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ISTANBUL3WCONGRESS 2013
Istanbul International
Solid Waste, Water and Wastewater
Congress 2013
ABSTRACTS
May 22-24, 2013
Istanbul-Turkey
ISTAC Inc.
Istanbul International Solid Waste, Water and Wastewater Congress 2013
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II
ORGANIZED BY
MAIN SPONSOR
GOLD SPONSORS
III
IV
LEADER COMMITTEE
Erdoğan BAYRAKTAR
Minister of Environment and Urbanism of Turkey
Prof. Dr. Veysel EROĞLU
Minister of Forestry and Water Affairs of Turkey
Dr. Kadir TOPBAŞ
Mayor of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality
V
HONORARY COMMITTEE
Erol KAYA
Chairman of the Environment Committee and Parliamentarian, Grand National Assembly of TURKEY, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Lütfi AKÇA
Undersecretary, Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, TURKEY
Ercan TIRAŞ
Undersecretary,Ministry of Environment and Urbanism, TURKEY
Sedat KADIOĞLU
Deputy Undersecretary, Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Adem BAŞTÜRK
Secretary General, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Mehmet KARACA
Rector, Istanbul Technical University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. M.Zafer GÜL
Rector, Marmara University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. İsmail YÜKSEK
Rector, Yildiz Technical University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Candeğer YILMAZ
Rector, Ege University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Mehmet FÜZÜN
Rector, Dokuz Eylul University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. İsrafil KURTCEPHE
Rector, Akdeniz University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Özer ÇINAR
Rector, International University of Sarajevo, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
Akif ÖZKALDI
Director General, State Hydraulic Works (DSI), TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Ahmet DEMİR
Director General, Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (ISKI), TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Cumali KINACI
Director General of Water Management, Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, TURKEY
Osman AKGÜL
Director General, Istanbul Environmental Management Industry and Trading Inc.(ISTAC), TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Ahmet M. SAATÇİ
President, Turkish Water Institute (SUEN), TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Hasan Z. SARIKAYA
Chairman of the Board of Trustees, International University of Sarajevo, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
VI
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Oktay TABASARAN
University of Stuttgart
Şenol YILDIZ
Istanbul Environmental Management Industry and Trading Inc. (ISTAC)
Cevat YAMAN
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality
Vahit BALAHORLİ
Esra ÖLMEZ
İsmail ÖZKAYA
Yelda AYDOĞAN
Esra TÜRKMENOĞLU
Emel ÇAKIR
Muhammet ECEL
Turkish Ministry of Environment and Urbanism
Ahmet VARIR
Murat Ersin ŞAHİN
Mehmet PATAN
Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (ISKI)
Eyüp DEBİK
Yildiz Technical University
Sinan BİLGİLİ
Yildiz Technical University
Osman ARIKAN
Istanbul Technical University
Barış ÇALLI
Marmara University
Bülent TOPKAYA
Akdeniz University
Görkem AKINCI
Dokuz Eylul University
Aslıhan KERÇ
Turkish Water Institute (SUEN)
Nuri AZBAR
Ege University
VII
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Listed alphabetically by last name
VIII
Prof.Dr. Fabrizio ADANI
The University of Milan, ITALY
Assoc. Prof. Mehmet ÇAKMAKÇI
Yildiz Technical University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Hayrullah AĞAÇÇIOĞLU
Prof. Dr. Ahmet DEMİR
Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Necati AĞIRALİOĞLU
Istanbul Technical University, TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Göksel DEMİR
Bahçeşehir University, TURKEY
Dr. Meshgan AL-AWAR
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Assoc. Prof. İbrahim DEMİR
Prof.Dr. Mahmoud ALAWI
University of Jordan, JORDAN
Prof. Dr. Luis F. DIAZ
CalRecovery,Inc., USA
Prof.Dr. İbrahim ALYANAK
Pamukkale University, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Filiz DİLEK
Middle East Technical University, TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Yaşar AVŞAR
Assoc. Prof. Ahmet DOĞAN
Yıldız Technical University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Mehmet Emin AYDIN
Selcuk University, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Güleda ENGİN
Gebze Institute of Technology, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Mahmoud A. AZEEM
Ain Shams University, EGYPT
Prof. Dr. Ertuğrul ERDİN
Dokuz Eylul University,TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Yaşar BAĞDATLI
Istanbul University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Martin FAULSTICH
German Federal Environmental Advisory Board, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Müfit BAHADIR
Braunschweig Technical University, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Ayşe FİLİBELİ
Dokuz Eylul University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Mufeed BATARSEH
Mutah University Prince Faisal Center for Dead Sea, JORDAN
Prof.Dr. Evangelos GIDARAKOS
Technical University of Crete Greece, GREECE
Prof.Dr. Frank BAUR
Saarland University, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Hüseyin GÖKÇEKUŞ
Near East University, TURKISH REPUBLIC of NORTHERN CYPRUS
Prof.Dr. Werner BIDLINGMAIER
Bauhaus University, GERMANY
Assist. Prof. Sami GÖREN
Fatih University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Erwin BINNER
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, AUSTRIA
Assoc. Prof. Ahmet GÜNAY
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, TURKEY
Dr. Murad Jabay BINO
INWRDAM, JORDAN
Assoc. Prof. Farzali HASANOV
Architecture and Construction University, AZERBAIJAN
Prof.Dr. Mehmet BORAT
Fatih University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Jaehyuk HYUN
Chungnam National University Korea, SOUTH KOREA
Prof.Dr. Paul BRUNNER
University of Vienna, GERMANY
Assoc. Prof. Bülent İNANÇ
Botas International, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Alessandra CARUCCI
The University of Cagliari, ITALY
Prof.Dr. Ubeyde İPEK
Firat University,TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Thomas Højlund CHRISTENSEN
Technical University of Denmark, DENMARK
Prof.Dr. Ercan KAHYA
Prof.Dr. Tanju KARANFİL
Clemson University, USA
Luciano PELLONI
TBF - Partner AG, SWITZERLAND
Prof.Dr. Mehmet KARPUZCU
University of Gaziantep, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Raffaella POMI
Sapienza University of Rome, ITALY
Prof.Dr. Bülent KESKİNLER
Gebze Institute of Technology, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Gerhard RETTENBERGER
University of Trier, GERMANY
Assoc. Prof. Rana KIDAK
Cyprus International University,
TURKISH REPUBLIC of NORTHERN CYPRUS
Prof.Dr. Marco RITZKOWSKI
Technical University of Hamburg, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Mehmet KİTİŞ
Suleyman Demirel University, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. İsmail KOYUNCU
Prof.Dr. Karl-J. Thomé KOZMIENSKI
TK-Verlag, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Martin KRANERT
University of Stuttgart, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Peter LECHNER
Boku University, AUSTRIA
Prof.Dr.Piet N.L.LENS
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education,
the NETHERLANDS
Prof.Dr. Karl E. LORBER
Leoben Montan, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Habib MUHAMMETOĞLU
Akdeniz University, TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Abdelmajid R. NASSAR
Islamic University, GAZA
Prof.Dr. Michael NELLES
Universität Rostock, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Yaşar NUHOĞLU
Thomas OBERMEIER
German Solid Waste Management Association (DGAW),
GERMANY
Assoc. Prof. Bestamin ÖZKAYA
Prof.Dr. Ahmet M. SAATÇİ
Turkish Water Institute, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Ahmet SAMSUNLU
Prof.Dr. Dilek SANİN
Dr. Orhan SEVİMOĞLU
Dr. Vadim SOKOLOV
Global Water Partnership Central Asia and Caucasus,
UZBEKISTAN
Prof.Dr. Rainer STEGMANN
Nanyang Technical University, SINGAPORE
Prof.Dr. Heidrun STEINMETZ
Prof.Dr. Zekai ŞEN
Turkish Water Foundation, TURKEY
Prof.Dr. İsmail TORÖZ
Prof.Dr. Kahraman ÜNLÜ
Prof.Dr. Gerhard VOGEL
Vienna University of Economics, GERMANY
Prof.Dr. Renatus WIDMANN
University of Essen, GERMANY
Dr. Cevat YAMAN
Prof.Dr. Ülkü YETİŞ
Prof.Dr. İzzet ÖZTÜRK
Prof. Dr. Lucjan PAWLOWSKI
Lublin University of Technology, POLONYA
IX
KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
Listed alphabetically by last name
Prof. Dr. Ömer AKGİRAY
Marmara University, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Dilek SANİN
Dr. Meshgan AL-AWAR
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Prof. Dr. Heidrun STEINMETZ
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Emin AYDIN
Selcuk University, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Zekai ŞEN
Turkish Water Foundation, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Azize AYOL
Dokuz Eylül University, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Erwin THOMANETZ
Mehmet BAŞ
Ministry of Environment and Urbanism, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Bülent TOPKAYA
Dr. Mufeed BATARSEH
Mutah University, JORDAN
Dr. Helge WENDENBURG
Ministry of Environment, GERMANY
Prof. Dr. Barış ÇALLI
Marmara University, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Ahmet DEMİR
Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Norbert DICHTL
Technische Universität Braunschweig, GERMANY
Assoc. Prof. Bülent İNANÇ
Botaş International Limited, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Cumali KINACI
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. İsmail KOYUNCU
Prof. Dr. Karl-J. Thomé KOZMIENSKI
TK-Verlag Berlin, GERMANY
Prof. Dr. Martin KRANERT
Prof. Dr. Joseph Paul MARTIN
Drexel University, UNITED STATES of AMERICA
Bruno MATTHEEUWS
Organic Waste Systems, BELGIUM
Prof. Dr. Habib MUHAMMETOĞLU
Prof. Dr. İzzet ÖZTÜRK
Luciano PELLONI
TBF-Partner AG, SWITZERLAND
Prof. Dr. Gerhard RETTENBERGER
TRIER University, GERMANY
Prof. Dr. Ahmet M. SAATÇİ
Turkish Water Institute, TURKEY
X
PREFACE
Catal Hoyuk was described historically as the largest city of Anatolia during ancient times,
hosting a population of six thousand people. These people, who were able to produce
objects by shaping and moulding different materials, lived in this first known metropol of
our geography, showing respect to the environment.
Water supply systems including water channels and tunnels, siphons, aquaducts, reservoirs,
cisterns and hamams (Turkish bath), which still remain today and date back to ancient
times of kingdoms, principalities and empires in Anatolia, the cradle of civilizations, are
thousand-year old witnesses of the importance attached to transfer, usage and disposal of
water.
Istanbul International Solid Waste, Water and Wastewater Congress 2013, which we
name as 3W, is held in Istanbul, the only and the largest metropol of the world in terms
of population and settlement area, which lies on two continents, and it addresses the vital
issues of the 21st century, namely sustainable management of water, wastewater and solid
waste.
The Istanbul International Solid Waste, Water and Wastewater Congress
(Istanbul3WCongress 2013), hosted by Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and ISTAC,
is organized with the cooperation of Ministry of Environment and Urbanism, Ministry of
Forestry and Water Affairs as well as various universities and institutions from Turkey and
abroad.
The Congress aims to bring related national/international academics, law makers, auditors,
and those who develop, apply and produce technology together with public - the target
audience of all these efforts. It also provide a platform which covers scientific sessions
where targets of the 21st century will be discussed apart from the World Mayors’ Meeting
which will be held with participations from 34 countries. There will also be training
courses, private sessions and exhibition at the Congress.
There are 289 oral and poster presentations in the abstracts of the Istanbul3WCongress2013
under the main topics; solid waste, water and wastewater. Furthermore, during the
registration, you will receive a memorystick which includes the full papers of the
presentations.
We would like to thank those who contributed to and participated in the event and wish the
Congress a successful outcome.
Executive Committee of the Istanbul3WCongress 2013
XI
XII
Istanbul International Solid Waste, Water And Wastewater Congress 2013
CONTENTS
ORAL PRESENTATIONS 1
SOLID WASTE 3
Establishment, Operation and Cost Analysis of Packaging Waste
Collection and Separation Plants
5
Waste Characterization Studies in Waste Management Municipality
Unions in Turkey - Methodology and Results
7
Enhancing Waste Reduction and Materials Recovery in Gaza Strip Palestine “Rafah City - Case Study”
10
Evaluation of Environmental Impacts of Grocery Shopping Bags
Manufactured from Recycled and Virgin High-Density
Polyethylene in Lagos Using LCA Approach
12
Lessons Learned on the Way to Realize Anaerobic Digestion Plants
15
The Effect of Disintegration Process on Anaerobic Degradation of
Treatment Plant Sludges: A Comperative Study
17
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ertan ARSLANKAYA, Serhan MADEN
Dr.-Ing. Bertram ZWISELE, Dipl.-Ing. Anja SCHWETJE
Samir Afifi, Ali Barhoum
Temitayo A. Ewemoje, Olufemi P. Abimbola
Dipl. Ing. Theo Schneider, Dipl.-Ing. Herbert Beywinkler
Gulbin Erden, Ayse Filibeli
Compost Production From Domestic Wastes and Benefits of Compost 19
Alpaslan KİRİŞ, Baki AYHAN, Turgay AYGÜN, Kadriye YILDIZ
25 Full-Scale DRANCO Anaerobic Digestion Plants, Experiences and
Opportunities
21
Waste Management and Corresponding Legislation in Macedonia
22
Solid Waste Management - Legal Regulations and Example of
Istanbul
24
Food Waste - A Challenge for Waste Prevention and
Resource Management
26
Investigation of Different Waste Management Scenarios on Effects
of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
28
Waste Incineration in the 21st Century Energy-Efficient and
Climate-Friendly Plant with the Martinsystem
30
L. De Baere, B. Mattheeuws
Biserka Dimiskovska
Cevat Yaman, Türker Eroğlu, İbrahim Öktem, Burcu Taşkınoğlu, Esma Fakihoğlu, Yeşim Işık
M. Kranert, G. Hafner, J. Barabosz
Hüseyin Güven, İzzet Öztürk
Dipl.Ing. Norbert Eickhoff
Waste Combustion Technology Developments for Large Scale Plants32
Dr.-Ing. J. Sohnemann, Dipl.-Ing. T. Maghon, Dr.-Ing. W. Schäfers
Selection of Project Site and ConCept Design for Istanbul Waste to
Energy Plant
34
Key Aspects for Successful PPP/PFI Waste to Energy Projects in
Turkey 36
Dr. Şenol Yıldız, Vahit Balahorli, Fatih Hoşoğlu, Kadir Sezer
Dr. Tobias Faber, Dr. Alexander Stefan Rieger
XIII
Anaerobic Digestion of the Organic Fraction of Municipal
Solid Waste in Europe: Status, Experience and Prospects
38
A Reference Process for Bioenergy Recovery for the Evaluation of
Beer Industry Wastes
39
Biogas Production from Waste of Biodiesel Process Mixed with
Treated Pome in Hybrid Bioreactor
41
Introduction of Food Wastes Into Municipal Wastewater as
A Sustainable Waste Management Option 43
Upgrading Anaerobic Digestion: Renewable Fertilizers Production
46
A Simple Approach for Modeling Waste Collection Activities by
Using Local Population and Map Info 48
Determination of the Actual Potential of Disposed Food Waste
From Private Households for A GIS-Based Bioresource Inventory
50
Forecasting Urban Solid Waste Generation - The Case of
Rio De Janeiro, Brazil
52
Spatial Integration of Waste Management Data in Urban Areas,
Case Study of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
54
Dynamic Modelling and Simulation of Solid Waste Processing and
Its Techno-Economic Impact
56
Methods to Categorize and Compare the Hazardousness of Waste
and Contaminated Matter
58
Solidification/Stabilization of Incineration Plants’ Residues
59
Medical Waste Management - Medical Waste Disposal in Istanbul
61
Evaluation of Waste Tires in the Context of Hazardous Waste
Management
63
Hydrogen Production from Pyrolysis-Catalytic Gasification of
Waste Tyres
65
Gülizar ÇALIŞKAN, Tuğba KESKİN GÜNDOĞDU, Gökhan GİRAY, Nuri AZBAR
C. Ruangchainikom, C. Wangnai and P. Kullavanijaya
Çiğdem Yangın-Gömeç, Özgür Özdemir, İzzet Öztürk
Fabrizio Adani, Laura Terruzzi, Giuliana D’Imporzano, Gabriele Boccasiel, Andrea Schievano
İsmail ÖZKAYA
Helmut Adwiraah, Rainer Stegmann
David Montero Dias, Carlos Barreira Martinez, Raphael Tobias de Vasconcelos Barros
Agata Rymkiewicz, Martin Kranert
Stefan Platzk, Frank Abel, Halit Ziya Kuyumcu
Erwin Thomanetz
Fatih Saltabas, Alpaslan Kiris, Bekir Tombul, Mustafa Hatipoglu, Mario Baldassarre
Cevat Yaman, Türker Eroğlu, İbrahim Öktem, Burcu Taşkınoğlu
Hatice Eser Ökten, Gulsah Akarsu, Hacer Handan Demir
Ibrahim F. Elbaba, Paul T. Williams
Selective Carbonation of Recycled Aggregates from Concrete First Results on Uptake Rate and Changes of the Material Properties 67
M. Seidemann, A. Müller, H.-M. Ludwig
Microbial Production of Pectin Lyase Using Various Agricultural
Wastes
Özlem Tepe, Arzu Y. Dursun
XIV
69
Challenges and Limitations of the Collection and Recycling of
Permanent Magnets from Small Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE)
71
Decontamination of Cr(VI) Polluted Sites
73
Extraction of Biomass from Municipal Solid Waste for
Biogasgeneration
76
Assessment of Different Aeration Concepts for Landfill In-Situ
Stabilization
78
Luise Westphal, Kerstin Kuchta
Karl E. Lorber, Peter Müller
Gerhard Rettenberger
Marco Ritzkowski
Comprehensive Environmental Assessment of New Sanitary Landfill
of Tehran 80
M.A. Abdoli, H. Hasanian, L. Amiri
Pilot Project on in Situ Aerobisation of Old Landfills - Results from
Kostanz Dorfweiher Landfill
82
Design and Evaluation of Landfill Concepts by Means of a Carbon
Load Balance and the Energy Demand
84
MBR Leachate Treatment: Wehrle Expertise 86
Systematic Approach for Management of High Strength Leachate
from Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
88
Application of Membrane Processes for Organic Carbon Removal
from Landfill Leachate 90
Progress of Sustainable Landfill Stabilization After 3 Years of
Leachate Recirculation at the Vlagheide Landfill (NL)
92
Necessity of Waste Incineration and Power Plants in Istanbul Solid
Waste Management
95
Simultaneous Leaching of Heavy Metals and Bioaccumulation
of Phosphorus from Sludge Combustion - a New Way of Resource
Reclaiming
97
Using of Landfill Gas Energy Generation Plant’s Waste Heat in
Greenhouses
98
Daniel Laux, Martin Reiser, Martin Kranert
Bidlingmaier Werner, Hädrich Gunnar
Kenan Güney and Bernd Fitzke
Edwin Safari
Güçlü INSEL, Serdar DOGRUEL, Nadir DİZGE, Emine COKGOR, Bülent KESKINLER
Willem van Vossen, Harm Peperkamp, Theo Folmer
Cevat Yaman, Orhan Sevimoğlu, Şenol Yıldız, Kubilay Kaya
Wolfgang Dott, Maxime Dossin, Petra Schacht
Volkan ENÇ, Musa KASIRGA
The New Waste to Energy Plant Forsthaus in Berne (Ch)
100
Recycling of Rare Earth Metals in Pre - Treatment Plants
103
Respirometric Method Applied to Biodegradation of Diesel and
Biodiesel in Soil
105
Luciano Pelloni, Markus Wieduwilt, Trimurti Irzan, David da Silva
Julia Hobohm, Katharina Szczepaniak, Kerstin Kuchta
Ederio Dino Bidoia, Ivo Shodji Tamada, Paulo Renato Matos Lopes, Jaqueline Matos Cruz, Renato Nallin Montagnolli
XV
A Feasibility Study for the Sultanbeyli Waste Seperation Plant
107
Public Awareness Campaigns in Solid Waste Management Through
Islamic Approaches: Review in Kelantan, Malaysia
109
Redevelopment of Landfill Sites (Rols)
111
Ummugulsum Alyuz, Goksel Demir, Kadir Yavuz Yildirim, Hatice Eser Okten
Affendi Ismail, Dr. Nur Azuki Yusuff
Willem van Vossen
WATER 115
Water Resources Planning for the Large Basins of Iran 117
Intercontinental Water Balancing
119
Dry Period Length Analysis of Rain in Istanbul
121
Sensitivity of the Hydrodynamics Model to Different Land Uses,
Case Study: Bartin Spring Watershed (Turkey)
124
Use of Swat Modeling for the Ecosystem Goods and Services
Assessment in the Azov Sea Basin
126
Ali Heidari, Eisa Bozorgzadeh
Necati ÇALIK - Aydın TURAN
Prof. Dr. Bihrat ÖNÖZ, Mehmet DİKİCİ, Cemile ÖZTÜRK
Melih Öztürk, Nadim Copty, Ali Kerem Saysel
Irina Gilfanova, Viktor Lagutov
Discharge in Irrigation Open Channels with Ultrasound Technique:
Influence of the Filling Level and Geometry
129
Solliec Laurent, Vazquez José, Dufresne Matthieu
The Impact of European Law on Water Sector. An Analysis of Two
Jurisdictions in Development: A Comparison of Italy and England
131
Searching Solutions to Water Issues: Water Governance
133
Indexing Water Security in Abbotabad (KP-Pakistan) in Perspective
of Climate Change and Institutional Capacity
135
Sustainable Urban Water Management in the Context of Climate
Change
137
Present and Future Challenges of Sustainable Water Supply to
Dhaka City
139
Studies in Turkey under Water Efficiency Practices for Water
Footprint and Virtual Water
141
Action Plans for 81 Cities and Settlements over 50.000 Population
143
The Treatment of Büyükçekmece Lake Water with UF Membrane
Processes
145
DSI Approach for Drinking Water Treatment Plant Projects
148
Marta Cerroni
Duygu Tuna, Aysegul Tanik
Dr. Musarrat Jabeen, Muhammad Umar, Bibi Saima Zaib, Adil Rasheed
Debarati Chakraborty, Kumarjit Goswami, Santosh K Ghosh
S. M. Mahbubur Rahman, Prof. Dr. M. Monowar Hossain
Fulya KALEMCİ, Selçuk COŞKUN, Nermin ÇİÇEK
Kamil CEYHAN
İbrahim Karali, Mehmet Çakmakçı, İsmail Koyuncu, Ahmet Demir,
Cengiz ÖZCAN
XVI
Sediment Load Prediction by Fuzzy Logic-Wavelet Combination
Method
Mehmet Özger, Mehmet Burak Kabataş
150
Occurrence of Organic Pollutants in Treated Wastewater Effluent
and Surface Waters under the Influence of Urban Catchment Areas 152
Marie Launay, Bertram Kuch, Ulrich Dittmer, Heidrun Steinmetz
Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water by Lime Softening
154
Study on Availability of Chlorıne Dioxide as a Disinfectant at
Büyükçekmece Water Treatment Plant
156
NDMA Formation Potentials in Sources and Control at Drinking
Water Treatment Plants
158
Optimization of the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) in Water and
Wastewater Treatment Plants (WTP), Methods and Case Studies
Based on Water Treatment Applications in Germany
159
Water Economics Project: Multi-Year Water Allocation System:
Developing A Country-Specific Model for Palestine
162
Towards Energy Saving and Green Energy Production in Mexican
WWTPs
164
Evaluation of Energy Efficiency Reserves in Pumping Stations over
Selected Pilot Stations
166
Hydrological and Hydrogeochemical Properties of Nemrut
(Aliaga- Izmir) Port
169
Mesopotamia Groundwater Quality Index Using Advanced GIS
Techniques
172
Researching of Pollution Level of Golden Horn-Istanbul, 2012
174
Surface Water Quality Management in Turkey
176
Management of Water Losses from Drinking Water Distribution
Network Using SCADA and Modelling
178
Water Management and Studies on Decreasing Water Loss/Illegal
Use Rate
180
Water Status in Gaza Strip
182
Breakdown Monitoring via Pressure Maps in Water Network
Operations
184
Safe Infrastructure against Natural Disasters 186
Meltem Bilici Baskan, Ayşegül Pala
İbrahim Karali, Mehmet Çakmakcı, S.Cengiz İleten, Ahmet Demir
Habibullah Uzun, Daekyun Kim, Tanju Karanfil
Dr.-Ing. Eckhard Roos
Karen Assaf , Anan Jayyousi, Beesan Shonnar, Kamal Issa, Hala Barhumi, Annette Huber-Lee, Frank Fisher
K. Peña Muñoz, H. Zúñiga Castillo
İhsan Mustafa Doğan, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Semiha Öztuna
Ertan KAZANASMAZ
Ali Muhammed Jawad Al_Khafaji
Dr. Cevat Yaman, Dr. Şenol Yıldız, Dr. Orhan Sevimoğlu, Hamdi Çinal, Vahit Balahorli, Fatih Hoşoğlu, Erol Tezcan
Ahmet Rıfat İLHAN, Sibel Mine GÜÇVER, Yakup KARAASLAN, Cumali KINACI, Lütfi AKCA
Habib Muhammetoglu, I.Ethem. Karadirek, Selami Kara, Goksenin Yilmaz, Ayşe Muhammetoglu, Kamil Cengiz
Gökhan CİNGÖZ, Fatih YILDIZ
Maher El Najjar
Kubilay KÖKER, Nadir MAZLUM
Cemalettin KALELİ
XVII
Objectives and Distances Done in the Groundwater Management
of Turkey
189
A New Approach for Long Lead Prediciton of Reservoir Inflows
191
Determination and Management of Sensitive Areas on the Basis of
Watershed in Turkey
193
Water Saving Potential in Tourist Resorts
195
Framing the Chemistry of Himalayan Water Conflict in South Asia
in Perspective of Climate Change
197
Adaptation to the Climate Change within the Water Sector Development of a Guideline for Regional and Local Authorities
199
Utilization of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for Water
Breakdowns and Web-Based Notification System
201
Elemental Sulfur-Based Autotrophic Denitrification Processes
for Drinking Water Treatment
204
Degradation of Isoproturon by Advanced Oxidation Processes and
Analysis of Toxicity of Byproducts
206
Impact of Effluent on Wetland Ecosystem and Waste Management
for Productivity and Sustainability in Indian Sub-Continent
208
Özgür GÜNHAN, Özgür ÇAKMAK, Yakup KARAASLAN
Mehmet Özger, Halil İbrahim Türkoğlu
Necla ADALI, Zakir TURAN, Yakup KARAASLAN
Demet Antakyalı, Doğan Çuha, Fatih Pullu, Heidrun Steinmetz
Dr. Musarrat Jabeen, Dr. Aamara Mumtaz, Mariam Arif,
Heilmann, Andrea, Pundt, Hardy
Kubilay KÖKER, Nadir MAZLUM
Erkan Sahinkaya, Nesrin Dursun, Adem Kilic, Ozer Cinar,
Rana Kıdak, Şifa Doğan
Anandamoy Puste, Tanuj Kumar Mandal, Dilip Kumar Das
Identification of a Feasible Treatment Process to Valorize Dredged
Sediments from Small Italian Harbours
210
Sara Dastoli, Giorgia De Gioannis, Maurizio Morelli, Aldo Muntoni, Roberto Peretti, Alessandra Polettini,
Raffaella Pomi, Elena Romano, Antonello Serci, Alessio Stramazzo, Barbara Villani, Antonello Zucca
Use of Post-Epimerized Alginate in Turbidity Removal
Çiğdem Kıvılcımdan Moral, Helga Ertesvåg, F. Dilek Sanin
212
WASTEWATER 215
Environmental Technology Lab of Europe - Experience, Status and
Future Opportunities in the German Southwest
217
The Former German Waste Oil Levy’s Ideas and System as a Possible
Tool for an Effective Resource Protection
218
Dr.-Ing. Hannes Spieth, Dr. Ferdinand Poh, Heike Rathgeb
Ralf Ramin
Economical Wastewater Technologies for Small Settlement Areas 221
İlhan BAYRAM, GulcanTURAN, Faruk NAZİK
The Current Trenchless Experiences and Rehabilitation Needs of
Sewer System in Istanbul
223
Resource Oriented Sanitation
224
Ahmet GULEC, Ismet CONTAR
Heidrun Steinmetz
XVIII
Effect of Treated Wastewater on Fusarium Wil of Tomato and Sweet
Corn and Host Resistance
226
Shaher Arabiat, Ahmad AL-Momany, Abdelnabi Fardous
Influence of Operational Parameters on the Sonolysis of
Oxytetracycline (OTC) Degradation
228
The Pollutant Loads Discharged to the Aegean Sea by the Rivers
Flowing Through the City of Izmir
230
The Investigation of Dominated Anaerobic Bacteria Throughout
Degradation of a Raw Antibiotic Industry Wastewater
232
Removal of Tetracycline from Aqueous Solutions by Micro-Scale
Zero Valent Iron
234
Duygu Karaalp, Nuri Azbar
Gorkem Akinci, Elif Duyusen Guven, Gulden Gok, Sanem Keles Uğurlu
Delia T. SPONZA, Nefise ERDINCMER
Özge Hanay, Burçin Yıldız, Sibel Aslan, Halil Hasar
Anaerobic Digestion of Black Water in Eudiometer Scale at Various
Loading Rates 236
K. Mouarkech, H. Steinmetz
Kinetics of Cyanide (Cn-) Degradation by Microalgae in Aqueous
Solution
238
Long-Term, Full-Scale Experiences with Wastewater Reuse in
Braunschweig/Germany - the Example of a Successful
Implementation
240
Domestic Wastewater Recycle Applications in Istanbul
242
Treatment and Reuse of Industrial Wastewater Occurred Due to
Bus Maintenance Operations; A Case Study of Ikitelli Bus Garage
244
X-Flow Ultrafiltration for Municipal and Industrial Effluent
Re-Use
246
Zehra Gök, Esra Yel
Norbert Dichtl, Daniel Klein, Bernhard Teiser
Ahmet DEMİR, Osman YILDIZ, Ali İNCİ
Hayri BARACLI,, Fatmanur YILMAZ, Atilla AKKOYUNLU, Hurrem BAYHAN
Frans Knops, Gulsah Yildirim
Optimization of the Energy Output of Wastewater Treatment Plants 248
Christian Locher, Heidrun Steinmetz
ISKI Pasakoy Wastewater Treatment Plant: Response Surface
Optimization of Disinfection by CLO2
250
Remote Real-Time Wastewater Monitoring System
252
Effect of the Anaerobic Digester Filtrate to WWTP Performance in
the Controlling the Biomass and Thickening
254
Determination of the Factors Effecting the Turbine Energy
Conversion Efficiency and the Benefits of its Use
256
Phosphor Recovery from Sludge Ashes: Preliminary Tests in an
Induction Oven
258
M.Mevra Yalvaç, Osman Yıldız
Gülay BOZDAĞ
Dilek Erdirençelebi, Murat Küçükhemek
Ugur Orun, Ali Inci
Carla Cimatoribus, Fatah Naji, Martin Kranert, Harald Raupenstrauch
XIX
Identification of Winter Bulking and Foaming Filaments in the
Konya Wastewater Treatment Plant
259
Evaluation of Sludge Production Potential of a Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plant - Operators Perspective
262
Evaluation of Drying and Incineration Alternatives in Sludge
Treatment by Focusing on the Energy Recovery Factor
264
Tertiary Membrane Bioreactor (TMBR) - New Concept for
Large-Scale Wastewater Reuse
266
Genotoxicity Evolution During the Applcation of Advanced
Oxidation Processes: A Case Study with the Nonionic Surfactant
Nonylphenol Decaethoxylate
268
Aerobic Granular Sludge Reactors for the Treatment of
Chlorinated Aromatic and Aliphatic Compounds
270
Aluminium Electrode Dissolution in Electrocoagulation Process
273
Production and Characterization of Two Polyethersulfone
Flat-Sheet Membranes at Different Temperatures Using Various
Concentrations of Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
275
Treatment of a Corrugated Box Manufacturing Plant Wastewater
by Electrocoagulation and Optimization Through Response
Surface Methodology
277
Wastewater Treatment of Synthetic Textile Effluent Using Anodic
Oxidation Process: Influence of Dye Structural
279
Comparison of P-Free and P-Based Antiscalants for Nanofiltration
of Dye-Wash Wastewater
281
Proactive Approach in Sewer Rehabilitation 283
The Actual Status of the Organized Industrial Zones in Terms of
Industrial Wastewater, Encountered Problems and Solution
Proposals
284
Urban Wastewater Treatment and Discharge
286
Enhancement of Biohydrogen Production via Thermophilic Cell
Culture Immobilized on Glass Beads and Raschig Rings with
Different Sizes
288
Production of Electricity and Wastewater Treatment with
Microbial Fuel Cell
290
Esra Yel, Sezen Kucukcongar, Zehra Gok, Merve Sogancioglu, Ahmet Aygun, Murat Kucukhemek
Ayşe Okşan Yavuz, Dr.Burcu Didem Özdemir, Osman Yıldız
Ugur Orun
Jan Hadler, Jack Noble
Akin Karci, Idil Arslan-Alaton, Gul Ozhan, Buket Alpertunga, Miray Bekbolet
Stefano Milia, Alessandra Carucci, Giovanna Cappai, Marianna Perra
Saidat Olanipekun Giwa, Canan Pekel, Sule Camcioglu, Suna Ertunc, Mustafa Alpbaz, Hale Hapoglu
Mehmet Emin Pasaoglu, Serkan Guclu, Ismail Koyuncu
Belgin Karabacakoğlu, Filiz Tezakıl
H. Akrout, N. Abdessamed, L. Bousselmi
Kenan Güney, Eren Kurt, Ralf Minke, Ismail Koyuncu, Heidrun Steinmetz
Ahmet GULEC, Berkay OTUMLU, Ismet CONTAR
Yüksel ACAR, Ali ÇOBAN
Elif Aköyek, Tuğba Keskin Gündoğdu, Nuri Azbar
Emre Oğuz KÖROĞLU, Arda KARLUVALI, Büşra AKOĞLU, Afşin ÇETİNKAYA, Bestamin ÖZKAYA
XX
Energy Management and Application Activities in Wastewater
Management
292
Enhancement of Biological Process with Immobilized Cell
Bioreactor for Valorization of Crude Glycerol Came from
Biodiesel Production
294
Evaluation of Sludge Management Alternatives for Kayseri
Wastewater Treatment Plant in Turkey
296
Osman Yıldız, Kaan Dumankaya, Kevser Karakaya, Bedia Kurtuluş
Çağdaş GÖNEN, Mine ,GÜNGÖRMÜŞLER, Nuri AZBAR
Osman Arıkan, Mahmut Altınbaş, Özgür Özdemir, İzzet Öztürk
Pretreatment, Reclamation and Disposal Processes for Wastewater
Treatment Sludge - Sample Applications
298
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim ALYANAK,
Studies towards Increasing the Performance of Biogas Units in
Wastewater Treatment Plants
Osman Yıldız, Bedia Kurtuluş
301
Use of Omerli Drinking Water Treatment Plant Sludge at Industrial
Scale Brick Production
303
Şenol YILDIZ, Volkan ENÇ, Aynur KEMİRTLEK, Mustafa KARA, Yasemin TABAK
Treatment of Textile Wastewater with TiO2 Magnetic Nanoparticle 305
Karim Movassaghi, Laleh Enayati Ahangar, Masoomeh Emadi, Angelo Chianese, Fahimeh Bahrami
Jet-Loop Anaerobic Reactor Performance for the Treatment of
Olive Mill Wastewater
Sonia Khoufi, Assawer Louhichi, Sami Sayadi
307
Proposal for Color and Heavy Metal Removal from Textile
Wastewater by Cross-Linked Polyelectrolyte Composite Membranes 309
Bestenur Kurtulus, Dogan Akcan, Lütfi Arda, Hatice Eser Ökten, Perihan Kurt Karakuş, Göksel Demir, Aslı Çoban,
İbrahim Ertuğrul Yalçın, Ömer Lütfi Uyanık
Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater by Chemical Processes:
Effect of Acid Cracking Pretreatment
311
Electrocoagulation Treatment of Textile Wastewater
313
POSTER PRESENTATIONS 315
GENERAL TOPICS 317
Calculation and Evaluation of Individual Carbon Footprint
319
Assessment of Water Security Perception in Perspective of Climate
Change in Balochistan
321
Evaluation of the Landfill Gas Management Options for
the Reduction of Environmental Impacts of Landfills
323
The Safety of Water and Wastewater Lines against Earthquake
325
Productivity and Efficiency in Water Management and
Performance Indicators - Into the 21st Century
326
B. Hande Gürsoy-Haksevenler, Idil Arslan-Alaton
Lütfiye Canan Pekel, Sule Camcioglu, Kamran Polat, Hale Hapoglu, Mustafa Alpbaz
Sevde ÜSTÜN, Hanife BÜYÜKGÜNGÖR
Dr. Musarrat Jabeen, Ehsan Inamullah, Rubeena Batool Rabia Azhar
İpek Yılmaz, MustafaYıldırım, Mehmet Yurdakul, Bülent Topkaya
Ahmet GULEC, Fatih YILDIZ
Ahmet GULEC, Tevfik GÖKSU
XXI
Idealizing the Global and National Water Management Legislation
by Comparison
327
Faruk Dikmen, Adem ESEN
Energy Life Cycle Costing of Cypriot Family Houses with Double
Glazed Windows
329
Public Awareness Campaigns in Solid Waste Management through
Islamic Approaches in Malaysia
331
Analyses of the Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Pharmaceutical
Product Inventories
332
Key Aspects for Successful PPP/PFI Waste-to-Energy Projects
in Turkey 333
SOLID WASTE 335
Solid Waste Conversion and Future Promise of Environmental
Management
337
Sources of Organic Wastes to Improve the Fertility of Degraded
Soils in the Republic of Moldova
339
Solid Waste Management in India
341
Bioidentification of Xenobiotics as a Part of Wastewater Control
343
Automatic Sorting of Mixed C&DW Recycled Aggregates by NearInfrared Technology 345
Feasibility Study Sustainable Material and Energy Recovery from
Landfills in Europe
347
Valuing of Olive Pomace as an Adsorbent
350
Yashar Mohamadi
Affendi Ismail
K. Louhab, S. Boughrara
Innocent Kahigana
Leah Tamara
Suresh Gholse
Valerii D. Tonkopii
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Schnellert, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Horst-Michael Ludwig, Dr.-Ing. Elske Linß
Willem van Vossen
Sibel Aslan, E. Işıl Arslan Topal, Murat Topal
Rheological Properties of Bituminous Binder Modified with Textile
Wastes Liquefied by Pyrolysis Method
352
Osman Nuri ÇELİK, Neslihan ATASAĞUN, Mehmet Ali LORASOKKAY
Improvement of Agricultural Soil by Microbial Carbonated
Organic Waste
Wonschik, Claus-Robert, Heilmann, Andrea
353
Assessment of Mixed Municipal Solid Waste Composting in Different
Countries in the Arab Region
355
Ayman Elnaas, Dr. Abdallah Nassour, Prof. Michael Nelles
Econometric Model of Estimating Economic Costs of Municipal
Solid Waste Management in Tirunelveli City
357
Recovery of Tellurium from Waste Thermoelectric Materials
with Hydrometallurgical Processes
358
James Inbanathan Sacratees
Hwa-Young Lee, Joon-Chul Choı
XXII
Factors Affecting Quality of Compost Produced from Agricultural
Waste: Assessment of Risk
361
Kostas Komnitsas, Dimitra Zaharaki, Despina Vamvuka
Use of Agricultural Wastes in Production of Endo Pectinase Enzyme 363
A GIS Approach for Olive Mill Wastewater Evaporation Pond
Selection Using Multi Criteria Analysis
365
Research of the Usage of Construction Rubbles in Asphalt Mixes
as Aggregates
367
Resource Management and Municipal Solid Waste Management
Economical and Ecological Potential
368
Solid Waste Management in the Palestinian Territories 2010-2014
369
Investigations of Effects of Seed on Anaerobic Digestion of
Organic Fragtion of Municipal Solid Waste in Bioreactors
370
Recovering of Construction Waste
Root Development of Cucumıs Sativus in Contaminated Soil
372
373
Moncef Zairi, Abdelwaheb Aydi and Rakia S’habou
İ.Sönmez, S.A.Yıldırım, A.Topcu
Hafner, Gerold
Taghreed Hithnawi Salah
Derya Aktaş, Osman Nuri Ağdağ
Ederio Dino Bidoia, Jaqueline Matos Cruz, Paulo Renato Matos Lopes, Ivo Shodji Tamada, Renato Nallin Montagnolli
Rhamnolipids Production by Pseudomonas from Soybean Soapstock 375
Ederio Dino Bidoia, Paulo Renato Matos Lopes, Renato Nallin Montagnolli, Jonas Contiero
Seagull Population Control in Landfill
377
Phytoremediation of Cadmium Contaminated Soil and Pyrolysis
of Used Hyperaccumulator Plants
379
Adaptation of Plant Tolerance Test for Compost in Addis Ababa
381
Impacts of Biowaste Management on Environment
383
Waste Management in Petrochemical Complexes, Case Study:
Petrochemical Especial Economic Zone, Iran
385
Ecology of Land and Climate Change: The Role of Non-Descript
Lands in India
387
Solid Waste Management at the Samsun Carsamba Airport
389
Upgrading MBT Plant to Produce Biodried Waste
391
The Facilities of Using Recycled Wood Composite Materials in
Urban Landscape Design
393
Solid Waste Recycling Potential of Aksaray Province
395
Ahmet Emin Yıldırım, Volkan ENÇ
Aysun Ozkan, Mufide Banar, Zerrin Cokaygil, Alev Kulac, Gulser Yalcın, Kadriye Taspinar, Abdullah Altay
Lena Wetzel, Agata Rymkiewicz, Nicolas Escalante
Bülent Topkaya, Martin Kranert
Sajjad Karimi, Mohammad Ali Abduli, Maryam Abbasi, Alireza Noorpoor
M. M. Adhikary, S. K. Acharya, K. Brahmachari
Asist. Prof. Dr. E. Burcu Özkaraova Güngör
Fabrizio Adani, Giuliana D’Imporzano, Alessandro Forte, Alessandro Giardilello
E. Figen İlke, Veli İlke, Zeki Candan, Erkan Avcı, Oktay Gönültaş
Melayib Bilgin, Şevket Tulun
XXIII
Adsorption of Naproxen Sodium by Clay
397
Characterization of Gas Emissions Resulted from Tire Derived
Fuel Pyrolysis
398
Evaluation of Some Local Material Resource Sutability in
Concrete Formulation for Construction Industry in Nigeria
400
Situation and Needs Analysis for Disposal of Biodegradable
Wastes without Landfill
402
Rehabilitation of Aggregate Source Area by Inert Waste Mono
Landfilling
404
Rehabilitation of Glycol Based Drilling Mud Wastes
405
Evaluation of the Mercury Pollution, Caused by the Dental
Amalgam. Cases of Dentists Rooms of El Khroub City 407
Integrated Management of Solid Waste in Algeria. What Prospects
for the Sanitary Landfills?
408
Research for Preparation of Waste Management Plans and
Applicability of Waste Risk Analyses in Antalya Airport According
to Green Airport Management System
410
Electronic Waste Management Examination and Results of Daily
Activities: The World and Turkey Examples
411
Biosorption of Precious Metals from Municipal Solid Waste
Incineration Bottom Ash
413
Effect of Municipal Solid Waste Compost from the Town of Chlef
(Algeria) on the Soil
415
The Effect of Soil Treatment Sludge Amendment Doses to the Corn
Cultivation Yield and Crop Iron Content
416
Jale Gülen, Özlem Demir
Müfide Banar, Zerrin Çokaygil, Aysun Özkan, Vildan Akyıldız
Adebola A. Adekunle, Ibuku S. Salako
Murat Cem Ertürk
Cem Avcı, Emre Eren, Arzu Firidin, Ayşe Berkay
Pavel Spirov, Svetlana Rudyk, Gulraiz Khan
Mohamed Salah MEDJRAM, Amina BENAISSA
Kehila Youcef
Hande KARTAL Asst.Prof.Dr. Süleyman ŞAKAR
Ebubekir EKİNCİ
Mehmet Ali Küçüker, Kerstin Kuchta
Kheira Dahmani, Naima Tahraoui Douma, Djamel Saidi
Bülent Yağmur, Gorkem Akinci, Ertuğrul Erdin
WATER 417
Integrated Water and Waste Management for the Fishing
Community at Kasensero Landing Site
419
Economic Technologic Water Supply to Istanbul
421
Micheal Kuteesa
Necat Özgür
Application of the Simple and Crossed Wavelets Analysis of Trends in
the Rainfall-Runoff Relation by Using the GR2M Model: Case of the
K’sob Watershed (East Algeria)
423
BENKADJA Rachid,OUADAN Mustapha Lamine
XXIV
Supply Water Using Patterns and Health Impacts on Urban Dwellers:
A Case Study of Residents Perceptions in Chittagong City,
Bangladesh
425
Morshed Hossan Molla, Mohammad Abu Taiyeb Chowdhury, Kazi Md. Barkat Ali
Views from the Frontline (VFL) Nigeria
428
Adsorption of Arsenic from Aqueous Solutions by Fe(III) Loaded
Activated Carbon
429
Towards Sustainable Water Quality: Management of Rainwater
Harvesting Cisterns in Southern Palestine
431
Development of Irrigation Management to Conserve Fresh Water
Resource
432
Evaluation of Gordes (Turkey) Zeolite in Magnetic form as
a Potential Adsorbent
434
Development of a Toolbox Model for Integrated Urban Water
Management Case Study Area Darkhan, Kharaa Catchment,
Mongolia
436
Treatment of PCP from Aqueous Solutions by Medium Frequency
Ultrasound and TiO2 Combined Ultrasonic Irradiation 438
Brass Materials Using in Drinking Water Supply and the Effect of
Water Quality (Iski’s Example)
440
Assessing Surface Water Quality Indicator Based on Physico
Chemical Parameters
441
The Toxic Effetcs of 2-Chlorophenol and 2,4-Dichlorophenol on
Fresh Water Fish Development
443
Rain Water Harvesting Models for Urban and Periurban Areas in
Various Ecological Zones in Nigeria
444
Temporal Analysis of Water Quality Data from the Cazones River,
Mexico; Throught Statistical Methods 446
Water Resources Management in the Republic of Azerbaijan:
Overview and Outlook
448
Otu, Uwem Robert
Aslı Özge Avcı Tuna, Ülker Beker
Adel Alsalaymeh, Issam Al-Khatib, Hassan Arafat
Nemeer M. Al-sarraf, Mahnd A. Nayf Younis
Esra Bilgin Simsek, Ülker Beker
Londong Jörg, Rost Grit
Kazem Nosrati
Zeynep CEYLAN, Aysun ALTIKAT, Zehra YAZICI, Turgay ŞİŞMAN
Sridhar Mynepalli, Akinwale Coker, Popoola Musiliu
Eduardo Santillán-Gutiérrez, Jacobo Rodriguez-Campos, Gustavo Dávila-Vazquez, Jose de Anda-Sanchez
Gıyasettin Güneş, Elsad Javadzade
A 2D Oil Spill Model Using Radial Basis Function Collocation Method449
Tunay ÇARPAR
Dependable Discharges for Lower Diayla River Basin
451
Analyzing on Remote Access of Drinking Water Plants
453
Dr. Alaa H. Al - Shami
Orhan TOPAL, Nurettin UMURKAN
XXV
Marine Pollution:Plastic Debris
455
The New Vision in Sustainable Urban Water Management
457
Usage of Cuo for Degradation of Humic Substances
459
Access to Adequate, Safe Drinking Water for Vulnerable
Communities in Opt 461
Extraction of Mercury(II) from Aqueous Samples by Anion
Exchange on Silica Phase
463
Ship Waste Management in the Port of Igoumenitsa, Greecetext
465
Quantitative Determination of Nine N-Nitrosamines at Nanogram
Per Liter Levels in Water by SPE-UPLC/MS/MS
467
Evaluation of Physicochemical Quality of Groundwater in
the Region of Marrakech Morocco
469
A Rapid UPLC-DAD Method for the Determination of Chlorophenols
in Water Samples
470
Pricing of Water in Terms of Protection of Water Resources and its
Significance
472
Merve KOPUZ
Canan KARAKAŞ ULUSOY
Ozge TURKAY, Hatice INAN
Majeda A. Alawneh
Mirna Daye, Baghdad Ouddane, Jalal Halwani, Mariam Hamze
Paraskevi E. Beza
Yassine Kadmi, Lidia Favier, Dominique Wolbert
S. El fadeli, R. Bouhouch, M. Chaik, Y. Barkouch, A. Aboussad, N.Lekouch, R. F. Hurrell, M.B. Zimmermann, A.Sedki
Yassine Kadmi, Lidia Favier, Isabelle Soutrel, Dominique Wolbert
Mehmet GÖKSU, Adem ESEN
Use of Information Technologies for Solid Waste, Water and
Wastewater Management Breakdown Follow up of CRM Customer
Relations Management Records Over GIS Geographical Information
System
474
Çetin Çibuk
Technology of Management in WasteWater Mineralization
476
The Optimum Alum Dose Based on the Zeta Potential
477
Wastewater Management Data Warehouse Decision Support System
479
Wastewater Management Use of Mobile Signature
482
Use of Information Technologıes for Solid Waste, Water and
Wastewater Management GSM and 3G Communication on Rental
Lines (Over L2TP)
484
Monitoring of Seasonal Variations of Trihalomethane and
Haloasetic Acid Formation in Istanbul Drinking Water
486
Dr. Shuhrat Muradov
Moharram Fouad, Saad Amer, Kassim El-Alfi
Zekai Hayrioğlu
Asuman Akyıldız Elmalı, Taner Mutlu
Mehmet ÜNAL
Şenay Soylu, Tufan Topal, Vedat Uyak, Kadir Özdemir, Şahin Özaydın
XXVI
Wastewater Management ISKI Water Management Online
Information Sharing (WS Technology)
487
The Impact of Pollution on the the Bouregreg Estuary (Morocco,
Atlantic Ocean): the Molluscs as an Indicator of Metal
Contamination
490
Lead Contamination in Soil, Drinking Water and Plants from
Marrakech Area, Morocco
493
Turgut ÖZCAN
Essediya CHERKAOUI, Abderrahman NOUNAH, Mohamed KHAMAR
S. El fadeli, R. Bouhouch, A. El abbassi, M. Chaik, A. Aboussad, N.Lekouch, R. F. Hurrell, M.B. Zimmermann, A.Sedki
Types of Pipelines Used in Water Supply Transmission Lines and Field
Applications of State Hydraulic Works
495
Burak Yusuf Özel
WASTEWATER 497
Usability of Trout Restaurant Wastes to Adsorp Cu2+ Ions from
Aqueous Solutions
499
Removal of Heavy Metals from Metal Plating Wastewater
by Fish Bone Adsorption
501
Integrated Automation Applied to Wastewater Treatment Plant
SCADA System
503
Murat TOPAL, E.Işıl ARSLAN TOPAL, Sibel ASLAN
Sibel ASLAN, Murat TOPAL, Erdal ŞİMŞEK, E.Işıl ARSLAN TOPAL
Armin Müller, Eduardo Poupard
Recovery of Copper in Wastewater from Electroless Plating Process504
Hwa Young Lee, Hyun Baek Ko
Development of a Flow Rate Sensor for Open Channels with
Smaller Dimensions
Solliec Laurent, Vazquez José, Dufresne Matthieu
507
Grey Water Recycling System to Aid Sustainable Water Management 509
Nuray ORUÇTUT
Fungal Bioremediation of Contaminated Water by Phenol Using
Aspergillus Niger: Application of Full Factorial Design
511
Evaluation of the Firms Operating in the Field of Electrolytic
Metal Plating in Istanbul in Terms of Industrial Wastewater and
Environmental Impacts
513
Determination of the Occurrence and Elimination of Endocrine
Disrupting Compounds (EDCS) in Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Plants (WWTP)
515
Green Infrastructure Practices for Sustainable Urban
Stormwater Management
517
The Water Quality of the Izmit Gulf and Marmara Sea is Increasing
with Wastewater Scada System
518
Amina Hellal, Latifa Tebbouche, Dalila Hank
Yüksel ACAR, Ali ÇOBAN
Claudia Lange, Bertram Kuch, Jörg W. Metzger
Aydın Özdemir
İlhan Bayram, Osman Dalkılıç, Murat Sönmez
XXVII
Dye Removal from Wastewater by Adsorption on Organic/Inorganic
Hybrid Developed from Nanoporous Silica: Adsorption Equilibrium
and Kinetics
521
Afsaneh Shahbazi, Alireza Badiei, Arghavan Mirahsani
Methodology to Develop Reference Substances for Measurement
of Organic Micropollutants in Wastewater Systems and Surface
Waters
523
Elimination of Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater Treatment
Effluent Using UV/Chlorine Advanced Oxidation Treatment
525
Management of Waste Sludge at Pasakoy Advanced Biological
Wastewater Treatment Plant 527
Characterization of Inlet Water of Ataköy, Tuzla and Paşaköy
Advanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Plants
529
Colour Remove System Based on Ozone Technology
531
Treated Textile Effluent Effect on Periphytic Biofilm
533
Biodiesel and Petroleum Derived Diesel Biodegradation Kinetics in
Wastewater Compared by Respirometric Assays
535
Investigation of Fate of Tetracycline in Elazig Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plant
537
Nutrient Removal from Domestic Secondary Efflunts by Lipid
Containing Microalgae, Scenedesmus Obliquus and Chlorella
Emersonii
539
High Purity Recovery of Water and Organic Compounds from
Industrial Wastewater
541
Industrial Wastewater Treatment with Membrane Process
543
Pretreatment of Olive Mill Wastewater by Electrocoagulation
545
Heidrun Steinmetz, Asya Drenkova-Tuhtan, Bertram Kuch, Claudia Lange
Eduard Rott, Claudia Lange, Bertram Kuch, Ralf Minke, Heidrun Steinmetz
Mehmet SERT, Celil ASLAN, Harun TÜRKMENLER, Mustafa AYDIN
Osman Yıldız, Bedia Kurtuluş, Esra Hallaç
Tolga Bozdağ
Ederio Dino Bidoia, Mariana Lopes de Sousa
Ederio Dino Bidoia, Renato Nallin Montagnolli, Paulo Renato Matos Lopes
Murat TOPAL, Gülşad USLU, E.Işıl ARSLAN TOPAL, Erdal ÖBEK
Yusuf Saatçi, Sibel Aslan, Demet Kılınç, Esra İlhan
Filiz Ugur Nigiz, Derya Unlu, Nilufer Durmaz Hilmioglu
Derya Ünlü, Filiz Uğur Nigiz, Nilüfer Durmaz Hilmioğlu
Tugba DINCER, Hatice INAN, Anatoli DIMOGLO, Ozge TURKAY
TiO2 Degussa P25 Photocatalytic Activity Azo Dye, Water Purification 547
Gülhan Köneçoğlu, Şafak Toygun, Yasemen Kalpaklı, Mesut Akgün
Nutrient Removal from Human Urine 549
The Payback Period of an Anaerobic Treatment Plant in a
Pharmaceutical Industry
551
Elif Alaydin, Hatice Inan, Anatholy Dimoglo
T. Coskun, H.A. Kabuk, K. Varınca, E. Debik
Sludge Accumulation in Oxidation Ditch Plants: Large Scale Study 553
Moharram Fouad, Ahmed El-Morsy
Flow Quality Management of Wastewater Lines
İsa YILMAZ, Bahattin ALİŞAN, Ramazan SARITEMUR
XXVIII
556
Flood Risk Management
İsa YILMAZ, Bahattin ALİŞAN, Ramazan SARITEMUR
559
Treatment of Textile Dyehouse Wastewater by Immobilized Enzymes 561
Mithat Celebi, Mehmet Arif Kaya, Melda Altikatoglu, Huseyin Yildirim
An Investigetion on Submarine Tailings Disposal of a Copper Mine
Into the Black Sea Anoxic Zone
563
Protecting and Managing Urban Water Sources
565
Grown up Applications with ‘Dry Mounted’ Membranes
567
Mixed Micelles Cloud Point Extraction of Phenolic Compounds
from Table Olive Wastewaters
569
Recovery and Concentration of Polyphenols from Table Olive
Processing Wastewaters by Direct Contact Membrane Distillation
571
Removal of Phosphorus and Potassium from Synthetic Aqueous
Solutions through the Precipitation of Magnesium Potassium
Phosphate Hexahydrate
573
Septic Tank Internal Layers Characterization: Implications for
Septic Sludge Management 575
Polyphenols Recovery from Pretreated Olive Mill Wastewaters
Using Cloud Point Extraction Method
577
Simultaneous COD Reduction and Mannitol Removal
by Nanofiltration Membrane
579
The Photolytic Degradation of Olive Mill Wastewater
by O3/UV/NaBO3 and Lime Treatment 581
Naim Sezgin, Semih Nemlioglu
Azadeh Rezafar
Ronald van ‘t Oever, Rob Borgerink, Gulsah Yildirim
Jihane Raiti, El Abbassi Abdelilah, Hajar Kiai, Abdellatif Hafidi
Hajar Kiai, El Abbassi Abdelilah, Abdellatif Hafidi, Maria Carmen García-Payo, Mohamed Khayet
Benltifa Mahmoud, Ben Hammouda Mohamed, Hamzaoui Ahmed Hichem, Jellali Salah
Renata Cristina Chagas, Sérvio Túlio Alves Cassini, João Batista Gomes de Melo, Cristiane de Oliveira Veronesi,
Jessica Carla da Silva, Ricardo Franci Gonçalves
Abdelilah El-Abbassi, Hajar Kiai, Jihane Raiti, Abdellatif Hafidi
Toufik Chaabane, André Darchen, Rachida Maachi
Mehmet Uğurlu, M. Hamdi Karaoğlu, A.İmran Vaizoğullar and Selma Baştan
XXIX
XXX
ORAL
PRESENTATIONS
1
2
SOLID WASTE
3
4
Solid Waste
Establishment, Operation and Cost Analysis of Packaging Waste
Collection and Separation Plants
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ertan ARSLANKAYA, Serhan MADEN
Yildiz Technical University / Faculty of Civil Engineering / Environmental Engineering
[email protected]
Yildiz Technical University / Faculty of Civil Engineering / Environmental Engineering
[email protected]
Abstract During the packaging waste collection and separation plant installation, appropriate machinery
and equipment should be selected considering packaging waste potential of the plant location, as well as
proper vehicles should be selected in accordance with the collection process considering waste potential and
features of the field. With the feasibility studies required during the period for the installation of packaging
waste collection and separation plants, the necessary equipment types and numbers were determined for the
two plants with 35,000 tons / year and 60,000 tons / year capacities. Finally, information on the operation
of collection and separation plant was reported and required necessary actions were concluded to increase
the recycling of packaging wastes. For the investigated three Districts (Besiktas, Kartal, Zeytinburnu), waste
compositions of packaging wastes were compared with the collected amount of wastes in the collection
and separation plant. As different waste compositions were detected during the collection and separation
processes at the counties and considering that the private firms operate the proposed present facility,
suggestions on the cost of installation and operation were made to the plant operators.
Keywords: Waste Management, Process Control and Logistics, Plant Design and Maintenance, Process
Optimization, Packaging Waste Recycling Facilities.
1. INTRODUCTION
As the amount of waste increases, waste collection and disposal costs for municipals also increases.
In the Istanbul metropolis example, information on waste collection systems and their efficiencies
have been presented by interpreting the waste data on the seasonal change of the collected waste and
collection of packaging waste separately in the two facilities with different capacities (packaging
waste sorting facilities in the Districts of Zeytinburnu and Kartal) of the three municipalities that we
have identified (Besiktas, Kartal and Zeytinburnu). Finally, the cost analysis are given on
the packaging waste collection and sorting operations. Current literature regarding the work subject
should be examined and the differences of the said work from the past, similar works should be
presented clearly in the introduction section.
2. INSTALLATION STEPS OF PACKAGING WASTE COLLECTION AND
SEPARATION PLANT
Instead of mechanical separation, there are hand-sorting facilities due to the low wages of labor in
Turkey. In this study, in accordance with the conditions of the country, installation of hand-sorting
plant was investigated. Selection of the location for the plant installation was prepared in accordance
with the conditions and operating experience in the regulations on permits and licenses in Packaging
Waste Control Regulation and Environmental Law.
3. OPERATION OF COLLECTION AND SEPARATION PLANTS
For a middle-scale packaging waste collection and separation plant, 12 workers, 4 drivers, 2 technical
staff, and two engineers are needed. In order to make these employees work effectively, the duties
and powers should be determined properly. At first, the two main processes should be determined.
• Separation process
• Collection process
5
Oral Presentations
Figure 1. Separation process work flow diagram
REFERENCES
1.
Karamangil, N.P, Characterization recycling and disposition of packaging wastes in Turkey (Türkiye’de Ambalaj Atıklarının
Karakterizasyonu Geri Kazanımı ve Bertarafı ), M.S. Thesis, GYTE, 2008.
2.
General principles of the Regulation on Waste Management (Atık Yönetimi Genel esaslarına İlişkin Yönetmelik), July 5,
2008 (26927 RG)
3.
Packaging Waste Management Plan of Besiktas Municipality
4.
Packaging Waste Management Plan of Kartal Municipality
5.
Packaging Waste Management Plan of Zeytinburnu Municipality
6.
Population data, TSI, 2011
7.
Regulations for Packaging Waste Control, Official Gazette Number: 28035, August 24, 2011.
8.
Regulations on Required Permits and Licenses in Accordance with the Environmental Law, Official Gazette Number:
27214.
9.
Asim, Muhammad Batool, Syeda Adila, Chaudhry, Muhammad Nawaz, Scavengers and Their Role in the Recycling of
Waste in Southwestern Lahore Resources, Conservation and Recycling v.58, p.152-162, January 2012)
10. Matthew J. Franchetti, Case Study: Determination of the economic and operational feasibility of a material recovery facility
for municipal recycling in Lucas Country Ohio, USA Resources, Conservation and Recycling 53,2009.535-543
6
Solid Waste
Waste Characterization Studies in Waste Management Municipality
Unions in Turkey - Methodology and Results
Dr.-Ing. Bertram ZWISELE1, Dipl.-Ing. Anja SCHWETJE2
1
ARGUS GmbH, Berlin (Germany)
[email protected]
2
formerly: Project Management Ltd (PM Group)
ARGUS GmbH, Berlin (Germany)
[email protected]
Abstract Solid Waste Characterization Studies (SWCS) were implemented by the IPA “Technical Assistance
to Prepare Integrated Solid Waste Management Projects in Turkey-Lot 1” (EuropeAid/128133/D/SER/TR)
to provide data for planning and facility design. The Municipal Service Unions surveyed for this paper are
located in the Aegean, Marmara and Thracian Region and comprise of Municipalities between 2,000 and
200,000 inhabitants and selected villages. An advanced methodology for SWCS based on international
experience was introduced to investigate municipal solid waste composition [1,2,3,4]. The samples for analysis
are collected at source before being compacted by collection vehicles, the waste categories are aligned with
European practice and fractions are introduced into sorting analysis, so that the components can be clearly
separated and moisture transmission from organic to other components is minimised. An additional rural
and tourist stratum was identified in the investigation areas. Results show that organic is the predominant
category followed by the fine fraction of waste smaller than 10 mm, which was introduced by this
methodology. About 60% of the wastes are biodegradable and 28% potentially recyclable. The additional
two strata (rural, tourist) differ significantly from other strata. The advanced methodology yields precise and
reliable results for the waste composition in Turkey.
Keywords: Turkey, Municipal Waste Composition, Waste Characterization, Sampling and Sorting
Methodology.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the framework of the IPA project “Technical Assistance to Prepare Integrated Solid Waste
Management Projects in Turkey - Lot 1” (EuropeAid/128133/D/SER/TR) Solid Waste
Characterization Studies (SWCS) were implemented, amongst others, in five Municipal Service
Unions in the Aegean, Marmara and Thracian Region. A SWCS provides Municipal Unions with
waste data required for waste management strategies and planning and for designs of waste treatment
plants.
The main purposes of Solid Waste Characterization Studies are:
• Determination of the waste composition (material categories);
• Calculation of indicators (e.g. total amounts per strata or specific amounts of waste per capita);
• Identification of recyclables, inert, burnable or bio-degradable material etc.
Waste analyses describe the amount and composition of each type of waste by categories at source
and/or disposal site and the particle size distribution by fractions.
2. ADVANCED METHODOLOGY FOR WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
One basic element of the introduced methodology is that samples (defined units of waste) are taken
before they are compacted by the refuse collection vehicle. Sampling at source has a number of
advantages:
• As much information as possible can be assigned to the sample;
• The waste components can be identified more clearly and sorted more easily;
• Moisture transmission from organic fractions to other components is minimized;
• The variance between samples collected at households is lower as it is between samples of refuse
vehicles. This will reduce the amount of waste to be analysed and the costs of the analysis.
7
Oral Presentations
The solid waste characterization has to be implemented in two seasons minimum (e.g. one analysis
campaign in summer and one in winter). Each analysis campaign consisted of a sampling and a
sorting step and covered one week.
Each investigation area (Municipality Union) was subdivided into strata (high, middle, low income
and commerical, tourist, rural) in order to collect representative samples. A strata is an area, where
similar waste composition is expected.
Containers or street section were selected randomly from each stratum accordingly to the sampling
at source methodology. The content of each selected waste container was emptied into sacks and
loaded to a truck to be transported to the sorting station. The collection of the waste samples is
always aligned with the regular waste collection, so that samples are taken shortly before the arrival
of the collection vehicles.
Each single sample unit (sample unit is the content of e. g. 0.8 or 0.4 m3 container) was analyzed
according to a standardized sorting procedure. The samples were classified into fractions of waste
larger 60mm and 60-10mm, which were each sorted manually into defined categories. European
and Turkish practice were considered for the definition of the sorting categories. The fine fraction of
waste smaller than 10mm is a category of its own.
Figure 1 illustrates the sorting procedure.
paper
glass
metals plastics organic wood
sample unit
textile
fines
inert hazardous complex other
components products categories
Figure 1: Sorting schemata
3. RESULTS
Organic waste, which includes kitchen and garden/park waste, is the largest category with 49%.
However, the newly introduced fine fraction is second largest category and therefore should be
considered in future waste composition analysis in Turkey. It contains inorganic components like
ashes from coal-firing and barbeque, stones, soil and rubble from yard and street cleaning, but also
organic components typical for Turkey, like tealeaves, seeds etc.
In total about 60% of the wastes are considered as biodegradable and maximum 28% of the wastes
represent potential recyclables. With regard to the investigation an additional rural and tourist strata
had been surveyed. The results show that the waste composition and amounts differ so significantly
from other strata that their introduction into the scope of the survey is an improvement.
The water content and the transmission of water between waste categories also show that the
methodology of waste characterization has an impact in the results and their error margin.
The advanced methodology yields more precise and reliable results for the waste composition in
Turkey.
8
Solid Waste
REFERENCES
1.
The full version of Methodology for the Analysis of Solid Waste (SWA-Tool) by the European Commission 2004 can be
downloaded:
http://www.wastesolutions.org/fileadmin/user_upload/wastesolutions/SWA_Tool_User_Version_May_2004.pdf
2.
Standard Test Method for Determination of the Composition of Unprocessed Municipal Solid Waste by American Society
for Testing and Materials (2008)
3.
Zwisele, B., (2008). “Implementation of a multiple stage sampling method for mixed municipal waste” NEWA Conference
“Reliable Data for Waste Management”, Vienna – Austria.
4.
Landesumweltamt Brandenburg: Richtlinie für die Durchführung von Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung der Menge und
Zusammensetzung fester Siedlungsabfälle im Land Brandenburg; Fachbeiträge des Landesum-weltamtes; Potsdam; 1998.
9
Oral Presentations
Enhancing Waste Reduction and Materials Recovery in Gaza Strip Palestine “Rafah City - Case Study”
Samir Afifi1, Ali Barhoum2
Environmental & Erath Sciences Department- IUG
P.O Box 108, Gaza, Gaza Strip, PNA
E-mail: [email protected]
2
Rafah Municipality - Gaza Strip - PNA
1
Abstract The paper will present the general solid waste management aspects in Gaza strip and will
highlighted the invented economic and environmental sound approach of the material recover system of
Rafah City case study in Gaza Strip - Palestine.
Keywords: Solid waste, Waste Reduction, Material Recovery, Municipal Waste recovery, Gaza Palestine,
Municipal Wate Composting.
1. INTRODUCTION
As most other public services, solid waste management services in Gaza Strip is currently under
great stress. The situation has been gravest imposed due to the currently closure and economic
restrictions. With support from UNRWA and other international donors, most of the municipal waste
in Gaza is still being collected. With this support solid waste collectors are assigned on a temporary
basis, using mainly donkey carts and push carts to collect about 90% of all generated waste [1 and 2].
The currently applied central dump sites in three locations with more than 5.5 million tons of waste
so far, are currently exceeding their maximum capacity. Johr El Deek (Gaza City) and Deir El Balah
dumpsites are difficult to access since they are located in the buffer zone purposes. The waste
remains for many days, attracting flies and posing direct environmental and public health threats.
A new study by the UNDP estimated the budget needed for extenuations and/or closure of existing
dump site is around 10.4 Million $US [3].
The Current economic situation in Gaza leads to high unemployment rates, low average income
levels, and consequently, low solid waste fee collection rates by the municipalities from households[4].
This puts substantial pressure on the waste service providers (mostly local governments) to cover
their running costs. Furthermore, the bad economic circumstances provide strong incentives for the
poorer part of the population to get engaged in separation of waste valuables, in particular plastic,
metal waste and building debris.
The quantity of SW generated in Rafah city is about 120 tons per day, of which 60% is an organic
waste. About 30 - 40 % of this quantity is disposed temporarily in Tal Al-Sultan area (west of Rafah
City) and finally it is transferred to Rafah landfill. The new structure of a modern unit of recycling
and compost production has been started on 1.1.2012 at Tal Al-Sultan area.
2. OBJECTIVES
• Encouragement of the solid waste (organic matter) reuse in Rafah City and recycling of other
components
• Reduce the amount of solid waste reaching the landfill, which will lead to the extension of the life
span of the landfill.
• Starting ecologically sound treatment method based on recovery of materials and energy
3. METHOD
The new structure of a modern unit of recycling and compost production has been started on
1.1.2012 at Tal Al-Sultan and started in operation on March, 2012. The sorting machine partially
separate organic matter while workers are to catch other materials carried by a rotating strap.
10
Solid Waste
Aluminum, plastic and steel separated and collected in special containers and the organic matter,
which represents about 65% of total MSW used in compost production[5]. The project consist of
four main steps:
• Waste receiving and pre-sorting.
• Sorting of recyclables and baling.
• Treatment of the organic material by biological aerobic process.
• Preparation of the final product.
4. FINDINGS
• Volume of waste arriving at Municipality landfill will be reduced by 65% to 70%
• Lifespan of Rafah landfill will be increased 3 times
• Solid waste transfer expenses will be reduced from 108.000 $US to 35,000 annually, as a result of
reduced transferred quantity to the municipality landfill
• Produced compost will be utilized in agriculture and therefore reducing the amounts of chemical
fertilizers. Positive public Health effects
• About 250.000 $US as Revenues from around 6000 tons of final compost product
• The annual running cost will be covered
5. CONCLUSION
The most important component of this project is to ensure its sustainability and replication and
expansion of the project idea,
1. One major item which positively ensure the sustainability of the project is the estimated income
of the project per year which is estimated to be about 250,000 $/year which fairly cover the whole
running cost with some saving to the association to be used in developing some other future activities.
2. The other component which will positively be reflected to enhance the project idea and
sustainability is convincing and showing the positive results and environmental impacts to the key
Ministries like. The Environmental Quality Authority and Ministry of agriculture where they will
use the project achievements in their policies and strategies.
3. Resource mobilization activities which include different field visits to donated institutions and
farms having similar experience in this field in regional Arab and EU countries will help in new fund
and experience resources mobilization.
4. Educational materials for compost production which will be distributed among farmers and
workers will help in spreading the production of compost among the private sector and farmers on
other areas other than the target ones.
REFERENCES
1.
Afifi S. (2001). Palestinian Municipal Management Project phase I, Rafah Municipality, Palestinian National Authority.
2.
Afifi, S., (2006). Assessment of Technical and Environmental Performance of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Rafah
City - Palestine, Egypt. J. Soil Sci. 46, No. 1, pp. 1 - 13
3.
Afifi, S. and A. Barhuom (2009). Evaluation of Economical and Social Aspects of Municipal Solid Waste Management in
Rafah City – Palestine, 2nd International Conference on the Palestinian Environment from 13 to 15 October,2009, Al-Najah
University, Nablus, Palestine.
4.
PEF, (2012). Rubble Removal and Concrete Crushing for Improvement of Solid Waste Service Management in the Gaza
Strip, Report no.3, September, Gaza - Palestine.
5.
UNDP - PAPP, (2011). Feasibility Study and Detailed Design for Solid Waste Management in the Gaza Strip, DHVENFRA-TECC. Draft Report, September, Gaza - Palestine.
11
Oral Presentations
Evaluation of Environmental Impacts of Grocery Shopping Bags
Manufactured from Recycled and Virgin High-Density Polyethylene in
Lagos Using LCA Approach
Temitayo A. Ewemoje, Olufemi P. Abimbola
Agricultural and Environmental Engineering Department, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
[email protected] , [email protected],, [email protected]
Abstract The aim of this study was to assess environmental impacts associated with High-Density
Polyethylene (HDPE) shopping bag production in Lagos, Nigeria. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) methodology
was used in the analysis with four scenarios. The inventory analysis involved collection of data associated
with the production of one US ton of HDPE shopping bags without considering their usage and disposal
phases (cradle-to-gate approach). It was found that approximately 1878.0, 2061.0, 427.7 and 1699.0 kg CO2equivalents of greenhouse gases were emitted per functional unit (FU) in scenarios 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
CO2 accounted for above 99% of total emissions in all scenarios. Acidification emissions were found to be
19.2, 29.8, 23.3 and 25.5 kg SO2- equivalents for scenarios 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively; while 3.3, 5.1, 3.9
and 4.4 kg PO4- equivalents were contributed to eutrophication by the scenarios respectively. With regards
to options to reduce environmental impact of HDPE bag production in Lagos, increased recycling could
provide carbon credits for manufacturing companies while efficient power consumption and renewable or
cleaner power generation could reduce process and transport emissions.
Keywords: High-Density Polyethylene, LCA, Environmental impacts, Recycling, Shopping bags production.
1. INTRODUCTION
Plastics are widely used in packaging in Nigeria today. A number of studies have been conducted
to examine the LCA of various plastic shopping bags (Muthu et al., 2009, 2011; Ellis et al., 2005).
However, no work has been reported on the ecological footprint of virgin HDPE compared to
recycled and mixed HDPE shopping bags in Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa. Influence
of bag producers’ attitude towards equipment selection on the protection of environment in West
Africa is also lacking. Thus the study aimed at comparing the potential environmental impacts
of shopping bags made from virgin HDPE against those made - fully or in part - from recycled
post-consumer HDPE using four scenarios to assess the ‘cradle-to-gate’ effects of these scenarios
using data from two major bag production companies; and identify opportunities for improving the
environmental performance of the bag production systems.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
Environmental impacts associated with shopping bags made from recycled and virgin HDPE were
evaluated using LCA, a standardized method quantifying and evaluating the resources consumed and
emissions to the environment at all stages of its life cycle (Guinée, 2002). LCA typically includes
four phases: (1) goal and scope definition; (2) inventory analysis; (3) impact assessment; (4) interpretation
(ISO 14044, 2006).
3. RESULTS
3.1. Global WarmIng Potentıal
Atmospheric emissions that contributed the majority of the global warming impacts were fossil fuelderived. Regardless of the scenario, figure 1 shows that fully recycled resin scenario 3 produced
lowest GHG emissions (427.7 kg CO2-eq) than other scenarios. This may be attributed to relatively
shorter collection and transportation distance. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) between
scenarios 3 and 4 although both used same single-die extruder (SD2). This may be due to GHG
emissions associated with 40% virgin HDPE resin which were considerably more than those
associated with 100% recycled HDPE resin (Figure 2).
12
Solid Waste
3.2. Acıdıfıcatıon Potentıal
Lowest acidification emissions of 19.2 kg SO2-eq were produced in scenario 1. Total acidification
emissions for scenario 3 were higher than scenario 1 due to higher emissions from 100% diesel
usage. Purchased electricity (hydro and thermal power) and natural gas, were the major process
energy sources. This also explains the slightly lower resin production emissions in scenario 4
when compared with 3. Moreover, transportation emissions were associated with the higher total
acidification emissions in scenario 4 when compared to 3 (Figure 1).
3.3. Eutrophıcatıon Potentıal
Eutrophication impact was lowest for scenario 1 (3.29 kg PO4-eq/FU), followed by 3, 4 and 2. In
scenario 2, film blowing extrusion accounted for most of the eutrophication potential. However, the
use of a double die extruder led to a significant increase in total eutrophication potential (scenarios 1
vs. 2). Substitution of recycled resin (scenario 3) by mixed resin (scenario 4) increased eutrophication
effect, thus reflecting the increased emissions even with little further improvements at the resin
production stage. The contributions of cutting-and-sealing and punching to the total eutrophication
potential are similar for all scenarios.
Figure 1: Comparison of GWP, AP and EP of the four scenarios per FU (left) and in percent (right)
The four Scenarios V100SD1: 100% virgin HDPE using single die extruder 1, V100DD: 100% virgin HDPE using double die extruder, R100SD2: 100% recycled HDPE using single die extruder 2, V40-‐R60SD2: mixed (40% virgin-‐60% recycled) HDPE using single die extruder 2. Figure 2: Comparison of emissions from production of 40% virgin
HDPE resin with 60% recycled HDPE resin
13
Oral Presentations
4. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
Scenario 2 showed the worst performance for all categories. Scenario 1 showed the lowest potential
impact for acidification and eutrophication, while scenario 3 had the lowest impact in the global
warming category. Reduction in virgin resin use or switching to lower energy input materials (e.g.
fully recycled HDPE resin) would improve HDPE bag production performance. Significant emission
reductions can be achieved through cleaner electricity generation and also through the reduction of
diesel emissions in transport.
REFERENCES
14
1.
Ellis S., Kantner S., Saab A., and Watson M., 2005. Plastic grocery bags: The ecological footprint. Geography 214.
2.
Guinée J. B., (2002). Handbook on life cycle assessment. Operational guide to the ISO Standards. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, 708 pp.
3.
International Standards Organization (ISO) 14044, 2006. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment Requirements and guidelines. International Standards Organization, Brussels.
4.
Muthu, S.S., Li, Y., Hu, J.Y., Mok, P.Y., 2009. An exploratory comparative study on ecoimpact of paper and plastic bags.
Journal of Fibre Bioengineering and Informatics 1.4, 307-320.
5.
Muthu, S.S., Li, Y., Hu, J.Y., Mok, P.Y., 2011. Carbon footprint of shopping (grocery) bags in China, Hong Kong and India.
Atmospheric Environment 45, 469-475
Solid Waste
Lessons Learned on the Way to Realize Anaerobic Digestion Plants
Dipl. Ing. Theo Schneider, Dipl.-Ing. Herbert Beywinkler
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract Anaerobic digestion (AD) of municicpal solid waste or separately collected organic fraction is a
treatment, which offers its share to reduce climate threats from landfill emissions as well as valuable energy
production from wet waste fractions. AD requires integration into local waste management concepts as
first baseline. A clear view and realistic concept of later plant operations is second baseline. AD of waste
fractions requires proper project-preparation, project-construction and operation. Mainly mistakes done
during conceptual phase could lead into inefficiency, technical problems and towering costs. The presence of
experience and know-how during all phases of preparation and realisation of an AD-plant is third baseline to
reach the goals. Usually there are several different technologies and numbers of possible suppliers available
on the market and offering their solutions. But it can be seen that best performing facilities are based on
smart and tailormade solutions.
As not everything can be foreseen during execution of a contract, high flexibility and compromises are
requested. The more a contract is shifting all risks to suppliers’ side the higher costs within the proposals
must be expected. Smart plant performance and value-keeping of an installation require professional and
well educated staff, willing to learn permanently and able to optimise the facility.
Keywords: Anaerobic digestion, Climate protection, Plant operation, Realistic concepts.
1. INTRODUCTION - POSSIBLE ROLE OF AD-PLANTS - DRıVERS
Anaerobic digestion (AD) of either municicpal solid waste or separately collected organic fraction
from municipal has attracted some attention during the recent years. Three main drivers can be
recognized:
1. Climate Protection,
2. Fulfilling EU aims and directives related to waste management and
3. Waste streams with higher contents of humidity.
Under aspects of climate protection fermentation process in AD-plants should be favored for the
separated organic (wet) fraction. Best performing plants are not only producing electricity but are
also utilizing the heat produced in water cooling circuits and exhaust gas heat. AD-plants are regarded
as a suitable solution to reduce methane-emissions from landfills, if such plants are constructed and
operated well and using state-of-the-art emission reduction equipment.
2. REQUıREMENTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL REALıSATıON OF AD-PLANTS
Some projects on AD-plants in different countries have shown that it is not sufficient just to have a
promising technology by itself. To implement and operate an AD-plant with a capacity of more than
tenthousand tons per year requests much more knowledge, financial and human ressources than just
to operate a landfill or dumpsite.
2.1. Fırst Baselıne - Structural Integratıon
An integration into regional structures and waste management concepts is obligatory. This requires
identification of relevant waste quantities as well as a good process for the choice of site for the ADplant. Waste Management is (part of) climate protection and requires - as well - a suitably organized
waste management concept.
2.2. Second Baselıne - Operatıon and Fınancıal Concept
For a sustainable investment, it is necessary to clarify the operator model and the anticipated
refinancing.
• Who will operate the AD-plant?
• Who shall build the AD-plant?
15
Oral Presentations
Models from purely private operation to purely public funded operation with lots of differently
designed models of Public Private Partnership (PPP) are part of a large number of publications
(e.g.[1]).
Usually AD-plants are producing more energy as they are consuming. Sales of energy are one of the
key factors for ecological and economical profitability - but regularly don’t cover all treatment costs.
It must be clarified at an early stage whether the facility will be refinanced through fees (or other
similar systems) or the refinancing will be done through “market” prices.
2.3. Thırd Baselıne - Know-how durıng Preparatıon and Realısatıon
The overall objective of the concept and the technical planning process of construction and operation
of any waste treatment facility is: To build and run the plant as cost-efficient as possible and safe to
operate.
Risk Management is the integral part of all considerations and action. Operation concept, technical
design process, construction and commissioning of any waste treatment plant will always deal with
the risks of each asset. The allocation of risks between client and contractor of an AD-plant depend
on several factors, including ability and capacity of the client. New difficulties turn up around
the technical planning process themes: about the best adapted technological system or best fitting
tendering procedure, around the durability of the AD-plant itself (e.g. for corrosion protection, the
quality of machines and units, ...). Of course requirements must be defined as part of the tendering
documents. But “You cannot fix everything and you do not know everything in advance”. Finally:
“You cannot pay for everything.”
Equilibrated compromises are thus necessary before publishing the tendering documents and
awarding the contract. Coordinated action is also required during construction and commissioning
of the AD-plant.
2.4. Maın topıcs after constructıon of an AD-plant: Staff and Waste
Two main topics for future differences between contractor and client exist in most cases
1. debates on the supplied waste,
2. debates about the client-supplied personnel.
As the main topic for future differences between the contractor and the client in the case of EPC
Contract remains the waste provided by client.
2.5. Tımeframe
The previous chapters set it out: An AD-plant will take time. Between 3 to 5 years are “normal”.
However: plant projects are rarely faster than planned, often they pass loops that cause extensions.
3. CONCLUSıON
Respecting the general baselines an AD-plant could be an interesting option for many countries with
some development in the waste management sector during the last decade or years. With a clear and
realistic concept of later plant operation the basis for success is given.
An AD-plant requires much more than “just a landfill with some added little technology”! The
contributions of many actors are required to achieve a sustainable and well operating plant. There is
a lot to do with a AD-PLANT: Let’s start!
REFERENCES
1.
16
BMWi 2004: Bundesministerium f. Wirtschaft; Public Private Partnership International, Ein Unternehmer-leitfaden für PPPEngagements im Ausland, BMWi, Berlin 2004
Solid Waste
The Effect of Disintegration Process on Anaerobic Degradation of
Treatment Plant Sludges: A Comperative Study
Gulbin Erden1, Ayse Filibeli2
Pamukkale University, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kinikli Campus, 20700, Denizli, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Dokuz Eylül University, Department of Environmental Engineering, Tinaztepe Campus, 35160, Buca-Izmir, Turkey
[email protected]
1
Abstract The effects of Fenton Process, ultrasonic pre-treatment and ozone oxidation on anaerobic sludge
bio-processing were investigated as comparatively. A ratio of 0.067 gram Fe(II) per gram H2O2, and 60 g
H2O2 / kg Total Solid (TS) for Fenton Process, 9690 kJ/kg TS of specific energy for ultrasonic pre-treatment
and 0.1 g O3/kg TS for ozone oxidation were applied to sludge samples preceding anaerobic sludge digestion
for disintegration purpose. For each treatment, 5 days of sludge retention time were applied on mesophilic
conditions for 30 days operation period. The highest volatile solids reduction was obtained with ozone
oxidation. Disintegrated sludge with ultrasonic pre-treatment provided the highest methane production
(55%) comparing to the raw sludge. In terms of dewatering characteristics of digested sludge, ultrasonic
treatment led to increase the sludge’s resistance to dewatering. This negative effect was not observed in
ozone oxidation and Fenton Process. Moreover, it can be said that there was a positive effect of Fenton
process before anaerobic digestion on sludge dewatering.
Keywords: Anaerobic digestion, Fenton Process, ozone oxidation, sludge disintegration, ultrasonic pretreatment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Disintegration was developed as the pretreatment process of sludge to accelerate the digestion
processes. Many disintegration techniques for sludge minimization have been developed recently.
Ultrasonic treatment [1, 2], ozone oxidation [3], alkaline treatment [4], thermal treatment [5], Fenton Process
[6]
, and biological hydrolysis with enzymes [7] were investigated for sludge disintegration purpose by
several researchers in half-scale and lab-scale plants. This paper deals with the comparison of Fenton
Process, ozone oxidation and ultrasonic treatment in terms of the effect of anaerobic digestibility
of biological sludge. The feature of this work was to carry out the comparison of the three pretreatments in the same conditions and on the same sludge sample.
2. MATERIAL AND METHOD
Biological sludge was sampled from the municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Izmir.
Fenton pre-treatment was carried out by firstly adjusting the pH of the sludge to 3 using H2SO4.
Second step was the addition of Fe(II) at certain concentrations. After this period, different H2O2
concentrations were added to the sample. The mixed sample was stirred at 100 rpm for 60 min.
After reaction, the sample was neutralized with Ca(OH)2. The ultrasonic apparatus was a Sonopuls
ultrasonic homogenizer (Bandelin- Sonopuls HD 2200). This apparatus was equipped with a VS 70
T probe with an operating frequency of 20 kHz and a supplied power of 200 W. In the experiments
with ozone oxidation, ozone was produced by a corona discharge of OZO 1VTT model ozone
generator with a maximum ozone production capacity of 5 g/h. The ozone produced from pure
oxygen with a purity of 99.5% was bubbled through the reactor using a diffuser with the diameter of
15 mm and with the height of 25 mm. Anaerobic digestion studies were carried out using three 8.5
L lab-scale anaerobic digesters. The digesters were operated at 37 ± 2 °C for 30 days of operation
period. For system evaluations, pH and temperature were monitored daily while alkalinity and
volatile fatty acids (VFA) were measured three times a week. For performance evaluations, TS, VS,
VSS/SS, methane productions and protein contents were measured during the operation period. TS,
VS, SS and VSS analyses were regularly done according to the Standard Methods (APHA, 2005).
Methane productions were determined by liquid displacement method (Kuscu and Sponza, 2005).
Specific methane productions (SMP) were determined as mLCH4/gVS based on volatile solids and
daily methane productions. Gas components (CO, CO2, andH2S) were analyzed by a Dräger model
17
Oral Presentations
X-am 7000 multi gas analyzer. CST was analyzed with a Triton A-304 M CST-meter. The belt-press
simulator of crown press supplied from Phipps and Bird, Richmond, VA was also used for evaluation
of dewatering properties of sludge.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Anaerobic degradability of sludge can be enhanced using ozone oxidation and ultrasonic treatment
and Fenton Process. With reference to the raw sludge, the highest reduction in volatile solids was
38.2% in the digester fed with ozonated sludge at the end of the operation. The ratios were 21.3%,
20%, and 14% for the digester fed with sonicated sludge, Fenton processed sludge, and control
digester, respectively. On the other hand, disintegration processes preceding anaerobic digestion
increased methane production, and ozone oxidation led to highest methane production during
anaerobic digestion. While ultrasonic treatment led to increase the sludge’s resistance to dewatering,
this effect was not observed in ozone oxidation, and Fenton Process. In addition, Ozone oxidation
and ultrasonic treatment processes reduced the dewatering performance of sludge in mechanical
dewatering units. While ozon oxidation and ultrasonic treatment processes preceding anaerobic
digestion did not improve sludge’s cake formation, small improvement in cake solids of digester
with Fenton processed sludge.
REFERENCES
18
1.
Erden, G., A. Filibeli, (2010a). Ultrasonic pre-treatment of biological sludge: consequences on disintegration, anaerobic
biodegradability, and filterability, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 85, 1, 145-150
2.
Pham, T.T.H., S.K. Brara, R.D. Tyagia, R.Y. Surampalli, (2009). Ultrasonication of wastewater sludge - consequences on
biodegradability and flowability, J. Hazard. Mater., 163, 891-898
3.
Bougrier, C., C. Albasi, J.P. Delgenés, H. Carrére, (2006). Effect of ultrasonic, thermal and ozone pre-treatments on waste
activated sludge solubilisation and anaerobic biodegradability, Chem. Eng. Process., 45,711–718
4.
Lin, J.G., C.N. Chang, S.C. Chang, (2007). Enhancement of anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge by alkaline
solubilization, Bioresour. Technol., 62, 85-90
5.
Barjenbruch, M., O. Kopplow, (2003). Enzymatic, mechanical and thermal pre-treatment of surplus sludge, Adv. Environ.
Res., 7, 715–720
6.
Erden, G., A. Filibeli, (2010b). Improving anaerobic biodegradability of biological sludges by Fenton pre-treatment: Effects
on single stage and two-stage anaerobic digestion, Desalination, 251, 58-63
7.
Ayol, A., A. Filibeli, D. Sir, E. Kuzyaka, (2008). Aerobic and anaerobic bioprocessing of activated sludge: floc disintegration
by enzymes, J. Environ. Sci. Health - Part A, 43, 13, 1528–1535
Solid Waste
Compost Production From Domestic Wastes and Benefits of Compost
Alpaslan KİRİŞ, Baki AYHAN, Turgay AYGÜN, Kadriye YILDIZ
İSTAÇ INC.
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract Big increases were observed in the amount of waste generated over the years due to the increasing
population, developing industrialization and rising living standards and this led waste producers to search
for alternative waste disposal methods. One of the biological waste disposal methods is composting.
Composting is the separation of organic substances in the waste with biochemical ways by using oxygen of
the environment and micro-organisms of which most of them cannot be seen by the naked eye. Composting
method gained more importance in the recent years because it has rich content both in terms of cost and
organic substances. Compost obtained as the result of composting method increases the water holding
capacity of the soil as a soil improver and organic substances in the soil as well as allowing better utilization
of nutrients in the soil.[4]
The population of Istanbul is 13 million and 624 thousands and 240 people on the basis of the data of the
year of 2012.[1,15 kgs of waste per person per day is being formed in Istanbul.[2] The waste amount per day
is 15.668 tones. 700 tones of this waste is subject to the composting process in the Kemerburgaz Recycling
and Composting facility.
Keywords: Domestic Wastes, composting.
1.COMPOSTING METHOD
İSTAÇ INC. Recycling and Composting Facility was established in 2001 in order to recover wastes
with organic content in the mixed municipal wastes, bring the recyclable wastes in the economy and
reduce the amount of waste sent to sanitary landfills.
Wastes are composted with aerobic fermentation based on the technique of tunnel composting. The
wastes brought to the facility are separated before being fed to the system. (high volume wastes
such as beds, sofas, textile wastes, construction and renovation wastes, car tires etc. are separated
with handling machines) The separated wastes are sent to Odayeri Sanitary Landfill. The separated
wastes are fed to rotary sieves with the hole diameter of 80 mm on the two parallel lines. The bag
opener blades in these sieves pull the bags to pieces and provide the organic content material to come
off. Metal and metal-derived materials such as metal, tin...etc. in the wastes under 80 mm. of which
the organic content is very intense are separated on the magnetic line automatically and they are
parsed to the 1st Area of fermentation where the composting take place until the material constitutes
a height of 2 meter. The fermentation portion where composting takes place consists of two parallel
holes in dimensions of 30m x 190 m x 2,5 m. Each hole has eight areas. Material is parsed on the
1st Area of the hole. After the waste remains 1 week in each area, it is transferred to the next area
by using transfer machines. The wastes in the areas are subjected to proper humidity, temperature
and ventilation processes and fermentation (fragmentation and decomposition) process is provided
by means of micro-organisms. At the end of the 8th week, the matured material is eliminated in the
rotary sleeve with the hole diameter of 15 mm. of the last conditioning section by means of conveyor
belts.[3] Undersize material is used in the plant and flower cultivation by AĞAÇ INC. and in the
green areas by the Metropolitan Municipality Directorate of Parks and Gardens. Material over 15
mm. is used as overburden (surface soil) in the sanitary landfills.
19
Oral Presentations
The organic content of waste produced in our country is very high that disposal of this waste
generated has important role to local governments. Composting is one of the most appropriate
techniques for the disposal of consisting waste. The municipalities can produce high quality compost
in their composting facilities by separating organic content wastes in the source of these wastes by
raising the public awareness on this subject. The other wastes which have no organic content can be
brought in the economy by using recovery. In this way, the need for waste storage sites will also be
reduced.
Produced compost will be used in green areas, parks and gardens and also in landscaping works and
will reduce the use of inorganic fertilizer. By this way, the environmental pollution will be prevented.
In addition, the usage areas of compost can be increased by using compost in the reclaiming of
burned areas and spaces as a result of fires occurring in our country.
SOURCES
20
1.
TUİK (Turkish Statistical Institute)
2.
TMMOB Cevre Mühendisleri Odası, (TMMOB Chamber of Environmental Engineers) (2011).İstanbul Çevre Durum
Raporu (Istanbul Environmental Status Report ) (27)
3.
İstanbul Katı Atık Yönetimi (Geri kazanım ve Kompost Tesisi ) İşletme El Kitabı (Istanbul Solid Waste Management
(Recycling and Composting facility) Operating Manual ) (2001)
4.
ORAK 2010 Organik Atıklardan Kompost ve Yenilenebilir Enerji Üretimi & Kompostun Kullanım Alanları Çalıştayı
Bildiriler Kitabı (ORAK 2010 Compost and Renewable Energy Production from Organic Wastes and Compost Usage Areas
Workshop Proceedings) (2010)
Solid Waste
25 Full-Scale DRANCO Anaerobic Digestion Plants, Experiences and
Opportunities
Organic Waste Systems NV, Gent, Belgium Corresponding author. Tel: +32 9 233 02 04, Fax: +32 9 233 28 25
The DRANCO technology was developed in the eighties as one of the first digestion systems for biowaste
and municipal solid waste, and OWS has participated in the recent rapid market development. More than 20
years later, DRANCO systems are now used in about 15% of the total installed treatment capacity.
The Brecht facility in Belgium is a very good case study in anaerobic digestion because the plant has now
been running for ten years on biowaste. The plant processes about 55,000 tons per year with a very high
loading rate and biogas production rate. An average biogas production of 6.8 m³ (240 ft3) biogas per m³
reactor per day (or 6.9 ft3 biogas/ft3 reactor volume) was obtained during the last 8 years.
Another good example of a municipal solid waste plant is the Hille facility in Germany. This plant started
up in 2005 treats about 410 metric tons of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste and 80 metric tons
of sludge per week. The average biogas production for the organic fraction of MSW is about 120-125Nm³
per ton.
Since 2006 the company has also been involved in anaerobic digestion of energy crops, manure and crop
residues using DRANCO Farm technology. During the intial three years, the facility’s permit allowed only
500 kW production. In the beginning of 2009, a new permit was issued to produce 1MW and since then
OWS took steps to increase the biogas production in the DRANCO-FARM reactor. Biogas productivity
has increased dramatically and electrical output has risen from 500 kW up to 1,000 kW per hour. Currently,
OWS is achieving loading rates of 16 to 17 kg VS/m³/d (1 lb VS/ft3/day), about five times the rate of a
typical wet digestion system operating at 10% TS and 90% VS.
Keywords: dry digestion, DRANCO, biogas.
21
Oral Presentations
Waste Management and Corresponding Legislation in Macedonia
Biserka Dimiskovska
University “Ss.Cyril and Methodius”, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology (IZIIS), Skopje,
Republic of Macedonia
E-mail [email protected]
Abstract OBJECTIVE The objective of the investigations presented in this paper is to develop a
methodology for waste management that will improve the current practices of waste management in
Macedonia and beyond.
METHOD The methodology will be developed by analysis of present practices of collection of waste,
treatment and disposal on landfills, transport, recycling and monitoring of effects upon the environment.
RESULTS The new methodology will give an impetus to inter-municipal/regional cooperation in waste
management as well as independent working of the enterprises in this field.
CONCLUSIONS The state should pass corresponding regulations to financially support recycling and
introduce ecological taxes to firms that create more waste than necessary. All local inadequate landfills
should be closed and new landfills that will satisfy higher ecological standards should be created.
Keywords: communal solid waste, recycling, landfills, regulations
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Munıcıpal Solıd Waste
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is the main type of waste created in Macedonia. MSW consists of
waste collected from households along with waste from maintenance of public hygiene and collected
waste from parks, commercial-institutional waste and waste created in industry. A minor part of
the waste originating from the households is dangerous. The contents of mixed municipal waste in
Macedonia is mainly within the frames established by other investigations in the countries of Eastern
Europe.
2.1. Munıcıpal Servıces
The refuse collection services are primarily provided by public works companies that perform other
activities as well: cleaning of the streets, public parks and green areas and maintenance of graveyards.
Most of the municipal waste and other types of collected waste are disposed on municipal landfills or
unlicensed landfills without any pre-treatment
2.2. Return of Waste ın Productıon Cycles/Recyclıng
It can be noticed that, in Macedonia, there are two parallel systems for paper/cardboard collection.
One of them is organized by the factory for production of paper “Komuna” that collects about 20%
of this waste, while the other is organized by those collecting secondary raw material (mainly paper
and cardboard).
2.3. Compostıng
The existing several composting capacities represent capacities for composting or anaerobic
digestion (of a smaller scope) intended for degradation of agricultural waste, particularly fertilizers.
Only a small enterprise, pilot project in Zrnovtsi, uses organic fraction of MSW as the basic material
for production of compost. The main barrier in the development of the market for organic compost
“obtained from waste” in Macedonia is mainly the lack of information about the use of compost and
its benefits.
22
Solid Waste
2.4. Industrıal Solıd Waste
The industrial solid waste consists of all types of solid waste created in the industries and the very
industrial process and any other source within the frames/circles of the industrial capacities.
2.5. Medıcal Waste
Medical waste (MeO) is considered solid waste created in medical and health care institutions in
Table 3 (hospitals, outpatient departments, polyclinics, dental clinics, etc.) originating from used
objects and materials for diagnosis, medical treatment and prevention of diseases in people and
animals.
3. CONCLUSIONS
For the last two years, Macedonia has been in a period of intensive development of legal regulations
for solid waste management. The preparation of the draft Law on Waste Management (“Official
Gazette of RM” no. 68/04, 71/04) has contributed to the current process of approximation enabling
the country a modern and comprehensive Law based on the EU Directives on Waste and Dangerous
Waste. The Law on Waste Management provides the general rules referring to the following issues:
strategy, formulation of plans and programme, waste management procedures, dangerous waste
management, landfills, incineration and co-incineration of waste, import, export and transit of waste
through the territory of the Republic of Macedonia, monitoring and management of data, information
system, financing, supervision and competent authorities, penal provisions, transitional and final
provisions.
The law on Waste Management is also associated with the remaining laws. This particularly refers to
the Law on Environment that involves main issues like issuance of permits and EIA procedures. The
Law on Waste Management is also based on the definitions and the principles included in the Draft
Law on Environment.
Certain issues related to waste management are also encompassed with different provisions in the
remaining laws. What is important to point out is that not all of the above stated laws have achieved
complete harmonization with the legal regulations of EU and they will be the subject of further
consideration and modifications by the regulating body.
REFERENCES
1.
Burke, P., Dennis A., (2001) Dairy Waste Anaerobic Digestion Handbook. Environmental Energy Company, Olympia, WA.
2.
Ohmura, T., Sakai, Y., Shindo, K., Nakamura, T., Katayama Y., (2003), Start-up of full-scale anaerobic digesters treating
municipal solid waste. Water Science and Technology Vol 48,No 4 249–252.
3.
Townsend, T., (2005) Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, Class Notes. University of Florida, Department of
Environmental Engineering Sciences.
23
Oral Presentations
Solid Waste Management - Legal Regulations and Example of Istanbul
Cevat Yaman1, Türker Eroğlu2, İbrahim Öktem3, Burcu Taşkınoğlu4, Esma Fakihoğlu5, Yeşim Işık6
İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality Department of Environmental Protection and Development
[email protected]
2,3,4,5,6
İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality Directorate of Waste Management
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]
1
Summary Total solid waste amount has increased in Istanbul because of the increasing population of it.
The increasing amounts of waste have brought subjects like the reduction of waste in generation processes,
recycling of waste, and the use effective use of the economy, environment, and resources and the disposal of
waste in optimal conditions from the perspective of sustainability, to the agenda.
Solid waste management; represents an integration of collection, transportation and disposal activities within
the framework of recycling by using of energy, raw materials and all types of raw materials with maximum
efficiency, the reduction of waste in generation and the disposal of waste without polluting the air, soil, water
and living beings. These activities are carried out in an multidisciplinary environment involving technical,
economic, and social disciplines. This study investigates the national legislation relating to solid waste
management and their relation to parties that are responsible for solid waste management and the solid waste
management that is being carried out in Istanbul in accordance with this legislation.
Keywords: solid waste, solid waste management.
1. INTRODUCTION
Municipality waste is an important environmental problem not only in many EU candidate countries
but also in Turkey as well. Population explosion coupled with urbanization and industrialization has
resulted in a significant increase of not only in the amount of waste but also in the different types of
waste produced. In parallel with this increase, one of the most important problems encountered in
large settlement areas such as Istanbul, is the disposal of the solid waste produced.
In waste disposal; in addition to recycling, sanitary landfill, and biological processes such as
composting, bio-methanization the other alternative thermal waste disposal methods such as
incineration, gasification, and pyrolysis are the most accepted. The order of preference of these
methods is dependent on the area required for disposal, economic and cultural levels, national and
international targets and their compatibility with the state policies.
2. LEGAL REGULATIONS IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
In our country, the handing over of waste to the receiving environment, the structure and composition
of the waste, and its disposal in accordance with the amount and the requirements associated and the
allied planning and implementation processes that cover the interval form the generation of waste to
its appropriate disposal are governed by the relevant acts and the regulations.
In this context; the responsibilities of the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry, Provincial
Environment and Forestry Directorates, Metropolitan Municipalities, District Municipalities,
authorized institution, producers, marketers and sales points, have all been separately specified in
detail in accordance with the Solid Waste Control Regulations, Medical Waste Control Regulations
and Packaging Waste Control Regulations.
3. THE CURRENT SITUATION IN ISTANBUL
Under the title of “The Current Situation of Istanbul”, detailed information about waste management
activities carried in Istanbul in accordance with regulations were given and the general structure
of current waste management system was evaluated by presenting process flow diagrams of each
activity.
24
Solid Waste
4. CONCLUSION
There are solid waste transfer stations, landfills, medical waste incineration facilities, electrical
energy generation facilities, composting and recycling facilities in operation that are in accordance
with the legislation on solid waste management, throughout Istanbul. Also, the search for new
solutions that would allow the minimization of damage to the environment and impart an economical
meaning to waste disposal, instead storing solid waste prior to disposal, is in progress. The increase
in the amount of waste in Istanbul has also resulted in the increase in the need for new sanitary
landfill areas. Work along these lines is underway in Istanbul.
REFERENCES
1.
T.R. Ministry of the Environment and Forestry “Solid Waste Control Regulations”, Official Gazette, Dated 14.03.1991
Number: 20814.
2.
T.R. Ministry of the Environment and Forestry “Medical Waste Control Regulations”, Official Gazette, Dated 22.07.2005
Number: 25883.
3.
T.R. Ministry of the Environment and Forestry “Packaging Waste Control Regulations”, Official Gazette, Dated 24.06.2007
Number: 26562.
4.
T.R. Ministry of the Environment and Forestry Waste, Management Action Plan, May 2008.
5.
T.R. Court of Accounts Directorate Report on Waste Management Performance Control in Turkey, January 2007.
6.
Yeniçerioğlu M., 2006. Solid Waste Management Legislation and Sinop Example, (http://www.scribd.com/doc/32970514/
Kat%C4%B1-at%C4%B1k-sinop).
7.
Erdem A.M., Çubukçu E.E., Ateş E., Erdoğan D., 2008 Integrated Domestic Solid Waste Management During the EU
Compliance Process, urban Management Problems of Man and Environment 8 Symposium, Istanbul.
8.
http://www.cygm.gov.tr/CYGM/AnaSayfa/AtikYonetimi.aspx?sflang=tr
9.
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, Waste Management Directorate Archives.
25
Oral Presentations
Food Waste - A Challenge for Waste Prevention and
Resource Management
M. Kranert, G. Hafner, J. Barabosz
Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management (ISWA), University of Stuttgart
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract For the first time in Germany, the emergence of food waste alonge the value chain was estimated.
A total amount of around 11 million tonnes food waste is discarded annually by the food industry, the retail,
the restaurants and by households. A majority of these could be avoided.
Keywords: food waste, food chain, waste, food manufacturing industry, retail, consumers.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) assumes that about one third
of the worldwide produced food for the human consumption gets lost. Considering social, ethic,
ecological and financial aspects this is of major importance.
The Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Waste Management (ISWA) at the
University of Stuttgart investigated the quantities of food waste in Germany in the context of a study,
elaborated for the German Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (Kranert,
et al, 2012).
One important aim of the study was to estimate the quantities of food waste generated in Germany
on the basis of statistics, research, literature, surveys, expert consultations and specific studies on a
random basis.
2. DETERMINIG THE QUANTITIES OF DISCARDED FOOD IN GERMANY
The quantities of food waste generated within the food chain have been elaborated, such as food
waste from retail, transport and logistics, large scale consumers (e.g. restaurants etc.), consumption
in households and other.
The work was based on using the following methods: literature research, analysis of federal statistics,
interviews of relevant stakeholders, own investigations, identification of gaps, etc.
As a result the relevant massflows of food, food waste and by-products could be identified. The data
quality was examined and further investigations and studies, necessary regarding an amelioration of
data (amount and quality) could be elaborated.
Figure 1 shows the fluctuation margins of estimated food waste in Germany broken down by the
areas of the food value-added chain that were analysed.
If one simplistically adds the mean values of these fluctuation margins, the total amount is 10,970,000
tonnes of food per year.
26
Solid Waste
Figure 1. Range of food waste in Germany by areas of the food value-added chain
Regarding measures for a minimization of food wastage, the most relevant - and avoidable mass flows of food waste have been identified. Applicable measures have been researched in an
international frame (Europe + Northern America). The researched measures against food wastage
have been evaluated within a benefit analysis including aspects of transferability to Germany.
Apart from food waste quantities and measures for an optimization of the current situation a very
important outcome of the study was the definition of “food waste”. This definition was discussed
amongst experts and Stakeholders throughout Europe and could become an international standard,
which would enable experts and interested citizens to compare studies and published data in the
international context.
3. CLOSING REMARKS
It is necessary to avoid food waste throughout the value chain. The cultivation and production of
food is associated with a high use of fertilizers, water and energy. If foods are disposed of, this has
significant ecological and economic impacts. These effects can be expressed with environmental
parameters, for example greenhouse gas emissions and land use.
Within the oral presentation, the massflows of food and food waste for Germany are shown. Data
quality and integrity as well as further necessary investigation steps are shown. Also methodology
and results of the benefit analysis regarding measures against food wastage are explained - some
resulting recommendations for politics are shown. Finally, an overview on different environmental
parameters is given.
REFERENCES
1.
Kranert, M., Hafner, G., Barabosz, J., et al. 2012: Ermittlung der weggeworfenen Lebensmittelmengen und Vorschläge
zur Verminderung der Wegwerfrate bei Lebensmitteln in Deutschland. Institut für Siedlungswasserbau, Wassergüte- und
Abfallwirtschaft.
27
Oral Presentations
Investigation of Different Waste Management Scenarios on Effects of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Hüseyin Güven, İzzet Öztürk
İstanbul Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak, İstanbul
Summary The negative effects of global warming, especially in recent years began to be seen clearly.
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the main responsible for global warming. Although there was not a significant
change in the concentration of GHGs in the Earth until the 19th century, since the 1800s with the industrial
revolution, the concentrations of GHGs, especially CO2, have increased substantially.
Greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere are increased due to the need of energy, industrial and
agricultural processes in conjunction with waste disposal procedures. Waste sector greenhouse gas emissions
are the third contributor in the global greenhouse gas emissions after energy sector and industrial processes.
Therefore, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from waste sector plays an important role in reducing
global GHG emissions. According to Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK), ~402x106 CO equivalent GHG
were released to the atmosphere in 2010 and waste sector was responsible 9% of the total emissions,
approximately. While emission caused by waste sector was ~9.7x106 CO2 equivalent in 1990, it raised
~35.8x106 CO2 equivalent in 2010. Between 1990 and 2010, emission rate was incresed by 270% which
indicates the importance of the issue.
In this study, for 2003-2032 periods, three separate waste management scenarios for Turkey were studied and
in case of the implementation of an each management scenario how much greenhouse gases were released
to the atmosphere was calculated. Implemented waste management scenarios were included different waste
disposal methods. At the end of the study, it was evaluated that which waste management plan causes less
GHG emission. Before studying scenarios, population and waste projections were applied. Urban and rural
population estimations were evaluated separately. Population projections of United Nation Development
Programme (UNDP) and TUIK were evaluated to determine population projection method. It was
understood that both two projections gave similar results. The year of 2009 population estimations of UNDP
was used for population projection since it has population predictions for both urban and rural population.
Urban and rural population of each city was calculated until 2032 by using estimations of UNDP. On the
other hand, Solid Waste Master Plan was used for municipal solid waste generation (MSW) projection.
Unit waste generation rates for each waste basin were used to calculate waste amount. To calculate MSW
components, MSW characterization tables for each waste basin were used. However, unit waste generation
rates and MSW characterization tables do not exist for some years in Solid Waste Master Plan, appropriate
values were given for missing years. Before studying of the scenarios, existing solid waste management
and waste disposal components in Turkey were evaluated. For this purpose, sanitary landfills, composting
facilities, packing waste policy and activities of garbage men in Turkey were reviewed.
In the study, it was assumed that sanitary landfills, compost, biomethanization and incineration facilities will
accept waste until end of the 2032. Emissions caused by dumping sites were also calculated in the study.
Until 2020, it was accepted that all open dumping sites will be rehabilitated and after closed. After closure
of sanitary landfills, remarkable amount of landfill gas (LFG) is still produced for a long time. That is why,
GHG emissions were calculated for 2003-2052 periods. In the first scenario, it was assumed that most of
the generated MSW will be sent to the sanitary landfills. It was accepted that compost facilities that are
operated at present (Istanbul, Izmir, Denizli and Kemer) will be served until end of 2032. Mixed collection
system will be used in this scenario. Second and third scenarios indicate different waste managements for
metropolitan municipalities and other municipalities. In these scenarios, generated MSW will be sent to
incineration facilities in metropolitan municipalities. Incineration facilities will begin to serve by the start
of 2015. In 2015, incineration facilities, which will be constructed in metropolitan municipalities, will able
to process 25% of the total generated waste. In 2025, incineration facilities will reach maximum capacity
and will able to process 75% of the total generated MSW. The fraction of MSW, which will not be operated
in incineration facilities, will be sent to either material recovery facilities (MRFs) or sanitary landfills. In
other municipalities, it was accepted that an effective dual collection system will be established so recovery
of biodegradable waste and recycling of package waste will able to be accomplished by a high efficiency.
In the study, it was assumed that there is not a dual collection system in these municipalities at present.
Dual collection system will be established in 2013 and 67% of the generated MSW will able to be collected
separately in 2015 and in the following years. Separated part of the biodegradable waste will be sent to
biomethanization facilities in second scenario while the same fraction will be sent to composting facilities in
28
Solid Waste
third scenario. Packing waste will be sent to MRFs in both two scenarios. 33% of the generated waste will be
sent to sanitary landfills since this fraction will not able to be collected separately. Mentioned dual collection
system efficiency will also be valid for metropolitan municipalities. However, dual collection system will
not be as comprehensive as in other municipalities since most of the generated MSW will be incinerated.
Dual collection system will be mostly applied in high income residential areas. Thus, after 2025, 67% of the
packing waste (67% of 25% of MSW), which will not be sent to incineration facilities, will be operated in
MRFs while the remaing part will be sent to sanitary landfills directly. In metropolitan municipalities, it was
accepted that there will be neither biomethanization nor composting facilities so if the biodegradable fraction
of the generated MSW will not be sent to incineration facilities this fraction will be sent to sanitary landfills
directly.
Emissions caused by sanitary landfills and waste dumping sites are computed by model of Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The model was developed in 2006 in order to guide governments to
constitute their national greenhouse gas inventories caused by landfills. IPCC model uses first order decay
in methane emission calculations. The model allows user to enter population, unit waste generation rate and
MSW composition. It also allows changing default degradable organic carbon (DOC) fractions and methane
generation rate constants of the different MSW types and other some variables if neccesary. In the study,
landfills were categorized as sanitary landfills and dumping sites. In addition, dumping sites were divided
into shallow and deep dumping sites. Percentage of sanitary landfills and dumping sites were determined by
data obtained from TUIK. According to TUIK, 28% of landfills were sanitary landfills in 2002. In the study,
it was accepted that 100% of landfills will be operated as sanitary landfills in 2020. It was assumed that
generated biogas will be collected by 70% efficiency. Thus, in sanitary landfills, 70% of generated methane
will be converted to CO2 and after will be released to the atmosphere. While 40% of dumping sites will
have flare to convert from methane to CO2, 60% of dumping sites will not have flare. It was assumed that
generated landfill gas will be collected by 50% efficiency in dumping sites, which have flare, and therefore,
50% of generated methane will be converted to CO2 then will be released to the atmosphere. To calculate
emissions derived from biomethanization, composting and incineration facilities, emission factors reviewed
from literature were used. CO2 emissions caused by composting, biomethanization and incineration facilities
were accepted as 169.5 kg/ton waste, 353 m3/ton waste and 1,000 kg/ton waste, respectively. Similarly,
CH4 emissions caused by composting and biomethanization facilities were accepted as 2.3 kg/ton waste
and 454 m3/ton waste, respectively. It was assumed that CH4 emission can be neglected by a well-operated
incineration facility, so CH4 emission of incineration facilities was taken as zero. In the study, GHG emissions
were calculated only from the MSW itself. Indirect GHG emissions were not calculated. After calculation
of all emissions derived from all disposal facilities they were expressed in terms of CO2 equivalent. It was
accepted that CO2 equivalent of 1 unit methane is 25 units of CO2. That is why, all calculated methane
emissions were multiplied by 25 and total emissions were obtained in terms of CO2 equivalent.
According to calculations, GHG emission caused by first and third scenarios were so close to each other
in 2003-2052 periods. ~783 and ~782 million CO2 equivalent emission will be released to the atmosphere
in first and third scenarios, respectively. Maximum emission will be caused by second scenario with ~870
million CO2 equivalent emission. Consequently, among the studied scenarios, it was understood that first and
third waste management scenarios lead to minimum GHG emission.
Keywords: Greenhouse gas, Municipal solid waste (MSW), Integrated solid waste management.
29
Oral Presentations
Waste Incineration in the 21st Century Energy-Efficient and
Climate-Friendly Plant with the Martinsystem
Dipl.Ing. Norbert Eickhoff
Martin GmbH für Umwelt- und Energietechnik, München
[email protected]
1. INTRODUCTION - HISTORY
The first waste incineration plants in Europe were built in the middle of the 19th century. Hygiene
played an important role, because plagues had again and again hit many countries, cost numerous
lives.
England and Germany were the first countries to install incineration plants for municipal solid waste
(MSW). These were quite simple plants, with batch type feeding of the waste and also removal of the
bottom ash. No heat was utilised, the flue gases were released into the atmosphere via tall chimneys,
with no flue gas cleaning system.
Figure 1. Incineration plant for MSW in Hamburg, Germany - 1896
Mainly due to financial constraints and the two world wars, it took another century for waste
incineration to really start playing an important role in treatment of municipal solid waste.
Beginning in about the middle of the 20th century, landfill space became scarce in some industrialised
countries; at the same time the standard of living and thus the awareness for the protection of our
environment rose. Legislation was put in place in many countries, paving the ground for thermal
treatment of MSW.
2. MODERN GRATE-BASED WASTE-TO-ENERGY PLANTS
Incineration technology had already improved substantially. Continuous waste feeding and residue
removal was state-of-the art. Steam boilers recovered the energy contained in the MSW. Flue gas
treatment had started with the removal of particulate matter. Removal of acid gas components and
heavy metals was made mandatory, followed by requirements to reduce emissions of NOx and
organic compounds, most notably PCDD/F. With the adoption of EU Directive 2000/76, all EU
member states have been required to meet stringent emission limits (which are the most stringent for
any industrial process) by the end of 2005.
30
Solid Waste
3. WASTE-TO-ENERGY PLANT ASM BRESCIA
Today, the ASM Brescia plant consists of three streams, each equipped with a MARTIN Reverse
Acting Grate. Two streams for the combustion of domestic waste were put into operation in 1998.
The third stream for the combustion of biomass was handed over to the customer in August 2004.
The grates for all 3 lines are almost identical and consist of 6 runs each.
Line 1 and 2 have a thermal capacity of 90 MW with a waste capacity of 23 Mg/h.
Line 3 with a thermal capacity of 100 MW is the world’s largest combustion line for biomass.
In the design of all streams, Martin focused on achieving maximum power supply to the electricity
grid.
Consequently, the streams are operated with low excess air and the steam parameter settings are just
within acceptable limits with regard to corrosion. The flue gas cleaning system consists of an SNCR
system to reduce nitrogen oxides and a dry flue gas cleaning system
This plant design
yields an electrical net efficiency of more than 27 % and is in successful operation
since more than 8 years.
Figure 6. Waste-to-Energy Plant ASM Brescia, Italy
31
Oral Presentations
Waste Combustion Technology Developments for Large Scale Plants
Dr.-Ing. J. Sohnemann, Dipl.-Ing. T. Maghon, Dr.-Ing. W. Schäfers
Fisia Babcock Environment GmbH
Abstract For the waste disposal of urban areas and major cities rather large scale energy from waste (EfW)
plants are needed. This implies a mechanical input of approx. 40 t/h and thermal input by waste per unit of
110 MW and more. The paper reports on layout features and design details of such plants regarding grate,
combustion, boiler technology, maintenance aspects and flue gas cleaning technology. There is also a focus
on combustion rate control strategies and respective results from recent operating experiences.
Keywords: grate, boiler, combustion control, maintenance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Inerting and disinfection of domestic refuse and similar waste materials by means of thermal
treatment has a long history. The first plant of this kind on the European continent, for example,
became operative in Hamburg in 1896. Ever since the technology has progressed considerably, based
on advances in manufacturing and materials.
Compared with these first experiences in municipal waste disposal by combustion there are far
bigger plants currently in operation. This might be of special interest for the waste disposal of urban
areas and major cities where rather large scale energy from waste (EfW) plants are needed. This
implies a mechanical input of approx. 40 Mg/h and thermal input by waste per unit of 110 MW and
more.
There are basic design criteria that feature the EfW plant:
• Layout of boiler with horizontal or vertical orientation of convective part.
• Top or bottom suspension of boiler.
• Flexible design of grate regarding large throughput figures and heating values of waste with wateror air-cooled grate bars.
• Design and geometry of combustion furnace in order to optimize the flow pattern.
• Optimization of boiler steel structure: integrated steel structure for boiler and boiler house
enclosure.
• Optimization of corrosion protection and maintainability of large scale boilers: cladding versus
refractory lining
• Maintenance aspects of the boiler.
The presentation gives information on the pros and cons regarding the design features with respect to
the optimized solution for large scale EfW plants.
2. GRATE AND COMBUSTION
For the core component of the firing system - the grate - Fisia Babcock Environment (FBE) is using
forward moving grates as well as roller grates. The forwart moving grate, which is used in the great
majority of all our plants, has specific characteristics for providing uniform combustion and optimal
burnout. These include, amongst others:
• Uniform air supply by means of specific grate bar geometry
• Two grate steps in direction of waste transport for optimum burnout
• Flexible adaptation of the combustion process to the respective conditions and requirements by
zone-specific air distribution and transport velocity of waste on grate
• Optimized combustion control adapted to the specific plant for ensuring a consistent combustion
process and production of energy
32
Solid Waste
The automatic combustion rate control system is the key component in the combustion process in
order to receive good burn out quality in slag and flue gas as well as constant steam production and
oxygen content of flue gas. This paper includes a detailed report on a modern control system with
focus on a simple and efficient control structure.
3. BOILER TECHNOLOGY AND MAINTENANCE ASPECTS
Previous papers reported on the possibilities to optimize the plant efficiency by e.g. higher steam
temperature, lower flue gas temperature, external superheating with clean hot gas or other measures.
On the mechanical side there are design issues such as:
• Layout of boiler with horizontal or vertical orientation of convective part.
• Top or bottom suspension of boiler and grate.
• Optimization of boiler steel structure: integrated steel structure for boiler and boiler house
enclosure.
The paper reports about an evaluation of these design features regarding invest cost, plant layout and
operation.
Maintenance aspects: In case of a horizontal super heater pass there are different possibilities to
realize a super heater replacement. The super heater bundles can be replaced vertically by lifting or
lowering. Depending on the actual lay out situation in the boiler house it might also be possible to
exchange bundles through the side wall of the boiler. However, the sequence of replacement depends
on the chosen live steam parameters of the individual boiler.
FBE has considered this in boiler configurations containing horizontal convection passes, especially
for boilers operated with higher live steam parameters (e.g. temperature 430 °C to 480 °C, pressure
50 bar to 90 bar).
33
Oral Presentations
Selection of Project Site and Concept Design for Istanbul Waste to
Energy Plant
Dr. Şenol Yıldız, Vahit Balahorli, Fatih Hoşoğlu, Kadir Sezer
Istanbul Environmental Management Industry and Trading Company
Abstract Today Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is continuing to address their municipal solid waste
issues (MSW), which began early 1990s when Istanbul Environmental Management Industry and Trading
Company (ISTAC) was established. Since then ISTAC have grown to handle over 15.000 tons of MSW per
day. Given this growth, several challenges present themselves including meeting Directive on the Landfill of
Waste and decreasing landfill space. As alternative treatment methods required overcoming these challenges
and taking the first step for this, 3.000 tons per day (TPD) waste to energy facility is going to be established
in Istanbul. Project site was chosen as near the existing composting and recycling facility in Eyüp after
evaluating the alternative sites. Site evaluation criteria, waste supply availability and analysis, and selection
of technology for the project were explained in this study.
Keywords: municipal solid waste, waste to energy.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Municipality uses Composting and Landfill methods for disposal of solid wastes within Istanbul
city boundaries. Among these methods, Landfill has the major portion with 95%. Sustainability is
the most significant issue to consider in Integrated Waste Management. Disposal of wastes through
landfill method is more economical compared to other disposal methods; however, decrease in
capacity of available sanitary landfill sites, failure in finding suitable land for establishing new
landfill sites and land shortage are factors obstructing implementation of this method.
Ministry of Environment and Forestry conducted a study on “Environmental Heavy Cost Investments
Planning Project, Solid Waste Industry National Master Plan Harmonized with EC Directives
(EHCIP)” in 2005; in the study report, implementation of compost (~20-30%) and thermal (~7080%) systems by Municipalities is foreseen to achieve Turkish Directive on Landfill of Waste
objectives for year 2020 in Turkey.
MSW landfills in Istanbul operated by ISTAC are the Kömürcüoda Landfill and the Odayeri Landfill.
The Odayeri Landfill is on the European side of the city, while the Kömürcüoda Landfill is located
on the Asian site. There are 13 million residents within Istanbul that feed the facilities. Collectively,
the landfills process 15.000 tons of MSW per day. The Odayeri Landfill processes 10.000 TPD of
MSW daily.
With increasing disposal rates and decreasing landfill space, the Municipality started the project to
build a Waste to Energy (WTE) facility that is capable of processing 3.000 TPD and it is on tender
process. It will be the first WTE from MSW facility in Turkey.
2. PROJECT SITE
The most significant factor to be considered for waste disposal facilities is the project location
alternative. Considering environmental issues and sensitivities during evaluation of alternatives for
Project location shall ensure selection of most sustainable location which shall be accepted by all
parties, not only in economic and technical terms but also regarding environment.
Location choice model prepared by Ministry of Environment and Urbanization [1] is used with the
purposes of making the selection process for incineration plant more objective, ensuring reasons
determinant for location choice to be more comprehendible, and controlling the reason for choice for
the selected location.
34
Solid Waste
3. MSW SUPPLY and ANALYSIS
3.1. MSW Supply Avaılabılıty
On a daily basis, ISTAC handles and processes approximately 15.000 tons of MSW generated by
Istanbul’s 13 million residents. The total expected waste production from the European side of
Istanbul is 10.000 TPD. The WTE facility will be sized for operating with a 3.000 TPD throughput,
which represents only 33 percent of the total waste production. It is expected trailers loading with
higher heating value MSW, normally from more affluent areas, be sent to the facility for incineration.
3.2. MSW Heatıng Value Analysıs
When sizing the boiler for a WTE facility, there are important factors that must be taken into account.
These factors include, but are not limited to, the amount of ash the facility will handle, the higher/
lower heating value (HHV/LHV) of the MSW, and the fuel moisture content.
The amount of ash resulting from the combustion process is a key design consideration in sizing the
ash handling system for continuous and reliable operation. The heating value is also a vital factor as
this represents the overall amount of heat input to the plant for steam production which in turn would
be used for electrical power generation.
It is important that the correct heating values of the waste fuel(s) be accurately determined to ensure
proper design and continuous operation of the Facility. Waste fuel analyses need to be conducted on
an as-received (A.R) basis.
In this section, MSW data evaluation, heating value analysis, selection of design heating value,
moisture content and density are determined.
4. TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
4.1. Technology Selectıon
After comparison of different incineration technologies, mass burn incinerators with a moving grate
system will be used for the project. Other technologies, such as gasification, fluidized bed were not
chosen due to the lack of industry experience in applying this technology to a scale similar to the
project.
4.2. Pre-Desıgn of WTE
The size of each process line of the WTE is selected by taking account the low heating value and
high moisture content compared to common WTE facilities. Three lines with each 1.000 TPD
configuration and a single steam turbine would be applied for the project.
REFERENCES
1.
Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, Guide Booklet, Selection of Technology and Site for Solid Waste Incineration
Facilities, 2010
35
Oral Presentations
Key Aspects for Successful PPP/PFI Waste to Energy Projects in Turkey
Hogan Lovells International LLP, Untermainanlage 1, 60329 Frankfurt/Germany
Abstract Rapid population and industrial growth have led to increased consumption rates and as a result
greater waste generation. Landfill sites are moving closer to human settlements as cities expand and lead to a
shift in the public opinion and the national waste strategy. Driven by the waste pyramid as general recognized
guideline for a forward-looking waste strategy, avoidance of waste is now being set as top priority before
recycling of waste, followed by incineration of waste to generate energy and using landfills only in the
last instance. Further, emerging countries have an increasing appetite for energy. Significant investments in
state-of-the-art waste disposal facilities combined with latest waste-to-energy solutions can make a valuable
contribution to solve these problems but requiring enormous amounts of money to be successful. In most
counties, it is necessary to involve private sector capital and know-how to implement such change in the
national waste strategy successfully.
A major issue for public bodies, international funders, investors and contractors working on the successful
realization of waste-to-energy projects is the affordability and bankability of the relevant project. Particularly
for procurements comprising the construction and operation of such facilities, it has become internationally
popular to structure such projects by way of PPP schemes.
The purpose of this article is to introduce some of the key aspects and risks of PPPs generally, being a
potential model for future waste projects in Turkey1. Further, it is also intended to provide a brief overview of
various associated issues and risks particularly relevant to the waste sector, based on experiences gained on
projects in other international markets and in PPP generally.
Keywords: PPP, Waste-to-Energy, Project Finance, Project Agreement, Contract.
1. WHAT IS PPP?
1.1.Public Private Partnership (“PPP”) is the name given to an extensive and disparate collection of
constructive relationships between the public and private sectors. There is no comprehensive set
of the categories of PPP. The role of the public sector is variable; it includes acting as promoter or
facilitator, joint venture (possibly as shareholder or active operational participant) and purchaser.
1.2.The factors which have driven governments to promote PPP include (i) state withdrawal from
commercial activities, either for political or economic reasons, (ii) a desire to improve the quality
of public services and (iii) a desire to obtain better value for money (which includes managing
the public sector spend over the long term).
1.3.Although PPP models have already been implemented occasionally in Turkey, particularly in the
transportation sector, the Turkish government has not implemented a national PPP programme
or respective legislation so far - neither in general nor specifically for the waste sector. However,
a PPP law has already been drafted several years ago but has not been approved by the Turkish
government yet. It is likely that the Turkish government will continue to monitor established
PPP markets such as the UK, Germany and Italy closely, particularly as PPP as a procurement
process usually gathers pace in emerging markets such as Turkey.
2. STRUCTURING A WASTE PPP PROJECT
Historically, public sector bodies that wished to acquire or upgrade infrastructure assets had to apply
for government funding. PPP fundamentally changes this approach. In an ideal world, waste PPP
projects would rest on a solid financial and organizational basis, the income and expenditures would
be in line with given forecasts and the quality of the services rendered would meet the expectations
of all parties concerned. However, unforeseen circumstances such as insolvency, poor performance
or non-performance, environmental and site related issues as well as changes in law and force
majeure events (wars, earthquakes, floods or fires) may, depending on circumstances, have major
adverse effects on the execution of waste PPP projects. Therefore, a detailed risk analysis is of vital
36
Solid Waste
importance for structuring the project and drafting and negotiating the project related agreements. A
major strength of a PPP structure is its suitability for transfer of risks, whereby the risks should be
transferred to such contractual party suited best to manage or minimize them. Each party concerned
considers the project from a different perspective and thus may have a different approach to risk
assessment.
In essence, the effect of a typical PPP structure is to convert the traditional procurement of a capital
asset into the creation of a single, stand-alone business. This business usually has only one customer
(the public sector client) and its only purpose is to provide a “service” to that client in return for
payment. The service it provides amounts, in practice, to the design, construction and maintenance
of new or upgraded infrastructure assets, such as a waste-to-energy plant or a mechanical-biological
treatment (“MBT”) facility, and then making these assets available for use by the public sector client.
In this way the public sector can dissociate itself from many of the risks inherent in the ownership
of such plants. However, in addition to the public sector client, waste projects often (at least in most
developed waste markets in Europe) comprise third parties which deliver their waste to the respective
waste treatment facilities. This is mainly driven by the possibility to generate an additional income
stream for the plant operator and particularly to ensure the profitability and thus the realisation of the
project.
3. THE KEY ISSUES
Turkey will be facing various challenges by implementing waste-to-energy and PPP structures as it
also requires a change in mindset by the Turkish customers which are not used to pay for the disposal
of waste. It also provides, however, a lot of opportunities to present Turkey as a well developed
market comprising the latest technology for a cleaner future.
This requires a lot of efforts including the development of a transparent and fair procurement
procedure, reliable PPP-laws, a standard PPP documentation which reduces the bidding costs for
investors and bidders (such as the WIDP contract documentation in the UK), originating a credible
and permanent waste flow and a certain ‘project flow’ which allows developing a market practice.
In particular the legal structures have proven in the past that Turkey is a good place for investments.
This is a great fundament for a successful future in waste-to-energy.
REFERENCES
1.
Various contents of this article are based on a Hogan Lovells International LLP client note
37
Oral Presentations
Anaerobic Digestion of the Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste in
Europe: Status, Experience and Prospects
Organic Waste Systems NV, Gent, Belgium Corresponding author. Tel: +32 9 233 02 04, Fax: +32 9 233 28 25
To consider anaerobic digestion as a hype or a passing trend would dishonor the technology and its entry
in the household waste treatment industry and moreover, it would be wrong. Since the introduction of
anaerobic digestion of MSW and biowaste in the beginning of the nineties, the adoption of the technology
has consistently grown. Considering that twenty years ago only a handful of digesters were running on
biowaste or municipal solid waste and that more than 200 plants will be up and running in Europe by the
end of 2012, one can not dispute that AD is a mature technology. And the number of countries in Europe that
tend to stimulate the treatment or pre-treatment of their household waste via anaerobic digestion continues to
grow. An inventory of the existing, contracted plants and plants under construction was made in order to get
a good overview of the state of the art of the technology in 2012. Due to the extended analysis-period (19902012), some clear trends can be observed. Europe was clearly a pioneer in the development of anaerobic
digestion of household waste and a lot of knowledge and experiences was gathered in the past 22 years. The
European experiences and the trends in the development of anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste are
of special interest for countries or regions willing to adopt anaerobic digestion.
Keywords: anaerobic digestion, municipal solid waste, biogas.
38
Solid Waste
A Reference Process for Bioenergy Recovery for the Evaluation of Beer
Industry Wastes
Gülizar ÇALIŞKAN1, Tuğba KESKİN GÜNDOĞDU1, Gökhan GİRAY2, Nuri AZBAR1
Ege University, Engineering Faculty, Bioengineering Department, Bornova, Izmir
2
Turk Tuborg Bira ve Malt Sanayi A.Ş., Pınarbaşı, Izmir
1
Abstract As a result of ever increasing environmental concerns on global warming issues due to the fossil
based energy consumption, industries have been increasingly interested in alternative energy sources,
especially biological ones such as biogas from their process wastes. In this study, solid wastes, which have
high organic content sold as animal feed, are investigated for anaerobic digestion in a brewery factory (Türk
Tuborg Bira ve Malt Sanayi A.Ş) as a reference process in Izmir, Turkey.Tuborg has been already valorizing
its wastewater into bioenergy which corresponds to 25% of the whole energy consumption at the factory
(3500m3 biogas/day), which reduce the factory’s carbon foot print. In this study, other wastes in the form
of solid material was aimed to produce extra bioenergy via biogas technology. BMP tests indicated that
45m3 biogas production per ton of malt wastes was possible with a daily gas production potential of 4400m3
biogas. The valorization of these malt wastes mean that the current biogas production could be doubled.
The results obtained in this study demonstrated that the waste problem in any industry could be turned into
environmentally friendly solution and Tuborg is a reference process for similar facilities.
Keywords: Anaerobic biotechnology, beer industry waste, biogas, BMP (Biogas methane potential), malt.
1. INTRODUCTION
Millions of tons of solid waste are generated each year from municipal, industrial and agricultural
sources. Valorization of organic wastes into bioenergy via anaerobic biotechnology has both
economic and ecological advantages [1]. Anaerobic digestion processes are suitable for many sort
of industrial wastes. Significant numbers of studies and research activities on the biogas potential
of solid organic substrates have been carried out; on the other hand, there is very limited data in
regard to the valorization of brewery solid wastes in this manner. Brewery is one of the traditional
industry with an important economic value in the agro-food sector. For every 1,000 tonnes of beer
produced, 137 to 173 tonnes of solid waste may be created in the form of spent grain, trub from wort
production, diatomaceous earth slurry and waste yeast [2].
In this study, the valorization potential of the organic wastes in one of the largest brewery factory in
Turkey, namely Türk Tuborg Bira ve Malt Sanayi A.Ş., was evaluated. For this purpose, mainly grid
and malt wastes were tested in terms of bioenergy content. The results were reported to demonstrate
the potential of organic wastes in the whole energy budget of the factory as a model solution for
other industries.
2.1. Solıd Waste Characterızatıon and Analytıc Methods
The beer industry wastes (industrial malt and grid waste) was taken from Türk Tuborg Bira ve Malt
Sanayi A.Ş.; İzmir, Turkey. These wastes were first characterized (dry matter, organic matter content)
and biogas potential yield was determined. For this purpose, wastes were analyzed for biogas yield
via BMP tests [3].
2.2. Bıochemıcal Methane Potentıal (BMP)
BMP was used to monitor the anaerobic biodegradability [4]. 100 mL serum bottles were seeded
with 10 mL of flock type anaerobic inoculum obtained from a fully operational anaerobic digester
(İzmir-Pakmaya A.Ş.). Solid substrate in each test bottle was adjusted to a dry matter content of
10% and 17.5% for malt and grid wastes, respectively. All bottles were purged with a gas mixture
(75% of N2, 25% of CO2). The serum bottles were then incubated at 35◦C in an incubator. The
methane content of biogas was determined by gas chromatography (GC). All experiments were run
in triplicate and the mean values of net biogas production are reported [5].
39
Oral Presentations
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In total, solid waste generation from beer production is estimated to be around 35000 tons/year in
Türk Tuborg. In order to estimate the bioenergy content of these wastes, BMP tests were carried
out for approximately 77 days using various solid waste materials (Fig.1.). In terms of total biogas
production, the grid wastes produced much more biogas (1000 mL) than malt wastes (450 mL). It
was also observed that increasing dry matter content in the reactors negatively affected the total
biogas production (Fig. 1.).
Cumulative Methane Gas Production, ml
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
20
%10 DM Malt
%17,5 DM Malt
%10 DM Grid
%17,5 DM Grid
40
60
80
100
Time, day
Figure 1. Flocculent anaerobic consortium BMP result
REFERENCES
40
1.
McCarty, Perry L. ve Smith, Daniel I., (1986). Anaerobic wastewater treatment, Environment Science Technology, 20, 12,
Stanford Univesity.
2.
Jurado, J., (2011). Reducing waste in beer production. [http://www.alfalaval.com/about-us/press/product-press/Pages/
reduced-waste.aspx]
3.
APHA, (1995). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th ed. APHA, AWWA, WPCF,
Washington DC, USA.
4.
Owen, W.F., Stuckey, D.C., Healy, J.B. Young, L.Y., and McCarty, P.L. (1979).Bioassay for Monitoring. Biochemical
Methane Potential and Anaerobic Toxicity. Water Res., Vol.13, p. 485.
5.
Azbar, N., Pekin, G., Haskök, S., Sargın, S., Gezgin, Y., Eltem, R., Ikizoglu, E., Vardar Sukan, F., Anaerobic digestion of
Aegean olive mill effluents with and without pretreatment, Journal of Chemical Tech. And Biotech. 85:7, 976-982.
Solid Waste
Biogas Production from Waste of Biodiesel Process Mixed with Treated
Pome in Hybrid Bioreactor
C. Ruangchainikom1, C. Wangnai2 and P. Kullavanijaya2
Environmental Research and Management Department, PTT Research and Technology Institute, 71 Moo 2 Phahonyothin
Rd., Sanubtub, Wangnoi, Ayuthaya, 13170 THAILAND
2
Excellent Center of Waste Utilization and Management, Pilot Plant Development and Training Institute, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi, 49 Thein Talay 25 Thakham Bangkhuntein Bangkok 10150 THAILAND
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
1
Abstract Continuous production of biogas from waste of biodiesel process mixed with treated POME in
the hybrid reactor by anaerobic bacteria was demonstrated. The experiment was conducted in a 10L hybrid
bioreactor to investigate the potential of organic loading rate on the biogas production from the wastewater.
The biogas production rate was obtained 0.5-0.6 m3/kg COD removed. In general, the biogas methane
content was between 50-60%. The percentage of COD removal at maximum OLR was approximately 80%
for continuous runs.
Keywords: biogas; bottom glycerol waste; hybrid bioreactor.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bottom glycerol waste is perceived as one of major waste producing from glycerol refinery of
biodiesel plant. The bottom glycerol waste is characterized as one of the caramelized waste containing
extremely high COD, inorganic solids and color. Regarding waste management, the various
treatment technologies have been implemented such as incineration, physic-chemical treatment
and secure landfill. However, there is no general waste utilization to recycle bottom glycerol waste
for biogas as renewable source. Treated POME (Palm oil mill effluent) is sufficient nutrient source
for anaerobic bacteria (1,2). Therefore, the combination of bottom glycerol and treated POME was
determined and carried out as substrate called value added product in biogas production.
The propose of this study aim to investigate the effect of increasing COD loading rates on COD
removal efficiency, total gas, methane gas productions in hybrid reactor. Furthermore, the variations
of pH, VFA and alkalinity productions were monitored during the operation.
2.1. Experımental set up for contınuous studıes
Treated POME mixed with bottom glycerol waste was selected as substrate to conduct the
experiment. Total COD concentration was prepared with 25 g/L by the dilution method of bottom
glycerol waste with treated POME . Nutrient was controlled by urea and phosphate with the
COD:N:P ratio as 350/7.0/1.0.
Seed inoculum was taken from a stable anaerobic digester of a palm oil factory. pH value was 7.3
and contained 35.8 gL-1 of volatile suspended solid (VSS). The Specific methanogenic activity
(SMA) was 0.155 g COD g VSS-1.day.
A 10 L active volume AHR (anaerobic hybrid reactor) fed with synthetic wastewater was started
up using 10 g/L seed inoculum. The experiment was performed at 10 day HRT and 500 cm/h
liquid upward velocities (Vup). pH was not controlled during the experiments. The monitoring of
the reactor performance was done as described for the AHR. Characterization of each steady state
consisted of biogas production and composition in CH4, CO2, H2S, pH, VSS, VFA, Alkalinity and
COD concentration. Measurements of COD, pH, VSS, Alkalinity, VFA were performed according
to the standard method (3).
41
Oral Presentations
To determine the performance of AHR reactor for producing biogas from the substrate of treated
POME mixed with bottom glycerol waste, the experimental results of biogas production efficiency
are shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the substrate used in this study was very effective for
producing biogas. The biogas production rate was obtained 0.5-0.6 m3/kg COD removed. In general,
the biogas methane content was between 50-60%. The percentage of COD removal at maximum
OLR was approximately 80%. The COD removal efficiency was decreased after OLR 2.5 kg COD/
m3-day. It might be due to the effect of VFA as shown in figure 4 (c). These observations imply that
methanogenesis started to get limited in this OLR. This indicated that further increasing of OLR
would lead to higher VFA accumulation and deterioration in the COD removal efficiency.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. Experimental profile at various OLR (a) COD removal (b) Biogas Production (c) VFA/ALKALINITY
4. CONCLUSION
Continuous production of biogas from bottom glycerol waste mixed with treated POME in the hybrid
reactor by anaerobic bacteria was demonstrated. The percentage of COD removal at maximum OLR
was approximately 80%. The biogas production rate was obtained 0.5-0.6 m3/kg COD removed with
CH4 50-60%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank PTT Public Company, Thailand for providing financial assistance.
REFERENCES
42
1.
Poh, P.E. and Chong, M.F. (2009) Development of anaerobic digestion methods for palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment.
Bioresource Technology, 100, 1-9.
2.
Borja, R., Banks, C.J. (1994a). Anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent using an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket
reactor. Biomass and Bioenergy, 6, 381-389.
3.
APHA, AWWA, WPCF, (1995). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. 19th edition. Washington,
D.C.
Solid Waste
Introduction of Food Wastes Into Municipal Wastewater as
A Sustainable Waste Management Option
Çiğdem Yangın-Gömeç1*, Özgür Özdemir2, İzzet Öztürk1
Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected] (Corresponding Author)
[email protected]
2
Kayseri Water and Sewerage Administration, Mustafa Kemal Pasa Bulvari, 38090, Kocasinan, Kayseri, Turkey
[email protected]
1
*
Abstract An upgraded municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is proposed by the integration of
grinded kitchen wastes into municipal wastewater. The anaerobic sludge digester of the upgraded WWTP
can be also operated as a membrane assisted co-digester. Calculation based results of the anaerobic digestion
process for primary sludge (PS) together with the lysate-centrifuged waste activated sludge (WAS) were
evaluated for the mesophilic anaerobic digester of a full-scale municipal WWTP located in one of the
metropolitan provinces in Turkey. The anaerobic digester is presently digesting only the thickened PS at
the investigated WWTP. Waste minimization, biogas production and its total (electricity+heat) energy
equivalence of the proposed modified co-digestion system were investigated when grinded kitchen waste
is also integrated with the lysate-centrifuged WAS. Calculation-based results indicated that when kitchen
waste is integrated with a ratio of 50% and when all of the lysate-centrifuged WAS is fed with the thickened
PS, 100% of the energy need of the WWTP could be provided. Moreover, there would be substantial excess
energy that can be utilised elsewhere in the premises of the WWTP. Hence, the investigated municipal
WWTP can come to energy self-sufficiency by the proposed upgrading.
Keywords: Co-digestion, grinded kitchen wastes, lysate-centrifuged WAS, membrane filtration, primary
sludge.
1. INTRODUCTION
A substantial part of the wastewater pollution is converted into sludge by advanced biological
methods commonly applied in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) where large amounts
of energy are also consumed [1]. Although the sludge is widely considered an unfavourable byproduct of wastewater treatment, it can be used as a raw material for energy production. Wastewater
treatment plants have the capability to produce a fuel, biogas (a combination of methane and carbon
dioxide), through anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge. Biogas produced from sludge can cover a
very substantial portion of the energy consumption of WWTP. Anaerobic co-digestion of the organic
wastes and sewage sludge is reported as a sustainable and an appropriate treatment alternative due
to bioenergy and nutrient recovery while combining the treatment of two largest municipal waste
streams. Recent experiences indicate that industrial WWTP or WWTP where sludge is co-digested
with other organic wastes have been proven the feasibility of energy self-sufficiency WWTP [2].
Other most practical alternative for waste minimization at the source is the use of food disposers
due to the fact that the separation of a considerable fraction of food-waste ingredients out of the
entire MSW stream is enabled by grinding the waste using mechanical means with the addition of
tap water, and allowing the mixture into the sewage system [3]. This study evaluates the change in
the calculation based results (i.e. biogas production and its total energy equivalence) if the thickened
PS is digested together with the lysate-centrifuged WAS in the anaerobic digester of a municipal
WWTP located in one of the metropolitan provinces in Turkey. The investigated WWTP contains
activated sludge system with a biological nutrient removal process and the mesophilic anaerobic
digester is presently digesting only the thickened PS. Waste minimization, biogas production and
its total (electricity+heat) energy equivalence of the proposed modified co-digestion method were
also investigated in the case of kitchen waste integration. By this way, the energetic potential of
sewage sludge as well as the potential of WWTP energy self-sufficiency would be evaluated with the
introduction of the grinded kitchen wastes in the influent flow.
43
Oral Presentations
2. WASTE CHARACTERISTICS AND THE PROPOSED TREATMENT SYSTEM
Influent characteristics of wastewater were taken from the investigated municipal WWTP and the
change in the characterization due to grinded food waste introduction was evaluated using literature
data. Hence, calculations were done according to a daily wastewater flow-rate of 130,000 m3.
Food waste integration ratio is taken as 50% and increase in the influent flow-rate is considered
as 3% after integrating disposers. In the investigated WWTP, the primary sludge after subjected
to gravity thickening (QPS-thickened ≅ 370 m3/day; TS% ≅ 7; VS/TS=57%) is fed into a mesophilic
(35±2◦C) anaerobic digester having an effective volume of 6,750 m3 with VS removal of ca. 59%.
The modified municipal WWTP, including grinded kitchen wastes and integrated WAS by lysate
centrifuge is indicated in Figure 1. Here, the combined sludge (thickened PS and disintegrated WAS)
may be co-digested together with the organic solid waste having high biomethane potential. Within
the modified system, it is optional that the concentrate of the UF membrane might be fed back into
co-digester; so-called membrane-assisted co-digester, whereas treatment of nitrogen-rich water
(permeate) arising from membrane system might be carried out beneficially by MAP precipitation
for valuable fertilizer and struvite recovery.
Grinded S creening Kitchen & Grit Biol ogical Nutrient Removal Primary Sedimentation Bio-‐P Sedimentation Removal Wastes M unicipal Se condary Nitrification&Denitrification (E TSS=60%) Supernatant W astewater to h ead of W WTP M echanical Thi ck eni ng Returned A ctivated S ludge WAS Discharge Sl udge after Lysate Centrifuge Biogas Mixing Tank Liquid Fertilizer Disi nfection to Irrigation Anaerobic Organic Solid Waste MgCl2 Biomass Co-‐Digester Permeate (opt ional) M AP Precip. with H igh Biomethane Potential MAP UF to h ead of W WTP Membrane Recovery Optional Upgrading Figure 1. The Proposed Municipal Wastewater Treatment System
3. CONCLUSIONS
Calculation-based results indicated that when WAS is thickened by lysate centrifuge instead of
by mechanical thickener, all energy requirement could be provided with ca. 15% surplus energy.
However, in the cases of grinded kitchen waste integration into influent municipal wastewater and
combined digestion of municipal sludge (thickened primary + lysate-centrifuged waste activated),
all the energy requirement could be supplied as well as there would be substantial increase in excess
energy that can be utilised elsewhere in the premises of the WWTP. However with the case of
kitchen waste integration, the hydraulic flow conditions (e.g. sedimentation risk) of the sewerage
system should be evaluated as well. Furthermore, the feasibility of the system would improve if
subsidy (for electricity production from renewable sources in Turkey) is applied besides heat and
electricity recovery.
44
Solid Waste
REFERENCES
1.
Pakenas, L. J., (1995). Energy Efficiency in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants: Technology Assessment, New York
State Energy Research and Development Authority, 17 sayfa.
2.
Jenicek, P., Bartacek, J., Kutil, J., Zabranska, J. ve Dohanyos, M., (2012). Potentials and limits of anaerobic digestion of
sewage sludge: Energy self-sufficient municipal wastewater treatment plant? Water Science and Technology, 66, 6, 1277–
1281.
3.
Marashlian, N., El-Fadel, M., (2005). The effect of food waste disposers on municipal waste and wastewater management,
Waste Manage. Res., 23, 20–31.
45
Oral Presentations
Upgrading Anaerobic Digestion: Renewable Fertilizers Production
Fabrizio Adani1, Laura Terruzzi1, Giuliana D’Imporzano1, Gabriele Boccasiel 2, Andrea Schievano1
Gruppo Ricicla DiSAA University of Milan
2
Regione Lombardia - DG Agricoltura, Palazzo Lombardia, Milano, Italy
1
Abstract Ammonia emission from livestock represents a big problem for many EU area. Anaerobic
digestion because mineralized N under controlled condition could be proposed as useful biotechnology to
reduce emissions. In this way anaerobic digestion (AD) can be proposed producing renewable fertilizers that
substituting mineral fertilizers allows total ammonia emission. In this paper this topic will be extensively
discussed reporting Lombardy region approach.
Keywords: anaerobic digestion, ammonia emission, renewable fertilizers.
1. INTRODUCTION
About 90% of ammonia in atmosphere in Padania (North Italy) area comes form livestock. Ammonia
contributes to particulate production and so its reduction needs. Anaerobic digestion allows ammonia
emission reduction as N mineralization occurs under controlled condition and N fertilizers can be
produced to substitute mineral fertilizers Tambone et al., 2010).
The Gruppo Ricicla in collaboration wit Lombardy Region started a full scale approach by which
AD is used in joint with novel technologies to control ammonia emission by using digestate and
derived fertilizers in agriculture.
In this paper this approach will be discussed giving details about the philosophy of this novel
approach and technologies used.
Renewable fertilizers from digestate were produced by using different novel technologies diffused
in Lombardy Region. Full field trials and processes were monitored by our research group testing
both technologies performances and agronomic efficiency. In addition pathogens reduction, odors
reduction and ammonia emission were monitored in full filed applications.
3. RESULT
Result obtained are related to the possibility to use digestate from AD directly in agriculture
substituting mineral fertilizers and reducing total N dosed to the land. In this way Lombardy Region
approach overcome Nitrate Directive, allowing ammonia emission and nitrate leacheing reduction.
In addition sanitized and odorless products can be used reducing impact on the population (Figure
1). On the other hand when N overcome land requirement, useful technology has been performed to
remove N surplus producing ammonia sulfate (Figure 2). In this case novel technology allow cost
reduction resulting 3 €/m3 slurry the total cost to treat livestock slurry.
46
Solid Waste
Figure 1. Liquid fraction of digestate use in agriculture on crop
Figure 1. Ammonia sulfate production form digestate.
REFERENCES
Tambone F., Scaglia B., D’Imporzano G., Schievano A., Orzi V., Salati S., Adani F. (2010). Assessing amendment and
fertilizing properties of digestates from anaerobic digestion through a comparative study with digested sludge and compost,
Chemosphere 81, 577 - 583.
47
Oral Presentations
A Simple Approach for Modeling Waste Collection Activities by Using
Local Population and Map Info
İsmail ÖZKAYA
İSTAÇ A.Ş., Project Survey Department, İstanbul
[email protected]
Abstract Collection of solid wastes is mostly the biggest expense regarding the waste management. There is
a need to understand and estimate the necessities of waste collection activities such as trucks (depreciation),
consumptions, labor, equipments, etc. for executive purposes like preparing bid documents. The purpose
of this study is maintaining a practical model for calculating waste collection activities with no data but
only local population and map info. As a part of technical assistance activities in Lahore, this purpose was
followed and a model for calculating different kinds of waste collection scenarios was provided. The scope
of this study was only limited to household and municipal wastes.
Keywords: Waste collection, modeling, local population, map info, data.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is a fact that collection is the first stage of waste management activities. In developing countries,
it is mostly hard to get reliable data regarding waste collection activities like waste characteristics,
waste amount, waste density, weighbridge measurements, timings, etc. It was the main purpose to
maintain an Integrated Waste Management System in the City District Government Lahore (CDGL),
Pakistan. CDGL consists of 7 towns and 150 Union Councils (UC’s). At the beginning, only the
local population data and a Google Earth drawing of all UC’s describing the responsibility areas of
CDGL.
2. WASTE COLLECTION MODEL
For presenting a reliable waste collection system, a model of the city should be established for
collection activities. By using the model, some necessary information related to waste collection
activities such as numbers of containers, collection trucks and workers additionally obtaining the
daily travel length of trucks is a must.
The model used in that experience was based on simulating and recalculating the real collection
routes. Thus, one sample UC was determined to describe the city characteristics. For selecting a
sample UC, some site observations also were done in Lahore.
Firstly, the population info and the area info were gathered together. Secondly, distance and day
travel time of each UC’s to the planned landfill site (Lakh Oder) has been researched by using an
online map services. After the determination of the waste amount and the total waste volume of each
UC’s, all UC’s (totally 150) was screened by using eyes on online map services for estimating the
percentage of the collection area due to the total UC area.
After that point it is necessary to use two ways of calculations as the container collection and doorto-door (in-bag) collection. First, -for door-to-door collection purposes- the mean area for each
people in each UC was settled. Then square root of that value was used and assumed as all people
in each UC is connected for using as a collection length. But this collection length was not the real
collection length. The sample UC (UC 139 - The Green Town) was chosen by negotiating with some
site foremen for describing the city conditions. Therefore, the collection length of UC 139 which
had determined on an online map service by measuring of all roads in that UC was 23,6 km instead
of 258,3km the very first raw calculated value. Ration of 9.14% was determined as the ratio after
proportions of the numbers as Real Value / Calculated Value (23,6 / 258,3 = 0.0913666). The ratio
(after some optimization) was used for determining of all UCs’ door-to-door collection route length.
48
Solid Waste
Figure 1. The essential flow of the model as door-to-door collection
For the container collection purposes, the specifications of the containers were described at first. In
different volume levels each container can handle different number of people’s waste such as 422
people for 0.8m3 containers; 1581 people for 3m3 containers by using Lahore waste conditions (90%
occupancy rate, as 2012 0,683kg/capita waste generation, 400kg/m3 waste density in containers).
Because of each UC had a different population density, containers had different service area values
and different mean distances between containers calculated by the computer in different UC’s.
Figure 2. The essential flow of the model as container collection
This is a new approach to use in the lack of reliable route data for simulating different waste
collection scenarios as a waste collection model. The model can be used as an alternative estimation
method and it shall be needed to adjust parameters of it in different applications.
RESOURCES
1.
Tchobanoglous G., Theisen H., Vigil S.A. (1993) Integrated Solid Wastes Management, 210, McGraw-Hill International
Editions
2.Öztürk İ (2010) Katı Atık Yönetimi ve AB Uyumlu Uygulamaları, İSTAÇ A.Ş. Teknik Kitaplar Serisi 2 İSTANBUL
3.
UN-HABITAT (2010) Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in Developing Countries, Final Report
49
Oral Presentations
Determination of the Actual Potential of Disposed Food Waste From
Private Households for A GIS-Based Bioresource Inventory
Helmut Adwiraah, Rainer Stegmann
Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics Hamburg University of Technology
[email protected]
Keywords: bioresources, geographic information systems, inventory.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Germany a lot of biomass potential studies were carried out. Those are determining high potentials
of residual biomass for the energy production. By evaluating several biomass potential studies for
Germany from 2003 to 2005 Aretz and Hirschl (2007) determined an energetic potential of biomass
residuals of 500 - 700 PJ/a, which equals up to 5% of the entire German energy consumption (cf.
BMWi, 2010). Still these studies rarely include all parameters, necessary for the development of a
concept for collection, transportation and utilisation and planning of a utilisation plant. Hence more
detailed and precise information, such as the amount, the precise location, the seasonal occurrence,
quality and composition as well as physical, biological and chemical parameter are necessary. This
usually requires a comprehensive and extensive data acquisition and processing.
One main source for renewable energy and material utilisation could be the organic waste generated
from private households. In the City of Hamburg this waste is partly seperately collected with a
separate bio bin collection, which accumulates to approx 28,000 Mg of biodegradable waste each
year (Statistik-Nord 2012). Within the residual waste, which was 516,200 Mg in 2010 (ibid.) approx.
36 % consist of organic material (SRH 2008). These 186,000 Mg organic material are incínereted.
The energy recovery is therefore relatively low and no material for fertilisers and soil enhancering is
recovered.
In the joined 5-year research project BERBION five research centres, the local waste and waste
water treatment companies, three SME companies and the district administration are therefore
developing collection and utilisation concepts to divert this materials from disposal to an energy and
material recovery for the second largest Hamburg City district “Bergedorf”.
2. FOOD WASTE AND GARDEN WASTE FROM PRIVATE HOUSEHOLDS
Lebensorger (2004) conducted a very detailed investigation of the food waste amounts and
composition in multi storey buildings in Vienna, Austria. Kranert et al. (2012)transfereed these
results to the German situation and reported similar results by evaluating existing data (71 to 92 kg
per capita and year), naming several uncertaincies, such as the amount of food waste in the fine and
middlefraction in waste sorting analyses in Germany are unknown, the amounts of food waste in the
bio bins have not been investigated espeacially not in the middle and fine fraction.
In an own approach existing waste sorting analyses were conducted also including the residual and
bio bins and partly the sorting of the middle fraction of those waste streams to determine similarities
between the coarse and the middle fraction and the amounts of food waste from both residual and
bio bin waste.With these investigations a correlation with r² of 0,80 was found in the residual waste
(Figure 1). No correlation could be found in the bio bin.
50
Solid Waste
Figure 1. Relation between food waste in the coarse fraction > 40 mm and the middle fraction < 40 mm of
residual waste
These information were used to invetigate former waste sorting analyses in respect of food waste
amounts. In combination with the analysis of waste sortings of packaging waste, questionnaires and
literature data the amounts of food waste determined per capita and year varies between 73 and 89 kg
(Adwiraah et al. 2012). Newer investigations even found higher amounts in multistorey buildings.
Theses data are currently evaluated, to determine wether it is necessary to distinguish between
buildings structures.
A second approach is the determination of lawn cuttings from private gardens. Where the amounts
of lawn produced by the households was determined in the bio bin and correlated with the area
of lawn in the gardens determinded by the evaluation of aerial pictures and in combination with
accompanying sampling and evaluation at private householdes. Resulting in a seasonal production
curve and amounts of lawn cuttings between 880 g/m²*a to 1170 g/m²*a.
These parameters are used to develop a GIS database correlating area data with waste streams for a
bioresource inventory.
REFERENCES
1.
Adwiraah, H., Oldenburg, S., Stegmann, R. (2012). GIS-based biresources inventory. Proceedings of the Venice Symposium,
Venice, Italy
2.
Aretz, A., Hirschl, B. (2007). Biomassepotenziale in Deutschland – Übersicht maßgeblicher Studienergebnisse und
Gegenüberstellung der Methoden. Publication of the DENDROM project, www.dendrom.de
3.
BMWi -Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft und Technologie
in 2010. Pressemitteilung 20.12.2010, online (28.10.2011):
pressemitteilungen,did=374818.html
4.
Statistik-Nord - Statistisches Amt für Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein (2012). Abfallentsorgung in Hamburg 2010
5.
Teil 3: Einsammlung von Abfällen, Q II 9 - j/09 H., statistic report
6.
SRH - Stadtreinigung Hamnburg (2008). Hausmüllanalyse in der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg, unpublished internal
report
(2010). Entwicklung des Energieverbrauchs
http://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Navigation/Presse/
51
Oral Presentations
Forecasting Urban Solid Waste Generation - The Case of Rio De Janeiro,
Brazil
David Montero Dias1, Carlos Barreira Martinez2, Raphael Tobias de Vasconcelos Barros3
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics
[email protected]
2
Federal University of Minas Gerais
[email protected]
3
Federal University of Minas Gerais
[email protected]
1
Abstract Among the eight Millennium Development Goals defined by the United Nations Program
for Development (UNDP) to be achieved by the year 2015, perhaps the goal for ensuring environmental
sustainability presents itself as one of the most multidisciplinary tasks, due to its multiple aspects . In
this sense, a peculiarity in urban environments constitutes the concern with the generation, collection and
disposal of solid waste. It is known that by its nature solid waste, if improperly managed, offer great health
risks, in addition to damaging environmental contamination of soil, surface water and groundwater. In order
to contribute to the mitigation of these hazards, this paper presents a model projection for domestic solid
waste generation. The model was developed and validated for the city of Belo Horizonte and is based on
the size, yield and distribution of populations between social classes in a specific geographic area of study,
making it possible to estimate future volumes of generation per capita and total solid waste, according to
socioeconomic scenarios designed. Thus, managers and public utilities companies now have a tool that
will subsidize projection of the operational infrastructure and equipment to be deployed in the collection
and treatment of waste generated aiming to reach the millennium goal. The study also offers a hypothetical
scenario that assumes the continued inclusion of populations in consumption classes, showing the impact to
be observed in the generation of solid waste in 2015, if the cycle of Brazilian economic development remains
in the current proportions.
Keywords: Environmental sustainability, solid wate generation, socioeconomics scenarios.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Brazil, the social and economic development of metropolitan regions is occurring within increasing
consumption patterns, leading to a consequent increase in the amount and complexity of urban
solid waste generation. Coupled with growing urbanization, which reached 85% of the country’s
population[1], the solid waste generation in major Brazilian cities manifests itself in averages that
exceed 1.2 kg / inhab.day. This amount is equivalent to that found in developed countries and reveals
habits of consumption and disposal that does not reflect policies or campaigns aimed at rational
consumption or reducing the volume of waste generated[2]. This study aims the understanding of
the mechanisms governing the production of solid waste in urban centers, which makes it crucial
to planning and health management in metropolitan areas so that the MDGs can be achieved in its
fullness.
1.1. Caracterıstıcs of Belo Horızonte Cıty
The city of Belo Horizonte is the capital of Minas Gerais state and is located at latitude 19° 55’ 8”
south and 43º 56’ 19” longitude, being at 956 meters of altitude above sea level, with reference to the
downtown, having nine municipality administrative regions. Basically, the population’s classes are
commonly identified as: Upper Class - those with great wealth, influence and prestige, high middle
class - those with high qualifications, freedom and autonomy; Middle Class - those professionals
qualified intermediary, not always higher with moderate incomes , Working Class - those workers
with modest salaries, and Lower Class - poor, uneducated members or socially marginalized.
Nowadays the population is 2.385.640 habitantes.
2.METHOD
The data were obtained from the SLU[3] in annual reports of activities that specify quantitative
monthly municipal waste collected and subsequently were confronted with the average income of the
52
Solid Waste
population calculated according to the Monthly Employment Survey published monthly by IBGE[1].
Thus, from statistical regressions carried out on a dispersion of pairs of data per capita income (R$/
hab.mês) versus mass of solid residue collected per capita (kg/inhab.day) gave the mathematical
model as shown by Figure 1, which lists the quantity of garbage produced with income levels of
each inhabitant [4].
1,30
kg/hab.dia
1,20
1,10
1,00
0,90
0,80
0,70
y = -‐5E-‐08x2 + 0,0006x + 0,2848
R² = 0,8525
0,60
0,50
0,40
R$/hab.mês
0,30
100
3. RESULTS
400
700
1.000
1.300
1.600
1.900
2.200
Figure 1. Solid waste generation model
Regarding the economy, government programs and policies have been applied in order to achieve a
better distribution of income and poverty reduction. If maintained the current level of socioeconomic
mobility between social classes in Brazil, it is natural to expect changes in behavior patterns and
consumption of people. So, from a projection of future population and economic growth becomes
possible to estimate the generation of municipal solid waste from the perspective of hypothetical
scenarios. Thus, if the volume of investments in infrastructure is not appropriated, economic growth
can be affected by an insufficient waste collection service. Finally, considering the coefficients of
determination found, it can be inferred that the methodology can be used to serve in other states and
cities, reminding that the main motivation of this work is based in significant changes in the structure
of socioeconomic distribution of the population due to programs income distribution by government
initiatives. Given this reality, the concern is ensuring the necessary infrastructure to meet sustainable
future demands, which from the point of view of engineering, it is essential to estimate the future
generation of urban solid waste, according to projected economic scenarios.
REFERENCES
1.
IBGE- Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. Monthly Employment Survey. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 2012.
2.
ABRELPE - Brazilian Association of Public Cleaning and Special Waste. Solid Waste Report. São Paulo, SP, 2010.
3.
SLU - Supervision of Urban Sanitation of Belo Horizonte city. Annual Reports. Belo Horizonte, MG, 2012.
4.
DIAS, D. M. The impact of household income on solid waste generation in urban centers. Belo Horizonte, MG, 2012.
53
Oral Presentations
Spatial Integration of Waste Management Data in Urban Areas, Case
Study of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Agata Rymkiewicz, Martin Kranert
Universität Stuttgart, Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management, Chair of Waste
Management and Emissions
Abstract A GIS (geographic information systems) based model for waste management data is being
developed for urban regions. There is a need of geospatial waste management concepts in large urban areas
for better understanding of the complex structure of different stakeholders and the spatial waste genration.
On the basis of available geographic and socioeconomic data, a methodology for spatially distributed
household waste generation is developed with the aim of waste amount extrapolation for the whole city. For
this purpose, different land use and land cover classification methods have been adapted and implemented
for the administrative area of the case study Addis Ababa. Different population estimation methods have
been applied to project the urban population. Waste sorting analysis data providing the residual waste
amount and composition per capita in different housing classes has been included in the spatial model.
Additionally, the recyclables amount per capita was determined in field surveys carried out in the informal
waste management sector. The mentioned data is integrated in the GIS model for later exploitation as a
decision support tool. Based on that spatial model, the impacts of decentralized waste treatment plants can be
estimated and considered in future waste management planning.
Keywords: GIS, spatial waste management, urban planning, land use and land cover classification,
population estimation and projection.
1.INTRODUCTION
The classification of land use and land cover for spatial analysis of waste management data in urban
areas is a special purpose classification. Garofalo and Wobber 1974 stated as one of the first authors
about the possibility and importance of connecting spatial data with waste management. Different
waste amounts and compositions can be assigned to different land use and land cover classes, which
can contribute to regional and local waste management and planning.
2. GOAL DEFINITION
Here, the entire approach of the spatial waste management data distribution and their potential use is
presented. To do so, firstly the land use and land cover classification methodology had to be developed
and applied for the case study of Addis Ababa, which is defined by the administrative borders of the
city. Since the residential areas are often heterogeneous, characterized by a number of conditions that
are in large part interpretable and may be acquired from aerial photographs, as exemplary different
buildings densities, house and lot sizes, age and nature of houses, tenure and the socioeconomic
status of their residents, street widths and conditions, yard and open space maintenance, vegetation
quantity and quality etc., it is important to differentiate between different residential classes also
referred as areas with different housing qualities (Lillesand et al. 2007). The main objective of
the classification is to distinguish between different residential classes, as representatives of
different socio-economic classes and accordingly of various waste generation sources. In the waste
management research and planning differentiation between residential structures characterized by
building types is practiced. Residential building types are proxies for the income of their residents
and consequently indicators for their socioeconomic status, which again influences the behaviors
and goods consumption (Kranert & Cord-Landwehr 2010). A comprehensive classification of the
residential areas of the city is the foundation for the determination of the population composition and
estimation in each of the residential classes in Addis Ababa. This is the basis for the implementation
of spatial scenario analysis of decentralized waste management systems.
54
Solid Waste
3. ADAPTATION AND MODIFICATION OF EXISTING CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
After two aerial datasets were selected, the review of already existing systems was finalized and
experience from the field observation and fieldwork was available, a classification system was
built up according to the survey goals (Table 1). It is a multilevel classification system adapted and
modified according to the research question and available classification systems. The multilevel
classification system for Addis Ababa contains up to four levels, depending on the land use and land
cover classes.
Level I
Level II
Level III
Level IV
100 Urban or built-up
land
110 Residential
111 Planned
residential units
1112 Large single family units
1113 Medium single family units
1116 Condominiums
112 Unplanned
residential units
1124 Indigenous family units,
low density
1125 Indigenous family units,
high density
120 Commercial
and services
(Merkato)
130 Industrial
140 Transportation
(airport, big
crossings)
200 Vegetation
150 Religious
(churches)
160 Other urban or
built-up
300 Open land
400 Not identified
Table 1. Multilevel classification system of land use and land cover in Addis Ababa
REFERENCES
1.
Garofalo, D. and Wobber, F. J., (1974). Solid Waste and Remote Sensing. Preliminary and study suggest that small-scale
aerial remote sensing records and, in particular, aerial photographs can contribute to regional solid-waste management
planning, Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 43, 727-738.
2.
Kranert, M., Cord-Landwehr, K. (ed.), (2010). Einführung in die Abfallwirtschaft. 4. Auflage. Berlin.
3.
Lillesand, T. M., Kiefer, R. W., Chipman, J. W., (2007). Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. Sixth Edition. USA.
55
Oral Presentations
Dynamic Modelling and Simulation of Solid Waste Processing and Its
Techno-Economic Impact
Stefan Platzk, Frank Abel, Halit Ziya Kuyumcu
Department of Process Engineering and Solids Processing
Berlin Technical University
10623 Berlin, Germany
[email protected]
Abstract At the Department of Process Engineering and Solids Processing of the Berlin Technical University,
on-going investigations are aiming at modelling and simulation of the waste treatment processes to achieve
further optimisation and simplification of waste processing technologies. By using analytical data from
both laboratory experiments and material samples taken from operating plants, dynamic process models are
developed and used to simulate the time-dependent plant behaviour, for example during start-up and shutdown operations, and the response to abrupt changes in feed rate and composition. The overall plant model
allows for parameter optimisation with regard to overall energy efficiency and product requirements, such as
composition, moisture content and calorific value. The paper at hand presents the working hypothesis of the
research and first simulation results.
Keywords: waste, treatment, dynamic, modelling, simulation.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the interest of sustained economic development, to establish a controlled and efficient waste
management system of and to close material cycles are becoming more important throughout the
world. In order to optimise the primary goals of waste treatment, such as maximising the calorific
value of substitute fuel products, the recovery of recyclable or otherwise useable materials
or minimising total energy consumption, a profound knowledge of the individual treatment
processes and the overall process behaviour is essential. Therefore, a joint research program of
mechanical engineers, environmental statisticians and waste disposal contractors is aiming at the
development of a dynamic waste treatment simulation. Main research objectives are the modelling
of the heterogeneous material stream, the modelling of the relevant waste treatment processes, the
development of sampling methods and the creation of a flow sheet simulation framework.
2. MODELLING APPROACH
The principal difficulty in modelling waste treatment processes lies in the exceptionally high
heterogeneity of the material, augmented by great seasonal fluctuations. This particularly applies to
municipal household waste and similar commercial waste; both groups representing the biggest part
of non-separately collected wastes [1] and consisting of a multitude of different materials with varying
mass fractions [2]. Each material features its own distributed properties, such as particle size and
shape, moisture content or water holding capacity. Additional non-distributed material parameters
greatly affect the process behaviour of the respective components, like solid density or magnetic
susceptibility. Finally, the amount and conditions of non-solid phases like free water must also be
taken into account.
While the non-distributed material properties are often known or easily obtained, analytical
expenditure increases exponentially with each distributed property to be examined; hence the
number of interdependent distributed parameters is limited. In order to minimise the effort of the
waste sorting analysis, a practicable sampling method is being developed in coordination with plant
operators and environmental statisticians, adapted to capabilities of sampling and analysis. All
collected properties are stored in a database and accessed via a data interface. For the use within the
simulation the data is transferred into a multidimensional distribution matrix.
The modelling is based on the concept of dynamic population balancing which is applied to fractional
mass flows by using the structure of the distribution matrix. The development of the process models
is carried out on a phenomenological basis. Occurring physical phenomena are modelled in a way
56
Solid Waste
that reflects the physical realities inherent in the process [3]. The necessary modelling scope is
assembled in accordance to typical waste treatment processes. The basic operations for modelling
are separating, mixing, material conversion, transport and storage. It is usually insufficient to use
only one basic operation to fully describe the behaviour of a treatment process. To take into account
the occurrence of sub-processes such as internal transport, storage, classification and back-mixing
processes, a combination of several basic operation modules is necessary.
3. RESULTS
Due to its abilities in matrix calculations and solving differential equations, MATLAB Simulink
is used as simulation framework. First basic operation modules are implemented and combined to
process models. Material streams are routed as matrix signals between these blocks, which also
allow modelling circulation streams within the overall plant model. Under these preconditions the
validity was shown by first simulation runs.
The dynamic behaviour of the overall plant model can be simulated for different time frames from
minutes to days or weeks, with statistically fluctuating mass flow and composition of the input
material. The simulation framework gives access to relevant evaluation parameters within this period
of time, for example the calorific value of the output product, the composition of streams, and the
energy consumption of a single process or for the overall plant model. Optimisation calculations for
overall performance can be carried out with respect to both material and process parameters.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
The paper at hand demonstrates the applicability of dynamic process modelling in the field of waste
treatment processes. A complex material stream model is being developed allowing the collection,
aggregation and data handling of several distributed properties. First sorting analysis results are used
to test the material stream model and the material database. Single process models are implemented
in a software system capable of dynamic simulations. Using scale-up relations, single process
models allow the prediction of process behaviour and the optimisation of process parameters with
respect to a desired output composition. The overall plant model can be used to perform parameter
optimisations regarding overall performance on plant level.
Further research is being carried out regarding model refinement and development of further
process models. For validation purposes a large-scale sampling campaign is currently on-going at
an operating plant. The overall plant model will be evaluated based on the realisation of simulated
scenarios.
REFERENCES
1.
Abfallbilanz 2008 (2010). Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden, Germany
2.
Abfallbilanz des Landes Berlin 2008, Senatsverwaltung für Gesundheit, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz, Berlin, Germany,
2009
3.
King, R.P., (2001). Modeling and Simulation of mineral processing systems. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, G.B.
57
Oral Presentations
Methods to Categorize and Compare the Hazardousness of Waste and
Contaminated Matter
Erwin Thomanetz
GCTU Stuttgart, Germany, [email protected]
Abstract About 100 000 chemical substances are traded worldwide but the knowledge on their effects on
humans and on the ecosphere is relatively small. Since decades, toxicology endeavours to assess the risks
and health effects of hazardous substances of all kinds of matter. The European REACH ordinance from
2006 is one of the latest efforts, but this ordinance is valid for products only.
Sooner or later, most products become waste - be they components of municipal waste, or of industrial
waste, or of contaminated matter, like soils or sediments of water bodies. Until now, there is no feasible
method to assess the hazardousness of waste comparably.
On the one hand a reliable parameter for waste hazardousness would help to allocate wastes to adequate
disposal ways - on the other hand this parameter would be interesting for municipalities to raise a
comprehensible waste levy.
In order to solve the problem a couple of attempts were made in the past. But most of the methods require
too much sophisticated preliminary information and therefore these methods are not suitable in the practice
of waste management.
That is why the author suggests a simple but significant method to categorize the hazardousness of a waste
with only one single indicator which is derived from the well known toxicological parameters TDI (tolerable
daily intake) and ADI (acceptable daily intake).
Here, the parameters TDI/ADI serve as a dimensionless numbers which characterize the hazardousness of a
waste ingredient. TDI/ADI values are listed for numerous single hazardous substances.
The dimensionless TDI/ADI numbers are then merged with the waste amount and the concentrations of
hazardous waste components in order to create a new dimensionless Hazardousness Number, called HTDI.
It is clear that the method is merely applicable if the waste amount, the main hazardous components and their
concentrations are known. It is also clear that the Hazardousness Number cannot characterize fire risks or
explosive hazards of a waste. It merely characterizes toxicological risks for humans.
The method is rapid and gets comparable Hazardousness Numbers for any waste or contaminated material
in the range between zero and several thousands. (A case studie will be presented and an exerpt of listed TDI
values).
Keywords: Hazardous Waste, Contaminated Matter, Tolerable Daily Intake, Acceptable Daily Intake
Hazardousness Number.
58
Solid Waste
Solidification/Stabilization of Incineration Plants’ Residues
Fatih Saltabas1, Alpaslan Kiris1, Bekir Tombul1, Mustafa Hatipoglu1, Mario Baldassarre2
ISTAC Co., Istanbul Environmental Management Industry and Trading Company, Sisli, Turkey
University of L’Aquila, Faculty of Engineering, L’Aquila, Italy
1
2
Abstract Combustion and air pollution control residues are produced from Hazardous waste incineration
plants. Generally the ashes produced by incineration plants consist of high amount of heavy metals.
Reducing the mobility of heavy metals in the residues has become one of the major issues especially for the
incineration plants. Since solidification and/or stabilization is easy, cheap and feasible, it became one of the
optimal treatment technologies to reduce the environmental impact of residues. In this study effectiveness of
solidification and/or stabilization process have been studied.
Keywords: Solidification/Stabilization, hazardous waste, heavy metals, landfilling, fly ash, bottom ash.
1. INTRODUCTION
Today, the gradual increase in urbanization and industrialization brings serious environmental
problems. The lack of facilities, to use conventional methods of disposal, and imperfect competition
are the main reasons for the high disposal costs.
The solidification/stabilization (S/S) in the cement matrix is a simple and cheap method used for
the treatment of hazardous waste and reducing environmental impact. The binders such as cement
are cheap and readily available and the process produces no emissions (Balkan, 2004). S/S does
not cause NIMBY syndrome, so it seems appropriate for a rapidly developing country such as
Turkey. The aim of this study is to develop a process for the Solidification/ Stabilization treatment of
incineration plant residues and verify its efficiency at the laboratory level.
Samples are provided by a Medical Waste Incineration Plant and a Hazardous Waste Incineration
Plant of Petrochemical Complex. Leaching (Eluate) tests of the wastes and mixes are done in the
accredited laboratory of Istac A.S.
Monolith samples have been done by mixing the wastes with different rate of Cement and Zeolite.
After 7 days curing period the monolith samples have been analysed and a significant decrease of
heavy metals content has been obtained in the eluate test results compared with the initial values.
The main aim of this study is to decrease of heavy metal contents of the residues coming from
several incinerators. In this respect analysis results are compared for to determine which parameters
are above the limits of landfilling.
Considering the waste amount of residues and the type of the binders, a cement matrix is prepared.
The proportions of the mixes are chosen according to the experimental data in literature while
forming the cement matrix (Lombardi, 1998).
2.1. Apparatus
A balance with a sensibility of 0,01 gr, 2 glass pipettes, 1 ceramic bowl, 12 sample cups, a mixer
apparatus, a pounder, a spoon and a moisture analyzer have been used in preparation of samples.
2.2. Procedure
6 samples, of 70 gr (dry weight) each, are prepared by modifying the ratios and kinds of waste/
binder/water. The mixtures were prepared approximately at water to solid ratio of 0.25. Four kinds of
wastes which are FAM (fly ash of medical incineration plant), APCM (air pollution control residue
of medical incineration plant), FAP (fly ash of hazardous waste incineration plant for petrochemical
complex), and BAP (bottom ash of hazardous waste incineration plant for petrochemical complex)
are mixed with Portland Cement and Zeolite. The waste have been weighed and mixed in the ceramic
bowl according to the selected rate in the matrix.
59
Oral Presentations
Waste, water and cement have been added in order to maintain a homogeneous mixture.
After 7 days curing period the leaching test analysis have been carried out for each sample. The
effect of zeolite on S/S process is determined by comparing the samples with and without zeolite.
SS relative efficiency [%]
CEMENT [%]
ZEOLITE [%]
Cr [%]
Mo [%]
Pb [%]
Zn [%]
Cl [%]
SO4 [%]
S-01
35
5
94,00
77,96
82,70
92,20
63,09
99,67
S-02
17
3
97,21
42,85
80,97
94,39
49,59
95,31
S-03
8
2
97,32
15,58
98,79
93,45
44,10
87,98
S-04
40
0
76,58
64,89
98,44
94,39
59,19
94,53
S-05
20
0
92,36
33,88
98,10
93,76
43,99
88,30
S-06
10
0
97,68
21,93
98,10
93,56
43,66
87,28
Table 1. Relative Efficiency of S/S process
REFERENCES
60
1.
Balkan, Mustafa & Kocasoy, Günay (2004) Industrial Sludge Solidification by Using Clinoptilolite, Journal of
Environmental Science and Health. Part A, 39: 4, 951 - 960
2.
EPA, U. (1999). Solidification/Stabilization Resource Guide
3.
Guangren Qian, Xia Xu, Weimin Sun, Yunfeng Xu, Qiang Liu,. (2005). Utilization of MSWI fly ash for stabilization/
solidification of Industrial waste sludge. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 129 (1-3): 274-281 FEB 28 2006
4.
Lombardi F, Mangialardi T, Piga L and Sirini P (1998). Mechanical and leaching properties of cement solidified hospital
solid waste incinerator fly ash. Waste Management 18 99-106.
5.
R. Arce, B. G.(2009).Stabilization/solidification of an alkyd paint waste by carbonation of waste-lime based formulations.
Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2010 May 15;177(1-3):428-36
6.
Savvides, C.; Haralambous, K.J.; Loizidou, M.; Cheeseman, C. In Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous Industrial Waste
Prior to Landfilling. Proceedings of the Sixth International Landfill Symposium,Sardinia, Italy, October 13-17, 1997
Solid Waste
Medical Waste Management - Medical Waste Disposal in Istanbul
Cevat Yaman1, Türker Eroğlu2, İbrahim Öktem3, Burcu Taşkınoğlu4
İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and Development Department
[email protected]
2,3,4
İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality Waste Management Directorate
1
Summary Medical waste amount has increased in Istanbul because of the increasing population of it and so
the disposal capacity of the current plants has become insufficient. In this study, the legal legislation relating
to medical waste management and medical waste disposal technologies were studied and these technologies
were compared to each other. Also, medical waste management system carried out according to legislations
was exemplified. In this context, current medical waste amount in Istanbul was given and medical waste
amount projection was made. Then the best appropriate disposal method for Istanbul was discussed.
Keywords: medical waste, medical waste disposal, medical waste management, incineration, sterilization.
1. INTRODUCTION
Medical wastes are the wastes occurring pathological and non-pathological, infected, pharmaceutics
and sharp wastes and they are originated from health institutions and threaten the human and
environment health. Hospitals, community health centers, clinics, blood centers, tooth treatment
centers, dispensaries, dialysis centers, medical laboratories, medical research centers, biotechnology
laboratories, institutions, pharmacies and polyclinics are the principal sources of medical wastes.
75-90% of wastes originated from medical plants, compared to household wastes, are riskless.
In other words, they are “general” medical wastes. This kind of wastes generally takes its source
from administrative functions of medical institutions and includes the wastes coming out during
maintenance of premises of medical institutions. Rest of these wastes (10-25%) are qualified as
“hazardous waste” and they pose a risk in terms of health.
2. LEGAL REGULATIONS IN MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
Medical waste management is basically carried out according to 56th Article of “Turkish Republic
Basic Law” dated as 7th November, 1982 and having a number of 2709, 8th Article of “Environmental
Law” having a number of 2872, 7th Article of “Metropolitan Municipality Law”, 97th Article of “Law
on Municipal Revenues” having a number of 2464 and “Regulations on Medical Waste Control”
dated as 22nd July, 2005 and having a number of 25883 in our country.
3. MEDICAL WASTE DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES
In this title, information about medical waste disposal technologies was presented and comparison of
disposal methods with each other was made.
4. CURRENT SITUATION FOR MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ISTANBUL
Medical waste management activities carried out according to legislations in Istanbul was
illuminated. Also, medical waste amounts produced according to years and predicted projection
of medical waste amount concerning to the years ahead were presented. Accordingly, alternative
medical waste disposal method for Istanbul was discussed.
5. CONCLUSION
Medical waste amount of Istanbul has increased day by day due to the population and so increase of
health institutions and the disposal capacity of the current plants have become insufficient. Therefore
it is a necessity to implement alternative medical waste disposal methods. Recently, sterilization
method is especially preferred because of its being economical and having ease of operation in
our country. Autoclave method that is a kind of thermal operation is supposed to be appropriate
61
Oral Presentations
for Istanbul. Because it is remarked as another alternative medical waste disposal method except
incineration in the 6th part of “Regulations on Medical Waste Control”. Also it can be designed for
handling large amounts of waste and its initial investment and operation costs are relatively low. So
the studies are being carried out in this direction.
REFERENCES
62
1.
T.R. Ministry of the Environment and Forestry, “Medical Waste Control Regulations”, Official Gazette, Dated 22.07.2005
Number: 25883.
2.
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, Waste Management Directorate Archives.
3.
T.R. Ministry of the Environment and Forestry, Guide for Safe Medical Waste Management, May 2008, Ankara.
Solid Waste
Evaluation of Waste Tires in the Context of Hazardous Waste
Management
Hatice Eser Ökten1, Gulsah Akarsu1, Hacer Handan Demir2
Department of Environmental Engineering, Bahcesehir University, Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Department of Business Administration, Vocational School, Bahcesehir University, Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
1
Abstract Waste tires pose a great risk to the environmental health due to their bulky size, constituents and
production rate.
Keywords: waste tires, cement industry, tire derived fuel (TDF).
1. INTRODUCTION
Tires are essential elements of every economy that relies upon vehicular transportation. Tires are
made of rubber, fabric, wire and chemicals Once the traction on tires are worn out, tires complete
their service period, upon which they should be disposed of. Disposal of waste tires has become an
issue due to their bulky size and chemical composition. Landfilling is not an option for waste tires
since the need for space is huge. Other disposal options are considered such as recycling and energy
recovery. Waste tires has been successfully reused as tire derived fuel (TDF), in civil engineering
field, and for ground rubber applications. More innovative uses for waste tires include highway
sound barriers, athletic and recreational applications, and railroad ties [1].
Using waste tires in the cement factories for fueling the kilns is an energy recovery practice. Cement
production, being a high pollution risk industry, is already within the scope of Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control Directive [2]. It is estimated that 5% of global CO2 emissions originate from
cement production [3]. Since the heating value of waste tires are comparable with good quality coal
(Fig. 1), waste tires can be used for fueling kilns. In this study the evaluation of tire derived fuel to be
used in cement production is investigated.
Figure 1. Comparison of compositions heating values for TDF and coal.
2. TITLE (MATERIAL AND METHOD)
In cement factories the cost of using lignite and waste tires has a considerable difference in terms
of raw material cost and transportation costs. In Turkey 1 ton of lignite costs 150 USD and 1 ton of
waste tire costs 50 TL. If any given cement factory burns about 5000 tons of fuel a day, the fuel cost
adds up to approximately 1,385,000 USD in the case of lignite burning and to 250,000 TL in the case
of waste tire burning.
The cost for fuels is a significant part of the costs for producing cement. The use of waste tire
reduces the amount of coal used, and lowers the cost associated with it. Furthermore while not as
cost effective as whole tires, shredded waste tires can be obtained for less than the cost of most coal
types.
63
Oral Presentations
Since the chemical composition of coal and waste tires are similar to each other, emissions as a
result of combustion are also similar. Main emissions from cement kilns include nitrogen oxides,
sulphur oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and particulate matter. Reduction of channeled
dust emissions are achieved through fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators. The costs of dust
emission control through these techniques vary between 0.04 EUR/t clinker and 0.2 EUR/t clinker.
Nitrogen oxides can be controlled through techniques such as flame cooling, low NOx burner, midkiln firing, staged combustion, etc. The costs for these techniques vary between 0.3 EUR/t clinker
and 3 EUR/t clinker.
Apart from successful use of waste tires as cement industry fuel, recycling is also a viable option.
The advantage in using waste tires as fuel is that no further processing being necessary prior to
use. Approximately 41% of the waste tires that are used as fuel are used in cement factories. On
the other hand 20% of those waste tires are used at pulp and paper industry. One thing that should
be considered from the perspective of paper industry is to use de-wired tires. De-wiring process
increases the cost of the tire eventually. The cost may go up by 50%.
REFERENCES
64
1.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/materials/tires/tdf.htm Last accessed on
20/09/2012.
2.
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive, (2008), EUR-Lex, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.
do?uri=OJ:L:2008:024:0008:0029:EN:PDF Last accessed on 20/09/2012.
3.
Worrell, E., Price, L., Martin, N., Hendriks, C., Ozawa Meida, L., (2001). Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Global
Cement Industry, Annu. Rev. Energy Environ., 26, 303-329.
Solid Waste
Hydrogen Production from Pyrolysis-Catalytic Gasification of Waste
Tyres
Ibrahim F. Elbaba, Paul T. Williams
Energy Research Institute, The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
Abstract Hydrogen is projected to play a major role in future energy systems since it is regarded as a clean
energy source. The use of alternative feedstocks as a source of hydrogen is particularly of interest since more
than 95% of current production is from fossil fuels. The use of waste materials as a source of hydrogen is
particularly of interest in that it would also solve a waste treatment problem. The use of waste tyres offers a
potential source of hydrogen. The generation rate of waste tyres is increasing, especially with the continued
increase in production of cars and trucks. In this paper, an experimental investigation into the production
of hydrogen and other gases from the bench scale pyrolysis-gasification of tyres has been investigated.
Experiments were carried using a two stage system consisting of pyrolysis of the waste tyres followed
by catalytic steam gasification of the evolved gases and vapours in a second reactor. Experiments were
conducted at a pyrolysis temperature of 500 oC using Ni based catalyst as a catalyst. The results showed that
there was a dramatic increase in gas yield and the potential H2 production when the gasification temperature
was increased from 600 to 900 oC. Overall, the process showed that high yields of hydrogen can be produced
from waste tyres.
Keywords: Hydrogen, Pyrolysis, Gasification, Tyre, Waste.
1. INTRODUCTION
Waste tyre disposal continues to be an economic and environmental problem. It is estimated that
3.4 million tonnes per year of waste tyres are generated in Europe [1]. On the other hand, hydrogen
can play a major role in future energy systems, since it is regarded as a clean energy source. About
5×1011Nm3 of hydrogen is produced each year and about 96% of this amount is produced from fossil
fuel [2].
In this paper, the potential to produce high yields of hydrogen from waste tyres has been investigated
during steam catalytic pyrolysis-gasification process. This process was carried out in a two-stage
fixed bed reaction system, with a Ni/Al2O3 catalyst when the gasification temperature was increased
from 600 to 900 °C.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
Waste tyre catalytic pyrolysis-gasification was conducted using a two stage fixed bed reactor.
Experiments were conducted at a pyrolysis temperature of 500 oC and gasification temperature was
varied from 600 to 900 oC. Approximately 1.0 g of waste tyre was held in the first pyrolysis reactor
and 0.5 g catalyst, supported on quartz wool, was held in the second gasification reactor. Water was
introduced by a syringe pump into the second gasification reactor and before the catalyst.
The products from the second stage passed through an air-cooled condenser and two dry ice cooled
condensers where the liquid products were collected. The non-condensable gases were collected with
a 25 L Tedlar gas sample bag and were analysed off-line using packed column gas chromatography
(GC).
Table 1 shows the product yield from the catalytic steam pyrolysis-gasification of waste tyres at
different gasification temperatures. It is shown that the gas yield largely increased from 14.3 wt.%
to 56.8 wt.% and the oil yield significantly decreased from 38.6 wt.% to 19.5 wt.% when the
gasification temperature was increased from 600 to 900 °C.
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Oral Presentations
Gasification Temperature (°C)
600
700
800
900
Gas/tyre (wt.%)
14.3
30.6
39.8
56.8
Solid/tyre (wt.%)
43.3
44.5
41.7
39.6
Oil/tyre (wt.%)
38.6
33.1
31.9
19.5
Mass balance (wt.%)
96.2
108.2
113.5
116.0
Table 1. Product yield at the different gasification temperature
Table 2 shows the gas composition from the catalytic steam pyrolysis-gasification of waste tyres
at different gasification temperatures. The H2 concentration decreased when the gasification
temperature was increased from 600 to 800 °C, and then increased with an increase in gasification
temperature to 900 °C. The CO concentration increased and the hydrocarbon gases decreased, when
the gasification temperature increased. In this work the potential hydrogen production is defined as
the percentage of the hydrogen produced from the pyrolysis-gasification process in relation to the
maximum theoretical amount of H2 available in the tyre rubber. Table 2 shows also that the potential
H2 production was largely increased from 3.2 to 13.1 wt.% when the gasification temperature was
increased from 600 to 900 °C.
Gasification Temperature (°C)
600
700
800
900
H2 (vol%)
62.10
52.97
51.53
56.80
CO (vol%)
5.03
8.56
9.83
15.30
CO2 (vol%)
7.48
11.84
9.58
8.37
CH4 (vol%)
8.43
13.49
16.59
14.82
C2-C4 (vol%)
16.96
13.13
12.47
4.70
Potential H2 Production (wt.%)
3.20
5.28
7.19
13.09
Table 2. Gas composition and potential hydrogen production at the different gasification temperature
4. CONCLUSIONS
This study aims to provide information on the feasibility to produce hydrogen by catalytic steam
gasification of waste tyres in a two-stage reactor. In order to achieve the desired result, a hydrogen
production from waste tyre was investigated using a two-stage pyrolysis-gasification reactor and
Ni/Al2O3 as a catalyst. The results show that gas yield and potential hydrogen production largely
increased when the gasification temperature was increased from 600 to 900 °C.
REFERENCES
66
1.
European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers’ Association, (2008). ELTs treatment data in 2007, ETRMA, October 2008.
2.
Tanksale, A., Beltramini, J.N., Lu, G.M., (2010). A review of catalytic hydrogen production processes from biomass,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 1, 14, 166-182.
Solid Waste
Selective Carbonation of Recycled Aggregates from Concrete - First
Results on Uptake Rate and Changes of the Material Properties
M. Seidemann, A. Müller, H.-M. Ludwig
Bauhaus-Universität Weimar - F.A. Finger-Institut für Baustoffkunde
Abstract The global heating up of our near earth mantle of air is the result of the constantly growing carbon
dioxide content in the atmosphere. Since beginning of the industrialization the CO2-Concentration rose from
280 ppm to 380 ppm. This concentration increase represents a danger to humans and natural environment.
The content of carbon dioxide in the mantle of air is one of the most important indicators of the climate
change. In order to be able to counterbalance the climate change, it is necessary to reduce the CO2-Emissions
and to eliminate parts of the CO2 which was already set free permanently from the atmosphere.
The goal of this work is it to bind a selective carbonation a maximum to carbon dioxide in the concrete
permanently and to change the qualities of the concrete break so that it comes to a decrease of the porosity
and to an increase of the firmness.
The process of the carbonating in the old concrete is a process, with which CO2 penetrates by diffusion into
the capillary pore system of the concrete. CO2 and calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 separate in the pore water
and react to calcium carbonate CaCO3 . This settles in the capillary pores of the concrete. By the formation
of CaCO3 it comes to a decrease at calcium ions in the pore water, which leads to the fact that Ca(OH)2 can
go into solution and the reaction up to the complete consumption of the Ca(OH)2 runs off. The CaCO3 of
crystals in the pores grows permanently and causes a structure compression. The overall porosity of the
concrete is reduced and it comes to a strength increase of the concrete break. Both factores lead to a quality
improvement of the old concrete. The old concrete can find a new concrete application after a successful
carbonating as rock granulation
The carbonating is a well-known procedure. As diffusion-steered process it runs, however, very slowly
and drags on for years. The technical challenge of this work consists of accelerating and thus making the
carbonating reaction in a reactor technically usable. Further, as detailed a statements about the chemical
operational sequence and the conditions for the CO2 - treatment as possible are to be met.
For the selective carbonation a test equipment was developed. The test range consists of a tubular reactor and
several units of measurement. In the tubular reactor the sample test specimens are continuously subjected to
a preset gas mixture. The tubular reactor is flowed through evenly by the gas. The flow rate can be changed.
The CO2 concentration of the reaction gas can vary between 0 VOL. - % CO2 and 100 VOL. - % CO2. The
examination of the gas concentration is made by the CO2 measure in the inlet. A salt solution, which is in
the tubular reactor, ensures a continuous relative humidity of 70%. The monitoring of the air humidity and
the temperature is made in the reactor inside. After the gas mixture flowed through the reactor, it is led over
a second measure after leaving the tubular reactor and the concentration at CO2 determines. By the CO2
change of concentration between the inlet and the expiration of the tubular reactor first statements can be
made about the carbonating of the sample.
In the first attempts hardened cement paste was subjected to different CO2 concentrations over different time
intervals. The attempts took place with 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 VOL. - % CO2, over a time of 3, 6, 12, 24 and
48 hours.
The results show the correlation of the mass increase and the pure density of the samples after the stay in the
reactor. A strict rise of the density as a function of the mass increase is to be recognized. That means, it must
have taken place a CO2 admission. After the carbonation the thermal analysis of the samples took place. The
decrease of the calcium hydroxide and the increase of the calcium carbonate were proven.
The first measurements show that the CO2 admission can be accelerated. The period of the carbonation shifts
into the hourly range. In concrete buildings the carbonation at the natural atmosphere runs over several years.
For a technical application there must be further accelerated the carbonation.
The investigations for the carbonating of hardened cement paste and concrete are resumed and deepened
in different directions. First, the test method and the test equipment are to be supplemented and further
developed, that routine measurements of a large number of samples can be accomplished. In the next step,
measurements of model concrete and of practice concrete are accomplished. The attempts are to point the
correlations out between the CO2 admission and the changes of the physical characteristics. How the process
67
Oral Presentations
can to be further accelerated and how a technical reactor can look, that is the next exciting questions, which
are to be solved.
Keywords: selective carbonation, recycled aggregates, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate.
Thank sayıng
The authors thank the German Federal Foundation for Environment (DBU) for the support in the
context of the research project.
Author
Dipl.-Ing. Marko Seidemann
Bauhaus-University Weimar
Department of Civil Engineering
F.A. Finger-Institute for Building Materials Science
Coudraystr. 7
D-99423 Weimar
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Anette Müller
Coudraystr. 7
D-99423 Weimar
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Horst-Michael Ludwig
F.A. Finger-Institute for Building Materials Science
Coudraystr. 11
D-99421 Weimar
68
Solid Waste
Microbial Production of Pectin Lyase Using Various Agricultural Wastes
Fırat University, Department of Environmental Engineering, 23100 Elazig, Turkey
E-mail: otepe@firat edu.tr, [email protected]
Abstract Pectinases which break down pectic substances and can be obtained from cheap agrowastes are
important industrial enzymes. The agricultural sector in Turkey is of great importance and consists of a large
amount of waste during agricultural production. The total annual amount of agricultural waste in our country
is about 50-65 Mton. The purpose of this study was to produce pectin lyase by using agricultural wastes.
Production of pectin lyase enzyme by Bacillus pumilus was carried out with solid-state fermentation. It was
used agricultural wastes such as wheat bran, sugar beet pulp, sunflower plate, orange peel, banana peel,
apple pomace and grape pomace as a substrate in solid-state fermentation experiments. Sugar beet pulp was
found to be the best substrate. Fermentation medium to increase the enzyme production was supplemented
with nitrogen sources such as ammonium sulfate, yeast extract and peptone and the increase of enzyme
production with ammonium sulfate and yeast extract was determined. Maximum pectin lyase activities in
mediums containing sugar beet pulp + ammonium sulfate and sugar beet pulp + yeast extract were as 60.67
and 51.83, U / mL, respectively.
Keywords: Agricultural waste, Sugar beet pulp, Enzyme production, Pectin lyase, Bacillus pumilus.
1. INTRODUCTION
Enzymes occur in every living cell, each single strain of organism produces a large number of
enzymes. Commercial enzymes are produced from strains of molds, bacteria, and yeasts [1]. Enzyme
production is a growing field of biotechnology [2]. In 2009, the World enzyme market was $5.1 billion
[3]
. Commercial production of enzymes, often use, microbial cells as their sources and within a few
years more than 1000 enzymes will be regularly used for industrial processes ranging widely from
food industry to biotechnology, immunology, pharmacy etc. [4].
Pectinases or petinolytic enzymes hydrolyze pectic substances. They have a share of 25% in the
global sales of food enzymes. Pectinases are one of the most widely distributed enzymes in bacteria,
fungi and plants. Protopectinases, polygalacturonases, lyases and pectin esterases are among the
extensively studied pectinolytic enzymes. Pectinases were used in fruit juice extraction and its
clarification, scouring of cotton, degumming of plant fibers, waste water treatment, vegetable oil
extraction, tea and coffee fermentations, bleaching of paper, in poultry feed additives and in the
alcoholic beverages and food industries[5].
Enzymes are traditionally produced in the submerged fermentation system, though in recent years
the production is carried out by solid-state fermentation[6]. Commercial pectinase preparations are
produced from mainly by Aspergillus niger strains cultured using two fermentation techniques. In
particular, when pectinase yields are compared using both techniques, it is found that solid-state
fermentation is more productive than submerged fermentation[7]. Several agro-industrial wastes
and by-products such as orange bagasse, sugar cane bagasse, wheat bran and other food processing
waste are effective substrates for enzyme production by solid-state fermentation[8]. The agricultural
sector in Turkey is of great importance and consists of a large amount of waste during agricultural
production. The total annual amount of agricultural waste in our country is about 50-65 Mton. In our
country, the vast majority of agricultural wastes, especially in rural areas, are used directly as a fuel.
But it is also possible to obtain different products. In some cases, to obtain other products may be
more economical[9].
The purpose of this study, cheap high efficiency pectin lyase using various agricultural wastes with
solid-state fermentation by the bacterium Bacillus pumilus is produced. In this study, high production
costs are reduced by use of agricultural wastes as substrate and environmental pollution caused by
waste and residues can be avoided. In this respect, working, versatile, has the characteristics of
providing benefits.
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Oral Presentations
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Agricultural waste materials used in the experiments were washed, dried for 24 h in oven at 60oC,
grounded, screened (20-100 mesh) and stored. Bacterium Bacillus pumilus for production of pectin
lyase enzyme is selected. In experiments, bacteria produced an enriched medium, was added in
enzyme production medium and fermentation studies were carried at pH 8, 30 ° C temperature and
150 rpm stirring rate. Pectin lyase activity with reaction between the unsaturated latest products
occurring the pectin degradation and thiobarbituric acid were determined [10]. One unit activity, under
the terms of the measuring unit volume per unit time is the amount of enzyme which caused a 0.01
change in absorbance.
Wheat bran (BK), sugar beet pulp (SBP), sunflower plate (SP), orange peel (OP), banana peel (BP),
apple pomace (AP) and grape pomace (GP) as a substrate were used in solid-state fermentation
experiments. The highest activity of pectin lyase in medium containing sugar beet pulp was
determined as 11.60 U/mL. Our data shows that agricultural wastes can be used for the synthesis of
pectin lyase and to use waste because of very little of the waste cost is advantageous. Fermentation
medium to increase the enzyme production was supplemented with nitrogen sources (0.3 %) such
as ammonium sulfate, yeast extract and peptone and the increase of enzyme production with
ammonium sulphate and yeast extract was determined. Maximum pectin lyase activities in mediums
containing sugar beet pulp + ammonium sulphate and sugar beet pulp + yeast extract were as 60.67
and 51.83, U / mL, respectively.
REFERENCES
1.
Underkofler, L.A., Barton, R.R. ve Rennert, S.S., (1958). Production of Microbial Enzymes and Their Applications,
Microbiological Process Report, Vol. 6, 212-221.
2.
Viniegra-González, G., Favela-Torres, E., Aguilar, C.N., Rómero-Gomez, S.J., Dıaz-Godınez, G. ve Augur C., (2003).
Advantages of fungal enzyme production in solid state over liquid fermentation systems, Biochemical Engineering Journal
13, 157–167.
3.
Sanchez, S. ve Demain, A.L., (2011). Enzymes and Bioconversions of industrial, Pharmaceutical, and Biotechnological
Significance, Organic Process Research&Development 15, 224-230.
4.
Kulkarni, N.S. ve Deshpande, M.S., (2007). General Enzymology. Global Media, Mumbai, p 266.
5.
Jayani, R.S., Saxena, S. ve Gupta, R., (2005). Microbial pectinolytic enzymes: A review, Process Biochemistry 40, 2931–
2944.
6.
Kashyap, D.R., Soni, S.K. ve Tewari R., (2003). Enhanced production of pectinase by Bacillus sp. DT7 using solid state
fermentation, Bioresource Technology 88, 251–254.
7.
Blandino, A., Iqbalsyah, T., Pandiella, S.S., Cantero, D. ve Webb C., (2002). Polygalacturonase production by Aspergillus
awamori on wheat in solid-state fermentation, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 58, 164–169.
8.
Martin, N., Regina de Souza, S., Silva, R. ve Gomes, E., (2004). Pectinase Production by Fungal Strains in SolidStateFermentation Using Agro-Industrial Bioproduct, Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology an International
Journal, Vol. 47, n. 5, 813-819.
9.
İleri Teknoloji Projeleri (İTEP) Destekleme Programı Raporu, (2010). Türkiye Teknoloji Geliştirme Vakfı.
10. Nedjma, M., Hoffmann, N. ve Belarbi, A., (2001). Selective and Sensitive Detection of Pectin Lyase Activity Using
a Colorimetric Test: Application to the Screening of Microorganisms Possessing Pectin Lyase Activity, Analytical
Biochemistry 291, 290-296.
70
Solid Waste
Challenges and Limitations of the Collection and Recycling of Permanent
Magnets from Small Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)
Luise Westphal, Kerstin Kuchta
Hamburg University of Technology
Abstract During recent years technological innovations resulted in manifold applications using rare
earth metals (REM), which led to a significant increase in their demand, particularly in the field of highperformance permanent magnets. At the present, there is no recycling process to recover REM from
permanent magnets. On the example of earphones, an investigation has been carried out to determine
the resource potential of small WEEE. An online survey has been performed to gain knowledge about
collection rates and the average lifetime of earphones. Therefore numerous earphones have been collected,
the loudspeaker magnets have been removed and the quantitative composition of REM has been identified
using the analytic method of atomic absorption spectroscopy. Additionally, a mono-fraction earphone was
crushed using a cutting mill, in order to simulate a simplified treatment in a recycling plant. The subsequent
separation according to particle size should provide knowledge about the deposition and concentration of
REM. Based on these results an optimized recycling process will be designed, in order to produces metal
concentrates for further recovery processes.
Keywords: rare earth metals, permanent magnets, waste electrical and electronic equipment, recycling.
1. INTRODUCTION
According to the recent report of the Congressional Research Service the world demand for rare
earth metals (REM), which is estimated with 136.000 Mg per year, will rise to at least 185.000
Mg annually by 2015 (Humphries, 2012). Particularly in the field of high-performance permanent
magnets, REM as neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr) and dysprosium (Dy) are essential. They
enable the miniaturization of various electrical and electronic applications, like mobile phones or
earphones. At the present, there is no industrial recycling process to recover REM from permanent
magnets (Schüler, 2011). The consumption of REM is strongly driven by the production of electrical
and electronic appliances and presents a significant share of the total consumption of REM. Because
this market segment is growing rapidly, it is mandatory to develop a proper recycling process, to
recover the valuable resources. Especially small WEEE offers a relevant resource potential. Over
all, an insufficient collection and inadequate treatment of small WEEE leads to a significant loss of
resources at present.
On the example of earphones, an investigation has been carried out to determine the resource
potential of small WEEE. An online survey has been performed to gain knowledge about collection
rates and the average lifetime of earphones. To determine the resource potential a chemical analysis
was performed. Numerous earphones were collected and disassembled. The loudspeaker magnets
have been removed in order to determine the quantitative composition of REM in the earphones
magnets using the analytic method of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS).
3. RESULTS
Due to a lack of information and data related to the purchasing and usage behavior concerning
earphones an online survey was conducted. The survey provided data about the most popular brands
and models. This knowledge was further on used to choose representative models for the chemical
analysis. It also gave information about the disposing habits of end-of-life earphones. Around
66% old earphones are stored at home, 26.6% have been disposed via household waste, the fate of
5.5% remained unclear and just 2% have disposed via formal collection points. Subsequently, the
quantification by labor scale analysis was carried out. The quantitative composition of the REM
was identified by using the method AAS. Table 1 shows the average values. On the base of these
71
Oral Presentations
results the recycling potential of earphones inclusive their cables was calculated for Germany. At
the moment only copper is recycled and represents the actual economic value of old earphones.
However, the resource potential anticipating a possible recycling process of REM is listed in table 1.
Based on the annual sales in 2011, 8.79 Million earphones were sold in Germany and according to
the actual prices for Nd (115 USD/kg), Pr (99 USD/kg), Dy (975 USD/kg) (ISE, 2013) and cooper
(8.00 USD/kg) the following potentials have been calculated.
Average Amount of Overall amount/ per Potential in Germany
REM/ earphone [mg] year in Germany [kg] per year [USD $]
Neodymium
84
738
84 870
Praseodymium
28
246
24 350
8
70
68 250
16750
134 000
Dysprosium
Copper
1.906
Today Value
134 000
Potential Value
311 470
Table 3. Potential and total econimical value of earphones in Germany
The manual disassembly of earphones is time-consuming and barely feasible due to low mass and
size. Therefore, a mono-fraction of earphones was crushed, in order to simulate a simplified treatment
in a recycling plant. The subsequent separation according to particle size should provide knowledge
about deposition and concentration of REM. The sample was separated according to the particle size
with the help of a sieve tower into the following three: fine fraction (particle size <0.2mm, 9.86 %);
middle fraction (particle size 0.2mm to 2.0 mm, 49.53 %); coarse fraction (particle size >2.0 mm,
40.63 %). As a result the largest portion of REM has been determined in the fine fraction with 2.6
weight percent REM in the total mass. In the middle and coarse fraction less than one weight percent
REM were found.
4. CONCLUSION
The results illustrates that the insufficient collection is one of the main problems due to high
recycling rates. The recycling of REM is ecologically meaningful, because the concentration in
WEEE is usually higher than in mineral deposits. In addition, mining of REMs leads to a higher rate
of environmental degradation and further human health hazards. The Chinese Society of Rare Earth
estimated that the refinement of one tone of REM results in 75 cubic meters of acidic wastewater and
one ton of radioactive residue.
REFERENCES
72
1.
Schüler, D., (2011). Study on Rare Earth an their Recycling: Final Report, Oeko-Institute e.V., Darmstadt.
2.
Humphries, M., (2012); Rare Earth Elements: The Global Supply Chain, CRS Report for Congress: Congress Research
Service
3.
ISE, 2013. Preise für die gebräuchlichsten Seltenen Erden im Januar 2012: http://institut-seltene-erden.org/preise-fur-diegebrauchlichsten-seltenen-erden-im-januar-2013
4.
Gesellschaft für Unterhaltungs- und Kommunikationselektronik (GfU) 2012, Consumer Electronics Marktindex
Deutschland (CEMIX) Januar 2011 - Dezember 2011. Frankfurt a. M.
Solid Waste
Decontamination of Cr(VI) Polluted Sites
Karl E. Lorber1, Peter Müller2
1
University of Leoben, Institute for Sustainable Waste Management & Technology, Leoben, Austria
[email protected]
2
ferroDECONT, Leoben, Austria
[email protected]
Abstract Soil samples contaminated with chromate from a former leather tannery have been investigated in
the laboratory, concerning redox-reactions by adding reduction agents (RA) to the soil. The main treatment
goal was to reduce chromium from its hexavalent [Cr(VI)] to the trivalent state [Cr(III)], which results
in detoxification and immobilisation of chromium. Beside ferrous iron solutions (e.g. FeSO4 and FeCl2),
sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4) has been successfully tested in soil column experiments. However, in the first
phase of irrigation, in spite of reduction and immobilisation, a significant peak concentration of Cr(VI) was
observed in the leachate. Anionic ions from RA (esp. SO42-) apparently exchanged with and displaced Cr(VI)ions, which accumulated in the percolated solution and were treated in laboratory-scale fluidized zero valent
iron (ZVI) bed reactors. Due to its efficiency of chromate removal a field-scale pilot plant was designed and
constructed at the testing site, which confirmed the promising laboratory results. Reduction rates of chromate
found in soil have been up to 88% compared with initial values after a soil water exchange of 8 pore volumes
in the highest contaminated area. Chromate concentrations in the pumped effluent have been reduced under
the detection limit of 0.005 mg/L by treatment with ZVI in the pilot plant.
Keywords: in-situ remediation, chromate, zero valent iron, fluidized bed.
1. IN-SITU REMEDIATION
Many brownfields contaminated with chromate are built-up areas, where in-situ-remediation is the
method of choice. Basically, there are two possibilities to apply in-situ-technology at a contaminated
site: passive methods like Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs) and active methods like Pump-andTreat (P&T) procedures. Zero Valent Iron (ZVI) is already successfully proven in PRBs to treat
several hazardous pollutants by providing additional electrons to the redox process. This treatment
is already state of the art, but problems arise from precipitation, surface passivation and cloggingeffects at the wall. These problems make it difficult to predict the exact life time of the material
and duration of treatment. Exchanging the ZVI material is resulting in higher maintenance costs,
a reason why these systems are usually oversized. Active in-situ-methods have no limitations in
lifetime, however, besides energy consumption chemicals are needed as well for conditioning and
treatment of the waste water. As a result, this process induces increased salinity and causes additional
costs. Based on a R&D-project on chromium contaminated soil, a new approach on source (‘hotspot’) decontamination in connection with P&T-technique has been developed at the Institute of
Sustainable Waste Management and Technology (IAE) at the Montanuniversitaet Leoben. This
process combines two advantages in one step: the reductive force of iron (Fe0) with the fast procedure
of P&T.
2. LABORATORY AND FIELD DATA
First estimations for the efficiency of different reducing agents were conducted in laboratory soil
column experiments (unsaturated), containing chromium contaminated soil samples from the
remedition site. As a result, sodium dithionite was selected among 10 different reducing agents tested,
including ferrous compounds like Fe(II)-sulfate, Fe(II)-chloride and Fe(II)-ammonium sulphate.
Reduction kinetics of theses chemicals were even faster compared with sodium dithionite, however,
an application to soil lead to increasing precipitation effects and strongly decreasing pH. The
precipitates may seriously clog small pores and a decrease in pH-values may mobilize additionally
fixed heavy metals. For decontamination of the vadose zone of soil, observed peak concentrations
of chromate in the effluent solutions have to be treated. Additional tests measuring soluble Cr(VI)
removal by elemental iron granulates were performed in laboratory-scale fluidized bed reactors and
scaled up to field conditions later on.
73
20
Cr(VI) outflow [mg/L] .
Cr(VI) outflow [mg/L] .
15
10
5
0
0
25
50
75
100
Oral Presentations
200
150
100
125
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
PV
PV
Figure 1. Cr(VI)-concentrations of leachate in soil column experiments
2,500
1,977
performance [%]
2,000
1,500
776
1,000
1,040
408
500
fluidized bed; pH=4.4
fluidized bed; pH=7.8
0
fixed bed; pH=1.3
mg(CrVI)/(kg∙min)
mg(CrVI)/(m2∙min)
Figure 2. Comparison of fluidized bed and fixed bed process (lab-scale)
Figure 3. Cr(VI)-concentrations and redoxpotentials in the groundwater treatment (pilot plant)
Figure 1 shows the Cr(VI)-outflow concentration of leachate from a soil sample (c = 190 mg/
kg) irrigated (left) with tapped water (q = 0.56 mL/min) compared with (right) an irrigation using
Na2S2O4-solution
(c = 38 mM/L, q = 0.56 mL/min) for the same batch of sample. Figure 2 reveals the efficiency of the
fluidized bed process compared with an experiment in fixed bed mode [1] used for chromate reduction.
Figure 3 demonstrates the major decrease in redoxpotential of the treatment plant outflow after
74
Solid Waste
passing the fluidized bed of ZVI-granules. Cr(VI)-concentrations in the outflow are below detection
limit (0,005 mg/L) as well. The treatment plant consists of twenty fluidized bed reactors connected
to each other in series, several pumps, measurement and control systems. The contaminated water is
pumped with a flow rate of 3.5 L/s into the reactors, where the reduction without any further addition
of chemicals takes place.
REFERENCES
1.
Chen, S.S, Hsu, B.C., Hung, L.W., (2008). Chromate reduction by waste iron from electroplating wastewater using plug
flow reactor. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 3, 1092-1097.
75
Oral Presentations
Extraction of Biomass from Municipal Solid Waste for Biogasgeneration
Gerhard Rettenberger
Ingenieurgruppe RUK, Stuttgart, Germany
[email protected]
Abstract Presented is the state of the art of mechanical-biological treatment systems to separate common
municipal solid waste (MSW) for further anaerobic treatment. In the most cases these are also technologies
to produce RDF (refuse derived fuels) from MSW using biological drying systems. For two different process
variants, the optimization of the finally used technologies are shown. Aim of the optimization was to reach a
nearly zero waste process.
Keywords: RDF (refuse derived fuels); optimization; MBT-plants; anaerobic biological treatment: balance.
1. INTRODUCTION
For two different process variants, the used technologies are shown.
•Variant 1: In an optimized mechanical treatment RDF with low quality, metals, foreign and
hazardous materials will be separated. In the following anaerobic biological treatment biogas is
produced and sand has to be separated. The next step is the biological drying. The dried solids can
be treated with common conditioning techniques to generate high-calorific fractions and mineral
fractions.
•Variant 2: In an extrusion-process solid waste is separated in a “dry fraction” with high calorific
value and a microbiological degradable organic rich “wet fraction”. The plant can be integrated
in existing waste treatment plants and/or biogas plants. Common municipal waste needs no pretreatment.
The following material and methods was adopted:
• compilation of the state of the art of the technologies to produce RDF (refuse derived fuels) from
common municipal waste using biological drying systems on the basis of a literature research
• ascertainment of the influence of the necessary respectively possible steps before and after the
biological drying on the result of the drying respectively on the quality of the generated fractions
on the basis of own results and a literature research.
• ascertainment of the influence of different available technologies (for all steps different technologies
are available) on the basis of actual experiences from large-scale facilities. The Technologies are
shown in detail.
3. State of the art of Mechanıcal Bıologıcal Treatmentsystems
Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT) used in Germany can be divided in 6 variants:
A: Aerobic MBT for landfilling
B: Aerobic MBT for stabilization
C: Full flow anaerobic MBT for landfilling
D: Partial flow anaerobic MBT for landfilling
E: Full flow anaerobic MBT for stabilization
F: Partial flow anaerobic MBT for stabilization
Aerobic processes are the primarily used in Germany, since these technologies are well established
and cost efficient. Generally these processes are not energy self- sufficient. This also applies to variant
B because the use of RDF for energy production is more complex than the use of fermentation gas.
76
Solid Waste
In variant C-F wet fermentation (Water content>90%) and dry fermentation (Water content<70%)
are used in the market. Because of problems with sand, mixture and staying time both variants are
complex to operate. An additional problem is the conversion of the digestate from anaerobic to
aerobic conditions. Through NH3 odor emissions can occur. This problem can be solved through new
variants.
4. MYT-process
The mechanical treatment is optimized by using a multifunctional sieving drum and no shredding.
So a effective separation of the undamaged foreign and hazardous material is possible. Highperformance neodymium magnets are used for the removal of electronic waste, spray cans or
batteries. For the anaerobic biological treatment in percolators with horizontal mixing gear water
is added to the waste by irrigation. The waste is homogenized and shredded selectively in such a
way that optimum characteristics for the subsequent processing stages are generated. At the end of
the percolator the solid material is drained. The water is collected, mechanical treated and fed into
anaerobic reactors. The energy supply from biogas is higher than the needs for the whole treatment
process. By fermenting the organic-rich water, the disadvantages known from fermentation plants
for solid material are avoided. Effect of the biological drying in the next step is a water loss, a
biodegradation and a solid with good quality characteristics for the following separation step.
Product of the mechanical separation is up to 75% RDF. The remaining material is minerals for
landfilling and a fraction, which has to be thermally treated.
5. Extrusıon process
Under compaction with high pressure (up to 1,000 bar = 108 Pa) solid waste or organic waste /
biowaste is separated quite easy and therefore with low costs in a “dry fraction” and a “wet fraction”.
The facility works fully automated. The dry fraction can be treated with a thermal or after further
treatment an energetic process. The dry fraction contains mechanically stable materials (plastics,
wood, paperboard and metal) and about 25% of the degradable organic material. This percentage is
sufficient to produce stabilized material of very high quality by biological drying. The wet fraction
can be used to produce biogas with high efficiency. The wet fraction leaves the press with a raised
temperature. Decomposition processes start spontaneously. Important for the following dry anaerobic
treatment is, that the wet fraction can be mixed very well with circulated material from the digestion.
REFERENCES
1.
Rettenberger, G., Schneider, R. (2006). A new MBT technology optimizes the output of high-caloric fuels, waste
management world, Edition May / June 2006, PennWell Corporation, London
2.
Rettenberger, G (2007). Experiences with mechanical-biological pretreatment of waste using the press-extrusionprocess. Proceedings Sardinia 2007, Eleventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium 2007 by CISA,
Environmental Sanitary Engineering Center, Italy
77
Oral Presentations
Assessment of Different Aeration Concepts for Landfill In-Situ
Stabilization
Marco Ritzkowski
Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics, Hamburg University of Technology, Harburger Schloßstraße
36, D-21079 Hamburg, Germany
[email protected]
Abstract Landfill aeration has become one of the most important methods for an accelerated in-situ biostabilisation of waste disposal sites. By minimizing current and future emissions the method contributes
towards the achievement of a fundamental goal in waste management worldwide, namely the creation of
sustainable landfills. In-situ aeration technology has been successfully applied to several landfills in Europe,
North America and Asia, following different methodologies in accordance with the geographical region, the
specific legislation and the available financial resources. Furthermore, methodologies for the incorporation
of landfill aeration into the carbon trade mechanisms have been developed in recent years. This manuscript
provides an overview on existing concepts for landfill aeration; their application ranges and specifications.
For all of the described concepts examples from different countries worldwide are presented, including
information regarding potentials and limitations. Some of the most important findings from aeration projects
are summarized and future research needs have been identified. From this work it becomes apparent that
there is a demand for systematisation of the available results and implications in order to further develop and
optimise the technology. Furthermore, proposals have been made with regard to potential combinations of
different concepts or certain specific aspects of the methodologies.
Keywords: landfill aeration, emission reduction, landfill gas, leachate, landfill aftercare.
1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE
Landfill aeration as a methodology for the fast, controlled and sustainable conversion of landfills
into a biological stabilised state attracts attention worldwide. In many cases, landfill aeration can
be considered the only technically and economically feasible method to significantly reduce the
perpetual post closure care, both by time and complexity. In other cases aeration contributes towards
the long term reduction of greenhouse gas and leachate emissions (semi-aerobic concept) or is
applied for the fast recovery of landfill volume (aerated bioreactor concept). Numerous studies in
laboratory scale have been conducted over the past decades and full scale examples are increasing by
number in particular since 15 years ago. However, although comprehensive data has been published
until today, there is a demand for systematisation of the results in order to gain generally admitted
indications.
Despite the fact that landfill aeration is a more recent concept it has already been successfully
applied to several landfills in Europe, North America and Asia. Some of the most comprehensive
investigations have been made in Germany and, due to the high interest in this technology; more
investigations are underway in different European countries (e.g. The Netherlands) nowadays.
This is certainly essential as in-situ aeration stands for more than just injecting air into a landfill.
Aspects as e.g. well design and spacing, selection of appropriate air volume and pressure, control
of air distribution, temperature and moisture control as well as potential pollutants mobilisation into
both, gas and liquid phase have to be considered. Finally, the question of a particular point in time to
terminate the aeration process has to be answered. The latter includes indications about the biological
landfill stability achieved during aeration and leads back to the initial consideration on sustainability.
Thus, not only technical and ecological aspects have to be considered but also economic issues.
2. METHOD: LANDFILL AERATION CONCEPTS
The term “landfill aeration” comprises a variety of different concepts and methodologies. Over the
past decades many of these concepts have proven to be applicable at full scale, even though in the
majority of cases a clear proof of success has not been provided. The reasons for this are manifold and
include, beside others, a lack of general parameters and target values for the successful completion of
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Solid Waste
aeration as well as the application of insufficient monitoring programs during aeration. Furthermore,
the aeration of landfills has to follow a number of very specific objectives in accordance with the
local situation, framework requirements and the specific problems. Table 1 provides an overview of
different landfill aeration concepts and their specific areas of application.
Aeration concept
Sub-concept
Main area of application
Off-gas treatment method
high pressure
-
in preparation for landfill
mining
biofilter
low pressure
active aeration & off-gas
extraction
accelerated bio-stabilisation
and GHG emissions
minimisation
thermal oxidation
(subsequently biofilter)
active aeration w/o offgas extraction
accelerated bio-stabilisation
biocover
(landfill surface)
passive aeration (air
venting)
increasing gas extraction
rates / subsequent aerobic
bio-stabilisation
biofilter
energy self-sufficient long
term aeration
avoidance of long term gas
generation
none / landfill surface
connection between
leachate collection pipes
and gas vents included in
the design layout
long term reduction
of GHG emissions &
improvement of leachate
quality
none
subsequent installation of
passive gas vents (w/o
connection to leachate
pipes)
landfill remediation
none
semi-aerobic
Table 1. Overview of different landfill aeration concepts, application areas and related off-gas treatment methods.
3. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
Landfill aeration as a methodology for the fast, controlled and sustainable conversion of landfills
into a biological stabilised state attracts attention worldwide. However, although comprehensive data
has been published until today there is a great demand for a systematisation of the results in order to
gain overall indications. Against this background the International Waste Working Group (IWWG)
has set up a task group on the topic of landfill aeration. The group aims at compiling international
perspectives and expertise in the field in order to enhance the technology and to disseminate
experiences to the public. Currently the group is focussing on the compilation of an overview on
the status of landfill aeration worldwide, definitions of landfill aeration methods, stabilization and
quality criteria for landfill aeration as well as the set-up of a database. The latter is of special interest
in connection with the intended systematisation approach.
Furthermore it becomes apparent that there is still a lack of understanding regarding specific processes
to occur during aeration (e.g. the nitrogen and temperature dynamic under full scale conditions) and
a deficit in transparency regarding costs. Obviously the great variety of landfill aeration concepts and
the increasing number of realised aeration projects should be used as a chance and basis for a broad
discussion and exchange among experts in this field. Based on the existing experiences potential
combinations of concepts might be further developed, such as e.g. the inclusion of wind driven
aspirators in the semi-aerobic landfill concept, the application of deep-filtered gas wells for active
aeration, intermittent operation in low pressure concepts as well as the adjustment of temperatures by
a controlled addition of water or leachate.
79
Oral Presentations
Comprehensive Environmental Assessment of New Sanitary Landfill of
Tehran
M.A. Abdoli, H. Hasanian, L. Amiri
Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Abstract A comprehensive master plan study for solid waste management in Tehran carried out in 1997 and
resulted in a number of important recommendations for solid waste management in Tehran. The single most
urgent priority that has been identified is the establishment of a new modern controlled environmentally
sound landfill. The current solid waste landfilling is carrying at the central semi-controlled landfill in the
south of Tehran in Kahrizak, which has reached full capacity. The proposed site for the new landfill is
Houshang Abad-Aziz Abad site, which was selected from a study of thirteen candidate sites. Construction of
an environmentally and socially safe municipal solid waste sanitary landfill facility requires environmental
assessment which is the main topic of this paper. This study covers documenting the current legal and
institutional framework in Iran, recognizing environmental and social impacts and appropriate measures to
minimize any adverse impacts and presenting management and monitoring plans.
This study provides guidance to project decision makers on the environmental acceptability of the project
activities and permits planning and investment decisions to be made on a comprehensive understanding of
the anticipated project impacts.
Keywords: Tehran, Sanitary Landfill, Environmental Assessment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Solid waste management is a significant source of concern for the urban environment in Iran. Tehran,
the capital city of Iran, has an estimated daytime population of 11.5 million and a resident night time
population of 9.5 million. The total amount of waste generated is approximately 2.7 million tons/year.
The majority (92%) of this total amount is municipal waste[1]. Implementing environmental waste
management techniques such as 4R techniques helps to reduce damage on environment. However,
solid waste landfilling remains the common method of disposal to complete the integrated waste
management[2]. Although open dumping is not economically because of the huge transportation cost
without bioenergy achievement. Open dumping is recommended for nonbiodegradables, inerts and
other wastes which cannot be recycled or processed [3]. The current solid waste landfilling is carring
out at the central semi-controlled landfill in the south of Tehran in Kahrizak, which has reached full
capacity and expansion into adjacent lands is limited and only provides a short-term solution. The
current site does not satisfactorily manage the incoming wastes and the liquid and gaseous emissions.
Generated leachate stores in a surface pond and has been leaking in to the underground.
A comprehensive master plan study for solid waste management in Tehran carried out in 1997
resulted in a number of important recommendations for solid waste management in Tehran. The
single most urgent priority that has been identified for the solid waste management sector in Tehran
is the establishment of a new modern controlled environmentally sound landfill. Organization for
Waste Recycling and Composting (OWRC) is currently seeking assistance from the World Bank to
improve solid waste management in Tehran mainly through construction of an environmentally and
socially safe municipal solid waste sanitary landfill facility. This study covers the construction of a
new landfill at the Houshang Abad - Aziz Abad site documenting the current legal and institutional
framework for solid waste management in Iran, appropriate measures and plan to minimize and
mitigate any adverse environmental and social impacts, public concerns throughout the lifetime of
the project and a comprehensive monitoring program to evaluate the implementation of the project.
This study provides guidance to project decision makers on the environmental acceptability of the
project activities and permits planning and investment decisions to be made on a comprehensive
understanding of the anticipated project impacts.
80
Solid Waste
The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) as the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical,
social, and other relevant effects of development prior to implementing projects [3]. One key objective
of the EIA is to ensure that the proposed project and the development of an engineered landfill will
not impact adversely upon the environment. A second key objective is to maximize the potential
environmental benefits from the proposed project and the associated investments.
EIA was carried out in close coordination with the project team and key stakeholders, including the
landfill design team, the Social Assessment Team and Client representatives. Public consultations
were undertaken at significant project stages. This allowed alternatives to the proposed project and
mitigation measures that may be included in the design to be identified. The proposed site for the
new landfill is Houshang Abad-Aziz Abad site, which was selected from a study of thirteen candidate
sites. The site is located about 58 km from the south of Tehran on the old Tehran - Ghom road in an
arid area without any residential, agricultural or industrial development. The area of influence of
the project considered for the environmental assessment study includes towns and villages near the
Houshang Abad-Aziz Abad site and the main highways and roads used for transport of solid wastes
from the transfer stations to the landfill site. Results of EIA for thr new sanitary landfill illustrate that
by considering the mitigation plan and also monitoring scheme it will be predicted to implement an
environmentally sound disposal for daily generated waste in Tehran, the 27th most populated city in
the world.
REFERENCES
1.
OWRC, (2006). Project on source separation of municipal solid waste: programs and mechanisms, Organization for Waste
Recycling and Composting, Tehran Municipality - Iran.
2.
Zamorano M. [et al.] Environmental diagnosis methodology for municipal waste landfill as a tool for planning and decision
making process [Journal] // Sustainable Development and Planning. - [s.l.] : WIT, 2005. - Vol. 1. - pp. 545-554.
3.
Mondal, M. K., Rashmi, Dasgupta, B.V., (2010). EIA of municipal solid waste disposal site in Varanasi using RIAM
analysis, Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 54, 541–546.
81
Oral Presentations
Pilot Project on in Situ Aerobisation of Old Landfills - Results from
Kostanz Dorfweiher Landfill
Daniel Laux1, Martin Reiser2, Martin Kranert2
1
Ministry of the Environment, Climate Protection and the Energy Sector Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany;
[email protected]
2
Institute of Sanitary Engineering Water Quality and Solid Waste Management (ISWA), University of Stuttgart, Germany;
[email protected]
Abstract To reduce the aftercare period a new in situ treatment technique is being utilized on a part of the
Dorfweiher landfill in Konstanz. This landfill is aerated intermittently with low pressure. Outgoing air is
treated passively in an open biofilter which covers the landfill surface. The landfill is aerated by means of
80 air injection wells arranged area-wide in a 10 m grid. Over a period of three years, from 2010 to 2012,
the landfill is aerated. Afterwards, the effects of the aerobic stabilization on the landfill will be evaluated in
a two-year monitoring phase. An elaborate measuring process and technological controls are being utilized
in the pilot scheme. Since the beginning of the intermittent aeration in January 2010, things have changed
inside the landfill section in many ways. It increased from 27°C at the beginning up to a median value
of about 50°C. In many zones of the landfill body, the aeration caused aerobic conditions with a decline
of methane production. The data collected offer interesting insights about the processes during aeration,
allowing optimization of the aeration strategy depending on changes of the conditions in the landfill.
Keywords: landfill, aftercare period, in situ aerobisation, stabilization, methane.
1. INTRODUCTION
Since July 2005, it is no longer permitted to landfill untreated municipal solid waste in Germany. The
amount of waste deposited in landfills has shrunk enormously since then. As result, many landfills are
being closed and converted into the aftercare period. Scientific evaluation and prediction of pollutant
emissions from the deposited waste show that landfills need to be managed long after they have
been closed. Some landfills must be monitored for up to 100 years after closing. Due to biological
processes in the waste, emissions from the landfill via leachate and gas phase can be presumed in the
long term. Conventional anaerobic conditions in the landfill and also a surface sealing will normally
prolong the aftercare period. The goal of the project on a part of the Dorfweiher landfill in Konstanz
is to test a new in situ stabilization technique for accelerating the biological degradation process and
therefore to reduce the aftercare period.
2.1. Technıcal Realızatıon
The project is being carried out in a section of the Dorfweiher landfill, which has an area of 12,000m²
and a fill volume of 72,000m³. This section possesses a mineral base sealing, but no surface sealing
and gas collection have been installed yet. Landfilling of waste ended in 2003. Over a period of three
years, from 2010 to 2012, the landfill is aerated intermittently by means of 80 air injection wells
arranged area-wide in a 10 m grid with low pressure. Because of low methane concentration and
the resulting low calorific value of gas emissions, it is possible to treat the arising gas emissions in
biofilter by the microbial methane oxidation. Outgoing air is treated passively in an open biofilter
which covers the landfill surface.
2.2. Investıgatıon Concept
An elaborate measuring process and technological controls are being utilized in the pilot scheme.
Data are recorded for controlling and optimizing the aeration system and for documenting the
progress of stabilization in detail. Therefore 64 measuring sensors have been installed to continuously
record the temperature in the landfill and in the biofilter. Landfill gases are periodically measured
inside the landfill by 18 measuring points, inside and on top of the biofilter by 8 measuring points.
It is important to control the aeration and to assess the effectiveness of the biofilter. Inspections of
82
Solid Waste
landfill methane concentrations by flame ionization detector (FID) are carry out monthly. At the
same time a new method with a tunable diode laser absorption spectrometer (TDLAS) is utilized
and developed further in this project (Reiser et al., 2008). To identify the effect of aeration onto
the landfill, settlings are measured semi-annually by a hydrostatic measurement system. It is also
possible to examine the impact of the aeration onto the quality and quantity of leachate, thus the pilot
section is largely separated from the rest of the landfill. The results of the project will provide a key
input in choosing the construction of the final surface sealing.
3. RESULTS AND PERSPECTIVES
The data collected offer interesting insights about the processes during aeration, allowing
optimization of the aeration strategy depending on changes of the conditions in the landfill. Since
the beginning of the intermittent aeration in January 2010, things have changed inside the landfill
section in many ways. Temperature is one of the most important parameters. It increased from 27°C
at the beginning up to a median value of about 50°C (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Temperature distribution shown in the longitudinal section through the landfill in June 2012
In many zones of the landfill body, the aeration caused aerobic conditions with a decline of methane
production. After a longer aeration stop, this process was reversed in a few zones. Gas measurements
inside the biofilter revealed a very low methane emission up to this point. The settlements of the
landfill have increased to 110 cm in some regions.
REFERENCES
1.
Laux, D., Reiser, M., Kranert, M., (2010). Pilot scheme to reduce the aftercare period on the Dorfweiher landfill by in-situ
stabilization. ORBIT 2010, 29.06.-03.07.2010, Heraklion Crete, Greece (2010), Proceedings, 68.
2.
Stegmann, R.; Heyer, K.-U.; Hupe, K.; Siederer, H.; Wieland, A. (2006). Deponienachsorge- Handlungsoptionen,
Dauer, Kosten und quantitative Kriterien für die Entlassung aus der Nachsorge. Umweltforschungsplan des BMU.
Förderkennzeichen (UFOPLAN) 204 34 327, im Auftrag des UBA
83
Oral Presentations
Design and Evaluation of Landfill Concepts by Means of a Carbon Load
Balance and the Energy Demand
Bidlingmaier Werner, Hädrich Gunnar
KNOTEN WEIMAR International Transfer Centre Environmental Technology GmbH,
Institute at the Bauhaus-Universität Weimar
[email protected] AND/OR [email protected]
Abstract The deposit of municipal solid waste in low and middle income countries is still affected by
arbitrary dumping within and outside of the cities and municipalities as well as missing waste disposal
facilities. Due to the economic situation the waste management cannot be transferred to German standard at
present. Nevertheless, humans demand is high for a clean and intact environment.
Therefore, a rating system has been developed, which it makes possible to design, compare and evaluate
different landfill concept scenarios in regard of the ecological efficiency and the economic effort. It is based
on the multi-barrier concept and offers the possibility to generate as well as compare even simple solutions.
The existing knowledge of the effectiveness - the protective potential - and of the technical implementation
for the establishment of the individual barriers serves as data basis.
The customised landfill concepts are compared to the reference scenario of open dumping which depends on
the respective local situation. Thus, an objective assessment is possible. The results form the background for
continuative decisions.
Keywords: landfill concept rating system, carbon load balance, energy demand, low and middle income
countries.
Illegal or uncontrolled dumping at outskirts and in the city indicates the waste management situation
in many low and middle countries. In contrast, technical concepts are developed and implemented
for an environmentally sound waste disposal in Germany. However, these concepts require a high
technical and economical effort as well as level of knowledge. Germany spends less than one per
cent of the gross domestic product for the present waste management. In developing countries, this
would be roughly equal to 10 per cent or more if German standards would be adapted one-by-one.
Thus, limited financial resources but also the lack of knowledge obstructs a rapid improvement of
present situation. A one-by-one implementation of German or European standards would be absurd
under the present frame conditions. This applies for landfill concepts as well. Thus, an appropriate
standardised rating system to design and evaluate adapted landfill concepts is developed. It is
oriented on the exiting guides and programmes acting as a decision support tool. Thus, it has to be
seen as supplement to these guides, especially to the technical design of landfill concepts.
2. METHODS
The rating system is based on the multibarrier system and combines existing knowledge and
experiences to determine the effectiveness of individual landfill barriers and related construction
types. The technical complexity is considered on economical side, which is necessary for the
implementation of the individual barriers. The underlying rating system supports the generation
of different individual landfill concepts and enables its comparison to the reference scenario “open
dumping” and among each other.
The cost-effectiveness-analysis forms the methodological foundation. The effectiveness is described
by means of value benefits and mass flow analyses. The technical effort, expressed as non-monetary
value, represents the economic aspect. In this sense, it is a modification compared to the general
approach of the cost-effectiveness- analysis, but ensures the generality beyond country borders.
A system of objectives including operationalised objectives has been developed on basis of the local
and global emissions in the compartments air and water. It forms the main work base to evaluate
objectively the effectiveness of each barrier and/or construction type. The barriers are allocated to
84
Solid Waste
the mentioned emissions according to their individual influence. The local waste composition, the
climatic conditions in form of precipitation and evapotranspiration as well as the resulting emissions
represent the system boundaries.
The evaluation of the effectiveness varies. Local impacts like fire or drift are qualitatively rated,
whereas the landfill gas and leachate load emissions are quantitatively assessed by means of
a carbon load balance. The individual waste composition forms the foundation for the emissionrelevant carbon potential. Thus, a load balancing is possible for the compartments air and water and
a quantitative basis of comparison is generated.
The specific direct primary energy and space demand illustrate the technical effort for implementation.
The estimation of the energy input is related to the method of the cumulative energy demand.
The carbon emissions and the technical effort refers to a representative element, which is a column
of the landfill body with a ground area of one square metre and a landfill height, which has to
be specified separately. Thus, a comparison is possible independent from the landfill size. The
considered time horizon is set to 100 years. This is the period where most of the biodegradable
carbon emissions are released and most technical barriers are evaluated for.
3. FINDINGS AND ARGUMENT
The effectiveness of the individual barriers is successfully standardised within this rating system.
Now, it can be directly compared to each other next to the technical effort. Furthermore, with the
rating system, it is now possible to assess landfill concepts regarding ecological and economical
aspects and not only individual barriers.
The carbon load balance clarifies that the emission-relevant carbon in the compartments air and
water are present at a ratio of circa 8:1 instead of 19:1 as often published. Thus, the water path is
more important than initially thought.
The gained knowledge provides the foundation to illustrate and compare the emission behaviour of
different localised landfill concepts. Thus, the results depend on the individual local situations.
The rating system is emphasized by an illustration of the efficiency and the interdependencies
between the effectiveness of the individual barriers and the local conditions. Thus, it is possible to
evaluate specific barrier variants according to the necessary technical effort against the ecological
benefits.
The rating system clarifies also the interdependencies between the individual barriers. For instance,
it becomes obvious that the optimal reduction of methane emissions by a surface sealing results in a
temporal shift of local leachate emissions into the future.
4. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
By means of the rating system, the foundation is given to design stepped, appropriate and
professionally assessed landfill concepts. A statement can be made to the question: How much
protective potential does one gets for how much economical effort. Hence, one can deduce where
available economical resources are used most effectively under ecological aspects. Thus, the
results of this efficiency analysis form the foundation for further measures to improve the waste
management in low and middle-income countries.
85
Oral Presentations
MBR Leachate Treatment: Wehrle Expertise
Kenan Güney and Bernd Fitzke
WEHRLE Umwelt GmbH; Bismarkstr. 1-11, 79312 Emmendingen, Germany
Abstract Sanitary landfilling is the most widely applied method in developing and developed countries
for disposal of municipal solid waste. Leachate produced in landfill is highly polluted and mostly toxic to
environment. Membrane bioreactor (MBR) treatment of leachate is a proven technology having hundreds of
applications in the world. WEHRLE Umwelt GmbH has wide expertise on leachate treatment. WEHRLE
Umwelt GmbH engineered, constructed and operated more than 150 full scale hybrid MBR leachate
treatment plants in the world. One of the leachate treatment plants is Sousse leachate treatment plant which
has 70.000 mg/l COD and 4.000 mg/l NH4-N in influent and produces effluent with 90 mg/l COD and <30
mg/l NH4-N.
Keywords: Leachate, Membrane BioReactor-MBR, Discharge Limitations, Expertise, BioMembrat®
1. INTRODUCTION
Sanitary landfilling is still the most popular ultimate disposal for municipal solid waste [1]. However,
it leads the production of highly polluted landfill leachate. Leachate is mostly toxic to aquatic life
since it has high organic load and high ammonia load which depletes soluble oxygen in the water
body. Besides leachate characteristics alter with time. Therefore leachate is classified as young,
intermediate and stabilized leachate. Young leachate has the highest COD and BOD5/COD ratio and
high ammonia concentration while stabilized leachate has the lowest COD and BOD5/COD ratio
and usually much higher ammonia concentration. Therefore treatment of leachate is a real challenge
in all cases. Design of a leachate treatment plant is mainly depending on the amount and the
characteristics of leachate produced, requested effluent quality (discharge into sewer or watercourse)
and regulations. The latter parameters vary according to region and sometimes even within the
country. However, membrane bioreactor (MBR) treatment of leachate is a proven technology having
hundreds of applications in the world.
A MBR consists of high performance biological system and UF filtration to separate microorganisms
and to produce high quality effluent which is beneficiary for the following treatment steps, especially
for nanofiltration and reverse osmosis, if needed. MBR achieves more complete biodegradation
compared to conventional activated sludge systems since it has higher MLSS concentration and
enhanced growth of specialist microorganisms in the system leading higher performance in biological
treatment. MBR has smaller footprint, less surplus sludge production, much higher sludge age,
reduced air consumption and it generates much higher effluent quality. Therefore MBR treatment
systems are very effective in the treatment of highly polluted wastewaters including landfill leachate.
WEHRLE Umwelt GmbH is the world’s market leader of membrane bioreactor plants with external
membranes (sidestream MBR). WEHRLE has the patented MBR treatment technology series
called BIOMEMBRAT® for the biological treatment of wastewaters including highly polluted
landfill leachate and industrial wastewaters. WEHRLE designs case specific, tailor made MBR
hybrid applications which consist of MBR and various appropriate pre-treatment and advanced
post treatment technologies with regard to the really strict discharge standards for highly polluted
industrial wastewaters and leachate. Figure 1 expresses appropriate MBR hybrid treatment methods
according to the inlet leachate quality (Pollution Load) and discharge requirements [2].
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Solid Waste
Figure 1. Decision Support Diagram for Leachate Treatment
2. WEHRLEʼs EXPERTISE
As the world market leader of MBRs with external membranes, WEHRLE Umwelt GmbH has
engineered and constructed 186 leachate treatment plants worldwide and 155 of these leachate
treatment plants are composed of various BIOMEMBRAT® treatment systems. The WEHRLE
leachate treatment plants (LTP) were engineered according to the customer demands: discharge into
sewer or into watercourse.
The flow/capacity of the treatment plants varies between 30 m3/d and 5200 m3/d (LTP Shangai,
the largest LTP in the world). Highest inlet COD is 70.000 mg/l and after hybrid MBR treatment
<90 mg/l COD is reached in the effluent. Highest inlet NH4-N is 4.000 mg/l and after hybrid MBR
treatment down to <5 mg/l NH4-N is reached in the effluent (Table 1).
* Largest landfill leachate treatment plant in the world
Table 1. Inlet and outlet concentrations of full scale LTPs engineered by WEHRLE Umwelt GmbH
REFERENCES
1.
Ahmed, F.N. and Lan, C.Q., (2012). Treatment of landfill leachate using membrane bioreactors: A review, Desalination, 287,
41-54
2.
Fitzke, B., Blume, T., Wienands, H., Cambiella, A., (2013). Hybrid processes for the treatment of leachate from landfills,
in Coca-Prados, J. and Gutierrez-Cervello, G., Economic Sustainability and Environmental Protection in Mediterranean
Countries Through Clean Manufacturing Methods (NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental
Security), Springer, 2013, 107-126
87
Oral Presentations
Systematic Approach for Management of High Strength Leachate from
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
Edwin Safari
Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran
[email protected]
Abstract In contrast to end of pipe approach for leachate treatment that might be efficient in treatment
of low strength leachate, a systematic approach is required for management of high strength leachate.
Biochemical and chemical oxygen demands in excess of 30,000 ppm and 60,000 ppm in fresh leachate
generated as a result of high food waste fraction in municipal solid waste was shown to be require a costly
combination of biological, physical and chemical processes. A systematic approach was therefore suggested
where all possible options for high strength leachate management can be analyzed in various combinations.
The key components of the systematic approach were considered to be possible leachate reduction through
long term waste management practices aimed at reducing the food waste fraction of municipal solid waste,
the possibility of transferring leachate to a local sewage treatment plant with or without pretreatment,
recirculation of leachate into landfill to increase biogas generation rate and using the produced energy
for onsite treatment purposes, anaerobic partial treatment of leachate and generate biogas and energy,
evaporation where possible and irrigation of vegetation on final cap of the completed sections of landfills
using partially treated leachate. Various scenarios were introduced and analyzed in terms of viability.
Keywords: Landfill, high strength leachate, anaerobic, biogas.
1. INTRODUCTION
Leachate is generated both through percolation of atmospheric precipitation into landfills and
moisture released from the waste [1]. Depending on climatic conditions where landfill is located the
dominant source of leahate could be atmospheric precipitation, initial moisture content of the waste
or both. Even in arid and semiarid regions where the contribution of atmospheric precipitation is at
minimum, the high rate of leachate generation can be attributed to initial moisture content. Relatively
high initial moisture contents are typically found in cases where food waste fraction dominates in
MSW [1]. Food waste can contain up to 70% moisture by weight [2], [3] which can be released as
a result of mechanical compaction of early landfilling days and later gradual increase in vertical
pressure. The higher the food waste fraction in MSW, the higher the strength of leachate [4]. The high
strength leachate can have a biochemical and chemical oxygen demand in excess of 60,000 mg/l
and 30,000 mg/l respectively for fresh leachate [3] as is the case in many landfills and waste dumps
in Iran.
In many cases leachate treatment options have been introduced and practiced based on an end of
pipe treatment approach, whereas high strength leachate needs to be managed through a systematic
approach. A closer look at the source of high strength leachate suggests reduction of leachate
generation rate as a first priori which requires long term waste management planning and might not
be readily successful.
A number of studies have introduced different methods of leachate treatment including both onsite
and in-situ treatment processes. However most of the studies have either dealt with lower strength
leachate or have examined complicated and costly end of pipe treatment processes.
[5]
A systematic approach for management of high strength leachate incorporates all possible options
to minimize the potential environmental impacts associated with leachate. Any combination of
possible options can be analyzed in terms of viability and efficiency of management. Options include
transferring leachate to a local sewage treatment plant with or without pretreatment, recirculation
of leachate into landfill to increase biogas generation rate and using the produced energy for
onsite treatment purposes, anaerobic partial treatment of leachate and generate biogas and energy,
evaporation where possible and irrigation of vegetation on final cap of the completed sections of
landfills using partially treated leachate. Some combinations of the above options were analyzed
using theoritical background information along with some experimental experiences.
88
Solid Waste
Various experiences on high strength leachate treatment were reviewed and possible options in terms
of overall eficacy were developed and discussed. A sample basic combined option for management
of high strength leachate is shown in Figure 1. Other options were also studied through replacing
and/or removing single components from the basic scenario.
Figure 1. Basic combination of high strength leachate management
Viability of possible combinationss of options for management of high strength leachate were
analyzed using theoritical background information. Results of experiments on treatability of high
strength leachate in two landfills in Iran that were located in arid and semiarid regions were also
employed in order to acquire realistic information on the efficacy. Lab scale studies on anaerobic
treatability and consequent biogas generation, in-situ treatment and behavior of quality constituents
in daily cover soil
REFERENCES
1.
Tchobanoglous G. And Kreith F., (2002). Hanbook of Solid Waste Management, McGraw-Hill Handbooks.
2.
Safari E and Baronian C (2002) Modeling temporal variations in leachate quantity generated at Kahrizak landfill. Rizzoli
AE and Jakeman AJ (eds.) Proceedings of the 1st Biennial Meeting of the iEMSs: Integrated Assessment and Decision
Support, International Environmental Modeling and Software Society, Lugano, Switzerland, Vol. 1, pp: 482–487
3.
Safari E, Jalili Ghazizade M, Shokouh A, et al. (2011) Anaerobic removal of COD from high strength fresh and partially
stabilized leachate and application of multi stage kinetic model. International Journal of Environmental Research 5(2): 255–
270
4.
Safari e., Ghazizade J. M. and Abdoli M. A., (2012). A performance based method for calculating the design thickness
of compacted clay liners exposed to high strength leachate under simulated landfill conditions, Waste Management and
Research, , 30(9) 898–907
5.
Renou S, Givaudan JG, Poulain S, Dirassouyan F, and Moulin P., (2008). Landfill leachate treatment: review and
opportunity, Journal of Hazardous Material, 150(3):468-93
89
Oral Presentations
Application of Membrane Processes for Organic Carbon Removal from
Landfill Leachate
Güçlü INSEL1, Serdar DOGRUEL1, Nadir DİZGE2, Emine COKGOR1, Bülent KESKINLER2
Istanbul Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department, TR-34469, Maslak, İstanbul, Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
2
Gebze Institute of Technology, Environmental Engineering Department, TR-141 41400 Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
1
Abstract In this study, all conventional membrane technologies were applied to a young landfill leachate.
The biodegradation characteristics was obtained on the basis of COD characterization and respirometric
modeling techniques. After the MBR treatment the effluent was subjected to nanofiltration (NF) and reverse
osmosis (RO) to obtain better effluent quality. Before and after biological treatment the size distribution of
organics carried out on influent and effluent of MBR system. The organic matter footprint was extracted
using physical and biological characterization.
Keywords: Biodegradation, COD fractionation, membrane bioreactor, size distribution.
1. INTRODUCTION
Landfill leachate has a high polluting potential particularly in terms of organic matter, nitrogen
content together with heavy metals etc. [1] The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Total
Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN), may increase up to 50,000 mgCOD/L and 6,000 mgN/L, respectively
in young sanitary landfills. The promulgation of challenging discharge limits requires more
advanced treatment alternatives such as membrane processes and biological treatment, namely the
membrane bioreactors [2]. Moreover, additional downstream membrane processes (NF, RO) options
are also available to obtain better effluent quality [3]. In this study, the influent COD fractionation
and biodegradation kinetics were determined on the basis of respirometric modeling techniques
for landfill leachate. In addition, the size distribution (PSD) results were provided before and after
the MBR treatment. Finally, downstream membrane separation technologies were applied to MBR
effluent to test the possibility of meeting lower discharge limits practiced by different countries.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Laboratory-scale MBR system was operated for biomass acclimation to be used in biological
treatability study. UF membrane (30 kDa) made of Polyether Sulfone (PES) was used in the
MBR. The acclimated biomass was used in respirometric (OUR) experiments to determine the
biodegradation characteristics of organics in raw leachate having the COD level of 20,000 mg/L.
Biodegradation and modeling study was carried out according to [4]. The inert COD determination
was carried out according to Orhon et al. [5]. AQUASIM simulation software was used to determine
degradation kinetics [6]. Gel-filtration experiments were applied to influent anf effluent of MBR
system for the determination of size distribution at UF level. NF and RO treatment was applied to
MBR effluent to maximize the COD removal. The filtration pressures were 10 bar for NF270 and 20
bar for RO-X20. The raw wastewater was sampled from IZAYDAS landfill characterizing the dry
weather conditions.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Pılot MBR Operatıon and Bıodegradatıon
After steady state operation, MBR operation was reported to be 90% COD removal exhibiting appro.
1900 mg/L COD in the effluent. The overall biodegradable COD was found to be 70% on the basis
of respirometric experiments and modeling. In addition, the degradation rate of organics was found
to be 30% of municipal wastewater. The OUR experiment result was given in Figure 1.a.
90
Solid Waste
3.2. Membrane Treatment (UF, NF, RO)
The results of gel-filtration experiments conducted on influent and effluent of MBR were summarized
Figure 1.b. The difference between dark and light gray profiles indicates the COD in raw achate and
MBR effluent at corresponding filter cut-off size as given in X-axis. It should be noted that the
Y-axis is given in logarithmic unit. Approximately, 70% of COD is at below the filter size of 2 nm
for the raw leachate. After MBR treatment this value decreased from 70% to 8%.
14000
10000
Raw Leachate
10000
8000
100
6000
10
4000
1
0
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Biodegradation (OUR) modeling and gel-filtration of MBR influent/effluent
Table 1 below summarizes the pH, conductivity and COD results of MBR effluent, Nanofiltration
and Reverse Osmosis experiments. After NF and RO applications, the COD level was decreased
from 1935 mg/L down to 330 and 295 mg/L, respectively. The NF and RO treatment exhibited
additional 83% and 85% COD removals, respectively.
Parameter
MBR
NF-270
RO-X20
pH
-
9.38
9.23
Conductivity (mS/cm)
28.3
24.5
13.41
COD (mg/L)
1936
330
295
Table 1. Effluent characteristics after membrane filtration
REFERENCES
1.
Ahmed, F.N., Lan C.Q. (2012). Treatment of landfill leachate using membrane bioreactors: A review, Desalination, 287, 4154.
2.
Judd, S.: The MBR Book: The principles and applications of membrane bioreactors in water and wastewater treatment,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
3.
Li G., Wang W., Du Q. (2010) Applicability of Nanofiltration for the Advanced Treatment of Landfill Leachate, Journal of
Applied Polymer Science,Vol. 116, 2343–2347.
4.
Insel, G., Orhon, D., Vanrolleghem, P.A. (2003). Identification and modelling of aerobic hydrolysis mechanism-application
of optimal experimental design”, J. Chem.Tech. Biotech., 78, 4, 437-445.
5.
Orhon, D., Karahan, O., Sozen, S. (1999). The effect of residual microbial products on the experimental assessment of the
particulate inert COD in wastewaters, Water Res., 33, 14, 3191-3203.
6.
Reichert P. (1998). AQUASIM 2.0-User manual. Technical report, Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and
Technology (EAWAG), Dubendorf, Switzerland.
91
220-450 nm
450-1600 nm
<2 nm
2-3 nm
3-5 nm
5-8 nm
8-13 nm
13-220 nm
220-450 nm
>1600 nm
450-1600 nm
2000
>1600 nm
mg COD/L
12000
MBR Effluent
1000
Oral Presentations
Progress of Sustainable Landfill Stabilization After 3 Years of Leachate
Recirculation at the Vlagheide Landfill (NL)
Willem van Vossen1, Harm Peperkamp1, Theo Folmer2
1
Royal HaskoningDHV
[email protected]
2
Urban District ‘s-Hertogenbosch
[email protected]
Abstract The Urban District of ‘s-Hertogenbosch is the owner of the Vlagheide landfill. The Vlagheide
landfill measures 40 hectares and 6 million m3 of municipal solid waste, stored over the last 35 years. The
landfill has been closed in 2003. Half of the landfill comprises a newer part (≈ 20 ha) with bottom liner, but
still without top liner. Within the framework of the current sustainable landfill management programme at
the Vlagheide landfill (started in 2005), at this newer part a leachate recirculation test at 1 ha is carried out in
order to investigate and monitor the expected acceleration of the stabilization process (i.e. the degradation of
degradable organic matter) in the landfill body. The results of 3 years of recirculation with respect to landfill
stabilization are considered promising and encouraging. As a result it could be concluded that sustainable
landfill management (SLM) is capable to achieve the admissible emission limit values in such a way that it
enables the competent authorities to make the decision for minimalization of aftercare or even for discharge
from aftercare.
1. INTRODUCTION, HYPOTHESIS, OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH
The Vlagheide landfill measures 40 hectares and 6 million m3 of municipal solid waste (MSW),
stored over the last 35 years. The landfill has been closed in 2003 and complies with the EU-standards
with respect to aftercare measures. Half of the landfill comprises a newer part (≈ 20 ha) with bottom
liner, but still without top liner. Within the framework of the sustainable landfill management
programme (SLMP) at this newer part a leachate recirculation test is carried out since June 2008
in order to investigate and monitor the expected acceleration of the stabilization process (i.e. the
degradation of degradable organic matter) in the landfill body. The hypothesis behind the leachate
recirculation test is that the infiltration of leachate will increase the moisture content in the landfill
body. As a consequence a bigger part of the present degradable organic matter will be degraded. This
will enhance the landfill stabilization process. The final goal is to achieve a sustainable emission
reduction of landfill gas and leachate complying with the admissible limit values of emission to
groundwater and air compartment.
The pilot started in June 2008 by the installation of the infiltration fields over a surface of 1 ha. The
infiltration field consists of 10 drains with a length of 100 meter each and a distance in between
of circa 10 meter. The drains consist of trenches, filled with gravel. Leachate from the leachate
collection pits of other compartments is pumped to the buffer tank on top of the landfill next to the
infiltration field. From the buffer tank the leachate is pumped into two infiltration pits, which have
been connected to the 10 infiltration drains.
2. RESULTS
2.1. Infıltratıon rate
The objective is to infiltrate the highest possible amount of leachate, but without saturating the waste
body and flooding the landfill surface. In fact it is the intention to increase the moisture content in the
waste body without exceeding the field capacity of the waste body. The higher the moisture content,
the higher the biogas production and as a consequence the faster the stabilization of the landfill will
be achieved thanks to the degradation of anaerobic degradable organic matter. At the other hand
transport of water is needed to remove inhibitors, which might be counter-productive to a succesfull
and effective degradation process. Water transport is also needed to remove dissolved organic
matter (DOC), to which heavy metals are bounded. In addtion to the effective natural infiltration of
precipitation (280 mm/year), the optimal infiltration rate could be fixed at 720 mm/year.
92
Solid Waste
2.2. Moısture content ın waste body
The additional infiltration of leachate in the waste body of compartment 4 resulted in a noticeable
higher mosture content in the waste body. This is demonstrated by the results of resistivity
measurements in the waste body below the infiltration field, before and after the start of infiltration
in April 2008. The patterns of resistivity can be related to hydrological zones in the waste body.
Three resistivity zones are distinguished related to the hydrology in the waste body (Table 1).
Hydrological zones
Resistivity
Resistivity value
Colour in geo-electrical
profiles
Stagnant zones (‘dry pockets’)
High
> 20 – 50 Ωm
Red
Mobile zones, slow water transport
Medium
10 – 20 Ωm
Yellow or green
Preferential channels: fast water
transport
Low
< 5 – 11 Ωm
Blue
Table 1. Resistivity zones related to hydrological zones in the waste body
The most favourable conditions for the progress of landfill stabilization are the mobile zones with
slow water transport and high moisture contents. The resisitivity measurements show a noticeable
increase of the yellow/green colours after 9 months (november 2008) and after 34 months (december
2010) of infiltration. So it can be concluded that the infiltration process meets its goal, which is the
overall increase of the moisture content.
2.3. Leachate compostıon
The progress of the landfill stabilization process is monitored by measuring the biochemical
and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD) in the leachate, being the most important key
performance indicators.
Figure 1 shows an average increase of the BOD concentrations as well as the ratio BOD/COD during
the infiltration period of 3 years.
Figure 1. BOD and COD in the leachate of the infiltrated waste compartment
3. CONCLUSIONS
With respect to the effects of leachate infiltration, the results can be summarized as follows:
• The optimal additional leachate infiltration rate could be fixed at 720 mm/a. This is, added to the
effective infiltration of precipitation (280 mm/a), a four-fold of the effective infiltration of rain water.
• The infiltration resulted in an increase of the moisture content in the waste body, by which an
important boundary condition has been fullfilled for the succes of landfill stabilization.
• The infiltration resulted in a start of gas production in the so-called ‘dry-pockets”, which became
moisturized due to enhanced infiltration.
93
Oral Presentations
The leachate infiltration process meets the main conditions, which are the increase of moisture
content and water transport. The period of 3 years of leachate infiltration is still relatively short to
draw final conclusions whether or not the sustainable emission reduction will meet, at the end, the
admissible emission limit values. Nevertheless the results are considered to be that promising and
encouraging, that it could be concluded that sustainable landfill management (SLM) is capable to
achieve the admissible emission limit values in such a way that it enables the competent authorities
to make the decision for minimalization of aftercare or even for discharge from aftercare.
94
Solid Waste
Necessity of Waste Incineration and Power Plants in Istanbul Solid Waste
Management
Cevat Yaman1, Orhan Sevimoğlu2, Şenol Yıldız3, Kubilay Kaya4
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and Control Department
[email protected]
2
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and Control Department,
Directorate of Sea Services
[email protected]
3
İstanbul Environmental Management Co.
[email protected]
4
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and Control Department,
Directorate of Waste Management
[email protected]
1
Abstarct Environmental issues are the most problematic field for Turkey in terms of compliance with
European Union. The environment, which is one of the most extensive areas of the EU Acquit, will be the
most compulsive field along with the agriculture. The development of waste management and strengthen of
implementation capacity require high costs, but it should be remembered that the cost of inaction is much
higher. If an effective waste reduction and recycling cannot be provided, mountains that consist of garbage
will threaten the environment and human health, and the forcing of absorption capacity of the nature will
cause an inevitable expire of living opportunities. Strengthening of waste management has vital importance
for the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of environment and human health beside this it
is the key factor for to provide a sustainable and qualified living for future generations. Consumption habits
have changed in parallel with the increasing of population and this has led to an increase in the amount
of waste. The issue of land that appears because of the population increase requires new waste disposal
methods rather that landfilling. All the new arrangements that made for this purpose bring obligations to use
new disposal methods and restrict the amount of waste disposed in landfills. To comply the restriction about
the amount of biodegradable waste that must be disposed outside of landfills require separate collection of
waste and alternative disposal methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
The most important point to take into consideration for the integrated waste management is
sustainability. Although the landfilling is more economical than other disposal methods, rapid
decrease of the capacity of existing landfill sites, lack of appropriate and sufficient lands are the
factors that make this method difficult to use. A new Landfill legislation has been taken to force
by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (formerly Environmental and Forestry) about the
management of municipal solid wastes with in the process of pre accession to the EU and by this new
legislation it is required that to reduce the amount of biodegradable waste that being disposed to the
landfills by the mentioned years. In this context, the main purpose of the proposed project is to build
an incineration plant where 3000 tons municipal solid wastes from residential areas, offices, schools
etc. incinerate daily in accordance with the national and international legislation. It is planned that
to generate heat and electricity by the steam that produced as a result of incineration of solid wastes.
2. EXISTING WASTE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL
The amount of waste that being collected within the boundaries of Istanbul Metropolitan
Municipality and being disposed to the Kömürcüoda and Odayeri Landfill Sites has exceeded the
level of 5 million tons. Totally approximately 15000 tons of solid waste disposed to these sites on a
daily basis and the annual disposal amount has reached the 5.3 million tons by the 2010. On the other
hand, reducing the amount of biodegradable waste that stored in landfill sites gradually over time, set
as a target by regulations in our country. According to the target set, in 2015, the amount of disposed
biodegradable waste will be reduce to the level of 75% by weight of the amount of biodegradable
waste that produce in 2005. This percentage will be reduce to the level of 50% in 2018 and 35% in
20251
95
Oral Presentations
In order to achieve this target Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality required applying new techniques
for disposal of this amount of solid waste rather than existing landfill applications. The amount of
solid waste that landfilled in 2005 was around 4.604.000 tons. By adding the solid waste that is not
disposed to the landfills but collected by scavengers, composted and recycled the amount of solid
waste generated in Istanbul estimated approximately 5 million tons.
According to characterization of solid waste studies conducted by the Istanbul Metropolitan
Municipality, 2,3 million tons of biodegradable solid waste produced in 2005. Considering the abovementioned targets, the amount of biodegradable waste that disposed rather than landfilling is 1.6
million tons in 2015, 2.4 million tons in 2018 and 3.5 million tons in 2025. According to the studies
that conduct considering the population and consequently increase the amount of waste, Istanbul
placed in “1a” district in terms of EU legislation conformity targets and at least one incineration
plant must be establish between the year of 2013 - 20172
Organic Waste (ton/day)
Required
Capacity
(ton/day)
Waste
Amount
(ton/day)
Fraction
of Organic
Waste (%)
Produced
Can be
Landfilled
2005
12.649
50
6.325
6.325
0
0
2015
18.448
49
9.040
4.743
4.296
8.768
2018
20.264
48
9.727
3.162
6.564
13.676
2025
24.967
47
11.734
2.214
9.521
20.257
Rest
Table 1. Reducing the waste by year and the requirement alternative system capacity
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The amount of waste can be disposed by landfilling considering the limits that set by environmental
legislations, the waste production estimates in Istanbul through 2025 and the amount of organic
waste that exceed the limits are shown in the Table 1. below. As seen in the table, although the
capacity the planned facility is 3000 t/d the amount of organic waste that exceed the limits sets in the
legislation is 4296 t/d in 2015 and 9521 t/d in 2025.
Sanitary landfill applications are generally being used as solid waste disposal method in our country.
In addition to the landfilling, small amount of composting applications can be seen for waste
disposal. Increasing the amount of waste production in Istanbul is increased the requirements for
additional landfill sites evenly. Therefore, the waste management system must be reviewed and
alternative waste disposal techniques must be developed. To reach the new targets that set by the
new landfill legislation, Thermal and Biological waste disposal systems should be established as
alternative disposal methods. As a result additional integrated waste disposal facilities that can handle
8000 t/d waste should be established through the year 2015. Considering the increasing the energy
prices the preferred systems should be based on energy recovery like incineration, composting,
biomethanisation etc.
REFERENCES
96
1.
Landfilling of Waste Regulation, 26 March 2010, no: 27533
2.
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (2005), EU Environmental Regulations Compatible Integrated Waste Management
Strategic Plan
Solid Waste
Simultaneous Leaching of Heavy Metals and Bioaccumulation of
Phosphorus from Sludge Combustion - a New Way of Resource
Reclaiming
Wolfgang Dott1, Maxime Dossin2, Petra Schacht1
Institute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine - RWTH Aachen University
Fritzmeier Umwelttechnik - Inocre, Großhelfendorf
[email protected]
1
2
Abstract The recovery of phosphorus from sewage sludge incineration ash as well as the separation of heavy
metals from ash was investigated by using the biotechnological process of bioleaching and bioaccumulation
of released phosphorus by newly developed syntrophic population of bioleaching bacteria, Acidithiobacillus
spec. strains, and polyphosphate (poly-P) accumulating bacteria, the AEDS-population (Acidithiobacillus
spec. enriched digested sludge). The biologically performed solubilization of phosphorus from sewage
sludge incineration ash is accompanied by the release of toxic metals. Therefore a combined process to
separate phosphorus from heavy metals by achieving a plant available phosphorus-enriched product and
a metal depleted ash was designed. Leaching experiments were conducted in leaching reactor containing
a bacterial stock culture of Acidithiobacillus spec. Following step was the enhancement of P-recovery
in combining bioleaching with simultaneous bio-P-accumulation by AEDS-population. The uptake of
phosphorus in biomass reaches up to 66% of the mobilized phosphorus by bioleaching. The combined
biologically performed technology of phosphorus leaching and separation from toxic metals by simultaneous
bioaccumulation developed in this work is a promising economical and ecological process for the recovery
of phosphorus from waste solids.
Keywords: recovery of phosphorus, bioleaching, biological phosphate enrichment.
97
Oral Presentations
Using of Landfill Gas Energy Generation Plant’s Waste Heat in
Greenhouses
Volkan ENÇ, Musa KASIRGA
İSTAÇ A.Ş., İstanbul Çevre Yönetimi Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş., Şişli-İSTANBUL
Summary Municipal landfills are sites where solid wastes disposed within a particular procedure.There are
two landfill facilities in Istanbul which are located in Asian and European side of Istanbul. In order to reduce
environmental impacts of landfilling , leachate and landfill gas are collected and taken under control. Since
The landfill gas contains methanen (CH4), it causes greenhouse effect.
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Odayeri Landfill gas is been used in generation of 1,4MW electricity
power in “Landfill Gas Energy Generation Plant” which has 15 engines.As the result of incineration of the
landfill gas, a quite high amount and temperature of the exhaust gas is been emitted to atmosphere.
Greenhouse management has been an important agricultural activity in Turkey. Heating costs, water supply
and marketing problems are the main constraints for construction and management of greenhouses. However
the metropolitans offer a big market, high prices of the lands prevents the sector to grow. Another expense
for green house is heating costs. Because of high heating costs and limited heating options ,the greenhouse
management are used be only in certain areas in Turkey.
This study is supported by Istanbul Development Agency (İSTKA) and conducted to “The use of Compost
and Heat Generated in Power Generation Plants, in Hothouses Project”. The usability of the heat exhausted
by Landfill Gas Energy Genaration Plant is investigated. This study includes hothouse installation, the flue
gas heat analysis, thermal calculations, heat recovery and the transmission system design and installation
stages.
Keywords: Waste Management, energy efficiency, waste heat, Landfills, greenhouse.
1. GREENHOUSE
Energy saving is becoming increasingly important in the industry. However the fact that energy
resources are limited and increasingly depleted, the difficulties in energy supply from time to time
are various reasons, in pushing industries to rise energy efficiency and save energy , the main reason
is the high and rising costs of the energy [1].
In many countries such as Germany, Denmark, Finland and Greece, heat from thermal power
plants have been used for heating regional residentials. In Turkey the waste heat coming from
Kahramanmaraş Afsin, Zonguldak Çatalağzı and Manisa Soma Thermal power plants, is considered
to be used for heating of housing [2]. According to study done in a Student Dormitory in Isparta,
%75 heat recovery has been achieved from the wastewater coming from washing machines [3].
Since plants need a certain temperature and any disruption in heating may affect the quality of the
product quality, heating has been vital for hothouses. Conventional methods for heating greenhouses
are expensive and damage to the environment [4].
In this study, many achievements with using the heat from Landfill Gas Power Generation Plant,
such as using waste energy for heating, providing energy efficiency, reducing need to fossil fuels,
increasing recycling options, reducing heating costs in greenhouses, offering sustainable solutions
for agricultural land shortage are presented.
After sellecting the proper land and plant a greenhouse has been installed in Odayeri Landfill
Heat calculations were made for the hot house. The amount of heat required is calculated by
considering the heat loses of each of the materials used in the construction and heat losses due to the
volume change from air.
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Solid Waste
Flue gas emission measurements of the exhaust gas from Landfill Gas Energy Generation Plant
are done. Considering the results of flue gas measurements, the heat need for the recovery of gas
at 470°C, is calculated. CO, SO2, NO and NO2 measurement are done using Electrochemical Cell
Method while Speed and Flow Determination of the flue was carried out with the S-Type Pitot Tube.
System alternatives for the use of the exhausted heat from flues are investigated. The air-water
heat exchangers were studied. Considering the energy need of greenhouse and analysis results, the
materail types and dimensions of economizer are identified and system was designed.
The system was designed as to minimize the heat loses during the transfer of water heated in waste
heat recovery unit and feeding hot water to the hot house in a efficient way.
High temperature flue gas is been exhausted from Landfill Gas Energy Production Plants. Significant
economic benefits can be achieved by recovering the heat exhausted from Landfill Gas Energy
Production Plants.
Greenhouses, in our country and around the world become an important agricultural activity and
constraint heating cost is been main constraint fort he development of this industry. Hothouse are
used to be installed in geothermaş and hot climate regions of our country. Winter heating is generally
inadequate or can not be done at all.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The results of this project offer a significant solutions for waste management problems. The
problems such as landfills, exhausted heat energy, hothouse land shortage, hot house heating costs
and unemployment issues are discussed in a holistic manner.
REFERENCES
1.
Tarakçıoğlu A. (2006) Sanayide atık ısıdan yararlanma yöntemleri 103, FBE Makina Mühendisliği Ana Bilim Dalı Isı
Proses Programı YTÜ
2.
Güngör C, Kaya D, Üresin E (2007) Termik santrallerin atık ısılarının değerlendirilmesi, Mühendis ve Makine, 575. Sayı,
19-25, www.tsad.org.tr
3.Özsoy A., Köse İ.İ., (2011) Merkezi çamaşır yıkama ünitelerinde atık ısı geri kazanımı, Ulusal İklimlendirme Kongresi,
Antalya- Türkiye
4.
Çanakçı C., Acarer S. (2011) Seracılıkta Yeni Gelişmeler ve Eğilimler, 1.Dikili Yöresi Jeotermal Kaynakların
Değerlendirilmesi Sempozyumu İzmir-Türkiye
99
Oral Presentations
The New Waste to Energy Plant Forsthaus in Berne (Ch)
Luciano Pelloni, Markus Wieduwilt, Trimurti Irzan, David da Silva
TBF + Partner AG, Consulting Engineers
[email protected]
Abstract The new Waste to Energy Plant Forsthaus in Berne, Switzerland, fully replaces the existing plant
concerning waste incineration and district heating. The strict environmental specifications based on Swiss
law are fulfilled by means of efficient and best available technology [1][2]. In addition, the facility represents
a leading project, by the unique combination of three different power plants in one complex: a Waste to
Energy Plant (WtE), a Wood-Fired Power Plant (WFPP) and a Gas-Fired Combined Cycle Power Plant
(CCPP). The plant provides electricity, steam and district heating for Berne and surroundings. Increasing the
capacity of locally produced energy helps to lower the dependence on further energy providers. Moreover,
by the use of renewable energy sources such as municipal solid waste and wood, the new Integrated Power
Plant Forsthaus represents a milestone on the way to a phase-out of the nuclear power and an important step
towards a sustainable power supply [3]. Our company was mandated with the general planning of process and
mechanical parts, basic engineering for control system and electrical power distribution systems as well as
site supervision for erection and commissioning and the overall project management of the new plant.
Keywords: waste to energy plant, wood-fired power plant, biomass fueled power plant, gas-fired combined
cycle power plant, waste incineration.
1. INTRODUCTION
The new Integrated Power Plant Forsthaus represents the best solution to fulfill the below mentioned
requirements of the new WtE plant defined earlier by the contractor:
• Thermal treatment of municipal solid waste
• Secure energy supply and district heating for the city of Berne
• Increase the use of renewable energy sources
• Significantly increase the produced amount of electricity
• Increase flexibility in operation
Three types of power plants are combined to an integrated power station, being a Swiss pioneer
project: A Waste to Energy Plant (WtE) a Wood-Fired Power Plant (WFPP) and a Gas-fired
Combined Cycle Power Plant (CCPP) (Fig.1). Furthermore a natural gas fired Peak Load Set (PLS)
to produce hot water for district heating was installed, in order to ensure peak-period demand of
district heating as well as energy supply in case of blackouts.
2. WASTE TO ENERGY PLANT
Waste incineration takes place in a grate furnace with a reverse-acting grate. The steam (40bar,
400°C) is produced in a horizontal-convective-tract boiler including an external economizer. The
steam is used in a steam turbine with controlled extraction in order to produce electric current,
energy for district heating and process steam.
Flue gas treatment comprises an electrostatic precipitator with 3 fields, where dust and heavy metals
in solid state are separated from the flue gas, a DeNOx-system (hot gas selective catalytic reactor), a
two-stage scrubber, in which chlorides and fluorides are removed, and a fabric filter with 4 chambers,
where remaining contamination (dust, dioxins and heavy metals) are eliminated.
100
Solid Waste
Figure 1. Plant schematic (GT: Gas Turbine, WFPP: Wood Fired Power Plant, PLS: Peak Load Set,
WtE: Waste to Energy
3. CONCLUSION
The new Power Plant demonstrates a reliable and sustainable way to ensure safe and environmentally
sound treatment of municipal waste. At the same time it produces electricity, heat and steam by
the use of renewable and local energy sources. Table 1 summarizes the performance of the three
different power facilities.
WtE
WWFP
CCPP
PLS
Combustibles
110’000 t/a
Waste
112’000 t/a **
Wood
11’800 Nm /h
natural gas
5’100 Nm3/h
natural gas
Annual operating time
8’000 h
8’000 h
approx. 5’000 h
20 h
131 MW
2 x 26 MW
3
Total thermal output
57 MW
27 MW
Total electrical output
(rated Input 100%)
18 MW
74 MW *
Total efficiency factor
max. 76 % efficiency
Supply of electricity
360’000 MWh/a (35 % of Berne‘s demand)
Heat supply
250’000 MWh/a (14 % of Berne‘s demand)
290’000 MWh/a with extension of the district heating grid of 20%
Steam to industrial
consumers
approx. 40’000 MWh/a
Table 1. Main data of The Integrated Power Plant Forsthaus (CH)
* 46 MW from the gas turbine and 28 MW from the steam turbine
** Fresh wood chips with a high water content
101
REFERENCES
102
1.
Air quality control regulation (LRV) from December 16th, 1985 (state of July 15th, 2010)
2.
Technical ordinance on waste (TVA) from December 10th, 1990 (state of July 1st, 2011)
3.
Official homepage of the Swiss Confederation, http://www.news.admin.ch, 15.03.2013
Oral Presentations
Solid Waste
Recycling of Rare Earth Metals in Pre - Treatment Plants
Julia Hobohm, Katharina Szczepaniak, Kerstin Kuchta
Hamburg University of Technology
Abstract Precious and rare earth metals (REMs) are relevant in many technical applications such as panel
displays, permanent magnets or circuit boards. World demand for rare earth elements is estimated at 136,000
tons per year and at the same time the global production of REMs was around 133,600 tons in 2010. But the
demand is increasing due to the growth in the production of future technologies.
This high demand coupled with limited exports caused significant price increases of single rare earth element
oxides over the past two years.
Due to the dependency and the environmental impacts of mining, all possible resources of REMs should be
evaluated. Thus, the recycling of electronic waste is estimated to have a relevant potential, as a secondary
resource for rare earth metals. According to the European Environment Agency the quantity of waste
electrical equipment has been growing almost three times faster than other types of municipal solid waste.
The main objective of the study is the consideration of the quantitative and qualitative input streams in pretreatment plants to develop an efficient recovery of precious and rare earths metals from waste electrical and
electronic equipment (WEEE or E-waste).
Furthermore, the optimized recovery of precious metals and the recovery of the rare earths have to be
developed by this state.
Keywords: Rare earth metals, recycling of E-waste, waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)
1. INTRODUCTION
The term rare earth metal (REM) is often used to indicate non-ferrous metals that are found only in
rare amount. These metals are used in a broad range of manufacturing areas that include materials
machineries and electronic production [1].
Nevertheless, Europe is one of the world’s largest consumers of REM today. The challenge has not
been caused by the reserves of the REMs but in the mining regions, primarily in China.[2]
The increasing demand and therefore the expected supply shortages, additionally triggered by
Chinese export restrictions, lead to a significant increase in REM prices: Their price increased
sevenfold in recent years. [3]
A promising measure to fill the gap in the supply-demand-balance and to foster a sustainable supply
of raw materials for Europe is recycling of REM from electronic waste (WEEE). This is obvious as
the concentration of REM in electrical devices is often higher than in average mineral ore deposits.[1]
The recovery of precious and rare earth metals out of electronic devices involves different challenges
like the efficient collection, the pre-treatment and the final treatment.
The biggest loss of metals results during the treatment steps.[4] Therefore, the whole treatment
process has to be reviewed and optimised for the recovery of precious metals. After this there should
be a transferance to the rare earth elements.
The output “coarse fraction” (> 20 mm) of a typical mechanical treatment plant for WEEE was
manually sorted and chemically analyzed by AAS.
At first the samples were manually sorted in the following fractions: irons, coppers, aluminums,
plastics, circuit boards, composites of those and fines, that could not be sorted manually.
The metals were detected with the AAS (contra 700, Analytik Jena) using a nitrous oxide/ acetyleneflame.
103
Oral Presentations
Finally the material flow analysis was founded on different assumptions.
3. RESULTS
In conclusion neodymium as rare earth metal - used in WEEE mostly for magnets - is located in
two output streams. It is concentrated in the fines of the ferro- and paramagnetic fraction and in the
fine fractions extracted by the metal sensor. In addition, gold and silver as precious metals are also
determined in these fines. The highest concentrations of gold and silver were observed in circuit
boards. Most of the circuit boards are detected and sorted out by the by the photo sensor. In all
other outputs except one output circuit boards were detected. The material streams with the highest
concentrations of gold and neodymium are the fine fractions of the magnet separation, resulting in
the highest loss of those metals. The losses in coarse fraction, for the plant considered in this case,
are about 6.4 % of gold and 11.4 % of silver. The losses of neodymium are 100 %.
4. CONCLUSION
The recycling of electronic waste has a high potential as a resource for the recovery of precious and
rare earth metals. According to the European Environment Agency the quantity of waste electrical
equipment has been growing almost three times faster than other types of municipal solid waste.
There are different steps in the collection and pre-treatment of E-waste that causes serious losses,
one major loss accurses during the pre-treatment. To detect the losses the quantitative and qualitative
input streams in pre-treatment plants have to be precisely determined.
Regarding to the mass flow through the plant, the highest concentration as well the highest discharge
of neodymium is located in the fines of the magnet separation. The highest output of precious metals
regarding to the course grain happens in the metal sensor.
REFERENCES
104
1.
Schoßig M., (2011).Hintergrundpapier Seltene Erden.von Seltenen Erden - Daten & Fakten
2.
Bencek, D., Klodt, H., & Rickels, W. (2011). Vorratslager für Seltene Erden: Eine Aufgabe für die Wirtschaftspolitik?
3.
British Geological Survey (2011). Rare Earth Elements Profile, Natural Environment Research Council. Nottingham,
Vereinigtes Königreich.
4.
NRW, LANUV (2012): LANUV-Fachbericht 38.
Solid Waste
Respirometric Method Applied to Biodegradation of Diesel and Biodiesel
in Soil
Ederio Dino Bidoia, Ivo Shodji Tamada, Paulo Renato Matos Lopes, Jaqueline Matos Cruz, Renato Nallin
Montagnolli
State University of São Paulo (UNESP)- Av. 24-A – 1515, 13506-900, Rio Claro-SP, Brazil.
Abstract Soil contamination by mixing diesel and biodiesel has not been much studied in Brazil. Since 2010,
diesel presents in your composition 5% of biodiesel of animal or vegetable origin. The question is to know
if this mixture has a greater or lesser impact when spill occurs, whether by accident, transport or production.
Thus, this study evaluated biodegradation effects of pure diesel and mixtures with different proportions of
biodiesel in diesel. The evaluation was based on the respirometric method, which accounts production of
CO2 by weekly titulations. This work observed that mixture of 50% diesel more 50% of biodiesel presented
the best biodegradation rate and this mixture showed higher biodegradation in comparison to pure biodiesel.
Moreover, this work showed the efficiency of surfactant in the tests, and again the mixture with 50% of
biodiesel presented more biodegradable. These results show that the pure biodiesel is less biodegradable than
mixing with diesel (blend of biodiesel with diesel in the ratio 1:1).
Keywords: toxicity, diesel, biodiesel, biodegradation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel becomes an energy source due to the scarcity of fossil fuels. It enters to Brazilian economic
system as a fuel of great importance because the high energy requirement in this country [1, 2]. Use,
production and transportation can cause serious environmental problems, so this paper proposes a
biodegradation study of biodiesel and diesel in soil.
This work used pure diesel and different blends of vegetable biodiesel and diesel. For biodegradation
analysis in soil was applied Batha and Pramer´s respirometric methods [3] with adjustments and
calculations of biodegradation following the Brazilian standard L6.350 [4].
This respirometric systems following the nomenclature presented in Table 1 that shows the
“inoculum”, which is a soil with microorganisms preselected to these types of contaminants. The
respirometric systems lasted 91 days with weekly analyzes (counting CO2 produced every 7 days).
Respirometric Systems
Composition
Soil
Inoculum
Grit
Diesel
Biodiesel
A
25 g
-
25 g
-
-
Surfactant
-
C
25 g
25 g
-
-
-
-
C+S
25 g
25 g
-
-
-
0.1 mL
D
25 g
25 g
-
5.0 mL
-
-
B5
25 g
25 g
-
4.75 mL
0.25 mL
-
B50
25 g
25 g
-
2.5 mL
2.5 mL
-
B100
25 g
25 g
-
-
5.0 mL
-
D+S
25 g
25 g
-
5.0 mL
-
0.1 mL
B5+S
25 g
25 g
-
4.75 mL
0.25 mL
0.1 mL
B50+S
25 g
25 g
-
2.5 mL
2.5 mL
0.1 mL
B100+S
25 g
25 g
-
-
5.0 mL
0.1 mL
Table 1. Composition of respirometric systems
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Oral Presentations
B50 respirometric system presented the greater accumulated production of CO2 than other systems
and this fact was also noted by Sendzikiene et al. [5], observing that the mixture over 35% of biodiesel
in the diesel increased the biodegradability in comparison to pure contaminant (diesel or biodiesel).
In this work also observed that the presence of surfactant increases the production of CO2 and the
mixture of diesel and biodiesel (B50) presented more biodegradability than others contaminants.
Respirometric Systems
Accumulated CO2
production (mg)
A
48.4 ± 4.82
C
121.88 ± 7.47
C+S
144.375 ± 14.7
D
118.58 ± 1.4
B5
103.675 ± 2.88
B50
162.36 ± 1.71
B100
117.15 ± 3.11
D+S
168.685± 5.52
B5+S
133.925 ± 0.23
B50+S
219.285 ± 8.01
B100+S
144.43 ± 12.29
Table 2. Accumulated CO2 production in 91 days of analysis
4. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
The respirometric method proved to be useful and functional in respect to contaminants
biodegradation, proving that the blends of diesel and biodiesel are promising when used 50% of each
one. The mixture with low concentration of biodiesel (B5) was very close to pure diesel in terms of
biodegradation, making it unattractive in relation to biodegradability and possible bioremediation.
Acknowledgments: CAPES, Petrobrás/ANP PRH 05, Fapesp and CNPq.
REFERENCES
106
1.
Pinto, A.C., Guarieiro, L.L.N.; Rezende, M.J.C., Ribeiro, N.M., Torresb, E.A., Lopes, W.A., Pereira, P.A.P. ve Andrade, J.B.,
(2005). Biodiesel: an overview, Journal of Brazilian Chemical Society, 16, 6B, 1313-1330.
2.
Geris, R., Santos, N.A.C., Amaral, B.A., Maia, I.S., Castro, V.D. ve Carvalho, J.R.M., (2007). Biodiesel de Soja - Reação de
Transesterificação para Aulas Práticas de Química Orgânica, Química Nova, 30, 5, 1369-1373.
3.
Bartha, R., Pramer, D., (1965). Features of flask and method of measurement of the persistence and biological effects of
pesticides in soil, Soil Science, 100, 1, 60-70.
4.
CETESB - Companhia de Tecnologia e Saneamento Ambiental. Solos – Determinação de Resíduos – Método Respirométrico
de Bartha, Norma técnica L.6.350. (1990).
5.
Sendzikiene, E., Makarevicienea, V., Makarevicienea, P. ve Makareviciuteb, D., (2007). Biodegradability of biodiesel fuel
of animal and vegetable origin, European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 109, 493-497.
Solid Waste
A Feasibility Study for the Sultanbeyli Waste Seperation Plant
Ummugulsum Alyuz1, Goksel Demir2, Kadir Yavuz Yildirim3, Hatice Eser Okten4
Bahcesehir University, Environmental Engineering Department
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
Sultanbeyli Municipality
[email protected]
4
[email protected]
1
Abstract Cost of the establishment of a waste separation plant depends on many components such as the
selected technology, site location, waste transfer requirement, waste saleability potential and financial
support. Therefore, it is important to prepare the feasibility report for the facility to be established in each
city, even in each district for the evaluation of all components that may affect the cost of the facility.
In this study, the current waste management methods within the context of waste separation are examined, the
potential costs and revenues are calculated by taking into account the specific conditions for the Sultanbeyli
district of Istanbul. Then applicability, profitability and compliance with the build-operate-transfer model are
discussed by creating a cash flow diagram for the planned project.
Keywords: waste separation, recycling, feasibility, cost.
1. INTRODUCTION
Waste separation plants which are a step in the waste management hierarchy are coming into
prominence in Turkey during European Union delegation period. Establishment of the waste
separation plants on district basis are on the agenda [1] in the major cities as Istanbul which currently
have plants on city or region basis.
A standard model to be used for the municipal and residential solid waste storage and recycling
facilities is created by DHV Consultant [2], general information about the cost and cost ranges are
given. In the other study, economic analysis of municipal solid waste recycling plant establishment
in rural municipalities is described for the case of the Mustafakemalpasa district of Bursa [3]. In the
Bursa case, primarily, household waste was analyzed, the costs of collection of these wastes are
briefly stated, and the investment cost of a sample plant was added.
A detailed cost analysis of each process by including technical details is thought to be necessary
for the literature, after examining previous studies. Then, it is aimed to prepare a detailed sample
feasibility study by considering current prices for the Sultanbeyli district which is located in Istanbul,
21st district in the city in terms of population size with 298,143 [4] inhabitants and has 2.21% of all
the population of Istanbul at the end of the year 2011. For this purpose, the necessary information
was obtained by the municipality, literature data were examined, scenarios and assumptions were
applied, and costs were compared with firms in the industry to reach optimum feasibility analysis.
First of all, future population and waste amount are calculated within the context of three scenarios
by considering the information such as the population of the previous years, the types and quantities
of the collected waste. In the second stage, technical details of the separation process for the related
waste types were determined. Attention was paid to two key points in decision-making process; first
one is the material should meet the quality standards in Turkey and in the world and the second one
is to give priority to products manufactured in Turkey. Thus, it is aimed to reduce costs, such as
shipping and customs. Then, construction and operation costs and the revenues from the decomposed
wastes are calculated. Finally, the point it begins to make profit is determined by creating a cash flow
diagram of the project.
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Oral Presentations
Steel pallet feeding conveyor, separation conveyor, steel construction platform, drum sieve,
containers, automatic horizontal baling press machine and feeding conveyor, magnetic separator,
electrical works and automation costs, walls and roof sandwich panel construction with a of 1000 m2
steel construction which has sandwich panel roof and walls are calculated as the initial investment
cost and found as approximately 750,000 TL+VAT. Purchasing or expropriation cost of the facility
location is not considered in this study, because an area of the municipality is available for the
plant. When calculating the items related to operation and maintenance costs, first the numbers of
the workers, engineers and other staff and then the salaries and the labour costs were determined,
then the possible costs such as insurance, clothing were added and final labour cost was calculated
as 114,622 TL per month [1]. Then the vehicles / equipment will be used in the plant, which were
many of them are not included in the initial investment costs as they are available in the municipal
inventory, were determined. In addition, in-house electricity, natural gas consumption amounts
included in the calculation of the costs. Finally, the average property insurance expense, kitchencleaning, stationery, cargo - mail, communication expenses and electricity/water /security charges,
facility maintenance, repairs, fumigation expenses and facility heating costs are calculated and
reflected to operation costs. These costs are very detailed and not given in this extended summary.
As a result, the annual income of the facility, in the case of the planned operating conditions, was
calculated as 2,706,623 TL for the sum of all the products decomposed per year.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this study, including a detailed cost analysis, it is determined that the amount of financial support
given by the state and/or private facilities for each recycled/decomposed material in the separation
facilities can be an incentive for decision-makers. Built-operate-transfer model may be preferred in
terms of giving a way for faster bureaucratic procedures and ensure a more profitable operation of
the facility, but also this investment is applicable for the municipalities in case of having good credit
conditions and state incentives, thus the municipality can cover investment costs and start to make
profit.
REFERENCES
108
1.
Yıldırım K.Y. (2012). Master Dissertation. Bahcesehir University, Urban Systems and Transportation Management Master
Program.
2.
DHV Consultant, Report 4c. Standard model for landfill and recycling plants
3.
Şen M. Ve Kestioğlu K., (2007). Kırsal Belediyelerde Evsel Katı Atıkların Geri Kazanımı ve Ekonomik Analizi:
Mustafakemalpaşa ilçesi/Bursa örneği, Ekoloji, 17, 65, 45-51
4.
TurkStat Statistics, 2011.
Solid Waste
Public Awareness Campaigns in Solid Waste Management Through
Islamic Approaches: Review in Kelantan, Malaysia
Affendi Ismail1, Dr. Nur Azuki Yusuff 2
Centre for Islamic Thought and Understanding (CITU)
University Technology of MARA Kelantan, Malaysia
2
University Malaysia Kelantan (UMK)
[email protected]
1
Abstract Low public awareness posed challenges to solid waste management in Malaysia. Improper waste
management among the public can be found in all places, whether in an urban or rural area. Malaysia is also
facing problems with a drastic increase in waste generation, while the current rate of recycling in Malaysia
is only 5%, despite various awareness campaigns have been carried out. This phenomenon is related to
the crisis of human values, hence, an appropriate method to solve the crisis of human values other than
existing methods, is the religious approaches. In some areas of the Muslim world, public environmental
awareness campaigns based on religious principles have proven to be effective and beneficial. Therefore,
in the campaigning of solid waste management and waste prevention, Islamic communication channels
should be used, especially in Muslim countries. Public awareness campaigns based on Islamic principles,
can be a powerful tool to be employed along with other waste management policies. Accordingly, this paper
will discuss how the channels of communication and awareness program based on the Islamic concept can
increase and create deeper awareness of sustainable solid waste management, and how far it was practiced
in Malaysia.
Keyword: Waste Management, Public Awareness, Islam, Malaysia.
1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
Many theories proposed to recommend that the religious approaches should be practised in
overcoming crisis between human and the environment (Frankena; 1979, Mawil; 1990, Azizan;
1992 and Nasr; 1990). However, there is no clear conceptual framework well-defined how this
religious content can be applied especially in the development of human environmental awareness,
while, Islamic teaching are full of concepts and tools, such as conservation, cooperation, preventing
harm, waste pollution and waste protection that are useful for raising public awareness of solid waste
management (SWM). Hence, the main purpose of this study is to examine the weaknesses factors
of current public awareness campaign on SWM and explore the opportunities and challenges of
religious approaches in public awareness campaigns in SWM.
2. PREVIOUS LITERATURE
There are few studies which found a positive relationship between religious factors with human
environmental behaviour. Among them such as Brehm & Kassin (1995) Stern et.al (1995) Karp
(2006), in which their studies found that of the main factors that can shape behaviour that harmony
with environment is the system of values, local culture and also belief or religion. Generally
investigation on the role of religion in SWM is extremely limited in the literature. However, not
denied exists also a few researcher which made specific studies on role of religion in solid waste
management, especially among Islamic researchers. Among them such as study made by Arafat et.al
(2010), and study Al Khatib (2009) and Al Khatib et.al (2009), which made SWM study among
Muslim communities in Palestine. In Malaysia, a few researchers have studied the relationship of
religion and SWM, such as Sulaiman et.al (2009) which made Muslim community attitude survey
on recycling practice, garbage disposal, attitude during in the vehicles and attitude when take wudhu’
(ablution) based on Islamic principles, and also the study by Mohammad et.al (2011) through
their study of the role of religious communities (Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism) in
the practice of recycling in Selangor, Malaysia. Both of these studies found a positive relationship
between religious factors and SWM (3R). However, the studies or writing specifically about the role
of religion in SWM awareness campaign is still new and unexplored by local researchers.
109
Oral Presentations
3. METHODS, FINDING AND SUGGESTION
This study discusses the practices and effectiveness of Islamic principles in public awareness
campaign of SWM in Malaysia. Several communication channels was studied to obtain data related
to the field of study. Among such data from the source library and field surveys of all communication
channels of environmental awareness in SWM, such as documentation from stakeholders (Local
Authorities), electronic media (TV and radio), new media (websites stakeholders), media advertising
(billboard, signage, posters) public awareness program on SWM and Islamic communication
channels and Islamic institutions (Friday sermon, religious programmes in mosque and all formal
and informal education channels) which are essential to raise awareness and deliver message
based on Islamic environmental principles to the public. The study showed that all channels of
communication media in public awareness campaign on SWM in Malaysia less usage the basic
resources of Islamic environmental legislation in many programmes and their information channels
media. The usage of Islamic regulation resources such as Quran verses and hadith is not extensive.
For example, for cleanliness campaign slogan “Keep our Rivers Clean” should be changed to more
religious slogans such as “Pollute the rivers mean betraying God-Given (Amanah)”. For suggestion,
all the stakeholders in SWM in Malaysia has the capacity to deal with SWM issues and public
awareness based on religion. All related agencies and professionals, Islamic Institution, NGO,
Muslim Environmentalists and others group must be form collaborative networks to ensure public
awareness campaigns conducted will be considering religious roles in every action and decision.
4. CONCLUSION
The public awareness campaigns conducted by local authorities (LA) less effective, while the
acceptance towards public awareness campaigns based on Islamic principles is very high as evidenced
by its implementation in several Muslim countries. In Muslim countries, religious approaches should
be used in all aspects of life. This is because Islam is complete and comprehensive and able to solve
all the modern problems.
REFERENCES
1.
110
Mawil, Y. Izzi Deen., (1990). Islamic environmental ethics, law and society. Engel, J.R and Engel J.G eds., Ethics of
Environmental Development, Belhaven Press, London.
2.
Brehm,S., Kassin, S., M., (1995). Social Psycology (3rd.ed). Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 3.
Mohamad, Z.F, Idris, N & Mamat, Z., The role of religious communities in enhancing transition experiments: a localised
strategy for sustainable solid waste management in Malaysia. Journal of Sustainable Science, July 2012, Vol. 7,
Issues 2, 237-251.
4.
Arafat, H. S., Can religion serve as a catalyst for sustainable waste management? Islam as case study. Paper presented at the
11th Mediterranean Research Meeting Florence and Montecani Terme. 2010.
5.
Stern, C., Dietz, T, Guagnano, G., A., (1995). An examination of the new ecological paradigm in social-psychological
context. Environment and Behavior; Vol. 27, No. 6, Sage Publications Inc, 723 - 731.
Solid Waste
Redevelopment of Landfill Sites (Rols)
Willem van Vossen
Royal HaskoningDHV
[email protected]
Abstract Tipping on landfills is the most widely used method to dispose of our waste. Europe counts
more than 150,000 landfills and the aftercare costs are roughly valued at €40-50 billion. This can hardly be
financed from public environmental budgets only. Investments from the private sector are needed to finance
the aftercare costs. Depending on the type of reuse the real estate sector will take care of the aftercare costs
by discounting them in the total redevelopment costs. The Netherlands count 4,000 old landfills (8,000 ha.)
Almost 2,000 landfills are situated in the vicinity of urban areas, representing an economic land value of €
4.8 to 8.0 billion in case of industrial or residential area. In the Netherlands guidelines have been developed
since 2004. This resulted anno 2012 in a total number of 158 redevelopment initiatives. In the Netherlands
the increasing social acceptance of reusing landfill sites is caused by 1) the absence of human and
environmental risks thanks to the natural self-cleaning ability in the landfill body, 2) the existing guidelines
to facilitate redevelopment initiatives. The redevelopment of the unused landfill space is a big challenge in
the Netherlands and Europe and can be considered a huge future perspective.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tipping on landfills is still the most widely used method to dispose of our waste. Figure 1 (lit 1)
shows that in the 27 member states of the European Union almost 40% of all municipal solid waste
(MSW) is still landfilled.
Europe counts more than 150,000 old and abandoned landfills. The total costs of traditional aftercare
of old and abandoned landfills in Europe, is roughly valued at € 40-50 billion. This is a huge amount
of money, which can not be financed from public environmental budgets only.
Application of new aftercare technologies, such as Natural Attenuation1, will already help to lower
the costs of aftercare significantly. Investments from the private sector within the framework of
redevelopment of the landfill site are really one of the best ways to finance the aftercare costs.
Depending on the type of reuse (housing, industrial area, office buildings, etc.), the private will take
care of the aftercare costs by discounting them in the total costs of redevelopment of the landfill site.
Especially in urban areas the reuse of old landfill sites can be considered as privileged. A combination
of relative low aftercare costs and high benefits by redevelopment projects is the most favourable
opportunity.
2. SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE OF REDEVELOPMENT OF LANDFILL SITES
From a point of social perception old landfills do have a negative image and are considered to be
a threat to human health and the environment. As a consequence the old landfill sites remained
undeveloped areas with hardly any economic value. Thanks to new insights (Natural Attenuation) the
landfill is now considered to be a dynamic biochemical reactor. This resulted in a positive adjustment
of the public opinion in the Netherlands with respect the redevelopment of landfill sites.
Nevertheless the public opinion remains playing a major role in the redevelopment process. Insight
in the psychological aspects of the perception of pollution is one of the success-factors in the
communication process.
Figure 1 shows a summary of the results, expressed in terms of little, moderate and great anxiety.
It shows that the extent of great anxiety on landfills (30%) is relative low and that even 25% of the
public does not have any concern about landfills. This explains the more or less the feasibility and
acceptance of redevelopment of landfill sites.
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Oral Presentations
Figure 1. Degree of public anxiety on social risks (Van de Griendt, 2007)
3. STRATEGY, FEASIBILITY AND PROJECTS
The strategic objective is the transformation of unused landfill sites into land with an economical
value. This objective can be realised by taking into account two main aspects:
• an integrated approach from the very start of the redevelopment process, which contains the
continuous life-cycle of examination, risk-assessment, aftercare measures, cost-benefit analysis,
redevelopment possibilities, communication, legal aspects and liabilities.
• a strong interaction and/or co-operation between public and private sector in order to get financed
the necessary aftercare measures.
The most important feasibility criterion is a positive outcome of the cost-benefit analysis. Of course
the realisation of the redevelopment project also depends on social and political acceptance and
feasibility. This requires an open process of communication of the redevelopment plans to the public
and the competent authorities. An important issue are the financial guarantees. Last but not least
legal aspects must be tackled with respect to liabilities between the involved parties. A total number
of 158 projects have been realized (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Redevelopment projects in the Netherlands
The Netherlands count 4,000 old and abandoned landfills with a total surface of 8,000 ha. Almost
2,000 landfills (3,200 ha) are considered to be landfills with potential for redevelopment. They
represent a potential economic land value of € 4.8 billion (industrial area (€ 150/m2)) to € 8.0 billion
(a residential area (€ 250/m2)).
4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
The social acceptance of reusing landfill sites is increased thanks to the absence of environmental
risks.
112
Solid Waste
This resulted in 158 redevelopment initiatives in the Netherlands, which is only 10% of the total
redevelopment potential. So it is a big challenge to start the redevelopment of the remaining 90% of
unused space at the landfill sites into residential or industrial area, which will increase the land value
by € 4 to 7 billion. The same goes for the redevelopment of the 150,000 landfills sites in Europe. So
the redevelopment of the remaining unused landfill space is a big challenge and can be considered to
be a huge future perspective with respect to environmental and economic values.
REFERENCES
1.
Natural Attenuation (NA) comprises all natural processes which are able to reduce and/or neutralize concentrations
of contaminants to admissible limit values with respect to human health and the environment. Next to dilution the three
dominating processes are microbiological degradation, chemical precipitation and sorption to organic matter and silt
particles.
113
114
WATER
115
116
Water
Water Resources Planning for the Large Basins of Iran
Ali Heidari, Eisa Bozorgzadeh
Iran water and power resouces development Co.
Abstract A decision support system was developed and applied for the Dez, the Karun and the Karkheh river
basins in south west of Iran, where accommodate more than 40 large dams, 22 Hydro Power Plants (HPPs),
and 50 irrigation systems at different stages of operation, construction and investigation. The result was
applied to screen mutually exclusive projects such as runoff river and storage HPPs alternatives of Karun2
and Sazbon dam sites at the Karun and the Karkheh basin, respectively. Runoff river and storage HPPs
were determined as the best alternatives of the Karun2 and the Sazbon dam sites respectively. Moreover, A
optimization module was used to determine optimum dimension of dams and capacity of hydropower plants
and water conveyance systems. The result shows that active volume of under investigation reservoirs should
basically increase at integrated approach in comparison with the results of individual studies.
Keywords: DSS, water resources, planning, GIS
1. INTRODUCTION
The diverse nature of water resources modeling, file formats and data structures along with enormous
number of required data, make the process a complex task which can only be accomplished through
new technological advances. A solution for reaching the required integration is to use a spatial data
analysis framework as the common background for connectivity of the models. Computer models
provide a very rapid and standardized means of evaluating special data and multiple criteria likely
to concern conflicting stakeholders and the uncertainties. The models allow hundreds, or even
thousands of alternatives to be evaluated in a standardized and reproducible way with the time
and resources required to perform a single analysis manually. The rapidity, standardization, and
relative completeness of such evaluations can also facilitate compromise among the stakeholders
in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Many modeling capablity and DSSs have
been applied for water resources planning such as Theissen and Loucks (1992), Koutsoyiannis el
al. (2003), Pallottino et al. (2005), Mysiak et al. (2000), and . Zhang el al. (2003). The main purpose
of this paper is to apply a developed DSS for water resources planing and to review the design
feature of the projects based on overall net benefits and constrains of the river basins by considering
economical, environmental, and social impacts. The system includes many modules to evaluate
the scenarios by tangible and intangible factors. A MCDM module sums up the scores for different
indexes at each scenario and depicts the results for per-defined areas such as province boundaries or
for individual projects separately.
2. INTEGRATED WASTER RESOUCRCES PLANNING
Two specific DSSs were developed for the big Karun and the Karkheh basins because of different
aspects of the basins. The Karun river basin deals with challenges such as deficit of water resources,
priority for fulfilling hydropower and irrigation demands, and inter-basin water transfer projects.
Whereas, the Karkheh river basin’s challenges include water quality, enormous number of pollution
sources, nitrification of the reservoirs due to high capacity of the reservoirs comparing to annual
runoff, upper basin and downstream water allocation conflicts, high water resources scarcity, and
growing population of the basin.
2.1. Sedıment Module Applıcatıon
The sediment applications were applied for the Karun river basin to determine sediment deposit
based on observed sediments of the Karun1 and the Karun3 reservoirs that are under operation since
1977 and 2005, respectively. More than 40 years sediment deposition of Karun1 which surveyed two
times during operation period was used to calibrate the soil erosion models.
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Oral Presentations
2.2. Sımulatıon Module Applıcatıon
The multi-reservoir multi-purpose river system was simulated for different scenarios of development
to determine the Karun HPPs reservoirs capability for fulfilling the downstream. Regulation of
annual runoff and irrigation areas were determined for different status of the Karun river system.
According to the results, alternative of the storage reservoir for the Karun2 only increase 1.9% of
annual runoff regulation equal to 1.4% of irrigation area respect to runoff river alternative considering
existing situation of the Dez basin. However, these rates decrease to 1% for both runoff regulation
and irrigation area considering full development of the Dez basin.
2.3. Optımızatıon Module Applıcatıon
Optimization module was applied to optimize multi-purpose projects’ feature. Operating levels
of reservoirs including Normal Water Level (NWL) and Minimum Operation Level (MOL) were
considered as state variables. Objective function was determined based on net benefits of total river
system. The net benefits of under investigation projects were estimated by the economic module and
the results were considered as input to optimization module for each scenario. Optimum net benefit
of the system increases at optimization results in comparison with the individual studies because of
less opportunity cost of the existing reservoirs. On the other hand, optimization leads to increase
active volume of reservoirs, HPPs install capacity, and irrigation area respect to individual studies.
2.4. MCDM Module Applıcatıon
The developed MCDM has capability to analysis each stakeholder interests and provide the decision
indexes to the decision makers at the region –base, project-base or subject-base framework. The
MCDM module was also used to screen mutually exclusive alternatives of projects along with
simulation and optimization modules based on total benefits and social and environmental impacts.
The MCDM helped the decision makers to select the runoff river alternative among two alternatives
of the Karun2 dam site based on decision indexes such as social impacts, downstream agricultural
feature, economic indexes, water quality and environmental impacts, and technical and construction
aspects.
REFERENCES
118
1.
Theissen E.M. and Loucks D.P. (1992). Computer assisted negotiation of multi objective water resources conflicts, Journal
of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA), 28(1), 163-177.
2.
Koutsoyiannis D., Karavokiros G., Efstratiadis A., Mamassis N., Koukouvinos A.., and Christofides A. (2003). A decision
support system for the management of the water resource system of Athens, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 28 (14-15),
599–609.
3.
Pallottino S., Sechi G.M., and Zuddas P. (2005). A DSS for Water Resources Management under Uncertainty by scenario
analysis, Journal of Environmental Modeling & Software, Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., 20(8), 1031–1042.
4.
Mysiak J., Giupponi C., Fassio A. (2000). Decision Support for Water Resource Management: An Application Example of
the MULINO DSS, Integrated Assessment and Decision Support Proceedings of the 1st Biennial Meeting of the IEMSs.
5.
Zhang Y., Hawkins D., Zeng W., and Wen M. (2005). The Framework of GIS-based Decision Support Systems (DSS)
for Water Resources Management at the Flint River Basin, Proceedings of Georgia Water Resources Conference, Athens,
Georgia.
6.
Pommiera, S., Chenub, D., Quintardb, M. ve Lefebvre, X., (2007). Modelling of moisture-dependent aerobic degradation of
solid waste, Waste Management, 28, 7, 1188-1200
Water
Intercontinental Water Balancing
Necati ÇALIK1 - Aydın TURAN2
Department Head - İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ)
Department of Water Construction
[email protected]
2
Civil Engineer Msc. - İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration
Asian Side Water Construction Branch Directorate
[email protected]
1
Abstract İstanbul is a city with Neolithic era settlements dating as early as B.C 6500, with its first water
system built in A.D. 117 to collect water around the city, one of the most important cities in the world
particularly by bridging Asia and Europe, and has a history of water as old as history itself. The first great
water system in the city was made up of aqueducts, cisterns and channels when the city population kept
growing. During the Ottoman Period, the water issue was addressed by building structures as aqueducts,
channels, fountains, etc. Today 65 % of the city water resources are located on the Asian side while % 65
of the city population lives on the European side. Since 1994 when the city population gained velocity in
increase, successful efforts have been realized by İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ) on
supply and transfer of drinking water [1]. It was then seen that there was a need to balance water between
the two continents of the city in order to overcome water scarcity that might arise due to dry periods and to
avoid imbalance of water resources and population layout in the city. Moving from this standpoint onwards,
İSKİ planned a trans-Bosphorus line to transfer water on the Asian side to the European side. The location
of submarine transfer beginning points was identified within the southern area of Marmaray Project, with
Salacak on the Asian side and Sarayburnu on the European side.
This study evaluates the work on the first water balancing project between continents as a new approach to
water challenge in İstanbul and examine how this will be conducted in the Bosphorus where 50.000 vessels
pass through each year [2].
Keywords: Drinking water, Bosphorus, Asia, Europe, Continent.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to the lack of awaited rainfall in 2007 in İstanbul, officials expected a water shortage by the
end of the year 2007. This issue would then become a serious concern since the water resources on
the European side is limited. Therefore the Melen Water Supply Project that was initially planned to
be completed in 2011 was given acceleration to be completed by the end of 2007. This project thus
required the Bosphorus transfer in order to provide water from Melen stream to the European side
of İstanbul. In this respect, the feasibility studies were commenced and swift decisions were taken
as to what method and what pace would be pursued in the Bosphorus where surface currents may
occasionally reach speeds of 4-5 m/h alongside an intense sea traffic.
2. INTERCONTINENTAL EQUALIZATION OF WATER
2.1. Project
The amount of water to pass along the coasts of Bakırköy-Golden Horn-Sarıyer from the Asian side
to the European side in İstanbul, and the diameter, material, land connection points of the pipes that
shall be laid under the sea accordingly have been projected in the Feasibility Reports. The knowledge
and know-how that shall form a basis on the identification of the relation between Marmaray project,
the traffic through the Bosphorus and the dredging (digging) works for the laying of pipes under the
sea and for the tube drawing of two pipes of 1200 mm PN 16 HDPE with 12 cm of wall thickness
has been identified in the feasibility, project and work program.
2.2 Desıgn Crıterıa and Methods of Work
2.2.1 Seabed Structure and the Currents
Along the route of the pipeline, particularly on the European side the depth of pipeline sharply raises
119
Oral Presentations
from 45 m to sea level (Figure 1). This structure is a critical and defining aspect of the pipeline
design in this project. Therefore the critical bending threshold has been surpassed for steel pipes and
the pipes were identified as more flexibly-structured HDPE’s. The surface to be dredged is of hard
formation and sand formation, while it is covered with a thick sedimentation level. The Kanyu ship
that took part at Marmaray Project was used for the seabed dredging and filling works. There is fast
surface current from Black Sea to Marmara Sea and a slow bottom current the opposite direction in
the Bosphorus.
Figure 1. Pipeline Profile
2.2.2 Method
The pipeline and pipe laying method has been defined in light of all these data. Pipes of 13 m were
welded together on a ramp built on land and were tied up with steel cords by a crane of 150 tons of
attraction power. The pipes were then laid by letting float on 50-100 cm of the seabed with the “Offbottom Tow” [3][4] method as the strong surface currents in the Bosphorus and the buoyancy of the
seawater via balance chains and prefabricated concrete fittings in just 4 months.
3. CONCLUSION
Projected completely by Turkish engineers and conducted by Turkish companies, this project has
enabled combining different continents with pipelines of 2x1880=3760m HDPE by making use of
best technological opportunities in the shortest and most cost-effective manner possible, thus the
water existence on two continents of the city was balanced. Standing out among its counterparts as
the first of its example, the projects enabled prevention of water scarcity in areas of İstanbul that host
4 million people, by enabling them a daily amount of 300.000 m3 additional water on the European
side of the city with no negative environmental impact.
RESOURCES
120
1.
ISKI Records and Announcements at ISKI Official Web Site During 2007 Summer.
2.
Ministry of Transport - Directorate General of Coastal Safety - Turkish Straits Vessel Traffic Services Data Bank -2007
3.
Lars-Eric Janson - Plastic Pipes for Water Supply and Sewage Disposal- Lars-Eric Janson and Borealis, Stockholm 1995
4.
Offshore Standard DNV-OS-F101 Submarine Pipeline System – January 2000
Water
Dry Period Length Analysis of Rain in Istanbul
Prof. Dr. Bihrat ÖNÖZ1, Mehmet DİKİCİ2, Cemile ÖZTÜRK3
İTÜ Engineering Faculty, Department of Construction Engineering İstanbul
[email protected]
2
İSKİ General Directorate, İstanbul
[email protected]
3
İSKİ General Directorate İstanbul
[email protected]
1
Abstract Dry Spell Period Analysis and Run Analysis were made by using annual rainfall data obtained
from DMI Rainfall Observation Stations in İstanbul.
On the dry spell analysis, first of all five different rainfall observation stations graphics were drawn and
statistical parameters were calculated. Run analysis was made for cut-off level (q=0,50). Probability line of
correlation coefficient test for stations cut-off levels and normal distribution which were checked suitability
was made. Stations individual analysis was made and run lengths were determined. The calculation results
were compared with the theoretical values and dry spell return periods for stations were calculated. As a
result of climate change which is dependent on the global warming, rainfall effect on the water resources of
Istanbul are evaluated in the long term.
Keywords: Rainfall, length of dry spell, cut off level, return periods.
1. INTRODUCTION
The occupancy rate of reservoirs in İstanbul decreased to even low rates of 8% in summer 2008
and a huge challenge of drought showed up. The central and local authorities have encouraged the
public to saving water and made use of underground water in order to sustain and increase existing
resources. Thus, a need has grown to examine the drought in İstanbul and conduct statistical analysis
for meteorological data of previous years.
This study examines five rainfall observation station operated by Turkish State Meteorological
Administration (DMİ) in use as of 2011 in İstanbul shown on the map below[1].
• Florya
• Göztepe (Kartal)
• Kumköy
• Sarıyer
• Şile
Figure 1. DMİ Rain Observation Stations
121
Oral Presentations
2. Statıstıcal Analysıs Work Conducted over Data of DMı Raın
Observatıon Statıons
The possibility of a trend towards a decrease in graphics of yearly data on the meteorological rain
observation stations has been considered for the study. Only Florya station provides a slight decrease
trend. Table 1 shows the statistical values calculated according to annual rainfall data. [2]
Station
Observat. Altitude
Period
(m)
Göztepe(Kartal) 1929-2011
Average
μ (mm)
Coefficient
Standard Coefficient
Deviation of Skewness of Variation
(Cv)
(Cs)
σ (mm)
Median
(M)
Coefficient of
Auto Correlation
(r1)
37,20
679,725
130,410
0,560
0,192
656,500
-0,004
Kumköy
1951-2011
58,54
788,628
169,404
0,641
0,215
751,800
0,121
Sarıyer
1949-2011
122,92
807,125
155,671
0,558
0,193
780,400
0,212
Şile
1982-2011
83,00
859,007
169,462
0,238
0,197
876,950
-0,227
Table 1. Statistical values based on rainfall data
In order to calculate the length of the annual rainfall course data, the years that remain below
for dependent data on return period
q=0,50 were identified and the formula; T(N-=k)=
formula for independent data in series are was
for dry seasons in series and T(N-=k)=
used to calculate accordingly and shown in Table 2.
Station
Observation
Period
q
N- max
(Year)
Independent
Condition
Dependent
Condition
Florya
1937–2011
0,5
6
128
109
Göztepe(Kartal)
1929–2011
0,5
4
32
31
Kumköy
1951–2011
0,5
6
128
88
Sarıyer
1949–2011
0,5
6
128
95
Şile
1982–2011
0,5
2
8
8
Table 2. Return period of dry periods
2. CONCLUSION
In 2030, the CO2 quantity is expected to rise doublefold and the temperature in the region including
Southern Europe, is expected to increase 2oC in winter and 2 to 3oC in winter. The most fundamental
consequence of the global warming will be regional increases in dry periods[5]. In normal climate
conditions the varying characters of the climate cause droughts and this effects the water resources
negatively. As a consequence of the dry period statistical analysis of annual rainfall values in 5
stations within the meteorological measuring network in Istanbul of State Meteorological Affairs
General Directorate, no profound change in the trend lines have been observed. However, while it is
possible to mention a certain amount of decrease of rainfall in last ten years, if an analysis is made
on long term, it is hard to talk about a dry season caused by global warming. In the analyses made
for q0,50, there have been dry periods that go as long as six years in İstanbul. Therefore, it should be
considered that there can be longer periods of droughts when considering the planning and operation
of water resources.
The development of water resources should not solely be left to local administrations, but should
be conducted with the central administration taking the country and water basin as basis. This shall
enable to minimize the economical and social impacts of long term dry periods.[3]
122
Water
RESOURCES
1.
DMİ General Directorate, Annual rainfall taken from stations in İstanbul.
2.
Bayazıt, M. 1996. Probability methods in civil engineering, İTÜ. İstanbul.
3.
Bayazıt, M., Önöz B., 2004. Probabilities and return periods of multisite droughts.
4.
Bayazıt M. ve Şen Z. 1976.
5.
Kadıoğlu M. 1997. Monitoring of drought in Marmara Region, İTÜ. İstanbul.
6.
Dikici M. 2009. Dry Period Analysis of Rain in İstanbul, İTÜ. İstanbul.
123
Oral Presentations
Sensitivity of the Hydrodynamics Model to Different Land Uses, Case
Study: Bartin Spring Watershed (Turkey)
Melih Öztürk1, Nadim Copty2, Ali Kerem Saysel3
Bartın University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Bartın, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Boğaziçi University, Institute of Environmental Sciences, İstanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
3
Boğaziçi University, Institute of Environmental Sciences, İstanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
1
Abstract The water needs of the Bartın, Amasra and İnkumu city centers are supplied by the Bartın spring
watershed located in northwestern Turkey. These city centers suffer water scarcity in summer seasons
whereas the water is presently adequate for the spring, autumn and winter seasons. Land use changes
have a significant impact on the water budget of a watershed. For this purpose, an integrated land usehydrodynamics model was developed to simulate the impact of the land use on the hydrology of this
watershed. MIKE SHE-fully integrated hydrodynamics model software was used to simulate the surface and
subsurface hydrology of the watershed. The sensitivity of the hydrodynamics model to four different land
use types was tested. One of these land uses is agriculture and the other three are the relatively dense forest
stand groups. The forest groups are: Coniferous (Mature Coniferous), Deciduous (Young-Mature Deciduous)
and Mixed (Young Coniferous-Mature Deciduous) stands. Sensitivity analyses of the hydrodynamics model
indicate that it is quite sensitive to the land use type; complete agricultural cover would yield 25-33% higher
discharge and about 10-13% lower evapotranspiration compared to a completely forested watershed.
Keywords: Bartın Spring Watershed, Sensitivity Analysis, Land Use, MIKE SHE.
1. INTRODUCTION
Land use is one of the most important physical components that influence the hydrological processes
within a watershed as indicated by a series of studies [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6]. They analyzed the effect of land
use on the watershed hydrology based on field observations and numerical calculations. A complete
modelling framework for the integration of land use dynamics with a spatially distributed surfacesubsurface hydrological model was developed for the Bartın spring watershed, a small rural
watershed located in the northwestern Turkey [7] as shown in Figure 1. The model was used to
evaluate present conditions as well as various future scenarios that account for different land use
conversions, global climatic change, and forest management practices.
In this study, the sensitivity analysis of the hydrodynamics model to four different land uses within
the Bartın Spring Watershed is briefly discussed. These four land uses are the agriculture and
coniferous, deciduous, mixed forest stand groups. The determinant parameters for these four land
uses are the Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Root Depth (RD).
2. MATERIAL VE METHOD
Bartın spring watershed (Figure 1) is the primary material of this study. The watershed supplies the
water needs of the Bartın, Amasra and İnkumu city centers and is mainly composed of agricultural
and forest areas. Average altitude of the watershed is about 750 m [7].
The Leaf Area Index (LAI), one of the determinant parameter was measured by field photographing
with a fish eye objective mounted on a camera and by a hemispherical photograph analysis technique
with Hemisfer Software 1.4 [8] and Root Depth (RD) parameter was estimated. These parameters
were defined for different land uses including forest stand groups. During the sensitivity analysis, the
watershed was assumed to be completely covered with those four land uses: Agriculture, Coniferous
(Mature Coniferous), Deciduous (Young-Mature Deciduous) and Mixed (Young Coniferous-Mature
Deciduous) stands. They were represented in the hydrodynamics model with their attributed LAI
and RD parameters. The hydrodynamics model was built using the fully integrated hydrodynamics
model software MIKE SHE [9] calculating both the surface and subsurface components of the
124
Water
hydrological cycle. The hydrodynamics model was run for 20 years between the beginning of 1986
and end of 2005. Average predicted water yield and evapotranspiration ratio for this 20 years period
is given in Table 1.
Figure 1. The location of spring watershed within the entire Bartın watershed (Öztürk, 2009)
3. RESULTS
According to the sensitivity analyses, the hydrodynamics model is quite sensitive to the land use type;
complete agricultural cover would yield 25-33% higher discharge compared to a completely forested
watershed (Table 1). The result is consistent with the water balance such that evapotranspiration ratio
is the lowest for the agricultural area with 62.8 of the total precipitation (Table 1).
Land Use
Q (m3/s)
Evapot. (%)
Agriculture
5.61
62.8
M Conf. 3
4.49
72.9
YM Decd. 3
4.22
75.6
Y Conf. M Decd. 3
4.37
74.4
Table 1. Statistics of scenario simulations
REFERENCES
1.
Costa, M.H., Botta, A. and Cardille, J.A., (2003). Effect of large-scale changes in land cover on the discharge of the
Tocantins River, Southeastern Amazonia, Journal of Hydrology, 283, 1-4, 206-217.
2.
Wissmar, R.C., Timm, R.K. and Logsdon, M.G., (2004). Effects of changing forest and impervious and covers on discharge
characteristics of watersheds, Environmental Management, 34, 1, 91-98.
3.
Wei, X., Liu, S., Zhou, G. and Wang, C., (2005). Hydrological Processes in major types of Chinese forest, Hydrological
Processes, 19, 1, 63-75.
4.
Zhang, Y.K. and Schilling, K.E., (2006). Increasing stream flow and baseflow in Mississippi River since the 1940s: Effect of
land use change, Journal of Hydrology, 324, 1-4, 412-422.
5.
Buytaert, W., Iniguez, V. and De Bievre, B., (2007). The effects of afforestation and cultivation on water yield in the Andean
Paramo, Forest Ecology and Management, 251, 1-2, 22-30.
6.
Chaves, J., Neill, C., Germer, S., Neto, S.G., Krusche, A. and Elsenbeer, H., (2008). Land management impacts on runoff
sources in small Amazon watersheds, Hydrological Processes, 22, 12, 1766-1775.
7.Öztürk, M., (2009). An Integrated Land Use-Hydrological Model for the Bartın Spring Watershed, 211, Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation submitted to the Institute of Environmental Sciences of Boğaziçi University, İstanbul.
8.
Schleppi, P., Conedera, M., Sedivy, I. and Thimonier, A., (2007). Correcting non-linearity and slope effects in the estimation
of the leaf area index of forests from hemispherical photographs, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 144, 3-4, 236-242.
9.
Danish Hydrualic Institute (DHI), (2005). MIKE SHE User’s Guide, Denmark.
125
Oral Presentations
Use of Swat Modeling for the Ecosystem Goods and Services Assessment
in the Azov Sea Basin
Irina Gilfanova, Viktor Lagutov
Central European University - Environmental Systems Laboratory
Abstract The research is devoted to application of Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) modelling in
assessment of ecosystem goods and services (EGS).
Shared by Russia and Ukraine the Azov Sea Basin is an important region providing numerous EGS, which
can be threatened in the near future due to antropogenic activities and climate change. The Upper Don River
sub-catchment is a vital component of the Azov water management scheme generating water inflow to the
Tsimlyansk reservoir, the largest freshwater body in the Azov Sea basin and major EGS provider.
The SWAT model has been developed to assess water avaialbility and coresponding EGS provision under
different conditions. Four scenarios of potential regional development including land use and climate
changes have been formulated and analyzed. It was concluded that all scenarios result in sigificant change of
important hydrological characteristics of the Upper Don River subcathment by 2050. It was found that the
water inflow into the Tsimlyansk reservoir will be reduced by 28-36% threatening provision of EGS in the
region.
The model allows evaluation of alternative water management and regional development strategies.
Moreover, the model and associated datasets created to support modeling efforts can be used as a foundation
for basin-wide decision-support tool in water management and as an incentive for regional transboundary
cross-sectoral cooperation.
The study contributes to the European FP7 Project EnviroGRIDS “Building Capacity for a Black Sea
Catchment Observation and Assessment System supporting Sustainable Development”
Keywords: SWAT, GIS, ecosystem goods and services, environmental modelling, Azov Sea.
1. INTRODUCTION
Shared by Russia and Ukraine the basin of the Azov Sea is unique and important ecosystem
providing regional population and national economies with numerous ecosystem goods and services
(EGS). However, due to unsustainable management the capacity of the Azov ecosystem to maintain
these goods and services has decreased significantly. The problem is exacerbated by lack of regional
cooperation and continuing degradation of the Azov ecosystem[1]. A long-term regional development
strategy should be elaborated to secure EGS provision and sustainable development. An essential
part of strategy is an assessment of future water availability depending on potential changes in
demography, land use and climate conditions.
The assessment of currently available ecosystem goods and services and their future availability
is being incorporated as a vital component into policy-making process in last years. Different
integrated environmental models are available to analyze data, required for the EGS estimates and
for developing future EGS projections[2].
The Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is one of such integrated modelling frameworks. Numerous
studies have been conducted applying SWAT for different purposes[3]. SWAT found application
both in performing EGS assessment, as a baseline integrated tool [5], and within the complex hydroeconomic modelling frameworks[6] quite recently. Therefore the need for additional studies on
the integration of SWAT tool into best management practices evaluation, different EGS valuation
frameworks has been emphasized [7].
This research provided the case study of the EGS assessment with SWAT in the framework of the
EnviroGRIDS project (http://www.envirogrids.net).
126
Water
This research conducted an analysis of SWAT modelling tool applied in one of the sub-catchments in
the Azov Basin and used output data for assessing water-related EGS.
The ArcGIS-ArcView extension and graphical user input interface for SWAT ArcSWAT 2009.93.7b
has been used for model development and running[8]. For developing SWAT input data different
datasets have been used. The data on elevation have been derived from the global dataset topography
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM).
Unique hydrologic response units (HRU) have been defined based on defining and combination
of classes of land use, soil and slope. Reclassified MODIS land cover datasets, developed by
EnviroGRIDS project for Metronamica model has been used for land use data input. Global soil
dataset FAO has been used for soil data input. The data for the period 1998-2008 for 5 stations have
been used for simulating meteorological parameters in the model.
The SWAT-CUP application[9] has been applied for model calibration and validation. For this purpose
observed monthly data on the water discharge for 9 outlets, matching existing hydrological gages,
covering period 2001-2008, have been used.
The scenarios on land use and climate change developed by EnviroGRIDS project, using data for
2050 have been formulated and anlyzed with developed SWAT model. Corresponding change of
water inflow into Tsimlyansk reservoir has been analyzed, recommendations for desicion-makers
have need developed.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Based on the scenarios on land use and climate changes the model allowed assessing of the
prospective water supply in the Tsimlyansk reservoir by 2050.
It was found that according to all scenarios annual water yield, baseflow and surface runoff in
the Upper Don River sub-catchment will decrease, and as a result the streamflow supplying the
Tsimlyansk reservoir will be reduced by 28-36%. Many EGS such as navigation, water supply
for consumptive use depend on the existing annual water flow redistribution scheme. Moreover,
attempts to maintain the required reservoir inflow should impose limitations on the EGS provision
for the upstream beneficiaries. In this way, the occurred changes in the water supply to the reservoir
compromise the EGS provision for the entire basin that should be taken into account while
developing regional development strategies.
REFERENCES
1.
Lagutov, V. and Lagutov, V. (2010). The Azov ecosystem: resources and threats In V. Lagutov, ed, Environmental security in
watersheds: The Sea of Azov, Springer, 3-62, Dordecht.
2.
Johnston, J. M., McGarvey, D. J., Barber, M. C., Laniak, G., Babendreier, J., Parmar, R., Wolfe, K., Kraemer, S. R.,
Cyterski, M., Knightes, C., Rashleigh, B., Suarez, L. and Ambrose, R. (2011). An integrated modeling framework for
performing environmental assessments: Application to ecosystem services in the Albemarle-Pamlico basins (NC and VA,
USA), Ecological Modelling, 222, 14, 2471-2484.
3.
Arnold, J. G. and Fohrer, N. 2005. SWAT2000: current capabilities and research opportunities in applied watershed
modelling. Hydrological Processes 19 (3): 563-572.
4.
Gassman, P. W., Reyes, M. R., Green, C. H. and Arnold, J. G. (2007). The soil and water assessment tool: historical
development, applications, and future research directions, Transactions of the ASABE, 50, 4, 1211-1250.
5.
Jujnovsky, J., González-Martínez, T., Cantoral-Uriza, E. and Almeida-Leñero, L. (2012). Assessment of Water Supply as an
Ecosystem Service in a Rural-Urban Watershed in Southwestern Mexico City, Environmental Management, 49, 3, 690-702.
6.
Martinez de Anguita, P., Rivera, S., Beneitez, J. M., Cruz, F. and Espinal, F. M. (2011). A GIS Cost-Benefit Analysis-Based
Methodology to Establish a Payment for Environmental Services System in Watersheds: Application to the Calan River in
Honduras, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 30, 1-2, 79-110.
7.
Krysanova, V. and Arnold, J. G. (2008). Advances in ecohydrological modelling with SWAT a review, Hydrological
Sciences Journal, 53, 5, 939-947.
127
128
Oral Presentations
8.
Winchell, M., Srinivasan, R., Di Luzio, M. and Arnold, J. (2010). ArcSWAT Interface for SWAT 2009. Users’guide.
Temple, U.S.A.: Blackland Research Center, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station and Grassland, Soil and Water Research
Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service
9.
Abbaspour, K. C., Yang, J., Maximov, I., Siber, R., Bogner, K., Mieleitner, J., Zobrist, J. and Srinivasan, R. (2007).
Modelling hydrology and water quality in the pre-alpine/alpine Thur watershed using SWAT, Journal of Hydrology, 333,
2-4, 413-430.
Water
Discharge in Irrigation Open Channels with Ultrasound Technique:
Influence of the Filling Level and Geometry
Solliec Laurent1, 2, Vazquez José2, 3, Dufresne Matthieu2, 3
NIVUS GmbH, Im Taele 2 75031 EPPINGEN, E-mail: [email protected]
Engineer Sciences, Informatics and Imaging Laboratory (ICube) Department Mechanics, Fluids Mechanics team - 2 rue
Boussingault 67000 Strasbourg France
3
National school for water and environmental engineering of Strasbourg (ENGEES), 1 quai Koch 67070 Strasbourg France;
1
2
Abstract Irrigation channels equipment is becoming more and more an issue. Acoustic measurement
techniques (echo mode and transit time) are more and more used for evaluation of the discharge. Meanwhile,
a problem exists to link the single measurements with the mean velocity. Standards suggest discharge
methods but requires calibration of measurement point depending on measurement point number of paths
... The idea is here to use the standard flow methods for different acoustic methods applied to a data library
based on Computational Fluid dynamics. In the data base, the ratio level/width and the geometry of the
channel vary. An evaluation of the dependency of the flow methods to these two parameters can be evaluated.
It results that the flow method has a high dependencies on the geometry and on the aspect ratio (B/h).
Keywords: Discharge, open channels, ultrasound measurement technique, CFD.
1. INTRODUCTION
Real time measurements in open channels as irrigation channels (rectangular or trapezoidal
channels) are becoming more and more present. A high availability of channels is available.
Different techniques to evaluate the flow in open channels exist. One consist to use a structure to
create locally critical condition that permits to establish a relationship between a level and a flow
rate (Venturi Flumes, weirs ...). Another technique consists to evaluate the flow by evaluation of
two parameters: the mean velocity and the level. For real time measurements, acoustic method such
as echo mode (CW Doppler, Pulse Doppler, Cross correlation) or transit time are mainly used. In
hydrometry for transit time [1], two configurations are proposed: single and multi-path systems. For
each case, a discharge method and the calibration requirement are suggested. For CW Doppler and
acoustic Profiler [2], no particular methodology is proposed to calculate the discharge. In addition, no
multi paths system is mentioned. It is only indicated that the system requires a calibration (1 path).
The objective is here to test the different flow methodologies through a library of cases based
on CFD where the aspect ratio (ratio between the level and width) and the form of the channel
(trapezoidal and compound channels) vary. The end issue is also to conclude to the most adapted
procedure regarding the requirements from users.
2. METHOD: BUILDING OF A CFD LIBRARY
CFD permits to reconstruct velocity profile over any sections shapes. Meanwhile some specifications
are required to reproduce them accurately. Regarding[3], the reproduction of phenomenon (secondary
current Prandtl second kind and dip phenomenon [4, 5, 6]) observed in open channels with CFD requires
as turbulent model a RSM one and for the water surface description, a VOF Model. Measurements
[5]
were compared with simulated values. With a mean numerical error of 1.5% [8], the simulations
fit correctly to the measurements. The data base is built from the defined methodology. Rectangular
channels with different aspect ratios and different trapezoidal with different ratios have been
simulated.
3. RESULTS
In transit time method, for the single path system, a relation between the path measurement and the
mean relation is suggested. However, it is recommended to realise a site calibration. For multi paths
systems, two methods are proposed: the mid-section and mean-section methods. The position of path
is calculated regarding [1].
129
Single Path
Error
15% ± 10%
Oral Presentations
Multi-paths
Mean Method
Mid-section Method Mean-section Method
N=2; 10% ± 7%
N=3; 8 ± 5%
N=4; 6 ± 3%
N=2; 5% ± 7%
N=3; 3 ± 5%
N=4; 1 ± 3%
N=2; 8% ± 5%
N=3; 7 ± 4%
N=4; 4 ± 2%
Table 1. Error with transit time measurement
For single path profilers, we propose two methods: a simple one consisting in a mean of the velocities
measurements pondered with coefficients and a more complex integrating the phenomenon involved
in open channels[10]. For multiple systems we propose two methods, one based on the Gauss
quadrature [9] and another one based on the velocity reconstruction [9].
Error
Mean value
Complex 1 path
Gauss
Reconstruction
10% ± 10%
6% ± 5%
4% ± 3%
4% ± 3%
Table 2. Error with profilers
CONCLUSION
The dependency of the channel form and the aspect is not negligible. The transit time method is
more adapted in bigger dimensions and complex geometries, whereas profilers fit better to lower
geometries. In irrigation channels, a high quantity of cases is observable. For safety, it is advised to
realize a calibration to get safe and acceptable readings of the discharge. This calibration can be done
with standard measurement techniques or with numerical comparisons
REFERENCES
1.
ISO (2004). Hydrometry – Measurement of discharge by ultrasonic (acoustic) method. - International Organization for
Standardization, ISO 6416:2004.
2.
BS-ISO (2010). Hydrometry – Guidelines for the application of acoustic velocity meters using the Doppler and echo
correlation methods. British standards, BS-ISO 15769:2010.
3.
Bardiaux J.-B. et al. (2011). A computational fluid dynamics based methodology to discharge determination using ultrasonic
(transit-time) measurements in sewer pipes. Proceedings of the 12nd International Conference on Urban Drainage (ICUD).
10-15 September 2011, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
4.
Nezu I. & Nakagawa H., (1993), Turbulence in open channels flows, 281, IAHR Monograph, Balkena.
5.
Tominaga et al. (1989), Three-dimensional turbulent structure in straight open channels flows, J. hydraulic research, Vol 29,
N°1 pp149-165
6.
Tominaga., Nezu I. (1991), Turbulence structure in compound open channel open channel flow, J od hydraulic Enginnering,
J. Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol 117 (1), pp 21-41
7.
Bardiaux J.-B. & al., (2007), Assessment of the velocity three-dimensional distribution in a free surface flow, in French, la
Houille blanche, n°4, 99-103.
8.
Roache P. J. (1997), Verification and Validation in Computational Science and Engineering, Hermosa Publishers, 8-9 p;
9.
Solliec L., Teufel M. (2010), Using velocity profiles to determine an accurate volume flow rate at small and large
dimensions, Novatech 2010, Lyon France.
10. Solliec L., Vazquez J., Dufresne M., (2012) Modélisation à partir d’un profil de vitesse en canaux nonperturbés, JDHU
2012, Strasbourg, France
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Water
The Impact of European Law on Water Sector. An Analysis of Two
Jurisdictions in Development: A Comparison of Italy and England
Marta Cerroni
Phd in Comparative Public Law University of Siena
[email protected]
Abstract The aim of the paper is to understand the impact of European law on the legislative choices of
jurisdictions which decide to amend their national legislative framework on water service. The paper will
pursue a comparative analysis of two legal systems - Italy and England - which are facing an evolution of
their system of water services management. The starting point of the analysis is to reconstruct the evolution
of the national legislation and to understand the reasons which lead to a change in legislation. In the second
part the aim of the paper is to determine whether European law influences the choices of the national
legislator and what are the European principles which play a role in the evolution of the national system on
water services.
Keywords: Water services, European law, England, Italy.
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper is intended as a contribution to the discussion of the impact of European law and
European policy on water services, specifically on water services management. The analysis will be
carried out from the study of two legal systems characterized by the fact that recently they have seen
an evolution in their legislation on water services management. The aim of the paper is to understand
the impact of European law on member States which decide to change their legislation on water
services.
2. METHOD OF THE REASERCH
The methodology of this work is a legal comparison of primary materials, principally national and
supranational legislation across two jurisdictions (Italy and England). Specifically, the research
will focus on the analysis of the following legal material: legislation (supranational and national constitutions, primary and secondary laws), judicial decisions (European Court of Justice, European
Court of Human Rights, and the Supreme National Courts). The “red thread”, which will guide the
comparison, is the impact of European law. The choice of the two jurisdictions is justified by the
fact that both Italy and England, to date, are in a phase of evolution in the regulation system of
water services. Therefore England and Italy are an appropriate example for an analysis which aims
at understanding the impact of European law on legal systems in development. The paper has the
following structure: in the first part it focuses on the reconstruction of the national framework of
Italy and England; in the second part it analyses the impact of European law.
3.1. The natıonal frameworks
With regard to Italy, the last period has seen a succession of numerous legislative reforms in water
service. After the referendum of June 2011 (which abrogated two legislative provisions relating to
water management: art. 23-bis of law no. 133/2008 and art. 145, comma 1, d. lgs. 152/06), the Italian
legislature has enacted the art. 4, d.l. no. 138/2011. This article replaced the norm abrogated by the
referendum and it regulates the supply of local public services, with exception of water services
which were not regulated. The problem is that according to art. 4, public services should be supplied
through procedures which are similar to the procedures established by the art. 23-bis (abrogated
by the referendum). Specifically, the article limits the usage of “in-house providing” and it is more
restrictive than the European legislation, when local authorities use “in-house providing” of local
public services of economic interest. With the decision no. 199/2012, issued on July 20th, 2012,
the Italian Constitutional Court declared unconstitutional art. 4, d.l. no. 138/2011. The Supreme
131
Oral Presentations
Court held that the member state can provide more restrictive competitive conditions than European
conditions and the State can limit the use of “in-house providing” by municipalities. Anyway, the
result of the referendum shows the will to expand the use of “in-house providing” in the respect
of the European legislation. For these reasons article 4 is in contrast with the art. 75 of the
Constitution, because against the popular will it issued to facilitate the use of in-house providing.
After the judgment a regulatory gap in the supply of public local service has come out and, if this
gap is not filled by the national legislation, the European rules will have direct applicability, as the
Constitutional Court said (sent. 24/2001). Nonetheless the Constitutional Court does not tell what
European rules are applicable. On the other hand we have the English legal system which has started
a phase of transformation in the legislative framework for water services. As a matter of fact, the
Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs published on July 10th, 2012 a draft Bill
which is built upon the vision “we set out in the Water White Paper, Water for Life” and includes
measures to make more competitive the water supply service system.
3.2. The ımpact of the European law
Once completed the reconstruction of the national regulatory frameworks, the second part of
the work will focus on the reconstruction of the European principles which have an impact on
the choices of national legislators when they decide to change the legislation on water service.
“The EU affects water sector not only through directives specific to the sector, such as the Water
Framework Directive, but also through other general policies such as the cohesion funds, the limits
on government borrowing, and laws related to competition such as the procurement”.1 In view of
this, I do not only dwell on the role of WFD, because, especially in the light of new scenarios which
are opening up in Italy and England, particular attention will be given to the competition rules.
4. CONCLUSION
The paper aims to analyze two jurisdictions of considerable interest in light of the changes which are
involving the regulation of water services.
In addition, to date, there are no doctrinal references that deepen the changes which are taking place
in Italy and in England. Surely this is justified by the fact that these changes are now involving the
two legal systems. In addition, the paper aims to analyze the role of European law on member states
laws, when they decide to change their domestic laws. This is important to understand the impact
of European politics and law in a sector, the water and its management, closely linked to national
circumstances.
REFERENCES
1.
132
Hall, D., Lobina, E., (2008). Water in Europe, PSIRU, 18-19
Water
Searching Solutions to Water Issues: Water Governance
Duygu Tuna1, Aysegul Tanik2
DSI 14th Regional Directorate, 34696, Camlica-Istanbul
2
ITU, Istanbul Technical University, Dpt. of Environmental Engineering, 34469, Maslak
1
Abstract A new organizational structure for effective governance in Turkey is introduced considering
the major water issues and specific conditions of the country, experiences of countries examined within
the scope of the study, and European Union Water Framework Directive in this paper. Water issues being
faced around the world and the “drivers” of the pressures affecting our planets’ water systems have been
addressed and the need for more effective water governance is tried to be further explained. A prerequisite
of successful integrated water resources management are governance arrangements by which stakeholders
articulate interests, share information, communicate and bargain, and take collective decisions. Detailed
investigation of the countries addressed in this study put forth the fact that legal administrative water
resources management activities are in line with their historical development and that they have already
adopted water resources management at river basin scale, stakeholder participation in decision-making
process. However; it is not possible to make similar assessment for Turkey. Water issues that Turkey faces
today largely derived from lack of governance. The lack of a comprehensive water law, fragmentation of the
institutional framework and the complexity of coordination mechanisms are major challenges in the Turkish
water sector. In this context, new organizational structure at both national and watershed scale is proposed;
details of which will be given in the full manuscript.
Keywords: organizational structure, water resources management, water governance, watershed scale.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water issues that Turkey faces today largely derived from lack of governance. In Turkey,
organizational structure for water resources management is highly centralized and stakeholder
participation in decision-making process is at a low level. The lack of a comprehensive water
law, fragmentation of the institutional framework and the complexity of coordination mechanisms
are major challenges in the Turkish water sector. Hence, both the preparation of water law and
regulations and reviewing the existing regulations in accordance with the new water law is a
fundamental requirement for Turkey in order to put in place new structure that promotes water
management in an integrated, decentralized and participatory way. However, promulgation of the
new law and regulations will not be sufficient alone. For the effective water governance in which
these law and regulations can be effectively enforced, water resources management and planning is
required to be institutionalized at two levels: national and river basin.
Water governance can be described as a range of political, social, economic and administrative
systems that are in place to develop and manage water resources and the delivery of water services,
at different level of society. Water governance encompasses political, economic and social processes
and institutions through which governments, civil society and the private sector make decisions
about how best to use, develop and manage water resources. Given the complexities of water
use within society, developing, allocating and managing itequitably and efficiently and ensuring
environmental sustainability requiresthat the disparate voices are heard and respected in decisions
over commonwaters and use of scarce financial and human resources.
Reviewing experiences of countries addressed in this study, each of these countries made
significant progress towards effective water governance through organizations based on stakeholder
participation in both national level and river basin scale. Although each has its own governance
approaches and devices in line with the their management system and historical development, they
have adopted the basic concepts such as integrated water resources management at river basin scale,
stakeholder participation in decision-making process and have reformed their policy environment to
include an emphasis on stakeholder participation and basin-level management.
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Oral Presentations
Through reviewing experiences of countries addressed in this study, namely France, Spain, England
and Australia, it is seen that they made significant progress towards effective water governance
through organizations based on stakeholder participation in both national level and river basin scale.
Although each has its own governance approaches and devices in line with the their management
system and historical development, they have adopted the basic concepts such as integrated water
resources management at river basin scale, stakeholder participation in decision-making process and
have reformed their policy environment to include an emphasis on stakeholder participation and
basin-level management.
But it is not possible to make the same assessment for Turkey. Organizational structure that ensures
management of water resources in integrated manner at the river basin scale and stakeholder
participation in decision-making process has not been established yet. In fact, basic concepts such
as integrated water resources management, integrated river basin management and stakeholder
participation have been added to the agenda of Turkey in recent years with the European Union
negotiation process, in particular since the opening of the negotiations on the Environment Chapter
in December 2009.
In the study, the historical development of water governance in the examined countries will be
outlined together with their organizational structures. The main problems faced in Turkey will also
be addressed and emphasis will be given to the urgent need of developing a national water law for
further improvement of water governance in Turkey. Figure 1 shows the chronological order of the
water laws in the examined countries.
France
1884 Water Law,
1964 Water Law,
1992 Water Law
2006 Water and Aquatic
Environment Law.
Spain
England and Wales
Australia
1866-1879 Water Laws,
1985 Water Law,
Amendment done on
the 1985 Water Law in
1999.
1876 Prevention of River
Pollution Law, 1945 Water
Law,
1948 River Associations Law,
1963 Water Law,
1973 Water Law,
1983 Water Law,
1989 Water Law.
Water Reform Agreement
(1994)
Inter-governmental National
Water Initiative Agreement
(2004)
Federal Water Law (2007)
In this context, a new organizational structure consisting of National Water Council, National
Water Management Coordination Committee (inter-ministerial coordination body) and Ministry of
Environment and Forestry at national level and Basin Water Council and Basin Directorates in river
basin scale for the Turkey’s water sector is proposed. Also, Local Water Commissions should be
created at sub-basins level in 2020 with the start of implementation of the first generation River
Basin Management Plans. It is important to keep in mind that this proposed organizational structure
is certainly an iterative process. However, through the implementation of the proposed scheme and
after taking feedbacks thorugh this implementation, some revisions and arrangements, as seen in the
examined countries in this study, may be realized.
134
Water
Indexing Water Security in Abbotabad (KP-Pakistan) in Perspective of
Climate Change and Institutional Capacity
Dr. Musarrat Jabeen1
1
Development Studies Department, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan
[email protected]
Muhammad Umar2
Development Studies Department, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan
[email protected]
2
Bibi Saima Zaib3
Environmental Studies Department, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan
[email protected]
3
Adil Rasheed4
Management Sciences Department, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan
[email protected]
4
Abstract The efficient use of water is of prime importance as the growing water scarcity warrants impending
drought. This study introduces the Water Security Index. Water security is composed of and correlated to
seven variables prescribed in the index. The independent variables for this study are climate change and
institutional capacity. The objective of this study is to present benchmarks to assess the water security in
Abbottabad. The water security index can be applied at community-district-province-state level. The
question of the study is: How to assess the water security in Abbottabad? The study has found that the Water
Security is fragile in regard to Abbottabad vis-à-vis the challenges it is facing.
Keywords: Water Security, Climate Change, Institutional Capacity.
Water Securıty Index
The WSI measures the water status of community-district-province-state in seven dimensions:
1. Physical availability measured by know how to avail the water resources
2. Water resources in institutional context as per set of politics and policies
3. Certainty: A certain supply of water, as measured by climate change impact.
4. Withdrawal: Withdrawals of water as measured by 20-40 percent of annual water supply.
5. Water Management: Distribution of water as measured by the loss of water in distribution system
and equitable distribution of water resources.
6.Quality: Quality of water as measured by appropriateness of water for drinking and other uses.
7. Affordability: Affordability as measured by per capita water consumption at purchasing power
parity (PPP) in USD; and supply & demand gap.
Source: Content: Author’s own, Style: Adopted from HDI/UNO
Methodology: Our approach is diagnostic and prescriptive with qualitative and quantitative
slant. We use primary and secondary data resources. Primary data came from interviews with 18
key informants from government, research, and civil society organizations whose work intersects
with water resource management and environment protection. Participants responded to questions
focused on the challenges of climate change in the water sector and the capacities of institutions to
adapt. Responses were then triangulated with secondary sources including published government,
research, and newspaper reports for reliability and validity.
Findings: Abbottabad faces the challenges such as reliance on rain fed agriculture, vulnerability to
floods, poor water governance and rapid population growth due to conflict situations in vicinity of
Abbottabad, which put undue pressure on the capacity of government to provide basic infrastructural
services for development. Climate change manifests in dimensions: first the physical consequences
135
Oral Presentations
of climate change on ecological resources (including water); second, climate change confronts
existing water institutional arrangements with a dilemma exposing weaknesses in their capacity to
tackle complexities associated with water management.
Conclusıon and Suggestıons
While indexing water security in Abbottabad it is concluded that the water insecurity is increasing
because of increasing climate change impact disasters, and mal capacity of existing institutions to
comprehend the challenge of water scarcity. It is also established that due to climate change all
the indicators of water security are exacerbated. Therefore it is desirable to make up multifaceted
strategy to insure water security by managing demand of water and efficiently using the available
water.
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Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority and Affiliates(ERRA), 2007
2.
( 132 Khalid Chandio WATER SECURITY: PAKISTAN AND REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
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(UNESCO-IHE) http://www.unesco-ihe.org/Research/Research-Themes/Water-security
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Heather M, Edward A. McBean, Farahbakhsh , 2009, Appropriate technology - A comprehensive approach for water and
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Gerry P, Ronald L. Phillips L. Jacobs, 2004, Reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Populations in Cattle by Addition of
Colicin E7-Producing E. coli to Feed. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70; 6053-6060.
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National Drinking Water Policy NDWP (draft), 2009. Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan.
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A.H.Malik, Z.M.Khan, Q.Mahmood, S.Nasreen,Z.A.Batti,Perspectiveoflowcost Arsenic remediation of drinking water in
Pakistan and other countries, J. Hazard. Mater. 168(1)(2009)1–12.
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M.N.Bhutta,M.Ramzan,C.A.Hafeez,Groundwaterqualityandavailabilityin Pakistan,in proceeding of seminar on strategies to
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10. M.D.Johnson,R.D.Hokanson,Q.Zhang,D.K.Czupinski,J.Tang,Feasibility of water purification technology in rural areas of
developing countries,Environ.Manage. 88(3) (2008)416–427
11. A.Gupta, M.Chaudhuri, Enteric virus removal/ inactivation by coal based media, Water Res.29(2)(1995)51–516.
12. L.Groendijk,H.E.deVries, Development of a mobile water maker,a sustainable way to produce safe drinking water
indeveloping countries,Desalination248
13. USEPA (1980b). Planning Workshop to develop recommendations for a Ground Water Protection Strategy. Washington DC.
pg 171.
14. EPA Drinking Water Glossary: A Dictionary of Technical and Legal Terms Related to Drinking Water. USEPA Office of
Water. June 1994. pg 17.
15. OECD (1999), The Price of Water: Trends in OECD Countries Paris, OECD.
136
Water
Sustainable Urban Water Management in the Context of Climate Change
Debarati Chakraborty1, Kumarjit Goswami2 , Santosh K Ghosh3
Research Fellow & Jt. Secretary, Centre for Built Environment
[email protected]
2
Research Fellow, Centre for Built Environment
[email protected]
3
President(Hony.), Centre for Built Environment
[email protected]
1
Abstract In the context of economic growth and rapid urbanisation in Asia, water has become a critical part
of development. But scarcity of water, pollution and water borne diseases are widespread and a sustainable
water management is necessary. Integrated water resource management and water basin planning are being
discussed for some years but little has been done. But synergy between water and landuse and between water
and environment is to be established with ecosystem in the regional development plan. Key components
include watershed management, water quality, disaster management, rainwater harvesting and recycling of
waste water. These are to be integrated in a holistic water management plan.
Keywords: Growth, Urbanisation, Disaster, Recycling, Ecology.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the rapid economic development in Asia, there is growth of urbanisation and megacities. In the
21st Century Asia will be a continent of megalopolises. Some countries are still agriculture based
with low level of urbanisation and a big city is often an oasis in the desert of rural poverty. Within
cities, poverty, high-rise building and slums and other contrasts are evident. The economic boom
has led to ecological doom in many areas. Water pollution and waterborne diseases are widespread
and there is scarcity of drinking water. High density development at the centre of cities has depleted
ground water and aquifer level has receded. In the periphery soil cover has changed and water bodies
have been filled up. In most Asian cities, water is sectoral subject dealt mostly on supply, distribution
and maintenance with pumps, pipelines etc. The problem of coastal cities is of concern; there is
intrusion of salt water and siltation of downstream canals and rivers. Integrated Water Resource
Management concept was initiated a few years ago but only a few countries could implement it.
A sustainable urban water management is to be based on synergy between water and landuse/
development and between water and environment and it should integrate all components [1]. Water
plays an important role in the equilibrium between urban development and conservation of nature,
soil and ecosystems. Urban hydrology is a part of regional environmental plan with defined objective
for sustainable water resource development. It is a holistic process and every Asian city should have
such a plan. This will include several components [2] - (i) Study of parameters - physical, biological,
human and environmental, supply and demand, projected need, sources etc, and development of
data base and information system. (ii) Assessment of impact of large dams, construction, upstream
downstream development etc. on water systems (iii) Regulation control – zoning, building code etc.
on ground water, water bodies and wetlands (iv) Interaction between natural resources with water
(v) mechanism of pollution control (vi) Method of disaster management (vii) Socio-economic
development (viii) Govt. structure and participatory development (ix) environmental monitoring and
(x) Actions regarding recycling of waste water, conservation, aquifer recharge and rain-harvesting.
An urban hydrology plan is a blue plan for the city which is to be ecologically sustainable [3].
2. STRATEGIC PLANNING
Regional planning so far undertaken in Asian countries is sectoral except in some special areas
under a single authority like river valley authority or coastal zonal authority. Now the concept
of metropolitan region has come with wider area and multiplicity or municipalities or local
governments. The administrative, fiscal and technical coordination has become difficult for which
environment and ecological objectives are suffered. Participatory development from all stakeholders
is being encouraged. Water management is a broader and complex issue. It concerns with resources,
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Oral Presentations
supply and demand, distribution and disposal, watershed and catchment area, coordination amongst
sectors like agriculture, industry, housing etc. regarding water demand, coordination amongst various
local government, urban and rural units, preservation of biodiversity, cultural and natural heritage,
landuse control regulation on ground water depletion and disposal of waste water etc. Where a city is
located near water basin, coastal zone etc, wetland, estuaries, flood plain, plant and wild life, disaster
mitigation etc. require additional consideration. All these should be part of a regional environmental
plan with an environmental audit. In this paper some essential components of sustainable water
management such as Water shed Management, Measures to improve water quality, Water Disasater
Mitigation, Rain Water Harvesting[4], Recycling of Waste Water are disscussed[5] [6].
3. CONCLUSION
Incorporating Climate change impact with mitigation measures is a difficult task but more difficult it
is in sustainable management but it is possible.
REFERENCES
138
1.
World Water Forum 5th (2009). Thematic report 3 Managing and Protecting water resources, Istanbul.
2.
GWP (2000). Integrated Water Resources Management, Technical background paper no. 4 GWP, Stockholm.
3.
Smith, Jack et al (1996) Urban Agriculture, Food, Job and sustainable cities, UNDP, New York.
4.
Gupta Sonia (2007). The promising rain: Built Environment Newsletter 2007.
5.
USAID (1995). Integrated wetlands system IWS for waste water treatment the recycling. Basic manual, USAID, New Delhi.
6.
Ghosh, Santosh (2010). Indigenous Technology for eco-restoration by the urban poor. East Kolkata Wetlands. Ecopolis
Forum, Chengde, China.
Water
Present and Future Challenges of Sustainable Water Supply to Dhaka
City
S M Mahbubur Rahman1, Prof. Dr. M Monowar Hossain2
Director, WRP Division, Institute of Water Modelling (IWM), [email protected]
Executive Director, Institute of Water Modelling (IWM), [email protected]
1
2
Abstract Dhaka is one of the world mega cities and the capital of Bangladesh. Over the last few decades the
city experienced rapid urbanization, economic growth and population boom. The city infrastructure and civil
amenities could not keep pace with the city growth. One of the major problems the city is facing is in water
supply to around 12 million people. There is already a significant shortfall of water supply compared to the
water demand. It is expected that the city area will expand by 4-5 times and the population will double by the
year 2025. By the year 2030 the water demand for the city will be more than double.
Presently, 87% of water is supplied from groundwater sources. Due to large scale abstraction from the
aquifers, the groundwater level is depleting alarmingly. Recent study showed that of the total abstraction
around 14-15% is from groundwater mining. The peripheral rivers of Dhaka are no longer suitable as water
supply sources because of large scale pollution from industrial and municipal sources. Other options are
rainwater harvesting, bulk water supply from large rivers and demand management. This paper presents
some of these strategic issues for water supply to Dhaka city.
Keywords: Water supply sources, water pollution, rain water harvesting, demand management.
1. INTRODUCTION
Dhaka is the capital and the principal city of Bangladesh in political, economic, cultural and social
considerations. In recent decades, Dhaka City has undergone rapid urbanization and fast population
growth. This has created immense pressure on resources and infrastructure including water supply.
The present population is around 12 million in 350 sq. Km of extended Dhaka city area. According
to the Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan [1] the area of the city will increase to around 1500 sq.
km by 2025. The National Water Management Plan [2] predicted that the population of the city will
increase to 27 million and to 50 million by 2025 and 2050, respectively. Already there is a major
short fall in water supply compared to the water demand. It is expected that the short fall will be
more than double if a strategic action plan is not implemented immediately.
2. REVIEW OF THE WATER SUPPLY SITUATION OF DHAKA CITY
Dhaka Water Supply & Sewerage Authority (DWASA) is responsible for water supply in Dhaka
city. Presently, total production from DWASA surface water treatment plants and Deep Tubewells
(DTW) is 2087 million litres per day (MLD) against an estimated demand of 2210 MLD. The
sewerage master plan of Dhaka city [3] estimated that by the year 2030 the water demand of the city
will increase to around 5000 MLD.
Presently, about 87-88% of water supply is from 642 deep tube wells (DTW) in operation in Dhaka
city. Every year the groundwater level is depleting at a rate of 2-3m in the upper dupitila aquifer. In
some parts of the city the groundwater level has gone down to 80m below ground surface. Recent
study by Institute of Water Modelling (IWM) has shown that the rate of mining of the upper dupitila
aquifer is around 14-15% [3] and the potential of exploitation of the lower dupitila aquifer is limited.
3. STRATEGIC WATER SUPPLY OPTIONS FOR DHAKA CITY
In the context of growing water demand it is evident that dependency on groundwater cannot solve
the problems of water shortages in the city, other alternative supply sources are required. Probable
alternative sources are: (a) peripheral rivers of Dhaka city, (b) groundwater well fields outside
Dhaka, (c) rainwater, and (d) larger rivers. In order to find a strategic solution to the water supply
problems for Dhaka city, studies conducted by IWM for DWASA demonstrated that followings:
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Oral Presentations
1. Water available in the peripheral rivers of Dhaka are sufficient for meeting the water supply
demand for Dhaka city for the next 50 years, but because of ever growing pollution, the water
of the peripheral rivers is no longer considered suitable and sustainable source in the long run.
In an estimate made by IWM, 50-60% of total pollution load [4] is from the industrial sources
and the rest from domestic sources. Recently formulated DWASA sewerage master plan for
Dhaka city proposed 11 sewerage treatment plants. It is expected that if the treatment plants are
commissioned at least 40-50% of the pollution sources could be addressed. But execution of
the master plan will require 20-25 years and USD 1.686 billion to complete. No concrete action
plan has been undertaken to address the industrial pollution yet. Bangladesh Water Development
Board (BWDB) is executing a project [5] to augment the peripheral rivers with fresh water from
upstream larger river. However, without taking measures to abate the growing pollution, this
action will not be sustainable in the long run. Therefore, it is very unlikely, that the peripheral
rivers could be utilized as sustainable source of water supply at least in the next 30 years.
2. Potential groundwater sources have been found in two areas near Dhaka [6], from where bulk
water supply of 300 MLD could be possible from well fields. However, such other potential
groundwater sources outside Dhaka are yet to be fully investigated.
3. Two pilot projects which shows that artificial recharge of groundwater aquifer is technically
viable [7]. Further research and guidelines are required before implementing the findings from the
research project in wider scale.
4. Studies conducted by IWM and others shows that bulk water supply from the large rivers (Padma
and Meghna Rivers) are the only remaining sustainable water supply source to address the water
crisis of Dhaka in the next 20 years. The studies proposed 1000 MLD from Meghna River and
900 MLD from Padma River [8].
5. The bulk water supply from large rivers will not be sufficient to meet the overall demand of
water in 2030. A number of other actions are required for the purpose. Some are: (i) reduction
of leakage of distribution system from the present 25 percent to 10 percent; (ii) awareness
campaign to reduce wastage of water including restructuring the present tariff structure; (3)
rainwater harvesting, etc.
REFERENCES
140
1.
RAJUK (Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakhya, Dhaka) (1997); Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan - DMDP (1995-2015),
(BGD/88/052) UNDP and UNCHS.
2.
WARPO, (2002), Natıonal Water Management Plan (NWMP)
3.
Grontmij, IWM, (2011), Sewearge Master Plan for Dhaka City, DWASA
4.
IWM, (2007), Integrated Environmental Compliance and Pollution Control in Greater Dhaka, Phase-I, Final report, The
World Bank, May 2007.
5.
IWM, (2004), Feasibility for Rehabilitating the Buriganga-Turag-Sitalakhya River System and Augmentation of Dry Season
Flow in the Buriganga River, Final Report, BWBD, August 2004.
6.
IWM, (2011); Study on Well Field Construction for Immediate Supplement to City Water Supply from nearby Groundwater
Sources; Final Report; Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA), 2010
7.
IWM, (2011); Artificial Recharge to Aquifer by Rainwater harvesting from roof top; Final Report; Dhaka Water Supply and
Sewerage Authority (DWASA).
8.
IWM, (2006); Resource Assessment and Monitoring of Water Supply Sources for Dhaka City, Final Report; Dhaka Water
Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA).
Water
Studies in Turkey under Water Efficiency Practices for Water Footprint
and Virtual Water
Fulya KALEMCİ, Selçuk COŞKUN, Nermin ÇİÇEK
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, General Directorate of Water Management, Turkey
Abstract The efficient and effective use of water resources is getting more important from day to day. The
amount of water per capita in Turkey declined the last two years from 4000 m3 to 1430 m3. Within ten years,
in parallel with the increase in population, approximately 1000 m3 of this amount is expected to be reduced
gradually. Therefore with this projection, after 10 years time period Turkey is expected to take place in
the category of water-poor countries. In order to avoid such negative consequences and to maintain water
efficiency, it is of great importance to measure amouth of water used accurately in connection with the
processes through which water is consumed. This study examines the importance of the concepts virtual
water and water footprint together with their application areas. Additionally, study also includes the sectoral
analysis of water footprint. This study aims to reduce water footprint of the country for the sustainable water
management target by determining the effects and pressures on the water bodies within the areas where
water quality and quantity is insufficient.
Keywords: water footprint, virtual water, water efficiency, water accounting, water management.
1. INTRODUCTION
As a natural resource of water has a common area of usage. Not only for the daily and personal
needs but also a significant amount of water consumed in the process of economic production like
agriculture and industry. In such cases, the need of introducing the real economic value of water
and making visible the water used arises. In recent days, in order to make visible and appraise in
economic term for water, concepts of virtual water and water footprint has been used as an indicator.
While “virtual water” defines water used in the production process of any product type, “water
footprint” defines the total volume of water used in production processes of a person, sector or
country. As water footprint displays the path water takes during economic activities, at the same
time it helps to take informed decisions on the subjects such as water allocation, water trade, water
and ecosystem support for detection of comparative advantage. In this manner water footprint aims
to achieve an ecological good status for whole water bodies within the river basin. In addition, water
footprint is also a supportive tool to develop and implement river basin management plans.
To achieve this goal Turkey sustains the project “Nationwide Water Efficiency Analysis and Water
Accounting of Pilot River Basins in Turkey” with the coordination of Ministry of Forestry and Water
Affairs, General Directorate of Water Management. Within the scope of the project, water footprint
is being calculated for the first time in Turkey and the results of which will provide a better decision
making for the allocation of water and other economically important resources. At the same time,
this project stands as a tool to define strategy for the effective use of water by generating required
data inventory.
2. METODOLOGY
Water footprint consists of three components;
The Blue Water Footprint: Consumption of surface and groundwater sources along the supply chain
of a product where ‘Consumption’ refers to loss of water from the available ground-surface water
body in a catchment area.
The Green Water Footprint : Consumption of rainwater.
The Grey Water Footprint: This term refers to pollution and is defined as the volume of freshwater
that is required to assimilate the load of pollutants given natural background concentrations and
existing ambient water quality standards[1].
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Oral Presentations
The model of approach used for this project virtual water and water footprint calculations are based
on processes, products and enterprises regarding both national and global markets and sectors.
Figure 1. Components of Water Footprint [2]
REFERENCES
142
1.
Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. K., Aldaya, M. M., and Mekonnen, M. M. 2011. The Water Footprint Assessment Manual:
Setting the Global Standard. London, Earthscan.
2.
Chapagain, A.K. and Orr, S.. “U.K. Water Footprint: The Impact of the U.K.’s Food and Fibre Consumption on Global
Water Resources, Volume 1”. WWF-UK (WWF-UK).
Water
Action Plans for 81 Cities and Settlements over 50.000 Population
Kamil CEYHAN
General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works, Water Supply Department,
[email protected]
Abstract The DSİ General Directorate is, according to Law No 1053 “Domestic Water Supply Law for
the Settlements over 100.000 Population” approved by the Council of Ministers in 1968, responsible for
domestic and industrial water supply to cities with a population of more than 100,000. Water supply projects
include planning, design and construction of all kinds of storage facilities (dams, reservoirs), water intake
facilities (weirs, wells, catchments, etc.), water transmission lines, pump stations, water treatment plants
and conclude with handing these water facilities to municipalities. In this study, in the city centers which, at
present, are in need of water supply, or in short term may be in need of water supply, the required investments
and costs were tried to be determined.
Keywords: DSİ General Directorate, Water Supply, Water Planning Action Plan.
1. INTRODUCTION
Population forecast was held for the planning, designing and constructing of water supply projects
in order to clarify the water requirements. Furthermore, the changes of the water requirements were
obtained according to the population projections for several years. Finally, current water resources
were examined and water network losses and leakages were forecasted and projected in order to set
the water supply amount for the town.
The studies for the population forecast, generally the past records were taken in to consideration in
order to forecast future population number. Mathematical methods used in forecasting population
are as follows; arithmetical growth method, Turkish Bank of Provinces method, Logistic curve
(s) method. Although, different results may be obtained from each method, the important point is
selecting the appropriate result considering the demographic structure of the population and the
economic improvement of the Project area.
In water demand forecasts, data supplied by the municipalities are used to determine the sectorial
water consumption trends and loss-leakage ratio, and considering the properties of the project
area (climate, socio - cultural situation, economic situation, etc.. ) future changes are forecasted.
Considering the factors which effect water consumption ( population, climate, quality of life, socio
- economic situation, water measurement and unit price of water, operating pressure, water quality,
amount of park - gardens, presence of other water resources, presence of sewage system, etc…)
water consumption forecasts are made.
2. DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN FOR
81 TOWN CENTERS
In the light of all these assumptions, first in 2008, “Domestic and industrial water supply action plan
for 81 Town centers (2008-2012)” was prepared. Furthermore, revising the 2008 plan, “Domestic
and industrial water supply action plan for 81 Town centers (2010-2014)” was prepared.
In this study, in the city centers which, at present, are in need of water supply, or in short term may be
in need of water supply, the required investments and costs were tried to be determined.
According to address based population record system population census in 2009, it was determined
that 42.6 million people are living in the 81 town centers. In town centers, present water requirement
is 3.8 billion m³, and the amount of supplied domestic and industrial water is 5.2 billion m³.
It was determined that, 9 city centers have problems, or will face problems till 2012, and they require
urgent water supply, in 10 city centers water supply problem will be faced in the short term (2013 2015), 26 city centers will, in the mid-term, (2016 - 2023) have sufficient water supply, and 36 city
143
Oral Presentations
centers will, in the long term (2024 - 2040) the supplied water will be sufficient.
As the result of the studies, between 2012 - 2014, in 81 city centers, it is determined that
approximately 3.3 billion TL should be invested for water supply.
For each and all of the town centers with population exceeding 50.000, the present and future
domestic and industrial water demands were determined. For the city centers which, at present, are
in need of water supply, or in short term may be in need of water supply, the required investments
and costs were determined. As the result of this work, according to address based population record
system population census in 2009, it was determined that the 66 town centers with populations
exceeding 50.000, have a total population of 5.359.181.
It was determined that, annual required amount of water in these town centers is 439,17 million m³,
annual total amount of supplied domestic and industrial water is 737,41 million m³.
It was determined that, 3 town centers have present problems, or will face problems till 2012, and
they require urgent water supply. In 14 town centers water supply problem will be faced in the short
term (2013 - 2015) In 14 town centers water supply problem will be faced in the mid-term (2016 –
2023), 35 city centers will, in the long term (2024 – 2040) face water supply problems.
REFERENCES
1.
144
DSİ General Directorate, 2012. The Principles of Population and Water Requirement Estimates for Water Supply Projects.
Water
The Treatment of Büyükçekmece Lake Water with UF Membrane
Processes
İbrahim Karali1, Mehmet Çakmakçı2, İsmail Koyuncu3, Ahmet Demir1,2
Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration, Nurtepe Yolu 34406 Kağıthane / İSTANBUL
2
Yıldız Technical University, Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, 34220 Davutpaşa-Esenlerİstanbul [email protected]
3
Istanbul Technical University, Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, 34469 MaslakİSTANBUL [email protected]
1
Abstract Membrane systems that can be operated at low pressure are used for the treatment of water in
addition to the conventional water treatment systems since some pollutants have negative human health effects
in low concentrations. Membrane operation costs are lower than the other processes as they are operated at
low pressure and they also produce safe water. Therefore, application of low pressure membrane systems
has become prevalent lately. In this study, effects of UF membranes which are operated at low vacuum
and pressure effect on treatment efficiency in Büyükçekmece Drinking Water Treatment Plant have been
investigated. Therefore, two discrete pilot-scale units have been used. The UF membranes have molecular
weight cut off (MWCO) of 150 kDa. Total coliform, total organic carbon (TOC), UV254 and turbidity have
been measured at the inlet and output of membrane systems to determine the efficiency of these systems. In
addition to these water quality parameters, flow rate, pressure, flux and energy consumption have also been
measured. No microorganism has been determined in tested water treated by both pilot-scale systems. So,
final disinfection need has been reduced to minimum. In membrane permeates, measured turbidity value has
been determined as lower than 0,05 NTU. TOC and UV254 removal efficiency of vacuum operated pilot-scale
facility has been found higher than pressure based one. Accordingly, the energy consumption of vacuum
based system has been lower than the pressure based one.
Keywords: UF Membrane, water treatment, Büyükçekmece Lake.
1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1 shows the Büyükçekmece Drinking Water Treatment Plant where raw water from
Büyükçekmece Lake is treated and the processes where the pilot UF systems that are operated with
low vacuum and pressure in this plant are integrated.
Figure 1. Büyükçekmece Treatment Plant Units and the stages to which the pilot UF mechanisms are integrated
The process included the first stage where raw water from Büyükçekmece Lake is directly transferred
to the pilot facilities, the second stage where effluent from Büyükçekmece Drinking Water treatment
plant is transferred to the pilot facilities and third stage where the effluent from the filtration unit
of the plant is transferred to the pilot facilities. The conventional treatment units before the second
and third stages are planned as pre-membrane treatment. This has also contributed to the impacts
of using conventional treatment stages as pre-treatment on membrane performance. As seen in
Figure 2 (a), in the case of using raw water from Büyükçekmece Lake directly at the first stage, the
transmembrane pressure (TMP) increased to 350 mbar and upon the third stage filtration process in
Figure 2 (b) the TMP increased to 40 mbar.
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(a)
Oral Presentations
(b)
Figure 2. TMP increase values of the first and third stages of the UF system operated with vacuum
Figure 3 (a), (b), (c) shows the turbidity outlet values of the pilot device operated with vacuum
for first, second and third stages respectively. The fact that turbidity rates in the filtrate of the pilot
devices of all three stages are lower than 0,05 NTU value while the 2011 average turbidity rate varies
between 1.74 and 55.2 NTU, shows that the turbidity removal performance of the UF membrane is
99 %.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. First, second and third stage turbidity rates of the pilot UF device operated with vacuum
Figure 4 (a), (b), (c) shows the TOC values of the filtrates of the pilot device operated with vacuum
for first, second and third stages respectively. The TOC values for Büyükçekmece raw water for
2011 varies between 4.99 and 6.06 mg/L. The TOC removal rate was defined as 30-40 % in the first,
10-20 % in the second and < 5 % in the third stages. It was also identified that the 74.1 % of the
TOC for raw water from Büyükçekmece has 1 kDa and lower MWCO. The reason for the low TOC
removal is considered to be the low MWCO of the organic materials.
146
Water
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. First, second and third stage TOC values of the pilot UF device operated with vacuum
147
Oral Presentations
DSI Approach for Drinking Water Treatment Plant Projects
Cengiz ÖZCAN
General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works, Water Supply Department
[email protected]
Abstract Demand for water resources has increased with growing population and developing industry and
different technologies are improved to achieve drinking water. DSİ has fulfilled duty given to him with the
most economical and healthy methods to reach consumers in drinking water and continues to do. In this
paper, considering the plants are made by DSI and still in operation, what are the criteria for the selection
process and the reasons in DSİ drinking water treatment projects will be discussed. Studies conducted by DSI
in Turkey, potable water is obtained with the mostly conventional systems covering aeration, coagulation,
flocculation, sedimentation and filtration units.
Keywords: DSİ, Drinking Water Treatment Plants.
1. INTRODUCTION
With increasing population and developing industry, changes in water resources has become in terms
of flow and water quality in time, very little water source can be used as drinking water directly in
nature. Therefore, the development of treatment technologies and regulatory requirements have been
come into being.
Drinking water quality is determined in “Regulations on Water Intended for Human Consumption”
of The Ministry of Health (published in the Official Gazette No. 25 730 dated 02.17.2005)
and control and monitoring of water quality is expected to be done by competent authorities. In
addition, surface water resources are classified in terms of the standard methods of treatment
for transforming surface water into drinking water in “Regulation on the quality of surface water
intended for the abstraction of Drinking water” (Official Gazette No. 28338 dated 29.06.2012).
According to the regulations; Category A1; Simple physical treatment and disinfection, e.g. rapid
filtration and disinfection, Category A2; physical treatment, chemical treatment and disinfection,
e.g. prechlorination, coagulation, flocculation, settlement, filtration, disinfection (final chlorination),
Category A3; Intensive physical and chemical treatment, advanced treatment and disinfection e.g.
membrane sytems. In water tretment plant projects were made by DSİ, surface waters have been
used as a raw water sources are mostly class A1 or A2 so water treating in a conventional drinking
water treatment plant can be given to public consumption.
In projects made by DSİ, generaly arsenic, iron, manganese, turbidity and organic matter impurities
were found, conventional treatment systems were projected taking into account population and
climate conditions. Moreover, as package treatment plants, pressure filters are preferred in some
areas where groundwater with arsenic contamination due to the geological structure is used, reverse
osmosis systems are used for water resources needing advanced treatment or hardness removal.
2. CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
A conventional treatment system includes aeration, coagulation, flocculation, settling, filtering and
disinfection units. In addition, there are other auxiliary units such as chemical building, sludge
treatment units
After the Cascade-type aeration unit used to give oxygen to water and chemical (oxidation (oxidation
of iron and manganese et al.), rapid and slow mixing units are located to convert colloidal particles to
settleable floc by the addition of chemicals. Mostly ferric chloride or aluminium sulphat as coagulant,
polyelectrolyte as coagulant aid are used. Also, if needed pH regulators and other oxidant chemicals,
such as sulfuric acid, caustic soda and potasyumpermanganat, are added. Which chemicals will add
and their amount are decided after jar tests made in the laboratory.
Clarifiers are located before filter units for settlement of colloidal substances and to increase filtration
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Water
efficiency. Clarifiers are designed as upflow sludge blunkets or lamella settling. Initial investment
cost of lamella clarifiers systems is higher than sludge blankets. But lamella systems are preferred
because relatively large surface area provides friction which encourages solids/liquid separation and
the incline of lamella encourages settling efficiency of solids. All the same, clarifiers are designed
as lamella type in continuing project work because settling efficiency can be received in a short time
like the first 1-2 days of going into operation and less affected by sudden changes in flow rate and
concentration in current plants was seen. For filtration process being the last step of the drinking
water treatment process, single bed rapid sand filter with a fixed water level during the runtime,
using a control valve in the effluent pipe that compensates for the increasing filter bed resistance are
preferred.
In our treatment plants, pre-chlorination (mostly) and ozonation are used for the purpose of both
plant disinfection and chemical oxidation. In cases where particularly high organic matter, ozone is
used in some plants in order to avoid formation of compounds (Trihalomethanes, thms) that chlorine
composed with an organic or synthetic material. However, since chlorine is more easily available
and economical, it is used instead of ozone system also because of both high cost of installation
and operation and operational challenges. Nevertheless, during the water treatment plant project
preparation ozone is taken into consideration in the general layout and hydraulic calculations of
the plant, the construction is left to be done in the future if needed. Due to contamination that may
occur in the network, the chlorine is used as the last disinfection because the chlorine residual that
remains in water can prolong disinfection even after initial treatment and also provides a measure of
the effectiveness.
Process wastewater, collected from clarifier and filters, is given sludge dewatering unit after sludge
thickening plant. Sludge dewatering unit is designed as sludge drying bed if enough space and
appropriate climatic conditions are. However, the treatment plants being made by DSİ are mostly
bigger than 100 000 m3/day capacity, so mechanical dewatering units is used such as belt filter
or filter press. Domestic, laboratory and chemical building wastewater being collected in lagoon
or septic tank is given to the sewerage if appropriate or is moved to sanitary landfill with waste
container for disposal by the municipal personal.
3. ARSENIC TREATMENT PLANTS
As in many parts of the world, arsenic is an important groundwater problem in our country too.
Almost all along the middle of the Anatolian Plateau groundwater contains arsenic. The maximum
acceptable amount of arsenic in drinking water is 10 mg / L. Package systems with pressure filter that
requires less area and is easy to operate, were used for many small settlements using groundwater
containing arsenic above the value.
4. ADVANCED TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Except as provided above, there are advanced technology plants being used reverse osmosis system
in our some cities especially for hardness removal like Karabük.
149
Oral Presentations
Sediment Load Prediction by Fuzzy Logic-Wavelet Combination Method
Mehmet Özger1, Mehmet Burak Kabataş2
Istanbul Technical University Civil Engineering Faculty
2
İstanbul Technical University, Graduate School of Science Engineering and Technology
1
Abstract Rivers carry large amount of sediments that can cause specific problems to water structures.
Sediment load prediction is very important in planning, operation and maintenance of water structures located
on rivers. The purpose of this study is to develop a model that can make accurate predictions for suspended
sediment loads. Daily suspended sediment loads and discharges are used as variables to establish the models.
These variables exhibit random characteristics due to the uncertain nature of sediment transportation. In
order to make prediction models for suspended sediment load, stochastic processes, regression methods,
neural network models and fuzzy logic have been used in literature so far. Here, the combination of wavelet
and fuzzy logic models (WFL) is proposed to model the behavior of sediment load. The results are obtained
from WFL are compared with the other approaches. Also, long lead predictions up to 1 month are tested for
WFL model.
Keywords: Suspended sediment load, water structures, prediction, wavelets, fuzzy logic.
1. INTRODUCTION
The amount of sediment load is a significant input to determine the dimensions of water structures
such as dams, diversion weirs, and settling basins. So as to determine sediment deposition properly,
it is required to predict suspended sediments in rivers. The sediment transportation is also closely
related to basin erosion.
The suspended sediment load modeling in rivers is one of the most complex problems in
hydrology. The variables used in modeling includes various uncertainties. Several processes such
as basin erosion and river bed motion for suspended sediment loads generation in rivers increase
the complexity of sediment prediction problem. To predict the suspended sediment load in rivers, in
addition to basin parameters such as area and slope, meteorological and hydrological variables such
as precipitation and discharge, respectively are used. There are many sediment prediction models
proposed in the literature. These are regression models [1], artificial neural network models [2], fuzzy
logic models [3], and parametric models [4].
Rajaee et al. [5] studied neural network, multiple regression and sediment rating curve models for
daily simulation of suspended sediment loads. Comparison of the results indicated that the neural
network model outperforms other models. Sediment rating curves and its application by artificial
neural networks was achieved by Jain [6]. Abrahart and White [7] proposed a neural network model for
sediment transportation.
Determination of suspended sediment load in rivers accurately is very crucial in water resources
engineering. Therefore the purpose of this study is to propose appropriate methods for suspended
sediment load predictions. Here, the wavelet-fuzzy logic combination model is employed for daily
suspended sediment loads. The predictions are extended up to 1 month lead time.
2. WAVELET FUZZY LOGIC COMBINATION MODEL
Wavelet transform is a technique that uses wavelets to implement transformation. Wavelets are small
waves that grow and decay over a small distance. Geophysical time series include different patterns,
such as periodicity, trend, noise which are the results of different mechanisms affecting the process.
Filtering such patterns helps understand the behavior of time series. One of latest techniques used
for filtering time series in time and scale domains is the wavelet transform. There is a tendency
to filter the data before its use especially in prediction problems. Several researchers [8, 9, 10] have
proposed that it is better to make predictions after decomposing both predictors and predictand into
several bands. Wavelet transform makes it possible to separate time series into its subseries. Here
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the important question is how the significant bands can be selected. For this purpose, Webster and
Hoyos [9] proposed the use of average wavelet spectra obtained from continuous wavelet transform
of a variable of concern. The significant spectral bands can be selected, based on the average wavelet
spectra which show the variation of power with scales. Thus, at the end we have a number of
different sub-series each of which carries specific information about the process. On the other hand,
each predictor time series is separated into a number of subseries using the same spectral bands as
of predictand.
Subsequently, it is required to relate each band of predictors to the corresponding band of predictand
with a statistical scheme. Here, we used a fuzzy logic model to establish a connection between
predictors and the predictand band. A number of fuzzy models would be needed to make predictions.
Finally, all those predicted bands of the predictand variable are reconstructed to obtain the final
series.
REFERENCES
1.
Sinnakaudan, S. K., Abghani, A., Ahmad, M. S. S., and Zakaria, N. A.,(2006). Multiple linear regression model for total bed
material load prediction, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 132 (5), 521-528.
2.
Nagy, H.M., Watanabe, K., and Hirano, M., (2002). Prediction of load concentration in rivers using artificial neural network
model, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 128(6), 588–595.
3.
Kişi, Ö., Karahan, M.E., Şen, Z., (2006). River suspended sediment modeling using fuzzy logic approach, Hydrological
Processes, 20, 4351-4362.
4.
Vansickle, J., and Beschta, R. L., (1983). Supply-based models of suspended sediment transport in streams, Water Resources
Research, 19, 3.
5.
Rajaee, T., Mirbagheri, S.A., Zounemat-Kermani, M., and Nourani V., (2009). Daily suspended sediment concentration
simulation using ANN and neuro-fuzzy models. Sci Total Environ.,407,4916–4927.
6.
Jain, S.K., (2001). Development of integrated sediment rating curves using artificial neural networks. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering (ASCE) 127 (1), 30–37.
7.
Abrahart, R.J., White, S.M., (2001). Modelling sediment transfer in Malawi: comparing back-propagation neural network
solutions against a multiple linear regression benchmark using small data sets. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (B) 26
(1), 19–24.
8.
Kim, T.W., Valdes, J.B.,( 2003). Nonlinear model for drought forecasting based on a conjunction of wavelet transforms and
neural networks. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 6, 319–328.
9.
Webster, P.J., and Hoyos, C.D, (2004). Prediction of monsoon rainfall and river discharge on 15-30-day time scales, Bulletin
of the American Meteorological Society, 85, 11, 1745-1765.
10.Özger, M., (2010). Significant wave height forecasting using wavelet fuzzy logic approach, Ocean Engineering, 37, 16,
1443–1451.
151
Oral Presentations
Occurrence of Organic Pollutants in Treated Wastewater Effluent and
Surface Waters under the Influence of Urban Catchment Areas
Marie Launay, Bertram Kuch, Ulrich Dittmer, Heidrun Steinmetz
University of Stuttgart, Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management
Abstract The occurrence of 9 organic pollutants was monitored for both dry- and wet weather conditions in
the effluent of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and in the river Schwippe (Germany) both upstream
and downstream of the WWTP discharge. All compounds were detected in the WWTP effluent (n=30) at
concentrations ranging from 3 ng/L to 4065 ng/L. In the surface water samples (n=108), all organic pollutants
were detected at concentrations ranging from 5 ng/L to 2270 ng/L. During dry weather, the WWTP effluent
was the most important source of organic pollutants in the receiving water. Results of this study show that
storm events have a significant impact on organic pollutants loads in the surface water.
Keywords: Organic pollutants, field campaign, receiving water quality, urban water, combined sewer
overflows.
1. INTRODUCTION
Urban surface waters are affected by organic pollutants from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP),
stormwater effluents and combined sewer overflows (CSO) [1]. There are increasing numbers of
publications reporting the detection of trace levels of organic pollutants in the WWTP effluents and
in surface waters at concentrations ranging from ng/L to µg/L [2], [3]. The objective of this study was
to determine the occurrence of 9 organic pollutants in WWTP effluent and in the receiving water.
The impact of the treated effluent on water quality could be assessed by comparing the pollutant
concentrations both upstream and downstream of the WWTP discharge. The impact of a storm event
on the receiving water was also studied.
This study was conducted in an urban catchment area (86 km²) in the south-west of the city of
Stuttgart, Germany, from July to October 2011 and included the effluent of a WWTP with a capacity
of 250,000 population equivalents, five surface water sampling locations and on-line surface water
analysis (turbidity, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH and water temperature) upstream of
the effluent discharge. The measuring campaign was conducted in July 2011 during seven days under
dry weather conditions. Another field campaign was conducted during a storm event. Surface water
samples were collected both upstream and downstream of the effluent discharge. All samples were
analyzed for pH, conductivity, suspended solids (SS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), NH4+-N,
NO3--N, NO2--N, total phosphorous and phosphate (PO43-).
Based on preliminary studies, the following organic pollutants were chosen for chemical analysis,
for both composite and membrane filtered samples: carbamazepine, caffeine, N,N-diethyl-mtoluamide (DEET), 2-methylthiobenzothiazole (MTBT), Triphenylphosphate (TPP), Tris(2chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), Tris(2-chloropropyl)phosphate (TCPP), fluoranthene and pyrene
(PAHs). All samples from the WWTP and the five surface water sampling locations were analyzed
for micropollutant concentrations. For the entire field campaign this amounts to a total number of 30
samples from the WWTP effluent and 108 samples from the surface waters. Analysis was performed
using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
The organic pollutants of concern were detected in all the samples of the WWTP effluent. During
dry weather, carbamazepine concentrations in the final effluent ranged from 550 ng/L to 830 ng/L
with a median of 730 ng/L. During dry weather, the WWTP effluent was the most important source
of organic pollutants in the receiving water. During the storm event, all organic pollutants except
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MTBT, had lower concentrations in the WWTP effluent than those during dry weather. It can be
explained by this fact that the main source of these pollutants is domestic and/or industrial wastewater
and not stormwater origin. In this case the effect of dilution was observed. MTBT concentrations
in the effluent ranged from 420 ng/L to 920 ng/L with a median of 535 ng/L. These results are
comparable with the results during dry weather. Urban surface runoff is a very significant source of
MTBT emission [4]. During high storm events, a very high amount of urban stormwater arrives to the
WWTP with very high concentrations of MTBT. For this reason no dilution effect could be noted.
The selected organic pollutants were detected in all samples of the river Schwippe. During dry
weather, all the organic pollutants had a higher concentration downstream of the WWTP discharge
compared to upstream. During the storm event, six CSO events were registered. The influence of
CSO on the surface water quality was characterized by on-line water analysis. All organic pollutants
had the same trend: the pollutant concentrations increased with turbidity values, and decreased after
the storm event (see Fig. 1). It was confirmed that large loads of organic pollutants were discharged
to the river Schwippe during the first flush after the rain. These conclusions are consistent with
previously reported studies [5].
Figure 1. Temporal course of concentrations for the selected organic pollutants in the river Schwippe during
storm events in October 2011
4. CONCLUSIONS
The occurrence of all relevant organic pollutants determined in WWTP effluent samples indicates
the persistence of these compounds. Their incomplete removal in the sewage treatment process will
have acute effects on receiving waters as evidenced by the increasing downstream levels. Storm
events can have a significant impact of organic pollutants loads in the surface water and should
be taken into account when assessing the occurrence of pollutants in surface waters. CSO events
represent short peaks in discharge with high loads of organic pollutants.
REFERENCES
1.
Daughton, C.G., and Ternes, T.A., (1999). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle
trouble?, Environmental Health Perspectives, 107, 907-938
2.
Roberts, P.H., and Thomas, K.V., (2006) The occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals in wastewater effluent and surface
waters of the lower Tyne catchment, Science of the Total Environment, 356, 143-153
3.
Phillips, P., and Chalmers, A., (2009) Wastewater effluent, combined sewer overflows, and other sources of organic
compounds to lake Champlain, Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 45, 1, 45-57
4.
Kloepfer, A., Jekel, M., and Reemtsma, T., (2005). Occurrence, sources, and fate of benzothiazoles in municipal wastewater
treatment plants, Environmental Science and Technology, 39, 10, 3792-3798
5.
Musolff, A., Leschik, S., Möder, M., Strauch, G., Reinstorf, F. and Schirmer, M., (2009). Temporal and spatial patterns of
micropollutants in urban receiving waters, Environmental Pollution, 157, 3069-3077
153
Oral Presentations
Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water by Lime Softening
Meltem Bilici Baskan1, Aysegul Pala2
Pamukkale University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Denizli
[email protected]
2
Dokuz Eylul University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Izmir
[email protected]
1
Abstract In this study arsenic removal from tap water by lime softening using calcium hydroxide has been
performed. Effects of calcium hydroxide dose and variations in the pH values of arsenate contaminated
water as a result of hydrated lime addition were investigated at the initial arsenate concentrations of 50, 500,
and 1000 μg L-1. Impacts of polyelectrolyte types (cationic, anionic, and nonionic) and dosage were also
determined. According to results of experimental studies, more than 90% arsenate removal was achieved if
the pH is above 10.2. In the initial arsenate concentration of 50 μg L-1, the arsenate concentration is reduced
below 10 μg L-1 at coagulant dose of 110 mg L-1, while in the initial arsenate concentrations of 500 and 1000
μg L-1, the highest arsenate removal efficiency, about 99%, was provided at coagulant dose 200 mg L-1. The
addition of anionic and nonionic polyelectrolyte has not affected the arsenic removal efficiency. Percent
arsenate removal reached a maximum level at cationic polyelectrolyte concentration of 5 mg L-1. Increasing
cationic polyelectrolyte dose from 1 to 5 mg L-1 resulted in an increase in arsenate removal efficiency from
76 to 80%.
Keywords: Arsenate, drinking water, hydrated lime, organic polymer.
1. INTRODUCTION
Arsenic is a ubiquitous element found in the atmosphere, soils and rocks, natural waters and
organisms [1]. The presence of elevated levels of arsenic in groundwater has become a major concern
especially in Bangladesh, India, and several other countries such as United States, China, Australia,
Czech Republic and New Zealand [2]. Unfortunately, elevated concentrations of arsenic are found in
the groundwaters which are used for drinking water source in Turkey. Especially in Western Turkey
high arsenic concentrations in groundwaters have been found related to the dissolution of some
minerals in the colemanite boron formations. The observed enrichment of arsenic in groundwaters
also result of both hydrothermal and evaporitic conditions, with some redistribution of both elements
during diagenesis, and rock/mineral water interaction [3]. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) reduced the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for arsenic in drinking water from 50 μg
L-1 to 10 μg L-1. According to the last edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines
for Drinking-Water Quality (2006), 10 μg L-1 was established as a provisional guideline value for
arsenic. MCL was also lowered to 10 μg L-1 in Turkey by Turkish Standards 266-Water Intended for
Human Consumption.
The objective of this study is to investigate removal efficiencies of arsenate from tap water by lime
softening and to determine the most suitable conditions. The effects of organic polymers on removal
efficiencies of arsenate were also executed.
Arsenate standards were prepared from sodium arsenate (Na2HAsO4.7H2O) and diluted with tap water
until desire concentrations. In this study, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) was used and purchased from
Merck. The used polymers were Magnafloc LT22, Magnafloc LT27, and Magnafloc LT20 obtained
from Ciba Speciality. The calcium hydroxide was added to each 1 L jar containing the sample water
with rapid mixing at 120 ± 2 rpm. After 3 minutes of rapid mix, 30 minutes of slow mixing at 45
± 2 rpm was provided, followed by at 30 minutes of settling. Prior to addition of hydrated lime, in
the mixing process and after the sedimentation, the sample water pH was measured. At the end of
the settling period, water samples were taken from the supernatants, filtered by 0.45-μm pore size
membrane filter. The determination of arsenic in the influent and effluent aqueous solutions was
performed by the hydride generation procedure coupled with inductively coupled plasma-atomic
emission spectrometry (HG-ICP-AES). Each analysis for arsenic concentrations was duplicated.
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Effects of calcium hydroxide dose and variations in the pH values of arsenate contaminated water as
a result of hydrated lime addition were investigated at the initial arsenate concentrations of 50, 500,
and 1000 μg L-1. The initial pH value of the tap water was measured as 7.45. According to results of
experimental studies, more than 90% arsenate removal was achieved if the pH is above 10.2. In the
initial arsenate concentration of 50 μg L-1, the arsenate concentration is reduced below 10 μg L-1 at
coagulant dose of 110 mg L-1, while in the initial arsenate concentrations of 500 and 1000 μg L-1, the
highest arsenate removal efficiency, about 99%, was provided at coagulant dose 200 mg L-1 as shown
in Figure 1.
As(V)=50
As(V)=500
As(V)=1000
Efficiency, %
100
90
80
70
60
50
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
-1
Lime concentration, mg L
190
210
Figure 1. Variation of arsenate removal with the Ca(OH)2 dose at the different initial arsenate concentrations
The addition of anionic and nonionic polyelectrolyte has not affected the arsenic removal efficiency.
Percent arsenate removal reached a maximum level at cationic polyelectrolyte concentration of 5
mg L-1. Increasing cationic polyelectrolyte dose from 1 to 5 mg L-1 resulted in an increase in arsenate
removal efficiency from 76 to 80%.
REFERENCES
1.
Smedley, P. L., and Kinniburgh, D. G., (2002). A review of the source, behaviour and distribution of arsenic in natural
waters, Applied Geochemistry, 17, 517-568,
2.
Ali, M. A., (2006). Arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, International Review for Environmental
Strategies, 6 (2), 329-360.
3.
Çolak, M., Gemici, Ü., and Tarcan, G., (2003). The effects of colemanite deposits on the arsenic concentrations of soil and
groundwater in Igdeköy-Emet, Kütahya, Turkey, Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 149, 127-143.
155
Oral Presentations
Study on Availability of Chlorıne Dioxide as a Disinfectant at
Büyükçekmece Water Treatment Plant
İbrahim Karali1, Mehmet Çakmakcı2, S.Cengiz İleten3, Ahmet Demir1
1
İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration, Nurtepe Yolu 34406 Kağıthane / İSTANBUL
[email protected]
2
Yıldız Technical University Civil Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, 34220 DavutpaşaEsenler- İstanbul
[email protected]
3
İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration, Büyükçekmece Water Treatment Plant, 34500,B.Çekmece-İstanbul
[email protected]
Abstract In recent years there have been findings on the negative impacts of disinfection byproducts that
form from the use of chlorine, and therefore have been studies on whether new disinfectants can replace
chlorine as the most common disinfection material. In this study, the availability of chlorine dioxide instead
of chlorine as a disinfectant was investigated in Buyukcekmece Water Treatment Plant. Within this study the
effect of chlorine dioxide on water quality parameters and as a result of the chlorine dioxide usage, chlorite
and chlorate concentrations as inorganic disinfection byproducts were determined. As a result, it is seen that
via the usage of chlorine dioxide, the formation of trihalomethanes (THM) have significantly decreased, the
microbiological parameters such as E.Coli and T.Coli were fully removed, and that the chlorite that is one of
the disinfection byproducts of chlorine dioxide were reduced by iron (II) chloride.
Keywords: Chlorine dioxide, chloride, chlorate, THM, drinking water.
1. INTRODUCTION
Chlorine dioxide is a chlorine based disinfectant that can be used as an alternative to chlorine. Since
it has a high oxidation potential, it can be considered as a less offensive disinfection alternative
to chlorine as it also allows for taste and odor control in water treatment plants. Since the decay
rate of chlorine is fast due to the reactive and volatile nature of the chemical, it requires on-site
production at treatment plants. Disinfection with chlorine dioxide is applied at smaller dosages and
with shorter contact periods for removal of coliform (Aieta et al., 1980). Apart from being used as a
pre-disinfectant, chlorine dioxide is effective in controlling the nitrification bacteria in the network
or water distribution system when applied at the final stage before being released into the system.
To maintain water quality in the network, chlorine dioxide is applied as a residual disinfectant (Volk
et al., 2002). When chlorine dioxide is used as a disinfectant, chloride and chlorate are formed as
disinfection byproducts in the drinking water. Studies have been made on the effects of this byproduct
on human health, but the existing literature does not state any finding on a certain outcome. Certain
countries have imposed limitations on chlorine dioxide disinfection byproducts. For instance, Great
Britain limited the chlorate and chlorite concentrations as not to exceed 0.5 mg/L (Hoehn et al.,
2010).
This study includes use of chlorine dioxide produced from the reaction of chlorine gas and sodium
chlorite as a disinfectant at Büyükçekmece Water Treatment Plant. Both, the formation of chlorine
dioxide and the effects of chlorine dioxide on water quality parameters, were evaluated.
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AND DISCUSSION
The studies were conducted at Büyükçekmece Water Treatment Plant of İSKİ. An adequate supply
of chlorine dioxide was produced for the plant from the mixture of sodium chlorite and chlorine gas.
The experimental studies were conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the impacts of using
chlorine dioxide on water quality were evaluated. In this stage, the studies focused on jar tests on
a laboratory scale over the plant. Three jar tests were conducted at the laboratory scale. In the first,
with no additional coagulant or chemical material included; 0.2, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/L of
chlorine dioxide was added into the raw water and mixed for 20 minutes in the jar test apparatus at
20 RPM. In the second jar test, in addition to the chlorine dioxide concentrations added, 60.0 mg/L
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Water
alum used normally in plant operations and 0.12 mg/L polyelectrolite were added. Aside from the
minimum (0.2 mg/L) and the maximum (2.0 mg/L) amounts of chlorine dioxide in the second jar
test, a third jar test was conducted as well.
In the second section of the first stage, the real plant scale studies were conducted. First, 0.7 mg/L of
chlorine dioxide was applied for four hours at the raw water inlet of the plant where shock chlorine
is normally applied. The change in water quality at the aeration tank outlet was then examined. Then
0.7 mg/L of chlorine dioxide was applied for 48 hours at the decanter inlet and the water quality
parameters at the decanter and filter outlet were examined after 48 hours.
In the second stage of the study, the byproducts of chlorine dioxide were examined in detail. First, the
jar test in order to define the iron (II) chlorine efficiency for the removal of chlorine as a byproduct
of chlorine dioxide was conducted. A 0.7 mg/L chlorine dioxide concentration was used at the jar
test. Upon the test, the samples were filtered from raw filter papers and another 0.7 mg/L chlorine
dioxide amount was added, then the chlorine dioxide usage was simulated at the distribution system.
In the second section of the second stage, full plant scale studies were conducted. First 0.7 mg/L
chlorine dioxide was applied from a shock chlorine point and the chlorine dioxide byproducts were
analyzed at the inlet and outlet of the aeration tank unit. Then 0.7 mg/L chlorine dioxide was applied
at the decanter inlets and the samples taken from the clean water outlet were analyzed for chlorine
and chlorate. Upon the chlorine dioxide application at the decanter inlet, the filter outlet water was
taken, 0.5 and 0.7 mg/L chlorine dioxide was added to examine the availability of chlorine dioxide
as a final disinfectant.
3. CONCLUSION
The following results were obtained at the study on the availability of chlorine dioxide at
Büyükçekmece Directorate of Operations as a disinfectant:
• The chlorine dioxide to be applied was identified as an optimum amount of 0.7 mg/L.
• Since chlorine dioxide did not react with organic materials, it did not contribute to the formation of
THM and thereby caused no change at the TOK concentration.
• Efficient disinfection was achieved for the removal of T.Koli and E.Koli.
• No considerable changes were observed for anion concentrations in the chlorine dioxide
applications.
• In the case that it is used as a final (secondary) disinfectant, it is identified that when chlorine
dioxide reacts with chlorite, it merely produces chlorine dioxide again as a result.
157
Oral Presentations
NDMA Formation Potentials in Sources and Control at Drinking Water
Treatment Plants
Habibullah Uzun, Daekyun Kim, Tanju Karanfil
Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University
Abstract Recent studies have shown that N-DBPs are far more cytotoxic and genotoxic than the nonnitrogenous DBPs. Furthermore, nitrosamines have been shown to be carcinogenic at ng/L levels. Therefore,
several studies have investigated the formation of nitrosamines in water. The factors promoting the formation
of nitrosamines during drinking water treatment include precursors and their characteristics in source waters,
chloramination conditions, some water treatment polymers serving as nitrosamine precursors, and long
contact times with oxidant. Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is the most commonly detected nitrosamine in
source and treated waters.
The goal of this presentation is to show the results of ongoing project. The specific objectives are to examine
the impacts of seasonal variations and climatic events on the occurrence of N-nitrosodimethylamine
(NDMA) precursors in selected surface waters, and to assess the removal efficiency of the NDMA precursors
at the different treatment processes which are currently optimized for USEPA’s Stage 2 D/DBPR.
Nine different water treatment plants using thirteen different source waters in South Carolina are being
examined in this study. The results collected so far indicate that source waters had a wide range of water
quality characteristics: DOC = 0.7~16.9 mg/L, DON = 0.01~0.69 mg/L, SUVA254=0.8~11 L/mg-m, and
bromide = <10-487 mg/L. The NDMA formation potential (FP) monitoring results for the first eight months
indicate that the median range of NDMA FP in three sources were between 60 to 85 ng/L, in seven sources
between 40 to 60 ng/L, and in three sources below 35 ng/L. The variability of NDMA FP in some source
waters was wide, whereas there was low variability for some other sources. We currently examine watershed
characteristics (e.g., concentrations of PPCPs, wastewater discharges) and climatic conditions (e.g., rain,
temperature, drought) to gain insight into the potential reasons behind the levels and variability in NDMA
FP.
The profiling of NDMA FP conducted across the water treatment plants on these sources has shown that the
removal of NDMA FP during conventional clarification processes (coagulation/ flocculation/sedimentation)
ranged from negligible to 50%; pre-oxidation with chlorine and chlorine dioxide reduced 6 to 51% of
NDMA FP; post oxidation with chlorine prior to ammonia addition decreased 6 to 58% of NDMA FP; and
oxidation with chlorine dioxide reduced 9 to 28% of NDMA FP. The plants continuously complied with the
THM and HAA regulations during the sampling period. The results obtained during the eight months of the
project emphasize the need to further understand the variability in NDMA FP at the source waters and the
control of NDMA precursors. By the time of presentation at the Istanbul International Solid Waste, Water
and Wastewater Congress 2013 meeting, the project will have completed the collection of one year of data,
on a monthly basis, that will enable us to provide a more detailed discussion (e.g., the effect of CT, water age
in distribution system, and temperature etc…) on seasonal variation of NDMA and its control at full scale
water treatment plants.
Keywords: NDMA, Formation Potential, Source Waters, removal, control.
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Optimization of the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) in Water and
Wastewater Treatment Plants (WTP), Methods and Case Studies Based
on Water Treatment Applications in Germany
Dr.-Ing. Eckhard Roos
Festo AG & Co KG, Head of Global Industry Segment Management Process Automation, Esslingen, Germany
[email protected]
Abstract When the technical design of a water treatment plant is defined, alternative automation solutions
have to be evaluated according to Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) aspects. The solution with lowest
investment costs is not always the optimal solution considering the whole life cycle costs of a plant. To
enable end-users and engineering companies to assess and compare costs for different technical variants in
an easy way the GER-MAN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MANUFACTURERS’s ASSOSIATION
(ZVEI) has developed a tool taking all cost components (investment, maintenance, operation energy etc.)
into consideration over the plant life time. The paper presents the method of TCO investigations as well
as the functionalities and applica-bility of the tool for the decision making process related to different
technologies, when new investments are assessed or modernization of water treatment plants have to be
investigated. Based on case studies of existing German water treatment plants the benefits of applying this
procedure and tool are shown in case of plant revamps as well as new investments. Also the utilization of
different technologies and automation concepts are discussed in detail and the benefit of modern automation
is presented with respect to TCO optimization as well as increased energy efficiency.
Keywords: Total Cost of Ownership, Energy efficiency, Comparison of alternative technologies.
1. INTRODUCTION
Energy efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions are central societal issues that we must
approach from a technical and ecological perspective as well as a business management one. It would
be a mistake to believe, that energy efficiency and climate protection measures necessary lead to
higher costs. In many cases the opposite is the truth. As a result of investments in smart technologies
the costs for reducing energy and emissions are decreased and the total costs for production and
disposals are also lowered.
This shows, that energy efficiency pays off over a life cycle of an investment and that strictly considering purchase costs is to short-sighted. While the Public Tender Ordinance in Germany includes
consideration of life cycle costs (LCC) and energy efficiency when selecting a solution, these
factors are not paid adequate attention in practice due to lack of appropriate calculation methods and
awareness.
2. PLANT LIFE CYCLE COSTS AND TOOL SUPPORT FOR OPTIMIZATION
To strengthen consideration of life cycle costs in public and private sectors, the GERMAN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MANUFACTURERS’s ASSOSIATION (ZVEI) has
developed a practical tool to support the decision making process in an adequate way.
159
Oral Presentations
Figure 1. Life cycle costs of process plants, generic principle
Slide 1 show the life cycle of a typical process plant. The costs for maintenance and operation often
are higher considering the whole plant life cycle compared to the initial investment costs. This
means, that a technological variant A with lower investment costs compared to a variant B must
not necessarily lead to the lowest possible life cycle costs. If variant B has lower operational and
maintenance costs variant B can be the better technological solution when comparing the overall
plant life cycle costs. The presentation will give an overview about the new ZVEI tool for supporting
investigations and comparisons of different technological variants with respect to LCC of WTPs.
The tool includes graphical presentations, supports sensitivity analysis for various parameters and
enables to consider the overall cost structure of a WTP for the whole life cycle.
3. CASE STUDIES BASED ON EXISTING PLANTS/PROJECTS
Three case studies present examples out of German WTPs.
The first case study describes a modernization of an existing plant, where by means of a
modified automation structure a decrease of 2% of the overall energy consumption of the plant was
achieved, which represents about 4% of the electrical energy demand of all pumps in this plant.
The operator estimates the achievable reduction of electrical energy for the pumps to be up to
10%. Furthermore several additional process improvements were achieved by applying the modified
control structure.
Figure 2. First case study, WWTP Sindelfingen Germany
The second case study describes the decision making process in the Basic Engineering period of
a WTP. Two totally different control structures and technical equipment were compared based on
the ZVEI tool. The comparison shows clear advantages for one of the two variants not only in the
160
Water
investment costs but also during the whole life cycle period. Considering the whole life cycle one
variant needs only 2/3 of the costs compared to the technological alternative.
Figure 3. Second case study, Zweckverband Wasserversorgung Kleine-Kinzig, Germany
The third case study is based on self-sustaining energy supply of a decentralized storm water
reservoir. The paper compares investment costs for connecting the decentralized reservoir to the
public grid with the investment costs for a self-sustaining energy supply using solar panels and wind
energy. Clear recommendation is given, up to which distance from the public grid the self-sustaining
energy supply has to be preferred taking the investment and operational costs into consideration.
161
Oral Presentations
Water Economics Project: Multi-Year Water Allocation System:
Developing A Country-Specific Model for Palestine
Karen Assaf 1, Anan Jayyousi2, Beesan Shonnar1, Kamal Issa1, Hala Barhumi1, Annette Huber-Lee3, Frank Fisher4
Palestinian Water Authority, [email protected],
An-Najah University, [email protected]
3
Tufts Univeristy and Stockholm Environment Institute, annette
4
Water Economics Project, [email protected]
1
2
Abstract MYWAS (Multi-Year Water Allocation System) is an economics-based system that maximizes
social benefits from water allocation, subject to the policies and values specified by the user. It focuses
on the value of water, and guides decisions regarding competing uses, the management and construction
of infrastructure and the impacts of various tariffs and policies. MYWAS is applied in the West Bank of
Palestine, which suffers from an ongoing water crisis. Domestic consumption is well below World Health
Organization standards, and industrial and agricultural water use is very limited due to supply constraints.
The water crisis is widely recognized by the donor community, which offers support via capital investments
and technical advising. Lacking, however, is a comprehensive way to evaluate alternative infrastructure
and water policies under a full range of scenarios of climate, political change and economic development.
MYWAS fills this gap by providing a tool that can assist decision-makers in addressing the complex set of
questions concerning which infrastructure is best invested in and when, how to allocate this scarce resource,
and how to finance sustainably. The vision for this intervention is to improve the livelihoods of Palestinians
through better access to water for all uses through better water resources planning and management.
Keywords: water economics, tariffs, infrastructure and investment planning.
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
The problem of water allocation and management is well studied and extensively written about,
with a number books and academic journals devoted to the subject, but the day-to-day reality for
much of the world’s population is inadequate water - either in terms of water quantity or quality not only for domestic uses but for uses that would provide secure livelihoods. This is epitomized
in the West Bank of Palestine, where average daily domestic consumption is well below World
Health Organization standards. Historically water infrastructure has been heavily subsidized by
governments, but it is increasingly apparent that more financially sustainable approaches to water
planning and management are needed. It is not sufficient to plan supplies based on simple estimates
of water consumption by sector, but rather to understand the value of water in its competing uses,
and allocate water to sectors (including the environment and ecosystems) that bring the most value
to overall society.
2. METHODOLOGY
The models used and developed for the country-specific case of Palestine were the basic WAS
(Water Allocation System) model, that was jointly developed by teams based in Palestine, Jordan,
Israel, The Netherlands and the United States (Fisher et al, 2002). This model has been expanded
into MYWAS (the Multi-Year Water Allocation Model) as developed by Professor Frank Fisher
and Dr. Annette Huber-Lee (Fisher and Huber-Lee, 2011). The major differences between MYWAS
and WAS are twofold. First is that WAS optimized the allocation of water for a single year. That
year could be a current or future year. MYWAS (Multi-year Water Allocation System) runs over
sequences of years. The advantage of MYWAS is that it allows for more precise evaluations of
timing of infrastructure, sequences of wet and dry years, operating policies for managing reservoirs
and aquifers, as described above. The second major difference is that MYWAS was interfaced with
WEAP (the Water Evaluation and Planning Model) of the Stockholm Environment Institute, whereas
WAS had it own independent interface.
Both the WAS and the new MYWAS models are based on a key concept, i.e., that efficient and
sustainable water management requires a system-wide approach that takes into account the special
characteristics and values associated with water. MYWAS provides the tool for that approach,
162
Water
maximizing the net benefits to be obtained from the available water while taking into account
water’s special social values as specified by the user. MYWAS considers water values (both private
and social) and allows a systematic analysis of water issues. In particular, it permits the examination
of the system-wide benefits and costs of proposed infrastructure projects and assists in the choice of
which ones to build, when to build them, and to what capacity.
In summary, the economic framework first developed by Fisher, et al. (2002) is applied but extended
to look across longer time horizons (Fisher and Huber-Lee, 2011). The innovation is focusing on
available supplies and prioritizing allocations and infrastructure investments based on the societal
value of water across sectors and the introduction of different tariffs and social policies. Examples of
applying MYWAS in the West Bank of Palestine will be presented in terms of different scenarios and
different management options within each scenario.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by the Czech Republic Development Agency through the Czech Republic
Representative Office to the State of Palestine.
REFERENCES
1.
Fisher, F., S. Arlosoroff, Z. Eckstein, M. Haddadin, S. Hamati, A. Huber-Lee, A. Jarrar, A. Jayyousi, U. Shamir, and H.
Wesseling. Optimal Water Management and Conflict Resolution: The Middle East Water Project. Water Resources Research,
November, 2002.
2.
Fisher, F. and A. Huber-Lee. “Sustainability, Efficient Water Management, and Conflict Resolution in Water.” The
Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, Volume XII, Number 1, Winter/Spring, 2011.
163
Oral Presentations
Towards Energy Saving and Green Energy Production in Mexican
WWTPs
K. Peña Muñoz1, H. Zúñiga Castillo2
1
2
Ingeniería y Equipos Ambientales, S.A. de C.V., Huasteca 205, Col. Industrial, 07800, México D.F., Mexico
Abstract Nowadays, Thermal Generation is declining from petroleum based fuel and growing fast towards
renewable energy. For instance, Mexico is an oil based emerging economy that has just started to consider
investments on Green Energy (GE) production. At the moment, this country produces less than 10% of its
own consumption of energy by means of GE source. This paper underlines the environmental situation in
Mexico City’s Metropolitan Area (ZMCM) concerning Wastewater Management (WwM) and highlights the
importance of constructing Mega WWTP, where Bio-H2-CH4 could be produced and used as GE source.
Therefore, the paper presents a Case Study located in Puebla, where a pre-treatment of sewer sludge for
enhancing Bio-H2-CH4 in a two stage anaerobic digestion is applied. The objective is to pinpoint the energy
neutrality concept and to highlight the relevance of bio-H2-CH4 as the next GE fuel source in WWTP. These
actions will contribute to solve WwM problems and reduce GHG emissions, by reducing the amount of
sludge that is sent to landfills in Mega-cities.
Keywords: Green energy, Mega-city, Optimization, Wastewater WWTP.
1. INTRODUCTION:
The challenge of Wastewater Management In ZMCM
Although Mexico is oil based emerging economy, it is already producing renewable energy by means
of solar energy, wind energy and Biomass. These measures clearly pinpoint the urgent investments on
green energy (GE) and the relevance of investing on Renewable Energy Technologies in Mexico[1].
Furthermore, the Mexico City’s Metropolitan Area (ZMCM) is located in a sensitive area, where
earthquakes, floods, thermal inversion and other situations are important natural conditions that
increase the vulnerability of the population towards Climate Change (CC). Hence, for a better
understanding of the complexity of the WwM in ZMCM, one should consider the following facts[2]:
a) The water consumption is in average 150 litres per inhabitant per day, which means nearly 40m3/s
of Wastewater (WW); b) The ZMCM, reported 70 WWTPs with a total installed capacity of 1.38m3/;
c) Nearly 11% (4.36m3/s) of the WW produced at ZMCM is treated at WWTPs, the rest is discharged
into surface waters, which end up at the Valley of Tula 60 km north of ZMCM.
It is well known that a WWTP is an essential public service which consumes a considerable
amount of energy. Nonetheless, several countries have been able to suggest that “the smallest
the WWTP is, the largest specific electricity consumption is reported”. For instance, the German
Federal Environmental Office (UBA) has categorized the WWTP’s size in 5 classes depending on
the population equivalent (PE) and specific electricity consumption. In Mexico, there is no similar
relationship, but it could be estimated for any case study, which could be used as an example to race
up the awareness of the municipalities toward energy saving. Hence, a holistic approach on WwM in
this country is needed. Therefore, this paper underlines the WwM situation in ZMCM and highlights
the importance of constructing Mega WWTP, where bio-H2-CH4 could be produced and used as GE
source. This paper presents a Case Study located in Puebla, where a pre-treatment of sewer sludge
for enhancing bio-H2-CH4 has been installed. The objective is to pinpoint the energy neutrality of
this train of treatment and to highlight the relevance of producing bio-H2-CH4 in WWTP and Mega
WWTP as the next GE fuel source for this country.
2. METHODS AND FINDINGS
ISWA and IEASA are developing a joint-project which suggests the energy neutrality in a WWTP
164
Water
located in Puebla, where a thermal pre-treatment of sludge has been implemented. The selection of
the case study was done by IEASA, while the mass and energy balance was performed by ISWA.
This case study is located in Huejotzingo, which is part of the metropolitan area of Puebla, 115km
east from Mexico City. The Huejotzingo WWTP receives 60 LPS or 5184 m3/d. of wastewater from
43,200 inhabitants. A pilot plant is under construction, which integrates a thermal pre-treatment of
sewer sludge and a two-stage A.D. The selected case study needed a reinstatement, which included
the change of some old equipment and units for the incorporation of a new treatment unit: a high
load anaerobic reactor or up flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB); a band filter for dewatering
of sludge has been installed. The reinstatement of the Huejotzingo WWTP was divided in to five
main unit processes. After a careful technical and economical evaluation, the installed trickling filter
was used as main body for a UASB reactor. Designed parameters included[3] and IEASA’s technical
experience. Concerning the energy and mass balance, the UASB reactor was designed based on the
following characteristics of the influent: BOD5; 523.3 mg/l; COD: 1085.4 mg/l; N total: 43.5 mg/L;
P total: 13.03 mg/L. Therefore, the organic load has been calculated as 6221 kg/d. According to
the mass balance for a single stage of A.D. it is possible to produce 1866.24 m3 CH4/d. The energy
balance shows that the energy gain as electricity for this process is 687.9 MWh/year, while the energy
gain as heat is 1279.8 MWh/year. This situation pinpoints, that the process still needs an energy gain
as electricity of 75.8 MWh/a in order to be “energy neutral”. Furthermore, the energy consumption of
the WWTP, without UASB reactor and sludge treatment (thermal pre-treatment and one stage A.D.)
in 2012 was 763.66 MWh/year. A second energy balance, which includes the thermal pre-treatment
(CAMBI THP) and the conventional A.D. shows that the energy gain as electricity for this process
is 1640 MWh/year, while the energy gain as heat is 2498.5 MWh/year. This means that the available
energy gain as electricity could cover 100% the energy requirement of the WWTP reported in 2012
and 74.5MWh/a are available for integration into the grit. In addition, 80% of the energy gain as heat
could be used for production of electricity, if a suitable technology is installed. Hence, this train of
treatment reaches the “energy neutrality concept”, justifies the installation of a pre-treatment, which
uses heat for its operation and enhance the CH4 and H2 production by 40% and 15%, respectively.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The outcomes of this work suggest that the mass and energy balance should be used as tool to
suggest the concept “energy neutrality” at any municipal WWTP. The energy neutrality concept is
reached when processes that consume a limited amount of energy (electricity) and maximize energy
production, particularly from biomass, are integrated to the train of treatment at the WWTP. Further,
the interaction between the different fields and decision makers in Mexico should be improved. A
first approach could be done through benchmark WWTPs and pilot plants, where the benefits of
using and producing GE in-situ are shown. This is of particular interest for the ZMCM and Mexico
since there are additional economic, environmental and socio-political benefits involved in a holistic
approach to this concept.
REFERENCES
1.
Presidencia (2006). Energías Renovables para el desarrollo dustentable en México. Federal Government of Mexico. Mexico.
2.
SMADF. (2007). Program de manejo sustentable del agua para la Ciudad de México. Federal Distric Government, Secretaría
de Medio Ambiente del Distrito Federal, Secretaría de Obras y Servicios-SOS, Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de México.
Mexico. Accesed on July 12, 2012 from www.sma.df.gob.mx
3.
Tchobanoglous, G. (2003). Waste Water Engineering Treatment and Reuse. Metcalf and Eddy, Mc Graw Hill. New York,
USA.
165
Oral Presentations
Evaluation of Energy Efficiency Reserves in Pumping Stations over
Selected Pilot Stations
İhsan Mustafa Doğan1, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Semiha Öztuna2
İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ)
[email protected]
2
Trakya University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
1
Abstract The objective of the pilot monitoring and survey on energy efficiency at the old pumping station
in Kağıthane is the identification of energy conservation reserve. The aims are to identify the existing energy
efficiency, evaluation of the equipment used at plants in terms of energy efficiency, extending this study to
other pumping stations and preparing simplified efficiency monitoring methods for other pumping stations
through the experience gained.
Keywords: Pumping stations, energy efficiency.
1. INTRODUCTION
The study on identification of energy conservation reserve in Yıldırım Beyazıt Han pumping station
was conducted by establishing a work scheme under the topics of measurements and examinations.
Under measurement; the data was acquired from the inlet and outlet pressure of the pumps, pump
and engine temperatures, pump outlet flows, engine inlet power whereas under examinations they
were taken from documents on routine works, installment schemes in the pumping station, water
production and energy consumption. The improvements and changes that may provide energy
conservation and efficiency for the existing engine pumps have been identified. The cost and
amortization of the steps that will provide energy conservation have been analyzed with proper
calculations.
1.2. Capacıty Values for Yıldırım Beyazıt Han Pumpıng Statıon
Yıldırım Beyazıt Han is the pressure station that transfers network-pressure water to higher altitudes
where the drinking water from Kağıthane treatment plant cannot be supplied through gravity. The
plant which has an installed capacity of 330.000m3 is operated at a rough daily amount of 260.000m3
and annual feed capacity of 95.000.0000m3 with a pump reserved as substitute. The plant consumed
15.085.324 kwh of energy in 2011 and produced a water flow of 73.893.837m3. Figure 1 show the
hourly average flow generation - energy consumption for 2011.
Figure 1. Hourly Flow Generation and Energy Consumption
166
Water
2. Energy Survey Measurement Works Conducted and
Outcomes Derıved
As an outcome of the measurements and examinations in Yıldırım Beyazıt Han pumping stations,
seven different plant revisions were identified for energy conservation. However; only five were
seen profitable upon economical analyses. The profitable steps were analyzed as an applicable step
as a united revision proposal, and the conservable energy reserve was found to be 14 %. This rate
amounts to a minimum energy conservation of 25 million TL / year considering it as the average for
all pumping stations of İSKİ.
Findings on
Inefficiencies
N
O
Measures
to Increase
Efficiency
Conservation Amount
CO2
Investment Repayment
Decrease
Cost
Period
TEP/
Year
TL/
Year
kWh
24,721
73.511
1.143.090 kWh
98,305
292.320 1.118
0
0
1.473.108 kWh
126,68
377.340 1.441
733.220
1,68
980.546
kWh
84,326
250.753 959
2.920.500
7,87
1.379.572 kWh
118,64
416.355 1.350
4.600.000
10,7
1.055.828 kWh
90,800
270.041 1.033
1.009.620
3,24
1.550.924 kWh
133,37
397.168 1.517
265.500
0,63
2.127.198 kWh
183
543.984 2.080
993.220
1,6
Amount Unit
Ton/Year
TL
Year
Inefficiency
1
according to the
*Arrangement of
first project on the
the Collector Line
287.462
282
9.077
0,057
(21 day)
collector line
Failure to operate
2
the plant under
proper work
pressure
Changing the
plant operation
pressure
*Separating lines
3
Operating lines
with different
with different (HM)
work pressures
values on via
Operating proper
same collector
pumps according
to the pressure
Idle capacity at
4
Çelebi Mehmet
Han Treatment
Plant Pump. Stat.
Intensive operation
5
at the most costly
power tariff
6
Mehmet Han
Treatment Plant
Pumping Station
Working at the
night peak level
with increased
storage capacity
Replacement
engines and
of engine and
pumps
pumps
and pumps at
variable loads
8
capacity at Çelebi
Old age of
Operating engines
7
Using the idle
∑
* Use of AC
Engine Driver
United Revision
Proposal
Table 1. Conservation Amounts and Costs on Conservations to be Achieved Through Revisions Increasing
Efficiency
1kwh=0,978 Kg co2 (emission ESKOM 2006 report) [1]
*:revisions included within the united revision proposal
According to the energy management guidelines, chapter 19.3.2 of EİE (Electrical power resources
survey administration)
BD = [Annual profits x ((1+İO)yeö -1)] +[Junk value x(1/1+IOyeö)]
BD: Value today
167
İO: Discount rate= 0,17
[2]
Yeö: economical life of the investment [3]
VALUATION
BD > When there’s investment costgAppropriate
BD < When there’s investment costgNot appropriate
REFERENCES
168
1.
http://www.tektug.com/en/calculator.php#carbon_electricity
2.
http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/reeskont/reeskont.html
3.
http://www.gib.gov.tr/fileadmin/user_upload/Yararli_Bilgiler/amortisman_oranlari2011.html
Oral Presentations
Water
Hydrological and Hydrogeochemical Properties of Nemrut (AliagaIzmir) Port
Ertan KAZANASMAZ
General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works, Izmir, Turkey
[email protected]
Abstract İzmir-Aliağa-Nemrut Port is one of the important places for industry. Therefore, the total storage of
groundwater and its quality been evaluated for future assumption. Generally water resources of this region
have been used extensively for many applications such as iron industry. Groundwater depletion has been a
concern in this region. Increased demands on groundwater resources have overstressed aquifers in this part.
Water levels have been declined up to 50-60 m. In addition to not only sea-water intrusion increase but also
discharge of geothermal fluid on groundwater increase. The result shows that because of geothermal fluid
temperature of groundwater is increase in some region.
Keywords: Groundwater, geothermal, contamination, geoistatistic, aquifer.
Water samples were taken from wells for determine of physical and chemical properties water
quality. All data (wells information, chemical analyses of water samples, temperature of water)
were evaluated in Geographic Information System (GIS). Also this data were transfer to ArcGIS
for geoistatistical (IDW) evaluation to show distribution of water quality maps. For sustainability of
groundwater of this region, discharge, recharge and possibility of groundwater availability area and
it’s percent was determined.
2. GEOLOGY
The study area, where is in the catchment of Biçer Plain with 40 km2, is located in Aliağa, Izmir.
Volcanic and alluvium rocks are out crop in region. The Miocene- Soma formation (Ts1 ve Ts2), is
the oldest rocks in this region these rocks overlain by Aliağa Pyroclastic (Tap) and Bozdivlit basaltic
rock (Tba). All these rocks are unconformly overlain by Quaternium alluvium which is extensively
seen in study area (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Geology map of study area.
169
3. AQUIFERS
Oral Presentations
Figure 2. Distribution of temperature map
Depth of well (m)
Temperature (oC)
The average hydraulic conductivity coefficient of Soma Formation is 7,2x10-7 m/sec (0,06 m/day)
in Biçer Plain. In addition to the average hydraulic conductivity coefficient of basaltic andesite is
3,0x10-6 m/sec (0,26 m/day). Alluvium and talus consists of volcanic gravel which is carried by the
streams. The results show that the thickness of the alluvium is range between 10 m and 60 m.
4. THE EFFECT OF GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS ON GROUNDWATER
The distribution of groundwater temperature in wells and its depth is classified as 18-20oC, 2030oC, 30-40oC, 40-50oC and 28-100m, 100-200m, 200-300m, respectively. The results show that
groundwater temperature is range between 20 and 30oC in the study area. But temperature of
groundwater is change between 30 and 40oC in some wells where the depth of groundwater is
generally range between 200 and 300 m. Generally, these high temperatures in groundwater can be
seen along NE-SW trending fault which can be appeared in the east of Horozgediği region where
is located is SE of the Biçer Geothermal Field. Figure 2 show relation between tectonic zones and
geothermal systems.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
1. Study area is so important for economy of region where water resources have been used
extensively.
2. The discharge rate of groundwater is 4-5 times more than recharge of ground water in the study
area.
3. Because of the densely discharge of groundwater near shoreline, it can be seen many problems
such as sea-water intrusion.
170
Water
4. Study area is located on geothermal site. Therefore; it can be seen two important problems. First
one is discharge of hot fluid in groundwater, the second one is cold groundwater have been
effected by geothermal fluids temperature.
5. It is so important to monitor of these two systems (cold and hot groundwater). İzmir Special
Provincial Administration (İl Özel İdaresi) has a responsible to monitor and checking
geothermal field for using but cold groundwater responsible with General Directorate of State
Hydraulic Works (DSİ). Therefore, these two governmental institutes should work together for
sustainability of these resources. All the licenses should be accepted by these to institution.
6. Especially this area has one of the industrial zones where many heavy industry actively work.
Therefore; the director of this organization should do some strategic for sustainability of water
resources.
References
1.
Eşder T., Tuncay, İ., Yakabaği, A., Ölmez, E., Güner, A., “Aliağa Sahasının Jeotermal Olanaklarının Gradyan ve Araştırma
Kuyularıyla Jeoloji ve Jeofizik Olarak İncelenmesi” MTA Ege Bölge Müdürlüğü, 1994 (in Turkish)
2.
Tansuğ, Z., Şatir, M., “İzmir-Aliağa-Güzelhisar-Biçer Ovaları Rezerv Raporu” DSİ 2. Bölge Müdürlüğü, 1972(in Turkish)
3.
Şakiyan, J., “Zincox Çinko Geri Kazanım Projesi Nihai Çevresel Etki Değerlendirme Raporu” SRK Danışmanlık, 2007 (in
Turkish)
4.
Erişen, B., Akkuş, İ., Uygur, N., Koçak, A., “Türkiye Jeotermal Envanteri” MTA Genel Müdürlüğü, 1996
5.
Doğan, L., “Hidrojeolojide Su Kimyası” DSİ, 1981(in Turkish)
6.
Şahinci, A., “Yeraltısuları Jeokimyası” DEÜ, 1986(in Turkish)
7.
Bayram, A., vd., “Aliağa Çevre Durum Tespiti ve Taşıma Kapasitesinin Belirlenmesi Projesi-1. Ara Rapor” İztek A.Ş.,
Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Çevre Mühendisliği Bölümü, İzmir Yüksek Teknoloji Enstitüsü, 2009(in Turkish)
171
Oral Presentations
Mesopotamia Groundwater Quality Index Using Advanced GIS
Techniques
Ali Muhammed Jawad Al_Khafaji
National Center for Water Resources Management _Ministry of Water Resources/Iraq
[email protected]
Abstract Mesopotamia zone has a long history of irrigated agriculture that dates back to the Great
Mesopotamian civilization of the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers which forms The Shatt Al-Arab in their
confluence. Due to the lack of surface water and the increase of the demands for agriculture, the farmers
started to utilize groundwater to irrigate their farms. Suitability of groundwater for irrigation depends upon
many constrains factors. Many classifications were put to understand the groundwater quality and suitability
for agriculture. Early irrigation water quality criteria have received strong criticism from the users. It was
argued that it was not possible, nor was it correct to define clear cut boundaries between different classes of
irrigated water. The aim of this work is to present an index to classify the groundwater quality for agriculture
by using Arc GIS which provides tools to serve a purpose to create conceptual model for solving spatial
problems. A set of conceptual steps used to build a model for suitability map of groundwater for irrigation.
3D spatial analyst can interpolate the data of each constrain factor into raster (groups of cells that share
the same value represent geographic features).The rasters are reclassified by grouping ranges of values
into single value. New output raster represents the value of the rasters after making weighted overlay and
after calculating the influence of each constrain factor by using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), the
final raster shows spatial extent of groundwater quality and its suitability for agriculture, Five classes could
be distinguished in the classification range between “1 – 5” (Excellent – Unsuitable) depending upon the
hydrochemical data
Keywords: Mesopotamia, Groundwater, Quality, AHP, GIS.
1. INTRODUCTION and OBJECTIVE
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest
to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and
desert landscape. Mesopotamia has always been called “the land of Iraq” in Arabic, meaning
“the fertile” or deep rooted land. Most of the outcrops in the area are belonging to the Quaternary
deposits; these deposits are composed mostly from the clastic materials which permits water to move
easily downward toward the aquifer. According to the lithology of the wells which were drilled in
the area, there is not homogeneity in distribution of the beds horizontally and vertically. In many
areas there are beds of clay leads to move the water horizontally and not vertically. Also the area
influenced by the fluctuation of the rivers that pass through the area which lead to variation in the
groundwater table .Drainages which were established in the area left a positive influence in reducing
the salinity of the groundwater, briefly there is a great variation in the hydrogeological view in the
area represented by the variations in the quality of groundwater and the thickness of the main beds
which considered as aquifers. According to the aquifers in Mesopotamian zone which is unconfined,
the groundwater elevation ranges between 2 to 110 m. (asl). The main objective of this work is to
create an index to classify the groundwater based on the most constrains factors influencing the
agricultural species; an output raster shows the distribution of the suitability of groundwater for
agriculture, multiple data treated statistically to show us the overall quality of groundwater bodies
and its suitability for agricultural uses.
2. MATERIALS and METHODS
The Quality evaluation for agriculture depends upon many factors, from these factors; Sodium
Adsorption Ratio (SAR), soluble sodium percent (SSP), Electrical Conductivity (EC), Chloride
and Sulfate. GIS (V. 9.3) was used to produce maps using 3D spatial analysis; surface interpolation
functions create a continuous surface from sampled point values for the mentioned factors. The
rasters are reclassified by grouping ranges of values into single value.3D spatial analyst reclassifies a
range of values to an alternative value. All values on the original raster that fall within the specified
172
Water
range of values will receive the alternative value assigned to that range, so new distribution for the
constrain factors based on the suitability of the mentioned elements for agriculture. Now each factor
has new proposed suitability alternative value.
1.0
Suitability
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Factor
EC (µmohs/cm) >3000
Unsuitable
2000-3000 750-2000
Doubtful
Permissible
250-750
Good
0-250
Excellent
Na%
>80
Unsuitable
60-80
Doubtful
40-60
Permissible
20-40
Good
0-20
Excellent
Cl (ppm)
< 70
Excellent
70-140
Good
140-350
Permissible
350_500
Doubtful
>500
Unsuitable
SO4 (epm)
< 4
Excellent
4_7
Good
7_12
Permissible
12_20
Doubtful
>20
Unsuitable
SAR (unitless)
>26
Unsuitable
18-26
Permissible
10-18
Good
0-10
Excellent
Table 1. Proposed suitability alternative values
According to the new alternative values newable rasters were reproduced showing the distribution
of each constrain factor spatially. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method was used for
computation the factors weights. The cell values of each input raster are multiplied by the rasters’
weights to produce the final suitability map.
F/SUM
F/SUM
F/SUM
F/SUM
F/SUM
SUM
INF=F/SUM
0.194
EC
0.131
0.131
0.155
0.056
0.205
0.679
SAR
0.173
0.173
0.166
0.094
0.239
0.845
0.205
SO4
0.192
0.237
0.228
0.341
0.176
1.175
0.163
Na%
0.327
0.258
0.093
0.140
0.104
0.923
0.355
Cl
0.176
0.200
0.357
0.369
0.276
1.378
0.128
SUM
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.044
Table 2. Influence of each factor
From the table the influence of each factor was calculated. The cell values of each input raster are
multiplied by the rasters’ weights. The resulting cell values are added together to produce the output
raster.
Output Raster = REC x InfEC + RNa% x InfNa% + RCl x InfCl + RSAR x InfSAR + RSO4 x InfSO4
CONCLUSION
An out put raster was produced to show the groundwater index for Mesopotamian zone, this raster
was the result of the overlaying of 5 constrain factors rasters which influence on the agriculture, the
raster shows that the most predominant class was class No. 4 which is not suitable for most of the
plants.
REFERENCES
1.
Ayers,R.S.,Westcot,D.W.,1985,Water Quality for Agriculture, FAO,Irrigation & Drainage paper 29,review 1,Rome,174 p.
2.
Bresler, E.; & Hoffman, G.C. 1986. Irrigation management for soil salinity control: theories and tests. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.J.,
50:1552-1560.
3.
Hatem K. Al-Jiburi, and Naseer H. Al-Basrawi, 2011,Hydrogeology of the Mesopotamia Plain, Iraqi Bull. Geol. Min.
Special Issue, No.4, 2011: Geology of the Mesopotamia Plain PP83-103.
4.
Saaty R. W., 2004, Validation Examples for the Analytic Hierarchy Process and the Analytic Network Process, MCDM
2004, Whistler, B. C. Canada August 6-11, 2004.
173
Oral Presentations
Researching of Pollution Level of Golden Horn-Istanbul, 2012
Dr. Cevat Yaman1, Dr. Şenol Yıldız2, Dr. Orhan Sevimoğlu1, Hamdi Çinal1, Vahit Balahorli2, Fatih Hoşoğlu2, Erol
Tezcan2
Istanbul Environmental Management Industry and Trading Company
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].
tr, [email protected], [email protected]
1
1
Abstract It is required to protect lakes, reservoirs, and rivers with sensitive to the pollution to manage
environmental sustainability by taking environmental planning and prevention. Sediments from rainfall and
overflow is eventually settled in reservoirs, lakes, and rivers and it leads to form bottom sludge including
pollutants with high organic matters, and reduce the water quality by increasing biological activity.
To determine water and sludge quality in Golden Horn, 20 water and sludge samples were obtained and
analyzed on the period of May, June and July, 2012. In this study, surface and bottom water quality and the
amount of sludge need to be dredged were determined and evaluated.
Keywords: Golden Horn, bottom sludge, water quality.
1. INTRODUCTION
Transported materials and untreated wastewater leads to reduce water quality and contaminate the
creeks, rivers, and lakes, and they accumulate sediment at the bottom. Specific water depth was
reached at the filled parts of Golden Horn by the sludge dredging works made in 1997 through 1998,
and it was very important step to protect Golden Horn. By this work, bottom sludge which is an
important pollutant source was removed by dredging, water flow was provided, ambient odor was
reduced, and visual pollution was eliminated at a significant level [1].
To reach the required water quality in Golden Horn, the pollutant inflow must be prevented and
bottom sludge must be totally stabilized. Water and bottom sludge samples were taken at the different
points and depths, and analyzed to identify current situation and make precaution for Golden Horn.
2. MATERIALS and METHOD
20 water and sludge samples were obtained at the points where from Kağıthane and Alibeyköy
creeks discharged to Golden Horn to Galata Bridge. Samples were taken on the days without rains
and 2 days after raining. Surface water’s samples were obtained 30 cm depth from surface, 50 cm
from bottom for bottom water, and bottom sludge from water-sludge intersection forming the highest
part of the sludge.
Dissolved oxygen (DO), suspended solids (SS), total solid material (TS), total volatile solid material
(TVS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total kjeldahl nitrogen
(TKN), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), hydrogen sulfur (H2S), orto-phosphate phosphor (PO4-P)
and heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni) were measured for surface water samples.
DO, TS, TVS, COD, TKN, H2S, PO4-P, ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N), sulfate (SO42-) and heavy
metals were measured for bottom water samples.
TS, TVS, TKN, PO4-P and heavy metals were measured for sludge samples.
Bathymetric measurements were made inside 5:2 grid of the Golden Horn and shallow and deep
zones have been identified. In this section, the results of bathymetric measurements made in 1998
and 2012 were compared and the amount of sludge formed and decreased due to the dredging were
determined last 14 years in Golden Horn.
174
Water
3. RESULTS and DISCUSSION
3.1. Water Qualıty
The level DO in surface water was higher than the bottom water at the all sample points of Golden
Horn as expected. It can be said that anaerobic condition dominated at the bottom water region
according to DO level results. TKN content of surface water was larger than the bottom water due to
the fact that TKN reduced by biochemical reaction at the bottom water.
Surface water’s TKN content was lower than the bottom water at the upstream part of the Kağıthane
and Alibeyköy creeks’ discharge point. It was understood that SS and sediments from Kağıthane and
Alibeyköy creeks began to settle down the bottom at this point.
Salinity and density of bottom water were higher than the surface water. The water with high salinity
content has high interference on the assay of COD due to the chloride. In this study, the interference
due to the chloride was removed by dilution method.
3.2. Bottom Sludge Qualıty
TS rate inside of the bottom sludge was varied between 15% and 55% as the results of the analysis.
The rate of the TVS within TS was varied between 0,13% and %0,25. As the rate of TVS within
the sludge decreases, the rate of the inorganic material increases. According to the results, Golden
Horn’s bottom sludge is mostly inorganic origin.
Bottom sludge had the large amount of TKN and NH4-N at the upstream part of the Kağıthane
and Alibeyköy creeks’ discharge point. In this region, concentration of TKN and NH4-N as nutrient
materials was high due to the anaerobic condition.
3.3. Amount of Bottom Sludge
According to results of bathymetric measurements and the sludge dredging works made by Istanbul
Metropolitan Municipality Directorate of Sea Services, totally 239.275m³ of bottom sludge
equivalence to 17.091m³ (45.633 ton) per year accumulated in Golden Horn at the period of 1998
through 2012.
4. CONCLUSION
In Golden Horn, 20 samples obtained from surface and bottom water with bottom sludge were
analyzed and evaluated. Comparison to previous works, the amount of SS from the creeks to Golden
Horn was relatively lower than 2012’s results. The bottom sludge in the Golden Horn consists of
mostly inorganic compounds, thus it is pretty stabilized. From 2004 and onwards sludge dredging
studies are being done, but in these studies some areas of the floor of Golden Horn are dredged more
and some areas are screened less. This led to more sludge height in less dredged areas which means
in order to make the Golden Horn floor like the levels of 1998, Golden Horn floor must be dredged
regularly with appropriate technics.
REFERENCES
1.
Istanbul Water and Canalization Directorate (İSKİ), Publication No 37, Golden Horn 2001 Symposium
175
Oral Presentations
Surface Water Quality Management in Turkey
Ahmet Rıfat İLHAN, Sibel Mine GÜÇVER, Yakup KARAASLAN, Cumali KINACI, Lütfi AKCA
Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı Su Yönetimi Genel Müdürlüğü
[email protected]
Abstract The surface water quality management should be taken into account in compliance with the 5R
(Reuse, Reject, Reduce, React, Recycle) principle. However, the first step but maybe the most challenging
issue in a management process is to answer this question “who is responsible for what?”. Although there
was not a lack of national legislation drawing the framework of policies and giving some basic principles
within this framework, but there was a lack of the sustainable ecosystem based integrated management
mentality and implementation in Turkey who is not a water rich country and can even be a country facing
water scarcity in the quite near future. This challenge was mostly arising from the multi-head management of
national water issues and lack of a national strategy on water management. But the establishment of General
Directorate of Water Management in July 4, 2011 under the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs pursuant
to Decree No:645 dated June 29, 2011 to determine policies and strategies for the protection, utilization,
improvement and development of water resources can be the beginning of a new era in water management in
Turkey which has divided into 25 river basins of which 18 basins are ones which have coastlines.
Keywords: Surface, water, quality, management, Turkey.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is essential for human health and one of the engines of sustainable socio-economic
development. It is an essential element for the eradication of poverty and hunger. Water is a precious
resource which is gradually getting scarcer. More than half of the world population will be living
with water shortage within 50 years because of a worldwide water crisis, according to a report issued
by the United Nations Environment Program. In other words, it is highly unlikely that there is going
to be enough water for everybody unless the necessary steps are taken at regional and global level.
Population growth, industrialization, urbanization and rising affluence in the 20th Century resulted
in a substantial increase in water consumption. While the world’s population grew three fold, water
use increased six fold during the same period. The demand on water resources will continue to
increase during the next twenty-five years. The problem is further aggravated by the uneven water
distribution on earth [1].
The basic question we should, therefore, ask ourselves today is what governments and international
organizations should do to reverse the situation and avert a water crisis at the global level. How
much water will we need to ensure global food security for over eight billion people? How can we
ensure the adequate supply of water for irrigation and agriculture? We must also ask ourselves how
we can secure a more efficient water management system so that we could meet the very basic of
human needs. However, the first step but maybe the most challenging issue in a management process
is to answer this question “who is responsible for what?”. With respect to the situation in my country,
contrary to the general perception, Turkey is neither a country rich in freshwater resources nor the
richest country in the region in this respect. Turkey is situated in a semi-arid region, and has only
about one fifth of the water available per capita in water rich regions such as North America and
Western Europe. Water rich countries are those which have about 10.000 cubic meters of water per
capita yearly while Turkey has about only 1.500 cubic meters per capita yearly as shown below.
Another point is that Turkey’s water is not always in the right place at the right time to meet present
and anticipated needs. Certain regions of Turkey such as the Black Sea region have ample but
unusable freshwater, while some of the more heavily populated and industrialized regions such as
the Marmara and the Aegean regions lack sufficient fresh water [1].
176
Water
Country
2005 (m3/capita.year) 2023 (m3/capita.year)
Water Reach Countries (Canada,
USA, North and West Countries)
10.000 +
8.000 +
Iraq
2.110
1.400
Turkey
1.600
1.300
Syria
1.420
950
Israel
300
150
Jordan
250
90
Palestinian
100
40
Reference: Kınacı, 2012
Table 1. Water Consumption in Various Countries
Although there was not a lack of national legislation drawing the framework of policies and giving
some basic principles within this framework, but there was a lack of the sustainable ecosystem based
integrated management mentality and implementation in Turkey who is not a water rich country and
can even be a country facing water scarcity in the quite near future. This challenge was mostly arising
from the multi-head management of national water issues and lack of a national strategy on water
management. But the establishment of General Directorate of Water Management in July 4, 2011
under the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs pursuant to Decree No:645 dated June 29, 2011 to
determine policies and strategies for the protection, utilization, improvement and development of
water resources can be the beginning of a new era in water management in Turkey which has divided
into 25 river basins of which 18 basins are ones which have coastlines. By the aforementioned Decree;
determination of current situation of water resources and environmental targets of them, protection of
sustainability of aquatic life, collection of water related information in one hand, publishing required
legislation to make plans and surveys on the basin base, implementation of right plans and strategies,
providing sustainable use of water resources with the balance between protection and utilization,
ensuring coordination and cooperation with relevant organizations drawing institutional and legal
framework, strengthening the institutional capacity developing technical and economic tools in
water management, preparing and following-up action plans and their implementation, as well as,
general plans and programs which must be followed to put forward with the aim of determination,
improvement and development of water quality throughout the country and completion of related
legal arrangements with the participation of interested parties are targeted [2].
The objective of this brief paper is to reflect the current situation and recent developments of water
quality management and steps that should be taken towards sustainable ecosystem based integrated
(surface) water quality management in Turkey is discussed. In this paper issues on; “Water For
Environment And Protection Of Ecosystems In Turkey”, “Turkey’s Dependence On Water For
Energy and Food”, “Recent Developments In Turkey’s National Water Quality Management
System”, “Turkey’s National Water Management Planning and Strategy”, “Turkey’s Transboundary
and National Water Management Policy” and finally “Some Basic Principles To Build A New
National Water Management Policy For Turkey” are discussed briefly in a general and holistic
approach.
REFERENCES
1.
http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey_s-policy-on-water-issues.en.mfa (2013), Turkey’s Policy on Water Issues, Ankara-Turkey.
2.
Water Quality Management Working Group of the Forestry and Water Council (2013), Final Report of the Water Quality
Management Working Group, Ankara-Turkey.
177
Oral Presentations
Management of Water Losses from Drinking Water Distribution
Network Using SCADA and Modelling
Habib Muhammetoglu1, I.Ethem. Karadirek1, Selami Kara1, Goksenin Yilmaz1, Ayşe Muhammetoglu1, Kamil Cengiz2
Akdeniz University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Antalya, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Antalya Water and Wastewater Administration (ASAT), Antalya, Turkey
1
Abstract The aim of this study is to develop and test methodologies to reduce apparent and real water
losses from drinking water distribution networks. Konyaalti region with a population of around 60 thousand
persons in Antalya city was chosen as a pilot study area to apply this study. The area has a SCADA system
to monitor both water quantity and quality. The pilot study area was divided into 18 district metered areas
(DMA). A water balance was carried out for the pilot study area according to the approach developed by
IWA. Customer water meters of Class B were replaced by Class C. Hydraulic modelling studies were used
to reduce the excess water pressures at certain DMAs by installing pressure regulating valves. Additionally,
acoustic methods were used to detect water leakages. The applied methods were found very efficient in
reducing total water losses to great extend.
Keywords: DMA, Drinking water distribution network,Hydraulic modelling, water losses, water balance.
1. INTRODUCTION
The problem of water losses from drinking water distribution networks is common in many countries
such as Turkey, where the average yearly water losses are around 50% . Water losses can be divided
into two major types namely: 1) Real or physical water losses, and 2) Apparent or commercial water
losses. Real water losses are mainly due to the leakage from the joints, connections, holes and bursts
of the water pipes. Apparent water losses are mainly due to illegal water consumption and customer
metering inaccuracy. There are four basic methods for managing real losses namely; 1) Pressure
management, 2) Active leakage control, 3) Speed and quality of repairs, and 4) pipe material
selection, installation, maintenance, renewal and replacement. District Metered Area (DMA) is a
good approach to divide water distribution network into manageable isolated independent small
water distribution networks. The volume of water supplied to the DMA is measured by the DMA
flow meter while most of the volume of authorized consumption is determined by the water bills.
Konyaalti Water Distribution Network (KWDN) operated by Water and Wastewater Administration
of Antalya (ASAT) was chosen as a pilot study area to apply this study. KWDN is one of the major
sub-networks of Antalya water supply system and serves a population of around 60,000 people.
KWDN has the following properties: 1) It can be operated independently from the rest of Antalya
Water Supply System, ii) It has SCADA infrastructure with instruments for the on-line measurement
of water quality, hydraulic and other operational data, and iii) It is relatively new with reliable
network information.
The hydraulic and water quality model EPANET developed by US EPA was applied to the pilot study
area to predict the water pressures. EPANET model is a well documented and tested model that has
been used by many resarches for similar purposes. The input parameters required to run the model
were obtained from the Geographical Information System of ASAT, The SCADA stations, and the
records of the monthly water bills of the water subscribers. The hydraulic model was calibrated for
pipe friction coefficient by trial and error using field measurements. Model predictions showed good
agreement with field measurements.
The pilot study area was divided into 18 District Metered Areas (DMAs) for better management
of water losses. The flow rate to each DMA was measured by on-line electromagnetic flow meter.
Similarly, water pressure at the entrance to each DMA was recorded continuously by a sensitive
pressure meter. The temporal and spatial changes in water pressure at each DMA were predicted
178
Water
using the calibrated and verified EPANET model. It was noticed that there were a number of DMAs
that exhibited high water pressure values such as the Vestel DMA. Therefore, it was decided to
reduce the water pressure at the entrance to the DMA to 3 bars by installing a pressure rgulating
valve (PRV). The pressure level of 3 bars was chosden by the hydraulic model to comply with the
relevent Turkish standards for water pressures in water distribution nretworks. As a result, flow rates
were considerably reduced as shown in Figure 1. This implies reduction in real water losses as a
reduction of water pressure. Additional water losses reduction were achieved by applying acoustic
methods. On the other hand, apparent water losses were reduced to large extent by replacing the
customer water meters by more accurate ones.
Figure 1. Reduction of flow rates at Vestel DMA as a result of reducing water pressure to a constant value of 3
bars as an indication of reducing real water losses
3. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, changing the customer water meters from “Class B” to “Class C” has increased water
revenue by around 20%. This implies large reduction in apparent (commercial) water losses. ASAT
is now in the process of installing pressure regulating valves at the DMAs that exhibit high water
pressures, as determined in this study. Also, ASAT has recently purchased two well equipped vehicles
to reduce real water losses by acoustic methods after the success of the experience of this project.
Acknowledgement
This project was supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey
(TUBITAK) and Water and Wastewater Administration of Antalya (ASAT) and Akdeniz University.
179
Oral Presentations
Water Management and Studies on Decreasing Water Loss/Illegal Use
Rate
Gökhan CİNGÖZ, Fatih YILDIZ
Abstract In the realm of water management and detection and decreasing water losses / illegal uses,
sustainable water management studies have been conducted with the aim of increasing efficiency of
operations and resources (water, energy, time, labour, material, equipment etc.) and developing new method
and processes based on knowledge and technology . During the course of these studies, successful examples
from around the world have been examined, certain software have been developed by making use of GIS
(Geographical Information Systems) and these have been used in water management in a parallel manner.
Keywords: Water losses / illegal uses, Information and Technology, GIS (Geographical Information
Systems), Resource Efficiency, Sustainability.
1. INTRODUCTION
Risks including the limited availability of drinking water resources and the increasing cost of
water availability, rapid population increase, urbanization and climate change make it necessary to
decrease the water loss and illegal water use and to provide effective use of water resources. Failing
to withdraw this rate to rational levels and to manage efficiently causes efficiency of operation.
Similarly the social and economical losses thereof come to exist as factors that increase operational
costs and decrease quality and efficiency in water distribution services. The water loss / illegal water
use rate in İstanbul in 2010 was 28%, which equals to 217,84 million m3 as 28% of 778 million m3.
The water supply of other water and sewerage administrations in other metropolitan municipalities
in Turkey for 2010 are 98 million m3 in Bursa, 117 million m3 in Kocaeli, 188 million m3 in İzmir
and, 306 million m3 in Ankara. This shows that the water los / illegal use rate for İSKİ in 2010
is higher as an amount than water supplied in many metropolitan cities in Turkey. Considering
that water loss / illegal use rate in developed countries has been lowered to rates around 15%, the
economic size of what can be recovered in a year at İSKİ’s 2010 values of from 28% to 15% is
approximately 151,7 million TL. Decreasing the loss/illegal use rate shall also lead to a decrease in
economic and financial losses. In this respect İSKİ conducted and is continuing to conduct serious
studies on decreasing this rate.
2. WATER MANAGEMET AND DECREASING THE LOSS /
ILLEGAL USE RATE
A feasibility study has been conducted by İSKİ on water management and control of water loss
/ illegal use where studies conducted by International Water Association have been examined
and information has been taken on a number of performance parameters as well as international
terminology. Detailed information was received on how IWA water loss study group developed the
best practices on all aspects of water loss and that these practices are widely used around the globe
as well as on how these applications are appreciated by many actors. Equipments used for such
applications were also evaluated in this process. Successful water administrations in these areas
have been visited by İSKİ and processes to adapt the successful applications to İSKİ have started.
The following are the methods and studies developed by İSKİ to this end:
2.1. Transfer of Water Infrastructure Data to GIS Medıum and ıts Update
Infrastructure data of drinking water (pipe types, diameters, length and depth etc.) were transferred
to the system in 2003 and more than 11.000 equipages were added as virtual data as well as 1.240 km
of water network line by staff that works on-site with the İskabispatial application started in 2009.
The updating process of these data is still on.
180
Water
2.2. Plannıng of ısolated Measurement Regıons on GIS Basıs Whıle
Consıderıng the Exıstıng Flowmeters
302 flowmeters within the water system were processed to the GIS medium upon being taken as a
list from SCADA. 211 Flowmeter feed regions were identified and borders were defined. 46 of these
flowmeters were given virtual codes.
2.3. Creatıng DMA`s whıch are controlled by a Valve accordıng to
the number of customers ın every flowmeter catchment basıns
In GIS media, more than 400 valve zones are drawn and identified. Customer numbers, Connection
Numbers, Minimum and Maximum ground levels, Catchment Basins which are important
performance indicators of water loss are defined. In addition to this, to identify which valve should
be closed to fix the problems in an area can easily be seen automatically.
2.4. Preparıng Maps ın GIS to show every Customer`s Buıldıng Posıtıon
With the help of recent studies, 1.399.426 buildings are transferred into the system. 938.197 of these
buildings are matched by customers.
2.5. Developıng a GIS based Desktop and Onlıne Software that can calculate
and report Water Loss Ratıo automatıcally
We have developed software by our utility that can calculate and report water loss by the
measurements of flowmeters` ratio to billed water usage. It can be monitored permanently to
identify the zone which will be affected by the water cut. A list can be created to see which customers
are presented in these zones. Besides, water usage of a zone in a preferred time period can easily be
questioned. Feasibility studies about decreasing the water loss and leakages are being done and pilot
scale applications are still in process. Pressure management, DMA`s, modeling of water network and
using Water Leakage Detection Equipments are used to reduce water losses. By completing these
studies, water loss ratio is now reduced up to %18 and aimed to reduce up to %15.
REFERENCES
1.
İSKİ (İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi) Faaliyet Raporu (2010), BUSKİ (Bursa Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi) faaliyet
raporu (2010), İSU (Kocaeli Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi ) Faaliyet Raporu (2010), İZSU (İzmir Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi)
Faaliyet Raporu (2010) , ASKİ (Ankara Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi) Faaliyet Raporu (2010)
181
Oral Presentations
Water Status in Gaza Strip
Maher El Najjar
Coastal Municipalities Water Utility,
Abstract Gaza Strip is a semi-arid area where rainfall is falling in winter season; the rate of rainfall is
varying in Gaza Strip and ranges between 200mm/year in south to 400mm/year in north, while the long term
average rainfall in Gaza Strip is 317mm/year.
Groundwater aquifer is considered the only water source for all kind of human usage in Gaza Strip. This
source has been facing deterioration since years in both quality and quantity, which threaten human health
and existence in the area. Seawater had invaded Gaza Strip coastal zone and reaches more than 2Km with
acceleration rate of invasion. Gaza siege has also share in the current deterioration where no upgrading of
infrastructure is being implemented especially seawater desalination plants which suppose to replace water
abstracted from aquifer to relive stress.
The study shows that around 50MCM fresh water deficit yearly from groundwater replaced by saline
seawater and water level elevation declining, which threaten existence of freshwater in Gaza Strip which
lead to population immigration due to un-availability of water.
The study shows the deterioration of current and mid-term future of water quantity and quality, which
required immediate actions and measures to provide new water resources and stop abstracting groundwater.
Keywords: saline,desalination, ground water.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Gaza Strip is about 45 km long and averages 8 km wide, for a total land area of 365 km2. In The
current population of Gaza strip is estimated to be in excess of 1.5 million, destributed across five
governerates . Approximmately 90% of the population of the Gaza strip drinks water from municipal
groundwater wells and %15, mostly in agricultural areas, use private wells.
Gaza strip is a part of the coastal zone in the transitional area between the temperate mediterranean
climate to the east and north and the arid climate of the Negev and Sinai Deserts to the west and
south. As a result, the Gaza Strip has a semi-arid climate.
2. METHODOLOGY
Groundwater from the coastal aquifer is the only source of water in the Gaza Strip, The coastal
aquifer consists primarily of Pleistocene age Kurkar Group deposits, inlcluding calcareous and
silty sandstones, silts, clays, unconsoildated sands, and conglomerates. This source has been facing
deterioration since years in both quality and quantity, which threaten human health and existence in
the area. Seawater had invaded Gaza Strip coastal zone and reaches more than 2km with acceleration
rate of invasion. Gaza siege has also share in the current deterioration where no upgrading of
infrastructure is being implemented especially seawater desalination plants which suppose to replace
water abstracted from aquifer to relive stress.
3. CONCLUSION & RECOMENDATION
The study shows that around 50MCM fresh water deficit yearly from groundwater replaced by saline
seawater and water level elevation declining, which threaten existence of freshwater in Gaza Strip
which lead to population immigration due to un-availability of water.
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Figure 1. Gaza base map
REFERENCES
1.
Shomar,B., Yahya, A., and Muller, G. (2006). Occurrence of pesticides in the groundwater and the topsoil of the Gaza Strip,
Water, Air , and Soil pollution, 171 (1-4), 237-251.
2.
Water Situation in the Gaza Strip, Year 2007/2008 CMWU (Coastal Municipalities Water).
3.
W Shomar, B. (2006) ground water of the Gaza strip: Is it drinkable? Environmental Geology, 50(5)743-751.
183
Oral Presentations
Breakdown Monitoring via Pressure Maps in Water Network Operations
Kubilay KÖKER1, Nadir MAZLUM2
Branch Manager - İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ)
Subscribe Affairs Department , Europian Region 1 - Kağıthane Branch Manager
[email protected]
2
Civil Engineer - İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ)
Subscribe Affairs Department , Europian Region 1 - Kağıthane Branch
[email protected]
1
Abstract In order to provide potable water to subscribers and maintain continuity in high service quality,
it is an utmost importance to master the water network and make use of the existing data analysing as
much as possible. To this end, it is possible to make use of certain applications upon developing them over
Geographical Information Systems (GIS).
This study aims at detecting losses and leakages in the network by making use of the pressure changes in
the network with the “Breakdown Monitoring via Pressure Maps in Water Network Operations” [1] taken into
operation at Kağıthane Branch of the Subscribe Affairs Department, European Region 1 within İstanbul
Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ).
Keywords: Drinking Water, Pressure, Breakdown Monitoring, GIS.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pipe wreckages and private pipe failures happen underground and are not visible over the soil,
making the decrease of pressure impossible to be noticed by the users may take time to detect and so,
water losses of lengthy duration may occur.
In order to enable resolution of breakdowns, occasional wreckages of network pipes, plugs, etc. as
rapidly as possible, preventing losses and leakages and thus increasing the network efficiency and
the quality of service for subscribers, Kağıthane Branch Office has commenced monitoring of the
pressure changes with an approach on the network called “Point Monitoring Control in a Confined
Space”.
2. USE OF COLOURED PRESSURE MAPS
2.1. Preparıng Data Requıred for Pressure Map Use
The work orders written for the addresses of water cut complaints coming to the telephone stations of
the Branch Office are handed over to field teams to be conducted. The team repair the breakdown at
the address of the complaint and they measure the pressure value at the foundation level altitudes of
those buildings to find out the pressure average value in the pipeline of that street. Upon repair works
conducted each day at different locations, the periodic pressure value measurement results obtained
at chosen critical points of the highest and lowest altitude points of closed zones to monitor the
condition of the water network of the given region are delivered to the technical staff within the same
day. Upon this information delivery, all data including the breakdown fixing addresses, pressure
values, ground floor altitude values and other information is entered to GIS İSKABİS (Infrastructure
Information System of İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration)
The related departments in İSKİ have provided the necessary infrastructure in the software to
provide stability and follow-up of the change of pressure values in the network route recorded over
İSKABİS. In this scope, the following colour spectrum is created for the pressure values of certain
ranges and these values measured can be shown by the defined colours on a point basis on the map.
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2.2. Detectıon of Breakdown vıa Evaluatıon for an Area wıth Poınt-Based
Uploaded Pressure Values
Since how many bars of water line shall exist in which street is known thanks to the data collected in
İSKABİS over time, when the breakdown occurs, the pressure measurement from that region shall
enable pursuit of pressure values along the route and narrowing the area via “Point Pursuit in Narrow
Area” approach to obtain the street and building address for the breakdown as explained in Sample
Application.
Sample Application:
When several water cut complaints were made from lower altitudes of İbrahim Karaoğlanoğlu Road
in Seyrantepe on 15.03.2012, the field teams conducted pressure measurements from lower altitudes
to higher starting from the buildings with complaints. Pressure Map was created upon uploading
the outcomes of the measurements to İSKABİS. By comparing the pressure map prepared with the
measurement outcomes of that day and the pressure value maps taken from that region in the past,
the point location of the breakdown was identified via the pressure differences in Figure 1 and 2.
Figure 1. Pressure Values Measured on 15.01.2012 Figure 2. Pressure Values Measured on 15.03.2012
Upon the point dig at the third location coloured in yellow where pressure decreases from 3 bars to
1,5 bars in Figure 2, the blocked pipe was found to be full of stones and the pressure went back to
normal after cleansing.
3. ADVANTAGES OF PRESSURE MAPS IN WATER NETWORK OPERATIONS
Pressure maps in water network operations provide:
• Proper diagnosis on water scarcity in the field in a short time, detecting the breakdown location by
narrowing down the tracking area and avoiding unnecessary digs in more than one location.
• Storing the data and making it usable independent of human memory.
• Analysis of data recorded and their use in regional planning.
• Ability to use all valves in operation on a street basis by operating this system.
• Conducting the continuous monitoring of the network in the region with a similar serious approach
like that of “Following a Person’s Pulses”.
• Infrastructure for the automation for operation of water network under Ǿ300mm diameter.
REFERENCE
1.
Application of Infrastructure Information System in Kağıthane Branch Directorate in İstanbul Water and Sewerage
Administration, İstanbul - Turkey, 2012 (In this study, there isn’t any quotation from another source.)
185
Oral Presentations
Safe Infrastructure against Natural Disasters
Cemalettin KALELİ
Branch Manager – İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ)
Beşiktaş-Sarıyer Branch Manager
[email protected]
Abstract Upon recent earthquakes in various developed countries it was seen that water and sewerage
systems are of vital importance. The issue was handled in Turkey after the 17 August 1999 quake as a
problem requiring urgent solution and various cities in Anatolia tried to replace their infrastructure systems,
particularly drinking water network which were basically based on asbestos cement and font pipes with
DF ductile font and HDPE pipes which are also used by İSKİ that did not get severely affected by the
earthquake. Although Istanbul had few minor scratches in infrastructure after the Marmara earthquake,
hundreds of damages were reported and certain neighborhoods failed to receive water service for days.
Worst challenges after the quake was the water transportation that broke due to failures and breaks at the
main transmission lines and network lines, and failure to address to fires upon the quake, loss of lives due
to flooding water into basement residences. Studies conducted upon quakes show that two big impacts of
seismic movements on infrastructure systems are fractures on the pipe walls due to pressure and twisting and
separation of pipes from connection points due to earth movements. This paper discusses the measures to
prevent such separation due to seismic waves caused by earthquakes.
Keywords: Earthquakes, Waterpipe, Damage, Safety, Connection.
1. EARTH MOVEMENTS AND TRANSITION PROCESS TO SAFE
INFRASTRUCTURE
From recent history towards current day, tends of quakes and similar disasters have occurred and
costed many lives as well as economical damages that may shake state economies. Experience upon
the need to use water to be used for urban population for fire extinguishing services after the 1906
San Francisco quake directed scientists towards valves that automatically switch off upon sensing a
quake and possible fires have been prevented with the automatically switched off valves during the
1933 Long Beach quakes. In Kobe quake in 1995 it was clearly seen that water pipes in Japan failed
to meet even the basic requirements at the time. Damaged transmission plants and pipes that were
disconnected stopped the water supply and fires were not addressed on time [2]. Studies on earthquake
conditions of infrastructures have gained acceleration in Japan after Kobe quake and in the USA after
the 1971 San Fernando; and a long path has been covered in infrastructure management maintenance
and supply against earthquakes.
Unless necessary measures are taken, earthquakes bring along serious damage. Movements of the
earth resulting in collapses and/or breaking damage the existing ecological and urban structures.
Residences collapse on people, public buildings stay out of order, utilities are damaged and the water
/ channel networks fail to operate. Since it would be impossible to supply processed water to the city
via the damaged water network, fire response would fail, flooding and leaking water would cause
casualties, and survivors would not have access to clean water. Consequently polluted water used
by survivors shall bring along epidemics. Upon the Haiti earthquake that occurred on 12 January
2010 causing a casualty number of 316.000, 3.000 people died of the cholera epidemic that caught
8.000 people through the water scarcity. Recent cases have shown that local governments and water
utilities should pay importance to making sure the water and wastewater systems remain in duty after
an earthquake. The material type to be used in the rehabilitation of the existing lines and construction
of recent infrastructure should be chosen considering the type of the soil, material quality, traffic
load, other infrastructure facilities as well as the earthquake factor. Conducting any implementation
to that end should also be based on specifications prepared accordingly.
2. INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS THAT SUIT EARTH MOVEMENTS
Scientists examining the seismic movements of the earth point to a fault line with high energy in
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Turkey. Known as the North Anatolian fault line and extending from the east to the west of Turkey’s
northern regions, this fault line caused 12 major earthquakes since 1939 and is claimed to have more
energy at its western parts than eastern parts, which means the authorities responsible for the unique
metropolitan city of Istanbul should address the earthquake issue more seriously. Responsible for
the infrastructure of the city, İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ) has renewed all
the water network infrastructure in İstanbul since 1994 and has become a large institution currently
responsible for the operation, maintenance and repair works of 10 reservoirs, 15 water treatment
plants, 114 storage tanks, 91 pumping stations and 17.600 km of water network where 2000 km is
the length of transmission line. 1000 km of the pipelines under İSKİ’s responsibility is steel and has a
diameter of 1000 mm and more. These are welded to connection points in the network. The remaining
16.500 km is rehabilitated with ductile font pipes to stand flexible against earth movements. All
pipes except for the fitting materials of the ductile font distribution line pipes (30% have flange
connection) are bell mouth pipes. Pipe failures commonly observed are vertical and horizontal
emissions except for the twisting at seismic movements and disconnection from connection points
and fractures at landslide zones. Particularly in regions under earthquake zone risk and with higher
densities of population, infrastructure and traffic (such as Zeytinburnu, Avcılar, Bağcılar), different
connection types that maintain flexibility like that of bellmouth connections that are inseparable
for the security of the transmission line (this is also why flange connections are not appropriate).
Countries that compete in better water management have started investing in these issues besides the
topics of quality of material and application, remote monitoring, technological repairing methods,
non-revenue water monitoring.
In Japan, a seismic country, where the infrastructure of many cities including Osaka, Kobe and Tokyo
has very recently and swiftly been replaced, serious studies have been conducted on increasing the
earthquake performance of the infrastructure. In studies conducted to see the reaction of buried
piping, different methods than the ground pipes should be used as ground facilities do not have the
heterogeneous pressure that continuously changes its location during seismic movements due to the
soil cover. Pipes and connection pieces that may even change their shape due to this pressure shall
inevitably undergo some damage during an earthquake if they are not flexible enough. Therefore,
many countries, with Japan as a leader, have directed themselves to mobile connection points.
Depending on the importance level of the location to supply water for, normal connections like the
T, K or A type as well as NS and S types with ever connected pipes for risky regions are preferred [1].
DF pipes are grouped according to connection types, intended purpose of use and application types:
1- Push-on Connection Types:
T Type: Also used within İSKİ, this connection type can be used in ø 75- ø 2000 mm diameters and
risk-free rock surfaces [Figure 1].
NS Type: Designed to stand against an earthquake, can be used in ø 75- ø 450 mm diameters and
less risky areas [Figure 2].
2- Mechanical Connection Types:
A and K Types: Can be used between ø75-ø2600 mm diameters at less risky areas [Figure 2]
S Type: Used at risky areas of earthquakes and landslides for transmission lines between ø 500- ø
2600 mm [Figure 4]
Figure 1. T Type
Figure 2. NS Type
187
Figure 3. A and K Type
Oral Presentations
Figure 4. S Type
Figure 5. Durability test
REFERENCES
188
1.
Şehirlerde Su Temin Sist.nin İşletilmesi Bak.ve Onarımı C.KALELİ Japonya Eğitim Notları 2009
2.
Beşinci Ulusal Deprem Mühendisliği Konferansı, 26-30 Mayıs 2003, İstanbul Fifth National Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, 26-30 May 2003, Istanbul, Turkey Bildiri No: AT-128
Water
Objectives and Distances Done in the Groundwater Management of
Turkey
Özgür GÜNHAN, Özgür ÇAKMAK, Yakup KARAASLAN
Abstract The differences in approaches and perspectives of legislation that was used up to present and “new
legislation” about groundwater management in our country are focused on this study. Improvements via
By-Law on The Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration, which has been prepared
for harmonization of European Union’s groundwater legislation to our national legislation, are also stated
by doing this comparison. Moreover, importance of having comprehension of the new concepts, which
have been added to Turkey’s legislation thanks to the By-Law, is remarked. Why a new approach about
groundwater management was needed and what are the advantages-disadvantages of this new approach is
discussed. The Bay-Law, EU Directives and official documents of institutions that are authority in view
of groundwater management have been scanned and a comparison was done for this study. EU Guidance
Documents and member states’ reports were also reviewed for the study. This study aims to take a
comparative photo of Turkey between today’s groundwater management approach and the earlier one.
Keywords: Groundwater, approach, legislation, directive, management.
1. INTRODUCTION
By-law on Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration including the provisions of
Groundwater Directive as well as related provisions of Water Framework Directive has been taken
into effect in 07.04.2012. This by-law has become a milestone for groundwater management issues
in Turkey as soon as entering into force. By the publication of the By-Law, studies in accordance
with the By-Law in our country have gained momentum. However, there has not yet been a study
focusing on new approaches, new concepts in the assessment of the quality and content of these
concepts. In this sense, this study aims to remedy this gap.
2. OBJECTIVES, METHODS AND DISCUSSIONS
The earlier legal and institutional system of Turkey was far away to provide for an appropriate
groundwater management. Moreover this earlier legal system did not meet requirements of
Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC) and groundwater issues of Water Framework Directive
(2000/60/EC). Establishing of Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and announcement of the Bylaw on Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration was a milestone in groundwater
management. The by-law filled a huge gap in groundwater issues via its new definitions, detailed
criteria and sanctions. This new administrative structure and legal system made Turkey step up in
groundwater management.
In this context, respecting the necessity to develop a new approach and legal framework about
groundwater in our country, By-law on Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration
including the provisions of Groundwater Directive as well as related provisions of Water Framework
Directive has been taken into effect in 07.04.2012. By this By-Law, “threshold value”, “groundwater
body”, “reversal of significant and sustained upward trends” and “groundwater quality standards”
as well as many concepts entered into Turkey’s groundwater management literature. Moreover,
determination of groundwater bodies, characterization and designing a measures program took place
in the new issue. Together with the publication of the regulation, full compliance of the national
legislation with the relevant EU legislation has been done.
Concepts such as “Threshold value”, “determination of groundwater bodies and their
characterizations”, “assessments of significant and sustained upward trends” and “groundwater
quality standards” can be understood by focusing on Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC),
groundwater issues of Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), By-law on Protection of
Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration and guidance documents published by the
189
Oral Presentations
European Commission for the management of groundwater together.
New approaches in groundwater management will provide to take advantage of previous work
and projects in the European Union and pave the way to increase communication and cooperation
between our country and states and institutions carrying out related works. On the other hand,
capacities and structure of the institutions related to groundwater management were for earlier
groundwater approaches. New concepts and new legislation need new structures, improvement
capacities, additional budget, trainings and so on. Therefore, it is obvious that, in addition to lots of
advantages, new legislative system will have some disadvantages. Nonetheless, these disadvantages
will be valid for short term. As authorities strengthen their capacities and adapt their structures to
these new groundwater management methods, the disadvantages will disappear gradually.
REFERENCES
190
1.
European Commission. (2008). Groundwater Protection of Europe, Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities, Luxembourg.
2.
European Parliament and of The Council. (2006). “Directive 2006/118/EC of The European Parliament and of The Council
of 12 December 2006 on the Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration.” Official Journal of the
European Union., Dec. 12
3.
European Commission. (2010). “Turkey 2010 Progress Report”, Commission Staff Working Document, Brussels.
4.
Bruin, E.F.L.M., Putter P., Botterweg, T., Egeli, G. (2007). “Final Report Task 3 Pilot Groundwater Management Plan
Küçük Menderes Project Reference Number: PPA05/TR/7/8” Strengthening the Capacity of Sustainable Groundwater
Management, Netherlands.
5.
Bruin, E.F.L.M., Putter P., Botterweg, T., Egeli, G. (2007). “Final Report Task 1 and 2, Juridical and Institutional Results
Project Reference Number: PPA05/TR/7/8.” Strengthening The Capacity of Sustainable Groundwater Management,
Netherlands.
6.
Dogan, A. (2010). Groundwater Quality Management in EU and Turkey, General Directorate of Environment Management,
Ankara.
7.
European Parliament and of The Council. (2006). “Directive 2006/60/EC of The European Parliament and of The Council of
12 December 2006 on Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Water Policy.” Official Journal of the
European Union., Oct. 23.
8.
Prime Ministry of Turkey Republic. (2012). “By-law on Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration.”
Official Journal of the Turkey Republic., Apr.7.
Water
A New Approach for Long Lead Prediciton of Reservoir Inflows
Mehmet Özger1, Halil İbrahim Türkoğlu2
Istanbul Technical University Civil Engineering Faculty
2
İstanbul Water and Sewer Management (İSKİ)
1
Abstract To predict the inflow to reservoirs in advance is very crucial in planning the water distribution
schedules and long term operations for decision makers. It is well known that inflows exhibit random
characteristics and it is difficult to predict them. In this study, it is aimed to predict reservoir inflows for long
lead times (1-12 months). Inflows changes month to month depending on meteorological conditions and
basin characteristics. The inflows can be taken as random variables that vary with time. Stochastic processes
can be used to investigate such time series. In this study Auto regressive moving average (ARMA) approach
is used as a classical technique to model time series. On the other hand Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is
employed to make long lead predictions. To increase the model accuracy wavelet-ANN (WANN) technique
is used. It is shown that WANN approach outperforms the ARMA and the ANN models. WANN modeling
technique exhibit the best performance especially in long-lead predictions (6-12 months) compared to
classical techniques. The application of this technique is achieved for a reservoir located in Istanbul.
Keywords: Reservoir inflows, prediction, wavelets, artificial neural networks.
1. INTRODUCTION
Reservoir inflow forecasting plays a significant role in mitigation of impacts of deficit (surplus) on
water resources systems and therefore is essential for reservoir system control and management.
Accurate forecasting models are required in optimum control of water availability, operation of
reservoirs and improved hydropower generation. Therefore, an accurate forecasting model is
indispensable for decision makers. Several approaches have been introduced over the past few years
based on stochastic modeling or artificial intelligence (AI) techniques.
In general there are two main approaches to model reservoir inflows which are physical and
computational models. While physical models require parameters, field inspections and laboratory
experiments, computational models can be implemented only using numerical data and are easy
to use. In practical applications computational methods are preferred such as stochastic modeling,
artificial neural networks (ANN), fuzzy logic modeling and etc. Recently it has been shown that
ANN and fuzzy models are suitable alternatives for modeling of the nonlinear and non-stationery
time series when compared to conventional modeling approaches[1]. Fuzzy logic models are also
used in time series modeling[2].
Lin and Wu [3] proposed a radial basis function (RBF) network with a new learning algorithm for
reservoir inflow forecasting model. Sattari et al. [4] investigated the potential of Time Lag Recurrent
Neural Networks (TLRN) for modeling the reservoir inflows. They found that neither TLRN nor
back propagation approaches were good in forecasting high inflow but, both approaches perform
well when used to forecast low inflow values.
Although there are several approaches to predict reservoir inflows, most of them can not make
accurate predictions for long lead times (especially for 6-12 months). Therefore, the main goal of
this study is to propose a wavelet artificial neural network approach to make long lead time reliable
predictions. Omerli reservoir which supplies potable water to Istanbul is selected as study area.
2. WAVELET ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
Wavelet transform is a technique that looks like Fourier transform. While Fourier analysis uses sinus
and cosines functions to make transformations from time domain to frequency domain, wavelet
technique uses wavelets which are small waves that grow and decay over a small distance. Time
series include different patterns, such as periodicity, trend, noise which are the results of different
mechanisms affecting the process. Filtering such patterns helps understand the behavior of time
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Oral Presentations
series. One of latest techniques used for filtering time series in time and scale domains is the wavelet
transform. There is a tendency to filter the data before its use especially in prediction problems.
Several researchers ([5], [6]) have proposed that it is better to make predictions after decomposing
both predictors and predictand into several bands. Wavelet transform makes it possible to separate
time series into its subseries (bands). Average wavelet spectra obtained from continuous wavelet
transform is used to determine subseries (Figure 1). Subsequently, it is required to relate each band
of predictors to the corresponding band of predictand with a statistical scheme. Here, we use ANN
models to establish a connection between predictors and the predictand band.
Figure 1. a) A sample continuous wavelet and b) average wavelet spectra
REFERENCES
1.Özger, M. and Şen, Z. (2007). Prediction of wave parameters by using fuzzy logic approach, Ocean Engineering, 34, 3-4,
460-469;
2.Özger, M., (2009). Comparison of fuzzy inference systems for streamflow prediction, Hydrologıcal Scıences Journal, 54, 2,
261-273.
3.
Lin, G.F. and Wu, M.C. (2011). An RBF network with a two-step learning algorithm for developing a reservoir inflow
forecasting model, Journal of Hydrology, 405, 3–4, 439-450
4.
Sattari, M.T., Yurekli, K. and Pal, M. (2012) Performance evaluation of artificial neural network approaches in forecasting
reservoir inflow, Applied Mathematical Modelling, 36, 6, 2649-2657
5.
Webster, P.J., and Hoyos, C.D, (2004), Prediction of monsoon rainfall and river discharge on 15-30-day time scales, Bulletin
of the American Meteorological Society, 85, 11, 1745-1765.
6.Özger, M., (2010). Significant wave height forecasting using wavelet fuzzy logic approach, Ocean Engineering, 37, 16,
1443–1451.
192
Water
Determination and Management of Sensitive Areas on the Basis of
Watershed in Turkey
Necla ADALI, Zakir TURAN, Yakup KARAASLAN
Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı
[email protected], [email protected], ykaraaslan @ormansu.gov.tr
Abstract Eutrophication is a water quality problem as a biological event that formed under the influence
of many factors. Ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, and other inorganic substances which are the main
reasons of eutrophication and formed due to microbial decomposition of organic waste not only affect
benthic organisms, but also lead to a change in habitat and result in the formation of sensitive areas. In this
regard, determination of sensitive areas, generation of a methodology to do this and implementation of the
measures regarding to prevention of eutrophication is of great importance.
In this study, sensitive water areas in terms of water pollution, nitrate vulnerable water areas in the surface
waters, water quality objectives and measures to be taken to improve water quality will be determined in
twenty five river basin in Turkey.
“Watershed-Based Integrated Water Management Approach” that is being implemented by the Member
States of the European Union under the Water Framework Directive has been adopted in Turkey, and also
determination and management of sensitive areas will be considered in this approach.
Keywords: sensitive water areas, eutrophication, integrated water management.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the basic elements of life and also it is a natural resource which has social and
economic value. Despite continuous increasing in water demand, only 3% of water on earth can be
used as fresh waters. Water shortage formed due to climate change resulting from global warming,
drought, population growth, industrialization, agricultural activities and increasing the amount
of water consumed per person requires studies on efficient use of water resources, prevention of
pollution, protection and improvement of water quality.
Urban wastewaters, industrial wastewaters and runoff waters from agricultural areas both
change ecological structure of the current system and lead to degradation of water quality and
overgrowth of algae due to the nutrients by affecting directly and indirectly physical, chemical and
biological processes of aquatic environment. Eutrophication occurs over time as a result of death
and deterioration of algeas with decrease in the amount of oxygen in the water.[1] Eutrophication
is a water quality problem as a biological event that formed under the influence of many factors.
Eutrophication also have adverse effects on species diversity and lead to reduction of usable water
for human use, e.g. consumption, recreation and industrial needs.[1] Especially, detection of types
of pollutants and nutrients in water bodies which are considered limits the eutrophication are the
most important issues on management of sensitive water areas.[2] Natural freshwater lakes, other
freshwater bodies, estuaries and coastal waters are defined sensitive water areas that are eutrophic
or which in the near future may become eutrophic if protective action is not taken.[3] Sensitive water
areas within the scope of the project, will be evaluated for two separate groups that affected by
“agricultural activities” and “urban and industrial activities”.[1]
2. METHODOLOGY
Water resources should be considered with integrated water management approach which include
physical, social, economic and environmental factors by meeting the requirements of current and
future. This issue have been raised in recent years and started to be implemented in other countries.
The basis of integrated management of water is to accept water both natural resource and as a
commodity which may change depending on the purpose of use as well as the quantity and quality.
[4]
In Europe, water legislation has been implementing under Water Framework Directive (WFD) by
adopting the integrated water management. The Water Framework Directive reveals a more coherent
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Oral Presentations
and integrated approach for the management of eutrophication in water by fully taking into account
the requirements of the Nitrates Directive and Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive.
In the context of harmonization of the WFD to national legislation in Turkey, studies are ongoing
related to determination and management of sensitive areas. In this project, sensitive water areas in
terms of water pollution, nitrate vulnerable water areas in the surface waters, water quality objectives
and measures to be taken to improve water quality will be determined in twenty five basin in Turkey.
The project started in September of 2012 and will be completed by the end of 2015.
In the project, firstly, available water bodies will be determined on surface waters in the twenty five
basin. Pressures and pollution loads that resulted from urban, industrial and agricultural activities
will be determined on the basis of the basin in water bodies. Then, water pollution will be determined
experimentally by monitoring activities. After all, sensitive water areas will be determined for inland
waters by evaluating the data which are obtained as a result of pollution loads and monitoring in
surface waters (including coastal and transitional waters). On the other hand, water quality objectives
regarding sensitive water areas and measures that are necessary to improve water quality including
wastewater treatment systems will be determined. And also specific water quality models developed
for our country will be used in this project. Finally, measures determined in accordance with the
water quality objectives, will be reviewed.
REFERENCES
194
1.
Guidance Document No:23., (2009). Guidance Document On Eutrophication Assessment In The Context Of European
Water Policies
2.
Karpuzcu, M., Koçali, M., Eutrophication in Lakes and Solution Proposals .
3.
By-Law of Urban Waste Water, (2006).
4.
Evsahibioğlu, N., Aküzüm T., Çakmak, B., (2010). Management of Water, Strategies for Water Use and Trans-boundary
Waters: Turkey Agricultural Engineering VII. Technical Congress, Ankara-Turkey
5.
Guidance Document No:2, (2003). Guidance Document On Identification of Water Bodies
6.
Guidance Document No:3, (2003). Guidance Document On Analysis of Pressures and Impacts
7.
Pipp,E.(1997). Klassifikation Oberösterreichischer Fließgewässer Anhand DerKieselalgen. Wasserwirtschaftskataster,
BMLF (Hrsg.), Wien.
8.
By-Law of the Management of Surface Water Quality, (2012)
9.
Technical Assistance Project On Implementation of Nitrates Directive, Report 3.7, 2012
Water
Water Saving Potential in Tourist Resorts
Demet Antakyalı, Doğan Çuha, Fatih Pullu, Heidrun Steinmetz
Universitaet Stuttgart,
Institut fuer Siedlungswasserbau, Wasserguete- und Abfallwirtschaft, Bandtaele 2, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
[email protected]
Johnson Diversey,
Değirmendere Cad. Huzur Hoca sok., No:86, K:22, TR-34752 Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
Abstract The overall objective of the application is to provide a baseline of water use efficiency that defines
a water flow map and potential opportunities for improvement, followed by recommendations of specific
projects to achieve targeted improvement. The process consisted of a two stage audit system. Following
the survey, quantitative targets for water utilization improvement are defined and strategic solutions such as
recycling or reusing are discussed.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, water saving potential, AquaCheck, water use, wastewater reuse.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most essential sources of life. Not only its availability but also its quality plays
a vital role for humans. Increasing modern activities cause a rapid deterioration of clean water
resources, mass tourism can be counted among these, too.
Within the past 15 years the growth of the tourism sector became remarkable[7]. Today tourism reaches
a large layer of people and counts among major and most dynamic economic activities[5]. Figure1
presents the future estimations of World Tourism Organisation (WTO) regarding the worldwide
contribution in the tourism activities. Considering the recent trends, further growth and propagation
of the sector is expected worldwide in oncoming years, particularly Europeans are expected to travel
more. However, tourism causes a certain environmental impact, which may endanger the sector’s
future. WTO and UNEP have underlined the importance of the environment also to the economic
sustainability of tourism [8].
South Asia
1980
2000
Africa
2020
Near East
East Asia and Pacific
Americas
Europe
World
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90% 100%
C ontribution of the population
Figure 1. Future estimation of World Tourism Organisation on the worldwide contribution in the tourism activity
Tourists staying in hotels tend to use more water than at home[6][4]. The pressure of irrigation and
tourism often occurs in the period of minimum or low water resource renewal, ensuring that possible
negative environmental impacts are maximised [2]. In drier regions like the Mediterranean, the issue of
water scarcity is of particular concern and tourism produces significant problems in peak seasons [10].
With the foreseeable growth in tourist flows and the increase in the demand for water, management
of the water resources is becoming a major challenge for Mediterranean countries and the tourism
sector [3]. The facts indicate a strong dependency of the tourism sector on the availability of the clean
water and emphasise the importance of proper use of the resources. Moreover, applications such as
water reuse would obtain both financial savings and advertisement for hotels [1].
195
Oral Presentations
The study aims to estimate the water saving potential in large tourist resorts through combined
evaluations of scientific and industrial case studies conducted mainly in the Mediterranean region.
2. METHODOLOGY
Water use in several stations of hotels was determined by the AquaCheck application. The overall
objective of the application is to provide a baseline of water use efficiency that defines a water flow
map and potential opportunities for improvement, followed by recommendations of specific projects
to achieve targeted improvement. The process consists of a two stage audit system. Within the first
stage the overall historical water use is developed, seasonal trend and variability in used water
volumes are defined, effluent loading and cost trend are analysed and the elements for environmental
performance reporting are provided. The second stage focuses on the developing a detailed water
balance and cost analysis by each water use station and defining the primary contamination sources.
Following the survey, quantitative targets for water utilization improvement are defined and strategic
solutions such as recycling or reusing are discussed. Finally an upscaling was conducted based on
the WTO statistics and probable scenarios.
3. FINDINGS AND ARGUMENTS
The investigations showed that the main water users in tourist resorts were the guestrooms, technical
facilities and swimming pools. The distribution differed from hotel to hotel, depending on the
available facilities, however, also on the water management. For instance, water usage in technical
units (kitchen, laundry etc.) could be reduced from 36% to 28% through small technical changes. The
potentials for direct water saving were basically due to the misusage and overusage in departments,
which often went unnoticed by the operators. The largest potentials were determined in laundries and
kitchens, followed by the other technical units. Swimming pools consumed approximately 20% of
the total potable water in most of the studies. Regarding the relatively good water quality originating
from these units, a remarkable reuse and consequently an indirect saving potential can be seen for
tourist resorts with such facilities.
4. CONCLUSION
Direct saving potentials compiled from the conducted studies were mainly between 15-35% per
hotel. This number can be increased by indirect savings through reuse of wastewater after a suitable
treatment and improved operation programs in technical units. Details will be given in the full paper.
REFERENCES
1.
Antakyali, D., Krampe, J. and Steinmetz, H. (2008). Practical Reuse of Wastewater in Tourist Resorts. Wat. Sci. Tech .57(12)
2051–2057
2.
EC (2007). European Commission Technical Report, Mediterranean Water Scarcity and Drought Report, Number - 009 –
2007
3.
EC (2009). MEDSTAT II: Water and Tourism Pilot Study. Environment and energy, Methodologies and working papers,
KS-78-09-699-EN-C
4.
Farsari, Y., Butler, R., Prastacos, P. (2007). Sustainable tourism policy for Mediterranean destinations: issues and
interrelationships. Int. J. Tourism Policy 1(1)
5.
Manera, C. and Taberner, J. G. (2006). The Recent Evolution and Impact of Tourism in the Mediterranean: The Case of
Island Regions, 1990-2002. FEEM Working Paper No. 108.06. August.
6.
Gössling, S. (2002). Global environmental consequences of tourism. Global Env. Change 12 283-302
7.
UNEP (2005). Tourism Expansion: increasing threats, or conservation opportunities. Environment Alert Bulletin, Nr.6,
United Nations Environment Programme, April
8.
UNWTO (2005). Making tourism more sustainable: a guide for policy makers, Madrid
9.
UNWTO (2008) Tourism Highlights, 2008 Edition
10. WWF (2006) Drought in the Mediterranean: WWF Policy Proposals by N. Isendahl and G. Schmidt, July
196
Water
Framing the Chemistry of Himalayan Water Conflict in South Asia in
Perspective of Climate Change
Dr. Musarrat Jabeen, Dr. Aamara Mumtaz, Mariam Arif,
Development Studies, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan
[email protected]
Abstract The efficient use of water is of prime importance as the growing water scarcity warrants impending
conflicts at intra and interstate level. The study investigates the inherently political nature of cross border
water resources. The objective of the study is to formulate its thrust as framing the chemistry of Himalayan
water conflict in South Asia in perspective of climate change. This paper anchors water system of the
Himalayas engaging India and Nepal, (upper riparian states) and Bangladesh, Pakistan, (lower riparian
states) in South Asia keeping away Maldives, Sri Lanka because they are islands and Bhutan is ideally water
sufficient in comparison to other states of South Asia.
Keywords: Water, Climate Change, Conflict.
1. Introductıon
Water system entails security sense when it is cognizant through economic designs and political
systems. Water system infringed by; global climate change extremes of drought/flood, water demand
patterns, strategic manipulation of water resources will cause and effect conflict in South Asia.
The six principles of political realism,‟as developed by Hans Morgenthau in twentieth century; we
underscore the composition and properties of water conflict in South Asia, changes in causative
factors of conflict and principles which govern these changes. The authors provide four-D strategy
to manage water resources in South Asia, and underscore facets such as the dynamics of decision
making support system, the changing scope of decision making, the political prudence, and the
global vicinity.‟ The authors conclude the paper with conclusions that water security is potentially
relevant to public, policy decision making, and business. Water security in political setting can
contribute to help decision makers to affect shifts in their perception paradigms, context and practice
that are needed for water security. External dynamics should be managed for internal stability of the
water system. Decision makers are suggested to change their mindset to facilitate amicable usage of
water as integral component of decision making to manage interstate relations.
2. Materıal and Method
To explain the composition factors of the Himalayan water conflict in South Asia the properties of
factors are classified as follows keeping in view the cognition of discipline of chemistry:
• Physical properties of water conflict
• Economic properties of water conflict
• Strategic properties of water conflict
To explain the properties the facts are presented with due scrutiny of water politics and the
development of water conflict resolution comprised of certain agreements and treaties (Nepal-British
India Agreement 1920, Indus Water Treaty between India and Pakistan 1960, Bangladesh-India
Treaty 1975) in regard to Himalayan water system of South Asia.
3. Fındıngs
The glacial melting on the Himalayas will pose a grave threat. The glaciers in the region are receding
at an average rate of 10-15 meters annually (World Wild Fund Report, (2005). South Asia is facing
a serious threat of water security. This may result in no access to drinking water in rural areas where
half of the population lives in of South Asia. The political division of South Asia gave political
dimension to water system of Himalaya in South Asia. It is found that the political practices in
South Asia vis-à-vis Himalayan Water System are dynamiting the situation in perspective of climate
change.
197
Oral Presentations
4. Conclusıon and suggestıons
Four D strategy to manage water security in South Asia; how south Asia can manage its water
security vis-à-vis regional and global trends?
“The significant problems we face can not be solved by the same level of thinking we used when we
created them.” Einstein
Mindset of the strategy: Due to globalization each system is encompassing multi-boundaries, it is
argued that even US economy has to face certain consequences of water conflict in South Asia; so
it is pertinent to fix the amplifying factors of water security in South Asia whether they are driven
at national or transnational level. The water conflict between India and Pakistan is compounded
and unresolved as compared to water conflict between India and Bangladesh or India and Nepal
so we focus more on India and Pakistan. The four D strategy aims at changes in context (referred
to [1]climate change), paradigm (referred to [2] decision support systems), and practice (referred to
sense of [3] urgency and [4] We-ness). It is desirable to revitalize the water treaties among the states in
perspective of climate change.
References
1.
198
World Wild Fund Report, (2005), “An overview of glaciers: glacier retreat and subsequent impacts in Nepal, India, Pakistan
and China”.
Water
Adaptation to the Climate Change within the Water Sector - Development
of a Guideline for Regional and Local Authorities
Heilmann, Andrea, Pundt, Hardy
Harz University of Applied Scince, Wernigerode, Germany
Abstract Even if the EU achieves its ambitious target to restrict the rise of the global mean temperature
to less than 2°C compared to pre-industrial times, there will still be consequences of the climate change
which require adaptation measures. Modern climate policy is therefore based on two pillars: the avoidance
of greenhouse gases (climate protection) and the adaptation to those consequences of climate change which
are already unavoidable. Since local authorities have to consider the adaptation measures within their daily
work (e.g. planning decisions, public information and awareness) there is a need for a tailored adaptation
strategy, which considers vulnerable areas as well as other interacting factors (like population development,
available technologies, socio-economic aspects). Although the stakeholder involvement is a crucial success
factor, many of them are not capable to participate because of missing information and guidance. Therefore
a specific guideline was developed and tested within a pilot region, aiming at the active involvement of
stakeholders. The paper introduces the methodology as well as specific measures in the water sector. The
outlook illustrates the future activities particularly with respect to the required underlying information
management structures.
Keywords: Climate change, climate adaptation strategy, regional water management.
1. INTRODUCTION
Currently, adaptation strategies are mainly available on a global and national level, but not one a
regional one. The European Environment Agency provides a survey about European activities on
a national level [1]. However, smaller administrative districts, such as counties or cities, are still
searching for approaches to identify adequate measures to adapt to potential climatic changes within
their areas. Such adaptation measures concern different sectors such as agriculture, forestry, water
management and nature protection, as well as regional and urban planning. The water sector has an
outstanding position because it is linked with many other sectors. This means that measures related
to water management must be adjusted in close cooperation with the relevant administrational and
other authorities. Therefore, adaptation measures should be developed in a cross-sectoral way, so
that negative interferences between the considered sectors can be minimized [2].
2. METHODOLOGY
In co-operation with several actors a guideline has been developed and tested in a model region.
It should serve as a basis for regional and local administrations to act on measures to adapt to the
climate change. The involvement of stakeholders from all concerned fields, and the identification
of vulnerable areas based on regionalized climate and other data sets using GIS technology are two
main approaches within that project.
The stakeholders’ involvement in the development of the climate adaptation strategy comprises a
combination of passive and active involvement [3] and varies with their roles and their knowledge.
Nevertheless, the main tasks were: gathering information from different sources, assessment of
vulnerabilities, discussion and priority setting of options regarding regional adaptation measures and
promotion of the implementation.
The second important issue was the assessment of vulnerable areas. The cross-sectoral approach
taken in the pilot project enabled the project management team to collect spatial data sets in a wide
variety. This was a precondition for applying GIS technology to analyse and visualize data aiming
at, among other goals, the production of vulnerability maps (showing areas vulnerable to specific
threats that may result from climate change), and conflict maps (showing areas where conflicting
interests of stakeholders can be identified) [4].
199
Oral Presentations
3. ELEMENTS OF THE ADAPTATION GUIDELINE
The step-by step approach towards a cross-sectoral adaptation strategy comprising four work
packages, whereas every WP has specific tasks and milestones.
The process itself started with the collection of weather and climate data, as well as socio-economic
and environmental data. This data is utilized to identify vulnerable areas. For the identified sectors
possible sectoral adaptation measures were compiled, based on interviews with the actors and experts
involved. The results were presented and prioritized within the second workshop. Interferences
between sectoral adaptation measures were identified and discussed. The results of the workshop led
to a draft of the adaptation strategy and an action plan, which finally has to be accepted by the local
authorities and the representatives. The implementation phase is a continuous process with defined
controlling steps.
The focus on the water sector within in that paper led to the identification of several challenges and
adaptation measures e.g.:
• Adaptation of sewer systems to heavy rain (avoid flooding within urban area),
• Measures to minimise corrosion and odour
• Protection of natural environment (soil, flora, fauna) and built environment against flooding.
4. Outlook
In the interviews, participants commonly agreed that they did not have sufficient access to
information such as relevant data, climate projections, and possible measures and even more
importantly, to activities of other sectors which hamper inter-sector co-operation or might cause
conflicts. A frameworks to support communication and information sharing between different sectors
and stakeholders should remove this deficit. Such a framework can be provided by an Electronic
workspace (EWS). The conception and implementation of such an EWS is one of the next envisaged
project steps [5].
REFERENCES
200
1.
European Environment Agency (2012), National Adaptation Strategies www.eea.europa.eu/themes/climate/nationaladaptation-strategies
2.
European Environment Agency (2012), Urban adaptation to climate change in Europe, EEA Report 2/2012
3.
Conde, C. , Lonsdale, K. (2005), Engaging stakeholders in the adaptation process. Adaptation Policy Frameworks for
Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures, B. Lim, E. Spanger-Siegfried, I. Burton, E. Malone and S.
Huq, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, pp 47-66
4.
Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J., Rhind, D.W., (2005) Geographic Information Systems and Science, John
Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 2005.
5.
Brennan, J., Heilmann, A,; Pundt, H.: (2012). An Infornation Systems Approach to developing Adaptation Strategies, CDROM/Online Proceedings of the European, Mediterranean & Middle Eastern Conference on Information Systems (EMCIS)
Accepted Refereed Papers, 2012, 7-8 June, Munich, Germany, Editors: Dr Ahmad Ghoneim, Prof. Ralf Klischewski, Holger
Schrödl, Dr Muhammed Kamal, ISBN: 978-1-908549-03-7
Water
Utilization of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for Water
Breakdowns and Web-Based Notification System
Kubilay KÖKER1, Nadir MAZLUM2
Branch Manager - İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ)
Subscribe Affairs Department , Europian Region 1 - Kağıthane Branch Manager
[email protected]
2
Civil Engineer - İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ)
Subscribe Affairs Department , Europian Region 1 - Kağıthane Branch
[email protected]
1
Abstract Mastering the water network and utilizing the mastering knowledge at utmost level is a nonnegligible requirement in supplying water to subscribers and maintaining this service at a certain quality.
To this end, it is possible to make use of certain applications upon developing them over Geographic
Information Systems (GIS).
This study aims at the future breakdowns in the network with the “utilization of geographic information
systems (GIS) for water failures and web-based notification system” taken into operation at İSKİ’s Kağıthane
Branch to be able to respond immediately and from the most proper point.
Keywords: Drinking water, breakdown, web.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water services provided to settlements within İstanbul are conducted via the Branch Directorates of
İSKİ General Directorate located at various districts. The Branch Directorates conduct such services
by operating pipelines of the urban water network, which are equal 300 mm in diameter or smaller.
2. USE OF PRESSURE MAPS VIA PRESSURE VALUES MEASURED AND
UTILIZATION OF COLOURED PRESSURE MAPS
2.1 Current Condıtıon of the Tasks and Operatıons Conducted at Branch
Dırectorates on Breakdown Repaırs
As commonly known, water network breakdowns including pipe wreckages and broken valves,
plugs, etc. happen 7/24 in service areas under the Branch Offices. Delayed repair service for water
breakdowns cause not only a risk and danger on losses of life and property, in indoor spaces, in
particular households, offices etc., but also a loss of prestige for the utility in terms of service quality.
To guarantee water network service quality and sustainability, it is important for our administration
to identify the cause of breakdown, the length and extent of the water cut and informing the
customers on this in a proper, flawless and swift way besides fixing such breakdowns in the shortest
time possible.
2.2. Problems Faced Now / to be Faced ın the Future ın Implementıng the Steps
Presented ın 2.1 on Water Breakdown Repaırworks
Locating the street of the breakdown in the shortest time possible, providing accurate and complete
information on a street basis of the addresses that will have water cut during the breakdown and
informing the subscribers in an accurate and timely manner are taken by staff that know the routes
of the network.
These staff;
• May reach to the breakdown location on time or with a delay depending on whether they know the
route to the breakdown street.
• May at times cut a farther valve off that causes a water cut at a neighbourhood rather than the
closest valve to the breakdown location when they need to minimize the duration to clear out the
pipe, the time to start fixing and the clean water that would be wasted while clearing the pipe out.
201
Oral Presentations
• Inform the station staff over the phone about the street information of the valve cut off as much as
they know. This sometimes incorrect information about the breakdown address published on the web
page regarding the cutoff location and street.
2.3. The Proposed Measures and the Tasks Conducted on Thıs Implementatıon
Due to the decrease of the qualified staff on network in the Administration, due to reasons such
as retirement, and the consequent possibility of future problems in staff, a new project entitled
“Utilization of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for Water Breakdowns and Web-Based
Notification System” in Kağıthane Branch Directorate concerning the “measures and regulations
to be taken” was undertaken. The setup of the software for this project and opening it to use on the
İSKABİS (Infrastructure Information System of İstanbul Water and Sewerage Administration) page
was requested by the Directorate from the related unit and consequently it was presented on the
İSKABİS page.
2.3.1. Technıcal Detaıls of the Applıcatıon[1]
This application technically provides service over the website via GIS connection and can be used
in all locations with sub-regions formed over GIS in isolated zones while these zones can be used to
detect and control water provision with address and coordinates uploaded into the system for critical
valve location identification. Figure 1 shows application interface with district, neighbourhood,
street and door number or building number and Figure 2 shows the screen where the isolated zone
of the breakdown address, the valves that supply that zone, as well as the valve ID numbers and
locations. Furthermore the “Streets Affected” in Figure 1 enables access to the ordered list of streets
where water will be cut in the field shown in Table 1 as an example. Figure 3 provides a sample map
printout to detect valve location for the staff controlling the area for the breakdown repairworks on
a 7/24 basis.
Figure 1. Inquiry Screen for Addresses
Affected by Water Cut, Isolated Zones
and Valve Locations
Figure 2. Screen for Number, Address and
Operation (Open-Closed) of the Valve Controlling
the Isolated Zone
Table 1. Sample List of Streets where Water Cut Shall Take Place for a Valve Fixing.
202
Water
REFERENCE
1.
Application of Infrastructure Information System in Kağıthane Branch Directorate in İstanbul Water and Sewerage
Administration, İstanbul - Turkey, 2012 (In this study, there isn’t any quotation from another source.)
203
Oral Presentations
Elemental Sulfur-Based Autotrophic Denitrification Processes for
Drinking Water Treatment
Erkan Sahinkaya1, Nesrin Dursun2, Adem Kilic, Ozer Cinar3,4
Istanbul Medeniyet University, Bioengineering Department, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Harran University, Environmental Engineering Department, Sanliurfa, Turkey
3
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Environmental Engineering Department, Kahramanmaras, Turkey
4
Biological Sciences and Bioengineering Program, International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
1
Abstract Recently much attention has been on sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification of nitrate
contaminated ground water as elemental-sulfur is non-toxic, water insoluble, stable under normal conditions,
and readily available. In this process, the elemental sulfur and nitrate act as an electron donor and an acceptor,
respectively. Hence, nitrate is reduced to nitrogen gas and sulfur is oxidized to sulfate. Besides several
advantages, sulfate and acid formation are the main disadvantages of the process. In the present study, the
impact of alkalinity source on the process performance was evaluated in two fixed bed column reactors.
Lime-stone or bicarbonate was used as alkalinity source in the column-1 and column-2, respectively. Results
illustrated that the slow dissolution of lime-stone may limit the denitrification efficiency. Also, dissolution of
lime-stone released Ca+2, which increased the hardness of treated effluent. Bicarbonate supplemented reactor
gave much higher denitrification performance and may be proffered over lime-stone, although lime-stone is
cheaper and readily available.
Keywords: drinking water, denitrification, autotrophic denitrification, sulfur-based autotrophic
denitrification.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently much more attention has been paid to sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification of nitrate
contaminated ground water (Soares, 2002; Moon et al., 2008; Sahinkaya et al., 2011), as elementalsulfur is non-toxic, water insoluble, stable under normal conditions, and readily available (Soares,
2002). In sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification process, elemental sulfur and nitrate act as an
electron donor and an acceptor, respectively, without requirement of organic supplementation
(Reaction 1).
1.1S0 + NO3- + 0.76H2O + 0.4CO2 + 0.08NH4+ → 0.08C5H7O2N + 1.1SO42- + 0.5N2 + 1.28H+ (1)
The main disadvantages of this process are sulfate and acid generation. Hence, external alkalinity
supplementation is required to keep pH neural in the process. In this study, the impact of alkalinity
source (lime-stone or bicarbonate) on the performance of sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification
efficiency was evaluated in two column bioreactors. One reactor was filled with solely by sulfur
granules and externally supplemented with bicarbonate. The other was filled with a mixture of sulfur
and lime-stone (as alkalinity source).
2.1. Bıoreactors
Two laboratory-scale glass column reactors were used in the study. One column (column-1) had
an empty bed volume of 350 mL and was filled with sulfur (0.5-1mm), lime-stone (0.5-1mm) and
activated carbon (1-1.5 mm) particles with equivalent volume. The other column reactor (column-2)
had an empty bed volume of 400 mL and was filled with sulfur (0.5-1 mm) and activated carbon
(1-1.5 mm) particles with volume ratios of around 2/3 and 1/3, respectively. The bioreactors were
inoculated with a denitrifying activated sludge and operated continuously in up-flow mode at 2830°C. The feed of the column-2 was supplemented with NaHCO3 to obtain feed alkalinity around
600 mg/L CaCO3. The reactors were sampled at least three times a week for the measurement of
NO3-N, NO2-N, sulfate, sulfide, pH, alkalinity, and Ca2+.
204
Water
The sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification process performance was evaluated in two parallel
column reactors. Column-1 included cheap and readily available lime-stone particles as alkalinity
source, whereas the feed of column-2 was externally supplemented with NaHCO3 as alkalinity
source. In the column-1, complete denitrification was obtained when the HRT was 15 h and 8.4 h
(Fig. 1, left panel). However, denitrification efficiency decreased and nitrite accumulated when the
HRT was decreased to 5.6 h. In order to recover process performance, HRT was increased to 11 h
on day 68 and complete denitrification was achieved again. When the feed NO3-N was increased to
75 mg/L on day 80, both nitrite and nitrate appeared in the effluent. The maximum denitrification
rate was around 200 mg NO3-N/(L.d). In the column-2 (right panel on Fig. 1), decreasing HRT
until to 4 h did not adversely affected process performance. Further increasing the feed NO3-N to
75 mg/L on day 75 adversely affected process performance and nitrate accumulated in the reactor
effluent. The maximum denitrification rate in column-2 was 300 mg NO3-N/(L.d). Hence, the reactor
supplemented with bicarbonate gave higher denitrification rate as slow dissolution of lime-stone
may not neutralized the acid produced at high loadings, which was verified by decreased effluent pH
(results not shown). According to reaction 1, each mg NO3-N reduction will require 4.57 mg/L CaCO3
alkalinity. During denitrification process, sulfate concentration increased in both reactor and the
theoretical sulfate concentrations based on reaction-1 closely followed the measured concentrations.
The hardness concentration in the effluent of column 1 increased to 350 mg/L CaCO3 due to release
of Ca2+ during lime-stone dissolution.
Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
8.4 h 5.6 h 11 h
A
60
11 h
Feed NO3-N
Effluent NO3-N
40
Effluent NO2-N
20
0
600 B
400
Feed
Effluent
Theoretical
200
0
20
40
60
Day
NO3-N or NO2-N
(mg/L)
15 h
80
Sulfate
(mg/L)
Sulfate
(mg/L)
NO3-N or NO2-N
(mg/L)
Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
80
100
120
80
60
7.2 h
10.5 h
6h
4h
4h
A
40
Feed NO3-N
Effluent NO3-N
20
0
600 B
400
Effluent NO2-N
Feed
Effluent
Theoretical
200
0
20
40
60
80
Day
Fig. 1. Performance of bioreactors. Left panel: column-1, Right panel: column-2.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification can be effectively used in drinking water denitrification.
Acid and sulfate generations are the main drawbacks of the process. Acid generation should be
neutralized with external alkalinity supplementation. Results showed that bicarbonate supplemented
bioreactor (column-2) has much higher denitrification potential compared to lime-stone included
bioreactor.
REFERENCES
1.
Moon, H.S., et al., 2008. A long-term performance test on an autotrophic denitrification column for application as a
permeable reactive barrier, Chemosphere 73, 723–728.
2.
Soares, M.I.M., 2002. Denitrification of groundwater with elemental sulfur, Water Res. 36, 1392–1395.
3.
Sahinkaya, et al., 2011. Simultaneous heterotrophic and sulfur-oxidizing autotrophic denitrification process for drinking
water treatment: control of sulfate production. Water Res. 45, 6661–6667.
205
Oral Presentations
Degradation of Isoproturon by Advanced Oxidation Processes and
Analysis of Toxicity of Byproducts
Cyprus International University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering
Abstract Persistent contaminants like isoproturon may remain in environmental matrices at trace levels after
a long period of time. It is slightly soluble in water matrices and most likely to accumulate in oily tissues of
fishes. Therefore, it can be easily involved into the food chain and causes several toxic effects to non-target
organisms. The aim of this paper is to study decomposition of isoproturon molecules in aqueous solutions
(100-50-10-5-2.5ppb) by medium frequency ultrasonic irradiation (575-861-1141 kHz), ozonation (2.7240mg/L.min), addition of TiO2 nanoparticles (0.1g/L) and combination of these processes (US/O3/TiO2).
Individually 100 % degradation of isoproturon was achieved in each process. Degradation curves followed
first order kinetics and the highest reaction rates were for US (optimum) 0.0374 min-1,US/TiO2 0.0574
min-1, ozonation 0.1766min-1 and for USO3TiO2 0.1866min-1. The possible major byproduct was selected to
be 1,2-Benzenedicarboylic acid with a molecular weight of 278. EC50 values was found to be 83,60% after
ozonation and 12,19% after USO3TiO2 treatment when isoproturon molecules are totally decomposed. After
US irradiation process %EC50 couldn’t be monitored due to the low toxicity levels. TOC removal after 90
minutes treatments was 15% for US irradiation, 64% for ozonation and 70% for USO3TiO2 combination.
Keywords: Isoproturon,Ultrasound, Ozonation, Degradation, Toxicity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Isoproturon is a banned pesticide mostly used to prevent growth of unwanted plants. Its use
was restricted by the European Union countries several years ago but due to the persistent
physicochemical characteristics of the compound, it can be still remain in environmental matrices at
low concentrations. Several studies were carried out in literature to eliminate such herbicides from
the aqueous matrix. Photodegradation, addition of catalysts like TiO2, photo-Fenton, ozonation and
ultrasound is most usefull advanced oxidation processes preferred in previous studies with high
degradation efficiencies [1], [2], [3]. AOPs produce free radicals which are excited molecules appear
after application of the process and they may attack selectively or most of the times unselectively to
the contaminants and cause their degradation. The maximum concentration level of total pesticides
allowed in drinking waters is 0.5 ug/L both in Turkish and European Standards. In this study, the
degradation kinetics was performed between 100-2.5ppb concentration range to simulate the
possible degradation process which may occur in natural waters containing low levels of pesticides.
2.1. Materıals
Isoproturon (99,9%) was purchased from Labor Dr Ehrenstorfer.The metanol (Merck), acetonitrile
(Merck), ammonium formate (Fluka), was all Liquid Chromatograhy Grade.Titanium dioxide %1
Mn doped, nanopowder, <100nm BET, >97% was purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Ultrapure water
was supplied from Sartorius Ultrapure Water Systems.A medium-high frequency ultrasonic system
(Meinhart Ultraschalltechnik) composed of a generator, an amplifier and a titanium plate type
transducer operating at different frequencies (575-861-1141 kHz) was used for ultrasonic irradiation.
Ozone was generated from air using OPAL OG 400 ozone generator with a maximum production
capacity of 400mg/h O3. Reactions were carried out in same 500 mL double jacketed cyclindrical
glass reactor which was connected to the ultrasonic transducer.
2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Experımental Methods
Stock solution was prepared by dissolving 50mg solid isoproturon in 100mL acetonitrile:water
206
Water
(50:50) solution. 250 mL aqueous solutions of isoproturon were prepared between 100-50-10-52.5 ppb concentration after several dilutions. 1mL aliquots were taken at different time intervals
for concentration measurements. For toxicity, TOC and byproduct analysis, the experiments were
repeated at by taken sufficient amounts of samples.
2.2.2 Analytıcal Methods
Concentration measurements were made by LCMSMS. Electron spray ionization was used to ionize
isoproturon and the quantitative ion m/z was 72.1 and qualitative ion m/z was 165.3. The LC column
was C18 material with 4u pore size. TOC analysis made by using TOC-Analyzer. Toxicity tests were
carried out with Microtox Model 500 using Vibrio Fischeri acute reagent. Byproducts were analyzed
by GCMS after solid phase extraction with C18 cartridges.
3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
AOPs were found efficient to decompose isoproturon molecules totally. Degradation curves followed
first order kinetics. US frequency optimization showed that after 90 minutes irradiation with 575kHz
and 60W conditions, the highest reaction rate was 0.034min-1. Addition of TiO2 nanoparticles
increased reaction rate up to 0.0547min-1. Concentration was inversely proportional with the
ultrasonic degradation efficiencies. Ozonation process decompose all isoproturon solutions(1002.5ppb) in shorter time that after 10 minutes ozonation, the highest reaction rate was 0.1766min-1
and EC50 value was 83,60%. Combination of the processes US/O3/TiO2 resulted with the highest
reaction rate due to the synergetic effects which was supposed to cause an increase in radical
formation. The rate of the reaction was 0.1866min-1 and the EC50 value was 12,19% after totally
degradation of isoproturon. The major byproduct was found to be 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid..
which has molecular weight of 278. The highest intensity of the byproduct observed at ozonation
process. When the decomposition isoproturon solution occurred faster, the molecules added in to the
benzene ring by unit time also increased. US irradiation decomposed isoproturon molecules slower
than the ozonation process therefore, the intensity of the byproduct was found much smaller. The
combination of US and O3 processes showed that the occurrence of byproduct was smaller than it
was observed in ozonation process while the TOC removal was the highest (70%). This was due
to enhanced dissolution of gaseous ozone molecules in aqueous solutions by the help of US waves
therefore; while the byproducts are produced they were also decomposed by the increase in radical
formation. It must be noted that after totally degradation of isoproturon, when the reaction time
continued to increase, toxicity was also increased due to the formation of byproducts. TiO2 showed
no significant effect in TOC removal and byproduct analysis. US/O3 or US/O3/TiO2 processes
promise fast and efficient treatment for trace levels of isoproturon in aqueous solutions and 20
minute operation result with acceptable toxicity levels due to the occurrence of byproducts.
REFERENCES
1.
Melero, J. A., Martinez, F., Molina, R., and Segura, Y., (2012). Role of Heterogeneous Catalysis in the Sonolcatalytic
Degradation of Organic Pollutants of in Wastewater, Taylor&Francis Group.
2.
Hua, I., and Hoffman, M.R., (1997). Optimization of Ultrasonic Irradiation as an Advanced Oxidation Technology,
Environmental Science & Technology, 31, 2237-2243.
3.
Ayala, P. C., El-Din, M. G., and Smith, D. W., (2010). Kinetics and mechanism of the degradation of two pesticides in
aqueous solutions by ozonation, Chemosphere, 78, 557-562.
207
Oral Presentations
Impact of Effluent on Wetland Ecosystem and Waste Management for
Productivity and Sustainability in Indian Sub-Continent
Anandamoy Puste1, Tanuj Kumar Mandal1 and Dilip Kumar Das2
*Professor and 1Ph.D. Research Fellow, Department of Agronomy,
2
Professor, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science,
B.C.K.V. (State Agricultural University), Mohanpur - 741 252, Nadia (West Bengal), India.
1
Abstract Wetland ecosystem of Indian subtropics possesses potentiality but oftenly subject to degrees of
stresses and degradation due to industrial effluents and natural degradation. Investigation was made in new,
old alluvial and coastal ecozones on water characterization (pH, BOD, COD, SO2-S, Cl-, NO3-, Turbidity, Cd
and F-) due to effect of gaseous emissions, industrial effluent and thermal power plants, as these are related
with welfare of the society (agricultural, pisciculture and domestic use). Integrated wetland management
was emphasized to make upliftment of rural economy as the mounting pressure of ecosystems poses a threat
and vulnerable for normal life support. This paper also deals with avenues on fish + valuable aquatic crops
integrated improvised farming system and unique watershed approach sustainable for rainwater conservation
and upright production system, exhibited positive outturn due to wise use of natural resources without
degradation. Parallelly, waste management opted for making bio-resource organics derived from semiaquatic earthworms [Eisenia foetida (Sav.) and its positive impacts on crops. Thus, it is imperative to utilize
this ecosystem integrately through approaches for development with impetuously for pollutant-free foods,
fuel, fishes and other biological enterprises and ultimately, economic stability of the rural people that are
inextricably linked with sustainability of the regions.
Keywords: Ecosystem, crop + fish culture, pollutants, productivity, soil & water characterization.
1. INTRODUCTION
Wetlands has a pivotal role for maintaining bio-diversity and this environment of the carboniferous
period produced and preserved many fossil fuels on which we greatly depend now, for this James[1]
has rightly termed as ‘Nature’s kidney’ of the world. Wetland has a great role for (i). maintaining
ecological balance and refreshing, (ii). recharging groundwater and (iii). over all, sustenance of rural
livelihoods [2]. The balance of ecosystem being seriously disturbed by direct and indirect activities,
more pronounced in developing and underdeveloped countries. Thousands of toxic containments
have found their ways to this environment. Thermal power plants, chemical plants and food/beverage
industry etc. produced the largest amount of hazardous pollutants in every moments [3]. The extent of
this contamination is so vast that the food we eat, air we breathe and water-we drink are suspected to
contain a number of toxins [4].
In view, case studies were undertaken on the emissions of various gases, effluent from industrial in
two extreme situations: (i). immediate vicinity of industrial areas and (ii). distal from the industrial
areas to characterize emissions of various gases and water characterization with following objectives:
(a). to determine the characterization and quality, (b). to correlate various quality of water affected
due to acid rain and (c). to evaluate fish-crop productivity using INM (organics) and sustainability
for rural economy.
Water samples were collected from near by as well as distance from the industrial polluted areas,
e.g. 1.5, 6.5, 12.8, 40.0 km (Kalyani, Gayeshpur, Chakdah and Hanskhali in Nadia; and Bandel in
the district of Hooghly) of West Bengal, India and were analyzed in the laboratory by using AAS
and Fluoride meter, respectively following standard analytical procedure [5]. Live-fishes and valuable
aquatic food crops were practiced following proper improvised agro-techniques including use of
organics produced from earth-worms [Eisenia foetida (Sav.) as nutrient and feed materials in sole
and integrated system for productivity, rural sustainability and over all, judging the quality of water.
208
Water
2.1. Qualıty of water
Higher pH level and highest conc. of SO4-S, Cl-, NO3-, F-, Cd recorded in lake water of Gayeshpur,
while, lowest values in Hanskhali areas (Table 1). BOD and COD, turbidity, electrical conductivity
(EC) exhibited highest in lake water of Gayeshpur corresponding lowest values in lake water of
Hanskhali, suggested that areas very nearer to industry (1-2 km) found to be worse affected related to
water quality. Hanskhali is far away from industrial sites, recorded a lowest values of all constituents
leading to good quality of water, may not be affected to aquatic environment, safe for use. Some
industries release the toxic substance, which affect the colour, clarity, temperature and other
properties of water. Water containing a substantial amount of suspended particulate matters (SPM)
and other dissolve organic substances affect the colour, clarity vis-a-vis affecting its quality. Thermal
pollution, in case of Bandel under study, is another type of physical pollution which has become
widespread in recent years [2].
Parameters of water quality
Location
pH
SO2-S
ClNO3BOD
COD
Turbidity EC
Cd
(mg L-1) (mg L-1) (mg L-1) (mg L-1) (mg L-1) (JU)
μ mohs/cm (mg L-1)
F(mg L-1)
Kalyani
7.2
410
380
4.8
0.71
1.17
14
0.68
0.008
0.80
Gayeshpur
5.4
880
570
15.8
4.92
5.10
20
5.14
0.15
1.20
Bandel
5.8
775
540
12.9
4.87
4.98
18
4.06
0.12
0.10
Chakdah
7.6
315
270
4.2
0.82
0.08
6
0.71
0.007
0.60
Hanskhali
7.4
220
188
3.8
0.68
0.82
4
0.59
-0.003
0.20
C.D. (P=0.05)
0.4
132
120
0.5
0.18
0.20
3.0
0.15
0.006
0.50
Table 1. Quality of pond water near by and distal from industrial areas in different locations under study
2.2. Fısh-crop dıversıty: benefıcıal aspects of wetlands
Practicing of water chestnut (Trapa bispinosa Roxb.) and makhana (Euryale ferox Salisb.) - cum fish culture were out-yielded (makhana equivalent yield, MEY - 1.68, 2.36 as sole for the crop and
4.97 t ha-1 for makhana + live-fishes and remunerative than that of monoculture (B-C ratio - 1.72,
2.88 as sole and 3.71 as integration), mostly preferred by rural and urban people in the regions and
it gained >3.0 folds than that of existing farmer’s practice without further degrading quality of water
indeed [2].
CONCLUSION
In developing and underdeveloped countries, although industries are providing employment
opportunity, increasing local incomes and earning foreign exchange for the country but still it causes
environmental degradation ignoring WHO’s specifications. Eco-friendly management including
phytoremediation, awareness is the options for sustenance of the ecosystem in a greater interest of a
nation.
REFERENCES
1.
James, E. J., (1995). Managing the wetlands and their watersheds. Yojana. 39 (182), 43-50.
2.
Puste, A. M., Das, D. K., (2001). Impact of air pollutant on the ecosystems in the vicinity of industrial areas of Indian subtropics. Water, Air and Soil Pollution (The Netherlands), 130, 843-848.
3.
Chakraborty, C. S., (1999). Environment, Evolution and Man: Environment: Issues and Challenges eds, Basu, D. K., Basu,
A. K., Mallik, A., Ghosh, A. R., Academic Staff College Press, Burdwan Uni., India).
4.
Khopker, S. M., (1995). Environmental Pollution Analysis, Published by New Age International (P) Ltd.
5.
Jackson, M. L., (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis, Prentice Hall of India Ltd., New Delhi.
209
Oral Presentations
Identification of a Feasible Treatment Process to Valorize Dredged
Sediments from Small Italian Harbours
Sara Dastoli1, Giorgia De Gioannis2, Maurizio Morelli3, Aldo Muntoni2, Roberto Peretti4, Alessandra Polettini5,
Raffaella Pomi5, Elena Romano1, Antonello Serci2, Alessio Stramazzo5, Barbara Villani3, Antonello Zucca4
ISPRA (Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research), Via V. Brancati, 60 - 00144 Rome (Italy)
Università di Cagliari, Dip. di Ingegneria Civile, Ambientale e Architettura, Piazza d’Armi, 1 – 09123 Cagliari (Italy)
3
Agenzia Regionale Prevenzione e Ambiente Emilia Romagna, Largo Caduti del Lavoro, 6 - 40121 Bologna (Italy)
4
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Geologia Ambientale e Geoingegneria. Piazza d’Armi, 19 - 09123 Cagliari
(Italy)
5
Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Dip. di Ingegneria Civile, Edile ed Ambientale. Via Eudossiana, 18 – 00184
Rome (Italy)
[email protected]
1
2
Abstract Dredging operations in harbour and marine coastal areas, usually performed to maintain
operational water-depth, might represent a viable option to mitigate environmental pollution if applied
to remove contaminated sediments from the water body. Sediment landfilling could generate relevant
environmental burdens due to the amounts of materials to be disposed of; however, the implementation of
alternative management options aimed at re-use is hindered by the high cost of technology and the absence
of a market for the recovered materials. The present project, named COAST BEST “CO-ordinated Approach
for Sediment Treatment and BEneficial reuse in Small harbours networks” and funded in the framework
of the LIFE08+ ENV European call, is aimed to find out a method to integrate all the phases of sediments
management, through the creation of a network-based system including different small harbours, which can
be geographically interconnected so as to make sediment treatment and valorization feasible by a technical
and economical point of view.
Keywords: contaminated sediment, environmental dredging, sediment washing.
1. INTRODUCTION
Surface waters receive discharges of various origin, often containing contaminants which may sorb
onto sediment particles. Consequently, sediments can be considered as a reservoir of contaminants
having the potential of dissolving or migrating them into the water column. In harbour areas,
dredging might be applied to restore water quality and mantain adequate water depth. Frequently,
contaminated sediments have to be dredged, dewatered and treated before reuse or final disposal.
Despite decades of research, surprisingly up to now sediment treatment has not been frequently
practiced due to the huge volumes involved, the high costs and the risk of poor effectiveness. The
present project is aimed at preserving the quality of coastal zones by 1) developing an integrated
sediment management system (vertical integration) and 2) creating a network of small harbours
(horizontal integration). The study area consists of the nine small harbours of the Emilia-Romagna
Region coastline, facing the Adriatic sea which is the northernmost eastern arm of the Mediterranean
sea.
A coastal area, including 9 small harbours of Emilia-Romagna Region, was chosen as pilot site.
A detailed characterization plan was designed and carried out, including sampling plan, target
parameters to be determined and methods and procedures to be adopted [1,2,3,4]. Different size separation
processes were tested, including dry/wet sieving and hydrocyclone separation. Ultrasonication was
also applied to improve physical separation of solid particles.
In Figure 1, the sand content of the 0-50 cm and 50-100cm sediment layer for Porto Garibaldi and
Cesenatico is shown, evidencing a variabiliy of the sand content and the need of a flexible treatment
sequence which could be adapted to the material characteristics. The contamination level appeared
to be mild; Zn, As, Benzo(a)pyrene and C>12, were the most critical contaminants in some of the
210
Water
investigated samples, while trybutil tin and PAH were detected in the Porto Garibaldi sample and at
the entrance of Cesenatico harbour, respectively. On the basis of the lab scale separation test results,
a treatment train was thus designed and tested, and it will be scaled up during the second part of
the project activities. Even if in areas, sediment characteristics appeared to be adequate for a direct
sediment reuse (sand content > 90%), a treatment train was tested in order to further increase the
sediment quality in view of beach nourishment. The treatment train will be scaled up during the
second part of the project activities.
Porto Garibaldi. Sand content (section 0-50 cm)
Cesenatico. Sand content (section 0-50 cm)
Porto Garibaldi. Sand content (section 50-100 cm)
Cesenatico. Sand content (section 50-100 cm)
Figure 1. Grain size distribution in sediments of Porto Garibaldi and Cesenatico
REFERENCES
1.
Romano E., Bergamin L., Ausili A., Pierfranceschi G., Maggi C., Sesta G., Gabellini M., The impact of the Bagnoli
industrial site (Naples, Italy), on sea-bottom environment. Chemical and textural features of sediments and the related
response of benthic foraminifera, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 59, 245-256 (2009)
2.
Nota D.J.G.. Sediments of the western Guyana shelf. Report of Orinoco shelf expedition, 2, Mendedel. Landbomvhogedrool,
Wegeningera, 98 (1958).
3.
Shepard F.P., 1954. Nomenclature based on sand–silt–clay ratios. J Sed Petr 24, 151-158
4.
ICRAM, Metodologie analitiche di riferimento - Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio - Servizio Difesa
Mare. Programma di monitoraggio per il controllo dell’ambiente marino-costiero (triennio 2001-2003).
211
Oral Presentations
Use of Post-Epimerized Alginate in Turbidity Removal
Çiğdem Kıvılcımdan Moral1,2, Helga Ertesvåg3, F. Dilek Sanin1
Department of Environmental Engineering, METU, Ankara, Turkey
Department of Environmental Engineering, Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Antalya, Turkey
3
Department of Biotechnology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
1
2
Abstract Alginates are natural polymers composed of mannuronic and guluronic acids. In this study,
alginate was produced by Azotobacter vinelandii using a shake flask and then it was epimerized by AlgE1,
which is one of the extracellular epimerases converting mannuronic acid into guluronic acid. Three different
epimerization levels with different GG-block contents were obtained and these alginates were applied
as flocculants to elucidate the effect of GG-block on turbidity removal of a kaolinite suspension. Highly
epimerized alginate sample was able to decrease turbidity from 10 to 1 NTU by 5 mg/L of alginate together
with 30 mg/L of calcium ion.
Keywords: Alginate, Azotobacter vinelandii, water treatment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Alginates are naturally produced polymers composed of mannuronic (M) and guluronic (G) acids.
Alginate production from Azotobacter vinelandii by shake flasks was extensively studied [1] although
only few works were interested in monomer block distribution [2]. Block distribution of alginate can
be changed by using extracellular enzymes such as AlgE1 which is one of enzymes secreted by
Azotobacter vinelandii genome [3]. These days, natural polymers are getting more interest as coagulant
in water and wastewater treatment [4, 5]. Alginates are one of the examples which form gels with
divalent cations. In this study, it was proposed that these gel formations may improve flocculation
and resulted better turbidity removal. For this purpose, alginates were produced by using shake flask
from Azotobacter vinelandii ATCC® 9046 and epimerized by AlgE1 to favor the GG-block structure.
These polymers were then tested for the removal of turbidity from kaolinite suspensions.
A previously developed plasmid, pHH1, was used to produce AlgE1 in 3 x Luria Broth with 200
mg/L ampicillin. This epimerase was purified by using ion-exchange chromatography with a
column (HiTrap Q HP) operated by a FPLC system. Activities of enzyme were measured by liquid
scintillation counting.
Alginate was produced by Azotobacter vinelandii ATCC® 9046 in a flask at 30°C and 225 rpm
in modified Burk’s medium for 72 hours. Details of the medium composition were as described
elsewhere[6].For the epimerization of alginate, conditions of alginate solution (0.25 %) were adjusted
to obtain highly epimerized alginate for AlgE1[7]. MOPS (50mM), CaCl2 (0.8 mM), NaCl (20 mM)
were added into alginate solution at pH 6.9. All these constituents including the enzyme were mixed
well and incubated at 37 °C during 48 hours. After the incubation period, the solution was dialyzed
once against 10 mM of EDTA (Spectra/Pore® Membrane MWCO: 6–8000) and then against distilled
water. To epimerize alginate at moderate level, the incubation time was decreased to 8 hours.
1
H-NMR analysis was used to determine the monomer distribution according to ASTM F 2259-03
method [8]. For turbidity removal experiments, a kaolinite suspension of 10 NTU was prepared and
experiments were performed with VELP Scientifica JLT6 Jar Test apparatus having six mixers each
with two flat blades. The beakers were filled with 500 mL and first Ca2+ (15-120 mg/L) was added
and mixed for 5 min at 120 rpm. Then alginate (0.1 - 20 mg/L) was added and mixed for further
5 min at 120 rpm. After that, the aggregates were led to grow for 12 min at 40 rpm. Finally, they
were settled for 30 min and final turbidity value was measured by Hach 2100N turbidimeter. All
experiments were performed in triplicates.
212
Water
The amount of alginate was found as 1.6 g/L and the alginate sample consists of 23% of GG-,
24% of MG- and 52% of MM-blocks. Hence, this alginate is rich in mannuronic acid and called as
non-epimerized alginate sample. After epimerization of this alginate by using AlgE1, moderately
epimerized alginate sample was found to have 40% of GG-block whilst highly epimerized sample
contains 73% of GG-block. All these three samples were used to elucidate the effect of block type
and content on flocculation potential of the polymer. Kaolinite suspensions having initial turbidity
of 10 NTU were treated with alginate samples together with calcium ion to remove turbidity value
down to drinking water level. Final turbidity value could be decrease below 1 NTU at 10 mg/L of
highly-epimerized alginate sample (in the range of 0.1 - 20 mg/L). Then, calcium ion concentration
was optimized between 15 and 120 mg/L with 5 mg/L of alginate since alginate is a valuable source.
For this case, the maximum turbidity removal was observed at 30 mg/L of calcium ion concentration
with residual turbidity of 1 NTU. Therefore, the required alginate dose for the same turbidity
removal efficiency could be reduced by half with the optimization of calcium concentration. For the
case of moderately-epimerized alginate sample, twice higher dose of moderately epimerized alginate
is needed to achieve the same turbidity removal efficiency compared to highly epimerized alginate.
On the other hand, only 40 % of turbidity reduction could be achieved at 7.5 mg/L of non-epimerized
alginate sample. Alginates having high GG-block content are known to form egg-box structure in the
presence of calcium ion. It can be proposed that this formation may enhance floc formation and thus,
increase the efficiency of turbidity removal process.
REFERENCES
1.
Clementi, F., Crudele, M. A., Parente, E., Mancini, M., Moresi, M., (1999). Production and characterization of alginate from
Azotobacter vinelandii, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 79, 602–610
2.
Annison, G., Couperwhite, I., (1986). Influence of calcium on alginate production and composition in continuous cultures of
Azotobacter vinelandii, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 25, 55–61
3.
Ertesvåg, H., Valla, S., Skjåk-Bræk, G., (2009). Enzymatic alginate modification in Rehm, B.H.A., eds. Alginates: biology
and applications, Springer-Verlag, 95–115, Berlin.
4.
Devrimci, H. A., Yuksel, A. M., Sanin, F. D., (2012). Algal alginate: A potential coagulant for drinking water treatment,
Desalination, 299, 16-21
5.
Sand, A., Yadav, M, Mishra, D. K., Behari, K., (2010). Modification of alginate by grafting of N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone
and studies of physicochemical properties in terms of swelling capacity, metal ion uptake and flocculation, Carbohydrate
Polymers, 80, 4, 1147–1154
6.
Moral Kıvılcımdan, Ç., Sanin, F. D., (2012). An Investigation of agitation speed as a factor affecting the quantity and
monomer distribution of alginate from Azotobacter vinelandii ATCC® 9046, Journal of Industrial Microbiology and
Biotechnology, 39, 3, 513-519
7.
Holtan, S., Bruheim, P., Skjåk-Bræk, G., (2006). Mode of action and subsite studies of the guluronan block-forming
mannuronan C-5 epimerases AlgE1 and AlgE6, Biochemical Journal, 395, 319–329
8.
ASTM F 2259-03, (2003). Standard test method for determining the chemical composition and sequence in alginate by
proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy.
213
214
WASTEWATER
215
216
Wastewater
Environmental Technology Lab of Europe - Experience, Status and
Future Opportunities in the German Southwest
Dr.-Ing. Hannes Spieth1, Dr. Ferdinand Pohl, Heike Rathgeb
Umwelttechnik BW Center for Technology and Innovation for Environmental Technology and Efficiency of Resources
Baden-Wuerttemberg GmbH
1
Abstract In this paper a baseline study of environmental technologies and cleaner production practices in
Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany is conducted. The region is pursuing in particular the goal of establishing
the “environmental technology lab of Europe” for designing, exploring, experiencing and refining new
technologies in practical application. Relevant environmental key players including network initiatives
and research facilities are presented. Furthermore the practical application of environmental technology
is illustrated using three best practice examples of environmentally compatible solutions made in BadenWuerttemberg. It is shown that the German southwest provides a world of opportunities for environmental
technologies, efficiency of resources and cleaner production by working in close networks between industry
and commerce, science and education as well as administration and politics. However, high-tech solutions
designed for the conditions in Europe have to be adapted to meet the needs of threshold and developing
countries.
Keywords: Environmental Technologies, Cleaner Production, Network Initiatives, Best Practice Solutions.
REFERENCES
1.
Shrivastava, P., (1995). Environmental Technologies and Competitive Advantage, Strategic Management Journal 16, 183200
2.
GreenTech made in Germany 3.0, (2012). Environmental Technology Atlas for Germany, Federal Ministry for the
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU)
3.
Regional Cluster Atlas Baden-Wuerttemberg (2010). Ministry of Economics Baden-Wuerttemberg
4.
Research in Baden-Wuerttemberg, (2010). Baden-Wuerttemberg International
5.
Kotz, C., Hillenbrand, T., Hiessl, H., Mohr, M., Trösch, W., (2004). Demonstration project DEUS 21: a concept for a
sustainable water infrastructure, Conference Proceeding - 2nd IWA Leading-Edge Conference on Sustainability
6.
CEEP (1997). Phosphate. European Chemical Industry Council. Centre Européen d’etudes des Polyphosphates, Brussels
7.
Cornel, P., Schaum, C., (2005). Rückgewinnung von Phosphor aus Klärschlamm. In: Stuttgarter Berichte zur
Siedlungswasserwirtschaft Band 184, 73-92
8.
Esemen, T. Dockhorn, T., (2009). Ökonomische Aspekte der Phosphorrückgewinnung aus Abwasser und Klärschlamm, KA
Abwasser, Abfall, 8, 790-796
9.
Antakyali, D.; Preyl, V.; Meyer, C.; Maier, W.; Steinmetz, H., (2012). Large-Scale Practical Application Of Nutrient
Recovery From Digested Sludge As Struvite. Conference Proceeding - 9th IWA Leading-Edge Conference on Water and
Wastewater Technologies
217
Oral Presentations
The Former German Waste Oil Levy’s Ideas and System as a Possible
Tool for an Effective Resource Protection
Ralf Ramin
Brunswick University of Technology, Institute of Law
[email protected]
Abstract In all fields of life resources are of importance. After centuries of exploitation almost in all areas
resources are seldom. In the near future the humankind will need tools that lead to an effective resource
protection urgently. It does not need necessarily anything new to be invented. At first, we should have an
overview, how and in which ways legal and policy goals were successfully in the past.
Such an ‘old’ tool could be the former German Waste Oil Levy. It was introduced in Germany in 1968 by the
Waste Oil Act and it has been established a transfer to a reserve fund to finance waste oils disposal. The End
came with the abolition of the Waste Oil Act by the Waste Act of 1986 at the beginning of 1989. Nevertheless
the former German Waste Oil Levy could maybe due to an effective resource protaction system by levies.
My paper’s content is to present the former German Waste Oil Levy and to project them to a general resource
protection levy’s model (Part one).
In the second part, my contribution is to examine the introduced model with the help of the German
Constitutional Law and the European Community Law.
Water as an essential resource for human beings, animals and plants, rare mineral raw materials and
fossil fuels for the industry and land/ground for settlement, agriculture, animal husbandry, factories
and other buildings - in all areas of importance resources are rar after hundreds of years of human
exploitation. Resources’ protection plans are developed at the national, but also at the supranational
level. In common, they are searching for tools for an effective resources’ protection.
In addition to the planning and direct control behavior (especially penalties), it is the indirect
behavioural control, especially by the financial contributions or by subsidies offer, that due to
promising results in the control of resource consuming.
Many scientists are looking for new effective tools. In order to find and to develop the best
management tools for the near future, it should be noted, that numerous mechanisms have been
invented and tested already. One of the oldest also environmental protection’s tools was the so-called
German Waste Oil Levy.
It was introduced in 1968 by the Waste Oil Act (BGBl. I 1968, p. 1419 ff.) and it has been established
a transfer to a reserve fund to finance waste oils disposal. Coupled with the tax on oil, the acquirers
of lubricating oils and gas oils had to pay a levy within the scope of a levy-subsidy-system, which
was financed through the reserve fund. The fund should be used for waste oil elimination.
Based on the German Waste Oil Levy’s System, the amount of a resources’ levy should depend
accordingly on three factors:
a. A Collection rate that is determined by the public authority to adapt the amount of the levy to the
topical circumstances and changes.
b. A factor specific for each resource which reflects on the one hand the rarity of it and on the other
hand for raw materials its recycling ability as well as the recycling expenditure to the production
as a secondary raw material.
c. Consumption amount of the material in the production.
The use of the levy proceeds should lead to a “double steering system effect” of the levy. The effect
lies in the fact that on the one hand the levy should promote an attraction to reduce the use of the
resources and on the other side a support of the recycling and substitution of the industrial raw
materials.
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Wastewater
Moreover, by the system of the former German Waste Oil Levy, the proceed must be used as follows:
At first it requires a recreated or an existing public authority, that has the duty to enter, administrate
the levies, to supervise the levy debtors and to pay out the money to the recycling enterprises and the
enterprises, that have found substitution possibilities.
The administrative costs of the public authority, the development into the actual use, the financial
support for recycling, and the substitution of resources are covered by the levy.
It is necessary to identify the juridical conditions for such a resource protection levy.
2. METHOD
In the first part in subsection one of my contribution I want to introduce the specific model of the
former German Waste Oil Levy.
In subsection 2, I would like to transfer the German Waste Oil Levy’s model to a general levy for
water and other naturel resources, raw materials, land/ground, etc.
The second part is the main part of the paper: It is a legal opinion, that concerned with the legal
feasibility and the constitutional review of such a levy under the German Law and the Law of the
European Union.
My jurisprudential study should include to encourage legal scholars from other countries who
believe the model could be the right one to check it themselves on their own national legal way for
their own country.
The method for the first part is a descriptive presentation of the German Waste Oil Levy and the
developed general resources’ levy.
In the second part, the juridical conditions for resource protection levies in Germany are worked out.
Concerning this, an investigation of the German and the European law is required.
The interpretation of the legal norms is based on the text of the legal norm, as the expressed
objectivised will of the legislator, how it arises from the text within the general use and after the
special usage of the concerning regulation as well as from the context of meaning. In case of need
the interpretation has to occur after the approved juridical interpretation method - systematically,
historically and teleologic and purpose -.
The last segment analyses legally whether the introduced resource levy corresponds to requirements.
Critical points have to be determined and if it is necessary solution attempts for the removal of
juridical problems will be suggested.
3. FıNDıNGS AND ARGUMENT
The juridical feasibility of a resource levy in Germany is to be judged primarily by the national
constitutional and the European law.
As constitutional-juridical requirements at national level, there are at first the conditions of the
so-called Finance Constitution (Article 104a -109 GG - Basic Law -) and secondly the Charter of
Fundamental Rights (Article 1 - 19 GG). Moreover, the state authorities’ competence to non-tax
levies arises from the Article 70 ff. GG. From the subsidiarity of other levy types compared with the
taxe’s levy, suitable levies have to be different from the taxes.
As European Community Law’s problems of such a levy, there are the Aids Granted by States
(Article 107 ff. TFEU), Native’s Discrimination (Article 18 TFEU) and Article 401 Council
Directive 2006/112/EC on the common system of value added tax (OJEU 2006, L 347/1 ff.), that
forbids purchase taxes equal levies.
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Oral Presentations
4. CONCLUSıON AND SUGGESTıONS
The proposed model of a general levy on resources has to hold several conditions of the German
Constitutional Law and the law of the European Community.
Designed as a special levy it seems to introduce that such a special levy is possible by the German
and European law.
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Wastewater
Economical Wastewater Technologies for Small Settlement Areas
Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality Water And Sewage Administration
Summary Modular treatment plant technology is explained in this paper which is used for treating of
small settlement areas wastewaters. Long time aerated active mud process is proposed as a treatment plant
technology. ATV-A-126E standard is adapted to Turkey conditions for process calculations of the treatment
plants. The advantages of this type of treatment plants are; low personnel requirement, ease of operation,
low-power consumption, low sludge formation, portability and appropriate treated water quality.
Keywords: Wastewater treatment, long time aerated active mud, ATV-A-126E standard.
1. INTRODUCTION
Wastewaters are directly being discharged into any of recieving environments without treatment in
lots of countries which is illegal according to the regulations. As the treatment plant requirement
of the city centers haven’t been corresponded yet, it is thought that the infrastructure investments
are very luxury for the villages. Treatment plants can not be operated because of initial expenses,
operational expenses and the qualified personnel requirement. Although wastewater treatment
plan installation initial investment cost and operational cost are so expensive, the main difficulty
is the qualified manpower necessity which is so hard to find in small villages. Therefore, modular
wastewater treatment plant system is developed as an alternative that is easy to operate, maintenance
and installation.
We firstly built modular wastewater treatment plant in Bağırganlı village in Kandıra district of
Kocaeli and totally 5 modular wastewater treatment plants in Kocaeli where transferring wastewater
is impossible to the existing treatment plant. Wastewater treatment plant serves approximately 300
km² area. If the wastewater can not be transferred with pipelines by gravity to the plant, sewage
trucks are going to take wastewater to the cesspoola and carry to the plant for treatment. Desing and
build specifications of the modular wastewater treatment plants are different from the usual ones.
Balancing, aeration, sedimentation and sludge storaging pools are designed to be built in steel in
the modular wastewater treatment plants. The sedimentation pool is especially selected in “hopperbottom” type and built in steel. Diffusers are used for aeration instead of surfacial aeration method to
provide more efficient oxygen transfer.
Long time aerated active mud process is choosen as a treatment plant technology amd ATV-A126E standard is adapted to Turkey conditions for process calculations of the treatment plants.
There is not enough food for microorganisms in long time aerated active mud process. Therefore,
microorganisms competes eachother and eat theirselves. This causes low sludge production and
increases the discharge quality of the water.
Modular wastewater treatment plant is consisting of pumping system, automatically cleaned spiral
inlet screen, balancing pool, biological aeration pools in one module, sedimentation pools and sludge
storaging pools.
2.1 Modular Wastewater Treatment Plant Prıncıples
Wastewater, taken by submerged pump from entrance of menhole then move to the canal which
is over the balancing pond. It is going on here inside of the travelling grate which is self-cleaning.
Distance of the bars in grate is 10 mm. In balancing pond, blistered aeration in progress for
preventing AKM sedimantation inside of the sewerage. There have submerged pumps for moving
sewerage flow rate evenly to each biological treatment unit.
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Oral Presentations
(L*W*H) (m3) 2,4*13*3 = 94 m3 dimension aeration ponds equals to 1000 E.N. In biological reactor
oxygen transfering by diffuser aeration after that sluiced MLSS, move to the 5m dimensioned
sedimantation ponds. Sedimantation ponds made like hopper tank type. Inside of the sedimantation
ponds, return activated sludge go back to beginning of biological reactor by submerged pumps.
Excessive muds in the system, taken from return activated sludge then move to the mud storage
ponds by valves over the piping. In emergency, there is a piping system planned for discharging from
mud storage pond to the entrance of menhole.
2.1.1. Modular Wastewater Treatment Plant Dıscharge Parameters
Treatment plant discharge water provides discharge standards of Water Pollution Inspection
Regulation which is released in 31 December 2004 and 25687 numbered official journal. The
treatment plant initial investment cost is 271,7 €/m3 and the operational cost is 2000 € /month which
provides below shown appropriate standards.
PARAMETER UNIT
KOİ
BOR
SSM
pH
METHOD
S.M.5220 C S.M.5220C/
Closed Back flow
Vibration Method
SM 21. Edition 5210 B/5
mg/L
Day Biologic Oxygen
Requirement Test
SM 21. Edition
mg/L
2540 D-Gravimetric
Method(103-105ºC)
SM 21. Baskı 4500-H+B
/ Elektrometric Method
mg/L
Wastewater Wastewater
SKKY
Efficiency
(Outlet)
(Inlet)
Tablo 21.2
(%)
Analyse
Analyse
Results
Results
250-300
25-30
110
90
120-150
4-6
45
97
100-150
<11
30
93
7-8
7-8
6-9
-
Table 1. Treated Water Quality Parameters
REFERENCES
1.
ATV-A 126 E “Principles for Wastewater Treatment in Sewage Treatment Plants according to Activated Sludge Process with
Joint Stabilisation with Connection Values between 500 and 5000 Total Number of Inhabitants and Population Equivalents”
2.
ATV-DVWK-A 198E “Standardisation and Derivation of Dimensioning Values for Wastewater Facilities”
3.
Koç, S., (2006). Havuz ve Arıtım Mühendisliği: Kullanıcı Eğitim Semineri, Edremit-Türkiye
4.Örün, U. (2010). Kırsal Alanlarda Ekonomik ve Sürdürülebilir Atıksu Arıtma Çözümleri:12. Endüstriyel Kirlenme Kontrolü
Sempozyumu, İstanbul-Türkiye
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Wastewater
The Current Trenchless Experiences and Rehabilitation Needs of Sewer
System in Istanbul
Ahmet GULEC, Ismet CONTAR
Metallurgical and Material Engineer (MSc), Turkish Society for Infrastructure and Trencless Technology
Environment Engineer (MSc), Network Operating and Billing Department European 1st. - ISKI
Abstract Istanbul has become a center of attraction for three civilizations for 3000 years. As it is famous
ancient city of the world and it has growing population, the importance of Trenchless Methods is obvious.
There are many historical places where excavation is not possible in Istanbul. In this case, Trenchless
Technologies are major alternative and offer many benefits for protecting historical infrastructures and
reducing social cost. Currently, renewal and rehabilitation are in application in underground infrastructure
such as water, gas pipeline and sewer systems. Especially, Cured-in-Place Pipe (CIPP), Fold & Form
(F&F), Pipe Bursting and Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) methods are widely used for rehabilitation,
renewal and new installation of pipelines in Istanbul. In this paper, some trenchless case studies were given,
a projection of future was made and the potential of Trenchless Technologies is discussed for Istanbul.
Keywords: rehabilitation, trenchless technology, CIPP, sewer
223
Oral Presentations
Resource Oriented Sanitation
Heidrun Steinmetz
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract Water supply and wastewater treatment will be more and more driven by global aspects like
climate change, water shortage and nutrient availability. Thus there is an urgent need to improve existing
water infrastructures and develope new concepts for resourse oriented sanitation.
Keywords: nutrient recovery, energy potential of wastewater, closing the loop, new sanitation concepts.
1. INTRODUCTıON
Nowadays, one of the most urgent challenges is to establish an adequate infrastructure of public
water supply and waste water disposal for the population of the world. Worldwide approximately 2.5
billion people don`t have access to basic sanitary facilities or to a sewerage system [1]. This situation
in combination with an insufficient supply of potable water leads to the situation that more than
two-third of the diseases in the developing countries are caused by contaminated water. Furthermore
several surface waters and groundwater are severely polluted leading to severe environmental
pollution.
Water supply and urban drainage are basic duties of the services for the public. The challenge is to
guarantee the security of supply (amount, quality), the security of disposal (hygiene and protection
against flooding of urban areas), the security of water uses ( for potable water, bathing water….) and
the water- and groundwater protection against the background of a rising world population with an
increasing water demand.
While several countries possess only rudimental water infrastructures in Germany and numerous
other nations wastewater discharge and treatment have reached a very high standard. Nevertheless,
a large number of approaches to improve the existing systems are in progress, for example the
enhancement of the cleaning capacity regarding micropollutants and the sustainable handling of
resources contained in waste water - like water, energy and nutrients.
Until today wastewater is still often seen as a “waste-product”, which has to be disposed with energy
and additives and by its degradation solid waste such as sewage sludge develops. Due to increasing
global demands, such as climate protection and sustainable use of resources, the awareness, that
wastewater sewage is a “resource” which has much to offer, slowly achieves acceptance. The
potential for substitution of potable water by wastewater recycling is evident. In addition, the energy
content, for example in form of energy-rich organic compounds or thermal energy can be used welldirected and more efficiently than so far. The nutrients contained in the wastewater could replace
mineral fertilizers to a substantial portion and provide a contribution to the closing of nutrient
cycles. For this however a reorientation is necessary. Appropriate technologies must be developed
and successively integrated in existing plants, to tap the full resource potential of the waste
water optimally. Furthermore, it requires in addition to innovation for conventional systems the
development of new resource oriented sanitation systems, which can complement the conventional
systems in a meaningful way.
2. SCOPE OF THE PAPER AND PRESENTATıON
The paper aims to give an overview about the actual development in wastewater treatment in
Germany with the goal to reach a higher level of energy efficieny and integrate nutrient recovery
at conventional wastewater treatment plants. Besides general needs and concepts the development
of technologies in technical scale will be shown as well as concrete solutions of full scale
implementation [2,3].
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Wastewater
The entire disposal structure from Germany is developed over decades and is not just like that
transferable to other countries with different climatic, geographic and socio-cultural boundary
conditions. Beside the optimization of conventional systems there is also a need of developing novel
sanitary systems as a completion to the existing systems in an effective way. New resource oriented
sanitation systems, based on part stream separation already at household level, will be shown and
discussed.
REFERENCES
1.
http://www.unwater.org/statistics_san.html, 29.09.2012
2.
Locher, Ch., Meyer, C., Steinmetz, H., (2012). Operational experiences with a molten carbonate fuel cell at StuttgartMöhringen wastewater treatment plant. Water Science and Technology (WST) 65.5, 789-794; doi: 10.2166/wst.2012.463.
3.
Antakyali, D., Preyl, V., Meyer, C., Maier, W., Steinmetz, H., (2012). Large-Scale Practical Application Of Nutrient
Recovery From Digested Sludge As Struvite. Conference Proceeding - 9th IWA Leading-Edge Conference on Water and
Wastewater Technologies, Brisbane, Australia, 3.-7.06.2012
225
Oral Presentations
Effect of Treated Wastewater on Fusarium Wil of Tomato and Sweet
Corn and Host Resistance
Shaher Arabiat1, Ahmad AL-Momany2, Abdelnabi Fardous1
National Center for Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Jordan
[email protected]
2
The University of Jordan, Faulty of Agriculture, Amman, Jordan
[email protected]
1
Abstract This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of treated wastewater on the development of
Fusarium wilt of tomato and sweet corn plants diseases. To achieve these objectives, a primary work was
done, by conducting a field surveys during the period from September until April, in which tomato and sweet
corn samples showing wilt symptoms were collected from different growing areas in Jordan. Treatments
in this work included two types of irrigation water, potable water and treated wastewater, with and without
inoculation of the fungus, using two cultivars of tomato (“C32 “, and “GS-12”) and two cultivars of
sweet corn (‘NK199’ and “ Merit “). Different pathological parameters such as disease incidence, disease
severity, and survival of fungi in the soil, were assessed to evaluate the objectives of this study. Results
of surveyed samples and the isolation on culture media with microscopically identification showed that
Fusarium oxysporum was the causal agent for wilted tomato plants, and Fusarium moniliforme was the
causal agent for wilted sweet corn plants. Results indicated that, irrigation with treated wastewater decreased
the development of Fusarium wilt disease of tomato and the Fusarium stalk rot disease of sweet corn in
field experiments, while the laboratory experiment including the colony diameter test and germination test,
confirmed our results in open field experiments, and gave a proof that treated wastewater suppressed the
disease development, which encouraged the use of treated wastewater in the biological control programs
for these diseases. Analysis of potable and treated wastewater indicated that, the physical and chemical
compositions were within the limits of Jordan standards.
Keywords: Fusarium, Tomato, Corn, Waste water, Host resistance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Jordan is an arid to semi-arid country, and suffers from shortage of water resources. About 8.95
million hectares of a total area, over 90% are desert with less than 200mm of annual rain fall.
The current estimate per capita is less than 200m3 per year; therefore the threshold level of water
requirement per person per year is 1000m3 [1]. Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici, is a soil born
plant pathogen, causes Fusarium wilt specifically in tomato The objectives of this study were to
assess the effect of treated wastewater on the population dynamics and virulence of Fusarium
diseases on tomato and sweet-corn plants as well as on spore germination of Fusarium and Fungal
growth.
2. Materıals and Methods
Fungal growth was tested microscopically on the basis of morphological characteristics to identify
the genus and species of the pathogen by using taxonomical keys[2]. For most experiment, inoculum
concentration was adjusted to 1×106 conidia / ml Two water samples were taken every week during
the period of the experiments for chemical analysis. One of them was taken from Abu-Nusair
wastewater treatment plant. The other sample was taken from municipality piped water and this
will be referred to as potable water. Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K), were measured by Flame
photometer, Calcium (Ca), and Magnesium (Mg), by titration with 0.01N EDTA, Cadmium, Copper,
Chromium, Cobalt, Iron, Manganese, Nickle, Lead and Zinc were determined by flame atomic
absorption spectrophotometry [3]. Two separate experiments were conducted, one for tomato and the
other for sweet corn plants. Four treatments were used for both cultivars of tomato and sweet corn
with four replicates for each treatment. The treatments were distributed in randomized complete
block design with a split-split plot arrangement. Seedlings were transplanted into the open-field on
24 May. The soil remained unfumigated in this experiment. Inoculation with Fusarium was done as
described previously after three weeks. Plants were 50cm apart and grown until fruiting. Disease
incidence and disease severity were determined visually.
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Wastewater
3. RESULTS
The fungal isolates from tomato plants indicated that Fusarium oxysporum Schl. f. sp.lycopersci
(Sacc.) Snyder & Hansen, was the causal agent of tomato wilt. The fungal isolates from sweet corn
plants indicated that Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon, was the causal agent of stalk rots of sweet
corn.
The treated wastewater used in this study had an average result of analysis of the pH (7.16), electrical
conductivity (EC) of 1.54, total dissolved solid (TDS) of 960. So all of these values obtained, place
this type of water in a slight to moderate degree of restriction on use. Calcium, Iron and Zinc were
lower in treated wastewater than in potable water, where magnesium was slightly higher in treated
wastewater (39.25) than in potable water (30.85). Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, Sulphate, Phosphate
and Nitrate were much higher for treated wastewater than those of potable water. Lead, Cadmium,
Manganese, Copper, Chromium, Nickel and Cobalt elements were slightly higher in wastewater than
those in potable water. But all values fall within the permissible range for agriculture use according
to the values obtained from Jordan standard. The statistical analysis showed significant differences
between the two cultivars; the disease incidence for inoculated plants in cv. C32 irrigated with potable
water was 77% and in cv. GS-12 was 60%, while it decreased to 67%, 50% in tomato cultivars
C32, and GS-12 respectively when irrigated with treated wastewater. The highest disease severity
was 40% for cv. C32 irrigated with potable water and inoculated with Fusarium oxysporium while
there were no significant differences between cultivars irrigated with treated wastewater for both
inoculated and non-inoculated plants .
4. Dıscussıon
GS-12 tomato cultivar was more tolerant than C32 which was completely susceptible and Merit
sweet corn cultivar was more tolerant compared with NK199 cultivar.
The suppression of the disease development by irrigation with treated wastewater could be related
either to the effect of the elements or microorganisms present in the treated wastewater. Our open
filed experiment was in congruent with our lab experiment including colony diameters test, and
physiological changes of the host metabolites.
Our results were in agreement with Fardous and Jamjoum [4] where they indicated that irrigation with
treated wastewater increased the nutrient elements in soil. Jamjoum [5] found that the soil extractable
elements (Fe, Mn, Zn, Co, and Ni) were higher in plots received wastewater than plots received
regular water, which was similar to our results. These findings lead us to the fact that plants irrigated
with treated wastewater suppressed the pathogen as described before and benefit from the nutrients
available in the treated wastewater.
REFERENCES
1.
Abu Sharar, T, Shatnawi, M, Fardous, A. and Jamjoum, K. (1998). Jordan experience in treated wastewater reuse in
irrigation. Technical Bulletin No. 22. Water and environment research and study center, University of Jordan, AmmanJordan.
2.
Nelson, P, Toussoum, T. and Marasas, (W.F.O). (1983). Fusarium species: An illustrated manual for identification. Penn.
State Univ. press, Univ. Park, 193pp.
3.
American Public Health Association (APHA). (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. (20th
ed). Washington, D.C.
4.
Fardous, A, and Jamjoum K. (1996). Corn production and environment effects associated with the use of treated waster
water in irrigation of Khirbt AL-Samra region. Annual Report, NCARTT. Amman, Jordan.
5.
Jamjoum, K. (1987). Effect of wastewater and sludge application on soil, corn plant composition and production in Zizia
region. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Jordan. Amman-Jordan.
227
Oral Presentations
Influence of Operational Parameters on the Sonolysis of Oxytetracycline
(OTC) Degradation
Duygu Karaalp1, Nuri Azbar2
Ege University,Biotechnology Department, Bornova-Izmir
[email protected]
2
Ege University, Engineering Faculty,Bioengineering Department, Bornova-Izmir
[email protected]
1
Abstract Recent years, ultrasound (Ultrasonic irradiation) find a promising future for the degradation of
persistent organic molecules such as antibiotics in the area of wastewater treatment. In this study, the effect
of operating conditions, including pH value, reaction time, initial antibiotic concentration, and temperature
on the OTC removal efficiency by the sonolysis was evaluated. As a result, the relationships between these
factors were explicated for maximum percent antibiotic removal (the response) using one of the response
surface methodologies, the Box-Behnken statistical design and %40-67 OTC removal efficiency were
obtained with the sonolysis process during the experiments. In conclusion, in the light of the results obtained
in this study, the antibiotic residues which are not treated in urban treatment systems could be efficiently
remedied via a polishing step including AOP technology such as sonolysis.
Keywords: sonolysis, oxytetracycline, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), antibiotic, degradation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pharmaceuticals constitute a large group of therapeutic and agricultural purposes which have long
been used throughout the world. Recently, occurrences of pharmaceuticals into aquatic ecosystems
have gained significant attention due to their potential risks of resistance and its toxic effects to live
organisms and ecosystems[1]. Several investigations have showed that most traditional conventional
STPs were not designed to remove trace quantities of pharmaceuticals, they can usually only partially
eliminate these substances and many pharmaceuticals finally released in surface water, drinking
water, and wastewater systems[2]. For this reason, alternative treatment technologies are needed
as polishing step for conventional treatment plants. One such alternative is advanced oxidation/
reduction processes (AO/RPs) which based on the extremely unstable and reactive hydroxyl radicals
in the mechanisms leading to the destruction of the target pollutant.
Recently, several studies have reported in literature on sonolysis of various antibiotics and other
drugs and on these studies sonolysis was found to be effective for the removal of several target
chemical compounds[3] In the our investigation, the one of objectives were to better understand the
relationships between the factors (COTC, pH, temperature, application (operation) volume and
process time) and to determine optimum conditions for Ultrasound process using Box-Behnken
experimental design.
Analytical grade of OTC was purchased from Sigma- Aldrich (Germany) to construct UPLC
analytical curves for the determination and quantification of the antibiotic. The commercial
oxytetracycline hydrochloride was purchased from Galenik Kimya, Turkey. All other chemicals
were obtained from Merck Chemical Co. Ltd. All stock and buffer solutions were prepared with
15,4 MΩ deionized water, mobile phases was preperad with 18,2 MΩ ultrapure water. An ultrasound
apparatus consisting of a generator, a transducer and a cylindrical glass reactor (1500 mL) was used
as sonolysis experiments. The OTC concentration of samples which were taken periodically from
the reactors was quantified by means of a ultra high performance liquid chromatography (U-HPLC)
with the diode array detector (DAD) supplied by Thermo scientific, USA. pH was measured by
Sartouris PB-11 pH-meter.
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Wastewater
For sonolysis experiments, a total of 45 experimental set were carried out taking 5 parameters into
account. The results were statistically evaluated using Box-Behnken approach. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to check the adequacy of the mathematical models. ANOVA test for percent
OTC removal indicated that (p<0.05) the results were statistically significant and operational
parameters (especially OTC concentartion) had a significant effect on the sonolysis of OTC removal.
The parameters X3, X13, X14, X23 and X32 were also determined to be significant model terms with
p-values less than 0.05
The statistical analysis did not show any significant effect of pH on the removal of OTC eventhough
the effect of pH on the OTC removal as a function of OTC concentration is seen. The results have
been showed that, at lower OTC concentrations, as the approaches to alkaline conditions, OTC
removal was reduced slightly resulting in a OTC removal of less than 25%. On the other hand,
increasing pH up to 10 provided over 2 fold increase in OTC removal (63%).
Results of the ANOVA test showed significant effect of OTC concentration on OTC removal.
On the other hand, the process application time is encountered as a parameter do not affect the
removal antibiotic efficiency. Although in our study the ANOVA test results for percent OTC
removal indicated that the temperature was non significant model terms with p-values more than
0.05 for US process, these results showed that a significant effect between temperature and initial
OTC concentration. According to these results, the removal effeciency increases with decreasing
temperature to 25°C and approaching OTC concentration to 50 mg/L. On the other hand, at low
temperature increasing OTC concentration up to 400 mg/l percent antibiotic removal increases.
Another significant effect is seen between temperature and operation volume.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Tremendous amount of antibiotics are used for different purposes all over the world and most of the
residual of these emerging chemicals end up in receiving media since the conventional wastewater
treatment plants are not designed to handle these chemicals. This study demonstrated that sonolysis
could be used as a successful polishing step at publicly owned wastewater treatment plants in order
to treat these chemicals.
REFERENCES
1.Qiang, Z., Adams, C., Surampalli, R., (2004). Determination of ozonation rate constants for lincomycin and spectinomycin,
Ozone: Science & Engineering, 26: 6, 525-537
2.
Rivera-Utrilla, J., Sánchez-Polo, M., Prados-Joya, G., Ferro-García, M.A., Bautista-Toledo, I., (2010). Removal of tinidazole
from waters by using ozone and activated carbon in dynamic regime, Journal of Hazardous Materials 174, 880–886
3.
DeBel, E., Janssen, C., De Smet,S., Van Langenhove, H., Dewulf, J., (2010). Sonolysis of ciprofloxacin in aqueous solution:
Influence of operational parameters, Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
229
Oral Presentations
The Pollutant Loads Discharged to the Aegean Sea by the Rivers Flowing
Through the City of Izmir
Gorkem Akinci1, Elif Duyusen Guven1, Gulden Gok2, Sanem Keles Uğurlu
Dokuz Eylul University, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kaynaklar Campus, 35160 Buca, Izmir, Turkiye
2
Aksaray University, Department of Environmental Engineering, 68100 Merkez, Aksaray, Turkiye
[email protected]
1
Abstract Recent studies conducted with Izmir Bay showed that the water and sediments of the Bay are
significantly polluted by organic and inorganic contaminants. The major seven rivers flowing through Izmir
city and feed the Izmir inner Bay are studied and sampled in four sequential seasons to determine the heavy
metals (Ni, Cr, Cu, Pb), oil and grease, and suspended matter content of the water samples. In addition, the
seasonal pollutant loads discharged to the Bay are calculated for the studied rivers in order to present the
rivers’ pollution contribution. According to the findings, annually 17344 tons of oil and grease is discharged
to the Bay by the studied rivers. The total annual Ni, Cr, Cu, and Pb discharge to the Bay is found as 5.82
tons, while maximum load was calculated for Ni as 2,45 tons and the minimum for Pb as 0.61 tons. In
addition, total solids entering the Bay is found as 4.25 million tons, which covers the bottom of the inner bay
with a 4.2 cm thick sediment layer, if it is distributed evenly.
1. INTRODUCTION
Izmir is a city located at the west coast of Turkiye, around the Izmir inner Bay, and have a population
over 3.5 million people. Izmir Bay is also an important commercial harbor in Aegean Sea, which
is a large and important region of the Mediterranean Sea. Although there are many large and small
streams flowing to the inner Bay, the major ones are Old Gediz 1, Old Gediz 2, Bostanlı, and Ilıca
which contribute the Bay from the north; and Bornova, Manda, and Melez rivers, feeding from the
east (Figure 1). The total basin area of the rivers flowing into the Izmir Bay is 726.6 km2 and their
cumulative annual water flow is 182 million m3. There are many industrial areas around and in the
center of the city which include the manufacturing of textile, automotive parts, machinery, and
chemicals.
Seasonal water and sediment samples were taken from Old Gediz 1, Old Gediz 2, Bostanlı, Ilıca,
Bornova, Manda and Melez rivers and the sampling stations were chosen close to the discharge
points to the inner Bay. Oil and grease, heavy metals and total solids content of the water samples
were analyzed according to the Standard Methods.
The annual average concentrations of the pollutants determined in the river waters are presented
with Table 2. The contaminant loads discharged into the Bay by the investigated rivers are calculated
seasonally by depending on i) the percentage of the average precipitation observed for each season
between the years of 1975 and 2010 [9], ii) the average flow of the corresponding river [10], and iii) the
seasonal concentration of the contaminant in river water.
230
Old Gediz 2
Old Gediz 1
Bostanlı
Ilıca
Bornova
Manda
Melez
Wastewater
Ni
Cr
Cu
Pb
21.88
24.28
16.36
14.89
11.45
17.26
14.78
7.52
4.00
3.43
3.83
2.96
5.04
3.26
8.74
20.41
14.90
15.82
13.70
28.54
9.33
3.32
5.25
4.80
4.28
3.98
5.16
3.48
Oil&
Grease
98.75
185.12
75.33
57.00
157.25
150.75
160.75
Total
Solids
22726
26193
30175
67578
15495
49251
33018
Table 1. Average annual concentrations of pollutants detected in water samples (mg l-1)
According to the calculated findings, major Ni sources are Melez (0.77 tons y-1) and Old Gediz 1
(0.74 tons y-1) rivers, and the annual Ni entrance into the inner Bay is calculated as 2.45 tons. On the
other hand, Old Gediz 1, Melez, and Manda carry 81% of the 0.69 ton of Cr discharged to the inner
Bay annually, which means they are the major Cr sources in the study area. Copper load is mainly
sourced by Manda, Melez, and Old Gediz 1 with 0.79 tons, 0.41 tons, and 0.62 tons per annum,
respectively. Annual Cu discharge to the Izmir inner Bay from the investigated rivers is 2.07 tons.
The high portions of Pb load are originated from Manda (0.177 tons per annum), Melez (0.162 tons
per annum), and Old Gediz 1 (0.112 tons per year) rivers, where the total annual Pb discharge into
the Bay is 0.61 tons. It is known that high heavy metal loads can be generated from the rivers passing
through highly urbanized areas [11, 12]. The higher metal loads carried to the inner Bay by Old Gediz 1,
Manda and Melez rivers depend on both the larger catchment areas of these rivers and the current or
abandoned uncontrolled landfills in their catchments.
The oil&grease loads entering the Bay via the mentioned rivers are presented with Figure 3.
According to the data, annual oil and grease fed to the Bay is 17344 tons. Old Gediz 1, Bornova
and Melez rivers are in charge of the major oil and grease contribution to the Bay. Bostanli and Ilica
rivers which have only residential and recreational areas in their catchments possess the least oil
and grease fed to the Aegean Sea. The unexpectedly high load originated from Manda River during
spring season arouses suspicions such as illegal discharges of oily waters to the river bed or leaks
from storage tanks of gas stations.
Similar with heavy metals and oil&grease, the highest solid loads are carried to the Bay by Old
Gediz 1, Melez, and Manda Rivers. The common ground of these river catchments is hosting variety
of activities such as large to small scale industrial manufacturing and recent or past landfilling as
well as holding large residential districts. The total mass of the annual solid matter entering the Bay
is enormous; 4.226.743 tons/year. This amount is approximately equals to the 2.5x106 m3 of sediment
volume which may settle down to the bottom of the Bay. The retention time of the water in the inner
Bay is about 83 days and this period is enough to allow settlement of a considerable portion of the
solids carried to the Bay. The water depth of the inner Bay is 17 m in the deepest point, while it is
between 5-10 m in the southern shores and between 0.5-3 m in the northern shores. Therefore, the
solids deposition in the shore line will be more significant.
4. CONCLUSIONS
It is recognized that the pollutant loads are higher in the rivers having variety of activities in their
catchment areas. The rivers having larger catchment areas and/or hosting former or current landfills
in their catchments are of particular importance since their pollutant generations are significantly
higher. The solids load fed to the Bay by the rivers exhibits a potential threat for the Bay, since the
water depth is low and the settlement of the solids particles can result with filling up this commercial
Harbour.
231
Oral Presentations
The Investigation of Dominated Anaerobic Bacteria Throughout
Degradation of a Raw Antibiotic Industry Wastewater
Delia T. SPONZA, Nefise ERDINCMER
Dokuz Eylul University, Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Buca Kaynaklar Campus, 35160
Tınaztepe, Izmir, Turkey
Abstract Laboratory scale anaerobic batch reactors were used to identify the main anaerobic bacteria
(acidogenic and acetogenic bacteria and methane Archae) genus at different hdyraulic retention time(HRT).
The raw antibiotic wastewater contained oxitetracyline(OTC) and tylosine(TL) antibiotics. It was found
that the number total acidonegenic and acetogenic bacteria and methanogenic Archae levels were higher
at high HRTs while the numbers of these organisms decreased at low HRTs. The statiscial relationships
between bacteria numbers, antibiotic removals and percantage of methane were investigated. Furthermore,
the specific methanogenic activity of methanoges were correlated with dominated bacteria numbers and
antiobiotic yields.
Keywords: Antibiotics, Oxytetracyline, Tylosine, Acidogenik ve Acetogenik Bacteria, Methane bacteria.
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, it was found that the COD and antibiotics in the antibiotic industry wastewaters
can not be effectively removed with conventional biological treatment processes [Sheng-Fu, et
al., 2011]. The experiences performed with advanced treatment processes (Hydrogen peroxide and
fentone) showed low antibiotic yealds and high cost [Emad et al., 2011; Göbel et al.,2007; Oller
et al., 2011]. Shi et al.,(2011) showed that tetracyline antibiotic concentrations between 0-50 mg/l
decrease the methane gas productions. Gartiser et al.,(2007) observed that the macrolide group of
antibiotics caused toxicity to methanogens under anaerobic conditions.
1.1. Aım of the study
The dominated anaerobic bacteria number and the identification of these bacteria were not used
perfomed before throughout anaerobic biodegradation of antibiotics. In the framework of this study
the antibiotics, COD and CODinert removals will be investigated with the biofilm formation of the
around of plastic support materials in anaerobic batch reactor at decrasing HRTs from 10 to 0.2
day. The dominated methane bacteria (Methanobacterium bryantii, Methanobacterium formicicum,
Methanobrevibacter smithii, Methanococcus voltae, Methanosarcina mazei, Methanosarcina
acetivorans, Methanogenium bourgense and Methanospirillum hungatei) and the dominated
acidogenic and acedogenik bacteria number will be enumerated. The statistical analysis between
bacterial numbers, antibiotic yields, COD and CODinert removal effeciencies, methane production
and specific methanogenic activity will be evaluated.
The antibiotics were measured in an Agilent HPLC.Bacterial numbers and identification of the
bacteria were performed following the Bergey’s Manual (2011). The COD, inert COD, TN, TP,
pH, redox potential were measured following the Standard Methods (2005) Spesific methanogenik
aktivitywas performed according to Speece (1996). Methane gas was measured in an Agilent GCMS.
3.RESULTS
The results of this study showed that the OTC and TL antibiotics were effectively removed at HRTs
as low as 0.2 days in an anaerobic batch reactor with the biofim generated around support materials
in the anaerobic batch anaerobic reactoes. The Antibiotics ve COD were removed with yields as high
as 80%. The numbers of methane Archae and the genus of these bacteria also are at high levels at a
HRT of 0.2 day
232
PARAMETERS
10
COD removal yields
90
VFA Concentration (CH3COOH l−1)
110
OTC Concentration (mg/L)
100
Tylosine Concentration (mg/L)
200
Q (ml/day)
10
F/M ratio (mg COD mg−1 gün−1)
0.5
Methane gase percentage (%)
60
OTC removal yields(½)
92
TL removal yields (½)
90
Methane Bacteria Number (MPN g−1) 10×109
Thickness of Biofilm (mikron)
4
Wastewater
8
88
120
15
0.6
55
90
88
8×108
3.77
HRT(Day)
6
2
85
84
140
150
20
0.65
55
88
87
8×107
3.6
25
0.7
50
87
86
2.5×107
3.58
0.2
80
180
30
0.8
47
80
82
1×107
3.57
Table 1. Operating Parameters and Summaries of Results
REFERENCES
1.
Yang, S., Lin, C., Lin, A., Hong, P., (2011). Sorption and biodegradation of sulfonamide antibiotics by activated
sludge:Experimental assesment using batch data obtained under aerobic conditions, Water Research, 45, 11, 3389-3397
2.
Emad, S., Elmolla, Chadhuri, M., (2011). Combined photo-Fenton–SBR process for antibiotic wastewater treatment,
Journal of Hazardous Materials, Volume 192, Issue 3, 15 September 2011, Pages 1418-1426
3.
Göbel, A., McArdell, C., Joss, A., Siegrist, H., Giger, W.,(2007). Fate of sulfonamides, macrolides, and trimethoprim in
different wastewater treatment Technologies, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 372, Issues 2-3, 1 January 2007,
Pages 361-371
4.
Oller, S., Malato, S., Sanchez-Perez, J.A., Combination of Advanced Oxidation Processes and biological treatments for
wastewater decontamination - A review, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 409, Issue 20, 15 September 2011,
Pages 4141-4166
5.
Gartiser, S., Urich, Elke, Alexy, R., Kümmerer, K., Anaerobic inhibition and biodegradation of antibiotics in ISO test
schemes, Chemosphere, Volume 66, Issue 10, January 2007, Pages 1839-1849
233
Oral Presentations
Removal of Tetracycline from Aqueous Solutions by Micro-Scale Zero
Valent Iron
Özge Hanay, Burçin Yıldız, Sibel Aslan, Halil Hasar
University of Fırat, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Elazığ, Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract In this study, the removal of tetracycline from aqueous solution by micro-scale zero valent iron
(ZVI) was investigated. As a result of experimental series carried out at different operating conditions, the
tetracycline removal efficiency was 98% at pH of 3 and temperature of 45oC. The tetracycline removal
efficiency was not significantly changed in the dosages above 0.6 g L-1 of ZVI at a constant initial
concentration. At the same time, when the initial concentration decreased, the tetracycline removal efficiency
increased in initial stages of the reaction. When the reaction time extended, the removal efficiency for the
all of concentrations was 99%. Since ZVI is inexpensive and their toxivity is negligible, it is thought that its
usage was appropriate in the aqueous environments containing antibiotic as tetracycline.
Keywords: antibiotic, tatracycline, zero valent micro-scale iron.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tetracyclines (TCs), the second most widely used antibiotics in the world, exhibit broad-spectrum
antimicrobial activity against a variety of disease-producing bacteria and often used in human therapy
and livestock industry[1]. Scientists often investigated the removal of tetracycline from aqueous
solution by advanced oxidation processes[2-4]. However, the adsorption of tetracycline antibiotics
by several materials such as multi-walled carbon nanotubes and goethite were examined[5,6]. ZVI
technology has already been proven cost-effective to remediate contaminated groundwater. It has
been shown very efficient for the aqueous removal of a variety of pollutants, including haloacetic
acid, halogenated organic compounds and azo dyes[7-9]. Reports on the use of ZVI technology for
pharmaceutical compounds such as amoxicillin, ampicillin, diclofenac, diazepam, metranidazole are
available in the literature. In this study, the removal of tetracycline from aqueous solution by microscale zero valent iron was investigated at different operating conditions such as pH, temperature,
initial TC concentration and ZVI dosages.
2.1. Preparatıon of Zero Valent Mıcro-Scale Iron
Zero valent iron powder used in the study was obtained as commercial from Aldrich Company.
Before used in the experiments, micro-scale iron was subjected to acid pretreatment. It was kept in
the gloove box in order to prevent oxidation under N2 until using in the experiments. This treatment
prevents the remaining of any oxide on surface of the metal. Surface morphology, particle size and
elemental analysis of the prepared micro-scale iron particles (SEM and EDX) were carried out with
scanned electron microscopy (Jeol-JSM-7001F).
2.2. Tetracyclıne Degradatıon Experıments
Tetracycline removal was investigated in the synthetic aqueous solution prepared with C22H24N2O8.
HCI (Applichem). At first, the optimum pH was examined by studying in the range pH of 2 and 9,
then the experiments were carried out within the range of 30 and 60oC of temperatures, different
initial tetracycline concentrations ranging from 20 to 100 mg L-1, ZVI dosages in the range of 0.11 g L-1. The reactions were carried out in the orbital shaker at 150 rpm. At the end of the different
reaction times, the samples were taken with fine-tipped syringe without opening cap of bottles and
they were filtered by 0.22 µm syringe-filter and kept in refrigerator in 4oC for tetracycline analysis.
234
Wastewater
2.3. Tetracyclıne Analysıs
The tetracycline concentration in the solution was analyzed with high-performance liquid
chromatography (Shimadzu CTO-10As VP). Analysis conditions were as following: mobile phase
was mixture of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate : acetonitrile (70:30, v/v), a flow rate was 1.2 ml
min-1 and sample volume was 100 µl.
3. RESULTS
In the studied pH ranges, the highest removal efficiency was determined as 98.4% at pH of 3. Also,
at this pH value, 97.7% removal efficiency was obtained for 45oC in the experimental series carried
out for different temperatures. After optimization of pH and temperature, it was concluded that ZVI
dosage of 0.6g L-1 was adequate for initial tetracycline concentration of 60mg L-1 and tetracycline
removal was not significantly changed above this dosage. At the last series of experiments, the
removal efficiencies were investigated in the different initial tetracycline concentration for ZVI
dosage of 0.6g L-1 and especially at the first stages when the initial concentration increased, the
tetracycline removal efficiency decreased. For example, the removal efficiency for 20mg L-1 within
30 min was 54.4%, while it decreased 17.4% for 100 mg L-1. Additionally, the tetracycline removal
efficiency for all of the concentrations was obtained about 99% at the end of reaction time, 480 min.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK)
under project No. 111Y092
REFERENCES
1.
Thiele-Bruhn. S., (2003). Pharmaceutical antibiotics compounds in soils - a review, Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil
Science, 166, 145-167.
2.
Reyes, C., Fernandez, J., Freer, J., Mondaca, M. A., Zaror, C., Malato, S., Mansilla, M.D., (2006). Degradation and
inactivation of tetracycline by TiO2 photocatalysis, Journal of Photochemisty and Photobiology A, 184, 141-146.
3.
Bautitz, I.R., Nogueria, R. F. P., (2007). Degradation of tetracycline by photo-Fenton process-Solar irradiation and matrix
effects, Journal of Photochemisty and Photobiology A, 187, 33-39.
4.
Vedenyapina, M.D., Eremicheva, Y.N., Vedenyapin, A. A., (2008). Electrochemical degradation of tetracycline, Russian
Journal of Applied Chemistry, 81, 765-767.
5.
Zhang, L., Song, X., Liu, X., Yang, L., Pan, F., Lv, J., (2011). Studies on the removal of tetracycline by multiwalled carbon
nanotubes, Chemical Engineering Journal, 178, 26-33.
6.
Zhao, Y., Geng, J., Wang, X., Gu, X., Gao, S., (2011). Adsorption of tetracyline onto goethite in the presence of metal
cations and humic substances, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 361, 247-251.
7.
Clark, C.J., Rao, P. S. C., Annable, M.D., (2003). Degradation of perchloroethylene in cosolvent solutions by zero-valent
iron , Journal of Hazardous Materials, 96, 65-78.
8.
Hozalski, R. M., Zhang, L., Arnold, W. A., (2001). Reduction of haloacetic acids by Fe0: Implications for treatment and fate,
Environmental Science & Technology, 35, 2258-2263.
9.
Nam, S., Tratnyek, P.G., (2000). Reduction of azo dyes with zero-valent iron, Water Research, 34, 1837-1845.
10. Huguet, M. R., Marshall, W. D., (2009). Reduction of hexavalent chromium mediated by micro- and nano-sized mixed
metallic particles, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 169, 1081-1087.
235
Oral Presentations
Anaerobic Digestion of Black Water in Eudiometer Scale at Various
Loading Rates
K. Mouarkech, H. Steinmetz
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract Black water collected from low flush toilets has a COD content which corresponds to about 60%
of the COD available in the total wastewater flow and has an average concentration of 10,000 mg/L. This
fact allows the experimental investigation of anaerobic digestion of black water. The main objective of the
carried out batch experiments in eudiometer scale is to understand the anaerobic degradation of black water
at various feeding load rates, test the possible inhibition occurrence and test the possibility of increasing
the biogas yield by addition of co-substrates. Experiments in eudiometer scale with a working volume of
200 mL were carried out based on the DIN 38414-8. The inoculum was stabilized digested sludge and the
co-substrates included urine, high concentrated wastewater and skimmed fat from a domestic wastewater
treatment plant. Anaerobic digestion of black water resulted with the highest specific methane yield of 133
NmL CH4 per added substrate at a sludge loading rate of 0.5 gCOD/goDM. Experiments with the substrate
mixture including 10% urine resulted in a decrease of 15% of the specific methane yield and a total inhibition
at higher urine feeding loads. The substrate mixture containing high concentrated wastewater resulted in a
reduction of the methane yield. Experiments with the substrate mixture including 10% fat resulted in almost
a trippling of the specific methane yield at a sludge loading rate of 0.16 goDM/goDM.
Keywords: anaerobic digestion, black water, urine, high concentrated wastewater, fat.
1. INTRODUCTION
Until today, black water digestion has been investigated in lab and semi-scale within the frame
of resource oriented sanitation concepts. This has been mainly carried out with black water as a
substrate originating from vacuum toilets and brown water from vacuum separate toilets. Further, the
idea of co-digestion with biowaste has been investigated with both substrates. Anaerobic digestion
process stability is mainly controlled by the hydraulic retention time (HRT). Methanogenesis was
not affected by ammonium concentrations found in black water of vacuum toilets and was found to
remain partially uninhibited with synthetic ammonium concentrations reaching 3500 mg/L under
controlled process conditions (Wendland, 2008). Methane gas release of 209 L CH4/Kg CODin and
342 L CH4/Kg CODremoved is comparable to the theoretical release of CH4 by anaerobic digestion of
organic matter. The methane output has increased with thickening methods (Peter-Fröhlich, et al.,
2007) and doubled with the option of co-digestion with kitchen waste (Peter-Fröhlich, et al., 2007
and Wendland, 2008).
The main objective of the batch experiments is to investigate the anaerobic degradation of black
water originating from low flush toilets and the resulting biogas yield at various loading rates. In
addition, testing the possibilitiy of inhibition occurrence and the possibility of increasing the enregy
output by co-digestion.
The batch experiements have been carried out in a 200 mL reactor composed of two parts: a flask
and an eudiometer filled with a barrier solution. Continuous mixing is provided by a magnet and the
produced gas travels through an inner pipe in the eudiometer connected to the flask causing pressure
on the upper headspace of the barrier solution. This leads to a shift in the barrier solution and shows
a reading of the produced gas volume. Gas content could be identified by collecting samples through
a septum.
The experiments have been carried out in a controlled room with a temperarture of 34-360C for 28
days based on the standard procedures of DIN 38414-8. Stabilized sludge with a total solid content
of about 6% taken from the wastewater treatment plant at the University of Stuttgart was used as
inoculum for all experiments. Black water from a low flush toilet (COD: 8 g/L, NH4-N: 7g/L) was
236
Wastewater
the main substrate and co-substrates included urine (COD: 8 g/L, NH4-N: 1.5 g/L) collected from a
waterless urinal, concentrated domestic wastewater (COD: 1 g/L) and fat and grease (TS: 290 g/Kg,
VS:93%) skimmed at the sand trap of the wastewater treatment plant of the University of Stuttgart.
The main parameter in control is the sludge loading rate (SLR) ratio defined as the available COD in
the substrate mixture to the organic dry matter (oDM) in the inoculum.
Anaerobic digestion of black water has been carried out with sludge loading rates of 0.1 to 1.2 gCOD/
goDM. The cummulative gas production increases with the increase of the sludge loading rate. The
specific methane yield which indicates the produced CH4 by the added substrate has reached its
highest value at a SLR of 0.5 gCOD/goDM. This resulted in a specific methane yield of 203 NmL
CH4/gCODin and similar to literature values (Wendland, 2008).
Experiments with anaerobic co-digestion of urine showed a decrease in the specific methane yield
with the increase of the urine content in the substrate mixture. Experiments with an ammonium
concentration higher than 1100 mg/L resulted a partial inhibition of the anaerobic digestion process.
Co-digestion with concentrated wastewater resulted in a decrease of the specific methane yield as
the wastewater fraction increases in the substrate mixture. Experiments having a higher content than
70% of the total mixture as wastewater showed results lower than the blank experiment suggesting
the insufficient concentration of COD for anaerobic digestion to take place.
Co-digestion with skimmed fat and grease resulted in a trippling of the specific methan yield
achieved by black water experiments without co-digestion. This has been achieved at a SLR of 0.16
goDM/goDM.
4. CONCLUSION
Experimental investigation in batch tests is a first step considered to test the potential of anaerobic
digestion of black water and to frame the process boundaries when looking for energy recovery. The
experimental investigation has similar results to the literature regarding anaerobic digestion black
water. The option of co-digestion becomes more complex and resulted in inhibition with ammonium
rich mixture and an increase of the biogas yield when cosidering co-digestion with fat. Further work
has to be considering in handling of the collected fat within resource oriented sanitation concepts.
References
1.
A. Peter-Fröhlich, A. Bohomme, M. Oldenburg, R. Gnirß and R. Lesjean, 2007. Sanitation concepts for separate treatment
of urine, faeces and greywater (SCST), Berlin.
2.
Wendland, 2008. Dissertation. Anaerobic digestion of black water and kitchen refuse
237
Oral Presentations
Kinetics of Cyanide (Cn-) Degradation by Microalgae in Aqueous
Solution
Zehra Gök, Esra Yel
Selcuk University, Engineering-Architecture Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department
[email protected],[email protected]
Abstract Cyanide (CN-) can be degraded biologically with the appropriate microorganisms. Many algal
species use CN- as a source of carbon and nitrogen. In this study, CN- removal by algae was investigated.
For this purpose, Chlorella vulgaris-dominated mixed algal culture was used. Synthetic nutrient solution
and KCN solution as a source of CN- were added to the reactors seeded with algal culture. Experiments
were carried out in a climate room under controlled light and temperature. The study consists of two
parts; determination of the threshold level and removal of CN-. The fed CN- concentration was increased
weekly and the treshold level of the algae for CN- was found as 30 mg/L. Algal biomass increased up to
this concentration, after which the death phase beginned. Maximum chlorophyll-a concentration achieved
was approximately 1100 μg/m3 during 65 days. CN- was degraded up to 95% in removal experiments. CNremoval kinetics was found as a pseudo-first order with a 99.9% correlation. The reaction rate constant was
5.6x10-1 1/d. Total carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus forms removal efficiency were 71-99%.
Keywords: Algae, cyanide, degradation, kinetics.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cyanide is commonly found as an important contaminant in wastewaters from various industries.
The wastewaters generated by the industries such as mining, mineral and electrochemical industries
often contain significant quantities of cyanide [1]. Cyanide compounds can be classified as free
cyanide (CN-, HCN), metal cyanide complexes and other compounds (CNS, CNO-) of the reaction of
cyanide complexes. Cyanide and cyanide compounds can be treated by physical methods, adsorption,
complexation methods, chemical and biological oxidation methods [2,3,4,5]. Bio-oxidation of cyanide
and cyanide compounds is possible by the appropriate microorganisms [2,6]. Algal treatment is one
of the photosynthetic bio-processes and the most important advantage of this system is removal
of final products in cyanide oxidation (carbon and nitrogen forms) [2]. The aim of this study is the
determination of algal treshold to CN-, CN- degradation performance of algae, removal kinetics
of CN- and nutrients and growth kinetic of algal biomass under controlled light and temperature
conditions.
The experiments were carried out in 500 mL glass reactors placed in a climate room. Chlorella
vulgaris-dominated algal culture and synthetic nutrient solution which provides habitat for algae
were used [7]. The experimental studies were composed of two parts; determination of the threshold
level and removal of CN-.Treshold level was determined by adding CN- as KCN solution with an
increasing ratio. KCN solution was dosed to the reactors and changes in the composition of the
reactors were monitored through the samples taken at different times. CN- [8], alkalinity, total
inorganic carbon (TIC), total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), total phosphorus
(TP), chlorophyll-a [9], nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) [10] analyses were performed.
3. RESULTS
In the study of treshold level determination, algal biomass was found to tolerate CN- concentration up
to 30 mg/L. Algal bimass growed up to this concentration and achieved to 1100µg/m3 chlorophyll-a
during 65 days. When more CN- dosed to the reactor, growth of algal biomass declined and shifted to
death phase. In the CN- removal study 95% CN- removal was achieved. Besides CN- the degradation
products were also followed and TIC, TKN, NH3-N and TP were removed 88%, 71%, 87% and
99% respectively (Table 1). Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus forms are used by algae as a nutrient
source. Ammonia is converted into nitrate with nitrification and nitrate is consumed by algal
238
Wastewater
biomass. Kinetic studies indicated that CN- removal followed pseudo-first order, chlorophyll-a and
nitrate nitrogen alterations followed zero order and removal of other parameters followed second
order kinetics. CN- and nitrate nitrogen can not be removed by algal cell directly, however, carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus can be used directly. For this reason concentration dependence of the
reaction is high, and therefore carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus removal kinetics followed second
order kinetic (Table1).
Removal
Efficiency %
Chlorophyll-a CN95
TIC
88
TKN
71
NH3-N
87
NO3-N
Nitrification
TP
99
Parameters
Reaction
Reaction Rate
Degree
Constant, k
0-order
20.77
Pseudo-1st order 5.6x10-1
2nd order
3.1x10-2
2nd order
3.0x10-5
2nd order
2.0x10-5
0-order
3.9x10-1
2nd order
2.9x10-2
R2
0.98
0.999
0.77
0.93
0.94
0.73
0.85
Units: for zero order k: mg/L.d, μg/m3.d (Chlorophyll-a); for second order k: L/mg.d, for pseudo-first order k: 1/d
Table 1. CN- Degradation and Kinetics
REFERENCES
1.
Johnson, C.A., Grimes, D.J., Leinz, R.W., Breit, G.N. and Rye, R.O., (2001). The critical importance of strong
cyanocomplexes in the remedation and decommissioning of cyanidation heap leach operations. The Proceeding of a
Symposium Held At Annual Meeting of TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Mateials Society) New Orleans, Louisiana February
12-15, 35-49.
2.
Gurbuz, F., Ciftci, H., Akcil, A., (2009). Biodegradation of cyanide containing effluents by Scenedesmus obliquus, Journal
of Hazardous Materials 162 (2009) 74–79.
3.
Kitiş, M., Akçil, A., Karakaya, E., Yiğit, N.O., (2005). Destruction of cyanide by hydrogen peroxide in tailings slurries from
low bearing sulphidic gold ores. Minerals Engineering 18 (2005) 353-362.
4.
Tarlan, E., Önen, V., Yılmaz, Z., (2006). Zinc-cyanide [Zn(CN)4]2- adsorption with row and acid-activated clay, itujournal/e,
WaterPollution Control, Volume:16, Issue:1-3, 35-44.
5.
Young, C.A. and Jordan, T.S., (1995). Cyanide remediation: Current and past technologies. Proceedings of The 10th Annual
Conference on Hazardous Waste Research, 104-129.
6.
White, D.M., Pilon, T.A. ve Woolard, C., (2000). Biological treatment of cyanide containing wastewater. Wat. Res. 34(7),
2105-2109.
7.
Dilek F.B., Taplamacıoğlu, H., Tarlan, E., (1999). Color and AOX removal from pulping effluents by algae. Applied
Microbiology and Biotechnology, 52(4), 585-591.
8.
Zheng, A., Zombak, D.D., Luthy, R.G., Sawyer , B., Lazouskas, W., Tata, P., Delaney, M.F., Zilitinkevitch, L., Sebroski,
J.R., Swartling, R.S., Drop, S.M. Ve Flaherty, J.M., (2003). Evaluation and testing of analytical methods for cyanide species
in municipal and ındustrial contaminated waters. Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 107-115.
9.
APHA, AWWA, WEF, (2005). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21th Ed.; American Public
Health Association, Washington D.C., USA.
10. EPA, (1971). Method 352.1 Nitrogen, Nitrate (Colorimetric, Brucine).
239
Oral Presentations
Long-Term, Full-Scale Experiences with Wastewater Reuse in
Braunschweig/Germany - the Example of a Successful Implementation
Norbert Dichtl1, Daniel Klein1, Bernhard Teiser2
1
Institute of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany
2
Wastewater Association of Braunschweig
Keywords: Wastewater reuse, Sludge reuse, Agriculture, Phosphorus, Irrigation.
1. BACKGROUND
Due to the worldwide population growth, the global demand of agricultural products will steadily
rise, thus putting more pressure on the resource “water”. Treated wastewater can play an important
role to cover the agricultural water demand. In contrast to most other water resources such as rainor groundwater, treated wastewater is available during the whole year; additionally, it also contains
nutrients such as N and P which serve as a fertiliser. If the performance of the wastewater treatment
plant (WWTP) is intentionally reduced to keep more nutrients in the irrigation water - agriculture
then serves as an additional treatment step - there’s even a double benefit: The WWTP can be
operated more cost effective, and farmers need less mineral fertiliser.
Despite these obvious advantages, the use of treated wastewater is often limited to landscape
irrigation such as public greens, golf courses etc, mainly due to potential health risks associated
with agricultural wastewater reuse. This is in fact an important aspect that has to be considered and
monitored, but many examples show and prove that a safe reuse of wastewater is generally possible.
Within our paper, the wastewater reuse system of Braunschweig as one successful example of a
long-term, full-scale implementation of wastewater- and nutrient reuse will be presented. It will also
be discussed how this system can be transferred to other reuse projects.
2. WASTEWATER REUSE IN BRAUNSCHWEIG
Since more than 60 years, the major part of the treated wastewater is used to irrigate 2.700 hectares of
agricultural land; about 1/3 is post-treated in the former sewage fields. Artificial irrigation is needed,
because the climatic water deficit is up to 300 mm during the summer. Prior to irrigation, the water
is treated biologically (activated sludge process), including nitri- and denitrification and a biological
P-removal. After treatment, the water quality is in accordance with the limit values as defined in the
wastewater ordinance and could theoretically be discharged directly into the recipient river instead of
irrigation. To increase the nutrient content, digested sludge is added to the irrigation water during the
vegetation period. In winter, the sludge is dewatered, stored and also used as a fertiliser (see Fig. 1).
3. BENEFITS OF WASTEWATER REUSE
By water and sludge, over 10 Mio. m³ of treated water, 100 t of phosphorus and 400t of nitrogen
are applied on the fields each year. Especially with regard to Phosphorus, there is almost no
further demand for mineral fertilisers. Additional groundwater withdrawal is negligible; in winter,
groundwater aquifers are even recharged by irrigation. On the WWTP side, the main benefits are
a cost-efficient disposal of the sludge and a more flexible operation of the WWTP due to the postcleaning effect of the irrigation and the former sewage field.
240
Digester
towers
Digested sludge:
(winter)
Digester
Wastewater
External use of
dewatered sludge
Dewatering
(summer)
Sludges
Irrigation (2.700 ha)
Wastewater
wwtp
2/3
Treated wastewater
1/3
WWTP
Recipient
(Former)
Sewage Field
Former sewage field
Figure 1. Main elements of the wastewater reuse system of Braunschweig
4. ORGANISATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE REUSE SYSTEM
The whole treatment system including irrigation and sewage field has been established 60 years
ago. It has always been regarded as one system, focusing on the benefits for both the farmers and
the WWTP operators. A close cooperation of all stakeholders is crucial for the implementation and
operation of such a system; therefore, all of them, including the nearby communities, are organised
in the Wastewater Association of Braunschweig. To create public acceptance, the system has always
been promoted and discussed in a transparent, open way.
To prevent heavy metals entering the WWTP (and thus, to prevent accumulation in the irrigated
sludge), all industries producing metal-containing wastewaters are strictly controlled and obliged to
operate an own on-side WWTP. As a result, heavy metal concentrations in sludge and soil are low,
proving the efficiency of the prevention strategy. To avoid bacteria-related problems, the irrigation
is limited to crops that are processed before use, mainly corn, rye and wheat. Moreover, irrigation is
stopped shortly before harvest. To avoid a possible spray of aerosols during irrigation, all fields are
encased by hedges, serving as a buffer zone.
5. THE SYSTEM OF BRAUNSCHWEIG - A MODEL FOR GLOBAL REUSE
PROJECTS?
Given the increasing global demand on agricultural goods, water- and nutrient reuse is a promising
and - especially with regard to phosphorus - essential strategy. The system of Braunschweig, in
operation since more than 60 years, proves that a safe water- and sludge reuse is possible. The
system with its different technical and organisational components might therefore serve as a model
for global water reuse projects, especially with regard to the global pressure on food production and
all related resources.
Ideally, wastewater reuse is already considered as a part of a WWTP in the planning stage. In this
case, the WWTP design and dimensioning can directly be adapted to the reuse purpose, as well as
technical and organisational measures to guarantee a safe reuse can be implemented. It has to be
pointed out that an open discussion of the advantages, but also the concerns of water- and sludge
reuse is crucial for a successful implementation and operation of a reuse system.
241
Oral Presentations
Domestic Wastewater Recycle Applications in Istanbul
Ahmet DEMİR1, Osman YILDIZ2, Ali İNCİ3
İSKİ, General Manager
[email protected]
2
İSKİ, Wastewater Treatment Department Head
[email protected]
3
İSKİ, Asian Side, Treatment Branch Manager
[email protected]
1
Abstract The exploitable underground and surface water resources in Turkey equal to 112 billion m3 [1],
whereas per capita consumption is approximately 1430m3/person[2]. In line with the forecasts of Turkish
Statistics Institution (TÜİK), in case the country’s population reaches 100 million by 2030, the exploitable
water quantity shall drop to 1000m3 [3]. Moving from the fact that there was an increase in the water amount
withdrawn from underground and surface water resources between 1995 and 2002 of 32,9 %, Turkey as a
country within the semi-arid climate belt, is not a water-rich country, rather can be listed among countries
with water scarcity below the world average. This stresses the very need to use water with utmost care,
saving approach and without any polluting process. In recent years the first agenda of those thinking on
water issues has been the global warming thus the recycling processes have become more important as the
usable water resources in the world have become less available. In this respect, having somehow guaranteed
the future years under insurance with its illegal use control and new water supply management efforts,
İSKİ has gone further ahead by opening the first Domestic Wastewater Recycle Plant in Turkey at Paşaköy
Advance Biological Wastewater Treatment in 2010.
Keywords: Domestic Wastewater, Sand Filter, Disinfection, Recycling.
1. INTRODUCTION
In terms of annual consumable per capita water, Turkey is within the countries with water scarcity.
Therefore the resources in Turkey need to be carefully consumed and strictly protected, in order to
leave adequate and safe water for future generations of the country[4].
Serving to a city with more than 13 million inhabitants as one of the most important cities in the
world and Turkey, İSKİ has, on average terms for 2011, provided a daily amount of 2,256,848 m3
/ day of cleanwater supplied through its 12 water treatment plants and has transferred 94% of this
amount to receiving environments through 573 km of collectors and 14,000 km of channels after
processing it at treatment plants and pumping stations. İSKİ aims to provide recycled water for green
areas and industrial use to be able to save raw water resources. Recycled water is ideal for industries
that possess processes that do not require water with drinking quality. Furthermore the industries
are often located in the vicinity of wastewater treatment plans and these industries can make use of
recycled water (Master Plan, 2009).
This study discusses the recycle efforts in the wastewater treatment plants of İSKİ who posseses
the first urban wastewater recycle facility in Turkey. The positive contributions of these efforts
together with saving intiatives in raw water resources in the national scale shall be stated. The daily
recycle capacity of İSKİ is 200 thousand m3 and the recycled water is used in the plant process
units or given to Organized Industrial Zones should there be demand. With the Recycle Application
in Paşaköy Advanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant put into operation in 2010, recycled
water of 100 thousand m3 has reached to Industrial Zones through a transfer line of 20 km and the
application is extended to be used on the coastline between Tuzla and Bostancı as well as Sabiha
Gökçen Airport for recreational areas. Furthermore, parts of the green areas within Atatürk Airport
is irrigated with the recycled water from the pressure sand filter + chlorine unit located at Ataköy
Advanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant. An approximate amount of 7 million m3 / year of
irrigation water derived from various sources is consumed in İstanbul for the green areas covering
44 million m2 of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. That the water resources are not unlimited
242
Wastewater
has highlighted the importance of recycle systems for industrial water use and irrigation in the near
future. Enabling recycled water for process water at industries that do not require drinking water
quality shall consequently provide water saving in drinking water resources. When we consider that
water required for green areas and recreational sites is supplied by water wells in best methods, the
advantage of using recycled water for such purposes can be realized.
2.1. AREAS TO USE RECYCLED WASTEWATER
In Figure 1 the 3-fold increase in drinking water as well as 5-fold in in austry and 2,5 fold in irrigation
water need in 2030 can be seen. Considering that there will be no increase in water quantity in the
natural cycle, the necessity on recycled water is not a luxury but requirement.
Figure 1. Sectural use of water for 2003 and 2030 [5]
In an overall approach, the areas of reuse for treated wastewater are:
• Urban use
Parks, recreational areas, sports facilities, highway sides, green areas in satellite districts, commercial
and industrial development areas, fire extinguishing systems, carwash facilities
• Industrial use
Cooling - Process - Boiler feed - irrigation of green areas - fire extinguishing - dust control and
production of concrete,
• Agricultural irrigation
• Feeding the habitat, surface water and recreational areas
• Feeding / Injecting to the underground water
Preventing the salty seawater to underground sources on the coasts - advanced treatment in soil
- underground systems - feeding the aquifers with drinking or usable water quality - storing the
recycled water - prevention of soil collapses upon excessive pumping of underground water [6]
3. CONCLUSIONS
Reuse of treated wastewater should definitely be considered within the framework of sustainable
water policies. Since the agricultural use is little for İstanbul, the other areas of use listed above stand
out for recycled wastewater uses. There should be an obligation for the use of recycled wastewater in
all sectors (industry, agriculture, housing estates, sport complexes, etc) and this should officially be
supported to an extend.
RESOURCES
1.
Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı, Türkiye Çevre Durum Raporu, Yayın No:5, Ankara, 2007, p 63.
2.
Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı, Türkiye Çevre Durum Raporu, Yayın No:5, Ankara, 2007, p 64.
3.
http://www.dsi.gov.tr/topraksu.htm (11.07.2008)
4.
http://www.dsi.gov.tr/toprak-ve-su-kaynaklari
5.
Su Tüketimi Arıtma Yeniden Kullanım Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı(Eylül, 2008, Bursa)
6.
Kitis, M., Köseoğlu, H., Gül, N. ve Ekinci, F.Y. (2003), “Atıksu Arıtımı ve Geri Kazanımında Membran Bioreaktörleri”, V.
Ulusal Çevre Mühendisliği Kongresi, (Ekim, 2003, Ankara.)
243
Oral Presentations
Treatment and Reuse of Industrial Wastewater Occurred Due to Bus
Maintenance Operations; A Case Study of Ikitelli Bus Garage
Hayri BARACLI1,2, Fatmanur YILMAZ1, Atilla AKKOYUNLU3, Hurrem BAYHAN4
1
İETT General Management 34420 Beyoğlu- Istanbul/TURKEY
[email protected]
2
Yildiz Technical University Department of Industrial Engineering 34349 Yildiz- Istanbul/TURKEY
[email protected]
3
Bogazici University Department of Civil Engineering 34342 Bebek-Istanbul/ TURKEY
[email protected]
4
Yildiz Technical University Department of Environmental Engineering Davutpasa- Istanbul/TURKEY
[email protected]
Abstract IETT (Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management) provides public transport
service with 9 different garages in İstanbul. Industrial wastewater originating from bus maintenance and
cleaning activities has been treated and reused through physical and chemical treatment methods in garages.
The first treatment plant of IETT has put into service at Ayazaga Garage in 2001. In this regard, IETT broke
a new ground in the sector when it is compared with similar public institutions providing similar services
in the sector. In this study, treatment and reuse of industrial waste water originating from bus maintenance
operations for the year 2012 in Ikitelli, one of the garages of IETT, has been examined.
Waste water was treated and made suitable to reuse in the same process after physical and chemical treatment
methods. In addition, water pollution parameters were measured for reused water and excluded from the
average values of results obtained. Daily treated water amounts have been registered every day in Ikitelli for
the year 2012; and the benefits to environmental health and economy have been examined. Consequently,
reuse amount of waste water occurred as a result of public transport services in 3 metropolitan cities of
Turkey (Ankara, Izmir and Istanbul) has been measured by IETT for the first time[2]. Additionally, water
consumption in bus maintenance and cleaning operations has reduced; therefore not only financial gains are
provided but also damages to environment have been minimized.
Keywords: İETT, waste water, treatment, reuse, saving.
1. INTRODUCTION
General Directorate of IETT Establishments is a public institution, which has been providing public
transport service since 1871, in İstanbul. It has a bus fleet of 2629 and provides bus services on
both Anatolian and European sides of Istanbul. Every bus, which complete their daily services,
comes back to the garage, and is subject to cleaning and maintenance, and oil-fuel needs is supplied
according to needs. Waste water treatment plant has been put into operation in 2001. 9 treatment
plants were established in 9 garages after 2001.
At first, the waste water was treated so as to comply with the discharging limits, then the efficiency
of treatment plant was increased and reused water became available in washing processes.
In this study, waste water from 3 different maintenance and cleaning operations for 514 buses in
İkitelli come into question.
2.1. Treatment Method
Waste water from bus-bottom washing unit and engine parts washing operations is pumped to
physical treatment unit. The motor oil in the waste water is separated from the water with pallet
type grease trap in this unit. The water is subjected to pretreatment process and transmitted to body
washing equalization tank by gravity.
Waste water sources from the body washing unit flows to upper washing equalization tank by gravity.
Waste water is transmitted from this tank by pumping to the presedimentation tank. Sediments are
separated from the water, and the water flows to Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) Unit by gravity.
244
Wastewater
Motor oil is separated from the waste water with Dissolved Air Flotation method. The waste water is
treated with physico chemical methods in the next unit, by employing coagulation, flocculation, and
sedimentation. The water is pumped to rapid sand filter, active carbon filter and softening unit, and is
subjected to filtration process. The filtered water is pumped to treated water tank for reuse.
2.2. Amount Of Reuse Water After Treatment
A total of 32994m3 waste water is treated and reused in 2012 from Ikitelli Bus Garage. This amount
of reused water is presented corresponds to 108m3/day daily. The amount of water used again is
shown in table 1, month by month.
Months
January
February
March
April
May
June
Total Production
Months
(m3/month)
3757
July
3613
August
3468
September
1863
October
1935
November
1656
December
Total 32994m3/Year
Total Production
(m3/month)
1602
1677
1720
3902
3757
4046
Table 1. Reused Water Amount in Ikitelli (2012)
3. CONCLUSIONS
The water treated in treatment plant and re-used in processes is constantly monitored in terms of
COD, oil-grease and SS parameters, and water quality is examined. According to this fact, Chemical
Oxygen Demand is 108 mg/l on average; Suspended Solid is 16 mg/l on average, and oil-grease
is 11 mg/l on average[1]. These values are within acceptable discharging limits according to ISKI
Regulation for Discharging Wastewater into Sewer System. Daily treated water amounts have been
registered every day in Ikitelli for year 2012; and the benefits to environmental health and economy
have been examined.
When we take this figure into consideration, it is evident that by treating a daily average of 108
m3 waste water, IETT has prevented environmental pollution and minimized the damage for the
ecosystem by reducing use of natural resources. In addition, as the treated water was re-used for
maintenance operations, 32994m3 of drinkable tap water was saved and there was an important
amount of financial saving because of this re-use. Thus, the measurement and evaluation of waste
water resulting from the public transport services were done for the first time in Turkey’s biggest
three cities (Ankara, Izmir and Istanbul) by the General Directorate of IETT. In addition, reducing
the use of water in bus maintenance and cleaning applications while doing measurement resulted in a
financial saving of 167244,22 TL in year and the minimization of the damage to nature.
REFERENCES
1.
Analysis Results of Acredited Laboratory, 2012 İETT
2.
Annual Report of General Management of ESHOT 2011, Annual Report of General Management of EGO 2011
245
Oral Presentations
X-Flow Ultrafiltration for Municipal and Industrial Effluent Re-Use
Frans Knops1, Gulsah Yildirim2
1
X-Flow B.V., P.O. Box 739, 7500 AS ENSCHEDE (The Netherlands)
[email protected]
2
Pentair X-Flow BV, Istanbul (Turkey)
[email protected]
Abstract General effluent reuse technology is described with some case studies. Following articles shows
the purpose and the ways of water reusing;
• The feed source can be secondary effluent from a waste water treatment plant;
• The reuse water is provided for non-potable applications (mainly irrigation water) and process water.
• Pentair has provided dead-end filtration, X-Flow AQUAFLEX and XIGATM ultrafiltration membranes to
achieve quality targets.
• The scheme relies on ultrafiltration for parasite, bacteria and virus removal and chloramination for additional
viral removal in the reticulation system.
• It can be used a double membrane barrier with ultrafiltration followed by reverse osmosis to remove
pathogens and dissolved salt.
Keywords: Effluent reuse, municipal wastewater, pretreatment, ultrafiltration.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although water seems to be abundant on our planet, the availability of fresh water is becoming a
challenge fast. Membrane filtration has always held the promise of being able to provide ample fresh
water from non-potable sources, being surface water, seawater or even wastewater.
The most abundant source of water is readily available from municipal or industrial discharges.
Health departments, however, have only recently started to accept membrane treated water being
acceptable for non-potable use. Membranes have finally provided the physical barrier necessary to
reduce the inherent risk of human viruses being present in the effluent.
This paper will describe two such applications.
2. TECHNOLOGY
X-Flow XIGA and AQUAFLEX products are available in range of pore sizes and made either as
capillaries or as tubes. They are typically used for water treatment, where suspended solids and
bacteria and viruses need to be removed from a particular feed water. Surface water, ground water,
borehole water, seawater, industrial and municipal effluent from waste water treatment plants
typically converted to potable water, process water, RO feed water, irrigation water.
These concepts are providing backwashing, chemical cleaning and some other cleaning procedures.
2.1. RESULT
The UF is an ultimate barrier for micro biology which can be combined with disinfection achieves
the following water quality:
• 6 log reduction in E coli;
• 4 log reduction in viruses;
• 5 log reduction in protozoan parasites and helminthes;
• BOD < 10 mg/l and TSS < 5 mg/l.
246
Wastewater
In general removal rates are as follows:
• BOD:
75 - 90% removal rate;
• COD:
70 - 85% removal rate;
• Turbidity: > 99% removal rate.
Case studies have proven that there are various treatment options that can be used depending on
the quality targets for reuse water. Due to the inclusion of UF, each plant provides excellent water
quality. Although each system utilises different chemicals they both rely on the same core technology,
the X-Flow XIGATM and AQUAFLEX UF membranes. UF technology guarantees organic and viral
removal necessary for reuse or other supplementary membrane processes such as RO.
Due to recent improvements in manufacturing and reduction in operating costs X-Flow XIGATM
and AQUAFLEX UF has become commercially viable when compared to other conventional
treatment options.
This fulfils the three main requirements of reuse water:
1. It is safe to use due to the reduction of pathogens;
2. The process is commercially attractive given the inherent risks of using conventional treatment;
3. It provides a consistent and secure supply of water to the consumer.
REFERENCES
1.
H.A. Oosterom, R.H.M. Bos. Niuwe zuiveringstechniek voor de bereiding van gietwater voor tuinders in Drenthe. KIWA
N.V., KOA 97.002, februari 1997.
2.
Van Hood, S., “Semi dead-end ultrafiltratuon in potable water production”, Filtration + Seperation, January/February 2000.
247
Oral Presentations
Optimization of the Energy Output of Wastewater Treatment Plants
Christian Locher, Heidrun Steinmetz
Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management University of Stuttgart
Abstract Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are large energy consumers. Most of the energy used at
these sites is required for aeration, pumping of wastewater and disposal of sludge. In contrast, WWTPs can
also be energy producers, when the generated sludge is stabilized anaerobically and the resulting biogas is
used for energy production. This work focuses on options to enhance the energy production on WWTPs.
Therefor a steady-state model was developed which includes a closed balance of the COD, climate-relevant
emissions and energy fluxes. The model delivers helpful results to select the most suitable technology for
enhancing energy production at WWTPs with existing digesters.
Keywords: energy production, biogas, digester, wastewater.
1. INTRODUCTION
Germany has about 10,200 WWTPs, at which annual electrical energy consumption is around 4,400
GWh [1]. The german WWTPs with anaerobic sludge stabilization produce around 1000 GWh of
electrical energy per year [1]. The degree of self supply on a WWTP can be up to 100% for thermal
energy and up to 70% for electrical energy. An improvement of the energy balance can be achieved
by reducing the energy consumption and/or by increasing the energy production. This work focuses
on enhancing the energy production at WWTPs with existing anaerobic sludge stabilization.
There are different possibilities to achieve a higher specific energy production at WWTPs with
existing anaerobic sludge stabilization. For instance, biogas production increases, when the
organic load at the digester is increased, if the digester does not run already at full capacity. This
can be achieved by enlarging the primary sedimentation tank, if sufficient carbon sources for the
denitrification process are available or in connection with a separate treatment of the return flow
from sludge treatment (e.g. deammonification). Further increase of the organic sludge amount can be
achieved by applying a dynamic variation (temperature dependent) of the sludge age.
Another option to enhance biogas production, are the sludge disintegration (mechanical, thermal)
techniques, which are applied, in order to thicken the sludge to achieve higher retention time in
the exising digester or simple increase its degradability. Moreover, the boundary conditions inside
the digester can be changed through an interesting parameter: temperature, which eventually can be
adjusted according to the availability of thermal energy for heating. Interesting practical examples
exist with a winter temperature of about 30°C in the digester and in the summer of about 52°C [2].
The technology used for energy production from biogas plays an important role. Nowadays there are
different options available such as boilers or combined heat and power plants like gas engines, micro
turbines or even molten carbon fuel cells. Practical experience shows, that the electrical efficiency of
molten carbonate fuel cells is not as high as assumed because of the high internal energy demand of
the fuel cell [3]. Beside the electrical and thermal efficiencies of these technologies, investment and
operational costs should be taken into consideration.
2. STEADY-STATE MODEL
This work focuses on enhancing the energy production, which depends on the process engineering
and the operation, at WWTPs. The first aspect of the work includes a literature review to give an
overview of the existing options to increase the energy production at WWTPs, when anaerobic
stabilization exists. Additionally, the outcomes of several site visits to WWTPs are included.
The work presents a steady-state model for WWTPs, which includes a closed balance of the COD,
climate-relevant emissions and energy fluxes. Depending on the process engineering and operational
conditions, the COD fluxes in the wastewater (influent and effluent), in the sludge and in the
248
Wastewater
biogas will considerably vary. Indeed, a part of COD is oxidised to CO2, which is released to the
atmosphere. Relevant greenhouse gases (GHG) are CO2, CH4 and N2O and these should be carefully
considered in the model. The more substrate is degraded anaerobically the more biogas is produced
and normally the less net energy is needed, contributing to reduce the GHG emissions from fossil
fuels.
Energy fluxes, which are dependant of the process engineering and operation conditions of the
WWTP, are considered in this model. An important point is the visualization of the steady-state
model and the correspondent fluxes (sankey diagrams) in dependency of the input parameters. In
Figure 1 a scheme of the steady state model is shown. The fluxes are only symbolic and depend on
the boundary conditions of a specific wastewater treatment plant.
Figure 1. Scheme of the steady state model without specific boundary conditions
Depending on the process engineering and the operation conditions of the WWTPs, the model
delivers results which can be helpful to select the most suitable technology for enhancing energy
production at WWTPs with existing digesters. The project is still ongoing. Full paper will present
results of at least three different WWTPs.
REFERENCES
1.
Haberkern, B., Maier, W., Scheider U., (2006): Steigerung der Energieeffizienz auf kommunalen Kläranlagen. Enhancement
of the energy efficiency on municipal wastewater treatment plants, Bundesumweltamt, 2006
2.
Bailer, E., (2012): Wirtschaftlicher Faulraumbetrieb/Gasverwertung auf kleineren und mittleren Kläranlagen Praxisbeispiel
Kläranlage Fischingen; Economic digester operation at small and mittle wastewater treatment plants, example wastewater
treatment plant Fischingen, DWA expert forum energy, 2012
3.
Locher, C., Meyer, C., Steinmetz, H. (2012): Operating experiences with a molten carbonate fuel cell at Stuttgart-Möhringen
wastewater treatment plant, Water science & technology 65 (5), 789-794
249
Oral Presentations
ISKI Pasakoy Wastewater Treatment Plant: Response Surface
Optimization of Disinfection by CLO2
M.Mevra Yalvaç, Osman Yıldız
İSKİ Atıksu Arıtma Dairesi Başkanlığı
Abstract Optimization studies was carried out ISKI Pasakoy Waste Water Treatment Plant effulent waste
water. Response surface methodology was applied to optimize the removal efficiency of fecal coliform were
used in this study. A 23 full-factorial central composite design was employed for experimental design and
analysis of the results. The ClO2 concentration ( 2-10 mg/l), pH (2- 10) and contact time (5-25 min) were
the critical components of the removal optimized. In the optimum conditions, removal efficiency of fecal
coliform was 99.99%.
Keywords: Response surface methodology, Wastewater treatment, Disenfection, ClO2
1. INTRODUCTION
Primary, secondary and even tertiary treatment cannot by expected to remove 100 percent of the
incoming waste load and as a result, many organisms still remain in the waste stream. To prevent the
spread of waterborne diseases and also to minimize public health problems, regulatory agencies may
require the destruction of pathogenic organisms in wastewaters. While most of these microorganisms
are not pathogens, pathogens must be assumed to be potentially present. Thus, whenever wastewater
effluents are discharged to receiving waters which may be used for water supply, swimming or
shellfishing, the reduction of bacterial numbers to minimize health hazards is a very desirable goal.
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is effective as both a disinfectant and an oxidant in wastewater treatment. It
has several distinct chemical advantages compared to the traditional use of chlorine in wastewater
treatment.
Optimization studies was carried out ISKI Pasakoy Waste Water Treatment Plant effulent waste
water.
The classical method of experimental optimization involves changing one variable at a time keeping
the others constant. In addition, it is not practical to carry out experiments with every possible
factorial combination of the test variables because of the large number of experiments required. Thus
a 23 full-factorial central composite design and response surface modeling method (RSM) was used
in this study.[1]
2.1. Experımental Desıgn and Optımızatıon
The optimum conditions for the disinfection of ISKI Pasakoy Waste Water Treatment Plant
effulent waste water by ClO2 were determined by means of RSM. RSM consist of group of
empirical techniques devoted to the evaluation of relations existing between a cluster of controlled
experimental factors and measured responses according to one or more selected criteria [2]. The
present work aims to be a study for the optimization of coprocessing conditions. ClO2 concentration
(x2), pH (x1) and contact time (x3) have been investigated. Each of the parameters was coded at
five levels: -2, -1, 0, 1 and 2. The range and the levels of the variables investigated in this research
are given in Table 1. Several experimental designs have been considered for studying such models,
and central composite design proposed by Adrinarayana et al. (2003) was selected. For this study,
a 23 factorial design with six star points and six replicates at the central points were employed to
fit the second- order polynomial model, which indicated that 20 experiments were required for this
procedure[4]. ‘STATISTICA (Version 10.0)’ software was used for regression and graphical analysis
of the data obtained. Figure 1 shows the response surface plot for the effects of ClO2 concentration
(C, mg/L) and Contact Time (t,min) on the Fecal Coliform removal.
250
Factor
pH
C (mg/L)
t (min)
Symbol
x1
x2
x3
-2
2
2
5
Range
-1
4
4
10
Wastewater
and levels
0
1
2
6
8
10
6
8
10
15
20
25
Table 1. The Experimental Domain
Figure 1 Response Surface Plot for the effects of ClO2 concentration (C, mg/L) and Contact Time (t,min) on the
Fecal Coliform Removal
REFERENCES
1.
Rodrigues,p.M.S.M., Silva, J.G., Antunes, M.C.G., (2007). Factorial analysis of the trihalomethanes formation in water
disinfection using chlorine, Anal.Chimica Acta, 595, 266-274.
2.
Adinarayana, K., Ellaiah, P., Srinivasulu, B., Bhavani Devi, R., Adinarayana, G., (2003). Response surface methodological
approach to optimize the nutritional parameters for neomycin production by streptomyces marinensis under solid-state
fermentation. Process Biochemistry 38, 1565-1572.
3.
Elibol, M.,(2002). Response surface methodological approach for inclusion of perfluorocarbon in actinorhodin fermentation
medium. Process Biochemistry 38, 667-673.
4.
Yalvac Can, M., Kaya, Y., Algur, O.F., (2006). Response surface optimization of the removal of nickel from aqueous
solution by cone biomass of Pinus sylvestris, Bioresource Technology, 97(14),1761-1765.
251
Oral Presentations
Remote Real-Time Wastewater Monitoring System
Gülay BOZDAĞ
PİKOTEK MEKANİK VE KONTROL SİSTEMLERİ
[email protected]
Abstract Remote Real-Time Monitoring System enables to remote and real-time monitoring of parameters
like temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen etc. which determines the fuctionality of Wastewater
Treatment Plant and energy consumption of the devices on plant. It is a genuine software system plans to
eliminate foreign resource and product dependency, remote and real-time data collection with high security,
eliminate the risk of data loss. Energy consumption data, waste water discharge and waste water parameters
are shown in the graphic screens, thanks to a combination of changes in the functioning of the process can
be followed. A flexible and modular software architecture was created and object-oriented programming
technique was used. Data security is the most critical requirement of the system becasue of the environmental
protection aim of the project. The software system provides an infrastructure to the end user can implement
its own specific security algorithms.
Keywords: Real-time, remote monitoring, treatment plants.
1. ENTRY
In accordance with the circular numbered “B.18.0.ÇYG.0.05.02-010.06.02-51460” by the Ministry
of Environment and Urbanism, real-time, remote waste water monitoring stations should be
established onto the Waste Water Treatment Plants which has the capacity more than 10000m3/
day. Market products that meet this demand are supplied from abroad and they contain proprietary
hardware and software. In other words, the end user or the owner of the firm commitment is not
possible to make changes for improvement or development. Market products should be used with
PC-based hardware because of its limited data storage capacity and the absence of mechanisms for
preventing data loss. So, service quality declines, and unnecessarily increase costs consist of external
resource dependency.
System which is developed by our company contains sensors with simple transmitters just have 4-20
mA output instead of high cost and restrictive controllers on market. Industrial PC platform is used as
the hardware infrastructure and flexible, modular software architecture developed. The ultimate enduser on the platform may run private data algorithms or private security algorithms. The system can
be easily adapted to different applications becasue of the flexible software architecture. The system
also contains “Energy Monitoring” capability that does not included in the products on market.
2. SYSTEM FEATURES
Sensors are sampled in real-time and sample data are recorded into the database. Generated data
every five minutes are transferred to the ministry server via GPRS in XML format. Data is encrypted
and packed with high-level security algorithms. Application level validation (acknowledge)
messages are used for communication gaps and established mechanisms to prevent data loss.
Sensors from different companies can be easily integrated into the system. Peristaltic pump is used
to take sample, the sensor group, the supply line and filter system are rinsed at regular intervals. The
requested structure for the sensor calibration are also setup.
Graphical data locally monitored, reported and the output can be taken. User access has authorization
levels and encrypted and is recorded. While necessary (cabinet door opened, motion is detected,
etc.), video records for security purposes are taken. IP camera which accessed by http protocol is
used for streaming purposes. Graphic displays are designed as easy to understand and user friendly.
Flexible and modular software architecture developed. The system enables to end user to handle its
own data or security algorithms. This structure may be easily adapted for using in various sectors.
Object-oriented programming method was used. Energy monitoring capabilities are also included in
the system. Data collected from the energy analyzers on field over RS485 or fiber optic infrastructure
252
Wastewater
and recorded into the database. Energy consumption data can be monitored graphically. Customer,
following the energy consumption profile over time may improve it. Energy monitoring infrastructure
also enables the customer to verify the process functionality. Energy consumption data, wastewater
discharge and wastewater parameters shown in the graphic screens, thanks to a combination of
changes in the functioning of the process can be followed.
Figure 1. System Prototype Block Diagram
3. CONCLUSION
Primarily, the software system has been tested under laboratory conditions for a long time, than the
field tests are implemented. The test results were confirmed that meets the system requirements. This
project has been developed with the support of KOSGEB from R&D budget. The test outputs of the
process will be shared in detail in the forthcoming documents.
REFERENCES
1.
“B.18.0.ÇYG.0.05.02-010.06.02-51460” sayılı genelge - Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı
253
Oral Presentations
Effect of the Anaerobic Digester Filtrate to WWTP Performance in the
Controlling the Biomass and Thickening
Dilek Erdirençelebi1, Murat Küçükhemek2
Environmental Engineering Department, Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Konya Water and Sewerage Administration KOSKI, Turkey
[email protected]
1
Abstract Konya Water and Sewerage Administration (KOSKİ) owns and operates a large scale treatment
plant for Konya City, TR, receiving both industrial and domestic wastewater at a flowrate of 160,000 m3/d
with a million equivalent population capacity. The wastewater is high in character according to domestic
wastewater classification as it receives industrial discharges and necessitates nutrient removal in addition
to organic matter and solids. The plant underwent a series of operational problems from the start of full
capacity operation with excessive biomass growth in its Bardenpho unit with poor settleability resulting
in reduced settleability in the secondary sedimentation tanks and sludge thickeners which also reduced the
sludge retention in the anaerobic sludge digesters. The anaerobic filtrate from the decantors was cut off from
the system for a period of 3 months and the observed effects on biomass growth, filamentous abundance and
settleability in the settling tanks and sludge thickeners were reported in the scope of this study. The anaerobic
filtrate/reject water was found to act as a precursor of the excessive biomass growth and filamentous bulking.
Keywords: WWTP, anaerobic filtrate, growth, bulking, nutrients.
1. INTRODUCTION
Konya Water and Sewerage Administration (KOSKİ) owns and operates a large scale municipal
treatment plant for Konya City, TR, receiving both industrial and domestic wastewater at a flowrate
of 160,000m3/d with a million equivalent population capacity. The wastewater pollutant matter
consists mostly of solids with a 70% volatile character which gets removed at a 45-70% as suspended
solids concentrating to a 30,000 - 38,000 mg SS/L at the first sedimentation unit. Secondary
treatment consists of the Bardenpho process where operational problems have been experienced
with continuous biomass growth with poor settleability in the unit leading to inefficient use in sludge
thickeners and anaerobic digesters as thickened sludge at low densities reduce the retention in the
digesters, thus volatile solid reduction and energy recovery. The anaerobic filtrate from the decantors
was cut off from the system for a period of 3 months and the observed effects on biomass growth,
filamentous abundance and settleability in the settling tanks and sludge thickeners were reported in
the scope of this study.
In addition to routine monitoring of the Konya WWTP as volatile solids (VS), mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS), total solids (TS), protein content and sludge volume index (SVI) of the
activated and return sludge, the characteristics of anaerobic filtrate was determined with parameters
as ammonia nitrogen and phosphate.
3. RESULTS
The anaerobic filtrate/reject water was found to act as a precursor of the excessive biomass growth
and filamentous bulking as it contained nutrients in the dissolved form at high concentration as a
result of anaerobic digestion of protein-rich primary sludge and waste activated sludge. Stabilization
of primary sludge during anaerobic digestion released ammonia nitrogen and phosphate in the
readily degradable form adding to raw wastewater inlet pollutant load as the filtrate is returned to
the plant inlet. Excessive biomass growth and settleability in the bardenpo tank and in the return
sludge were monitored through a 9 month period including the cut off period (Table 1 and Figure
2). With the start of cutting off period, settleability of the active biomass improved significantly and
the bulking effect was reduced with incresed concentration of return sludge which is an important
254
Wastewater
factor in the following sludge thickening units. High waste activated sludge concentration and
lower SVI values increased the sludge thickening performance, thus sludge retention in anaerobic
digesters. The effluent suspended solid concentration was stabilized in the cut off period as a result
of improved settleability.
Month
February
March
April
May
June*
July*
August*
September
October
MLSS-1
(mg/l)
5108
5470
3428
5468
7178
6370
6908
7012
7192
Bardenpho Tank
MLSS-2 SVI-1
(mg/l)
(ml/gr)
5306
191
3951
178
4103
148
4888
123
6036
78
5065
80
5009
76
6787
102
6016
113
SVI-2
(ml/gr)
183
239
216
122
74
73
80
97
125
MLSS
RS-1 (mg/L)
8.654
9.867
6.760
11.327
15.515
13.725
15.059
14.079
12988
Return Sludge
MLSS
SVI-1
RS-2 (mg/L) (ml/gr)
9.056
118
6.147
103
7.309
145
9.475
91
11.185
65
10.121
73
11.276
67
13.588
71
10264
76
SVI-2
(ml/gr)
113
167
141
104
88
95
88
72
93
* Anaerobic reject water was cut off from the plant inlet
Table 1. Suspended solid characteristics of the secondary treatment unit (values as monthly averages)
9.000
MLSS (Line-1)
SVI (Line-1)
MLSS (Line-2)
SVI (Line-2)
700
Concentration (mg MLSS/L).
8.000
600
7.000
500
6.000
400
5.000
4.000
300
3.000
200
2.000
100
1.000
0
16
.2
4.
3
19
.3
5.
4
21
.4
7.
5
24
.5
9.
6
25
.6
12
.7
28
.7
13
.8
3.
9
24
.9
0
11
.1
11
.2
2
7.
12
21
.1
2
3.
1
17
.1
800
Sludge volume index (mL/g).
10.000
Figure 1. Suspended solid and SVI change before and after the cut off period (arrow shows the period where the
anaerobic reject water was cut off the plant inlet)
Anaerobic filtrate/reject water contributed nutrients in the protein-rich primary sludge back to the
inlet in their readily degradable dissolved/inorganic forms necessitating a side-line nutrient removal
for stable treatment performance and effluent quality.
255
Oral Presentations
Determination of the Factors Effecting the Turbine Energy Conversion
Efficiency and the Benefits of its Use
Ugur Orun, Ali Inci
Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration(ISKI)
Abstract The wastewater treatment plants having the dryers for sludge treatment need considerable amount
of heat which is going to be used for producing steam or heating the thermal oil. Turbines ,which are as the
main part of combined heat power (CHP) plants, are designed for delivering both electricity and heat with
saving of energy for the wastewater treatment plants having dryers. However, the efficiency of turbines
strictly depend on the co-existing need of electricity and heat . Also, the fluctuations in the unit prices of
natural gas and electricity strongly effects the benefit of their employment in the site. In this study, using
the data determined from the turbine which have been operated and Pasakoy Wastewater Treatment Plant
(WWTP) , energy conversion efficiencies for electricity and power has been calculated. Also, based on the
electricity tariff of Ayedas , which is the electricity supplier company in the site, how much benefit or loss
was gained by using Turbine is calculated.
Keywords: Turbine, CHP, lower calorific value, enthalpy.
1. INTRODUCTION
Turbines as a major part of CHP systems are designed to deliver roughly 30 percent electricity and
50 percent of heat energy conversions and 20 percent loss by using the natural gas as the energy
source. The design parameters of the turbine in Pasakoy WWTP are 28,78 percent nominal electricity
generation efficiency and 48 percent of heat conversion efficiency with the installed power of 4,4
MW [1]. The turbine is prompted by electricity need of the treatment plant and produce heat for steam
production accordingly. However, in the site conditions, two different energy requirements may not
be matched at the same time. Also, even the good conversion efficiencies are obtained in the site, the
benefit of using turbine is badly affected by the natural gas unit price (NUP) (TL /1 Nm3) / electricity
unit price (EUP) (TL/ 1 kWh) ratio.
In this study, the energy conversion efficiencies of the turbine is determined by investigating natural
gas consumption (Nm3 /month) , steam production (tones / month) and electricity generation (kWh /
month) on monthly and yearly basis. Also, the benefit of turbine use is calculated in the same manner
by using the Ayedas[2] and IGDAS[3] tariff system. (VAT excluded in the prices)
2. DETERMINATION OF ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
IN THE TURBINE
The assumptions for the calculation of energy conversion: 1-Lower calorific value of natural gas is
9,59 kWh /Nm3 [4].2-The steam which is at 12,54 bar and 190 oC is carrying the energy of 773,89
kWh /ton [5]. 3-The efficiency of the waste heat boiler connected to turbine is 80 percent.
Months
TOTAL
EFFICIENCY (%)
ELECTRICITY (%)
HEAT (%)
Ag.
Sept. Oct
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March Apr. Ma
Ju
Jul
82,38
71,69
83,21 66,90 57,38 70,66 68,79 67,12 57,20 68,22 73,88 77,50
25,05 25,65 25,52 24,49 25,69 26,68 26,02 26,61
46,65 56,73 57,68 42,42 31,70 43,98 42,78 40,51
26,85 26,16 25,86 24,83
30,35 42,07 48,02 52,67
Table 1. The energy conversion efficiencies of the turbine in Pasakoy WWTP in the August 2011-July 2012
period
On yearly basis, 8.311.669,2 Nm3 natural gas consumed for the outcome of 20.598.300 kWh
electricity and 36.594 tones of steam production. Based on these data, total energy conversion
efficiency is determined as 70,25% in which the shares of electricity and heat conversion efficiencies
are 25,84 and 44,41 percents respectively.
256
Wastewater
3. DETERMINATION OF BENEFIT OF TURBINE USE
The assumptions for the calculations :The natural gas consumption, electricity and steam production
is linear with respect to durations of 3 different tariff (11 hours, 5 hours and 8 hours) set by Ayedas,
which means energy conversion efficiencies are same as Table 1 for all tariffs. The calculations are
made with the comparisons of the costs in the cases with and without the turbine installed.
Months
Ag.
NUP /EUP 2,40
Sept. Oct
2,40 2,63
Nov.
2,64
Dec.
2,64
Jan.
2,68
Feb.
2,69
March Apr.
2,69
2,92
Ma
2,92
Ju
2,92
Jul
2,92
Table 2. NUP/EUP Ratios for tariff-1 (06:00-17:00) in the August 2011-July 2012 period
Benefits of using turbine in the months from August 2011 to July 2012 in the tariff-1 are given
following; 85.928 TL, 88.162 TL, 108.441 TL, 40.533 TL, 50.274 TL, 88.005 TL, 66.898 TL, 55.994
TL, 45.914 TL, 73.735 TL, 69.126 TL, 61.594 TL. Yearly total benefit for tariff-1 is 834.604 TL.
Months
Ag.
NUP /EUP 1,57
Sept. Oct
1,57 1,70
Nov.
1,70
Dec.
1,70
Jan.
1,72
Feb.
1,72
March Apr.
1,72
1,86
Ma
1,86
Ju
1,86
Jul
1,86
Benefits of using turbine in the months from August 2011 to July 2012 in the tariff-2 are given
following; 83.317 TL, 76.796 TL, 98.963 TL, 47.008 TL, 69.531 TL, 94.208 TL, 74.632 TL, 63.477
TL, 77.868TL, 92.569 TL, 77.880 TL, 66.275 TL. Yearly total benefit for tariff-2 is 922.523 TL.
Months
Ag.
NUP /EUP 3,87
Sept. Oct
3,87 4,36
Nov.
4,36
Dec.
4,36
Jan.
4,49
Feb.
4,50
March Apr.
4,50
4,98
Ma
4,98
Ju
4,98
Jul
4,98
Benefits of using turbine in the months from August 2011 to July 2012 in this tariff-3 are given
following; 11.567 TL, 21.864 TL, 21.555 TL,-3.501 TL, -17.294 TL, 1.463 TL, -2.372 TL, -3.149
TL, -32.370TL, -14.509 TL, -3.331 TL, 631 TL. Yearly total disadvantage for tariff-3 is -19.444
TL.
As seen from all tariffs , the benefits of turbine use highly depend on natural gas consumption ,
heat conversion efficiency and NUP/EUP ratio. The higher NUP/EUP ratios especially above 4,5
strongly minimize or remove the advantage of turbine use. The electricity conversion efficiency is
more or less the same for all months. Total yearly benefit of all three tariffs by using Turbine is
1.737.683 TL.
CONCLUSION
Although turbine is logical and beneficial machine for Pasakoy WWTP which need CHP system,
optimization of its operation is depend on both monitoring of the parameters which include total
energy conversion efficiency, heat conversion efficiency and NUP/EUP ratio and acting to minimize
benefit loss. Sludge preheating of undewatered sludge for steady feeding of the dryers by unused
heat and maintaining the sludge processing equipment running before dryers could be the solutions
for acting. Also, stopping to run the turbine in the duration of tariff-3 period within the limits set by
its manufacturer can also maximize the benefit of operators.
REFERENCES
1.
Turbomach. Performance Data Sheet for Pasakoy WWTP.
2.
http://www.tedas.gov.tr/17,Tarifeler_Index.html
3.
https://www.igdas.com.tr/Dynamic/Institutional_Natural_Gas_Price_List.aspx?MI=3&CMI=667&MCI=589
4.
http://www.mmo.org.tr/resimler/dosya_ekler/c6709bfdf0572f1_ek.pdf?dergi=225
5.
http://enpub.fulton.asu.edu/ece340/pdf/steam_tables.PDF
257
Oral Presentations
Phosphor Recovery from Sludge Ashes: Preliminary Tests in an Induction
Oven
Carla Cimatoribus1, Fatah Naji1, Martin Kranert1, Harald Raupenstrauch2
University of Stuttgart, Germany
Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
1
2
Abstract The EU-Project (FP7) RecoPhos aims at developing, modelling and testing a new thermal process
to recover phosphor from sewage sludge ashes. The process concept consists of an induction oven where the
ashes are melted and phosphates are reduced to phosphor gas. This gas is then burnt in an incinerator and
quenched with water to give phosphoric acid. The article presents preliminary experiments conducted on
susceptor/reduction material at different induction frequency with regard to the temperature profile and the
heating velocity of the inductive packed bed.
Keywords: Phosphor recovery, sludge ashes, thermal process.
1. PHOSPHOR RECOVERY FROM SLUDGE ASHES
About 85% of phosphate ores and derived phosphoric acid are used to produce fertilizers [1]. This
essential resource is neither renewable nor substitutable. Although the world phosphate reserves are
estimated at about 100 to 120 years, their profitability depends on the development of various factors
(population growth, agricultural development, development of new deposits, etc.) [2].
In this framework the European Union is promoting a series of research project to explore the
technical and economical viability of phosphor recovery technologies from waste, in particular from
waste water, sewage sludge and sludge ashes. The latter in particular contain the highest fraction of
P (64g/kg) and therefore a promising potential, although phosphorus is bound in the ashes mostly as
phosphate.
Aim of the EU-RecoPhos Project is the development, experimental testing and modelling of a new
process concept for the thermal recovery of P in the ashes with the use of an induction oven.
2. RECOPHOS: A NEW THERMAL PROCESS
The RecoPhos process consists of a melting induction oven where phosphates are reduced to P4 gas,
while a metal-silicate slag trickles down the reactor to a collecting pot. Some preliminary experiments
aim at evaluating the response of different carbon susceptor material to different frequencies. These
data will help in the definition of a narrow range of effective induction frequencies and in the choice
of the best susceptor/reduction material among several carbon forms (anthracite, coke, graphite...).
Different material sizes are tested with induction frequencies between 5 and 200 kHz, evaluating the
heating velocity, the temperature uniformity in the reactor bed, as well as the mechanical response.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The RecoPhos project is cooperation between the University of Leoben, Austria, and of Stuttgart,
Germany, together with several industrial partners. We thank our partner SGL Group for providing
the experimental material. The project is financed by the European Union within the FP7.
REFERENCES
1.
Büchel K.-H., Moretto H., Woditsch P. (1999). Industrielle anorganische Chemie, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim
2.
Sartorius C., von Horn J., Tettenborn F. (2011) Phosphorus recovery from Wastewater – State-of-the-arte and future
potential, International conference on Nutrient Recovery and Management 2011, January 9-12, Miami, Florida, USA
258
Wastewater
Identification of Winter Bulking and Foaming Filaments in the Konya
Wastewater Treatment Plant
Esra Yel1, Sezen Kucukcongar1, Zehra Gok1, Merve Sogancioglu1, Ahmet Aygun1, Murat Kucukhemek2
Selcuk University, Department of Environmental Engineering, Konya, Turkey
[email protected]
Konya Metropolitan Municipality, Konya, Turkey
[email protected]
1
2
Abstract Foaming and filamentous bulking can affect some wastewater treatment plants continuously or
seasonally. Here, the winter season filamentous species in KonyaWWTP were identified and associated with
the operational conditions of the plant.Mainly Types 0041/0675, 021N, 0092, 1851, 0581, 0803, N. Limicola
I, II, III, M.Parvicella; Zooglea, and Thiothrix II found to dominate, which represents the biodegradable
industrial discharge, high θc and low F/M. In order to avoid the bulking/foaming problems, specific control
measures should be preferred to non-specific ones. Low ambient temperature had not adverse affect in
filamentous growth. Operational condiditons were more critical.
Keywords: Activated sludge, filamentous bacteria, bulking, foaming, temperature.
1. INTRODUCTION
Activated sludge bulking and foaming are 20-60% of the wastewater treatment plants’ experience and
resulting in sludge separation problems and malfunction of the process [1-3]. This is the case also for
the Konya Metropolitan municipal wastewater treatment plant (KonyaWWTP) especially in winter.
Filamentous microorganisms are associated with bulking and foaming phenomena, depending on the
operational characteristics of treatment plant and environmental conditions, sewage composition,
etc. Specific strategies focus on understanding and adjusting the relationships between the dominant
filamentous bacteria and the operational parameters of the treatment plant such as high sulphide,
biodegradable COD, N and P deficiency, high θc, low F/M, low pH, low DO, and temperature [4-6].
The aim of this study was to identify the winter season filamentous species in KonyaWWTP and to
associate them with the operational conditions of the plant.
KonyaWWTP (Qavg: 0.2 Mm3/d) includes preliminary treatment, modified Bardenpho for organic
carbon and partial nitrogen degradation, disinfection, thickener and anaerobic sludge digestion.
The microscopic analyses were carried out according to the method described in the microscopic
sludge investigation manual [1,7]. The rank of filaments was recorded by using a scale ranging from 0
(filaments absent) to 3.
Filamentous bacteria are normal components of activated sludge but they may compete successfully
with the floc-forming bacteria under specific conditions. Evidently Types 0041, 0092, 1851, N.
Limicola III, M.Parvicella (7%); N. Limicola I, II, Zooglea, Type 021N, 0675, 0581 (5%) and
Type 0803 and Thiothrix II (4%) were the dominant filamentous microorganisms in the 73%of the
samples during the winter (Figure 1). The F/M and θc were 0.10-0.23 and 11.2 days, respectively.
Types 0092, 0675/0041, M. parvicella proliferate under low F/M ratios (long sludge age), and/or
nutrient deficiency conditions [8]. Type 0803 dominates in case of industrial influent and anaerobic
supernatant recycle[1], which was the case during the study period. S. natans, Types 1701, 021N,
1851, Thiothrix spp., H.hydrossis, N. limicola II, III increases with biodegradable industrial effluents.
The ambient temperature varied between 10.1-17.5 ºC (avg 13.6 ºC).
259
Type 0092
7%
Oral Presentations
Type 0803
Type 1701 Type 4%
1863
Gordonia
Type 0411 2%
1%
2%
0%
Type 0581
5%
N.Limicola 2
5%
H.Hydrossis
1%
Type 1851
7%
Type 0961
0%
Type 0914
5%
Type 0675
5%
Type 0041
7%
Type 021N
Spirochaetae
5%
2%
M.Parvicella
7%
N.Limicola 1
5%
N.Limicola 3
7%
Thiothrix 1
3%
Thiothrix 2
4%
S. Natans
3%
Spirillum
2%
Fungi
2%
Zooglea
5%
Beggiatoa
0%
Streptecoccus
1%
Figure 1. Observed filamentous bacteria in Konya WWTP modified Bardenpho unit during 2012 winter.
The seasonal variation of the filamentous population is primarily attributed to the temperature
effect on the population size of M. parvicella and Type 0092 [9,10].Operational conditions and
influent variations affect the dominating filaments. The complementarity of the dominance of
these filamentous microorganisms is a strong evidence that they compete for the same substrate.
It was hypothesized that increasing temperatures are responsible for foam formation as growth rate
increases with increasing temperature in the growth range[10]. However, this study indicated that
the winter temperature did not prohibit the growth of the filamentous population. Therefore, the
operational conditions should be strictly followed and controlled to prevent filamentous growth,
even in winter.
4. CONCLUSION
Types 0041/0675, 021N, 0092, 1851, 0581, 0803, N. Limicola I, II, III, M.Parvicella; Zooglea, and
Thiothrix II dominated in Konya WWTP during winter. The winter temperature did not prohibit
the growth of the filamentous population. Operational conditions and biodegradable influent
characteristics had higher influence. Specific control measures, i.e.creating environmental conditions
in the plant to inhibit or suppress the growth of the filamentous organisms are suggested in this
study. Due to the variety of types of species, non-specific measures (e.g.the use of chemicals which
selectively control the excessive growth) are not suggested.
REFERENCES
260
1.
Eikelboom D.H., (2000). Process Control of Activated Sludge Plants by Microscopic Investigation, IWA Publishing,
London, UK.
2.
Noutsopoulos C., Andreadakis A., Mamais D. & Gavalakis E. (2007). Identification of Type and Causes of Filamentous
Bulking under Mediterranean Conditions, Environ Technol, 28:1, 115-122.
3.
Hussein R.M., Swaileh K.M., Al-Sa’ed R. & Roest K. (2012). Use of molecular techniques for the analysis of foam-causing
bacteria in Al Bireh oxidation ditch, Palestine, Int. J Environ Studies, 69:1, 91-101.
4.
Miana, P., Grando, L. and Caravello, G., (2002). Microthrix parvicella foaming at the Fusina WWTP. Water Sci Technol,
46:1, 499–502.
5.
Agridiotis, V., Forster, C.F. and Carliell-Marquet, C., (2007). Addition of Al and Fe salts during treatment of paper mill
effluents to improve AS settlement characteristics. Bioresource Technol, 98(15), 2926–2934.
Wastewater
6.
Martins, A.M.P., Pagilla, K., Heijnen, J.J. and van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., (2004). Filamentous bulking sludge: a critical
review. Water Res, 38, 793–817.
7.
Eikelboom D.H. and. Van Buijsen H.J.J., (1981). Microscopic sludge investigation manual. IMG-TNO, Report A94a, Delft.
8.
Jenkins D., Richard M.G., Daigger G.T., (2003). Manual on the Causes and Control of Activated Sludge Bulking and
Foaming and Other Solids Seperation Problems, IWA Publishing, Third Edition.
9.
Eikelboom D.H., Andreadakis A. and Andreasen K., (1998). Survey of the filamentous population in nutrient removal plants
in four European countries. Water Sci. Technol., 37, 281-289.
10. Knoop S. and Kunst S., (1998). Influence of temperature and sludge loading on activated sludge settling, especially on
Microthrix parvicella. Water Sci.Technol., 37, 27-37.
261
Oral Presentations
Evaluation of Sludge Production Potential of a Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plant - Operators Perspective
Ayşe Okşan Yavuz1, Dr.Burcu Didem Özdemir2, Osman Yıldız3
ISKI General Directorate, Paşaköy ABWWTP
[email protected].
MPE Engineering, Construction, Contracting/Istanbul
3
ISKI General Directorate
[email protected].
1
2
Abstract In this study, sludge production potential in Paşaköy ABWWTP was evaluated with the two-year
operational data, in order to obtain observed biomass yield factor (Yobs). The amount of produced excess
activated sludge was recorded daily as the variation of total biomass by adding the withdrawn sludge amount
to the existing sludge in the process tanks. Yobs was determined by dividing this daily excess sludge amount
by the treated total BOD5 and COD loads in the same period. Furthermore, SRT and Yobs were calculated
according to ATV-131E method by taking into account two-year raw wastewater data and current process
volumes of the plant. The Yobs values obtained from both methods were evaluated by categorizing the daily
data whereof, according to influent SS/BOI5 ratios, sludge age (SRT) and temperature. In plant, an average
of 0.5-1 kgMLSS/kgBOI5(Yobs) sludge was produced depending on SRT. Although, the average amount of
sludge production did not change significantly by temperature, an oscillation in the Yobs values was observed
as the temperature increased. The contribution of inert particulate matter in raw sewage to the excess sludge
production was lower than expected. However, despite the oscillation of the Yobs values with the increased
SRT, the expected downward trend was observed.
Keywords: Observed biomass yield factor (Yobs), excess activated sludge, sludge age (SRT), inert particulate
matter.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this study, sludge production potential of ISKI Paşaköy Advanced Biological Wastewater
Treatment Plant, which has an advantageous domestic waste water catchment area with no industrial
shock loadings, was evaluated by the two-year operational data. The objective was to determine
the observed biomass yield factor (Yobs) representing the biological activity using the past process
data, to give an insight in understanding the sludge production issue, then, to use it in daily sludge
calculations.
2. PLANT OPERATIONAL PROCESS DATA AND CALCULATION METHOD
The amount of produced excess activated sludge was recorded daily as the variation of total
biomass by adding the withdrawn sludge amount to the existing sludge in the process tanks. Yobs was
determined by dividing this daily excess sludge amount by the treated total BOD5 and COD loads
in the same period. Furthermore, SRT and Yobs were calculated according to ATV-131E method
by taking into account the two-year raw wastewater data and current process volumes of the plant.
The Yobs values obtained from both methods were evaluated by categorizing the daily data whereof,
according to the influent SS/BOI5 ratios, sludge age (SRT) and temperature. In plant, an average
of 0.5-1 kgMLSS/kgBOI5(Yobs) sludge was produced depending on the SRT. Although, the average
amount of sludge production did not change significantly by temperature, an oscillation in the Yobs
values was observed as the temperature increased. (Figure 1). The reason for this was considered as
the increased endogenous activity by the increasing temperature. The contribution of inert particulate
matter in the raw sewage to the excess sludge production was lower than expected [2,3] (Figure 2).
However, despite the oscillation of the Yobs values with the increased SRT, the expected downward
trend was observed (Figure 3). By the gradual increase of sludge age, XE content of an activated
sludge system begins to accumulate, as well as the decrease in biological activity and this content,
which has been considered as inert, can be decomposed at prolonged SRT values [4,5]. The minimum
average design temperature of Paşaköy plant is 15oC and the Yobs values calculated by ATV-131 E
262
Wastewater
method for 12 - 24 oC were slightly higher but up to 24 oC, close to the operational data. As SS/BOD
ratio got higher than 1.4, ATV-131 E gave gradually increasing Yobs results. Because ATV-131 E
presents SS/BOD ratios between 0.4 - 1.2, the ratios of Paşaköy wastewater are way higher than the
ATV-131 E range. So, in real case the mechanism behind the contribution of SSo into sludge could
be different.
Figure 1. Observed Biomass Yield Factor (Yobs) by increased temperature
Figure 2. Observed Biomass Yield Factor (Yobs) by increased SSo/BOD5o
Figure 3. Observed Biomass Yield Factor (Yobs) by increased Sludge Age(SRT)
REFERENCES
1.
ISKI Paşaköy Advanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant, Process Operational Data, (2011,2012) Istanbul/Turkey.
2.
ATV-DVWK-A131E Dimensioning of Single-Stage Activated Sludge Plants, May 2000.
3.
G.L. Cronje, A.O. Beeharry, M.C. Wentzel, G.A. Ekama, (2002). Active biomass in activated sludge mixed liquor, Water
Research, 36, 439–444.
4.
A. Ramdani, P. Dold, A. Gadbois, S. Deleris, D. Houweling, Y. Comeau, (2012). Characterization of the heterotrophic
biomass and the endogenous residue of activated sludge,Water Research,46, 653–668.
5.
G. Laera, A. Pollice, D. Saturno, C. Giordano, A. Lopez, (2005). Zero net growth in a membrane bioreactor with complete
sludge retention, Water Research, 39, 5241-5249.
263
Oral Presentations
Evaluation of Drying and Incineration Alternatives in Sludge Treatment
by Focusing on the Energy Recovery Factor
Ugur Orun
Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration(ISKI)
[email protected]
Abstract Finding an economic and sustainable solution for final sludge treatment of big wastewater
treatment plants, which are operated by water and sewerage administrations is vital issue in the choice of
best technology in terms of both initial investment and operation of plants. Especially, the energy recovery
is getting further importance in Turkey, which is highly dependent on import of energy source. In this
study, using the data obtained from the dryers which have been operated in Tuzla and Pasakoy Wastewater
Treatment Plants (WWTP), the energy needed to evaporate 1 ton of water in the wet sludge and the energy
required to dry 1 ton of wet sludge is calculated separately. Based on these calculations, energy recovery
comparisons are made with the current method and direct wet sludge incineration alternative.
Keywords: Dry solid, dryer, lower calorific value, enthalpy.
1. INTRODUCTION
Full drying of wastewater treatment sludges (increasing of dry solid content above 90%) is highly
intensive energy consuming process. Theoretically, for evaporation of 1 ton of water from the sludge
at 20 oC , 734 kWh energy is required [1]. However, in the site conditions, this amount can vary due to
the several factors like energy losses, dryer type, wet sludge dry content and temperature. According
to site investigations , energy requirements lye between 0,8-1,5 kWh / kg water evaporated [2].
In this study, how much energy has been spent for the evaporation of 1 ton of water during operation
of Tuzla and Pasakoy WWTP dryers is calculated on monthly and yearly basis. In addition, energy
potential of sludge is determined by using lower calorific values (LCV) of dried product. Putting
together these data, how much energy can be saved is estimated. In order to calculate the energy
needs for 1 ton water evaporation and for 1 ton wet sludge drying, initial and final dry solid contents,
the amounts of dry products and steam used for drying process has been investigated. Based on the
energy transfer calculations, the energy requirements are calculated.
2. DETERMINATION OF ENERGY NEED FOR 1 TON WATER EVAPORATION
FROM WET SLUDGE AND DRYING OF 1 TON OF WET SLUDGE
The assumptions for energy transfer calculations:
1- The steam which is at 12,54 bar and 190 oC is carrying the energy of 773,89 kWh /ton [3].
2- The condensed water at 100 oC (liquid phase) carrying the energy of 116,39 kWh /ton [3].
3- Net enthalpy used in the system for drying of wet sludge is 657,5 kWh /ton [3].
Months
Energy for
evaporation
(kWh/ton)
Energy
for drying
(kWh/ton)
Ag.
Sept. Oct.
Nov. Dec.
Jan.
Feb. March Apr. Ma
Ju
948
963
793
915
1037 1108 1111
914
884 945 1057 1136
674
704
580
689
794
696
658 690
853
850
781
Table 1. The energy requirements of Tuzla WWTP in the August 2011-July 2012 period
264
Jul
862
Months
Energy for
evaporation
(kWh/ton)
Energy
for drying
(kWh/ton)
Ag.
Sept. Oct.
Wastewater
Nov. Dec.
Jan.
Feb. March Apr. Ma
Ju
Jul
1065 1188 1014
948
865
856
939
919
909 976
959
947
833
744
675
663
718
707
702 758
737
728
935
790
Table 2. The energy requirements of Pasakoy WWTP in the August 2011-July 2012 period
As shown in Table 1 and Table 2, the energy need for evaporation of water varies between 793 to
1136 kWh/ton in Tuzla WWTP while in Pasakoy WWTP it does between 856 to 1188 kWh/ton.
Energy requirement for 1 ton of wet sludge drying changes between 580 to 862 kWh/ton in Tuzla
WWTP while it ranges between 663 to 935 kWh/ton in Pasakoy WWTP.
On yearly basis, 17.373 tones of dried sludge was produced and 51.205 tones of water evaporated by
consuming 76.282 tones of steam in Tuzla WWTP. The energy requirements are calculated as 979
kWh/ton for water evaporation and 731 kWh/ton for wet sludge drying in Tuzla WWTP by taking
into consideration of yearly total values. During this period of time, 8.332 tones of dried sludge was
obtained and 28.767 tones of water evaporated by using 42.298 tones of steam in Pasakoy WWTP.
Based on these data, the energy needs are determined as 967 kWh/ton for water evaporation and 750
kWh/ton for wet sludge drying in Pasakoy WWTP. Total yearly energy extracted from steam for
drying was realized as 50.155.698 kWh/year in Tuzla and 27.810.935 kWh/year in Pasakoy WWTP.
3. DETERMINATION OF ENERGY POTENTIAL IN THE DRIED SLUDGE
The lower calorific values of digested sludge ranges between 2,78 -4,17 kWh/kg (2388-3583 kcal/kg)
while it can reach up to 5,55 kWh/kg for undigested sludge[4]. LCV of Tuzla and Pasakoy WWTP’s
dried sludge has been determined as 2,48 kWh/kg and 3,29 kWh/kg respectively , which are average
values of different measurements. In this regard, the energy potential of Tuzla WWTP ‘s dried sludge
is 43.085.040 kWh/year and of Pasakoy WWTP’s dried sludge is 27.389.027 kWh/year. Assuming
the energy efficiency of 80% percent after incineration, approximately 80 percent of required energy
for Pasakoy WWTP and 70 percent of energy demand for Tuzla WWTP can be recovered.
Heat is recovered from the flue gases for combustion air preheating up to 450oC and /or steam
generation[5].
CONCLUSION
In terms of the energy recovery and energy saving for the sludge treatment, direct incineration seems
to be a better alternative compared to drying and sending the dried product to cement factories.
The main issue which has to be focused on is how to increase the calorific value of the wet sludge.
Minimizing the sludge age without sacrificing the effluent quality, decreasing detention time in
anaerobic digesters or bypassing them can be good case studies for both plants in order to achieve
LCV values for combustion of wet sludges without addition of external fuel.
REFERENCES
1.
ATV-DVWK-M 379 E (2004), Drying of sewage sludge,26, DWA German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste.
2.
Rogar Khalil,Ola Jonassen, Mette Bugge,Lars Sorum (2007),Options for the treatment of organic sludge-The move towards
thermal processing,5,Sintef.
3.
http://enpub.fulton.asu.edu/ece340/pdf/steam_tables.PDF
4.
DIN-Fachbbericht CEN/TR 15473 (2007),Characterization of sludges-Good practice for sludge drying,54, Europian
Committee for Standardisation.
5.
ATV-DVWK-Report (1994), Sewage sludge incineration, Emissions, 6, DWA.
265
Oral Presentations
Tertiary Membrane Bioreactor (TMBR) - New Concept for Large-Scale
Wastewater Reuse
Jan Hadler, Jack Noble
Koch Membrane Systems
[email protected]
Abstract The need for advanced wastewater treatment and reuse is increasing in all parts of the world as
the limited supply of freshwater is being rapidly depleted. This is especially true in the São Paulo region of
Brazil, where there is a growing demand for high quality water for industrial processing as well as for clean
drinking water. This paper will show how an existing conventional waste water treatment plant has been
upgraded for partial water reuse by means of a Tertiary Membrane Bioreactor (TMBR). Compared to other
wastewater reuse technologies, the TMBR offers lower operating costs, lower process risk, greenfield design
and negligible interaction with existing plant operations and equipment. The Aquapolo Ambiental project is
the largest wastewater reuse project in the Southern Hemisphere, and the fifth largest of its kind in the world.
Keywords: MBR, wastewater, reuse, membrane, ultrafiltration.
1. INTRODUCTION
The state of São Paulo, with close to 41 million people, is the world’s seventh most populous urban
area, and is considered the economic, financial and technical hub of Brazil. The region contains
nearly one-fourth of the country’s population but less than 2% of its water. Drinking water resources
are becoming increasingly scarce in São Paulo. The state government, recognizing the importance of
safeguarding drinking water for the region’s inhabitants, recently issued new regulations to restrict
the industrial use of potable water. These legal updates have forced factories to look for ways to
reuse their wastewater or obtain recycled water from another source. The existing conventional
treatment plant at the ABC Sewage Treatment Plant (ABC STP) of Sabesp, a Brazilian stateowned utility that provides water and sewage services for residential, commercial and industrial
use in the municipalities of the state of São Paulo, was built in 1990s. Several critical discharge
parameters of the current operation seriously compromised the ability to reuse the existing effluent,
including chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids,
ammonium, total phosphorus and conductivity.
2. METHOD
The Aquapolo Ambiental water reuse project was born from a unique business structuring and
project financing arrangement known as a specific-purpose partnership (SPP) between Foz do
Brasil, the engineering division of Odebrecht Group, and Sabesp. With a capacity of 86,400 m3/
day, the Aquapolo wastewater reuse project will be one of the largest of its kind in the southern
hemisphere. The project involves the construction of new pretreatment step, installation of chemical
dosing and the erection of a Tertiary Membrane Bioreactor (TMBR). The TMBR is a polishing
MBR. It treats water coming from the existing clarifier and is further treating this in a newly built
biological step using membranes as the separation process. Some of the TMBR effluent will be
further treated by Reverse Osmosis (RO) to meet conductivity goals for water reuse. The TMBR
will be built on the grounds of the ABC sewage treatment plant of Sabesp. Foz do Brasil, selected
the submerged PURON single header modules for the MBR and large diameter RO modules, both
supplied by Koch Membrane Systems. The project will allow the State Government to increase the
offer of treated water to industrial clients in the São Paulo Metropolitan Region. The volume of
first-use water that will no longer be consumed by the industries is enough to continuously supply
a population of 350,000 inhabitants, with the potential capacity to reach 600,000 if extended to
other clients. To validate the TMBR approach, a pilot study was conducted to confirm the design
parameters, optimize the system operation and evaluate operating costs.
266
Wastewater
3. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Whereas earlier papers1 dealt with the design phase of this project, this new paper will focus on the
implementation of the new TMBR concept. The paper will describe problems and solutions of the
start-up phase as well as discuss first operational results. Construction of the installation started in
2010, commissioning was in April 2012.
REFERENCES
1.
Kullmann, C., Lawrence, D., Costa, D., (2011). TMBR - new concept for large scale plant upgrade for water reuse, 6th IWA
Specialist Conference on Membrane Technology for Water & Wastewater Reuse, Aachen - Germany.
267
Oral Presentations
Genotoxicity Evolution During the Applcation of Advanced Oxidation
Processes: A Case Study with the Nonionic Surfactant Nonylphenol
Decaethoxylate
Akin Karci1, Idil Arslan-Alaton2, Gul Ozhan3, Buket Alpertunga3, Miray Bekbolet1
Bogazici University, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bebek, Istanbul
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Maslak, Istanbul
[email protected]
3
Istanbul University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Beyazit, Istanbul
1
2
Abstract H2O2/UV-C and photo-Fenton treatments of a nonylphenol ethoxylated nonionic surfactant
(NP-10) were investigated. Treatment performance was evaluated in terms of surfactant and total organic
carbon removals as well as genotoxic effects by employing the umu (a gene fused to the lacZ-gene which
is responsible for the production of β-galactosidase)-test. Complete removal of NP-10 was achieved by
both treatment processes after 40 min, whereas 79% and 69% TOC removals were obtained at the end of
the 120 min-H2O2/UV-C and photo-Fenton treatments, respectively. According to the umu-test results in
the presence of metabolic activation, the induction factor caused by the originally non-genotoxic NP-10
increased to a moderately genotoxic level (the induction factor = 3.5) within first 2 min of the H2O2/UV-C
treatment and then decreased again to a non-genotoxic level (the induction factor = 1.4) in parallel to TOC
removal after being subjected to 120 min-H2O2/UV-C treatment. On the other hand, the induction factor
increased only to weakly genotoxic levels (the induction factor = 2-3) within 20 to 60 min of the photoFenton process and decreased thereafter to a non-genotoxic level (the induction factor = 1.1) after 120 min
treatment.
Keywords: Advanced oxidation process, genotoxicity, H2O2/UV-C, nonylphenol ethoxylate, photo-Fenton.
1. INTRODUCTION
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are based on the formation of reactive species including
hydroxyl radicals (HO•). H2O2/UV-C and photo-Fenton processes are among the most widely studied
AOPs which have been reported to be capable of efficiently oxidizing NPEs in aqueous matrices [1,2].
However, the toxicity changes during the transformation of NPEs via photochemical AOPs have not
been dealt with, and the potential genotoxicity evolution during the application of these processes
have been completely ruled out. Considering this data gap, genotoxicity changes during the treatment
of aqueous nonylphenol decaethoxylate (NP-10), an NPE being frequently used in textile preparation
processes, via H2O2/UV-C and photo-Fenton processes were investigated by employing the umu-test.
NP-10 and TOC concentrations were monitored using an Agilent 1100 Series high performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) system and a Shimadzu VPCN carbon analyzer. Genotoxicity
changes caused by NP-10 and its oxidation products during the treatment were investigated by
means of the umu-test, as described in ISO 13829. In this test, Salmonella typhimurium TA 1535/
pSK 1002 was used as the test microorganism, and the test was performed in the presence (+ S9) and
absence of metabolic activation (- S9). The induction factor (IF) was determined by correcting the
enzymatic activity for the growth and expressing it as the fraction of control activity.
3. RESULTS
Both the H2O2/UV-C and photo-Fenton processes were effective for the degradation of a high
concentration of NP-10 in relatively short treatment times (Figure 1(a)). On the other hand, a lower
ultimate TOC removal efficiency was obtained in the photo-Fenton treatment (69%) than achieved
by the H2O2/UV-C process (79%). Significantly higher levels of genotoxic effects were evident in the
medium without metabolic activation as compared to the medium with metabolic activation during
268
Wastewater
the application of H2O2/UV-C and photo-Fenton processes (Figure 1(b)). The very beginning of the
H2O2/UV-C process presented the highest risk in terms of genotoxic oxidation product formation
in the absence of metabolic activation, as evident from the sudden increase of the IF from 0.92 to
3.53 after 2 min treatment. On the other hand, during application of the photo-Fenton process, the IF
value increased to a lower level (= 2.18), thus presenting a lower genotoxicological risk as compared
to the H2O2/UV-C process.
H2O2/UV-C, NP-10
H2O2/UV-C, TOC
(a)
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Photo-Fenton, NP-10
Photo-Fenton, TOC
(b)
H2O2/UV-C, - S9
Photo-Fenton, - S9
4.00
H2O2/UV-C, + S9
Photo-Fenton, + S9
3.50
3.00
IF
C/C0
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0
20
40
60
80
Time (min)
100
120
0
20
40
60
80
Time (min)
100
120
Figure 1. NP-10 and TOC Removals (a) and Genotoxicity Evolution (b) During the Treatment of Aqueous NP10 via the H2O2/UV-C and Photo-Fenton Processes. Experimental Conditions: [NP-10]0 = 0.15 mM, [H2O2]0 =
10 mM, [Fe2+]0 = 0.20 mM, pH0 = 7 (for H2O2/UV-C Process) and pH0 = 3 (for Photo-Fenton Process).
4. CONCLUSIONS
Genotoxic effects observed during the H2O2/UV-C and photo-Fenton processes were lower in
conditions that mimic the liver microsome biotransformation than without metabolic activation.
Among the studied AOPs, the photo-Fenton process could be recommended to avoid emergence of
moderate to high levels of genotoxic effects.
REFERENCES
1.
Olmez-Hanci, T., Arslan-Alaton, I. ve Basar, G., (2011). Multivariate analysis of anionic, cationic and nonionic textile
surfactant degradation with the H2O2/UV-C process by using the capabilities of response surface methodology, Journal of
Hazardous Materials, 185, 1, 193-203
2.
de la Fuente, L., Acosta, T., Babay, P., Curutchet, G., Candal, R. ve Litter, M.I., (2010). Degradation of nonylphenol
ethoxylate-9 (NPE-9) by photochemical advanced oxidation technologies, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research,
49, 15, 6909-6915
269
Oral Presentations
Aerobic Granular Sludge Reactors for the Treatment of Chlorinated
Aromatic and Aliphatic Compounds
Stefano Milia1, Alessandra Carucci2, Giovanna Cappai2, Marianna Perra2
Institute of Environmental Geology and Geoengineering (IGAG-CNR), ITALY
Dept. of Civil-Environmental Engineering and Architecture (DICAAR), University of Cagliari, ITALY – [email protected]
1
2
Abstract In this study, two Granular sludge Sequencing Batch Reactors (GSBR) were operated for the
biological degradation of highly toxic 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene and 2,4-dichlorophenol (1,2,4-TCB and
2,4-DCP) and 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCA), respectively, using readily biodegradable carbon sources as
the growth substrates. For 1,2,4-TCB and 2,4-DCP degradation, GSBR-1 was operated as a conventional
Sequencing Batch Bubble Column (SBBC) reactor, while GSBR-2 was started-up and properly modified in
order to minimize 1,2-DCA losses due to volatilization. Performance of both GSBRs in terms of 1,2,4-TCB,
2,4-DCP and 1,2-DCA removal efficiencies were evaluated throughout the research: toxic compounds were
completely removed and granules were successfully maintained in the reactors.
Keywords: aerobic granular sludge, 1,2-DCA, 1,2,4-TCB, 2,4-DCP, wastewater treatment.
1. INTRODUCTION
The aerobic granular sludge technology is attracting increasing interest in the field of biological
wastewater treatment [1], as it was proved to be a valid option for the degradation of toxic compounds
[2,3]
, likely due to diffusive processes involved in granule-shaped biomass which protect the
microorganisms in the inner layers against inhibition.
In this study, mature aerobic granules were tested for the removal of a mixture of 1,2,4-TCB (5
mg/L) and 2,4-DCP (20 mg/L) in a Granular sludge Sequencing Batch Reactor (GSBR-1) operated
as a Sequencing Batch Bubble Column (SBBC). A second reactor (GSBR-2) was started-up for the
removal of 1,2-DCA (up to 10 mg/L) and was properly configured in order to minimize 1,2-DCA
losses due to volatilization, still promoting granule formation: in particular, shear stress was mostly
provided in GSBR-2 by mechanical stirring (150-200 rpm), instead of intensive aeration. Readily
biodegradable carbon sources were fed to both GSBRs as the growth substrates, to sustain aerobic
granules. The treatment of a mixture of highly toxic compounds such 1,2,4-TCB and 2,4-DCP and
the possibility to treat volatile chlorinated compounds by aerobic granules are of novelty and would
contribute in extending the potential applications of the aerobic granular sludge technology.
GSBR-1 and GSBR-2 were used to carry out the experiments at controlled temperature (20±0.1 °C)
and pH (7.0±0.2). Both reactors were operated in 4-hour cycles, each cycle consisting of 60 min
anaerobic feeding (PFR-like), 173.5 min (GSBR-1) and 170 min (GSBR-2) reaction at controlled
dissolved oxygen concentration (30% of saturation value), 1.5 min (GSBR-1) and 5 min (GSBR-2)
settling, 5 min effluent withdrawal. Since the volumetric exchange ratio was 50%, the corresponding
Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) was 8 h.
GSBR-1 was operated with mature aerobic granules derived from a previous research, while GSBR2 was started-up with conventional activated sludge taken from a MWWTP. Both GSBRs were fed
with a synthetic influent (main composition is summarized in Table 1).
Sodium Acetate Ethanol, 1,2,4-TCB, 2,4-DCP, 1,2-DCA,
(NaAc), mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
GSBR-1
200
160
5
20
GSBR-2
900
0-10
Table 1. Main GSBR influent composition
270
Wastewater
3.1. GSBR-1
Mature aerobic granules were able to completely remove 2,4-DCP and 1,2,4-TCB, even though the
observed chloride release was lower than the expected stoichiometric value. VSS concentration in
the reactor and granule density were 4.1±0.2 g/L and 90±10 gTSS/Lgran, respectively. As shown in
Figure 1, acute toxicity was completely removed.
3.2. GSBR-2
Compact and smooth aerobic granules developed (Figure 2) and could be successfully maintained
in GSBR-2, with NaAc as the sole carbon source: VSS concentration in the reactor and TSS content
in the effluent were 0.9±0.05 g/L and 132±25 mg/L, respectively. After dosage of 1,2-DCA in the
influent (10 mg/L), negligible changes were observed in VSS concentration (0.95±0.03 g/L) and
effluent TSS (138±31 mg/L). Moreover, no 1,2-DCA was detected in the effluent, with 85% chloride
release.
Figure 1. Acute toxicity determined in GSBR-1 influent and effluent.
Figure 2. Aerobic granular sludge developed in GSBR-2, observed by phase contrast microscopy
(scale bar, 10 μm).
4. CONCLUSION
Mature aerobic granules in GSBR-1 were able to withstand and degrade both 2,4-DCP and 1,2,4TCB; acute toxicity measured in the effluent was negligible. Aerobic granules were successfully
developed in GSBR-2 using mechanical stirring as the main source of shear stress, and were able
to remove 1,2-DCA up to 10 mg/L in the influent. Aerobic granular sludge was proved to be a valid
option for the removal of chlorinated aromatic and aliphatic compounds.
271
Oral Presentations
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was financially supported by the National research project funded by the Italian
Ministry of University and Research: “Novel processes for sustainable remediation of groundwater
contaminated by chlorinated compounds” (PRIN 2008).
REFERENCES
272
1.
De Kreuk, M.K. and Van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. (2006), Formation of aerobic granules with domestic sewage. Journal of
Environmental Engineering, 132, 694–697.
2.
Carucci, A., Milia, S, De Gioannis, G., Piredda, M. (2008), Acetate-fed aerobic granular sludge for the degradation of
chlorinated phenols. Water Science and Technology, 58, 2, 309-315.
3.
Jiang, H.L., Tay, J.H., Maszenan, A.M., Tay, S.T.L. (2004), Bacterial diversity and function of aerobic granules engineered
in a sequencing batch reactor for phenol degradation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70, 6767–6775.
Wastewater
Aluminium Electrode Dissolution in Electrocoagulation Process
Saidat Olanipekun Giwa1, Canan Pekel1, Sule Camcioglu1, Suna Ertunc1, Mustafa Alpbaz1, Hale Hapoglu1
Ankara University, Department of Chemical Engineering, 06100 Tandoğan, Ankara-Turkey
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].
edu.tr, [email protected]
1
Abstract The first and the most important step in electrocoagulation process is electrode dissolution which
occurs simultaneously with the hydrolysis of water on application of electric current. In order to investigate
the effects of applied current, NaCl and cooling on the process, the experiments were conducted by varying
the values of applied current and NaCl concentration between 0.5-2.0 A and 0.5-2.0 g/L respectively,
with and without cooling. The electrolysis time for each experiment was 45 min. The results showed that
dissolution improved with increase in value of applied current in both conditions when current was varied
from 0.5 A to 1 A, dissolution increased from 0.3347 gL-1 to 0.6025gL-1 on cooling and at room temperature
it increased from 0.4002 gL-1 to 0.6695gL-1. High temperature seems to favor aluminum dissolution. Salinity
was found to have negligible effect on dissolution at low value of applied current.
Keywords: Electrocoagulation, aluminium electrode, dissolution, temperature.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, electrocoagulation has become of one the widely used electrochemical methods
in wastewater purification and wastewater treatment on laboratory scale. Electrocoagulation
involves the in situ generation of coagulants by electrodissolution or electrooxidation of electrodes.
When aluminium is used as electrode, Al dissolves at the anode and hydrogen gas is released at
the cathode. After dissolution, the aluminum cat ion are transformed into polymeric species which
finally form, Al(OH)3(s) flocs[1]. It has been reported that, in electrocoagulation coagulant dose linked
to electric charge and sodium chloride added for reduction of the electrical resistance allows efficient
dissolution of the Al alloy[2]. Dissolution can occur chemically and electrochemically. Chemical
dissolution is simply metal corrosion caused by a chemical reaction where the electrons released
by the dissolving metal species are not part of the cell current[3]. The chemical reactions are always
believed to contribute to the dissolution when actual electrode dose is much greater than faradaic
dose. This is mostly observed when aluminum is used as both cathode and anode. Applied current
or current density has been found to have a warming effect on solution temperature[4] as electrodes
dissolves. And this effect can be positive or negative on the efficiency of the process which is related
to the dissolution of electrodes.
In this present study, the effects of applied current, sodium chloride and cooling on aluminium
electrodes dissolution in an electrocoagulation process are investigated. Gu et al [3] investigated the
effect of current density on dosing rates and energy requirement for iron and aluminium electrodes
in a bench scale electrocoagulation and found that, while iron dosing followed Faraday’s Law,
aluminium dosing was averaged 83% greater than that predicted by Faraday’s Law. The experiments
were said to be carried out at ambient temperature (~22oC) at low current density range (1-9 mA/cm2)
and electrolysis time between 1.5-5h. The neglect of solution temperature here could have been due
to low range of current density applied to the system. Therefore, this work was aimed to investigate
the effect of cooling together with applied current and sodium chloride on aluminium dosing rate.
The experiments were carried in a batch reactor with active capacity of 1L using four aluminium
electrodes (dimension) connected in monopolar mode. Electrode dissolution was determined by
gravimetric method in which the electrodes were weighed using an analytical balance to up to
±0.00001 g before and after 45 min of the experiment. Tap water was used for the experiments.
The results showed that dissolution improved with increase in value of applied current. On cooling,
dissolution increased from 0.3347 gL-1 to 0.6025gL-1 when current was varied from 0.5A to 1A.
273
Oral Presentations
Temperature change in both experiments carried out with and without cooling. When 0.5A was
applied with addition of 0.5 g NaCl, on cooling the temperature increased from 17oC to 30oC and
without cooling, it rose from 27.5oC to 42oC. Figure 1 shows temperature change with time on
cooling for 0.5 A and 0.5 gL-1 NaCl.
35.0
cooling
cooling + 0.5 gL-1 NaCl
cooling + 0.5 g L-1 NaCl + 0.5 A
T ( o C)
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
0
20
40
60
80
t (min)
100
120
140
Figure 1. Solution Temperature as Function of Time
REFERENCES
274
1.
Essadki, A.H., Gourich, B., Azzi, M., Vial, Ch. and Delmas, H., (2010). Kinetic study of defluridation of drinking water
by electrocoagulation/electrofloatation in a stirred tank reactor and an external-loop airlift reactor, Chemical Engineering
Journal, 164, 106-114.
2.
Khemis, M., Tanguy, G., Leclerc, J.P., Valentin, G. and Lapicque, F., (2005). Electrocoagulation for the treatment of oil
suspensions-Relation between the rates of electrode reactions and the Efficiency of waste removal, Process Safety and
Environmental Protection, 83, 50–57.
3.
Guo, J., Ma, F., Chang, C-C., Cui, D., Wang, L., Yang, J. and Wang, L., (2009). Start-up of a two-stage bioaugmented
anoxic (A/O) biofilm process treating petrochemical wastewater under different DO concentration, Bioresource Technology,
100, 3483-3488.
4.
Giwa, S.O., Yilmazer, Z., Polat, K., Alpbaz, M. and Hapoglu, H., (2011). Investigation of current density effect on
electrocoagulation reactor temperature in petrochemical wastewater treatment: 9th International Electrochemistry Meeting,
Izmir - Turkey.
Wastewater
Production and Characterization of Two Polyethersulfone Flat-Sheet
Membranes at Different Temperatures Using Various Concentrations of
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
Mehmet Emin Pasaoglu1,2, Serkan Guclu 1,2, Ismail Koyuncu1,2
Istanbul Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department
National Research Center On Membrane Technologies
1
2
Abstract Two different groups of Polyethersulfone (PES) membrane were produced using the phase
inversion method containing different concentrations of Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as additives. In this
study we tried to optimize the concentration of PES polymer and PVP additives to produce high performance
membrane with regards to permeability. The optimized membranes have been further characterized with
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Contact Angle tests and subjected to the rejection test to be able to see
the rejection performances. Rejection tests of produced membranes executed with using different molecular
weight of Polyethylenglycole (PEG) solutions as 4400, 10000 and 35000 Da. Rejection percentages of these
membranes have sure enough increased proportionally with the molecular weight of Polyethylenglycole
(PEG). Especially at high polymer concentrations, produced membranes within the scope of this study have
shown perfect rejection performances. It was founded that, addition of PVP to the solution substantially
swell out the permeability of the membrane to a specific point as a result of the increasing hydrophilicity
of the membrane. Furthermore, at two different polymer concentrations and same Polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) percentage contact angle showed increasing trend. Also, it was observed that higher casting solution
concentrations decrease membrane permeability values due to forming a very dense layer on membrane
surface.
Keywords: Polyethersulfone, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), phase inversion, polyethylenglycole (PEG),
hydrophilicity.
1. INTRODUCTION
The phase inversion method has been extensively used for the preparation of asymmetric polymeric
membranes [1]. In this process, a casting solution consisting of polymer and solvent is immersed into
the coagulation bath. Phase inversion, by interchange of solvent and non-solvent due to diffusion,
causes the casting solution to undergo a phase transition leading to formation of the membrane [2].
Polyethersulfone (PES) provided by BASF Chemical Company, Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Company and N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone purchased
from Merck Chemical Company. Determined polymer concentrations dissolved into N-Methyl-2pyrrolidinone at optimum temperature.
%20 Polyethersulfone(PES)
Polymer Concentration %16 Polyethersulfone(PES)
Additive Concentration %2 PVP 40000 and %6 PVP 40000 %2 PVP 40000 and %6 PVP 40000
Temperatures
25 and 50OC
25 and 50OC
Table 1. Selection Of Polymer And Polyvinylpyrrolidone Contents At Different Temperatures
Polymer and Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) contents were selected as seen at Table 1. Afterwards,
two different groups of PES membrane have been fabricated using the phase inversion method
with different concentrations of PES and PVP at two different temperatures at 25 and 50OC. Within
the scope of this study, Loeb-Sourirajan phase separation process but sometimes called the phase
inversion process was studied.
2.1. Objectıve
The aim of this study is producing Polyethersulfone (PES) flat-sheet membranes in lab. scale that
provide opportunity to exceed at commercial scale membrane production.
275
Oral Presentations
2.1.1. Fındıngs and Argument
According to the results, PVP has important and mostly positive effect on membrane morphology.
Membranes which contain higher polymer concentration showed better rejection performances.
In addition, increasing of coagulation bath temperatures increase water flux on membrane. CrossSection and surface images can be seen at figure 1 and 2. SEM photos of membranes both crosssection and top surface prove the quality of membrane casted in this study. Also, this study showed
the importance of polymer concentration. When we have a look at results, we can easily show that;
higher polymer concentration and lower (25OC) coagulation bath temperature increase membrane
rejection performance.
Figure 1. %20 PES, %6 PVP 40000 SEM Photo
Figure 2. %20 PES, %2 PVP 40000 SEM Photo
2.1.2. Conclusıon and Suggestıons
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) added Polyethersulfone (PES) flat-sheet membranes were fabricated
successfully. For the following part of this study, because of its high hydrophilic property, we will
conduct our researches mainly on Polyacrylonitryl (PAN) flat sheet membrane production again
adding several amount of Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) in different temperatures.
REFERENCES
276
1.
P.S.T. Machado, A.C. Habert, C.P. Borges, (1999). Membrane formation mechanism based on precipitation kinetics and
membrane morphology: flat and hollow fiber polysulfone membranes, J. Membr. Sci., 155, 171–183
2.
T.H. Young, L.W. Chen, (1995). Pore formation mechanism of membranes from phase inversion process, Desalination, 103,
233–247
Wastewater
Treatment of a Corrugated Box Manufacturing Plant Wastewater
by Electrocoagulation and Optimization Through Response Surface
Methodology
Belgin Karabacakoğlu, Filiz Tezakıl
Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Chemical Engineering Department, 26480, Meşelik, Eskişehir, TURKEY
[email protected]
Abstract In this study, treatment of a corrugated cardboard box manufacturing plant wastewater by
electrocoagulation (EC) process was studied in a batch reactor with stainless steel electrodes. Response
Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate the simple and combined effects of three main
independent parameters such as current density, stirring speed and treatment time on the chemical oxygen
demand (COD) removal efficiency and energy consumption. A sample of industry wastewater having a
high COD concentration of 9130 mg/L was used in the experiments. The highest COD removal efficiency
of 91.6% was obtained with the current density of 23.6 mA cm-2, stirring speed of 500 rpm and electrolysis
time of 40 min, and the treatment consumed 165.4 kWh m-3 of electrical energy. Response optimization to
maximize COD removal and to minimize energy consumption showed 80.9 % COD removal with 47 kWh
m-3 energy consumption at 15 mA cm-2, 700 rpm and 28 min treatment time.
Keywords: Electrocoagulation, COD removal, corrugated box wastewater, response surface methodology,
optimization.
1. INTRODUCTION
Electrocoagulation is an electrochemical wastewater treatment technology which is based on
the in situ production of a coagulant by dissolution of Fe (or steel) or Al anodes [1]. EC has the
potential to extensively eliminate the disadvantages of the classical treatment techniques to achieve
a sustainable and economical treatment of polluted wastewater [2]. The process efficiency in the EC
is affected by many factors like current density, pH, electrolyte concentration, treatment time and
electrode type. The optimization of these factors may significantly increase the process efficiency
and decrease the operating cost. Optimization of the process variables during wastewater treatment
by electrocoagulation can be achieved using response surface methodology. RSM is a powerful
statistical-based method for modeling complex systems such as EC [3].
In this study, investigations have been conducted for removal of COD from corrugated cardboard
manufacturing painting wastewater by EC using RSM, trial version of Design Expert 8.0.7.1. The
experiments have been carried out according to central composite design (CCD). COD removal
efficiency and energy consumption were chosen as the response parameters, and the current density,
treatment time and stirring speed were selected as process variables.
2.1. Materıals
The wastewater used in this work was supplied from a local corrugated cardboard box manufacturing
plant located in the city of Eskişehir (Turkey). The wastewater emerging from painting operations
was collected. The COD concentration of the used wastewater was 9130 mg/L, and the pH was 7.2.
2.2. Experımental Setup and Procedure
Experiments were carried out in batch mode in a 600 mL beaker consisting of four electrodes.
Stainless steel plates were used as cathode and anode. The electrode dimensions were 9x6x0.2
cm. The distance between two electrodes was 1 cm. The effective total areas of anodes were 139.2
cm2. The electrodes were connected as monopolar to a DC power supply (0-20 V, 0-5 A). Magnetic
stirrer was used to agitate the solution. All experiments were conducted at room temperature. Every
EC experiment started with 400 mL of wastewater. At the end of the experiment, the electrodes
277
Oral Presentations
were removed, and the solution was filtered. COD concentration was measured by closed reflux
colorimetric method.
The equation used to calculate the removal efficiency in the experiments was:
R (%)= 100.(C0-C)/C0
(1)
where C0 and C were the initial and present concentrations of the COD in solution (mg/L),
respectively.
The energy consumption is also important in electrochemical processes in view of cost. Therefore
calculation of energy consumption was performed using Eq. 2.
Energy Consumption (Wh/L)= U.I.t/V
(2)
where E is the potential (V); I, the current intensity (A), t, the time (h) and V, the volume of solution
(L).
2.3. Experımental desıgn and data analysıs
In this study the Central Composite Design, which is a widely used form of response surface
methodology [3, 4], was selected for the optimization of EC process. Three factors, including current
density, treatment time and stirring speed with five-levels were employed. COD removal efficiency
(R1) and energy consumption (R2) were considered as the dependent factors (response). A total of 20
experiments were carried out according to a 23 full factorial CCD. Experimental data were analyzed
using Design Expert 8.0.7.1 trial version and fitted to second-order polynomial model, and then
regression coefficients were obtained. Two-dimensional contour plots, three-dimensional curves of
the response surfaces and residual plots were developed using the same program. The statistical
significance of the models was justified through analysis of variance (ANOVA) for quadratic model
(Table 2).
R2
Lack of fit
F-value
Prob >F
Adequate precision
Responses
R1-COD
R2-Energy cons.
0.9077
0.9604
104.87
284.42
10.92
26.92
0.0004
<0.0001
10.31
16.537
Table 2. ANOVA results obtained for the quadratic model in terms of the process responses COD and energy
consumption.
REFERENCES
1.
Martinez-Huitle, C.A. and Brillas, E., (2009). Decontamination of Wastewater Containing Synthetic Organic Dyes By
Electrochemical Methods: A General Review, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 87, 105-145.
2.
Aoudj, S., Khelifa, A., Drouiche, N., Hecini, M. and Hamitouche, H.,(2010). Electrocoagulation Process Applied To
Wastewater Containing Dyes From Textile Industry, Chemical Engineering and Processing 49, 1176-1182.
3.Ölmez, T., (2009). The optimization of Cr(VI) reduction and removal by electrocoagulation using response surface
methodology, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 162, 1371–1378.
4.
278
Behbahani M., Alavi Moghaddam M.R. and Arami M., (2011). Techno-economical evaluation of fluoride removal by
electrocoagulation process: Optimization through response surface methodology, Desalination 271 209-218.
Wastewater
Wastewater Treatment of Synthetic Textile Effluent Using Anodic
Oxidation Process: Influence of Dye Structural
H. Akrout, N. Abdessamed, L. Bousselmi
Wastewater Treatment Laboratory
Water Research and Technology Center (CERTE), Soliman 8020, Technopark Borj Cedria BP 273 Tunisia
[email protected]
Abstract Electrochemical methods offer an attractive and powerful alternative to traditional methods for
treating waste water in situ thanks the involving of highly reactive oxidants. Synthetic boron diamond (BDD)
electrode thin films are mainly used as anodes regarding a number of standing properties of technological
interest. The electrogeneration of hydroxyl radical is considered the essential agent in this type of treatment.
The treatment efficiency depends on is many operative conditions such as applied current, support
electrolyte and pH solution but dye structural is a parameter crucial to consider to evaluate discoloration
rate and COD removal. Anodic oxidation of different types of dyes on BDD electrode (mono and biazoic and
anthraquinone) is carried out in order to understand more the influence this parameter.
Keywords: wastewater, anodic oxidation, dye, BDD electrode, color removal, efficiency.
1. INTRODUCTION
Important quantities of synthetic dyes are discharged in the environment from textile industrial sector.
The presence of these pollutants in water systems can cause serious health risks. Instead of traditional
methods, electrochemical technologies are considered highly efficient and environmentally friendly.
They can generate the powerful oxidizing agent (°OH) [1]. Synthetic boron-doped diamond BDD
thin films are characterized by high anodic stability and wide potential window [2]. Several papers
discussed the effect of different parameters and operating conditions on the performance of
electrochemical oxidation process [2-4]. The main target of this study to more understand the influence
of dye structure on the optimization of operative conditions (pH, applied current density) and the
efficiency of anodic oxidation by the calculus of energy consumption and average current efficiency
in the case of two different dye studied as pollutant type monoazo dye (cibacron yellow) and
anthraquinone (alizarin blue black).
2.1. cell electrolysıs
The mini diacell (Adamant technologies PS 500) is composed by single compartment with parallel
plate electrodes. The anode is a monopolar p-silicon covered by boron doped diamond (2-3 µm
thick) with a 12.5 cm2 rectangular surface (50x25 mm) and the cathode is a stainless steel with 3 mm
as a gap.
2.2. electrolyte and pollutant
The selected pollutant model is an azo dye used in the textile industry called Yellow Brillant
Cibacron3G-P (CY) obtained from Aldrich. Based on the given molecular weight of 873 g mol1. Alizarin Blue Black B (ABB; C26H16N2Na2O9S2; MW 610.52 g mol-1) is an anthraquinone dye
obtained from Aldrich. Na2SO4 salt is used as supporting electrolytes and are analytical grades.
3. Results and dıscussıon
3.1. Effect of dye structure on pH optımızatıon
The results of table 1 allow concluding that the behaviour of color removal regarding the azo
and anthraquinone dye is different according the medium pH. In the case of CY dye, kinetic of
discoloration is improved in pH 2 (UV-visible absorption band localized at 412 nm). However, ABB
dye color removal is more efficient at pH 8. The pH of electrolyte depends largely on dye structure.
279
Oral Presentations
Table 1 Apparent rate constants kinetic (k) relative to colour removal using anodic oxidation of 0.1
mM CY and ABB,i=40mA.cm-², electrolyte support 0.1 M Na2SO4.
Initial pH
CY
ABB
2
8
KAbs412nm. (h )
0.43
0.29
R²
0.98
0.94
KAbs520nm. (h )
0.24
0.385
R²
0.99
0.98
-1
-1
The color removal is faster in the case of CY (at pH 2) than ABB at pH 8.
3.2. Effect on current densıty
In Literature, it was proved that it depended essentially on the dye concentration because at low
COD, the oxidation process is under mass control [1,24]. For relative absorbance at 414 nm and 520 nm
(figure 1.a and b, the influence of current density is more relevant for anthraquinone dye. High value
of current is needed to reach color removal in more electrolysis time.
Figure 1. Effect of applied current density on color removal according 0.05 mM (a) cibacron yellow (b) Alizarin
blue black.
CONCLUSION
Electrochemical treatment of a synthetic solution containing two type of dyes was investigated using
BDD electrode. The influence of pH and applied current density on color removal and COD removal
was analyzed.The main findings of this work that the structure of dye affect largely the oxidation
efficiency. Anthraquinone dye is more recalcitrant than azo one.
REFERENCES
280
1.
Adrian Enache T., Chiorcea-Paquim A-M., Fatibello-Filho O., Oliveira-Brettm A- M., (2009). Hydroxyl radicals
electrochemically generated in situ on a boron-doped diamond electrodem, Electrochem.Commun. 11 1342–1345.
2.
Akrout H., Bousselmi L., (2012).Chloride ions as an agent promoting the oxidation of synthetic dyestuff on BDD electrode,
Desalination and Water Treatment doi: 10.1080/19443994.2012.677528.
3.
Panizza M., Cerisola G., (2005). Application of diamond electrodes to electrochemical processes, Electrochimica Acta 51
191–199.
4.
Canizares P., Paz R., Lobato J., Saez C., Rodrigo M.A., (2006). Electrochemical treatment of the effluent of a fine chemical
manufacturing plant , Journal of Hazardeouz Materials, 138, (1-2), 173-181.
5.
Rodrigo M.A., Michaud P.A., Duo I., Panizza M., Cerisola G., Comminellis Ch., (2001). Oxidation of 4-chlorophenol at
borondoped diamond electrodes for wastewater treatment. Journal of Electrochemical Society 148, D60–D64.
Wastewater
Comparison of P-Free and P-Based Antiscalants for Nanofiltration of
Dye-Wash Wastewater
Kenan Güney1, Eren Kurt2, Ralf Minke1, Ismail Koyuncu2, Heidrun Steinmetz1
ISWA, University of Stuttgart, Germany
[email protected]
Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
1
2
Abstract Nanofiltration is an appropriate treatment method for the reuse of dye-wash wastewaters obtained
from cotton processing textile industry. Since dye-wash wastewaters are saline, antiscalant application is a
must to minimize scaling and to increase filtration performance. Although phosphor based antiscalants are
effective in minimizing scaling, they serve additional phosphor source for microorganisms and can increase
formation of biofouling. Phosphor free antiscalants are recently being produced to solve this problem.
Performance comparison of phosphor based antiscalants and phosphor free antiscalants were made by using
2 phosphor based antiscalants and 4 phosphor free antiscalants in the nanofiltration treatment of dye-wash
wastewater.
Keywords: Antiscalant selection, biofouling, scaling, dye-wash wastewater, nanofiltration.
1. INTRODUCTION
Membrane treatment is a suitable method aiming water reuse in cotton processing textile industry
especially for washing wastewaters.
NF270 nanofiltration (NF) membrane and XLE reverse osmosis (RO) membrane were found suitable
for the treatment and reuse of dye-wash wastewaters obtained in cotton processing textile industry in
the previous study [1]. Dye-wash wastewaters are saline and they have moderate to high salt content.
Therefore the expected fouling phenomena in NF/RO treatment of dye-wash wastewater is scaling.
Antiscalant addition is a must for the treatment of saline wastewaters. Antiscalant addition is applied
in order to reduce scaling and to increase flux on NF/RO membranes. Nowadays most of the
antiscalants available in the market are P-based antiscalants. Addition of P-based antiscalant reduces
scaling effectively but on the other hand can increase biofouling by supplying higher P source to
microorganisms [2]. Therefore selection of appropriate antiscalant plays an important role to optimize
membrane flux and maximize membrane lifetime. Some of the antiscalant producers realized this
matter and supplied P-free antiscalants in the market.
In this particular study, two P-based antiscalants and four P-free antiscalants are tested for the
nanofiltration (NF270) treatment of dye-wash wastewater obtained from a cotton processing
textile industry in Germany. Dow Filmtec NF270 nanofiltration membrane was used in all runs.
Recommended antiscalant concentrations were calculated and recommended as 5 mg/l by the
antiscalant producers. Change in membrane flux and change in permeate quality were monitored by
addition of:
• No antiscalant (NA)
• P-based antiscalant (PB1 and PB2)
• P-free antiscalant (PF1, PF2, PF3 and PF4)
at 5 mg/l concentration. Membrane performance obtained by no antiscalant addition was accepted as
the basis for the following antiscalant addition tests and accepted as 100 %.
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Oral Presentations
P-based antiscalants usually gave higher flux performances then P-free antiscalants. (Figure1).
Permeate flux varied significantly between the used antiscalant types. PF4 and PF2 P-free
antiscalants were quite impressive and gave similar performances to P-based antiscalants.
Figure 1. Flux performance according to antiscalant type
The chemical composition (Ca, HCO3, Ba, F2, Fe, PO4-P) of each fouling layer was measured. The
comparison of each fouling layer composition (Table 2) revealed that:
• Lowest Ca concentrations were found in P-based antiscalant addition runs.
• Lowest HCO3 concentrations were found in PB2 and PF4 runs.
Antiscalant
Type
NA
PB1
PB2
PF1
PF2
PF3
PF4
Ca
mg/l
22,3
14,5
14,0
24,9
16,9
21,3
16,7
HCO3
mg/l
98
73
61
92
73
85
67
Ba
mg/l
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
F2
mg/l
<0,01
<0,01
<0,01
<0,01
<0,01
<0,01
<0,01
Fe
mg/l
0,48
0,23
0,17
0,54
0,30
0,36
0,30
PO4-P
mg/l
1,85
1,68
1,42
1,88
1,71
1,73
1,22
Table 2. Concentrations of main deposits in fouling layer
• No difference in Ba and F2 deposition rates were observed since the concentrations were below
detection limits in all cases.
• Lowest Fe concentrations were found in P-based antiscalant addition runs showing that tested
P-based antiscalants have better iron antiscaling performance.
• Lowest PO4-P concentrations were found in PF4 and PB2 runs.
REFERENCES
282
1.
Guney, K., Arslan, H., Eisele, I., Özgün, H., Minke, R., Koyuncu, I., Steinmetz, H. (2010). Water reuse potential of dyewash process: in Turkey and in Germany. Proceedings of the IWA Regional Conference and Exhibition on Membrane
Technology and Water Reuse, Istanbul Turkey, 251-258
2.
Vrouwenvelder, J.S., Manolarakis, S.A., Veenendaal, H.R., van der Kooij, D., (2000). Biofouling potential of chemicals
used for scale control in RO and NF membranes, Desalination, Volume 132, Issues 1-3, 1-10
Wastewater
Proactive Approach in Sewer Rehabilitation
Metallurgical and Material Engineer (MSc), Network Operating and Billing Department European 1st. – ISKI
Mechanical Engineer (MBA), Network Operating and Billing Department European 1st. – ISKI
Environment Engineer (MSc), Network Operating and Billing Department European 1st. – ISKI
Abstract Current sanitary sewer rehabilitation has been done reactive practices included emerge and high
cost solutions. However, it need planning proactive approach to eliminated serious problems that may arise in
the future. Therefore, rehabilitation programs are generally triggered by the need for reducing infiltration and
inflow and restoring structural integrity of a collection system. Improving the condition of the components
(essentially pipes and manholes) of a wastewater collection system may turn sanitary sewer rehabilitation
also into a financially beneficial practice. In this study, it was indicated that proactive sewer rehabilitation
approach and explained some proactive sewer rehabilitation applications in ISKI
Keywords: sewer rehabilitation, proactive approach, infiltration and trenchless technology.
283
Oral Presentations
The Actual Status of the Organized Industrial Zones in Terms of
Industrial Wastewater, Encountered Problems and Solution Proposals
Yüksel ACAR1, Ali ÇOBAN2
Branch Manager - Istanbul Water and Sewerage Authority
İkitelli Water Treatment Branch Manager
[email protected]
2
Industrial Engineer - Istanbul Water and Sewerage Authority
European Region Wastewater Control and Licensing Branch
[email protected]
1
Abstract Organized Industrial Zones (OIZ) are established in order to enable the construction of industries
in proper areas, prevent environmental problems and unplanned industrialization, steer urbanization, use
resources rationally, make use of information technologies, locate and develop industries within a certain
plan etc. OIZs in İstanbul ended up being located in the middle of residential areas due to various reasons
such as rapid and unplanned population growth and consequent unplanned construction, expansion of
residential areas in Istanbul, planning errors, selection of the wrong areas for organized industrial zones etc.
This has brought along many problems including issues of infrastructure and transportation etc. Although
there have been investments in organized industrial areas, the industrialization process has continued in the
densely populated areas and the central points of the city.
In this study, in accordance with the information that gathered during the activities to maintain inspection
of the industrial pollution by detecting industrial wastewater sources and controlling these sources for
wastewater quality within the responsibility area of İstanbul Water and Sewerage Authority (İSKİ), the
wastewater infrastructure systems of OIZs, the characteristics of the industrial wastewater from OIZs, the
environmental impacts of the wastewater, problems encountered and solution proposals will be the focused
on.
Keywords: Wastewater, OIZ, treatment, industry.
1. INTRODUCTI ON
Duties and operations related to detection of the industrial wastewater sources and control studies
are carried out by İSKİ in accordance with “Ordinance of Wastewater Discharge into Sewage”[1].
All businesses that produce domestic and industrial wastewater and all public institutions and
organizations within İSKİ’s area of responsibility are covered by this Ordinance. According to
the provisions of this ordinance, such persons are obliged to take all necessary measures related
to wastewater for protecting the sewerage network, Urban Wastewater Treatment Plants and, in
general, protecting the environment.
2. THE ACTUAL STATUS OF THE ORGANIZED INDUSTRIAL ZONES
IN TERMS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER, PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
AND SOLUTION PROPOSALS
2.1. Detectıon of the Current State of the Organızed Industrıal Zones
In European side of Istanbul in 2008, the team chaired by European Region Wastewater Control
Licensing Branch Manager, consisting of a technical chief, a chemical engineer and five
environmental engineers, conducted an intensive study for four months by examining the industrial
zones to reveal the general picture of the areas where large number of firms operate, to identify
existing problems at source and to help determine the risks encountered during the operation of
urban treatment plants. The industrial zones were scanned via “narrow zone method” and industrial
enterprises within the industrial sites were individually identified and analyzed in terms of activities
and industrial wastewater. Technical and quantitative data was collected through interviews with site
authorities.
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Wastewater
2.2. Evaluatıon of OIZs for Wastewater, Problems Encountered and the
Envıronmental Impacts
In 2008 there were industrial sites that were not operated in full capacity, today the fact that all of
these sites are in operation brings along some problems. As commonly known, the OIZs are regions
where industrial wastewater is densely produced and the discharge of this industrial wastewater in
OIZ is under the responsibility of the OIZ Management.
Wastewater discharged into the sewerage network / receiving environment without maintaining the
İSKİ discharge conditions from firms and OIZs, cause damages in the sewerage system, collapses
and blockages in the channels, pollution in surface and underground water resources, general
environmental pollution and important damage to urban treatment plants; furthermore, it may have
negative impacts on the water ecosystem in the sea which is the final destination of wastewater.
Considering the current status of the OIZs;
a) The mixed industrial structure which is a combination of enterprises in different sectors is
generally dominant in the collective industrial sites, including the co-operative enterprises in
the Organized Industrial Zones. While in industrial sites where firms in same sector operate
together, take common measures for wastewater, it is harder to force firms with different sectors
in the same industrial sites.
b) In some industrial sites, no land is saved for treatment plants or some were previously saved but
later converted to work places or have been used for purposes other than wastewater treatment.
c) Since the wastewater infrastructure system in OIZ is united (domestic+industrial) there are often
problems in controls and operations of these channels.
d) Pre-treatment plants built to treat industrial wastewater from OIZ fail to operate efficiently.
e) Legal liabilities may not be fulfilled by the OIZ or be partially be fulfilled. There are problems in
this matter due to distribution of duties and responsibilities.
2.3. Evaluatıng the Issue ın Terms of Legıslatıons
It was stated in the Environmental Law No. 2872 that the OIZ Management is responsible for
establishing, maintaining and operating the wastewater infrastructure in the OIZ and in provisional
Article 4 of the same law stated that OIZs with no wastewater treatment plants were given a certain
time to submit a business deadline plan to the related Ministry. [2]
OIZ Law no 4562 states in Article 20 on “right to establish, operate and use infrastructure facilities”
that “the right to establish and operate infrastructure and general service facilities such as electrics,
water, sewerage, natural gas, treatment plant, road, communication, sports facilities purchase from
private or public institutions or distribute is under the responsibility and authority of the OIZ”
However, in order to decrease the waste to the standards acceptable by common treatment plants
there is a need to build a pre-treatment plan...” This article not only gives the OIZ management the
right to build their own infrastructure and treatment facilities, but also gives them a duty.[3]
REFERENCES
1.
İSKİ Ordinance of Wastewater Discharge into Sewage dated 24.01.2013, İstanbul - Turkey
2.
Environmental Law dated 09/08/1983, Law No: 2872, Turkey
3.
Organized Industrial Zone Law dated 12.04.2000, Law No: 4562, Turkey
285
Oral Presentations
Urban Wastewater Treatment and Discharge
Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality Water And Sewage Administration
Summary Monitoring and controlling methods are explained against the negative affects of wastewater
discharges within the scope of this study for preventing of water pollution and collecting,treating and
discharging of urban wastewater. All of the industrial plants and companies in the ISU General Directorate
area are inspected permanently. Inspections supply determination of the wastewater discharge parameters
of these company and plants. Necessary precaustions are taken according to these determinations within
the current environment law. Wastewaters are collected by sub systems and transferred to the wastewater
treatment plants by pumping stations or gravity. Sewage sludge is disposed by drying or burning methods. In
addition, settlement reason of wasterwater scada system can be listed as follows; managing the wastewater
system simply, operating the system effectively and efficiently, removing human slip in operation prevent to
exceed wastewater discharge limits in accordance with the regulations on heavy rainwater conditions. The
liveliness in İzmit Gulf is observed in 900 photographs which is taken in 100 dive in 18 different points and
the Karamürsel Atınkemer Beach is the evidence of the positive differentiation in the Gulf that bring Blue
Flag to the Beach.
Keywords: ISU General Directorate, Wastewater Treatment, Water Pollution, Wastewater Scada System.
1. INTRODUCTION
High population growth and industrial growth bring pollution in parallel that directs us taking
significant precautions for determination of pollution sources and preventing pollution. Therefore,
we take lots of action for preventing pollution. The first step is the determination that is possible
only by the control mechanism. Control mechanism works by permanent inspections. The next step
is using the most efficient treatment technologies. Treatment plant technology is very important to
correspond in accurately with the wastewater parameters.
As the Scada system is settled firstly in Turkey by ISU, 25 special equipments are settled to the
discharge points of industrial plants that give us an opportunity to online measuring and monitoring
the wastewater parameters. Moreover, inlet and outlet flow, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen,
temperature, suspended solids (SSM), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium nitrogen, colour,
phosphate, nitrate and oil parameters can be measured and monitored in 10 wastewater treatment
plants by Scada system. By this way, better operating system for treatment plants is provided and
industrial and domestic wastewater pollution of the İzmit Gulf is prevented.
2. MATERIAL VE METHOD
Our treatment plants affect very fastly and effectively to the cleaning of the İzmit Gulf as we
informed by professional divers and fishers. The blueflag in the Karamürsel Altınkemer Beach is
the evidence of the evolution in the İzmit Gulf. Permanent Inspection Facilities, Treatment Plants
and Wastewater Scada System are the important studies that gives an opportunity to clean the gulf
significantly with this short time.
2.1. Inspectıon Actıvıtıes
We inspect all the industrial plants and companies in our province. Approximately 20.000 inspection
are made in Kocaeli permanently per year. In accordance with the determination of the plants and the
companies that discharges wastewaters in illegal ways or limits, they are going to be warned fistly
and the other procedures are applicated to prevent facing these kind of illegal situations againly if
they continue discharging illegally. Kocaeli Governership, Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality and
the other sub-municipalities woks in co-operation within the scope of this inspectations.
286
Wastewater
2.2. Wastewater Treatment Plants
16 wastewater treatment plants are being operated for wastewater transferring, collection and
treatment within the scope of 11th Item of Environment Law. Treatment Mud is disposed by
blighting and burning.
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PLANTS
KARAMÜRSEL
YENİKÖY
KULLAR
42 EVLER
PLAJYOLU
KÖRFEZ
GEBZE
FLOW
(m3/year)
6.401.390
21.233.340
17.134.665
8.743.800
22.690.255
19.399.250
6.648.189
MUD
(kg/year)
2.532.510
6.802.440
8.881.380
10.308.120
9.901.840
6.783.760
1.966.890
ELEK.
(kwh/ year)
1.502.464
4.108.317
5.462.918
3.456.409
3.902.563
4.864.510
2.527.952
BOİ5
(mg/l)
13,6
7,3
9,7
20,6
11,3
10,6
8,1
SSM
(mg/l)
18,1
18,3
13,4
20,1
19,2
12,5
14,8
COD
(mg/l)
54,9
60,5
35,6
76,3
43,6
49,6
45,6
Table 1. Treatment Plant Operational Costs and Discharge Consentrations in 2011
2.3. Wastewater Scada System
Within the scope of this study, measuring equipments are installed into the wastewater pumping
stations, rainwater pumping stations, main lines, wastewater treatment plants and industry discharges.
So, wastewater and rainwater flow and pollution parameters can be measured automatically with the
help of 106 measuring equipments and can be controlled and monitored in Scada System Center
instantly.
REFERENCES
1.
Nas, S., (2004). Effects of receiving environment features to the of Treatment Plant Sizing: National Water Days Symposium,
İzmir-Türkiye
2.
ISU Annual Report, (2011)., Kocaeli-Türkiye.
3.
Artüz İ., N Kor (1970). Pre-Study Project of the control of the Izmıt Gulf Pollution, İst. Uni. Hydrobiology Research
Center Publication, İstanbul.
287
Oral Presentations
Enhancement of Biohydrogen Production via Thermophilic Cell Culture
Immobilized on Glass Beads and Raschig Rings with Different Sizes
Elif Aköyek, Tuğba Keskin Gündoğdu, Nuri Azbar
Ege University, Bioengineering Department, 35100, Bornova-Izmir / Turkey
Abstract Current studies on the dark fermentation in the literature is carried out using suspended cell
cultures in a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR). However, bioreactors using immobilized cell cultures
are known to capable of eliminating most of the disadvantages of CSTR type reactors and provide more
stable and efficient hydrogen production. In this study, two different types of support material having
different sizes, namely glass bead and Raschig ring, were used in order to compare their biohydrogen
production performances with that of CSTR reactor. All the experiments were conducted under thermophilic
conditions (550 C±2oC). The best results in terms of volumetric hydrogen productivity were obtained with
large size glass beads (LSG: 2.98 L H2/L bioreactor/day) at 3 h hydraulic retention time (HRT). Raschig
ring materials, on the other hand, were able to produce 42% less hydrogen than glass beads, which is still
much higher than CSTR type reactor (0.5 L H2/L bioreactor/day). It was observed that long HRT conditions
resulted in lower hydrogen production for all reactor configurations studied. Furthermore, it was concluded
that CSTR type reactor needed much bigger reaction volumes in order to prevent any cell wash-out in the
reactor. In conclusion, immobilized cell type bioreactor configuration provided 7-11 fold better results in
terms of volumetric hydrogen production values comparing to CSTR reactor. It was demonstrated that both
glass beads and Raschig ring type support materials, which are readily available, had promising results for
hydrogen production.
Keywords: Biohydrogen, Immobilization, Mixed cultures, Glass beads, Raschig rings.
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen production via dark fermentation using a mixed consortium has many advantages over
pure cultures, since almost all organic material, especially waste organics are amenable for this
purpose [1-2]. On the other hand, immobilized bioreactors can achieve higher hydrogen production
with smaller reactor volumes and can provide more stable production, and also it is more resistant to
the shock loadings and toxicity [3].In this study, immobilized biohydrogen production using different
sizes of support materials (small size Raschig rings (SSR), large size Raschig rings (LSR), small size
glass beads (SSG) and large size glass beads (LSG)) were compared under thermophilic conditions,
whereas suspended cell cultures operated with CSTR under identical conditions.
Anaerobic inoculum was obtained from an anaerobic bioreactor operating at a yeast factory in
Izmir, Turkey. Sludge was used after heat treatment at 1050C for 5 minutes by autoclaving for the
elimination of methanogenic bacteria and the enrichment of the hydrogen producing organisms,
especially Clostridium species. The pH, volatile suspended solids (VSS) and total suspended solids
(TSS) concentration of the inoculum were 6.4, 17g/l and 32g/l, respectively. Each bioreactor was
separately filled with glass beads and Raschig rings with different sizes as immobilization materials.
Experiments were conducted by an up-flow anaerobic reactor packed with immobilization materials.
The reactors were continuously operated for the hydrogen fermentation at varying range of hydraulic
retention times (HRT) in decreasing order (24h to 1.5h). Operational parameters such as residual
sucrose, COD, pH, volatile fatty acids (VFA) and suspended solids were monitored daily for all
reactors. In order to compare the hydrogen production performance of immobilized and suspended
cell bioreactor configurations, a separate completely mixed tank reactor (CSTR) was operated under
identical conditions using the same inoculum.
288
Wastewater
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A successful cell immobilization was achieved. The percentage of the cell immobilization, which was
72% and 62% for SSR and LSR respectively, whereas 92% and 89% of the biomass attached to the
SSG and LSG glass beads. SEM imaging also proved that cell immobilization was successful. The
highest value in terms of hydrogen production amounts (H2 ml) was 418 ml H2/d at 1.5 h HRT with
SSR support material and also 403 ml H2/d and 302 ml H2/d at 3 h HRT with LS and SS glass beads
respectively. According to daily hydrogen production, with increasing HRT hydrogen production
values decreased and all immobilized bioreactors were shown same situation. The best H2% value
was 54% obtained from SSG at 3h HRT. Glass beads support matrices shown better values than
the Raschig rings. Hydrogen yields per unit amount of substrate were 445ml H2/g sucroseused for
SSG and 567ml H2/g sucroseused for LSG at 1.5 h HRT. SSR had a hydrogen yield of 1066ml
H2/g sucroseused whereas LSR had a 36ml H2/g sucroseused at 1.5h HRT for both. Except the LSR
immobilized bioreactor immobilization gained higher hydrogen yields in comparison to CSTR type
bioreactor at the same HRT values.
In this study it is shown that glass beads are more efficient than the Raschig rings as volumetric
hydrogen production rates (VHPR). CSTR type suspended cell culture couldn’t compete with
immobilized bioreactors. CSTR VHPR was only significant at 24h HRT however, with decreasing
HRT values hydrogen yields and VHPRs of CSTR also decreased. Best VHPR value was achieved
with LSG immobilized bioreactor at 3h HRT as 2.98 lH2/l reactor/d and at the same HTR 2.39 lH2/l
reactor/d for SSG. Even though 2.09 lH2/l reactor/d was reported for SSR immobilized bioreactor at
1.5 h HRT, Raschig rings VHPR values were slightly lower.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Raschig rings and glass beads with two different sizes were immobilized on behalf of eliminating
the disadvantages (microorganism wash-out with decreasing HRT, pH control, high volume
of the reactor) of suspended culture systems with CSTR. Both immobilized bioreactors ahead
of performance at all HRT values according to CSTR. Among the immobilized materials glass
bead resulted higher hydrogen production than Raschig ring. Even though, volumetric hydrogen
production rate was close to each other at 3h highest value observed from LSG.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank TUBITAK-CAYDAG for the financial support of this study under the
grant No 109Y004. The data presented in this article was produced within the project above, however
it is only the authors of this article who are responsible for the results and discussions made herein.
REFERENCES
1.
Wang, J. and Wan, W., (2008). Comparison of different pretreatment methods for enriching hydrogen- producing bacteria
from digested sludge, Int J Hydrogen Energy, 33, 12, 2934-2941.
2.
Cheong, D.Y. and Hansen, C.L., (2006). Bacterial stress enrichment enhances anaerobic hydrogen production in cattle
manure sludge, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 72, 4, 635-643.
3.
Keskin, T., Aksöyek, E. and Azbar, N., (2011). Comparative analysis of thermophilic immobilized biohydrogen production
using packed materials of ceramic ring and pumice stone, Int J Hydrogen Energy, 36, 15160-15167.
289
Oral Presentations
Production of Electricity and Wastewater Treatment with Microbial Fuel
Cell
Emre Oğuz KÖROĞLU, Arda KARLUVALI, Büşra AKOĞLU, Afşin ÇETİNKAYA, Bestamin ÖZKAYA
Yildiz Technical University,
Department of Environmetal Engineering, Esenler, İstanbul, TURKEY
Abstract Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC) are used to produce electricity while simultaneously treating
wastewater. This novel technology use bacteria to convert organic waste material into electrical energy
through catabolic reactions of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. In this study, wastewater
treatment and production of electricity using different substrates is summarized in dual-chambered MFC.
Observed current densities in continuously operated MFC reactors were 11A/m2, 6,5A/m2, 1.38A/m2 1.95A/
m2 for young leachate, old leachate, domestic wastewater and beer brewery wastewater, respectively.
Keywords: Microbial fuel cell (MFC), electricity generation, Ti-TiO2 electrode, substrate type.
REFERENCES
1.
Sung T., Kim J., Giuliano C., Tae H.L., Changwon K., William T.S., (2010). Sustainable wastewater treatment: How might
microbial fuel cells contribute, Biotechnology Advances, 28, 871-881
2.
Logan, B.E., (2008) Microbial Fuel Cells, Wiley Press, USA
3.
Kim, I.S., Chae, K.J., Choi, M.J. and Verstraete, W., (2008). Microbial fuel cells: Recent advances, bacterial communities
and application beyond electricity generation. Environmental Engineering Research, 13(2), 51-65.
4.
Rittmann, B.E., (2008). Opportunities for renewable bioenergy using microorganisms. Biotechnology and Bioengineering.
100 (2), 203–212.
5.
Antonopoulou, G., Stamatelatou, K., Bebelis, S. and Lyberatos, G., (2010). Electricity generation from synthetic substrates
and cheese whey using a two chamber microbial fuel cell, Biochemical Engineering Journal, 50, 10-15
6.
Cheng, S., Xing, D. and Logan, B.E., (2011). Electricity generation of single-chamber microbial fuel cells at low
temperatures, Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 26, 1913-1917
7.
Min, B., Kim. J.R., Oh, S.E., Regan, J.M. and Logan, B.E., (2005). Electricity generation from swine wastewater using
microbial fuel cells, Water Research, 39, 4961-4968
8.
Puig, S., Serra, M., Coma, M., Cabre, M., Balaguer, M.D. and Colprim, J., (2011). Microbial fuel cell application in landfill
leachate treatment, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 185, 763-767
9.
Wen, Q., Wu, Y., Zhao, L. and Sun, Q., (2010). Production of electricity from the treatment of continuous brewery
wastewater using a microbial fuel cell, Fuel, 89, 1381-1385
10. Cheng S, Logan BE (2007) Ammonia treatment of carbon cloth anodes to enhance power generation of microbial fuel cells.
Electrochem Commun 9, 492–496
11.Qiao Y, Bao SJ, Li CM, Cui XQ, Lu ZS, Bao J (2008) Nanostructured polyaniline/titanium dioxide composite anode for
microbial fuel cells. ACS Nano 2, 113–119
12. Pant D, Bogaerta GV, Dielsa L, Vanbroekhoven K (2010) A review of the substrates used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for
sustainable energy production. Bioresour Technol 101, 1533–1543
13. Jadhav GS, Ghangrekar MM (2009) Performance of microbial fuel cell subjected to variation in pH, temperature, external
load and substrate concentration. Bioresource Technology 100, 717–723
14. Sun M, Zhang F, Tong ZH, Sheng GP, Chen YZ, Zhao Y, Chen YP, Zhou SY, Liu G, Tian YC, Yu HQ (2010) A goldsputtered carbon paper as an anode for improved electricity generation from a microbial fuel cell inoculated with Shewanella
oneidensis MR-1. Biosens Bioelec 26, 338–343
15. Zhang BG, Zhou SG, Zhao HZ, Shi CH, Kong LC, Sun JJ, Yang Y, Ni JR (2010) Factors affecting the performance of
microbial fuel cells for sulfide and vanadium (V) treatment. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 33, 187–194
16. Li CM (2007) Advanced microbial fuel cell development, miniaturization and energy and power density enhancement.
School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
17. Kim IS, Chae KJ, Choi MJ, Verstraete W (2008) Microbial fuel cells: recent advances, bacterial communities and application
beyond electricity generation. Environ Eng Res 13, 51–65
18. Heijne A, Hamelers HVM, Saakes M, Buisman CJN (2008) Performance of non-porous graphite and titanium-based anodes
in microbial fuel cells. Electrochim Acta 53, 5697–5703
19. Du Z, Li H, Gu T (2007) A state of the art review on microbial fuel cells: a promising technology for wastewater treatment
and bioenergy. Biotechnol Advan 25, 464–482
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20. Schröder U, Niessen J, Scholz F (2003) A generation of microbial fuel cells with current outputs boosted by more than one
order of magnitude. Angew Chem Int Ed 42, 2880–2883
21. Min, B., Kim, J.R., Oh, S.E., Regan, J.M. ve Logan, B.E., (2005), “Electricity generation from swine wastewater using
microbial fuel cells”, Water Research, 39, 4961-4968.
22. Lu, N., Zhou, S.G., Zhuang, L., Zhang, J.T. ve Ni, J.R., (2009), “Electricity generation from starch processing wastewater
using microbial fuel cell technology”, Biochemical Engineering Journal, 43, 246-251.
23. Oh, S.E. ve Logan, B.E., (2006). “Proton Exchange Membrane and Electrode Surface Areas as Factors that Affect Power
Generation in Microbial Fuel Cells”, Biotechnological Products and Process Engineering, 70, 162-169.
24. Ahn, Y. ve Logan, B.E., (2010), “Effectiveness of Domestic Wastewater Treatment Using Microbial Fuel Cells at Ambient
and Mesophilic Temperatures”, Bioresource Technology, 101, 469-475.
25. Feng, Y., Wang, X., Logan, B.E. ve Lee,H., (2008). “Brewery Wastewater Treatment Using Air-Cathode Microbial Fuel
Cells”, Environmental Biotechnology, 78, 873-880.
26. Nam, J.-Y., Kim, H.-V., Lim, K.-H. ve Shin, H.-S., (2010), “Effects of organic loading rates on the continuous electricity
generation from fermented wastewater using a single-chamber microbial fuel cell”, Bioresource Technology, 101, 33-37.
27. You, S.J., Zhao, Q.L., Jiang, J.Q., Zhang, J.N. ve Zhao, S.Q., (2006), “Sustainable approach for leachate treatment:
Electricity generation in microbial fuel cell”, Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A, 41, 2721–2734.
28. Galvez, A., Greenman, J. ve Ieropoulos, I., (2009), “Landfill leachate treatment with microbial fuel cells; scale-up through
plurality”, Bioresource Technology, 100:5085-5091.
29. Greenman, J., Gálvez, A., Giusti, L. ve Ieropoulos, I., (2009), “Electricity from landfill leachate using microbial fuel cells:
Comparison with a biological aerated fitler”, Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 44, 112-119.
30. Puig, S., Serra, M., Coma, M., Cabre, M., Balaguer, M.D. ve Colprim, J., (2011). “Microbial Fuel Cell Application in
Landfill Leachate Treatment”, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 185, 763-767.
31. Zhang, J.N., Zhao, Q.L., You, S.J., Jiang, J.Q. ve Ren, N.Q., (2008). “Continuous Electricity Production from Leachate in a
Novel Upflow Air-cathode Membrane-free Microbial Fuel Cell”, Water Science and Technology, 57, 1017-1021.
32. Ozkaya, B., vd., (2011), “Mikrobiyal Yakıt Hücresi İle Asit Oluşumu ve Metan Oluşumu Safhasındaki Katı Atık Depolama
Alanı Sızıntı Sularından Elektrik Üretimi”, Project number: 109Y269, TÜBİTAK.
291
Oral Presentations
Energy Management and Application Activities in Wastewater
Management
Osman Yıldız1, Kaan Dumankaya2, Kevser Karakaya2, Bedia Kurtuluş1
MPE Müh. A.Ş.
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
1
2
Abstract The cogeneration system at İSKİ Tuzla biological and advanced biological wastewater treatment
plant used to make use of the wastewater sludge by drying is an efficient system. The total gain in this system
is higher when the energy at the waste heat is optimized. The average yield of the cogeneration system is
between 80 % and 90 %. The dry product generated at the sludge drying process is both advantageous for
storage and contains 2138 kcal/kg calorific value. The energy required for drying sludge is 734 kWh/ton.
The biogas generated through the anaerobic stabilization of the sludge provides high advantages over natural
gas burned for power generation in the cogeneration unit. The cogeneration systems used around the globe
for a long time have become a proper investment model as they provide easy operation and high cycle yield.
Considering the investment, amortization and operational costs of wastewater treatment plants, the energy
gained from wastewater becomes an important item. Therefore, the integrated operation of cogeneration
systems, sludge drying process and anaerobic sludge digestion process becomes important.
Keywords: Cogeneration, Sludge Drying, Biogas, Energy.
1. INTRODUCTION
The average product decreases about ¼ upon the sludge drying process at the cogeneration unit.
During this process, drying one ton of an average 25 % sludge cake requires 734 kWh of energy[1].
Thanks to sludge drying processes, volume space required to store sludge cake with 25% total solid
material rate is reduced. Furthermore, leakage risk is more for 25% sludge cake and brings along
a negative impact on the stability of the process. When the dry product generated through sludge
drying process is burned, the storage requirement decreases by ½ . The dry product is also used at
cement factories as fuel with its calorific value of 2500-3000 kcal/kg. The dry product is of EPA
class 2 upon removal of the pathogenic microorganisms after drying and has no damage on the
environments.
The yield of the cogeneration unit is between 80-90%. For approximately 35 unit of electric 55 unit
of heat power; normally 168 units of energy is required. With the cogeneration system, only 100
units energy is sufficient [2].
In order to increase the efficiency of the cogeneration system, the following are being implemented:
• Using more than one module
• Using heat accumulators
• Working in a synchronized manner with the network
• Using by-pass combined cycle
• Withdrawing bleed steam when steamer turbine is used
• Using direct by-pass chimney and damper system
• Using peak load boiler and chiller
• Adding up the post combustion to the exhaust outlet at the peak case of heat requirement.
The following are the waste heat utilization methods:
• Ambient heating: hot water, steam, hot air
• Drying process: hot water, steam, hot air, gas
• Boiler feed water pre-heating: hot water, superheated water
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• Degreasing and cleaning: hot water
• Process steam supply: pipe test, laundry facility
• Superheated steam generation: combined cycle power plant
• Melting (plastic): hot oil production
• Absorption cooling machine: air conditioning system
A comparison of the cogeneration system and the sludge drying process in terms of energy and cost
are listed below:
Process Type
Dry
Dry
Transport. Discarding
Cost of
Natural gas
Electricity
Sludge
Electrical
product product
cost for
Cost for
Natural gas
consumption consumption
Total
cake
consumption
transfer discarding
sludge
sludge
in sludge consumption in
cost in the
amount
in the plant
cost
cost
cake
cake
sludge drying
drying
plant
MW/day
TL/day
Nm³/day
TL/day
ton/day
TL/day
TL/day
TL/day
TL/day
TL/day
Cost when no
cogeneration or
sludge drying
process exists
at the plant
Cost of Sludge
Drying when no
cogeneration
Cost of
cogeneration
and sludge
drying unit
105
27.300*
105
27.300*
105
300
3.980
22.500
53.780
28.230
23.148**
400
150
50.998
36.000
29.520**
400
150
30.070
*Consumption cost is calculated taking the average of 3 tariffs applied by AYEDAŞ.
**The unit price for natural gas applied by İGDAŞ is taken as basis.
The outcome of anaerobic sludge digestion process is digested treatment sludge that is odorless,
dewatered sludge with less storage volume and low level of pathogeneous microorganisms. Biogas
is also an outcome of the anaerobic sludge process. The biogas is used in boilers and burned in
heating administrative buildings and also in maintaining the tank temperature for the anaerobic
digester process. Furthermore the steam required for the sludge drying unit is maintained by burning
biogas in the additional boiler.
CONCLUSION
Digesting and drying sludge enables both energy generation and preservation of natural resources
by disposal of the sludge. Considering the energy costs increasing all around the globe, the total
benefits of cogeneration systems stand out and it prevents energy dependency on other countries.
The cogeneration system minimizes energy losses while enabling efficiency in energy consumption.
With the auto productivity implementations in the cogeneration system, companies with EPDK
license can sell energy to TEDAŞ. The physical life of the cogeneration system is approximately 20
years and it amortizes its investment cost in one year.
REFERENCES
1.
ATV-DVWK-M 379 E (2004), Drying of sewage sludge,26, DWA German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste.
2.
TMMOB, Bölgesel Isıtma ve Kojenerasyon, MMO yayın no: 210
3.
İSKİ Tuzla Biyolojik ve İleri ByolojikAtıksu Arıtma Tesisi, saha verileri
293
Oral Presentations
Enhancement of Biological Process with Immobilized Cell Bioreactor for
Valorization of Crude Glycerol Came from Biodiesel Production
Çağdaş GÖNEN, Mine ,GÜNGÖRMÜŞLER, Nuri AZBAR
Bioengineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
Corresponding Author’s Tel.: +90 232 3880378x138 fax: +90 232 388 4955.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N Azbar)
Abstract In this study, 1,3-PDO production from waste glycerol using immobilized C. beijerinckii B-593
was comparatively studied. Among the economically and ecological solutions for the safe disposal of
waste glycerol came from biodiesel production, biotechnological conversion of glycerol into a very highvalue material, namely 1,3 propanediol (1,3 PDO) seems to be very promising. This process is easy and
environmentally friendly because it doesn’t produce any toxic wastes and it is sustainable process. The
maximum volumetric productivity (12 g/L.h) was obtained using PS material, which is significantly higher
than suspended cell system. The productivities were higher than suspended cultures reported in the literature.
Keywords: Immobilization, 1,3-Propanediol, Pumice Stones, Crude glycerol, Clostridium beijerinckii,
Valorization.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, energy is one of the most common and problematic global issue that builds significant
pressure on the sustainability of natural resources. In this regard, biodiesel, which is based on
biological resources, has been one of the most attaractive choice among most countries. On the
other hand, increasing biodiesel production all over the world has resulted in another side product
or waste product, namely glycerol, which is 10% of the total production [1,2]. Excess glycerol needs
economically viable and ecologically acceptable solution. It is clear that eco-friendly conversion
of glycerol into a value added chemical, namely product of 1,3 propanediol with biotechnological
methods is promising. 1,3 propanediol is an attractive precursor for many products such as textile,
solvent production, laminates, adhesives, cosmetic products and human hygiene products [3-5].
Using crude glycerol could make biological production of 1,3 PDO economically, ecologically
and sustainable. The immobilization process has important advantages. Namely, with less reactor
volumes in shorter fermentation times, higher yields, growth and production rates [6,7]. The aim of this
study is to increase the volumetric productivity of 1,3 propanediol production by biotechnological
methods above the literature values.
The experiments were done by Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-593 (ARS Culture Collection
(NRRL), USA) The fermentation medium consisted of (g/L) 40 crude glycerol as substrate [8]. In
this study, Packed-bed glass column bioreactors, with the dimensions 30 cm high 4.5 cm i.d. (total
volume of 280 ml) were used. Pumice Stone (PS) was used as support materials for up-flow fixed
bed reactor. For suspended culture experiments BiostatA+ 2L fermentor was used, 1,3 PDO, glycerol
and fatty acid analysis were carried out by HPLC.
PS present suitable surface characteristics and also provide enhanced total surface area in the
bioreactor. It is especially suitable for effective microbial colonization in order to achieve higher
productivities of 1,3-PDO [9-12]. Both of the immobilized and suspended bioreactor showed similar
increase and decrease fluctuation patterns in 1,3-PDO concentrations as a function of varying HRTs.
Highest 1,3-PDO concentration achieved was 30 g.L-1 with PS support material at 12h HRT. Even
though PS and suspended culture bioreactors had an optimum 1,3-PDO concentration at same HRT
of 12h, on the other hand, 1,3 PDO concentration of CSTR is significantly lower than PS at optimum
HRT of 12h.The suspended culture bioreactor seemed to be competing with PS reactor in terms of
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Wastewater
1,3-PDO concentration, but it is vulnerable to cell washout especially under short HRTs values and
not suitable for long term production purpose due to this operational problem.
Figure 1 shows the volumetric 1,3-PDO productivities. It is quite clear that as the HRT decreased,
the volumetric productivities for all bioreactors increased. Figure 1 clearly shows that 2 hours HRT
provides the highest productivity values for all bioreactors. The highest volumetric productivity was
obtained with PS, which reached a maximum value of 12 g/L.h at 2 h HRT. Even though the 1,3PDO concentration dropped at the short HRTs, volumetric productivity increased significantly for all
bioreactors. Suspended bioreactor can reach higher productivity 8,4 g/L.h at 2 h HRT. Immobilized
reactor more resist than the suspended system has got 1.5 times high productivity than the suspended
bioreactor.
Figure 1. Average 1,3 PDO volumetric productivity for immobilized and CSTR bioreactor
In this study, 1,3-PDO production from biodiesel waste glycerol using immobilized cell culture of
C. beijerinckii B-593 was successfully carried out. It was concluded that immobilized bioreactor
configuration using PS material outcompeted the suspended counterpart in terms of both volumetric
productivity and operational stability (cell washout). Immobilized cell system not only provides a
stable productivity but also continuous production of 1,3-PDO in a smaller reactor, which eliminates
higher capital costs
REFERENCES
1.
Johannes T, Simurdiak MR, Zhao H (2006) Biocatalysis. In: Lee S (ed) Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing Taylor &
Francis
2.
Cho MH, Joen SI, Pyo SH, Mun S, Kim JH (2006) A novel separation and purification process for 1,3-propanediol. Process
Biochem 41 (3):739-744
3.
Gonzalez-Pajuelo M, Meynial-Salles I, Mendes F, Soucaille P, Vasconcelos I (2006) Microbial conversion of glycerol to
1,3-propanediol: Physiological comparison of a natural producer, Clostridium butyricum VPI 3266, and an engineered
strain, Clostridium acetobutylicum DG1(pSPD5). Appl Environ Microb 72 (1):96-101
4.
Wang G, Feng EM, Xiu ZL (2008) Modeling and parameter identification of microbial bioconversion in fed-batch cultures.
J Process Contr 18 (5):458-464
5.
Patwardhan PR, Srivastava AK (2004) Model-based fed-batch cultivation of R-eutropha for enhanced biopolymer
production. Biochem Eng J 20 (1):21-28
6.
Pflugmacher U, Gottschalk G (1994) Development of an Immobilized Cell Reactor for the Production of 1,3-Propanediol by
Citrobacter-Freundii. Appl Microbiol Biot 41 (3):313-316
7.
Zhao YN, Chen G, Yao SJ (2006) Microbial production of 1,3-propanediol from glycerol by encapsulated Klebsiella
pneumoniae. Biochem Eng J 32 (2):93-99
8.
Gungormusler, M., Gonen, C., Ozdemir, G., and Azbar, N. (2010) Fermentation Medium Optimization for 1,3-Propanediol
Production Using Taguchi and Box-Behnken Experimental Designs. Fresen Environ Bull, 19(12), 2840-2847.
295
Oral Presentations
Evaluation of Sludge Management Alternatives for Kayseri Wastewater
Treatment Plant in Turkey
Osman Arıkan1, Mahmut Altınbaş2, Özgür Özdemir3, İzzet Öztürk4
Istanbul Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department, Ayazağa Campus, Maslak, İstanbul
[email protected]
Kayseri Water and Sewage Administration (KASKİ), Kayseri
1, 2, 4
3
Extended Abstract Sludges are the solids produced during the wastewater treatment process and must be
managed properly to minimize impacts on environment. In this study, six sludge management alternatives
were examined for Kayseri wastewater treatment plant (WWTP): lagoon storage, composting, land
application following lime stabilization, incineration at a cement kiln, landfilling following lime stabilization,
land application following thermal drying. Capacities of necessary facilities, capital and operating costs were
determined for each alternative [1]. Total costs per dry ton of sludge (total annual cost) vary between $17 and
$390.
Lagoon storage following thickening of excess biological sludge and digested sludge
Although considered the cheapest alternative method for sludge, this option may only be applied if an
area of ~16 ha with reasonable distance to the WWTP is provided in cost-effective manner. Moreover, it is
required that settled sludge at the bottom of the lagoon (~ 50% TS) should be scraped at regular intervals,
and preferably be applied to the land. Supernatant should also be removed via evaporation, and partially,
drainage (irrigation water).
Composting of the centrifugally-dewatered sewage sludge
Considering lack of organic substances in Turkey’s soils, composting of sludge comes off both as a financiallyadvantageous and sustainable alternative. The cheapest composting method is windrow. However, since this
method is associated with odor risk, a good process control is required. Aerated static pile, although slightly
costlier, will provide a better odor management. The fact that a designated, feasible area of adequate size
with concrete ground is located close to Kayseri WWTP makes both windrow composting and aerated static
pile composting advantageous sludge management options. Although more expensive to other two methods,
in vessel system provides considerably effective supervision of process and odor. The most important aspect
in composting of sludge is to provide the additive materials locally needed during the process in an easy and
financially-advantageous manner.
Land application following centrifugal dewatering and additional drying with lime
It is a practically suitable option to apply the dewatered sludge to the land at 50% TS after drying with lime.
The biggest advantage of this method is to temporarily storage the sludge, which is lime treated to 50% TS,
without dealing with odor or hygiene issues. However, lime treatment will substantially increase the sludge
amount.
Incineration at a cement kiln
It is not considered as a viable and sustainable option to incinerate dewatered sludge cakes in a separately
built incinerator. Nevertheless, incineration of sludge at a nearby cement kiln may be a suitable option for
final disposal. This method is currently being implemented in Turkey, and consequently, the cement industry
gained considerable experience in sludge incineration. However, since sole application of this alternative
would lead to a weakened leverage when bargaining with cement plants for disposal of sludge, it is
recommended to use at least one alternative method in line with market conditions. In case the incineration
method is applied for municipal solid wastes, the same facility can be used to incinerate dewatered sludge
cakes.
Landfilling of sludge cake and municipal solid wastes following centrifuge dewatering and additional
drying with lime
As stated above; the sludge cake which is produced by lime-treating the dewatered sludge to 50% TS may
be applied to the land with ease. However, in case any of various reasons (lack of suitable land in close
proximity, weather conditions etc.) makes it problematic to apply this cake to the land, another alternative
is the landfilling of sludge cake and municipal solid wastes in a sanitary landfill. It is possible to store the
sludge with ≥ 50% TS in a landfill without facing any serious stability problem, and many municipalities in
the country are experienced in applying this alternative.
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Wastewater
Land application following thermal drying
In case the stabilized sludge cake, which is produced at 30% TS following centrifuge dewatering, is thermal
dried to ≥50% (60% ~ 90%) TS, it is predicted that the energy to be yielded from the biogas which is
generated by the sludge digester will cover 15% of the energy need. For this reason, there is a need to
cover the energy deficit from a separate source (natural gas, fuel-oil etc.). In the event of thermal drying
via digester gas, the energy to be generated from the biogas should be dispensed with. The landfill gas to
be generated from rehabilitation of the current landfill site for thermal drying may be utilized as waste heat
as part of the energy production system [2]. Following thermal drying, the dried sludge will be smoothly
applicable to the land, in line with the relevant legislation.
Sludge management alternatives were evaluated for Kayseri WWTP in Turkey. Total annual costs of the
alternative technologies vary between $17 and $390. Although lagoon storage appears to be the cheapest
method this option may only be applied if an area of ~16 ha is provided in cost-effective manner. Therefore
composting of sludge comes off both as financially-advantageous and sustainable alternative. Selection of
sludge management systems depends on not only economical but also environmental and social conditions.
Therefore, all factors must be taken into consideration for determination of sludge management technology.
Keywords: Sludge, management, composting, land application, thermal drying.
REFERENCES
1.Öztürk, İ., Arıkan, O., Altınbaş, M, Aydın, A.F. (2011). Report on evaluation of sludge management alternatives for Kayseri
Wastewater Treatment Plant. Kayseri Water and Sewage Administration (KASKİ).
2.
Braulecht, P., Gredigk, S., (1998). Concept for an interlinked system of a sludge drying facility and a landfill for residual
waste, Water Science and Technology, 38 (2), 119-125.
297
Oral Presentations
Pretreatment, Reclamation and Disposal Processes for Wastewater
Treatment Sludge - Sample Applications
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim ALYANAK,
PAMUKKALE University - Denizli (Retired), ALYANAK Eng. Cons. Cont.. - Izmir
Abstract Wastewater treatment technologies shall be planned after evaluation of different treatment sludge
disposal processes in economic and ecological aspects by a detailed feasibility analysis. Because of its high
organic matter content, reclamation of treatment sludges shall be considered.
Regarding this, utilization of extended aeration activated sludge systems over 50 000 PE (population
equivalent) is not feasible. (ATV-1996) Over this population, anaerobic sludge digestion decreases sludge
disposal costs about 50-70%. Application of this technique is becoming popular. The smallest capacity plant
conforms to German ATV standards in Turkey is located in Muğla WWTP and has started operation one year
ago. Plants lacking this technology suffer sludge disposal problems and costs.
Another issue is dewatering of treatment sludge. While thermal drying methods require “250 mechanical +
550 thermal = total 800 kWh/ton.water” energy, solar treatment method requires only mechanical energy
which is as low as “20-30 kWh/ton.water”.
As the energy requirement of drying of treatment sludges is higher than the energy production by incineration,
there is no net energy production. Composting treatment sludges together with organic wastes is another
method for naturally converting organic components of treatment sludge to a soil conditioner. Application
of this product to parks-gardens, forests and agricultural fields is the most environmentally-friendly option.
Keywords: treatment sludge, anaerobic digestion, composting, sludge drying, hygiene.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although technological applications enforced by the Soil Pollution and Control Directive issued in
December 2001 are improving, Turkey is still lacking of appropriate treatment sludge applications.
Therefore, selection of economically and ecologically most appropriate techniques is getting more
important.
2. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BIOLOGICAL WASTWATER TREATMENT
SYSTEMS
Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus removal from wastewater is achieved by advanced biological
treatment plants. In extended aeration systems, sludge produced in the biological processes is
aerobically stabilized in aeration tanks. However volume and energy requirements for these systems
are high.
Therefore, extended aeration processes are not suitable for plants servicing over 30 000 - 50 000 PE
(population equivalent). German design criteria for these systems are introduced in ATV-DVWK-A
131E, has a wide application area. (ATV-GWA).
In this standard:
• Aerobic stabilization up to 30 000 - 50 000 PE,
• Anaerobic stabilization is more economic over 50 000 PE,
• Excess energy production is possible over 100 000 PE,
• Energy required by the plant can be generated over 500 000 - 1 000 000 PE.
Composition of treatment sludge differs by the treatment processes;
• Primary settling sludges composed of settlable solids,
• Chemical sludges produced by chemical treatment processes,
• Secondary settling sludges produced by biological treatment processes.
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Wastewater
3. ADVANCES IN ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION
Treatment sludge is in liquid form up to 11-12% solids content. In concentrated anaerobic sludge
digestion method, raw sludge is fed into the anaerobic sludge digester with a solid content of 8%.
Therefore, anaerobic reactor volume can be reduced to 50%. As the heat loss figures also decrease,
net energy production significantly increases.
In İstanbul TUZLA and ATAKÖY WWTP and Antalya HURMA WWTP, the sludge is fed into
the reactor with 6% solids content, thus the volume of the reactor decreased by 25%. Some older
treatment plants such as Ankara, Adana and Gaziantep WWTPs are operated with 3-4% solid content
which doubles the reactor volume. The capacity of these plants can be increased two times by
application of concentrated anaerobic sludge digestion.
Plants financed by EIB - European Investment Bank after 2002 are designed in accordance with EU
criteria and optimum Technologies. Although Gaziantep and Adana WWTPs are also financed by
EIB - European Investment Bank, only wastewater treatment is planned in these plants.
4. SLUDGE PROCESSES
4.1. Compostıng of Treatment Sludge
Fort his process, C/N ratio shall be between 25-35. The C/N ratio of treatment sludge is between
8-12. Therefore composting is only possible together with a material with higher organic matter
content such as green waste or municipal solid waste.
4.2. Incıneratıon of Treatment Sludge ın Cement Factorıes
In situations where agricultural utilization of treatment sludge is not ecologically and economically
appropriate, an alternative option is incineration of treatment sludge in cement factories to produce
energy and raw material.
• Organic content of treatment sludge
→ Energy source
• Mineralized portion of treatment sludge (ash)→ Raw material
5. OVERVIEW OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT SLUDGE DISPOSAL IN TURKEY
In the last 5 years, wastewater treatment plants in Turkey are constructed and operated more
effectively. Therefore, the amount of treatment sludge is significantly increased. Besides, Soil
Pollution and Control Directive issued in December 2001 and revised in March 2005 enforces
application of advanced technologies.
Further information about the legislations is given in the paper.
Actual legislation;
Ministry of Environment and Forestry: August 3, 2010 - OG Issue: 27661 - Directive For Soil
Application Of Domestic and Municipal Treatment Sludges
Ministry of Environment and Forestry: March 26, 2010 - OG Issue: 27533 - Directive For
Landfilling of Waste
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs June 2010 - OG Issue: 27601 – Directive for Production,
Importing and Marketing of Organic, Organomineral Fertilizers and Soil Conditioners and Microbial
Products and Products Including Enzymes Used In Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs August 18,2010 OG Issue:27676 Directive For Principals
and Applications of Organic Agriculture
299
Oral Presentations
REFERENCES
300
1.
ATV Handbuch Klaerschlam 4. Auflage Ernst & Sohn Verlag Berlin, 1996
2.
Thome-Kozmiensky, K.J.: Klärschlammentsorgung. TK-Verlag Neuruppin, 1998.
3.
Klärschlammentsorgung. Hrsg.: Ministerium für Umwelt und Verkehr Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, 2002.
4.
Bux, M., Baumann, R.: Solare Klärschlammtrocknung - Verbreitung, Leistung und Kosten. KA-Wasserwirtschaft, Abwasser,
Abfall 50 (2003) Nr. 6, S. 732-739.
5.
Vallerien, D. : Yerel düzeyde Atıksu Yönetimi, AB giriş sürecinde 2. Türk-Alman Atıksu Yönetimi Sempozyumu, 2004
6.
Alyanak, İ. : Solar (Güneş Işını İle) Arıtma Çamuru Kurutma İşlemleri, “Türkiye`nin AB`ne Giriş Sürecinde - “Sürdürülebilir
Katı Atık Yönetimi Kongresi” mayıs 2005.
7.
Alyanak, İ. : Türkiye’de Arıtma Çamuru Giderimi, Türk - Alman Katı Atık Günleri - 2006, Katı Atıklarda Biyolojik İşlemler
Aralık 2006
8.
Alyanak, İ. : Arıtma Çamurlarının Bertarafı ve Ön İşlem Örnekleri, UKAY 2010 - 2. Ulusal Katı Atık Yönetimi Kongresi
2010.
Wastewater
Studies towards Increasing the Performance of Biogas Units in
Wastewater Treatment Plants
Osman Yıldız, Bedia Kurtuluş
Abstract The formation process of biogas as a by-product of the anaerobic digestion of advanced wastewater
treatment sludge is a sensitive process and has high sensibility towards possible toxicity and solid materials
in the influent. This paper discusses the measures to be taken under operation conditions while examining
the effect of the sludge quantity and content as well as of the process conditions in digesters on the biogas
quantity and methane rate. The effects of the annual changes in the feed sludge content on the quantity of
biogas generated have been examined and the reasons for change have been studied. Particularly the solid
materials such as oakum from organized industry facilities within wastewater basins have negative effects on
the sludge equipments and they influence the biogas generation. The measures required for the protection of
optimum conditions in reactors and for the continuation of the process are discussed.
Keywords: Anaerobic sludge digestion, biogas generation performance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sludge digestion is a commonly used method in sludge removal and stabilization in wastewater
treatment plants. The objective in sludge stabilization is to prevent odour by decreasing the pathogen
bacterial contamination and to decrease the volume of sludge and the solid material quantity in
sludge[1]. As a consequence of the microbiological degradation in the organic structure of sludge,
biogas made up of 65-70% CH4 and 30-35% CO2 is generated. This study discusses the measures
to take to enable effective operation of the process, while evaluating the effect of the wastewater
characteristics and the operational conditions on the biogas amount and the CH4 rate in biogas.
2. STUDIES TOWARDS INCREASING BIOGAS GENERATION PERFORMANCE
2.1. Important Parameters ın Operatıng Bıogas Unıts
The methanogen bacteria that generate methane gas from acetic acid during the anaerobic digestion
process are from sensitive bacteria groups and the digester conditions have to be identified by taking
these bacteria as basis [3]. Proper temperatures, pH and sufficient nutrient materials are necessary
for an anaerobic digestion process. A complete mixing is required to enable full absorption of the
nutrient in digesters. In the anaerobic digestion process where temperature changes are of sensitivity,
the temperature of the sludge is maintained through heat exchangers. Failure to extract adequate
amount of sludge from the system due to mechanical equipment breakdown, and to feed the digesters
regularly have negative effects on the anaerobic digestion process that is sensitive towards density
differences in sludge feeding and sometimes cause the digesters come out of order.
2.2. Studıes towards Increasıng Bıogas Generatıon Performance
Materials such as oakum and oil from textile, food and glass industries coming into the Ataköy and
Tuzla Advance Biological Wastewater Treatment Plants of İSKİ shorten the lives of mechanical
equipment in these plants. Although they are degraded through macerator before they reach
sludge digesters, oakum material even in small pieces stick together at the reactors and are turned
into moving blocks, thus causing measurement failures by blocking the mixing and measurement
instruments in the reactor. These oakum materials also cause blocking the recirculation pumps and
exchangers, and therefore negatively affect the continuity of the process.
The amount of biogas maintained through digestion of excess sludge is seen in the Figure 1 below.
The improvements in influent at the Tuzla Advance Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant relatively
enabled increase in the amount of biogas generated in recent years.
301
Oral Presentations
Figure 1. Amount of biogas generated and sludge fed at sludge digestion tanks in Tuzla ABWWTP.
Issues to focus on in order to increase performance of sludge digestion process are as follows:
• In order to follow sludge stabilization and mixing better, the laboratory analyses and the online
density meters should be monitored. The nutrient balance should be considered taking the acquired
data as a basis. Pressing all the sludge extracted from the system into the digesters is a wrong act of
operation, and this can only be avoided by adequate amount of interim storage capacity.
• To measure whether the mixing process is complete, measurement instruments should be placed at
various locations in the reactor.
• Since the foam in the system and its disposal shall affect particularly the biogas lines and
performance of mixing elements, it should tensely be monitored.
• Considering the nutrient balance of sludge densifiers and thickeners which are designed generally
to be used for 16 hours a day and six days a week, they should be designed to meet a work load of 24
hours a day, seven days a week.
CONCLUSION
There are discussions on developing new monitoring and control mechanisms for places where it is
not completely possible to avoid industrial wastes enter the sewerage systems in wastewater basin
and studies have been done on detection and prevention of industrial wastewater by placing certain
systems that provide remote control (such as SCADA) in certain critical locations within the basin.
Furthermore, in order to adapt to changing demographical values, enabling design flexibility to
operate anaerobic digesters with thermophilic bacteria if necessary shall also enable making use of
the same plant at different temperatures and capacities.
REFERENCES
302
1.
Veenstra, Ir. S., (2001). Sludge Management EE004/99/1, 1-1, IHE Delft.
2.
Neitzel, V., Iske, U., (1998). Abwasser Technik und Kontrolle, 142, WILEY-VCH, Weinheim.
3.
Mudrack, K., (1996). Schlammstabilisierung in ATV Handbuch Klärschlamm, 138, Ernst&Sohn, Berlin.
Wastewater
Use of Omerli Drinking Water Treatment Plant Sludge at Industrial
Scale Brick Production
Şenol YILDIZ1, Volkan ENÇ1, Aynur KEMİRTLEK1, Mustafa KARA2, Yasemin TABAK2
İSTAÇ A.Ş., İstanbul Çevre Yönetimi Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş., Şişli-İSTANBUL
Tübitak Marmara Araştırma Merkezi, Malzeme Enstitüsü, Gebze-Kocaeli
1
2
Summary The disposal of domestic and industrial wastewater treatment sludges are being done in
Kömürcüoda Landfill Disposal facility which has been operated by ISTAÇ Co. in İstanbul. Every day about
200 tons of drinking water treatment sludge with a content of 20-30% solid substance is being disposed via
landfilling. The sludge can be stored in landfill area after mixing the aqueous sludge with the additives such
as clay. In this study the use of drinking water treatment sludges in brick production process as raw material
is investigated.
The main objectives of this study are the development of a new technology for the assessment of sludge as a
raw material, to reduce the operation costs by reducing the amount of waste sent to landfill and disseminating
the information obtained as a result of study with other academic studies to shed light on this issue and to
contribute to the production of new projects for the future of the country is intended to respond to the needs
in this regard.
In this study, sludge from Omerli Drinking Water Treatment Plant is mixed in the rates of 10% and 20% clay
for production of industrial scale bricks. Size, weight, dry shrinkage, shrinkage, total shrinkage and the total
weight loss of the produced representative bricks are measured. In addition, the compressive strength of the
samples, density, water absorption and porosity values of the bricks produced from treatment sludge and clay
mixture were compared with the current produced bricks and standards. As a result of the study it has been
shown that up to 20% proportion, drinking water treatment sludge can be used as raw material for production
of bricks.
Keywords: Treatment Sludge, Waste, Brick, Disposal, Baking.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to the legal requirements, management and disposal problems for the landfilling of the sludges,
it has been vital to use the waste as a raw material of a product. In this way, the need of the disposal
of sludge, as well as the recycling of these wastes brings an economical benefit.
In this study the usability of drinking water treatment sludge of Ömerli Drinking Water Treatment
Plant, which uses FeCl3 in its process, as raw material in production of industrial brick has been
investigated.
2. METHOD
In this study, the usability of drinking water treatment sludge which stored in ISTAC Co.
Kömürcüoda landfill facility, as the raw material for brick production was investigated. In this study
brick production using drinking water treatment sludge, has been done in a brick factory using the
optimum sludge/clay ratio data derived from laboratory-scale works.
Sizes and weights of the bricks produced from a raw material consist of 10% and 20% of the sludge
come from Ömerli Drinking Water Treatment Plant are measured. Measurements of the same
samples were also analyzed after it is cooked and dry shrinkage, shrinkage, total shrinkage, the total
weight loss was found as well. Water absorption ratio, porosity and density values of cooked samples
are calculated in accordance with TS EN 771-7 standards. Flue gas emission is measured during the
industrial-scale production of bricks and the results were compared with the relevant standards.
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Oral Presentations
3. DISCUSSION
Considering industrial-scale experimental trials and the optimum values obtained from laboratoryscale experimental studies, 20% mixture ratio has been determined as the optimal rate for Ömerli
drinking water treatment sludges. In addition 10% mixture ratio drinking water treatment sludge is
decided to be tested to compare the physical and mechanical changes in produced bricks. Different
samples consist of 10% and 20% drinking water treatment sludges come from Ömerli, are produced
in the brick factory and regular industrial brick production procedure has been used.
Physical and mechanical properties of samples consist of 10% and 20% sludge come from Ömerli
drinking water treatment facility were measured and the results are compared with the values on
TSE document expressed for the brick factories, the values of the bricks produced in regular time
in that factory and with TSE 771-1 standards. Total shrinkage values of bricks produced and total
weight loss of the 13.5 cm bricks are lower while the compressive strength of the bricks were close
to regular bricks produced in the same factory before. Considering the comparison results Ömerli
drinking water treatment sludge can be used as raw materials in the production of bricks.
4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
In this study the usability of drinking water treatment sludge of Ömerli Drinking Water Treatment
Plant, which uses FeCl3 in its process, in production of industrial brick as raw material and economic
benefits are been shown.
Industrial-scale implementation of this study will enable to use a kind of a waste, which used to be
disposed in landfills with high costs, as raw material for an industrial product. Sectoral cooperation,
allowing the outputs to shed light on private sector and public works, providing raw material
savings and bringing an environmentally approach to the treatment sludge management are the coachievements of this study.
304
Wastewater
Treatment of Textile Wastewater with TiO2 Magnetic Nanoparticle
Karim Movassaghi1, Laleh Enayati Ahangar1, Masoomeh Emadi2, Angelo Chianese3, Fahimeh Bahrami4
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, University of Isfahan, Isfahan 81746-73441, Iran
2
Chemistry Department, Marvdasht Branch, Azad Islamic University of Marvdasht, Iran
[email protected]
3
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, 00184, Rome, Italy
4
Quality Control Laboratory, Jaber Ebne Hayyan Pharmaceutical Co., Tehran, Iran
1
Abstract Dyes are an important source of textile wastewaters contamination. In recent years, titanium
dioxide (TiO2) have been effectively used to detoxify recalcitrant pollutants present in industrial wastewater.
The present manuscript describes a research for removing some dyes from wastewater by TiO2 modified
magnetic-nanoparticle. By using the nanoparticle properties such as high surface area, the efficiency of
purification was improved and the time of treatment was decreased.
Keywords: Magnetic nanoparticles, Dyes, Textile dyeing wastewaterthat, TiO2
1. INTRODUCTION
Nanostructure TiO2 photocatalysts have been attracting much attention for the past decade because
of their potential application in the degradation of most kinds of pollutants in waste water. The
dyeing and finishing of textile fibers, yarns and fabrics require large amounts of process water of
suitable purity. The estimated total wastewater discharge from textile plants engaged in wet finishing
is 625 million gallons and it needs to economic methods for treatment of wastewater [1].
Several methods were used for treatment of textile wastewater such as reverse osmosis, photocatalytic,
ultrafiltration, oxidation and biological. Biological treatment reduces soluble organics and other
contaminants in wastewater that are not removed in primary treatment [2]. Recently, TiO2 has used
largely for it’s epecial properties including: high photochemical reactivity, high photocatalytic
activity, low cost, stability in aquatic systems and low environmental toxicity [3].
Here we used TiO2 modified magnetic nanoparticles for removing some of dyes from textile
wastewater. By using magnetic particle, TiO2 could be recover and used several times. Nano- particle
by increasing the reaction surface, improved treatment efficiency and decrease the reaction time.
2. Experımental
Magnetic-nanoparticles were prepared according to Massart’s method. Briefly, 3 ml of iron (II)
sulfate solution (2 mol) and 10 ml of an iron (III) chloride solution (1 mol) were mixed under
vigorous mechanical stirring at room temperature and 15 ml of HCl solution (2 mol) was used to
dissolve the iron salts. An aliquot of 50 ml of tetraethylammonium hydroxide was added to the
above solution until the solution reached a pH of 13. Immediately a black solution formed. [1,3]. An
inertial layer (SiO2 or Al2O3) between TiO2 coating and magnetic material was proposed. 5 g of
magnetite-nanoparticles was redispersed in 200 ml of deionized water under sonication for 20 min.
The undispersed magnetic particles were separated and the suspension was transferred to another
beaker. Ammonia aqueous solution (12.0 ml, 25%, mass fraction) and tetraethyl orthosilicate (9 ml)
were added to the suspension. The separated SiO2 /Fe2O3 nanoparticles were washed with water
and ethanol. TiO2 layer was produced by a solvothermal method. SiO2/Fe2O3 suspension in ethanol
and 50 mL of n-butanol were added to a solution containing of ethanol and 0.2 ml of titanium
tetrabutoxide. The mixture was stirred for 30 min. The stirring process was then continued for 12 h
at room temperature. The suspension was transferred into the autoclave and maintained at 160°C for
3h. The resulting particles were filtrated, collected and washed with de-ionized water and ethanol,
and then dried at 60°C. A series of this type of nano-particles with the different TiO2 tickness was
obtained by using different volume of titanium tetrabutoxide [4].
305
Oral Presentations
Figure 1. Magnetic-nanoparticle modification Schematic
For purification process the TiO2 coated magnetic-nanoparticle was added to wastewater and mixed
for some times, and then the nanoparticles were removes by magnetic field. Some parameters such
as mixing time, amount of magnetic-nanoparticle and mixing method were optimized.
Figure 2. Schematic of textile wastewater treatment
REFERENCES
306
1.
Jin, Y., Yong-kang, L., Yu, L., Jun-ping, L., (2010), Synthesis and Characterization of Magnetic TiO2/SiO2/NiFe2O4
Composite Photocatalysts Chem. Res. Chinese Universities, 26, 2, 278-282.
2.
Mendes Saggioro, E., Sousa Oliveira, A., (2011), Use of Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis on the Remediation of Model
Textile Wastewaters Containing Azo Dyes Molecules, 16, 10370-10386.
3.
Perkowski, J., Kos, L., (2003), Decolouration of Model Dyehouse Wastewater with Advanced Oxidation Processes, Fibres
& Zibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, 11, 67-71.
4.
A. Morales, M., J.S. Mascarenhas, A.,. M.S Gomes, A., A.P. Leite, C., (2010), Synthesis and characterization of magnetic
mesoporous particles, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 342, 269–277.
Wastewater
Jet-Loop Anaerobic Reactor Performance for the Treatment of Olive
Mill Wastewater
Sonia Khoufi, Assawer Louhichi, Sami Sayadi
Laboratoire des Bioprocédés Environnementaux, Centre de Biotechnologie de Sfax, Tunisia
E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract Anaerobic co-digestion of olive mill wastewater (OMW) with other natural substrates containing
high level of nitrogen source such as poultry manure (PM) is a new approach for upgrading the anaerobic
treatment of OMW. Batch and semi-continuous fermentations were carried out under mesophilic condition.
Batch experiments revealed that the highest specific methane yield was obtained at 30% (v/v) of PM. For the
semi-continuous fermentation, a Jet-Loop reactor has been successfully used for OMW and PM co-digestion.
The methane yield was 0.4 L biogas/g COD introduced until an organic loading rate of 9.5 g COD/L. d.
Moreover, co-digestion with 30% PM has improved the COD removal efficiency up to 85%. The results of
the present laboratory study revealed that the use of PM as co-substrate in anaerobic digestion of OMW has
other advantages: improvement of the balance of the COD/TKN ratio and efficient process stability.
Keywords: Olive mill wastewater, co-digestion, Jet-Loop reactor, methane yield.
1. INTRODUCTION
The olive oil industry is one of the most typical and economically important Tunisian agro-industries.
This industry generates large amounts of OMW, which are difficult to degrade and thus cause a
negative environmental impact. Anaerobic digestion is now increasingly being used to treat liquid
organic effluents, particularly, for wastewaters containing medium to high levels of biodegradable
organic matter. Due to the high organic load of OMW, anaerobic digestion is suitable for this kind
of wastewater. However, the anaerobic digestion of OMW requires provision of an extra nitrogen
source in addition to the nitrogen originally present to satisfy the C/N/P ratio (100/2.5/0.5) [1]. The
high cost of non-sustainable, inorganic nitrogen sources such as urea and other compounds suggests
the use of alternative organic sources of nitrogen such as pig slurry [1] and cheese whey [2].
Poultry manure (PM) contains high concentrations of nitrogen, which could be used to counterbalance
the low levels of nitrogen in OMW. In this study, feasibility of using this co-substrate in order to
enhance the anaerobic treatment of OMW was investigated.
The OMW and PM were obtained from local industries (Sfax-Tunisia). In order to determine the
effect of co-substrate addition on the biogas production from OMW, biochemical methane potential
assays were performed. The semi-continuous co-digestion was carried out in a Jet-Loop reactor with
a working volume of 70 L. Analytical methods used in this study were described in previous study[3].
3. RESULTS AND DıSCUSSıON
Daily biogas productions in serum bottles were monitored for at least 65 days. The averages of
cumulative biogas per batch reactor per g VS added were reported in Figure 1. The total biogas
productions at the end of fermentation in serum bottles were 70, 85, 90, 20, 18, and 5 mL/g VSadded
corresponding to proportions 0, 10, 30, 50, 70 and 90%, respectively. High biogas production was
observed in batch containing a mixture of wastewater comprised from 70% OMW and 30% PM in a
COD/N ratio of 50.7. The enhancement of biogas production was also observed in batch containing
a mixture of 90% OMW and 10% PM with a COD/N ratio of 106. However, the increase of PM
proportion over than 50% leads to a reduction of biogas production. During the first 145 day of codigestion in the JLR, the feeding is composed of 10% PM and 90% OMW and the HRT was fixed
to 20 days. The COD removal efficiency and biogas production is low during the initial start-up
period (Figure 2b), which was attributed to the low methanogenic activity in the digester due to the
acclimatisation of the microbes and the low OLR used.
307
Biogaz yield (mL/g VS)
Oral Presentations
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0%
10%
30%
50%
70%
90%
PM proportion (v/v%)
Figure 1. Cumulative biogas production in batch fermentation of OMW in the presence of different proportion
of PM (v/v %).
By increasing the loading rate from 2 to 5 g COD/L. d (Figure 2a), an increase in biogas production
was observed. However, low biogas yields (0.3 L/g CODintroduced) were registered. This was
explained by the low biodegradability of the proposed mixture of wastewaters. For this reason,
the feeding mixture was changed to 30% PM and 70% OMW. A progressive increase in biogas
production was observed during the recovery period which increased with increasing the OLR.
Biogas production reached a value of 260 L on day 235 (Figure 2b). Results show that at the highest
OLR the yields were approximately 0.4 L/CODintroduced. The reactor responded well with COD
removal efficiencies >85%.
10
COD removal (%)
250
8
Biogas (L/d)
Organic loading rate (g
COD/L reactor. d)
Biogas (L/d)
300
6
4
2
80
200
60
150
40
100
20
50
0
0
50
100
150
Time (days)
200
0
250
0
0
a
100
COD removal (%)
12
27
55
79 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Time (days)
b
Figure 2. Evolutions of organic loading rate, COD removal and biogas production during the anaerobic codigestion of OMW and PM.
The co-digestion process was found to be stable during the last period of fermentation without any
toxicity phenomenon. The pH remained within the range of 6.9-8 throughout the experiment. This
pH stability guards the digester from possible acidification and provides an optimum condition for
methanogenic bacteria. Furthermore, an increase of ammonium nitrogen inside the digester has
improved the COD/N ratio of OMW that has become much closer to optimum. Other researchers
who carried out studies on the co-digestion of OMW with other wastes corroborate this suggestion[4].
REFERENCES
308
1.
Yilmazer, G., Yenigün, O., (1999). Two-phase anaerobic treatment of cheese whey, Water Science Technology, 40 (1),
289–295
2.
Martinez-Garcia, A.C., Johnson, R.T., Bachmann, C.J., Williams, A., Burgoyne, R.G.J., (2007). Two-stage biological
treatment of olive mill wastewater with whey as co-substrate, International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 59, 273–
282
3.
Khoufi, S., Aloui, F., Sayadi, S., (2009). Pilot scale hybrid process for olive mill wastewater treatment and reuse, Chemical
Engineering and Processing, 48, 643–650
4.
Gelegenis, J., Georgakakis, D., Angelidaki, I., Christopoulou, N., Goumenaki, M., (2007). Optimization of biogas production
from olive-oil mill wastewater, by codigesting with diluted poultry-manure, Applied Energy, 84, 646–663
Wastewater
Proposal for Color and Heavy Metal Removal from Textile Wastewater
by Cross-Linked Polyelectrolyte Composite Membranes
Bestenur Kurtulus1, Dogan Akcan1, Lütfi Arda1, Hatice Eser Ökten2, Perihan Kurt Karakuş2, Göksel Demir2, Aslı
Çoban2, İbrahim Ertuğrul Yalçın2, Ömer Lütfi Uyanık2
Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Bahcesehir University, Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
Department of Environmental Engineering, Bahcesehir University, Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey
1
2
Abstract Textile wastewaters are known to have a very wide range of type and concentration values for
dyes. Scientific literature reveals that color removal studies have focused on anionic dyes because of their
relatively easy removal capacity when compared to cationic dyes. Removal of cationic dyes is problematic
because of their high solubility in water. Since the membranes used in textile wastewater treatment are
generally purchased from membrane companies, the cost of the configuration is high. A combined treatment
process including adsorption and membrane filtration using cross-linked polyelectrolyte membranes as
an alternative to commercial membranes in order to be used in dye and heavy metal removal from textile
wastewater is proposed. Anionic and cationic dyes and heavy metal in textile wastewater removal capacities
of the cross linked membranes, which are proposed to be prepared by the method of “sequential adsorption
of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes” (Layer by Layer Deposition Technique), is going to be examined.
Keywords: textile wastewater, composite membrane, cross-linked polyelectrolyte, heavy metal and color
removal.
1. INTRODUCTION
Textile industry wastewater poses adverse environmental effects due to extensive use of dyes in the
process [1, 2]. Particularly in textile industry high flowrates of water is consumed and the discharge
is known for its high values in color parameter [3]. Discharge of textile wastewater to receiving
aquatic bodies results in severe aesthetic pollution and toxicity to corresponding biosphere. In the
case of using commercial membrane technologies for treatment, initial investment costs along with
maintenance costs are significantly high. Chemical characteristics of textile wastewater indicate
that most of the pollutant load comes from process dyes, which are reactive and alkaline in nature.
Furthermore dyes contain metals such as chrome (Cr), cobalt (Co), cadmium (Cd) and manganese
(Mn) frequently since they form complexes with these metals in production stages. Metals also pose
environmental risks in the receiving aquatic bodies such as toxicity and bioaccumulation.
A membrane that is compatible with the charge type of dye must be chosen to be able to achieve a
satisfactory color removal. The main purpose of such application is to obtain an ionic interaction
between membrane and dye molecule, in other words; creating an electrostatical interaction between
charged dye molecule and the surface of membrane resulting in dye molecules attaching to the
membrane. In this study the use of novel polymeric membranes for the removal of both heavy metals
and anionic/cationic dyes through adsorption and membrane filtration is proposed. Membranes that
are charged accordingly would be able to remove anionic and/or cationic dyes depending on the
charge density and type. Optimization parameters include charge density, membrane porosity, and
permeability, monomer concentration, pH, temperature, and ionic strength.
Method is based on the electrostatic interaction between a charged surface (substrate) and an
oppositely charged molecule in the solution. The films are formed by deposition of alternating layers
of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes with wash steps in between (Figure 1). Polyelectrolytes
are the polymers consisting of recurrent electrolyte (anionic or cationic) groups. These electrolyte
groups of the polymers dissociate in aqueous solutions resulting with a charged polymer. Thus, when
polyelectrolytes that those with both salt (electrolytes) and polymer properties are prepared in a way
resulting linear polymers, the process produces electrically conductive viscous solutions owing to
charged molecular chains.
309
1) Polyanion solution 2) Washing Oral Presentations
3) Polycation solution 4) Washing Figure 1. Schematic representation of LBL deposition technique
When oppositely charged two different polyelectrolyte solutions are mixed; oppositely charged
polymeric chains irreversibly bind together and make a bulky polyelectrolyte complex. This group
of polymers that contain both anionic and cationic groups together is called polyampholytes and
such polymers have an ability to bind negatively charged and positively charged groups together
simultaneously. One of the most important characteristics of the polyelectrolyte complexes is also
to have diverse behaviors depending on their stoichiometry (anion/cation ratio), ionic strength,
temperature and pH.
The theory stage for this particular study is completed, whereas the experimental study is ongoing.
Therefore the findings are yet to be acquired.
Following the experimental study, modeling will be conducted. In order to determine dye adsorption
capacity of membrane material, samples will be transferred into dye solutions with desired pH and
allowed to reach equilibrium for 48 hours at 250C. Adsorption measurements will be carried out by
using a UV spectrophotometer. The amount of adsorbed dye per mass of membrane material will be
evaluated by using the qE = V(Co-Ce)/W equation.
The amount of adsorbed metal ions will be determined by using an Inductively Coupled Plasma
Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS) or Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICPOES) device.
REFERENCES
310
1.
Eren, E., Demiröz, K., Yiğit, N.Ö., Kitiş, M., Çınar, Ö., (2007). Tekstil boyar maddelerinin arıtımını gerşekleştiren karışık
mikroorganizmaların anaerobik stabilitelerinin belirlenmesi, 7. Ulusal Çevre Mühendisliği Kongresi, İzmir-Türkiye.
2.
Karapinar Kapdan, I., Kargi, F., (2000). Atıksulardan Tekstil Boyar Maddelerinin Adsorpsiyonlu Biyolojik Arıtım ile
Giderimi, Turk J Engin Environ Sci., 24, 161-169.
3.
Çınar, Ö., Kitiş, M., Demir, G., Gören, S., Yiğit, N. Ö., (2008). Ergene Havzasına Deşarj Eden Seçilen Endüstriyel Atıksu
Arıtma Tesisleri Çıkışlarında ve Havzadaki Alıcı Ortamlarda Renk Parametresi Değerlerinin Belirlenmesi ve Verilerin
Değerlendirilmesi, T.C. Çevre Ve Orman Bakanlığı Çevre Yönetimi Genel Müdürlüğü, Nihai Rapor.
Wastewater
Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater by Chemical Processes: Effect of
Acid Cracking Pretreatment
B. Hande Gürsoy-Haksevenler1, Idil Arslan-Alaton2
TUBITAK MRC Environmental Institute, Gebze Kocaeli, TURKEY (E-mail:[email protected])
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering 34469 Maslak,
Istanbul, Turkey (E-mail: [email protected])
1
2
Abstract The present study aimed to investigate the chemical treatability of olive oil mill wastewater
(COD: 150000 mg/L, TOC: 36000 mg/L; oil-grease: 8200 mg/L; total phenol:3800 mg/L) by acid cracking,
coagulation, precipitation, electrocoagulation and Fenton processes. Treatment performances have been
examined on the collective environmental parameters COD, TOC, oil-grease and total phenol. Experimental
results have indicated that significant amount of oil-grease (95%) and particulate matter (96%) removals
were obtained by acid cracking (at pH 2 with a temperature of 70oC) as a pre-treatment step. Among the
alternative chemical treatments, electrocoagulation and Fenton processes (after acid cracking) were more
effective especially on TPh removal. The TPh removal rates increased from 39% to %61-72 while no
significant COD and TOC (10-15% removal differences) reduction was evident after OMW treatment via
both processes.
Keywords: Acid cracking, coagulation, electrocoagulation, Fenton’s reagent, precipitation, Olive oil mill
wastewater.
1. INTRODUCTION
The olive oil industry has a fundamental economic importance for many Mediterranean countries.
Olive Oil Mill Wastewater (OMW) is one of the most complex effluents and its direct disposal to
aquatic bodies results in environmental deterioration due to its strong organic carbon content being
composed of a variety of complex and bioinhibitory polyphenolic compounds which are difficult
to treat via conventional treatment methods. Consequently, integrated treatment approaches have
recently been explored to alleviate this serious environmental problem. Considering recently
published experimental studies, many different processes have been proposed to treat the OMW.
However, the reported results identified significant drawbacks and indicated that no single
technology could be applied to OMW as a stand-alone treatment option. On the other hand, most
of these treatment methods are also not cost effective. For efficient treatment of OMW, oil-grease
as well as particulate matter content removals are primarily necessary. Among the prevailing
treatment alternatives, acid cracking at elevated temperatures, coagulation, Fenton’s reagent and
electrocoagulation seem to be more promising and suitable for the treatment of OMW, since these
chemical treatment processes involve multiple removal mechanisms and hence can cope with highstrength and complex wastewater matrices.
2. METHODS
OMW (characteristics; pH 4.7, COD: 150000 mg/L, TOC: 36000 mg/L, oil-grease=8200 mg/L,
T-Phenol: 3800 mg/L and ED50: 10% v/v-V.fischeri) was obtained from a three-phase olive mill
extraction plant. Acid cracking used as a pre-treatment process, was first applied to the raw OMW
by adjusting pH 2 using concentrated sulfuric acid solution. The OMW samples were then heated
up to a temperature of 70oC, during 60 min. For obtaining phase separation, OMW samples were
hold in a separatory funnel for 30 min. After removal of oil-grease, acid cracked OMW samples
were filtered through 1600 nm pore size filters to be sure of removing particulate fraction. Samples
used in all other experiments including coagulation, chemical precipitation, Fenton’s reagent and
electrocoagulation (with stainless steel electrodes) treatments were carried out using acid cracked
and pre-filtered samples. The experimental conditions of the investigated treatment processes
were selected considering preliminary experiments and previously published scientific literature.
Coagulation with FeCl3 (pH=2.0, dose: 2500 mg/L); precipitation with Ca(OH)2 (pH=11.0
corresponding to the dose of 5800 mg/L) were examined. Electrocoagulation experiments were
311
Oral Presentations
performed with stainless steel electrodes at pH 2 at and current density of 50 mA/cm2 under 65oC, for
120 min. Fenton’s reaction was accomplished at pH 2 with 20 mM Fe(II) and 200 mM H2O2, under
65oC for 120 min. The Fenton process was quenched by increasing the pH of the reaction solution to
7.0-7.5 with concentrated NaOH solution.
3. RESULTS
As it is obtained from Table 1, Acid cracking resulted in 95% oil-grease and 96% particulate matter
removal. Depending on removal of these parameters a significant amount of COD (58%), TOC
(43%) and T-Phenol (39%) removals were also obtained (Figure 1). After subjecting acid cracked
samples to treatment alternatives, only 10-15% COD and TOC removal differences were achieved.
Among the investigated parameters, T-Phenol removal difference was increased from 39% to 61%
and %72 by Fenton and elecrocoagulation processes. This results can be explained by the elimination
of particulate form that including the main fraction of organic compounds by acid cracking. While
treatment alternatives slightly increasing COD and TOC removal, a major difference was obtained
for phenolic compounds that can be the reason of electrocoagulation and Fenton processes involving
oxidation mechanism.
Figure 1. Steps of the acid cracking process
Parameter
Unit
Raw OMW
COD
TOC
Oil-grease
T-Phenol
Absorbance
at 395 nm
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
150000
40000
8200
3800
Acid
Cracking
63000 (58%)
23000 (43%)
400 (95%)
2300 (39%)
cm-1
131
25 (80%)
Coagulation Precipitation
ElectroFeCI3
Ca(OH)2
coagulation
57500 (62%) 56000 (63%) 51000 (66%)
21000 (48%) 20000 (50%) 18500 (54%)
350 (96%)
270 (97%)
325 (96%)
2000 (47%)
2000 (47%)
1065 (72%)
25(80%)
25 (80%)
25 (80%)
Fenton
Process
56000 (63%)
20000 (50%)
320 (96%)
1480 (61%)
25 (80%)
Table1. Environmental characterization of the raw and chemically treated OMW samples
4. CONCLUSIONS
In the present study, acid cracking and chemical treatment processes on OMW were examined.The
following conclusions could be drawn from the present work; (i) Acid craking as a pre-treatment
step, appeared to be significant in the removal of oil-grease (95%), particulate matter (96%) and
parameters characterizing organic matter (59% COD, 39% TOC); (ii) Among the treatment processes,
electrocoagulation and Fenton processes (after acid cracking) were more effective especially on TPh
removal relating with effect of oxidation mechanism; (iii) In conclusion, acid-cracking pretreatment
appeared to be an effective treatment process that served as both pretreatment and major removal of
the suspended organic matter of OMW.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Istanbul Technical University for their financial support under Project Nr. 36035.
312
Wastewater
Electrocoagulation Treatment of Textile Wastewater
Lütfiye Canan Pekel1, Sule Camcioglu1, Kamran Polat2, Hale Hapoglu1, Mustafa Alpbaz1
Ankara University Faculty of Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering06100 Tandogan Ankara TURKEY
Ankara University Faculty of Science Department of Chemistry06100 Tandogan Ankara TURKEY
[email protected]
1
2
Abstract The effluent of textile manufacturing process contains high amount of pollutants such as dyes,
surfactants, detergents and suspended solids. Major pollution is from the various wet processing operations
like scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing and the amount of composite effluent discharged from the
textile mills[1]. Electrocoagulation is one of the most commonly used electrochemical method for water
purification and wastewater treatment due to its ability to remove a wide range of pollutants effectively. This
work is aimed to study the treatment of COD and turbidity found in a real textile wastewater. The effects of
parameters such as applied current/current density, pH, electrolysis time and NaCl on the removal efficiency
of the process are investigated.
Keywords: Real textile wastewater treatment, electrocoagulation, pollutant removal.
1. INTRODUCTION
The effluents generated by most industries can lead to serious environmental problem [2]. These
effluents can contain chemicals that are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic to various
microbiological or animal species. Therefore, the required wastewater standards must ensure prior
to discharge. Electrocoagulation is the process in which suspended in water, emission or dissolved
contaminants are destabilized by an electric current. This method provides that coagulation of
pollutants occurs by neutralizing ion and particle loads, the pollutant concentration falls below as
possible, and expensive chemicals are not used. In addition, process parameters such as pH, particle
size and concentrations of chemical components are effective in electrocoagulation. Aluminum
hydroxide occurs in the electrolytic system by means of oxidation of aluminum. Aluminum
hydroxide formed, and remains in solution as a gelatinous, and these pollutants are removed from
wastewater by complexation or electrostatic attraction. Hydrogen gas which is produced as a result
of redox reactions may fix dissolved organics or suspended solids with flotation[3].
In the present work, removal of COD and turbidity from textile wastewater is studied. The influence
of applied current/current density, pH, electrolysis time and NaCl on the removal efficiency of the
process is investigated.
In the process of electrocoagulation, coagulant is produced on-site. In this process, installed ionic
species from wastewater is removed by reacting with an ion with an opposite charge, or the metal
hydroxide flocs produced in solution. The most commonly used electrode for the process is usually
made up of aluminum. On application of electric current the electrodes corrode to give Al3+ . The
efficiency of the process largely depends on applied DC current and electrolysis time. NaCl reduces
energy consumption by increasing the conductivity of the solution. It is noted that the pollutant
concentration falls below as possible by utilizing electrocoagulation that neutralizes ion and particle
loads, and expensive chemicals are not used.
REFERENCES
1.
Radha K.V., Sridevi V., Kalaivani K., (2009). Electrochemical oxidation for the treatment of textile industry wastewater,
Bioresource Technology, 100, 987–990
2.
Guo, J., Ma, F., Chang, C-C., Cui, D., Wang, L., Yang, J., Wang, L., (2009). Start-up of a two-stage bioaugmented anoxic
(A/O) biofilm process treating petrochemical wastewater under different DO concentration, Bioresource Technology, 100,
3483-3488
3.
Yavuz Y., Koparal A.S., Ogutveren U,B., (2010). Treatment of Petroleum Refinery Wastewater by Electrochemical Methods,
Desalination, 258:1-3, 201-205
313
314
POSTER
PRESENTATIONS
315
316
GENERAL TOPICS
317
318
General Topics
Calculation and Evaluation of Individual Carbon Footprint
Sevde ÜSTÜN, Hanife BÜYÜKGÜNGÖR
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, 55139 Atakum/ Samsun,
TURKEY
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract Climate change is now recognized by all as a serious global environmental problem. Substantial
rises greenhouse gases (GHG) arising from human activity, the main one being carbon dioxide (C02) have
been shown to discernible effects on the global climate system. The term ‘carbon footprint’ has become
tremendously popular over the last few years and is now in widespread use across the world. Numerous
approaches have been proposed to provide estimates, ranging from basic online calculators to sophisticated
life-cycle-analysis or input¬output-based methods[1].
This study focuses on the problems of carbon dioxide, and explores what you can do to lighten carbon
footprint to help reduce the rate of climate change. The study also introduces calculation of individual carbon
footprint.
Keywords: Climate change, Greenhouse gases, Individual carbon footprint.
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change is of high concern, driving growing demand for carbon footprint information.
Carbon footprint has become a widely used term and concept in public debate on responsibility and
abatement action against the threat of global climate change.
A carbon footprint is a measure of an individual’s contribution to global warming in terms of the
amount of greenhouse gases produced by an individual and is measured in units of carbon dioxide
equivalent. It is made up of the sum of two parts, the direct or primary footprint is a measure of
our direct emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent from the burning of fossil fuels including
domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g. car and plane) and the indirect or secondary
footprint is a measure of the indirect carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent emissions from the whole
lifecycle of products and services we use including those associated with their manufacture and
eventual breakdown[2].
The actual footprint of any individual or household depends on the amounts and types of energy,
food and other goods and services they consume. This meant that an individual’s household’s carbon
footprint depends on where they live, the type of dwelling they occupy, their age, income, job values,
personal circumstances and life style. Thus, carbon footprints of different individuals and household
vary wide within any given country, but also across different countries, and especially between rich
developed countries (e.g. the U.K), newly industrialized between rich developed countries (e.g.
China) and poor, developing countries (e.g. Uganda)[3].
The calculation of carbon footprint will show you which activities (energy use, travel, etc.) make
large and small contributions to your carbon load. The calculation of carbon footprint is a model
of reality. But, it can give you only an approximate measure of your carbon footprint and its
components. In the case, the calculation is a model based on a set of mathematical equations that
enables a computer to convert the information you enter into carbon emissions per person year[3].
This study is based on the calculation of individual carbon footprint through a simple program and
from this aspect is different from others. It is discussed what we can do for reduction of carbon
footprintt.
2. MATTERIAL AND METHODS
Carbon footprint models or calculators are widely available. Existing mmodels calcuulate the
individual or househ hold primary footprint by converting the amou unt of electricity, oil, gas or coal
used per year into CO O2 emissions[2].
319
Poster Presentations
In this study, the ccarbon footprint calculating method of Carbon Footprint Company mmeasures
individual impact on the climate change[4]. The carbon footprint calculation estim mates how
many tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases upon the choices create each year. The
calculations for primary emissions are based on conversion factors sourcced from: Department of
Environment, Food and Ruraal Affairs (D DEFRA)-UK, US Environnmental Prottection Agency
(EPA)-UUSA. The calculations for seconndary emissions are baseed on estima ates developed by
carbon footprint to illustrate the impact on the ennvironment from your-day-to-day activities. The
actual secondary footprint may in reality be either lower or greater than that estimated here. Total
carbon footprint is the sum of your primary or secondary emissions. Carbon footprint calculations
are typically based on annual emissions from the previous 12 months.
3. DISCUSSION AND RESULT
Firstly, the country was selected which also allows us to compare our results with the country.
Country averages in the Result table were sourced from the EPA.
The country Turkey was select ted for carbon footprint calculation. The total carbon averrage was
calculated as 12,543 tons. The average carbon footprint foor people in Turkey is 3, 14 tons. The
average carbon footprint for the indust trial nations is about elleven tons. The average worldwidee
carbon footprint is about fo our tons and the world wide target to combat climate chang is two tons.
These estimated results of greenhouse gas emission are 12,543 tons of carb dioxide (CO2) equivalent
per year. This value is a above the world average and Turkey average. Each individual and household
is responsible for a carbon footprint based on day-to-day activities. Therefore, in order to reduce the
climate impact, there are many simple things. The chancing of day-to-day behavior will make a big
difference in the fight to slow climate change.
The calculated individual carbon footprint is reduced some options. For example turning it off when
not in use (lights, TV, DVD player, computer… etc), turning down the central heating slightly (Just
1 degree will help reducing your heating bill about 8%), turning down the water setting, car sharing
to work or for the kids school run, trying to reduce the number of flights you take, buying foods that
are in season locally, not buying over packaged products, reducing your consumption of meat etc…
Household carbon footprints can be reduced through the modification of behaviors related to energy
usage, transportation and consumption of goods.
REFEERENCES
320
1.
Wiedmann, T., Minx, J., (2007). A definition of ‘carbon footprint’, Ecological Economics Research Trends, Carolyn C.
Pertsova, ed., 1-11.
2.
Kenny, T., Gray, N.F., (2009) Comparative performance of six carbon footprint for use in Ireland, Environmental Impact
Assessment Review, 29, 1--6.
3.
http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=397984&section=1.2; 10.08.2012.
4.
http://www.carbonfootprint.com/calculator1.html; 10.08.2012.
General Topics
Assessment of Water Security Perception in Perspective of Climate
Change in Balochistan
Dr. Musarrat Jabeen1, Ehsan Inamullah2, Rubeena Batool Rabia Azhar3
Development Studies, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbotabad, Pakistan
University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan.
3
Member Migration Research Group, Islamabad
[email protected]
1
2
Abstract The efficient use of water is of prime importance as the growing water scarcity warrants
impending drought. The most affected areas would be the rangelands of the planet earth according to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change organized by UN. Balochistan is 43% of Pakistan and 95%
of Balochistan is rangeland. The objective of the research was to assess the water security perception in
perspective of climate change in Balochistan; which may help to create a framework for efficient water
management. Question of the study was: What are the existing values to perceive water security? T-Test
technique has been used for this research to compare two surveys carried out in 2002 and 2012 in Balochistan
in same districts. The study found the perceptions of public in perspective of climate change in Balochistan
unrealistic.
Keywords: Water; Water Security Perception; Climate Change.
1. Materıal and Method
Water security perception based on dynamic views of non-expert citizen participants, government
bureaucrats and technical experts are presented. To valuate climate change two surveys were
conducted one in 2002 and the other in 2012; same questionnaire was utilized (ANNEXURE 1). The
survey took sample population of 230 persons randomly from three communities (Kanak and Pashin,
35km and 30km away from Quetta, and Quetta valley) above the age of forty; males, females,
farmers, government officials, social workers, academia, and politicians. Everybody established that
within their age they have experienced snowstorm, water storm and now dust storm. The people
evidenced the rise in temperature because of loss in precipitation and snow. In 2002 and 2012, 100%
respondents opined that the change in climate has occurred.
2. FIndIngs
The survey allowed participants to define locally relevant aspects of climate change and water
security from their unique perspectives anchored by their own values referred to conflict situations.
In 2002 survey 38% and in 2012 68% respondents opined that the situation has developed into
conflict and anarchic system comprised of regimental system of conflict (Community conflictProvincial conflict-National conflict-International conflict) and spherical system of conflict (Social
conflict-Economic conflict-Political conflict-Strategic conflict). Conflict perception in perspective
of climate change rose from 38% to 68% because of increase in number of water based conflicts.
When they were asked about their input for water security management in 2002: 67% and in 2012:
80% were embanked to determine some duty to them in this respect; they were found imbued with
following perceptions as well:
1. Water droughts/floods are will of God
2. His/her contribution will make no difference
3. They can pay for water so they have the right to buy as much as they can
4. What the others are doing why he/she should take care of water!
Conclusıon and Suggestıons
While scaling the water security perceptions of public in Balochistan it is concluded that the water
security threat in perspective of climate change is not positive, so specific education programs may
envisaged through climate change impact sensitive policies.
321
ANNEXURE 1
Questıonnaıre about Clımate Change
Tell us what effect climate change has on your life?
Prompts
* Has it affected you at home or at work?
* What affects might climate change have on your children or grand children?
* Is there something special or different about the weather in your area / country at the moment?
* What kinds of things worry you about the weather in your area?
Tell us what you think needs to be done to sort out conflict caused by climate change?
Prompts
* Do you think there are human causes?
* Do you think the situation causes conflict?
Tell us how you perceive the water security situation?
Prompts
* Do you think you can make a difference?
* What do you think you can do for water security?
* Are you doing anything now, if so what?
Source: Adopted from London Museum of Science - Exhibition on Climate Change 2002.
322
General Topics
Evaluation of the Landfill Gas Management Options for the Reduction
of Environmental Impacts of Landfills
İpek Yılmaz, MustafaYıldırım, Mehmet Yurdakul, Bülent Topkaya
Akdeniz University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Antalya, Turkey
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract In frame work of this study different landfill gas management alternatives for the rehabilitation of
landfills are evaluated. The main idea is to minimize the environmental impacts of these sites. Environmental
performances of the alternatives are compared by using SimaPro 7.1 LCA software. The inventory data,
evaluated in this study, are obtained from the EcoInvent V2 database and from field studies. The data derived
from the EcoInvent database are processed with CML baseline 2000 method and implicated by SimaPro 7.1
software. The results indicate that source separation with high public participation and biodegradable waste
management are the two major issues which will enhance the efficiency of waste management and lead to
minimize the global warming potential.
Keywords: Landfill gas management, Environmental impacts, Landfilling;, Life cycle assessment, municipal
solid waste.
1. INTRODUCTION
CH4 emissions from landfills can be reduced by two approaches: i) Changing waste management
practices to reduce waste disposal at landfills by adding recycling-and-reuse programs and
composting, ii) Capturing the CH4 and flaring it or use it for energy recovery[1]. The main goal of
this study is to evaluate the possibilities, which will help to minimize the environmental impacts
of landfills using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. LCA is a powerful tool and assists
the decision makers to evaluate the different management systems according to their environmental
performance. It is intensively used as decision support tool in comparison of municipal solid waste
treatment technologies[2], [3]; comparison of the LCA models developed for solid waste management
systems[4]; evaluation of solid waste management strategies and options[5],[6], [7] and in evaluating
waste-to-energy systems[8]. In this study the waste management system of Antalya City with 1,2
million inhabitants, located at the Mediterranean Coastal Zone of Turkey is evaluated. In order to
improve the existing situation, several landfill gas management options are developed and evaluated
by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach.
In the framework of this study, the composition of the municipal wastes is determined by a field
study lasted one year. For this purpose selected waste containers are collected early in the morning
before the street collectors were active, transported to the landfill site and composition is determined
according to the prescribed method of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry of Turkey[9].
Landfill gas management scenarios.
In framework of this study following the composition of the municipal wastes is determined.
The formula of the organic fraction of the wastes used for the calculation of the CH4 production
is assumed to be the same as mentioned in[10]. In contrary to the waste management scenarios, the
impact calculations are conducted for 1 kg of discharged waste CH4 production will begin within the
first years of landfilling and will last 10 years.
Scenario 1 (LFG-Sc.1): It represents the basic situation in which the landfill gas (LFG) containing
CH4 produced in sanitary landfills is collected and discharged uncontrolled into the atmosphere.
Scenario 2 (LFG-Sc.2): LFG produced in sanitary landfills are collected and flared. Scenario 3
(LFG-Sc.3): LFG produced in sanitary landfills are collected, CH4 is combusted and electricity and
heat is produced.
323
The results of the LCA study indicate that, in the characterization phase, management of CH4
influences mainly the global warming and photochemical oxidation categories. The Scenario 1, in
which the LFG are collected and discharged to the atmosphere without any precaution, represents
the worst case regarding these environmental impacts. In Turkey it is mandatory to install leachate
treatment and LFG collection units in the sanitary landfills. The common procedure is the collection
of the LFG with vertical passive wells and discharging to the atmosphere. The second and the third
scenarios represent the improvement of this option in which flaring and combustion of the collected
LFG is foreseen. In both cases significant improvements are achieved in the “global warming”
and “photochemical oxidation” impact categories since non-methane hydrocarbons affecting
photochemical oxidation category and methane affecting global warming category in the LFG are
converted to CO2 by flaring.
REFERENCES
1.
Cherubini, F. Bargigli, S., Ulgiati, S. (2009), Life cycle assessment (LCA) of waste management strategies: Landfilling,
sorting plant and incineration. Energy, 34, 2116-2123.
2.
EPA. (2006). Global Mitigation of Non¬CO2 Greenhouse Gases. Office of Atmospheric Programs (6207J). 430-R-06-005.
438, Washington,.
3.
Feo, G., Malvano, C. (2009), The use of LCA in selecting the best MSW management system. Waste Management, 19011915.
4.
Winkler, J., Bilitewski,B. (2007), Comparative evaluation of life cycle assessment models for solid waste management.
Waste Management, 27,1021-1031
5.
Iglesias, J.R., Marañón, E., Castrillón, L., Riestra, P., Sastre, H. Herminio. (2003), Life cycle analysis of municipal solid
waste management possibilities in Asturias, Spain. Waste Managemen Res, 21, 535-548.
6.
Zaman, A.U. (2010), Comparative study of municipal solid waste treatment technologies using life cycle assessment
method. Int.J.Environ.Sci.Tech., 7 (2), 225-234.
7.Özeler, D., Yetiş, Ü., Demirer, G.N. (2006Life cycle assessment of municipal solid waste management methods: Ankara
case study. Environment International, 32), 405-411.
8.
Finnveden, G., Johansson,J., Lind, P., Moberg, A. (2000). Life Cycle Assessments of Energy from Solid Waste. Stockholm
Universitet/Systemekologio. Stockholm.
9.
MoEF. (2007), Ministry of Environment and Forestry. Municipal solid waste characterization manual (in Turkish). Ankara.
10. Tchobangolous,G., Theisen,H., Vigil,S., (1993).Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and
Management Issues. McGraw-Hill.
324
General Topics
The Safety of Water and Wastewater Lines against Earthquake
Ahmet GULEC, Fatih YILDIZ
Metallurgical and Material Engineer (MSc), Network Operating and Billing Department European 1st. - ISKI
Environment Engineer (MSc), Plants Department - ISKI
Abstract When wastewater collecting systems damage according to earthquake effect, contaminated water
would be spread out near environment and therefore epidemic risk could increase dramatically. Nevertheless,
water mains damage according to earthquake effect, many water leakage points could be occurred through
the lines. After the earthquake, if wastewater collecting system damage to seriously, contaminated water will
not be disposed effected zones. The situation will be threatened on human health and environment.
In this study, it was discussed about the safety of water and wastewater mains against earthquake and
explained preventing negative effect of earthquake on human and environment. It was given carried out
some practices for the safety of water and wastewater mains in İSKİ
Keywords: earthquake, water and wastewater mains, human health.
325
Productivity and Efficiency in Water Management and Performance
Indicators - Into the 21st Century
Ahmet GULEC, Tevfik GÖKSU
Metallurgical and Material Engineer (MSc), Turkish Society for Infrastructure and Trenchless Technology - TSITT
Civil Engineer, Azerbaijan Water Administration - AZERSU
Summary With the understanding that water is a limited source in the world, there has been increasing
interest in the productivity and efficiency in water management. However, many water administrations don’t
ensure efficiency in their practices. The main indicator of the not efficient water management is increasing of
physical and non physical water looses. In this study, it was discussed on water administration’s organization
structure and what should be water management in 21st century. It was explained what the performance
indicators are to determined efficiency in water sector.
Keywords: productivity, efficiency, management, NRW.
326
General Topics
Idealizing the Global and National Water Management Legislation by
Comparison
Faruk Dikmen1, Adem ESEN2
Environment Engineer Msc. - İSKİ Silivri Branch Directorate
Prof. Dr. Instructor (Rector) - İstanbul Sebahattin Zaim University
1
2
Abstract The objectives of water management are defining the types and description of water assets,
relations of authority as well as saving and ownership control, demonstrating the manners of water use,
issuing terms of water planning, conducting regulations on water administrations, identification of water
registry, flood control, water management and protection. This study evaluates the water legislations around
the world and in Turkey while aiming to reach a conclusion on what has to be done to demonstrate the
existing conditions in Turkey in this respect.
Keywords: Clean Water, Water Management, Water Management Legislation, Water Management
Administrations.
1. INTRODUCTION
A number of laws, legislations and statutes have been issued to organize the water legislation in
Turkey. The general characteristic of this legislation is a structure with authority and duty changes
between administrative bodies in a complex way.
In this study prepared to compare and idealize the global and national water management legislations
and administrative structuring, there is an approach on how the existing structure should be
reorganized. Particularly the works taken on the national agenda through the EU harmonization laws
are discussed. In the first section, information on what forms the basis of the water management
legislation and administrative structure in the world and in Turkey is detailed with current
qualitative and quantitative methods. International policies are also mentioned. In the following
section, implementations in the world and in Turkey are compared within the framework of both
the legislation and administrative structures. Under the section of findings, the ideas on how to
idealize the system with the data found together with the ideas in line with the directive of the EU
harmonization laws or the previous findings on how to improve the legislation in Turkey through
the models and politics in the world. The final section stresses that the current studies on the new
constitution should include articles that shall enable an essential change on the existing structure and
the legislations on water management, considering the geography of Turkey. Furthermore a need for
central management towards the provinces from one center is stressed.
This section shall inform on Turkey’s water legislation, administrative structure, EU legislation and
other international institutions. The attention shall be paid on that the current legislation and structure
in Turkey is not within a framework of water policies. The current legislation and structure has been
conducted by placing the new structure into the old one without modifying the older one in line with
the needs.
2.1. Water Legıslatıon ın Turkey
While water assets and management in Turkey should have been within a monopoly, water legislation
has become very complex through legal regulations in various forms in the last decades. In a literature
review, it was found that there are 126 international regulations, statutes, agreements, protocols and
codes published in the Official Gazzette. This number does not include mutual agreements signed
between the Turkish government and various other governments on environment[1].
2.2. Admınıstratıve Structurıng ın Water Management ın Turkey
There are many public entities and administrations in Turkey that directly or indirectly operate on
327
water. Since the central management is dominant in public administrations, cooperation of central
and local managements is conducted during the implementations of central politics[2]. However there
is no visible or clearly defined cooperation framework in Turkey between these institutions. The
study covers these institutions in detail.
3. FINDINGS
Crucial regulations and amendments to enable harmonizing the Turkey’s water management
in legislative and institutional frameworks with the EU requirements have been provided. The
required regulations are as follows: Coordination and cooperation between state institutions, transfer
or authorities and responsibilities to the regional level (River basin regions), integrated water
management with a focus on water bodies and users, knowledge exchange and distribution, public
consultancy and stakeholders participation, economical incentives and measures[3]. In this section,
positive and negative sides of Turkey’s legislation and administrative structure are evaluated.
4. CONCLUSION
A framework water law has long been an issue discussed in many areas in Turkey. Institutions
that will apply this water law are DSİ State Hydraulic Works, Ministry of Forestry and Water,
Metropolitan Municipalities, and Water / Sewerage Administrations that operate under them, all
municipalities for settlements bigger than villages, legal persons for villages, irrigation unions
and cooperatives, Electric Power Resources Survey and Development Administration, General
Directorate for Meteorological Affairs, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
Livestock, Special Provincial Administration, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Ministry of Foreign
Affairs.
The fact that all these institutions are exempt from the legal application does not prevent the
complexity caused by the multi-headed water management. In the screening studies conducted
together with the EU, it was mentioned a number of times that they do not want to address a single
authority or institution in water issues in Turkey and that dealing with a single legislation shall solve
problems more easily. Environment Agency Law and the Water Framework Law are among the
laws to be issued by 2013 by the Turkish Ministry of EU Affairs. However, as mentioned above,
the request of EU is a single public entity and a single legislation on this matter. For such a Water
Framework Law to be applicable, a Ministry of Water Resources is necessary. However, although
the water ministry issue was discussed in 2011 the Ministry of Forestry and Water was founded.
The General Directorate for Water Management was also established within this ministry. This unit
undertakes the duty of generating policies and coordination on a national level.
Furthermore the National Platform established in 2002 should be converted into an independent
institution and should be given a continuous structure so that all water management bodies which are
bound to this institution should be able to receive its positive or negative feedback on their politics
by such an independent and civil body. Planning, development and management of the 65% of
Turkey’s water potential that requires further development cannot be achieved only through issuing
laws. In other words, it is clear that a water management whose infrastructure is not defined shall be
applicable even with the best water framework law available.
REFERENCES
1.
Türkyılmaz Atilla(2010), Dünyada ve Ülkemizde Su Yönetim Mevzuatı.Ocak 2012
2.Özçelik, C., 2008. Türkiye’de Su Hizmetlerinin ve Su Hukukunun Gelişimi. DSİ Teknik Bülten.43. (1), ss. 23-27
3.
328
Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı. 2004. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İçin Entegre Çevre Uyumlaştırma Stratejisi Plan Raporu. Kasım.
Ankara
General Topics
Energy Life Cycle Costing of Cypriot Family Houses with Double Glazed
Windows
Yashar Mohamadi
Eastern Mediterranean University
[email protected]
Abstract In the current study, the effect of improving thermal performance characteristics of a singlefamily dwelling in Mediterranean region, on energy life cycle costs is investigated. This enhancement is
performed by substituting conventional single-glazed windows with double-glazed aluminium frame ones in
a typical Cypriot residential unit, by employing Autodesk Ecotect as thermal modeling engine. Conventional
construction materials which are normally being used in the residential construction industry of Cyprus were
chosen for modeling the case-study. As a result, up to 70% reduction in heating load and 15% reduction
in cooling load accounting for nearly 20% reduction in total annual load, was observed. By computing
installation costs on one hand and the operational benefits which were due to the decrease in energy bills
on the other hand, and performing net present value analysis, net benefits of such alteration were calculated
during the life-span of the project. As the result, two years payback period and up to 6842 Turkish Lira
monetary benefit at the end of 30th year was calculated for taking the aforementioned measure to minimize
annual load demand. All cost-benefit calculations were based on prices, rates and tariffs of September 2012.
Keywords: Energy Life Cycle Costing, Cypriot Dwellings.
1. INTRODUCTION
There has been several literature published on thermal performance of buildings with double glazed
windows in the mediterranean region. However, very few investigations carried out taking Cyprus as
case-study while, the island is a perfect example of mediterranean climate condition.
Substituting normal single-glazed windows with double-glazed in buildings, improves the thermal
performance significantly as it is suggested by [1] as the first measure to be taken in order to reduce
the heating and cooling load demand of Cypriot apartments and single family units.
Enhancing building’s thermal performance leads to tangible and intangible benefits such as reducing
the risk of allergies and heat-related illnesses. Monetary advantages are focus of the current research.
2. METHODOLOGY
A single-family residence is modeled with Autodesk Ecotect, one of the widely used thermal
modeling computer programs, considering conventional construction materials which are normally
being used in the residential construction industry of the region. The floor area is considered
approximately 110 square meters based on a study by [2] who performed a statistical investigation on
roughly 500 residential units in Cyprus and the majority of houses were reported to be between 100150 square meters as a result. The annual heating and cooling load of the model is then computed.
Subsequently, windows were substituted with double-glazed ones in the model and the analysis
process repeated. A comparison is made between the two series of results to show the effect of
improving thermal performance characteristics of the case-study by replacing windows.
Finally, energy life cycle costing is carried out based on the net present value concept and September
2012 prices, rates and tariffs, to demonstrate the cost and benefits of such alteration on the life-span
of the case-study.
Expectedly, annual heating and cooling loads were decreased as the result of replacing windows,
as much as 70% and 15% for heating and cooling loads respectively (Figure 1). Overally, this
reduction would save up to 446 Turkish Lira per year solely (September 2012 prices and tariffs)
while, the extra initial cost of installing double-glazed windows is as little as 871 Turkish Lira for
329
our case-study. Therefore, the payback period of this measure is roughly two years (Figure 2) by the
negligible -30TL net benefit at the end of second year of operational phase.
In addition, as monetary benefits, saving attributed to decrease electricity usage accumulated to more
than 6800 Turkish Lira at the end of 30th year. The figure is an additional benefit to considerable
intangible advantages of improving building’s thermal performance.
Figure 1. Annual Load Demand Comparison
Figure 2. Net Benefits During The Life-Span
REFERENCES
330
1.
Panayi, P. (2004). Prioritising energy investments in new dwellings constructed in Cyprus. Renewable Energy, 789-819.
2.
Panayiotou, G. P., Kalogirou, S. A., Florides, G. A., Maxoulis, C. N., Papadopoulos, A. M., Neophytou, M., . . . Georgakis,
G. (2010). The characteristics and the energy behaviour of the residential building stock of Cyprus in view of Directive
2002/91/EC. Energy and Buildings , 2083-2089.
General Topics
Public Awareness Campaigns in Solid Waste Management through
Islamic Approaches in Malaysia
AFFENDI ISMAIL
Centre for Islamic Thought and Understanding (CITU) - University Technology of MARA Kelantan, Malaysia
Abstract Low public awareness posed challenges to solid waste management in Malaysia. Improper waste
management among the public can be found in all places, whether in an urban or rural area. Malaysia is also
facing problems with a drastic increase in waste generation, while the current rate of recycling in Malaysia
is only 5%, despite various awareness campaigns have been carried out. This phenomenon is related to
the crisis of human values, hence, an appropriate method to solve the crisis of human values other than
existing methods, is the religious approaches. In some areas of the Muslim world, public environmental
awareness campaigns based on religious principles have proven to be effective and beneficial. Therefore,
in the campaigning of solid waste management and waste prevention, Islamic communication channels
should be used, especially in Muslim countries. Public awareness campaigns based on Islamic principles,
can be a powerful tool to be employed along with other waste management policies. Accordingly, this paper
will discuss how the channels of communication and awareness program based on the Islamic concept can
increase and create deeper awareness of sustainable solid waste management, particularly among the Muslim
community in Malaysia and generally in other Muslims countries.
Keyword: Waste Management, Public Awareness, Islam, Malaysia.
331
Analyses of the Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Pharmaceutical Product
Inventories
K. Louhab, S. Boughrara
Laboratoire de Génie alimentaire - Faculty of engineer science
University of Boumerdes, 35000 - BOUMERDES - ALGERIA
[email protected]
Abstract Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is one of basic steps in life cycle assessment methodology
(LCA). This paper presents the application of approach LCA for the rejections of drugs company SAIDAL,
in order to determine the environmental impacts relative to this industrial activity, since it is classified among
industry leader in the pharmaceutical field in Algeria, and that it takes part largely in the environmental
disturbance by generating various categories of impacts. For this purpose, an ecobilan was establish by the
collection of the theoretical data to the meadows of the company and of the practical data, resulting from the
assay of pharmaceutical liquid
Keywords: LCA, drug company, drug residues, ecosystem.
332
General Topics
Key Aspects for Successful PPP/PFI Waste-to-Energy Projects in Turkey
Hogan Lovells International LLP, Untermainanlage 1, 60329 Frankfurt/Germany
Abstract Rapid population and industrial growth have led to increased consumption rates and as a result
greater waste generation. Landfill sites are moving closer to human settlements as cities expand and lead to a
shift in the public opinion and the national waste strategy. Driven by the waste pyramid as general recognized
guideline for a forward-looking waste strategy, avoidance of waste is now being set as top priority before
recycling of waste, followed by incineration of waste to generate energy and using landfills only in the
last instance. Further, emerging countries have an increasing appetite for energy. Significant investments in
state-of-the-art waste disposal facilities combined with latest waste-to-energy solutions can make a valuable
contribution to solve these problems but requiring enormous amounts of money to be successful. In most
counties, it is necessary to involve private sector capital and know-how to implement such change in the
national waste strategy successfully.
A major issue for public bodies, international funders, investors and contractors working on the successful
realization of waste-to-energy projects is the affordability and bankability of the relevant project. Particularly
for procurements comprising the construction and operation of such facilities, it has become internationally
popular to structure such projects by way of PPP schemes.
The purpose of this article is to introduce some of the key aspects and risks of PPPs generally, being a
potential model for future waste projects in Turkey . Further, it is also intended to provide a brief overview of
various associated issues and risks particularly relevant to the waste sector, based on experiences gained on
projects in other international markets and in PPP generally.
Keywords: PPP, Waste-to-Energy, Project Finance, Project Agreement, Contract.
1. WHAT IS PPP?
1.1.Public Private Partnership (“PPP”) is the name given to an extensive and disparate collection of
constructive relationships between the public and private sectors. There is no comprehensive set
of the categories of PPP. The role of the public sector is variable; it includes acting as promoter or
facilitator, joint venture (possibly as shareholder or active operational participant) and purchaser.
1.2.The factors which have driven governments to promote PPP include (i) state withdrawal from
commercial activities, either for political or economic reasons, (ii) a desire to improve the quality
of public services and (iii) a desire to obtain better value for money (which includes managing
the public sector spend over the long term).
1.3.Although PPP models have already been implemented occasionally in Turkey, particularly in the
transportation sector, the Turkish government has not implemented a national PPP programme
or respective legislation so far - neither in general nor specifically for the waste sector. However,
a PPP law has already been drafted several years ago but has not been approved by the Turkish
government yet. It is likely that the Turkish government will continue to monitor established
PPP markets such as the UK, Germany and Italy closely, particularly as PPP as a procurement
process usually gathers pace in emerging markets such as Turkey.
2. STRUCTURING A WASTE PPP PROJECT
Historically, public sector bodies that wished to acquire or upgrade infrastructure assets had to apply
for government funding. PPP fundamentally changes this approach. In an ideal world, waste PPP
projects would rest on a solid financial and organizational basis, the income and expenditures would
be in line with given forecasts and the quality of the services rendered would meet the expectations
of all parties concerned. However, unforeseen circumstances such as insolvency, poor performance
or non-performance, environmental and site related issues as well as changes in law and force
majeure events (wars, earthquakes, floods or fires) may, depending on circumstances, have major
adverse effects on the execution of waste PPP projects. Therefore, a detailed risk analysis is of vital
333
importance for structuring the project and drafting and negotiating the project related agreements. A
major strength of a PPP structure is its suitability for transfer of risks, whereby the risks should be
transferred to such contractual party suited best to manage or minimize them. Each party concerned
considers the project from a different perspective and thus may have a different approach to risk
assessment.
In essence, the effect of a typical PPP structure is to convert the traditional procurement of a capital
asset into the creation of a single, stand-alone business. This business usually has only one customer
(the public sector client) and its only purpose is to provide a “service” to that client in return for
payment. The service it provides amounts, in practice, to the design, construction and maintenance
of new or upgraded infrastructure assets, such as a waste-to-energy plant or a mechanical-biological
treatment (“MBT”) facility, and then making these assets available for use by the public sector client.
In this way the public sector can dissociate itself from many of the risks inherent in the ownership
of such plants. However, in addition to the public sector client, waste projects often (at least in most
developed waste markets in Europe) comprise third parties which deliver their waste to the respective
waste treatment facilities. This is mainly driven by the possibility to generate an additional income
stream for the plant operator and particularly to ensure the profitability and thus the realisation of the
project.
3. THE KEY ISSUES
Turkey will be facing various challenges by implementing waste-to-energy and PPP structures as it
also requires a change in mindset by the Turkish customers which are not used to pay for the disposal
of waste. It also provides, however, a lot of opportunities to present Turkey as a well-developed
market comprising the latest technology for a cleaner future.
This requires a lot of efforts including the development of a transparent and fair procurement
procedure, reliable PPP-laws, a standard PPP documentation which reduces the bidding costs for
investors and bidders (such as the WIDP contract documentation in the UK), originating a credible
and permanent waste flow and a certain ‘project flow’ which allows developing a market practice.
In particular the legal structures have proven in the past that Turkey is a good place for investments.
This is a great fundament for a successful future in waste-to-energy.
i
334
Various contents of this article are based on a Hogan Lovells International LLP client note.
SOLID WASTE
335
336
Solid Waste
Solid Waste Conversion and Future Promise of Environmental
Management
Innocent Kahigana
Department of Tourism - Rwanda Tourism University College (RTUC)
P.o Box 350 Kigali, Rwanda
[email protected]
Abstract Different scientific studies claim that solid waste has had diverse effects on both the natural
environment and human society. Besides, lack of plausible solid waste handling systems is as well postulated
to be a major challenge, mainly in developing countries. For instance, the waste handling systems found in
Kigali, Rwanda, are substandard compared to those highlighted by different studies in developed countries
such as Sweden and USA. In general, municipal authorities and other private companies in Rwanda, often
collect and dump solid waste, mixed of organic and inorganic materials to the only municipal dump site
located at Nyanza Hill in the outskirts of Kigali City. The exploratory study conducted in Kigali, Rwanda
tested the plausibility of briquetting, composting, incineration, cullet pulverisation, and plasma pyrolysis
systems to handle solid waste. The study surveyed 400 residents of Kigali City for their opinions. Computer
software Web-Hipre was used to analyze public opinions on the five systems to handle solid waste. The
results indicate briquetting as the optimal system to handle solid waste in Kigali City.
Keywords: Composting, Briquetting, Incineration, Cullet pulverisation, Plasma pyrolysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Homesteads and workplaces are, worldwide, crucial for people in their daily activities to meet
their needs. They are thereby producing waste, which includes non-liquid materials thrown away
by the people or companies (Ngoc and Schnitzer, 2009). These materials can be categorised into
two fractions, namely inorganic and organic solid waste (Dimitris and Ham, 2006). Both fractions
may end up at garbage disposal sites. However, there is a need to respect environmental hygiene
at these sites which receive tons of solid waste day after day from various places. Besides,
residents of several developing countries still think too-little about possibilities for developing
waste management systems (Drakenberg, 2008). It considers the framework of industrial ecology,
built with interdisciplinary method, is comprised of plausible subsystems including composting,
briquetting, incineration, cullet pulverisation, and plasma pyrolysis that handle solid waste
(Pongracz et al., 2005). Composting involves the natural break down of organic solid materials into a
component of soil comparable substance called compost (Bertoldi and European Commission, 1996).
Briquetting is about the conversion of organic solid materials, through different processes including
hydraulic pressing, piston and screw pressing, into solid fuel (Demirbas, 2010). Incineration is
about combustion of solid waste into bioenergy for light and heat (Surprenant et al., 1988). Cullet
pulverisation is system used to crush waste glass or cullet into small particles; thereafter are mixed
with asphalt to form glasphalt for construction of road pavements (Alaska Manufacturing Extension
Partnership, 2010). Plasma pyrolysis system destroys plastic waste in the absence of oxygen for
bionergy or other products recovery (Vyas et al., 2011).
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
The study considered composting, briquetting, incineration, cullet pulverisation, and plasma
pyrolysis systems for conversion of solid waste into valuable resources. The tools used to collect
data from the field were observation, interviews, and survey questionnaires of closed and openended questions. These tools helped to obtain field data, and public opinions from 400 participants
consisted of local residents, and key experts and officials. The five systems considered in the survey
include composting, briquetting, incineration, cullet pulverisation, and plasma pyrolysis. Computer
software Web-Hipre helped to analyse public opinions regarding plausible systems to handle solid
waste.
337
3. STUDY RESULTS
Solid wastes dumped at Nyanza site include non biodegradable and biodegradable solid waste. Non
biodegradable consist of plastics, fabrics, glasses, metals and electronic materials. Other inorganic
solid wastes include glasses mainly composed of intact and broken liquor bottles; electronics
consisted of broken parts of radios, TV sets, and computer devices. Solid waste also include little
steel metal scraps consist of small containers for biscuits, tinned foodstuff, and powdered milk.
Biodegradable solid wastes at this site were cardboards, charcoal residues, hedge trimmings, wooden
furniture, and all agro trashes. The two main types of solid waste flow, when they are mixed, at
a high rate to the sole municipal dump site at Nyanza hill. The flow of solid waste, from homes
and workplaces in Kigali City, to Nyanza dump site is partially regulated. This enables certain
companies or individuals to collect waste using substandard techniques. They often use vehicles
not specifically designed to be transporting waste, and ill-equipped staff vulnerable to waste threats.
However, the surveyed respondents considered briquetting as the optimal system to handle solid
waste in Kigali City. Composting was considered suboptimal; incineration, plasma pyrolysis, and
cullet pulverisation systems were not considered. In addition, briquetting can be an easy system to
undertake if biological solid materials are available and local communities are willing to support.
Composting system can be useful if residents have to know waste materials that do not go into the
compost pile
REFERENCES
338
1.
Alaska Manufacturing Extension Partnership., (2010). Potential recycled glass products for manufacturing in Anchorage,
Alaska - USA.
2.
Bertoldi de Marco., European Commission., (1996). The science of composting, 1st ed, Blackie Academic and Professional,
UK.
3.
Demirbas, Ayhan., (2010). Green energy and technology: biorefineries: for biomass upgrading facilities. Springer-verlag
London limited - USA.
4.
Dimitris, P, Komilis., Ham, K, Robert., (2005). Carbon dioxide and ammonia emissions during composting of mixed paper,
yard waste and food waste. Waste Management, 26, 1, 62-70.
5.
Drakenberg, Olof., (2008). Environment and climate change analysis for Rwanda. Project work, University of Gothenburg Sweden.
6.
Ngoc, Nguyen, Uyen., Schnitzer, Hans., (2009). Sustainable solutions for solid waste management in Southeast Asian
countries. Waste Management, 29, 6, 1982–1995.
7.
Pongracz Eva., Phillips S. Paul., Keiski L. Rita., (2003). Evolving the theory of waste management – implications to waste
minimization. Project report, FIN-90014, University of Oulu and University College Northampton - UK.
8.
Surprenant, N., Nunno. T., Kravett. M., Breton. M., (1988). Halogenated-organic containing wastes: treatment technologies.
Noyes Data Corporation, New Jersey - USA.
9.
Vyas, D.S., Dave. B. Urvij., Parekh. B. Hemal., (2012). Plasma pyrolysis: an innovative treatment to solid waste of plastic
material. National conference on recent trends in engineering and technology, Gujarat - India.
Solid Waste
Sources of Organic Wastes to Improve the Fertility of Degraded Soils in
the Republic of Moldova
Leah Tamara
Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection “N. Dimo”
[email protected]
Abstract Are prezented the main sources of local organic wastes to restore fertility of eroded and low
productivity soil of Moldova (plant waste, livestock waste, waste from manufacturing and urban
management, deluvial soils, sludge accumulated in lakes) and their chemical composition and imprtance for
use in agriculture.
Keywords: livestok, local sources, organic waste, soil fertility, vegetal rezidues.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Republic of Moldova all economy sectors take their start in agriculture. Agroindustrial complex
activity is based on exploitation of soil recourses. The soil cover quality on the most agricultural
land is unfavorable, on the part - critical. Continue to expand the land area affected by erosion and
landslides, dehumification processes, damage to structure and compaction, sodium enrichment,
salinization and soil swampy. These degraded processes lead to disruption of biological cycles,
balance of nutrients and humus in the soil, land deterioration and fertility decrease. In this situation
the problem can be solved only by maintaining ecological balance, conservation and protection of
the biosphere, its main component - soil. All agrotechnical, agrochemical, agrobiological measures
are targeted to ensure closed circuit of biofile elements and maintain an equilibrated humus balance.
Restoring and conservation of soil fertility on the agriculture land can be ensured only by returning
in the soil the organic sources of wastes.
2. SOURCES OF THE ORGANıC WASTES
The main local sources of organic matter and substances necessary to plant nutrition consist of plant
residues left on the field after harvesting, organic fertilizers, livestock and various organic wastes
from the processing industry of agricultural raw materials, urban household etc[1].
2.1. Plant resıdues
Plant residues are the most important source quantitatively, but returned in the soil only the half of
used humus to obtain harvests and partial nutrients used by plants. Most of the nutrients become
alienated from the soil with the main production. Straw, irrespective of version to use (as forage or
animal bedding, to produce compost or directly for fertilization) should reach the soil and serve to
remedy the fertility. Annual straw accumulation is 1500 - 2100 thousand tons. About 25% of this
mass is stored as forage reserve, that after the 1-2 years loses its forage properties. The old straw
can still be used during as animal bedding, to produce compost or directly to fertilize soil - 1 tone
of straw can synthesize 200 kg of humus, which is equal to the amount obtained from 2-3 tons of
manure. With the dispersed straw applies 30-40 kg ha-1 nitrogen of active substance in order to
optimize ratio of carbon and nitrogen. As a source of vegetal wastes accumulating on irrigated soil
can serve intercropping in the stubble. As additional culture can often sow corn in dens rows, rape,
peas and vetch mixed with oats or spring barley. These cultures accumulate until the vegetation end
a green aerial mass harvest of 10 t ha-1. The remaining residues from cropping cultures consists 1.5
- 2.0 t ha-1 of dry mass. Plant wastes from intercropping have a high and rapidly fertilizer effect, are
mineralized in 15-20 days. Intercropping have a protective action on loosening soil erosive action of
torrential rains and reduce the intensity of humus mineralization.
2.2. Lıvestock wastes
The cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, goats and horses manure are the most widespread local source of
organic matter and nutrients for soil fertility and crop productivity. The annual volume of organic
339
wastes is 5.5-6.0 mln tonnes. To establish a balanced stock of humus in the soil this volume must
be duplicated. Cattle manure makes up 62% of all animal waste, swine manure -14%, sheep -15%,
horses -8%, poultry -1%. Total annual quantity (5.7 million t) contains 630.000 t of humus, 27.000 t
of nitrogen, 14.000 t of phosphorus and 34.000 t potassium. This potential reported to 1 ha of arable
land ensures the soil of 0.4 t humus, 16 kg nitrogen, 8 kg phosphorus and 20 kg potassium. The
average per hectare of arable soil the application of organic fertilizers decreased from 5-6 t ha-1 to
insignificant amounts -0.02 t/ha nowadays.
2.3. Sludge from urban wastewater treatment
Annual sludge accumulation is about 350-400 thousand tons with 35-55% humidity. Sludge from
urban wastewater treatment content is about the same for organic matter (15-18%) as manure, is 2
times richer in total nitrogen (0.85%) and 3-4.5 times in phosphorus (1.4%), but is 2-3 times as low
in potassium.
2.4. Defecatıon sludge derıved from sugar factorıes
The annual accumulation is over 250-300 tons of sludge defecation. The chemical composition of
sludge defecation depends on the technology applied to sugar beet processing. Sludge obtained after
separate technology is poor in organic matter, but contains much calcium. This sludge is suitable for
calcium soil amendment. Sludge obtained after mixed technology is characterized by more favorable
agrochemical indices: organic matter -3.7-4.7%, nitrogen -0.6 to 0.9%, phosphorus -0.4-0.9%,
potassium -0.2-0.4%.
2.5. Deluvıal soıls
Deluvial soils occupy 100 thousand hectares, are a significant source for restoring productivity of
eroded and low productivity soils. Cumulative reserves of humus varies from 400 to 600-1000 t ha-1,
total nitrogen -0.15 -0.20% in dependence of the thickness of deluvial layer. After total phosphorus
and potassium content the deluvial soils are highly richer 1.5 times than eroded. Deluvial soils are
mostly poorly carbonated; pH value varies within 7.4-7.7. The content of microelements is 1.5 times
higher than in eroded soils, structure and biota condition more favorable. A hectare of deluvial land
can restore fertility of 2 hectares of soil eroded by the method of binding.
2.6. Sludge accumulated ın lakes
The country has over 3500 artificial water storage basins which about 1200 are excessive silt or
deteriorated. In lakes stored huge quantities of silt brought by the flood waters from the surrounding
slopes. Lake sludge is mainly represented by the fertile soil layer affected by erosion. They have
a thickness of 2.5-3.5m, containing 2.5-5.5% humus, are rich in mobile forms of phosphorus and
potassium available to plants.
REFERENCES
1.
340
Andriesh, S., Banaru, A., Filipciuc, M., Tiganoc, V., (2004). Complex program of recovery of degraded lands and increase
soil fertility. Part. II. Enhancing of soil fertility. Pontos, Chisinau, p.30-55.
Solid Waste
Solid Waste Management in India
Suresh Gholse
Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj,Nagpur University,Nagpur, India.
[email protected]
Abstract Waste is any material that is not needed by the owner, producer or processor.Humans,animals, other
organisms,and all processes ofproduction and consumption produce waste.It has always been a part of the
Earth ecosystem,but its nature and scale were such that the ecosystem could use the waste in its many cycles.
In fact ,there is no real waste in nature.The apparent waste from one process becomes an input in another.
Most disposable wastes are in the form of solids, liquids,or slurries. The main categories of such wastes are:
Domestic waste, Factory waste, Oil industry waste, Construction waste, Mining industry waste, Agriculture
waste, Food processing waste, H azardous waste, Nuclear waste, Biomedical waste and E-wasteThe last four
needs special attention for their treatment and disposal.
Keywords: Solid Waste,Treatment,Management,Indian Scenario.
1. HOW ARE WASTES MANAGED?
In industrialised countries, household waste is separated into two main categories i.e. biodegradable
(organic) and non-biodegradable (paper,glass,metals,containers etc.) materials. This separation
is often done in homes by using different bins for the disposal of different items. In developing
countries, waste is not separated, though some cities are trying to persuade the public to separate
waste. The simplest and most common method used in the cities is to collect and dump the waste
in a landfill. These landfills are located just outside the city. There are now thousands of landfills in
the world with huge piles of waste. In industrialised countries, you can also see separate mountains
of used carnd tyres. Many countries and cities have run out of space for landfills. In the poorer
countries, rag pickers sift through the waste, collect the reusable and recyclable material and sell it to
the scrap traders. They, in turn, take the material to the recycling units. The rag pickers the majority
of whom are women and children work in extremely unhygienic conditions and yet provide a great
ecological serviceby manually separating thousands of tons of recyclable waste from the garbage
dumps. Often, the waste in a landfill is burnt. While this reduces the volume of garbage, it releases
deadly dioximes into the atmosphere. Proper incineration of waste needs modern technology and
proper management. With increasing amounts of waste being generated, its management is becoming
difficult and expensive. Industrialised countries have found an easier and less expensive method of
exporting the waste to other countries.
2.WASTE GENERATION, TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
These aspects are discussed in this paper with reference to following points...
2.1. Major polluting industries of India
2.2. Common effluent treatment plants
2.3. Municiple solid waste handled in Indian cities and towns
2.4. 3-R Concept
2.5. Recycling of solid waste
2.6. Integrated waste management hierarchy
Some useful tables including relevant data in Indian context are also presented in the paper and
discussed to give status of solid waste management in India. They are enlisted as...
2.1.1. Biggest rubbish producer countries
2.1.2. Percentage of household solid waste in different countries
2.1.3. Average composition of solid waste in India
341
2.1.4. How much time to rot different biodegradable items
2.1.5. Recyclable and Reusable items
2.1.6. A look at recyclable process for for some items like glass,plastic,aluminium,paper
2.1.7. Reuse and Recycling options adopted by Indian industry sectors for industrial solid waste
(fly ash, steel and blast furnace slag, fertilizer ind sugar ind, paper ind aluminium ind, sugar ind and
tanneries)
2.1.8. Waste minimisation technique flow chart
3. CASE STUDIES
Two case studies about solid waste management carried out in India are also discussed in brief
3.1. Ralegao Siddhi, Maharashtra State
3.2. Surat, Gujarat State
Some pictures are also given related to collection , segregation treatment and disposal of solid waste
in India.
Finally general guidelines to common man about what can you do to reduce solid waste for clean
environment are given.
REFERENCES
Following internet sites are referred;
www.mpcb.mah.nic.in
www.envfor.nic.in/cpcb
www.cpcb.delhi.nic.in
www.environment.about.com
www.edugreen.teri.res.in
www.mcgm.gov.in
www.epa.org
342
Solid Waste
Bioidentification of Xenobiotics as a Part of Wastewater Control
Valerii D. Tonkopii
Institute of Limnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Sevastyanova str., 9, 196105, St.Petersburg, Russia
[email protected]
Abstract We have been developing non-traditional methods of the identification of pollutants, using
various hydrobionts as biological objects and the study of the mechanism of toxic action of xenobiotics. The
experiments were carried out with using of Daphnia magna. Daphnia magna is a Crustacean in the order of
Cladocera. This aquatic animal extensively used as a test organism in aquatic toxicology due to their small
size, short life cycle and amenability to lab culture. Daphnia magna is the most sensitive test-object in relation
of different pollutants among all known biological objects including experimental animals. Experiments were
performed with a 2-days old culture of Daphnia magna. The toxicity of xenobiotics was determined by the
value of LC50, a concentration of the compounds causing death to 50% of hydrobionts during incubation with
toxicants for 24 hours. In the first stage of the work, toxicity of organophosphates (Dipterex, DFP, DDVP,
Paraoxon, Malathion, Malaoxon), heavy metals ions (Hg, Pb, Cu, Co, Cd, Cr, As, Al), organochlorines
(Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Aroclor, DDT, Lindane, PCBs etc.), and pyrethroids (Cypermethrin, Fenvalerate,
Deltamethrin, Permethrin, Allethrin, Resmethrin, Phenothrin, Kadethrin, Cyphenothrin) was determined. The
effects of a number of antagonists on the toxicity of xenobiotics were studied. At the first time we discovered
that in experiments to Daphnia magna some muscarinic cholinoreceptor blockers (atropine, amyzil etc.)
reduced a toxic the effect of organophosphates. In the case of heavy metals the chelating agents (EDTA,
Dithioethylcarbamate, Unithiolum, Sodium thiosulphuricum, L-Aspartic acid) were effective, for certain
organochlorine poisonings - anticonvulsive drugs (diazepam, phenobarbital), In the case of pyrethroid’s
poisonings the antagonists of glutamate receptor (ketamine), DOPA receptors (haloperidole) and blocker of
calcium channel (nimodipine) reduced the toxicity of xenobiotics. As far as these antidotes have a specific
treatment action only against definite classes of pollutants, we have elaborated the sensitive express-methods
of bioidentification of pollutants.
Keywords: Daphnia magna, alternatives, xenobiotics, bioidentification.
1. INTRODUCTION
With a constant growth of the anthropogenic pressure on water bodies the development and usage
of bioindication methods supplementing physical and chemical methods of xenobiotic identification
acquires especial significance. In view of the fact that chemical analysis require special equipments,
they are expensive to perform and do not allow to evaluate the environmental toxicity, during the
recent decade large scale investigations have been performed to study various test-objects that are
suitable for bioassay. At present biotesting plays an important role in the system of water quality
control. On the currently used methods of bioassay provide only the integral evaluation of the
pollutants effect but not the determination of the xenobiotics a origin[1]. We have been developing
non traditional method for determination of different classes of pollutants using various hydrobionts
as biological test-objects and our knowledges of the mechanism of toxic action of xenobiotics.
Knowing the mechanisms of the specific toxic action of poisons, it is possible to use various
pharmacological compounds to decrease or increase the effects of toxicants. This approach allows
us to use biological objects to identify certain xenobiotics, poisoning from which can be prevented
by means of poisoning’s antagonists. All above mentioned methods are widely used when
employing experimental animals (mice, rats) as test-objects, but it has not been developed at all
for alternative biological objects, particularly for hydrobionts. The elaboration of a new methods
of bioidentification was founded on the study of Cholin-, GABA-, Dopamin- and Glutamateergic system of Daphnia magna and usage of pharmacological antagonists of xenobiotics. Such
new pharmacological approach with usage of Daphnia magna as bioobject have made possible to
perform the general identification of different classes of the most toxic for aquatic ecosystem health
xenobiotics (organophosphates, carbamates, heavy metals, organochlorines, pyrethroids) without
usage of chemical analysis.
343
The experiments were carried out with using of Daphnia magna. Daphnia magna is a Crustacean
in the order of Cladocera. This aquatic animal extensively used as a test organism in aquatic
toxicology due to their small size, short life cycle and amenability to lab culture. Daphnia magna
is the most sensitive test-object in relation of different pollutants (organophosphates, heavy metals,
organochlorines, pyrethroids etc.) among all known biological objects including experimental
animals[2]. Experiments were performed with a 2-days old culture of Daphnia magna. During the
experiments, hydrobionts were placed in beakers with 25 ml of dechlorinated settled tap water at
18-20°C. The toxicity of xenobiotics was determined by the value of LC50, a concentration of the
compounds causing death to 50% of hydrobionts during incubation with toxicants for 24 hours. In
the first stage of the work, toxicity of organophosphates and carbamates (Dipterex, DFP, DDVP,
Paraoxon, Malathion, Malaoxon, Aminostigmine, Physostigmine, Sevine), heavy metals (Hg, Pb,
Cu, Co, Cd, Cr, As, Al), organochlorines (Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Aroclor, DDT, Lindane, PCBs
etc.) and pyrethroids (Cypermethrin, Fenvalerate, Deltamethrin, Permethrin, Allethrin, Resmethrin,
Phenothrin, Kadethrin, Cyphenothrin) was determined. The effects of a number of poisons
antagonists on the toxicity of xenobiotics were studied. Xenobiotics and their antagonists were added
to the incubation mixture simultaneously. The results of the protection experiments are expressed as
the protective coefficient (PC) - the ratio of LC50 value in treated and in untreated daphnids.
3. RESULTS
On the base of study of mechanism of xenobiotics action to Daphnia magna and the usage of
pharmacological antagonists of poisonings the new methods of bioidentification of different
pollutants were elaborated. At the first time we discovered that in experiments to Daphnia magna
some muscarinic cholinoreceptor blockers (atropine, glipine, pediphen etc.) reduced a toxic the
effect of organophosphates and carbamates. In the case of heavy metals the chelating agents (EDTA,
Dithioethylcarbamate, Unithiolum, Sodium thiosulphuricum, L-Aspartic acid) were effective, for
certain organochlorine poisonings - anticonvulsive drugs phenazepam, phenobarbital. In the case
of pyrethroid’s poisonings the antagonists of glutamate receptors (ketamine), DOPA receptors
(haloperidole) and blockers of calcium channel (nimodipine) reduced the toxicity of xenobiotics.
As far as these antidotes have a specific treatment action only against definite classes of pollutants,
we have elaborated the sensitive express-methods of bioidentification of pollutants. Such new
pharmacological approach with use of hydrobionts as test-objects have made possible to perform the
general identification of different classes of xenobiotics in fresh water.
4. CONCLUSIONS
We have been developing non-traditional express-method of the identification of pollutants/
organophosphates, carbamates, organochlorines, heavy metals and pyrethroids using Daphnia magna
as biological object and the study of the mechanism of toxic action of xenobiotics. The new method
was proposed for water pollution control.
REFERENCES
344
1.
Flerov, B., (1989),Ecological and physiological aspects of toxicology of aquatic animals, 205, Nauka, Leningrad.
2.
Peters, R. and De Bernardi, R. (1987) Daphnia, 399, Verbania, Pallanza.
Solid Waste
Automatic Sorting of Mixed C&DW Recycled Aggregates by NearInfrared Technology
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Schnellert, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Horst-Michael Ludwig, Dr.-Ing. Elske Linß
Bauhaus University Weimar
[email protected]
Abstract The use of automatically sorting technique, to separate construction and demolition waste
(C&DW), is motivated by environmental and economical aspects.
Construction and demolition waste (C&DW) is a mixture of different materials. Such mixtures can be
used only in low grade applications. If the material is used as certified material for road construction or as
aggregate in concrete the concrete particles must be separated from the other building materials.
With present state of the technology the resulting mixtures by the demolition of concrete, lightweight
concrete, lime sandstone, aerated concrete and brick stone cannot be separated kinds-purely. With the NIRtechnology these building materials are calibrated with measuring conditions and measure technology. So
this is a possibility to separate the crushed materials and to create high-quality recycled products, since with
conventional separation processes an assortment of these building materials is to be done only very difficult.
The NIR measurement is characterised by high sample throughput, simple handling in the laboratory,
simultaneous determination of several parameters, good integrableness into the process and by a high saving
potential. The spectra can be measured within the NIR range with extraordinarily high precision without
destruction, which is to be owed to the temporally steady sources of light and sensors. The permeability of
glass for the NIR light is just as favourable. This permits the use of bearing surfaces, which are not located
in the direct contact with the measuring head. In summary it can be said that in approaching infrared range
spectra of building materials can be evaluated.
This paper aims at analyzing the separation of C&DW by using the NIR sorting technique.
Keywords: Automatic Sorting, Construction & Demolition Waste, Recycled Aggregates.
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete and Demolition Waste (CDW) are the biggest wasteflow in Germany. Corresponding to
the “Statistisches Bundesamt” there are 72,1 Mio t CDW in the year 2004. The recycling rate of
this CDW amounts to 70% (49,6 Mio.T). Certainly the recycling rate depends on the composition
of material and differents with the heterogeneity (Figure 1). It can be observe a significant decrease
in the recycling rate with increasing heterogeneity of the recycled material. For recycled masonry
aggregate (RMA) and recycled mixed aggregates (RXA) can be found the lowest recycling rates
because of the high heterogeneity and the minerally admixtures, so that the rececyling rate ist low
and the reuse is very difficult.
The main point „sensorbased spectral sorting method“ implies the development of an automatically
pick-out-method for the sorting of main- and choosed by-components of CDW. However different
in the technical types the sensorbased sorting machines with conveyer consisted always of the
following assemblies:
• Conveyer on which lies the isolated to separated material
• Sensor with signal transmitters and detector
• Software for fast processing of the sensor information
• Compressed air unit for the transfer of identified particles.
The method should allow the separation of a granular bulk material consisting of brick, sand- limebrick, lightweight concrete, aerated concrete, gypsum, mortar and plasters and wood in his singlecomponents. As results are expected statements to:
345
• the optical identification attributes and the suitable imaging technology,
• the range of the attributes,
• the practical algorithm for the interprating of signal,
• the robustness of identification in relation to pollutions and other influences,
• the limited particle size to which the method can be used,
• the effectivity and the detection rate of the method.
Picture 1: Demonstration machine
Figure 1. Demonstration machine
1.1. Realızatıon of the experıments
The picture shows first application to get some Infrared spectra. In the analyze experiments the
material 4/8 mm and 8/16 mm was tested. The prepared material was put on the Near-infraredspectrometer.
Figure 2 and 3. Near-infrared-spectrometer
REFERENCES
346
1.
Der Bedarf an mineralischen Baustoffen. Bundesverband Baustoff Steine+Erden e.V. (Frankfurt, 2000)in German.
2.
M. Arendt, “Kreislaufwirtschaft im Baubereich-Steuerung zukünftiger Stoffströme am Beispiel von Gips” PhD thesis
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH (Karlsruhe 2001) in German.
3.
S. C. Angulo et al., “Criteria for C&D waste classification in sorting and recycling plants in Macae city” (Paper presented at
XXII ENTMME, Brazil, 2007) in Portuguese.
4.
Annual Reports of DGfM http://www.dgfm.de/
5.
E. Rathje, D. Trejo, K. Folliard, “Potential Use of Crushed Concrete and Recycled Asphalt” CENTER FOR
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH, THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN (Austin March 2006).
6.
Deutsche Institut fur Normung (DIN), DIN 4226-100: Aggregates for mortar and concrete: part 100: recycled aggregates
(Germany, 2005).
7.
Technical Rules of German Road and Transportation Research Association: Technische Lieferbedingungen für
Gesteinskörnungen im Straßenbau TL Gestein-StB 04; Ausgabe 2007, FGSV-Nr. 613.
8.
T.P.R. de Jong et al., “Dry density separation of mixed construction and demolition waste” (Paper presented at RecSortie
Kolloquium, Berlin, 2005).
9.
E. Mulder et al., “Closed Cycle Construction: An integrated process for the separation and reuse of C&D Waste”, Waste
Management, 10 (2007), 1408-1415.
Solid Waste
Feasibility Study Sustainable Material and Energy Recovery from
Landfills in Europe
Willem van Vossen
Royal HaskoningDHV
[email protected]
Abstract The ultimate ambition is a world without waste, which is the ideal situation according to the
principle of Cradle to Cradle®. From that perspective and taking into account the scarcity of raw materials,
it can be justified to examine the added value of recycling our ‘historical’ waste from landfills all over Europe
in the last 50 years. Europe counts over a 150,000 landfills, representing a total volume of 30 to 50 billion
m3 of waste. This study focuses on the technical and financial feasibility of landfill mining. The results
show that separation techniques are available and are proved in practice. Therefore it can be stated that
landfill mining is technically feasible. The cost reduction thanks to the benefits of only metal recovery can be
considered as significant. Nevertheless a huge deficit remains to be covered by additional benefits to make
a landfill mining project a profitable one. Benefits such as re-using the freed landfill capacity as new landfill
or re-using the landfill area for urban development can make landfill mining more profitable. Acquiring
these additional benefits strongly depends upon specific local conditions. These additional benefits might
compensate the total costs and might generate a return on investment up to 20%.
1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
The ultimate ambition is a world without waste, which is the ideal situation according to the principle
of Cradle to Cradle®. In the meantime a transition-process is currently taking place from traditional
waste management (recycling, incineration, landfilling) to sustainable material management. During
this transitional process, and taking into account the approaching scarcity of raw materials and
precious metals, we should try to manage our waste as sustainable as possible.
From this perspective it also can be justified to examine the added value of recycling our ‘historical’
waste, which has been landfilled all over Europe in the last 50 years. In the 27 EU-member states
40% of all MSW is still landfilled. Europe counts over 150,000 landfills, which represents an
estimated total volume of 30 to 50 billion m3 of waste. This huge quantity of waste also represents a
huge potential of materials to be recovered.
Of course a profitable exploitation of resource recovery and/or energy recovery from landfills
depends on a lot of factors, which varies per EU-country. Nevertheless, in times of climate change
and an approaching shortage of raw materials, it is an opportunity to deal with our existing landfills
in the framework of resource recovery and chain management.
The final objective is to examine the technical and financial feasibility and viability of material
recovery from European landfills. This is to be based upon an extensive inventory of the number
of landfills, volumes and composition of landfilled waste, recyclable waste streams and costs and
benefits.
2. LANDFILL MINING AND SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTS
Landfill mining can result in the following sustainable products:
• recycled raw materials and precious metals from ‘historical waste’;
• recycled raw materials and precious metals in the long term from stored waste not yet recyclable;
• a reduction of methane emissions at present landfills by means of sustainable aftercare;
• energy recovery from additional biogas due to sustainable aftercare at present landfills;
• energy recovery by incineration of energy sources, mined from old landfills;
• a clean-up of old landfills (no environmental hazards, no costs of aftercare anymore);
• re-use and redevelopment of former landfill sites into residential and industrial area;
• no burden to next generations due to the unsolved environmental problem of old landfills.
347
3. RESULTS
3.1. Waste composıtıon and waste separatıon
From 60 landfill mining projects found in relevant literature, the average waste composition was
calculated. The result is presented in figure 1 and shows the various waste streams in percentages,
including the soil fraction. The “soil” fraction is clearly the largest.
Figure 1. Average waste composition of the standard landfill
In order to be able to separate the waste as completely as possible, the following sequential separation
steps are considered. Handpicking, shredder, drum sieve, magnet, drum separator, eddy current and
air knife. The waste remaining after complete separation is re-landfilled and/or incinerated.
3.2. Fınancıal analysıs (costs and benefıts)
Financial calculations were executed for 2 scenarios A and B. The main differences between these
the scenarios are re-landfilling of the huge soil fraction (A) or not (B) and benefits from metals only
(A) or benefits from metals, plastics, stones and construction & demolition waste all together (B).
Table 1 shows a huge deficit remains, which means that a standalone landfill mining project is not
profitable from a financial point of view.
Scenario
Total costs (excavation,
transport and separation)
Benefits from
recovered materials
Reduction
on costs
Cost minus
benefits
A
€14 milion
€2.6 million
18.6%
€11.4 million
B
€14 million
€3.1 million
22.1%
€10.9 million
Table 1. Cost- benefit analysis scenarios A an B
Additional benefits such as re-using the freed landfill capacity as a new landfill (€ 50/ton) or re-using
the landfill area for urban development (€ 250/m2) can make landfill mining profitable (table 2).
Scenario A: reuse freed landfill
capacity
Costs-benefits
Ton
€ 50/ton
Benefit
land-reuse
€ 250/m2
11.4
156,145
7.8
12.5
Scenario B: reuse freed landfill
capacity
Costs-benefits
Ton
€ 50/ton
10.9
430,105
21.5
6
Table 2. Compensation by freed landfill capacity or land re-use (in € x 10 )
348
Solid Waste
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Techniques which are able to separate the excavated waste into all kinds of waste streams to be
recovered are available and proved in practice. Therefore it can be stated that landfill mining is
technically feasible.
A relative small amount of metals to be recovered (2.5 volume %) is responsible for a significant
cost reduction on landfill mining costs of ≈ 20%. Maybe this cost reduction percentage might be
increase to 30 or 40% by future rise of prices of materials due to the scarcity of raw materials.
Nevertheless a huge deficit remains to be covered by additional benefits to make a landfill mining
project a profitable one. Acquiring additional benefits by re-using the freed landfill capacity for
landfilling again or re-using the landfill area for urban development, might generate a return on
investment of 10 to 50%. From this point of view it can be concluded that a landfill mining will be
profitable.
349
Valuing of Olive Pomace as an Adsorbent
Sibel Aslan, E. Işıl Arslan Topal, Murat Topal
University of Fırat, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract In this study, olive pomace that is a waste generated during olive oil production was examined
as an adsorbent for removal of copper. The adsorbent was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared
(FTIR) Spectroscopy. Batch experiments were performed to investigate effects of parameters as effect of
pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time and initial copper concentration on adsorption of copper from aqueous
solution onto olive pomace. It was observed that the copper removal was significantly depended on pH,
and the copper removal percentages increased when initial pH was increased. Maximum copper removal
percentages were obtained at pH of 7, 120 min contact time, 0.5 g L-1 adsorbent dosage and 150 mg L-1
initial copper concentration. Adsorption isotherm model was obtained at temperatures of 30 and 35oC and
equilibrium data fitted the linear Langmuir isotherm. The results obtained from this study indicate that olive
pomace is an economical and effective adsorbent for the removal of copper from waters.
Keywords: Olive Pomace; Adsorption; Adsorption Isotherms; Copper; Waste.
1. INTRODUCTION
Heavy metals are highly recalcitrant elements with a high potential to pollute water resources that
can be accumulated and concentrated in living tissues along the food chain[1]. Although copper
is essential substance to human life, its excessive concentrations can cause anemia, weakness,
lethargy and anorexia, liver and kidney damage, hemolysis, stomach and intestinal irritation, and
fewer with influenza syndrome[2, 3, 4]. Copper is also toxic to fish like even when its content is in low
amounts in natural waters[5]. Therefore, it is necessary to treat copper loaded wastewaters before
discharge into aquatic systems. There are various methods for the removal of heavy metal ions from
wastewater which include chemical precipitation/coagulation, chemical oxidation and reduction,
electrochemical treatment, ion exchange, membrane technology, solvent extraction and adsorption[3,
4, 5]
. Amongst the treatment processes, adsorption is one of the most popular and effective processes
for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater. The term “olive pomace” stands for the solid
residue remaining after solvent extraction from the cold-pressed olives[6]. The regarding studies
usage of olive oil processing wastes for adsorption of copper are limited in the literature. Vegliò et al.
(2003) studied the adsorption of copper on olive mill residues[7]. Pagnanelli et al. (2003) examined
Pb, Cu, Cd biosorption onto native and treated olive pomace[8]. Pagnanelli et al. (2005) examined Cu
and Cd biosorption onto treated olive pomace[9]. Fiol et al. (2006) studied sorption of Pb(II), Ni(II),
Cu(II) and Cd(II) from aqueous solution by olive stone waste[10]. Baccar et al. (2009) examined the
use of olive-waste cakes, a by-product of the manufacture process of olive oil in mills, as a potential
feedstock for the preparation of activated carbon[11].
Studies concerning to adsorption of heavy metals by using olive pomace are still rare in the literature.
To our knowledge this study is one of the few studies examining the ability of raw olive pomace to
adsorb Cu(II). In this study, it was investigated the effect of pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time and
initial Cu (II) concentration on adsorption of copper onto olive pomace were examined.
2.1. MaterIal
The olive pomace used in the present study was supplied from one of the olive oil production
facilities in Turkey. The olive pomace was dried at 105oC for 24 hours and ground in a coffee mill
after it was homogenised in a blender and then ground to pass through a 60 mesh sieve for analyses.
The stock solution of Cu(II) (1000 ppm) was prepared by dissolving CuCl2 in distilled water. The
zero point charge pHZPC of the adsorbent was determined using solid addition method[12].
350
Solid Waste
2.2. Analytıcal Methods
An ATI UNICAM Model 929 flame atomic absorbtion spectrophotometer equipped with ATI
UNICAM hollow cathode lamp was used for the heavy metal determinations. pH measurements were
done by Orion SA 720 pH meter. The specific surface area of olive pomace sample was determined
using the multipoint BET method (N2 adsorption-desorption at 77.40 K) with a Quantachrome
AUTOSORB-1. FTIR spectrum was recorded by a Perkin Elmer Spectrum one in the range 4504000 cm-1.
3. RESULTS
• The optimum pH was 7 with a copper removal of 93.2%.
• The optimum olive pomace dosage was 0.5 g L-1 with a copper removal of 98.24%.
• The optimum contact time was 120 min with copper removal of 98.8%.
• The optimum initial concentration of Cu+2 was 150 mg L-1 with a removal of 99.78%.
• Langmuir isotherm model was fitted our results.
• Adsorption was favourable according to the RL values those obtained from the study.
• The olive pomace is an efficient adsorbent for adsorption of copper.
REFERENCES
1.
Mata, Y.N., Blázquez, M.L., Ballester, A., González, F., Muñoz, J.A., (2009). Sugar-beet pulp pectin gels as biosorbent for
heavy metals: Preparation and determination of biosorption and desorption characteristics, Chem. Eng. Journal, 150(2–3),
289–301
2.
Kabra, K., Chaudhary, R., Sawhney, R. L., (2008). Solar photocatalytic removal of Cu(II), Ni(II), Zn(II) and Pb(II):
speciation modeling of metal–citric acid complexes, J. Hazard. Mater. 155, 424-432
3.
O’Connell, D. W., Birkinshaw, C., O’Dwyer, T. F., (2008), Heavy metal adsorbents prepared from the modification of
cellulose: a review-Review, Bioresour. Technol. 99, 6709-6724
4.Özsoy, H. D., Kumbur, H., Saha, B., van Leeuwen, J. H., (2008). Use of rhizopus oligosporus produced from food processing
wastewater as a biosorbent for Cu(II) ions removal from the aqueous solutions, Bioresour. Technol. 99, 4943-4948
5.
Bouzid, J., Elouear, Z., Ksibi, M., Feki, M., Montiel, A., (2008). A study on removal characteristics of copper from aqueous
solution by sewage sludge and pomace ashes, J. Hazard. Mater. 152, 838-845.
6.
Tekin, A.R., Dalgıc, A.C., (2000). Biogas production from olive pomace, Resour., Conserv. Recycling 30(4), 301–313
7.
Vegliò, F., Beolchini, F., Prisciandaro, M., (2003). Sorption of copper by olive mill residues, Water Res. 37(20), 4895–4903
8.
Pagnanelli, F., Mainelli, S., Vegliò, F., Toro, L., (2003). Heavy metal removal by olive pomace: biosorbent charaterisation
and equilibrium modeling, Chem. Eng. Sci. 58, 4709–4717
9.
Pagnanelli, F., Mainelli, S., De Angelis, Pagnanelli, F., Mainelli, S., Toro, L., (2005). Biosorption of protons and heavy
metals onto olive pomace: modelling of competition effects, Water Res. 39(8), 1639–1651
10. Fiol, N., Villaescusa, I., Martínez, M., Miralles, N., Poch, J., Serarols, J., (2006). Sorption of Pb(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II)
from aqueous solution by olive stone waste, Sep. Purif. Technol. 50(1), 132–140
11. Baccar, R., Bouzid, J., Feki, M., Montiel, A., (2009). Preparation of activated carbon from Tunisian olive-waste cakes and its
application for adsorption of heavy metal ions, J. Hazard. Mater., 162(2-3), 1522–1529
12. Li, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, C., Wang, L., Zhang, B., (2008). Biosorption of methylene blue from aqueous solution by softstem
bulrush (Scirpus Tabernaemontani Gmel.), J. Chem. Technol. Biot. 83, 1639-1647
351
Rheological Properties of Bituminous Binder Modified with Textile
Wastes Liquefied by Pyrolysis Method
Osman Nuri ÇELİK1, Neslihan ATASAĞUN1, Mehmet Ali LORASOKKAY2
Selcuk University, Civil Engineering Department, Konya, Turkey
Selcuk University, Higher School of Vocational and Tech. Sci., Konya, Turkey
1
2
Abstract The amount of solid waste in our country has been increasing in parallel with population growth.
This increase in the amount of solid waste leads to important environmental problems. Therefore, recycling
of this waste which is increasing day by day is very important.
In this study, it has been aimed to modify bitumen by adding textile wastes liquefied by pyrolysis method
and to examine the effect of this additive on the rheological properties of bitumen.
Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation in which liquid, solid and gas products are obtained through heating
the raw material to high temperatures in oxygen free environment. Distillation test was performed on the
liquefied textile wastes obtained from the pyrolysis method. Then, the residue obtained after the distillation
of the pyrolysis liquid was used for bitumen modification. By this means, it is aimed to investigate the effects
of this textile wastes on the rheological properties of bitumen. Furthermore, it is thought that using of textile
wastes in this way will make good contribution to the environmental health and to the economy.
Keywords: wastes, environment, recycling, pyrolysis, modification.
352
Solid Waste
Improvement of Agricultural Soil by Microbial Carbonated Organi

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