The Powhatan Native Americans: A Historical Narrative

Transcription

The Powhatan Native Americans—A Historical Narrative
Jenny Huebner
Social Studies Curriculum & Instruction
4/9/08
http://jmhueb.people.wm.edu/
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Jenny Huebner
Historical narrative
Introduction
Native Americans, as their name implies were the first people to inhabit what is now the
United States. They peopled North America long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in
1492, and their origins have been contested in many myths alluding to the Ten Lost Tribes of
Israel and Atlantis. The Native American tribes were not unified, and their languages numbered
over 300. One language family, Algonquian, was shared by the Powhatan. The Powhatan were
a group of approximately 30 tribes that inhabited the Tidewater area of Virginia and Maryland in
the late 16th and early 17th century. Their history is unique in that they were in existence for
approximately 80 years. Around 1570, a chief known as Wahunsonacock united these tribes by
force, but they disbanded circa 1650. The arrival of English settlers, which occurred in 1607, in
addition to Chief Powhatan’s death in 1618, may have contributed to the disbanding the
Powhatan tribes (Feest 1990).
Although Native American tribes were abundant in the past, yet had no common
organizational structure, they came to share a common pattern of mistreatment from the
Europeans who interacted with and dwelt among them. The Spanish came to America in the
mid-16th century in search of a passage to China. Instead, they met various Algonquians with
whom they traded and eventually came to view as a source of labor. In later years, French fur
trappers saw the Native Americans simply as a way to acquire pelts, and missionaries viewed
Native Americans as a source of potential converts. The initial contact between the Europeans
and those who would later be called the Powhatan began an antagonistic relationship between the
two groups. In 1570, The Spanish kidnapped a son of a chief, baptized him, renamed him Don
Luis de Velasco, and took him to Spain. One year later, Don Luis returned to his people with
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Spanish missionaries. The Algonquians accepted the introduction to metal objects and spun
cloth the Spanish provided. The next year, however, Don Luis rejected his Spanish persona,
returned to the mission of Jesuits with a party of war, and killed many. In retaliation, the
Spanish killed 30 of Don Luis’s people. When the English set out for North America in 1584,
they hoped to have more amiable relations with the Native Americans, but were understandably
met with hostilities. After the “lost colony” of Roanoke failed in 1590, many speculated that
Native Americans were to blame and had massacred the colonists (Feest 1990).
The English’s next attempt at colonization resulted in their first permanent settlement in
what would become the United States. King James I granted a charter to establish a colony in
North America in 1606. The Virginia Company, a stock company hoping to capitalize on the
silver and gold in Virginia, as well as find a transcontinental waterway to the Pacific Ocean,
backed the expedition of the Godspeed, the Discovery, and the Susan Constant. The English
were competing with the Spanish in the colonization of America, and scoffed at their rivals’
mistreatment of the Native Americans, believing that “’what the Spanyard got was chiefly the
spoyle and pillage of those countrey people, and not the labors of their owne hands.’” Contrarily,
the English planned to interact with the natives without “’storms of raging cruelties’” like those
employed by the Spanish (from Robert Johnson’s “Note: The Indian Massacre of 1622” as
quoted in Price, 2003, p.10). Rather than being outwardly kind, the Virginia Company advocated
a policy of having “’great care not to offend the naturals’” and coexisting peacefully with the
Native Americans. (Instructions from the London Company to the First Settlers as quoted in
Price, p.31). While the English planned to avoid outwardly attacking the Indians, their referral to
the Native Americans as “savages” (11) implies an air of superiority over these individuals.
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The period from 1606, when the English first made contact with the Powhatan, to 1646,
when the Powhatan Confederacy was on the brink of dissolution, is important for K-6 students to
study because it addresses many major events in American history. The interactions between
British colonists and Powhatan tribe members undoubtedly influenced the course of American
history, as over time the English government (and later, the United States government) faced the
question of what course of action to take regarding the governing of these individuals who had
inhabited the land long before the newly arrived colonists. An additional reason the Powhatan
people merit study is the cultural appreciation students can acquire by studying their distinctive
way of life. Finally, in learning about the often unjust treatment the early English and more
modern American people inflicted on the Powhatan and other Native Americans, students should
come to view Native Americans as individuals who deserve respect, just like any other group of
human beings.
National and State Standards addressed in this unit delineate social studies skills as well
as historical content that exhibits the diversity of and relations among the people living in
Virginia during the early 1600s. As a whole, the unit addresses the National Social Studies
Standards related to Time, Continuity, and Change; Individuals, Groups, and Institutions; and the
National Geography Standards related to The World in Spatial Terms. More specific Virginia
state standards are addressed in each lesson. A primary lesson teaches map skills in the context
of a Powhatan village (SOLs 1.4, 1.5), and another primary lesson uses two portrayals of
Pocahontas to teach historic comprehension by using the data presented in paintings (National
Standards for Art Education: Understanding and Applying Media, Techniques, and Processes c,
Understanding the Visual Arts in Relation to History and Cultures b) . An intermediate lesson
giving a biographical account of John Smith teaches students about using artifacts and primary
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and secondary sources to interpret the past, while also presenting the reasons for English
colonization and the difficulties the settlers faced (VS1, VS2). The final lesson, which is inquiry
based, demonstrates the relevance of issues facing descendants of the Powhatan tribes today. By
thinking critically about the reasons for and against the NCAA’s decision to remove the feathers
from the College of William and Mary’s logo, students will use this event to consider similar
athletic practices and the consideration of Native Americans’ opinions throughout the country as
a whole. This lesson calls upon students to relate past policies of Native American treatment to
those of the present (USII.3b, USII.7d).
Key ideas and events
Because the Jamestown settlement, started in 1607, was England’s first permanent
settlement and began a long legacy of interactions with Native Americans, it follows that this is a
key event in the Powhatan’s history. Within days of coming ashore, the colonists were faced
with suspicious natives, who retreated when they had fired all their arrows and the English had
fired back at them with rifles. Shortly thereafter, Captain Christopher Newport and a group of
men who had began exploring the bay area encountered the Kecoughtan tribe and were invited to
dine with them. An ambiguous relationship with the Powhatan characterized by a series of
friendly and hostile events ensued as natives habitually snuck into the colonists’ settlement to
pilfer trinkets like beads and meat, while the leaders of both groups maintained an air of
camaraderie in face-to-face meetings (Price 2003).
Captain John Smith was an English colonist who was instrumental in forming relations
with the Powhatan and establishing order within the colony. As a soldier who had fought in
many wars abroad, he had become skilled in communicating with foreigners and used this
expertise to circumvent the language barrier between the English and the natives. His first
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meeting with Wahunsonacock, or Chief Powhatan, as the colonists called him, came after a
scuffle with the Pamunkey tribe. On his way up the Chickahominy River to search for the
passageway to the Pacific, Smith’s boat encountered water that was too shallow to cross in their
canoe. Smith went ahead with two of his men and to find native guides and told the remaining
seven men to stay in the boat. The seven men had not seen women for over a year, as the
English had brought no female colonists with them. They defied Smith’s orders to approach a
group of Chickahominy women who had come near the river with the intent of attracting the
colonists so their tribe could learn of the men’s intentions. The tribe was suspicious of Smith’s
claim that they came simply to hunt birds, and a group of warriors chased the men away. One
colonist, George Cassen, was left behind. The warriors stripped Cassen and removed all of his
joints with a mussel shell before skinning and burning him. The natives possibly saw him as the
devil, or sought to avenge the English for trespassing on their territory.
Upon being captured and meeting Chief Powhatan, Smith again lied about why his men were in
the area and touted the colonists’ impressive weapons in an attempt to intimidate Powhatan.
Powhatan also spoke highly of his people’s fighting prowess and proclivity for seeking revenge
against those who wronged them, while both men spoke of maintaining peace between their
people (Price 2003).
As the settlers learned that Powhatan was the most prominent leader among the
Powhatan, King James I sought to make Powhatan a tributary prince by ordering Christopher
Newport to ceremonially crown Powhatan as an English prince. This event foreshadowed tense
relations between these groups, as the English essentially hoped to exert their power and
influence over the Powhatan and his established empire, with or without his consent (Price). In
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1646, a treaty was signed that officially put Powhatan under the rule of the English crown
(Boraas 2003).
Contrary to Powhatan’s initial promises of friendship with John Smith, he decided that
Smith was not to be trusted, and planned to have him executed. Smith’s execution introduced
another individual with whom many people are familiar, as her relationship with Smith has
frequently been romanticized in popular culture. Pocahontas, Chief Powhatan’s youngest
daughter, supposedly intervened by placing her head over Smith as a tribesman was about to beat
Smith’s head with a club. Some claim that this event is fictitious, however, other sources, both
past and present, attest to its accuracy. Smith wrote about the event in the journal he kept while
in Jamestown, and the Reverend Samuel Purchas, a friend of Smith, believed and reprinted his
account. Henry Wharton also included the story in his 1865 biography of John Smith. In 1992,
J.A. Leo Lemay wrote Did Pocahontas Save John Smith? detailing arguments for the veracity of
the story. It is interesting to note that Smith came under much criticism for his documentation
of this event during the Civil War: Henry Adams was an advocate of the North and wrote a
piece in 1867 for the popular magazine North American Review which challenged Smith’s claim
of having been saved by Pocahontas. Adams believed that by discrediting Smith, a strong
symbol of the South, the position of the North would be strengthened.
After Smith claimed to have been saved, Powhatan accepted him as a friend at the urging
of Pocahontas. Together, Smith and Pocahontas are credited for ensuring the survival of the
English settlement. When the colonists initially settled at Jamestown, much of their time was
spent erecting palisades made from the limbs of trees around their fort to keep themselves
protected from the natives and less vulnerable to the Spanish in the event of a surprise attack. As
they had more encounters with the Powhatan tribes, the men realized that the natives sought
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trinkets of theirs, particularly glass beads and copper buttons. Chief Powhatan especially sought
muskets and cannons; however, Smith deemed it inadvisable to arm the natives when they could
potentially turn against the English (Price 2003).
It soon became apparent that many of the gentlemen of Jamestown thought the mundane
tasks of building houses and procuring food were beneath them, and chose to spend their time
loafing about or searching for much desired gold. Smith instated a rule that those who did not
work would not eat to make certain that all the colonists did their share to keep the settlement
from disintegrating like the two earlier attempts at English settlement. Smith also used his
diplomatic skills to pursue trading with the Powhatan. Pocahontas frequently visited the
colonists and brought them gifts of food (Price 2003). As a result, she has been called a
peacemaker among the Powhatan and the English (Nettleton 2004).
Smith was sent back to England in 1609 on misdemeanor charges, as many of the
colony’s leaders felt that he was to blame for the deaths of colonists who were killed by natives
during various expeditions made in search of food and the passage to the Pacific. What
followed after Smith’s departure has been referred to as “the Starving Time.” During the winter
of 1609-1610, 440 of the 500 colonists (who had come to Jamestown in 1607 or were sent in
later months in an effort to maintain the population of the colony) died of starvation. Many men
were preoccupied with the Virginia Company’s orders to find gold and wasted valuable time and
effort searching for nonexistent riches when they should have been planting crops, or hunting.
Men were often reduced to eating rats, dogs, and at times, other colonists for sustenance. Some
even dug their own graves and laid in them to wait for their death rather than practicing
cannibalism (Price). The remaining men planned to desert Jamestown, and the colony might had
failed had it not been for the arrival of the colony’s new governor, Lord De La War, who arrived
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from England with fresh supplies and colonists as those still at Jamestown were about to leave
(APVA Preservation Virginia n.d.).
Nine years later, the first African Americans arrived in Jamestown on a Dutch man of
war ship. The 20 Africans had been acquired from a Portuguese slave ship. Slavery as an
institution developed in Jamestown gradually, and was preceded by the practice of indentured
servitude. This practice allowed colonists to come from England to Jamestown at the expense of
a wealthier benefactor, provided that the individual would labor for his sponsor for a given
amount of time. At the time of the Africans’ arrival, indentured servants had begun planting and
harvesting the labor intensive crop of tobacco that John Rolfe, a widowed English colonist who
married Pocahontas, had introduced to the Jamestown settlement. The Africans arrived in
August when the tobacco season was in the harvesting phase, and they worked with indentured
servants at the harvest. Records indicate that initially, Africans could earn their freedom like
indentured servants after working for a certain amount of time (Price 2003). In 1640, a runaway
indentured servant became the first documented slave for life, and by 1670, a law was in place
that forbade Blacks from owning indentured servants, as they once were allowed to do (National
Park Service 2008). The implications of the arrival of slaves are numerous, and should be
examined in detail in an additional or subsequent unit, as they are not studied in the current one.
Men, Women, Youth, and Children
Pocahontas had a singular role in Powhatan society higher in status than other women.
She was the daughter of a chief, especially the most prominent one of the tribe. It should be
noted, however, that women did hold prominent positions in Powhatan society. Women both
owned and built the yehakins, or longhouses, that were the common dwellings in a Powhatan
village. These houses were made by erecting a frame made from saplings, then covering the
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frame with mats made of plant fibers and reeds. The typical life of a female in Powhatan society
involved planting and harvesting crops that were mainstays of their diet, including corn, beans,
and squash, known as “The Three Sisters.” Women prepared meals, made pottery used for
cooking, weaved mats and clothes from plant material, and also sewed clothing from the
deerskins men brought back from hunting (Sjonger & Kalman 2005). John Smith noted that the
women “love children verie dearly” and were “verie painfull and the men often idle” (Smith
1612). The coming of the English settlers undoubtedly affected Powhatan women largely, as the
men had brought no English women with them to the settlement. Having had no contact with
women for many months, Smith’s account of an evening spent eating and singing with a
Powhatan tribe “chastely ends” after the men were shown to their sleeping quarters: Chiefs
customarily provided guests with bedmates, and it is assumed that the women also took this role
with the English (Price 2003, 93). Over time, Native American women formed family unions
with English settlers, the first of which was the wedding of John Rolfe and Pocahontas.
While woman prepared food and clothing acquired from hunting, it was the men who did
the actual hunting and fishing. They also made canoes by cutting down one of the many
abundant trees, sawing a log from the trunk, and hollowing a space in the log by either burning
or cutting it. Fish were caught with spears made of animal bones or traps and nets made from
plants. Children learned the skills they would need to be a productive adult at an early age. As
soon as they could walk, children were expected to follow and keep up with their parents. They
were exposed to rather than sheltered from difficulties which would make them stronger, such as
being bathed in cold water. Their toys were models of the tools they would use as adults, and
they began learning roles from their parents as they mimicked their behavior. Girls, for example,
helped build houses, plant, and cook. They usually married and had their own families at the age
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of thirteen. Boys watched their fathers hunt and make tools, and were encouraged to make their
own hunting tools and gain practice shooting animals. Boys were made into men by the
huskanaw ceremony, which isolated them from the village and subjected them to physical trials
in order to prove themselves as men capable of making sure their tribe would survive for many
generations (Kahlman & Sjonger 2005).
Powhatan society was matriarchal in that the title of chief, or werowance was passed in a
matrilineal fashion from the werowance’s mother’s oldest son to the youngest. If there were no
sons, the title went from the werowance’s mother’s oldest daughter to the youngest. Women
could also be chiefs, and were called weronsquas. The chiefs were very wealthy, and acquired
this wealth from tributes that tribesmen and women paid them. As a sign of their status, chiefs
wore decorated robes and elaborate jewelry. Priests known as quiyoucosucks were the next in
status after the werowances and were advisers to these chiefs. They were believed to have the
power to control the weather, cure the sick, and converse with the most powerful god in the
Powhatan religion known as Okewas. (McDaniel 1996).
Closing and Legacy
As those of European descent continued to interact with Native Americans, the desires of
the new colonists and the expanse of the nation directed both the course of interactions with the
Native Americans and the policies for governing them. As colonists continued to arrive from
England, the mentality was that Virginia offered a vast expanse of land for farming, and the land
was the colonists’ for the taking, regardless of whether or not Native Americans were already
established on it (Price 2003). Many settlers continued to hold the early European sentiment of
superiority over Native Americans. This mentality was evident in actions taken by individuals as
well as the federal government to remove Indians from their ancestral lands so that Americans
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could settle and establish farms. The last major uprising before the American Revolution was
Bacon’s Rebellion of 1675, which aimed to destroy all Native American tribes. Nathaniel Bacon
was a wealthy farmer who had settled in the backcountry of Virginia, and unlike Virginia’s
governor William Berkeley, Bacon viewed all Native Americans as enemies to be eradicated.
He led an uprising of settlers as well as African American slaves against a friendly Powhatan
tribe, the Occaneechees, and killed many. The rebellion had a profound impact on slaves, as
Berkeley and Bacon both recruited slaves for their cause of either fighting or advancing peace
among the natives. Each man promised freedom to the slaves who joined his cause (PBS n.d.).
One result of the rebellion was a peace treaty that established a reservation for Chickahominy
and Mattaponi tribes near the village of Passaunkack, which was removed from the
Chickahominy’s homeland on the Chickahominy River. During the 1700s, the Chickahominy
returned to their ancestral land, and those who remained became the ancestors of who are known
today as the Upper Mattaponi. In the 1700s and 1800s, many of the Upper Mattaponi people
took the last name Adams, possibly because of the British interpreter James Adams who also
lived in the area, and were referred to as the Adamstown Band. The Adamstown Band hunted
and farmed like their ancestors. They were given few rights and could found it hard to make a
living in the mid 19th century because of the air of racial superiority many Whites had, especially
in the time leading up to the Civil War (Prince William Network/Virginia Department of
Education 2005).
In the years following the American Revolution, the federal government gradually began
to adopt a policy aimed at integrating Native Americans into the American way of life not just in
Virginia, but throughout the nation as a whole. The General Allotment Act of 1887 made
individual Native Americans landholders by distributing land in subdivided tracts, which could
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not be sold. In this way, Native Americans were deprived of much of their land, as the surplus
land that was not distributed to Native Americans could be settled by Whites. Beginning in the
1940s, the government began a policy of terminating tribes and relocating Native Americans to
urban areas to expedite the process of Americanizing them (Feest 1990). Many members of the
Adamstown Band of Virginia, which officially changed its name to the Upper Mattaponi in the
early 1900s, converted to Christianity. Many other Native American tribes also converted
because the United States began jailing spiritual leaders for as many as 30 years, just for
practicing rituals. This practice continued until the Freedom of Religion Act was passed in 1973.
Another way of assimilating Native Americans into the White American way of life was through
the establishment of Indian boarding schools. These schools forced Native American youths to
adopt American culture by forbidding them to speak their native languages at the schools, and
used Euro-American standards to educate students. Non-reservation boarding schools also
sought to Americanize Native Americans by giving students new uniforms, haircuts, and names,
forcing them to renounce those names given to them by their tribe. Students were often given
strict punishments and chores to complete at these schools, one of which was the Carlisle School
in Carlisle, PA (Wikipedia 2008). In Virginia, the only high school education available for
Native Americans at times was Bacone College in Muskogee, OK (Jamestown-Yorktown
Foundation 2006).
In the 1960s, a resurgence of Native American pride occurred across the country, as well
as in Virginia—there were over 1,250 descendants of Powhatan tribes at this time (Feest 1990).
Following the Civil War, only the Pamunkey tribe was recognized by Virginia as American
Indians. In the 1920s, the Mattaponi also gained recognition. The Powhatan Confederacy’s
descendants live all across the nation, but are still largely present in Virginia where today several
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tribes including the Rappahannock and Nansemond are officially recognized. Today, the
Powhatan tribesmen and women hope to share the importance of their heritage with non-Indians.
Powhatan peoples have built museums and art galleries on some reservations. The Pamunkey
Indian Reservation has a pottery school in which women make traditional pots. For a time, some
members of the Pamunkey tribe began using modern techniques to make their pots as opposed to
traditional coils, but they have since begun using traditional methods again. At these and other
Powhatan reservations, adults and children alike can visit to learn about Powhatan art, spiritual
beliefs, and customs (Boraas 2003). The 400th Anniversary of Jamestown resulted in a renewed
interest to study Native American history and culture. A conference there in October of 2006
featured speakers including the former president of the National Congress of American Indians,
panel discussions, and a tour of the tribal lands of the Chickahominy, Mattaponi, Pamunkey,
Rappahannock, and Upper Mattaponi (Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation 2006).
Understanding the history of the Powhatan and their current daily life is significant for
many reasons. The Powhatan were the first people to settle our nation, so it is consequently of
essence to understand their past if one is to fully comprehend the history of the United States.
Created in the 1600s, the Pamunkey Reservation is the oldest Native American reservation in
America (Boraas 2003). According to Upper Mattaponi Chief Kenneth Adams, “The first laws
concerning Indian tribes originated in Virginia. Those termination and reservation policies went
on to affect Indians across America, and are not properly taught as part of Virginia or United
States history” (Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation 2006). The issue of Native American policy
has arisen repeatedly throughout history, and continues to be an important question today. The
policies delineating the rights, roles in state and local government and fair treatment of Native
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Americans both in the past and present are complex. To be able to understand such policies, one
must understand the people that they affect (Feest 1990).
At present, some Americans (who are not of Native American descent) are culturally
biased and sometimes insensitive in their views of Native Americans as the “’noble savages’” or
“’wild Indians’” who were resistant to America’s expansion into the western frontier (Feest
1990, 7). Prejudice toward a cultural or ethnic group is often the result of ignorance or a
misunderstanding of that group’s heritage. In order to understand others and to further a
sentiment of appreciation for the diversity of others in our children, it is necessary to study the
Powhatan from an unbiased and untainted standpoint. In so doing, we will come to know these
people as the unique individuals they were and continue to be today.
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Resources
APVA Preservation Virginia (n.d.). Historic Jamestowne: History. Retrieved April 7,
from http://www.historicjamestowne.org/history/
2008,
Boraas, T. (2003). The Powhatan: A Confederacy of Native American Tribes. Mankato:
Bridgestone Books.
Feest, C.F. & Porter, F.W. (1990). The Powhatan Tribes. New York: Chelsea House
Publishers.
Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation (2006). Virginia Indians Discuss 400 Years of Survival.
Retrieved April 7, 2008, from
http://www.jamestown2007.org/pdfdocs/400_years_of_survival_FINAL.pdf
Kalman, B. & Sjonger, R. (2005). Life of the Powhatan. Canada: Crabtree Publishing
Company.
McDaniel, M. (1996). The Powhatan Indians. Mexico: Chelsea House Publishers.
National Park Service (2008). Historic Jamestowne: African Americans at Jamestown.
Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://www.nps.gov/jame/historyculture/africanamericans-at-jamestown.htm
Nettleton, P.H. (2004). Pocahontas: Peacemaker and Friend to the Colonists.
Minneapolis: Picture Window Books.
PBS Online (n.d.). Africans in America: Bacon’s Rebellion. Retrieved April 8, 2008,
from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p274.html
Price, D.A. (2003). Love & Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New
Nation. New York: Vintage Books.
Prince William Network/Virginia Department of Education (2005). Virginia’s First
People—Past and Present—Virginia Indians Today. Retrieved April 8, 2008,
http://virginiaindians.pwnet.org/today/upper_mattaponi.php
from
Smith, J. (1612) A Map of Virginia, Oxford: Joseph Barnes. Retrieved April 4, 2008,
from http://www.vahistorical.org/sva2003/jsdp.htm
Wikipedia (2008). Americanization (Of Native Americans). Retrieved April 7, 2008,
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanization_(of_Native_Americans)#Indian
removal
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Lesson plan preparer: Jenny Huebner
Lesson #1- Villages of the Powhatan
Intended Audience: Students in Mrs. Henning’s 2008-2009 first grade class at D.J. Montague
(approximately 20 students of varying abilities)
Standards:
National Geography Standard 3: The geographically informed person knows and understands
how to analyze the spatial organization of people, places, and environments on Earth’s surface.
Virginia: 1.4: The student will develop map skills by a) recognizing basic map symbols,
including references to land, water, cities, and roads b) using cardinal directions on maps
1.5: The student will construct a map of a familiar area, using basic map symbols in the map
legend
Materials, time, and space:
-Classroom map; transparency of a Powhatan village; materials for student pairs to decorate a
longhouse (pre-built longhouses made from 8 1/2” x 11’ paper, brown and green construction
paper, scissors, glue, pretzel sticks); real/artificial vegetation; popsicle sticks/twigs; construction
paper; labels of North, South, East, and West; pencils; markers; crayons; classroom space for
whole-group, then paired instruction; one hour
Lesson Description:
Anticipatory Set:
Gather students at the front of the classroom and explain that today, they will use the cardinal
directions used yesterday in Minimeade to help find their way around a Powhatan village of long
ago.
Behavioral Objectives:
1) Students will decorate longhouses and create a classroom village. They then will draw a
map of the classroom village and correctly label the cardinal directions on the map, using
them to correctly indicate how to go from one place to another in the village according to
teacher-posed scenarios.
2) Students will correctly answer three multiple choice questions related to cardinal
directions and the structure of a Powhatan village.
Input/modeling:
Show a transparency of a Powhatan village (see attached illustration). Use the classroom map to
show that these people lived in Jamestown. Show Jamestown relative to Williamsburg. Explain
what life was like for the Powhatan in their town over 400 years ago, including what food they
ate, and how they found and cooked it. Explain that the Powhatan lived in longhouses, which
they called yehakins. Describe how longhouses were built (see background information). Show
an example of a longhouse that has already been made and decorated. Tell students they will
work with a partner to decorate a longhouse. Call attention to the defining features of a
longhouse. After students finish decorating their longhouses, invite the class to set up a
Powhatan village. Have students place the buildings appropriately (in a circle, with a fence
around them, etc.). Use other materials, such as the palisade (fence) vegetation, and a “lake” to
achieve the full effect. Leave the transparency of the Powhatan village on the overhead so the
class can see the example village, and construct the class village accordingly.
Check for understanding:
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Observe as pairs decorate their longhouses to ensure accurate construction. Offer assistance or
clarification as needed. Construct the village in a central location in the classroom. Place a sign
at one end of the village labeled “North.” Call on students to place signs with the other cardinal
directions around the village in their appropriate places. Ask individual students specific
questions about the village as it related to the Powhatans’ daily lives, such as “What was the lake
used for?”
Guided Practice:
Distribute paper for partners to draw a map of the class village. Draw an example map of the
class village on the overhead projector. Write “North” on the top of the map. Instruct students
to label their maps with the cardinal directions. Do so on the example map. Pose the directions:
1) Find the northern-most longhouse, or the one closest to the top of the map. 2) Pretend the
father of that family is going fishing. Use a green crayon to draw his path from the longhouse to
the river. Label the cardinal direction he traveled. Remember, sometimes he might go more
than one direction.
Independent Practice:
Give the following instructions: 1) The father goes to the fire in the center of the village to cook
the fish he caught. Draw his path in blue and label the direction. 2) After he cooks the fish, he
shares some with his neighbor, who lives directly to the east of him. Draw his path in orange
and label the direction.
Closure:
Call student pairs to the front of the classroom to share maps and routes. Distribute worksheets
with multiple choice questions about cardinal directions and Powhatan villages. Read the
directions aloud (see attached sheet). Collect when students finish.
Evaluation:
Formative:
Students’ attentiveness during input/modeling, completion of longhouses/participation in
construction of class village, performance during guided practice
Summative:
Paired completion of independent practice, individual performance on multiple choice
assessment
Background information:
Students will analyze the spatial layout of people, places, and environments in the context of the
Powhatan, an Algonquin Native American tribe that settled in Virginia, particularly around
Jamestown. Student created maps will feature the Powhatans’ dwellings called longhouses (or
yehakins) that were made of bent wooden poles. Once the structure of the house was completed,
the poles were covered with grass or bark. Animal skins protected the roofs. A longhouse could
be home to one or as many as five families, as indicated by the number of chimneys on the
longhouse. Fires were built in the longhouses if the weather was cold. Palisades, or high
fences, surrounded longhouse villages to keep out enemies. The Powhatan depended on water to
a great extent for fishing and transportation (since there were no roads), so they built villages
close to a source of water. Typically, men hunted and fished, while women planted staple crops
of corn, beans, and squash. Children helped with chores around their home. The basic symbols
in the map legend will feature the longhouses, palisades, water, and crops of the Powhatan. A
legend illustrates what the map symbols represent. Students have a basic knowledge of cardinal
directions.
Vocabulary:
18
Powhatan, longhouse, yehakin (Powhatan term for “longhouse”), palisade (fences), cardinal
directions (taught previously: North, South, East, West).
19
Resources:
Longhouse building activity modified from:
Evan-Moor Publishers (no date). Make a Longhouse. Retrieved January 30, 2008,
from http://scott.k12.va.us/martha2/longhouseactivity.htm
Sources of information:
Garrett, N. (2004). Algonquian Language Group. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from
http://mal.sbo.hampton.k12.va.us/fourth/socstudies/indianwebquest/algon.htm
LoDuca, G. (no date). Village Life. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from
http://ab.mec.edu/jamestown/villagelife.html
Scott, M. (no date). History of Virginia. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from
http://scott.k12.va.us/martha2/History%20Page.htm
20
Cardinal Directions and Powhatan Villages
Look at the map. If you are at the statue of the wolf (number 2), what
direction would you go to get to the library (number 7)?
a) North
b) East
c) South
Which is a picture of a longhouse?
a)
b)
c)
21
The fences around the Powhatan longhouses were called
a) palisades
b) tomahawks
c) moccasins
22
Powhatan Village
Source: http://northernblue.ca/canata/1_beginnings/1Bfirsteast.php
23
Make a Longhouse
Materials:






12" x 12" brown construction paper
1 1/2" green construction paper strips
twigs and grasses
shoe box (for a base)
scissors, stapler, glue, tape
brown tempra paint
Directions:
1. Paint the shoebox brown.
2. Cut your piece of brown construction paper so that it matches the length of the
shoebox.
3. Cut slits lengthwise in the brown paper 1 1/2" apart, leaving a 1" section uncut at
each end.
4. Weave the green paper strips in and out through the slits in the brown paper.
Secure each strip at the end with tape or paste.
5. Weave small twigs and grasses into the woven paper along with the green
strips. Slip the sides of the woven paper inside the box. Glue in place.
6. Glue twigs to the outside of the shoebox.
7. Students may choose to add further detail to their longhouse. Be creative!
8. Create an Indian Village and display.
Source: http://scott.k12.va.us/martha2/longhouseactivity.htm
24
An example of what a student’s longhouse village map and the routes taken within it might look
like
An example of the paper longhouse to be given to each student pair for decoration and placement
in the class’s longhouse village
25
Lesson prepared by: Jenny Huebner
Lesson #2—The English and Powhatan Pocahontas
Intended Audience: Students in Mrs. Henning’s 2008-2009 first grade class at D.J. Montague
(approximately 20 students of varying abilities)
Standards:
National Social Studies Standards—Time, Continuity, and Change a): Demonstrate an
understanding that different people may describe the same event or situation in diverse ways,
citing reasons for the differences in views
The National History Standards: History for Grades K-4—Historical Comprehension G:
Draw upon the visual data presented in photographs, paintings, cartoons, and architectural
drawings
-It’s Me! by Eric Drachman, images of two Pocahontas paintings (see attached images),
materials for self-portraits (construction paper, crayons, markers), classroom space for wholegroup instruction/individual lesson activity, one hour
Objectives:
1) After listening to a story about a girl playing dress-up, hearing about Pocahontas’s
life, and seeing representations of Pocahontas in English and Native American attire,
students will give examples of how her clothing differs among the two portraits, and
infer reasons for the differences.
2) Students will create three self-portraits depicting different types of clothing they wear
and write a sentence describing when they wear each type of clothing.
Lesson Description:
Introduction
Gather students at the front of the classroom. Introduce the story It’s Me! Tell students they will
hear about a girl who likes to dress up. After reading the story, emphasize that Patricia likes to
dress up in different clothes, but is still the same person when she wears new outfits. Relate the
story to previously lessons about the Powhatan by noting that Patricia could have chosen to be a
Powhatan girl. Describe the differences between the Powhatans’ clothing and what we wear
today (see background information). Display the picture, or portrait, of Pocahontas wearing
Native American clothing. Explain that she was called an Indian princess. Give a brief history
of her life, displaying the English portrait when describing her journey to England (see
background information). Use the class map to show England relative to Jamestown and
Williamsburg.
Content Focus
Key Questions: Objective: What kind of clothing is Pocahontas wearing in the first painting?
What colors do you see? What do you notice about her hair? What is on her head? Where was
she when this was painted? What kind of clothes is Pocahontas wearing in the second painting?
How are her clothes different from the first painting? Would you expect to see people dressed in
either of these outfits now? Why? Reflective: Have you ever worn clothes that are very
different from each other? When? Do you have favorite clothes that you like to wear? What do
they look like? How do you feel wearing them? Do you have clothes you do not like to wear?
Why don’t you like wearing them? Interpretive: Why did Pocahontas wore such different
clothes? How does she look in the painting wearing Powhatan clothes? In the one with English
26
clothes? Which clothes do you think she preferred? Why? Do you think Pocahontas acted the
same way when she wore each kind of clothes? As students make observations about the two
styles of clothing, mention the characteristics of Powhatan and English dress in the 17th century
(see background information). Explain that people living in different countries do not dress the
way we do, but though Pocahontas looked very different in her clothes, she was still the same
person. Give an example, such as, “I am still Miss Huebner, whether I wear my teacher clothes
or my pajamas.” Explain that students will create a “Many Portraits of (student name)” book.
They will draw three self-portraits, or pictures of themselves, wearing different clothes. They
will write a sentence telling when they wear each kind of clothing under their portraits. Have
students begin work on their portraits, which will continue throughout the week.
Closing
Ask students what they learned about the two kinds of clothing Pocahontas wore and why she
wore them. Have individual students share the kinds of outfits they drew in their self-portraits.
Give students three multiple choice questions to answer about the lesson.
Evaluation:
Formative: Student participation during discussion of Pocahontas’s clothes
Summative: Student created books, performance on multiple choice assessment
Background information
Pocahontas, named “Matoaka,” was born around 1596 to Chief Powhatan, leader of the
Powhatan tribes in Jamestown. “Pocahontas” has been defined as “little capricious one” and
“spoiled child.” She befriended Captain John Smith when English settlers arrived in Jamestown
in 1607, often brought food to Smith and his men, and is called a peacekeeper among her people
and the English. Tensions still arose between the Powhatan and the English. Pocahontas’s
friendship with John Smith resulted in a story of her intervening as her father tried to kill him.
This story is unlikely, as there is no record of it. At age 17, Pocahontas was kidnapped aboard an
English ship. The colonists demanded food and guns as ransom. A widowed colonist John
Rolfe fell in love with Pocahontas and took her to England to marry her. She was baptized
“Rebecca” and had a son Thomas. John decided to go back to Virginia, but Pocahontas died of
pneumonia before the voyage at age 22. Richard Norris Brooke was born in 1847 in Warrenton,
VA and died there in 1920. He attended and taught at the Virginia Military Institute. His
favorite subjects to paint were African Americans and landscapes. Thomas Scully, a
contemporary of Brooke, was also an American painter. His works included “Washington
Crossing the Delaware,” and a portrait of Patrick Henry. Powhatan wore little clothes in
Jamestown’s warm climate. Girls wore nothing until adolescence; men wore loincloths.
Powhatan rubbed oil and paint on themselves for warmth in the winter. The rich wore feather
robes and leather robes decorated with beads. One’s amount of jewelry indicated his/her status,
or importance. Girls wore hair short on the sides and long in the back, married women had short
hair, and unmarried women wore a long braid. In 17 th century England, women wore large
hoops under the soft fabrics of their dresses to keep the dresses in place. Corsets made of animal
bones flattened women’s waists. Starched lace ruffs were common dress collars.
Vocabulary: Pocahontas, portrait, kidnapped, pneumonia, self-portrait, status, corsets, lace
ruffs, starched
27
Resources
American Revolution.com (2005). A More Perfect Union: The Creation of the U.S.
Constitution. Retrieved February 22, 2008, from
http://www.americanrevolution.com/ConstitutionalConvention.htm
Deans, B. (2007). Mad About You. [Electronic version]. TIME, April 26, 2007.
Retrieved February 13, 2008, from
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1615189,00.html?promoid=googlep
Maginnis, T. (2008). The History of Fashion and Dress. Retrieved February 12, 2008,
from http://www.costumes.org/classes/fashiondress/17thCent.htm
Scripps Newspaper Group (2007). Memphis Memories. Retrieved February 22, 2008,
from http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2007/nov/10/mid-south-memories-allamerican/
Smithsonian American Art Museum (no date). Richard Norris Brooke. Retrieved
February 22, 2008, from http://americanart.si.edu/search/artist_bio.cfm?ID=592
The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (2000). Pocahontas.
Retrieved February 12, 2008, from http://apva.org/history/pocahont.html
Thomas, P.W. (2008). Early Corsetry: Fashion History. Retrieved February 12, 2008,
from http://www.fashion-era.com/early_corsetry.htm
28
Richard Norris Brooke (American and Virginian), "Pocahontas," oil on canvas, c. 1905.
Taken from: http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/POCA/POC_art.html
29
Thomas Scully (American), "Pocahontas," oil on canvas, 36 x 28 in., c. 1852.
Modified from:
http://www.smithsoniansource.org/display/primarysource/viewdetails.aspx?PrimarySourceId=11
66
30
Pocahontas the Indian Princess
Read the
right answer.
questions about Pocahontas.
Circle the
1) What is a portrait?
a)
b)
a picture of someone
a boat
c)
2) Remember the two paintings of Pocahontas from our lesson? Circle
the one that shows her wearing a laced ruff. Draw an arrow pointing
to the laced ruff.
31
3) Pocahontas was seen as a Native American Princess in which
country?
a) England
b) France
c) Spain
32
Lesson #3—The Many Escapes of John Smith
Intended Audience: A 4th grade, heterogeneous class in Virginia of approximately 20 students
Standards:
National Social Studies Standards—Time, Continuity, and Change a): Demonstrate an
understanding that different people may describe the same event or situation in diverse ways,
citing reasons for the differences in views
The National History Standards: History for Grades K-4—Historical Comprehension E:
Draw upon data in historical maps
Historical Issues—Analysis and Decision Making B: Compare the interests and values of the
various people involved.
Virginia: VS1: The student will develop skills for historical and geographical analysis
including the ability to a) identify and interpret artifacts and primary and secondary source
documents to understand events in history; d) draw conclusions and make generalizations; g)
interpret ideas and events from different historical perspectives
VS2: The student will demonstrate knowledge of the first permanent settlement in America by
a) explaining the reasons for English colonization; f) describing the hardships faced by settlers at
Jamestown and the changes that took place to ensure survival; g) describing the interactions
between the English settlers and the Powhatan people, including the contributions to the survival
of the settlers
Parent volunteer to dress as and recount a biography of John Smith, class map of Virginia, class
map of the world (or Europe), transcriptions of John Smith’s journal entries, images of objects
related to John Smith’s exchanges with the Powhatan (beads, copper buttons), images of John
Smith’s maps of Virginia and New England, space for whole-group instruction, paper, markers
and/or crayons, one hour
Objectives:
After listening to a detailed description of John Smith’s life and viewing artifacts and primary
sources associated with his predisposition for adventure, students will:
1) Identify ways in which John Smith successfully led the Jamestown colonists
2) Articulate how John Smith’s early life experiences prepared him to be a good leader
3) Use information from the narrative to complete a biocube activity online
4) Create a poster attracting people to a particular place they find appealing
Lesson Description:
Introduction
Have a male parent or other volunteer enter the classroom dressed as John Smith (if there is not a
volunteer for this role, the teacher may be John Smith) wearing an outfit typical of a 17 th century
English captain. Have a non-firing musket too, if possible. Introduce the class to John Smith,
and explain that he has come to tell the class about his life and experiences in the military and as
one of the main figures in the founding and early governing of Jamestown.
Content Focus
Have the person acting as John Smith give a detailed account of his life, first noting where his
birthplace is in England, and what was happening there in 1580 when Smith was born.
Emphasize how throughout Smith’s life, he was escaping dangerous situations and looking for
33
new adventures—as a teenager, he escaped his occupation as an apprentice by going to France
and Austria to fight as a soldier, he escaped from being captured and sold into slavery in the
Holy Roman Empire to go back home to England, he went to Jamestown to explore the land
there and escaped many scuffles with the Powhatan Indians (most notably one involving
Pocahontas), while in Jamestown, he made two trips to look for a passage to the Orient, and he
was eager to travel to New England twice because of the possibilities it offered in terms of
natural resources. On his voyages there, he also escaped capture aboard a pirate ship. As his
life’s events are recounted, point out the locations of Smith’s adventures on the appropriate map.
Show images of the goods Smith traded with the Indians as well as his journal entries and map of
Virginia when beginning to mention his role in the establishment and success of Jamestown.
Explain that the documents are primary sources because they were written or drawn by John
Smith himself (explain how in the case of the journal entries, they have been transcribed, or
copied into another format since photos of the actual documents could not be accessed online).
Closing
Following the narration, ask students if they have any further questions they would like to ask
John Smith. Ask students to think about why he made maps of Virginia and New England—
what did he hope to accomplish by showing them to so many people in England (getting people
interested in going there/journeying back himself to make use of the natural resources there)?
Distribute a biocube worksheet to each student and explain the activity that they will complete
online (http://www.readwritethink.org/materials/bio_cube/) for which the worksheet will serve as
a guide. If there is not enough time/computer availability for all students to complete the activity
in the present class period, it may be extended into the next day’s lesson. As an extension for
those who finish the biocube activity early, tell students to think of a place that is important to
them. Why do they like going to this particular place? Distribute 8 ½” x 11” paper to students
and instruct them to design a poster that would encourage people to come to the place they
chose. Tell them to be sure to include features on their poster that make it obvious why people
should want to come to this place. Model a sample poster that has been created. After the
biocube worksheets, online activities, and possibly posters, have been completed, distribute the
lesson assessment.
Evaluation:
Formative: Student attentiveness to narrative and posing of additional questions during lesson
Summative: Quality of biocube worksheet, completion of online activity, quality of posters and
responses on assessment
Background information:
See transcript of narration
Vocabulary: Catholic, Protestant, Holy Roman Empire, Virginia Company, Orient, natural
resources, artifacts, primary sources.
34
Transcript of John Smith’s narration
Hello, my name is John Smith, and I am glad to be here today. I was born in 1580 in
Willoughby, England. At the time, England was flourishing—Queen Elizabeth ruled, Sir Francis
Drake had just returned from a ship voyage around the world, and the great playwright William
Shakespeare was a teenager and would be writing great works very soon. My parents were
farmers, making me slightly above a peasant in status. I went to two schools in England when I
was 6-15 years old, then I became an apprentice for a merchant doing bookkeeping work, which
I hated. My father died in 1596, and after I sold the land and cattle he left me, I set of to see the
world the following year. I had always wanted to be in the army, and I went to the Netherlands
from 1597-1599 from the time I was 16 to when I was 19 to fight for the Dutch’s independence
from Spain. The Dutch were Protestants and the Spanish were Catholic, which is one reason
why the Dutch wanted their freedom. Next, I went to France and was on my way to Scotland to
get a job in the royal court there when I was shipwrecked on the way. I didn’t get a job in
Scotland, so I went back to England in 1600 and lived in the country to improve my skills as a
soldier.
The Turks were planning to take over the whole continent of Europe, and I wasn’t about
to let that happen! I wanted to join the Austrian army and help fight against the Turks. On the
way there, four men stole everything I had, so I had to sell my winter coat to get money for
passage on a ship to France where I would join the army. Many of the people on the ship were
Catholic and I had fought on the Protestant side in the war against Spain, so they threw mw
overboard. Luckily, another French ship took me aboard. They were headed to Italy, and on the
way, we met an Italian ship that fired on us so some sailors and I went aboard the ship and looted
it for revenge. When we got to France, I was very rich. Next, I went to Italy when I was 21, and
then the Holy Roman Empire (which is about where Germany is today) to fight. I taught my
general how to send messages to the townspeople, and I invented a weapon called a “fiery
dragon” that was a pot filled with explosives that we catapulted at the Turks. I was promoted to
a captain in was in charge of 250 soldiers. Later, I wasn’t so lucky when enemy soldiers
captured me and my men. Many were killed, but I was sold into slavery, and eventually wound
up with a vicious master who beat and bound me. After killing him, I made it to Russia by horse,
and boarded a French ship. From there, I went back home to England.
When I made it back to England, a stock company called the Virginia Company was
planning a voyage to Virginia, where earlier colonies had failed. They were looking for gold,
and I was eager for an adventure, so I volunteered to go with 105 colonists and 39 crew members
in 1606. Many of the men were gentlemen, or of high status, and I fought with Edward Maria
Wingfield in particular. He was jealous of all my military expertise, and accused me of planning
to take over as leader of the voyage. I was imprisoned when we stopped at an island in Central
America. We made it to Virginia in April of 1607, and we saw some Indians there who wounded
two of our men, but ran off when they were out of arrows. The Spanish had been exploring in
North America before we got there, and had been cruel to the Indians. My view was to treat
them kindly unless they gave us a reason not to do so. The Virginia Company even told us to
treat the Indians with respect. Before we left, the Virginia Company also had put the names of
people they wanted to lead Jamestown in a box. I was one of them, but I was still imprisoned.
After 13 weeks, I was allowed to come ashore and work, but not to be a leader. My enemy
Wingfield was the president of Jamestown. He decided not to let the Indians see our weapons,
35
which I thought was a mistake, because they would think we were weak and defenseless if we
did not show our muskets. Sure enough, the Indians wounded many of our men.
The gentlemen colonists thought working was beneath them, so they wasted time that
could have been spent looking for or planting food, so many had died by the beginning of the
summer. One of the goals of the Virginia Company was to find a passage across America to the
Orient, where Asia is located, so I set out to look for that passage in December of 1607. On the
way up the Chickahominy River, it became too shallow for our boat, so I told my men to stay put
while two men and I went to look for food. They didn’t listen, and a group of Pamunkey Indians
captured and killed one of them men. I was shot in the thigh with an arrow and fell into a creek,
so I let myself be captured. To buy time and avoid being killed, I showed the chief
Opechanacough my compass and used what little I knew of the tribe’s language to talk about
how the earth was round. I was used to being in foreign territory as a soldier, so I knew how
important it was to learn the languages of others to be able to talk to them!
I didn’t know what would happen to me next. A few days later, I was taken to Chief
Powhatan, who ruled 32 Powhatan tribes. He asked why my men were here, and I made up a
story about encountering the Spanish, who were also exploring in America, and needing to
recover damaged ships before we left. I tried to show off the English’s strength by telling Chief
Powhatan we were on our way to seek revenge for the murder of one of our men that the
Monacans, one of Powhatan’s enemies, had killed (this story was a lie, too). Powhatan was also a
big talker, and tried to intimidate me with stories of how powerful his tribe was. The next day, it
became clear that Powhatan had chosen not to believe my stories, and had decided to kill me.
Just as tribesmen were about to club me, Powhatan’s youngest daughter put her head between
mine and the clubs and saved my life. Some people don’t believe this story and think that the
Powhatan put me through this experience as an adoption ceremony; however, historical accounts
do not mention the use of clubs, so some scholars believe that Pocahontas really did save me.
Powhatan declared me a friend, and sent me back to Jamestown with food, asking for some
cannons in return. I knew if we gave up some cannons, the Powhatan would pose a threat to us,
so I tricked Powhatan’s men by telling them they could have a cannon that weighed 300 pounds
and was too heavy for them to carry.
When I returned to Jamestown, I found that only 40 colonists were left because the
gentlemen still were not working, and Wingfield was keeping all the food for himself. He was
fired, but his replacement, John Radcliffe, was not much better. The colonists wanted to go back
to England and I stopped them, which made them decide to have me killed. As I was about to be
hanged, Christopher Newport arrived from England with more colonists and orders from the
Virginia Company to send back gold. While the gentlemen of the colony searched for gold, I led
an expedition to explore the Chesapeake Bay. I met some Nansemonds who ambushed us after
they had promised to trade with us, and because we were desperate for food, my men and I
burned their canoes, which had taken them a very long time to make. Afterwards, they agreed to
give us 400 bushels of corn and promised to set aside one of their cornfields to grow corn just for
us—my plan worked! In 1609, I became the president of Jamestown, but had to go back to
England after I got injured when I fell asleep with a bag of gunpowder in my lap and it
accidentally exploded.
I had made maps of Virginia during my explorations of the land, and I was eager to go
further north to see what lay there in terms of natural resources. In 1614, I went to New England
looking for gold, copper, and whales. The whales were too hard to catch, and there was no gold
or copper, but I found rich forests and furs there instead. I made detailed maps of the area to
36
show all of the wonderful resources there in the hopes that England would send me and others
back there. My second voyage to New England in 1615 was delayed in leaving England because
of a storm. We also encountered pirate ships three times! Then, a French ship captured us, and
when they finally agreed to let us go free, I went on their ship to get back the supplies they had
taken from my men’s ship. My crew was tired of dealing with bad weather and pirates, so while
I was on the French ship, they lied and said they couldn’t send a lifeboat over to have me come
back to my ship, so I was stranded! While on board, I wrote A Description of New England.
The French continued to raid other ships and made me promise not to tell anyone about the acts
of piracy they were committing to keep them put of trouble. I didn’t like this arrangement one
bit, so I snuck off the ship in a lifeboat using nothing but a spear to row to a small island. After I
escaped, a storm shipwrecked the French ship, and the crew drowned—it was a good thing I left
when I did! I made it back to England, and although I never went back to New England as I had
hoped (because the London Council said such a trip would be too expensive), I had gotten people
interested in going there. The Pilgrims even took my maps with them when they sailed to
Plymouth, Massachusetts on the Mayflower. So, in a way, my mission of settling New England
and spreading the word about my discoveries in Virginia was accomplished.
Biocube Worksheet
37
Retrieved March 29, 2008, from http://www.readwritethink.org/materials/bio_cube/biocube_planning.pdf
38
Example of student poster as a possible extension activity
39
Resources
NCTE (2006). Bio-Cube. Retrieved March 29, 2008, from
http://www.readwritethink.org/materials/bio_cube/
Schanzer, R. (2006). John Smith Escapes Again! Washington, D.C.: National Geographic
Society.
Stanley, M. Z. (2000). John Smith. Glen Allen: Foxhound Publishing, LLC.
40
Assessment
Write 2-3 complete sentences to answer each question.
1) How did John Smith’s experiences in foreign countries prepare him to be a leader of the
Jamestown colony? Hint: How did he communicate with the native people in France, Turkey,
Italy, and then in Jamestown?
2) Why did John Smith decide it was important to make sure the Powhatan tribes saw the
colonists’ weapons?
3) Do you think it was a good idea for John Smith to be so strict with the colonists by telling
them that if they didn’t work, they wouldn’t eat? Why?
41
4) What is one thing John Smith traded with the Powhatan in return for food?
a) Copper
b) Glass
c) Hats
d) Guns
5) Which of the following is not a natural resource John Smith wrote about finding in New
England?
a) Whales
b) Furs
c) Corn
d) Wood
42
Example of a John Smith costume
Picture retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://www.jamestownball.com/
Image of beads recovered from Jamestown that the Powhatan used for adornment, which likely
came from Venice. It is possible that beads such as these were acquired through trading with the
English settlers.
Image retrieved March 28, 2008, from: http://www.apva.org/exhibit/bead.html
43
Copper buttons, resembling those which the Powhatan would have sought from the English in
exchange for food
Image taken from: http://www.vintagebuttonjewelry.com/images/btn_metals_sm.jpg
44
John Smith’s map of the Chesapeake Bay, showing Native American tribes and natural resources
John Smith (ca. 1580-1631). Virginia, Discovered and Discribed by Captayn John Smith,
Sixth state. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm148.html
John Smith’s map of New England, which also shows natural resources
Map published in: Smith, John (1616). A Description of New England. Retrieved March 28,
2008, from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:John_Smith_1616_New_England_ma
p.PNG
Examples of John Smith’s writings from his journal to present to students
45
The Accidents that hap’ned in the Discovery of the Bay of Chisapeack
The second of June 1608. Smith left the Fort to performe his Discovery with this
Company.
Walter Russell, Doctor of Physicke.
Gentlemen. Ralfe Murton. Thomas Momford. William Cantrill. Richard Fetherston.
James Burne. Michell Sicklemore.
Souldiers. Jonas Profit. Anas Todkill. Robert Small. James Watkins. John Powell. James
Read. Richard Keale.
[THE MEN IMPORE SMITH TO TURN BACK, SMITH MAKES IMPASSIONED
SPEECH]
When we first set sayle some of our Gallants doubted nothing but that our Captaine
would make too much hast home, but having lien in this small barge not above 12. or
14. dayes, oft tyred at the Oares, our bread spoyled with wet so much that it was
rotten (yet so good were their stomacks that they could disgest it) they did with
continuall complaints so importune him now to returne, as caused him bespeake them
in this manner.
Smiths speech to his souldiers: Gentlemen if you would remember the memorable
history of Sir Ralph Layne, how his company importuned him to proceed in the
discovery of Moratico, alleadging they had yet a dog, that being boyled with Saxafras
leaves, would richly feede them in their returnes; then what a shame would it be for
you (that have bin so suspitious of my tendernesse) to force me returne, with so much
provision as we have, and scarce able to say where we have beene, nor yet heard of
that we were sent to seeke? You cannot say but I have shared with you in the worst
which is past; and for what is to come, of lodging, dyet, or whatsoever, I am contented
you allot the worst part to my selfe. As for your feares that I will lose my selfe in these
unknowne large waters, or be swallowed up in some stormie gust; abandon these
childish feares, for worse then is past is not likely to happen: and there is as much
danger to returne as to proceede. Regaine therefore your old spirits for returne I will
not (if God please) till I have seene the Massawomeks, found Patawomek, or the head
of this water you conceit to be endlesse.
[EXPLORATION OF THE POTOMAC RIVER]
Two or 3. dayes we expected winde & wether, whose adverse extremities added such
discouragement, that three or foure fell sicke, whose pittifull complaints caused us to
returne, leaving the bay some nine miles broad, at nine and ten fadome water.
Ambuscadoes of Salvages.
46
The 16. of June we fell with the river Patowomek (Potomac): feare being gone, and our
men recovered, we were all content to take some paines, to know the name of that
seven mile broad river: for thirtie myles sayle, we could see no inhabitants: then we
were conducted by two Savages up a little bayed creeke, towards Onawmanient,
where all the woods were layd with ambuscado's to the number of three or foure
thousand Salvages, so strangely paynted, grimed and disguised, shouting, yelling and
crying as so many spirits from hell could not have shewed more terrible. Many
bravado's they made, but to appease their fury, our Captaine prepared with as
seeming a willingnesse (as they) to incounter them. But the grazing of our bullets upon
the water (many being shot on purpose they might see them) with the Ecco of the
woods so amazed them, as downe went their bowes and arrowes; (and exchanging
hostage) James Watkins was sent six myles up the woods to their Kings habitation. We
were kindly used of those Salvages, of whom we understood, they were commanded to
betray us, by the direction of Powhatan, and he so directed from the discontents at
James towne, because our Captaine did cause them stay in their country against their
wills.
[HIKING OVERLAND TO A “MINERAL MINE” ON THE POTOMAC RIVER]
A trecherous project.
The like incounters we found at Patowomek, Cecocawonee and divers other places: but
at Moyaones, Nacotchtant and Toags the people did their best to content us. Having
gone so high as we could with the bote, we met divers Salvages in Canowes, well loaden
with the flesh of Beares, Deere and other beasts, whereof we had part, here we found
mighty Rocks, growing in some places above the grownd as high as the shrubby trees,
and divers other solid quarries of divers tinctures: and divers places where the waters
had falne from the high mountaines they had left a tinctured sprangled skurfe, that
made many bare places seeme as guilded. Digging the grownde above in the highest
clifts of rocks, we saw it was a claie sand so mingled with yeallow spangles as if it had
beene halfe pin-dust. In our returne inquiring still for this Matchqueon, the king of
Patawomeke gave us guides to conduct us up a little river called Quiyough, up which
we rowed so high as we could. Leaving the bote, with six shot, and divers Salvages, he
marched seven or eight myle before they came to the mine: leading his hostages in a
small chaine they were to have for their paines, being proud so richly to be adorned.
The mine is a great Rocky mountaine like Antimony; wherein they digged a great hole
with shells & hatchets: and hard by it, runneth a fayre brooke of Christal-like water,
where they wash away the drosse and keepe the remainder, which they put in little
baggs and sell it all over the country to paint there bodyes, faces, or Idols; which
makes them looke like Blackmores dusted over with silver. With so much as we could
carry we returned to our bote, kindly requiting this kinde king and all his kinde
people.
[SMITH’S ACCOUNT OF THE BAY’S NATURAL RESOURCES]
The cause of this discovery was to search this mine, of which Newport did assure us
that those small baggs (we had given him) in England he had tryed to hold halfe silver;
47
but all we got proved of no value: also to search what furrs, the best whereof is at
Cuscarawaoke, where is made so much Rawranoke or white beads that occasion as
much dissention among the Salvages, as gold and silver amongst Christians; and what
other mineralls, rivers, rocks, nations, woods, fishings, fruites, victuall, and what other
commodities the land afforded: and whether the bay were endlesse or how farre it
extended: of mines we were all ignorant, but a few Bevers, Otters, Beares, Martins
and minkes we found, and in divers places that aboundance of fish, lying so thicke
with their heads above the water, as for want of nets (our barge driving amongst
them) we attempted to catch them with a frying pan: but we found it a bad
instrument to catch fish with: neither better fish, more plenty, nor more variety for
smal fish, had any of us ever seene in any place so swimming in the water, but they
are not to be caught with frying pans: some small codd also we did see swim close by
the shore by Smiths Iles, and some as high as Riccards Clifts (Calvert Cliffs). And some
we have found dead upon the shore.
[RELATIONS WITH THE NATIVES]
How to deale with the Salvages.
To express all our quarrels, trecheries and encounters amongst those Salvages I should
be too tedious: but in breefe, at all times we so incountred them, and curbed their
insolencies, that they concluded with presents to purchase peace; yet we lost not a
man: at our first meeting our Captaine ever observed this order to demand their
bowes and arrowes, swordes, mantells and furrs, with some childe or two for hostage,
whereby we could quickly perceive, when they intended any villany.
[THE COLONISTS RETURN TO JAMESTOWN TO COMPLETE VOYAGE #1]
The Salvages affrighted with their owne suspition. Having neither Chirurgian, nor
Chirurgery, but that preservative oyle we presently set sayles for James towne,
passing the mouthes of the rivers of Payankatank (Piankatank), & Pamaunkee
(Pamunkey), the next day we safely arrived at Kecougtan. The simple Salvages seeing
our Captaine hurt, and an other bloudy by breaking his shinne, our numbers of bowes,
arrowes, swords, mantles, and furrs, would needes imagine we had beene at warres
(the truth of these accidents would not satisfie them) but impatiently importuned us to
know with whom. Finding their aptnesse to beleeve we fayled not (as a great secret) to
tell them any thing that might affright them, what spoyle we had got and made of the
Massawomeks. This rumor went faster up the river then our Barge, that arrived at
Waraskoyack the 20 of July; where trimming her with painted streamers, and such
devises as we could, we made them at James towne jealous of a Spanish Frigot, where
we all God be thanked safely arrived the 21 of July. There we found the last Supply
were all sicke, the rest some lame, some bruised, all unable to doe any thing but
complaine of the pride and unreasonable needlesse crueltie of the silly President, that
had riotously consumed the store: and to fulfill his follies about building him an
unnecessary building for his pleasure in the woods, had brought them all to that
misery; that had we not arrived, they had as strangely tormented him with revenge:
but the good newes of our Discovery, and the good hope we had by the Salvages
48
relation, that our Bay had stretched into the South Sea, or somewhat neare it,
appeased their fury; but conditionally that Ratliffe should be deposed, and that
Captaine Smith would take upon him the government, as by course it did belong. Their
request being effected, he substituted Mr. Scrivener his deare friend in the Presidency,
equally distributing those private provisions the other had ingrossed, appointing more
honest officers to assist master Scrivener (who then lay exceeding sicke of a
Callenture) and in regard of the weaknesse of the company, and heate of the yeare,
they being unable to worke, he left them to live at ease, to recover their healths, but
imbarked himselfe to finish his Discovery.
-Written by Walter Russell, Anas Todkill, and Thomas Momford.
Sultana Projects, Inc. (n.d.). John Smith Expeditions: Smith’s First Voyage. Retrieved
28, 2008, from http://www.sultanaprojects.org/johnsmithjournal1.htm
March
49
Lesson #4—The Use of Native American Names and Symbols in Sports
Intended Audience: A heterogeneous sixth grade class of approximately 24 students
Standards:
National Standards for Social Studies—I. Culture: b) explain how information and
experiences may be interpreted by people from diverse cultural perspectives and frames of
reference; d) explain why individuals and groups respond differently to their physical and social
environments and/or changes to them on the basis of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs
IV. Individual Development and Identity: g) identify and interpret examples of stereotyping,
conformity, and altruism; h) work independently and cooperatively to accomplish goals
VI. Power, Authority, and Governance: a) examine persistent issues involving the rights,
roles, and status of the individual in relation to the general welfare
Virginia: Reshaping the Nation and the Emergence of Modern America: 1877 to the Early
1900s—USII.3 The student will demonstrate knowledge of how life changed after the Civil War
by b) explaining the reasons for the increase in immigration, growth of cities, new inventions,
and challenges arising from this expansion
USII.5 The student will demonstrate knowledge of the social, economic, and
technological changes of the early twentieth century by b) describing the social changes
that took place, including prohibition, and the Great Migration north
Materials, time, and space: Powerpoint presentation composed of videos and images of
college and national teams using Native American names and mascots, projector and screen,
recording sheets for each student, computers with internet access, space for six student groups of
approximately four students each to conduct research; one week (composed of daily one-hour
sessions for which students can conduct research in the classroom or computer lab and hold
discussions in their groups).
Objectives: 1) Given a collegiate or national sports team which uses a Native American name
and mascot, students will work in one of five groups to describe changes in their assigned team’s
name, mascot, and rituals (if any), and identify public opinion from multiple groups arguing for
and against the use of the team’s name and mascot.
2) After conducting research, students will share their group’s findings with the class and discuss
differences in how the teams portray Native Americans in their mascots, and how policies have
impacted certain teams’ mascots over time.
3) Each group will present a decision to the rest of the class with reasons for changing their
assigned team’s mascot or allowing it to remain in its present state. Following presentations,
students will use information gained from class activities to respond to an essay asking them to
devise a national policy for the use of Native American names and mascots in sports teams.
The Lesson Proper—Introduction (Day 1): Show the Powerpoint of sports teams using
Native American names and mascots to introduce the topic of study. As specific slides are
shown, ask students appropriate questions, such as, “Why might someone consider this
image/video offensive? Do you think it is? What individuals or groups would be offended?
Why?” Responses will likely vary; each should be viewed as important and plausible. Tell
students the issue of whether or not Native American names and mascots should be allowed in
sports is controversial, or is one that people cannot easily agree on because there has been and
continues to be a debate about this issue. State that opinions on the matter vary, and come from
50
many groups of people with different ideas about why the mascots and names should or should
not be used. Share that in looking at the internet, the numbers of websites offering articles as
well as opinions on this issue was astounding. Emphasize that the internet is a valuable tool that
can be used to access these varying perspectives and help students form their own opinions about
the use of Native American names and mascots in sports.
Content focus: Explain that students will explore the issue of Native American team names and
mascots more in depth during the next week. Distribute student record sheets (randomized in
terms of the team to be researched), while reading statements against the use of Native American
names and mascots taken from three different sources (see student record sheet). Ask students
for their impressions of the statements. What could the speakers be using as the basis for their
arguments? Do they offer convincing arguments (meaning, do the reasons behind their
arguments make sense? Why/why not?)? What could Jon Saraceno be referencing when he says
we took Native Americans’ “land, culture, and hope?” Discuss past Native American policies
students will have studied previously, such as Andrew Jackson’s removal policy and the
imprisonment of tribal spiritual leaders for practicing their rituals in the early 20th century.
Define unfamiliar words in the statements, such as trivialized, patently, and mired. Clarify what
his figurative language means when it is unclear to students. Note that Charlane Teter’s
statement is obviously outdated and her goal of seeing Native American mascots gone by 2000
did not happen. Ask students if they think teams should be forced to change their name and
mascot if they reference a Native American tribe. Go through the instructions of the record sheet
with the students. As students meet in their groups and conduct research, circulate throughout
the room to define terms and offer further assistance as needed.
Essential Questions: What reasons have been offered for and against changing the names and
mascots of teams using Native American names and symbols? What groups/organizations have
offered these reasons?
Closing: Reconvene students to share what their group learned about the team they researched.
Describe the NCAA’s policy for the removal of “hostile and abusive mascots, nicknames, and
imagery.” Ask students to consider reasons for the differences among collegiate mascots and
logos—why were the feathers on William and Mary’s logo deemed offensive, while the Florida
State Seminoles’ ritual of throwing a flaming spear at games was not? Why did the Atlanta
Braves change their mascot from the Brave to Homer the baseball, while the Cleveland Indians
still use Chief Wahoo? Discuss the teams’ game rituals, and how they could be considered
offensive when viewed in the grand scheme of how people usually behave at sporting events
(sometimes painting their stomachs, yelling like maniacs and arguing with other fans and
officials) and the kinds of associations people generally make with mascots (funny, entertaining
characters that dance, stumble around the field or fight with the other team’s mascots). Tell
students that over the next week they will meet in their groups and use the information they
found to decide upon a new, less controversial and offensive name and/or mascot for their team,
or reasons for leaving the name and mascot the way they are. Depending on how much time
students need to meet with their groups, groups will present their team’s proposed new name and
mascot, or reasons for leaving them unchanged at the end of the week or sooner. If there is time
at the end of the week, students can individually research additional questions or topics that arose
during the initial research done in their groups. After each group’s presentation, the class will
vote as to whether or not they agree with each group’s decision. Ask students if now, after
conducting research and hearing from other groups, they agree with their original opinion about
the use of Native American team names and mascots indicated at the beginning of the lesson. If
51
any changed their opinion, what were their reasons? Following presentations, students will write
a response to the essay prompt (see assessment).
Evaluation:
Formative: Students’ participation in conducting group research, completion and accuracy of
record sheet, participation in class/group discussion following research
Summative: Students’ participation in group presentations to the class, attentiveness while
other groups present, individual responses to essay prompt.
Background information: The issue of using Native American names, mascots, and images in
sports teams has been widely contested and ongoing for quite some time. Many sports teams at
the high school, collegiate, and professional levels contain references to Native Americans.
These references vary in their degree of offensiveness to Native Americans, and have been
addressed rather inconsistently. The Atlanta Braves, for example, used to use a Native American
named Chief Nocahoma who danced in a tipi in the stands whenever the team scored a homerun,
until the team recently adopted a baseball named Homer as the new mascot. Fans continue to do
the signature tomahawk chop during games, however, and Turner field has venues called the
“Chophouse” and “Top of the Chop” for hosting events. The Cleveland Indians have continued
to use their mascot, Chief Wahoo, which continues to be a sign of blatant disrespect for many
local Native Americans. Many Native Americans hold protests outside the Indians’ home
games. At the collegiate level, the NCAA adopted a policy in 2005 which banned colleges using
“hostile and abusive” images, mascots, or nicknames from hosting an NCAA championship
competition, effective February 1, 2006. This policy mandated that The College of William and
Mary remove the feathers from its logo and ended the reign of the University of Illinois’ mascot,
Chief Illiniwek, while the Florida State University Seminoles were allowed to maintain the
practice of their mascot Chief Osceola throwing a flaming spear down the football field at the
start of games. Native Americans and non-Native Americans alike have varying opinions on the
issue of Native American team names and mascots. Individuals from both groups have
expressed indifference, shock and disgust at the disrespectfulness of making light of a people’s
heritage, as well as satisfaction that a people’s culture is being honored and respected through the
use of Native American references in sports teams. The diverse range of opinions on this issue
and varying degrees of specific teams’ references to Native Americans make the study of and
implementation of policy regarding this issue very complex.
Vocabulary: controversial, trivialize (to make light of something, or consider it unimportant),
patently (unmistakably, obviously), mired (stuck in a swamp)
52
Assessment
Imagine you have been given the task of creating a set of guidelines for using Native American
names and mascots in national sports teams. Describe your policy in detail, and give reasons for
why you chose it (50 pts.). Will your policy affect all sports teams equally (meaning, will all
teams either be forbidden from or allowed to use Native American names and mascots? Think
about how the NCAA’s policy affected the three colleges we mentioned differently). Include
arguments from both Native Americans and non-Native Americans that have been made for and
against the use of Native American team names and mascots (30 pts.). Discuss how your policy
will affect people on both sides of the argument that we mentioned in class—is there a chance
that your policy will disappoint some, while satisfying, offending, or even angering others (10
pts.)? Which individuals or groups would feel these emotions (10 pts.)?
53
Resources:
American Indian Movement (n.d.). National Coalition on Racism in Sports and Media.
Retrieved April 6, 2008, from http://www.aimovement.org/ncrsm/index.html
Fisher, M. (2006, May 18). Knock Me Over with a Feather: The Politics of Indian Team
Names. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from
http://blog.washingtonpost.com/rawfisher/2006/05/knock_me_over_with_a_feath
er_t.html
This website would be given to students researching The College of William and Mary. It
features an article from the Washington Post that Marc Fisher wrote in May 2006, shortly after
the removal of the feathers from William and Mary’s logo took effect. He references the
NCAA’s conclusion that the feathers are considered “hostile and abusive,” while sharing his
opinion that this decision is foolish. Fisher references members of local Native American tribes
who did not find the logo offensive to support his claim, including William Miles who states that
the issue is minor relative to other problems his tribe faces, such as poverty and insufficient
healthcare. Opinions from visitors to the website have been posted at the bottom of the website
to offer multiple opinions from the general public on the issue.
Indian Country Today (2001). AMERICAN INDIAN OPINION LEADERS: American Indian
Mascots. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from
http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=43
National Collegiate Athletic Association (5 August 2005). NCAA Executive Committee Issues
Guidelines for Use of Native American Mascots at Championship Events.
Retrieved April 6, 2008, from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/legacysiteviewer?C
ONTENT_URL=http://www
.ncaa.org/portal/media_and_events/press_room/2005/august/20050805_exec_com
m_rls.html
This article states the NCAA’s policy of banning teams from displaying “hostile and abusive”
names, mascots, and images at NCAA championships. Students researching collegiate teams
(Florida State University, The College of William and Mary, and the University of Illinois)
would be referred to this site, as the policy affected the three teams differently.
O’Connor, J. (26 April 2005). VA. Indians O.K. with W&M Name; Pamunkey Leader
Cites More Pressing Issues, Such as Crime, Poverty. Richmond Times-Dispatch.
http://forum.dvdtalk.com/showthread.php?t=420132
This source, which would be given to students researching The College of William and Mary,
was no longer available on the Richmond-Times Dispatch website, but had been posted on the
given blog page. Because the page where it was found contained opinion posts from individuals
which used inappropriate language, the article would be copied into a blank document and
distributed to students. It was written four months before the NCAA’s policy which ruled that
54
the College had to remove the “hostile and abusive” feathers from its logo. The article states that
the William and Mary reviewed its use of the name “Tribe,” and put took the position that the
NCAA probably would not require the College to change later in the year. Reasons included that
local Native American tribes did not deem it offensive, and that fan behaviors at games do not
include offensive mockeries of Native American rituals.
Saraceno, J. (9 August 2005). Some colleges have lot to learn about racism. USA Today.
http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/saraceno/2005-08-09-saracenomascots_x.htm
The Associated Press (2006). NCAA: William & Mary restricted from using mascot.
http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=2447740
Students researching The College of William and Mary would be given this article, written
shortly after the NCAA’s ruling that William and Mary remove the feathers from its logo, and
references the NCAA’s statement that the name “Tribe” wasn’t offensive, but the feathers paired
with the logo advanced a stereotypical view of Native Americans. The article also includes two
statements from a college spokesperson criticizing the NCAA’s decision regarding the logo.
55
Sixth Grade Social Studies
Name:____________________________________
Native American mascots and logos
There has been an ongoing debate about whether or not sports teams should use Native
American names and mascots. The statements below are examples of some of the arguments
that have been made for and against using Native American team names, and come from both
Native and non-Native Americans. You and your group members will research a sports team
and tell what the team’s mascot is. Next, you will look for opinions for and against using your
team’s name and mascot like the examples that are shown, and the reasons each person or group
gives for his/their opinion. Finally, you will describe how rules have changed your team’s name
and mascot in recent years.
“For Native leadership and allies working on the mascot issue,
the call nationwide is to work towards the elimination of the
misrepresentation and abuses of Indian images, names and spiritual
way of life by the year 2000. And the rallying call is, American
Indians are a People, Not Mascots for Americas fun and games. We
are human beings.”
--Charlane Teters, Spokane tribe
“Haven't Native Americans, one of the most brutalized and exploited
groups to inhabit our soil, had enough of Caucasian tormentors? We took
their land, culture and hope. Apparently, we must also trivialize their
sacred rituals and possess their souls… Oklahoma long ago put an end to
its patently racist "Little Red" mascot. Marquette retired its "Willie
Wampum" logo. Other visionary schools, including Stanford, Dartmouth
and Syracuse, discontinued Indian mascots. FSU remains mired in the
mucky swamp of racism.”
--Jon Saraceno, USA Today columnist
"It is my opinion that mascot and other uses of Native
American tribe names, terms, etc causes the world to
acknowledge and respect us. The use of these Native
American names for our weapons systems, mascots, and
products brings honor and recognition to Native
Americans."
56
--Mark Thornton, Cherokee tribe
See Miss Huebner for a list of websites you can use to research your group’s team. Your team
is: *The William and Mary Tribe
Team: The William and Mary Tribe
Mascot: None currently
Game rituals (For example, are there special cheers fans say during the game?
Does the mascot do something special right before, during the game, or at halftime?)
There is no mascot, so there aren’t any mascot rituals. William and Mary fans cheer just
like any other team’s fans, but don’t have any cheers that are just theirs.
Has the team’s name and mascot changed at all over time?
Yes
Have game rituals changed over time?
Yes
57
If the team name and/or mascot have changed, why did it happen (What person or
group said that the name/mascot had to be changed, and what was the reason)?
As of February 1, 2006, William and Mary had to remove the feathers from its logo
because of the new NCAA policy that considered them hostile and offensive to Native
Americans. The name “Tribe” wasn’t considered offensive, but the feathers paired with
the logo was considered a stereotypical reference to Native Americans. The College got
a new logo in December of 2007, but is still looking for a new mascot. Until 2005, the
College’s unofficial mascot was a green blob in a tri-corner hat named Colonel Ebirt,
which is “tribe” spelled backwards.
If game rituals (actions fans and/or the mascot perform during the games) have
changed over the years, explain how.
William and Mary used to be called “the Indians.” They had a boy student named
“Tribe guy” dress up in buckskin pants and run on the football field with a girl student
named the “squaw.” The team name was later changed to “the Tribe” and the two
student mascots were discontinued in 1991.
58
Opinions and reasons for using the team
Opinions and reasons against using the
name/mascot (Try to give at least 3. Don’t forget team name/mascot (Try to give at least 3. Don’t
to give the person or organization’s name!)
Representatives from the College of
William and Mary said in a statement that
the name “Tribe” “is designed to
communicate ennobling sentiments of
commitment, shared idealism, community
and common cause"
A historian for the Mattaponi tribe named
Gertrude Minnie-Ha-Ha Custalow said “It's
a tribe. We root for those,” and “I've never
heard of any other tribes who think it's
improper.”
William Miles, a member of the Pamunkey
tribe, said, “I speak for my tribe in saying
that there is no perception whatsoever that
William and Mary uses the term "Tribe" in
a negative way. We're worried about
poverty, homelessness, health care and the
like for our people. Not the use of the name
Tribe.”
forget to give the person or organization’s name!)
The NCAA said William and Mary’s use of
Native American imagery “creates an
environment over which an institution may
not have full control.”
The NCAA wrote in a letter to William and
Mary’s president that their logo with two
feathers is a “stereotypical reference to
Native Americans.”
An anonymous poster on a discussion
board following Marc Fisher’s article in
The Washington Post thinks the NCAA
made the right decision to make William
and Mary drop the feathers from their logo.
He said he gets offended when his Florida
State friends dress up as Indians and
perform Indian parodies during games, and
he isn’t even an Indian, so he can imagine
how Native Americans would feel.
Questions I have about this team, or other topics I became interested in after our class
discussion:
What happened to Colonel Ebirt? Was he considered offensive, too? Why are feathers on a logo
bad (stereotypical), but Chief Wahoo of the Cleveland Indians is o.k.?
Information based on research to my question:
(Responses may vary depending on time for additional research; they may be based on the
discovery that national sports teams are private organizations that consequently are not subject to
the same rules and regulations that the public universities in the NCAA are.)
59
*Record sheet has been completed using sentence structures, phrasing, etc. characteristic of a
sixth grader. Other teams to be researched are the Atlanta Braves, the Cleveland Indians, the
Florida State Seminoles, and the University of Illinois Fighting Illini.
Websites for other student groups
The following websites contain histories of specific team names, mascots, game rituals, and/or
public opinion on their use and alteration, where relevant.
The Atlanta Braves:
http://atlanta.braves.mlb.com/atl/ballpark/facility.jsp
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Noc-A-Homa
http://www.njsbf.com/njsbf/student/respect/winter03-1.cfm
The Cleveland Indians:
http://www.sportslogos.net/logo.php?id=738
http://www.cleveland.com/mlb/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/sports/1207400113268140.xml&coll
=2
http://www.helium.com/debates/107143-should-baseballs-cleveland-indians/side_by_side
The University of Illinois Illini:
http://chiefilliniwek.blogspot.com/
http://www.uillinois.edu/trustees/dialogue/report_files/IV.html
The Florida State Seminoles:
http://seminoles.cstv.com/trads/fsu-trads-seminoles.html
http://www.bluecorncomics.com/seminole.htm
60
Student activities created by: Jenny Huebner
Artifact 1--Powhatan's mantle
Deerskin, with shell decoration, 235 x 160 cm. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from
http://www.ashmolean.org/collections/?type=highlights&id=39&department=1
Leaders of Powhatan tribes were called werowances (or wereonsquas if they were women).
They ate plentiful meals and were paid tributes, or gifts, of copper, corn, and animal skins. Only
certain chiefs were allowed to wear copper. Shells were very important as well; they were
offered to the gods to appease them, or make them happy. The most powerful leader of the
Powhatan tribes was Wahunsanacock, whom the English settlers referred to as Chief Powhatan.
Powhatan had inherited and conquered over 20 Powhatan tribes in the early 1600s. He had many
robes, including one made of raccoon skin. Powhatan is said to have worn the above mantle,
although some say it was for decorative purposes. It and other Powhatan artifacts make up the
Tradescant Collection, which was acquired in the early 1600s. The mantle dates to circa 1608.
The Tradescants left the mantle to The Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology in Oxford,
England. The mantle is said to have come to England through John Smith—historical records
indicate that Chief Powhatan gave a raccoon skin mantle to Christopher Newport in exchange for
his adornment in new English clothing, so this mantle may have been acquired in a similar
fashion.
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The clothing the Powhatan wore in the warm climate of Jamestown was limited, and
included deer and bear skins than men had acquired while hunting, and women had made into
clothes. Children wore nothing until they were teenagers. Men wore breechcloths, or
rectangular animal skins gathered between the legs and attached to a cord belt. In the winter and
when hunting, men also wore deerskin leggings. Women wore plain deerskin skirts or dresses
with cord belts like those the men wore. Men and women wore beaded headbands for important
ceremonies. Powhatan resisted wearing additional clothing in the winter by applying oil and
paint to their bodies for warmth.
62
Primary activity
Background Information: The Powhatan wore very little clothing. When it got very cold, they wore fur
robes. The rich wore shiny robes made of woven feathers, as well as leather robes decorated with shells or
beads. Those high in status, or importance, wore mantles, which were robes with no arms. Powhatan’s mantle
is made of deerskin and shells that were attached using thread and a sinew, or a needle made from animal bone.
Many are not sure what the animals on the mantle are, but one scholar Gregory Waselkov suggested the animal
on the right is a deer, given its big ears and short tail, while the one on the left is a wolf or mountain lion
because of its claws and long tail.
Whole Group Activity: Explain the differences between the kinds of clothing Powhatan wore based on their
gender and their status, or importance. Describe the importance of jewelry (particularly shells and copper) to
the wealthy, or rich and important tribesmen and women. Show examples of Powhatan clothing and jewelry.
Discuss the colors of the beads, who the woman in the second picture is, what she is wearing, why is she
wearing these things, who might be standing next to her, and what do you think he/she is holding in his/her
hands. Discuss who the blue beads belonged to and what they were used for.
Small Group Activity: Place students in pairs or groups of 3-4. Give each group a blank copy of Powhatan’s
mantle and say it is a robe a chief wore. Instruct students to color the robe together as they think it might have
looked. After they finish, display the picture of Powhatan’s mantle and explain its history and what the
animals on it may be.
Individual Activity: Give each student a brown paper grocery bag that has been split up the front and has
armholes (resembling a vest) for them to create their own mantle. Distribute beads and/or an assortment of
beans (black, kidney, lima, etc.) to students. Encourage them to make pictures and designs on their mantles
that are important to them.
Intermediate activity
Background Information: The Powhatan wore little clothing. When it was very cold, they wore fur robes.
The rich wore shiny robes made of woven feathers, as well as leather robes decorated with shells or beads.
Those high in status, or importance, wore mantles, which were robes with no arms. Powhatan’s mantle is
made of deerskin and shells that were attached using thread and a sinew, or a needle made from animal bone.
Many are not sure what the animals on the mantle are, but one scholar Gregory Waselkov suggested the animal
on the right is a deer, given its big ears and short tail, while the one on the left is a wolf or mountain lion
because of its claws and long tail.
Whole Group Activity: Explain the differences in clothing for various members of the Powhatan tribes.
Emphasize how the clothing of the rich and important tribe members contrasted with that of common tribe
members. Introduce Chief Powhatan. Display paintings of Powhatan Native Americans, asking who the chief
is in the painting and why, how he/she looks different from the other members of the tribe, what students
notice about Chief Powhatan in the paintings he is in, what he is wearing, and how his clothes distinguish him
from people in his tribe.
Small Group Activity: Show the picture of Powhatan’s mantle. Explain how it was made with shells, a
sinew, and thread, and its significance given the importance of shells in the Powhatan culture. Explain how
people are not sure what the animals on the mantle are. Have students work in pairs or groups of 3-4 to list
what the animals on the mantle could be, and reasons Chief Powhatan included these animals. Have students
infer what the patterns on the mantle are and their meaning.
Individual Activity: Instruct students to make their own mantles using designs and patterns that have
meaning to them. Distribute pieces of brown felt or other cloth, needles, thread, and beads/seashells (with
holes in them) to each student. Students could use a hot glue gun to affix beads and/or shells to their mantles
instead of sewing.
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Primary Images
Taken from page 63 of:
Bial, R. (2002). The Powhatan. New York: Benchmark Books.
Theodor de Bry (after John White). 1590. “A Cheiff Ladye of Pomeiooc.” Retrieved February
29, 2008, from
64
Image of beads recovered from Jamestown that the Powhatan used for adornment, which likely
came from Venice.
Image from: http://www.apva.org/exhibit/bead.html
65
Blank mantle to be used as small group activity, taken from:
She-philosopher.com (2007). Powhatan’s Deerskin Mantle with Shell Map, ca. 1608.
Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.shephilosopher.com/gallery/powhatanmap.html
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Intermediate Images
Victor Nehlig (1870). "Pocahontas and John Smith.” Copyright Museum of Art, Brigham
Young University, North Campus Dr, Provo, UT 84602-1400. Retrieved February 29, 2008,
from http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/khapp.php?Min=59
67
Peter Dennis (n.d.). “Chief Powhatan gave them food: American Indians giving English settlers
basket of corn.” (c) Dorling Kindersley. Retrieved February 29, 2008,
from
http://www.dkimages.com/discover/Home/History/North-America/United-States/ColonialEra/Pocahontas-and-John-Smith/Pocahontas-and-John-Smi09.html
68
“Chief Powhatan” (detail of map published by John Smith (1612). Retrieved February 29,
2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Powhatan
69
Charles Banse (n.d.). “Chief Powhatan”. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from
http://www.powhatan.org/chief_powhatan.html
Harriott, Thomas. (1590). A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia,
with
engravings after John White. Published by Theodore de Bry. Frankfurt-amMain.
Courtesy The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from
http://www.charlescity.org/natives/topic-fishing.php
70
Harriott, Thomas. A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia, with
engravings after John White. Published by Theodore de Bry. Frankfurt-amMain,
1590. Courtesy The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. Retrieved
February 29, 2008,
from http://www.charlescity.org/natives/topic-fishing.php
71
Examples of individual student projects
Primary
A vest made from a grocery bag and felt, feathers, and lima beans (front)
The back of the vest
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Intermediate
A vest made from faux suede and felt, lima beans, and glass beads (front)
The back of the vest
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Primary Assessment
1) Circle the picture that shows what a Powhatan chief would wear around his or her neck.
a)
b)
c)
2) What was the chief’s name who wore the mantle we saw?
a) Sitting Bull
b) Powhatan
c) Mohawk
3) Circle what Chief Powhatan used to decorate his mantle.
a)
b)
c)
Beaded necklace image from: http://www.thefurtrapper.com/trade_beads.htm
Collar image from: http://www.leathersmithdesigns.com/personalized-leather-dog-collars.htm
Locket image from: http://www.lindaclifford.com/SaleLocket.html
Coin image from: http://www.dkimages.com/discover/Home/Business/Money/Coins/Coins-04.html
Seashell image from: http://www.seashells.com/assortseashells.htm
Black pearl image from:
http://www.alibaba.com/catalog/11157263/Loose_Black_Pearls_Wholesale_From_Lombok_Indonesia.htm
l
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Intermediate Assessment
1) Circle the picture that shows Chief Powhatan.
a)
b)
c)
d)
2) Name one kind of robe Powhatan chiefs or wealthy tribe members wore in the winter.
Feather or leather
3) Name the two animals that some people think Chief Powhatan put on his mantle. What kinds
of designs did you choose to put on your mantle, and why?
A deer and a wolf (or mountain lion); answers will vary based on individual mantle designs.
Sitting Bull image from: http://www.sonofthesouth.net/union-generals/sitting-bull.htm
Black Hawk image from: http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Portrait-of-Black-Hawk-Indian-ChiefPosters_i1734119_.htm
Theyebdabegea ("Joseph Brant") image from: http://www.mohawktribe.com/theyebdabegea.htm
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Resources:
Company.
Rosinsky, N.M. (2005). We the People: The Powhatan and Their History. Minneapolis:
Compass Point Books.
University of Oxford - Ashmolean Museum Design & Technology (2005). Collections:
Powhatan’s Mantle. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from
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Activities created by: Jenny Huebner
Artifact 2—Powhatan mortar and pestle for grinding corn
Merchant, C. (photographer, no date). Wooden mortar and pestle for grinding meal.
Jamestown settlement, Jamestown. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from
http://nature.berkeley.edu/departments/espm/envhist/espm160/assignments/jamestownall/jamestown_photos.htm
The above mortar and pestle is a replica of the tools Powhatan women used to grind corn in the
1600s. In Powhatan society, women were responsible for all of the planting; the season for
which spanned from April-June. The Powhatan had an efficient planting system that ensured the
soil was not deprived of vital nutrients: Different plants were planted in each of the village’s
fields, and one field always remained unused so that its nutrients could be replenished. Women
used a long tool to dig holes in the ground for planting seeds. In addition to planting crops,
women were also responsible for fashioning the mortars and pestles used for grinding corn from
logs. To make the mortar, they burned and scraped the end of a log, forming a hole that was
10”-14” deep. The pestle was made by scraping a hickory log to the desired smoothness. Corn
was ground for flour and hominy with the mortar and pestle, although sometimes women ground
corn between stones.
Notes:
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Before the activities for the intermediate and the primary students, plan a field trip to Jamestown
so that students can see and touch the actual mortar and pestle shown. If such a trip is not
possible, bring one or more small-scale replica(s) of the mortar and pestle into the classroom
(one made of bamboo is available from target.com for about $20; other stores or a parent may
have one as well) and compare it to an image of the Jamestown version. Show students tangible
examples of the different kinds of corn the Powhatan harvested; if the varieties of corn cannot be
readily acquired, show the attached images using a document camera or powerpoint. As primary
students examine the ingredients in groceries, finish making the corncakes they will have ground
the corn to make (see attached recipe).
For the intermediate activity, prepare corn for hominy (see attached recipe) up to step 6
prior to introducing the artifact. When students begin their research, finish making it using a
hotplate or available kitchen facilities. Variations in class size may necessitate having two
groups research the same area of corn production (fuel, foods, and plastics). To ensure that
students have reliable sources on hand to conduct research, guide students to the references listed
at the end of each explanation if they are able to use the internet. If internet use by all groups is
not possible, print out enough copies of the resources to distribute to the student groups.
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Primary activity
Background Information: The Powhatan got much for their food from farming. They mainly ate corn,
beans, and squash, known as “the three sisters.” Women planted these crops together. Corn and bean
seeds went in the same hole. Squash seeds were put in holes in between those with the corn and bean
seeds. The corn’s stalk supported the beans that grew up it. Squash grew along the ground, lessening the
growth of weeds. Corn was a staple crop (one that the Powhatan ate every day). Besides eating the corn
on the cob, the Powhatan used it to make hominy (a mushy cereal), and meal (a ground-up powder for
soups and bread). Corn and beans were added to soups with oysters or other kinds of meat. The
Powhatan grew many kinds of corn, including flint corn (which has a hard outer shell and red or white
kernels), and a type of popcorn with stalks that were three or four feet tall.
Large Group Activity: Explain to the class how important corn was to the Powhatan. Pour corn kernels
into the mortar. Demonstrate how corn was ground to make corncakes. Allow each student to have a turn
grinding the corn. Instruct students to grind a rhythmic pattern with the pestle that others can clap as they
wait for their turn to pound.
Small Group Activity: Tell students to think about what they eat each day and if we eat corn every day
like the Powhatan. Distribute groceries (see attached list) for students to look at with neighbors to see if
the word “corn” is in the ingredients.
Individual activity: Have students share which groceries contained corn (all of them). Emphasize that
we too, might eat corn every day. Have students write sentences with the following structure: “I knew
that____________ had corn in it. I was surprised that ______________ had corn in it. Something I eat
every day that has corn in it is______________.”
Intermediate activity
Background Information: The Powhatan farmed for much of their food. They mainly ate corn, beans,
and squash, known as “the three sisters.” Women planted these crops together. The Powhatan ate corn
on the cob and made meal (a ground-up powder to make soups and bread) from corn. They grew many
kinds of corn, including flint corn (which has a hard outer shell and red or white kernels), and a type of
popcorn with stalks that were three or four feet tall. Corn could be preserved for the winter. It was also
used to make hominy (a mushy cereal), which is very complicated to make—corn kernels are cleaned by
seeping them in lye water for a day, then they are boiled, and their tips are removed. The Powhatan ate
this cereal very regularly. They were resourceful in how they used corn, because they ate it in many
ways. They also used its husks to make dolls, masks, and mats, and they used husks to make a kind of
fuel.
Large Group Activity: Explain how important corn was to the Powhatan. Define what hominy is and
show images of it. Have students pound the previously prepared corn to make hominy. Show the
painting of the Powhatan eating. State that they may have been eating hominy. Show images of hominy
making to illustrate the process. Show the Powhatan’ resourcefulness with pictures of moccasins, mats,
and corn husk dolls.
Small Group Activity: Ask students to think about how the Powhatan used corn, and if we still rely on
corn as much as they did. Assign groups of 4-5 a topic to research corn use in fuel, food, or plastics.
Individual activity: Have groups share what they learned about corn in each context. Explain how corn
syrup, ethanol, and some plastics are made from corn. Have students think of a food we eat often, as
much as the Powhatan ate corn. Have them write a few sentences describing how we use or prepare the
food they chose. Model an example like, “My favorite food is applesauce. People don’t eat it every day,
but lots of people eat apples, apple pie, or drink apple juice.”
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Primary and Intermediate images—Types of Powhatan corn
White corn (often used for hominy)
Image retrieved March 19, 2008, from
http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/cereals/anson.asp
Blue corn (often used for hominy)
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Red corn (often used for hominy)
Red and blue images both retrieved March 19, 2008 from
http://www.southernexposure.com/Merchant2/merchant.mvc?Screen=CTGY&Category_Code=
DCORN
Yellow corn (often preserved during winter and/or used for hominy, cornbread, corncakes, and
stews)
Image retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Ca-De/Corn-or-MaizeBased-Diets.html
82
Bamboo mortar and pestle which could be used to make corncakes/hominy with students ($20
from Target.com)
Retrieved March 20, 2008, from http://www.target.com/gp/detail.html/601-45117183859345?ASIN=B000QJ3TL2&AFID=Froogle&LNM=B000QJ3TL2|Bamboo_Mortar_and_Pes
tle&ci_src=14110944&ci_sku=B000QJ3TL2&ref=tgt_adv_XSG10001
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Intermediate Images—Different uses for corn and the importance of hominy
An image showing the distinct corn kernels among sweet corn, field corn, and popcorn
Image retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Popcorn.html
84
Powhatan sharing a meal, which is likely hominy
Hariot, T. (1590). Image from A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of
Virginia. Frankfurt, 1590. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from
http://www.folger.edu/html/folger_institute/jamestown/c_appelbaum.htm
85
Victoria Rumble, employing traditional utensils and methods of making hominy in Florence, AL
Images retrieved March 19, 2008, from
http://www.thistledewbooks.com/Photo_Gallery/index.html
A modern mat made from corn husks, marketed as an edible product for small pets
Retrieved March 19, 2008, from
http://www.leithpetwerks.com/prodpage.cfm?prod_code=FLT140
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A Chinese meditation mat made from corn husks
Retrieved March 19, 2008, from
http://142.179.193.231/Daqingshan%20in%20the%20summer/Forms/DispForm.aspx?ID=75
Examples of moccasins made from corn husks (Iroquois)
Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.galenfrysinger.com/oneida_nation_wisconsin.htm
87
Examples of corn husk dolls (Iroquois)
Retrieved March 20, 2008, from http://www.galenfrysinger.com/oneida_nation_wisconsin.htm
88
Corn cake recipe (Primary)
Grind dried corn until all the kernels are crushed. Fine grain will yield a better consistency and
taste. Add enough water to cover the cornmeal and stir, allowing the tougher husks to rise and
float on the water. Pour the husks off with the excess water. Mix the wet cornmeal with about 1
tbsp honey until it holds together. Form a patty and cook on a hot griddle, turning once. The
corn cake will taste like caramel corn as the honey caramelizes to hold the corn cake together.
Adapted from:
Parrella, D. (1995). Project Seasons: Hands-on activities for discovering the wonders of
the world. Burlington: Shelburne Farms.
Groceries to give student groups that contain some form of corn
-Canned corn
-Popcorn
-White bread
-Bubblegum
-Juice boxes
-Corn flakes
-Marshmallows
-Jelly
-Pudding
-Salad dressing
-Cornbread mix
-Ketchup
-Corn chips
-Dog food
-Bologna
-Instant grits
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-Starburst candy
-Jello (snack cups or powder)
-Cake mix
-Frosting
Ideas for list retrieved on March 23, 2008, from
http://homepage.mac.com/changcy/allergy/allergy-corn.pdf
90
Hominy Recipe (intermediate)
Retrieved March 21, 2008, from http://www.recipezaar.com/38585
Ingredients
2 quarts dry field corn
8 quarts water
2 ounces lye
salt
Directions
1) Place corn in an enameled pan; add water and lye.
2) Boil vigorously for 30 minutes.
3) Let stand for 20 minutes.
4) Rinse off lye with several hot water rinses.
5) Follow with cold water rinses to cool for handling.
6) Work hominy with hands until dark tips of kernels are removed. This may take awhile.
7) Separate the tips from the corn by floating them off.
8) Add water to cover hominy about 1 inch and boil 5 minutes; change water.
9) Repeat this step 4 times.
10) Add water and cook until kernels are soft (30 to 45 minutes) and drain; saving this hot water
you drain off.
11) Pack hominy into sterile jars about 1/2 full.
12) Add 1 teaspoon salt to each quart jar.
13) Fill to within 1/2 inch of top of jar with water in which the corn was last cooked in or boiling
water.
14) Put on cap, screw band firmly tight.
15) Process: using 10 pounds of pressure.
-Pints for 60 minutes, quarts for 70 minutes. I used quart jars and only filled them half full with
the hominy, because during the processing, the hominy will expand.
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Descriptions of how corn products are made/used in foods
Corn syrup is a thick liquid that sweetens many products such as marshmallows and ketchup,
thickens products like soup, and is also used as a preservative to help foods like bread stay fresh
longer. Making corn syrup is a long process. First, the corn has to be cleaned by soaking it for
20-40 hours until it is soft in a process called steeping. Next, corn oil is removed from it. Other
parts of the corn called starch, protein, and fiber are left after the corn oil is taken out. The fiber,
or bran, is removed next to use for animal food and cereal. The protein, called gluten, is also
removed. Gluten is used for animal food, too. Now all that is left is corn starch, which is
sometimes used in other food products like puddings and instant mixes. The corn starch that
isn’t used can be used to make ethanol (which will be mentioned later), or goes through acid
hydrolysis to make corn syrup. In acid hydrolysis, a kind of acid called hydrochloric acid is
added to the corn starch and turns the starch into sugar. When the corn starch turns to sugar, it is
called corn syrup. To make the corn syrup thicker, some water is evaporated, or taken away,
from it. High fructose corn syrup is a different kind of corn syrup that is used in foods like
pastries, cereal, and sodas. It has a kind of sugar in it called fructose that makes it different from
regular corn syrup. With all of these products that are added to food for different reasons, it is no
wonder that it would be hard to go a day without eating corn! Besides its uses for food, corn is
also used to make adhesives for products like bandages and envelopes. It is also used to make
inks, some liquid medicines, cardboard, and aspirin.
Answers.com (2007). How corn syrup is made. Retrieved March 21, 2008, from
http://www.answers.com/topic/corn-syrup?cat=technology
Iowa Corn Growers Association (2008). Corn Use & Education: Primary Products from
Corn. Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www.iowacorn.org/cornuse/cornuse_6.html
Description of the benefits of plastics made from corn
We use plastics every day and they make our lives more convenient—they package our food, and
are used to make things we use every day, like binders and coat hangers, to name two. Plastics
are wonderful and are all around us, but making them uses up a lot of petroleum, or oil, products,
which we already depend on a lot to run our cars. When plastics are thrown away, they leave
behind hazardous wastes because of the chemicals that are used to make them. Plastics cause
environmental problems because after they are thrown away, the chemicals in them can travel
from landfills into our groundwater supply that we use for drinking water. They also take a very
long time to decompose, or break down in landfills and can stay there for many years—so even if
it took us five minutes to eat our mini pack of Pringles chips, the container could be in the
landfill for years. Scientists are studying one way to solve the problems these plastics cause.
New plastics made from corn do not produce hazardous wastes. They are also biodegradable, or
able to break down naturally in the environment. Corn plastics will nearly fully decompose after
about one month. They even begin to break down at about 135 degrees. When people who buy
food stored in plastic containers made from corn, they have to be careful not to heat the food in
the microwave since the container may start to deteriorate! Ohio has recently started to use
plastics made from corn. These plastics are not very strong, though, so researchers in Iowa have
begun to use nanoclays, which are very tiny pieces of clay, to reinforce the corn plastic, or make
92
it stronger. We will see how these kinds of plastics are used in the future. In Iowa, researchers
plan to use the plastics for food packaging, wraps for bales of hay, and pots for plants. They are
also planning to use these plastics for hog feeders, too. One reason is the corn (and soybean oils)
used to make the new plastics are a lot cheaper than petrochemicals, which are chemicals that
are made from petroleum or natural gas, and are used to make plastics. As gas prices keep going
up, corn and soybean oils will continue to be great alternatives for making plastics. Iowa
produces the most corn, soybeans and pork of any state, so it makes sense that they are thinking
of ways to use plastics made of corn, and soy, too!
Iowa State University (2006, November 2). Researchers Improving Plastics Made From
Corn And Soy Proteins. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 24, 2008, from
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061030122045.htm
Iowa State University (2007, January 23). Corn, Soy Plastics To Be Made Into Hog
Feeders. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 24, 2008, from
Nicholson, S. (Broadcaster). (2004, January 21). Plastic Made of Corn? New plastic
product not manufactured but grown [Radio broadcast episode]. In J. St. Clair (Producer).
Science & Technology. Kent, OH: National Public Radio. Retrieved March 22, 2008,
from http://www.wksu.org/news/story/17067
Description of how ethanol fuel helps the environment
We rely on gasoline tremendously—every day our parents drive to work, we come to school in
cars or on the bus, and we use cars powered by gasoline to get groceries and go to soccer
practice. In going all of these places, we add to the 141.6 billion gallons of gasoline in
Americans use each year—and that was just in 2005! Because oil is a non-renewable resource,
it is important for us to try to conserve, or save it. It will not be around forever, so we will need
ways to run our cars when the oil supply is used up. Scientists have been experimenting with a
kind of fuel called ethanol, which is made from corn. Some cars can run on 85% ethanol and
15% regular gasoline. If more of these kinds of cars are manufactured, or made, we would not
have to depend on countries so much for oil. Gas is very expensive, so using ethanol in
combination with oil would help Americans save money. Many vehicles, especially buses and
other vehicles that run on diesel fuel (gas that contains lead) cause pollution. Ethanol is a very
environmental-friendly product that does not pollute the air, so scientists are hoping to produce a
kind of ethanol that can power diesel-fueled vehicles.
Aside from fuel, the process involved in making ethanol results in other byproducts we
can use, like grains, gluten feed, carbon dioxide, sweeteners. Another benefit of ethanol is that
the amount of energy you can use from ethanol is bigger than the amount of energy it takes to
make ethanol. To make this idea clearer, think about blowing bubbles with liquid bubbles and
bubblegum—with very little effort, you can make a lot of soap bubbles. But, using the same
amount of air (and effort), you would only be able to make one bubble gum bubble. Aside from
being good for the environment and relatively inexpensive to make, making ethanol requires
little energy to make relative to the amount of energy it produces.
93
Cambridge Energy Research Associates, Inc. (2007). Gasoline and the American People
2007. Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www2.cera.com/gasoline/summary/
National Corn Growers Association (2005). Ethanol, America’s Clean Renewable Fuel.
Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www.ncga.com/ethanol/main/energy.htm
94
Examples of Primary and Intermediate student work:
Primary:
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Intermediate:
96
97
98
99
100
Primary Assessment
1) Circle the picture of a mortar and pestle.
2) Corn, beans, and squash were called The Three
a) Brothers
b) Sisters
c) Friends
3) The Powhatan liked to add corn to which of these foods?
Sandwiches
Soups
Pies
Needle and thread image retrieved March 22, 2008, from
http://www.logosportswear.com/embroiderydesigns/Sewing
Ball and cup image retrieved March 22, 2008, from: http://www.smartstarttoys.co.uk/product_info.php?products_id=294
101
Intermediate Assessment
1) Besides eating it, name one way the Indians used corn:_________________________
Answers may include corn husk dolls, masks, mats, moccasins, and fuel.
2) What were The Three Sisters?
Corn, beans, and squash
3) Name two reasons ethanol is a better choice of fuel than oil.
1)________________________________________________________________2)____
____________________________________________________________
Answers may include: it is easy to produce, it is a renewable resource, it does not pollute the air,
it is cheaper than gas, it will reduce American dependency on oil, and making ethanol results in
other byproducts.
4) What does it mean if something is biodegradable?
a)
b)
c)
d)
It will melt when heated at high temperatures.
It takes a long time to produce.
It is a natural resource.
It breaks down naturally in the environment.
5) Imagine that the Powhatan had eaten corn just off the cob. How would our lives be different
today if they had not experimented with corn to find new foods they could make from it? What
foods might not exist?
If the Powhatan only ate corn on the cob, they would not have had cornbread, hominy, or
popcorn. They also might not have made mats, dolls, or masks made from other parts of the corn
plant if they only ate corn. Today, we might not have popcorn, cornbread, or grits/hominy,
either. Many of the groceries that have corn in them like chips and cereal, and even groceries
that have corn syrup in them might not exist. There might be no ethanol or plastics made from
corn if the Powhatan had not started to think of other uses for corn.
102
Resources (not cited earlier):
Bial, R. (2002). The Powhatan. New York: Benchmark Books.
Chief Ray Crazy Horse (n.d.). Corn and the Powhatan. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from
http://www.relist.net/indian/corn.html
Sjonger, R. & Kahlman, B. (2005). Life of the Powhatan. Canada: Crabtree Publishing
Company.
The Family Farm Project (1997). Types of Corn. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from
http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/farmschool/food/corntyp.htm
The Mariners’ Museum (2002). Native Americans Pre-Contact. Retrieved March 17,
2008, from http://www.mariner.org/chesapeakebay/native/nam005.html
103
Expense List*
Material
2 packages kidney beans
2 packages lima beans
2 packages pinto beans
3 packages glass beads
(~300 beads/bag)
Material for intermediate
vests (~1 yard/student)
Feathers for primary vests
Mortar and pestle (if one
cannot be borrowed)
Corn kernels for hominy or
corn cake making
Location
Wal-Mart (or other grocery
store)
store)
store)
Wal-Mart (or craft store)
Price
$0.99/bag
$1.25/bag
$0.99/bag
$2.50/bag
Wal-Mart (or fabric store)
$2.00/yard
Wal-Mart (or craft store)
Target.com
$1.50/bag
$20.00
store)
$2.50/bag
*Specific quantities needed will vary depending on class size. Figures given are approximate.
104
Jenny Huebner
Culture Kit Assessment—Primary Pre/Post Test
1) Look at the map. If you are at the statue of the wolf (number 2),
what direction would you go to get to the library (number 7)?
d) North
e) East
f) South
2) Which is a picture of a longhouse?
a)
b)
c)
105
3)The fences around the Powhatan longhouses were called
d) palisades
e) tomahawks
f) moccasins
4) What is a portrait?
d)
e)
a picture of someone
a boat
f)
5) Look at the two paintings of Pocahontas. Circle the one that shows
her wearing a laced ruff. Draw an arrow pointing to the laced ruff.
106
6) Pocahontas was seen as a Native American Princess in which
country?
a) England
b) France
c) Spain
7) Circle the picture that shows what a Powhatan chief would wear
around his or her neck.
a)
b)
c)
8) Who wore the mantle we saw?
a) Sitting Bull
b) Chief Powhatan
c) Chief Mohawk
107
9) Circle what Chief Powhatan used to decorate his mantle.
a)
b)
c)
10) Circle the picture of a mortar and pestle.
11) Corn, beans, and squash were called The Three
a) Brothers
b) Sisters
c) Friends
12) The Powhatan liked to add corn to which of these foods?
Sandwiches
Soups
Pies
108
Culture Kit Assessment—Intermediate Pre/Post Test
1) What country came to America before the English?
Spain
2) What year did the English settlers land in Jamestown?
1607
3) How many ships did the colonists arrive on? What were their names?
3; Godspeed, Susan Constant, and Discovery
4) What were two things the Virginia Company hoped to find in America?
Gold and a waterway to the Pacific Ocean
5) Who was Chief Powhatan’s daughter?
Pocahontas
6) Who did she marry?
John Rolfe
7) What did the Powhatan call the longhouses they lived in?
Yehakins
8) Name 2 things Powhatan women did in their villages.
Made baskets, planted crops, wove baskets, took care of children, cooked food
9) Name 2 things Powhatan men did in their villages.
Hunted, built longhouses and fences, built canoes, fished
Write 2-3 complete sentences to answer each question.
10) How did John Smith’s experiences in foreign countries prepare him to be a leader of the
Jamestown colony? Hint: How did he communicate with the native people in France, Turkey,
Italy, and then in Jamestown?
As a soldier in many armies abroad, John Smith communicated with foreigners using sign
language. He also learned the native languages of the countries he was fighting in. When he
came to Virginia, he used these techniques to communicate with the Powhatan as well—first he
used signs, then he gradually learned some words in their languages.
11) Why did John Smith decide it was important to make sure the Powhatan tribes saw the
colonists’ weapons?
John Smith wanted the Powhatan tribes to see the English colonists’ weapons so they would
think the English were fierce and powerful. If the tribes thought that the colonists could harm
109
them with their weapons, then they would be less likely to fight with or steal from the colonists
for fear of what their weapons could do to their tribes.
12) How did John Smith make sure all the colonists at Jamestown worked to find food and build
houses?
John Smith made a rule of “He who does not work does not eat” to make sure all of the colonists
13) What is one thing John Smith traded with the Powhatan in return for food?
a) Copper
b) Glass
c) Hats
d) Guns
14) Which of the following is not a natural resource John Smith wrote about finding in New
England?
a) Whales
b) Furs
c) Corn
d) Wood
15) Besides eating it, name one way the Indians used corn:_________________________
Answers may include corn husk dolls, masks, mats, moccasins, and fuel.
16) What were The Three Sisters?
Corn, beans, and squash
17) Name two reasons ethanol is a better choice of fuel than oil.
1)________________________________________________________________2)____
____________________________________________________________
Answers may include: it is easy to produce, it is a renewable resource, it does not pollute the air,
it is cheaper than gas, it will reduce American dependency on oil, and making ethanol results in
other byproducts.
18) What does it mean if something is biodegradable?
e) It will melt when heated at high temperatures.
f) It takes a long time to produce.
110
g) It is a natural resource.
h) It breaks down naturally in the environment.
19) Imagine that the Powhatan had eaten corn just off the cob. How would our lives be different
today if they had not experimented with corn to find new foods they could make from it? What
foods might not exist?
If the Powhatan only ate corn on the cob, they would not have had cornbread, hominy, or
popcorn. They also might not have made mats, dolls, or masks made from other parts of the corn
plant if they only ate corn. Today, we might not have popcorn, cornbread, or grits/hominy,
either. Many of the groceries that have corn in them like chips and cereal, and even groceries
that have corn syrup in them might not exist. There might be no ethanol or plastics made from
corn if the Powhatan had not started to think of other uses for corn.
20) Circle the picture that shows Chief Powhatan.
a)
b)
c)
d)
21) Name one kind of robe Powhatan chiefs or wealthy tribe members wore in the winter.
Feather or leather
22) Name the two animals that some people think Chief Powhatan put on his mantle. (To be
asked in the post-test: What kinds of designs did you choose to put on your mantle, and why?)
A deer and a wolf (or mountain lion); answers will vary based on individual mantle designs.
111
23) Name 2 of the Powhatan tribes.
Answers could include: Pamunkey, Mattaponi, Upper Mattaponi, Chickahominy, Nansemond,
Rappahannock, Paspahegh, Warascoyak, Kecougtan, and Chesapeake
Inquiry lesson essay:
Imagine you have been given the task of creating a set of guidelines for using Native American
names and mascots in national sports teams. Describe your policy in detail, and give reasons for
why you chose it (50 pts.). Will your policy affect all sports teams equally (meaning, will all
teams either be forbidden from or allowed to use Native American names and mascots? Think
about how the NCAA’s policy affected the three colleges we mentioned differently). Include
arguments from both Native Americans and non-Native Americans that have been made for and
against the use of Native American team names and mascots (30 pts.). Discuss how your policy
will affect people on both sides of the argument that we mentioned in class—is there a chance
that your policy will disappoint some, while satisfying, offending, or even angering others (10
pts.)? Which individuals or groups would feel these emotions (10 pts.)?
112
Bibliography
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Retrieved April 6, 2008, from http://www.aimovement.org/ncrsm/index.html
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Constitution. Retrieved February 22, 2008, from
http://www.americanrevolution.com/ConstitutionalConvention.htm
Answers.com (2007). How corn syrup is made. Retrieved March 21, 2008, from
http://www.answers.com/topic/corn-syrup?cat=technology
APVA Preservation Virginia (n.d.). Historic Jamestowne: History. Retrieved April 7, 2008,
from http://www.historicjamestowne.org/history/
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Fisher, M. (2006, May 18). Knock Me Over with a Feather: The Politics of Indian Team
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Iowa Corn Growers Association (2008). Corn Use & Education: Primary Products from
Corn. Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www.iowacorn.org/cornuse/cornuse_6.html
Iowa State University (2006, November 2). Researchers Improving Plastics Made From
Corn And Soy Proteins. Science Daily. Retrieved March 24, 2008, from
Iowa State University (2007, January 23). Corn, Soy Plastics To Be Made Into Hog
Feeders. Science Daily. Retrieved March 24, 2008, from
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from http://www.costumes.org/classes/fashiondress/17thCent.htm
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http://www.readwritethink.org/materials/bio_cube/
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Guidelines for Use of Native American Mascots at Championship Events. Retrieved
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ONTENT_URL=http://www
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m_rls.html
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116

The Powhatan Native Americans: A Historical Narrative

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