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MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT
NATIONAL STATE OF ENVIRONMENT 2007
VIETNAM URBAN AIR
ENVIRONMENT
HANOI, 2007
LIST OF AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2007
“URBAN AIR ENVIRONMENT”
Steering panel:
Dr. Pham Khoi Nguyen, Minister, Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment
Dr. Nguyen Cong Thanh, Vice Minister, Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment
Dr. Tran Hong Ha, Director General, Vietnam Environment Protection Agency
Msc. Phung Van Vui, Deputy Director General, Vietnam Environment Protection
Agency
Msc. Nguyen Hoa Binh, Deputy Director General, Vietnam Environment Protection
Agency
Secretariat:
Dr. Hoang Duong Tung, Eng. Nguyen Van Thuy, Msc. Le Hoang Anh,
Bsc. Nguyen Thi Nguyet Anh, Eng. Pham Quang Hieu, Bsc. Mac Thi Minh Tra,
Msc. Luong Hoang Tung – Vietnam Environment Protection Agency
Group of authors:
Msc. Duong Thanh An, Msc. Tran Thi Le Anh, Msc. Le Thanh Binh, Msc. Vu Dinh
Hieu, Dr. Tran The Loan, Dr. Dang Van Loi, Msc. Nguyen Thien Phuong, Bsc.
Nguyen Cong Quang, Msc. Hoang Minh Son, Eng. Do Thanh Thuy, Dr. Hoang
Van Thuc, Eng. Duong Thi To - Vietnam Environment Protection Agency.
Msc. Trinh Dinh Binh, Prof. Dr. Hoang Xuan Co, Dr. Mai Thanh Dung, Dr. Nghiem
Trung Dung, Msc. Hoang Minh Dao, Prof. Dr. Pham Ngoc Dang, Msc. Le Minh
Duc, Prof. Dr. Pham Ngoc Ho, Msc. Vu Xuan Nguyet Hong, Prof. Dr. Pham Duy
Hien, Prof. Dr. Nguyen Dac Hy, Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Sinh, Eng. Thai Minh Son, Dr.
Duong Hong Son, Dr. Phung Chi Sy, Dr. Tran Thuc, Prof. Dr. Nguyen Dinh Tuan,
Eng. Cao Xuan Vinh
Contributors:
Departments of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Industry and Commerce, Ministry of
Construction, Ministry of Planning and Investment, Ministry of Health, General
Statistics Office
Provincial Departments of Natural Resources and Environment: Hanoi, Hai Phong,
Quang Ninh, Phu Tho, Thai Nguyen, Thua Thien – Hue, Da Nang, Khanh Hoa,
Dong Nai, Ho Chi Minh City
International organisations:
PCDA: Miles Burton, Lenart Emborg.
SVCAP: Michael Baechlin, Connie Huizenga, May Ajero, Phan Quynh Nhu
National state of Environment 2007 Vietnam Urban Air Environment
iii
Figure 0.1. Places with clean air
Source: Xuan Lieu
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
List of Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
List of Boxs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
CHAPTER 1
NATURAL AND SOCIAL-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND IMPACTS ON
VIETNAM AIR ENVIRONMENT
1.1.
Natural conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1. Climate - An important factor influencing the air environment . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2. Forest and urban vegetation and their impacts on the air environment . . 5
1.2
Social - economic condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1. Economic growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
1.2.2. Urban areas and urbanisation of the country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3. Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
1.2.4. Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
1.2.4.1. Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
1.2.4.2. Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
1.2.4.3. Other industry activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.2.5. Construction activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
v
CHAPTER 2
SOURCES OF URBAN AIR POLLUTION
2.1.
Major sources of urban air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
2.1.1. Emissions of air pollutants by sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
2.1.2. Emissions of air pollutants from road transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
2.1.3. Emissions of air pollutants from industrial processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
2.1.3.1. Emissions of air pollutants from industrial processes . . . . . . . . . .22
2.1.3.2. Emissions of air pollutants from mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
2.1.4. Emissions of dust from construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.1.5. Emissions of air pollutants from domestic activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.2.
Forecast of future emissions of air pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.2.1.
Forecast of emissions of air pollutants in Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.2.1.1. Forecast of emissions of air pollutants from road transportation . .25
2.2.1.2. Forecast of emissions of air pollutants from industrial processes . .26
2.2.1.3. Forecast of emissions of air pollutants from domestic activities . . .27
2.2.2. Forecast of emissions of air pollutants in Ho Chi Minh city. . . . . . . . . . .28
2.2.2.1. Forecast of emissions of air pollutants from road transportation . .28
2.2.2.2. Forecast of emissions of air pollutants from industrial processes . .28
2.2.2.3. Forecast of emissions of air pollutants from domestic activities . . .29
2.3.
Emissions of greenhouse gases in Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
CHAPTER 3
AIR QUALITY IN URBAN AREAS
3.1.
Air quality at urban areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.1.1. Pollution with Suspended Particulates – An Outstanding
Urban Air Quality Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.1.1.1. PM10 - An issue of concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.1.1.2. Total Suspended Particulates - A concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.1.2. Toxic Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
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Vietnam Urban Air Environment National state of Environment 2007
3.1.2.1. NO2 - Pollution levels increase along urban traffic routes . . . . . . .40
3.1.2.2. SO2 and CO - Within Permitted Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
3.1.2.3. Lead - Increasing in recent years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
3.1.2.4. Benzene, Toluene and Xylene - Increasing along traffic routes . . . .44
3.1.3. Noise Pollution - Increasing Along Traffic Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
3.2.
Some essential variations in Urban Air Quality in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city . . 47
3.2.1. Some essential variations in the air quality in Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
3.2.2. Some essential variations in the air quality in Ho Chi Minh city . . . . . .49
CHAPTER 4
IMPACTS OF URBAN AIR POLLUTION
4.1.
Impacts on public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
4.2.
Impacts on economic development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.3.
Air pollution and climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
CHAPTER 5
ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN
URBAN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
5.1.
Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
5.1.1. Phasing out of leaded gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
5.1.2. Reduction of emissions to the air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
5.1.3. Control of dust from construction sites and from transportation of materials . .67
5.1.4. Resolute handling of establishments causing severe pollution . . . . . . . . .67
5.1.5. Phasing out vehicles technically inadmissible for use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
5.1.6. Implementation of priority programmes for improving
urban air quality in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.1.7. Compulsery application of Vietnam‘s standards on air quality. . . . . . . . .69
5.1.8. Urban air quality monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
vii
5.1.9. Strengthening international cooperation on air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
5.2.
Shortcomings and Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
5.2.1. Unclear organisation and unclear assignment of responsibilities and tasks
within air quality management authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
5.2.2. Insufficient legislation on urban air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
5.2.3. Lack of an air quality management plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
5.2.4. Insufficient capabilities regarding monitoring of air quality and
air emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
5.2.5. Insufficient investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
5.2.6. Insufficient research and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
5.2.7. Limited public participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
CHAPTER 6
URBAN AIR ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION MEASURES
6.1.
Improving roles, responsibilities and structures of urban air environment
management authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
6.1.1. Improving structures of urban air environment management authorities .79
6.1.2. Establishing information mechanisms on urban air quality . . . . . . . . . . .80
6.1.3. Strengthening capacities of implementing agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
6.2.
Improving legislation and policies on urban air quality protection . . . . . . . . . .80
6.2.1. Continue to improve legislation and policy making framework . . . . . . .80
6.2.2. Developing Law on clean air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
6.2.3. Reviewing and improving national standards on air quality . . . . . . . . . .81
6.2.4. Developing regulations on urban air quality protection . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
6.3.
Developing air quality management plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
6.3.1. Developing a national air quality management plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
6.3.2. Developing air quality management plans
for Ha Noi, Ho Chi Minh city and other big urban areas . . . . . . . . . . . .81
6.4.
viii
More financial resources and investments
for air quality management purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
6.4.1. Budget improvements for air quality management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
6.5.
Promoting urban air quality control, monitoring and emission inventories . . . .82
6.5.1. Establishing air quality monitoring network and emission inventory . . 82
6.5.2. Controlling and mitigating dust pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
6.5.3. Measures to control and mitigate emissions from road trasportation . . . .83
6.5.4. Measures to control and mitigate emissions from industry
and domestic activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
6.5.5. Monitoring the quality of imported and domestically produced gasoline . 84
6.6.
Promoting research and training on air quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
6.6.1. Promoting research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
6.6.2. Promoting training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
6.7.
Improving public participation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
6.7.1. Raising awareness of urban communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
6.7.2. Improving public participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
6.8.
Enhancing the implementation of the “Programme on urban air quality
improvement” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
6.9.
Immediate measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Reference materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 0.1.
Places with clean air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Figure 0.2.
Smog in urban areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
Figure 1.1.
Petrol station 313 Truong Chinh, Hanoi, June 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Figure 1.2.
On buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Figure 1.3.
Dan Chu six-way cross road, Ho Chi Minh city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Figure 1.4.
Lang Ha road, Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Figure 1.5.
18 Road, Mao Khe Town, Quang Ninh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Figure 2.1.
Exhause gases directly emitted from chimneys of factories . . . . . . . . . .23
Figure 2.2.
Dust pollution on roads for the transportation of coal in
Quang Ninh province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Figure 3.1.
Dust in Giai Phong Road, Southern gateway of Hanoi. . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Figure 3.2.
NO2 concentration patterns in Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Figure 3.3.
SO2 concentration patterns in Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Figure 3.4.
Pollution source from road construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Figure 4.1.
Dying in flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Figure 4.2.
Pho restaurant on Ma May street, Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Figure 4.3.
Go to school in air - polluted environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Figure 5.1.
Dust from transportation vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Figure 5.2.
In the callibration laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Figure 5.3.
Smog in Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Figure 6.1.
Cleaning the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
x
LIST OF DIAGRAMS
Page
Diagram 1.1. GDP growth and total gasoline consumed from 2002 to 2007 . . . . . . . 8
Diagram 1.2. Gasoline consumption distribution by sector in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . 8
Diagram 1.3. Gasoline demand of Vietnam in the past years and forecast
for the next years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Diagram 1.4. Urban and rural population of
some provinces/cities from 2000 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Diagram 1.5. Number of vehicles by year in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Diagram 1.6. Number of motorbikes per 1,000 people in
big cities of Vietnam in 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Diagram 1.7. Registered vehicles in Ho Chi Minh city by year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Diagram 1.8. Vehicles in Hanoi by year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Diagram 1.9. Registered vehicle in Hanoi by year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Diagram 1.10. Transportation vehicles in Khanh Hoa by December 2006 . . . . . . . . . .12
Diagram 1.11. Vehicle ownership in Ho Chi Minh city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Diagram 1.12. Two scenarios for the production in the coal sector of Vietnam
in the coming years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Diagram 1.13. Capacity of the thermalpower plants and the hydro power plants
of Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Diagram 1.14. Number of industrial zones, including export processing zones
in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Diagram 1.15. Number of industrial enterprises in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities
from 2000 to 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Diagram 1.16. Number of industrial enterprises in Hai Phong, Da Nang &
Thua Thien Hue from 2000 to 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Diagram 1.17. Number of industrial enterprises in Dong Nai, Khanh Hoa, Phu Tho,
Quang Ninh and Thai Nguyen from 2000 to 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Diagram 1.18. Construction of housing area in Hanoi in recent years . . . . . . . . . . .17
xi
Diagram 2.1. Major sources of air pollution in Vietnam, 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Diagram 2.2. Emissions by major sources in Ho Chi Minh city, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Diagram 2.3. Emissions from various road transport means in Vietnam . . . . . . . . .22
Diagram 2.4. Emissions from various road transport means in Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . .22
Diagram 2.5. Forecast emissions of CO from transport sector in Hanoi in 2020 . . . .26
Diagram 2.6. Forecast emissions of TSP from transport sector in Hanoi in 2020 . . . .26
Diagram 2.7. Forecast of emissions of CO2 from domestic activities in Hanoi,
in 2010 and 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Diagram 2.8. Forecast of emissions of SO2 from domestic activities in Hanoi,
in 2010 and 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Diagram 2.9. Forecast of emissions of TSP from road transport in
Ho Chi Minh city, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Diagram 2.10. Forecast of emissions of CO from road transport in
Ho Chi Minh city, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Diagram 2.11. Forecast of population of Ho Chi Minh city
in urban and rural areas, throughout 2010 and 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Diagram 2.12. Forecast of emissions of CO2 from domestic activities in
Ho Chi Minh city, in 2010 and 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Diagram 2.13. Forecast of emissions of SO2 from domestic activities in
Ho Chi Minh city, in 2010 and 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Diagram 2.14. Forecast of emissions of TSP from domestic activities in
Ho Chi Minh city in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Diagram 2.15. Global GHG emissions by sector in 2000 (CO2 equivalents) . . . . . . . 3w0
Diagram 2.16. Emissions of GHGs by sectors
in Vietnam, 1998 (CO2 equivalents) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Diagram 2.17. Forecast of emissions of GHGs in Vietnam (CO2 equivalents) . . . . . . .31
xii
Diagram 3.1. Annual PM10 concentration averages
in selected cities from 2003 - 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Diagram 3.2. The annual average PM10 concentration in Lang and
Hanoi University of Civil Engineering stations from 1999 to 2006 . . . .37
Diagram 3.3. The annual average PM10 concentration recorded in Ho Chi Minh city,
in a residential area - (District 2) and in an area near a busy road (Binh Chanh) in 2005-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Diagram 3.4. TSP fluctuations in the air along transportation routes in
urban areas from 2002 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Diagram 3.5. TSP concentrations in residential areas in selected cities
from 2002 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Diagram 3.6. Average annual NO2 concentrations in selected urban areas
from 2003 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Diagram 3.7. One-hour average NO2 and SO2 concentrations in selected areas
in Hanoi (recorded from 12 January 2007 to 5 February 2007) . . . . . . .40
Diagram 3.8. NO2 concentrations along traffic routes in
Ho Chi Minh city from 2000 to 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Diagram 3.9. Fluctuations of NO2 concentrations in urban
residential areas from 2002 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Diagram 3.10. The annual average SO2 concentration in selected urban areas
from 2003 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Diagram 3.11 CO concentrations at urban traffic routes from 2002 to 2006 . . . . . . . .43
Diagram 3.12. SO2 concentration in selected urban industrial zones from 2005
to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Diagram 3.13. SO2 and NO2 concentrations in Thai Nguyen steel
industry zone from 2004 to 2007.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Diagram 3.14. Lead concentrations in the air along traffic routes in
Ho Chi Minh city from 2000 to 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Diagram 3.15. One-hour average BTX concentrations in selected areas
of Hanoi (from 12 January 2007 to 5 February 2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Diagram 3.16. The annual average Benzene concentration along traffic routes
in Ho Chi Minh city from 2005 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Diagram 3.17. Fluctuations in noise levels at Giai Phong road (Highway No 1)
from 2002 to 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
xiii
Diagram 3.18. Noise levels at traffic routes in Ho Chi Minh city in 2005 . . . . . . . . .45
Diagram 3.19. Fluctuations in noise levels at traffic routes in Hai Phong, Hue and
Da Nang cities from 2000 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Diagram 3.20. Noise levels at some traffic routes in Ha Long city and at Tam Hiep
cross road in Bien Hoa city from 2002 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Diagram 3.21. Fluctuations in noise levels in selected residential areas
in Da Nang city from 2000 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Diagram 3.22. Monthly average PM10 concentrations at Lang Station
from 2003 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Diagram 3.23. Daily fluctuation in selected pollution parameters at
Lang Station in May and November 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Diagram 3.24. Monthly average PM10 concentrations at traffic routes in
Ho Chi Minh city from 2003 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Diagram 3.25. Monthly average PM10 concentrations in residential areas
in Ho Chi Minh city from 2003 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Diagram 4.1. Percentage of people contracted tuberculosis in
some cities/provinces in 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Diagram 4.2. SO2 deposition in some provinces in the North in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . .58
Diagram 4.3. Percentage of the population in Asian countries
to be affected by a sea level rise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Diagram 5.1. Monthly average Lead concentration in the air in Ho Chi Minh city
from 2000 to 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Diagram 5.2. Number of buses and bus routes in Ho Chi Minh city
from 2000 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Diagram 5.3. Composition of environmental projects according to
problems addressed from 1996 to 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1.1. Average number of rainy days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Table 1.2. Forest and forest cover in Vietnam period 1943-2006 in
comparison with ASEAN countries average from 2000 to 2005 . . . . . . . . 5
Table 1.3. Urban vegetation in selected cities up to September 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 1.4. Urban green vegetation standards according to
“Urban public green vegetation plan - planning standards” . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table 2.1. Estimated emissions from major sources in Vietnam, 2005 . . . . . . . . . . .21
Table 2.2. Estimates of emissions of air pollutants from industries in
Ho Chi Minh city, 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Table 2.3. Estimated emissions of air pollutants from major industrial facilities in
Hai Phong, 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Table 2.4. Estimated volume of dust discharged from mining activities in
Thai Nguyen province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Table 2.5. Estimated number of automobiles and motorbikes in 2010 and 2020 . . . .25
Table 2.6. Production value by industrial sector in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Table 2.7. Forecast of pollutants emitted from combustion of fuels by
Hanoi’s industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Table 2.8. Estimated population in Hanoi’s urban and rural areas,
in 2010 and 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Table 2.9. Estimate of emissions of air pollutants in Hanoi caused by
households’ combustion of coal for their domestic activities . . . . . . . . . .27
Table 2.10. Concentration of GHGs in atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Table 2.11. Emissions of main GHGs in Vietnam, 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Table 2.12. Emissions of GHGs (CO2 equivalents) in forestry and land
use conversion, 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
xv
Table 3.1. TCVN 5937 - 2005: Ambient air quality standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Table 3.2. TCVN 5949 - 1998: Permitted maximum limits of noise in
public and residential areas (level of acoustics equivalence ) . . . . . . . . . .36
Table 3.3. Percentage of one-hour average TSP concentrations in
Hanoi exceeding the Vietnam’s standard from 2002 to 2006 . . . . . . . . . . .38
Table 3.4. Percentage of one-hour average TSP concentrations in Hai Phong,
Da Nang and Hue exceeding the Vietnam’s standard from 2002 to 2006 .39
Table 3.5. Noise levels in residential areas in Ho Chi Minh city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Table 3.6. Average noise levels in production areas in Ho Chi Minh city . . . . . . . .47
Table 4.1. Most common air pollution related diseases in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Table 4.2. Percentage of people affected by pollution related diseases living around
Thuong Dinh industry zone and in Phu Thi commune, Gia Lam, Hanoi .54
Table 4.3. Statistics on the prevalence of diseases in two major hospitals
of Hai Phong and Quang Ninh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Table 4.4. Forecast of air pollution related illness in Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Table 4.5. Tourism environment assessments by foreign tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 4.6. CO2 emission per capita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Table 5.1. Assessment of air quality management capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Table 6.1. Urban air environment protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
xvi
LIST OF BOXES
Page
Box 1.1.
The geographical location of Vietnam - crucial factors
influencing Vietnam’s climate conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Box 1.2.
Forest and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Box 1.3.
Green GDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Box 1.4.
Urban categories of Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Box 1.5.
Population pressure in Ho Chi Minh city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Box 1.6.
Transportation infrastructure of Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Box 1.7.
Washing miners’ lungs in Quang Ninh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Box 2.1.
Monitoring results in nine iron and steel processing facilities
in Da Nang city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Box 2.2.
The state of environmental protection in the construction sector in Hanoi .25
Box 3.1.
Monitoring data sources used for the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Box 3.2.
SO2 pollution accident in Song Cong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Box 4.1.
Prevalence of respiratory disease among people living in
cities on a permanent basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Box 4.2.
Impacts of air pollution on people using different transportation means .56
Box 4.3.
Acid accumulation and its impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Box 4.4.
Tourism and environment in Ha Tay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Box 4.5.
Impacts of climate change on Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
xvii
Box 5.1.
Strengthening public transportation capacity of Ho Chi Minh city . . . . . .66
Box 5.2.
Legislation on environment protection in conjunction with
construction activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Box 5.3.
Regulations regarding expiry of trucks and busses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Box 5.4.
Vietnam‘s standards on air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Box 5.5.
Priorities of the air quality monitoring activities of the
national environment monitoring network up to 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Box 5.6.
MoNRE’s activities as the Vietnam’s national focal point of the
UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Box 5.7.
Examples of international projects regarding urban air environment . . . . .71
Box 6.1.
The establishment of the environmental police force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Box 6.2.
Emission tax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Box 6.3.
Ho Chi Minh city emission trading project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
xviii
ABBREVIATIONS
ADB
Asian Development Bank
AFP
Agence France- Presse
ASEAN
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AQI
Air quality Index
APMA
Air pollution in the Megacities of Asia
BBC
British Broadcasting Corporation
BTX
Benzene, Toluene, Xylene
CAI- Asia
Clean air Initiative for Asian Cities
CC
Climate change
CDM
Clean Development Mechanism
CO
Carbon Monoxide
DANIDA
Danish International Development Assistance
DEP
Department of Environment and Police
DoNRE
Department of Natural Resources and Environment
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
FDI
Foreign Direct Investment
FPD
Forest Protection Department
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GHGs
Green House Gasses
GSO
General Statistics Office
HEPA
Ho Chi Minh city Environment Protection Agency
HmCn
Hydro carbon
HUCE
Hanoi University of Civil Engineering
IOC
International Olympics Committee
IPCC FAR
Climate change Impact- Fourth Assessment Report
JICA
Japan International Cooperation Agency
KEI
Korea Environment Institute
MOC
Ministry of Construction
MOF
Ministry of Finance
xix
MOH
Ministry of Health
MOIT
Ministry of Industry and Trade
MoNRE
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
MOST
Ministry of Science and Technology
MOT
Ministry of Transport
MPI
Ministry of Plan and Investment
MPS
Ministry of Public security
NOx
Nitrogen oxides
NO2
Nitrogen dioxide
O3
Ozone
ODA
Official Development Aid
Pb
Lead
PM2,5
Particulate matter with aerodynamic diametre of 2,5 μm or less
PM10
Particulate matter with aerodynamic diametre of 10 μm or less
QA/QC
Quality assurance and Quality control
RHAP
ASEAN Regional Haze Action plan
SO2
Sulfur Dioxide
SVCAP
Swiss-Vietnamese Clean Air Program
TCVN
Vietnam’s Standard
TSP
Total suspended particulate
UNDP
United Nation Development Program
UNFCCC
United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change
VEPA
Vietnam Environmental Protection Agency
VND
Vietnam Dong
VOCs
Volatile Organic Compounds
VTC
Virtual Training Company
WB
The World Bank
WHO
The World Health Organisation
WTO
The World Trade Organisation
xx
PREFACE
I
n Vietnam, the activities that have been carried through to stimulate the social-economic
development have obtained their objective and considerable results have been achieved
in terms of improving people’s quality of life. On the other hand, however, the rapid socioeconomic development has at the same time led to negative impacts on the environment, in
particular on the urban air quality. The urban air quality has been degrading and dust pollution
has become an alarming issue in several urban areas.
Pursuant to the Law on Environment Protection from 2005, the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment is to prepare a State of Environment Report every year. In 2007,
the Ministry has prepared a thematic report on urban air quality in Vietnam. The report
addresses questions like: What has happened to urban air quality in recent years? To what
extent has the urban air been polluted? What are the causes? What have been and what will
be done in the future to improve the urban air quality?
The report has been prepared by scientists from research institutes and universities, by
environment management officials and by international experts. Contributions and comments
have been received from ministries, local authorities and various national and international
experts. During the preparation process, several workshops have been organised in order to
attract comments to the structure and contents of the draft versions of the report. Information
and data used in the report has been updated by the end of December 2006 and some by
the end of October 2007. The information used in the report has been made available by the
relevant agencies. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment would like to express
its appreciation to all that have contributed to the report.
The report has been supported financially and technically by the DANIDA - funded Pollution
Control in Poor Densely Populated Areas (PCDA) and SDC - funded Swiss – Vietnamese
Clean Air Program (SVCAP). The report is a result of the joint efforts of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment and international organisations in order to serve the
needs of those who care about the environment and sustainable development.
We do hope that the report will facilitate the environment protection decision making as
well as urban socioeconomic development planning. The report should also be seen as a
reference document for scientists and for the public.
PHAM KHOI NGUYEN
PETER LYSHOLT HANSEN
JEAN-HUBERT LEBET
Minister Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment
Ambassador Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary of the Kingdom
of Denmark to Vietnam
Ambassador Extraordinary
and Plenipotentiary of Swiss
Confederation to Vietnam
xxi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
T
he National State of Environment Report 2007 focuses on urban ambient air
quality.
The report focuses on a number of large and representative urban areas where air
pollution has been a concern. These urban areas are large and densely populated and
have all witnessed a rapid social - economic development in recent years, which have
led to considerable pressures on the environment. These urban areas include (1) special
urban areas: Hanoi Capital and Ho Chi Minh city; (2) a number of typical class I urban
areas: Hai Phong, Hue, Da Nang; (3) a number of typical class II urban areas: Thai
Nguyen, Ha Long, Viet Tri, Bien Hoa, Nha Trang.
The DPSIR (Driving forces - Pressures - States - Impacts - Responses) concept has
been applied in the report and the urban air indicators used in the report are organised
in accordance with this concept. Thus, indicators used for the state section include
those on ambient air quality such as concentrations of TSP, PM10, NO2, CO, SO2 and
Pb in the ambient air and noise. Indicators used for the driving forces section include
those on population growth and the development in transportation, industry, energy
and construction. Indicators used for the pressures section include those on emissions
of TSP, PM10 and NO2, CO, SO2 and others. from transportation, industry, construction
and the residential sector (due to data deficiency, information on emissions from outside
Vietnam is not analysed in this report). Indicators used for the impacts section include
those on the number of people whose health is affected by air pollution, on impacts of
pollution on the environment, on impacts on economic development and climate change
impacts. The indicators used for the responses section include those on mitigation
activities, policies, legislation, environmental management organisation, education and
training, and international cooperation activities. The indicators used in the report are
developed by the Environment Information and Reporting (EIR) project.
The report is based on the most updated information available (2005, 2006 and partly
2007) as well as on data time series covering the period 2002-2007. The information has
been made available by the relevant agencies and compiled from official sources.
The report has 6 chapters:
+ Chapter 1. Natural and social-economic conditions and impacts on Vietnam air
environment
+ Chapter 2. Sources of urban air pollution
+ Chapter 3. Air quality in urban areas
+ Chapter 4. Impacts of air pollution
+ Chapter 5. Achievements and challenges in urban air quality management
+ Chapter 6. Urban air environment protection measures
xxii
Pursuant to the Law on Environment Protection from 2005, Environment standards
have been defined to support environmental management in comparing air pollution
levels with permitted thresholds and to serve as a scientific foundations for discussing
and deciding upon the necessary technical pollution control measures to be applied.
In this report, the standards TCVN 5937-2005: Ambient air quality standards, TCVN
5938-2005: Air quality - maximum permitted levels of toxic compounds in ambient air,
and TCVN 5949-1998: Noise in public and residential areas - maximum permitted noise
levels have been used for assessing the air pollution levels.
Box A. Bases for identifying environmental pollution
Article 92 of the Law on Environment Protection stipulates that:
1. The environment shall be considered polluted when the content of at least one polluting agent exceeds
the environmental quality standards.
2. The environment shall be considered seriously polluted when the content of at least one chemical or
heavy metal exceeds 3 times the environmental quality standards or the content of another polluting agent
exceeds 5 times the environmental quality standard.
3. The environment shall be considered particularly seriously polluted when the content of at least one
chemical or heavy metal exceeds 5 times the environmental quality standards or the content of another
polluting agent exceeds 10 times the environmental quality standard.
Source: Law on Environment Protection, 2005
Box B: The typical substances that pollutes the urban
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): is a substance formed when sulfur is oxidized during the burning of fuels such as
coal, oil and oil products etc. SO2 can cause considerable adverse impacts on the respiratory system, e.g.
even a small doze of SO2 can cause bronchospasm. Big dozes of SO2 can cause increased viscidity of the
mucous secretion of the upper respiratory system and of the bronchial tubes. SO2 affects the functioning
of the lungs, causes pneumonia, chronic bronchitis and heart diseases, and increases the sensitiveness
of people with asthma. SO2 is also a factor causing acid rain.
Carbon monoxide (CO): is formed by incomplete burning of organic substances such as coal, gasoline,
oil, wood etc. When being inhaled, CO will quickly be dispersed in alveoli, blood vessels and placenta, etc.
About 90% of the inhaled CO will combine with Carboxyl-Hemoglobin, leading to a reduction in the ability of
erythrocyte to absorb oxygen. These blood cells will be disfunctioned and hence unable to deliver oxygen
to the body’s tissues, causing asphyxiation. CO can cause impacts on different systems such as nervous
system, digestive system, respiratory system, and especially to the organs that consume high volumes
of oxygen like brain and heart and will therefore also impact fetus. Also, CO causes headache, asthenia,
poor appetite, dyspnea, mental disorder, etc.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): is a harmful brown gas that has strong impacts on the respiratory system,
especially of vulnerable groups, such as children, old people and people with asthma. Inhaled NO2 causes
injuries to the mucos membranes of the lungs, increased risk of infection and of being afflicted by respiratory
diseases, injuries to the eyes, the nose and the throat. NO2 is also a factor causing acid rain.
Dust: Depending on the size of the dust particles, dust can be classified as Total Suspended Particulate
(TSP) with an aerodynamic diameter less than 50 μm, PM10 with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10
μm, and PM2.5 with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm. PM10 are very fine particles that can easily
pass through mufflers and the like and penetrate into the respiratory system. PM2.5 can even penetrate
deeply into the lung alveolis, where the metabolism takes place. The impact of dust on the human health
xxiii
depends on the composition, concentration and size of the dust particles. Dust can cause respiratory,
heart, digestive, eye and skin diseases and even cancer.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): include many organic chemicals, of which the most important
ones are benzene, toluene, and xylene. In high concentrations, VOCs can cause acute poisoning, acute
respiratory infection, digestive disorder, mental disorder, blood disorder, liver and kidney injuries, skin
irritation VOCs can also cause marrow atrophy and blood cancer.
Lead (Pb): a certain concentration of lead is contained in the emission from motorized means of
transportation. In addition, lead can be emitted from ore mines, battery producing plants, plastic compounds,
paints, chemicals, etc. Lead can penetrate into the body through breathing, through foods and beverages
consumed, through the skin and through mothers’ milk. Lead will be accumulated in the bones and the
erythrocytes and will cause bone marrow disorder, joint achekidney inflammation, high blood pressure,
brain accidents, poisoning of the central and vegetative nervous system, damages to the erythrocytes,
leading to anemia and kidney disfunction. Pregnant women and children are the most vulnerable to lead
(adverse impacts on abortion and infant mortality rates and on IQ levels).
Noise: caused by the operation of machines, vehicle engines, motor horns and broadcasting systems.
Different noise limits are applied for different areas and for different points of time. Noise exceeding the
permitted standards can cause severe hearing problems, but also brain disfunction, increase in breathing
rhythm, decrease in the eyesight and in the color distinction ability, stomach ache, and disorders regarding
the blood circulation and the vegetative nervous system.
Source: Compiled by VEPA
Smog in urban areas
xxiv
Source: Duy Tuong
1
NATURAL AND SOCIALECONOMIC CONDITIONS
AND IMPACTS
ON VIETNAM AIR
ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL AND SOCIAL-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
AND IMPACTS ON VIETNAM AIR ENVIRONMENT
Chapter 1
1.1. NATURAL CONDITIONS
1.1.1. Climate - An Important Factor
Influencing the Air Environment
Box 1.1. The geographical location of Vietnam
- crucial factors influencing Vietnam’s
climate conditions
-
Located on the Northeastern part of the
Europe-Asian continent, between the Tropic
of Cancer and the Equator and closest to the
former;
-
Being a peninsula, with a long coast line,
directly influenced by the East Sea;
-
In some territories, the natural conditions are
interrelated with those of China, Laos, and
Cambodia.
Source: Climate and Climate Resource of Vietnam, 2004
Among the three factors that constitute
the climate for a given territory, i.e.
radiation, circulation and topography,
the latter two are the most important to
Vietnam.
The entire territory of Vietnam is
influenced by the tropic of cancer
radiation pattern, i.e. long distance to the
sun, almost equal amounts of sunlight
time in the northern and southern part
of the country and abundant total solar
radiation. Taking the country as a whole,
the total annual sunlight time is 4,300 -
4,500 hours. These hours are not equally
distributed over the year, though. Because
of differences in cloud cover between
North and South , the total radiation is
rather low in the North and rather high
in the South.
Monsoon circulation in Vietnam
is influenced by the South Asian and
North Eastern monsoon schemes that
bring about two main seasons i.e.Winter
(November - March) and Summer (May
- September) and two transitory seasons
i.e. Spring (April) and Autumn (October).
The monsoon circulation schemes of
Vietnam differ between North and South
and differ according to time of the year.
The coastline topography of Vietnam is
another influencing factor. The direction of
the coastline against that of the monsoon
circulation differs from one area to the
other (they are parallel in some areas and
transverse in others).
Based on the interaction of the three
factors mentioned above, the country can
be divided into two major climate zones:
(1) The Northern zone (Hai Van Mountain
Pass and northwards) that is characterised
by tropical monsoon climate, leading to
4 distinctive seasons (Spring, Summer,
3
Chapter 1
Autumn and Winter). Being affected by
the Northeast and Southeast monsoons
the winter in this zone is cold. (2)
Southern zone (Hai Van Mountain Pass
and southwards) that is characterised by
moderate tropical climate and having
only two distinctive seasons (Dry and
Rainy seasons).
Temperature
The annual sum of daily average
temperatures for Vietnam as a whole
ranges from 3,000 to 10,000oC. The sum
of daily average temperatures ranges
from 1,400 to 4,400oC in the six months of
the Winter and Spring and from 1,600 to
5,600oC in the six months of the Summer
and Autumn.
The highest annual average temperature
for Vietnam as a whole ever calculated is
27.7oC. The lowest was calculated in Hoang
Lien Son (12.8oC). The annual average
temperature increases southwards. Due
to the northeast monsoon, the average
temperature in Vietnam is lower than in
other Asian countries at the same latitude.
As a result, the Winter is colder and the
Summer is cooler in Vietnam.
The average temperature of the whole
country is over 25oC and below 20oC in
hot and cold seasons respectively. The
lowest temperature is found in the North
in December and January. In northern
mountainous areas such as Hoang Lien
Son mountain range, the temperature
sometimes goes down to 0oC with frost
and snow.
Rainfall and humidity
Normally, the average rainfall of the
country is in the range of 1,400 - 2,400
mm per year, but sometimes as low as
700 mm and as high as 5,000 mm. In
general and as a result of topography
fragmentation caused by major mountain
systems, the annual rainfall in the North
is higher than in the South both in terms
of frequency and quantity. The number
of heavy rainy days (more than 50 mm/
day) is normally between 5 to 15 days
per year and never more than 30 days
or less than 2 days. The normal annual
Table 1.1. Average number of rainy days
Regions/Stations
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Tan Son Nhat
(Ho Chi Minh city)
2.4
1.0
1.9
5.4
17.8
22.2
22.9
22.4
23.1
20.9
12.1
6.7
158.8
Hue
15.5
10.9
9.7
8.7
9.5
8.7
7.7
9.8
15.9
20.7
21.6
19.2
157.9
Thai Nguyen
8.2
10.5
16.1
15.0
13.6
16.2
17.5
18.7
13.3
8.8
5.6
5.4
148.8
Hanoi
8.4
11.3
15.0
13.3
14.2
14.7
15.7
16.7
13.7
9.0
6.5
6.0
144.5
Da Nang
13.7
6.9
4.8
5.6
8.9
8.0
8.6
11.4
15.4
21.2
20.9
18.6
144.0
Hon Gai (Ha Long
city)
5.7
9.2
11.5
9.7
12.1
14.1
15.5
17.3
13.8
8.1
4.9
4.7
126.6
Can Tho
1.7
0.5
1.2
2.5
14.0
16.6
18.1
18.2
19.2
17.7
11.4
4.7
125.8
Nha Trang
9.6
4.4
3.9
4.5
7.9
8.2
7.7
8.7
14.7
17.7
17.8
14.0
119.1
Hon Dau
(Hai Phong city)
5.9
10.2
11.8
9.3
8.8
12.2
10.9
15.7
13.9
9.4
5.2
3.9
117.2
Source: Climate and Climate Resource of Vietnam, 2004
4
average humidity ranges from 80 to
85% and is very much affected by the
rain pattern. In addition, due to impacts
of the monsoon and the complexity of
topography, Vietnam has been faced with
unfavorable types of weather such as
storms and tropical depressions (average
10 - 11 storms per year), not to mention
floods and droughts.
1.1.2. Forest and Urban Vegetation and
their Impacts on the Air Environment
Forest cover plays an important role in
regulating climate and environment. In
the middle of the 20th century, 43% of the
country was covered by forest. During
war times, the forest cover declined
dramatically, adding up to only around 11
mill. ha in 1976 and continued to decline
to its bottom level in 1990 (approximately
9 mill. ha) corresponding to 27.8% of the
country.
Since 1990, however, the forest cover
has grown at an increasing rate, mostly
due to a growth in the area covered by
plantation forest. In 2006, the plantation
forest area was three times the size
in 1990. The natural forest area has
increased by approximately 2 mill ha
mostly due to restoration. The area
covered with plantation forest (mostly
industrial monoculture forest) reached
approximately 2.5 mill ha in 2006,
corresponding to 24.4% of the total
forest area. In 2006, 38% of the country
is covered by forest. However, primary
forests fill up only 0.57 million hectares
scattered in Tay Nguyen and Tay Bac
regions. Plantation and poor forests make
up the major part of the total forest cover
and the forest quality has to be improved
in order to be able to play its vital role
in climate regulation, in mitigation of
natural disasters such as flooding and
land slides, etc. and in absorbing polluted
gasses.
Urban vegetation absorbs dust and
pollutants, absorbs heat, CO2 and releases
O2, in this way regulating the urban
microclimate.
Table 1.2. Forest and forest cover in Vietnam period 1943-2006
in comparison with ASEAN countries average from 2000 to 2005
Year
1943
1976
1985
1990
1995
2000
2002
2004
2006
2000
2005
Area (1,000 ha)
Natural Forest
Plantation Forest
14,300.0
11,077.0
9,038.0
8,430.0
8,252.0
9,444.2
9,865.0
10,088.3
10,177.7
211,387
-
0
92.0
854.0
745.0
1,050.0
1,471.0
1,919.6
2,218.6
2,486.2
Cover (%)
Total
14,300.0
11,169.0
9,892.0
9,175.0
9,302.0
10,915.2
11,784.6
12,306.9
12,663.9
43.0
33.8
30.0
27.8
28.2
33.2
35.8
36.7
38.2
Average
(ha/person)
0.70
0.22
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.14
0.14
0.15
0.15
Average forest cover of ASEAN countries in 2000 and 2005
19,973
231,360
48.6
204,000
45.0
0.42
0.37
Sources: FPD; State of World’s Forest, FAO, KOME, 2001
5
Chapter 1
Box 1.2. Forest and environment
Forests play an important role in regulating the local, regional and global climate. This includes providing
shade, steam diffusion, wind prevention and shielding, cooling air temperature in hot weather and mitigating
radiation of heat in cold weather.
Forest ecosystems maintain the natural Carbon circle. Forests absorb Carbondioxide and transform it
to organic matters, releasing Oxygen. Hence, forest ecosystems play an important role in reducing green
house gas emissions to the atmosphere.
Apart from preserving upstream forests themselves, protection of forest ecosystems is of importance
for mitigating flooding and drought, and for maintaining water quality. The canopy and floor of the forests
reduces the impacts from precipitation on the roots of trees, soil; and microorganisms oxidizing the soil, in
these ways reducing the risk for flooding.
In addition, forest ecosystems are capable of decompositing pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides,
and various types of domestic wastes. Replacing these ecosystems, should they be degraded or injured,
by man-made ones would involve vast investments.
Source: Biodiversity and Conservation, 2004; VEPA
Although urban vegetation has
increased over the years it has not
been able to keep up the pace with the
urbanisation process, and the percentage
of green vegetation per capita (m2/
person) in urban areas is mostly below
the official standards (Table 1.3). This is
one of reasons for the unfavourable urban
air quality.
1.2. SOCIAL - ECONOMIC CONDITION
1.2.1. Economic Growth
domestic
product
(GDP)
measures the value of the production in a
given country for a given period of time.
GDP has become a common standard for
measuring the economic development of
a country.
Gross
As a result of government policies,
Vietnam has experienced a remarkable
economic growth in the period 2002-2007.
Since 2002, annual economic growth has
been above 7% and since 2005 above 8%.
Also GDP per capita has increased. GDP
per capita in 2006 doubled compared to
2002 and reached 11.57 million VND.
The economic growth has provided more
jobs for people, increased incomes and
improved living standards, which in
its turn has lead to a growing demand
for consumer goods, transportation, etc.
These growing demands point to the
fact that economic growth also leads to
substantial pressures on the environment
and brings about potential risks for
damaging the environment in general
and the air environment in particular.
Table 1.3. Urban vegetation in selected cities up to September 2007
No
Items
Unit
Hanoi
Ho Chi Minh
Da Nang
6.5 - 7
4.0
2.33
-
-
0.62
1
Public green vegetation area
m2/person
2
Green vegetation area on parks and streets
m2/person
Sources: Departments of Public Transportation and DoNREs of Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh and Da Nang, 2007
6
Table 1.4. Urban green vegetation standards according to
“Urban public green vegetation plan - planning standards”
Urban Classes
Public green vegetation
standards (m2/person)
Green vegetation
standards for parks
(m2/person)
Green vegetation
standards for flower
gardens (m2/person)
Green vegetation
standards for streets
(m2/person)
Special
12 -15
7-9
3 - 3.6
1.7 - 2
I and II
10 - 12
6 - 7.5
2.5 - 2.8
1.9 - 2.2
III and IV
9 - 11
5-7
2 - 2.2
2.0 - 2.3
V
8 - 10
4-6
1.6 - 1.8
2.0 - 2.5
Source: Vietnam Construction Standards (TCXDVN 362 - 2005)
Note: The urban classification is found in box 1.4.
In 2007, the economic growth was at
its highest level within the past 10 years,
namely 8.5%. The economic structure
has been changing so that the industry,
construction and service sectors are
becoming relatively more important,
whereas the weight of agriculture, forestry
and fisheries sectors has been reduced.
For the first time in several years, the
growth of the service sector has been
higher than the growth of GDP as such.
Industry growth is rather fast as well, in
particular the processing industry.
A typical example of the relationship
between economic growth and pressures
on the air environment is the development
in the gasoline consumption. The above
diagram shows that the increase in
gasoline consumption from 2005 to 2006
(770 thousand tons) was twice as big as
the increase from 2004 to 2005. The use of
gasoline is one of sources of CO, VOCs,
lead particulates, and benzene. The
emission of these chemicals is dependent
on the quality of the gasoline consumed.
The major part of the gasoline consumption
in Vietnam stems from transportation
(Diagram 1.2) and transportation is the
Box 1.3. Green GDP
Economic growth leads to exploitation of natural resources, to pollution of the environment and to
degradation of ecosystems. These effects are not reflected in GDP, because GDP only measures the
economic marketable value of the production. So far, there has not been any statistic system that has been
able to properly measure the environmental costs that economic activities bring about.
Along with the campaigns for environment protection and sustainable development, some economists
and statisticians have tried to incorporate environmental parameters into the economic growth measurement
systems, known as the green GDP concept. According to this concept, conventional calculation of GDP is
adjusted by including a deduction of environmental expenses, as follows:
Green GDP = GDP - (Resources consumption costs + Environment losses caused by economic
activities)
Green GDP will thoroughly assess all the important development aspects i.e the economic, the social and
the environmental ones. However, calculating Green GDP is faced with a number of technical difficulties.
While the values of products and inputs can be calculated by utilizing their market value, how to evaluate
environmental expenses remains a question, as they are not marketed. In addition, some mental obstacles
exist as well. Green GDP will probably turn out to be lower than the ordinary GDP. If green GDP is applied
by provinces, it will be more difficult for these provinces to fulfill the economic development objectives set
up and provinces would therefore be reluctant to apply it.
Source: General Statistics Office
7
Chapter 1
1,000,000
VND billions
Millions tons
Total comsumed gasoline
Actual GDP
900,000
Electricity
12%
11.0
10.8
10.4
10.5
10.0
10.0
600,000
9.5
9.3
500,000
9.0
2002
2003
2004
2005
Diagram 1.2. Gasoline consumption
distribution by sector in Vietnam
Sources: GSO, Petrol Development Plan for Vietnam
primary emission source of the abovementioned pollutants.
Gasoline demand in Vietnam has been
growing at an increasing rate and will
probably continue to do so in the years to
come (Diagram 1.3). Therefore, Vietnam
will face serious air pollution problems if
the control of the gasoline quality is not
tightened.
1.2.2. Urban Areas and Urbanisation of
the Country
Urban areas of Vietnam
According to the Decree No 72/2001/
ND-CP, urban areas are defined as areas
that belong to one of the six urban classes
i.e. special cities, and classes I, II, III, IV
and V.
In 1990, Vietnam only had 500 cities
and towns. By 2005 this number has
increased to 715 and includes 2 special
cities, and 4, 14, 22, 52 and 621 urban
areas of classes I, II, III, IV, and V,
respectively. Among them, 6 cities are
directly under the central government,
82 cities and towns are under provincial
governments and 621 towns are under
district governments (Source: Ministry of
Construction). The rapid and imbalanced
Transportation
55%
Industry
19%
2006
Diagram 1.1. GDP growth and total gasoline
consumed from 2002 to 2007
8
Other sectors
14%
11.5
800,000
700,000
12.0
11.5
Source: Petrol development plan for Vietnam for 2006 - 2015
and orientation to 2025, Ministry of Industry, July 2007
50
45
40
Million tons
50
46
Low option
Medium option
High option
40.2
35
35
32.38
30
29.04
23.85
25
20
16.3
16
15
10.8
10
22.88
21.3
15.66
7.5
4.4
5
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
Diagram 1.3. Gasoline demand of Vietnam in the
past years and forecast for the next years
Source: Petrol development plan for Vietnam for 2006 - 2015
and orientation to 2025, Ministry of Industry, July 2007
urbanisation has put severe pressure on
the air environment. One of the reasons
for this is that a number of old industry
zones has become surrounded by urban
territory and that several new industry
zones have been located in suburban
areas.
The urban structure of the country
consists of 6 central state cities (Hanoi,
Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nang, Hue
and Can Tho); a number of regional cities
(Ha Long, Viet Tri, Thai Nguyen, Vinh,
Nam Dinh, Thanh Hoa, Quy Nhon, Da
Lat, Nha Trang, Buon Ma Thuot, Bien
Hoa, Vung Tau and My Tho); a number
Box 1.4. Urban categories of Vietnam
Special urban areas:
1. Capital or urban areas which constitute
centres of politics, economy, culture, science
- technique, training, tourism, and service, and
junctions of transportation and domestic and
international exchange and which play a role
of promoting social - economic development of
the country;
2. Percentage of non-agriculture labour above
90%;
3. Comprehensive infrastructure;
4. Population above 1.5 million people;
5. Population density above 15,000 people/km2.
Class I urban areas:
junctions of transportation and domestic and
international exchange and which play a role
of promoting social - economic development of
inter-provinces or of the whole country;
85%;
3. Relatively comprehensive infrastructure;
Class II urban areas:
junctions of transportation and provincial, interprovincial, or national exchange and which
play a role of promoting social - economic
development of inter-provinces or of the whole
country in some sectors;
80%;
3. Infrastructure
comprehensive;
developed
towards
In addition, the Decree also defines norms for other
classes of urban areas (classes III, IV and V)
Source: Decree No 72/2001/ND-CP dated 05/10/2001 on urban
classification and management authorities
of provincial cities and towns; a number
of sub-regional towns including centres
of rural resident areas or satellite towns.
Urban areas are distributed in 10
urbanisation zones of the country, namely:
Northern focal economic region and Red
River Delta; Southern and South-eastern
focal economic region; Central and Midcentral focal economic region; Mekong
River Delta; Southern Central (Binh Dinh
- Phu Yen, Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan); Tay
Nguyen; Northern Central (Thanh Hoa Nghe An - Ha Tinh; Cao Bang - Lang Son
- Bac Ninh - Bac Giang - Thai Nguyen
- Bac Kan region; Lao Cai, Yen Bai - Ha
Giang - Tuyen Quang - Vinh Phuc - Phu
Tho) and the Northwest region.
Urbanisation
For the last two decades, along with
industrialisation and modernisation,
urbanisation has evolved quite rapidly,
especially in the 3 focal economic regions
of the country. Urban population has
increased from 11.87 millions (19% of the
total population) in 1986 to 12.88 millions
(19.51%) in 1990, 14.94 millions (20.75%)
in 1995, and up to 27.12% in 2006. To a
large degree, the growth in the urban
population has been concentrated in the
4 big cities, i.e. Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai
Phong, and Da Nang.
The rapid population growth (Diagram
1.4) and the urbanization of the population
has created a need for spatial urban
expansion and for more construction
activities and for more infrastructure
development. This is one of the ways
in which the urbanization is responsible
for the serious dust pollution in many
Vietnamese cities.
9
Chapter 1
The Prime Minister, by the Decision No
10/1998/QD-TTg dated 23 January 1998,
adopted the “Orientation of the Master
Plan of Urban Development until 2020”
that determines orientations for urban
development for the country as such as
well as for typical regions. According
to the orientation, the development in
population growth and in urban land use
demand is stipulated as follows:
- By 2010, the urban population may
have grown to around 30.4 million
people, accounting for 33% of the total
population.
- By 2020, the urban population may
have grown to around 46 million people,
accounting for 45% of the total population
of the country.
- By 2020 the urban land area may have
grown to around 460,000 ha, equivalent
to 1.4% of the total natural land area of
the country, the average urban land area
per capita being 100m2/inhabitant.
Box 1.5. Population pressure in Ho Chi Minh
city
Ho Chi Minh city is one of 7 cities with the
highest population density in the world (2.909
inhabitants/km2, 2006). The inner city takes up to
only 6.7% of the total area of the city but holds
70% of the total population and with a population
density up to 35.000 - 53.000 inhabitants/km2.
While Ho Chi Minh city takes up only 0.6% of the
total area and holds 6.4% of the population , it holds
25% of Vietnam’s industrial labourers and one
third of Vietnam’s industrial production activities.
High population and industrial development lead
to increasing pollution.
Source: State of Environment in Ho Chi Minh city, 2007
1.2.3. Transportation
In recent years, the number of
transportation vehicles has increased
rapidly (Diagram 1.5). This imposes
a serious pressure on urban air
environment.
Transportation vehicles are primarily
concentrated in big cities such as Ho Chi
Minh and Hanoi (Diagram 1.6).
Million people
7
Urban
Rural
6
5
4
3
2
1
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
0
Hai Phong
Thua Thien Hue
Da Nang
Thai Nguyen
Quang Ninh
Phu Tho
Khanh Hoa
Dong Nai
Hanoi
Ho Chi Minh
City
Diagram 1.4. Urban and rural population of some provinces/cities from 2000 to 2006
Source: Statistics Year Book, 2007
10
The number of vehicles registered and
managed in Ho Chi Minh city is over 3.1
million (by August 2006) of which more
than 2.8 million are motorbikes (91%) and
approximately 0.3 million are cars, and Ho
Chi Minh city holds one fourth of all vehicles
in Vietnam These figures do not include
vehicles operating in the city but registered
elsewhere. (Source: HEPA, 2007).
Similar to Ho Chi Minh city, the
number of vehicles in Hanoi has increased
rapidly as well (Diagram 1.8 and 1.9). The
annual average growth rate has been 11%
for cars and 15% for motorbikes. (Source:
Ministry of Transportation). According to
Hanoi DoNRE, by the end of June 2007,
800
Thousand vehicle
Million motorbike
Car
Truck
Total motobike
700
Passenger car
Other car
20
18
16
600
the total number of registered motorbikes
was over 1,8 million, not counting 400,000
motorbikes moving into the city area
Million vehicles
3.5
Motorbike
Car
Total
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
1993
1999
2001
2004
2005
2006
Diagram 1.7. Registered vehicles
in Ho Chi Minh city by year
Source: HEPA, 2007
Thounsand vehicles
12
Passenger car
10
Car
Truck
14
500
12
8
10
400
8
300
6
200
6
4
4
100
2
0
2
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
7/2007
0
2000
Diagram 1.5. Number of vehicles by year in Vietnam
2003
2004
2005
Diagram 1.8. Vehicles in Hanoi by year
Source: Vietnam Vehicle Registration and Science &
Technology Dept/ MOT, 2007
Source: Hanoi Statistics Year Book, 2007
Thousand
motorbikes
Thousand cars
Number of vehicle
2006
2.0
200
600
529
500
Number of car
471
Number of motorbike
180
1.8
160
1.6
140
1.4
120
1.2
100
1.0
425
400
255
300
200
100
0
Hanoi
Ho Chi Minh
City
Hai Phong
Da Nang
Diagram 1.6. Number of motorbikes per 1,000
people in big cities of Vietnam in 2006
0.8
80
2001
2003
2004
2005
2006
6/2007
Diagram 1.9. Registered vehicle in Hanoi by year
Source: Hanoi DoNRE, 2007
Source: Vietnam Vehicle Registration, 2007
11
Chapter 1
every day from neighbouring provinces.
Most transportation vehicles in
urban areas are private ones. Public
transportation in Ho Chi Minh city meets
no more than 5% of the transportation
demand. More than 70% of the population
use private vehicles, mostly motorbikes
(Source: HEPA, 2007).
Two-wheeled vehicles make up the major
part of the transportation means in urban
areas (Diagram 1.10). Even if the number of
private owned cars has increased rapidly
in recent years in big cities, motorbikes are
still predominant. In Ho Chi Minh city,
98% of the urban households own one or
more motorbikes (Source: HEPA, 2007). In
Hanoi, motorbikes make up more than
87% of the vehicles (Source: Hanoi DoNRE,
2006). In contrast, the use of the bike an environmentally friendly vehicle - has
decreased rapidly (Diagram 1.11). These
developments result in pressures on the
urban air environment.
The emission from vehicles depends to a
Car (<9
seats)
1.0%
Passenger
car (>9
seats)
0.7%
Truck
2.0%
Motorbike
96.4%
Diagram 1.10. Transportation vehicles in
Khanh Hoa by December 2006
Source: Khanh Hoa DoNRE, 2007
12
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1996
Car
2002
Bike
2005
Motorbike
Diagram 1.11. Vehicle ownership
in Ho Chi Minh city
Source: Japan Institute for Automobile Study, 2007
large degree on the quality of the vehicles.
Vehicles in use in Vietnam consist of a
broad variety of types, and many are
obsolete, very fuel consuming, noisy and
cause severe toxic emissions. Thanks to the
implementation of the Government Decree
No. 92/2001/ND-CP dated 11 December
2001 on conditions for car transportation
business and the Decree No. 23/2004/
ND-CP dated 13 January 2004 on validity
of trucks and passenger cars, the number
of obsolete and high emission vehicles
has decreased. However, the quality of
the vehicles remains a concern especially
when the Decision on the application of
European Emission Standards No.2 is
going to enter into force.
Beside the vehicle quality, the quality
of the fuels used for the vehicles is also a
factor influencing the level and type of toxic
emissions from transportation. Before 1 July
2007, where a new reference standard for
sulphur contents in diesel (0.05%) was
applied, the use of diesel with 0.25%
sulphur content was one of the reasons
causing SO2 emission (Figures 1.1 and
1.2). However, other types of hazardous
emissions will increase, if e.g. gasoline
additives such as lead and benzene are
not strictly controlled.
Traffic jam has become an every day
phenomenon in big cities. Traffic jam
increases the emission of CO, SO2, NO2,
HmCn, dust, lead, smog and noise. In
Hanoi, land for transportation purposes
in the inner city makes up 7% of the total
area of the city (13.42% in Ho Chi Minh
city), while in developed countries, land
set aside for transportation ranges from
Figure 1.3. Dan Chu six-way cross road,
Ho Chi Minh city
Source: Vietbao, 10 February 2007
Figure 1.1. Petrol station 313 Truong Chinh,
Hanoi, June 2007
Figure 1.4. Lang Ha street, Hanoi
Source: VTC, 05 September 2007
Source: Online Youth Newspaper 16 June 2007
Box 1.6. Transportation infrastructure in
Hanoi
There has been a number of limitations in the
transportation system in Hanoi: large number of
mostly one-level traffic junctions (580) including
279 three-way crossroads, 282 crossroads, 17
five-way crossroads and 1 seven-way crossroad.
High traffic flow (1,800 - 3,600 vehicles/hour),
narrow roads, large number of crossroads, poor
quality of roads, inappropriate lane arrangements,
unstable traffic speed etc. all leading to high
emission of pollutants.
Figure 1.2. Petrol station 70 Truong Dinh,
District 3, Ho Chi Minh city, June 2007
Source: Online Youth Newspaper 16 June 2007
In addition, traffic network planning has not been
appropriate. In newly constructed urban areas,
the infrastructure has not met the transportation
need, leading to regular traffic jam.
13
Chapter 1
20 - 25% of the total urban area (space
for underground transportation not
included). However, insufficient space for
transportation purposes is only one of the
reasons for the frequent traffic jams. Other
reasons include inappropriate arrangement
of traffic network such as the existence of
a large number of traffic junctions (Box
1.6) and narrow roads, unplanned and
uncontrolled development of resident and
commercial areas along the traffic routes,
as well as disturbances from construction
works in conjunction with upgrades of
infrastructure such as road maintenance,
installations of underground cables and
sewage works etc.
1.2.4. Industry
1.2.4.1. Mining
Mining in Vietnam is operating at a
large scale in terms of amount of minerals
exploited and is going on in several places
throughout the country. Mining activities
have grown considerably in recent years,
especially coal mining.
In recent years, large investments have
been made in the coal industry in order
to speed up its development. As a result,
in 2005, the coal production overshot
the target set for 2010 (approximately 35
million tonnes compared with the planned
20 million tonnes). Sector development
planning foresees further increases in
production (Diagram 1.12). Although, coal
mining establishments are concerned with
the environmental impacts of the mining
activities and take measures to protect
the environment, mining activities have
caused severe air pollution in the mining
14
Million tons
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2006
Total - Low option
Total - High option
2010
2015
Open cast - Low option
Open cast - High option
2020
2025
Pit - Low option
Pit - High option
Diagram 1.12. Two scenarios for the production in
the coal sector of Vietnam in the coming years
Source: Development Master Planning of Coal Sector of
Vietnam, period 2006-2015, taking into account development
prospects until 2025, 2006
areas themselves as well as in adjacent
areas.
Currently, 95 % of Vietnam’s coal
production takes place in the coal mines
in Quang Ninh. It is estimated that 65%
of the national coal reserves are located in
these mines. Coal is extracted for domestic
production purposes and for export and
contributes to the increase of the national
revenue. However, the coal mining also
causes a serious pressure on the urban
environment in Cam Pha, Hon Gai, Uong
Bi, and Ha Long areas of Quang Ninh
province.
Figure 1.5. 18 Road, Mao Khe town, Quang Ninh
Source: Vietnamnet, 16 November 2007
In the future, the increase of pit
mining and the decrease of open-cast
mining may reduce the air pollution. To
reduce air pollution from coal production
it is also necessary to emphasise the
application of measures in the field of
coal transportation.
Box 1.7. Washing miners’ lungs in Quang
Ninh
L o o k i n g
at the black
drops dripping
from
coal
miners
under
an
electron
microscope,
one can easily
see the billions
of coal crystals
that you can
see look completely harmless. However, once
they enter the lungs of the miners, they become
malignant and hence threaten the health of
thousands of miners
Photos of a number of workers’ lungs show a
cover on the lungs that is as black as the coal in
the mine. The lung’s parenchymal tissue cannot
be recovered once it has been sclerified by Silic
particulates.
After have their lungs washed, 100% of the
patients recover from the sleeping disorder
symptom, 98% are relieved of their chest pain,
94% of their stuffy-ness and 89% of their cough.
Source: Bureau for Safe Work, January 2007
1.2.4.2. Electricity
The power sector of Vietnam has
been growing rapidly for a number of
years. Compared to 1995, thermal power
generation capacity had increased 3.37
times by 2000 and 5.36 times by 2005.
Forecasts indicate that thermal power
generation capacity in 2010 may be 9.43
times as big as in 1995. The ratio of
thermal based electricity production to
total electricity production is high and
growing (1995: 26.7%; 2000: 46.7%; 2005:
52.9%; 2010: 62.5%). The more thermal
based electricity being produced, the more
polluted the air environment will be. An
option for the future is to promote the
development of the less polluting gas-fired
thermal power plants (Diagram 1.13).
9,000
8,000
MW
Hydro power plants
Thermal gas-fired power plants
7,000
Thermal oil-fired power plants
6,000
Thermal coal-fired power plants
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1995
2000
2005
2010
Diagram 1.13. Capacity of the thermal power
plants and the hydro power plants of Vietnam
Source: EVN, 2006
The electricity sector consist of a small
number of plants all operating at high
capacity. The plants differ considerably
from one another in terms of
age,
technology and effectiveness and give
rise to several air pollution issues. This
holds in particular for the thermal power
plants. Some of them have used backward
technologies stemming from the 1960s,
and have therefore been polluting the
air environment seriously. Eventhough
modern and more environmentally benign
technologies have been applied at the
more recently established power plants,
the environmental consequences of their
operation should still be a concern.
15
Chapter 1
1.2.4.3. Other Industry Activities
Thousand establishments
7
In urban areas, industrial activities are
regarded as the key to economic growth.
For instance, in Ho Chi Minh city industry
and construction sectors contribute with
41,6% of the GDP (Source: Report on HCMc
5
4
3
2
1
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2000
2001
Hanoi
2002
2003
2004
2005
Ho Chi Minh City
Diagram 1.15. Number of industrial enterprises in
Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities from 2000 to 2005
Source: Status of enterprises, surveys in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004,
2005, 2006, GSO
Establishments
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Hai Phong
Da Nang
2004
2005
2002
2003
2001
2000
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
2005
2003
2004
2001
0
2002
The industrial development trend
(Diagram 1.15, 1.16, 1.17) may seriously
impact on the environment in general
and on the air quality in particular.
The situation is worse when industrial
establishments are located in residential
areas. In these cases, there is an urgent
need for treatment, management and
control of the polluting activities. In
general, there is a need for solutions where
environmental concerns are integrated
into the economic development.
6
2000
In 1995, 12 industrial zones existed in
Vietnam, established by the Government.
By August 2007 the number of industrial
zones is 150 (Diagram 1.14). Thus, the
number of industry zones in Vietnam
has increased 12 times in 12 years. Only
90 of these 150 industrial zones have
their infrastructure in place, while it is
underway in the rest of the zones.
Thua Thien - Hue
Hai Phong, Da Nang & Thua Thien Hue
from 2000 to 2005
2005, 2006, GSO
Number of Industry zone
Establishments
160
1,000
140
900
120
800
700
100
600
80
500
60
400
300
40
200
20
100
0
Dong Nai
Nha Trang
Phu Tho
Quang Ninh
2005
2002
2004
2003
2001
2000
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
2005
2004
2002
2003
2001
2000
2005
2003
2002
2004
2001
2000
2005
8/2007
2004
2005
2003
2004
2002
2002
2000
2000
2001
0
1998
Thai Nguyen
Establised industry zones that have infrastructure under construction
Establised industry zones that have infrastructure in place
Diagram 1.14. Number of industrial zones,
including export processing zones in Vietnam
Source: Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2007
16
Dong Nai, Khanh Hoa, Phu Tho, Quang Ninh and
Thai Nguyen from 2000 to 2005
2005, 2006, GSO
Status of Environment, 2006). Therefore,
the development of the industrial
sector should be properly managed and
controlled in order to mitigate adverse
impacts on the environment.
Million m 2
1.8
1.6
Local constructed
State constructed
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
1.2.5. Construction Activities
0.6
0.4
In recent years as a part of the
urbanization process, infrastructure
construction in urban areas such as
drainage systems, roads, and houses
has increased rapidly (Diagram
1.18). Even if regulations to prevent
dust pollution from construction
works and from vehicles carrying
construction materials are in place,
construction activities remain a major
source of dust pollution to the air
environment.
0.2
0.0
2000
2003
2004
2005
2006
Diagram 1.18. Construction of housing area in
Hanoi in recent years
Source: Hanoi Statistics Year Book, 2007
The construction activities have been
financed from both public and private
funds. In Hanoi, housing area constructed
by private households makes up 30% of
the total housing area of the city.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1
Chapter 1 analyses important factors affecting air quality, natural as well as anthropogenic ones (the
driving forces)
As far as the natural conditions are concerned, the climate is the most important factor affecting the air
environment. This includes radiation regime, moonson circulation, temperature, rainfall and humidity. In
addition, the vegetation cover is important as well.
Along with the rapid economic growth in the Vietnamese economy in recent years, environmental
issues and the exploitation of natural resources have become a concern. Social-economic activities
such as transportation, industry and construction have been imposing severe pressures on the urban air
environment.
Among the above-mentioned activities, transportation is the major factor influencing the urban air
environment. This is because of the rapid increase in the number of vehicles, combined with the low
quality of these vehicles, the fuel they use and the insufficient traffic infrastructure.
17
2
SOURCES OF
URBAN AIR
POLLUTION
Chapter 2
2.1. MAJOR SOURCES OF URBAN AIR
POLLUTION
2.1.1. Emissions of Air Pollutants by
Sectors
Transport, industry, handicraft and
construction constitute the major sources
Table 2.1. Estimated emissions from major
sources in Vietnam, 2005
Unit: tons/year
N0
Sector
1
Thermal power plants
3
Industry, Service, and
54,004 151,031 272,497
Domestic Activities
CO
4,562
it according to experts contributes with
monitored
sources
of
nationwide
301,779 92,728 18,928 47,462
Source: VEPA, 2006
100%
90%
80%
60%
air
pollutants
50%
(i.e.
including
30%
40%
is estimated to emit around 85% of the
0%
CO and 95% of the VOCs. As regards
NO2 emissions, transport and industry
approximately
equal
amounts, whereas industry is the major
source when it comes to SO2 (Diagram 2.1
and Table 2.1).
Estimates
854
360,345 301,022 415,090 49,705
20%
with
57,263 123,665 1,389
Total
rural regions as well), the transport sector
contribute
VOCs
70%
70% of the urban air pollution.
Among
SO2
4 Transport
of urban air pollution. Among these, the
transport sector is the dominating one, as
NO2
10%
CO
Transportation
NO2
SO2
Industry, service, domestic
VOC
Thermo-electricity
Diagram 2.1. Major sources of air pollution
in Vietnam, 2005
Source: VEPA, 2006
100%
90%
80%
70%
of
emission
sources
of
60%
50%
pollutants in Ho Chi Minh city in 2004
40%
showed that 90% of the SO2 emissions
20%
was emitted by industrial and handicraft
facilities that are located in the inner areas
of the city. Other gases, such as NOx, CO
and HmCn were predominantly emitted
by the transport sector (Diagram 2.2).
30%
10%
0%
CO
Industry
NO2
Transportation
SO2
Domestic
HmCn
Other sources
Diagram 2.2. Emissions by major sources
in Ho Chi Minh city, 2004
Source: Workshop on Fuel and Clean Motorised Vehicles in Vietnam,
Ministry of Transport and US-Asia Environment Partnership, 2004
21
Chapter 2
2.1.2. Emissions of Air Pollutants from
Road Transportation
Road transport is the most important
source of air pollutants in urban areas,
mainly emitting toxic gases including
CO, NOx, HmCn, VOCs, lead and PM2.5.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
100%
CO
90%
Motorbike
80%
HmCn
Petrol-run car
Dust
Pb
Diesel-run car
Diagram 2.4. Emissions from various road
transport means in Hanoi
70%
60%
Source: VEPA, 2004
50%
40%
30%
Industrial Processes
20%
10%
0%
CO
NOx
Motorbike Car
SO2
HmCn
Passenger car
VOC
Truck
Diagram 2.3. Emissions from various road
transport means in Vietnam
Source: Workshop on Fuel and Clean Motorised Vehicles
in Vietnam, Ministry of Transport and US-Asia Environment
Partnership, 2004
Diagram 2.3 shows the emissions from
various transport means in Vietnam.
Motorbikes are the major source of
emissions of CO, HmCn and VOCs,
whereas SO2 and NOx are mainly emitted
by trucks.
Emissions of CO, HmC n, Pb from
gasoline-fueled vehicles are bigger
than from diesel-fueled vehicles.
However, diesel-fueled vehicles are the
largest emitters of particulate matters
(Diagram 2.4).
Finally it should be mentioned that in
seaports, ship transportation activities
contribute considerably to the urban air
pollution.
22
2.1.3.1. Emissions of Air Pollutants from
Industrial Processes
In Vietnam’s urban areas, industrial
processes constitute a considerable SO2
-emission source.
The air pollution from industrial
processes mainly stems from the
combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and
gasoline). The large volumes of dust,
SO2, CO and NO2 emitted have caused
negative impacts on the air quality in
urban areas. A particular problem in
this context is that the quality of fuels
in Vietnam is not as good as in the other
countries in the region. For example, the
concentration of benzene in gasoline used
in Vietnam is 5% against 1% in other
countries in the region. The same is the
case regarding sulphur concentration in
diesel (0.25% against 0.05%).
Among manufacturing industries,
metal processing is a major producer
of CO, whereas thermal power plants
constitute the major emission source of
NO2 and SO2.
Table 2.2. Estimates of emissions of air pollutants from industries
in Ho Chi Minh city, 2003
N0
Sector
1
Thermo-electric power
2
Iron and steel processing
3
Acid production
4
Cement
5
Zinc plating
6
Rubber
7
Textile dyeing
8
Mechanics
9
Food processing
10
Plastics
11
Alcohol, beer, and beverage
12
Pre-mixed concrete
13
Plastic concrete
14
15
SO2
48,082
Emission volume (tons/year)
NO2
CO
Dust
CmHn
14,042
563
1,341
897
131
3,104
3,417
428
420
35.7
1.4
3.25
-
5,589
854
23
558
23
-
28
4.3
-
165
-
80.1
13.46
-
12.5
-
1,128
172.4
4.8
71.6
0.72
102
15.4
0.56
14.1
-
1,120
257
15
52.5
10.8
-
-
-
1.13
-
140.4
22.2
0.81
5.52
1.49
-
-
-
40
-
66.7
5.3
13.3
9.4
-
Wood processing
39.5
-
-
442
-
Tile production
12.8
-
-
2.15
-
16
Pottery and ceramics
0.98
4.91
1.97
22.7
6.65
17
Fertilizer
-
-
-
53.3
-
18
Seafood
-
-
-
-
-
19
Glass
919
257
11
73.5
26
20
Paper
83
13.4
-
-
-
21
Other
Total emission volume in 2003
1,420
60,128
249.2
15,295
180.1
5,539
2,680
8,959
45.72
512.6
Source: HEPA, 2007
Like in Ho Chi Minh city, in other
urban areas in Vietnam, such as Hanoi,
Da Nang, Hai Phong and Bien Hoa, large
volumes of air pollutants are emitted by
industrial processes.
Box 2.1. Monitoring results in nine iron and
steel processing facilities in Da Nang city
From March 20 to 27, 2006, the Da Nang DoNRE
monitored the pollution at nine iron and steel
processing facilities in the Hoa Khanh industrial
park. Some of the results are shown below:
- Concentration of CO is between 67 and 100
times higher than the Vietnam’s standard
- Concentration of NO2 is between 2 and 6
times higher than the Vietnam’s standard
Figure 2.1. Exchanse gases directly emitted from
chimneys of factories
Source: Documentary photo
- Concentration of lead (Pb) is between 40 and
65.5 times higher than the Vietnam’s standard
Source: Da Nang DoNRE, 2007
23
Chapter 2
Table 2.3. Estimated emissions of air pollutants from major industrial
facilities in Hai Phong, 2004
N0
Emission volume (tons/year)
Name of facility
1
Hai Phong Cement Plant (*)
2
Tam Bac Shipyard
3
CO
SO2
NOx
Particles
2,066.6
8,583.8
112,262.9
7,323.8
6.3
107.1
1.411.2
37.8
Hang Kenh Shoes Company
18.9
204.8
2,636.6
78.8
4
Tia Sang Battery Company
18.9
356.0
4,640.0
129.2
5
Thong Nhat Shoes and Leather Plant
12.6
201.6
2,624.0
72.5
6
Hai Phong Railroad Car Factory
9.5
122.9
1,612.8
44.1
7
Hai Phong Beer Plant
15.8
75.6
1,209.6
34.7
8
Nomura IP Thermal Power Plant
977.0
-
2,085.0
3,426.0
2,148.6
9,651.8
126,397.1
7,720.9
Total emission volume in 2004
(*) At present, this old plant has been suspended and relocated
Source: Environment Assessment and Forecast two key economic regions, in the North and in the South, 2004
2.1.3.2. Emissions of Air Pollutants from
Mining
In some areas, including Thai Nguyen
and Quang Ninh provinces, mining has
developed rapidly. As a result, dust from
mining activities has polluted the ambient
urban areas. An estimated volume of
dust discharged from mining activities in
Thai Nguyen province based on mining
volumes is shown in Table 2.4.
The transportation of minerals from
mines to ports passes through residential
areas and causes severe pollution there
because the vehicles do not meet the
existing requirements regarding cleaning
of tyres and covering of minerals during
transportation.
Table 2.4. Estimated volume of dust
discharged from mining activities
in Thai Nguyen province
Unit: tons/year
Volume of emitted dust
2001
2002
2003
N0
Mineral
Mine
1
Coal
6
33.7402
32.4664
31.8677
2
Stone
15
19.5703
24.8823
23.6188
3
Ore
10
10.4775
16.4488
24.1699
4
Clay
3
1.3365
1.4106
2.7472
Figure 2.2. Dust pollution on roads for the
transportation of coal in Quang Ninh province.
Source: State Report of Environment in Quang Ninh, 2005
Source: Thai Nguyen DoNRE, 2007
24
Many urban areas in Quang Ninh
province, such as Hon Gai, Cam Pha and
Uong Bi, have suffered from air pollution
caused by dust coming from the mining,
sifling and transportation of coal.
2.1.4.
Emissions
Construction
of
Dust
from
Apart from the transport sector, the
construction sector is the major source of
emissions of TSP. In Ho Chi Minh city,
the total volume of TSP emitted from
the construction sector is estimated to
be around 13,000 tons per year (Source:
Department of Science, Technology and
Environment in Ho Chi Minh city, 2001)
It is estimated that around 70% of TSP
emitted in Hanoi stems from construction
activities, mostly construction and repair
of houses, roads and canals, but also
from the transportation of construction
materials. A particular problem is the
dust polluting excavations associated with
maintenance of roads, of water supply and
drainage systems and of communication
and electric supply networks.
Box 2.2. The state of environmental protection
in the construction sector in Hanoi
At present in Hanoi, often environment
requirements in the construction sector are not
met. Many construction sites are not properly
fenced in and the coverings are insufficient. As a
result, dust is emitted to the ambient environment.
Furthermore, many construction entities do
not clean roads and trucks after transporting
construction wastes, in this way causing dust
pollution as well.
Nguyen Phuc Thanh, director of the Thang Long
Environmental Service Joint stock Company, said
that each day, his company collected around 20m3
of sand on Pham Hung road, and had to clean the
road four times a day.
Source: Lao Dong newspaper,
Issue 225, September 28, 2007
Domestic Activities
Although domestic activities are not
one of the major sources of urban air
pollution, the use of firewood, coal and oil
for these activities (cooking in particular)
also contributes significantly to urban air
pollution. Recently, incomes of people
living in urban areas have increased. As
a result, many households have begun to
use gas or electricity instead of coal and oil
for their cooking activities. The emission
of air pollutants from old quarters and
from residential areas, where poor people
live, is around 10 times higher than the
emission from residential areas, where
people with higher living standards live.
2.2. FORECAST OF FUTURE EMISSIONS
OF AIR POLLUTANTS
2.2.1. Forecast of Emissions of Air
Pollutants in Hanoi
2.2.1.1. Forecast of Emissions of Air
Pollutants from Road Transportation
Hanoi has the second largest number of
motorised vehicles in Vietnam with high
annual growth rates for both cars and
motorbikes, 10% and 15% respectively.
With such growth rates, the total number
of cars and motorbikes taken together in
Hanoi is expected to reach 2,939,800 units
by 2010 and 7,107,720 in 2020 (Table 2.5),
not taking into account the number of
cars and motorbikes used in Hanoi, but
registered in other provinces.
Table 2.5. Estimated number of cars and
motorbikes in 2010 and 2020
Vehicle
Motorbikes
Cars
2006
2010
2020
1,700,000
2,720,000
6,800,000
157,000
219,800
307,720
Source: Institute of Meteorology and
Environment Science, 2007
25
Chapter 2
Thousand tons
(from motorbike)
200
Thousand tons
(from car)
4
1,100
900
Car
3
Thousand tons
150
Motorbike
2
100
1
50
0
0
Car
Motorbike
700
500
300
100
2005
2005
2010
2020
Diagram 2.5. Forecast emissions of CO from
transport sector in Hanoi in 2020
With such a large number of motorised
vehicles, the future emission of dust
particles, SO2, NOx and CO will be
high. In particular, CO discharged by
motorbikes will be much higher than by
cars. (Diagram 2.5 and Diagram 2.6)
Both now and in the coming years,
motorbikes will be the primary means
of transport for the inhabitants of Hanoi.
Motorbikes constitute a major emission
source of CO. As a result, in the future,
this means of transport will produce a
serious pressure on Hanoi’s air quality.
Pollutants from Industrial Processes
Hanoi is the largest industrial centre
in the North of Vietnam. Here, a lot
of industrial entities within electricity
production, electronics, mechanics, textile
2010
2020
Diagram 2.6. Forecast emissions of TSP from
transport sector in Hanoi in 2020
and garment, leather and footwear, food
and beverages, construction materials and
others are located. In recent years these
industries have experience high growth
rates, on average between 15 and 17%
annually. In 2010 therefore, the industry
production volume is expected to be
much higher than in 2000 (Table 2.6).
Table 2.6. Production value by industrial
sector in 2010
Unit: million VND
Sector
2000
1,033,036
2,148,715
Textile
1,017,805
2,050,877
578,004
1,164,678
Machines and electric equipment
889,856
2,456,003
Cars
115,247
319,234
Other transportation means
190,451
527,549
Leather and footwear
Sources: Hanoi Department of Planning and Investment, 2002
With these kinds of industry production
growth rates, the air emission volumes
will increase rapidly as well.
Table 2.7. Forecast of pollutants emitted from combustion
of fuels by Hanoi’s industries
Year
IP area (ha)
SO2
1997
441.3
2,479
2010
1,642.7
2020
2,537.7
2010
Food and beverages
NOx
Unit: tons/year
CO
TSP
PM10
1,893
489
8,111
6,083
10,400
7,047
1,820
30,192
22,644
16,067
10,886
2,812
46,642
34,982
(Note: TSP emitted by brick and tyle factories, 82,000 tons per/year in 1995, exclusive)
Source: Environmental master plan for Hanoi, 2001-2020
26
Pollutants from Domestic Activities
Rapid urbanisation partly due to the
expansion of Hanoi’s industrial parks
has made Hanoi’s population grow
considerably in recent years. Hanoi’s
population is expected to reach more
than 3.3 millions by 2010 and more than
5 millions by 2020 (Table 2.8)
Thousand tons
1,400
Urban
Rural
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
Table 2.8. Estimated population in Hanoi’s
urban and rural areas, in 2010 and 2020
Unit: people
2005
2010
2020
Urban areas
2,055,000
2,646,500
4,692,000
Rural areas
1,090,000
703,500
408,000
Source: A social-economic development master plan
for Hanoi, 2001-2010, 2002; A comprehensive urban
development programme for Hanoi, capital city of Socialist
Republic of Vietnam (HAIDEP), March, 2007
2005
2010
2020
Diagram 2.7. Forecast of emissions of CO2 from
domestic activities in Hanoi, in 2010 and 2020
Tons
4,000
Urban
3,500
Rural
3,000
2,500
Even though rural population only
constitutes a half of Hanoi’s total
population, the emission of CO2 in rural
areas is much higher than in urban areas.
This is because people in rural areas
consume more polluting fuels. In 2010
and 2020, the volume of SO2 and CO2
emissions from domestic activities in the
city’s inner areas will increase sharply
(Diagram 2.7 and Diagram 2.8).
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
2005
2010
2020
Diagram 2.8. Forecast of emissions of SO2 from
domestic activities in Hanoi, in 2010 and 2020
Table 2.9. Estimate of emissions of air pollutants in Hanoi
caused by households’ combustion of coal for their domestic activities
Unit: tons/year
Areas
City’s old centre
1997
NOx
CO
2010
TSP
NOx
CO
TSP
115
2,792
466
34
1,049
174
South of Red River’s right bank
33
1,025
170
32
981
164
Dong Anh
15
453
75
41
1,250
208
Gia Lam
17
515
86
20
610
104
Rural areas
99
3,032
504
118
3,613
601
West Lake
2
42
7
3
57
10
Entire city
315
8,908
1,483
360
10,339
1,721
North-west of Red River’s right bank
103
2,502
418
43
1,322
220
Source: Environmental master plan for Hanoi, 2001-2020
27
Chapter 2
These forecast results are calculated
on the assumption that industrial,
transportation and domestic activities
develop rapidly and without taking any
pollution control measures. The message
is that if environmental management is
not improved considerably, Hanoi’s air
environment will suffer from the heavy
pollution pressure caused by the city’s
social-economic development
2.2.2. Forecast of Emissions of Air
Pollutants in Ho Chi Minh City
Pollutants from Road Transportation
With annual growth rates between 10
and 20% of motorised vehicles, in 2010 Ho
Chi Minh city will have between 4,200,000
and 5,400,000 motorbikes and between
700,000 and 900,000 cars (Statistics Office
in Ho Chi Minh city). In case that policies
on environmental protection in general,
and on air environment in particular,
stay at their present level, this increase in
the number of motorised vehicles means
that the volume of air pollutants emitted
from road transport in 2010 will increase
by between 2-5 times compared to 2005
(Diagram 2.9 and Diagram 2.10)
Ho Chi Minh city’s top priority
regarding control of industrial pollution
is to reduce dust pollution caused by the
local construction material industry and
SO2 pollution caused by the local thermal
power plants.
Local construction material industry is
expected to double its production by 2010
compared to 2005 and the volume of dust
emitted from the industry is expected to
increase by 1.2 times in the same period
(Department of Science, Technology and
Environment in Ho Chi Minh city, 2002).
Similarly, the emission volume of SO2
from the thermal power plants in 2010
will increase between 2-3 times compared
to 2005, if the local thermal power plants
continue to use oil. According to plans,
however, after 2010, the plants will
be converted into gas-firing
making
emissions of SO2 drop significantly
(Department of Science, Technology and
Environment in Ho Chi Minh city, 2002).
Thousand tons/year
Tons/Year
2,500
2,000
Pollutants from Industrial Processes
250
Low
Medium
200
High
1,500
150
1,000
100
500
50
Low
Medium
High
0
0
2000
2005
2010
Diagram 2.9. Forecast of emissions of TSP from
road transport in Ho Chi Minh city, 20101
Source: HEPA, 2007
2000
2005
2010
road transport in Ho Chi Minh city, 20102
Source: HEPA, 2007
1., 2. Low increase: 10%; Medium increase: 15%; High increase: 20%
28
Million people
25
Urban
20
Rural
380
360
340
15
Tons/Year
Low
Medium
High
320
300
10
280
5
260
0
240
2005
2010
2020
Diagram 2.11. Forecast of population of Ho Chi
Minh city in urban and rural areas, throughout
2010 and 2020
Source: People’s Committee of Ho Chi Minh city, 2006
4
3
2
1
0
2010
2020
domestic activities in Ho Chi Minh city,
in 2010 and 2020
Thousand tons
20
Urban
16
Rural
12
8
4
0
2005
2005
2010
Diagram 2.14. Forecast of emissions of TSP from
domestic activities in Ho Chi Minh city in 2010
Source: HEPA, 2007
Pollutants from Domestic Activities
Ho Chi Minh city has an annual natural
population growth rate of 1.3%. To this
should be added an annual growth rate of
0.77% due to migration (People’s Committee
of Ho Chi Minh city, 2006). The population
forecast for Ho Chi Minh city throughout
2010 and 2020 is shown in Diagram 2.11.
Million tons
7
Urban
6
Rural
5
2005
2000
2010
2020
Diagram 2.13. Forecast of emissions of SO2 from
domestic activities in Ho Chi Minh city,
in 2010 and 2020
Per capita fuel consumption is 3.5 GJ in
urban areas and 11.7 GJ in rural areas (WHO,
2002) with gas and coal as the main fuels
used in urban areas, and coal and firewood
in rural areas. The volume of CO2 and SO2
emitted from domestic activities in 2010
and 2020 will increase by between two and
six times compared to 2005, in particular in
urban areas with high population growth
rates and a huge demand for fuel (Diagram
2.12 and Diagram 2.13).
Therefore, the pollution of Ho Chi
Minh city’s air environment will grow at
increasing rates if additional measures for
environmental control and management
are not taken. The pollution will be directly
proportional to the city’s economic and
population growth.
29
Chapter 2
2.3. EMISSIONS OF GREENHOUSE
GASES IN VIETNAM
The concentration of greenhouse gases
(GHGs) in the atmosphere has increased
significantly in comparison with preindustrial times (Table 2.10). In the period
1960-2005 the average increase in the
GHG concentration was 1.4 ppm/year. In
the period 1995-2005 the annual growth
rate has increased to 1.9 ppm/year.
GHG emission from
energy consumed
activities
Other related
activities
5%
Electricity
24%
Land use
18%
Transportation
14%
Construction
8%
Several GHGs remain in the atmosphere
for a long period up till hundreds of years.
According to Stern Review (2007), the
total global emission of GHG in 2000 were
42 billion tons of CO2 equivalents, of which
energy related emissions accounted for 65%.
A GHG inventory was prepared for
1998 and published in the 1st National
Communication to UNFCCC. According to
this GHG inventory, the GHG emissions in
Vietnam in 1998 amounted to 120.8 million
tons CO2 equivalents. Currently, Vietnam
Industry
14%
Agriculture
14%
Waste
3%
GHG emission from
non-energy consumed
activities
Diagram 2.15. Global GHG emissions by sector in
2000 (CO2 equivalents)
Source: Stern Review on Economics of CC, 2007
is in the process of preparing the 2nd
National Communication in which a GHG
inventory for 2000 is a part. This inventory
will comprise CO2, CH4, NO2 and NOx.
According to the inventory in 1998,
41% of the Vietnamese emissions of GHGs
(48.8 million tons CO2 equivalents) was
Table 2.10. Concentration of GHGs in atmosphere
Greenhouse gas (GHG)
CO2
CH4
N2O
CFC-11
HCFC22
CF4
Pre-industrial times
~280 ppm
~715 ppb
~270 ppb
0
0
0
Concentration in 1994
358 ppm
1,732 ppb
312ppb
268 ppt
110 ppt
72 ppt
Concentration in 2005
379 ppm
1,774 ppb
319 ppb
1960 - 2005
Growth rate 1995- 2005
Time of remaining (years)
1.4 ppm/year 10 ppb/year 0.8 ppb/year
0
5 ppt/year 1.2ppt/year
1.9 ppm/year
0.4%/year
0.6%/year
0.25%/year
0%/year
5%/year
2%/year
50-200
12
120
50
12
50,000
Source: IPCC FAR, 2007
30
stemming from energy consumption. Of
this amount, the emission of CO2 from
combustion of fossil fuels, including coal,
petrol and oil, was 38.3 million tons.
According to the 1998 inventory the
net emission of GHGs from forestry and
land use conversion was 10.4 million tons
CO2 equivalents, forests having absorbed
55.51 million tons of CO2. This net
emission was around 9 million tons CO2
lower compared to the 1994 inventory
Table 2.11. Emissions of main GHGs
in Vietnam, 1998
(Unit: thousand tons)
GHG
Emissions
CO2 equivalents
CO2
52,519
52,619
CH4
2,708
56,868
N2O
36.1
11,291
NOx
164
-
Total
and amounted to approximately 10% of
the total CO2 emissions (Diagram 2.16 and
Table 2.12).
Based on Vietnam’s social-economic
development pace in recent years as well
as on master plans for the major sectors
of the Vietnamese economy, emissions
of GHGs in Vietnam will increase
considerably in the future (Diagram 2.17).
According to the forecasts, the energy
sector will become a major GHG emission
source in Vietnam in the future.
Forestry &
Land use
changes
10%
120,778
Source: Specialised workshop on GHG inventory, May 27, 2003,
Office of Convention on Climate Change
Table 2.12. Emissions of GHGs (CO2
equivalents) in forestry and land use
conversion, 1998
N0
Type of emissions/
absorption
Emissions (+) / Absorption
(-) (million tons)
1
Absorption of CO2 due to
increase in biomass
- 43.47
2
Absorption of CO2 due to
natural forest recoverty
- 12.04
3
Emissions of CO2 from land
use conversion
4
Emissions of CH4 and N2O
from earth and land use
conversion (CO2 equivalents)
+ 3.49
Earth CO2 emissions
+ 17.73
Total
+ 10.40
5
Energy
consumed
processes
40%
Waste
2%
Agriculture
48%
Diagram 2.16. Emissions of GHGs by sectors in
Vietnam, 1998 (CO2 equivalents)
Source: Expert workshop on GHG inventory, May 27, 2003,
Office of Convention on Climate Change
Million tons
500
423
400
300
224
+ 44.69
200
120.8
Source: Workshop ‘Effects of climate change on socioeconomic development and Vietnam’s response to climate
change’, MoNRE, November 22, 2007
100
1998
138
2010
2020
2030
Diagram 2.17. Forecast of emissions of GHGs in
Vietnam (CO2 equivalents)
Source: Expert workshop on GHG inventory, Office of
Convention on Climate Change, May 27, 2003
31
Chapter 2
Chapter 2 focuses on analysing sources of urban air pollution in Vietnam, estimating present emissions
of pollutants from the different pollution sources and forecasting future emissions.
Among the major sources of urban air pollution analysed, road transport is the predominant one,
contributing with around 70% of the pollution. Road transport emits CO, NO2, HmCn, and VOCs, whereas
industrial processes and construction activities are the largest sources of SO2 – emissions and dust
emissions, respectively.
According to the 1998 GHG inventory the emission of GHGs in Vietnam was 120.8 million tons of CO2
equivalents.
Based on Vietnam’s social-economic development pace in recent years as well as on master plans for
the major sectors of the Vietnamese economy, emissions of GHGs in Vietnam will increase considerably
in the future.
32
3
AIR QUALITY
IN URBAN AREAS
Chapter 3
While in general the air quality in
Vietnam is currently relatively good, a
gradual degradation of the air quality in
and around large cities, industrial zones
and craft villages has been observed
during recent years.
The degrading urban air quality is
primarily a result of the increasing
emissions of SO2, NO2, CO, O3, hydrocarbons, VOCs, lead, and especially
particulate matter (TSP and PM10). Besides,
the urban air quality is affected by noise.
There are considerable daily, monthly
and annual variations in the urban air
quality due to temporal variations in
transportation and industrial activities
and due to local weather and climatic
conditions.
3.1. AIR QUALITY AT URBAN AREAS
The bases used for evaluating air
quality levels and noise levels in this
chapter are the standards TCVN 5937 2005 (Table 3.1) and TCVN 5949 - 1998
(Table 3.2). For some toxic chemicals
such as benzene, toluene and xylene, the
standard TCVN 5938 – 2005 regarding
‘Air quality - permitted maximum
concentrations of toxic chemicals in
ambient air’ is applied.
Box 3.1. Monitoring data sources used for the report
1. Data obtained from automatic monitoring stations
-
Ho Chi Minh city: 9 stations, including 4 roadside stations and 5 residential area stations (source:
HEPA)
-
Hanoi: The Lang station – which is a residential area station (source: National Centre for Hydrometeorology)
and a station located at Hanoi University of Civil Engineering in an area affected by pollution sources
from the southern part of the city (source: VEPA)
-
Hai Phong: Phu Lien station, which is located in a suburban area (source: National Centre for
Hydrometeorology)
-
Da Nang: Da Nang station, which is located in a residential area (source: National Centre for
Hydrometeorology)
2. Data obtained from semiautomatic and manual monitoring stations
-
Ho Chi Minh city: Once a month, 10 days each, 3 times per day: 7:00 to 8:00, 10:00 to 11:00 and 15:00
to 16:00 (source: HEPA).
-
Hanoi, Da Nang, Hai Phong, Hue, Ha Long and Bien Hoa: 6 times per year, 1 day each, 4 times per
day: 6:00 to 7:00, 10:00 to 11:00, 14:00 to 15:00 and 17:00 to 18:00 (source: VEPA).
-
Thai Nguyen (source: Thai Nguyen DoNRE), Bien Hoa (source: Dong Nai DoNRE), Nha Trang (source:
Khanh Hoa DoNRE): 6 times per year, 1 day each, 4 times per day: 6:00 to 7:00, 10:00 to 11:00, 14:00
to 15:00 and 17:00 to 18:00.
35
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. TCVN 5937 - 2005: Ambient air quality standards
Unit: Microgram per cubic metre (μg/m3)
Parameters
SO2
CO
NO2
O3
TSP
PM10
Pb
Note:
1 - hour average
8 - hour average
24 - hour average
350
30,000
10,000
200
180
120
300
PM10: suspended particulates less than 10 μm in size
(-): no standards available
125
80
200
150
1.5
Annual average
(arithmetic average)
50
140
50
0.5
Table 3.2. TCVN 5949-1998: Permitted maximum limits of noise in public and residential
areas (level of acoustics equivalence)
Unit: dBA
Time
Areas
1. Areas requiring extreme quiet: hospitals, libraries, sanatoriums,
kindergartens, schools, churches, pagodas
2. Residential areas, hotels, motels, offices
3. Residential areas located within areas with commercial, service and
industrial activities
3.1.1.
Pollution
with
Suspended
Particulates – An Outstanding Urban
Air Quality Problem
The air in almost every area of the
cities has been polluted with suspended
particulates, in particular at traffic
junctions, in construction areas and in the
neighbourhood of industry zones. Most
of the emission comes from roads and
vehicles.
3.1.1.1. PM10 - An Issue of Concern
The annual average PM10 concentration
in the air in the large cities of Vietnam e.g.
Ho Chi Minh city, Hanoi, Da Nang and
Hai Phong exceeds the level recommended
by WHO (20 μg/m3).
In recent years, the PM10 concentration
in almost every area of Hanoi and Ho
Chi Minh city has exceeded the Vietnam’s
standard as well (Diagram 3.1).
36
100
6h - 18h
18h - 22h
22h - 6h
50
45
40
60
55
50
75
70
50
µg/m 3
2003
2004
2005
2006
TCVN 5937-2005
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Ho Chi Minh City
Lang - Hanoi
Phu Lien Hai Phong
Da Nang
Notes:
- Ho Chi Minh city: Data obtained from 9 automatic monitoring
stations in the city
- Hanoi, Hai Phong, Da Nang: Data obtained from one automatic
station in each city
Diagram 3.1. Annual PM10 concentration averages
in selected cities from 2003 - 2006
Source: National Centre for Hydrometeorology, 2007;
HEPA, 2007
The annual average PM10 concentration
is influenced considerably by the climatic
conditions, in particular the rainfall
pattern. Research carried out based on
Lang Station measurements shows that
PM10 concentrations are less in years
with much rainfall and vice versa. PM10
concentration decreases by 1.8 μg/m3
when annual rainfall increases by 100
mm. (Pham Duy Hien, 2007).
Data collected from monitoring stations
located in residential areas such as Da
Nang (Da Nang city) and from suburban
monitoring stations such as Phu Lien (Hai
Phong) show that the annual average
PM10 concentration fluctuates around
permitted threshold. The 1-hour average
PM10 concentration, however, sometimes
exceeds the standard.
The concentration of PM10 in the air
varies between different areas in a city.
Diagram 3.2 shows that the annual
average PM10 concentration in those
areas (such as areas in the vicinity of the
University of Civil Engineering in Hanoi)
that are affected by a large number of
pollution sources, is much higher than
in more residential areas, (such as the
areas in the vicinity of the Lang Station
in Hanoi). Diagram 3.3 shows that the
annual average PM10 concentration in
areas near busy roads is much higher
than in residential areas.
250
µg/m 3
Lang station
200
HUCE station
TCVN 5937-2005
150
100
50
0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Diagram 3.2. The annual average PM10
concentration in Lang and Hanoi University of
Civil Engineering stations from 1999 to 2006
Sources: National Centre for Hydrometeorology, 2007;
VEPA, 2005
110
µg/m
3
100
2005
90
2006
TCVN 5937-2005
80
70
60
50
40
Resident areas
Roadside areas
(Binh Chanh District)
Diagram 3.3. The annual average PM10
concentration recorded in Ho Chi Minh city, in a
residential station – (District 2) and in a station
near a busy road – (Binh Chanh) in 2005-2006
Source: HEPA, 2007
3.1.1.2. Total Suspended Particulates - A
concern
TSP pollution is a serious problem,
especially along main roads (Diagram
3.4).
One-hour average TSP concentrations
recorded from roadside monitoring
stations in Ho Chi Minh city from 2002 to
end of June 2007 ranged from 0.31 to 2.69
mg/m3, hence all exceeding TCVN 59372005 (0,3 mg/m3). From 2005 and up to
now, the highest TSP concentrations have
been recorded at An Suong crossroad.
The percentage of one-hour average
TSP concentrations recorded from the
roadside stations in Hanoi, Da Nang
and Hai Phong that exceeds Vietnam’s
standards is also very high (Table 3.3 and
Table 3.4). According to the monitoring
data recorded from these stations in 2006
and in the first half of 2007 by Hanoi
DoNRE, the one-hour average TSP
concentration is usually around 0.5 mg/
m3 of the data recorded, approximately
60% exceeds the Vietnam Standards and
approximately 25% exceeds the standard
by more than twice.
37
Chapter 3
0,8
mg/m
3
2002
2004
0,7
2003
2005
2006
TCVN 5937-2005 (1-h average)
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
Kim LienGiai Phong
cross road
(Hanoi)
Ly Quoc
Su Str.,
(Hanoi)
Hang Xanh
cross road
(HCM City)
Dinh Tien An Suong Hue cross
Hoang - cross road road (Da
Dien Bien (HCM City)
Nang)
Phu cross
road (HCM
City)
Nguyen
Van Linh
Road (Hai
Phong)
Dong Ba
Market
(Hue)
Le Thanh Cach Mang Tam Hiep
Tong Str.,
Thang 8 cross road
(Ha Long) Road (Thai (Bien Hoa)
Nguyen)
Diagram 3.4. TSP fluctuations in the air along transportation routes in urban areas from 2002 to 20061
Sources: VEPA, HEPA, 2007
of one-hour average TSP concentrations
exceeding the Vietnam’s standard was
highest in Hai Phong (33 - 71%) , lowest
in Hue (17 – 39%) with Da Nang coming
in between (47 - 56%). Regarding Hue
City, in recent years, the tourism routes
have been repaired and tarred and this
has lead to a reduction of the pollution
with TSP (and the noise pollution). Today,
therefore, severe TSP concentrations only
occur at some specific sites at specific
times of the day.
In Hanoi, TSP pollution peaks in Duoi
Ca (Southern gateway of Hanoi), Red
River Dike (from Yen So to Minh Khai
slope), Thang Long bridge foot, Pham
Van Dong Road, Khuat Duy Tien Road,
Kim Lien - Giai Phong crossroad, and
three-way crossroad of Nguyen Phong
Sac-Tran Dang Ninh roads.
Among three Class I (Da Nang, Hai
Phong, Hue) cities examined in the period
2002 - 2006, the percentage of recordings
Table 3.3. Percentage of one-hour average TSP concentrations in Hanoi
exceeding the Vietnam’s standard from 2002 to 20062
Monitoring sites
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Thuong Dinh industry zone
33%
33%
50%
50%
33%
Mai Dong industry zone
67%
50%
67%
50%
83%
Ly Quoc Su Street
83%
83%
67%
50%
40%
Nam Thanh Cong
50%
50%
100%
33%
0%
Kim Lien - Giai Phong Cross Road
100%
83%
100%
100%
100%
1,2 - Data from semi-automatic and manual monitoring stations
38
Source: VEPA, 2007
Table 3.4. The percentage of one-hour average TSP concentrations
in Hai Phong, Da Nang and Hue exceeding the Vietnam’s standard from 2002 to 20063
Cities
Monitoring site
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Next to the Quan Toan Steel Industry Zone
-
-
67%
100%
67%
100%
100%
-
-
-
-
-
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
-
-
-
Van My resident area
0%
33%
0%
0%
33%
Transportation route next to Ngoi Sao Hotel
17%
50%
83%
50%
0%
Average
54%
71%
63%
63%
33%
Long Tho cement factory
100%
33%
67%
50%
67%
Linh Tam Lake resident area
17%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Nam Giao platform resident area
0%
17%
0%
0%
0%
Average
39%
17%
22%
17%
22%
Foot of Hai Van Pass
0%
0%
25%
0%
0%
25%
40%
45%
50%
71%
50%
60%
55%
38%
50%
100%
80%
100%
100%
96%
50%
45%
45%
47%
54%
Next to the old cement factory
Nguyen Van Linh Street
Hai Phong
Hue
Da Nang
Nguyen Binh Khiem Street
Transportation route next to Nguyen Trai
School
Transportation route next to Trung Vuong
Opera House
Hue three way crossroad
Average
Source: VEPA, 2007
In Hai Phong and Da Nang, the
percentage of the one-hour average TSP
concentration samples that exceeds the
Vietnam’s standard is highest at traffic
routes (Nguyen Van Linh and Nguyen
Binh Khiem - Hai Phong: 100%; Hue - Da
Nang three way crossroad - Da Nang: 80
- 100%) and lowest in residential areas (0
- 33%). Source: VEPA, 2007. (Table 3.4).
In urban areas characterised by fast
industrial development and intensive
traffic such as Bien Hoa, Thai Nguyen,
Viet Tri and Ha Long, TSP concentrations
in the air at traffic routes, in industrial
zones and surrounding residential areas
are often higher than permitted by the
Vietnam’s standard. Particularly, TSP
pollution has become an alarming problem
in areas adjacent to coal mines (Ha
3 - Data from semi-automatic and manual monitoring stations
Long) and mineral mines (Thai Nguyen).
Hence, at some monitoring sites, 100% of
the one-hour average TSP concentration
samples exceeds the Vietnam’s standard.
In some traffic junctions, the recorded TSP
concentration is 5 times higher than the
Vietnam’s standard with an increasing
Figure 3.1. Dust in Giai Phong Road, Southern
gateway of Hanoi
(Source: VnExpress, 18/6/2007)
39
Chapter 3
trend. Along some traffic routes that have
been upgraded, the pollution has showed
a decreasing trend.
Severe TSP concentrations have not
only been recorded at traffic routes but
also in residential areas, especially those
adjacent to roads with much traffic or
to construction activities (such as the
residential area adjacent to Ha Long coal
sifting company). (Diagram 3.5)
0.45
mg/m
µg/m 3
2003
2004
2005
2006
TCVN 5937-2005
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Resident
areas HCM
City (*)
Notes:
3
2002
0.4
80
2003
2005
2006
2004
Traffic
routes HCM City
(**)
Lang station
- Hanoi
HUCE
station Hanoi
Da Nang
Phu Lien
station - Hai station - Da
Nang
Phong
- (*) Residential areas - Ho Chi Minh city: Average
of 5 automatic monitoring stations in residential
areas
- (**) Traffic routes - Ho Chi Minh city: Average of 4
automatic stations along traffic routes
Diagram 3.6. Average annual NO2 concentrations
in selected urban areas from 2003 to 2006
0.35
0.3
Sources: HEPA, VEPA, National Centre
for Hydrometeorology, 2007
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.07
mg/m 3
0.1
Nam Thanh Nguyen Trai Trung Vuong Ho Tinh Tam Dan Nam Giao
Cong (Hanoi) High School Theater (Da Residental
(Hue)
(Da Nang)
Nang)
areas (Hue)
Ngoi Sao
Hotel (Hai
Phong)
Van My Str.,
(Hai Phong)
Bai Chay
(Ha Long)
Tuyen Than
Center
residental
Co. of
areas (Thai
Residental
area (Ha Long) Nguyen City)
Diagram 3.5. TSP concentrations in residential
areas in selected cities from 2002 to 20064
Source: VEPA, 2007
NO2
0.05
0.04
3.1.2. Toxic Air Pollution
0.03
CO, SO2, NO2 concentrations in the
urban air are generally within permitted
levels.
However,
sometimes,
the
concentration data show an increasing
trend.
0.02
3.1.2.1. NO2 - Pollution Levels Increase
along Urban Traffic Routes
NO2 concentrations are highest in
urban areas with intensive traffic e.g. in
Hanoi and in Ho Chi Minh city. Within
urban areas, the NO2 concentrations are
highest in areas adjacent to traffic routes
(Diagram 3.6 and diagram 3.7).
In Hanoi, the NO2 concentration peaks
in areas with intensive traffic such as
40
SO2
0.06
Traffic
hotsports
Notes:
Along traffic
routes
Industry
production
hotsports
Resident
area
Suburbans
- Traffic hotspots: Average of six monitoring sites
- Alongside traffic routes: Average of 36 monitoring
sites
- Industry production hotspots: Average of 6
monitoring sites
- Residential areas: Average of 81 monitoring sites
- Suburban areas: Average of 5 monitoring sites
Diagram 3.7. One-hour average NO2 and SO2
concentrations in selected areas in Ha Noi
(recorded from 12 January 2007 to 5 February 2007)
Source: SVCAP, 2007
central Hoan Kiem and Hai Ba Trung
districts (Figure 3.2).
In Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city, the
one-hour average NO2 concentration
recorded at traffic routes sometime
exceeds the Vietnam’s standard (0.2 mg/
0.30
mg/m 3
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Hang Xanh
Dinh Tien
Hoang Dien Bien
Phu
Phu Lam
An Suong
Go Vap
Nguyen Van
Linh Huynh Tan
Phat
Diagram 3.8. NO2 concentrations along traffic
routes in Ho Chi Minh city from 2000 to 20075
Source: HEPA, 2007
The percentage of one-hour average NO2
concentrations recorded exceeding the
Vietnam’s standard is between 13 and
85% (Diagram 3.8).
Figure 3.2. NO2 concentration patterns in Hanoi
Source: SVCAP, 2007
m3). One-hour average NO2 concentrations
recorded from roadside stations in Ho
Chi Minh city from 2002 to the end of
June 2007 range from 0.01 - 0.79 mg/m3.
0.04
mg/m
In other urban areas, the NO2
concentration recorded is within the
TCVN 5937-2005. Thus, almost 100% of
the one-hour average NO2 concentrations
recorded meets the Vietnam’s standard.
However, it should be noted that NO2
concentrations are subject to considerable
daily as well as annual variations.
3
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
Dong De Lien Co (Nha
High School Trung Vuong Ngoi Sao Van My Str., Ho Tinh Tam Dan Nam
Trang)
Nguyen Trai Theater (Da Hotel (Hai (Hai Phong) Resident Giao (Hue) (Nha Trang)
areas (Hue)
Phong)
Nang)
(Da Nang)
Diagram 3.9. Fluctuations of NO2 concentrations in urban residential areas from 2002 to 20066
Source: VEPA, 2007
41
Chapter 3
Therefore, sometimes, abnormal local
levels of NO2 concentration may occur.
industry zones in Bien Hoa city) is higher
than in other areas of the cities.
3.1.2.2. SO2 and CO - Within Permitted
Levels
Thai Nguyen city is a steel industry
city and the surrounding industry zones
(e.g. Thai Nguyen steel industry zone,
In general, the annual average SO2 and
CO concentrations in urban areas meet
the TCVN 5937:2005 requirements.
As SO2 is primarily emitted from
industrial activities, there is little
difference in the SO2 concentration in
the air between residential areas and
areas close to traffic routes. The SO2
concentration has gradually decreased
in recent years due to the movement of
production enterprises from the inner
parts of the cities to the city outskirts
(Diagram 3.10).
The SO2 concentration in the air at
industrial hotspots in Hanoi such as
Ha Dinh - Thanh Xuan, Thanh Tri and
Mai Dong - Hoang Mai is much higher
than along traffic routes. The lowest SO2
concentration is found in residential areas
and suburbs (Diagram 3.7 and Figure 3.3).
60
µg/m
3
50
2003
2004
2005
2006
TCVN 5937-2005
40
30
20
10
0
Quang
Trung
(Resident
station) HCM City
Thong Nhat
(Roadside
station) HCM City
Lang
(Resident
station) Hanoi
HUCE
(Roadside
station) Hanoi
Da Nang
Phu Lien
(Resident
(Suburban
station) - Hai station) - Da
Nang
Phong
Diagram 3.10. The annual average SO2 concentration
in selected urban areas from 2003 to 20067
Sources: HEPA, VEPA, National Centre
for Hydrometeorology, 2007
The one-hour average CO and
SO2 concentrations in almost every
city lie within the TCVN 5937 – 2005
requirements. CO concentrations at
intensive traffic routes (Diagram 3.11) are
bigger than elsewhere, however, and in
Bien Hoa 20% of the CO samples recorded
from traffic routes exceeds the Vietnam’s
standards.
The increasing SO2 concentration in
the air is an unavoidable result of the
intensive industrial development. The
concentration of SO2 in areas adjacent to
some industrial zones (Thanh Mieu ward
in Viet Tri city and areas surrounding
7 - Data from automatic monitoring stations
42
Figure 3.3. SO2 concentration pattern in Hanoi City
Source: SVCAP, 2007
Song Cong industry zone) have caused
a considerable pollution of the urban
air. Monitoring data from 2003 to 2007
recorded by the Centre for Environment
Monitoring and Protection of Thai Nguyen
mg/m
12
show that the SO2 concentration is high
in these areas and fluctuates around
the maximum permitted level of TCVN
5937:2005.
3
10
2000
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
2003
8
6
4
2
0
Hang Xanh
crossroads
(HCM City)
Hue three-way
crossroads
(Da Nang)
Hai Van mountain
pass foot
(Da Nang)
Le Thanh Tong
Str., (Ha Long)
Cach Mang Thang
8 Road
(Thai Nguyen)
Tam Hiep
crossroads
(Bien Hoa)
Diagram 3.11. CO concentrations at urban traffic routes from 2002 to 20068
Sources: HEPA, VEPA, 2007
mg/m
3
0.4
2005
2006
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Noi Bai
Bac Thanh
Vinh Tuy
Long Tho
Phu Bai
Hai Phong
Nomura
Cai Lan
Thai Nguyen
Industry zone Long Industry Industry zone
Cement
Industry zone
Cement
Industry zone Industry zone Ironlike zone
Manufactory
(Hanoi)
zone (Hanoi)
(Hanoi)
(Hue)
Manufactory (Hai Phong)
(Ha Long) (Thai Nguyen)
(Hue)
Diagram 3.12. SO2 concentration in selected urban industrial zones from 2005 to 20069
Source: VEPA, 2007
43
Chapter 3
Box 3.2. SO2 pollution accident in Song
Cong
In June 2006 at Song Cong industry zone a
pollution accident took place in which H2SO4
leaked from a zinc electrolysis plant. The SO2
concentration recorded there amounted up to
as much as 1.98 mg/m3, i.e. 6 times higher
than the Vietnam’s standard. Sulfuric Acid fume
concentration reached 7.6 mg/m3, which is 20
times higher than the TCVN 5937-2005. The
high concentrations of SO2 and acid remained for
several days and caused severe damages to rice
crops and plantations.
Source: Thai Nguyen DoNRE
mg/m 3
0.4
SO2
NO2
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
2004
2005
2006
February, 2007
Diagram 3.13. SO2 and NO2 concentrations in Thai
Nguyen steel industry zone from 2004 to 2007
Source: Thai Nguyen DoNRE, 2007
3.1.2.3. Lead - Increasing in Recent
Years
The lead concentration in the
atmosphere in a number of cities nation
wide has decreased dramatically thanks
to the implementation of the Directive
No 24/2000/CT-TTg dated 23 November
2000 on the use of unleaded gasoline
(entered into force on 1 July 2001).
According to a report of the HEPA,
although still being under the permitted
level (1.5 μg/m3), since 2005, the 24hour average lead concentration has been
increasing significantly. Lead concentration
in 2006 increased by between 1.4 and
2.4 μg/m3 in comparison with in 2005
(Diagram 3.14).
3.1.2.4. Benzene, Toluene and Xylene Increasing along Traffic Routes
The concentrations of gaseous BTX
(Benzene, Toluene and Xylene) tend to
increase along traffic routes.
Some studies in Hanoi show that the
concentration of BTX peaks at roadsides
and is lowest in residential areas that are
situated far away from major traffic routes
(Diagram 3.15). This indicates that these
gases are mostly emitted from vehicles.
44
3.5
µg/m 3
3.0
Hang Xanh
Dinh Tien Hoang - Dien Bien Phu
Phu Lam
An Suong
Go Vap
Nguyen Van Linh - Huynh Tan Phat
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Diagram 3.14. Lead concentrations in the air along
traffic routes in Ho Chi Minh city from 2000 to 2007
Source: HEPA, 2007
3
0.015
mg/m
BTX
0.013
0.011
0.009
0.007
0.005
Traffic
hotsports
Traffic
routes
Industry
production
hotsports
Resident
area
Suburban
Diagram 3.15. One-hour average BTX
concentrations in selected areas of Hanoi
(from 12 January 2007 to 5 February 2007)
Notes:
- Traffic hotspots: Average of 6 monitoring sites
- Traffic routes: Average of 36 monitoring sites
- Industrial production hotspots: Average of 6
monitoring sites
- Residential areas: Average of 81 monitoring sites
- Suburban areas: Average of 5 monitoring sites
Source: SVCAP, 2007
Monitoring data from HEPA in recent
years support the trend of increasing
concentrations of benzene and toluene in
the air. The increase in the concentrations
of these toxic chemicals is a result of the
simultaneous increase in the number of
vehicles and the poor-quality gasoline
used.
From the HEPA report citied earlier it
can be found that in 2006 the concentrations
of benzene and toluene increased by 1.1 to
2 and 1 to 1.6 respectively in comparison
with 2005. Besides, it should be noted
that the concentration of Benzene in the
air at main traffic routes of the city such
as e.g. Dien Bien Phu and Hung Vuong
Roads is 2.5 to 4.1 times higher than the
standards (Diagram 3.16).
3.1.3. Noise Pollution - Increasing along
Traffic Routes
Along with the urban development, noise
pollution increased rapidly and considerably
as well.
Noise levels at some main traffic
routes in Hanoi are much higher than
the maximum limits for residential areas
(TCVN 5949 -1998) and almost reach the
permitted maximum levels that apply to
commercial and service areas (Diagram
3.17). At some traffic routes, noise levels
sometimes reach 90 - 100 dBA.
Noise levels on streets in Ho Chi
Minh city are fairly high, ranging from
66 to 87 dBA and often and in particular
during day-time exceeding the maximum
permitted threshold (75 dBA according
to TCVN 5949-1998) (Diagram 3.18).
Although generally the noise levels
during night-time are usually low, they
remain high at roads with intensive truck
operation.
80
µg/m 3
2005
70
2006
60
TCVN 5938-2005
50
40
30
20
10
0
Health
Labour
Centre
Note:
DOSTE
Provide for
Health
Centre
Thong Nhat
Hospital
Hong Bang
High Shool
Binh Chanh
Education
Centre
Annual average standards by TCVN 5938-2005
(Average figures, night-time monitoring data not
available)
Diagram 3.16. The annual average Benzene
concentration along traffic routes in Ho Chi Minh
city from 2005 to 200610
Source: HEPA, 2007
79
dBA
78
TCVN 5949-1998
77
76
75
74
73
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Diagram 3.17. Fluctuations in noise levels at Giai
Phong road (Highway No1) from 2002 to 2007
Source: VEPA, 2007
90 dBA
85
80
75
70
Dien Bien
Phu - Dinh
Tien Hoang
Hang Xanh
Phu Lam
An Suong
Go Vap
TCVN 5949-1998
Diagram 3.18. Noise levels at traffic routes in Ho
Chi Minh city in 2005
Source: HEPA, 2007
45
Chapter 3
82
dBA
80
78
76
74
72
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Hue Three-way corssroads (Da Nang)
Nguyen Van Linh Road (Hai Phong)
Le Duan Road (Hue)
TCVN 5949-1998
Diagram 3.19. Fluctuations in noise levels at traffic routes in Hai Phong,
Hue and Da Nang cities from 2000 to 200611
Noise levels at almost all monitoring
sites on the streets of Hai Phong and Da
Nang exceed the Vietnam’s standards
(Diagram 3.19), especially at the routes with
intensive truck operation. For example,
noise levels are always higher than the
Vietnam’s standards in Nguyen Van Linh
Street (from Highway No.5 through Hai
Phong to Chua Ve Harbour).
However, noise levels at traffic routes
in Hue city are always close to or lower
than the Vietnam’s standards; since 2003
noise levels in Hue city have decreased,
because trucks are no longer permitted to
pass through the city.
Noise levels at traffic routes in most of
the class II urban areas fluctuate around the
maximum limits permitted by the TCVN 5949
– 1998 standard (Diagram 3.20), except in
Bien Hoa where 33% of the noise level
monitoring points shows noise levels
higher than the Vietnam’s standards
permit.
In large urban areas such as Ho Chi
46
80
Source: VEPA, 2007
dBA
75
70
65
60
55
Ha Long Road
2002
Tuan Chau
Le Thanh Tong
str.,
2003
2004
18 High-w ay
(Kenh Dong)
2005
Cao Thang Str.,
2006
Tam Hiep - Bien
Hoa crossroads
w ay (Bien Hoa)
TCVN 5949-1998
Diagram 3.20. Noise levels at some traffic routes in
Ha Long City and at Tam Hiep cross road in Bien
Hoa City from 2002 to 2006
Source: VEPA, 2007
Table 3.5. Noise levels in residential
areas in Ho Chi Minh city
Time of
day
6h – 18h
18h–
22 h
22h – 6h
Level
Residential
areas (dBA)
Residential
areas within
commercial
areas (dBA)
Residential
areas
adjacent to
industrial
zones (dBA)
Average
62.5
66.9
63.3
TCVN 5949-1998
60
75
75
Average
62.6
66.3
63.7
TCVN 5949-1998
55
70
70
Average
61.3
64.7
60.3
TCVN 5949-1998
50
50
50
Source: HEPA, 2007
Table 3.6. Average noise levels in production areas in Ho Chi Minh city
(Unit: dBA)
Handicraft
Time
Industry zone
TCVN 5949-1998
Course 1
Course 2
Course 1
Course 2
6h – 18h
65.4
65.3
60.2
63.1
18h– 22 h
63.5
63.4
58.9
56.2
70
22h – 6h
59.5
58.2
56.3
57.2
50
75
Source: HEPA, 2007
Minh city, noise levels in residential areas
often exceed the level permitted (TCVN
5949:1998) (Table 3.5).
Noise levels in industrial zones and
in handicraft production areas are fairly
high. In particular, noise levels exceed
TCVN 5949-1998 in the period from 22:00
to 6:00 (Table 3.6). The noise pressure is
in fact lower from handicraft production
areas than form industrial zones due to
the types of equipment and machinery
used. Nevertheless, the adverse impacts
imposed on residential areas from
handicraft production are higher than
from industrial zones. This is so because
of the insufficient buffering between
handicraft production activities and
residential ones.
Apart from specific urban areas,
noise levels in residential areas in class
I and II urban areas remain acceptable
(Diagram 3.21). However, along with
the development in the social- economic
80
dBA
Nguyen Trai High School
Trung Vuong Theater
TCVN 5949-1998
75
70
65
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Diagram 3.21. Fluctuations in noise levels in
selected residential areas in Da Nang City from
2000 to 2006
Source: VEPA 2007, Da Nang DoNRE, 2005
activities, an increase TSP concentrations
and noise levels will be unavoidable if
sufficient investments for environment
protection are not made.
3.2. SOME ESSENTIAL VARIATIONS IN
URBAN AIR QUALITY IN HANOI AND
HO CHI MINH CITY
As the seasonal variation in the urban
air quality is different from one part of
the country to the other, this section will
focus on analysing the seasonal variation
in two cities i.e. Hanoi (representing
Northern urban areas) and Ho Chi Minh
city (representing Southern urban areas).
3.2.1. Some Essential Variations in the
Air Quality in Hanoi
Monitoring data indicate that the
monthly average concentrations of TSP,
PM10, SO2, NO2 and CO are high in the
Winter and low in the Summer. They
peak in December/January and are
lowest in July/August (Diagram 3.22).
This variation pattern can also be found
in other regions with similar climate
conditions as in Hanoi.
According to studies (Pham Duy
Hien, Pham Ngoc Dang et.al.), the poor
dispersion capability of the atmosphere in
the Winter hindering the upward motion
of pollutants is the reason for the above
mentioned peak in the concentrations of
pollutants in the urban air. Accordingly,
47
Chapter 3
in the Summer, the warm surface layer
that supports the upward motion of
pollutants together with the rain that
washes out the pollutants in the air is the
reason for the low concentration levels in
the Summer.
Air pollution levels vary significantly
during the day. PM10, CO, NO2
concentrations peak at rush hours (8
a.m. and 6 p.m.) (Diagram 3.23).
µg/m 3
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Ja
n0
M 3
ar
-0
M 3
ay
-0
3
Ju
l-0
Se 3
p0
N 3
ov
-0
Ja 3
n0
M 4
ar
-0
M 4
ay
-0
4
Ju
l-0
Se 4
p0
N 4
ov
-0
Ja 4
n0
M 5
ar
-0
M 5
ay
-0
5
Ju
l-0
Se 5
p0
N 5
ov
-0
Ja 5
n0
M 6
ar
-0
M 6
ay
-0
6
Ju
l-0
Se 6
p0
N 6
ov
-0
6
20
Diagram 3.22. Monthly average PM10 concentrations at Lang station from 2003 to 2006
Source: Vietnam Centre for Atomic Energy, 2007
40
80
NO2, 5/2003
30
60
NO2, 11/2003
40
20
20
0
10
0
2000
1500
6
12
18
0
24
6
4000
3000
CO, 5/2003
12
18
24
18
24
18
24
CO, 11/2003
2000
1000
0
1000
500
0
0
6
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
12
18
0
24
PM10, 5/2003
6
12
140
110
80
PM10, 11/2003
50
0
6
12
18
24
0
6
12
Diagram 3.23. Daily fluctuation in selected pollution parameters at Lang station
in May and November 2003
Source: National Centre for Hydrometeorology, 2006
48
3
180
µg/m
160
160
2006
2005
2004
2003
µg/m 3
2006
2005
2004
2003
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
Months
20
Months
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Diagram 3.24. Monthly average PM10
concentrations at traffic routes in Ho Chi Minh city
from 2003 to 2006
Diagram 3.25. Monthly average PM10
concentrations in residential areas in Ho Chi Minh
city from 2003 to 2006
Source: HEPA, 2007
Source: HEPA, 2007
3.2.2. Some Essential Variations in the
Air Quality in Ho Chi Minh city
In Rainy season, noise levels in the inner
city streets also decrease due to reduced
traffic volumes (mostly motorbikes).
Ho Chi Minh city, like other areas in the
South, has two seasons, the Dry and the
Rainy season. Pollution increases in the
Dry season (from October to April) and
decreases in the Rainy season (Diagrams
3.24 and 3.25).
Figure 3.4. Pollution source from road construction
49
Chapter 3
Chapter 3 provides information on the air quality of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city as well as of a number
of Class I and Class II urban areas.
The most critical issue of air quality in urban area is dust pollution (TSP and PM10). Unacceptable dust
levels occur in almost every area of the cities, especially at traffic junctions and at construction works.
In general, the concentrations of toxic gases in the urban air environment are within permitted thresholds.
However, sometimes the concentration of these gases increase in certain areas. NO2 concentrations are
highest and increasing along urban traffic routes; the SO2 concentration in industrial areas is higher
than in other areas. While the Lead concentration has remained within the permitted threshold since the
Government Directive on the use of unleaded gasoline came into force (1 July 2001), in recent years the
concentration of it in the air has tended to increase. The concentrations of benzene, toluene and xylene
show an increasing trend along traffic routes.
Noise levels are increasing along traffic routes, especially the ones with much traffic.
Urban air quality varies according to season and time of the day. This is partly due to climatic conditions
and partly due to traffic and industry production patterns.
50
4
IMPACTS OF
URBAN AIR
POLLUTION
Chapter 4
The air environment is vital for the life
on the earth of which the human being is a
part. Air pollution leads to adverse impacts
on public health, economic development
and on nature and environment itself.
A number of studies have been
undertaken world wide which have
provided convincing results regarding the
impacts of a degrading air quality. A recent
Korea Environment Institute (KEI) report
estimates that economic losses due to air
pollution in Korea is between 24 and 45
billion USD per year. This figure is based
on the expenses that people have to pay
for health care, on economic losses caused
by working hours lost and reduced labour
productivity, on economic losses due
to reduced agriculture and aquaculture
productivity and finally on expenses
for necessary additional maintaining of
buildings and infrastructure due to air
pollution. The economic loss estimated
by KEI is equivalent to 7 to 13% of the
Korean GDP (Source: Air Pollution in the
Megacities of Asia (APMA) project. Report
Stage 1. 2002).
Another issue of international attention
recently is the air quality of Beijing City,
China, the host city of the Olympics
2008. According to Mr. Jacques Rogge
(Chairman of the International Olympics
Committee, IOC), air pollution may lead
to the cancellation of some of the games of
the Olympics 2008. On 19 June 2007, the
air pollution level reached the socalled
API 202, 4A category threshold meaning
“adverse effects on cardiovascular and
pulmonary patients, lowering resistance
of body in exercises and bringing about
negative impacts on communities”. China
has been nominated the host the Olympics
2008 partly due to its stated commitment
to organize a “Green Olympics”. Chinese
leadership has made a commitment to
invest 12.2 billion USD to bring SO2,
NO2 and CO in accordance with WHO
standards. However, evidence like the
above mentioned indicate that probably a
number of additional measures will have
to be taken. (Source: BBC, AFP, October
2007).
As in other countries, research on the
impacts of air pollution has been of special
attention in Vietnam. However, due to a
number of reasons only limited research
has been carried out so far. This chapter
provides information on the impacts of
air pollution in Vietnam based on results
of Vietnamese research in the field.
4.1. IMPACTS ON PUBLIC HEALTH
Air pollution imposes severe impacts on
human health, especially on respiration.
Studies carried out in Vietnam show that
air pollution weakens human health,
speeds up the aging process, weakens
the lung function leading to asthma,
53
Chapter 4
bronchitis, cancer, cardiovascular diseases
and reduces the average human life. The
most sensitive groups to air pollution
include elderly people, pregnant women,
children less than 14 years old, sick
people and people working outdoor.
The actual level of the impact on the
individual human being depends on the
individual’s health, the concentration and
types of pollutants in question and the
exposure time.
Statistics from the Ministry of Health
covering recent years indicate that
respiratory diseases are the most common
in Vietnam (Table 4.1). As a matter of fact,
several respiratory diseases are directly
caused by polluted air that contains
particulates, SO2, NOx, Pb, etc. These
types of air pollution are responsible for
diseases such as respiratory inflammation,
asthma, tuberculosis, allergy, chronic
bronchitis and cancer.
The percentage of people affected by
respiratory diseases is much higher among
people living around industry zones than
by people living in rural areas (Table 4.2).
The percentage of chronic bronchitis in
Table 4.1. Most common air pollution
related diseases in Vietnam
No
1
2
3
Diseases
Pneumonia
Angina and acute
tonsillitis
Bronchitis and acute
bronchitis
Affected people
(Per 100.000
people)
415.09
Percentage
(%o)
4.16
309.40
3.09
305.51
3.06
Source: Year Book, MOH 2005 –Ministry of Health
54
Table 4.2. Percentage of people affected
by pollution related diseases living
around Thuong Dinh industry zone and in
Phu Thi commune, Gia Lam, Hanoi
Diseases
Percentage of
affected people
in a polluted
area (Thuong
Dinh) (%)
Percentage
of affected
people in a
non-polluted
control area
(Phu Thi) (%)
6.4
36.1
17.9
2.8
13.1
15.5
28.5
16.1
17.5
13.7
31.4
26.3
17.6
6.5
30.6
21.5
40.7
37.7
29.4
22.8
Chronic bronchitis
Upper respiratory tract
Lower respiratory tract
Eye symptom (SBS – sick
building syndrome)
Nose symptom (SBS
syndrome)
Throat symptom (SBS
syndrome)
Skin symptom (SBS
syndrome)
Botanic Mental symptom
(SBS syndrome)
Mental symptom (SBS
syndrome)
Malfunction of breathing
Notes:
Data obtained by examining 1.218 people living in
Thuong Dinh industry zone and 792 people living in
Phu Thi commune, Gia Lam, Hanoi
Source: Project on improving air quality in
Asian developing countries, 2004
urban and industrial areas (Thuong Dinh
in Hanoi: 6.4%) is 2.29 times higher than
in rural areas (Phu Thi in Gia Lam, Hanoi:
2.8%). A study in Hai Phong shows that
the prevalence of all respiratory related
diseases taken together in polluted areas
is between 1.91 and 7.6 times higher than
in unpolluted areas
The percentage of people affected by
bacteria infection in the respiratory tract
in urban areas with industrial activity
such as the Quang Ninh area (coal mining)
is many times higher than in the other
urban areas (Table 4.3)
Table 4.3. Statistics on the prevalence of diseases in two major hospitals
of Hai Phong and Quang Ninh
No
Viet Tiep Hospital - Hai Phong General Hospital - Quang Ninh
Diseases
No. of people
%
No. of people
%
1
Acute pharyngitis and tonsillitis
13,169
24.00
23,329
47.77
2
1,227
2.23
789
1.61
4,859
8.85
184
0.37
4
Tracheitis, laryngitis
Upper respiratory tract
inflammation
Pneumonia
65
0.12
478
0.98
5
Asthma
1,353
2.47
1,231
2.52
6
Occupational lung diseases
16
0.03
2,264
4.63
Total
20,689
37.70
28,275
57.88
3
Note:
Average data in the period of 1999 to 2002
Source: Environment assessment and forecast for northern and southern economic regions, 2004
Box 4.1 Prevalence of respiratory disease
among people living in cities on a permanent
basis
Bac Kan
Lao Cai
Dak Nong
Hanoi
The percentage of people affected by chronic
diseases of ears, nose, throat and by influenza is
much higher among people who live in cities for
more than 10 years than among people who live
in the areas for less than 3 years.
Phu Tho
Thai Nguyen
Quang Ninh
Hai Phong
Thua Thien - Hue
Khanh Hoa
Da Nang
%o
Ho Chi Minh City
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Diagram 4.1. Percentage of people contracted
tuberculosis in some cities/provinces in 2005
Sources: Statistics Year Book 2005,
Ministry of Health, 2006; GSO, 2007
In most cases, the percentage of people
affected by air pollution related diseases
in large cities such as Hanoi, Hai Phong,
Da Nang, Ho Chi Minh etc. is higher
than in provinces without large cities.
This is illustrated by assessment data on
the prevalence of respiratory diseases
in provinces and cities, in particular for
tuberculosis (Diagram 4.1).
The risk of being affected by chronic
diseases of ears, nose, throat and by
influenza is much higher among people
Research in particular areas on the health
of households living in cities for more than 10
years compared to households living in cities for
less than 3 years shows that the percentage of
the more permanent residents being affected by
chronic diseases of ears, nose and throat, and by
allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, as well as by
diseases of skin and eyes is 72.6%, whereas it is
only 43% for people living in cities for less than
three years.
The highest percentage of people being
affected by stuffy-ness, chronical dripping from
the nose and sore throat is recorded in Hoang
Mai district (Hanoi) and the lowest in Hoan Kiem
district (Hanoi).
Source: Khoahoc.com.vn, 28/03/2007
who live in polluted cities on a more
permanent basis than among people who
live in these areas for less than 3 years
(Box 4.1).
55
Chapter 4
Some research also indicates that the
risk of being affected by air pollutants
depends on the transportation means
used. Accordingly, people who use
motorbikes are the most affected group
(Box 4.2).
the development of children’s nervous
system.
With increasing urban air pollution in
the future, the impacts on human health
will increase as well, if effective measures
are not taken (Table 4.4).
It should be noted that air pollution
apart from causing respiratory diseases
also affects the foetus growth and detains
Box 4.2. Impacts of air pollution on people using different transportation means
In October 2006, the West-East Center in collaboration with the Center for Urban Environment Engineering
and Industrial Zones conducted monitoring where PM10 and CO concentrations were monitored by portable
devices worn by pedestrians, bus passengers and motorbike drivers and car drivers . Below are some of
the monitoring results:
Average PM10 concentration (μg/m3): 580 for motorbike drivers, 495 for pedestrians, 408 for car drivers,
and 262 for bus passengers.
CO concentration (ppm): 18,6 for motorbike drivers, 8,5 for pedestrians, 18,5 for car drivers, and 11,5
for bus passengers.
A comparison based on the above data shows that bus passengers are the least affected by air pollution,
whereas motorbike drivers are the most affected. The dust concentration monitored inside cars with doors
closed is reduced 30-40%, while the CO concentration is the same no matter whether the doors are open
or closed.
Source: VEPA, 2007
Table 4.4. Forecast of air pollution related illness in Hanoi
Impacts
Adult chronic pneumonia
Children acute pneumonia
Number of cases
2005
2010
987
2,174
2020
4,872
8,890
19,580
43,889
Hospitalised due to respiratory tract diseases
233
513
1,150
Hospitalised due to cardiovascular diseases
204
450
1,008
9,617
21,181
47,479
18,478
260,942
584,916
1,563,910
3,444,434
7,720,888
7,476,373
16,466,340
36,910,203
Emergency
Stuffy
Decrease of daily activities
Number of days suffered from respiratory tract
diseases
Source: Hanoi DoNRE, 2008
56
4.2.
IMPACTS
DEVELOPMENT
ON
ECONOMIC
Economic losses due to impacts on
human health
Economic losses due to the impacts
from air pollution on human health
include expenses that people have to
pay for health care, losses caused by
working hours lost and decline in labour
productivity etc. The project ’Survey,
inventory and assessment of impacts
from pollution of the environment on
public health‘ carried out in Phu Tho and
Nam Dinh provinces by VEPA in 2007
estimated that the economic loss caused
by impacts of air pollution on human
health amounts to 295,000 VND per capita
per year, corresponding to approximately
5.5% of GDP . Assuming that these results
apply to the situation in Hanoi and Ho
Chi Minh cities, the daily economic losses
in would be 2.58 billion VND in Hanoi
(3.2 million people) and 4.94 billion VND
in Ho Chi Minh city (6.1 million people).
However, since the air pollution in big
cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh city,
Hai Phong and Da Nang actually is much
higher than in Phu Tho and Nam Dinh
provinces, the impact from it on human
health in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city
is probably much higher as well, thereby
causing larger economic losses.
Economic losses due to impacts on crops
Particulates in the air absorb ultraviolet
radiation from the sun, resulting in
difficulties for trees to germinate and
grow. In heavily polluted areas, leaves
on trees are covered by a thick dust layer
that hinders the photosynthesis process
taking place, in this way making the
trees stunted.
In Vinh Long, smoke emitted day
and night from 120 potteries and 1.100
brick production enterprises has stifled
coconut plantations in surrounding
areas. Other trees like mango and
jackfruit can be in blossom but cannot
set fruit; only longancan set fruit but at
low productivity only.
Emission from the operation at
maximum capacity of approximately 50
brick kilns located in ward 1 and 2 of
Long Bien Commune (Long Bien District,
Hanoi, including Thanh Cau), has reduced
the incomes of farmers. Currently, the
income of Mr. Thu (Ward 2, Thanh Cau)
from 2000m2 of pumpkin buds farming
is only 300.000 VND/year, whereas he
earned 20 million VND/year from the
same land in 2003-2004 when the area
was not polluted .
Air pollution in Viet Tri, Bai Bang Lam Thao (Phu Tho province) causes
negative impacts on farm products.
Banana plantations in Xuan Huy, Chu
Hoa, Cao Mai communes have currently
been damaged by SO2 emitted from the
Lam Thao Fertiliser Factory. Due to
an accident at the factory in 1997, farm
products from the above mentioned
communes were damaged and the factory
had to pay a compensation of 80 million
VND to the farmers.
Economic losses due to impacts on
building and material quality
The presence of pollutants like SO2
and NOx in the air brings about acid rain
and acid accumulation, both of which are
responsible for reducing the durability of
buildings and materials.
57
Chapter 4
As SO2 brings about severe adverse
impacts on major construction materials,
buildings may be gradually destroyed by
air polluted with SO2 The simultaneous
presence of SO2, NO2 and O3, affects major
construction materials such as metals
(copper, tin etc.), organic compounds
(paint) and bricks. Hence, air pollution
reduces equipment durability as it brings
about rust, spoils cover paint layers,
destroys decoration items, corrodes
pipes etc. The decline in the durability
of materials increases maintenance and
replacement costs.
According to monitoring data on acid
deposition in some urban areas in the
North, the phenomenon described mostly
occurs in cities like Hai Duong and
Thai Nguyen and in their surroundings
(Diagram 4.2).
14
Tons/km
2
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Box 4.3. Acid accumulation and its impacts
Acid accumulation occurs when the air is
polluted with SO2 and NOx. These gases will
condense in the atmosphere and react with
vapour and other substances to form liquid and
gaseous acid that will subsequently return to the
surface.These processes take place over long
distances and that is why, emission sources
in one country may affect the air quality in
neighbouring countries. Acid accumulation may
have severe consequences for human health,
crops, plant productivity, forests, wildlife, and may
reduce the durability of or even destroy buildings
and materials.
Source: Institute of Hydrometeorology and Environment
Box 4.4. Tourism and environment in Ha
Tay
Ha Tay has opened its doors for craft village
tourism, but without success. Among the many
reasons for this, environment has been seen as a
major one. Soil, water and air in most craft villages
have been alarmingly polluted from the production
processes in the villages. This is so even in new
craft villages such as Phuong Hiep sewing village
(Phuc Tho), which otherwise should have been
particularly prepared for craft village tourism. One
additional problem here is the poor infrastructure
with sludgy roads in rainy days and dusty ones in
sunny days.
Source: Lao Dong Newspaper, No 179, 01 July 2006
58
Hanoi
Hai Phong
Hai Duong
Thai
Nguyen
Bac Giang
Bac Ninh
Diagram 4.2. SO2 deposition in some provinces
in the North in 2001
Source: Institute of Mechanics, 2001
Impacts on tourism
Pollution in general and air pollution
in particular may have negative bearings
for the tourism activities in Vietnam.
The concern stems from the fact that
several tourism destinations have been
polluted as a consequence of a number
of economic activities taking place there
including tourism activities themselves
(e.g. construction works unintentionally
destroying tourist sights, increase of noncollected waste volumes, destruction of
coral reefs as a consequence of extraction
of construction material etc.).
Table 4.5 shows that the percentage
of foreign tourists who gives high score
to the cleanliness in large cities such as
Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh city and Hai Phong is
much lower than in cities like Hue, Khanh
Hoa and Da Nang, thereby illustrating
Table 4.5. Tourism environment assessments by foreign tourists
Provinces/Cities
Total interviewee
Clean
Results (%)
Medium
Below medium
Hue
665
84.8
14.3
0.9
Khanh Hoa
691
84.4
15.5
0.1
Da Nang
438
82.0
18
0
Quang Ninh
600
81.2
18.8
0
1,582
73.7
25.8
0.5
491
70.1
29.3
0.6
1,310
66.0
32.4
1.6
8,195
74
25.2
0.8
Hanoi
Hai Phong
Ho Chi Minh
Total
Source: GSO, 2005
that foreign tourists actually take a note
of the environmental circumstances in
the places they visit. This indicates that
air pollution problems as well as other
environmental problems are likely to
pose a considerably risk for the further
development of tourism in Vietnam.
To avoid this, environmental problems
in general and air quality problems in
particular must be addressed.
4.3. AIR POLLUTION AND CLIMATE
CHANGE
Air pollution poses a number of serious
threats to biodiversity and ecosystems,
the most serious one being the risk for
climate change.
A lot of scientific evidence shows that
human activities seem to be the main
reason for climate change and global
warming.
most
Greenhouse
gases,
CO2
importantly but also other gases such as
CH4, N2O, CFC, etc. have always been
present in the atmosphere. However,
since the industrial revolution, the
emission of these gases has grown
at an increasing rate. This has lead
to an accumulation of these gasses
in the atmosphere and subsequently
brought about global warming and the
greenhouse effect. The growth in the
emission of GHGs is particularly due to
the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil,
gas) for e.g. industrial, transportation
and agricultural purposes. At the same
time, the natural absorption of CO2 from
forests has been reduced as a consequence
of extensive forest destruction. Table 4.6
provides information on the increase of
CO2 emission per capita in Vietnam and
globally.
While GHGs emission per capita in
Vietnam is currently lower than the
global average, it has increased rapidly
in recent years (from 1.5 to 2.3 during
the last 15 years). The rapid urbanisation
and not least the uncontrolled migration
from rural to urban areas combined with
the fact that most urban areas are located
in coastal zones are crucial factors that
intensify the impacts of climate change
on Vietnam.
If GHGs emissions are not reduced in
the coming time, it is foreseen that the
59
Chapter 4
Table 4.6. CO2 emission per capita
Unit: tons/person
2004
2010
America*
20
21.6
Europe*
11
11
Global average*
5
China*
4
Vietnam**
2020
2025
27.6
8
1.5
1.6
2.3
Sources: (*) Climate Change 101: Understanding and
Responding to Global Climate Change, 2007
(**) First National Communication of
Vietnam to UNFCCC, 2003
Figure 4.1. Dying in flood
earth surface temperature will increase 2 3oC within this century. As a result, water
supply will decrease in some regions, the
occurence of floods and droughts will be
more frequent and storms will be more
intense and harder to predict. In addition,
ice melting will lead to a rise in the sea
level threatening coastal zones.
40,000 km2 of the coastal delta areas
of Vietnam will be flooded every year;
90% of the Mekong Delta area will be
completely flooded.
As most of the GHGs and the gases
causing air pollution are emitted from
the same major sources such as the
combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil,
gas), industrial activities, transportation,
agriculture and forestry, the control and
mitigation of these activities will achieve
two objectives at the same time: reduction
of urban air pollution and mitigation of
climate change.
Diagram 4.3. indicates that if the sea
level rises by 1 meter, 10.8% of Vietnam’s
inhabitants will be directly affected (3
times higher than Taiwan - China which
comes in second). The table also indicates
that Vietnam is the country among 84
developing countries that is to be most
affected by a sea level rise. Approximately
45
1 meter
2 meters
3 meters
4 meters
5 meters
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
Papua New
Guinea
Brunei
South
Korea
North
Korea
Malaysia
China
Indonesia
Philipines
Canbodia
Taiwan
China
Myanmar
Tahiland
Vietnam
0
Diagram 4.3. Percentage of the population in Asian countries to be affected by a sea level rise
Source: The Impact of Sea Level Rise on Developing Countries: A comparative Analysis - World Bank, 2007
60
Box 4.5. Impacts of climate change on Vietnam
Impacts on agriculture
•
Decrease in the number of subtropical crop species
•
Reduction of agriculture land
Impacts on water resources
•
Alteration in rain patterns leading to serious flooding in rainy seasons and droughts in dry seasons
•
Increase in storm frequency and intensity, leading to floodings, land slides and erosion
•
Decrease in water supply leading to increase of conflicts over water use
Impacts on forestry and biodiversity
•
Sea level rise leading to alterations in mangrove forests
•
Alteration in the allocation of the forest area between primary and secondary types of forests
•
Larger extinction risks regarding flora and fauna and genetic resources in general
•
Larger risks for forest fires and disease dispersion
Impacts on aquaculture and fisheries
•
Increase in temperature leading to changes in the quantity and quality of the fish stock , increase in tropical
species and decrease in subtropical species
•
Decrease in the stock of species with high economic value and changes in the composition of the types of
valuable species present in Vietnam
Impacts on coastal zones
•
Inundation of most of the delta areas of the Mekong and the Red River as well as the central coastal areas
•
Adverse impacts on coastal wetlands, especially in Ca Mau, Ho Chi Minh city, Vung Tau and Nam Dinh
Impacts on energy and transpotation
•
Offshore oil-rigs affected by storms and hurricanes
•
Old harbours and transportation infrastructure affected
•
Decrease in supply of hydro-electricity due to droughts
•
Unstable hydrology scheme, leading to conflicts regarding hydropower operation schemes
•
Increase in energy consumption
Impacts on health
•
More general appearance of diseases that formerly were limited to appear in smaller local areas
•
Increase in number of people affected by diseases
•
Increase in risk for alterations of the human biorhythm
Source: Presentation of Prof. Dr. Tran Thuc,
Workshop “Global climate change and response measures of Vietnam”, Hanoi 26 - 29 February 2008
61
Chapter 4
Air pollution leads to the increase in the percentage of people affected by respiratory diseases. This
percentage has tended to increase in recent years.
Air pollution has economic impacts as well, i.e. increasing costs for health care, working hour losses
and reduced labour productivity, reduced agriculture and aquaculture productivity as well as increasing
costs for maintenance of buildings and materials. Finally, air pollution hampers tourism.
Emissions to the air from human activities also lead to climate change that in turn have a number of
adverse impacts on the environment.
Figure 4.2. Pho restaurant on
Ma May street, Hanoi
Source: Trung Dung
62
Figure 4.3. Go to school in air
- polluted environment
Source: Thanh Thuy
5
ACHIEVEMENTS
AND CHALLENGES
IN URBAN AIR QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES
IN URBAN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Chapter 5
5.1.2. Reduction of Emissions to the
Air
5.1. ACHIEVEMENTS
5.1.1. Phasing Out of Leaded Gasoline
Vietnam was the 7th nation in the
ASEAN area that phased out leaded
gasoline. On 23 November 2000, the Prime
Minister issued Directive No 24/2000/
CT-TTg on the use of unleaded gasoline,
which entered into force nation wide on
1 July 2001. Since then, the concentration
of lead in the urban ambient air has
been reduced considerably (Diagram 5.1).
Hence, monitoring data from Ho Chi Minh
city show that the monthly average Lead
concentrations were reduced remarkably
right after the adoption of the ban and
have maintained at permitted levels.
µg/m
2.5
3
2.0
Monthly average Lead concentration in the air
1.5
1.0
0.5
Times
0.0
Jan00
Jul00
Jan01
Jul01
Jan02
Jul02
Jan03
Jul03
Jan04
Jul04
Jan05
Jul05
Jan06
Jul06
Jan07
Diagram 5.1. Monthly average Lead concentration
in the air in Ho Chi Minh city from 2000 to 2007
Source: HEPA, 2007
Urban air is polluted by several
emission sources such as transportation,
open-air waste combustion, use of coal
for domestic activities (emitting PM10
and various toxic substances) and
discharge from factories. In recent years,
a number of measures have been applied
in various areas in order to reduce the air
pollution.
Strengthening vehicle emission control
To manage and control vehicle
emissions
in order to
mitigate air
pollution and to
gradually improve
environmental quality in general and
the quality of the urban air in particular,
the Prime Minister issued Decision No
249/2005/QD-TTg dated 10 October 2005
on a plan for the application of emission
standards for motorized vehicles. In order
to implement the new standards, since 1
July 2006 the Ministry of Transport has
conducted emission tests for vehicles in
operation in 5 cities (Hanoi, Hai Phong,
Da Nang, Ho Chi Minh city and Can
Tho) and for secondhand imported
vehicles. Since 1 July 2007, the Euro 2
emission standards have been applied
for domestically assembled and imported
new vehicles. Investments in facilities and
65
Chapter 5
human resource development have been
made to make the implementation of the
new emission standards feasible.
The Vietnam Registration Office
(Ministry of Transport) has adopted a
list of 24 laboratories which the domestic
and international vehicle manufacturers
can choose between when testing the
emissions of their products.
The strict application of emission
standards requires that vehicles are
maintained and frequently tested (testing
results in the five pilot cities in 2006
showed that 10% of vehicles tested did
not meet the standards). The Decision
No 249/2005/QD-TTg is an evidence of
the determination of the Government
in gradually applying stricter emission
requirements to vehicles.
Strengthening transportation
management and improving public
transportation in urban areas
To limit the number of individual
transportation means causing air pollution
and to reduce traffic jam, authorities are
paying particular attention to measures
for improving public traffic systems and
for enhancing traffic management. In
big cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh
city, Da Nang, Hai Phong and Can
Tho, the number of inner-city buses
and interprovincial coaches has been
increased remarkably (although far
from sufficiently). Together with these
measures, projects comprising express
bus systems, sky trains and subways have
been initiated in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh
city. In addition, by-pass routes, specific
lanes for buses, overpasses and tunnels
have been established in a number of
places. (Diagram 5.2 and Box 5.1)
66
3,500
No. of Bus
3,100
No. of
250
Routes
Number of bus
200
Number of routes
2,700
150
2,300
100
1,900
50
1,500
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Diagram 5.2. Number of buses and bus routes in
Ho Chi Minh city from 2000 to 2006
Source: Department of Public Transport,
Ho Chi Minh city, 2007
Box 5.1. Strengthening public transportation
capacity of Ho Chi Minh city
According to the city traffic development plan
applying for 2020, the city will conduct a number
of measures to enhance the traffic system.
Noteworthy measures include:
- Renovation of main roads in the inner part
of the city to ensure the smooth traffic circulation
and taking into account the specific conditions of
each route/road in order to reduce the need for
clearance of space for road enlargements. This is
in line with the approved city development master
plan which focuses more on the use of sky bridges
or subways.
- Construction of four connected sky bridge
routes in order to relieve the pressure on existing
roads with large traffic volumes.
Source: Decision No 101/QD-TTg dated 22 January 2007 of the
Prime Minister approving the Plan for transportation development
in Ho Chi Minh city to 2020 and vision beyond 2020
Requirements for
reduce pollution
manufactures
to
To strictly control industrial emission
sources inside and outside of urban
areas, strict emission standards have been
issued. Research from Vietnam Cleaner
Production Centre on Industries shows
that big factories have applied cleaner
production technologies, energy efficiency
measures and other technologies to
control emission volumes in order to meet
these standards, and that the application
of cleaner production techniques has
contributed to the reduction of air pollution
and energy use as well as to cost saving
and productivity increase. However,
so far only little effort has been made
by small and medium size enterprises
to apply these technologies. This also
underscores the fact that environmental
authorities have difficulties in reaching
out to the smaller enterprises as these are
typically not located in industrial centres
but more scatteredly located.
5.1.3. Control of Dust from Construction
Sites and from Transportation of
Materials
The Law on Environment Protection
from 2005 comprises requirements
regarding environment protection in
general, and control of dust emissions
from
construction sites in particular.
As a response to the increase in the dust
pollution stemming from construction
sites and material transportation, urban
authorities of certain big cities such
as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh city, Da Nang
Box 5.2. Legislation on environment
protection in conjunction with construction
activities
- Article 48 and 83 of the Law on Environment
Protection from 2005 both requests that
construction sites need to comply with environment
protection requirements in general and dust
control requirements in particular.
- City and Provincial People’s Committees
have issued likeminded regulations such as e.g.
Directive No 29/2002/CT-UB of the People’s
Committee of Hanoi regarding a strengthening
of the management, inspection, and treatment of
violations in conjunction with the transportation
of construction materials and waste on the city
territory. Similarly, the Directive No. 09/2007/CTUBND issued by the People’s Committee of Ho
Chi Minh city dated 27 March 2007 regarding the
environmental protection of the surroundings to
construction sites.
and others issued regulations requesting
that construction sites need to be fenced
in and covered in order to prevent the
dispersion of dust to the surroundings.
Further that construction materials must
be properly covered when transported
and that transportation of construction
materials is only allowed during nighttime. The result of these initiatives has
been a considerable reduction of dust in
the street.
5.1.4.
Resolute
Handling
of
Establishments
Causing
Severe
Pollution
Figure 5.1. Dust from transportation vehicles
Decision No. 64/2003/QD-TTg of the
Prime Minister, regarding the approval
of the Plan to deal with establishments
causing serious pollution is an example
of
the firm determination of the
Government to prioritize environment
protection. Up to December 2006, after
3 years of implementation of phase
1 of the Decision, out of the total
439 establishments comprised by the
67
Chapter 5
Decision, 145 establishments (33%) are
now complying with standards, while
225 establishments (51.2%) have applied
measures for pollution mitigation but
are still not complying fully. The results
of the implementation of Decision No.
64/2003/QÑ-TTg has contributed to the
improvement of the environmental quality
in general and of the air quality in particular
in urban areas all over the country.
5.1.5. Phasing Out Vehicles Technically
Inadmissible for Use
The Government Decrees (No. 92/2001/
ND-CP, No. 23/2004/ND-CP and No.
110/2006/ND-CP), which constitute the
legislative basis for phasing out vans
and passenger buses/coaches that do
not meet the technical requirements to
be admissible for use, have contributed
considerably to reducing the emission
of toxic gasses. After the first 3 years of
implementation of these Decrees, over
44,500 obsolete and expired vehicles
have been excluded from transportation
activities. Following a new road-map
starting from February 2007, in 2007
another 10,000 obsolete vehicles were
taken out of circulation. (Source: Vietnam
Vehicle Registration, 2007).
Box 5.3. Regulations regarding expiry of
trucks and busses
The Government Decree 23/2004/ND-CP
issued by the Prime Minister on 13 January
2004 regarding expiry dates of trucks and
buses stipulates a three phase schedule for the
phasing out. At the same time, The Government
adopted the Decree 92/CP (amended by Decree
110/2006/ND-CP dated 28 September 2006) on
conditions to be fulfilled in order to be allowed
to provide passenger transportation services.
These conditions include expiry dates for the
transportation means used. According to the
decrees, the phasing out should be finalized by 1
February 2007.
68
Recently, in the same manner the ban
on home-made vehicles has contributed
to reducing air pollution as well.
5.1.6. Implementation of Priority
Programmes for Improving Urban Air
Quality in Vietnam
As a part of the implementation of
the ‘National strategy on environment
protection to 2010 and orientation to
2020’, the Ministry of Transport has
issued the Decision No 4121/QD-BGTVT
dated 01 November 2005 on the approval
of the framework for a master plan for
the implementation of the so-called
‘Programme 23’: ‘Improving air quality in
urban areas’. The Ministry of Transport,
the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment, the Ministry of Science and
Technology, the Ministry of Industry and
Commerce, the Ministry of Construction
and the People’s Committees of Hanoi
and Ho Chi Minh city are responsible
for implementing eight priority projects
within this program. Up till now, the
following activities under ‘Programme
23’ have been undertaken.
Development,
approval
and
implementation of six projects, three of
which being under the responsibility of
the Ministry of Transport.
- The Ministry of Science and
Technology and the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment have actually
integrated the priority Project No 2
‘Completing legislation and standards
for controlling urban air environment
pollution’ into their ordinary legislation
and standard preparation activities.
- Development of a project on emission
control of motorbikes in operation in big
cities (it is foreseen that this project will
be submitted to the Prime Minister for
approval in October 2008).
5.1.7. Compulsory Application of
Vietnam’s Standards on Air Quality
Vietnam’s standards on air quality
were promulgated for the first time in
1995, amended in 2001 and again in 2005.
On December 18th 2006 the Minister of
MONRE signed Decision No. 22/2006/
QÑ-BTNMT regarding the compulsory
application of Vietnam’s Environmental
Standards. Vietnam has four standards
regarding air quality (Box 5.4). Some of
the standards are still less strict compared
with those of international organizations,
but compared with other countries in the
region the standards range middle.
5.1.8. Urban Air Quality Monitoring
Apart from acquiring knowledge
on the air quality itself, the purpose of
air quality monitoring is to assess the
effectiveness and impact of policies and
measures for air environment protection.
In Vietnam, since 1994, air monitoring
activities
have
been
implemented
through national and local monitoring
programmes. Since year 2000, automatic
air monitoring stations have been put
into operation to provide continuous
monitoring data in cities such as Hanoi
(5 stations), Ho Chi Minh city (9 stations),
Hai Phong (2 stations), Da Nang (2
stations) etc. In addition, investments
have also invested for mobile automatic
air monitoring stations i.e. 2 for Hanoi
and 1 for Ho Chi Minh city.
In other localities, due to budget
limitations, uncontinuously monitoring
have still been applied at a frequency of
4-6 times per year. The air monitoring sites
are located in environmental hotspots of
big cities or in industry zones.
Box 5.4. Vietnam’s standards on air quality
1. TCVN 5937-2005 - Air quality - Ambient air
quality standards
2. TCVN 5938-2005 - Air quality - Thresholds of
some toxic substances in ambient air
3. TCVN 5939-2005 - Air quality - Industry
emision standards for dust and inorganic
substances
4. TCVN 5940-2005 - Air quality - Industry
emision standards for selected organic
substances.
Box 5.5. Priorities of the air quality monitoring
activities of the national environment
monitoring network up to 2020
-
To concentrate on industry zones, busy urban
areas, craft villages, areas used for waste
dumping and waste treatment facilities.
-
To set up monitoring sites in a monitoring area
(province, city, industry zone and economic
zone) only in accordance with a detailed
monitoring programme.
-
To install automatic monitoring stations in big
cities and urban areas (approximately 1 station
per 300,000 people).
Source: “Master plan on natural resources
and environment monitoring network up to 2020”, 2007
On 29 January 2007, the Prime Minister
approved the Decision No 16/2007/QDTTg on a “Master plan on natural resources
and environment monitoring network
up to 2020”. According to the plan by
2020 the modernized air environment
monitoring network will include 58
automatic ambient air monitoring stations
nation wide. These stations will be linked
together by a management centre and will
continuously keep track of the air quality
nation wide.
69
Chapter 5
5.1.9.
Strengthening
International
Cooperation on Air Quality
Vietnam has actively participated
in the development and ratification
of international conventions on the
environment and made efforts to
implement these conventions as well as to
fulfill commitments and responsibilities as
Box 5.6. MoNRE’s activities as the Vietnam’s
national focal point of the UNFCCC and
Kyoto Protocol.
MONRE has been implementing
coordinating activities as follows:
and
1. Establishment
of a working group and
provision of technical specialists, comprising
officers, experts and scientists from relevant
ministries, agencies, universities and research
institutes to carry out projects relating to
climate change.
2. Completion
and submission of the First
National Communication on Climate Change
to the UNFCCC Secretary.
3. Completion of the GHG Inventories in Vietnam
for 1990, 1993 and 1998.
4. Development and evaluation of options for
GHG reduction; proposals for measures for
climate change adaptation.
5. Development and implementation of a number
of climate change projects.
6. Establishment of a national focal point on
climate change.
7. Establishment of an
Committee on CDM.
Advisory
a full member. Vietnam ratified the UN
Framework Convention on the Climate
Change (UNFCCC) on 16 November 1994
and the Kyoto Protocol on 25 September
2002 as one of the first countries to do so.
Mobilizing international support to
address urban air environment problems
has been prioritized in recent years. In
a number of bilateral and multilateral
projects, many foreign governmental
organizations and NGOs have been cooperating with Vietnamese partners on
management and control of air quality in
some big cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh
city, Da Nang, Hai Phong and Hai Duong.
Among these partners, organizations
such as CAI-Asia, the World Bank (WB),
SVCAP, JICA and DANIDA should be
mentioned in particular. Through these
projects and programmes, a number of big
cities have achieved important agreements
on implementation of objectives for air
quality improvements. Hanoi, Ho Chi
Minh city and Hai Phong have committed
themselves to comply with the Charter of
CAI-Asia and have implemented many
environmental
protection
activities.
Results of the cooperation projects have
been reflected in the efforts to protect the
air quality in a number of big cities.
Steering
8. Provision of
guidelines to partners who
develop CDM projects in Vietnam.
9. Development of legal framework for CDM
activities in Vietnam.
10.Organization of meetings, workshops, fora
and training courses on CDM and advocacy
related to UNFCCC and the Kyoto protocol.
11. Enhancement and promotion of cooperation with
international organizations, countries, and other
relevant partners relating to climate change,
CDM and UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.
Source: MONRE, 2007
70
Figure 5.2. In the callibration laboratory
Box 5.7. Examples of international projects
regarding urban air environment
The Swiss-Vietnam Clean Air Programme
(SVCAP) has as its development objective
to contribute to prevention of the continued
degradation of the air quality in Hanoi and
surrounding areas. Some of the activities focus on
public awareness raising on air pollution and its
impacts on human health. In addition, Hanoi is the
host of WB funded projects with the objective to
improve capacity of the government staff involved
in air quality management.
Vietnam is one of parties that signed the
ASEAN Agreement on transboundary haze
pollution in 2002. The Agreement is the first one
in the world to bind neighbour countries to jointly
address haze pollution caused by forest fires. The
Agreement aims at strengthening the efforts for
implementing the ASEAN Regional Haze Action
Plan (RHAP). The Plan was signed by the South
East Asian countries in 1999, after the haze
disaster due to forest fires in Indonesia in 1997
impacting around 20 million people in the region.
Being a member country, the challenge to Vietnam
is the implementation of the commitments stated
in the Plan.
Source: MONRE, 2007
5.2. SHORTCOMINGS AND CHALLENGES
5.2.1. Unclear Organisation and Unclear
Assignment of Responsibilities and
Tasks within Air Quality Management
Authorities
In 2002, MONRE was established as the
body responsible for state management
of natural resources and environment.
In recent years, MONRE has accelerated
the development and accomplishment
of the legislative basis for environment
management, including the air quality
management. However, up till now, the
division of functions and responsibilities of
air quality management between different
authorities has not been transparent. This
is one of the main reasons for the present
level of enforcement of the legislation for
air quality management, - a level which
is inadequate and less than the level of
enforcement of legislation regarding other
environmental components such as water
and solid waste.
Together with MONRE, other ministries
and agencies have responsibilities for
air environment management and
protection as well, such as MOT, MOIT,
MOH, MOC, MOST, MOF and MPS. In
each of these ministries, a Department of
Environment monitoring environment
has
been
established.
However,
responsibilities for air environment
management have not been prioritized
and clearly assigned.
In provinces, in spite of the presence
of units of environment management
(previously called Division/Unit and
recently called Environmental Protection
Sub-agencies), air quality management
has not been prioritized properly. Little
has been done on air quality management
at local level.
In conclusion, there is no clear allocation
of tasks and responsibilities regarding air
quality management between central and
local levels.
5.2.2. Insufficient Legislation on Urban
Air Quality
Of recent years, the environment
protection legislation has been improved
and has contributed considerably to
enhancing environment management
and protection. Examples are the Law on
71
Chapter 5
Environment Protection and the Vietnam’s
environment standards system. Further,
quite a number of legislative documents
in the field of environment have been
issued by local People’s Committees as
well.
However, when it comes to air quality
management in particular, the legislative
support has been insufficient.
5.2.3. Lack of an Air Quality Management
Plan
According to experience of other
countries, the preparation of a plan for
air quality management is essential.
Presently in Vietnam, plans for air quality
management at national and local levels
have not been prepared. However, with
support from the Swiss-Vietnam Clean
Air Program (SVCAP), Hanoi is preparing
a Plan for Air Quality Management.
The experience and expected outcomes
stemming from this activity will probably
be useful as inspiration for similar
activities in other cities as well as on the
national level.
The previous absence of such an air
quality management plan was one of
the reasons for that CAI-Asia (Clean Air
Initiative for Asian Cities) only ranked
Ho Chi Minh city at “average” level and
Hanoi as “limited” level among cities in
Asia with regards to the capacities for air
quality management (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1. Assessment of air quality management capacity
Levels
Excellent
Good
Average
Limited
Low
Mark
Cities
Excellent I
91-100
Hongkong, Singapore, Taiwan, Tokyo
Excellent II
81-90
Bangkok, Seoul and Shanghai
Good I
71-80
Beijing and Busan
Good II
61-70
New Delhi
Average I
51-60
Ho Chi Minh city, Jakarta, Kolkata, Manila and Mumbai
Average II
41-50
Colombo
Limited I
31-40
Hanoi and Surabaya
Limited II
21-30
Dhaka and Kathmandu
0-20
This ranking system is based on the following indicators: (1) Indicator regarding air quality monitoring that assesses the
air quality monitoring activities, the accuracy and the representativeness of data; (2) Indicator regarding data processing
methodologies and data availability and accessibility ; (3) Indicator assessing the emission inventories conducted; (4)
Indicator assessing the air quality management set up including the institutional arrangements.
Source: Clean air initiative for Asian Cities, July 207
72
5.2.4. Insufficient Capabilities Regarding
Monitoring of Air Quality and Air
Emissions
Weaknesses regarding
monitoring include:
air
quality
- As the national environmental
monitoring network has not been fully
implemented, the air quality monitoring
activities are fragmented and sometimes
duplicated, not following a uniform
procedure, and not covering all indicators
needed.
- In general, the monitoring equipment
is out-dated, and the data storage,
exchange and processing systems are
insufficient.
- The production of air quality data
is not co-ordinated at network level and
no procedures for regular data exchange
are in place. This leads to difficulties for
a proper exploitation and use of current
data for forecasting and policy making
purposes.
- Quality assurance and quality control
procedures (QA/QC) in air quality
monitoring are insufficient.
- The budget for air quality monitoring
has been limited and insufficient in
comparison with the air quality protection
requirements.
Emission inventories have
established
and has consequently not been carried out
to any appreciable extent in urban areas.
Hence, in the past, emission inventory
development has only been at a pilot
scale.
5.2.5. Insufficient Investments
The budget allocated for environmental
protection in Vietnam has been increasing
over time, especially since 2006, when the
National Assembly approved to allocate
1% of the total annual state budget
for environmental management and
protection activities. However, there are
difficulties regarding the disbursement
of this budget in sectors and localities.
According to experience of other countries,
the budget for air quality management
accounts for a significant part of the
total one for environment protection. In
Vietnam, preliminary assessments show
that investments for air quality protection
are not proportionate to investments for
other environmental issues.
According to MPI, among total
investments for environment protection
counting both ODA and national projects,
only USD 276.2 millions, accounting for
Waste solid
16.3%
Other
5.3%
Waste Air
7.1%
not been
Similar to air quality monitoring,
the setting up of emission inventories
will provide data on fluctuations and
trends of emissions from different
sources, which are essential for policy
making and environmental management
purposes. Nevertheless, so far this task
has not been prioritized properly by the
environment management authorities,
Waste
water
71.3%
Figure 5.3. Composition of environmental projects
according to problems addressed from 1996 to 2005
Source: MPI, 2007
73
Chapter 5
7.1% of total investments, have been
allocated for air quality purposes in
Vietnam (Figure 5.3).
5.2.6.
Insufficient
Training
Research
and
Up to 2006, 32 universities and 10
colleges
are offering education in
environmental disciplines. There are 49
modules at university level, 25 modules
at the post graduate level and 10 modules
at college level.
The number of people who have been
educated in an environmental discipline at
university level has been increasing. Still
today, however, almost all environmental
management staff members in provinces
are educated within other disciplines.
Presently, in Vietnam there is only little
research on air pollution in particular on
assessments of the state of air pollution
in general and on air pollution in urban
areas in particular. Some of the agencies
and research institutes such as the MOST,
MONRE, the Institute of Atomic Energy
and the Epidemic Prevention Institute
have carried out research on air pollution.
However, this research has not been
disseminated as yet. To properly assess
the state of air pollution in Vietnam,
74
research should be undertaken on the
development of air emission indexes for
the main air pollutants in urban areas, on
pollution dispersion models and on the
impacts of the air pollution development
on the urban air quality
5.2.7. Limited Public Participation
It is emphasized in the ‘National strategy
on environment protection to 2010 and
orientation to 2020’ that: “Environmental
protection is the responsibility of the whole
society, all levels, sectors, organizations, the
community and all people “. The success
of the environmental protection depends
heavily on public participation.
There are, however, constraints for
the public participation in environmental
protection. Public awareness on air
quality and air pollution issues is low
and the awareness raising activities
undertaken have not been sufficient to
improve the situation. Therefore, the
public participation in environmental
protection policy and decision making has
been limited. Similarly, the willingness of
enterprises and the public in general to
comply with laws and regulations on air
environmental protection has not been
adequate.
Chapter 5 assesses urban air quality management in Vietnam of the recent past. The chapter
provides information on the achievements as well as on the shortcomings of the current urban air quality
management. The achievements include:
- Phasing out leaded gasoline
- Mitigating emissions; controlling dust emisions from construction and transportation activities
- Gradually phasing out technically inadmissible vehicles
- Developing Vietnamese standards for air quality
- Conducting and currently improving urban air quality monitoring
Shortages and challenges include:
- Unclear organisation and unclear assignment of responsibilities and tasks in urban air quality
management;
- Lack of legislation specifically addressing urban air quality issues
- Lack of an air quality management plan
- Lack of regular monitoring of emissions
- Insufficient investments
- Insufficient training and research
- Limited public participation
Figure 5.3. Smog in Hanoi
Source: Hoang Xuan Khanh
75
6
URBAN AIR
ENVIRONMENT
PROTECTION
MEASURES
Chapter 6
URBAN AIR ENVIRONMENT
PROTECTION MEASURES
Air environment pollution is a
complicated issue and relates to
various activities in urban areas such as
construction, land use, transportation,
domestic activities, industry, energy,
etc. Therefore, air pollution control and
mitigation is to succeed only if integrated
measures are employed.
While some emission mitigation
measures have currently been applied
in urban areas, they are not sufficient
to decelerate urban air pollution.
The measures have been tardily and
uncoordinatedly implemented.
In order to address urban air pollution,
there is a need to determine and develop
measures, priorities and sound itineraries.
Based on the analyses in previous
chapters, Chapter 6 will focus on priority
measures on air environment protection
in the coming time in the country.
6.1. IMPROVING ROLES, RESPONSIBILITIES
AND STRUCTURES OF URBAN AIR
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AUTHORITIES
6.1.1. Improving Structures of Urban Air
Environment Management Authorities
This task refers to the improvement of
roles, responsibilities and structures of
the air environment management system
from central to local levels so that the
roles of air environment management
agencies, units and focal points are to be
clearly determined. This includes:
- At central level: to clearly identify a
national focal point for air environment
management under MoNRE.
- At province/city levels: to clearly
identify local focal points for air
environment management, especially in
Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City and in other
Class I urban areas.
- To develop coordination mechanisms
among ministries/sectors and between
localities regarding air environment
protection (MoNRE, MOT, MOC, MOIC
and big urban areas).
Box 6.1. The establishment
environmental police force
of
the
On November 29th 2006, the Minister of Pubic
Security signed a decision on the establishment
of the Department of Environmental Police (DEP)
belonging to the General Department of Police,
and on the establishment of an Environmental
Police Division in each of the 64 provinces. On
March 6th 2007, the DEP was officially launched.
The establishment of DEP marks a determined
intention to investigate and monitor pollution
sources in the different sectors and to punish
violations against environmental laws and
regulations. The operations of DEP will reduce
emissions and improve the effectiveness of the
air quality control and management activities.
79
Chapter 6
6.1.2.
Establishing
Information
Mechanisms on Urban Air Quality
- To establish information sharing
mechanisms on urban air quality
among ministries/sectors and localities.
To establish and implement effective
information sharing regulations.
To select a focal point under MoNRE
as a standing body responsible for
coordination (in the form of an urban
clean air network like the urban clean air
networks in Asian urban areas).
- To establish information system and
database on air quality and emissions
in urban areas in order to share and
exchange information among the urban
areas and for air environment quality
research, monitoring, assessment and
forecasts nation wide.
6.2.1. Continue to Improve Legislation
and Policy Making Framework
Improving legislation on air quality
protection includes improving the legal
system on air environment protection
by clearly determining the rights and
responsibilities of organisations and
individuals involved in air quality
protection, by detailing penalties for
violations and by establishing regulations
obliging polluters to pay compensation
for damages done to the air quality. This
includes:
- To study and develop mechanisms
to integrate air quality protection into
sectoral and local development strategies
and plans, especially in the urban and
industry zone development plans;
of
- To continue to review, revise, amend
and improve legal documents on air
quality protection;
- To enhance quantity and qualifications
- To improve the penalty system in
conjunction with violations of air quality
protection regulations;
6.1.3.
Strengthening
Capacities
Implementing Agencies
of
officials
in
charge
of
managing
environment, in general, and of air
environment in particular at all levels,
taking into consideration the actual
conditions of the particular areas in
question.
- To enhance the capacity of managers
and inspectors for conduction inspections
and
for
handling
of
violations
of
regulations in order to ensure strict
compliance.
80
6.2. IMPROVING LEGISLATION AND
POLICIES ON URBAN AIR QUALITY
PROTECTION
Box 6.2. Emission tax
In collaboration with the Ministry of Finance,
MoNRE has developed a government decree
on an emission tax as an economic tool urging
polluters to mitigate their discharges. The aim of
the emission tax is to alter the discharge practices
of the polluters towards mitigating adverse impacts
on the environment. The decree encourages
individuals and organisations to employ clean fuels
and environmentally benign technologies, and to
install filters and various treatment facilities.
Source: MoNRE, 2007
- To promote the development and
application of an emission tax - an
economic tool that encourages polluters
to
mitigate
their
emissions
to
the
environment.
6.2.2. Developing Law on Clean Air
A Law on Clean Air is to be integrated
into
the
legislation
development
programme of the National Assembly
soon, and will constitute an important
legal framework for air quality protection
activities.
6.2.3. Reviewing and Improving National
Standards on Air Quality
Given that some of the present
ambient air quality standards are not
compatible with international standards,
there is a need to review and improve
the Vietnamese
standards for some
pollutants such as PM10, SO2, NO2 and
O3 and to develop new standards for
pollutants such as PM2.5 and BTX.
6.2.4. Developing Regulations on Urban
Air Quality Protection
The cities should promptly initiate
the preparation, promulgation and
implementation of a regulation on urban
air quality protection. The regulation
should clearly describe responsibilities
of each authority managing activities
potentially contributing to air pollution in
order to timely prevent adverse impacts
on the urban air quality.
6.3. DEVELOPING AIR
MANAGEMENT PLANS
QUALITY
6.3.1. Developing a National Air Quality
Management Plan
There is a need to promptly develop
and implement a national air quality
management plan. The national plan
should constitute a framework for the
preparation of local air quality management
plans, containing requirements and main
principles for these regarding what they
should comprise, such as immediate and
long-term objectives, priorities, budget
as well as implementation measures,
timeframes and responsibilities.
MoNRE leads the development of
the national air quality management
plan in consultation with a number of
ministries/sectors including the MOT,
MOIC and MOC. The national air quality
management plan should be in line with
the national five years plan for socialeconomic development, with environment
protection strategies and policies and
should be linked to sectoral/ministerial
and local plans.
6.3.2.
Developing
Air
Quality
Management Plans for Hanoi, Ho Chi
Minh City and Other Big Cities
Local air quality management plans
should be developed and implemented
in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh cities and Class
I urban areas. Hanoi is in the process of
developing an air quality management
plan to 2020. The plan should be promptly
finalised and brought into practice so that
it can serve as a model for other urban
areas.
81
Chapter 6
6.4.1. Budget Improvements for Air
Quality Management
benefits. On 2nd August 2007, the Prime
Minister signed Decision No. 130/2007/
QÑ-TTg on a number of financial policies
and mechanisms for CDM investment
projects. This decision constitutes the legal
basis for facilitating the development of
CDM projects in Vietnam.
- To increase the funding of air quality
management purposes from the state
budget and ODA.
6.5. PROMOTING URBAN AIR QUALITY
CONTROL,
MONITORING
AND
EMISSION INVENTORIES
6.4. MORE FINANCIAL RESOURCES
AND INVESTMENTS FOR AIR QUALITY
MANAGEMENT PURPOSES
- To effectively disburse the budget for
air quality management purposes from
the 1% annual state budget source.
- To mobilize funds from international
organisations and donor countries
supporting urban air quality management
and protection. To develop a directory of
priority projects on air quality protection
to be financed from ODA.
According to the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) included in the Kyoto
Protocol (comes into effect from 2012),
Vietnam is considered one of the potential
countries in terms of CDM compliance.
The participation of Vietnam in the
carbon emission trading market may
help Vietnam not only to reduce carbon
emissions but also to receive economic
Box 6.3. Ho Chi Minh City emission trading
project
Ho Chi Minh City has signed a contract with KM
Green Company, South Korea, on the exploitation
of carbon emissions from two landfills in Phuoc
Hiep 1 and Dong Thach. According to the contract,
during 7 years the Company will pay over USD 20
millions to Ho Chi Minh City in return for the right
to exploit carbon emissions from the two landfills.
By the beginning of 2007, Ho Chi Minh city has
received the first USD 1 million from this project.
82
6.5.1. Establishing Air Quality Monitoring
Network and Emission Inventory
- To enhance the implementation of
Decision No. 16/2007/QÑ-TTg dated
29th January 2007 issued by the Prime
Minister regarding the establishment of
an environmental monitoring network
by accelerating the development of an
air monitoring network in big cities,
densely populated urban areas and
industrial zones in order to monitor and
quickly detect air pollution problems and
important air emission sources.
- To increase investment in advanced
technologies and other physical facilities
for air monitoring stations especially in
big cities and focal economic zones as
well as to increase investment in data
handling and transfer.
- To develop an urban air monitoring
network with automatic and mobile
monitoring stations.
- To establish air emission inventories,
which similar to air quality monitoring
would provide extremely valuable
data for policy making and air quality
management purposes. This task should
be initiated by establishing air emission
inventories in urban areas and this should
be done promptly.
- To regularly disseminate information
based on air quality monitoring and
emission inventory data to line ministries,
cities/provinces and other relevant
organizations.
6.5.2. Controlling and Mitigating Dust
Pollution
Dust pollution is a critical urban
air quality issue. As the two main dust
pollution sources are construction and
transportation, efforts to control and
mitigate dust pollution should prioritize
these sources. Detailed measures include:
- To request construction sites operators
to control dust from the construction sites
and from vehicles carrying construction
materials.
- To plan appropriate transportation
routes through urban areas.
- To water and clean roads regularly
especially in dry seasons.
- To clean vehicles before entering the
cities and before leaving construction sites.
6.5.3. Measures to Control and Mitigate
Emissions from Road Transportation
- To promote public transport (buses,
sky trains, underground trains etc) and
non-polluting transportation means.
- To encourage the development of vehicles
using clean fuels such as LPG, natural gas,
alcohols, bio-diesel and electricity.
- To enforce the legislation on vehicle
emissions such as:
+ To effectively enforce the Euro 2
standards.
+ To conduct an annual check of vehicle
emissions and vehicle maintenance.
+ To prohibit the operation of obsolete
vehicles by enhancing the implementation
of the last stage of the invalidated vehicle
phasing out process according to the
Government Decree No 23/2004/ND-CP.
6.5.4. Measures to Control and Mitigate
Emissions from Industry and Domestic
Activities
- To make industries comply strictly
with standards on air emission which are
compulsory for both operating industries
and newly established or expanded ones.
Particular focus on enterprises with
high pollution potentials (for example
construction material manufacturing
enterprises).
- To apply emission mitigation measures
including application of clean technology
measures, installation of end-of-line
mitigating equipment, improvement of
fuel combustion processes and the use of
cleaner fuels.
- To reduce air pollution in craft
villages located in and adjacent to
cities and urban areas: Replacing coal
and petrolium with gas and electricity
as primary energy sources; applying
measures for air emission treatment in
each establishment.
- To limit air pollution from human
activities in residential areas, through
measures of advocating and encouraging
the community to use clean fuels for
cooking instead of wood, coal and
petroleum; improving the quality of
roads within residential areas;
- To increase the vegetation cover in
urban areas by planting more trees in
streets and by expanding parks.
83
Chapter 6
6.5.5. Monitoring the Quality of Imported
and Domestically Produced Gasoline
To comply with the Decision No 50/2006/
QD-TTg taken by the Prime Minister
regarding the obligation of imported
petroleum to meet the Vietnamese quality
standards (TCVN 6776-2005 for petroleum,
TCVN 5689-2006 for diesel). This is to be
done by strengthening the examination of
imported and domestically manufactured
and blended petroleum products in order
to establish whether they meet current
standards or not. Particular attention
should be paid to the Lead contents of the
petroleum and the Sulphur contents in oil.
6.6. PROMOTING RESEARCH AND
TRAINING ON AIR QUALITY ISSUES
6.6.1. Promoting Research
- Promoting science and technology
research regarding air quality
- Promoting research on impacts of
air pollution on human health and on
the conditions for social - economic
development in order to enable the
identification of appropriate measures
to protect public health and to ensure a
sustainable socio-economic development.
6.6.2. Promoting Training
- To increase the number of students
and trainees dealing with environmental
subjects at all educational levels.
- To strengthen the integration of
environmental subjects into the curriculum
of other disciplines at universities and
colleges.
84
6.7. IMPROVING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
6.7.1. Raising Awareness of Urban
Communities
- To enhance awareness of managers
and policy makers in terms of air pollution
and its impacts.
- To raise public awareness of the
importance of air quality for human
health and the quality of life in general.
To
strengthen
information
dissemination
to
communities.
This includes the development and
dissemination of an Air Quality Index
(AQI).
- To disclose information and data
on air pollution and its sources in the
mass media in this way enabling the
communities to understand air pollution
issues and raising community awareness
on air quality protection.
6.7.2. Improving Public Participation
- To encourage direct participation of the
public in the environmental management
system, in different stages of air quality
management activities, i.e. in the initial
discussions as well as in planning,
implementation and evaluation.
- To develop detailed mechanisms to
attract support and participation from
communities in air quality protection
matters.
6.8. ENHANCING THE IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE “PROGRAMME ON URBAN AIR
QUALITY IMPROVEMENT”
- The Ministry of Transport, the Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environment,
the Ministry of Science and Technology,
the Ministry of Industry and Commerce
and the Ministry of Construction are to
continue to enhance the implementation
of priority projects under the framework
of the ‘Programme 23’.
- The People’s Committees of Hanoi
and Ho Chi Minh city are to supervise
the implementation of project No. 6
“Application of integrated measures to
absolutely reduce dust in urban traffic
routes in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city”
in order to ensure that the objectives of
the overall framework of Programme 23
are fulfilled.
- In October 2008, the Ministry of
Transport is to submit to the Prime
Minister the “Proposal on control
emission from motorbikes in operation in
big cities” for approval.
- In 2009, The Ministry of Transport is
to put the Centre for Vehicle Emission
Testing into operation.
- The Ministry of Transport is to develop
a time schedule for the application of the
Euro 3 and Euro 4 emission standards in
Vietnam.
6.9. IMMEDIATE MEASURES
The control and mitigation of air
pollution in urban areas should be
implemented comprehensively and in
close co-operation with line ministries
and cities. The local governments have an
important role in control and mitigation
of the air pollution sources. The
measures presented will be implemented
successfully only with participation and
comprehensive support from the local
governments, in particular the urban
governments.
Air pollution levels in cities are critical.
Table 6.1 below summarizes 18 measures
(divided into eight main groups cf.
above), which are necessary to implement
in order to control and mitigate the air
pollution in urban areas.
The measures are listed in the second
column of the table according to the
sections of this chapter (column 1) in
which they are described. In the third
and fourth column, the main executing
and collaborating agencies are listed
for each measure. The fifth column
provides references to where in chapter
5 the shortages are mentioned that the
measures are going to address.
SELECTION OF PRIORITIES
Figure 6.1. Cleaning the environment
Source: Van Phuc
Naturally,
the
simultaneous
implementation of the all measures
above would be the best. However, as the
cities cannot implement all the measures
at once, it is necessary to select some
high priority measures. The selection
of the high priority measures has been
based on the following criteria: Urgency,
effectiveness, investment affordability,
feasibility of implementation.
85
Chapter 6
Table 6.1. Urban air environment protection measures
Headings of
Chapter 6
6.1
Executing
agencies
Improving structures of urban air quality management
authorities
MoNRE
6.1.2
Establishing information mechanisms on urban air
quality
MoNRE
6.1.3
Strengthening capacities of implementing agencies
MoNRE
6.2.1
Collaboration
agencies
Ministry of Interior,
Line Ministries,
Chapter 5,
localities
Section 5.2.1
MOT, MOC,
localities
Line ministries,
localities
Improving legislation and policies on urban air quality protection
Continue to improve legislation and policy making
framework
Line ministries,
localities
6.2.2
Developing Law on clean air
MoNRE
Line ministries,
localities
6.2.3
Reviewing and improving national standards on air
quality
MoNRE
MOST
6.2.4
Developing regulations on urban air quality protection
6.3
Developing a national air quality management plan
6.3.2.
Developing air quality management plans for Ha Noi
and Ho Chi Minh City and other big urban areas
6.4.1.
6.5
Chapter 5,
Section 5.2.2
City authorities MoNRE
Developing air quality management plans
6.3.1
6.4
Shortages to
be addressed
Improving roles, responsibilities and structures of urban air quality management
authorities
6.1.1
6.2
MoNRE
Line ministries,
localities
City authorities Line ministries
More financial resources and investments for air quality management purposes
Budget improvements for air quality management
Ministry of
Planning and
Investment
Line ministries,
localities
Chapter 5,
Section 5.2.3
Chapter 5,
Section 5.2.4
Promoting urban air quality control, monitoring and emission inventories
6.5.1
Establishing air quality monitoring network and
emission inventory
MoNRE
Localities
Chapter 5,
Section 5.2.5
6.5.2
Controlling and mitigating dust pollution
Localities
Line ministries
Chapter 2
6.5.3
Measures to control and mitigate emissions from traffic Localities
Line ministries
Chapter 2, 3
Chapter 5,
Section 5.2.6.
6.6
Promoting research and training on air quality
6.6.1
Promoting research
Research
institutes
Line ministries
6.6.2
Promoting training
Universities
Line ministries
6.7
6.7.1
Raising awareness of urban communities
Localities
Line ministries
6.7.2
Localities
Line ministries
6.8
6.8.1
86
Activities
Enhancing the implementation of the “Programme on urban air quality improvement”
Implementing projects under the programme
Ministry of
Transport
Line ministries,
localities
Chapter 5,
Section 5.2.7
Chapter 5,
Section 5.2.8
Based on the above, the following
measures have been considered the high
priority ones:
1. Improving structures of urban air
quality management authorities Executed by MoNRE in collaboration
with the Ministry of Interior ;
2. Establishing information mechanisms
on urban air quality- Executed by
MoNRE;
3. Developing regulations on urban air
quality protection - Executed by urban
areas;
4. Developing a national as well as
local air quality management plans –
Executed by MoNRE and the relevant
localities ;
5. Promoting urban air quality control,
monitoring and emission inventories
-
Executed
by
MoNRE
and
the
localities;
6. Controlling
and
mitigating
dust
pollution - Executed by the relevant
localities ;
7. Impelementing
the
projects
under
the programme ‘Urban air quality
improvement’
-
Executed
by
the
Ministry of Transport.
The
executing
agencies
should
promptly start implementing the above
mentioned measures in 2008.
87
Chapter 6
Based on the outcome of the previous chapters, the aim of Chapter 6 is to identify a number of
prioritised measures to properly address the urban air quality problems and shortcomings described in the
report. 19 measures divided into 8 categories are recommended. Based on the capacities of the ministries
and the localities, 7 high priority measures have been selected for immediate action.
Source: Tuan Linh
88
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Chapter

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