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1. WERSJA PODSTAWOWA ZNAKU
SYSTEM IDENTYFIKACJI WIZUALNEJ PROJEKTU
„WIRTUALNE MUZEA MAŁOPOLSKI” ZAKŁADA
WYSTĘPOWANIE 1 PODSTAWOWEJ FORMY ZNAKU
W POSTACI LOGOTYPU. JEJ ROZSZERZENIE STANOWIĄ:
LOGO, UZUPEŁNIAJĄCE WARIANTY LOGOTYPU I DODATKOWE
WERSJE KOLORYSTYCZNE.
ZNAK OPARTY ZOSTAŁ O STYLIZOWANE LITERY „WMM”
NAWIĄZUJĄCE SWOIM KSZTAŁTEM DO KORONY
OBECNEJ W IDENTYFIKACJI WIZUALNEJ WOJEWÓDZTWA
MAŁOPOLSKIEGO.
LITERY WPISANE SĄ W OTWARTĄ FORMĘ OPARTĄ O KOŁO
MAJĄCĄ BUDZIĆ SKOJARZENIA ZE ZNAKIEM @.
DO ZAPROJEKTOWANIA LOGOTYPU WYKORZYSTANO KRÓJ
PISMA FF DIN ROUND PODKREŚLAJĄCY ZWIĄZEK PROJEKTU
Z NOWOCZESNĄ TECHNOLOGIĄ.
THE ART OF CHRISTIAN EGYPT WITH
MONUMENTS FROM THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL
MUSEUM IN KRAKOW
It must be explained why the title says “the art of Christian Egypt” and not “Coptic art”,
particularly considering the fact that some monuments from the Archaeological Museum
in Krakow which are discussed later were previously categorised using the broader term of
“Coptic art.”
The term “Coptic” has ethnic and religious connotations and is usually used to refer to the
Christians of Egypt. The name of this group comes from the Greek name Aigyptos (Arabic:
qbt or qft) from which the first diphthong was eliminated (because in the Arabic language,
vowels and diphthongs never occur at the beginning of a word). The name was first used in
the 7th century by Arabs with reference to all residents of conquered Egypt. Over time, the
term was to distinguish the Christian residents of the country on the Nile from the Muslims.
The Greek word Aigyptos is undoubtedly a form of the Pharaoh name Het-Ka-Ptah, which
literally means “House of the Spirit of Ptah” and refers to an ancient temple in Memphis.
Finally, the term “Coptic” reached Europe from Muslim Egypt through travellers of the 17th
and 18th centuries and was mainly used to refer to Christians of Egyptian origin. However,
the name may also indicate a period in the history of Egypt from the 4th to the mid-7th
century (that is, until the Arab conquest) or the Egyptian population of that time, no matter
whether Christian or pagan. Another meaning of the term is the Christian ritual of the
church in Egypt and Ethiopia1.
Without going into deeper considerations, it should be emphasised that the trend in contemporary literature is to depart from using the term “Coptic art.” In the 1980s, 1990s and
earlier, only this term was used even though it seems not to be so obvious or unambiguous. A reference should be made to the research by the outstanding expert on the period,
Laszlo Török, who presents a clear view on the matter in the paper entitled Transfigurations
of Hellenism, Aspects of Late Antique Art in Egypt AD 250–700, and I agree with his standpoint. Let us consider this extract from Török’s paper:
“[…] Egyptian art from the period between mid-3rd and late 7th century is quoted in
literature as »Late Antique« (ca. 250–800), so the art of the period should be defined with
the use of the same term. If we take a closer look at the individual monuments or groups
of them and then put them in a historical context, the term »Late Antique« refers to the
P. du Bourguet SJ, Sztuka Koptów [The Art of the Copts], Warszawa 1991, pp. 5–6; W. Myszor,
Chrześcijaństwo koptyjskie przed inwazją islamu [Coptic Christianity before the Islamic invasion] [in:]
Kościoły wschodnie [Eastern churches], J. Drabina (ed.). Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego
MCCXXXVII, Studia Religiologica, z. 32, Kraków 1999, pp. 11–12. [Translator’s note: free translation]
1
The art of Christian Egypt / 1
muzea.malopolska.pl
period between mid-3rd and only mid-5th century, and is followed by the Early ByzanSYSTEM IDENTYFIKACJI WIZUALNEJ PROJEKTU
tine period, which ended with the Arab conquest. The culture of Egypt from the mid-3rd
century to the Arab conquest (639–646) and the culture of Egyptian Christians after the
MAŁOPOLSKIEGO.
Arab conquest of Egypt is covered by the general term »Coptic« (culture). In etymologi-
cal terms, this term comes from Arabic but was borrowed from Greek; the Greek word,
in turn, originates from the Egyptian language. »Coptic« is also used to refer to
the Monophysite church of Egypt and the art of the period. The author of this
chapter claims that »Coptic art« should relate only to the proper art of the Copts
Aleksandria
Abu Sir
klasztor taposiris magna
Abu Mena
which reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century. In a different context
klasztor świętego mina
Wadi El Natum
– with reference to Antiquity – one should use the chronological terminology,
Kair
so: »the art of Late Antique« / »Early Byzantine art«, without ethnic or religious
Giza
Sakkar
correlations.”2
klasztor świętego jeremiasza
Nil
U stóp góry
Swietej Katarzyny
i góry Synaj
Fajum
klasztor
św katarzyny
Zato
El Naqlun
klasztor archanioła gabriela
Su
Nil
ka
The elements that comprise this art include, above all, earlier pagan art which
es
encompassed components created based on local Egyptian, Hellenistic and
ka
Abu Fana
Roman traditions. The art of Christian Egypt was not created in isolation but re-
klasztor świętego fana
Deir Abu Hennes
klasztor świętego fana
mained an inherent feature of the aforementioned cultures. It is hard to establish
to what extent it borrowed from the aesthetics of earlier cultures and to what
extent it remained a separate phenomenon. The period between the 4th and the
8th centuries saw its heyday. The establishment of Christian monasticism by the
Deir el-Ahmar
czerwony klasztor
Deir el-Abiad
biały klasztor
Copts is considered to be one of the greatest contributions to the development
Faw Quibli
klasztor świętego
pachomiusza
w pbow
Suchadż
of Christian culture3.
Teby
Nil
Between the 3rd and the 4th centuries, Egyptian art experienced competition
between two different influences: one originating from the Hellenistic and Roman
tradition and the other which was a local Egyptian trend with shades of Nabataean
Asuan
Deir Abu Hadra
klasztor świętego symeona
art. It is highly likely that pagan steles from Kom Abou Billou (Greek: Terenuthis),
Nil
dating back to AD 268-340, are among the oldest examples of the early stage
of development of local Coptic art4. The Archaeological Museum in Krakow has
a collection of nine steles belonging to monuments brought from Egypt by the
Polish Army soldiers who fought in the Middle East and Egypt during World War II.
2
Ibid., pp.XXV–XXVII.
See: map – selected monastic centres – Wadi Natrun, Abu Mena, Medinet-el-Fayum oasis – Naqlun
monastery, Deir Abu Hennes, Red Monastery, the White Monastery, Christian cemetery in the Kharga
el-Bagawat oasis, the Monastery of St. Simeon near the Philae Island, the Monasteries of St. Anthony
and St. Paul on the Red Sea. An interesting outline of Coptic Christianity is provided by Rev. W. Myszor,
Chrześcijaństwo koptyjskie przed inwazją islamu [Coptic Christianity before the Islamic invasion] [in:]
Kościoły Wschodnie [Eastern churches], J. Drabina (ed.), Universitas Iagellonica Acta Scientiarum
Litterarumque MCCXXXVII, Studia Religiologica, fasc. XXXII, pp. 11–32. One should also refer to the
numerous works by Prof. Ewa Wipszycka-Bravo, a renowned expert on Egyptian monasticism. It should
also be added that Polish scientists specialising in this discipline have an esteemed position globally, with
other eminent representatives, e.g. Prof. Włodzimierz Godlewski, Tomasz Derda and Adam Łajtar.
3
Selected monastic
centres in Ancient
Egipt
A description of the cemetery, the time when it was built and dating back to Christian times, cf.:
W. Godlewski, Egipskie stele nagrobne z okresu rzymskiego w zbiorach Muzeum Narodowego w Warszawie
[Egyptian tomb steles from the Roman period in the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw],
Rocznik Muzeum Narodowego w Warszawie 1985, pp. 235–252.
4
muzea.malopolska.pl
Three of these steles (Stela of Bes from Kom Abou Billou http://
muzea.malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/5233643, MAK/
AS/1447, Stela of woman from Kom Abou Bilou http://muzea.
MAŁOPOLSKIEGO.
malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/5257090, Fragment of
stela with three figures from Kom Abou Bilou http://muzea.
malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/5257688) were made in
the iconographic tradition resembling those of the Kom Abou
Billou necropolis. They were purchased from the Museum of
Cairo and were probably discovered in Abydos, Upper Egypt.
The origin of the other six objects is unknown. However, based
on the iconography it can be said that there is high probability
that they came from Kom Abou Billou5.
Architecture
The oldest known sacred Christian buildings in which liturgy
was performed date back to the late 4th and early 5th century.
Basilicas with a triple apse presbytery arranged in various
configurations were predominant among them. The interior
was divided into three aisles with a colonnade. Over the presbytery, there may have been a cupola. The oldest such examples of structures of this type can be the Red Monastery (Deir
el-Ahmar) and the White Monastery (Deir el-Abiad) near Sahag.
Other examples worth mentioning include the church in the
Ptolemaic temple in Taposiris Magna in Arab Abou Sir near Alexandria and the church built into the temple of Amon in Luxor
and other. It seems that the most important sacred facility was
the architectural complex in Abu Mena situated close to the
coast near Alexandria. In this complex, a martyrium based on
a tetrapylon, which was incorporated into a three-aisle basilica
constructed during the time of Bishop Athanasius the Great, was built above the hypogeum of St. Menas.
Monastic art
Initially, anchorites6 lived in hermitages in desert rocks in Egypt. They sometimes adapted
Egyptian tombs or rooms in temples. Up until today, traces of their activity have been left
H. Szymańska-Wasylewska, Stele z Kom Abou Billou w Muzeum Archeologicznym w Krakowie [Steles
from Kom Abou Billou in the Archaeological Museum in Krakow], Studia Archeologiczne 4, Uniwersytet
Warszawski 1985, pp. 279–292.
5
Anchoretism (Greek: ἀναχωρέω – to retire from the world) was an ascetic movement popular in the
period of early Christianity. Anchorites were hermits who spent their lives in total seclusion as a form of
mortification and unity with God.
6
muzea.malopolska.pl
in the form of various graffiti paintings, inscriptions or papyrus. They often painted on
the walls of their hermitages crosses of various forms, figures of saints and other symbols
MAŁOPOLSKIEGO.
related to Christianity. Some of the most famous monastic complexes include, for example,
Kellia on the western side of the Nile Delta or the monastery of St. Apollo in Bawit dating
back to the late 5th or early 6th century. The latter is characterised by a large number of
paintings diversified in iconographic terms, which are found in numerous prayer niches.
One should also mention the monastery of St. Jeremiah in Sakkara dating back to the 5th–
–6th century, which no longer exists. It contained an interesting representation of Christ’s
Ascension with the Mother of God presented centrally. Maria sat on a throne with Baby
Jesus and was shown breast-feeding. A tall bishop’s throne made of limestone, is currently
being exhibited at the Coptic Museum in Cairo, and also comes from this monastery.
Bishop’s throne, Coptic Museum in Cairo, drawing by Jarosław Dobrowolski, Cairo 1986.
Starting from the 7th century, monastic architecture was unified
and did not see considerable change. Thus, it did not surprise
us with innovative developments. One should also mention the
interesting monuments of Coptic Cairo, including the Church of
Virgin Mary (“The Hanging Church”), the Church of St. Sergius
with the grotto of the Holy Family, the Church of St. Barbara and
the monastic complex of St. George.
Sculptures
This kind of art is characterised by a lot of architectural details
(capitals, columns, cornices, conchs [semi-domes), friezes, lintels,
door frames, etc.). They were mostly made from various types of
stone and were characterised by deep relief. Patterns for individual elements were derived from nature. A wide array of floral
motifs were used, for example lotus flowers, grapevine, acanthus
leaves, foliated scrolls, or palmettes. The heyday of these elements was during the period of the 4th-6th centuries and later this
form of art was schematised. Also, tomb steles can be categorised as architectural details. A fragment of such a monument can
be found in the Archaeological Museum in Krakow (http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/5257752 and MAK/
AS/1445)7. It presents a large number of symbolic motifs used
in tomb art. The stele is ornamented with a dove with a branch,
a frequent motif in the Christian art, symbolising the Holy Spirit.
E.g. K. Babraj, H. Szymańska, Bogowie starożytnego Egiptu (The gods of Ancient Egypt), Muzeum
Archeologiczne w Krakowie, Kraków 2000, gloss no. 132.
7
muzea.malopolska.pl
Fabrics
Fabrics were well preserved from the areas of central and so-
MAŁOPOLSKIEGO.
uthern Egypt thanks to the dry climate and they are particularly
well represented works of art in museums. They were made
using the following techniques: kilim weaving, reed weaving,
comb weaving and soumak weaving. The predominant motif in
the oldest fabrics dating back to the late 4th and early 5th century
was the representation of mythological themes. Later, a whole
array of motifs borrowed from the Bible (both the Old and the
New Testament) was used. Decorations also used floral patterns
abundantly or variations thereof. The Archaeological Museum
in Krakow is in the possession of a small collection of fabrics
gathered in Egypt by the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle
Brigade; the most precious of these are the exhibits with inventory numbers MAK/AS/2244 http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/
obiekty/-/a/26804/11398668 and MAK/AS/1469 http://muzea.
malopolska.pl/en/obiekty/-/a/26804/11837604 9.
The development of the Christian art of Egypt after the Arab
conquest significantly weakened or even experienced a regression. Artists were isolated and worked in closed enclaves. Yet
new cultural centres or centres known from the earlier times
were reactivated. This art also embraced a folk character. Due to the limited size of this
paper, I will not mention icons, illuminated manuscripts or ceramics which had interesting
forms and decorations. The aforementioned art had a huge influence on the Christian art of
Ethiopia or Nubia.
Selected bibliography:
• Babraj K., Szymańska H., Bogowie starożytnego Egiptu (The Gods of Ancient Egypt), Muzeum
Archeologiczne w Krakowie, Kraków 2000.
• Capuani M., Meinardus O.F.A., Rutschowscaya M.-H., Gabra G. (ed.), Christian Egypt: Coptic
Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2002.
• Farag L.M. (ed.), The Coptic Christian Heritage. History Faith and Culture, Routledge, New York 2014.
• Gabra G., Coptic Monasteries: Egypt’s Monastic Art and Architecture, The American Universi-
E. Jastrzębowska, Mythological and Biblical Heroes of Christians in Egypt [in:] Etudes et Travaux XXVI, 2013,
pp. 339-345, questions the interpretation of this scene presented by K. Babraj in: K. Babraj, H. Szymańska,
op. cit., gloss no. 133. Jastrzębowska claims that here we probably have God speaking to Adam shown
in a gesture of prayer and this was to be a scene from Paradise before Adam committed the original sin.
Babraj sustains his opinion included in the catalogue mentioned above. A broader response is prepared in
a separate article.
8
9
K. Babraj, H. Szymańska, op. cit., gloss no. 125.
muzea.malopolska.pl
ty in Cairo, Cairo 2002.
• Gabra G., Christianity and Monasticism in the Fayoum Oasis, American University in Cairo,
Cairo 2005.
• Gabra G., Illustrated Guide to the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, The American
MAŁOPOLSKIEGO.
University in Cairo, Cairo 2007.
• Gabra G., The Illustrated Guide to the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, American
• Gabra G., Treasures of Coptic Art in the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, American
• Gabra G., Historical Dictionary of the Coptic Church (Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements…), American University in Cairo, Cairo 2008.
• Gabra G. (ed.), Coptic Civilization. Two Thousand Years of Christianity in Egypt, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2014.
• Gabra G., Ludwig C. (eds.), Sherif S. (photographer), The Churches of Egypt: From the Journey of the Holy Family to the Present Day, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2007.
• Gabra G. (author), Ludwig C. (ed.), Jackson M. (ed.), Sherif S. (photographer), The History
and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque, American
• Gabra G., Abdel S., Cairo: The Coptic Museum & Old Churches, American University in Cairo,
Cairo 1993.
• Gabra G., Takla H.N. (eds.), Christianity and Monasticism in Upper Egypt, vol. 1: Akhmim and
Sohag, American University in Cairo, Cairo 2008.
• Kamil J., Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide (2nd ed.), American University in Cairo, Cairo
1999.
• Meinardus O.F.A., Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (2nd ed.), American University
in Cairo, Cairo 1999.
• Meinardus O.F.A., Christian Egypt Ancient and Modern, American University in Cairo. Cairo
1977.
• Perry P., Jesus in Egypt: Discovering the Secrets of Christ’s Childhood Years, Ballantine Books,
New York 2003.
• Aziz S.A. (ed.), The Coptic Encyclopedia, vol. 1–8, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York
1991.
• Török L., Transfigurations of Hellenism: Aspects of Late Antique Art in Egypt AD 250–700, Brill,
Leiden, Boston 2005.
• Zibawi M., Images de l’Egypte chrétienne. Iconologie copte, Paris, Picard 2003.
• Zibawi M., Préface de Christian Cannuyre, Paris, Picard 2005.
Links to the Christian art of Egypt [Retrieved: 14.07.2014]:
• Selected monuments of Coptic art from the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw,
a history of the collection: http://www.mnw.art.pl/kolekcje/zbiory-studyjne/zbiorysztuki-starozytnej-i-wschodniochrzescijanskiej/kolekcja-sztuki-koptyjskiej/
• The website of the Museum of Coptic Art in Cairo, information on the history of the
museum and the culture of the Copts: http://www.coptic-cairo.com/museum/museum.
html
• A presentation of the Coptic Museum and its exhibits: https://www.youtube.com/wat-
muzea.malopolska.pl
ch?v=suiFcUHUa1E
http://easternchristianbooks.blogspot.com/2013/10/coptic-christian-heritage.html
• A presentation of the book which is a comprehensive introduction to Coptic heritage:
The Coptic Christian Heritage, Lois M. Farag Monuments of Coptic art from the Louvre, room
MAŁOPOLSKIEGO.
1: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coptic_Egypt_in_the_Louvre_-_
Room_1
• Selected bibliography on the Copts and Coptic fabrics: http://www.iub.edu/~iuam/online_modules/coptic/biblio.html
• Various monuments of Coptic art: https://www.google.pl/search?q=metropolitan+mu
seum+of+art+new+york+coptic&newwindow=1&sa=N&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=u
niv&ei=rxqjU5qhB5Cp7Ab8zICQAw&ved=0CIsBELAEOAo&biw=1366&bih=651
• Extensive bibliography for studies on the culture of the Copts: Coptic_Studies_Bibliography.Title_List_Owned_by_AUC.c.3.LM.LATEST
• Projekt graficzny
i wykonanie:
Anna Zabdyrska
• Prezentacja interaktywna:
Igor Szelest
• Redakcja:
Kinga Kołodziejska
muzea.malopolska.pl

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