus adalah
para pengguna bisa membaca testimonial dari orang lain yang pernah bertransaksi sebelumnya,
“Kalo emank ada yang gak jujur langsung aja ada info dari Kaskuser lain, kalo misalnya ada
korban yang ketipu langsung aja dia ngepost gitu. Ya udah orang langsung tahu dia gak baik”.
Pada saat pertama kali Informan melakukan posting thread pribadi, mereka mulai
memasuki Play Stage (Charon, 2007) dimana self dimulai dikenali oleh significant other dan self
juga sudah mampu menyatakan suatu objek dengan kata yang memiliki makna bersama. Hal inilah
yang memberanikan diri Informan untuk melakukan posting pribadi karena mulai dikenali dan
sudah mampu menggunakan istilah bersama di Kaskus. Significant other di sini adalah Kaskuser
lain yang bisa memberikan informasi, simbol, aturan, dan lainnya. Selain FJB, Mirza juga sering
mengakses forum lain, seperti film, musik, dan komik. Kebutuhannya dapat terpenuhi melalui
pertukaran informasi dalam thread-thread yang membahas mengenai informasi itu. Baginya,
pertukaran informasi di Kaskus.us lebih cepat dari media lainnya. Mirza juga mengatakan
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berinteraksi dalam Kaskus.us dapat memenuhi kebutuhan sosialnya, seperti pengakuan dan
aktualisasi diri. Penghargaan dari pengguna lain akan menandakan bahwa Informan diterima di
lingkungan tersebut. Mirza yang merupakan pengguna senior menyebutkan juga bahwa apapun
yang dikatakan walau itu tidak penting/relevan dengan topik yang ada namun tetap mendapatkan
penghargaan dari kaskuser lainnya. Kaskuser bisa memenuhi kebutuhan penggunanya dengan
menyatakan pendapat sekaligus menyediakan berbagai informasi, sehingga membuat Kaskus
begitu melekat di pikiran para penggunanya. Kaskus bisa memenuhi kebutuhan dengan
tersedianya informasi spesifik, ruang publik bebas, dan orang-orang yang memiliki minat sama.
Tujuan masing-masing individu mungkin berbeda-beda. Ada yang ingin berjualan, ada
yang haus pertemanan, ada yang memperluas network, ada pula yang seperti Mirza yaitu mencari
informasi spesifik yang cepat dan bisa dipercaya, dan masih banyak lainnya. Tujuan yang berbeda
ini bisa saling melengkapi sehingga membentuk suatu komunitas yang kooperatif. Kesediaan
Kaskuser untuk saling membantu dan bekerja sama inilah yang membentuk, apa yang disebut
Charon (2007) dengan society. Charon mengatakan bahwa interaksi juga bertanggung jawab
terhadap society, karena melalui interaksi sehingga society terbentuk, dikukuhkan, dan diubah.
Penggunaan Bahasa Kaskus
Karakter Adi Baskoro yang ekstrovert, hal tersebut jadi tercermin dari sikapnya yang
berusaha untuk mengikuti bahasa yang ada di Kaskus. Adi mengatakan:
”Ibaratnya, kalau saya mau masuk di satu komunitas, dimanapun, kita harus cepet
mempelajari bagaimana tata cara mereka berkomunikasi biar cepet nyambungnya”.
Informan berusaha mengikuti dan mempelajari cara berinteraksi, agar interaksi selanjutnya
dapat berjalan sesuai dengan lingkungan Kaskus. Informan menginginkan dirinya menjadi bagian
dari Kaskus, sebagai sebuah lingkungan baru tempat Informan berinteraksi. Dalam interaksi
semacam ini, Informan berada dalam tahapan the Game Stage dalam tahap pembangunan diri
yang diungkapkan oleh Mead.
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Bahasa Kaskus adalah ciri khas dari Kaskus.us, sesuatu yang membedakannya dengan
forum-forum online sejenis. Tidak heran jika Informan berusaha mengikuti istilah-istilah yang
terbentuk di sana. Diakui Mita, salah satu karyawan Kaskus.us yang mengatakan bahwa Andrew
sebelumnya juga tidak tahu menahu soal istilah yang tercipta di dalam Kaskus.us. Yang dimana
istilah-istilah yang saat ini ada, justru tercipta begitu saja. Penciptaan istilah juragan untuk
menyapa pengguna Kaskus coba ditelaah oleh Adi Baskoro.Ia menduga bahwa sapaan juragan
berasal dari FJB, juragan digunakan untuk memberi penghormatan kepada penjual barang
misalnya juragan HP, juragan laptop, dan lainnya; hingga meluas penggunaannya ke forum-forum
lain untuk menyapa sesama. Mirza lebih cenderung memahami bahasa melalui konteks yang ada
pada interaksi yang terjadi. Penggunaan ‘Maho’ disadarinya merupakan kata untuk hinaan,
walaupun belum tahu arti namun melalui interaksi, jadi disadari dan memahami konteks
penggunaan ‘Maho’ yang artinya Makhluk Homo.
Charon
(2007)
mengatakan,
memanggil
sesuatu
dengan
nama
artinya
telah
mengidentifikasi, menandai, membedakan, serta menyimpannya untuk kegunaan di masa datang.
Hal yang sama terjadi pada kedua informan, dengan mengetahui pengertian dari istilah-istilah
tersebut, pada saat dan konteks tertentu akan mampu digunakan sama seperti pengguna lain. Lebih
jauh, Halliday (dalam Charon, 2007) berkata bahasa untuk menafsirkan semua pengalaman,
mengurangi fenomena yang bervariasi dari dunia dalam diri dan sekitar kita, proses kesadaran kita
sendiri ke beberapa fenomena untuk menggeneralisasi peristiwa, tindakan, objek, orang dan
lembaga, dan lainnya. Selain istilah-istilah tersebut di atas, masih ada lagi sejumlah istilah lainnya
yang bisa terbentuk dan digunakan anggotanya karena interaksi yangberlaku dalam Kaskus .
Cohesion terhadap Kaskus
Baik Mirza maupun Adi Baskoro mengaku memiliki keterikatan terhadap Kaskus. Artinya
ada perasaan dalam diri informan bahwa dirinya adalah bagian dari Kaskus.us. Bagi Mirza,
sekalipun keterikatan itu tidak begitu kuat pada Kaskus secara keseluruhan; akan tetapi pada
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thread tertentu di forum yang ia ikuti, ia merasakan keterikatan dan menjadi bagian dari dirinya. Ia
bahkan merasakan thread tersebut layaknya keluarga kecil baginya. “..at least dari keluarga kecil
ya thread itu, satu dua thread kecil itu aja sich. Ya ada rasa seneng aja”, ujarnya. Sedangkan
bagi Adi Baskoro, rasa keterikatan itu terlihat lebih besar karena Kaskus dapat memberikan
motivasi untuk menjadi pengguna yang baik. Dia merasakan adanya tindakan yang kooperatif satu
sama lain antara kaskuser, terlepas dari kebutuhan jual-belinya. Keterikatan ini terjadi karena
interaktivitas begitu berkembang di dalam kaskus.us. Sebagaimana Thurlow, et al. (2007)
mengatakan bahwa dengan interaktivitas, suatu kelompok komunikasi bermediasi komputer dapat
terikat karena bisa memfasilitasi perjanjian dan mempertahankan kestabilan kelompok. Selain itu,
keterikatan yang ditunjukkan Informan juga menunjukkan adanya cohesion atau kecenderungan
untuk tetap bersama-sama (Reber dalam Thurlow, 2007).
Aturan dalam Kaskus
Terdapat sejumlah aturan dalam Kaskus.us, dimana aturan ini terbagi menjadi tertulis dan
tidak tertulis. Aturan tertulis dalam Kaskus dapat ditemui saat pertama kali seseorang mendaftar
sebagai anggota berupa terms of use. Aturan ini bersifat standar dan hampir bisa ditemui di semua
situs penyedia e-mail, fasilitas keanggotaan. Aturan dibuat oleh moderator untuk menjaga
ketertiban interaksi yang ada dalam forum-forum. Moderator (momod) adalah ketua forum yang
secara sukarela mengelola forum dalam Kaskus. Momod bisa dikatakan sebagai ‘hansip’ karena
berwewenang untuk menindak segala pelanggaran aturan di forum Kaskus. Untuk melaporkan
tindak pelanggaran aturan kepada momod, seorang pengguna cukup meng-klik icon ‘laporkan
hansip’ yang ada di setiap box Kaskuser. Bagi Adi Baskoro, peran Administrator (Andrew Darwis,
pencipta kaskus, disebut Mimin) dan Moderator adalah yang paling penting dalam forum Kaskus
karena bisa mengontrol dan menghapus thread yang dianggap tidak sesuai. Secara senada,
menurut Mirza, peran moderator bukan hanya sebatas pembuat aturan, akan tetapi juga mengawasi
serta memperhatikan interaksi agar tidak ada yang melanggar aturan.
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Dalam hal ini, moderator dan administrator berperan sebagai significant other bagi para
pengguna kaskus. Significant Other disebutkan Mead dalam Charon (2007) dengan pihak yang
dianggap penting bagi setiap individu, mereka ingin mendapatkan pengakuan darinya, disegani,
dan dengannya individu jadi bisa mengidentifikasi diri. Selain aturan tertulis atau tidak tertulis
juga dipatuhi dan dilaksanakan oleh kaskuser. Mirza mengatakan bahwa postingan yang berbau
SARA, gambar yang vulgar akan ditindak oleh moderator. Selain itu, aturan juga mencakup
larangan memberikan post yang sudah ada sebelumnya jadi pengguna harus mencari tahu dulu
apakah thread yang akan di-post ternyata sudah pernah ada atau belum. Adi Baskoro juga
menambahkan tidak me-repost ini hanyalah ‘imbauan moral’, artinya jangan sampai
memunculkan thread yang pernah ada. Selain itu dilarang juga mem-post sesuatu yang berbau
SARA. Dari interaksi simbolik yang ada jadi memunculkan kooperatif antara tiap self dengan
banyak kelompok (society), sehingga terbentuknya peraturan terutama dan tidak tertulis yang pada
akhirnya jadi menciptakan budaya yang membantu menciptakan kesinambungan dari waktu ke
waktu dan akhirnya dijadikan pedoman bertindak oleh setiap pelakunya atau Kaskuser.
D. Diskusi
Penggunaan teori interaksi simbolik bisa untuk melihat bagaimana simbol dan budaya
dikembangkan melalui interaksi sosial. Interaksionisme simbolik dapat menyatakan perubahan
pada cara berinteraksi seseorang jika orang tersebut berada dalam suatu pola sosial (society) yang
baru dimana dipengaruhi oleh kebudayaan yang ada. Mind yang menjadi panduan bertindak bagi
self di dalam forum komunitas online akan membentuk proses interaksi simbolik yang kemudian
jika kebutuhan self terpenuhi di dalam society tersebut maka akan membentuk society dan cyber
culture yang kooperatif. Proses interaksi simbolik yang berkesinambungan inilah yang menopang
keberlangsungan forum komunitas online. Puncaknya konsep society menjadi klimaks dalam
proses interaksi simbolik, jika konsep mind dan self hanya melingkupi dalam satu individu.
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Namun society telah melibatkan banyak individu yang terdiri dari berbagai mind dan self. Sama
halnya ketika berada di dalam media baru seperti kaskus yang anggotanya hampir 4 juta, dimana
para anggota saling memahami satu sama lain dan berinteraksi dengan menggunakan simbolsimbol serta peraturan-peraturan yang berlaku di dalam forum komunitasnya.
Komunitas Kaskus ini juga hanya muncul secara online dalam konteks virtual, sehingga
terjadinya komunitas yang tidak terpaku pada lokasi geografis dengan waktu tertentu untuk
bertemu dan berinteraksi satu sama lain. Hal ini sangat menarik ketika para anggotanya bisa
berkumpul tanpa perlu melakukan interaksi tatap muka langsung, namun tetap bisa menghasilkan
dan mempertukarkan budaya (cyber culture). Dengan tingginya tingkat interaksi yang dilakukan
karena kemudahan akses virtual dimana dan kapan pun, serta fakta bahwa orang-orang dalam
komunitas online Kaskus bisa berinteraksi sebagai teman berbagi bukan hanya pendengar pasif
yang menerima saja namun juga memberi informasi. Hal-hal tersebut yang membuat komunitas
online menjadi sesuatu yang terus berkembang bahkan keterikatan (sense of belonging) sukarela
oleh para anggotanya bisa terjadi dalam forum Kaskus ini.
E. Simpulan dan Saran
Melalui fenomena ini, dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa dalam setiap cyber community,
selalu akan ada simbol-simbol komunikasi yang berbeda dengan penerapan di dunia offline atau
online baik itu bahasa, aturan, dan lainnya. Teori interaksionisme simbolik menyatakan adanya
suatu perubahan dari cara berinteraksi, jika orang tersebut berada dalam suatu pola sosial yang
baru dan dipengaruhi oleh kebudayaan tertentu, begitu juga dengan cyber community yang
akhirnya bisa menghasilkan dan menggunakan cyber culture. Dimulai ketika seorang Kaskuser
memutuskan bergabung pada forum di Kaskus, awalnya dia akan merefleksikan terlebih dahulu
simbol-simbol yang dipergunakan. Berjalannya waktu, dia akan mulai mempergunakan dan
mempertukarkan simbol tersebut di dalam interaksi untuk menjadi pedoman bertindak bagi dirinya
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ketika berhadapan dengan Kaskuser lain, Moderator, dan juga Mimin selaku pengelola Kaskus.us
yang berperan sebagai significant other.
Mind dalam para Kaskuser memungkinkan self untuk merefleksikan simbol yang ada pada
forum komunitas online di dalam dirinya terlebih dahulu dengan cara memperhatikan dan
kemudian self akan ikut serta dalam interaksi. Proses pertukaran makna dimana akan menjadi
acuan bagi self untuk bertindak. Dalam proses ini, self akan berhadapan dengan self lainnya yang
meliputi significant other dan generalized other atau society. Tiap self yang memiliki tujuan yang
sama dan berbeda akan melakukan interaksi dan ketika kebutuhan dari tiap self bisa terpenuhi
maka akan membentuk society dan cyber culture yang kooperatif seperti penggunaan bahasa,
peraturan, simbol, dan lainnya. Semua proses interaksi simbolik ini akan terus berulang karena hal
itu menjadi sesuatu yang penting bagi tiap self di dalamnya guna keberlangsungan society (tempat
berkumpul). Proses interaksi simbolik ini akan terus berlanjut karena para Kaskuser terus
mempertahankan keberadaan forum Kaskus yang dianggap bisa memenuhi kebutuhan mereka.
Saran
Media baru akan terus berkembang ke depannya karena sekarang berada pada era web 2.0,
dimana internet menjadi suatu bentuk baru media komunikasi yang interaktif. Pada pengguna atau
komunitas online yang menghasilkan berbagai konten informasi, bisa berdampak bagi masyarakat
sehingga terbangun jaringan interaktif diantara penggunanya. Sehingga disarankan bagi para
pelaku di dunia akademis untuk mencoba melihat kemungkinan penerapan interaksi digabungkan
teori komunikasi interpersonal, publik, massa yang dikaitkan dengan teori media baru sehingga
bisa melanjutkan perkembangan ilmu mengenai komunikasi dengan media baru.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Buku
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Science, 2nd ed. Sage Publications, California.
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Charon, Joel M (2007), Symbolic Interactionism: An Introduction, An Interpretation, An
Integration, California: Pearson
Denzin, Norman K & Yvonna S. Lincoln (2009), Handbook of Qualitative Research,
Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar
Lister, et al, New Media: A Critical Introduction, Second Edition. New York: Routledge,
2009
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Approaches. (5th Edition). USA: Perason Education. Inc.
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of America: A Viacom Company,
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Communication: Sosial Interaction and the Internet. London: Sage Publication Ltd
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Barak Libai, Ruth Bolton, Marnix S. Bügel, Ko de Ruyter, Oliver Götz, Hans
Risselada and Andrew T. Stephen, 2010, http://jsr.sagepub.com/content/13/3/267
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R. Thomsen, Joseph D. Straubhaar, Drew M. Bolyard, Information Research, Vol. 4
No. 1, July 1998.
Situs
http://boardsus.playstation.com/playstation/board/message?board.id=announcements&messa
ge.id=16#modteam, Selasa, 5 Juli 2011.
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osts, Senin, 4 Juli 2011.
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THE ROLE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY AND ALTRUISM ON ACCEPTANCE AND
ACTUAL USE OF SOCIAL NETWORK SERVICES
Rahab
Management Department, Faculty of Economics, Jenderal Soedirman University
Abstract
Social network services are emerging as a promising IT-based business, with some services
already being provided commercially such as Facebook and twitter. However, it is not yet
clear which potential audience groups will be key social network service participants.
Moreover, the process showing how an individual actually decides to start using a social
network service may be somewhat different from current web-based community services.
Hence, the aims of this paper are twofold. First, we empirically examine how individual
characteristics affect actual user acceptance of social network services. To examine these
individual characteristics, we apply a Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to construct an
amended model that focuses on three individual differences: social identity and altruism, and
one perceived construct: the perceived encouragement, imported from psychology-based
research. Next, we examine if the users’ perception to see a target social network service as
human relationship- oriented service or as a task-oriented service could be a moderator
between perceived constructs and actual use. As result, we discover that the perceived
encouragement and perceived orientation are significant constructs that affect actual use of
social network services.
Keywords: Social identity, social network, altruism, Technology Acceptance Model
Research Background
Online social network services build and verify social networks for the individuals
and communities who share interests and activities with one another, or who are interested in
exploring the interests and activities of others. Social network services can be regarded as
web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a
bounded system, articulate a list of other users with those who share a connection, and view
their list of connections and also those made by others within the system (Boyd & Ellison,
2007).
Hence we define social network services as a web-based service. It is based on certain
meaningful and valuable relationships including friendship, kinship, interests and activities,
etc. Social network services allow individuals to network for a variety of purposes including
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sharing information, building and exploring the relationship, etc. People have various reasons
for using social network services. These services provide ways to maintain contact with
friends and family, but also for meeting new people (Boyd, 2007). Regret and self-image
congruity affect have been regarded as determinants of continuance intention to use social
network services (Kang, Hong, & Lee, 2009). Some services can also be used for blogging or
sharing content and media (Yuta, Ono, & Fujiwara, 2007). Many social network services
allow users to join or create groups so that they can interact with other users who have similar
interests.
Moreover, using social network services may be related to social capital. For instance,
self-esteem has been regarded as a moderator of the relationship between social network site
use and social capital (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Steinfield, Ellison, & Lampe,
2008). Affective and social factors are more important in explaining the usage of social
network services other than task-oriented systems, such as office information systems. For
instance, intimacy has been regarded as an indicator of interpersonal relationship which in
turn affects social network use (Rau et al., 2008). However, despite the importance of
affective and social factors, very few efforts have been done to date. More research is needed
to identify the significant affective and social factors in a social network service context.
Theoretical Review
Technology Acceptance Model
TAM was originally developed by Davis (1989) to predict users’ initial adoption of a
new IT. In this model, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are considered as two
predecessors affecting attitude toward a technology, which affect behavioral intention to use
that technology, which in turn leads to its actual use. One way of examining the uptake and
usage of IT is to use models of planned behavior, one of the most well-known of which is the
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TAM (Davis, 1989). This is an established model of computer usage and has been validated
through testing with a number of technologies (Davis et al., 1989, 1992; Davis, 1993; Igbaria,
1993; Igbaria et al., 1994; Lederer et al., 1998; Dishaw and Strong, 1999) and cultures
(Straub et al., 1997). Many studies using the TAM (e.g. Anandarajan et al., 2000) have
suggested that the theoretical basis for this model lies in the theory of reasoned action (TRA)
(Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and some have noted its links to the diffusion of innovation
(Rogers, 1983). The TRA is a model of human behavior that postulates that reasoning from
beliefs and evaluations to the development of an attitude towards performing a behavior.
Attitudes thus bring about an evaluation of intention to perform the behavior, in turn resulting
in its execution. In this case, the relevant behavior is intranet usage and the beliefs and
evaluations are proposed as being made on a number of specific variables. The original
model (Davis, 1989) proposed these variables as being perceived usefulness (PU) and
perceived ease of use (PEU), factors that are captured through a small number of short
questions.
Hypotheses and research model
In this paper, I proposed using a TAM extended to social network services model.
Social network services are abundant, whether the service users are performing tasks or
building relationships. The research tried to avoid an intention-behavior gap by building an
extended TAM to include actual use rather than just an intention to use, even though behavior
intention to use is the strongest predictor of actual use (Venkatesh et al., 2003). The focus is
only on testing the social network services using the TAM with some external variables,
rather than the extended model with social effect variables.
In this paper, two external determinants among the individual characteristics are
considered: social identity and altruism and perceived encouragement, as shown in Fig. 1.
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The consideration of user experience is because the social network services are now available
and heavily utilized by actual users. The consideration to use perceived orientation was to see
if the purpose of the social network service may be a moderator between perceived constructs
and actual use. Based on the theoretical review, an amended TAM as shown in Fig. 1 was
tested.
Social identity
Social identity theory has recently expanded from its origins in social psychology to
areas of organizational research (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Social identity is characterized by
its solidarity to the social group, conformity to in-group norms, and discrimination against
out-groups (Riedlinger, Gallois, Mckay, & Pittam, 2004). In a social network service (SNS),
social identity is the perception of belonging to the SNS community where people have the
motivation to arise social interaction with others. Hence, the research suggests that social
identity in the social network service will positively influence perceived ease of use,
perceived usefulness, and perceived encouragement. Items are developed according to Song
and Kim’s research (Song & Kim, 2006).
H1a. Social identity will have a positive effect on perceived ease of use of a social network
service.
H1b. Social identity will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of a social network
service.
Altruism
Altruism can be classified into two types: kin altruism and reciprocal altruism. Kin
altruism benefits a genetic relative’s chances of survival or reproduction at some cost to one’s
own chances, and reciprocal altruism is helping others based on the belief that the benefited
431
person will be expected to return such assistance in the future (Ashtona, Paunonena,
Helmesa, & Jacksona, 1988). In a social network service context, it is interesting that users
display both kinds of altruism. To illustrate the altruists’ action within a TAM framework,
altruism should be supported by an additional perceived construct out of perceived ease of
use and perceived usefulness, in order to increase the explanation power of the acceptance
model. In particular, under the reciprocal altruism context, the altruistic social network
service users may be more motivated to be encouraged by others than those who are not
altruistic. Hence, the hypotheses on altruism, which have their origins in previous decades of
psychological research (Bal-tal & Raviv, 1979), are stated as follows:
H2a. Altruism will have a positive effect on perceived ease of use of a social network service.
H2b. Altruism will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of a social network service.
of a social network service.
Perceived ease of use
The latent variable ‘Ease of Use’ is very important to accepting an information system
because it is the basis of a system use (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989). Perceived ease
of use is defined as ‘‘the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system
would be free of effort” (Davis, 1989a, 1989b). It has been widely known that systems’
perceived ease of use, as well as perceived usefulness, have a direct influence on usage of an
information system, and perceived usefulness mediates the effect of perceived ease of use on
usage (Agarwal & Prasad 1999; Davis et al., 1989; Jackson et al., 1997; Venkatesh, 1999).
Like many technologies and information systems, the model including perceived ease of use
seems to have good predictive validity for the use of social network service. Hence,
expections that perceived ease of use has positive influences on perceived usefulness and
usage of social network service.
432
H4. Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of a social
network service.
H6. Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on intention to reuse of a social network
service.
Perceived usefulness
Systems’ perceived usefulness has a direct influence on the intention to use an information
system, as prior research claims (Agarwal & Prasad 1999; Davis et al., 1989; Jackson et al.,
1997; Venkatesh, 1999). The ultimate goal of using a social network service is that the
system increases a user’s satisfaction by facilitating the interaction between community
members. Ultimately the system provides useful community activities and responses on the
user’s behalf (Erickson 2002; Kwon 2004). Hence, expectation that perceived usefulness has
a positive influence on behavioral intention to use social network services.
H7. Perceived usefulness will have a positive effect on intention to reuse of a social network
service.
Research model
Altruism
H1a
Perceived
ease of use
H4
H1b
Intention
to reuse
H3
Actual use
H6
H2a
Social
Identity
H5
H2b
Perceived
of
usefullness
Figure 1. Research model
Research methods
433
Data collection
A survey technique was used to collect data. This study used non probability sampling by
convenience sampling. The population sample was selected from among undergraduates and
graduate students at Universities in Purwokerto city who are using Facebook as one of
popular commercial social network services in Indonesia. Initially, we ran a pilot study on
SNS users to determine any ambiguous items that needed to be revised. We obtained a total
of 105 usable survey responses out of 280 (from 12nd January to 31st February, 2010) through
an direct survey. The sample consisted of 50,48% male and 49,52% female participants
ranging in age from 17th to 30th , the majority of which were in their twenties (58,09 %).
Moreover, most of the respondents have heavily used Facebook: 46.6% and 27.7% of the
respondents have used the service from 1 to 2 years and more than 3 years, respectively.
Hence, the responses seem to be qualified to analyze the factors affecting the actual use of
social network services.
Data Analysis and Result
Data analysis
The technique of data analysis used in this research is Partial Least Square (PLS) by
using the application of Smart PLS V.20 M3. The PLS technique analysis uses two steps; the
step of measurement model analysis which examines the validation and reliability. The next
step is structural model analysis which examines the correlation between the hypothesized
variables.
Measurement Model
Measurement model connected to the instruments’ validity is tested by using
convergent validity and discriminant validity. To test the convergent validity, Average
434
Variance Extracted (AVE) and communality are considered. Convergent validity can be
completed if the construct has AVE and communality above the minimal level 0.5 (Hair et
al.,, 2006). Based on table 1, it can be seen that all constructs have AVE and communality ≥
0.5. Based on the above mentioned criteria, it can be concluded that the convergent validity is
completed. It means that the items used to measure the construct do measure the construct.
There are two procedures to measure discriminant validity. First, each item in
construct must have high loading in construct and the cross loading is lower than item
loading in the construct (see table 2. Outer Loadings). Second, is by comparing the AVE
square root of each construct and other inter-construct correlation. If the root square value of
AVE is higher than the correlation between constructs, it means that the discriminant validity
is completed (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The items that do not have high loading in their
construct but they have high loading on other constructs, cannot be used in further analysis.
The result of convergent validity can be seen on table 3.
To find out the discriminate validity, cross loading can be used as seen on Table 2.
Table 2 shows both the loading value of item with its measured construct and item with other
construct. Loading value (in bold) shows the loading item with its measured construct.
Discriminant validity is fulfilled if the item loading value of the construct is higher than
loading value of other construct. By referring to table 2, it can be seen that discriminant
validity is fulfilled if item loading value with its measured construct (bold printed) is higher
than item loading value of other construct.
Another technique to measure the discriminant validity is by comparing AVE root
square of each construct with the correlation of other construct. Table 3 and table 4 are the
value of AVE root square and the correlation of other construct. Based on table 3 and table 4,
it can be seen that the value of AVE root square (bold printed) is higher than the correlation
435
between constructs. Hence, by referring to this indicator, discriminant validity is also
fulfilled.
The measurement model connected to the construct-reliability testing is measured by
using composite reliability with its minimal limit 0.7 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994);
Ghozali, 2006). Table 4 shows that composite reliability value of each construct is higher
than 0.7. This indicates that the construct of the research is valid. Based on table 5, it can be
concluded that composite reliability value of all constructs are > 0.7. Hence, those constructs
have fulfilled the stability and consistency which means that there is a correlation among
items in one construct.
Table 1. AVE and communality score
AVE
Altruism
0,650496
Actual use
0,539008
Int to reuse
0,505647
Ease of use
0,533436
Usefulness
0,565422
Social identity
0,567029
Communality
0,650496
0,539008
0,505647
0,533436
0,565422
0,567029
Table 2. Outer Loadings
AL1
AL2
AL3
AU1
AU2
AU3
ITU2
ITU3
ITU4
ITU5
ITU6
ITU7
PEU1
PEU2
PEU3
PEU4
ALTR
0,816214
0,825327
0,777250
AU
ITU
PEOU
POU
0,750386
0,772965
0,675626
0,656189
0,772303
0,790728
0,618979
0,754136
0,655547
0,742509
0,628267
0,607222
0,687242
436
SOC_ID
PEU8
PU4
PU6
PU8
SI1
SI2
SI3
0,616537
0,774447
0,784088
0,694048
0,793675
0,683221
0,777417
Table 3. Latent Variable Correlations
ALTR
AU
ITU
PEOU
POU
SOC_ID
ALTR
0,423145
0,013841
0,486060
0,230085
0,379362
0,360491
AU
ITU
PEOU
POU
SOC_ID
0,290529
0,370003
0,270192
0,286846
0,482157
0,255079
0,502566
0,534053
0,617824
0,284553
0,557348
0,403854
0,319702
0,445232
0,567029
Table 4. Composite Reliability
Composite Reliability
Altruism
0,848021
Actual use
0,777602
Int to reuse
0,858828
Ease of use
0,791748
Usefulness
0,795584
Social identity
0,796436
Structural Model
Based on analysis by using PLS software, the t-count and the relation among variables
can be seen. The value of t-count can be counted from the value of p-value by using excel
calculation with the formula :tdist (value t;df:tail). The output and the relation can be seen on
table 5. Based on the value of p-value, it can be traced back that out of 8 hypotheses, 2
hypotheses are not supported and 6 hypotheses are supported with reliability level 95 percent
or alpha <0,05. The result of analysis can be seen on picture 3 (the correlation among
significant variables are shown in bold line, on the other hand; the correlation among nonsignificant variables are shown in broken line).
Result
437
Based on analysis process in using PLS software t value can be known, and direction
of the correlation among variables. According the t value that p value also can be known by
calculating with using Ms. Excel with the formulation: tdist(score t;df:tail). The processed of
output and direct of correlation can be seen in table 5. Based on the analysis process are
shown that from 8 hypothesis, which were just two hypothesis was rejected and the rest are
six hypothesis was approved with 95 percent confidence level or alpha < 0,05.
Table 5. Path Coefficients
Path
ALTR -> PEOU
ALTR -> POU
ITU -> AU
PEOU -> ITU
PEOU -> POU
POU -> ITU
SOC_ID -> PEOU
SOC_ID -> POU
Original
0,097120
0,209794
0,370003
0,297249
0,429933
0,368381
0,368843
0,195972
t-statsitics
0,689311
1,668854
3,834323
2,048458
3,089441
2,421161
2,454284
1,551069
P value
0,246096
0,049107
0,000109
0,021542
0,001292
0,008619
0,007905
0,061991
Result
Not supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Not Supported
Discussion
As indicated in the previous section, altruism significantly affect perceived usefulness
but not effect perceived ease of use. The idea that higher altruism results in higher perceived
usefulness: individuals with higher levels of altruism will perceive that SNS is important as
media to transfer of knowledge to others. If that individual recognizes that social network
services are good tools to share knowledge, then it’s more likely he or she will perceive that
the services are useful. Altruism not effect on perceived ease of use, it means that individual
perception about SNS is not caused by altruism.
Social identity, as an important social factor, also serves as a determinant of perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use. The relationship between social identity and perceived
usefulness, and hence social network service use, has already been hypothesized in the recent
literature (Mazman & Usluel, 2009). One of the contributions of this paper is that these are
examined more closely and demonstrate that the hypotheses are in fact supported. In addition,
438
we found that social identity specifically affects perceived ease of use: individuals who have
a higher social identity and hence relatively more have spirit to learn about SNS, and are
more optimism to use SNS (Cle´ment et al., 2001).In this paper, we regard social network
services as relationship oriented information systems.
This study find that perceived ease of use significantly effect on perceived usefulness.
It means that higher individual perceived ease of use on SNS, higher individual perceived
usefulness on SNS. SNS will be perceived usefulness by user if SNS system ease to used by
user. Like with prior studies, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness significantly
effect on intention to reuse SNS. It means that SNS user will reuse SNS if this system more
ease to use and useful for user. This find supported with technology acceptance model. TAM
shows that people will use technology if they perceive technology ease to use and usefulness.
Finaly, this study show that intention to reuse SNS significantly effect on actul use. It means
that higher intention to re-use, higher likely to use SNS in the future. This finding suggests
that individual behavior as consequence of intention.
Conclusion and limitation
The main goal of this paper was to examine what factors would determine the user
acceptance of a social network service, an emerging innovative relationship-building
information system emerging in the near future. The research used Davis’ Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM) to evaluate social network service usage.
The research also successfully show that the extended TAM has significantly
provided more explanation than the conventional TAM, which invites perceived ease of use
and perceived usefulness only. Second, since emerging network services such as Web 2.0
based services and user created services (UCC) are essentially the same as legacy social
network services, the findings from the study could be adopted to examine determinants for
439
the emerging service use. Hence our study is timely and relevant for relationship-oriented
system use. Last, for the practitioners, the results of this study imply that administrators or
operators of social network services should provide more realistic content so that the users
may feel adequate to use this system. Moreover, strategic management to deliver
encouragement from others is crucial to increase system users, especially those who have
higher levels of social identity and altruism. For example, since an altruistic person could be
a good adopter for social network services, the social network service managers may want to
develop an event to discover altruistic persons for more effective ads.
This research has limitations in its method and results interpretation; these limitations
indicate avenues for further research. The main participants of the survey were aged from
18’s to 23’s and as students. Therefore, using thee findings need to be careful to explain all
generations’ actual use of social network service. The participants were actual users of a
limited service such as second life, Facebook, etc., so the research simply cannot say that the
findings must be applied all social network services including Facebook. More rigorous
surveys which cover more diverse service users will be needed in the future. Despite these
concerns, the model is a good starting point to explain human-relationship services and could
be a benchmark for more general studies.
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Corporate Social Responsibility: European and Asian Countries Comparison33
Ruth Alas, Peeter Lorents, Ülle Übius, Estonian Business School, Estonia
Erika Matsak, Tallinn University
Purpose – The purpose is to compare the corporate social responsibility (CSR) in European
and Asian countries in different industries.
Methodology/approach – A survey was conducted in Estonian, Chinese, Finnish,
Slovakian and Japanese enterprises. Data were compared by applying Lorents’s metrics.
The ordered pairs were created for each branch and country priorities separately. The
distances between priorities were calculated. The total number of respondents was 4187.
Findings – CSR is influenced by social and cultural environment and industry where the
organisation operates. From two facets of CSR the f irm respect the interests of agents is
more connected with cultural backround than with economic development. The second facet
of CSR - firm performance concerning social issue – is more connected with industry
than culture.
Practical implications – Corporate social responsibility is key success factor and therefore it
is very important to compare different countries – China, Japan, Estonia, Slovakia and
Finland, especially with the country of the world’s leading economic power - China.
1. Introduction
Previous studies have shown institutional impact on different processes and attitudes in
organizations (Alas et al. 2006; Tafel-Viia & Alas 2009; Alas & Edwards 2011). Cultural
values influence leadership style (Alas & Tuulik 2007) and corporate social performance
(Übius & Alas 2009). The development of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is
connected with institutional development stage (Tafel & Alas 2007). Today, enterprises
integrate social entrepreneurship into their core activities. They channel their research-anddevelopment capabilities in the direction of socially innovative products and services
(Schwab 2008).
One of the most important challenges is acknowledging and appreciating cultural values and
practices in different parts of the world. Experts agree that to succeed in global business,
managers need the flexibility to respond positively and effectively to practices and values
that may be drastically different from what they are accustomed to (House et al. 2004).
33
Research was supported by ETF grant 7537
443
The paper starts with theoretical framework of the study, which is followed by results of
empirical study. A standardized CSR questionnaire comprising 19 items developed by the
Denki Ringo research group (Ishikawa et al. 2006) was used to explore two facets of CSR.
Questionnaire was administered in Estonian, Chinese, Finnish, Slovakian and Japanese
electrical-electronic machine, retail and machine-building enterprises.
2. Theories about Corporate Social Responsibility
There are many different definitions of corporate social responsibility (CSR) although they
have considerable common ground between them. Today leaders face a challenging task in
attempting to apply societal ethical standards to responsible business practice (Morimoto et
al. 2005). Nowadays CSR is an integral part of the business vocabulary and is regarded as a
crucially important issue in management (Cornelius et al. 2008; Humphreys & Brown 2008).
Carroll (1991) four kinds of social responsibilities constitute total CSR: economic, legal,
ethical and philanthropic. These four categories or components of CSR might be illustrated
as a pyramid. Freeman (1994) – stakeholder language has been widely adopted in practice
and is being integrated into concepts of corporate responsibility/citizenship by scholars who
recognize that it is through a company’s decisions, actions and impacts on stakeholders and
the natural environment that a company’s corporate responsibility/citizenship is manifested.
Hillman and Keim (2001) state that it is critical to discriminate between stakeholder
management CSR and social CSR. This is consistent with Baron's (2001) distinction
between strategic and altruistic CSR. The authors concluded that stakeholder-oriented CSR
was positively correlated with financial performance and social CSR was not.
There are more investment in companies that practice and report CSR (Sleeper et al. 2006).
CSR forces a repositioning of strategies from being profit-driven organizations to
444
organizations that are interested in the company's influence on social and environmental
aspects (Quaak et al. 2007).
The firm's performance concerning social issues
Sethi (1975) stated that social responsibility is prescriptive in nature. Epstein (1987) provided
a definition of CSR in his quest to relate social responsibility, responsiveness and business
ethics. Frederick (1960) states that social responsibility in the final analysis implies a public
posture toward society's economic and human resources and a willingness to see that those
resources are used for broad social ends. According to Drucker (1984) the proper social
responsibility of business is to turn a social problem into economic opportunity.
The concept of a corporate social performance stream emerged in the 1990s (Wood 1991).
Waddock and Graves (1997) state that there is a positive relationship between a firm's social
and financial performance. Orlitzky et al. (2003) state that there is strong empirical evidence
supporting the positive link between social and financial performance.
Marcel van Marrewijk (2003) state that three dimensions of corporate action are covered by
the concept of CSR: economic, social and environmental management. Garriga and Mele´
(2004) allocate theories of CSR into four groups: instrumental, political, integral and ethical
theories. These four groups could be taken as developmental stages of CSR.
Alas and Tafel (2008) proposed the 4 stage model for analyzing CSR in a country in
transition: (1) economic responsibility, (2) pressured or public social responsibility, (3) social
responsiveness and (4) social issues management.
The firm's respect for the interests of agents
Stakeholder theory, popularized by Freeman (1984; 1994), essentially argues that a
company’s relationships with stakeholders are core to understanding how it operates and
445
adds value as a business. Freeman (1994) argues that stakeholder language has been widely
adopted
in
practice
and
is
being
integrated
into
concepts
of
corporate
responsibility/citizenship by scholars who recognize that it is through a company’s
decisions, actions and impacts on stakeholders and the natural environment that a company’s
corporate responsibility/citizenship is manifested.
CSR is a concept where companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their
business operations in order to fulfill accountability to their stakeholders (Tanimoto &
Suzuki 2005). When companies in different countries define their CSR policies they have to
take into consideration cultural differences (Bird & Smucker 2007).
The main research questions are: (1) is CSR similar in electrical-electronic machine and
machine-building enterprises and different in retail store enterprises; (2) are two facets of
CSR similar among Asian and European countries and different between Asian and
European countries?
Estonia, Japan, China, Finland and Slovakia have different social, economic, political,
historical and cultural environments. The authors chose these countries for the empirical
research because the sample enables us to compare countries with a similar cultural
background (Estonia and Finland) or (Japan and China) with countries that have different
cultural background (Japan and Slovakia) or (Estonia and China) etc.
Based on the relevant literature authors developed the following general propositions:
P1. Two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated in electrical-electronic machine and machinebuilding enterprises and differently evaluated in retail store enterprises.
P2. Two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated among Asian and European countries and
differently evaluated between Asian and European countries.
3. Empirical study
446
In order to investigate similarities and differences concerning the two facets of CSR the
empirical study was conducted by Denki Ringo research group. The authors of this article
conducted survey in Estonia. The research was conducted with 623 respondents in Estonian
enterprises, 1150 respondents in Chinese enterprises, 605 respondents in Slovakian
enterprises, 239 respondents in Finnish enterprises and 1570 respondents in Japanese
enterprises. The companies were selected in a non-random manner, as the organization
registers do not have a solid basis for random sampling because only a fraction of the
registered enterprises are active in Estonia, China, Japan, Finland and Slovakia. A total of 25
enterprises were available: 6 enterprises from Estonia, 6 from China, 3 from Slovakia, 4
from Finland and 6 enterprises from Japan in the study. The total number of respondents was
4187.
Methodology
A standardized CSR questionnaire comprising 19 items was developed by the Denki Ringo
research group (Ishikawa et al. 2006) and translated from English into Estonian, Chinese,
Finnish, Slovak and Japanese. The questions in the survey addressed 2 facets of CSR – the
firm's performance concerning social issues (11 items) and the firm's respect for the interests
of agents (8 items). These two facets of CSR were chosen because they typify the essential
character of CSR. The questionnaire was administered in Estonian, Chinese, Finnish,
Slovakian and Japanese electrical-electronic machine, retail and machine-building
enterprises. The data about the two facets of CSR, three different branches and five different
countries – Estonia, China, Slovakia, Finland and Japan – were compared by using Lorents’s
metrics.
Choices and applications of metrics to intepret study results
Study results of value judgments compose of the list of estimated things and their
corresponding numeric estimations as a rule. It is possible to compose orders that express
447
importance, priority etc. of characteristics for different respondents (or groups of
respondents) originated from the values of numeric estimations.
There are often the following question among investigators: how similar or dissimilar are
“pictures” formed by estimations of study results. Specification of following circumstances
is needed to answer to these questions (Lorents 2006):

How these objects are (for example aggregations composed of some elements in
certain way) determined that similarity or dissimilarity should be identified?

How is determined identified similarity or on the contrary dissimilarity?

How is similarity or dissimilarity estimated (including: what is used as estimations
and how are estimations attributed to estimated things)?
This article answers to first question could be following:
In the first case observed as objects, which similarity or on the contrary –dissimilarity should
be identified, aggregations of fixed number and located in the fixed way elements which
elements are real numbers (representing some values). Thereat it is assumed, that the number
and location of elements is fixed in the same way concerning all comparable aggregations
(for example the third element is in all cases for the ethical values, but the fifth element is
for the social values).
In the second case aggregations of fixed location elements are observed. Therefore it is not
assumed that the location of elements is the same concerning all comparable aggregations
(for example Chinese youngsters` third element is ethical value, social values are on the
contrary the seventh element; Turkish youngsters ethical values are a bit higher – namely the
second element, third element for them is value related to lifestyle, social values are on the
contrary the fifth element).
Subsequently we explain, how could we (originated from the answers given to the first
question) determine similarity or on the contrary dissimilarity:
448
Concerning these kind of aggregations, which elements` number and location is fixed and
the same for all observed aggregations and which elements are real numbers, it is not
reasonable to use morphisms` (for example homomorphism or isomorphism) term, which is
usually used for relational systems or for the identification of algebra similarity (Grätzer
2008, Lorents 2006). Rather it is reasonable to rely on n-dimensional real space Euclidean
metric when we estimate the similarity (Deza 2009). In this case we could handle
comparable aggregations – for example x and y – according to n-dimensional real space
points. In this case we could use expressed number d(x,y) of closeness or distance of
corresponding points as the estimation of similarity or dissimilarity of the named
aggregations, where
d(x,y)=((x1-y1)2+(x2-y2)2+(x3-y3)2+ …+(xn- yn)2)1/2.
Whereby: smaller is the number d(x,y), more similar are the comparable aggregations x and
y and on the contrary – bigger is the number d(x,y), less dissimilar are x and y in this study.
In case of such aggregations the number of elements is final, but the location of elements
may be not similar according to comparable aggregations, we should precise more to
evaluate the similarity in order to make sure what is it, what similarity we wish to estimate.
At this point we agree upon that in this case we wish to estimate the similarity of the order of
the location of elements in comparable aggregations. Thereat we mean elements order when
we are talking about the order of elements location. Order is represented by the order
connection between (binary) the elements. From the number theory (which relies on ordered
aggregations or mathematical systems theory) it is known that whatever binary connection is
one certain amount composed by sorted pairs.
Thereafter if we wish to evaluate how similar or dissimilar are some (final) orders, then in
turn we have to evaluate how similar or dissimilar are the amounts of corresponding ordered
449
pairs. Last task is again reduced to the application of differentiations metrics of final
aggregations (Marczewski & Steinhaus 1958; Lorents 2002; Jents 2004; Lorents 2007).
More precisely – if we mark some amounts A and B intersection or these common elements
aggregation with the symbol AB, we mark amounts A, B and AB elements numbers with
corresponding symbols E(A), E(B) and E(AB), then we can find the number d(A,B) that
expresses relative differentiation of these amounts by means of following formula:
d(A,B)=[E(A)+E(B)-2E(AB)]:[ E(A)+E(B)-E(AB)].
450
4. Results
Our main purpose was to evaluate the similarities and differences in Estonia, Finland, Japan,
China and Slovakian industries concerning the two facets of CSR. The data about the two
facets of CSR, three different branches and five different countries – Estonia, China,
Slovakia, Finland and Japan – were compared.
CSR in three branches
Table 1 shows respondents opinions about the firm performance concerning social issues.
The statements were rated highly in retail store enterprises (m=3.90, sd=0.97) and electricelectronic machine enterprises (m=3.85, sd=0.92). In machine-building enterprises
statements were rated lower (m=3.60, sd=1.03).
Table 2 shows respondents opinions about facet of CSR - the firm respects the interests
of agents. The statements were rated highly in retail store enterprises (m=3.60, sd=1.14).
Statements were rated a little bit lower in machine-building enterprises (m=3.56, sd=1.05)
and electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.53, sd=1.03).
CSR in five countries.
Tables 3 and 4 show respondents’ opinions about CSR in five countries. In China the
statements were rated highly in retail store enterprises - the firm performance concerning
social issues (m=4.32, sd=0.81) and the firm respect the interests of agents (m=4.04,
sd=0.91). Statements were rated lower in machine-building enterprises - the firm
performance concerning social issues (m=4.06, sd=1.05) and the firm respect the interests
of agents (m=3.96, sd=1.02) and electric-electronic machine enterprises - the firm
performance concerning social issues (m=4.02, sd=1.01) and the firm respect the interests
of agents (m=3.87, sd=0.95).
In Estonia the statements were rated highly concerning the facet of CSR - the firm
451
performance concerning social issues in retail store enterprises (m=4.37, sd=0.51) and in
electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=4.10, sd=0.89) and concerning the facet of CSR the firm respect the interests of agents in electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.31,
sd=1.08) and in machine-building enterprises (m=3.22, sd=0.99). Statements were rated
lower concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in
machine-building enterprises (m=3.36, sd=0.77) and concerning the facet of CSR - the
firm respect the interests of agents in retail store enterprises (m=3.16, sd=0.63).
In Finland the statements were rated highly concerning the facet of CSR - the firm
performance concerning social issues in electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.62,
sd=0.89) and in retail store enterprises (m=3.68, sd=0.90) and concerning the facet of
CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents in retail store enterprises (m=3.52, sd=0.96).
Statements were rated lower concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of
agents in electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.32, sd=0.99).
In Japan the statements were rated highly in electric-electronic machine enterprises
concerning the facets of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues (m=3.79,
sd=0.80) and the firm respect the interests of agents (m=3.60, sd=0.81). Statements were
rated lower concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in
machine-building enterprises (m=3.18, sd=0.88) and in retail store enterprises (m=3.28,
sd=0.85) and concerning the facet of CS R - the firm respect the interests of agents in
machine- building enterprises (m=3.15, sd=0.83) and in retail store enterprises (m=3.28,
sd=0.91).
In Slovakia t he statements were rated highly concerning the facets of CSR - the firm
performance concerning social issues in machine-building enterprises (m=3.73, sd=0.86) and
retail store enterprises (m=3.86, sd=1.05). Concerning the facets of CSR - the firm respect
the interests of agents in machine-building enterprises (m=3.65, sd=0.88) and retail store
452
enterprises (m=3.86, sd=1.01).
Distances concerning CSR
The ordered pairs were created for each branch priorities separately. The distance
between priorities have been calculated by using Lorents’s metrics.
T he firm’s performance concerning social issues in 3 industries.
We compared priorities between machine-building industry, electric-electronic machine
industry and retail store. In each industry it is possible to create 55 pairs. The most similar
are machine- building industry and electric-electronic machine industry, they have 51
common pairs.
The firm respects the interests of agents in 3 industries.
We compared priorities between machine-building industry, electric-electronic machine
industry and retail store. In each industry it is possible to create 28 pairs. Equally similar
is machine- building industry and electric-electronic machine industry, they have 24
common pairs and machine-building industry and retail store, they have 24 common pairs.
The firm performance concerning social issues in 5 countries.
We compared priorities between Estonian, Chinese, Slovakian and Japanese machinebuilding, electric-electronic machine and retail store industries concerning the facet of
CSR - the firm performance concerning social issue. It is possible to create 55 pairs.
The most similar are Japanese and Slovakian retail store industries with 49 common pairs,
followed by Estonian and Japanese machine-building industries and Estonian and Slovakian
machine-building industries, both with 46 common pairs.
The firm respects the interests of agents in 5 countries
We compared priorities between Estonian, Chinese, Slovakian and Japanese machinebuilding, electric-electronic machine and retail store industries concerning the facet of
CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents. It is possible to create 28 pairs.
453
The most similar are Chinese and Japanese machine-building industries (they have all 28
common pairs), Chinese and Japanese electric-electronic machine industries (they have 22
common pairs) and Japanese and Chinese retail store industries (they have 25 common
pairs).
5. Conclusion
The institutional environment o f organizations influences how CSR i s evaluated. In
different countries, CSR as concepts are understood and applied differently in organizations.
The business world is becoming increasingly global. Corporations are facing increasingly
global employees, customers, suppliers, competitors and creditors (House et al. 2004).
Although successful management of the relationship with different stakeholders groups does
not necessarily create short term profits, it may increase competitive advantage of the
company in the long-term period (Jones 1995). The results of this survey in Estonian,
Chinese, Japanese, Finnish and Slovakian organizations reveal that there are similarities
and differences concerning the two facets of CSR. The propositions discussed at the
beginning of the paper will now be re-evaluated.
P1 postulated that two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated in electrical-electronic machine
and machine-building enterprises and differently evaluated in retail store enterprises. This
proposition was partly supported by the findings. Concerning the facet of CSR - the firm
performance concerning social issue - proposition was supported. The machine-building
industry and electric-electronic machine industry have highest number of common pairs.
These industries have less common pairs with retail industry. Concerning the facet of CSR
- the firm respect the interests of agents - proposition was not supported. The number of
common pairs is equally 24 for machine-building industry and electric-electronic machine
industry and also for machine-building industry and retail store.
P2 postulated that two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated among Asian and European
454
countries and differently evaluated between Asian and European countries. This
proposition was partly supported by the findings. The proposition was supported
concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respects the interests of agents. T he most
similar are Chinese and Japanese machine-building industries with 28 common pairs,
Japanese and Chinese retail store industries have 25 common pairs and Chinese and
Japanese electric-electronic machine industries have 22 common pairs. The proposition
was not supported concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social
issue. The most similar are Japanese and Slovakian retail store industries with 49 common
pairs, followed by Estonian and Japanese machine-building industries and Estonian and
Slovakian machine-building industries, both with 46 common pairs.
To conclude, there are more similarities between culturally similar countries concerning
the facet of CSR - the firm respects the interests of agents. Concerning the facet of CSR the firm performance concerning social issue the most similar are machine-building
industry and electric-electronic machine industry. Therefore from two facets of CSR the
f irm respect the interests of agents are more connected with cultural background than with
economic development. The second facet of CSR - firm performance concerning social
issue – is more connected with industry than culture.
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Tables
Table 1. Facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in machine-building,
electric-electronic machine and retail store enterprises
Facet of CSR - the firm performance Machineconcerning social issues
building
industry
1 – compliance with the laws for business
activities
2 – compliance with the laws for worker
protection
3 – care and service for consumers
4 – environmental protection
5 – trustful relations with customers
6 – safety and security of products and
services
7 – realization of the best quality of
products and services
8 – aftercare for users
9 – publicity of company information for
society
10 – contribution to science and culture
11 – Public activities for local community
Total
Electricelectronic
machine
industry
Retail store
M
3.88
SD M
SD M
SD
0.94 4.14 0.86 4.04 0.98
3.57
1.11 3.93 0.99 3.85 1.08
3.53
3.62
3.85
3.86
1.07
1.02
0.98
0.95
3.93
0.96 4.16 0.84 4.17 0.88
3.78
3.30
0.99 3.84 0.89 4.06 0.96
1.13 3.62 0.92 3.73 0.95
3.21
3.17
3.60
1.12 3.43 1.05 3.36 1.07
1.14 3.29 1.04 3.43 1.06
1.03 3.85 0.92 3.90 0.97
3.86
4.05
4.00
4.08
0.85
0.88
0.84
0.87
4.12
3.86
4.10
4.21
0.89
1.06
0.92
0.86
Table 2. Facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents in machine-building, electricelectronic machine and retail store enterprises
Facet of CSR - the firm respect the Machineinterests of agents
building
industry
1 – customers
2 - subsidiary, subcontract firms
3 – consumers;
4 - stock holders;
5 –employees
6 - trade union
7 - public administration
8 - local community
M
4.19
3.76
3.89
3.63
3.34
3.01
3.39
3.28
SD
0.88
0.93
1.06
1.18
1.04
1.25
1.00
1.04
Electricelectronic
machine
industry
Retail store
M
4.00
3.41
3.90
3.97
3.09
3.16
3.41
3.28
M
4.08
3.85
4.31
3.37
3.59
3.01
3.27
3.36
SD
1.03
1.10
1.00
0.91
1.13
1.12
0.93
1.05
458
SD
0.94
0.95
0.86
1.16
1.15
1.30
1.30
1.33
Total
3.56 1.05 3.53 1.03 3.60
1.14
Tabel 3. The firm performance concerning social issues in Estonia, China, Japan, Finland,
Germany, Czech and Slovakia
Estonia
N=623
China
N=1150
Japan
N=1570
Finland
N=239
Slovaki
a
N=605
M
S
D
M
S
D
M
S
D
M
S
D
M
S
D
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
4.3
7
0.8
0
4.1
1
0.9
5
3.8
2
0.9
1
3.9
9
0.9
6
3.9
1
0.9
8
4.1
1
0.9
5
3.9
6
1.0
9
3.4
3
1.0
6
4.1
8
0.9
5
3.8
0
0.9
8
3.9
8
1.1
2
4.1
5
0.9
9
3.5
1
0.8
3
3.5
8
0.8
8
4.0
5
0.8
8
4.2
0
1.0
2
4.1
1
1.0
1
3.5
0
0.8
9
3.5
9
0.9
4
3.8
3
1.0
0
4.5
4
0.6
2
4.2
0
0.9
7
3.5
6
0.8
1
4.0
2
0.9
3
4.0
7
0.9
3
4.2
2
0.8
5
4.3
6
0.8
9
3.7
1
0.8
4
4.1
4
0.9
2
4.0
7
0.8
6
4.4
0
0.7
1
4.3
8
0.8
6
3.7
0
0.8
9
4.1
6
0.8
7
4.1
2
0.8
7
4.2
9
0.7
7
4.3
0
0.9
0
3.5
1
0.8
7
3.3
4
0.8
6
3.9
0
0.9
5
3.3
3
1.1
4
4.1
1
0.9
7
3.2
4
0.8
5
3.2
2
0.9
0
3.5
6
0.9
9
3.2
1
1.0
9
3.9
9
1.0
3
2.9
8
0.9
2
2.7
5
0.8
4
3.2
8
1.0
8
2.8
8
0.9
6
4.0
6
1.0
3
2.9
7
0.9
3
2.8
9
0.8
2
3.2
1
1.0
8
SU
M
3.95
0.84
4.15
1.02
3.44
0.89
3.62
0.91
3.80
0.87
Notes: The firm performance concerning social issues: 1 – compliance with the laws for
business activities; 2 – compliance with the laws for worker protection; 3 – care and service
for consumers; 4 – environmental protection; 5 – trustful relations with customers; 6 – safety
and security of products and services; 7 – realization of the best quality of products and
services; 8 – aftercare for users; 9 – publicity of company information for society; 10 –
contribution to science and culture; 11 – public activities for local community.
Tabel 4. The firm respects the interests of agents in Estonia, China, Japan, Finland, Germany,
Czech and Slovakia
Estonia
M
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SUM
4.26 3.51 3.83 2.91 3.54 2.42 2.76 2.64 3.23
459
N=623
China
N=1150
Japan
N=1570
Finland
N=239
Slovakia
N=605
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
1.21
4.28
0.88
3.74
0.82
4.44
0.98
4.10
0.91
1.38
4.07
0.85
3.41
0.86
3.02
1.10
3.81
0.85
1.33
4.33
0.86
3.88
0.91
3.69
1.12
3.95
0.90
1.35
3.85
1.08
3.44
0.91
4.19
0.96
4.15
0.93
1.41
3.69
1.12
3.06
0.93
3.30
1.06
1.40
3.69
1.15
3.03
0.91
2.45
0.98
3.37
1.08
1.28
3.98
0.93
3.19
0.84
2.68
0.90
3.69
0.98
1.36
3.96
1.03
3.13
0.89
2.77
0.95
3.66
0.98
1.26
3.98
1.06
3.82
0.87
3.32
0.96
3.75
0.97
Notes: The firm respects the interests of the following agents: 1 – customers; 2 - subsidiary,
subcontract firms; 3 – consumers; 4 - stock holders; 5 –employees; 6 - trade union; 7 - public
administration; 8 - local community.
460
Peranan New Media Dalam Memfasilitasi Kewirausahaan pada Sektor Pariwisata –
Studi Kasus: Mempromosikan Pulau Komodo di Nusa Tenggara Timur
Dessy Kania
Universitas Bakrie, Jakarta
Abstract
Tourism is an important component of the Indonesian economy as well as a significant source
of the country’s foreign exchange revenues. According to the Center of Data and Information
at the Ministry of Tourism and Culture, the growth of foreign visitor arrivals to Indonesia has
increased rapidly by 9.61 percent from 2010 to present.
One of the most potential tourism destinations is Komodo Island located in East Nusa
Tenggara. With its uniqueness of having a Komodo dragon habitat, beautiful and exotic
marine life, the island is likely to be one of the promising tourism destinations in Indonesia
and in the world. In 1986, the island has been declared as a World Heritage Site by
UNESCO.
The Ministry of Culture and Tourism continuously promoting many of the country’s natural
potentials in tourism through various media: printed media, television and especially new
media. However, there are challenges for Indonesian tourism industry in facilitating
entrepreneurship skills among the local people in East Nusa Tenggara. According to the
Statistic Center Body (2011), East Nusa Tenggara is consider as one of the poorest provinces
in Indonesia whereas the economy is lower than the average, with high inflation of 15%, and
unemployment of 30%.
This research is needed to explore further the phenomenon behind the above facts, with the
aims to examine the role of new media in facilitating entrepreneurship in the tourism industry
in Komodo Island. The results of this study are expected to provide insights that can help
local tourism in East Nusa Tenggara.
Keywords: Tourism, Entrepreneurship, New Media
I. Latar Belakang
Tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa sektor pariwisata di Indonesia merupakan sektor
ekonomi yang penting di dalam menggairahkan perekonomian negara. Di tahun 2009, sektor
wisata merupakan penyumbang devisa ketiga setelah komoditi miyak, gas bumi serta miyak
kelapa sawit. Menurut Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS), wisatawan mancanegara (wisman) yang
berkunjung ke Indonesia selama Agustus 2011 mencapai 621.084 orang, yang merupakan
peningkatan 7,32% dibanding jumlah wisman pada periode yang sama pada 2010 sebanyak
4,63
juta
orang
(http://www.mediaindonesia.com/read/2011/10/03/264996/4/2/621.084461
Turis-Berkunjung-ke-Indonesia-selama-Agustus-, diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011). Untuk
kedepan, menurut ekonom Faisal Basri pada saat jumpa pers dalam pemaparan Roadmap
Pembangunan Ekonomi Indonesia 2009-2014, sektor pariwisata diharapkan menjadi ujung
tombak perekonomian pada periode pemerintahan 2009-2014 mendatang dan mampu
menyumbang sekitar 10 persen hingga 15 persen terhadap Pertumbuhan Domestik Bruto
(PDB) di tahun mendatang (http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2009/10/15/1756231/, diakses
pada 18 Oktober 2011).
Peningkatan jumlah wisatawan ke Indonesia tentu saja meningkat dari tahun ke tahun.
Hal ini ditunjang dengan kekayaan, keindahan alam dan budaya Indonesia yang merupakan
unsur terpenting dalam menunjang sektor pariwisata Negara. Indonesia dikenal sebagai
negara kepulauan terbesar di dunia yang memiliki garis pantai terpanjang keempat di dunia
memiliki 17.480 pulau.
Secara tata letak geografis, “Indonesia dilewati garis ekuator di beberapa kota yang
menyebabkan Indonesia memiliki iklim tropis basah dengan hujan sepanjang tahun. Selain itu
posisinya yang menjadi perantara benua Asia dan Australia serta Samudra Hindia dan Pasifik
menjadikan Indonesia sangat strategis” (http://www.wisatalk.com/ diakses pada 18 Oktober
2011).
Tidak hanya kekayaan dan keindahan alam saja yang dapat menunjang pariwisata di
Indonesia, budaya Indonesia yang dinamis dan eksotik mempunyai daya tarik tersendiri untuk
para wisman. Budaya Indonesia yang kaya merupakan hasil dari pengaruh negara-negara
tetangga sendiri berbagai budaya etnis. Pengaruh India dan Cina sejak zaman kuno dan
Eropa dan Timur Tengah pengaruh di abad pertengahan berada di balik budaya Indonesia
yang dinamis.
Selain keadaan alam yang menunjang potensi pariwisata di Indonesia, pemerintah
juga mengeluarkan undang-undang dan regulasi yang mendukung warga negara untuk
462
memperoleh kesempatan dalam melakukan kegiatan pariwisata. Hal ini dapat dilihat seperti
dibawah ini:
“bahwa kebebasan melakukan perjalanan dan memanfaatkan waktu luang dalam wujud berwisata
merupakan bagian dari hak asasi manusia.” (Undang-Undang Kepariwisataan, UU N0.10, 2009)
Setelah melihat adanya dukungan baik dari sisi alam dan pemerintah dalam
menggalakkan pariwisata di Indonesia, langkah berikutnya adalah pemilihan tujuan
(destinasi) wisata. Terdapat banyak pilihan tujuan wisata baik diluar maupun didalam negri.
Sayangnya masyarakat Indonesia lebih berminat wisata ke luar negeri.
Seperti yang
dihimbau oleh Ketua Umum Partai Amanat Nasional Soetrisno Bachir yang disadur oleh
Imam Prihandoko di koran Kompas:
"Berwisatalah di dalam negeri, kita pasti mendapatkan keindahan yang tidak kalah menariknya dengan
tempat wisata di luar negeri. Bantulah negeri ini, dengan tidak menghamburkan belanja barang produk
luar negeri, termasuk tidak membeli keindahan alam negara lain,"
Dari semua tujuan wisata dalam negri di Indonesia, Nusa Tenggara Timur yang
merupakan salah satu tujuan wisata yang sangat popular dan digemari baik wisatawan luar
negri ataupun alam negri. Walaupun propinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur merupakan salah satu
provinsi yang miskin di Indonesia disana terdapat keragaman wisata dan keindahan alam.
Seperti yang digambarkan dalam kutipan berikut: http://www.tourismntt.com/ (diakses pada
3 Oktober 2011):
“…traditional ceremonies like the Pasola of Sumba, the whip fighting of Flores and
the war dances of Sabu. See the prehistoric Dragons of Komodo, the three colored
crater lakes of Keli Mutu in Flores; dive in the world renowned diving destinations of
Alor and Komodo; surf the waves of Rote and Sumba…”
463
Sumber: www.indonesia-tourism.com
Dari semua tujuan wisata yang terdapat di Flores, Taman Nasional Komodo dengan
wilayah 1.817 km ² merupakan salah satu tujuan wisata yang sangat popular dan unik
sehingga taman ini termasuk dalam finalis di jajaran “The New Seven Wonder of Nature”.
Terdapat habitat Komodo Dragon (Varadus komodoensis) yang merupakan salah satu hewan
purba yang hanya hidup di Taman Nasional Komodo, yang terletak di pulau Komodo, Rinca,
dan Gili Motang. Pada tahun 2008, jumlah turis asing yang datang ke pulau Komodo
berjumlah sampai 21 ribu orang. Tahun 2009 meningkat menjadi 36 ribu orang. Kemudian,
tahun 2010 lalu juga meningkat menjadi 45 ribu orang. Wisatawan asing yang datang
kebanyakan
dari
Australia,
Asia
Tenggara,
dan
Amerika
Serikat
(http://www.indonesia.travel/id/news/detail/471/promosi-mandiri-indonesia-untuk-tamannasional-komodo-the-real-wonder-of-the-world diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011).
Dalam membantu mempromosikan Tmana Nasional Komodo, pemerintah Indonesia
(Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata) juga dibantu oleh non-profit organization dunia yaitu
464
Swisscontact. Proyek Pembangunan Pariwisata Daerah (WISATA) yang dimulai sejak 20092013, mencakup pulau Flores, yang merupakan bagian dari provinsi Indonesia Nusa
Tenggara Timur (NTT). Kegiatan utama akan fokus pada pengembangan organisasi
manajemen tujuan lokal dengan dua entry point ke Flores, Labuan Bajo dan Maumere.
(http://www.swisscontact.or.id/projects/eastern-indonesia/wisata-–-regional-tourismdevelopment-on-flores-island/ diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011)
Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata sejak tahun 2010 telah menetapkan program baru
dalam meningkatkan pawiwisata Indonesia yaitu “Destination Management” (DMO).
Terdapat 15 destinasi pariwisata yang akan dikembangkan dengan menerapkan konsep DMO
dalam periode 2010 sampai 2015. Destinasi wisata termasuk Kota Tua (Jakarta),
Pangandaran (Jawa Barat), Borobudur (Jawa), Bromo-Tengger-Semeru (Jawa Timur), Toba
(Sumatera Utara), Sabang (Aceh), Danau Batur (Bali), Rinjani (NTB ), Komodo-FloresFlores (NTT), Tanjung Puting (Kalimantan), Derawan (Kaltim), Toraja (Sulawesi Selatan),
Bunaken (Sulawesi Utara), Wakatobi (Sulawesi Utara), dan Raja Ampat (Papua)
(http://nttonlinenews.com/ntt/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10697:pakar
-pariwisata-dunia-akan-bahas-wisata-ri&catid=40:pariwisata&Itemid=57 diakses pada
3
Oktober 2011)
Bilamana wisatawan tertarik untuk mengunjungi Taman Nasional Komodo, umumnya
mereka akan mengakses internet untuk mendapatkan informasi seputar akomodasi, tempat
wisata, jasa tour operator, serta restaurant yang tersedia. Jasa penerbangan serta transportasi
laut yang menghubungkan Labuan Bajo sebagai pelabuhan utama untuk dapat menyeberang
ke Taman Nasional Komodo juga bisa diakses secara lengkap melalui internet. Terlihat dari
data salah satu website pariwisata dibawah ini banyaknya orang yang mengakses untuk
informasi tentang pariwisata di Nusa Tenggara Timur.
465
Sumber: www.tourismntt.com
Dari latar belakang yang telah dijelaskan diatas, maka dirasakan perlu adanya
penelitian untuk menelaah lebih lanjut mengenai bagaimana peranan new media, pemerintah
serta badan-badan lainnya dalam memfasilitasi pariwisata dan kewirausahaan Pulau Komodo
di Nusa Tenggara Timur.
II. Tinjauan Pustaka
II.1. New Media and Entrepreneurship
Cara kita berkomunikasi serta mempormosikan suatu produk jasa maupun non-jasa
sangat berpengaruh pada medium yang kita gunakan.
Sudah banyak usahawan yang
menggunakan berbagai macam medium seperti televise, radio, koran untuk mempromosikan
produknya. Tidak kalah pentingnya, medium yang saat ini menjadi pilihan adalah “New
Media”. New media merupakan bentuk komunikasi interaktif yang menggunakan internet,
termasuk podcast, RSS feed, jaringan sosial, pesan teks, blog, wiki, serta dunia virtual
lainnya.
Terdapat banyak kegunaan dari New Media. New Media memungkinkan bagi siapa
saja untuk membuat, memodifikasi, dan berbagi konten dan berbagi dengan orang lain,
menggunakan alat yang relatif sederhana yang sering gratis atau murah. Media baru
membutuhkan
sebuah
komputer
atau
perangkat
mobile
dengan
akses
internet
(http://aids.gov/using-new-media/basics/what-is-new-media/ diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011).
Peranan new media dalam memfasilitasi kewirausahaan dapat dilihat dari artikel Jaya
Akunuri yang disadur oleh Nwankwo dan Gbadamosi dalam bukunya “Entrepreneurship
Marketing: Principles and Practice of SME Marketing” (2010: 177):
466
“It has been well documented in academic literature that entrepreneurs rely hugely
on both personal and social networking contact. Online media further enables
entrepreneurs to do what they are best at – interact with people, build relationship
and talk with their customers.”
Penggunaan internet untuk usahawan kecil dan menengah meningkat seiring dengan
perkembangan bisnis dan pasar. Seperti yang dikatakan oleh Kuratko dan Hodgetts (2007:
14) bahwa usaha kecil menggunakan Internet untuk berbagai operasi, termasuk pelanggan
berbasis identifikasi, iklan, penjualan konsumen, bisnis untuk transaksi bisnis, email dan
jaringan internal pribadi untuk para karyawan.
II.3. Tourism and Destination Management
Ada beberapa pendekatan untuk mendefinisikan pariwisata. Reid dalam bukunya
“Tourism, Globalization and Development: Responsible Tourism Planning” (2003: 111)
mengatakan:
“Tourism is also defined economically among entrepreneurs, according to
consumption patterns, and by profit and loss. In many developing countries, the
prices charged for many exhibitsmaintained by government agencies changes based
on whether thevisitor is a non-national tourist or a citizen of the country. In a
sense,then, there are two distinct types of visitors to such exhibits, eventhough the
attraction may be the same. For these purposes, domestic tourism is seen as much as
a recreation as it is a form of tourism.”
Salah satu definisi tourism yang menitikberatkan kepada pentingnya pengalaman
yang didapat dari wisatawan dikemukakan oleh Urry (1990) yang disadur oleh Lobo dalam
artikelnya “Cultural Tourism and the Leisure Paradigm: The Australian Experience” dalam
buku “The Tourism and Leisure Industry: Shaping the Future” (2005:136):
“Tourism is a departure from everyday experience. He describes tourism as
experience and as a free-time activity that contracts with the daily routine and which
can chiefly be identified by means of “signs” bringing significance to the attention of
the tourist (for example, beauty, romance, nature).”
Macleod dan Carrier dalam bukunya “Tourism, Power and Culture: Anthropological
Insights” (2010) mengatakan bahwa:
“Tourism as an experience and an industry is infused by culture in its various
dimensions, and influenced throughout by relationships of power; this is particularly
apparent at the destination site.”
467
Salah satu konsep yang perlu ditelaah sehubungan dengan konsep pariwisata yang
telah dijelaskan diatas adalah konsep “destination”. Menurut Steven Pike dalam bukunya
Destination Marketing - An Integrated Marketing Communication Approach (2008: 24):
“A destination is a geographical space in which a cluster of tourism resources exist,
rather than a political boundary.
Pike yang menyadur dari Rubies (2001:39) juga menjelaskan Cluster sebagai:
“an accumulation of tourist resources and attractions, infrastructures, equipments,
service providers, other support sectors and administrative organisms whose
integrated and coordinated activities provide customers with the experiences they
expected from the destination they chose to visit”
Terdapat berbagai macam kategori dalam kegiatan pariwisata. Berikut adalah
kategori-kategori berdasarkan Reid, Fuller, Haywood and Bryden, (1993) yang disadur oleh
Reid (2003:108):
Gambar: Categories of Tourism Activities
Sumber: Reid, Fuller, Haywood and Bryden, 1993
Eco-tourism merupakan salah satu kategori aktifitas pariwiwsata yang saat ini banyak
digemari oleh wisatawan lokal maupun luar negri. Menurut Hammitt dan Symmonds dalam
artikelnya “Wilderness” dalam bukunya Weaver “The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism” (2001:
327):
“Ecotourism is travel to fragile, pristine, and unusually protected areas that strive to
be low impact and (usually) small scale. It helps educate the traveller; provides funds
468
for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political
empowerment of local communities; and foster respect for different cultures for
human rights”.
III. Metode
Dalam riset ini, pendekatan penelitian yang digunakan adalah kualitatif. Periode
penelitian ini adalah dari tanggal 28 Agustus sampai dengan 22 Oktober 2011. Metode yang
digunakan dalam mengumpulkan data untuk penelitian ini terdiri dari semi-terstruktur
wawancara pribadi, pemeriksaan dokumen dan pengamatan pribadi. Penerapan beberapa
metode atau triangulasi dalam penelitian sosial telah didukung oleh berbagai peneliti karena
mereka membantu untuk mengatasi kekurangan yang melekat dalam penggunaan satu
metode. Studi kasus digunakan sebagai strategi penelitian karena fokus penelitian ini adalah
pulau komodo sebagai destinasi wisata.
Pengambilan data menggunakan tehnik in-depth interview kepada key infoman, dan
didukung oleh para informan.
Key informan dalam penelitian ini adalah Bapak Ir.
Firmansyah Rahim, MM, selaku Direktur Jenderal Pengembangan Destinasi Pariwisata
(PDP) Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata. Serta Bapak Christian Maramis sebagai Field
Office Manager Eastern Flores dari Swisscontact (Indonesian Swiss Development
Cooperation) khususnya untuk program WISATA - Flores Tourism Destination Development
berlokasi di Maumere.
Nara sumber lainnya adalah Ibu Nila Sari yang pernah bekerja
sebagai Communications Consultant pada PT Putri Naga Komodo dan pendiri dari Taman
Bacaan Pelangi (Rainbow Reading Gardens) di Flores khususnya Labuan Bajo.
Untuk
Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata, Bapak Frans Tegu M.A. selaku Kepala Bagian
Perencanaan dan Hukum Direktorat Jenderal Pengembangan Destinasi Pariwisata (Ditjen
PDP) juga diperlukan sebagai nara sumber terutama untuk data data yang lebih detail
sehubungan dengan program Destination Management.
IV. Temuan dan Pembahasan
469
IV.1. Peranan New Media (Internet) dalam mempromosikan Flores dan Pulau Komodo
(Komodo Island)
Ketika hendak meneliti mengenai peranan new media khususnya internet, yang
pertama kali harus dilakukan adalah melihat fasilitas jaringan internet yang tersedia di tempat
penelitian.
Jaringan pendukung new media terutama internet di Labuan Bajo hanya
Telkomsel dan Indosat. Hal ini dapat dikatakan menjadi tantangan karena fasilitas pendukung
pariwisata menjadi sangat terbatas dalam hal penyediaan jasa internet serta price
competitiveness jasa internet. Keadaan ini sangat berbeda jauh dibandingkan dengan tempat
wisata seperti Bali yang dapat memberikan ragam fasilitas internet kepada para wisatawan.
Pada saat peneliti memasukkan kata kunci “Flores, Indonesia” ke dalam search
engine Google, terdapat sekitar 6,100,000 hasil pencarian dalam kategori dari semua sumber.
Sedangkan dengan kata kunci “Komodo Island” terdapat sekitar 737,000 hasil pencarian
dalam kategori dari semua sumber. Semua sumber disini adalah sumber dari Images, Maps,
Videos, News, Shopping, More.
Hasil diatas bila peneliti bandingkan dengan memasukkan kata kunci “Bali”, terdapat
hasil sekitar 67,900,000 sumber, serta kata kunci “Lombok” terdapat hasil sekitar 38,100,000
masih terlihat jauh perbedaannya dalam penyediaan informasi pada internet dengan search
engine Google. Bilamana kita bandingkan dengan tujuan wisata lainnya yang mempunyai
keunikan wisata Eco-Tourism seperti Raja Ampat dan Wakatobi, pulau Komodo masih
tertinggal jauh. (dengan kata kunci “Raja Ampat” terdapat sekitar 1,040,000 hasil serta kata
kunci “Wakatobi Island” yaitu sekitar 845,000 hasil).
Fasilitas internet di Flores, khususnya Labuan Bajo sebagai pintu utama kunjungan ke
Pulau Komodo dirasakan baru berjalan sekitar 2-3 tahun belakangan ini. Berikut adalah
kutipan mengenai pengadaan fasilitas internet dengan Bapak Firmasyah Rahim selaku Ditjen
PDP Budpar:
“Nah karena waktu itu Wapres mau datang, saya minta Telkomsel suruh buka di
Komodo. Sekarang Telkomsel udah hidup belum? Kayanya udah, waktu Wapres
470
datang kesana, dia nggak bisa ini, terus dia perintah ke kita. Saya telpon ke Pak
Firmansyah. Firmansyah juga ya, Telkomsel? Itu diminta, saya telpon Pak siapa..itu
coba di ini Pak Presiden, Wapres kemarin dari sana minta supaya cepat
dipasang.”(wawancara pada 7 Oktober 2011)
Ditambahkan lagi oleh Bapak Christian dari Swisscontact yang melihat pentingnya
fasilitas internet sebagai perangkat pembelajaran kepada masyarakat:
“Oh iya, sangat penting kan. Jangkauan luas..itu kan mempermudah mereka juga
untuk capacity building, untuk belajar, ya kan? Mempermudah mereka mencari smart
enough informasi. Cuma celakanya ini kalau tingkat provinsi sudah lebih enak ya,
hampir semua dinas itu akses internetnya ada, lancar. Jadi Kupang ini kan memang
karena ibukota provinsi ya, tapi kalau lihat kabupaten, aduh ini sangat miris juga
ngelihatnya, Dinas Pariwisata tapi nggak ada koneksi internet di kantor Dinas
Pariwisata di Maumere. Jadi dia Dinas Pariwisata tapi dia nggak punya koneksi
internet, jadi kan sangat miris.” (wawancara pada 13 Oktober 2011)
Terlihat dari penyataan di atas, baik dari Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata dan
Swisscontact merasakan bagaimana minimnya fasilitas internet di daerah pariwisata Labuan
bajo dan pulau Komodo. Hal ini tidak sejalan dengan konsep yang dikemukakan oleh Jaya
Akunuri dimana media online lebih memungkinkan pengusaha untuk melakukan apa yang
mereka yang terbaik yaitu: berinteraksi dengan orang, membangun hubungan dan berbicara
dengan pelanggan mereka.
IV.2. Pariwisata dan Destination Management
Setiap tujuan wisata mempunyai keunikan dan kekhasan tersendiri dalam menyajikan
objek wisata yang dimiliki.
Keunikan inilah yang membuat suatu daerah wisata lebih
menonjol dari daerah lainnya. Oleh karena itu, konsep manajemen destinasi (Destination
Management) yang diajukan oleh Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata dapat memberikan
competitive advantage untuk setiap 15 destinasi yang ada di Indonesia. Salah satu latar
belakang mengapa konsep destinasi ini akan menguntungkan pariwisata di Indonesia adalah
karena adanya perbedaan geografis dibandingkan dengan negara lain.
Seperti yang
dikemukakan oleh Bapak Firmasyah:
“Kalau di Indonesia itu kelebaran. Tapi itu bukan jadi kendala buat saya, malah jadi
asset. Bedanya. Kalau di Singapore atau di Thailand itu sedikit. Jadi satu kelebaran.
Karakternya macam-macam, tapi jadi daya tarik buat saya. Uniqueness-nya justru
471
disitu. Terus, dipisahin oleh laut. Itu bisa jadi kendala, tapi itu buat saya jadi daya
tarik sebetulnya (wawancara pada 7 Oktober 2011).
Hal yang sama juga dikatakan oleh Bapak Frans Teguh yang menjelaskan perbedaan
antara pariwisata Indonesia dengan negara lain letaknya bisa dilihat dari peta di mana
Indonesia terdiri dari banyak kepulauan sedangkan Negara asia lainnya tidak mempunyai
pulau sebanyak Indonesia (wawancara pada 11 Oktober 2011).
Konsep pariwisata yang diajukan oleh Reid (2003) serta Urry (1990) yang
menitikberatkan pada “experience” sejalan dengan apa yang dikemukakan oleh Bapak Frans
seperti berikut ini:
“mulai dari wisatawan datang di bandara, atau melalui pelabuhan laut
transportasinya seperti apa, informasinya dia perlu guide, dia makan di restoran, dia
nginap di hotel, dia beli oleh-oleh kuliner, itu kan, mungkin dia menggunakan juga,
apa, beli transportation, dia bertemu bersapa dengan masyarakat, ini kan secara
disain itu adalah produk pariwisata dimana itu adalah pengalaman yang diciptakan
pengalaman. Pengalaman yang disusun, pengalaman yang harus direkayasa.”
(wawancara pada 11 Oktober 2011).
Salah satu temuan dari wawancara dengan Bapak Christian dari Swisscontact adalah
perbedaan kategori aktivitas wisata yang dibuat untuk pulau Komodo yaitu Eco-tourism. Hal
ini diungkapkan sebagai berikut:
“Kalau di kita design project nya sih, dan input juga dari stakeholder juga, kalau
untuk kita, sebisanya sih kita menghindari seperti Bali, jadi menghindari max tourism
itu. Kita hindari. Kita prefer nya lebih ke ecotourism. Makanya nanti di masterplan
itu juga yang akan ini lebih banyak, apa input akan ada, apa namanya, disain-disain
yang lebih banyak yang menghindari max tourism. Karena kalau tadi kan saya …
tanda kutip nggak terkontrol lagi, ya kan, jadi kita hindari itu. Jadi kita hindari juga
yang ini, apa namanya, yang manufacture-manufacture. Makanya, kalau visinya kita
kan, salah satu visinya kita kan terkenalnya Flores ini kan tantang manufacture, jadi
masih natural. Nah itu yang kita sangat jaga nanti kedepannya, supaya jangan terlalu
banyak barang-barang atau atraksi-atraksi atau bangunan-bangunan/building yang
manufacture.” (wawancara pada 13 Oktober 2011)
Terlihat dari saran yang dikemukakan oleh Bapak Christian bahwa salah satu
keunikan dari pengelolaan destinasi adalah perbedaan kategori wisata seperti Eco-tourism
untuk pulau Komodo.
V. Kesimpulan dan Saran
472
Berikut adalah kesimpulan yang didapat dari penelitian ini:
1. Internet atau new media sebagai perangkat yang sangat penting dalam bidang
pariwisata dan kewirausahaan masih dirasakan minim di Flores.
2. Destination management dapat menunjang promosi pariwisata di Indonesia dengan
memberikan ‘experience’ yang dapat direkayasa melalui sinergi antara para
stakeholder di masing-masing destinasi.
3. Dengan adanya destination management, diketahui bahwa eco-tourism merupakan
salah satu keunikan pariwisata yang dapat ditemukan di Flores.
Saran penelitian adalah:
1. Telah diketahui bahwa beberapa destinasi masih sangat minim fasilitasi internet yang
dapat menungjang komunikasi dan promosi pariwisata baik untuk wisatawan dalam negri
maupun laur negeri.
2.
Penelitian lebih lanjut untuk mengetahui minat kewirausahaan di setiap destinasi
diperlukan sehingga program-program yang dapat diajukan kepada non-profit organization
seperti Swisscontact bisa bersinergi dengan program destination management dari
Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata.
Daftar Pustaka
Undang – Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 10. Tahun 2009 Tentang Kepariwisataan
Nwankwo, Sonny; Gbadamosi, Ayantunji. (2010), Entrepreneurship marketing : principles
and practice of SME marketing, New York : Routledge, 2011
Kuratko, Donald F; Hodgetts, Richard M, Entrepreneurship: Theory, Process, Practice,
South-Western College Pub; 6 edition, 2003
Weiermair, Klau; Mathies, Christine,The Tourism and Leisure Industry: Shaping the Future,
Routledge, 2004
Reid, Donald G., Tourism, Globalization and Development: Responsible Tourism Planning,
Pluto Press, 2003
Macleod, Donald V. L; Carrier, James G. “Tourism, Power and Culture: Anthropological
Insights”, Channel View Publications, Bristol, UK, 2010
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pada 18 Oktober 2011
www.google.com diakses pada 18 October 2011
473
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Oktober 2011
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474
BACK COVER
The entrepreneurship spirit plays a significant role in the global competition nowadays. When
world becomes borderless in space and time because of the information and communication
technology (ICT), everything changes and moves so fast. These changes should be faced by
all business entities with their proper strategic management so they will survive and win the
competition.
In response to the recent situation and condition in global business and the role of the
entrepreneurship spirit, a book has come out with the title “Enterpreneurship in Global
Competition”. This book offers many creative thoughts on entrepreneurship spirit related
with business aspects. With their strong analysis of the writers involved, the book can be a
scientific or practical reference in strategic management.
Associating various ideas into a red line and pursing them into a point where the
entrepreneurship spirit becomes the essence of all discourses, we may pack them and make it
as an umbrella of some aspects of business that can be grouped into four concentrations of
ideas as follow:
-
-
Management of Human Resources through Alternative Education & Entrepreneurial
Spirit
-
-
The Role of Communication & Media in Winning Competition
The above groupings are served systematically with the hope that they can give
comprehensive description about various business aspects that need entrepreneurship spirit to
win the competition.
475

foreword - ICBC 2015

Transcription

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