MIG WP 16 (rev) INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FOR

MIG WP 16 (rev)
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FOR EMPLOYMENT
Working Paper
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON
INTERNATIONAL RETURN MIGRATION
(2nd revised edition)
Note:
This paper is issued by the International Migration for
Employment Branch. It is circulated informally in a limited
number of copies to stimulate research and action.
September 1986
Printed in Switzerland
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Copyright © Organisation internationale
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First published 1986
Premiere edition
Primera edicidn 1986
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- i -
A. FOREWORD
This is a paper of the ILO's International Migration for Employment
Branch. The objectives of the Branch are to contribute to (1) the evaluation,
formulation and application of international migration policies suited to the
economic
and
social
aims
of
governments,
employers'
and
workers'
organisations, and (2) the increase of equality of opportunity and treatment
of migrants and the protection of their rights and dignity.
Its means of
action are (a) research and reports, (b) technical advisory services, (c)
technical co-operation, (d) meetings and reports and (e) work concerned with
international labour standards.
The Branch also collects, analyses and
disseminates relevant information and acts as the information source for ILO
constituents, ILO units and other interested parties.
Return migration has become an increasingly topical subject in recent
years due in part to the recession that hit Western European States of
employment and the large scale temporary engagement of Asian workers in Arab
States of employment.
Among researchers as well as policy makers there
persists the opinion that relatively little is known about return migration or
that existing publications yield little useful information.
Be that as it
may, I thought it might be useful to compile the information that was readily
available here in Geneva.
The material is arranged by authors in alphabetical order. However, to
help readers who are only interested in publications relating to particular
regions of migration, each item is preceded by an Identifier, as follows:
GE = General, i.e. applies to several regions or return migration
generally
AF = Africa
AS = Asia including Arab States of the Gulf region
LA = Latin America, including Guyana, French Gujana, and Suriname
NC = Northern America and Caribbean
AO = Australian, New Zealand and Pacific Islands
WE = Western Europe
As items are arranged by authors they are presented only once, but there
may be several identifiers. For example, a study on Italian return migrants
from the United States may be proceded by NC or WE or both, depending on the
apparent focus of the publication. Items concerning Turkey are preceded by WE
if the work in question concerns Turkish return migration from Western Europe,
but AS would be found if the subject were Turkish return migration from Arab
States.
- ii -
The original version of this bibliography was prepared by Mr. Solon
Ardittis during his stay at the ILO in 1984.
This second edition is revised partly by the addition of new items and
partly by the addition of summaries under existing items. Many of the
summaries of English-language terms have been drawn from the outstanding
"Sourcebook of evaluative abstracts" by Russell King and Alan Strachan (see p.
76). I am grateful to these two specialists of return migration questions for
permitting us free use of their "Sourcebook".
A new item or additional information
following the regional identifier.
is
indicated
by
an
asterisk
It is intended from time to time to update this bibliography. It would
be greatly appreciated if interested readers could supply missing or new items.
September 1986
W.R. Bohning
*
- iii -
A. PREFACE
Le present document est publie par le Service de la Migration
internationale pour l'Emploi. Les objectifs de ce Service sont de contribuer
a 1) 1'evaluation, la formulation et la mise en oeuvre de politiques de
migration internationale conformes aux buts economiques et sociaux des
gouvernements et des organisations d'employeurs et de travailleurs; et a 2)
1'extension de l'egalite de chance et de traitement des migrants, et la
protection de leurs droits et de leur dignite. Les moyens d'action du
Service
sont: a) la recherche et les etudes; b) la fourniture d'avis
techniques; c) les activites de cooperation technique; d) 1'organisation de
reunions; e) divers travaux relatifs aux normes Internationales du travail.
En outre, le Service rassemble, analyse et diffuse des informations relatives
aux questions de migrations Internationales pour l'emploi et fait fonction de
source de renseignement a l'egard des pays Membres, des Services du Bureau et
de tout autre interesse.
L*emigration de retour est devenue un sujet d'actualite croissante au
cours de ces dernieres annees, en partie a cause de la recession qui frappe
les pays europeens d'emploi et du flux massif de travailleurs temporaires
asiatiques dans les pays arabes d'emploi. Selon l'avis des chercheurs et des
responsables politiques, le domaine des migrations de retour est aujourd'hui
relativement meconnu, et les publications disponibles a ce sujet ne suffisent
pas a une information de bon aloi. Sans trancher cette opinion, j'ai cru
utile de compiler toutes les informations disponibles ici a Geneve.
Ce materiel est ordonne par auteurs et par ordre alphabetiaue.
Cenpendant, afin d'aider les lecteurs plus particulierement interesses par des
publications ayant trait a des regions de migration precises, chaque titre a
ete precede d'une cle, de la maniere suivante:
GE = General (si la publication se refere a plusieurs pays ou aux
migrations de retour d'une maniere generale)
AF = Afrique
AS = Asie (y compris les Etats arabes de la region du Golfe)
LA = Amerique Latine (y compris la Guyane, la Guyane Francaise et le
Suriname)
NC = Amerique du Nord et les Cara'ibes
AO = Australie, Nouvelle Zelande, et les lies du Pacifique
WE = Europe de 1'Quest
- iv -
Les publications etant classees par auteurs, elles n'apparaissent qu'une
seule fois, mais elles peuvent etre precedees de plusieurs cles. Ainsi, une
etude sur les migrants de retour italiens en provenance des Etats-Unis peut
etre identifiee par NC, WE, ou les deux, selon le contenu de la publication.
Les titres concernant la Turquie sont precedes par WE s'ils concernent la
migration de retour turque en Europe et par AS s'il s'agit d'une emigration de
retour depuis les Etats Arabes.
La version originale de cette bibliographie a ete preparee par
M. Solon Ardittis pendant son sejour au BIT en 1984.
Cette deuxieme edition comprend de nouvelles rubriques. Nous avons en
outre ajoute des sommaires la ou parfois lis manquaient dans la premiere
edition. Plusieurs des sommaires des textes en anglais ont ete etablis a
partir du "Sourcebook of evaluative abstracts" de Russell King et Alan
Strachan (voir p. 76). Je tiens a remercier ces deux specialistes des
questions liees au retour des migrants, pour nous avoir autorise a utiliser
librement leur "sourcebook".
Les nouvelles rubriques ou toute nouvelle information sont signalees par
un asterisk (*), apparaissant apres 1'indication regionale.
II est prevu de tenir cette bibliographie a jour. Pour cela, nous
saurions gre aux lecteurs interesses de nous signaler toute omission relevee
dans le present document
et de nous tenir informes des prochaines
publications a ce sujet.
Septembre 1986
W.R. Bohning
*
- V -
A. PROLOGO
Este es un documento publicado por el Servicio de Migraciones
Internacionales con Fines de Empleo de la OIT. Los objetivos del Servcio
consisten en contribuir a 1) la evaluacion, el diseiio y la ejecucion de
politicas en materia de migracion internacional conformes a los objetivos
economicos y sociales de los gobiernos y de las organizaciones de empleadores
y trabajadores y 2) el ammento de la iqualdad de oportunidades y de trato, y
de la proteccion de los derechos y la diquidad de los trabajadores migrantes y
de los miembros de sus familias.
Sus medios de accion son a) estudios e
informes b) servicios de asesoria c) actividades de cooperacion tecnica d)
reuniones tecnicas y
e) trabajos relacionados con instrumentos y nomas
internacionales. El Servicio tambien recopila, analiza y difunde informacion
relevante a los miembros y unidades de la OIT y a otras partes interesadas.
La migracion de retorno se ha convertido en un tema de creciente
actualidad en los ultimos afios debido a la recesion economica que ha golpeado
a los paises de empleo en Europa occidental y al movimiento masivo de
trabajadores temporarios de origen asiatico para trabajar en los paises
arabes. De acuerdo con las opiniones de investigadores y de responsables de
politicas gubernamentales, se conoce relativamente poco sobre el fenomeno y
las publicaciones que existen al respecto contienen informacion de poca
utilidad. Independientemente de la validez de esta corriente de opinion, crei
que seria conveniente recopilar todo la informacion disponible en Ginebra.
El material recopilado se presenta por autor en orden alfabetico. No
obstante, a fin de facilitar su utilizacion por aquellos lectores que solo
esten interesados en publicaciones relacionadas con algunas regiones de
migracion en particular, cada referenda bibliografica se encuentra precedida
de una clave como se indica a continuacion:
GE = General - se aplica a varias regiones o a la migracion
de retorno en general
AF = Africa
AS = Asia, inclusive los Estados arabesi d e la regi.on del Golfo
LA = America Latina, inclusive Guyana, la Guayana Francesa y Surinam
NC = America del Norte y el Caribe
AO = Australia, Nueva Zelandia y las Islas del Pac:ifico
WE _ Europa Occidental
- vi -
Como las publicaciones son presentadas por autor, aparecen solo una vez;
sin embargo, pueden estar precedldas de mas de una clave. Por ejemplo, un
estudlo sobre trabajadores migrantes Italianos que retornan desde los Estados
Unldos podria estar precedido de NC o WE o de ambas claves. Las referencias
bibliograficas sobre Turquia, para citar otro ejemplo, seran precedldas de WE
si se trata de un trabajo relaclonado con la migracion turca que retorna de
Europa Occidental: por el contrarlo, seran precedldas de AS si el contenido
versa sobre el retorno de trabajadores turcos desde los Estados arabes del
Golfo.
La version original de esta bibliografia fue preparada por el Sr. Solon
Ardittis durante su estadia en la Oil en 1984.
Esta segunda edicion incluye nuevas referencias que han sido agregadas a
la lista original y diversos resumenes sobre el contenido de aquellas ya
existentes. Muchos de los resumenes de los titulos en idioma ingles fueron
extraidos de la excelente obra de Russell King y Alan Strachan: "Sourcebook of
evaluative abstracts" (vease p. 76). Quedo muy agradecido a estos dos
especialistas en cuestiones de migracion de retorno por habernos permitido
utilizar su "sourcebook".
El asterlsco (*) luego de la clave regional indica que se trata de una
nueva referenda o de una informacion adicional a la existente.
Se pretende actualizar la bibliografia periodicamente. For consiguiente,
quedaria muy agradecido a los lectores interesados que nos hicieran llegar las
referencias de publicaciones que hayan sido omitidas o toda publicacion nueva
que pudiera aparecer sobre el tema.
Septiembre 1986
W.R. Bohning
- 1 -
Abadan, N. La main-d'oeuvre Turgue en Allemaene Federale. Problemes
relatifs aux retours conionctuels (Paris, OCDE, 1971).
Abadan, N. "Le non-retour a 1'Industrie, trait dominant de la chaine
migratoire turque", Sociologie du Travail, vol. 14, n° 3 (juillet-sept.
1972), pp. 278-293.
Abadan-Unat, N. "Turkish external migration and social mobility", in P.
Benedict, E. Tunmertekin and F. Mansur (eds.) Turkey: A Geographic and
Social Perspective (Leiden: Brill, Social, Economic and Political Studies
of the Middle East, 1974) p. 362-402.
This paper looks at patterns of social mobility amongst Turkish migrants
in the Federal Republic of Germany and on return to Turkey. Most is on
the Turks in the Federal Republic of Germany. Poly-annual migrants are
subject to great status discrepancies. When abroad they are subject to
discrimination based on xenophobia and are accorded a very low status,
much lower than they would accord themselves. On the other hand, they are
undecided about their social status once returned. This "status
inconsistency"
plays
an
important
role
in
reshaping
Turkey's
stratification scheme but it also offers an explanation for returnees'
unpredictable behaviour and ambivalence about where they belong and who
they are. For returnees an expected routinized behaviourial pattern has
been established which excludes a return to industrial employment - such
behaviour is not expected of them. Returnees generally aim to improve
their financial situation by investment in real estate and in petty
trades and services.
Abadan-Unat, N.
"Migration as an obstacle for re-integration in
industry: The Turkish Case", Studi Emierazione / Etudes Migrations, vol.
13, n° 43 (Sept. 1976), pp. 319-334.
The shift in the early 1070s from the free flow of labour to a policy of
planned reintegration of returnees is founded on assumptions which have
proved to be largely mythical, at least according to the Turkish case.
The myth
is largely perpetrated by
politicians, planners and
policy-makers who have maintained, at least publicly, that migrant
workers' industrial experience can easily be transplanted to feed Turkish
industrial and regional development. It is now realised that this is a
rather forlorn hope. Those migrants with real industrial know-how tend
not to return. Those who do return tend to avoid industrial jobs, and
their training is minimal - they have learned to empty dustbins in
Munich, turn a screw at Renault's or wash dishes in Zurich. What Turkey
needs are highly skilled, versatile manual workers, foremen and
intermediate personnel. Abadan-Unat quotes earlier surveys carried out by
herself and the State Planning Organisation which confirm the weak desire
of returnees for industrial jobs, a critical review of workers'
enterprises and village development co-operatives is presented. One
successful industrial enterprise founded on migrant capital and
initiative is recounted, a chemical industry located in a sub-district of
Ankara province. This case is exceptional but it shows what can be done
with sufficient vision, co-ordination and government support.
Abadan-Unat, N. Migration and development. A study of the effects of
international labor migration in Bogazlivan District (Ankara, Matbaacilik
Sanayii, 1976), 386 pp.
This is an account of the early work accomplished by the Dutch-sponsored
REMPLOD team (Reintegration of Emigrant Manpower and the Promotion of
local Opportunities for Development) in co-operation with Turkish
scholars from the University of Ankara. The results of field studies in
Bogazliyan district show how the departure of a high percentage of
economically active manpower for jobs in Europe has altered the life of
residents left behind. In this region, emigration to Europe gathered a
momentum of its own and reinforced the expulsion of agricultural
manpower. Workers' earnings abroad were ploughed back into farm machinery
at such a rate that considerable further redundancy from agricultural
labour occurred. Patterns of remittance investment were generally totally
at odds with theories of balanced growth. One-third of foreign-earned
income went on consumer goods, both perishable and durable. Housing was
the prime target for investment: renovating old village houses, building
new ones, or purchasing a flat in a neighbouring city. Some stimulation
of the construction sector occurs, but little long-term development. Farm
mechanisation has gone too far, for it has not been accompanied by
intensification or new crops. Land speculation has pushed up prices of
land. The price of commodities and their value to their owners bear
little relation to each other. Finally, a significant proportion of
returnee investment has gone on small services and related enterprises:
shops taxis, repair services etc. The authors conclude that they cannot
claim to have observed any signs of self-.generating development.
Development that has taken place is described as "static expansion"
resulting in heavy dependency on external processes and decisions.
Abete, 6. "Vocational training courses for returning migrants before
their departure from the country of immigration and after their arrival
in the country of origin", International Migration, vol. 14, no. 1/2
(1976), pp. 120-133.
This article looks at the development of the training system in France,
United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy and calls for
cooperation between the employers in the country of immigration and
training establishments in the countries of emigration.
Abou-Sada, G. and Tricart J.-P. (coordinators) L'immigration tunisienne
et la question du retour (Lille, ERA-CNBRS, 1982), 200 p.
Development schemes for the return of the Tunisian migrants to their home
country. Bilateral cooperation, professional training and re-integration
projects are explored.
Abou Sada, G. "Return migration and the Tunisian
politics of return. International return migration
Kubat (Rome-New York, Center for Migration Studies,
Characteristics of Tunisian migrants, demographic
and labour force participation rates. Results of
job creation and return migration by 1990.
Labor Market", in The
in Europer ed. by D.
1984), pp. 15-19.
situation in Tunisia
a projective study on
Abraham, P.M. "Regaining high level Indian manpower from abroad",
Manpower Journalr vol. 3, No. 4, (1968), pp. 83-117
This is a comprehensive account of the "Scientists Pool", a programme set
up by the Indian Government in 1958 to attract back Indian scientists,
technologists and doctors from abroad. The pool is intended to give them
a guaranteed temporary placement in government employment until they can
find permanent positions. In 1964 eligibility was extended to social
scientists. During 1959-67, 4,228 returning Indians were selected for the
- 3 pool. Only 2,104 joined. The gap is largely because many found permanent
jobs without the pool's interim period. Scientists and engineers need the
pool more than doctors. The strength of the pool was fixed at 500 in 1962
but then the ceiling was abolished; however, funds restrict its growth.
Period of stay in the pool has lengthened; there is a hard core of
"stayers" who have been in it for two years and more. Some have been
obliged to leave even though there is no fixed job for them to go to, in
order to make way for new returnees. Other measures for attracting back
brains are reviewed and there is a legislative appendix.
*
%
*•
«
AF*
Adegbola, 0. "The migrant as a factor in regional development - the case
of Ghana returnees in Western Nigeria", Jimlar Muntanef vol. 1 No. 2
(1976), pp. 208-215.
It is estimated that about 750,000 people were expelled from Ghana in
1969. Many returned to the poor districts of western Nigeria - a movement
in the opposite direction to the expulsion of Ghanaian migrant workers
from Nigeria in early 1983. The first part of this paper examines the
hypothesis that returnees are more skilled and enterprising than the
non-migrants of the region to which they return. 150 returnees in the
savanna region of western Nigeria were compared with 300 non-migrants.
26% of returnees were farmers, compared with 91% of non-migrants. Those
returnees who were in farming had higher capital input than their
non-migrant counterparts, for they had had experience of plantation
agriculture, high-yielding crops, fertiliser, mechanical equipment etc.
and were regarded as more credit-worthy in raising bank loans for farm
development. Many returnees were organised into co-operatives. In
non-agricultural jobs returnees were more qualified. Only 8% of returnees
were unskilled, compared with 67% of non-migrants. Many returnees had
learned specialised trades as well as having acquired business acumen.
They had set up many new factories making furniture and other goods.
Returnee co-operatives processed starch and tomato puree. Returnees had
higher education and their children were receiving more education than
the non-migrant sample. The second part of the paper examines strategies
for resettlement of returnees. If they go back to their villages they
will be too dispersed to be of much use in diffusing development.
Adegbola recommends clustering returnees in nodes where they can
stimulate the commercial and industrial development of the district - as
has happened in the case of Ogbomosho. Returnee-organised marketing
co-operatives eliminate intermediaries and increase profits to the
farmers. Improvement of physical facilities, e.g. tarred roads, is
another area of policy required. Overall, this is an interesting
instance of return migration's positive impact but the study leaves many
questions about the research methodology used unanswered.
AF*
Adepoju, A. "Migration and socio-economic change in tropical Africa:
policy and research", in Jorge Balan (ed.) Why People Move; Comparative
Perspectives on the Dynamics of Internal Migration (Paris, UNESCO, 1981),
pp. 317-336.
A general review of the literature on migration and rural socio-economic
change in tropical Africa. The paper focuses on two main perspectives:
the effects of out-migration from rural areas on rural transformation,
and the impact of in-migration and return migration to rural areas on
agrarian socio-economic change. Most surveys suggest that the remittance
system has become an institutionalised feature of the African migration
scene. This is true for rural-urban migrants, rural-rural migrants and
[0007W]
- 4 -
international migrants (Nigerians in Ghana prior to 1969, migrants from
Upper Volta in the Ivory Coast, migrant workers in Western Europe, and
migrants from Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland in South African mines).
Return migration is well-established, yet little studied in Africa.
Adepoju stresses the economic and social impacts of returnees, concluding
that they are effective agents of change.
AF
WE
Addi, L. "Immigres algeriens: mythes d'un retour", Education Permanente,
No. 75 (Septembre 1984), pp. 189-194.
WE
Adler, S. A turkish conundrum. Emigrationr politics, and development,
1961-80 (Geneva, ILO, August 1980; mimeographed World Employment
Programme Research working paper; restricted)
Includes a chapter on return migration.
AF
Adler, S. The organisation of return migration; A preliminary analysis
of the recent experience of France and Algeria (Paris, OECD, 1976).
Summary of recent procedures designed to facilitate return migration.
Education of migrants' children and professional training in France;
recruitment, housing, financial and other aspects in Algeria.
AF
WE
Adler, S. Swallows' children. Emigration and development in Algeria
(Geneva, ILO, May 1980; mimeographed World Employment Programme Research
working paper; restricted).
Results of the Algerian policy to facilitate the return of emigrants.
AF
WE
Affari Social! Internazionali, "Problem! dell'Emigrazione",
Affari Social! Internazionali, Vol. 10, No. 3 (1982), pp. 29-116.
Examines trends relating to second generation immigrants in Western
Europe, Eritreans and Tunisians in Italy, Italian workers in Austria and
USSR, migrant education, occupational status, return migration, etc., and
considers social integration in the Israeli kibbutz.
WE
Ahern, W.H. "The returned Indians: Hampton Institute and its Indians
alumni, 1879-1893", The Journal of Ethnic Studies, vol. 10, no. 4
(winter 1983), pp. 101-124.
WE*
Akcayli, N. "Problems and recent developments concerning the massive
returns to Turkey of Turkish workers in Federal Germany", Turkish
Yearbook of Human Rights, vol. 5-6 (1983-84), pp. 99-122.
WE*
Akre, J. "Migration impact on a Turkish village. A personal account",
Migration news , vol. 23, no. 6 (Nov.-Dec. 1974), pp. 17-20.
Akre was community development officer in a village in west-central
Turkey during 1966-68, and then revisited the settlement in 1971. This
brief article records his impressions on the impact of migration on the
village and the changes between the 1960s and 1971, including
observations on the behaviour of return migrants. Return migration seems
to focus around displays of conspicuous consumption and extended leisure.
Particularly in the later period, returnees were seen as dominant
influences
on village social and economic
life, especially as
value-transmitters.
- 5 -
WE*
Akre, J. "Turkish administrative structures and the migrant worker:
towards greater government support and participation", in N. Abadan-Unat
et al., Turkish Workers in Europe 1960-1975; A Socio-Economic Reappraisal
(Leiden: Brill, Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle
East, 1976), pp. 187-209.
A broad review of the administrative infrastructure surrounding Turkish
migration, which includes sections
on
returning
workers, their
reintegration problems and the need for follow-up work. Meaningful
planning to help returnees is almost impossible with so few statistics on
the Turkish return movement. Virtually nothing is done to help returnees
find jobs. Job training abroad is minimal, and what little does occur is
not utilised. When returnees come back they disappear and no tracing
mechanism exists for follow-up work.
AF
Akrer, J. "Algerie: politique de reinsertion", Hommes et Migrations, No.
942 (1 fevrier 1978), pp. 34-36.
GE
WE
Alexander, S. "A model of population change with new and return
migration", Environment and Planning, vol. 15, no. 9 (Sept. 1983),
pp. 1231-57.
The structure of the model is explored through various assumptions
concerned with the constancy in numbers of migrants and in migration
rates. An example is given of birthplace-specific movement between Great
Britain and the rest of the world.
AF
"Algerie: L'etat des facilites de retour au pays des travailleurs
algeriens", Marches tropicaux et mediterraneans, 39 (aout 1983).
Employment policy and vocational training.
AF
Alouane, Y. "Le retour des emigres dans leur milieu d'origine: Facteur
de changement social?", Paper presented at The Workshop of Problems of
Development, Organization for the Promotion of Social Science in the
Middle East, Khartoum, February 16-19, 1976.
WE
Alstad,J.A. "A follow-up to the Investigation of Motives for Migration
of 1972: a study on return migration", Rapporter fra Statistisk
Sentralbvra, no. 82/15 (1982), 93 pp.
Analysis of migration over the period 1964 to 1978 including regional
variations in migration, length of stay of migrants who eventually
return, and changes in the spatial distribution of the population due to
migration.
LA*
Altamirano, T. Migraciones de Retorno en Los Andes (Lima, Peru, Instituto
Andino de Estudios en Poblacion y Desarrollo, 1985), 44 p.
WE
Amaral, Joao Ferreira do
"Desenvolvimento
emigrantes", paper presented to Conferencia
Desenvolvimento. Lisbon, 7-8 October 1982, IED.
AF
Amicale des Algeriens en Europe
"La reinsertion des travailleurs
algeriens", Alphabetisation et promotion, 50, (1976), pp. 17-19.
regional e retorno de
sobre Regionalizacao e
AF* Amin, S. "Modern migrations in Western Africa", in Samir Amin (ed.)
Modern Migrations in Western Africa (London, Oxford University Press for
the International African Institute, 1974), pp. 65-124.
- 6 -
Amin sees little hope for return migration contributing anything positive
to the development of the sending regions. Only in rare individual
instances is the returnee an agent of change: he may, for example, become
a petty shopkeeper on return, or even a capitalist farmer, hiring labour,
but such persons profit from the monetarisation of the economy at the
expense of the impoverishment of others, and Amin questions whether such
"progress" is really desirable. Even if a migrant has brought back a
desire for change through his widened perspectives, it is highly unlikely
that he will be able to carry his plans through because the distortion of
the allocation of resources to his region deprives him of the elementary
framework necessary for success. Emigration impoverishes a region. It
prevents the socio-economic structure from undergoing radical progressive
change. It is virtually a 'gift' from the poor source area to the rich
area. No African region of emigration has ever developed, he maintains. A
challenging overview, but little systematic empirical proof is given.
WE*
AS
Anwar, M. The mvth of return: Pakistanis in Britain (London, Heinemann,
1979), 278 p.
This book is a sociological study of Pakistanis in Rochdale. In spite of
the title few perspectives on return migration are introduced. Whilst the
Pakistanis' behaviour tends to reflect an intended temporary stay in
Britain, most will probably end up by staying permanently, for economic
and educational reasons.
AO*
WE
Appleyard, R.T. "The return movement of United Kingdom migrants from
Australia", Population Studiesf vol. 15 (1962), pp. 214-225.
Basically a factual, descriptive study. Estimates return movement to be
14.8% of the outmovement from the UK to Australia during 1955-60, rising
to 19.2% in 1960. In a 1959 sample 81% of return workers were less than
46 years of age, 67% had been in Australia for less than 4 years, and 76%
had had jobs in the professional, intermediate and skilled classes.
WE
AO
Appleyard, R.T. "Determinants of return migration - a socio-economic
study of United Kingdom migrants who returned from Australia", Economic
Record, vol. 38, No. 83 (1962) pp. 352-368.
This paper contains results of interviews with over 100 returnees from
Australia returning to their British homeland in 1958-59. Reference is
also made to a shipboard study of 32 returnees carried out by the author
in mid-1958. Interviews were composed of four parts: general background;
preparation for emigration; experience in Australia; and experience in
Britain upon return. Most respondents returned for non-economic, familyrelated reasons. Those who did return for economic motives were mostly a
small group of nominated Commonwealth migrants who had lived in hostels
in Australia and done manual work. The shipboard study indicated a strong
weight placed on economic motives but re-interviewing the same respondents one year later showed that reasons had changed to more familyrelated factors. This shows that interviewees subsequently rationalise
and change their interpretations of why they return home - a finding of
vital significance for questionnaire surveys of returned migrants.
Answers may be cover-ups for more deeply held reasons, perhaps too
sensitive to talk about in an interview with a stranger. Returnees to
Britain complained about the weather, the dingy streets and the humdrum
life back home. Expectations about economic prospects and welcoming
friends were not upheld: the return was a disappointment and a disillusionment. Over 70% of respondents had plans to go back to resettle in
Australia; some already had their passages booked.
[0007W]
l
*
- 7 -
GE*
Ardittis, S. The assisted return of qualified migrants to their countries
of origin: the UNDP and ICM multilateral programmes (Geneva, ILO, 1985;
mimeographed International Migration for Employment working paper;
restricted). Also available in French.
This paper examines in detail the methods applied in the implementation
of the TOKTEN programme (Transfer of Know-how through Expatriate
Nationals), which is administered by UNDP. The author also describes the
Return of Talent programmes carried out by the Intergovernmental
Committee for Migration (ICM) for qualified nationals of developing
countries returning to their countries of origin.
WE
Arrabito, I. "Analisi delle condizioni strutturali minime per il ritorno
dell'emigrante", Affari Sociali Internazionali. vol.11, No. 1-2 (1974),
pp. 45-71.
Return migration as an agent of democratisation and change in social life.
NC
Ashton, G.T.
"The return and re-return of long-term Puerto Rican
migrants: a selective rural-urban sample", paper presented at the
Conference on concept and function of culture in Puerto Rico society
(Casa blanca, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Sept. 26-27,
1980).
Survey of a group of "ancient" migrants (over 8 years abroad) who have
acquired the experience of modernism in the United States. Analysis of
the motivations of these returnees.
AS*
Athukorala, P. Measures to deal with return migrationf Discussion paper
submitted to National Workshop on Foreign Employment organised by the
Ministry of Labour
and
the
ILO
(Colombo, University
of Sri
Jayewardenapura, July 1985), 18 p.
AS*
Athukorala, P.
Sri Lanka's experience with international contract
migration and the reintegration of return migrants (Geneva, ILO, 1986,
mimeographed International Migration for Employment working paper;
restricted).
The author of this study sets out to investigate empirically the success
or otherwise of the Sri Lankan scheme designed to advise and train return
migrants interested in the establishment of a business. After elaborating
the characteristics of the migrants who leave the country and return to
it after a certain period of employment abroad, he examines in detail the
measures taken by the Government to help individuals through the Ministry
of Labour and in conjunction with commercial and statal banks. The author
undertakes a specially detailed analysis of the pooling of savings by ten
return migrants who set up on their own account in the food business. The
support measures are critically evaluated on the basis of the return
migrants' background and attitudes, on the one hand, and their inherent
limitations, on the other; and the factors that make for success or
otherwise are clearly identified. This identification of the factors to
which one can attribute the gap between expectations and realisations in
this field contains valuable lessons on which policy makers in other
countries can draw at the stage of conceptualising or implementing
measures in favour of self-employment by return migrants.
WE*
Atina A. Greek returnees and reintegration in the labour market (Athens,
General Secretariat for Greeks Abroad, November 1985) 8 p. (in Greek).
[0007W]
- 8 Reviews the main economic problems faced by returning migrants and
presents the national assistance measures
(information, training,
incentives) to help return migrants with labour market insertion.
WE
Augenti, A., Favero, L., Foti, E., Monaco, L.
"II reinserimento
scolastico degli alunni rientrati dai paesi di immigrazione", in La
scuola italiana e eli alunni mierati (Roma, Ministero della Pubblica
Istruzione, 1982), pp. 11-83.
This study analyses the educational reintegration process of the young
Italian returnees.
WE
Avner, M. "Encouraging Israelis in North America to return to Israel",
Labour and National Insurance. Vol. 31, no. 5 (1979), pp. 147-151.
GE
Awasthi, S.P. "An experiment in voluntary repatriation of high level
technical manpower: the scientist's pool", Development Digest, vol. 4,
no. 1 (1966).
NC*
Axelrod, B. "Historical studies of emigration from the United States",
International Migration Reviewr vol. 6, no. 17 (spring 1972) pp. 32-49.
The thesis of this paper is the error that studies on immigration into
the United States make in assuming that no return takes place. The result
is that early scholars overestimated the contribution made by immigration
to population increase. There were few serious investigations into the
return migration of aliens leaving the US. Pior to 1907 there were no
statistics kept on the outward movement of aliens. Using estimates of
return migration derived from various historical sources, Axelrod
concludes that the real net population gain due to immigration in the
19th century was 50-80% of the commonly accepted figures.
AS
Azim, T.
"Race and Repatriation.
vol.3, no. 5 (May 1979), 149 p.
WE
Azmaz, A. Migration of Turkish "Gastarbeiters" of rural origin and the
contribution to development in Turkey, Sozialoekonomische Schriften zur
Agrarentwicklung, 37 (Saarbriicken, Verlag Breitenbach, 1980), 131 p.
Research report examining the impact of rural migrant worker return
migration on rural development and economic development in Turkey. Based
on a 1976-1977 sample survey. Discusses economic, social and cultural
characteristics of resettlement, reasons for return, residence, living
conditions, wealth, occupations and income after return, 'urban'
expansion, etc., outlines the research method, and includes suggestions
on migration policy.
WE*
Azmaz, A. "Migration and reintegration in rural Turkey: the role of women
left behind" Sozialoekonomische Schriften zur Ruralen Entwicklung. Vol.
51 (Gottingen, 1984) 253 pp.
This study, which was originally prepared as a doctoral thesis, is
concerned with labour migration from Turkey to the Federal Republic of
Germany, and particularly with the reintegration of migrants returning to
Turkey and the role played by their wives. The data were collected in
three of Turkey's eastern provinces and concern migrants and their wives
who returned before June 1973. The focus of the study is on the role
played by migrants' wives in the process of modernization and social
change.
[0007W]
An Asian viewpoint",
Race Today.
- 9 -
WE*
AS
Ballard, R. and C. "The Sikhs: the development of South Asian settlements in Britain", in Between Two Cultures: Migrants and Minorities in
Britain, ed. by J.L. Watson (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1977), pp. 21-56.
This chapter is basically about the staged build-up of the Sikh community
in Britain but includes some paragraphs on return migration. From its
original status as a realistic short-term goal, the idea of return has
gradually become a myth which, although increasingly unrealistic, has
important social consequences. The myth can be used to explain and
justify the settlers' commitment to saving, albeit on a reduced scale
compared to the earliest phases; it can be used as a vehicle for the
expression of unease about prospects in Britain as racial tensions
sharpen; but above all, the myth of return is used to legitimise
continued adherence to the values of their homeland and to condemn the
assimilation of English cultural values as irrelevant and destructive.
Some returns have taken place, often motivated by ill-health in Britain's
damp climate, but returnees have found unexpected difficulties. Reasons
for non-return are bound up partly with the economics of saving and
partly with children's education and progress.
WE*
Barkin, S.
"The economic costs and benefits and human gains and
disadvantages of international migration", Journal of Human Resources.
vol. 2, No. 4 (1967), pp. 495-516.
A carefully set out appraisal of the economic costs and benefits of
international migration considered first from the point of view of the
individual migrant and then from the point of view of the countries
concerned, sending and receiving. At the individual level, the migrant
makes certain calculations about returning. Of course, some migrants
return for non-economic reasons - loss of contract, family pressures,
etc.
Others return when they have attained certain goals - the
acquisition of capital to buy land, the attainment of a dowry, or of
professional qualifications. Another type of calculation is based on
perceived opportunities in the home country. Where these are seen as
improving (Northern Italy in the 1960s) many migrants return, sometimes
encouraged to do so by their own governments' return policies (e.g.
Greece and Turkey).
But there is little knowledge of the actual
experiences of returnees - how many settle in towns or villages, how many
set up businesses, how many succeed, how many lose their savings, how
many re-emigrate, etc. Greeks who returned from Egypt in the early
post-war years have recorded outstanding successes for they had acquired
entrepreneurial skills in commerce and tourism. No comparable evidence
for European migrants yet exists.
WE
Barros, J. "Les portugais et le retour",
77 (Sept. 1978), pp. 14-16.
AF
Bartle, P.F.W. Cyclical migration and the extended community: A West
African Example (Leiden, The Netherlands: Afrika-Studiecentrum, 1980),
43 p.
Study on return migration in relation to social and ideological values of
a community and according to different stages in the life cycles.
WE*
Baucic I. Effects of emigration from Yugoslavia and the problems of
returning emigrant workers (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1972), 48 p.
In 1971 Yugoslavia had 660,000 emigrant workers living abroad in Europe,
66% of them in the Federal Republic of Germany. The first part of this
Alphabetisation et Promotion,
- 10 -
monograph looks at the causes of this movement, individual motives for
departure, and spatial variations in the intensity of outmigration.
Considerable attention is paid to the destination of remittances and
migrant savings. Housing is the main priority. Most migrants return to
their settlements of origin, although there are some rural-urban
post-return moves. Returnee investment in agriculture generally improves
farm production but occasionally over-mechanisation results. In some
sectors, however, emigration causes shortages of native labour. In the
catering and tourist trades, for instance, Czechs and Poles are brought
in. Emigrant workers' prospects for developing industry are negligible
because of the role played by Yugoslav banks. Lorries and taxis are
often bought by returnees, however, and many migrants have opened up
catering and craft establishments.
Although the vast majority of
Yugoslav emigrants living abroad intend to return, they continually delay
coming back because of economic difficulties at home. Those who do
return tend to be the less able.
Baucic, I.
Employment situation of second-generation migrants in
Europe: The possibility of voluntary return tof and reintegration intoP
the country of origin, and measures that should be adopted.
ILO
Tripartite technical seminar on second-generation migrants, Lisbon, 1981.
(Geneva, 1981, IL0-RER/79/001/Sem.I/l), 41 p. .
Paper on voluntary return migration of young second generation immigrants
(youth) in Western Europe to their countries of origin. Describes trends
of migrant worker employment, considers prerequisites for productive
return migration results such as culture and ethnic group integrity, and
discusses migration policy measures to expedite return as well as the
role of bilateral international cooperation.
Baucic, I.
Practical measures and activities undertaken for the
reintegration of second-generation migrants by the countries of origin.
with particular reference to Yugoslav experiences. ILO Tripartite Meeting
on the Reintegration of Second-Generation Migrants in Cases of Voluntary
Return, Belgrade 1984 (Geneva, 1984, ILO-RER/79/001/SEM.III/3(e)).
Baucic, I.
"Yugoslavia as a country of emigration",
Options
Medlterraneennesf vol. 4, No. 22 (1973), pp. 56-66.
The latter part of this paper contains some interesting comments and
findings on return migration. Baucic finds, on the basis of Dalmatian
data, that emigration and return migration entail a double negative
selection process for the Yugoslav labour market. Destination countries
select the best migrants on departure from Yugoslavia;
those who
subsequently return to Yugoslavia are the less able of those who have
left. Data on remittances are discussed, but the economic importance of
remittances is exaggerated, according to Baucic.
Savings spent by
returned migrants are rarely used to promote long-term future economic
development in Yugoslavia. Too much money is spent on needlessly large
homes whose size greatly exceeds returnee families' needs. Such houses
are built in scattered, unsuitable locations where provision of public
utilities is expensive. Investment in farming has been slight. Some
returnees buy tractors more as status symbols than as economic
investments.
Other investments are mostly in craft concerns, road
haulage and catering establishments.
Baucic believes that Yugoslav
emigrants living abroad would be better employed at home.
Return
migration policies and reintegration programmes should be included in
future national and regional development planning.
- 11 -
WE
Baucic, I., Maravic, Z. Conditions de retour des travallleurs emigrants
et prevision d'emploi (Zagreb, Institut de Geographie de l'Universite de
Zagreb, 1971), 113 p.
WE*
Baucic, I. "Return migration trends and issues: a global view",
International Migration in the Arab World. Proceedings of ECWA Population
Conference. Nicosia, Cyprus, 11-16 May 1981, vol. 1 (Beirut, Economic
Commission for Western Asia, 1982), pp. 421-440.
The author contends that migration can have positive effects for the
sending country under the following circumstances: the migrants stay only
temporarily in the receiving country; they eventually return to their
country of origin; and they remit money saved while working in the host
country to their country of origin. Some advantages of temporary
migration are discussed, both for the migrant himself and for his country
of origin, and three common patterns of emigration and return are
described. Most of the examples given reflect the migration experience of
Yugoslavia.
WE
Beange, G. et Oriel, M. "La crise de 1974 et la remise en question des
migrations tournantes", Greco 13P 2 (1980), pp. 29-42.
WE
Bedford, R.D. New Hebridean mobility. A study of circular migration
(Canberra, Australian National University, 1973).
WE
Bedford, R.D. "A transition in circular mobility. Population movement
in the New Hebrides 1800-1970", in The Pacific in transition, ed. by H.
Brookfield (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1973), pp. 187-228.
AF
Bedjaoui, M. "Inversion progressive du flux migratoire", intervention a
la 7eme Conference des cadres d'Argenteuilf 14-15 dec. 1974, pp. 48-49.
AF
Belguenday, A. "L'immigration marocaine dans 1'Europe en crise et la
formation professionnelle ou le mythe des retours productifs", in
L'emigration maghrebine en Europe. Exploitation ou cooperation? (Alger,
CRETA), pp. 27-205.
AF
Belguenday, A. "Le mythe des retours productifs: le cas des emigres
marocains", in Les travallleurs migrants dans 1'Europe en crise (Geneve,
Conseil Oecumenique des Eglises, Cinquieme Assemblee, 1982), pp. 42-49.
AF
Belkaid, A., et Remili, A. "Problemes et politique de reinsertion de la
main-d'oeuvre immigree en Algerie", Migrants Formation, 8 (Fevr. 1975),
p. 1-6.
AF
Belkhodja, A. "Algerie, premieres experiences de reinsertion", Hommes et
Migrations, no. 899 (31 janv. 1976), pp. 19-22.
GE
Bell, D.N.F., and Kirwan, F.X. "Further thoughts on return migration. A
rejoinder to Gordon", Regional Studies, 15 (1981), pp. 63-66.
WE
Bell, D.N.F. Return Migration in a Scottish context. Discussion paper
no. 5 (Glasgow, University of Strathclyde, 1977), 12 p.
AF
Ben Abdeslam, S. Acculturation et reinsertion socio-professionnelle des
adolescents aleeriens immigres (Paris, Universite de Paris V, these de
3eme cycle, 1975).
[0007W]
- 12 -
AF
Benamrane,
D.
Emigration
algerienne
en France.
Politiques et
reinsertion et implications du plan des structures et des svstemes
d'education et de formation.
Le cas de l'enseienemnent secondaire
technique (Alger, CREA, 1981), 39 p.
WE
Benhadji, A. Aspects psycho-sociologiques de la migration temporaire et
definitive (Geneve, International Institute for Labour Studies. 1978), 38
PPaper on sociological aspects and psychological aspects of the migrant
worker phenomenon, with relationship to the propensity for return
migration and the duration of the stay in the host country* Covers the
social implications of emigration, the employment problems of return
migrants, the implications for economic development.
WE
Benhadji, A. "Retour et reinsertion des travailleurs migrants dans leur
pays d'origine", Bulletin de l'Institut International d'Etudes socialesf
12 (1974), pp. 57-64.
WE*
Benhadji, A. "Return and resettlement of migrant workers in their home
countries", Bulletin, Institute of Labour Studies, 12 (1973), pp. 51-57.
The 'quaternary sector' of migration should have a place of its own in
development planning. Return and reintegration have to be integrated
into such a policy. Three situations are examined: spontaneous return
(example
of
Turkey);
organised
return
(Algeria);
and
planned
resettlement. Under the last of these a number of issues are touched
upon: vocational training abroad for jobs upon return; literacy; the
principle of rotation of labour planned from the point of view of the
country of origin; co-ordination of supply and demand of labour; and
facilities available on reception.
WE*
Bennett, B.C. "On Intra-European migration", Current Anthropology, vol.
19, No. 1 (1978), pp. 217-218.
A follow-up note to Rhoades' paper in the previous volume of this journal
(see Rhoades 1977). Bennett shows that Rhoades' conclusions do not apply
in Croatia (Yugoslavia) where there is considerable return migrant
involvement in the growing tourist trade. Detailed data are presented
for the Dalmatian island community of Sutivan where there are many highly
successful tourist enterprises organised by returned migrants.
WE*
Bennett, B.C.
"Migration and rural community viability in Central
Dalmatia (Croatia), Yugoslavia", Papers in Anthropology, vol. 20, No. 1
(1979), pp. 75-83.
Examines the causes and effects of emigration and resulting changes in
rural viability in the Yugoslav littoral, specifically the island of Brae
and the village of Sutivan. Generally the story is of rural decline but
there is some description of returnees opening tourist guesthouses.
AS*
NC
Bennett, J.W., Passin, H. and McKnight, R.K. In Search of Identity; The
Japanese Overseas Scholar in America and Japan (Minneapolis, The
University of Minnesota Press, 1958), 369 p.
The authors set out to tackle three main objectives in this book: (i) to
study the America-bound student in the historical context of the
modernisation of Japanese society and of Japan's cultural relations with
the US; (ii) to describe the experiences of individual students in the US
and back home in Japan; and (iii) to analyse the process of adjustments
of the typical Japanese student to differing cultural environments. To
[0007W]
- 13 answer these questions numerous Japanese individuals who had been
educated in the US were interviewed. There was no formal questionnaire,
however, so the research data are not systematic or quantified. They
consist of views, opinions, attitudes and interpretations. Nevertheless
the clear nature of the text gives a clear piucture of the hopes and
fears of the students both abroad and at home. The book is divided into
three parts. Part 1 sets out a brief history of Japan's modernisation
and the background to the educational links to the US. Part 2 looks at
the Japanese student educated in part in America.
AF
Benouamer, R., and Hemman, A. La reinsertion des travailleurs emigres et
la politique de l'emploi dans la strategie de developpement aleerienne
(Alger, Institut des Sciences Economiques, 1976).
WE
Beratungszentrum
fur griechische
Ruckkehrer
des Ausschusses
fur
Zwischenkirchliche Hilfe und Auswartige Beziehungen der Orthodoxen Kirche
Griechenlands
Die Griechische Ruckwanderung,
Enimerosi 5 (Athens,
Thessaloniki, Kavala, April 1982).
GE
Bernard, G.J. Le retour des migrants.
(Paris, Commission Nationale pour
inter-ethniques, 1977), 105 p.
GE
Bernard, P.J. "L'experience Internationale des retours d'emigrants et la
recherche d'une strategie de reinsertion dans le pays ou la region
d'origine", in L'emigration maghrebine en Europe, exploitation ou
cooperation (Alger, CREA), pp. 382 - 401.
The economic crisis is not a determinant factor for the return of
emigrants. The author analyses the need for a model of productive return
migration which would increase the figures of reverse migration.
WE*
Bernard,
H.R.,
Comitas, L.
"Greek
return
migration",
Current
Anthropology, vol. 19, No. 3 (Sept. 1978), pp. 658-659.
A survey in Athens interviewed 200 returned migrants and 200 non-migrants
to see whether migration is related to job skills and to changes in
attitude to Greek culture.
Non-migrants were better educated than
migrants;
80 % of migrants had no marketable skills when they left
Greece and 85 % reported that they had acquired no such skills in the
Federal Republic of Germany either. Of the 30 respondents who had
acquired skills, 13 had used these skills in finding a job upon return.
Major differences between the two samples emerged with regard to
attitudes to Greek social issues such as divorce, dowries, sex roles and
child-rearing. It is not clear, however, whether migrants left in the
first place because they were dissatisfied with Greek life, or whether
their attitudes are the result of experience in the Federal Republic of
Germany.
WE*
Bernard, H.R. and Ashton-Vouyoucalos, S. "Return migration to Greece",
Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society, vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 31-51.
Life histories of 15 returning families to Athens from the Federal
Republic of Germany show that many of the commonly-held fears regarding
the social readjustment of returnees are exaggerated. All the families
studied are resourcefully coping with the problems of return, but their
views reveal ambivalence to both German and Greek life. Many may become
•shuttle migrants' alternating between the two countries, unable to
decide which they prefer. Three themes recur in the ethnographic data.
Etude bibliographiaue et critique
les etudes et les recherches
- 14 -
First, returning migrants experience a 'reverse culture shock' when they
come back. They find many Greek customs backward, yet are relieved to be
no longer treated as inferiors as they were in the Federal Republic of
Germany. Secondly, there are economic contrasts. Compared with the
Federal Republic of Germany, standards of living are low, working
conditions bad and jobs scarce. Yet they welcome the chance to run their
own businesses, which they could never do in the Federal Republic of
Germany. Thirdly, they feel politically insecure in Greece, fearing
chaos and a return to dictatorship. Yet in the politically stable
Federal Republic of Germany, they had no political voice.
WE
Bernitt, M. Riickwanderune spanischer Gastarbeiter: Per Fall Andalusien,
Materialien
zur Arbeitsmigration
und Auslanderbeschaftigung,
Bd.7
(Koenigstein, Hanstein, 1981), 361 p.
Monograph on economic implications and social implications of return
migration of Spanish migrant workers from West European industrial
countries to Andalusia, Spain. Based on a 1974-75 field study and
questionnaire/survey, discusses the economic conditions of the region,
Marxist views of the role of industrialisation in alienation and social
class consciousness, motivation, occupational status and reintegration of
returning workers, etc., and attempts an economic evaluation of their
role in the region's economic development.
WE
Berrocal, L. "The Spanish Euromigration: Returnees and the domestic
labor market", in The politics of return. International return migration
in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York Center for Migration Studies,
1984), pp. 21-26.
Statistical analysis of the distribution of return migrants by employment
situation throughout the migratory cycle and their impact on the Spanish
labour market.
GE
Besse, A. "Le retour du migrant", Cahiers d'Anthropologic, 4 (1976),
pp. 119-126.
Mental diseases caused by non-integration of migrants in the immigration
countries, as a factor of return migration.
GE
Beyer, G.
Brain drainr a selected bibliography on temporary and
permanent migration of skilled workers and high-level manpower 1967-1972
(The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1972).
WE
Beyer, G.
"Re-emigration and social structure. Return migration of
labour and its effects in urban areas of Greece", European Demographic
Information Bulletin, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1979) pp. 50-58.
GE
Beyer, G.
"Positive and negative economic aspects of migration of
labour, wage, transfer of savings, job opportunities for returnees",
paper presented at the International Conference on Cooperative research
on immigration and emigration policy (Vienna, 5-8 May, 1975).
NC*
Bianco, C. The Two Rosetos (Bloomington, Indiana University Press,
1974), 234 p.
The book is about Roseto, Pennsylvania, and Roseto Valfortore in the
South Italian region of Apulia. It is mostly a collection of interviews
and recollections on folk customs and other memories. Some of the
interview information is about return migration and prospects for
return. A recurrent theme in the views expressed by returned migrants is
their dual, ambivalent attitude towards the United States.
[0007W]
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WE*
Bilmen, M.S.
"Educational problems encountered by the children of
Turkish migrant workers", in Nermin Abadan-Unat et al., Turkish Workers
in Europe 19600-1975: A Socio-Economic Reappraisal (Leiden, Brill,
Social, Economic and Political Studies in the Middle East, 19, 1976), pp.
235-252.
Many Turkish migrant children return to Turkey just when they have
succeeded in adjusting themselves to the social, cultural and educational
environment of the foreign country. Numerous difficulties arise from
this situation, sometimes leading to grave psychological disturbances.
Problems include lack of knowledge of Turkish, different social systems,
insufficient knowledge or appreciation of the Turkish cultural background
and Turkish values. Although some Turkish teachers teach in Turkish
immigrant areas in the Federal Republic of Germany, policies for social
and educational reintegration upon return to Turkey are lacking.
AF*
Birks, J.S. "Overland pilgrimage to savanna lands of Africa", in People
on the Move: Studies on Internal Migrationf ed. by Kosinski, L.A. and
Prothero, R.M. (London, Methuen, 1975), pp. 297-307.
Pilgrimage migration is a little recognised form of spatial mobility
which may have wide geographical effects on the areas traversed. This is
especially true of Africa where there is a marked ebb and flow of
pilgrims heading for and returning from Mecca. Overland pilgrimage takes
an average 8 years to complete: 5 on the outward journey and 3 for the
return. Most pilgrims travel in family groups. Some West Africans stop
in Sudan on the return journey and never reach home. The haj., or Mecca
pilgrimage, is thus an interesting and unique form of migration and
return.
AF*
NC
Blackett, R.J.M. "Return to the Motherland: Robert Champbell, a Jamaican
in early colonial Lagos", Phylon, vol.40 (December 1979), pp. 375-386.
Very little is known of the New World blacks who returned to Africa.
Although not return in the sense of life-cycle migration, this account is
interesting for its uniqueness.
It concerns a Jamaican teacher,
journalist and businessman who migrated to Lagos in 1862, and the
considerable impact he had on the literary and educational life of the
city.
WE*
Blanc, M. and J. "Migration: training and return home", Migration Today,
vol. 21, (1977), pp. 109-116.
A somewhat superficial article, referring mainly to France and North
African migrants, and pointing out the deficiencies in the training of
migrants prior to their return home.
WE
Blauw, W.
"Back to the city. A research into return migration of
families with children to big cities", paper presented at the
International Sociological Association, Uppsala, August 14-19, 1978.
This study is part of the STEPRO project of the University of Utrecht.
Case studies of 239 families returned to Utrecht.
A0
WE
Blauw, W., and Elich, J. "The return of Dutch migrants from Australia,
New Zealand and Canada", in The politics of return. International return
migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York Center for Migration
Studies, 1984), pp. 229-232.
- 16 -
WE
Blauw, W., and Ehlich, J. "To emigrate and still to return: Dutchmen's
emigration and return migration", International Migrationr Vol. 21, No. 3
(1982), pp. 418-424.
Proportion of emigrants and return migration from and to the Netherlands.
Characteristics and motives of return migration.
NC*
AS
Bleijer, M.L. and Goldberg, I. "Return migration - expectation versus
reality: a case study of Western immigrants to Israel", in Research in
Population Economics, vol. 2, edited by J.L. Simon and J. DaVanzo,
(Greenwich, Conn., JAI Press, 1980), pp. 433-449.
This paper uses an interesting theoretical framework for the analysis of
return migration, successfully testing it against new data on returning
western (mostly American) returnees to Israel. The approach stresses that
returns are caused by the failure of expectations to materialise. The
authors find that unexpected unemployment is a strong determinant of
return migration. They also find that discouraged workers who withdraw
from de labour force are more likely to return. Also relevant are housing
conditions. Young people, who expect to be affected longer by a given
deviation between expectations and reality, are more prone to return. The
cost of return, as measured by family size, has a negative effect on
return. It also appears that the accumulation of pre-emigration
information on the country of destination as well as previous knowledge
of the language reduce return probability, presumably because they reduce
the gap between expectations and reality.
NC
Bohland, J. "Models of return migration: case study of American-Indian
relocation", paper presented at the Annual meeting of the population
Association of America. Seattle, Washington, April 17-19, 1975.
WE*
Bohmer, J. "Arbeitsemigration turkischer Gastarbeiter: Abwanderung,
Ruckwanderung, Investitionsverhalten und landliche Entwicklung" Orient.
vol. 25, No. 4 (Hamburg, 1984), 612 p. (in German with summary in English)
The results of a study of emigration and return migration conducted in
the rural district of Esme, Turkey, are presented. Consideration is given
to the impact of migrant savings and returning migrants' skills on
economic development in the region of origin.
WE
Bohning, W.R.
"The
social
and
occupational
apprenticeship
of
Mediterranean workers in West Germany", in The demographic and social
pattern of emigration from the Southern European countriesf ed. by L.
Bacci (Florence, Universita di Firenze, 1972) pp. 175-259.
The author finds very little support for the hypothesis that polyannual
migrants would generally be equipped with new skills on return and that
they adjust to the way of life of an industrial society in the Federal
Republic of Germany and absorb its role structures and values. Though
they find little difficulty in adapting to the more formal demands of an
industrial set-up, they are generally rather unhappy in their place of
work. Driven by the desire to earn as much money as possible, they can
ill afford to put aside time for industrial or language training. Because
of their background and the employer's own interests, migrants are
engaged in low-grade positions and on mass-production lines which do not
require extensive training. Frustrations both inside and outside of work
hamper migrants' learning so that their original internalised roles and
norms are left largely intact. If migrant workers are only superficially
acquainted with the industrial culture, they are unlikely to be a force
of innovation and change in their country of origin when they return. A
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worker who has at best marginally improved his skills and at worst
totally rejects the way of life of an industrial society has little to
offer his home country except some experience of factory work, not much
of which is available locally anyway.
Bbhning, W.R. "The economic effects of the employment of foreign workers:
with special reference to the labour markets of Western Europe's postindustrial countries" in The effects of the Employment of Foreign Workers
(Paris, OECD, 1974), pp. 41-123
The conceptual framework of this important study is 'the self-feeding
process of polyannual migration from low-wage to post-industrial
countries with a liberal capitalist structure'. The model develops in
four stages with different return aspects at each step. In the first
stage young single male workers predominate and they have a high rate of
return. They tend to occupy marginal economic and social positions in the
destination country. The high ratio of returning workers to the size of
the migrant group is a function of the inter-relationship between the
state of labour demand in the receiving country and the original
short-term stay envisaged by the migrants. In the second stage the
migration stream ages slightly but remains predominantly male. More
married migrants come in but they leave their wives behind. Length of
stay is extended slightly so that the rate of return falls a bit,
although the married component of this second stage intends to return
home as soon as possible. However, in the third stage married workers may
call up their spouses so that the sex composition changes as more wives
and children come in. The rate of return falls further. During the third
stage the migration process becomes a self-feeding mechanism as the
migrant population generates a significant consumer demand and a demand
for various services - housing, schools, social care etc. Finally, in the
fourth stage the increasing length of stay and the high degree of family
reunion lead to an enlargement of the immigrant population and the
appearance of a fully-fledged ethnic economy and society. Rates of return
in this mature stage are low. Bbhning sums up: 'The polyannual migrant is
constantly torn between wanting to overcome his new deprivations and
returning home to a social context where he must feel the old
deprivations even more deeply than when he left. The result is that again
and again he extends his stay abroad, or he re-emigrates repeatedly after
returning home for a short while. Finally this process tends to induce
the settlement of a significant proportion of target workers in the
receiving country: the migrant becomes an immigrant: the migration stream
matures: the difference between target worker migration and settlement
migration becomes obscure.'
Bbhning, W.R.
"Some thoughts on emigration from the Mediterranean
basin", International Labour Reviewf Vol. Ill, No. 3 (March 1975),
pp. 251-277.
Questions migrants' contribution to the development of their countries of
origin, particularly as regards the expectation that
individuals
returning to the modern, urban sector would be harbingers of productive
investment and human capital. Concludes that, while there are individual
cases which fulfil this expectation, they are irregular and unpredictable
and cannot therefore be taken into account by economic and social plans.
Proposes a scheme to organise the return movement under a labour market
perspective.
- 18 -
Bbhning, W.R. Return migrants' contribution to the development process:
The issues involved (Geneva, ILO, July 1975; mimeographed World
Employment Programme Research working paper; restricted)
Bbhning, W.R. "International migration in Western Europe: reflections on
the past five years", International Labour Reviewr vol. 118, No. 4
(July-August 1979), pp. 401-414.
The relevant section of this paper is the author's informed estimates of
the strength and magnitude of the post-1973 return flow. He estimates
this to be about 1.5 million migrant workers for 1973-77. The bulk of
this return flow was from the Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland
and France. Return flows from other countries, such as Benelux and
Scandinavia, have been much lower and it is possible that total migrant
populations (workers plus their families) have continued to increase in
these countries since 1973. A more detailed breakdown is provided of
migrants in, and returning from the Federal Republic of Germany, where
statisticaldata are more reliable than elsewhere.
Bbhning, W.R. Guest worker employmentr with special reference to the
Federal Repubic of Germany, France and Switzerland - Lessons for the
United States? (Geneva, ILO, June 1980; mimeographed World Employment
Programme Research working paper; restricted), reprinted in The border
that loinsf ed. by P.G. Brown and H. Shue (Totawa, N.J. Rowman and
Littlefield, 1983) and W.R. Bbhning Studies in International labour
migration (London and Basingstoke: HacMillan, 1984), pp. 123-162.
This paper assembles thoughts on the causes and temporariness of guest
worker employment in Western Europe and attempts to draw comparative
lessons for the Mexican migration situation to the United States. The
nature of temporary and guest worker employment in Western Europe is
reviewed, and it is pointed out that restrictions on migrants' rights and
on freedom of movement have generally slackened over the post-war period,
with the major exception, of course, of the 1973-74 halt to non-EEC
recruitment. Western European policy makers have been plagued by the
question of how permanent the influx of foreigners is or how temporary it
could be made to be. In the Federal Republic of Germany the rate of
return is about two-thirds and in Switzerland more than four-fifths of
migrants return. There arefurther intriguing differences between migrant
nationalities. In the Federal Republic of Germany 9 out of 10 Italian, 8
out of 10 Spanish, 7 out of 10 Greek, 5 out of 10 Yugoslav and 3 out of
10 Turkish workers have returned. These differences call for an
explanation. First, migrants' intentions are reviewed. In Western
Europe,fewer migrants were short-term return-oriented target workers than
were expected. Many, no doubt, changed their minds, as an accumulated
absence turned them more into permanent emigrants. Intentions about
return therefore need to be treated with care. The second predictor
examined, family migration and family reunification, does not appear to
be much help either. Nor do a host of other personal, social, economic
and behavioural determinants, which are analysed through ranked data.
None of the factors at which policies might aim, such as skills or rural
origin, fulfil the expectations that have generally been placed in them.
GNP per capita is one exception - for it seems that low-income countries
reattract less than high incomeones (cf. Turkey and Italy above) - but
this finding has limited utility for policy making when there is not much
choice about which migrants to admit in the first instance. Irrespective
of which position Mexico occupies in the return ratio scale, the theoretically possible manipulation of intentions, of family circumstances
- 19 and of selection criteria would probably not change secular trends very
much, and would hardly be worth the political and administrative effort.
GE*
BShning, W.R. "Elements of a theory of international economic migration
to industrial nation states", in Global Trends in Migration: Theory and
Research on International Population Movements, ed. by Mary M. Kritz,
Charles B. Keely and Silvano M. Tomasi (New York, Center for Migration
Studies, 1981), pp. 28-43.
A general survey of the economic aspects of international labour
migration with a section summarising the effects of return migration on
the sending countries. The economic role of return migration remains
potential rather than actual. Economic processes to do with remittances,
returnee savings and skills are outlined. However, the fact that return
migration waves are generally caused by the industrial countries dumping
their excess labour at times of slump is a tremendous burden to the
sending countries.
WE
BShning, W.R. How many migrant workers have returned home and why?
Elements of an answer with data from the Federal Republic of Germanyf ILO
Tripartite Technical Seminar on Second-Generation Migrants, 2nd, Granada,
1982 (Geneva, 1982, IL0-RER/79/001/SEM.II/7), 17 p.
Conference paper on the level of return migration of migrant workers from
the Federal Republic of Germany. Presents statistical tables on foreign
workers according to employment, duration of stay, nationality,
accompanying family migration (incl. second generation migrant youth and
children) and socio-economic factors.
WE
Bombelles, J.T. Yugoslav migrant workers and their reintegration into
the Yugoslav economy (Cleveland, Ohio, Ohio University, 1979), 55 p.
NC
Bonilla, F., Jordan, H.C. "Puerto Rican return migration in the 70's",
Migration Todayf Vol. 7, No. 2, (April 1979), pp. 7-12.
WE
Borgerard, L.E. Return migration from Sweden to Finland after the second
world war. A methodological study (Stockholm, Forskningsprojektet
Migrationen Finland-Sverige, 1976).
WE
Bortot, N. "Reintro degli emigrant! e gli interventi regional!", Affari
Sociall Internazionali. Vol. 9, No. 2 (1981), pp. 111-132.
Article discussing recent trends in immigration and problems related to
return migration in view of regional planning in Italy. Surveys the
measures taken and the prospects for policy.
WE
AF
Borzeix, A., Alvarez, P., Marcon, M. La perspective du retour chez les
ouvriers algeriens qualifies travaillant dans la metallurgie francaise
(Paris, Societe Nationale Siderurgique d'Algerie, 1971).
WE*
NE
Bovenkerk, F. "On the causes of Irish migration", Sociologia Ruralis.
Vol. 13, No. 4-5 (1973), pp. 263-275.
A snowball sample of 43 people aged 20-40 years in the small town of
Castle-Island, Co. Kerry, was asked questions on their attitudes towards
emigration and return. The last section of the paper deals with return
migration. In a situation of few official statistical indicators, popular
impression has it that about one-quarter of Irish migrants have returned.
- 20 -
But a distinction has to be made between Irish migrants to the US,
dominant before 1920, and Irish migration to Britain, dominant after
1920. About one third of Bovenkerk's sample had already worked abroad and
were therefore returnees. Few prospective emigrants intended not to
return. Return from the US was rarer because of distance and cost: only
the successful go back. For Britain it is much easier and cheaper to
return and so rates of return are higher. Bovenkerk thinks returnees are
more numerous than is generally assumed.
GE
Bovenkerk, F. Migration des travailleurs. retour au pays et cooperation
au developpement; inventorisation critique des opinions courantes et
propositions de politique a court terme (La Haye, NUFFIC/IMW00 Projet
REMPLOD, 1974), 58 p.
GE
Bovenkerk, F. The Sociology of return migration: A bibliographic essay
(The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1974), 67 p.
Despite its now being somewhat out of date, this is by far the most
complete and useful compilation of material on return migration. There
are chapters on the definition of return migration (by no means a simple
matter), on 'laws' of return migration, on types of return migration, on
motives for return, on readjustment processes, on the influences
exercised by returnees on their home communities, and on research
methodology. The essay demonstrates that return migration is by no means
the unexplored field that most migration students take it to be - 215
references are cited in the bibliography. The weakness lies in the
minimal communication between interested authors and the consequent lack
of comparative co-ordination. Bovenkerk concludes by identifying gaps in
our knowledge about return migration. These include cross-cultural
studies, economic models, evaluations of the effectiveness of government
schemes to encourage return, the study of the return of leading individuals, return migrants in novels, and the study of return and innovation.
This last topic is regarded by Bovenkerk as the most important, and
detailed guidelines prescribing essential research is provided.
WE
Bovenkerk, F.
"Dutch Immigration Policy and the Myth of Return",
International Migration,, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1975), pp. 147-150.
Based on the Dutch case, this article demonstrates that there is no more
voluntary return migration since the beginning of the European economic
crisis. Argues that increased return movements will not take place as
long as the Netherlands remain economically above the level of Surinam
and Southern Europe.
LA
Bovenkerk, F. Wie gaat er terug naar Suriname? (Amsterdam, Universiteit
van Amsterdam, 1976), 112 p.
This study on return migration to the Netherlands is based on the case
histories of 75 returning Surinamese, who were compared with a smaller
control group of Surinamese who did not return.
LA
Bovenkerk, F. "Why returnees generally do not turn out to be "Agents of
change": The case of Surinam", in Return Migration and Remittances:
Developing a Caribbean Perspectivef
ed. by W.F. Stinner, K. de
Albuquerque and R.S. Bryce-Laporte, RUES occasional papers No. 3
(Washington D.C., 1982), pp. 183-215.
Characteristic features of the return migration from the Netherlands to
Surinam.
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Boyd Caroli, B. Italian repatriation from the United States, 1900-1914
(New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1974), 117 p.
This study comments on the statistical sources concerning the return of
migrants from 1900 to 1914. The author also examines the Italian
governmental policy in favour of emigration, to solve internal economic
problems.
Brettell, C.B. "Vamos celebrar: Emigration and the religious Festa in
Northern Portugal", paper presented at The American Anthropological
Association, 77th Annual Meeting, Nov. 14-18, 1978.
Examines the relationship between church, religion and emigration. The
paper demonstrates the way in which the "festa" symbolically and socially
reintegrates the Portuguese emigrant into village life.
Brettell, C.B. "Emigrar para voltar: a Portuguese ideology of return
migration", Papers in Anthropology, vol. 20, No. 1 (1979), pp. 1-20.
This excellent paper examines Portuguese migration to and from France. An
analytical distinction is made between the goal of return and actual
return. The latter is a variable affected by such factors as the
immigration policies of the receiving society, the migration policies of
the sending society, the employment possibilities upon return and other
social, economic and demographic conditions; the former is more dependent
upon a series of historical and cultural traditions and attitudes towards
migration. This distinction is illustrated through a discussion of what
is called the "Portuguese cultural ideology of return migration" which
originated with the 19th century returnees from Brazil. There is
considerable historical and literary reference to this group and its
behaviour. The typical brasileira left poor and returned rich. The
principal display of wealth was the casa brasileira, an extravagant house
which was the permanent symbol of success and new-found prestige. The
brasileira was also impelled to return by saudade - a nostalgic yearning
for the homeland. Emigration involved both hope and nostalgia, therefore
'emigrar para voltar' - emigrate to return. This ideology has survived to
the present day and Portuguese migration to France. Emigration has become
a tradition: not to emigrate means to be left behind, not just literally
but culturally and materially too. The annual return involves lavish
displays of largesse and wealth which may be more apparent than real. The
hardships of life abroad are rarely mentioned. Local festivals are
.essentially supported and enjoyed by holidaying returnees. 0s francesas
are the new social class in 20th century rural Portugal. Again, the
house, this time the casa francesa, is the symbol of success, often
resembling French suburban houses. Emigration is the main channel of
upward social mobility in Portugal but it also perpetuates rigid stratification. Prestige is associated with the concepts of vanity and
jealousy; returnees are deeply involved in both. The village remains the
jury of the emigrant's prestige. In fact, emigration brings a curious
kind of social mobility, based on the social and geographical distance
separating France and Portugal. The Portuguese migrant is a labourer in
France, often doing the most menial of jobs, in order not to be working
class in Portugal. Return, or intention to return, is fundamental to the
entire process. Yet rates of actual return are surprisingly low. French
migration policy, especially after 1968, partly explains this, as does
the poor employment prospects in Portugal and, until 1974, military
conscription. Portuguese migrants in France also become very acquisitive
and continue to stay on to attain greater material and social prestige.
Yet the intention always remains to return, for this prestige is only
conferred on them by their natal village.
- 22 -
WE
Briot, F, Verbunt, G.
Immigres dans la crlse (Paris, les Editions
ouvrieres, 1981), 191 p.
Interviews of migrant workers in France concerning their intentions to
return home, in the economic crisis context of the immigration countries.
"Better unemployed in France than unemployed in Turkey" seems to be the
result of this survey.
AS*
Brooks, D. "Who will go back", Race Today, vol. 1, No. 5 (Sept. 1969),
pp. 132-134.
Survey of a London transport immigrant sample concerning the intentions
of returning to the West Indies. Statistics indicating that 38% of
Britain's coloured immigrants would return if given the financial means
to do so are exaggerated. Many want to return but it is more a dream than
a concrete likelihood.
WE*
Brooks, D. and Singh, K. "Ethnic commitment versus structural reality:
South Asian immigrant workers in Britain", New Community, vol. 7, No. 1
(1978), pp. 19-30.
The bulk of this article is concerned with an examination of the 'myth of
return' for three South Asian groups in Britain, the Pakistanis, the
Punjabis and the Gujaratis.
GE*
Bru Bautista, E. "Reattraction of needed skills to developing countries
of origin". International Migration, vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp.
191-196.
This paper deals mainly with ILO activities concerning the migration of
skilled and highly qualified manpower and ILO studies analysing measures
to reattract skilled migrants to developing countries of origin.
WE
Brunetta, G. "I rientri e le nuove direzioni del flusso migratorio in
provincia di Belluno", in Italian! in movimento, ed. by G. Valussi
(Pordenone, Grafiche Editorial! Artistiche Pordenonesi, 1978), pp.
283-288.
Based on statistical research, this study shows that from 1974 to 1976
600 families, mostly from Switzerland, have been forced to return to the
province of Belluno.
WE
Budzinski et al. Les problemes des migrants qui retournent - Le cas de
la Grecef rapport par le Groupe de Travail sur le Retour des Migrants a
1'intention de la 7eme Assemblee Generale du CETMI (Bruxelles, 1982),
83 p.
WE*
Budzinsky, M., Niessen, J. Auswanderungf Ruckkehr und Einwanderung von
und nach Sizilien. Wo ist unsere Heimat, No. 27/84, (Diakonisches Werk,
Stuttgart, 1984), 56 p.
WE*
Buechler, H.C. and J.-M. "Los Suizos: Galician migration to Switzerland",
Migration and Development ed. by H.I. Saifa and B.M. Du Toit (The Hague,
Mouton, 1975), pp. 17-30.
This paper mainly focuses on ethnic identity but contains a number of
interesting points on return migration. Instances of remittances used to
establish small service enterprises are described. These do have some
employment impact. Galicians avoid sending their children to Swiss
schools, even when they have resided in Switzerland long enough for free
education. The fear that their children could not adapt to Spanish
schools upon return is an oft-repeated theme.
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WE
Buratto, O.F. "L'integrazione del rimpatri in Sardegna. Risultatl di un
indagine-pilota", Rassegna dl Servizlo Sozialef Vol. 16 No. 4 (ott.-dic.
1977), pp 77-96.
WE
Cabezas Moro, 0., Cases, J.I. "Relacion entre politica sobre migraciones
y desarollo economicos y la promocion de nuevas posibilidades de empleo
para los que regresan", Boletin InformativoF 91 (enero 1976), pp 1-38.
NC*
Cafferty, P.
"Puerto Rican return migration:
its implications for
bilingual education", Ethnicity, vol. 2, No. 1 (1975), pp. 52-65.
Since the early federalist period the United States has rejected public
policies which would foster bilingualism in favour of creating an English
monolingual society. Today, the strongest demands for bilingualism come
from the Spanish-speakers, especially Puerto Ricans. The phenomenon of
the retention of Spanish among Puerto Ricans on the mainland, the
increasing use of English in Puerto Rico and the growth of "Spanglish" or
"the language of the barrio" among Puerto Ricans both on the island and
the mainland is new to American society. Since travel between the island
and the mainland affects a large proportion of Puerto Ricans,
bilingualism and biculturalism, which go hand in hand, should be
fostered, not discouraged. By the mid-1960s at least one in three Puerto
Ricans had spent some time working and living in the United States.
About two-thirds of returning migrants live in urban areas on the
island. The majority go back to raise their families, so that many
returning children have English as their main language. It is estimated
that 100,000 children and adolescents in Puerto Rico do not know
Spanish. The fault lies on both sides: on the US for not teaching
Spanish and establishing bilingual education; and on Puerto Rico for not
recognising English.
AF
Caillaux, F. Mvthe ou realite? Notes sur les retours auiourd'hui en
Algerie (Paris, CIEMM, 1978), 18 p.
Interviews by the author in Algeria with political and economic decision
makers, staff of trade unions and universities on the theme of return
migration.
WE
AF
Caisse Centrale de Cooperation Economique La formation des travailleurs
immieres en vue de leur reinsertion dans l'economle de leur pays
d'orieine. 1974-1981: Premier bilan du programme francais (Paris, CCCE,
1981).
NC*
Cajoleas, L.P. "The American-educated foreign student returns home",
Teachers College Record, vol. 60, No. 4 (1969), pp. 191-197.
Foreign-educated returnees are a particular type of return migrants. Is
the change or experience felt by these individuals deeper than for others?
Are the problems of readjustment more difficult? This study is based on
50 Education Department PhDs who reported problems of: (i) reconstruction
of personal values; (ii) bringing about changes in the home country
environment; (iii) criticism of American education; (iv) accepting lower
standard of living on return; (v) meeting anti-American attitudes; (vi)
low salaries and poor funding for education; (vii) limited job
opportunities and overwork.
GE*
Callea, S. "Different forms, reasons and motivations for return migration
of persons who voluntarily decide to return to their countries of origin"
International Migration,, vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986) pp. 61-76.
[0007W]
- 24 -
WE
Calvaruso, C. "Return migration to Italy and the labour market", Affari
Social! Internazionalir Vol. 11 No. 1 (1983) pp. 115-128.
WE
Calvaruso, C.
"Rientro del migrant! e condizione delle collettivita
italiane in Europa", Civitas, 1 (Jan. 1980), pp. 33-46.
WE
Calvaruso, C.
"Return migration to Italy and reintegration of
returnees", in The politics of return. International return migration in
Europef ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies,
1984), pp. 123-128.
Impact of returning migrants on the local labour market, in particular
as regards occupational skills and technical knowledge of the returnees.
Statistical data on the outflow of Italian migrants from 1964 to 1980 and
the geographical distribution of the return flows.
AF
Camilleri, C. Quelques facteurs psychololgiaues de la representation du
retour dans les pays d'orieine chez les ieunes migrants maghrebins de la
seconde generation (Paris, Ministere du Travail, 1979).
WE*
Campus, A. II Mito Del Ritorno; L'emigrazione dalla Sardegna in Europa
Lettere degli emigrati alle loro famiglie Anni 1950-1971 (Rome, Editrice
Democratica Sarda, 1985), 289 p.
WE
Canzoneri, R. A highly ramified tree. An American writer returns to his
father's roots in Sicily (New York, The Viking Press Publishers, 1976),
89 p.
WE
Caritas Coimbra
5 P.
NC*
WE
Caroli, B.B. Italian Repatriation from the United States 1900-1914 (New
York, Center for Migration Studies, 1970), 110 p.
The main contribution that this book makes is to focus attention on the
magnitude of return movements taking place from the US in the 19th and
early 20th centuries. Although the term repatriation is used, implying
forced movements, most returns were voluntary. The book's first section
sets out to place returns in the broader context of American history. The
Italian pattern is compared with that of other nationalities moving to
the US. This section is rather fragmented. The flows to the US are
matched to economic cycles but the role of these cycles in influencing
return flows is not fully explored. Section 2 deals with the extent and
characteristics of returns, aided by numerous tables. A seasonality of
movement is identified; immigration into the US is highest during
March-May, whilst returns peak October-December. No real explanation can
be offered for this. Most returnees were single and less than 40 years
old. The third section discusses the reaction of the Italian Government
to these returns. The problem was not even recognised at first, and no
official action was taken until 1901, when a Commissariat was set up to
collect information on emigrants and returnees. This included surveys of
remittances and their use. Help was given through the provision of
better, cheaper boats to aid returns. Some returnees suffered from
problems of drinking and gambling, as well as other illnesses.
Impressions of America recorded by returnees were mostly favourable,
especially as regards money, freedom, an open political scene, cleanliness and orderliness. The attractions of Italy were family ties,
[0007W]
Le retour des migrants portueais (Geneve, CICMC, 1973),
- 25 homesickness and a kind of longing for the native land. Many undertook
repeated returns and migrations with the aim of improving their lot in
Italy. For most it was not a return of disillusionment but of
convenience. A conclusion summarises the main findings, and there is a
good bibliography of works contemporary to the period under study.
WE
Casciaro, F. Indagine conoscitiva sulla condizione scolastica dei figli
deeli emigrati rientrati dall'estero (Rome, ANFE, No. 22, 1977).
GE*
Cases Mendez, J.I. and Cabezas Moro, 0. "The relation between migration
policy and economic development and the promotion of new employment
possibilities
for
returnees
(foreign
investment
and
migrant
remittances)", International Migration, vol. 14, No. 1/2 (1976),
pp. 134-157.
This paper concentrates on the economic impact of return migration,
especially the remittances, savings and employment aspects. OECD studies
show that so far return migrants have had no positive effects on the
economies and societies of origin. Few skills are acquired by migrants
abroad and those that are, are not relevant to the home country's needs.
Those who return are the less skilled anyway. To be economically
beneficial, return migration must be organised and efforts must be aimed
at attracting back innovative migrants. Emigration countries are happy to
receive the savings of their emigrants but have paid little attention to
how this money is spent or invested. More effort needs to be directed
toward channelling this finance into productive and employment-creating
investment.
WE
Cassinis, U. "Emigrazione e industrializzazione del Mezzogiorno", Studi
Emigrazione, No. 13 (Oct. 1968), pp. 513-536.
Article calling for rational government policy on return migration, with
particular reference to Italians returning to Southern Italy. Includes
employment policy, employment service facilities, vocational training and
adult education programmes, etc.
WE
Cassinis, U. "Le migrazioni alia rovescia", Nord e Sud.
(1963), pp. 41-46.
WE
Castillo y Castillo J. "Emigrantes Espanoles: La hora del retorno",
Boletin Informatlvof No. 151-152 (enero-febrero 1981), pp. 2-51.
WE
Castillo y Castillo, J.
Spanish Emigration at the crossroads: an
empirical study of return migration (Madrid, Centro de Investigaciones
Sociologicas, 1980), 270 p.
WE*
Castles, S. and Kosack, G. Immigrant workers and class structure in
Western Europe (London, Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race
Relations, 1973), 514 p.
Written generally from a Marxist perspective and one of the first studies
to be comprehensively critical of the capitalistic labour migration
development model, this has become one of the standard texts on European
migration. The main purpose of the study is to examine the impact of
labour migration on the immigration countries, but there is a section on
'effects on the emigration countries' which includes views on return
migration. The thesis that migrants get industrial skills which they can
use on return is rejected. Remittances are used unproductively. Rather
than helping the sending countries, the authors conclude that labour
migration is actually a form of development aid given by the poor to the
rich countries.
[0007W]
Vol. 38, No. 99
- 26 -
WE
Catalano, F.
"Problemes
actuels
des
travailleurs
Europe"fObiectif Europe,, 1 (juin 1978), pp. 22-28.
Return migration in Europe and second generation migrants.
migrants
en
WE
Catalano, F. "I problem! posti dal ritorno dei lavoratori migrant!",
Italian! nel Mondof 21 (14 Juglio 1965), pp. 7-12.
GE
Catani, M., Berthelier, R.
"A propos de la psychopathologie de la
transplantation. Considerations relatives au cas des migrants, de leurs
enfants, et a 1'impossible retour des enfants dans les pays des parents",
in Psvchopathology of the transplantation of migrants (Strasbourg,
European Science Foundation, 1983), pp. 85-100.
WE
Cavallaro, R.
"Fenomeni di emigrazione di ritorno a Mirabello
Sannitico", Proposte Molisanef 3 (1973), pp. 97-103.
Results of a survey conducted with the returnees in the Provincia di
Campobasso in 1971. These migrants returned to Italy to invest their
savings in a productive way.
WE
Cazorla Perez, J. "Mentalidad "modernizante", trabajo y cambio en los
retornados andaluces", Revista Espaflola de Investigaciones Sociologicasr
no. 11 (julio-septlembre 1980), pp. 29-53.
Results of a 1977 survey conducted in 9 Andalusian villages. Social
origin of emigrants, reasons for remaining or returning, economic
re-integration in the home country.
WE
Cazorla, P.J. Emigracion v retorno; una perspectiva europea
Instituto Espanol de Emigracion, 1981), 328 p.
WE
Cecchi, C. "Presupposti del rientro degli emigrant!", Affari social!
internazionali. Vol. 7, No. 1 (1979), pp. 137-156.
Article discussing problems of return migration in Italy includes a
typology of emigration, manpower planning problems, the role of OECD,
possibilities of forecasting, regional planning for employment creation.
WE
CEDEP, Centro de Estudos da
Economics
of
Reintegration
mimeographed, 1981).
WE
CEDEFOP Migrant! e flussi di rientro. Rapporto di ricerca (Berlin,
Centro Europeo per lo Sviluppo della Formazione Professionale, 1979),
73 p.
Comparison of the professional reintegration in Italy between the adult
and the young returnees.
WE
CEDEFOP Migrant! e flussi di rientro (Berlin, Centro Europeo per lo
Sviluppo della Formazione Professionale, 1980), 189 p.
AF
Centre Interuniversitaire d*etudes mediterraneennes
Les travailleurs
emigres et le changement urbain des pays d'orieine (Poitiers, Ministere
de la Recherche et de 1*Industrie, 1983), 137 p.
Papers submitted at the round table of Poitiers (14-15 May 1982)
concerned in particular with the reintegration of emigrants in Algeria,
Tunisia and Senegal.
(Madrid,
Dependencia
Research Project on the
of
Emigrants
in
Portugal
(Lisbon,
- 27 WE
CENSIS
Emigrazione forzata di ritorno; esame del dati ufficiali del
govern! tedesco e svizzero (Roma), 1976.
Forced return migration in Italy, examined through the official
statistics of the Federal Germany and Switzerland.
WE
Centro di Formazione e Studi per il Mezzogiorno Ricerca sull'emigrazione
meridionale nelle zone di esodo (Roma, 1977), 208 p.
Monograph on the social change effects of emigration on Alta Irpinia and
Sicily in Southern Italy. Presents the results of a 1976-1977 survey of
the
demographic
pattern
(population
decrease),
labour
mobility,
educational level, employment, income, return migration and use of
savings, attitudes towards politics, family and society and of trade
union and political participation.
WE
Centro di Formazione e Studi per il Mezzogiorno Progetto di studio
operativo sull'emigrazione meridionale nelle zone di esodo. 2 fasef
2 vol. (Portici, 1976).
Report on emigration from southern agricultural areas and rural
communities of since 1945. Presents the results of a questionnaire
survey of the demographic characteristics and educational level of
migrant workers, the economic structure of the emigration areas, the
consequences of emigration on age structure and labour mobility wages and
savings of migrants in Switzerland and the Federal Republic of Germany,
various aspects (incl. income utilization, and changes in attitudes and
behaviour) of return migration.
WE
Cerase, F.
L'emigrazione
di
ritorno;
innovazione o reazione?
L'esperienza dell'emigrazione di ritorno dagli Stati Uniti d'America
(Roma, Facolta di Scienze Statistiche, Demografiche e Attuariali, 1971),
302 p.
NC*
WE
Cerase, F. "A Study of Italian migrants returning from the USA",
International Migration Reviewr vol. 1, No. 3 (1967), pp. 67-74.
Data collected from interviews with 187 Italian returnees from the United
States show that two peaks of return occur, one after 6-10 years and
another after 30 years or more. These peaks are seen to correspond to the
two 'moments' or critical stages in the process of integration in the
USA. The first peak reflects the return of those who, having realised
some economic gains abroad, seem eager to return to show them off in
their native village. They never ceased to have their native village as
their reference point. The second peak obviously involves a more
prolonged exposure to American integration influences but reflects a
final realisation that there are basic obstacles to the migrant's
complete integration into American society and that there is a limit to
the upward mobility that he can achieve in the US. Many of this group
return as retired persons or as elderly and marginal agriculturalists.
49% never worked upon return; 75% of those who did returned to a rural
activity. Innovation in farming by returnees is, however, minimal,
largely because of their lack of exposure to American farming practices.
Cerase concludes that the attitudes and occupations of returning migrants
preclude the possibility of their being an innovative force within the
socio-economic structure of their homeland.
WE*
NC
Cerase, F. "Nostalgia or Disenchantment: Considerations on Return
Migration", in The Italian Experience in the United States, ed. by S.M.
Tomasi and M.H. Engel (New York, 1970), pp. 217-239
[0007W]
- 28 -
In this chapter Cerase first develops his famous four-stage model of
return migration: the return of failure, the return of conservatism, the
return of innovation and the return of retirement. In a table he
indicates modal lengths of absence preceding each return: up to 5 years,
6-10 years, 11-20 years and over 20 years respectively (based on data
from 201 interviews). In this chapter Cerase focuses more on post-return
economic behaviour. Overall three-quarters of those who worked after
their return engaged in agricultural activities. Those who returned after
a short period of time tended to become farm labourers. Long-stayers opt
for purchasing land or setting up a business of their own. Investment is
according to very traditional patterns, typical of petty provincial
values. Those who have not worked on return live on savings, pensions or
American social security. Non-agricultural return employment is greatest
amongst those who return after 11-15 years, although Cerase does not
attempt to test his data's significance on this and other issues. The
return of "conservatism" is more dominant in the south. Retirees tend to
be an isolated and marginal group in village society. They withdraw and
are often viewed with a mixture of envy and hostility.
Innovative
returnees are a minority; their enthusiasm for change is often worn down
by local opposition and difficulties - for example the failure to get a
business licence or a building permit. Cerase acknowledges that these
returnees could, if properly aided, be a force for change and development
but his main conclusion is that returnees as a whole have had no
influence either on economic development or on political behaviour in the
communities concerned.
WE*
Cerase, F.P. "Migration and social change: expectations and reality. A
case study of return migration from the United States to Italy",
International Migration Review, vol. 8, No. 2 (1974), pp. 245-262.
This is the most thorough account in English of Cerase's important work
on return migration and is an extension of his study which was introduced
more briefly in his 1967 paper in this same journal. The complete study
was based on 243 interviews with returnees conducted in 7 different areas
of Italy, four in the south, one in the centre, and two in the north.
Three-quarters of the interviewees were male. Most had worked in
low-skill occupations in the US or owned small enterprises such as
shops. Half the respondents were from agricultural backgrounds before
emigrating. The main thesis of Cerase's paper is that the type of return
that results is related to the stage in the integration process in
America the migrant had reached at the moment of return. Although one
can criticise Cerase for assuming a one-dimensional, time-based measure
of integration, his four types of return migration seem attractive and
have often been quoted in other scholars' work. Cerase's first type of
return is the return of failure. This occurs because of the migrant's
failure to adapt in the US; his failure to bridge the gap between rural
Italy and metropolitan America. Southern Italians are over-represented
in this group; most come from a farming background, to which they
returned and were reabsorbed almost as if they had never been away. Most
migrants, however, stay on in the US, and the process of adaptation sets
in.
Some migrants, nevertheless, continue to see themselves still
totally with reference to their Italian society of origin.
Their
aspirations are for a relatively speedy return and an elevated status in
their own society. This is the return of conservatism, the developmental
and social effects of which are limited, indeed they reinforce the
traditional pattern. Other migrants begin to adapt and absorb some of
the features and values of American life. When this group returns, it
[0007W]
- 29 brings back new ideas, new goals, new standards - the return of
innovation. But because of the adaptation process this group has a low
propensity to return. Even when the innovative migrant does return his
original aspirations may resurface or he may be prevented from making an
innovative impact by the still traditional environment that surrounds
him. Finally is the return of retirement: the desire of long-stay
migrants to return to a peaceful last few years in their natal villages.
This four-stage model is also set out diagrammatically and is supported
by questionnaire tabulations.
WE
Cerase, F. "Expectations and Reality: a case study of return migration
from the United States to Southern Italy",
International Migration
Review. Vol. 8 (1974), pp. 245-262.
WE
Cerase, F.
"L'emigrazione di ritorno nel processo di integrazione
dell'immigrato: una prima formulazione", Genus. vol. 23, no. 1/2 (1967),
pp. 7-28.
GE
Cerase, F.
"Su una tipologia di emigrati retornati: il ritorno di
investimento", Studi Emierazione, vol. 4, no. 10 (1967), pp. 327-350.
WE
CESE
Arbeit mit Ruckkehrer - Konferenz fur Auslanderfraeen
Kirchlichen Aussenamtes der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland
(16. Oktober 1975).
WE
CETMI Les problemes des migrants qui retournent: Le cas de la Grece.
papers presented by the working group on return migration to the 7th
General Assembly of the CETMI (Brussels, CETMI, 1982), 83 p.
Assisted return migration to Greece, development of rural sector,
consequences on urban environment. Interviews of Greek returnees.
AF
CGT Le retour "volontaire"r ou la campagne du governement et du patronat
contre les travailleurs immigres (Paris, INCA-CGT, 1977), 9 p.
AF
CGT "Echange de lettres franco-algerien du 18 septembre 1980 relatif au
retour en Algerie de travailleurs algeriens et de leur famille", Bulletin
de 1'Immigration (12 mars 1981), pp. 1-22.
WE
CGTP-IN
Contribution of the General Confederation of the Portuguese
Workers. ILO Tripartite Meeting on the Reintegration of Second-Generation
Migrants in Cases of Voluntary Return, Belgrade 1984. (Geneva, 1984), 9 p.
AF
Chaker, R. "Problematique de la reinsertion des travailleurs immigres:
quel avenir pour l'emigration algerienne?", Hommes et Migrations, No.
968 (15 avril 1979), pp. 3-20.
AF
Chaker, R. Quel avenir pour 1'emigration algerienne? Problematique de
la reinsertion des travailleurs emigres (Grenoble, Universite des
Sciences Sociales, 1978)
WE
Chansarkar, B.A.
"Professional
today,(Jan. 1970), pp. 3-7.
A0
Chapman, M. "Tribal mobility as circulation: A Solomon Islands example
of micro-macro linkages", in L.A. Kosinski and J.W. Webb, Population at
microscale (New Zealand Geographical Society, 1976), pp. 127-142.
immigrants, do
des
they move on?", Race
- 30 -
WE
Chariot, M. "Emigres portugais de retour definitif au pays", Migrants Formation, No. 31 (dec. 1978), p. Dl - Dll.
WE
Chariot, M. "Des jeunes Espagnols se preparent au retour",
Formation, No. 38/39 (mars 1980).
AF
Chariot, M., Demart, M. "Retour des travailleurs migrants en Algerie et
strategie
de
developpement",
Migrants
Formation,
No.
11-12
(juillet-octobre, 1975), pp. 1-8.
AF
Chazalette, A. "Le retour au pays des families de travailleurs immigres:
desirs, departs et conditions de reussite", Migrations-Etudes (21 avril
1979), 30 p.
AF
Chazalette, A. Le retour au pays des families de travailleurs immigres;
Desirs, departs et conditions de reussite (Lyon, Groupe de Sociologie
Urbaine, fev. 1973), 163 p.
6E
Chazalette, A. "La formation-retour destinee aux jeunes immigres de la
deuxieme generation", Migration/Etudes, No. 27 (Janvier 1980).
GE
Chepulis, R.L.
"Return migration: an analytical framework", in The
politics of return. International return migration in-Europe. ed by D.
Kubat (Rome, New York Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 239-245.
Describes the roots, causes and shifts in the direction of labour
migration through an analysis at the macro, regional and micro levels.
WE
Chepulis, R.L. "Migration policies and return migration with particular
reference to Yugoslavia", Studi Emierazione, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 319-335.
Analysis of some of the most recent migratory trends in Europe in the
light of labour turnover, integration and assimilation, with particular
reference to the changing migration policies of Yugoslavia.
LA
Chi, S.K.P. and Bogan, M.W. "Etudes sur les migrations et les migrations
de retour au Perou", Notas de Poblacion, Vol. Ill, No. 9 (dec. 1975).
Study of the selectivity of migration in Peru through a comparison
between emigration and return migration in the region of Chancay in Peru.
GE
Chi, S.K.P., Bogan, M.W. "Des chiffres et des hommes: Les demandeurs
d'emploi etrangers, l'aide au retour en 1979", Hommes et Migration. Vol.
31, No. 992 (ler juin 1980), pp. 19-22.
AF
Chker, R. Quel avenir pour 1'emigration algerienne? Problematlaue de la
reinsertion des travailleurs immigres (These de 3eme cycle, Universite
des Sciences Sociales de Grenoble, 1978), 250 p.
WE
Churches Committee on Migrant Workers in Europe The return of migrant
workers, report from the General Assembly of the Churches' Committee on
Migrant Workers in Europe (7-14 May 1982), 6 p.
WE
Churches Committee on Migrant Workers in Europe Papers on the main theme
"Return migration and regional development", documents for presentation
and discussion at the CCMWE Assembly 1982 (7-14 May 1982).
[0007W]
Migrants -
- 31 WE
Ciaurro, G. "Rientro degli emigrati", Affari Social! Internazionall,
Vol. 8, No. 4 (1980), pp. 59-74.
Article surveying and commenting the provisions of regional labour
legislation in Italy regarding return migration and the social assistance
available to migrant workers and their families.
AF
CIEM
"Les negociations franco-algeriennes", Presse et immigres en
France,serie "Problemes et evenements, points de vue", 12, (18-24
septembre 1980), pp. 1-12.
LA
CIMADE "Amerique latine, retour et reinsertion economique des exiles",
CIMADB-Information, No. 11-12 (novembre-decembre 1983), pp. 5-6.
LA
CIME "L'Amerique Latine accueille plus de migrants europeens qualifies
et salue le retour d'Europe de nombreux concitoyens", Bulletin des
Migrations (novembre 1977), pp. 1-3 et 7.
WE
Cinel, D.
"The seasonal emigration of Italians in the nineteenth
century: From internal to international destinations", The Journal of
Ethnic Studiesf vol. 10, No. 1 (Spring 1982), pp. 43-68.
This study analyses the figures quoted on declarations made by Italian
emigrants at the time of their departure pertaining to their intentions
to remain abroad or to return to their home country.
WE*
Cinel, D. "Land tenure systems, return migration and militancy in Italy",
The Journal of Ethnic Studies, vol. 12, No. 3 (Fall 1984), pp. 55-74.
This article asks why Italians who left Italy returned in such large
numbers. The conclusion reached, after studying the evidence, is that
they returned because, in the first place, they never contemplated a
permanent resettlement overseas. Emigration was determined by socioeconomic dynamics internal to the regions of the small and medium size
land holdings and intense land commercialization. Emigration was the way
to generate cash in order to buy land in Italy, and thus introduce
changes in the original communities. The relocation overseas was meant to
be a temporary phenomenon, not the permanent condition for most Italians.
The article establishes that, at least in its origin, the Italian
emigration to the United States was different from the emigration of most
other European groups. The Italian emigration was not the permanent
relocation overseas of large numbers of people in order to start a new
life; it was a temporary stage in order to buy land in Italy. The high
return migration rates of Italians from the United States find their
final explanation in this original design of most Italian emigrants.
NC
Cintron, Celia Fernandez de, and Vales, Pedro A. Social dynamics of
return migration to Puerto Rico (Rio Pedras, Social Science Research
Center, University of Puerto Rico, 1975).
WE
CLAP Le retour vu du Portugal.
(Paris, CLAP, 1979), 89 p.
WE
CLAP "La formation retour: point de vue de la France. Point de vue des
pays d'origine
(Espagne, Portugal, Senegal)",
Alphabetisation et
Promotion. 76 (juillet-aout 1978), pp. 23-24.
WE
Clapier-Valladon,
S.
Les
medecins
francais
d'outre-mer:
psvcho-sociologiQue du retour des migrants. These du 3eme
Universite de Nice 1977, 2 vol., 994 p.
[0007W]
voyage d'etude organise par le CLAP
Etude
cycle
- 32 -
WE*
Clausse, G. and Guibentif, P. "Der Kreis schliesst sich: Remigration nach
Portugal", in H. KSrner and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsendel'andern
(Bonn, Forschungsinstitut
der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung,
1986), pp.
211-230.
WE*
Collaros, T.A. and Moussourou, L.M.
The return home: Socio-economic
aspects of re-integration of Greek migrant workers returning from Germany
(Athens, Re-integration Center for Migrant Workers, 1978), 658 p.
A massive volume which reports the results of a 1976-77 survey of recent
Greek returnees from the Federal Republic of Germany, carried out in the
high emigration region of Macedonia. Of the random sample of 1,000
returnees drawn up, only 500 could actually be found - the rest had moved
within Greece or re-emigrated. This itself is an interesting fact. The
book presents a wealth of evidence on reintegration processes and
problems. There are 421 tables. Not all, however, are logically or
meaningfully constructed and there is much statistical naivete. The book
is useful as a source rather than as a polished product: it can be
quarried for hypotheses and its results have enormous comparative
possibilities with other studies.
WE
Collicelli, C.
"Rientro degli emigrati e nuova
Quindicinale Censis di note e commentir No. 9 (1982).
WE
Collicelli, C. Training of young migrants: Experiences of some European
countries of origin. (Geneva, IL0, 1984), UNDP/IL0 European regional
project for second generation migrants, WP.10, 48 p.
Experiences of training migrants for integration or reintegration of
Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia, Portugal, Spain and Turkey.
LA
Colombia, Servicio Nacional de Empleo Evaluacion del programa de retorno
de profesionales y tecnicosf Migraciones Laborales, 13 (Bogota, 1986),
86 p.
Report evaluating a programme to encourage return migration among
professional workers, scientific personnel and technical personnel to
reduce
brain drain from Colombia.
Includes
emigrant/demographic
characteristics (incl. age, sex, geographic distribution, educational
level, employment and training experience abroad), discusses tax
incentives and other motivation to return, and investigates job
satisfaction among returnees.
NC*
Comay, Y. "Determinants of return migration: Canadian professionals in
the United States", Southern Economic Journal (Jan. 1971).
A study of a particular return group in which Canadian professionals were
divided into three employment categories - education, government and
industry - and the return propensity for each investigated. The financial
factor was felt to be central. Salaries in industry and government were
higher in the US, while those in education were higher in Canada. Hence
the US held on to Canadian industrialists but Canada attracted back her
teachers and academics. In the field of government Canada was also
attracting Canadians back, largely due to the difficulties they had in
holding important US government jobs. Most returns take place after 2-3
years in the US, and are less likely to occur after an absence of 6
years. Those with graduate education from the US or those holding PhD
degrees were less likely to return. The consequences of this situation
for Canada are serious, posing the threat of loss of both quantity and
quality of professionals.
[0007W]
imprenditorialita",
- 33 -
WE*
Comisao de Coordenacao da Regiao Centro Emigracao e retorno na Regiao
Centro (Coimbra, 1983), 25 p.
Analyses the evolution of migratory movements in central Portugal in
relation to various development aspects of the region.
WE
Comite de Redaction de la Revue "Feuillets" "Migrations europeennes.
Problemes des retours (synthese de documents)", Hommes et MigrationsP No.
862 (15 avril 1974), pp. 30-35.
WE
Commare, C. e G. (a cura di)
Present! e invisibili. Storie e dibattiti
degli emigrant! di Campobello (Milano, Feltrinelli, 1978) 165 p.
WE
Commission Europeenne Immigres du Service Civil International "Le retour
et 1'insertion des travailleurs immigres dans le pays d'accueil et le
pays d'origine", Ob.jectif Immigresf 31-32 (mai-aout 1978), p. 1-34.
Results of the Seminar held in Prali (Italy) from 30 April to 8 May 1978
on the reintegration of return migrants.
WE
Compagna, F. "La geografia dei ritorni", Nord e Sudr
(1975), pp. 37-51.
WE
Compagna, F. "Intervento alia Conferenza Nazionale dell' Emigrazione",
Affari Sociali Internazionali (1975), pp. 54-55.
Proposals for an investment policy in the southern regions of Italy,
towards a productive return of the emigrants.
WE
Compagna, F. "II capovolgimento del saldo migratorio", in G. Valussi
(a cura di), Italian! in movimento (Pordenone, Grafiche Editorial!
Artistiche Pordenonesi, 1978), pp. 93-100.
Geographical approach to the return of emigrants In Italy.
GE
Conaway, M.E. Circular migration: a summary and bibliography (Council
of Planning Librarians. Exchange Bibliography. N. 1250, 1977).
WE
Confederacao da Industria Portuguesa
Contribution presented by the
Employers'
Organisation,
IL0
Tripartite
technical
seminar
on
second-generation migrants, Lisbon, 1981 (IL0-RER/79/001/Sem.I/25), 5 p.
Focuses on the need to retain and recruit skilled workers in Portugal,
return migration.
WE
Conseil de 1'Europe Comite d'experts sur 1'insertion professionnelle des
travailleurs migrants qui retournent dans leur pavs d'origine.rapport
2eme Reunion, Strasbourg, 14-16 mars 1979(Strasbourg, CAHRS,
20 mars 1979), 8 p.
WE
Conseil de 1'Europe Problemes poses par les retours des travailleurs
migrants dans leur pays (Strasbourg, doc. RS 84 (66)).
WE*
Constantinides, P. "The Greek Cypriots: factors in the maintenance of
ethnic identity", in Between Two Cultures: Migrants and Minorities in
Britain, ed. by L. Watson (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1977), pp. 269-300.
Although 1 in 6 Cypriots lives in Britain, this paper is the only one on
Cypriot migration which makes any reference to return migration. It is
mainly concerned with the maintenance of ethnic identity in London's
Cypriot community, but several passages refer to prospects for and
patterns of return to Cyprus. The situation is further differentiated by
[0007W]
vol. 12, No. 3
- 34 -
the island's partition after the 1974 Turkish invasion: Greek Cypriots
who came to London from the north of the island cannot return to their
home villages which are now under Turkish control, their Greek Cypriot
populations exiled to the south of the island. Many British Cypriots have
invested in property in Famagusta and Kyrenia prior to a planned return:
their investments have been lost and the return blocked. Returnees who
went back to the north before 1974 often re-emigrated to Britain rather
than become refugees in Cyprus. Information is given on patterns of
contact with home villages: remittances, holiday visits, more extended
returns. Holiday return visits often have a profound effect on
British-born Cypriots. This effect can be either positive (the beauty of
the island, the friendliness of Cypriots) or negative (language
difficulties, the strict moral code).
Cordeiro, A. "Crise et immigration: peut-on parler d'un "movement de
retour" chez les immigres algeriens?", Les Autresf 1 (decembre 1979),
pp. 24-27.
Cordeiro, A. and Guffond, J.L. Les Algeriens en France: ceux qui
partent et ceux qui restent (Grenoble, IREP-CERER, Mai 1979), 217 p.
Cordeiro, A. and Guffond, J.L. "Les travailleurs algeriens quittent-ils
la France?" Migrations Etudes. 25 (juillet 1979), 24 p.
Cornelisen, A. Flight from Torregreca: Strangers and Pilgrims (London,
Macmillan, 1980) 305 p.
In this, her third book about the South Italian village of Torregreca,
Ann Cornelisen concentrates on emigration. The book is an account of a
trip she made, with a woman of the village, to visit emigrants from
Torregreca living in Northern Italy and in the Federal Republic of
Germany. The last part of the book, 'Back in Torregreca' looks at return
migration. Several perceptive but occasionally contradictory, comments
are made about returnees. Migrants returning hoping for a new life in the
old village find it only to the extent of improving their houses and
filling them with new possessions. But the new furniture is tasteless.
Returnees tend to stay a group apart in Torregreca society. Returnee
children do not play with other children. Some returnee children have
language and identity problems. Emigrants pretend their lives abroad were
much better and more fulfilling than they really were. Even as returnees,
their lives have a strange emptiness: 'they want so desperately to live,
and they know they have not, so far'.
Corsini, C.A. and Sonnino, E. "The CISP Survey on the families of Italian
emigrants abroad", in The Demographic and Social Pattern of Emigration
from the Southern European Countries, ed. by M. Livi Bacci (Florence,
Dipartimento Statistico Matematico dell'Universita di Firenze, 1972) pp.
279-375.
An account of the CISP (Italian Committee for Population Studies) survey
of 2,449 families with at least one member who emigrated for the first
time since the beginning of 1965. The interviews were carried out in 1970
in three sample regions of north-east, central and southern Italy.
Although covering other aspects as well, the interviews covered return
migration and remittances in some detail. Frequency of return depends on
distance and also, though to a lesser extent, on the length of time spent
abroad (longer-stay migrants tend to visit more frequently). In most
cases, migrants return for holidays and festivities, though in 10-15% of
- 35 -
cases return is precipitated by job loss. Seasonal migrants, common in
Northern Italy where they move to Switzerland, often remain partially
unemployed when they return each year to Italy. Detailed tabulations are
provided on the survey data on remittances. Most remittance income is
used for family support; there is usually little left over for business
investment. Remittances tend to have, therefore, a rather negative social
effect on the evolution of zones of origin, because they reduce those
factors which drive the inhabitants to internal migration and therefore
forestall a permanent exodus. Remittances keep people on the land even
though the efficiency of farming decreases; they therefore have a
fossilising, stabilising function.
WE
Cortese, G.
"L'esodo della collettivita italiana dalla Libia e le
prowidenze predisposte dal governo italiano a favore dei rimpatriati",
Africa, 26 (1971), pp. 313-346.
Return of Italian emigrants from the Libyan Arab Jamahirya, and the
assistance of the Italian government to the returnees.
GE
Costes, A. "Retours: quelle politique? Quels resultats?", Migration et
Pastorale,. 151 (avril-mai 1982), pp. 4-9.
WE*
Cosmo, G. "Italian emigration movements up to 1940", Banca Nacionale del
Lavoro Quarterly Review, No. 28-29 (1954), pp. 70-86.
A historical treatment, based largely on official statistical sources, of
pre-1940 Italian emigration, with a section on return movements. For the
period 1902-1915 it is estimated that 60% of emigrants from Italy to the
United States returned, compared to around 40% for South American
countries. Migrants from Northern Italy showed a greater propensity to
return than those from the Centre and more especially the South. Annual
repatriations were 143,281 during 1921-25 and 67,208 during 1931-35.,
representing 47.3% and 73.0% of new emigrants respectively. Before the
First World War the average length of residence abroad of Italy's
transatlantic migrants was 3-4 years. These figures show how ill-grounded
was Mussolini's statement that Italy had experienced a 'demographic
haemorrhage'. Remittance data are also included in the article.
GE
Couesnon, C. "La formation des travailleurs en vue du retour au pays",
Aloha-Info. 2 (juillet 1977), pp. 32-38.
WE
Council of Europe Secretariat Problems raised by the return home of
migrant workers (Strasbourg, 1966).
WE
Courgeau, D.L. "Premiers migrants, migrants secondaires
Populationf Vol. 37, No. 6 (nov.-dec. 1982), pp. 189-193.
AF
Courgeau, D.L. "Les departs hors de France des travailleurs etrangers,
un essai de mesure", Population Vol. 23. No. 4 (1968), p. 609-624.
WE
Cravinho, J. "Comentario aos relatorios do IED e do CEDEP", Conferencia
sobre retorno e reintegracao dos emigrantes (Lisboa, Instituto de estudos
para o desenvolvimento, June 1984), 10 p.
GE
CREDIF
"Formation des travailleurs immigres en vue du retour
pays"fHommes et Migrations, No. 921 (15 fevrier 1977), pp. 4-14.
[0007W]
et retours",
au
- 36 -
WE
CRES Indagine sulle caratteristiche del lavoratorl che rimpatrlano dopo
un periodo all'esteror
Atti della Seconda Conferenza Regionale
sull'emigrazione, Udine, Regione Autonoma Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 28-30
giugno, 1979.
WE*
CRES Mercato del lavoro e movimenti migrator! in Friuli-Venezia-Giulia.
Indagine sul relnserlmento professlonaler soclale e abltatlvo del
lavoratorl rimpatrlati negli ultlml died anni (Udine, CRES, 1982) 7
volumes.
Survey of returned migrants in the region of Friuli-Venezia-Giulia.
Discusses in great detail economic, social and geographical reintegration
and provides ample statistical information.
AF*
Crisp, J.F. "Voluntary repatriation programmes for African refugees: A
critical examination", Refugee Issuesf Working Papers Series, vol. 1, No.
2 (Oxford, Refugee Studies Program, 1984), 25 p.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical examination of the
effort to encourage the voluntary repatriation of refugees to their
country of origin in Africa. It contends that the new enthusiasm for
voluntary repatriation programmes expressed by some members of the
international community has already proved to be misguided and inimical
to the interests of the refugees concerned. The paper is in three parts.
Part one examines the programme of voluntary repatriation organised for
Ethiopian refugees in Djibouti. Part two analyses the efforts that have
been made to encourage Ugandan refugees in Southern Sudan and Haut Zaire
to return to their own country. The third and final part of the paper
provides some conclusions and recommendations.
WE*
A0
Cronin, C. The Sting of Change: Sicilians in Sicily and Australia
(Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1970), 307 p.
This study looks at culture change amongst Sicilian emigrants to
Australia. The fieldwork consisted of 12 months in a Sicilian settlement
of 26,000 and 14 months amongst Italians in Sydney. The main variables
related to cultural change are age at emigration, length of absence,
education and occupational mobility. Although return migration is not a
major part of this study, it is mentioned from time to time, and certain
questions on the questionnaire administered to the Sicilians in Sydney
concern attitudes towards and plans for return. A very low percentage of
interviewees in Sydney were so dissatisfied with their lives in Australia
that they wanted to return. Most, according to Cronin, would not dream of
returning to Sicily, although many would like to go back for a visit and some do. Some migrants who returned subsequently came back to
Australia. Those who return fairly quickly to Sicily - after a year or so
in Australia - are called 'quitters' by Sicilians in Australia. But
migrants who return after longer stays in Australia, such as the Sicilian
who went back after 16 years to open an hotel, are regarded with approval
for they obviously overcame the early hard times and profited from the
overall emigration experience in Australia.
WE
CSER "Repertorio delle ricerche sull'emigrazione in Europa", Formez,
(1976), 149 p.
Critical analysis of the different research studies on return migration
to Italy and Southern Europe.
WE
CSER
"Societa
(1.7.1967).
[0007W]
meridionale,
emigrazione
e
ritorni",
Selezione
Cser
- 37 -
Cvetic, M. Preformation et formation professionnelles des migrants de la
deuxieme generation. dans la perspective de leur (re-)integration
socio-professionnelle dans le pays d'origine en cas de retour. ILO
Tripartite technical seminar on second-generation migrants, Granada,
1982. (Geneve, 1982, ILO-RER/79/001/Sem.II/4), 37 p.
Conference paper on prevocational training and vocational training for
second-generation migrant youth (immigrants) involved in return migration
to their country of origin.
Outlines measures of national and
international cooperation in Western Europe and Yugoslavia with a view to
employment opportunity and social integration.
Dahya, B. "Pakistanis in Britain, transients or settlers?", Race, vol.
14, No. 3 (1973), pp. 241-277.
This is a substantial article based on the author's research on Pakistani
migrant families in Birmingham and other parts of England, and on
fieldwork done in sending villages in Pakistan. Pakistanis in Britain
consider themselves to be transients and all they demand of the host
society is that they be allowed to work and earn for their families to
whom they intend to return. This is how they justify the high male sex
ratio, but women are also prevented from coming by male decisions to have
them sheltered from British society. Villages of origin visited by Dahya
in Pakistan were mostly in Mirpur, the Chhachha and the north-west
Frontier. Here he found that migration has not led to new class divisions
on the basis of British occupations. A middle caste migrant remains
middle caste on return, even though he cleaned lavatories in Britain.
This may change in the future: low "service" castes are beginning to
claim more mobility on the basis of their British experience. Otherwise,
all activity by migrants in Britain is controlled by the family head
residing in the Pakistani village. Remittances and savings are spent, in
order of priority, on the following: (i) settlement of the debt incurred
in financing the migration; (ii) investment in existing land-holding,
including purchase of more land; (iii) building a pakka house for the
family (such houses are permanent, multi-storeyed brick and cement
structures, very different from the crude kachcha huts of non-migrants);
(iv) arranging marriages; (v) rural businesses such as a flour mill or
brick kiln; (vi) urban shop premises for rental; (vii) rural-urban
business such as a transport concern. When abroad the migrant idealises
his "old country". He expects to return to his village community of
which he still thinks he has an intimate knowledge.
He hopes to
re-establish all his old ties. But he is disappointed; the place has
changed, and as a migrant he is not so much welcomed as fleeced by all
those who expect him to display largesse. Several examples are given of
this reaction and pattern of behaviour.
New village customs have
developed specifically for "welcoming" the migrant.
The returnee
therefore has to try to redefine his situation. The returnee, however,
contributes to his semi-alienation back home by his own behaviour - the
wearing of foreign suits, expensive wristwatches and fountain-pens, the
carrying of document cases (meaningless in a hot climate and in a society
where time is not measured and where the population is largely
illiterate). He tries superficially to resemble the Pakistani urban
professional class, but is easily distinguishable from the local educated
elite, and hence exploited.
This disappointment leads migrants to
glorify and re-identify with Britain, which they disdained when they were
actually living there.
- 38 -
AS
NC
Daley, C.L. The Chinese as sojourners; a study in the sociology of
migration (New York, City University of New York, 1978), pp. 203.
The intention to return home and the restrictions placed on female
migration. The theoretical framework is tested by an analysis of Chinese
migration to the U.S. during 1850-1870.
AS*
Dandekar, V.M. "India", in The Brain Drainr ed. by Adams, W. (London,
Collier-Macmillan, 1968), pp. 203-232.
This paper examines in detail the issues raised by one selected case of
an Indian academic, trained abroad, who had many difficulties upon return
- such as coming to terms with poor facilities, caste, nepotism,
corruption etc.
Dandekar claims that these problems are greatly
exaggerated.
AF
Daniel, H., and King, M.C. "That they be men. Eight migrants return with
a purpose", Migration Todayf 16 (1972), pp. 18-24.
GE*
Das, Man Singh, "The 'brain drain' controversy in a comparative
perspective", International Review of Comparative Sociologyf vol. 1,
No. 1 (1971), pp. 55-65.
Based on a sample of 1,400 foreign students from 31 countries in Asia,
Africa and Latin America, undertaken in 1968-69. The findings suggest
that students from Third World countries are less likely to stay in the
US than students studying there who come from more developed countries;
that there is an inverse relationship between academic status and
likelihood of return; and that likelihood of return is strongly related
to subject area - agriculture and engineering students being the most
likely to return. The author argues that the brain drain is not such a
serious problem as it is often made out to be. It represents, to a large
degree, an exchange of skills and information rather than a loss.
LA
Da Vanzo, J. "Repeat migration in the United States: Who moves back and
who moves on?", paper presented at the Annual Conference of the
Population Association of America, Atlanta, Georgia, April 13-15, 1978.
AF*
Davies, H.R.J. "The West African in the economic geography of the Sudan",
Geography, vol. 49, No. 3 (1965), pp. 222-235.
The Sudan census of 1955/6 found 600,000 West Africans out of a population of 10 million. Most were from Nigeria and Chad. Although there are
long-established historical connections along the savanna "grassroad" of
Africa, their main reason for being in Sudan is the pilgrimage to Mecca,
for many are "pilgrim migrants" en route for the Muslim holy cities, or
returning home after a visit to Arabia. The total journey often takes
many years, and sometimes is never completed. For return migration the
chief interest of this article is therefore the contribution of returning
pilgrims who stop, permanently or temporarily, on their way back. No
estimate is made of this returning group's numbers. But they are a
prominent part of Sudanese economic life, both in agriculture and the
towns. Their labour is especially vital in the Gezira Scheme.
NC*
Davidson, B. "No place back home: a study of Jamaicans returning to
Kingston, Jamaica", Race, 9 (1969), pp. 499-509.
The Jamaicans who are returning seem to be the more successful who have
saved up to finance the journey back and the costs of resettling. Now
their dreams of returning are realised, they are suffering the shock of
[0007W]
- 39 the new reality. The years of striving have been in vain. There is
little work in Jamaica, housing is dear and scarce, living costs have
risen sharply and their own compatriots view them with jealousy and
reserve. Many feel that they will be forced to emigrate again. All
this, however, is based on a study of only 28 returnees.
WE
De Angelis, F.
"I problem! del ritorno dei
Italian! nel Mondo. no. 4/5 (Feb-March 1966).
GE*
Debart, M.-H. "Measures which host countries and countries of origin
could adopt to promote the return of migrants", International Migration,
Vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp. 147-152.
WE*
Del Campo, S. and Garmendia, J.A.
"The return of the emigrants", in
International Migration, ed. by G. Tapinos (Paris, C.I.C.R.E.D, 1974),
pp. 210-221.
Since the intra-European emigrant - as distinct from the overseas
emigrant - moves with a feeling of transitoriness, it is reasonable to
expect a dialectical relationship between emigration and return.
Behaviour in the host country (adaptiveness, consumption, savings, social
integration, work training etc.) is therefore controlled by thoughts of
return.
Generally the life-style of the rural emigrant, socially
isolated in a northern industrial city, is conditioned by reference
groups which lie outside the host society. Migrants from more advanced
sending countries (Italy, Spain, Greece) are predominantly rural; from
more backward countries (Turkey, Portugal) there are more urbanites. The
Mediterranean migrant is more preoccupied with financial accumulation
than with occupational progress. He is interested in social advance in
his origin area, not in the destination society to which he is but
marginal. Various typologies of return are outlined. There is as yet no
sociological investigation of any quality on motives for return.
Readaptation problems are more economic than social. Some hypothetical
structures for examining effects of return migration and reintegration
processes are proposed. Every returning migrant is a potential factor in
development but more research on the process of return migration is
necessary for an elaboration of a more satisfactory return policy.
WE
Delavesne, Y. "Retour et developpement", Migrations et Pastorale, 156
(dec. 1982-janv. 1983), pp. 37-40.
WE
Delegado Episcopal de Migracion
"Children of migrants
Spain", Migration today, no. 25 (1979).
AF
Deletraz, P. "Mieux vaut vivre dans notre pays", Masses Ouvrieres, 322
(septembre-octobre 1975), pp. 62-70.
WE*
Delhaes-Guenther, D. von "Situation und Reaktion von Remigranten in den
Entsendelandern - Ueberblick", in H. Korner and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die
"neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und
Entsendelandern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung,
1986), pp. 139-158.
WE
Delia, E.P. "Return migration to the Maltese Islands in the postwar
years", Hyphen, A Journal of Melitensia and the Humanities. Vol. 3, No. 1
(1981), pp. 1-8.
[0007W]
lavoratori
emigrant!",
returning
to
- 40 -
This article assesses the extent of the return migration to Malta and
Gozo up to 1974, that is, during the years when official data register a
very low incidence of Maltese migrant returnees. It comments on Maltese
immigration statistics and derives an estimate of the net return flow.
Some implications for economic planning of the results obtained conclude
the paper.
WE*
De Oliveira, L.V. "Migrations, caracteristiques du marche du travail et
developpement dans la region du Nord du Portugal", in Reunion d'experts
nationaux sur les relations entre le developpement economiaue et socialr
les migrations et l'emploi dans la region du Nord du Portugal (Paris,
OCDE, 1982), 64 p.
Examines various socio-economic
indicators of northern Portugal's
regional economy in relation to internal migration and emigrationreturn. Also provides an analysis on the impact of remittances on the
regional productive structure.
GE
Desbois, G. La formation en vue du retour; mvthe ou realite? (Paris,
Credif, 1976), 55 p.
WE
Descloitres, R. "International migration: its size and character",
Emigrant workers returning to their home country. Supplement (Paris,
OECD, 1968), pp. 9-14.
WE*
Devis, T. "International migration: return migrant and re-migrant flows",
Population Trends, No. 41 (autumn 1985), pp. 13-20.
About one third of migrants entering the United Kingdom each year were
born in this country and so are returning to it; a similar proportion of
those leaving the UK were born abroad. In this article a detailed account
is given of these return migrants; their characteristics and the length
of time they spend outside the UK are analysed. Also, of the immigrants
who were born abroad about one fifth had entered the UK previously, while
one-quarter of all the emigrants born in the UK had left the country on a
previous occasion. The characteristics of these re-migrants are also
examined here.
NC
Diarez, J.H. Return migration to Puerto Rico (Berkeley, University of
California Press, 1967).
GE
Dias, M. "La formation-retour des travailleurs immigres: quel type de
formation?
et au service de quel development?", Objectif Immigresf 34
(jan-mars 1979), pp. 5-10.
WE
Di Comite, L. "Return immigration in the original region of emigration",
Rassegna Economica. vol. 45, no. 4 (Jul.-Aug. 1981), pp. 925-49.
Effect of return migration on the regions of Italy that have been
important sources of emigration. Socio-economic impact of both internal
and international migration.
WE
Dietzel, K.P.
"Die
Rolle
der
ruckkehrenden
Arbeiter
Entwicklungsstrategie des westdeutschen Imperialismus", Das
vol. 13, No. 9-10 (1971), pp. 764-781.
WE*
Dietzel-Papakyriakou, M. and Land, F.J. "Sozialmedizinische Probleme der
Ruckwanderer am Beispiel der griechischen Arbeitsmigranten", Soziale
Sicherheit. Zeitschrift fur Sozialpolitik, vol. 34, No. 1 (1985), pp.
16-19
[0007W]
in
der
Argument,
- 41 -
WE*
Dimitras, E.
"Greece prepares for the return of her intra-European
migrants", Migration News No. 16, (1967), pp. 1-3.
Before 1966, 30 % of Greek emigrants to Europe returned home; the 1967
recession in the Federal Republic of Germany, however, increased this
percentage, causing considerable concern in Greece about sudden
repatriation.
This brief article places the current returns in
historical perspective, makes suggestions for successful reabsorption and
mentions the work of the Christian Institute for Development in studying
return migration and its effects. According to Dimitras, "the return of
intra-European migrants is undoubtedly good for the country, on condition
that it is spread over a period of time, is proportionate to the
possibilities of absorption of Greek socio-economic life, and is freely
embarked upon by the migrants themselves, the sole judges of what general
or particular advantages are to be drawn from a return to Greece".
WE
Dimitras, E. Enquetes sociologiques sur les emigrants grecs; deuxleme
enquete, lors du seiour en Europe occidentale (Athene, Centre National
de Recherches Sociales, 1971), 219 p.
Social research monograph on emigration of Greek migrant workers and
emigrants from Greece to France, Belgium and the Federal Republic of
Germany. Presents research results of a survey of the attitudes and
experiences of migrants in the host country, their family life, their
employment and social integration, and their plans for returning to the
country of origin.
WE
Dimitras, E., Vlachos, E. Sociological surveys on Greek emigrants. 3rd
survey: upon the return to Greece (Athens, National Centre of Social
Research, 1971), 131 p.
Report on a 1964 questionnaire social survey of Greek migrant workers in
Western Europe illustrating the effect of emigration on the migrant's
social adjustment abroad and on their expectations and attitudes
concerning permanent return to Greece. Outlines research results relating
to wages in Western Europe, duration of stay abroad, desired daily
salaries, occupational choice, financial aid desired.
LA
Dinerman, Ir. Migrants and stav-at-homes: a comparative study of rural
migration from Michoacan. Mexico (La Jolla, 1982), 112 p.
Monograph on comparative study of (1) emigration and return migration of
Mexicans to the USA, and (2) internal migration (esp. rural migration)
within Mexico. Based on a 1980 interview survey of the rural communities
of Huecorio and Ihuatzio, examines migration trends since 1960, issues,
esp. seasonal unemployment and reduced urban employment opportunities,low
agricultural income and standard of living expectations, land tenure and
land use, household characteristics, remittances.
NC*
Dinerman, I.R. "Patterns of adaptation among households of US-bound
migrants from Michoacan, Mexico", International Migration Review,
vol. 12, No. 4, (1970), pp. 485-501.
This paper provides a close-range study of conditions leading to illegal
migration from a rural village in Mexico. It is one of the few available
studies of illegal migration at its point of origin. Its primary concern
is not with individual psychological traits, but with the social network
of relationships and mutual obligations conditioning the decision to
migrate. Contrary to the author's expectations, men and women did not
migrate to raise cash to start some new venture on their return, or even
to acquire money for consumer goods. Rather the decision to migrate from
[0007W]
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this central Mexican region seems related to the need to replenish cash
previously spent on some major expenditure such as a funeral, wedding,
children's education etc. Migration is seen as necessary rather than
desirable. Few returnees had invested in a business enterprise. Some US
manufactured goods, mostly clothing, radios and watches, were brought
home, but there was no evidence of extensive acquisition of migrantbought consumer goods.
AF
Direction de la Population et des Migrations
Migrations Informations, 18 (juin 1978).
WE
Direzione generale dell'Emigrazione e degli Affari social! Guida pratica
delle norme emanate dallo stato e dalle region! a favore degli emigrati;
Aggiornamento leggi regional! al 2 Maggio 1980 (Roma, 1980), 691 p.
Guide to national, local and regional regulations and source legislation
pertaining to migrant workers and their return migration to Italy. Covers
migration policy issues, esp. retraining, holidays and re-schooling of
children and all forms of social assistance, social services and benefits
for families, and includes analytical, regional and chronological indexes
and a directory of useful addresses.
AF
Documents Nord-Africains "800,000 repatries a titre definitifs a la fin
de l'annee", Documents Nord-Africainsf 500 (novembre 1962).
WE*
Dolci, D. The Man Who Plays Alone (London, MacGibbon and Kee, 1968), 367
P.
The title of the book is taken from the Sicilian proverb, "He who plays
alone always wins". The book is a series of dialogues with Sicilians
great and humble. The first interviews are with two emigrants back from
Switzerland who give different views of their return. The first, who did
not get on in Switzerland, was pleased to be back: "When I came back to
Sicily, I took heart again. We were back in our own land. I felt better,
we all talked the same". For the second the pattern was the reverse: "Up
there in Switzerland it seemed like an earthly Paradise. It's a pleasure
working with other people, exchanging talk: your mind is opened and your
wits are sharpened. But I missed my family so much I had to come back.
And then I turned back into a block of wood: I felt I was in Hell".
WE
Drettakis, E. Yugoslav migration to and from West Germany: 1962-1973. An
econometric analysis (Zagreb, Centre for Migration Studies, 1975),
73 p.
GE
Droit et Liberte "A propos des rapatriements sanitaires des immigres",
Droit et Llberte, 15 (avril 1974), pp. 6-7.
WE*
Douglass, W.A. "Peasant emigrants: reactors or actors?", in Migration
and Anthropology, ed. by R.F. Spencer (Seattle, University of Washington
Press, 1970), pp. 21-35.
In this interesting paper Douglass challenges the view of peasant
emigrants as reactors to circumstances beyond their control.
By
reference to his own study of two Spanish Basque villages Douglass shows
that far from being tradition-bound homogeneous peasants beating welltrodden paths to chain-migration destinations, Basque villagers have
explored a whole range of "mobility ploys" and are, therefore, at least
in part, the architects of their own destinies. Three major categories
of physical mobility are discussed: emigration, migration and commuting.
[0007W]
"Le retour des migrants",
- 43 -
Each has a range of sub-types with different return migration implications. Emigrants from the two villages have gone to a bewildering
variety of destinations (Latin America, US, France, Switzerland and many
others) under different forms of emigration: permanent, sojourner and
"bird of passage". Even the permanent emigrant can have some home ties:
correspondence, return visits. The sojourner returns for longish periods
from time to time. The bird of passage retains his roots in the village
but works seasonally or for shorter terms abroad.
Much the same
classification can be applied to internal migrants moving to regional
towns or the Spanish capital. Various forms of commuting, including
weekly absences, are also discussed. Migration is, Douglass concludes,
best looked at as part of the wider question of physical mobility rather
than as an isolated behaviour.
WE*
Douglass, W.A.
"Serving girls and shepherders:
emigration and
continuity in a Spanish Basque village", in The Changing Faces of Rural
Spain, ed. by Aceves J.B. and Douglass W.A. (New York, Schenkman, 1976),
pp. 45-61.
Contrasts the migration and marriage behaviour of males and females in a
Spanish Basque village. Female migrants go to France as hotel and
domestic workers; they absorb some French culture. Male migrants go to
work in French forest camps cutting timber or they emigrate on three-year
contracts to American sheep ranches, in both cases living in gangs with
other Basques. Return attitudes differ accordingly. Female migrants who
return are unwilling to marry a local farmer unless there is the chance
of leaving the land to live in a town.
AF
Dubois, J. "La formation des migrants africains en vue de leur retour
dans leurs pays d'origine", Recherche et Realisations. 2 ( 1976),
pp. 7-52.
GE
Dumon, N. "The situation of children of migrants and their adaptation
and integration in the host society, and their situation in the country
of origin", International Migration, vol. 17, No. 1-2 (1979), pp. 59-75.
GE*
Dumon, W. "Problems faced by migrants and their family members,
particularly
second
generation
migrants,
in
returning
to
and
reintegrating into their countries of origin", International Migration,
Vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp. 113-128.
WE
Dunlevy, J.A. "Nineteenth century European immigration into the United
States:
intended
versus
lifetime
settlement
patterns", Economic
Development and Cultural Change, 29 (1980), pp. 77-90.
WE
ECAP-CGIL
Aspects linguistiaues et psvcho-sociaux de 1'insertion a
l'ecole et au travail des jeunes emigres dans deux zones temoins de
l'Umbria et de l'Irpinia (Roma, ECAP-CGIL, 20 Maggio 1977), 72 p.
Paper presented to coloquium on children from the Third World. Problems
relating to countries of origin.
NC
Eldridge, H.T. "Primary, secondary and return migration in the United
States 1955-1960", Demography, 2 (1965), pp. 444-455.
WE*
Eikaas, F.H. "You can't go home again? Culture shock and patterns of
adaptation, Norwegian returnees", Papers in Anthropology, vol. 20, No.
1, (1979), pp. 105-115.
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An anecdotal paper about the return experience of Norwegian-Americans.
Only those who had taken American citizenship are considered. There is
an attempt to base the returnee experience on Maslow's basic needs (food,
shelter, safety, friendship, self-esteem and self-actualisation) using
theoretical frameworks derived from Barth, Meadows and Rose. 67 returnees
were interviewed in Stavanger, mostly women, Nearly half returned upon
retirement. A quarter were married to Norwegians and the rest were
either "employed returnees" with jobs in Norway, or parents who moved
back with their children. For each group reasons for moving back are
given, although the numbers involved are so small that the percentage
data quoted are meaningless. Many moved back for nostalgic reasons, for
jobs and for social services.
But returnees are not accepted or
assimilated as easily as they anticipated. As American citizens, they
remain a group apart. Some join Norwegian-American clubs. In spite of
these and other problems most returnees accommodate fairly well to life
in Norway.
WE
Elich, J.H. and Blauw, P.W.
"Inpakken, wegwezen en toch terug",
Demogra_fie, No. 47 (Oct. 1982), pp. 1-4.
This article examines the pattern of emigration from the Netherlands and
considers the factors leading up to the decision to return.
WE
Elich, J.H., Blauw, P.W.
En toch terug
(Rotterdam,
Universiteit, 1981).
Return migration from Australia, Canada and New Zealand.
NC*
Elizur, D. "Attitudes and intentions of Israelis residing abroad in the
U.S. towards returning to Israel", International Migrationr vol. 11, No.
1/2 (1973), pp. 3-14.
A survey of 378 postal questionnaires received back from Israelis living
in the US. About 80% regard their sojourn in the US as temporary but
most do not have immediate or definite plans to return to Israel. Most
respondents are living abroad in better economic and housing conditions
than they had in Israel. On the other hand, they are less content with
their social situation. The following positive and negative factors were
identified as important in building up the desire or otherwise to return:
(i) a sense of religious, social and national belonging to the Jewish
people in Israel; (ii) the wish to educate children in Israel; (iii) the
employment dilemma - most migrants left to get better jobs and are
uncertain about their job prospects if they return; (iv) many fear a drop
in living standards if they return; (v) the bureaucratic procedures
discourage many would-be returnees.
WE*
NC
AS
Elizur, D. and Elizur R. "The long road back: Israelis residing in
France and the United States: their experiences in Israel and abroad and
their attitudes toward returning to Israel", in Immigrant Absorption in
Israel: Current Research, ed. by Leshem, E. and Rosenbaum J. (Jerusalem,
1978), pp. 113-116.
This study examines the degree of readiness to return to Israel among
Israelis living abroad in the light of the Israeli government's policy of
encouraging the return of Israeli emigrants. The study was based on a
sample of 528 Israelis living in the US or France. Only one-third had
been born in Israel, however; two-thirds were former immigrants who then
left the country. 83% of respondants were interested in returning to
Israel, but only one-quarter had definite plans to do so. Assistance in
housing, employment, customs duty etc. might make more want to actively
return. The degree of readiness to return to Israel increased under the
[0007W]
Erasmus
- 45 -
following conditions: where there is a strong emotional bond to Israel;
where the individual's reference group wants to return; when an active
connection with Israel is maintained (reading Israeli newspapers,
speaking Hebrew etc.); and when satisfaction abroad is low. Israelis who
emigrate for study purposes have a stronger tendency to return than other
groups. Two major categories of affinity to Israel amongst potential
returnees are revealed: national-social and material-occupational.
Emke-Poulopoulos, E.
Problems of emigration and return migration
fProblemata metanasteuses palinnostesesl (Athens, Institouto Meletes tes
Ellenikes Oikonomias, 1986), 638 p. (in Greek with summary in English).
The second part of the book deals with return migration. Consideration is
given to factors in receiving countries that have increased pressures for
migrants to return to their country of origin, and to factors in Greece
that have encouraged such mouvements. The effects of these migrations on
employment, production, foreign exchange flows, skills and training, and
population structure are emphasized. The effects of migration and return
on the individuals concerned are also considered. The problems of second
generation migrants are examined, and policy issues are reviewed.
Engel, G. "Comparison between Americans living in Israel and those who
returned to America", The Journal of Psychology, vol. 75, No. 2 (March
1970), pp. 195-204; part II, ibid. (July 1970), pp. 243-251.
Entzinger, H. Return Migration from West European to Mediterranean
Countries (Geneva, ILO, March 1978, mimeographed World Employment
Programme Research working paper; restricted), 90 p.
This paper is probably one of the single most valuable sources for an
overall and comparative analysis of return migration from West European
to Mediterranean countries. A brief summary can do no more than indicate
its contents and major policy relevant conclusions.
Introductory
sections look at the "recruitment stop" initiated by the Federal Republic
of Germany in November 1973 and then followed by other countries; data on
returns and social repercussions are also considered. Return migration
is then considered in detail from the point of view of three West
European countries, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Netherlands and
France, and then from the perspectives of four "home" countries Algeria, Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia. In a long concluding section,
Entzinger points out that it is easier to analyse than to solve the
problems of return migration. More migrants would be willing to return
if conditions of life and work in their own countries could be improved.
An integrated, co-operative approach to return migration, for instance as
regards training, is stressed. The socio-economic development of home
countries is, however, difficult to achieve without the aid of the
industrialised nations. Four specific proposals are made in this
respect:
using
returnees more positively as "change agents";
compensating home countries for the losses incurred through migration;
making unattractive jobs in the home countries more attractive by
improving wages and work conditions; substituting trade and capital
investments for migrants. Examples of these policies are given where
relevant. Return migration is likely to continue its present downward
trend because of the increasing share of permanent migrants in the total
stock of migrants. Measures to further encourage migrants' return are
unlikely to have much success.
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WE
Entzinger, H. Return policies in Western Europe and their implications
for second-generation migrants; co-operation between the countries of
origin and the countries of employment in extending assistance for the
reintegration of second-generation migrants. ILO Tripartite Meeting on
the Reintegration of Second-Generation Migrants in Cases of Voluntary
Return, Belgrade, 1984 (Geneva, 1984, IL0-RER/79/001/SEM.III/2(e)).
WE*
Entzinger, H. "Return migration in Western Europe: current policy trends
and their implications, in particular for the second generation",
International Migration,, vol. 23, No. 2 (Geneva, June 1985), pp 263-290.
(In English with summaries in French and Spanish)
Return migration in Western Europe is examined, with a focus on
government policy, trends and their implications. The need for
international cooperation between sending and receiving countries is
emphasized. The effects of migration policies on migrants now and in the
future are analysed. Particular attention is paid to the questions posed
by the expressed desire of a significant percentage of second-generation
migrants to return to the countries of their parents' origin.
WE*
Entzinger, H. "Remigrationspolitik in den Niederlanden", in H. Kbrner and
U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen
in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandem (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp. 87-102.
WE
Epstein, J.
"Forced repatriation. A crime against humanity", Central
Europe Journal. Vol. 17 No. 5 (May 1969), pp. 159-162.
GE
Ersu, P.
retournent
1979).
WE
Ewenczyk, P, Garson, J. P. et Moulier, Y.
Retour et developpement:
l'exemple espagnol 1960-1978 (Paris, Fondation Nationale des Sciences
Politiques, 1978).
Statistical data and recent serveys on the return migration flows to
Spain. Professional re-integration and the Spanish policy of assistance
to return migration.
WE*
Ex, J. Adjustment After Migration. Research Group for European Migration
Problems, Study 13 (The Hague, Nijhoff, 1966), 110 p.
This is a psychosocial study of Dutch colonists who left the East Indies
to move back to the Netherlands. It concentrates on their adjustment
processes after the return to the Netherlands. It seems, however, that
few, if any, were actually born in the Netherlands, so the study is not
about returned migrants sensu strictu. The repatriation was forced
rather
than
voluntary,
following
Indonesian
independence.
The
methodology of the study is interesting.
The uniqueness of this
"ancestral"
return
migration
is
worth
mentioning
too.
[0007W]
L'insertion professionnelle des travailleurs migrants qui
dans leur pays d'origine (Strasbourg, Conseil de l'Europe,
- 47 AF
Fadayomi, T.O. "Rural migration and rural development: an exploratory
study of return migrants in selected rural communities of Nigeria",
Journal of Rural Economics and Developmentr Vol. 12, No. 2 (1978-1979),
pp. 53-64.
Results of a survey of 1,150 households in two villages of the Ishan
Division of Bendel State. Analysis of the reasons for return migration in
rural areas in Nigeria.
AF
Fakhfakh. F. "Emigration a partir de Tunis-Sud et le retour des emigres
dans la region", Revue tunisienne de Sciences sociales. Vol. 15, No. 53
(1978), pp. 101-139.
Article on trends in emigration and return migration of migrant workers
from South Tunis. Based partially on a questionnaire/survey of 120
workers, compares the situation of Tunisian immigrants in Western Europe
and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and covers migrant workers geographic
distribution, motivation for emigration, distribution by age group,
marital status, educational level and occupation.
WE
Fakiolas, R. Problems and opportunities of the Greek migrants returning
from Western Europer paper presented at the European Science Foundation
Workshop on Cultural Identity and Structural Marginalisation of Migrant
Workers (Bochum, 10-12 Dec. 1980).
WE*
Fakiolas, R. "Migratory movements and employment opportunities in
Greece", Mediterranean Research Cooperation Project, Athens Seminarf
September 1983 (Athens, 1983).
The following topics are explored: employment conditions and migratory
movements in the post-war period; economic stagnation and rising
unemployment since 1980; age and skill structure of the repatriates;
economic reintegration of the returnees.
WE
Fakiolas, R.
"Return migration to Greece and its structural and
socio-political effects", in The politics of return. International return
migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 37-43.
The causes and destination of Greek emigration from 1968 to 1977.
Prospects and effects of return migration in Greece and geographical
distribution of the returnees.
WE
Farina, J.J.
Experiences de reinsertion dans leur pays d'origine de
travailleurs retournant de l'etranger, Partie II, (Paris, 0CDE, 1966),
16 p.
WE
Favero, L. "Scuola e rientri: il caso di S. Giovanni in Fiore", Dossier
Europa Emigrazione, 10 (1980), pp. 5-8.
WE
Favero, L. "Situazione scolastica dei figli dei lavoratori rimpatriati.
Risultati di una ricerca", Studi Emigrazione/Etudes Migrations, No. 57
(March 1980), pp. 134-152.
Educational reintegration of young Italian returnees.
WE
Favero, L. and Tassello, G. "Schooling of children returning to Italy:
Problems in the system", in The politics of return. International return
migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 129-135.
Results of a nationwide survey held in 1979, aiming at finding out the
statistical distribution of returnee children in Italian schools.
[0351W]
- 48 -
WE
Favero, L, Rosoli, G. Second-generation within the Italian migration
movement;
Demographic
and
economic
aspects
(Geneva,
1982,
IL0-RER/79/001/D0C-4), 58 p.
Working
paper
on
demographic
and
economic
implications
of
second-generation Italian migrants (the 0-20 years child and youth age
group). Examines emigration and internal migration, trends in return
migration to Italy of both youth and school age children, and also return
to inland rural areas, and migrant education issues, and includes case
studies.
GE
Federici, N.
"La rilevazione statistica delle migrazione: problem!,
osservazioni et proposte", Statistica, Vol. 24 No. 3 (Jul.-Sept. 1964),
pp. 405-421.
General consideration of flaws in the statistics of migration that
prevent fundamental analysis of social relationships. Discusses defects
in statistics derived from census and population registers, in particular
as concerns return migration.
WE
Fein, A.
"Benefits to returning Israelis. Need and eligibility",
International Migration, vol. XX, No. 3/4 (1982), pp. 112-124.
Analysis of the effect of assistance programmes on the decision to return
to Israel. The author criticizes the universal theory of an economic
assistance to the returnees and shows that for 58.6% of the Israeli
returnees this programme had no effect on the decision to return.
NC*
Feindt, W., and Browning, H.L. "Return migration: Its significance in an
industrial metropolis and an agricultural town in Mexico", International
Migration Review, vol. 6, No. 2 (1972), pp. 158-165.
An interesting investigation into return migration using life-histories
gathered in interviews of 1640 males aged 21-60 years in Monterrey, a
large manufacturing city, and 380 males aged 15-64 years in Cedral, a
poor rural town. 23% of the Monterrey sample were returnees and 30% of
the Cedral sample. Returnees were found to be better educated than the
population at large and had better jobs. Most came back before the age
of 30 and aimed to find a good job - a case of "purposeful" return
migration. In Monterrey returnees found both white collar and industrial
jobs. The Cedral sample produced information on reasons for return: 34%
came back when they lost their jobs abroad or because their papers were
not in order; 21% returned for family reasons; 9% did not like the
emigration environment; 8% were attracted by the availability of jobs
back home. A useful insight but the data could have been developed more
effectively.
NC
Fernandez de Cintron, C , Vales, P.A.
Social dynamics of return
migration to Puerto Rico (Rio Piedras, Social Science Research Center,
University of Puerto Rico, 1975).
WE
Ferreira, E.S., Leite Pereira, J., Ferro de Paiva, A. "Contribuicao para
o estudo da economia da reintegracao dos emigrantes", Estudos de Economia
Vol. 11, No. 2 (Jan-Mar. 1982), pp. 232-240.
Article on the economic implications of return migration in Portugal.
Considers the potential loss of remittances, discusses employment
creation and economic policy measures for facilitating the economic and
social integration of returning migrant workers; encourages investment
promotion.
[0351W]
- 49 -
WE
Ferreira, E.S., and Leite Pereira, J.J.R. "Portugal's accession to the
EEC and migration balance", in The politics of return. International
return migration in Europef ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 27-30.
Return migration as a mechanism of economic development in regard to
Portugal's forthcoming membership in the EEC.
WE
Filias, V.
11-38.
WE
Filias, V. "Some aspects of the Greek migration problems", in A. Kudat/
Y. Ozkan, eds., Workshop on "The comparative study of the reintegration
policy of five European labor exporting countries (Wissenschaftszentrum
Berlin), pp. 120-169,
WE*
Filias, V.
"Restructuring of agricultural enterprises by emigration:
Greece", in Emigration and Agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin, ed. by
C.A.O. van Nieuwenhuijze (The Hague, Mouton, 1972), pp. 122-143.
The impact of emigration and return migration on land tenure and the land
market is a relationship on which remarkably little work has been carried
out. This study provides one or two insights into this dynamic, based on
results obtained from questionnaires sent to the local authorities of
communities affected by out-migration. A most interesting contrast is
found between communities whose migrants have mainly emigrated overseas,
and those whose emigrants have left for other European countries. For
the overseas migrant, the tendency is to return to the home base and to
go back to farming. For intra-European migrants, at least 50 % seek
other, non-agricultural jobs on return.
AS*
Findlay, A. and Samha, M. "Return migration and urban change: a Jordanian
case study" in R. King (ed.) Return migration and regional economic
problems (London, Sydney, Dover, 1985), pp. 171-184.
Examines the nature of recent return migration to Jordan, with particular
reference to the capital city, Amman. The study reports on some of the
results of a household survey undertaken in early 1984, which sought to
examine the relationship between international migration and urbanisation
and to contrast the characteristics of current and returned migrants.
WE*
Foeken, D. "Return migration to a marginal rural area in North-Western
Ireland", Journal of Economic and Social Geographvf vol. 2, No. 71
(1980), pp. 114-120.
This paper tries to throw light on the numbers, characteristics and
motives of return migrants in the Carrick-Boyle area of north-west Eire.
A comparison is made between a group of returnees and a group of
non-returnees, originally from the same area but now resident in Dublin,
Great Britain and the US. Foeken maintains that in order to understand
why one individual does, and another does not, return, research must
start with the circumstances prevailing prior to the original outmigration. Foeken states that 5.5% of emigrants from Carrick-Boyle have
returned, but this could, he acknowledges, be an underestimate. Returnees
are the ones who have made less occupational progress abroad than the
non-returnees.
Based on a sample of 53 males and 26 females, the
principal motives for return can be summarised as follows: (i) inherit a
farm or shop, males 26.4%, females 15.4%; (ii) to assist family, m 26.4%,
f 15.4%; (iii) to marry, m 0%, f 30.8%; (iv) to get a job, m 18.9%, f
[0351W]
"Emigration - Its causes and effects", NCSR, (1967), pp.
- 50 -
7.7%; (v) bought land or farm, m 9.4%, f 0%; (vi) failure to adapt
abroad, m 5.7%, f 23.1%; (vii) other reasons, m 13.2%, f 7.7%. These
results are interesting, but to be statistically meaningful, the sample
must be larger.
WE
Fondation ECAP-CGIL Le retour au pays d'origine d'emigres italiens et le
role que ioue la Fondation ECAP. ILO Tripartite Meeting on the
Reintegration of Second-Generation Migrants in Cases of Voluntary Return,
Belgrade, 1984. (Geneva, 1984). 12 p.
WE*
NC
Foner, N. "The Jamaicans: cultural and social change among migrants in
Britain", in Between Two Cultures: Migrants and Minorities in Britain,
ed. by J.L. Watson (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1977) pp. 120-150.
The last section of this paper is on "the second generation and returned
migrants".
Second generation Jamaicans are British-born blacks who
cannot return home for they are home. Most have had no contact with
Jamaica. Returning first generation migrants have been a source of
rising aspirations in Jamaica but are also discontented and frustrated by
the island's poor living conditions. Many of the Jamaicans interviewed
by Foner in London had gone back to settle but then re-emigrated.
NC*
Form, W.H., and Rivera, J. "The place of returning migrants in a
stratification system",
Rural Sociology, vol.23, No. 2 (1958), pp.
286-297.
This noteworthy article attempts to identify the social place of returned
migrants from the US in a small Mexican border town. All males over the
age of 14 were interviewed (130); only 33% were non-migrants, the rest
were returned migrants and "visiting" migrants back for a short stay.
Direct observation suggested the existence of stratification and local
individuals identified three broad bands within the 600-strong community.
On the basis of occupation, the migrants had undergone considerable
status change, 89 % starting off as labourers but only 28 % remaining as
such. 24% were landowners or ranchers, and the rest in services or
skilled labourers. Migration was a major contributor to these changes,
but not the only factor. A property index was calculated on the basis of
land ownership, house ownership and overcrowding: the returnees performed
better than non-migrants but rated lower than visitors. The same proved
true for a socio-economic index based on income and education. Migration
has enabled many to move up the social ladder, but not to the very top
which continues to be the prerogative of inherited wealth and established
family status.
WE
F0RMEZ Emigrazione e region! meridional!: risultati e indicazioni di una
indagine Formez atti del seminario tenuto a Roma il 4 e 5 luglio 1977
(Rome, Quaderni Formez No. 16, 1978), 205 p.
Collection of conference papers on the problems of emigration in Southern
Italy. Particular reference to the problems of return migration,
retraining of migrants and social assistance programmes.
WE
FORMEZ II reinserimento degli emigrati di ritorno (Rome, 1982), 219 p.
Study preceding the constitution of agricultural cooperatives in Sicily
of return migrants from the Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland.
WE
Foschi, F. L'emigrazione italiana oggi (Roma, Istituto Poligrafico dello
Stato, 1978), 139 p.
[0351W]
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WE
France, Ministere de l'Economie, Ministere du Budget
"Guide financier
des Francais de l'etranger: Fiscalite, douanes, controle des changes",
Documentation francaise, 1980, 93 p.
Guide to taxation, foreign exchange and customs regulations for French
citizens abroad and in case of their return migration to France.
Includes lists of countries with which France has concluded international
agreements and bilateral tax agreements.
WE*
Frey, M. "Direkte und indirekte Riickkehrforderung seitens der Aufnahmelander - Ueberblick", in H. Korner and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue
Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsende1andem (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986),
pp. 15-64.
LA
Friberg, J
"Native, non-native return and non-return migration to a
Colombian metropolis", paper presented at the Annual Conference of the
Population Association of America, Atlanta, Georgia, April 13-15, 1978.
GE
Friedlander, S.L. Labour migration and economic growth (Boston, Mass.,
M.I.T. Press, 1965).
WE*
Frijda, N.H.
"Emigrants overseas", in Characteristics of overseas
migrants, ed. by G. Beijer (The Hague, Government Printing and Publishing
Office, 1961), pp. 281-305.
This monograph concerns a survey of about 1,000 Dutch migrants living
overseas.
Interviews were carried out before departure and abroad.
About 10% (91) had returned meantime and Frijda's paper contains some
information on this group. They mainly returned because of social
adjustment problems. Often, wives' feelings were important in the
decision to return.
WE
Frittella, A. "Emigrazione di ritorno: politica nazionale ed iniziative
regionali", Affari Sociali Internazionalir vol. 7, No.4 (1979),
pp. 167-172.
WE
Frittella, A. "Aspetti scolastici del'emigrazione di retorno: politica
ed
iniziative
nazionali,
regionali
e
locali", Affari
Sociali
Internazlonali. vol. 8 No. 3 (1980), pp. 93-106.
Educational aspects of return migration to Italy. National and regional
policies and initiatives.
WE
Frbhlich, D., and Schade, B. "Zur Frage der Ruckanpassung von Studenten
aus
Entwicklungslandern", Kolner
Zeitschrift
fiir Soziologie und
Sozialpsvchologie. vol. 18 (1966), pp. 271-299.
Evaluation of a small number of extensive interviews with graduates who
have returned to their home countries, with special reference to problems
of adjustment and re-adjustement.
NC*
Frucht, R. "Emigration, remittances and social change: aspects of the
social field of Nevis, West Indies", Anthropologicaf vol. 10 (1968),
p. 193-208.
The "social field" of Nevis embraces migrant communities living outside
the island, their return patterns and influences, and remittances.
Nevisians have migrated to many destinations, but since the 1950s mostly
to England. Returns from Curacao and England are mentioned; it seems
[0351W]
- 52 -
that returnees are a small proportion of total migrants. Remittances
reflect moral and family obligations and are the main source of income on
the island, replacing agriculture which itself has declined sharply.
WE
Gacey, F. "Retour au Portugal?", Alphabetisation et Promotionr 84 (avril
1979), pp. 17-24.
WE
Gallais-Hamonno, G., Noirot, D., Poupat, B. "La duree de sejour des
travailleurs etrangers en France", Population, 2 (1975).
WE*
Garmendia, J.A. (ed.) La emigracion espafiola en la encruci.iada - Marco
general de la emigracion de retorno (Madrid, Centro de Investigaciones
Sociologicas, 1981), 459 p.
Analyses the socio-economic patterns of Spanish emigration, with
particular reference to France, the Federal Republic of Germany and
Switzerland, and various aspects of return migration. Includes a survey
of Spanish employers concerning their rating of return migrants'
professional skills, trade unionism etc. and the employers' attitude
towards recruiting previous migrants.
WE
AF
Garson, J.-P. "The role of return migration in Algerian economic development in the 1980s", in The politics of return. International return
migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat. (Rome, New York, Centre for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp.11-14.
Motivations to return of Algerians in France and measures undertaken by
the Algerian government to encourage return migration and the creation of
small enterprises.
AF
Garson, J.-P. La reinsertion productive des emigres algeriens; Retour et
creation d'entreprises (Alger, C.R.E.A., 1981), 26 p.
AS
Geiss,
B.
"Turkische
Arbeitnehmer:
Reintegration
bewahrt",
Bundesarbeitsblattf No. 9 (1981), pp. 20-23.
Reasons for the lack of return migration to Turkey. This article also
demonstrates that the 1972 agreement helped reintegration less than the
foundation of new enterprises.
WE
Gentileschi, M.L., and Simoncelli, R., eds. Rientro degli emigrati e
teritorio (Napoli, Istituto Grafico Italiano, 1983), 398 p.
Survey of 1033 Italian returnees from 1972 to 1977. The study
demonstrates that return migration can be of benefit to regional economic
development.
WE
Gentileschi, M.L.
"Return migrants to Sardinia: Rural and urban
differences", in The politics of return. International return migration
in Europef ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies,
1984), pp. 61-65.
Reports on a survey of return migrants to Sardinia registered in various
communes as returnees between 1972 and 1977. Socio-demographic profile of
returnees and impact of return migration on the urbanisation and
population growth of these communes.
WE
Gilkey, G.R. "The United States and Italy: Migration and repatriation",
in F.D. Scott, ed. World migration in modern times (Prentice Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1968).
[0351W]
- 53 -
WE*
Gilkey, G.R. "The United States and Italy: Migration and Repatriation",
The Journal of Developing Areas, vol. 2, No. 1 (1967), pp 23-35.
An account by a historian of the mass emigration from southern Italy to
America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and of the return
flows which developed in the early decades of the present century. Much
use is made of contemporary accounts of the behaviour of the returnees
and their effects on local society. Generally, "he who crosses the ocean,
buys a house". Whole quarters of so-called "American homes" were built
in southern provinces. Coming from an impoverished peasant background,
returnees came back as bourgeoisie and bought plots of land, often at
inflated prices. They no longer showed respect for the traditional
hereditary landed gentry. But they also brought back diseases, alcoholism
and brash American ways. Their developmental effects were always minimal
and localised, because of their poor education and restricted world
view. Ultimately the most successful emigrants were those who did not
return to Italy but who helped to build America.
AS
Gitmez, A. Return migration of Turkish workersf paper presented at the
First European Conference on International Return Migration (Rome, 11-14
November 1981).
AS
Gitmez, A.S. Die Riickwanderung der Gastarbeiter (Ankara, Middle East
Technical University, 1980).
WE
Gitmez, A.S. "Geographical and occupational reintegration of returning
Turkish workers", in The politics of return. International return
migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 113-121.
Statistical data on the presence of Turkish workers in Western Europe in
the 1970s and results of a survey of 1365 returnees conducted in 1978.
WE
Glacey, F.
"Retour au Portugal?", Alphabetisation
(avril 1979), pp. 17-24.
GE
Glaser, W.A.
"The migration and return of professionals", paper
presented at the International Sociological Association, Research
Committee on Migration, University of Waterloo, Oct. 17-20, 1973.
GE*
Glaser, W.A. "The migration and return of professionals", International
Migration Review, vol. 8 (1974), pp. 227-244.
A useful summary of the UNITAR (United Nations Institute for Training and
Research) study on the migration of professionals. It includes numerous
tables which give valuable insights into the long-run migration plans of
students studying in different countries, students from different
countries, students studying for different careers etc. At the macro
level the survey found that most professionals will return but that
Canada and the US tend most to hold on to their foreign students and
professionals. The decisions to go abroad are the obvious ones - for
education, experience, opportunities. The experience is greatly valued
and is felt to be useful upon return home. The return is prompted by
completion of education, desire to help the home country, and family
ties. But there are also frustrations on returning, particularly
isolation, lack of research funds, low pay etc. Some re-emigrate but
most put up with these problems and stay on at home.
et Promotion. 84
- 54 -
AF
Glaser, W.A., and Habers, G.C. The Brain drain; Emigration and return;
findings of a UNITAR multinational comparative survey of professional
personnel of developing countries who study abroad (Oxford, Pergamon
Press, 1978), 324 p.
Monograph reporting on a research project concerning brain drain, study
abroad and the return migration of professional workers to developing
countries. Supplies survey data on the sociological aspects, economic
implications and cultural factors influencing the individual motivation
and decisionmaking, and provides information for educational planning and
employment policy-making.
GE*
Glaser, W.A. The Brain Drain: Emigration and Return. UNITAR Research
Report (Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1978), 324 p.
"Brain drain" is an emotive topic in the migration histories of Third
World countries. This book summarises the results of a widely circulated
questionnaire given to: (a) foreign students in three developed countries; (b) professionals who had returned to eight developing countries;
and (c) professionals who had emigrated but had not yet returned. The
findings are based on some 6,500 responses and are organised under the
following themes. Firstly, the overall pattern of migration shows a
strong commitment to the home country both by students and by professionals. Work or a stay abroad is viewed as part of necessary experience.
Secondly, there are variations on home countries; not all attract home an
equal proportion of emigrants; this depends on employment prospects and
on discrimination at home and abroad. Thirdly, countries of immigration
vary in their openness to this type of foreign migrant. Traditional links
between developed and developing countries are important. Fourthly, there
are variations in specialities. Agronomists, business and philosophy
graduates are most likely to return; linguistic, educationalists,
architects and biologists less likely.
Not all returnees opt for
specialist employment; some go for administration and more general
employment. Many that do not return feel their skills would be wasted
were they to do so. Fifthly, motives for return or staying abroad hinge
around the desire to contribute to the home country, family ties and
children's education. Ties with home are very important and take the
form of pledges, contacts with relatives and other compatriots, dealings
with government officials and occasional visits. The more frequent these
visits are, the more likely is a definitive return. Sixthly, losses and
gains are weighed up. No clear pattern emerges. The least able are more
likely to return. Most individuals send home remittances if they are
earning. Overall, the book is clearly set out, easily read and contains
an excellent annotated bibliography on professional emigration.
WE*
Gmelch,
G.
"Irish
return
migration:
the
socio-demographic
characteristics of return migrants", Papers in Anthropologyf vol. 20,
No. 1, (1979), pp. 155-166.
Ireland has changed from a net emigration to a net immigration country.
Recent data suggest an annual net inflow of 8,500 persons. In the year
before the 1971 census over 13,000 emigrants returned.
This paper
examines a number of socio-demographic variables of returnees: sex, age,
marital status, period of absence, community size of foreign and Irish
residence, and occupation before and after return. Survey data were
collected during 1977-78 from 606 return migrants interviewed in western
Ireland. Sex and age data are from the 1971 census. The sex ratio of
returnees is even; 60% returned between the ages of 20 and 34; women
[0351W]
- 55 -
returning are on average two years younger than men. A sub-mode of
returnees are in the 65-69 age group; these are "retirees". Mean absence
abroad is 17.5 years, but the survey was biased towards long-stayers. 89%
of respondents were single when they emigrated; 69% were married when
they returned. All but 10% had chosen Irish spouses, mostly originating
from close to home. Returnees had been mostly in Great Britain, the US
and Canada; England alone contributed 69%. Most had been in big cities.
58% of "American" returnees were from New York; 51% of "British"
returnees had been in London. 74% of the interview sample had resettled
in or near their original home community. Married couples were more
likely to resettle in the husband's home locality than the wife's. Some
returnees, but not many, had acquired new occupational skills and
technical training whilst abroad. Overall, returnees nevertheless occupy
higher status jobs than the non-migrant populations of the survey region.
WE*
Gmelch, G. "Return migration", Annual Review of Anthropologyf vol. 9
(1980) pp. 135-159.
This is a valuable review paper which collates much of the recent work on
return migration, especially that by anthropologists. Gmelch is concerned
largely with international return migration. There is an initial section
criticising terminological sloppiness. A basic distinction can be made
between temporary and permanent return migration. Motives for return
migration generally focus on strong family ties, but there are problems
concerned with collecting information on this aspect. Most studies,
nevertheless, find that pull factors from the home region are much more
important than pushes from the immigration country in stimulating
returns. The other main sections of the review are on adaptation of
returnees and on their impact on home societies.
There are two
approaches to the question of readaptation. One examines returnees'
socio-economic objectives - employment, income, housing, community
organisation etc. The second looks at returnees perceptions of the home
environment and of their own position within it. Reference is made to
the special problems encountered by returnee women and children. The
impact of return migration on home societies is examined under a number
of heads: introduction of new work skills; investment of savings;
innovative ideas; and social structure. A majority of the case studies
quoted refer to southern Europe and the Mediterranean although work on
Ireland, Puerto Rico, the West Indies and South Asia is also mentioned.
The conclusion notes that most of the literature quoted is descriptive
rather than comparative or analytical. Little theory has been applied to
return migration. Perhaps more work needs to be done on middle and upper
status returnee groups. The bibliography contains some inaccuracies.
WE*
NC
Gmelch, G. "Who returns and why: return migration behavior in two North
Atlantic societies", Human Organization vol. 42, No. 1 (Washington,
Spring 1983) pp. 46-54
The author examines return migration in two populations in Ireland and
Newfoundland, Canada, with a focus on the characteristics of return
migrants and their reasons for returning to their homelands. The data
concern 606 Irish return migrants interviewed in 1977-1978 and 420
Newfoundland return migrants interviewed in 1979. Similarities between
these two groups with regard to sex, age, occupation, years spent abroad,
residence and emigration intention are noted. A conceptual framework is
developed in order to analyze the various push and pull factors affecting
this migration. The importance of attachment to home country and of
social and family ties is emphasized.
[0351W]
- 56 -
WE
Gmelch, G.
"Irish return migration and migrant adjustment", paper
presented at the American Anthropological Association 77th Annual
Meeting, Nov. 14-18, 1978.
Describes ongoing research on returning migrants to Ireland, including
their demographic characteristics, motives for returning, especially
related to life cycle and problems of adjustment.
WE*
Gmelch, G. "The readjustment of return migrants in Western Ireland", in
R. King (ed.) Return migration and regional economic problems (London,
Sidney, Dover, Croom Helm, 1985), pp. 152-170.
This chapter examines the readjustment that Irish return migrants
experience in re-settling in small communities in western Ireland. Some
students of return migration have suggested that because returnees are
familiar with their destination and are likely to have friends and
relatives living there, the barriers to and psychic costs of returning
will be lower than for individuals arriving for the first time (for a
review see Bovenkerk, 1974, Gmelch, 1980). Moreover, if there is a degree
of learning-by-experience associated with migration, then persons who
have emigrated at least once should find it easier to move again. The
Irish case described below, however, presents a very different picture.
Some migrants do readjust quickly and encounter few problems; even after
many years' absence they appear to pick up where they left off as though
they had never been away. But many migrants are unhappy and disillusioned. While they are often economically better off than their neighbours,
they are disappointed and sometimes bitter about life in their homeland.
WE
Gokalp, C.
"L'emigration turque en Europe et particulierement en
France", Population, vol. 28, No. 2 (March-April 1973), pp. 335-360
Based on official data on Turkish workers in the Federal Republic of
Germany and France, the author investigates, among other aspects of
migration from Turkey, the impact of the returnees on the Turkish economy.
WE
Goldey, P. "Migration, co-operation and development: an examination of a
pilot project in Portugal", in The politics of return. International
return migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 45-53.
Evaluation of a co-operative established by 74 returnees in the village
of Alvoco in 1977, with the support of a Dutch funding agency and the
Portuguese Ministry of Agriculture.
AS
Goldstein, S. "Circulation in the context of total mobility in Southeast
Asia", Papers of the East-West Population Institute. No. 53 (1978).
WE
Gordian,
F.
"Salvatore und
Gennaro
kehren heim:
Italienische
Gastarbeiter in Deutschland - Leben im Ausnahmezustand", Auslands-Kurierr
vol. 11, No. 5 (October 1970), pp. 23-24.
AF
Gould, J.D. "Les retours" Peuples Noirs - Peuples Africains (mars-avril
1981), pp. 3-189.
NC*
WE
Gould, J.D. "European intercontinental emigration. The road home: return
migration from the USA", The Journal of European Economic History, vol.9,
No. 1 (Spring 1980), pp 41-111.
[0351W]
- 57 A lengthy and rather unstructured study of the history of return
migration from the US to Europe. The first section calculates and
discusses return migration ratios for nationals for many European
countries. The second section looks at Italian emigration and returns
during the period 1876-1914, comparing returns from the US with those
from Brazil and Argentina. The article is confusing, however, and lacks
substantive critique or comment on the ratios used. The reader is left
to draw his own conclusions.
WE
Granelli, L. "Emigrazione di ritorno", Informazioni Suimez. vol. 28, No.
5 (15 Marzo 1975), pp. 185-186.
WE
Granelli, L.
1680-1689.
WE
Grece, Ministere du Travail Les problemes des Grecsr migrants de la
deuxieme generation; mesures pratiques et actions mises en place par la
Grece pour leur reinsertion. ILO Tripartite Meeting on the Reintegration
of Second-Generation Migrants in Cases of Voluntary Return, Belgrade,
1984, 14 p.
WE
Greek Government/Council of Europe Programme
Report on Greecef ILO
Tripartite Meeting on the Reintegration of Second-Generation Migrants in
Cases of Voluntary Return, Belgrade, 1984, 19 p.
WE
Greece Education et enseignement de la Langue maternelle; contribution
presentee par le Gouvernement Grec. ILO Tripartite Technical Seminar on
Second-Generation
Migrants,
2nd,
Granada
1982,
(ILO-RER/79/001/SEM.II/14.A), 9 p.
Conference paper on educational policy and social policy of Greece
regarding second-generation Greek migrant (immigrant) youth in Federal
Republic of Germany and elsewhere. Covers migrant education, social integration, language teaching, vocational training and return migration.
AF
Gregory, J.W., Piche, V. "African return migration: past, present and
future", Contemporary Marxism, No. 7 (Fall 1983), pp. 169-183.
The various forms of return migration in Africa in the twentieth century
are first examined, and the factors affecting them are discussed. The
authors then consider the value of the household, rather than the
individual, as the unit of analysis. Return migration is also analyzed
in terms of the linking role it plays between Africa's capitalist and
non-capitalist countries. Finally, alternative future trends in the
circulatory flow of African labour are considered.
WE*
Gregory, D.D. and Cazorla Perez, J. "Intra-European migration and
regional development: Spain and Portugal", in R. Rogers (ed.) Guests come
to stay (Westview Press, 1985), pp. 231-261.
Comparative analysis of return migration and development in Andalusia and
the Algarve. The objective was to underline that, unless the Governments
of the Mediterranean countries become more attuned to problems of
political economy at the regional level, return migration and remittances
will not have a positive effect on the areas of out-migration.
AF*
Grey-Johnson, C. "Measures to facilitate the return and reintegration of
highly skilled migrants into African countries", International Migration.
vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp. 197-212.
"Emigrazione di ritorno", II Pontef vol. 30, No. 11-12, pp.
- 58 -
GE*
Griffin, K. "On the emigration of the peasantry", World Development,
vol., No. 5 (1976), pp. 353-361.
This article attempts to disprove the view that emigration harms the
development of the sending country.
From a largely theoretical
standpoint, Griffin examines the effects of emigration from rural areas,
return migration and remittances, and concludes that overall the net
result is beneficial for those peasant-oriented regions of outmigration.
An addendum applies the same set of arguments to international migration.
AS*
Griffiths, S. L.
"Emigration and entrepreneurship in a Philippine
peasant village", Papers in Anthropology, vol. 20, No. 1 (1979), pp.
127-144.
This paper looks at emigration, return migration and entrepreneurship in
a rich garlic-growing village in Ilocos, north-west Luzon. Migration is
mainly to Hawaii, and started in the 1920s. Griffiths maintains that
wealth generated by emigration and by entrepreneurship in trading garlic
has not only strengthened lateral ties amongst villagers but also,
paradoxically, increased socio-economic differentiation.
These two
phenomena are strongly reflected in two important village institutions,
the fiesta and the sociedad (a rotating credit society founded by
returnees). The first phase of emigration from the village was the 62
men who went to work as cane-cutters in Hawaiian sugar estates. Of these,
31 returned, mostly before 1939. Most invested their earnings in land,
which provided security at a time when landlord-tenant relationships were
unstable and inclined to be exploitative of the tenant. Men bought land
to establish dowries for themselves and for their children. Migrants who
stayed on in Hawaii until after the war returned as "retirees". Their
pensions and retirement bonuses made them very wealthy by local standards
- an average pension was worth four times a local schoolteacher's salary.
Special attention is given by Griffiths to retirees' marriage patterns.
He suggests that retirees' kin see to it that they marry young women from
other villages so that retiree wealth remains potentially accessible to
them, the kin. Lastly, the more recent emigrants, mostly young men, tend
not to return. This releases land for non-migrants to buy and farm.
Only a small proportion of recent migrants send remittances for land and
house-buying. Little emigrant wealth is channelled into the garlic trade.
WE
Gross, B., Stevens, W., Werth, M., eds.
Akademiker aus Bntwicklungslandern in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland; Zwischen Brain-Drain und
Ruckkehr (Saarbrucken, Verlag Breitenbach, 1982).
GE*
Grubel, H.F. "Reflections on the present state of the Brain Drain and a
suggested remedy", Minerva, vol. 14, No. 2 (1976), pp. 209-224.
This paper is chiefly notable for the map showing inflows and returns of
scientific and technical personnel to and from North America by source
country. For some countries the rates of return are very high (85% to
Switzerland, 1961-69, for instance).
WE
Grupo de Sociologia Urbana de Lyon "El retorno al pais de origen de los
trabajadores immigrados en Francia y sus familias: deseos, partidas y
condiciones de exito", Boletin Informativo, No. 147 (septiembre-octubre
1980), pp. 149-150, part II ibid.. No. 148 (noviembre-diciembre 1980),
pp. 2-24.
[0351W]
- 59 -
AS
Gunge, M.E. Turkey - Turkish workers' companiesr Forschungsinstitut der
Friedrich-Ebert Stiftung, Arbeiten aus der Abteilung Entwicklungslanderforschung, Nr. 71 (Bonn, 1978).
WE
Haberl, O.N. Die Abwanderung von Arbeitskraften aus Jugoslawien. Zur
Problematik
ihrer
Auslandsbeschaftieung
und
Riickfiihrung
(Munich,
Oldenbourg Verlag, 1978), 337 p.
Problems arising in Yugoslavia after the return of labourers in social,
demographic and economic fields.
WE*
Haberl, O.N. "Remigration versus Aufenthaltsverfestigung - Jugoslawen in
der Bundesrepublik Deutschland", in H. Korner and U. Mehrlander (eds.)
Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und
Ent s end e1andern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung,
1986), pp. 197-210.
WE
Hammar, T. "Dilemmas of Swedish immigration policy: They were invited to
stay permanently. Do they want to return?", in The politics of. return.
International return migration in Europer ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New
York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 187-200.
Statistical examination of (i) return migration from Sweden by sex and
year of immigration as from 1968 to 1977; (ii) immigration of Yugoslav
citizens to Sweden from 1968 to 1978; (iii) re-emigration of Yugoslav
citizens from Sweden from 1968 to 1978; (iv) return migration of Finnish
citizens to Finland in 1974-77 by duration of stay in Sweden; (v)
re-immigration and immigration to Sweden of Finnish citizens in 1974-77;
(vi) return migration to Finland, Greece and Yugoslavia in 1977.
Analysis of the Swedish immigration and return policy.
NC*
WE
Handlin, 0. "Immigrants who go back", The Atlantic, vol. 198 (1956),
pp. 70-74.
A readable but highly personal account of Handlin's contacts with Greek
returnees from the US. He emphasises the long history of the two-way
flows between Europe and North America. Those who return, he suggests,
are those who never became acculturated. Most never attempted to do so,
simply coming to terms with the essentials of life in America. Most see
return as a reward for their efforts and success in the US. They want to
display their success when they return but are often frustrated by the
attitudes of non-migrants and disillusioned by the changes that have
taken place in their absence. Even so, they are still disturbed by the
lack of basic facilities such as health care and wish to improve things
in their home areas. He cites societies set up by returnees to improve
and construct roads, hospitals, churches, olive oil presses, water works
etc.
WE
Haniotis, G.V. "An exercise in voluntary repatriation in Greece", The
OECD Observer, 11 (1964), pp. 12-15.
In 1961 24 % of all Greeks in higher education were studying abroad, 59 %
of them studying scientific and technical subjects. Many remain abroad,
tempted by higher salaries, better working conditions and brighter
opportunities for advancement.
The OECD Directorate of Scientific
Affairs is co-operating with the Greek government in setting up a pilot
repatriation scheme, designed to encourage a limited number of Greek
scientists working abroad to return under a two-year contract to
participate in Greece's development effort.
[0351W]
- 60 -
WE
Harder, E. Riickkehr oder Verbleib. Eine Befragung griechischer Arbeiter
in Nordrhein-Westfalen (Melle, 1980).
WE
Hardman, A., and Power, J. Western Europe's migrant workersf Minority
Rights Group Report no. 28 (London, 1976).
WE
Harrison, G. Viavai Calabresi. L'emigrazione di ritorno rivisitata in
chiave antropologica (Cosenza, Quaderni del Dipartimento di Scienze
dell'Educazione no. 35), 140 p.
WE*
't Hart, M.
"Irish return migration in the nineteenth century",
Tiidschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie/Journal of Economic and
Social Geography, Vol. 76, No. 3 (Amsterdam, 1985), pp. 223-231.
This study is concerned with return migration to Ireland from the United
States during the nineteenth century. The author first notes that the
rate of return migration was relatively low. Reasons for returning are
then considered, including inheritance and poor health. Data on 671 Irish
returnees from passenger lists of ships arriving in the United Kingdom
from the United States between 1858 and 1867 are analysed with regard to
sex, marital status, age, oppupations and impact of returnees.
WE
Harvey, S. Dutch return migration. North Brabant farmers' sons.
study of settler loss (Melbourne, La Trobe University, 1980).
WE
Heikkinen, S.L. "Return migration from Sweden to Finland", Proceedings
of the Nordic Seminar on long-term effects of migration, Taljoviken, May
27-29, 1974.
GE*
Hekmati, M. "Non-returning foreign students: why do they not return
home?", Die Dritte Welt, vol. 2, No. 1 (1972), pp. 25-43.
Six hypotheses are postulated and tested using the responses of 210
foreign students in New York.
Sub-samples were constructed using
respondents of five nationalities: Greece, India, Iran, the Philippines
and Turkey. The six hypotheses are: (i) non-returning students experience
a high degree of anomie - defined as an individual's perception of his
society and of his place in it; (ii) non-returnees experience high
normlessness - the expectancy of the necessity of defiant behaviour to
attain economic and political goals; (iii) non-returnees experience high
powerlessness - low expectancy of controls over political and economic
goals; (iv) returnees are of higher social status than non-returnees; (v)
returnees have stronger family ties; (vi) non-returnees are more
favourably inclined towards life and society in America. The survey
findings lead to the rejection of hypotheses (i) and (vi) and to the
acceptance to the rest. When the sample is broken down by nationality
there is little change from the overall findings. The novelty of this
article is the attempt it makes to measure attitudes and values and the
way they bear on return migration of students studying overseas. Many do
not wish to go home but most do, motivated by desires to contribute to
development.
AS
Helm, P., ed.
Entwicklungspolitische Forderung der Riickgliederung
tiirkischer Arbeitnehmer in die Volkswirtschaft ihrer Heimat (Munchen,
WIP, 1971), 102 p.
A case
- 61 -
AS
Helweg, A.W.
"Emigration and return: ramifications
for India",
Population Review, Vol. 28, No. 1-2 (Jan.-Dec. 1984), pp. 45-57.
This article provides a sketch of the influences emigration has on India
in general and on her local communities in particular. After giving a
brief historical synopsis, it deals with the present situation and
focuses on general topics such as the effects on the Indian economy,
society and culture, and the situation of expatriates returning to their
homeland.
AF
Herbeth, A. "Utilises et rejetes: les immigres", L'Echo de Notre Tempsf
150 (novembre 1979), pp. 35-46.
WE
Hermanns, H., Lienau, C. "Ruckwanderung griechischer Gastarbeiter und
Entwicklung landlicher Raume in Griechenland", in
P. Weber, ed.
Periphere Raume (Paderborn, 1979) pp. 53-86.
WE
Hermet, G.
"Voluntad de retorno de los emigrantes cualificados.
Encuesta en una empresa de Bilbao", Fomento Social, Vol. 21, No. 84
(octubre-diciembre 1964), pp. 351-365.
WE
Hermet, G. "Les retours d'emigrants qualifies: Enquete dans une usine de
Bilbao",
Mobilite de la main-d'oeuvre et developpement economique.
Etudes sur quatre pays du Bassin Mediterranean
(Paris, Fondation
Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1967), pp. 25-40.
LA
Hernandez-Alvarez, J. "A demographic profile of the Mexican immigration
to the United States, 1910-1950", Journal of Inter American Studies, Vol.
8, No. 3 (1966), pp. 472-496.
NC*
Hernandez-Alvarez, J. Return migration to Puerto Rico (University of
California, Berkeley, 1967), 153 p.
This is a most important text on return migration in the Americas. The
study is based on two data sources, the 1960 census and an interview
survey of 307 Puerto Rican returnees carried out in 1963-4. The
interviewees were identified from the census cards on 34,052 returned
Puerto Ricans. The information in the book is presented under 5
headings. First is geographic mobility: 90% of returnees were from
rural areas but 84% return to urban areas, with 40% going to the capital
San Juan. However, there is evidence to suggest that a move to town had
taken place prior to emigration. Returnees tend to be middle-aged
family-based individuals, although there is a small but significant group
of elderly coming back to retire. The second heading is resettlement in
Puerto Rico.
Returnees have fewer children per married woman than
non-migrants - 2.74 compared to 3.85. There is an excess of females in
the return migration stream, partly made up of separated and divorced
women although some single unmarried women return. A table gives a
breakdown of economic characteristics which highlights the importance of
professionals and skilled people amongst the returnees. Return migrants
are different in many respects from the native population and this poses
problems for their reintegration. Thirdly, family structure is examined.
The age structure is dominated by partial families in the 25-44 age
range; there are not many young children. Return migrants' children
experienced unemployment problems; they look unsuccessfully for good jobs
and 29 % are unemployed. Fourthly, fertility. A detailed discussion is
given on the likely impact of return migration on the future demographic
- 62 -
development of Puerto Rico. Although returnees exhibit a low fertility,
many are in the 35-45 age cohort which is notorious in Puerto Rico for
its high (second peak) fertility. The fertility behaviour of this group
of returnees is awaited: birth control advice could prove crucial. The
final heading concerns economic aspects of return migration. Half the
interview sample said that they returned home because of lack of work in
the US. The return group are, however, an advantaged group in Puerto
Rican terms, with better education, more skills, savings etc. Quite a
high proportion are professionals, managers and service and white collar
workers; only 6 % are in agriculture. Some 29 % of returnees work in
manufacturing industry, following the kind of job done in the US. Half
the returnees experienced some unemployment or partial unemployment upon
return. It is not clear how beneficial the US experience has been in
terms of job acquisition. The return of such large numbers of Puerto
Rican migrants does pose a threat to the Puerto Rican economy at a time
of difficulty. The book ends with a summary and case studies which
highlight many of the points made. There are many excellent tables.
Essential reading for any student of return migration.
Hernandez-Alvarez, J.
"Migration, Return and Development in Puerto
Rico", Economic Development and Cultural Changef vol. 16, No. 4 (1968),
pp. 574-587.
This paper is based on the author's monograph on return migration to
Puerto Rico. After outlining the data sources and the reasons for the
initial exodus from Puerto Rico (poor employment opportunities),
Hernandez Alvarez suggests that return flows were due to declining
employment opportunities in the United States. The return migrants have
better jobs, more skill, are better educated and are more likely to live
in towns than those who never emigrated.
Returns of the magnitude
presently being experienced will give rise to real problems of absorption
in Puerto Rico. Unemployment and part employment rates are already high,
and an increasing number of returnees are having to draw on assistance
from welfare agencies.
The flow of migrants has to be carefully
monitored so that appropriate policy decisions can be taken.
Hernandez-Alvarez, J.
"Migration, return and development",
development and Cultural Change (1968), pp. 574-588.
Economic
Hernandez
Cruz, J.E.
"Reintegration
of circulating
families in
Southwestern Puerto Rico", International Migrationf vol. XXIV, No. 2
(1986), pp. 397-409.
This study explores the circulatory movements of Puerto Rican families,
events which influence the adaptation process when returning to Puerto
Rico and cultural identity aspects. The dissatisfaction and problems
expressed by the interviewees should be seen within the framework of the
socio-economic characteristics of the region. This is a region with an
average of 28.42 per cent unemployment rate, but fluctuates between 34.2
and 19.3 per cent. Even with a job, these families will receive an
average weekly salary of $ 106 to $ 286, which hardly provides for the
basic needs of an average family of seven. It is most likely, as revealed
by the data, that these families will have serious difficulties finding
economic stability and would possibly consider migrating once again as an
alternative to their social reality. Nevertheless, it should be taken
into consideration that these migrants are returning to suburban areas
where they have built their homes on property owned by their families,
where the rent is minimal or non at all. But, the construction of the
home could have used all of their earnings, and not finding a job that
would bring economic stability can develop serious conflicts.
- 63 -
Heyden, H.
"Ruckkehrforderung und Auslanderpolitik",
Auslanderrecht und Auslanderpolitik, 1 (1984), pp. 5-9.
Zeitschrift
fiir
Hinds, D. Journey to an Illusion: the West Indian in Britain. (London,
Heinemann, 1966), 209 p.
This documentary study, written by a Jamaican, is partly anecdotal but is
nevertheless full of powerful insights into migration, including return.
A special section of the book, entitled "The two-way dream", looks at
attitudes towards return and at the experiences of some who have gone
back, particularly Jamaicans. Experiences are varied, but there is the
clear danger that the return is just as much an illusion as the original
move from the Caribbean to Britain. Many second generation have strong
desires to return, but these are partly fed by their negative experiences
in Britain. Many ambitions to return and plans for a new life back home
are unrealistic.
In Jamaica returnees are considered almost as a
separate class and initially as tourists.
Hodgkin, M.C. The Innovators: the Role of Foreign-Trained Persons in
Southeast Asia (Sydney, Sydney University Press, 1972), 118 p.
In 1971 there were 10,700 overseas students in Australia, 10% of
full-time enrolments in Australian universities. This study, based on
fieldwork in Malaysia and Singapore in 1960-61 and 1968-69, looks at the
adjustment and employment patterns of returnees from Australian
universities. It is a study which attempts to examine whether returnee
graduates are innovators and whether the money backing them in their
studies abroad has been well spent. These are very difficult questions
and it is difficult to find clear answers to them in this book. 447
returnees were located by a snowball sample and interviewed; 163 were
also sampled for in-depth interviews. 74% of the sample were Chinese, 14%
Malay and 12% Indian or other. The mean period abroad was 5-6 years; 45%
were aged 28-30 years in 1968. They represented a wide variety of
professions, but there were contrasts between the three main groups.
Chinese mostly return to urban, commercial jobs, Malays return more to
government and managerial positions, some of them in rural areas.
Returned Indians are in a somewhat different position. They tend to come
from less wealthy backgrounds and few have business interests on the
scale of the Chinese. Some Indians hold government positions. Generally
they stand as middlemen in the tensions between Malays and Chinese.
Hodgkin concludes that it is unrealistic to expect, without considering
political, cultural and economic aspects, that overseas training will
automatically produce effective innovators who will have the opportunity
and the incentive to put into practice the skills and ideas picked up
abroad. There are barriers to innovation in terms of race and the range
of social contacts. For instance, a Chinese agronomist would have the
greatest difficulty in introducing agriculture changes to Malay farmers,
even if he did speak Malay. Because the returnees were still young, many
found that their role as authority figures was not accepted by village
elders. Others found it difficult to get equipment to do their job
properly. Returnees complained on return of the frustration of the old
way of life; they were expected to behave in certain ways, befitting
their new status. There were status divisions between returnees from
British and Australian universities, the former carrying more prestige.
Social links formed whilst studying abroad are important in making
progress in business. Formal associations of alumni existed; membership
- 64 -
of these was highest among Chinese. About two-thirds found jobs relevant
to their Australian training; some were passing it on directly, as
teachers and instructors. Architects, engineers and accountants also
used their training directly.
Agronomists, doctors, nurses and
economists found that their training was often not relevant to the local
conditions (different crops, different diseases etc.). Some returnees,
frustrated by the slow pace of change, were thinking of re-emigrating.
Few of those potentially in a position to effect rural change had a
pre-migration rural background themselves. Returnees became members of a
"third culture", positioned as cultural middlemen between Western and
indigenous society. There are wide variations in returnees' ability to
act as cultural bridges. Nevertheless one is able to identify a group of
returnees who are committed to progress without sacrificing important
traditional cultural values. This is a crucial group for the future.
WE*
Hollingsworth, T.H. Migration; A study based on Scottish experience
between 1939 and 1964r University of Glasgow, Social and Economic Studies
Occasional Paper No. 12 (Edinburgh, Oliver and Boyd, 1970), 187 p.
Return migration is only one of many aspects of Scottish migration
explored in this text. Early chapters look at the importance of migration
in the Scottish context, at migration data and at internal migration. In
Chapter 4, on Health Service Register Data, it is estimated that 50% of
second moves by internal migrants were returns. Return migration receives
more attention in the chapters on external migration. As with internal
migration, the poor quality of data on returns is stressed. However, a
large proportion of • immigrants• from abroad is in fact return migrants.
Returns are less likely the longer an individual is away. Returns are
highest to the main cities, lowest to the northern counties. Little about
the character of the return movement is said.
AF
Holt, D.
ff.
WE*
Holzman, J.M. The Nabobs in England.
Indian 1760-1785 (New York, 1926).
WE
Hommes et Migration
"Formation des travailleurs immigres en vue du
retour au pays", Hommes et Migrations, 28 (1977).
Abstracts of the seminar organized by the Centre de Recherche et d'Etude
pour la Diffusion du Francais (Paris, 12-14 jan. 1976) concerning the
promotion of a vocational training system for migrants wishing to return.
WE
Honekopp, E. "Labour market development, tendencies of return migration,
the individual motives for the return and the plans for the period after
the return", Conferencia sobre retorno e reintegracao dos emigrantes
(Lisboa, Instituto de Estudos para o Desenvolvimento, June 1984), 5 p.
The document presents 4 statistical indicators in the Federal Republic of
Germany:
1) Labour force, employment and registered unemployment from 1970-1984;
2) Inflows and outflows of the total foreign population (1960-1983);
3) Inflows and outflows of employed foreigners (1964-1982); and 4)
Inflows and outflows of the foreign population by age groups (1974-1982).
AF*
Houghton, D.H. "Men of two worlds: some aspects of migratory labour in
South Africa", South African Journal of Economicsr vol. 28, No. 4 (1960),
pp. 177-190.
[0351W]
"The send them back campaign", Race today (Aug. 1971), pp. 256
A study of the returned Anglo-
- 65 -
AS*
Huguet, J.W. "The return of international labour migrants in the ESCAP
region", International Migration, vol. XXIV, No. 1 (1985), pp 129-146.
GE
ICM
Cultural identity of voune migrants and re-integration services
rendered to migrants returning to their country of origin. ILO Tripartite
technical seminar on second-generation migrants, Granada, 1982 (Geneva,
1982, ILO-RER/79/001/Sem.II/9), 6 p.
Conference paper on the role of ICM in preserving the ethnic culture of
immigrant youth and facilitating social integration after return migration. Discusses information dissemination, language teaching, vocational
training, promotion of cultural relations with emigration home countries,
assistance in migration policy making, etc, and stresses the promotion of
migrant associations for social participation and coordination between
home and host countries.
WE
IED, Instituto de Estudos para o Desenvolvimento Research Project on the
Return of Portuguese Emigrants: Regional Impact and Application of Their
Savings (Lisbon, mimeographed, 1982).
GE
ILO
Problems raised by the return of migrant workersf
Meeting of
Experts on Migrant Workers, Geneva, 1975 (ILO RETM/75/D.2).
Conference paper on migration policy and problems in respect of return
migration of migrant workers and their families to the country of
origin. Discusses international labour standards.
AS
ILO-ARTEP Impact of return migration on domestic employment in Pakistan
- A preliminary analysis (ILO Asian Employment Programme, April 1984),
113 p.
WE
Immigration Advisory Council, Department of Immigration, Commonwealth of
Australia
The departure of settlers from Australia (Canberra, 1967).
WE
Institut fur Entwicklungsforschung und Sozialplanung (ISOPLAN) Tiirkische
Arbeitnehmergesellschaften, Band II (Bonn, ISOPLAN, 1975), 147 p.
WE
Institut Fernando Santi Communication a la reunion tripartite sur la
reinsertion des migrants de la deuxieme generation en cas de retour
volontaire, Belgrade, 1984 (Geneve, BIT, 1984), 10 p.
WE
Instituto Espaiiol de Emigracion Guia del emigrante que retorna (Madrid,
1983), 60 p.
Guide book for returning migrants in Spain as concerns work, social
security, education and financial assistance and facilities.
WE*
Instituto Espaiiol de Emigracion Guia de cooperativismo para emigrantes
(Madrid, I.E.E., 1984), 77 p.
This booklet is a compilation of all existing legislative material and
practical information for the establishment of cooperatives. It was
specially designed for returning migrants.
WE*
Instituto Espaiiol de Emigracion
Informe sobre incidencia de la
emigracion. los perfiles v reacciones de los emigrantes, en una muestra
nacional de la poblacion espanola en 1985 (Madrid, I.E.E., 1985)
Results from a national survey carried out in 1985 concerned with various
aspects of Spanish migration. Some 390 returned migrants were identified
and interviewed on the duration and their rating of the migration
[0351W]
- 66 -
experience, the problems faced upon return, the acquisition of
professional qualifications, their present employment, their change of
residence and present incomes.
WE*
Instituto EsparLol de Emigracion
Informe sobre retorno en forma de
cooperativas (Madrid, I.E.E., 1985), 15 p.
Presents three cooperatives recently established in Spain by returned
migrants and describes Spain's programmes in this field.
AS
ISOPLAN
Turkische
Arbeitnehmergesellschaf t.
Betriebsgriindungen in der Tiirkei (ISOPLAN, 1975).
WE*
Istituto Fernando Santi Ipotesi di reinserimento produttivo a favore di
lavoratori rientrati nelle Region! Calabria, Campania, Sardegna e Veneto
(Rome, 1983), 350 p.
Labour surveys and sectoral analysis were conducted in the four regions
in relation to the productive reinsertion of returning migrants. Viable
economic activities were identified in each sector with respect to
professional training, organisational and managerial needs.
WE*
Istituto Fernando Santi
Ipotesi di reinserimento produttivo degll
emigrati nelle Region! Sardegna e Calabria (Rome, 1982), 214 p.
Sectoral analysis in selected communities of Sardinia and Clabria
concerned with the productive reintegration of returning migrants.
Includes a survey of a sample of returnees which extends to various
economic aspects of their migration history.
WE*
Istituto Fernando Santi Rlcerca sui programmi di ricostruzione e sul
reinserimento produttivo deeli emigrati nelle zone Campania e Puglia
colpite dal sisma del Novembre 1980 (Rome, 1982), 322 p.
Identifies viable economic activities for returning migrants in Campania
and Puglia, in relation to the consequences of the 1980 earthquake.
WE*
Istituto Fernando Santi Andamento dell'emigrazione calabrese in rapporto
all evoluzione economica della regione (Rome, 1983), 121 p.
Discusses some development issues of the Calabria region in the light of
migratory movements. Includes statistical information on labour demand,
existing enterprises and cooperatives, emigration/repatriation flow,
population growth, etc.
WE*
ISVI-FORMEZ
II reinserimento produttivo in forma cooperatlva degli
emigrati di retorno. II caratteristiche della zona di esodo e
dell'emigrazione; II; Studio di fattibilita di tre ipotesi di cooperative
(Catania, 1980).
Sectoral analysis and feasibility studies concerning the creation of
cooperatives by returning migrants in Sicily. Includes a survey of
migrant workers in Switzerland and the Federal Republic of Germany and
of returned migrants in Calatino (Sicily) related to their reintegration
prospects, use of remittances, etc.
WE
International Catholic Migration Commission "Three research studies on
Italian returnee migrants", Migration News, vol. 18, no. 2 (March-April
1969), pp. 1-22.
AS
Iqbal, M., Khan, M.F.
Economic Implications of the return flow of
immigrants from the Middle East;
A preliminary study (Islamabad,
Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, 1981), 27 p.
[0351W]
Evaluierung
von
- 67 Report on the incidence and rate of return migration of migrant workers
from the Middle East to Pakistan. Examines the geographic distribution
of Pakistani emigrants in Arab countries by occupational structure;
discusses anticipated occupations of return migrants, issues relating to
employment opportunities, low wages and the maintenance of standard of
living; includes migration policy suggestions.
WE
Instituto di formazione e ricerca sui problem! social! e dello suiluppo
(ISVI) Emigrazione di ritorno e professionalita; una indagine sulla
Sicilia centrale (Catania, ISVI, 1979).
WE
Jackson, J.A.
1963.)
WE
Jackson, J.A. "Ireland", in Emigrant workers returning to their home
country. Supplement (Paris, OECD, 1967), pp. 101-111.
NC*
Jackson, P. "Social and spatial aspects of Puerto Rican migration",
Singapore Journal of Tropical Geographyf vol. 1, No. 1 (1980), pp 37-45.
Research on Puerto Rican migration has tended to ignore the impact of
migration on the island. Recent population change is increasingly
associated with the impact of return migration. Population and migration
dynamics are explored cartographically and by correlation and linkage
analyses, using data for 1940-70. Many emigrants from rural areas return
to urban areas after a spell in the US. Recent returned migrants appear
to include more females and young persons, suggesting that return
migration is increasingly a family phenomenon.
WE
Jelden, H. " Ruckkehrhilfen fur Gastarbeiter", in W. Althammer, ed.
Gastarbeiterproblem (Miinchen, 1975), pp. 62-74.
WE*
Jenny, R.K. "Riickkehrhilfe und Weiterwanderung", Fliichtlinge in Europa.
Arbeitstagung
der
Otto
Benecke
Stiftung,
20-21
November
1983
(Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlag, 1984), pp. 161-166.
AF*
WE
Jerrome, D. "Migrants or settlers? The Ibo in London", Africa, vol. 48,
No. 4 (1978), pp. 368-379.
There were 3,000 Ibo in London in the mid seventies; 60% were males and
most were aged 25-40, having been in London for 5-10 years. The majority
came to gain qualifications in order to improve their status upon return
home, but the Biafra war interrupted this expectation and blocked their
return. Jerrome views the Ibo in London not as immigrants but as a
migrant community. Their declared intention is still to return. Rates of
return are higher for the elite. Others are 'perpetual students' and are
in a dilemma over their future. Families in which the wage earner is
engaged in white-collar or semi-skilled employment are least liable to
return. Many of these men have abandoned their studies or continue them
only on a desultory part-time basis; they are caught in a vicious circle
of failure which makes the return home an often unattainable dream.
NC
Johnson, R.A. "The Newyorican comes home to Puerto Rico: Description and
consequences", in Return Migration and Remittances: Developing a
Caribbean perspectiveP ed. by W.F. Stinner, K. de Albuquerque and R.S.
Bryce-Laporte, RUES occasional papers No. 3 (Washington 1982), pp.
129-156.
[0351W]
The Irish in Britain (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London,
Das
- 68 -
This paper focusses on both out-migration and back-migration of Puerto
Ricans to and from the United States. Reasons for leaving Puerto Rico
and for returning, and consequences of both moves.
AS
Jurecka, P., Werth, M.
Mobilitat und Reintegration.
Analyse der
wirtschaftlichenr
sozialen und entwicklungspolitischen Effekte der
Migration von auslandischen Arbeitnehmernf untersucht am Beispiel der
Ruckwanderung in die Tiirkei (Saarbriicken, ISOPLAN, 1980).
WE*
Kaiser, M.,
Migration und Remieration - das
(Stuttgart, Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 1985), 14 p.
WE*
Kaiser, M. "Migration und Remigration - das Beispiel Griechenland",
Mitteilungen aus der Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung (Stuttgart,
Berlin, Kbln, Mainz, 1985), pp. 492-506.
Since 1982 the Greek emigration policy has encouraged both emigration and
return. This article explains the basic measures and contours of Greek
return migration policy.
WE
Kallweit, H., Kudat, A. Ruckwanderung auslandischer Arbeiter: zwangweise
oder freiwillig (Berlin, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin, 1976.)
WE
Kammerer, P.
"Reintegrationsprobleme von Ruckwanderern in Monopoli
(Apulien)",
in H. Kbrner, M. Werth,
eds.
Ruckwanderung und
Reintegration von auslandischen Arbeitnehmern in Europa (Saarbrucken/Fort
Lauderdale, 1981), pp. 49-62.
WE*
Kamozawa, I. "Turkish immigrant coal miners in the Ruhr District, West
Germany", Studies in Socio-Cultural Aspects of the Mediterranean Landsf
(Tokyo, Hitosubashi University Research Group for the Mediterranean,
1979) pp. 109-143.
This paper reports the results of a questionnaire survey administered in
November 1974 to 334 Turkish miners in Dortmund District. Although the
questionnaire covered the complete migration cycle of the respondents,
some questions were concerned with return migration and there is
considerable discussion on this aspect. The author received 272 answers
to a question about expected date of return to Turkey. Whilst most did
not intend to return for another five or six years, only two intended to
reside permanently in the Federal Republic of Germany. The lack of
migrants with an intention to return immediately is a reflection of their
pessimistic perception of job opportunities in Turkey. Of the answers
concerning real estate and other property purchased in Turkey since
emigrating, new houses account for 46%, farmland for 23%, urban land for
15%, flats (for occupation or rent) for 10% and tractors for 6%. In
general, the savings of migrants do not seem to be directed to
encouraging productive industries in any way. Desired work on return
elicited the following responses (out of 590; multiple responses were
allowed): self-employed 15%, tradesman 13%, landlord 13%, factory manager
13%, industrial worker 11%, farmer 11%, shopkeeper 11%, taxi-driver 7%,
lorry driver 6%.
AF
Karger, H.J. "Reintegrationsprobleme afrikanischer Aus- und Fortbildungsgaste der Bundesrepublik beim Einsatz in ihren Heimatlandern", Afrika
Spectrum, No. 2 (1973), pp. 172-189.
[0351W]
Beispiel
Griechenland
- 69 -
GE
Kassimati, K. Recent studies and research on return migration: lessons
to be drawn for the reintegration of voung migrants (Geneva, ILO, 1983),
UNDP/ILO European Regional Project for Second Generation Migrants,
working paper No. 8, 31 p.
Contemporary trends of research into repatriation of second-generation
migrants.
Typologies of returnees, socio-economic reintegration and
vocational training of second-generation migrants. Includes general
proposals formulated by the international organisations to improve the
different aspects of return migration.
GE
Kassimati, K. Etudes et recherches recentes sur le retour: Leyons en vue
des politiques de (re)integration professionnellef sociale et culturelle
des migrants de la deuxieme generation, en cas de retour, ILO Tripartite
Technical Seminar on Second-Generation Migrants, Granada, 1982 (Geneve,
1982, 49, IL0-RER/79/001/SEM.II/3), 8 p.
Conference paper comprising a literature survey of research concerning
language teaching, vocational training and social integration policies in
relation
to
return
migration
of
second-generation
migrants
(immigrant/youth). Considers the role of migrant education, training and
cultural factors from vantage points of both the recipient country and
the country of origin.
LA
Kashiwazaki, H. and Suzuki, T. "Emigration and remigration of Okinawans
settled in the lowlands of eastern Bolivia in relation to background
characteristics of their place of origin", Journal of Human Ergologyf
vol. 6, No. 1 (Sept. 1977), pp. 3-14
WE
Katunaric, V. Vanlske migracile i promiene u porodici (Zagreb, 1978),
124 p.
Social research study of the sociological aspects of emigration
alternated with return migration (incl. internal migration), on the
family structure in Yugoslavia, with particular reference to the impact
thereof on emigrant parent's children. Includes theoretical concepts,
and surveys the learning success and failure, behaviour and adaptability
of children left behind in a one-parent family.
WE
Kayser, B. "Situation sur les marches du travail des emigres rentres de
l'etranger", Hommes et Migrationsf 712 (octobre 1967), pp. 1-9.
WE
Kayser, B. "The situation of the returning migrant on the labour market
in Greece: results of surveys", in Emigrant workers returning to their
home countryf Supplement (Paris, OECD, 1967), pp. 169-176.
WE
Kayser, B. Manpower movements and labour markets
WE*
Kayser, B.
Cyclically-determined homeward flows of migrant workers
(Paris, OCDE, 1972), 58 p.
This monograph synthesises a series of reports on the return migration of
southern Europeans occasioned by the 1967 recession in the Federal
Republic of Germany and, less so, in France. It contains data on homeward
migrants in Yugoslavia, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Turkey. The
basic conclusion reached is that the increased return flows caused by the
slump in the Federal Republic of Germany were not massive permanent
repatriations but rather took the form of extended holidays, with reemigration following a few months or years later. Some interesting data
(Paris, OECD, 1971).
- 70 -
are presented on post-return migrant behaviour. A 1970 Greek survey based
on 63 urban employment centres showed that on average only 10% of
returned migrants accepted industrial employment. Most refused factory
work, preferring an independent trade or even farming. In Croatia in 1970
the employment services reserved over 12,000 jobs for returnees in the
firms of the socialised sector. Only 3% of the jobs were taken, low wages
being the main reason for refusal. Emigrant Turkish workers in the
Federal Republic of Germany are extremely mistrustful of the labour
market in their country of origin. They do not believe they could find
jobs fitting their new pretensions; they do no longer identify with the
Turkish wage-earning class. Only in Spain and Italy - the more developed
of the group of sending countries considered here - do emigrants aspire
in large numbers to factory jobs. Material is also presented on the use
of capital brought back. In Yugoslavia 50% is used for housebuilding,
representing a rare example of allowed investment in durable goods. Much
returnee housing is excessively large and departs from traditional styles
and settlement clusters. In Portugal too possession of a house is
regarded as the best investment and the top status-symbol. Now the 'casa
do Frances' replaces the 'casa do Brasilero' of an earlier era in the
vulgarisation of rural architecture: the 'petit bourgeois' suburban style
houses mushrooming in the Portuguese countryside are visibly modelled on
those constructed by the same migrant workers in France. At the urban
level, the major investment is the purchase of apartments for renting out.
WE
Kayser, B. Les retours conionctuels de travailleurs migrants
effets de 1'emigration (OCDE, Paris, 1973).
WE
AF
AS
Kayser, B. "Migrations et Developpement", Tiers-MondeP Vol. 18 No. 69
(Jan-Mar 1977), pp. 3-175.
Compilation of articles showing that emigration and return migration do
not diminish the problems of underdevelopment in developing countries,
but on the contrary, tend to exacerbate them. Examines the consequences
of emigration policies in countries such as Portugal, Yugoslavia, Mexico
and Cyprus and the problems of migrant workers in South Africa, the Gulf
States (particularly Kuwait), Argentina, Western Europe.
WE*
Kayser, B. "European migrations: the new pattern", International
Migration Reviewr vol. 11, No. 2 (1977), pp. 232-240.
In Europe the age of uncontrolled migration is over. The flows are drying
up and the stocks are consolidating. The recession since 1974 has not yet
given rise to really massive return flows, although rates of return to
Italy, Spain and Greece are higher than to Portugal and Turkey. Data on
this are tabulated.
AS*
Keats, D. Back in Asia (Canberra, 1969, Research School of Pacific
Studies, Australia National University, 1969) 216 p.
This study of trainees educated in Australia under the Colombo Plan is
designed to assess the effectiveness of this form of educational aid to
the developing countries of southeast Asia. It was based on a
questionnaire sent to more than 500 returnees in many southeast Asian
countries and on structured interviews to nearly 200 returnees in person.
On the whole the training programmes had been fairly successful. Keats
found that the lack of recognition of some Australian qualifications
produced difficulties and she recommended that more students should be
admitted for post-graduate degree work in areas in which Australian
courses and conditions are more suitable for Asian needs than are
European or North American programmes. The shortage of technical
[0351W]
et les
- 71 -
assistants is great. Australia could do more in this field of tcraining.
More attempts should be made to foster continuing professional contacts
for returnees through journals, associations and return visits to
Australia.
GE*
Keely, C.B. "Return of talent programs: rationale and evaluation criteria
for programs to ameliorate a 'brain drain'", International Migrationr
vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp 179-190.
WE*
£eenan, J.G. "Irish migration: all or nothing resolved?", The Economic
and Social Review, vol. 12, No. 3 (1981), pp. 169-181.
Irish net migration has changed dramatically. In 1951-61 it was -408,800,
in 1961-71 -134,500 and in 1971-79 +106,800. Various ways of modelling
net migration to take account of this trend to net return are reviewed
and difficulties highlighted with regard to variable prediction. It is
concluded that an exogenous estimator of migration flows gives better
prediction at the moment than the currently used models which endogenise
net migration.
WE*
Keles, R. "Investment by Turkish migrants in real estate", in Turkish
workers in Europe 1960-1975: A socio-economic reappraisal ed. by Nermin
Abadan Unat (Leiden, Brill, Social, Economic and Political Studies of the
Middle East, 1976), pp. 169-178.
Turkish migrants' remittances increased from $ 500,000 in 1965 to $ 2,000
million in 1972. The share of workers' remittances in the total of
foreign currency earned through exports increased from 15% in 1965 to 84%
in 1973. It is widely accepted that this source of cash is not used
satisfactorily in the Turkish development process. The tendency for
speculative investment in real estate rather than in productive industry
is clear. A postal questionnaire sent to 76 selected Turkish workers in
Hamburg elicited a small amount of empirical data on this issue. 55% had
bought flats in Turkey, for which a period of residence abroad of 5-6
years can be imputed. Most of the flats are in large cities, especially
Istanbul. Many flats are luxurious and beyond the standards required by
their owners, who may not necessarily plan to live in them themselves.
Only state control over the private supply of such flats could alter
these patterns of migrant and returnee investments.
WE*
Kenny, M. "The return of the Spanish emigrant", Nord Nytt. vol. 2 (1972),
pp. 119-129.
This paper looks in qualitative terms at the role and effectiveness as
agents of change of permanent returnees from abroad. Because their
numbers were small in the past their potential worth has gone unheeded.
Two types of Spanish return migrants are talked about: the Indianos, the
long-stay migrants to Mexico and South America who returned, often loaded
with riches, to Galicia and Asturias; and the more recent shorter-stay
migrants returning from Europe. Special attention is given to remittances
and to the expected role of returnees as benefactors of the local
community. Returnees suffer an identity crisis: when abroad they identify
with Spain; when in Spain they feel themselves to be almost Mexican,
German, French, etc. Returnees who have not kept in touch with home when
they were abroad have a frozen memory of home so that when they return a
cultural chasm has developed between them and their natal communities.
Kenny believes that the most powerful motive for migration remains the
desire to make good, return and reap the praise of family and community.
But the great variety of background of returnees makes classification
very difficult.
[0351W]
- 72 -
WE
Kenny, M. "El retorno del emigrante espanol", Boletin Informatlvof 109
(julio 1977), pp. 2-16.
WE*
Kenny, M. "Twentieth century Spanish expatriate ties with the homeland:
remigration and its consequences", in The changing faces of rural Spain,
ed. by J.B. Aceves and W.A. Douglas (New York, Schenkman, 1976),
pp. 97-112.
Spanish emigrants to Mexico find themselves in a cultural dilemma, an
identity paradox. When the emigrant is in Mexico he identifies with Spain
but when back in Spain he feels himself to be almost Mexican. Returnees
soon get nostalgic for Mexico. Even after 10 years the problems of
personal readjustment are great. Returnees are bored by the surfeit of
enforced leisure after a lifetime of hard work. Their memory is
selective; the village is remembered for what it was, not what it is. The
returnee is outraged if the place has changed but also frustrated if it
is the same. Wages are low so that it is hardly worth working. Business
ventures are hindred by small profit margins, antiquated business methods
and the intrusion of class consciousness into strictly economic affairs.
As yet there is no Spanish governmental policy dealing exclusively with
the reintegration of any type of migrant who returns to Spain. Church and
state organisations are, however, trying to correct the image of the
migrant, to stop the jokes about him and to understand his peculiar
problems.
AF
Kessal, M.
"La reinsertion: un acte volontaire", in L'emigration
maghrebine en Europe. Exploitation ou cooperation? (Alger, CREA, n.d.)
pp. 470-485.
WE*
Keyman, S. "Situation und Reaktionen von Riickkehrern in der Tiirkei", in
H. Korner and U. Mehrlander (eds) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp. 231-242.
AF
Khandriche, M. Developpement et reinsertion: l'exemple de 1'emigration
algerienne (Paris, Publisud, 1982), 470 p.
Analysis of the Algerian reintegration policy in relation to national
economic development.
WE*
Kilzer, F. and Papathemelis, S. Remigration and reintegration of Greek
guestworkers (Remigration und Reintegration griechischer Gastarbeiter)r
IBS-Materialien, No. 14 (Bielefeld, Institut fur Bevolkerungsforschung
und Sozialpolitik, 1984), 214 p.
Return migration from the Federal Republic of Germany to Greece is
analysed using data from a 1980 survey carried out in Greece among a
sample of 626 return migrants. The theoretical framework of the study is
first outlined, and the process of Greek labour force migration is
reviewed in its economic context. Consideration is then given to the
integration of migrants in the Federal Republic of Germany, motives for
return migration, the economic effects of return migration, and the
reintegration problems of return migrants.
WE*
Kindleberger, C.P. "Emigration and economic growth", Banca Nazionale del
Lavoro Quarterly Review, No. 75 (1965), pp. 235-254.
[0351W]
- 73 -
A review of the economic debate on whether emigration helps or harms the
sending country's development, with particular reference to the Greek
case. On the one side are Myrdal, Gini, Schultz and the early Italian
literature which stresses that emigration involves the export of capital,
inappropriate for poor countries. On the other side are Lewis, Nurkse,
Ranis, Fei and Lutz who emphasise the benefits of emigration getting
unemployed to work. The debate is presented under a number of heads:
remittances sent back and brought home by returning migrants; decline in
consumption by emigrants removing themselves from the economy; loss of
production foregone by the emigrants' departure and non-return of the
most skilled elements; training of unskilled migrants who become skilled
on return. Kindleberger spends some time discussing the "return of skill"
issue but, apart from returning Greek doctors and professionals, comes to
no firm conclusion. When conditions are right, as they were in Europe
between 1959 and 1964, large scale migration can contribute to rapid
growth in both sending and receiving countries, but it is unclear how far
these benefits can go. Kindleberger judges that Lewis et al have the
better of the argument over Myrdal et al. This paper is also printed in
an amended form in Kindleberger's book Europe's Postwar Growth (see next
abstract).
»
»
»
WE*
Kindleberger, C.P. Europe's Postwar Growth: The role of labour supplyf
(London, Oxford University Press, 1967), 270 p.
Few studies have been made of the role of labour and emigration in
economic growth. This book is based on the Lewis model of growth with
unlimited supplies of labour, and its relevance for Europe's postwar
industrial boom. Parts of the book examine the impact on southern sending
countries, especially ch. 5 which is based on the paper abstracted above.
The issue of return is dealt with largely as a mechanism for transferring
industrial skills back to the south. The possibility of mass returns and
their damaging economic effects is dealt with in ch. 10. Various reports
and interviews cited by Kindleberger give indications of attitudes to
return; results vary from country to country and the data are far from
conclusive.
NC*
Kindleberger, C.P. "Education and migration", in The Brain Drainr ed. by
Walter Adams (London, Collier-Macmillan, 1968) pp. 135-155.
The interest of this chapter is that it deals partly with problems of
return migration of foreign scholars from American universities and
includes in an appendix a selection of letters from returnees to
Kindleberger complaining of conditions and problems back home.
WE*
King, R.L.
"Problems of return migration: a case study of Italians
returning from Great Britain", Tiidschrift voor Economische en sociale
Geografie, vol. 68, no. 4 (1977), pp. 241-146.
Reports on 30 interviews carried out in 4 south Italian villages of
migrants returning from Britain. Periods spent in Britain varied between
10 and 22 years. Before emigration, most respondents were underemployed
agricultural labourers. In Britain, most worked in industry, including
many in the brick industry. Four main types of return migration motivations are identified: those whose return was merely a fulfilment of an
original intention; those forced to return by obligation to ageing
parents; those returning in order to educate their children in the
Italian system; and those returning because of homesickness and failure
to adapt in Britain. Special problems attach to the second generation
children of returnees partly educated in Britain. Some comparisons with
other work are made.
[0351W]
- 74 -
WE*
King, R. "Bedford: the Italian connection; immigrants and their
homeland", Geographical Magazinef vol. 49, No. 7 (1977), pp. 442-449.
Bedford has 8,000 Italians, 10% of the town's population. Half of them
come from four villages in southern Italy, including one in Sicily. About
half of this article is devoted to accounts of individuals who have
returned, with maps and photographs of the return migrants' villages.
GE
King, R. "Return migration: a neglected aspect of population geography"
Area, vol. 10, no. 3 (1978), pp. 175-182.
The statistical background to the phenomenon of return migration is weak
and information on economic possibilities for the returnees is lacking.
Frameworks for looking at return migration are advanced with reference to
case studies.
WE*
King, R. "The Maltese migration cycle: an archival survey", Area, vol.
11, No. 3 (1979), pp. 245-249.
An archival survey was made in the Republic of Malta's Emigration Office
of migrants returning in 1976: 1,032 migrants returned and subsequently
stayed for at least 12 months. Data are presented for the returning
migrants' age, sex, marital status, length of absence, occupation and
address. Some differences in these characteristics were found between
Maltese returning from Australia on the one hand, and the UK on the
other. The distribution of migrant absences by time is bimodal with most
returnees coming back either after about 2-3 years or after 10-12 years.
WE*
King, R. "Post-War Migration Pattern and Policies in Malta with special
reference to Return Migration", European
Demographic
Information
Bulletin,, vol. 10, no. 3 (1979), pp 108-128.
The second part of this paper looks at issues of return migration in
Malta. Official statistics only record migrants who returned after less
than 2 years abroad, though this has recently changed. A 1977 law forbade
returning migrants from taking a job (other than self-employed) or from
receiving unemployment benefits for a period of 2 years after return. The
causes and effects of Maltese return migration are debated. Return
movements may increase in future, in spite of the 1977 law.
WE*
King, R. "Return migration: a review of some case studies from Southern
Europe", Mediterranean Studiesf vol. 1, No. 2 (1979), pp. 4-30.
This lengthy review paper collates and compares the literature on return
migrants in southern Europe and the Mediterranean. First the availability
(or non-availability) and inconsistency of return migration statistics
are commented upon for each country. The effects of the 1967 recession in
the Federal Republic of Germany on return movements are pinpointed. This
is followed by a classification of return migrants by length of time
abroad, by motives for return and by effects on the home area. A series
of problems for returning migrants is identified and suggestions are made
for policy and for filling in some of the gaps in knowledge of the return
phenomenon.
WE*
King, R. The Maltese migration cycle: perspectives on return (Oxford
Polytechnic, 1980), 77 p.
This paper is a study of Maltese emigration based on interviews with 185
migrants who have returned to Malta after a spell of work abroad. The
object of the research was to monitor the complete migration cycle of a
group of emigrants with information collected on all stages of the cycle:
- 75 the pre-migration state, departure, the period abroad, the return, and
the post-return situation. Such longitudinal studies are rare in
migration research. The first chapter of the study places Maltese
migration in its historical setting and looks at spatial variations in
intensity of outmigration and return. The interviews were carried out in
all parts of Malta, including the subsidiary island of Gozo which has
been particularly affected by emigration. Average age at departure was
22.6 years, at return 33.5 years. Data are also presented on sex, marital
status, family size and destination, in order of importance Australia,
UK, Canada and the US. Migrants to Australia show a lower propensity to
return than other destinations. Most migrants came from humble backgrounds, urbanites were more likely to go to the UK. Actual periods of
absence were matched with intended periods of absence. Questions on
employment and social life abroad were asked. The return tends to be
dominated by social or family considerations, unlike the original
departure which in most cases was economically determined. The majority
of migrants returned to the same district of Malta as that from which
they left; the 31% returning to other districts did so usually because
they had married someone from the other district. Post-return employment
is distinctive in two ways, the large number of self-employed small-scale
business set up (shops, bars etc.) and the large proportion of 'early
retirements' amongst returnees. Most returnees earn considerably less now
compared to amounts earned abroad. Migrant savings are used to enhance
social rather than economic status. House styles and decorations often
reflect the migrant's destination country: stone kangaroos, maple-leaf
motifs etc. The concluding discussion compares Maltese migration and
return migration with the experience of other Mediterranean countries.
WE*
King, R. and Strachan A. "The effects of return migration on a Gozitan
village", Human Organization, vol. 39, no. 2 (summer 1980), pp. 175-179.
Reports the results of a questionnaire survey of 52 returned migrants in
the village of Qala on the Maltese island of Gozo. A similar number
non-migrant control sample was also interviewed. Questionnaire data
covered the entire migrant profile including sections on departure,
period abroad and temporary home visits. The main focus, however, is on
the return and on reintegration. Married returnees had mostly come back
for good, singles only temporarily; thus in the long term a double
profile is characteristic. Because of high wages and hard work abroad,
and low living costs in Gozo many quite young returnees had effectively
'retired', even those under 40. For those economically active, finding
work in Qala was a problem: many were self-employed. Most returnees
ranked expenditure on housing as their first financial priority. The
village was experiencing an explosion of remittance-financed new housing.
Return migrants were less active in village affairs than non-migrants and
tended to form a separate social group.
WE*
King R. and Strachan A. "Patterns of Sardinian migration", Tildschrift
voor Economische en Sociale Geografier vol. 74, No. 4 (1980), pp. 209-222.
Stepwise multiple regression analysis was applied to the migration data
and associated socio-economic variables for the 350 communes of Sardinia,
1961-71. Most communes experienced net migration losses. Only 19 had net
inflows of population; these communes were almost entirely coastal. The
analysis showed job motivations to be the main determinants of spatial
variations in migration, service employment being the main explanatory
variable. Return migration is related to the growth of tertiary sector
employment and to recent government-fostered industrial development.
[0351W]
- 76 -
Sardinian migrants have a strong cultural link to their island and this
conditions their migration behaviour; they tend to migrate to countries
which are not too far away and they have a high propensity to return.
WE
King, R.L., Strachan, A.J. and Di Comite, L. "Return migration in
Southern Italy: a research framework", Economic Notes, no. 3 (1982), pp.
54-68.
Preliminary results of a research project on return migration to Southern
Italy, based on a survey conducted in the Puglia, Basilicata and Calabria
regions and focusing on the economic impact of return migration.
GE
WE
King, R., Strachan, A., Mortimer, J. Return migration: a review of the
literaturef Discussion paper in Geography, No. 19 (Oxford Polytechnic,
August 1983).
A review of the literature on return migration is presented with
particular reference to return migration to Southern Italy. The main
types, trends and frameworks of return migration research are first
described and the concept of return migration is defined. The geographic
focus is on European return migration since World War II, but some
reference is also made to the literature on the Caribbean, Southeast Asia
and the United States.
GE
King, R., Strachan, A. Return migration: a sourcebook of evaluative
abstracts. Discussion paper in Geography, No. 20 (Oxford Polytechnic,
Sept. 1983), 131 p.
A bibliography of over 300 items on return migration is presented
together with abstracts. The items included are listed alphabetically by
author; no indexes are provided. The listing is confined to works in
English. The abstracts not only include summaries of the findings of the
work in question but also provide an assessment of the work's importance
and significance.
WE
King, R., Mortimer, J., and Strachan, A. "Return migration and the
development of the Italian Mezzogiorno", in The politics of return.
International return migration in Europe, ed. by D Kubat (Rome-New York,
Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 79-86.
Progress report on a two-year programme of research on the economic
impact of return migration in the regions of Puglia, Basilicata and
Calabria.
WE*
King, R., Strachan, A., Di Comite, L. "Migrazioni di ritorno nel
Mezzogiorno d'ltalia: Presentazione di una ricerca" in Di Comite, L. and
Papa, 0. (eds.) II recente assetto dei fenomeni migrator! (Bari, Istituto
di Economia e Finanza dell'Universita di Bari, 1984), pp. 27-42.
Research carried out in the regions of Puglia, Basilicata and Calabria to
identify the employment patterns, the use of remittances and the
geographical distribution of returning migrants in the Mezzogiorno.
WE*
King, R., Mortimer, J., Strachan, A. "Return migration and tertiary
development: a Calabrian case study", Anthropological Quarterly, vol. 57,
No. 3 (Washington, July 1984), pp. 112-124.
The impact of return migration to Southern Europe is examined using the
example of the coastal town of Amantea in Calabria, Italy. The authors
demonstrate that returning migrants' capital and initiative have led to
the development of a thriving tourist industry. Problems of this
industry's conflicts with agriculture and with the poorest sector of the
community are considered.
[0351W]
- 77 -
WE*
King, R., Mortimer, J., Strachan, J. and Viganola, M.T. "Emigrazione di
ritorno e sviluppo di un comune rurale in Basilicata", Studi Emigrazione/
Etudes Migrations. No. 78 (June 1985), pp. 162-199.
The study, based on a survey of 80 return migrants, examines the extent
to which return migration has contributed to processes of economic
changes in an agro-town in southern Italy.
WE*
King, R., Mortimer, J., Strachan, A. "The urban dimension of European
return migration: the case of Bari, Southern Italy", Urban Studies, No.
22 (1985), pp. 219-235.
Based on 211 interviews of returned migrants in the city of Bari, this
paper focusses on the distinctiveness of urban return as compared with
rural resettlement (a control sample of 415 rural returnees was used).
The comparison concerns employment patterns, use of remittances,
destination countries, duration of the migration cycle, etc.
GE*
King, R. (ed.) Return migration and regional economic problems (London,
Sidney, Dover, Croom Helm, 1986), 296 p.
Usually migrants originated from poor countries or regions where economic
prospects were and are poor. Economic conditions in these poor regions
have got very much worse since the onset of the world recession. A major
cause of the worsening conditions is the fact that migrants are returning
and looking for work in their home regions and at the same time new
generations of workers are unable to travel for work both because of new
international restrictions and also because of lack of work in the former
host countries or regions. All this increases both economic and social
pressure in what are already poor regions. This book, based on extensive
original research, presents much new thinking and many new research
findings on the phenomenon of return migration and on its impact on
regional economic developments.
GE*
King, R. "Return migration and regional economic development: an
overview", in R.King (ed.) Return migration and regional economic
problems (London, Sydney Dover, Croom Helm, 1986), pp. 1-37.
Overview of the return migration literature since the 1960s. Various
definitions and typologies are discussed.
WE*
King, R. Strachan, A. and Mortimer, J. "Gastarbeiter go home: return
migration and economic change in the Italian Mezzogiorno", in R. King
(ed.) Return migration and regional economic problems (London, Sudney,
Dover, Croom Helm, 1986), pp. 38-68.
Survey of returned migrants in the Mezzogiorno.
A sample of 705
returnees was used to analyse various features of the migration cycle:
employment, education - training - innovation, savings and investments,
developmental impact.
WE*
King, R., Mortimer, J., Strachan, A. Viganola, M.-T. "Back to Bernalda:
the dynamics of return migration to a South Italian agro-town", in Paul
E. White and Bert van der Knapp (eds.) Contemporary Studies of Migration
(Norwich, Geo Books, 1985), pp. 155-172.
WE*
King, R., Mortimer, J., Strachan, A., Trono, A. "Return migration and
rural economic change: a south-Italian case study", in Ray Hudson and Jim
Lewis (eds.) Uneven Development in Southern Europe (London, Methuen,
1985), pp. 101-122.
- 78 -
WE*
King, R., Strachan, A., Trono, A. Economic and Gender Aspects of Return
Migration to the Italian Salento (Leicester University, Geography
Department, Occasional Paper 12, 1985), 31 p.
WE*
Kirwan, F.S. "Recent Anglo-Irish migration: the evidence of the British
Labour Force Surveys", The Economic and Social Review, vol. 13, No. 3
(1982), pp. 191-203.
This paper uses unpublished data from the British Labour Force Surveys of
1973, 1975 and 1977 to shed light on recent Anglo-Irish migration,
concentrating on the movement of Irish-born to and from Britain. A
comparison of the British Population Census of 1971 and the 1977 Labour
Force Survey suggests a net return migration of some 71,000 Irish-born
persons to Ireland during this period. The age structure of this return
flow is constructed by use of the 1979 Irish Population Census; the vast
majority of the returnees are aged 30-44. Significant numbers of young
Irish continue to enter Britain in spite of the net return. The
hypothesis that recession in the British economy was the most important
influence for this return is difficult to sustain with the data
available. More likely they were attracted back by the relatively buoyant
economic conditions in Ireland during the 1970s.
WE
Kivanc, C. Die tiirkische Minderhelt in Deutschland und ihre Integrationsund Ruckkehrprobleme (Minister, Universitat Munster, 1982), 63 p.
AS*
Kizilbash, M.
"The employment of returning US educated Indians",
Comparative Education Reviewr vol. 8, No. 3 (1964), pp. 320-326.
The author sets out a series of structured questions which he then
attempts to answer on the basis of general evidence. The questions are:
Is the training received applicable to India? Do returnees have the
opportunity to use their training? What sources of frustration exist? The
evidence used to answer these and other questions is secondary and
sometimes only anecdotal. A 1955 survey found that many remained out of
work for at least a year after their return; less than 10% got the job
they were trained for; 25% were thinking of re-emigrating. The Cornell
Alumni study found 30% stating that their training had been useful but
there were problems back home with the society and the bureaucracy. An
investigation of returning agronomists was more positive: 80% found their
training useful. Many problems face the returning Indian educated abroad
but the system is changing slowly.
GE
Klinar, P. Remierants from the underdeveloped areas of emigrant society
and the problems of their reintegration, paper presented at the 9th World
Congress of Sociology, Uppsala, 1978.
WE*
Klinar,
P.
"Soziale
Unsicherheit
jugoslawischer
Emigranten
und
Remigration unter den Bedingungen der gegenwartigen Wirtschaftskrise", in
H. Kbrner and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa
- Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp. 181-196.
NC
Knowles, W.H. "Puerto Rico: problems of returning migrants", in Emigrant
workers returning to their home countryf Supplement (Paris, OECD, 1967),
pp. 87-123.
[0351W]
- 79 -
WE
Ko-Chih Tung, R. "Ateranpassning av invandrare: Valkommen hem-om du har
pengar", Invandrare och Minoriteter, 3-4 (1976), pp. 40-43.
Proposals on a Sweden-Finland return migration model.
AF
WE
Koelstra, R.W., Tieleman, H.J. Developpement ou Migration; une enquete
portant sur les possibilites de promotion de l'emploi dans des regions
moins developpes de Tunlsie (La Haye, Nuffic/Imwoo Project Remplod,
1977), 84 p.
Field study report on the potential impact of return migrations on
Tunisian economic and social development. Presents research results and
an evaluation of the role of Netherlands in promoting small scale
industry, rural development.
WE*
KbIan, T. "An analysis of individual earnings effects due to external
migration", in Turkish Workers in Europe 1960-1975; A Socio-Economic
Reappraisal, (Leiden, Brill, Social, Economic and Political Studies of
the Middle East, 1976), pp. 139-153.
This study looks at earning patterns of migrants from Turkey before
migrating, abroad and after return. After return three possible earning
paths exist: (1) a return to what the migrant would have earned had he
not migrated (this would tend to occur if the migrant acquired no useful
skills whildst abroad); (2) a return to higher earnings than he would
receive if he had not left (i.e. use of skills learnt abroad to obtain
higher wages); and (3) a return to a lower level of income, possibly due
to discrimination against migrants returning from abroad. Data to test
these possible outcomes were collected via interviews with 340 returnees
sampled from State Planning Office Surveys. Earning profiles - before,
during and after migration - are presented for urban and rural migrants.
The indications are that migrants' expectations of financial success are
well-founded. Rural workers can anticipate a gain of 170% over a 10-year
cycle but urban workers only 20%, a disturbingly low figure. Possible
reasons for the low wage increases for urban returnees are advanced:
inefficient use of capital in shaky businesses; lack of opportunity to
use acquired skills; preference for increased leisure.
WE
Kollaros, T., and Mousouros Repatriation (Athens, Centre of Humanist
Studies and Research, 1980), 47 p.
WE
Kolodni, E. "Retours migratoires et problemes de reinsertion (Exemple de
Neokaisaria)", Hommes et Migrations. 967 (ler avril 1979), pp. 28-31.
AS*
Korale, R.B.M. et.al. Dimensions of Sri Lankan returned migration
(Colombo, Ministry of Plan Implementation, Employment and Manpower
Planning Division, 1985), 80 p.
WE*
Korkiasaari, J. "Return migration from Sweden to Finland", Yearbook of
Population Research in Finlandf vol. 23, (Helsinki, 1985), pp. 137-146.
This paper contains results of a study concerned with return migration
from Sweden to Finland in 1980-81. The purpose of the study was to
examine questions dealing with the nature of return migration and the
problems of the returnees, especially insofar as factors incidental to
work, financial stability and housing were concerned. The study was
primarily based on information obtained from the questionnaires mailed to
the returnees themselves. Some theoretical aspects of return migration
are also discussed.
[0351W]
- 80 -
WE*
Korkiasaari, J. "Returnees from Sweden to Finland in 1980-81", Migration
Reports, No. 18 (Helsinki, Ministry of Labour, Planning Department,
1985), 142 p.
This report is a condensed version of an original report on Finnish
return migration from Sweden in 1980-81. It examines the questions
dealing with the nature of return migration and the problems of the
returnees, especially insofar as factors incidental to work, financial
stability and housing are concerned. The study focuses on the characteristics and reasons for return of a typical returnee from Sweden, as
well as on the migration process per se.
WE
Kbrner, H., Werth, M. Ruckwanderung und Reintegration von auslandlschen
Arbeitnehmnern in Europa. Beitrage zu einem internationalen Symposium des
Isoplan-Instituts
in Saarbrucken am 16. und 17. Oktober
1980.
(Saarbrucken, Verlag Breitenbach, 1981), 161 p.
Conference report on the social implications and economic implications of
return migration of Greek, Italian, Turkish, Spanish and Yugoslav migrant
workers from the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Italy, Spain,
Turkey and Yugoslavia. Discusses the role of formulating a migration
policy to ease re-integration, and examines changes in living conditions,
employment opportunities, brain drain, capital formation and investment
in the home countries (using remittances, savings).
WE
Kbrner, H. "Return migration from the Federal Republic of Germany", in
The politics of return. International return migration in Europef ed. by
D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp.
175-186.
Statistical examination of the migration of foreigners in the Federal
Republic of Germany and the unemployment of foreign workers as from 1967
to 1980, and evaluation of return policies.
WE*
Kbrner, H., Mehrlander, U. Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa Erfahrungen
in
den
Aufnahmeund
Entsendelandem
(Bonn,
Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), 266 p.
WE*
Kbrner, H. "Das Gesetz zur Fbrderung der Riickkehrbereitschaft von
Auslandern vom 28. November 1983 - Eine kritische Bilanz", in H. Kbrner
and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern (Bonn, ' Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp 65-72.
WE
Kbrner, H.
"Problems of migrant workers' return to their home
countries", Intereconomics (September/October 1984), pp. 235-238.
Migration statistics in the Federal Republic of Germany for 1982 and 1983
show, for the first time in some years, an excess of out migration over
immigration of foreign workers and their families. What are the problems
facing the returnees? How can their modernizing influence on their
societies be increased?
WE
Korte,
H.
"Einbiirgerung
oder
Ruckwanderung?
Ergebnisse
und
Interpretationen sozialwissenschaftlicher Forschung", in W. Slim Freund,
ed. Gastarbeiter (Neustadt, 1980), pp. 40.ff.
[0351W]
- 81 -
Korte, H. "Questions centrales et resultats de la recherche en sciences
sociales sur le retour et la reintegration des travailleurs migrants en
Europe: Etat de la question en automne 1983", Conferencia sobre retorno e
reintegracao dos emigrantes (Lisboa, Instituto de Estodos para o
Desenvolvimento, June 1984), 6 p.
Synthetical review of different research studies on return migration
undertaken in the 1980s, in particular as regards the concept of
selectivity in the process of out-migration and back-migration in
European countries.
Kourvetaris, G.A. "Brain Drain and international migration of scientists:
the case of Greece", Greek Review of Social Research, No. 15-16 (1973),
pp. 2-13.
Greece has one of the world's highest rates of export of scientists, a
rather small proportion of whom return, although this varies according to
speciality. A repatriation campaign to recruit Greek scientists working
abroad should be based on the nation's needs and capabilities; it should
not invite more scientists than it can absorb.
Kraak, J.H. "The repatriation of the Dutch from Indonesia", R.E.M.P.
Bulletin, vol. 6, No. 2 (1958), pp. 27-40.
The 1945 Indonesian revolution resulted in the gradual transformation and
liquidation of the Dutch community resident in Indonesia, which numbered
about 250,000 people. This process proceeded in several stages,
exacerbated by the decision in 1957 that all Dutch nationals must leave
the country at short notice. This led to a wave of about 45,000 repatriates to Holland in early 1958. The Dutch colony in Indonesia had
existed for 300 years but grew most rapidly after the end of the 19th
century. Kraak distinguishes three types of repatriates: (i) a group born
and brought up in Holland who had spent much of their working lives in
Indonesia; (ii) a group of descendents of racially mixed, but legally
Dutch persons who had lived all their lives in Indonesia; and (iii) a
group of mixed racial heritage who had spent some time in Holland, e.g.
for education and training. About 60-70% of Dutch in Indonesia were of
mixed race: in the strict sense these were not returnees. Culturally the
Dutch in Indonesia were varied: some were ex-colonial planter types,
others were 'international' in culture (the recent settlers), and yet
others were lower-class mestizo, some of whom spoke little Dutch. Return
migration, counter-migration and re-emigration processes were very
complex in the immediate post-war period. Three main waves of repatriation are identified and then described: (1) a wave in 1945-48 made up of
an elite group of professionals and colonial administrators; (ii) a
second wave gathering momentum during 1949-51, consisting of servicemen
returning after the victory of the Indonesian revolutionaries; (iii) the
gradual departure, 1952-57, of those for whom there no longer seemed to
be a place in an Indonesia deprived of its Dutchness. A final, recent
wave resulted from the boycott action against the Dutch in 1957. Various
types of assistance given to the repatriates are described. Integration
has mostly flowed smoothly. Most have succeeded in building a new life.
Relatively few needed permanent or prolonged state support. There is,
however, among the repatriates a definite inclination to associate with
former colonials. There are no marked racial prejudices, although the
Eurasian 'remainder groups', most of whom repatriated in the late 1950s,
have yet to settle down satisfactorily.
- 82 -
WE
Kraak, J.H.
"The repatriation of Netherlands citizens and Ambonese
soldiers from Indonesia", Integration, vol. 4 ,No. 4, pp. 348-355.
WE
Kraak, J.H.
The repatriation from Indonesia
Printing and Publishing Office, 1958).
WE
Kraljec, F. Croatian migration to and from the United States, 1900-1914
(Palo Alto, Cal., Regusan Press, 1978).
This study deals primarily with the group of Croatians who returned to
their homeland after a temporary stay in the United States. The author
concludes that economic factors were more important than political
considerations in determining both emigration and repatriation.
WE*
Krane, R.E.
"Effects of
cyclical
international
migration upon
socio-economic mobility", International Migration Review, vol. VII, No. 4
(1973), pp. 427-436.
The purpose of this paper is to assess what permanent socio-economic
mobility accrues to the returning Turkish migrant after a period of
cyclical migration in the Federal Republic of Germany. To determine
mobility, income and occupational status were examined both before and
after migration for a sample of 1,433 dossiers of Turks officially sent
to western Europe, of whom 228 were interviewed upon return. Wage
differentials were analysed at various stages during the migration cycle:
(i) between terminal pre-migration positions in Turkey and initial postmigration positions abroad; (ii) between initial and terminal positions
abroad; (iii) between terminal positions abroad and currently held
post-return migration positions in Turkey; and (iv) between terminal
pre-migration positions and currently held post-return positions in
Turkey. Ten specific occupations were identified which were pursued by
sufficient numbers of migrants both at home and abroad to make possible a
comparative analysis of income along occupational lines: miner, welder,
electrician, metalworker, mechanic, driver, assembly-line worker, textile
machine operator, machine tool operator and other factory workers. The
transfer abroad led to an increase in income of 290% on average (490% for
miners). Return to Turkey brought about a 61% average drop in income
(miners 75%). Respondents in the 10 occupations reported that their
current, post-return income was 53% up on their pre-migration incomes.
Allowing for inflation, the real increment is of the order of 23%.
Mobility was studied with reference to a ranking system for the 10 occupations. 61% of the sample remained essentially immobile; only 16%
experienced a definite upward mobility upon return; mostly this was away
from positions as miners and service workers towards positions as
mechanics, shopkeepers, drivers and factory workers. Prior to migration
7% had been self-employed; since return the figure rose to 23%. Figures
on savings and spending on consumer durables are given. The paper has a
dense content of data which could have been more fully analysed.
WE*
Krane, R.E. "Manpower mobility: the case of Turkey in West Germany",
International Migration, vol. 13, No. 3 (1975), pp. 112-118.
The loss of skilled labour by Turkish emigration is causing concern for
the Turkish government which has repeatedly appealed to labour-importing
nations to help train unskilled migrants in order that they may fill
posts vacated by the skilled emigrants. Trained returnees could be used
in the Turkish industrial sector but there is a marked tendency for
skilled returnees not to invest their assets or seek employment in
industry. A much more active policy of recruiting and channelling Turkish
returnees to the industrial sector is needed.
[0351W]
(The
Hague,
Government
- 83 -
WE*
Krane, R.E. "Effects of international migration upon occupational
mobility, acculturation and the labour market in Turkey", in Manpower
mobility accross cultural boundaries: social, economic and legal aspects.
The case of Turkey and West Germany,. Social, Economic and Political
Studies of the Middle East, No. 16 (Leiden, Brill, 1976) pp. 161-204.
The objectives of this important study were twofold: (i) to define
demographic characteristics and motivations of the migrant and to
determine what economic and cultural effects the migration experience has
upon the lives of returned migrants; (ii) to learn what discernible
effects the migration movement has had upon the Turkish labour market,
particularly with reference to three selected regional markets: Izmir,
Kocaeli and Zonguldak. Within each of these provinces a three-pronged
methodology was applied: (i) official demographic data on migrants placed
abroad and returned; (ii) interviews of returned migrants; (iii)
interviews of management in a cross-section of Turkish industries to
define the characteristics of the regional labour market in the three
provinces and the extent to which the regional economy had been affected
by migration. The research disclosed that a substantial majority of
Turkey's emigrants are urban dwellers who had already migrated internally
at least once and who possessed important industrial and craft skills
from their pre-migration state. Financial considerations dominated the
decision to emigrate. At least 90% of the returnees interviewed had
achieved their purposes for going abroad, and an equal percentage claimed
satisfaction with having made this decision. Acquisition of occupational
expertise, work discipline and material gains were most often cited as
important benefits realised. On the average returned migrants earned onethird more than non-migrants and clear evidence of occupational upward
mobility between pre- and post-departure positions was found in nearly
20% of cases studied. Tabulation of some of the results discussed in
Krane (1973) adds to the over-brief discussion of the author's earlier
paper. Other data revealed
noteworthy
perceptivity
to cultural
differences on the part of the returnees and observations of attitudinal
changes and work discipline by industrial management employing them.
Indications are that among the now quite sizeable contingent of returned
migrants Turkey possesses manpower resources which, with improved
co-ordination and incentives, could be redirected to satisfy the needs
for skilled labour as they currently exist.
GE*
Kraus, R. "Different forms, reasons and motivations for return migration
of persons who voluntarily decide to return to their countries of
origin", International Migration, Vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp.
49-60.
WE
Kubiak, H. "Potozenie spoteczne i ewolucja swiadomsci narodowej Iudnosci
polskiej w USA w latach 1900-1919", in H. Florkowska-Francic, M. Francic,
H. Kubiak, eds. Polonia wobec niepodleglosci Polski w czasie I wojny
swiatowe.i (Wroclaw-Warszawa-Krakow, Ossolineum, 1979).
WE
Kubat, D. ed. The politics of return. International return migration in
Europe (Rome and New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984).
WE
Kubat, A., Ozkan, Y., eds. The comparative study of the re-integration
policy of five European labour exporting countries (Berlin, International
Institute for Comparative Social Studies of the Science Center Berlin,
1975), 267 p.
[0351W]
- 84 -
Based on a conference held in Berlin in June 1975. Proposals for a
common approach of emigration and return migration from and to Greece,
Portugal, Spain, Turkey and Yugoslavia.
WE
Kurmann, W.
"Le retour au pays des travailleurs migrants italiens:
Problemes
lies
a
la
scolarisation
de
leurs enfants", Feuille
d'information "Cooperation Internationale dans 1'education No. 36
(nov. 1979).
AF
Lacoste, C. "Changements dans les roles de femmes algeriennes emigrees
en France (par rapport a un contexte rural algerien): Etude de cas",
Comptes rendus de recherches et bibliographie sur 1'immigrationf 8
(juil.-dec. 1975), pp. 17-24:
Article presenting a case study of the social adjustments in behaviour
and attitude of Algerian immigrant women in Frannce, illustrating the
influence of modernization processes on social roles and the possible
implications for return migration.
WE*
Ladbury, S. "The Turkish Cypriots: ethnic relations in London and
Cyprus", in Between two cultures: Migrants and minorities in Britain, ed.
by James L. Watson (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1977), pp. 301-331.
WE*
Lawless, R. "Return migration to Algeria: the impact
of state
intervention", in R. King (ed.) Return migration and regional economic
problems (London, Sidney, Dover, 1986), pp. 213-242.
Reviews three phases of Algerian emigration and the changing patterns of
return migration, the Algerian government's reinsertion programme and the
creation of small business by returned migrants.
WE
Lebon, A. "Les retours definitifs des migrants en Europe", Hommes et
Migrations. 970 (15 mai 1979), pp. 25-29.
WE
Lebon, A. "Un bilan des retours au pays d'origine des travailleurs
immigres en Europe", La documentation francaise. Problemes economiauesf
1631 (11 juillet 1979), pp. 27-29.
GE
Lebon, A. "L'aide au retour des travailleurs etrangers", Economie et
Statistiaues. 113 (juillet-aout 1979), pp. 37-46.
WE
Lebon, A. and Falchi, G. "New developments in Intra-European Migration
since 1974", International Migration Review, vol. 14, No. 52 (winter
1980), pp. 539-579.
This lengthy article is based on a report prepared for the Conference on
"European Migration in the 1980s - Trends and prospects" held by the
European ministers responsible for migration affairs in Strasbourg in
May 1980. Much of the article is about return migration and allied
processes such as remittances and problems of the second generation. In
1974 and 1975 SOPEMI estimates indicate a return of 235,000 workers to
Italy, 200,000 to Spain, 145,000 to Yugoslavia, 100,000 to Turkey and
60,000 to Greece. Since 1976 there appears to have been a stabilisation,
followed by a reduction in these return flows. Taking known data, about 1
million workers returned to Southern Europe 1974-78; including countries
for which data are poor or scarce, the estimate becomes 1.5 million.
Remittance transfers are analysed. The economic importance of these
capital transfers is stressed. Various economic incentives to return are
[0351W]
- 85 mentioned: France's "return grants" to departing migrants; Turkey's 200
migrant co-operative factories financed by Turkish migrants from the
Federal Republic of Germany; vocational training; job creation schemes,
etc.
WE
Lebon, A.
"Return migration from France: Policies and data" in The
politics of return. International return migration in Europef ed. by D.
Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 153-169.
Examines the different periods and results of the development and
implementation of French policy regarding return migration. Focuses, in
particular, on vocational training for return and the "aide au retour"
measures.
GE
Leger, D. "Les utopies du retour", Actes de la Recherche en Sciences
Sociales (29 September 1979), pp. 45-63.
WE
Leib,
J.
"Die
Ruckkehr
der
spanischen
Arbeitsemigranten:
Rahmenbedingungen, Umfang, Griinde, raumliches Verteilungsmuster und
Ergebnisse empirischer Untersuchungen in ausgewahlten Provinzen", in
Untersuchuneen zur spanischen Arbeitsmierationf ed. by G. Mertins,
Marburger Geographische Schriften, Heft 95 (Geographisches Institut der
Universitat Marburg, 1984), pp. 151-214.
AF
WE
Le Masne, H. Le retour des emigres algeriens: Projets et contradictionsP
(Paris, Centre d'Information et d'Etudes sur les Migrations, 1982),
215 p.
Monograph examining the attitude of Algerian migrant workers in France
towards return migration and obstacles to their re-establishment in
Algeria. Based on a 1972-1973 survey of 80 Algerian workers and their
families in the Rhone-Alpes region, covers trends relative to employment
opportunity, educational opportunity, migrant children, social status of
women, Algerian return migration policy, social integration.
AF
Le Masne, H. "Emigres algeriens et perspectives du retour", Hommes et
Migrationsr 867 (15 septembre 1974).
AF
Le Masne, H.
"Les lendemains de l'aventure: des emigres algeriens
parlent de leur retour au pays", Croissance des Jeunes Nations. 157 (mars
1975).
AF
Le Masne, H. "Le retour des Algeriens au pays", Economie et Humanismef
221 (janvier-fevrier 1975), pp. 9-20.
AF
Le Masne, H. Les emigres algeriens et la perspective du retour. Les
pro lets de 80 emigres de la region Rhone-Alpes (Alger, Universite
d'Alger, 1974).
GE*
Lepore, S. "Problems confronting migrants and members of their families
when they return to their countries of origin", International Migration,
Vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp. 95-112.
NC
Levine, B.B.
"The Puerto Rican circuit and the success of return
migrants", in Return Migration and Remittances: Developing a Caribbean
perspective. ed. by W.F. Stinner, K. de Albuquerque and R.S.
Bryce-Laporte, RUES occasional papers no. 3 (Washington D.C. 1982),
pp. 157-181.
- 86 -
Analysis of the development of Puerto Rican-United States relationship.
Statistics of exodus and return migration and life histories of the
returnees.
WE*
Lewis, J. and Williams, A. "Portugal: the decade of return", Geography,
vol. 70, part 2, No. 307 (April 1985), pp. 178-182.
Recent international migration trends affecting Portugal are described.
Separate sections are included on emigrants, return migrants from Europe,
and returning colonists from former Portuguese colonial territories.
WE*
Lewis, J. and Williams, A. "The economic impact of return migration in
central Portugal", in R. King (ed.) Return migration and regional
economic problems (London, Sidney, Dover, Croom Helm, 1986), pp. 100-128.
Results of a survey undertaken in 1982 among returned migrants in the
centre region. The study sought to compare the determinants of the
economic behaviour of return migrants and people who had not moved in
contrasting economic environments.
WE*
Lianos P.T.
"Flows of Greek out-migration and return migration",
International Migration, vol. 13, no. 3 (1975), p. 119-133.
Emigration from Greece has been little studied, the return movement even
less. Official data and estimates of return migration to Greece are
presented for 1960-70. A returning migrant is defined as someone who has
been abroad for at least one year and intends to stay in Greece for at
least one year. Half of all Greek returnees come from the Federal
Republic of Germany, and another 25% from Canada, the US and Australia.
Contrary to popular belief return migration as a percent of gross outmigration is not higher for the Federal Republic of Germany than for
overseas countries. For 1986-73 return was 36.6% of gross outmigration.
Returnee flows are somewhat different in character from emigration flows.
For example, 51.6% of emigrants leave from rural areas but only 31.3% of
returnees go to rural areas. The reverse is true for urban areas: 35.3%
of emigrant origins and 55.1% of returnee destinations. The semi-rural
category is more balanced. Employment factors and familiarisation with
urban lifestyles whilst abroad are factors possibly explaining the urban
orientation of returnees. Returnees, as expected, are older than
emigrants. The result is a shrinking of the Greek population at the most
productive ages. Migration also changes the skill mix and occupational
preference of returning as opposed to leaving migrants; the main trend is
a drift from agriculture. Reduction in unemployment differentials between
the Federal Republic of Germany and Greece seems to be instrumental in
explaining return flows.
WE
Lianos, T.P. "Movement of Greek labor to Germany and return", Greek
Economic Reviewf vol. 2, no. 1 (April 1980), pp. 71-77.
Estimates of the total volume of return migration from the Federal
Republic of Germany to Greece. Data are for the period 1959 to 1976.
WE*
Livi Bacci, M. "The countries of emigration", in The demographic and
social pattern of emigration from the Southern European countries, ed. by
M. Livi Bacci, (Florence, Dipartimento Statistico Matematico dell'
Universita di Firenze, 1972), pp. 7-123.
This long introductory paper looks at the migration situation as it
affects Yugoslavia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece and Turkey. A lot of
basic information is given on temporal and spatial patterns of flows,
quality of migration data for the various countries, characteristics of
[0351W]
- 87 -
the migrants and their motives for moving, and the characteristics of the
emigration areas, which are mostly rural except for Yugoslavia and
Turkey. The most detailed data referred to are the surveys carried out by
the Italian Ministry of Labour and Social Security (1964), the Central
Italian Statistics Institute (1969) and the Italian Committee for Population Studies (1970). These include data on remittances, family contacts
and return. There is a special section on return migration towards the
end of the paper. Within Southern Europe only Italy and Greece record
return movements from other European countries; Portugal notes only
overseas returnees. Lack of official data prevents any insight into the
demographic and economic characteristics of returnees. Empirical studies
are mostly small-scale, are based on a confused definition of the
universe of migrants who return and are therefore generally unrepresentative. A major exception is the Italian Statistics Institute
questionnaire survey of 80,000 families which had at least one member
returning from abroad during 1962-68. In summary, the following points
emerge from this and other data sources. During 1959-68 the ratio of
returnees to emigrants varied from 54% (1960) to 97% (1967); the average
was 75%. Data from the Federal Republic of Germany show that many
returnees subsequently re-emigrated to this country fairly soon after.
From the Italian survey, two-thirds stayed abroad for less than 1 year,
less than 10% for more than 5 years. The average period abroad is 20
months for Italians returning from the EEC, 15 months for those returning
from Switzerland. Occupational data are illuminating. From the ISTAT
survey 65% of returnees went back to their pre-migration type of
employment. For building and farm workers the figure was over 70%. Any
skills learnt abroad are generally not used on return. Returnees tend to
settle in the place from which they left; 95% of Italian returnees went
back to the same province. Motives for return home were: expiry of
contract (27%), occupation/job in Italy (15%), family reasons (23%),
illness (22%) and 'others' (13%). These figures are then disaggregated by
destination country, region of return and duration of stay abroad.
Remittances are mainly used for the current needs of the family, but some
may be directed towards enlarging, modernising or building a house,
buying land and setting up a small commercial establishment. The
developmental impact of these investments is small.
Lohrman,
R.,
and Manfrass, K., eds. Auslanderbeschaftigung
Internationale Politik (Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 1974), 395 p.
und
Lohrman, R. "European migration: recent developments and future
prospects", International Migration, vol. 14, No. 3 (1976), pp. 229-240.
Looks at the migration scene in Europe since the 1974 depression. Numbers
moving from south to north dropped dramatically as receiving countries
shifted to more restrictive policies. Turkey, for instance, sent 104,000
workers to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1973, only 1,200 in 1974.
Return movements have yet to become massive, but have increased since
1975. Reintegration projects are few but there are moves towards a new,
more co-ordinated policy. The Federal Republic of Germany and Turkey have
jointly conducted a training programme for skilled workers. France is
encouraging Algerian, Moroccan and Portuguese workers wanting to return
to their home country to obtain better vocational training.
Lombardo, A. "Rientro degli emigrant! e comportamento politico", Affari
Sociali Internazionali. vol. 2, no. 1-2 (1974), pp. 37-44.
Relations between return migration and communist votes in Italy.
- 88 -
WE*
Lopreato, J. Peasants no more. Social class and social change In an
underdeveloped society (San Francisco, Chandler, 1967).
This is a book about rural social change, specifically about the exodus
of peasants from a village in Calabria, southern Italy and their eventual
return and consequent effects on village social stratification. Two waves
of emigration have taken people away from Franza (the pseudonym for the
village). The first started at the end of the 19th century and continued
until 1913; it was directed mainly to America. The second, post-war
stream is mainly European. Of the 6 social strata identified by Lopreato
in Franza, returnees play an important part in two. Old emigrants
returning from America are an important element in Stratum III, made up
also of shopkeepers, skilled artisans and small land-owners. Returnees
move up to this class from much humbler origins because of their improved
financial status and because they are able to support their children's
education beyond minimum school level. Many of this group of returnees
have bought land and improved their housing. Although these 'American
returnees' claim to have seen the world, they are the object of some
derision and pity on the part of other villagers. They remain isolated.
Their grasp of American culture is usually very partial and distorted.
They are called 'fessi Americani' (American fools) in Franza. Stratum IV,
a new social group, is made up largely of more recent returnees, from
Europe and also from America. Although these recent returnees are often
as wealthy as the old returnees, it seems that acquired wealth has to go
through an ageing process before it can buy higher status. Again, upward
movement is also achieved by educating children. Recent returnees are
responsible for most of the village's land sales and house building. They
are resented, however, for their ostentatious behaviour and for their
lack of respect for the traditional landed and professional elites.
Overall, emigration has profound structural effects on rural social
classes; it is the main factor behind social mobility in rural Italy.
NC*
Lowe, G.A. "A study of Jamaican students at Harvard University, 1961-62,
Journal of Negro Education, vol. 33, No. 4 (1963), pp. 450-453.
Of 143 interviewed Jamaican students at Harvard, 80% expected to return.
These students lived in a Jamaican community at Harvard so very little
alienation from their natuve culture had occurred. They anticipated
successful careers, and the expected price that their families were going
to derive from their achievement was a strong motive to return.
NC*
Lowenthal, D. West Indian Societies (London, Oxford University Press,
1972), 385 p.
This book about the plurality of West Indian societies includes, in a
chapter on emigration, a substantial amount of material on return.
Lowenthal points out that the impact of return migration varies with the
migrant's background, length of stay abroad and the actual circumstances
of return. Much is expected of the returnee. He must return able to
visibly demonstrate wealth and success. In the French Antilles the
migrant returns home 'to be deified'. Homecoming is a triumphal occasion.
But longer-term prosperity is often elusive. Jobs are scarce and wages
low. Many re-emigrate, and some confess to being homesick for Britain.
Returnees often complain of the slow, unchanging pace of life; they
become bored with the same narrow circle of friends. Even more is
expected of the returnees who come back with advanced education,
including university degrees. They are almost automatically catapulted
into positions of power. Some make an impact but many do not, never
living up to their billing as champions of innovation and modernity.
[0351W]
- 89 WE
Lucrezio, G.
pp. 3-8.
WE
Lucrezio, G. "Les migrants retournant dans leur pays", Migrations dans
le Monde, vol. 1 (1969), pp. 8-9.
WE
Ludolph, E., Jalla, P. Enquiry related to the return of migrant workersf
Churches Committee on Migrant Workers in Western Europe. (Geneva, 1966).
WE
Luetkens, C.
AS*
Lutfiyya, A.M.
Bavtin: a Jordanian Village. A study of social
institutions and social change in a Folk community (The Hague, Mouton,
1966), 202 p.
In this study the author examines his own native village which is
situated near Ramallah, a town, now under Israeli rule, on the West Bank
part of Palestine. Emigration is a fundamental part of village life and
its effects are frequently referred to. The 'American quarter' is a
section of the village where returned migrants live in big, new houses;
the contrast with the humble conditions of the rest of the village is
great. English is spoken in the American quarter and Western-style
clothes are worn. Emigration and return is the biggest force reshaping
the village's socio-economic structure. Remittances and savings are used
to buy land, build new houses and even invest in industrial enterprises.
The inflow of cash from migrants has stimulated local banking activities.
This book provides some interesting insights into the effects of return
migration but the analysis is rather shallow, with few systematic data.
WE*
Macmillen,
M. "The economic effects of international migration: a
survey", Journal of Common Market Studiesf vol. 20 No. 3, (1982), pp.
245-267
This paper examines the question of the relative costs and benefits of
European labour migration to the labour importing countries and the
labour exporting countries. After reviewing a lot of evidence, much of it
from OECD publications, the author concludes that labour importing
countries have benefited more than the exporting states. Sections of the
paper look at returnees and their employment characteristics, again
derived from secondary sources, and at remittances and their impact. A
drawn-out article which expresses only tentative conclusions.
WE
Maier, R.
"Uberlegungen iiber Notwendigkeit und MSglichkeiten der
Fbrderung der freiwilligen Ruckkehr auslandischer Arbeitnehmer", Arbeitsund Sozialrecht, vol. 27, no. 9 (1978), pp. 196-199.
WE
Majava, A. Migration from and to Finland in 1977 (Helsinki, Ministry of
Labour, 1978), 21 p.
This reports deals with emigration to and return from Sweden. It shows
that the actual emigration in Sweden is presently restrained since the
recession has lowered the demand for foreign labour.
WE
Mancho, S. Emigracion v desarrollo espanol (Madrid, Instituto Espanol de
Emigracion, 1978), 175 p.
Monograph on the role of emigration in the economic growth of Spain.
Sets out the reasons for and the positive and negative economic
implications and social implications of emigration, internal migration
and return migration, and discusses future migration policy of host
countries.
[0351W]
"II ritorno degli emigrati", Italian! nel Mondof 25 (1969),
Die ungliickliche Ruckkehr (Frankfurt/New York 1981).
- 90 -
WE
Mancho-Gomez, S. "El retorno de los emigrantes", Razon y Fe (Feb. 1976),
pp. 139-152.
Return migration to Spain from Switzerland, the Federal Republic of
Germany and France after the European economic crisis.
WE*
Manemann, W. Riickkehr portugiesischer Arbelter in ihr Heimatdorf. Eine
Studie in den Regionen Minho und Beira Baixa: Europaische Hochschulschriften 19/A, vol. 25, (n.p., n.d.)
The author proceeds from the question of whether, in the case of
Portuguese workers from the rural areas of Minho and Beira Baixa, any
processes of change can be observed - after at least two years' work in
the Federal Republic of Germany or France - in terms of the cultural
situation of the individual and his family and of their behaviour and
attitude, to whether there are any observable effects upon the village's
social structure. These questions are treated within the framework of an
empirical study (150 intensive interviews), carried out from June 1980 to
January 1981.
WE*
Manfrass, K., "Riickkehrfbrderung - Der Fall Frankreich", in H. Kbrner and
U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen
in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp 73-86.
WE
Manganara, I. Study of returnees to rural areas in Greecef enquete
effectuee sous les auspices de 1'Alliance des Unions chretiennes
feminines (Geneve, 1973).
WE*
Nanganara, I.
"Some social aspects of the return movement of Greek
migrant workers from West Germany to rural Greece", The Greek Review of
Social Research, No. 29 (1979), pp. 65-75.
This article is based on 72 interviews of Greek returnees from the
Federal Republic of Germany, carried out in the islands of Corfu and
Rhodes in 1973. Over half the interviewees were women. Most had been
abroad for less than 5 years although many had alternated periods abroad
with periods at home over a longer time span. Without explaining why or
specifying by what criteria, Manganara classifies most returnees as
'failures'. Most migrants acquired industrial experience, although few
formal qualifications. However, industrial jobs hardly exist on Corfu and
Rhodes. The most positive aspect is the way in which returnees have been
able to get jobs in construction and tourism upon return, especially in
Corfu, where the development of these sectors has been more recent.
Migrants' savings are employed for subsistence, housing, land purchase,
farm machinery, small business (shop, bar, etc.), car/motorcycle. Half
the interviewees plan to return to the Federal Republic of Germany.
Returned migrants generally exist outside the local patterns of honour
and patronage which are such important features of village life amongst
non- migrants. Returnees also suffer from a feeling of uncertainty and
uprootedness which can be termed 'diffuse deprivation'. Although this is
one of the few return migration studies carried out in a tourist area,
the analysis is weak and unconvincing.
NC*
Manners, R.A. "Remittances and the unit of analysis in anthropological
research", Southwestern Journal of AnthropologyP vol. 21, No. 3 (1965),
pp. 179-195.
[0351W]
- 91 Argues that anthropological fieldwork on families and communities in the
Caribbean must conceptually be extended to include those members living
abroad, since the money they send back greatly influences family, culture
and economy in the home area. The remittance unit or group thus becomes a
valid focus for analysis. Country by country inventories of foreign cash
flows are made: remittances often account for 5% of total national income.
WE
Marques dos Santos, A. "Les emigrants portugais et le retour au pays",
Options mediterraneennes, vol. 4, no. 22 (1973), pp. 67-69
WE
Marselli, G.A. "Un ritorno doloroso, un'occasione da non perdere", Studi
Emigrazione/Etudes Migrations, No. 63 (settembre 1981), pp. 305-317.
NC*
Marshall, D.I. "International migration as circulation: Haitian movement
to the Bahamas", in R.M. Prothero and M. Chapman (eds.), Circulation in
Third World Countries (London etc., Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985), pp.
226-240.
Presents background data on the movement of Haitians, especially from the
North-West Department to the Bahamas, and reports on a survey carried out
in 1971 among 135 adult Haitians living in Carmichael, close to Nassau,
the capital of the Bahamas, mostly in an irregular situation. Main
subjects examined are maintenance of links with home, return visits,
remittances, social bonds tying Haitians to their home as well as to the
Bahamas, and the question of whether this movement should be characterised as circulation, temporary-cum-return migration or permanent
settlement.
WE
Martinez Cachero, L.A.
"El retorno de los emigrantes
Revista de Trabaiof vol. 19, no. 3 (1967), pp. 7-20.
LA
AS
Maselli, G. Transfer of technology through international movements of
manpower (The Hague, R.E.M.P., 1977), 23 p.
Examines the different aspects of the transfer of technology with special
reference to movements of qualified migrants between developing countries
in Latin America and the Arab regions. Includes ICM programmes for
selective migration and return of talents.
NC*
Maykovich, M.K. "To stay or not to stay: dimensions of ethnic assimilation", International Migration Reviewr vol. 10, No. 3 (1976), pp. 377-387.
As the title implies, this paper deals tangentially with return. It
examines the implication of Asian sojourners' status upon their assimilation into American society, and criticises and refines the simple linear
hypothesis that sojourners are less likely than immigrants to assimilate
into the host society because of ties with their countries of origin. The
simple 'Asian, Asian-American, American' model of assimilation is not
applicable. 600 Asians (Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos) were interviewed
in San Francisco. Based on a variety of indices they were classified as
"high" or "low" identification on both American and Asian cells (giving
four possibilities) for three levels, social, cultural and psychological.
The results are too complex to be briefly summarised. Sojourners are not
necessarily less assimilated than immigrants; their commitment to return
does not necessarily lessen their identification with America.
AS*
McArthur, H.J. "The effects of overseas work on return migrants and
their home communities: a Philippine case", Papers in Anthropology, vol.
20, no. 1 (spring 1979), pp. 85-104.
[0351W]
espanoles",
- 92 -
In an attempt to provide insight into issues of return migration in a
non-Western context, this paper examines some of the social-psychological
factors which have influenced the readjustment of Filipino migrant
labourers returning from work on Hawaiian sugar plantations. An important
initial point is made: return phenomena cannot be understood in isolation
from the original migration motives. This case study concerns Ilocanos migrants from the overpopulated northern Ilocos coast of Luzon. Three
characteristics distinguish these migrants: first, they were guaranteed
jobs and recruited in their home communities; second, they migrated to a
rural environment and not an urban ghetto; third, the decision to return
was made before they left. An account is given of the rigours of
plantation life in Hawaii. Remittances were sent regularly. Failures
often lost their money in gambling; upon return they were gossiped about
and ridiculed. But the main distinction amongst returnees is length of
absence. Hence the author distinguishes 'short timers', 'old hands' and
'pensionados'. Short timers left for 3-6 years and returned whilst still
young. They had few reintegration problems but brought back little by way
of innovative behaviour. Their first priority was to buy riceland. Old
hands returned after 20-30 years. Many of these had progressed from
plantation workers to hotel and restaurant workers in Hawaii. They
changed their goals, behaviour and self-perception. As a result they
experienced readjustment problems upon return. For example, they resisted
arranged marriages. They were also more innovative upon return, planting
new rice varieties, introducing new domestic conveniences, running for
local office etc. Pensionados came back at 65 with a US pension and
retirement bonus. They were wealthy by local standards but spend money in
ways that add to their status rather than generate more income. Most
build brightly painted luxury houses, give parties and act as sponsors at
weddings and baptisms. Some even get married after return, taking young
wives of 18-19 years of age. Yet they remain on the fringe of barrio life
and are sometimes exploited. The greater innovative behaviour of the old
hands category is related to role ambiguity. Often this resulted in
economic innovation but social conform!sm after return.
WE*
McDonald, J.R. "The repatriation of French Algerians 1962-63", International migration (1963), pp. 146-157.
It is surprising to find that the repatriation of 950,000 French
Algerians has occasioned such little interest. This paper looks at three
aspects of the repatriation: the numbers involved and their rhythm of
movement (the peak rate of return was reached in June 1962); the regional
distribution of the repatriates in France (most went to Paris and the
Midi); and finally their problems and impact on return. Three problems
were faced by the refugees: the inadequate response by the French Government which was taken by surprise by the speed and magnitude of the
exodus; employment (repatriates were not trained to fill the technical
and industrial jobs available in France); and housing (many endured
overcrowding, long waiting lists and high rental costs).
WE*
McLane, M.F. "Return migration of an ethnic minority: the Spanish gypsy",
Papers in Anthropology, vol. 20, No. 1 (1979), pp. 117-125.
Few studies have been made of ethnic minorities within migration streams.
This unusual and fascinating paper looks at return experiences of gypsies
in the region of Guadix in southern Spain. The Guadix area has 2,500
sedentary gypsies. In the city of Guadix they are regarded as the lowest
class and treated derogatorily; in the cave-dwelling villages round about
they are treated socially as no different to other non-gypsy working
class, although they do have their own social customs such as early
[0351W]
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marriage and disregard for formal education, and they do link with
certain occupations such as horse-trading, blacksmiths, basket-weaving
and seasonal agricultural labour. Many gypsies have been forced to
emigrate because of falling demand for their goods and traditional
services. Gypsy returnee behaviour has both similarities and differences
to that of other local returnees. The first priority is better clothing.
No longer are gypsies barefoot and dressed in rags. Household furnishings
are another priority. Proper beds replace mats and straw, and a range of
modern cooking utensils is added to the previously all-purpose kettle.
Other consumer goods include easy chairs, radios, televisions, cycles and
occasionally cars. But unlike non-gypsies, hardly any gypsy returnees
renounce their caves for new housing. Caves are enlarged and improved but
not abandoned. In places, however, gypsies buy housing from non-gypsy
emigrants who have left for good or built new homes. Nor do gypsies try
to set themselves up in business upon return, except as small-scale
farmers. Gypsies buy small plots of valley bottom land, even though they
have no tradition of landownership. Returnee gypsies are generally not
viewed any differently by non-gypsies than they were before they
emigrated. They are still treated as equals in rural areas but reviled in
the city. Nor have they changed their social customs through migration.
McLean Petras, E. "Economic consequences of migration and return", in
The politics of return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by
D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp.
251-257.
Assesses whether trends of foreign investment and trade may be linked to
recent cross-national flows of labour. Examines the immigration policies
adopted by the European receiving countries and the role of immigrant
labour as a regulator of cyclical unemployment.
McLean Patras, E. "Return migration to Greece. Labor migrants, Eastern
European refugees and high level manpower", Conferencia sobre retorno e
reinteeracao dos emigrantes (Lisboa, Instituto de Estudos para o
desenvolvimento, June 1984), 14 p.
Examines cross-national migration of Greeks and their subsequent return
at two levels of analysis: (i) migrant
behaviour (motivations for
emigration and contributions of migrant households to local regional and
national development), (ii) structural context in which migratory
movements take place.
Mehrlander, U. "Soziale Folgen der Auslanderpolitik: Integration oder
Remigration", ITZ Info-Dienstf No. 4 (Essen, October 1983), pp. 3-6
Mehrlander, U.
"L'avenir de 1'immigration: rapatriement ou politique
d'integration des etrangers en Republique Federale d'Allemagne?"
Conferencia sobre retorno e reintegracao dos emigrantes (Lisboa,
Instituto de Estudos para o desenvolvimento, June 1984), 6 p.
Reviews and discusses the measures taken by the Federal Republic of
Germany (i) to integrate migrant workers and their families and (ii) to
facilitate their return to their home countries. Statistical appendix on
the financial assistance granted by the Federal Republic of Germany to
Portuguese, Spanish, Tunisian, Turkish and Yugoslav returnees up to May
1984.
Mendez, J.I.C., Moro, O.C. "The relation between migration policy and
economic development and the promotion of new employment possibilities
for
returnees
(foreign
investment
and
migrant
remittances)",
International Migration,, vol. 14 (1976), pp. 134-162.
- 94 WE
Mendonsa, E.L. "Benefits of Migration as a personal strategy in Nazare,
Portugal", International Migration Review, Vol. 16, No. 59 (fall 1982),
pp. 635-645.
Analysis of the causes, patterns and results of involvement in
international wage labour migration for Nazare. Describes the local
investment opportunities for return migrants.
WE*
Menke, D. "Politische, technische und finanzielle Kooperation zwischen
Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern aus der Sicht der OECD", in H. Korner and
U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen
in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp.257-260.
WE
Merico, F. "II difficile ritorno. Indagine sul rientro degli emigrati in
alcune communita del Mezzogiorno", Studi Emigrazione/Etudes migrations.
No. 50 (1978), pp. 179-212.
Survey on the return of Italian migrants, carried out in 4 southern
Italian towns in 1974.
WE
Merico, F.
"II ritorno degli emigrant! alle communita di origine:
motivazioni et problem!", Affari Social! Internazionalif 4 (die. 1973),
pp. 3-39.
AS*
Merriam, M.F.
"Reversing brain drain, a case study from India",
International Development Reviewf No. 3 (1970), pp. 16-22.
A detailed questionnaire survey of 225 faculty and other staff at the
Indian Institute of Technology at Kanpur revealed that identification
with national development goals was the major reason for return from
overseas. Most of the academics questioned were engineers and scientists.
Of the entire sample 141 had been abroad for study or work; various
profiles of time spent abroad are described, the most common being
bachelor's and/or master's degree in India followed by PhD abroad and
then immediate return (104 cases). 15% had been abroad for at least 8
years; the median was 5 years. Most respondents did not believe brain
drain to be a serious problem for India. Various reasons for going abroad
to study and research are given. Reasons for return indicate that
commitment to the development of India loomed large. The role of the
particular institute in which they worked was an incidental factor; most
would have returned irrespective of its existence. The difficulty of
getting jobs fixed up in India prior to return acts as a disincentive to
return, although the Scientists Pool (see Abraham 1968) helps. IIT Kanpur
has, however, recruited some of its staff directly from Indians abroad,
and many returnees were attracted by the notion of this specialised
centre of Indian scientific and technological excellence.
WE
Mertins, G. "Riickwanderung spanischer Arbeitnehmer aus dem europaischen
Ausland. Raumliches Verteilungsmuster und Investitionsverhalten in
Spanien",
in
Riickwanderung
und
Reintegration
von
auslandischen
Arbeitnehmern in Europa. ed. by H. Korner and M. Werth (Saarbriicken,
Verlag Breitenbach, 1981), pp. 63-75.
WE*
Mertins, G. "Reintegration riickkehrender Arbeitsmigranten als Problem der
Entwicklung regionaler Arbeitsmarkte in den Entsendelandern - Generelle
Thesen und Desiderata" in H. Korner and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue
Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986),
pp. 243-250.
- 95 -
AS*
Meyer, G. "Labour emigration and economic development in the Yemen Arab
Republic: and investigation of the case of employment in the building
sector in San'a", Applied Geography and Developmentt vol. 23 (Tubingen,
1984), pp. 55-71
This study is concerned with the extent to which temporary labour
migration benefits the country of origin, particularly with regard to the
acquisition of skills abroad and their subsequent use following return.
The focus is on the impact on the construction industry in the capital of
the Yemen Arab Republic, San'a, and the data were obtained during the
course of interviews undertaken in 1982 with 2,500 construction workers.
The regions of origin of construction workers and their experience abroad
are analysed.
WE
Meznaric, S., Klinar, P., Tos, N. and Zizek, F. "An action programme to
attract Slovene workers to return home", in The politics of return.
International return migration in Europef ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New
York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 137-140.
In order to identify the "migration component" in development, a region
of Slovenia was selected as the target of a "field experiment". The
objectives were to identify the role of change agents and to let them
interact with the target population in order to facilitate return
migration where it was so desired.
AF
MFX "Le retour des emigres algeriens", Accueillir, 97 (fevrier 1983),
pp. 8-12.
GE
Michotey, C. and Dias, M. "Debat: Une bonne formation doit permettre le
libre choix des immigres pour le retour", Alphabetisation et Promotion,
86 (juil.-aout 1973), pp. 7-11.
WE
Mikkola, K. "Return migration from Sweden to Finland in 1946-1970",
Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, vol.13 (1973-74),
pp. 115-124.
WE
Milano, M.
"II problema dei rimpatri dei
Formazione e Lavoro, 25-26 (1967), pp. 95-98.
WE*
Miller, D.R. and Cetin, I. "Migrant workers, wages and labour markets: an
economic model", in R.E. Krane (ed.) Manpower mobility across cultural
boundaries: social, economic and legal aspects. The case of Turkey and
West Germany, (Leiden: Brill, Social, Economic and Political Studies of
the Middle East, 1976), pp. 124-137.
This chapter focuses on the individual Turkish emigrant and presents a
model which attempts to explain why the average worker desires to
migrate, the manner and timing by which he allocates his foreign
earnings, and his aspirations upon his return to Turkey. Workers'
earnings abroad are disaggregated into a country and purpose matrix:
Turkey and the Federal Republic of Germany, and standard of living
maintenance and asset accumulation. Determinant social and economic
factors are discussed. Survey results are presented in an attempt to
verify the hypotheses of the model (nine are specified) and to ascertain
policy-relevant findings with respect to (i) private rates of return,
(ii) employment impact, including skill acquisition and increased
mobility, (iii) wealth effect in terms of utilised savings. In the
Federal Republic, Turkish migrants can save or remit 1-5 times the amount
[0351W]
lavoratori
italiani",
- 96 -
of their previous pre-migration income. Industrial learning is more rapid
in the Federal Republic of Germany. Private financial gains for the
migrant have to be set against the loss of skilled labour by Turkish
industrial entrepreneurs and the increased labour turnover they suffer in
their enterprises.
GE
Miller, E. "Return and non-return in migration", Growth and Change, vol.
11, No. 4, pp. 3-9.
AF
Ministere du Travail, France
Informations, 18 juin 1978, 9 p.
AF
Ministere du Travail et de la Participation
"Nombre d'etrangers ayant
beneficie de l'aide au retour", Hommes et Migrationsf 973 (juillet 1979),
pp. 21-22.
LA
Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid
Retourmigratie van
Mediterranenf Surinamers en Antillianen uit Nederland (Den Haag, 1983),
290 p.
WE*
Ministero degli Affari Esteri - Direzione Generale Emigrazione e Affari
Social! Guida pratica delle norme emanate dallo Stato e dalle Region! a
favore degli emigrati Rome, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1985), 718 p.
Compilation of Italy's national and regional assistance measures in
favour of returning migrants.
WE
Ministry of Labour, Greece
Greece (Athens, July 1982).
WE
Mira, G.
"L'integrazione economica europea e il problema degli
emigrant!", Studi Economlci e social!f Vol. 14, No. 1 (Genn-Marzo 1979),
pp. 49-59.
GE*
Miracle, M.P. and Berry, S.S. "Migrant labour and economic development",
Oxford Economic Papers, vol. 22, No. 1 (1970), pp. 86-108.
An important theoretical statement on the migration-development dynamic,
with a wealth of empirical findings referenced as well. The impact of
migrant labour on economic development is complex and varies according to
a number of factors including length of stay and the relative
characteristics of home and destination economies. Much of the literature
referred to is Third World, especially African. A substantial section of
the article looks at economic effects of return migration, including the
spread of new techniques, especially in farming; the accumulation of
capital, both monetary and human (skill) capital; and the changes in
consumption patterns and expectations.
WE
Moffa, M. "Regional measures in Italy in favour of returning migrants",
Migration News, 23 (1974), pp. 3-5.
A brief note on the measures offered to returning migrants by the Italian
region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia for resettlement and housing.
WE
Moll Marques, J.
"Die Riickkehr in die Heimat. Politische und
gesellschaftliche Auswirkungen", in E. Klee (ed.) Gastarbeiter; Analysen
und Berichte (Frankfurt a.M., 1972), pp. 137-146.
WE
Mongardini, C. "Fenomeni migratori e ritorno degli emigranti, Affari
Sociali Internazionali, vol. 1, No. 4 (1973), pp. 51-79.
[0351W]
"Le retour des migrants", Migrations/
The
training
of emigrants
returning to
- 97 -
WE*
Monson, T.D. "Industrial learning experiences of Turkish workers at home
and abroad", Journal of Developing Areasf vol. 9 No. 2 (1975), pp.
221-236.
Data collected from 135 Turkish workers standardised for job types in 5
Turkish and 5 German factories enabled the author to explore the learning
experiences of Turks in Turkish industry and Turks in industry in the
Fed. Rep. of Germany, the costs of that experience and the effect on
productivity. Although there are severe data problems (small sample size,
collinearity etc.), acknowledged by the author, the results confirm that:
(i) entrants to industry do go through an industrial learning process;
(ii) Turks in the Fed. Rep. of Germany go through this process quicker
than Turks in Turkey, where the lack of a skilled labour force is a
constraint on industrial growth; and (iii) Turks in German industry are
more productive than they are at home. The evidence supports the
contention that an efficient way for Turkey to develop an industrial
labour force would be to encourage the return of Turkish migrants trained
in industry abroad.
WE*
Monson T.D. "Differences in industrial learning behaviour of Turkish
workers at home and abroad: causes and consequences", in R.E. Krane
(ed.), Manpower mobility across cultural boundaries; social, economic and
legal aspects. The case of Turkey and West Germany. (Leiden, Brill,
Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East, 1976), pp.
95-123.
This chapter analyses the problems of converting a predominantly rural
population such as Turkey's into an industrial labour force and comes to
the conclusion that return migrants could be cost-effectively used as a
basis for such a factory work force. This conclusion is reached
theoretically rather than empirically, by looking at industrial learning
behaviour of Turkish workers in the Federal Republic of Germany's
industry and in Turkish industry. Industrial training is quicker and more
efficient in the Federal Republic of Germany than in Turkey where the
lack of an established labour force is a handicap to further expansion of
industrial employment. The policy implication of this study is that the
Turkish government should make strenuous efforts to recruit back migrants
into industry*
WE
Monteiro Neto, F.F. Le retour des migrants Portugais: contribution a
1'etude d'une etiologie du retour au pays natalp These du 3eme cycle
(Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1980), 400 p.
WE*
Moreau, G. et Debart, M.-H. "Le retour et la reinsertion des travailleurs
etrangers aux pays d'origine", Droit Social. No. 9-10 (septembre-octobre
1985), pp. 683-691.
Simplified but precise and comprehensive explanation of the French return
programme put into effect since 1984, followed by a statistical
evaluation of its results. An informative and useful presentation.
WE
Morokvasik, M. "Des migrants temporaires: les Yougoslaves", Sociologie
du Travail, vol. 14, No. 3 (July-Sept. 1972), pp. 260-277
Study on the phenomenon of return migration to Yugoslavia from France.
Based on two surveys, one in France and one in Yugoslavia, the author
compares the migrants' intentions with the likely outcome of their
movements.
- 98 -
WE*
Morokvasic, M. "Emigration of women and some subsequent social transformations", Migration Today, No. 18 (1974), pp. 117-128.
About one-third of migrants in Europe are female. In this article the
question is raised as to whether the women have the same chance as men of
finding employment when they return. The suggestion is that they are
disadvantaged and that the return of women is a more complex issue. This
is illustrated with examples from Yugoslavia - e.g. women non-migrants in
a Croatian factory who were expected to leave to make way for returning
male migrants.
WE
Morokvasic, M., Rogers, R. "Employment creation through migrants' loans
to enterprises in Yugoslavia", in Return Migration to Yugoslavia:
policiesf the innovative return migrant and prospects for economic
development. Final report submitted by Mirjana Morokvasic and Rosemarie
Rogers to the Rockefeller-Ford Research Program on Population and
Development Policy, 1982.
WE
Morokvasic, M. "Strategies of return of Yugoslavs in France and the
Federal Republic of Germany", in The politics of return. International
return migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 87-92.
Motivation to return, family reunificaton, savings and remittances of
Yugoslavs in France and the Federal Republic of Germany. The role of
information and the search for jobs back home.
WE
Montara, G. "Cento anni di emigrazione italiana per il Brasile: nota
statistica", Giornale degli Economisti e Annali dl Economia. vol. 21, No.
9/10 (Sept.-Oct. 1962), pp. 573-581.
Presents and discusses quinquennial data, 1861-65 to 1956-60 and annual
data 1951-1961 on Brazilian statistics of arrivals of immigrants and
Italian statistics of emigrants and returnees.
NC
Motuz, C. Return migration; an analysis of return migration from Canada:
1969-1974, mimeographed report of the Research Projects Group (Project
R-22), Ottawa, Department of Manpower and Immigration.
WE
Mousouros, L. and Siambos, G. Socio-cultural integration in Germany and
reintegration of the migrants returning to Greece, paper presented at the
European Science Foundation Workshop on Cultural Identity and Structural
Marginalisation of Migrant Workers (Bochum, 10-12 Dec. 1980).
WE
Mughini, C. "L'emigrazione di ritorno: problem! e prospettive per un
reinserimento
produttivo
degli
emigrati
in
Yugoslavia",
Studi
Emigrazione/Etudes Migrations, vol. XVIII, No. 62 (June 1981),
pp. 207-238.
Results of a survey carried out in Yugoslavia during the period
1977-1979. Analysis of the limits of a productive reintegration model
and formulation of some alternative hypotheses.
WE*
Mundt, H.W. "Politische, technische und finanzielle Kooperation zwischen
Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern aus der Sicht von CIM", in H. Korner and U.
Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen in
den
Aufnahme- und
Entsendelandern
(Bonn, Forschungsinstitut
der
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp. 251-256.
[0351W]
- 99 -
WE
Munzenmaier, W., Walter, I. "Auslandische Haushalte in Baden-Wiirttemberg
- Riickkehrabsichten, Familiennachzug und Integration", Zeitschrift fur
Bevolkerungswissenschaft, vol. 9, No. 4 (1983), pp. 487-496.
Results are presented from a 1981 survey conducted by the Statistical
Office of Baden-Wiirttemberg as a supplement to the 1981 micro-census of
the Federal Republic of Germany. The survey focused on the length of stay
and the intentions of the heads of foreign households to return to their
home countries. The findings indicate that economic motivations are the
primary factor determining intentions to stay or return. It is also found
that between 1978 and 1981, there was an increasing trend toward the
reunification of migrant families in the Federal Republic of Germany. The
political significance of the results is considered.
LA*
Murillo Castani, G. "Effects of emigration and return on sending
countries: the case of Colombia", International Social Science Journalf
vol. 36, part 3, No. 101 (Paris, 1984), pp. 453-467.
The effect of labour emigration and return on the economy and quality of
life in Colombia is discussed.
WE
Musillo, I. Retour et emploi des migrants dans le Mezzogiorao; enauete
sur un echantillon de migrants Italiens (Geneve, ILO, mars 1981;
mimeographed
World
Employment
Programme
research working
paper;
restricted).
Working paper on a comparative analysis of two surveys (1969-70 and
1979-80) of return migration and employment in the Mezzogiorno regional
area of Italy. Studies reasons for return of Italian migrant workers
(free circulation in EEC countries, end of the migration wave, etc.) and
data available on labour market re-entry, and presents research results
detailing
age,
marital
status,
educational
level, motivations,
unemployment.
WE*
Muus, P.J. Terugkeren of blilven - een onderzoek onder Turkse werknemers
van het bedrijf Thomas sen en Driiver-Verblifa NV naar aanleiding van het
instellen van een vertrekpremie (Amsterdam, Instituut voor Sociale
Geografie, University of Amsterdam, 1986), 37 p.
NC*
Myers, G.C. and Masnick, G. "The migration experience of New York Puerto
Ricans: a perspective on return", International Migration Reviewf vol. 2,
No. 2 (1968), pp. 80-90
A sample of 234 Puerto Rican migrants was interviewed on the lower east
side of Manhattan in order to determine their attitudes to returning to
Puerto Rico. Overall, 78 thought that they would eventually return,
including 44 within 5 years and 10 within one year. Those wanting to
return say that this is because of 'pull' factors from Puerto Rico rather
than 'push' factors from New York; this is supported by contrasting
migrant scores of 10 'desirable traits* of the two places. Prospective
return movers have made more trips back home than the 'stayers'. The
prospective returnee also associates more frequently with persons from
his home town than do the prospective stayers.
WE
Nacken, W.
Evolution als Mittel der Politikberatung; Analyse eines.
Modellprogramms zur Riickgliederung tiirkischer Gastarbelter (Niirnberg,
Niirnberger Forschungsvereinigung e.V., 1976).
[0351W]
- 100 -
AS*
Naficy, H. "Brain drain": the case of the Iranian non-returnees", in H.W.
Singer, Nicolas de Kun and Abbas Ordoobadi (eds.) International
Development (New York, Oceana Publications, 1967), pp. 64-72.
The drain of capable Iranians to the United States will continue as long
as Iran sends potentially skilled young people to America for training
and as long as the skill gap exists in the US. Nevertheless, the
proportions of the drain should be reduced. Suggestions are made for
bringing back non-returnees: cheap charter flights for regular visits
home; visits to the US by prominent Iranians to talk to student groups
and appraise them of the changing situation in Iran regarding jobs, etc.;
a Bureau of Manpower Planning which will feed information on needs to
students abroad. It would also help if returnees came back with more
modestly realistic expectations.
AF
Naidja, D. La reinsertion des travailleurs immigres aleeriens dans
l'economie algerienne. These de 3eme cycle en Sociologie (Universite de
Paris VIII, 1978), 286 p.
AS*
Nair, P.R.6. Asian emigration to the Middle East: emigration from India
(a report on the state of the art). Centre for Development Studies
working paper No. 180 (Trivandrum, Centre for Development Studies, 1983),
97 p.
A review of the available information on labour migration from India to
the Middle East is presented. The review covers a range of sources,
including research reports, government publications and press reports.
Topics covered include the volume of this migration, migrant characteristics, the impact of this migration on the labour supply in India,
the process of migration, terms and conditions of employment, wages,
savings and remittances, return migration, and social, psychological and
cultural problems associated with this migration.
WE
AF
NCB-IMOS Office The experimental scheme of returnee development projects
for foreign workers (Utrecht, Foundation Netherlands Centre Foreigners,
1980), 170 p.
Report on the implementation of the Dutch Government's returnee
development scheme from 1976 to 1980.
WE
Nestola Altarell, K.
"Artigianato e rientro degli emigranti", Studi
Emigrazione» No. 13 (ottobre 1968), pp. 594-598.
WE
Neto, F.
"Sante et retour au pays natal
Migration Sante. 36 (juillet 1983), pp. 7-13.
WE
Nicholson, B.
"Return migration to a marginal area", Tidskrift for
samfunforskningf vol. 12, No. 2 (1971), pp. 99-122.
GE
Nina, T.
"The effect of economic incentives on return
International Migration, vol. 13, No. 3 (1975), pp. 134-144.
NC
Nordheimer, J. "Puerto Ricans Accelerating Return to Crowded Homeland",
The New York Times (May 10, 1978), p. A18.
NC*
Nutter, R. "Implications of return migration from the United Kingdom for
urban employment in Kingston, Jamaica", in R. King (ed.) Return migration
and regional economic problems (London, Sydney, Dover, 1985), pp. 198-212.
[0351W]
des
migrants
portugais",
migration",
- 101 -
Data for this study were collected during a survey of manufacturing,
retail and financial premises in the Kingston Metropolitan Area where 93
returnees were interviewed between June 1983 and January 1984.
WE
Oberdan Buratto, F. "L'integrazione dei rimpatri in Sardegna: Risultati
di un indagina-pilota", Rassegna di servizio sociale, vol. 16, No. 4
(Otto-dic. 1977), pp. 77-96.
GE
OCDE
WE
OCDE Services for returning migrant workers; Yugoslav Report (Paris,
OCDE, 1975), 105 p.
Role of the employment agencies and services for Yugoslav returnees.
Implementation of the Yugoslav policy for the return and reintegration of
migrants.
GE
OECD "The OECD and return migration: note on the role and activity of an
intergovernmental agency in the study of return migration", in The
politics of return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by D.
Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 235-237.
WE
OECD Emigrant workers returning to their home country. International
Management Seminar, Athens, 18-21 October 1966, final report by J.C.
Reverdy (Paris, 1967), 101 p.
Contains statistics and qualitative data on return, reintegration of the
returnees, role and attitude of the employers' associations, and issues
and new policy directions suggested by the Seminar.
WE
OECD Emigrant workers returning to their home country, International
Management Seminar, Athens, 18-21 October 1966, supplement to the Final
Report (Paris, 1967).
WE
OECD Work of the Technical Co-operation Committee on reinsertion and
resettlement, Conference of National Experts (Paris, May 1986), 7 p.
AF
Office National d'Immigration, France
Etude de 1'impact sur la
situation de l'emploi des departs de travailleurs etrangers beneficiaires
de l'aide au retour: Bilan pour douze departements (Paris, ONI, juin
1980), 10 p.
GE*
Ohndorf, W. "The various forms, reasons and motivations for return
migration of persons who voluntarily decide to return to their countries
of origin", International Migration, vol. XXIV, No. 1 (Geneva, 1986), pp.
213-217.
AF
0NAM0, Algerie
AF
Oussou-Essuis, D.
192 pp.
La chaine migratoire (Paris, OCDE, 1978), 59 p.
Approche des problemes de la reinsertion (Alger, 1973).
Les saisons seches (Paris, Ed. L'Harmattan, 1979),
- 102 -
WE
Padiglione, V.
"Emigrant! e communita di origine nel Mezzogiorno
interno: note su un rapporto simbotico", Studi Emigrazione/Etudes
Migrations,Vol. 13,no.41 (mars 1976).
Consequences of emigration and return migration on the structural context
of small communities of the "Mezzogiorno interno".
WE
Pagani, M. Contribution presented by the Employers' Organisation, ILO
Tripartite Technical Seminar on Second-Generation Migrants, Lisbon, 1981
(Geneva, 1981, IL0-RER/79/001/Sem.I/15), 5 p.
Conference paper presenting the Employers Organization view regarding
second generation Italian migrants in Western Europe and countries and
the presence of migrant workers in Italy. Comments on return migration,
social integration, training.
WE*
Paine, S.
Exporting workers; the Turkish case (London/New York,
University of Cambridge, 1974), 227 p.
This is a major and much respected study of labour migration from one of
Europe's main suppliers of cheap labour: Turkey. There were 850,000
Turkish workers in Europe at the end of 1973; the ration of migrant
workers to indigenous was about 1 in 16. The outflow has fluctuated in
response to expansion and recession in receiving countries. No accurate
figures on return migration are available but it is estimated at
20-25,000 per year during 1965-73, a fairly low figure. Many returnees
have no intention of staying in Turkey for more than a few months. This
book gives a good description of the highly organised nature of Turkish
emigration to the Federal Republic of Germany, the main destination
country. Paine devotes a good deal of attention to return migration. From
two surveys which had been carried out by 1974, it appears that the chief
reason for return was family motives. Only 3% returned because of
unemployment in the Federal Republic of Germany. Other reasons for going
back to Turkey were failure to adapt to foreign conditions, unhappiness
or sickness whilst abroad, passport difficulties and recall for military
service. Returnees were highly critical of conditions at home; it was
hard for them to find employment. Almost half went back to the same
occupation as prior to departure. Many returnee businesses have failed.
There was little enthusiasm for co-operative ventures, either agricultural or industrial. Few were able to use skills acquired abroad. The
pattern of participation in workers' associations was as follows: 24%
belonged before emigration, 53% while abroad and 42% on return. Most of
the money saved abroad went on a new house and the purchase of consumer
durables. Relying on a policy of exploiting workers entails a nationalscale risk. Inasmuch as the poorest sections of the Turkish population
are excluded from migration by the selection process, migration increases
inequality in Turkish society. The book is concluded by an excellent
annotated bibliography and by appendices on Turkish migration statistics
and the State Planning Office's 1971 Survey on migrant workers who had
returned to Turkey.
WE
Paiva, A.
"Balanco da investigacao sobre retorno e reintegragao de
emigrantes: consequencias para uma politica em Portugal", Conferencia
sobre retorno e reintegracao dos emigrantes (Lisboa, Instituto de Estudos
para o Desenvolvimento, June 1984), 8 p.
WE*
Palmer, R. "The Italians: patterns of migration to London", in Between
Two Cultures: Migrants and Minorities in Britain, ed. by J.L. Watson
(Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1977), pp. 242-268.
- 103 -
This paper focuses on the build-up of the Italian ethnic group in London,
based on fieldwork in central London and in a village in Emilia. The key
to this Emilian link is the catering trade, a niche exploited by village
Emilians very profitably. The final section of the chapter looks at the
repatriation process. Italian statistics report a return rate of at
least 50% for Italian emigrants. Palmer finds that the returnees are
regarded as a distinct 'moral community' by the non-emigrant villagers.
Returnees are reviled; those who have not enriched themselves are
regarded as failures. Many therefore return to settle outside the home
parish, perhaps in a local town or on the Adriatic Coast. One group has
settled in Piacenza, on housing plots bought up from an earlier returnee
from Britain. In the village, non-emigrants are reluctant to sell to
returnees.
•
•
•
o
WE*
Palmer, R.
"Process of estrangement and disengagement in an Italian
emigrant community", New Communityf vol. 8, No. 3 (1980), pp. 277-287.
This delightfully written paper looks at the processes of "estrangement"
and "disengagement" whereby migrants on the road to assimilation in the
host society experience rejection by their sending community. In this
case-study the sending community is a village in Emilia (Italy) and the
migrants are those who have gone to England. The article takes the form
of a descriptive and often amusing account of migrant behaviour on return
visits to the village. Most villagers in England return once a year for
the summer. But because return visits are institutionalised - migrants
out to impress and on their best behaviour, non-migrants with time on
their hands in the agricultural off-season - they both have an idealised
view of each other which leads the village ultimately to reject the
Inglesif a process given impetus by the occasionally errant behaviour of
visiting second-generation sons of emigrants. Permanent returnees, most
of whom have experience of the catering trade in London, might want to
set up restaurants, hotels etc. in the village but villagers refuse to
sell them land or property, afraid that rich returnees will take the
place over. So returnees tend to settle outside the village via a
process of "chain repatriation".
WE*
Panayotakopoulou, E. "Specific problems of migrant women returning to
the country of origin, particularly as regards employment and social
services", International Migration, Vol. 19, No. 1-2 (1981), pp. 219-224.
Written largely in the Greek context. Repatriation started in 1973/4 but
so far only economic aspects have been studied. The more specific and
personal problems of female return migration have been ignored. Return
is accompanied by high expectations, partly due to pleasant memories of
Christmas and summer holidays spent back home. Reality is disappointment
when confronted with many difficulties. Absence has alienated returnees
from the Greek scene. When return is followed by internal migration to a
city further adjustment problems occur. Greek female returnees have no
insurance cover, they have difficulty in getting jobs because of their
sex, age and generally poor education, and they have poor knowledge of
local social services.
WE* Papademetriou, D.G. "Greece", in R.E. Krane (ed.) International Labor
Migration in Europe (New York, Praeger, 1979).
Analysis of the causes and patterns of Greek internal migration,
emigration and return, with special reference to regional deficiencies
produced by emigration.
[0352W]
- 104 -
WE
Papademetriou, D.G.
Emigration and return in the mediterranean
littoral: conceptualr research and policy agendas (Washington, Center
for Migration Studies, 1981).
The political economy of international migration and the components of
emigration research. Analysis of the assumptions on the relation between
skill acquisitions abroad and the socio-economic reintegration of the
returnees.
WE
Papademetriou, D.G.
"Return in the mediterranean littoral: Policy
agendas", in The politics of return. International return migration in
Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies,
1984), pp. 259-267.
Examines the utilization of remitted and transferred savings in Mediterranean countries of return, and assesses occupational skill and the
socio-economic re-integration of the returnees.
WE*
Papantoniou-Frangoulis, M.
Impact of economic conditions on return
migration - the Greek experience (Athens, Reintegration Centre for
returning migrants, 1983), 11 p.
Discusses
various
economic
and non-economic
factors
influencing
emigration and return migration in Greece in the light of the assistance
provided by the Reintegration Centre for Returning Migrants.
WE*
Papantiniou-Frangoulis, M. Social problems of the reintegration of Greek
returnees from Germany, with particular consideration to second
generation problems (Athens, Reintegration Centre for Returning Migrants,
1983), 7 p.
Discusses the three main types of problems faced by returning secondgeneration migrants: social integration, school integration, problems of
professional qualification and professional integration.
WE
Papantoniou-Frangoulis, M. "Problems of return migration to Greece",
Conferencia sobre retorno e reintegracao dos emigrantes (Lisboa,
Instituto de estudos para o desenvolvimento, June 1984), 9 p.
Factors influencing return migration to Greece and analysis of the return
of second generation migrants. Existing measures and proposals concerning
the re-integration of Greek returnees.
WE*
Papantoniou-Frangoulis, M. Problems of return migration and reintegration in Greece (Athens, Reintegration Centre for Returning Migrants,
1984), 15 p.
This paper embraces various social and economic aspects of return
migration: factors influencing repatriation, the socio-economic problems
faced upon return and second-generation migrants.
WE*
Papantoniou, A.K. "Gastarbeiterpolitik und Remigration - Beispiel
Griechenland" in H. Kbrner and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa - Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern
(Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp.
159-180.
WE
Papastavro, M. Greek migration and governmental policy. International
Conference on Greek Expatriate Nationals (Athens, July 1985), 22 p. (in
Greek).
This paper discusses various socio-economic problems faced by returning
migrants, and analyses the legislative measures adopted by the Greek
Government to assist returnees.
[0352W]
- 105 -
WE
Parodi, L. "L'emigrato ritorna e impazzisce: una realta dolorosa e poco
nota della Sardegna di oggi", Famielia Cristiana,, 17 (april 1978),
pp. 42-47.
Mental diseases of returning migrants In the Sardegna region.
WE
Pascual, A. El retorno de los emlgrantes; Confllcto
(Barcelona, Nova Terra, 1970).
WE
Passera, A.L. "II reinserimento soclale di ragazzi emigrati di ritorno
in un'area interna della Calabria", Rassegna di Servizio Sociale. Vol.
21, No. 2 (aprile-giugno 1982), pp. 8-27.
Social reintegration of young returnees in Calabria.
AS*
Patel, N. "A passage from India", Societyf Vol. 9, No. 6 (1972), pp.
25-29, 60-63.
A personal, anecdotal but thoroughly fascinating article in which Patel
describes the migration and return experiences of himself, his family and
his co-villagers. The village is in Gujarat and its men have emigrated
to, and returned from, countries in many parts of the world - East
Africa, Panama, New Zealand, Britain and many more. Patel describes the
early returnees and the effect they had on the village, even though many
had performed menial jobs abroad. Work that at home would be defined as
below the dignity of the caste - street hawking, cleaning, domestic
servant etc. - was exempt from criticism if on his return home the
pioneer impressed his friends and relatives by his wealth and conspicuous
consumption. Patel describes the new houses, etiquettes and standards of
hygiene introduced by returnees. His father came back and ate meat, drank
alcohol and mixed with "untouchables" - revolutionary social behaviour in
his caste-ridden village. The role of education is also described, also
the changing pattern of destinations, with Britain now dominant. In
Britain, however, a new emigrant society is being formed, which has
different implications for return migration.
NC*
Patterson, H.O. "West Indian migrants returning home: some observations",
Race, vol. 10, no. 1 (1968), pp. 69-77.
An impressionistic study based on informal talks with returning migrants
on board a boat from Britain bound for Jamaica. Having emigrated for
employment reasons, to better themselves, to save money or to join
expatriate relatives, the return migrants are not a uniform group. They
fall into two distinct age groups: 20-30 and 40-45, respective mean
absences being about 3 and 9 years. Most migrants came originally from
rural areas and were of lowly socio-economic status. Reasons given for
return included the British climate, dislike of the UK, to see what
Jamaica had to offer, to re-emigrate to a better place such as the US, to
set up a business in Jamaica, or family reasons. All had sent remittances
back home and most valued their experience in the UK.
NC*
Pavalko, R.M. "Talent migration: Canadian students in the United States",
International Review of Education, vol. 14, No. 3 (1968), pp. 300-324.
This paper looks at Canadian undergratuate and graduate students in the
US, of whom there were 9,253 in the 1964/65 academic year. These students
represent an important addition to Canada's high level manpower - if they
return. A postal survey to certain American universities yielded 1,635
usable replies. To a question on reasons for going abroad 59% replied
that it was because of the more ready availability of the particular
subject. 30% planned to stay in the US, 60% planned to return and 10%
were undecided.
o Integraclon?
- 106 -
WE*
Pekin, H. "Placement assistance to returning migrants and other type of
assistance,
including
reception
and
accommodation",
International
Migration, vol. 14, No. 1/2 (1976), pp. 105-119.
An initial distinction is made between voluntary, individual, spontaneous
returns and compulsory, large-scale mass return movements. The latter are
those provoked by recessions as in 1967 and 1973. A number of problems
are related to return migration. The situation is very difficult for
families with children who do not speak their mother tongue fluently.
Employment problems are severe for returnees; only a small proportion can
go into industry. Placement assistance is discussed in the country of
foreign residence, at the frontier, and in the home country. Broaderscale job possibilities need to be created. Other forms of assistance to
returnees include return travel subsidies, reception help and accommodation on arrival, protection of acquired social security rights, pension
schemes etc.
GE*
Pekin, H. "Measures to facilitate the reintegration of returning migrants
into their countries of origin", International Migrationf Vol. XXIV, No.l
(Geneva, 1986), pp. 163-178.
WE
Pellegrini, A.M. Immigrants return (New York, The Macmillan Company,
1953), 269 p.
Social reintegration of Italian emigrants returning from the United
States.
WE*
Penninx, R., Van Renselaar, H. A fortune in small change. A study of
migrant workers' attempts to invest savings productively through .joint
stock corporations and village development co-operatives in Turkey (The
Hague, 1978).
This study is carried out under the auspices of the REMPLOD project
(Reintegration of Emigrant Manpower and the Promotion of Local
Opportunities for Development) sponsored by the Netherlands Universities
Foundation for International Co-operation. The title of this book renders
succinctly how little the potential for development represented by
migrants' earnings has in fact been realised, and how negligibly the
social and economic structure of underdeveloped regions has been affected
by 20 years of labour migration from Turkey. The book looks critically
and exhaustively at the unique German-Turkish experience of stimulating
home country local development by channelling migrant savings to small
and medium scale local industrial and other enterprises. Although the
study is to do with migrant savings rather than actual return, problems
and patterns of return migration are discussed from time to time.
WE
Perotti, A.
"L'inserimento dell'emigrato nel momento economico e
socio-culturale dei programmi
di sviluppo regionale.
Appunti e
proposte", Studi Emigrazione. No. 7 (ottobre 1966), pp. 51-60.
Integration of returning migrants in Italy in connection with the
economic and socio-cultural regional development.
WE
Peter, K. "Remigrants from the underdeveloped areas of emigrant society
and the problems of their reintegration", American
Sociological
Association Annual Meeting (San Francisco, Sept. 4-8, 1978.)
Reintegration policy in economically less developed areas of an emigrant
society in connection with social development. The research is centered
on a less developed area of Slovenia in Yugoslavia. A structural model
is used to find changes in the social status of remigrants in the
immigrant society and their original society.
[0352W]
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WE*
NC
Philpott, S.B. "Remittance obligations, social networks and choice among
Monserratian immigrants in Britain", Man, vol. 3 (1968), pp. 465-476.
This study is based on fieldwork among Monserratian migrants aged 15-44
years, both at home and in Britain. Remittances have replaced cotton as
the island's main money earner. Remittance payments are influenced by
social commitments. They are used for gifts, display of affluence, the
need to pay for others to migrate, and the support of children left
behind. Continued remittance payments reflect the desire to receive
approbation from family and friends and to keep in with kin prior to
return. Remittance payments do decline over time, however. The paper
gives an interesting insight into the role of remittances, but lacks hard
data on payments.
NC*
Philpott, S.B. "The implications of migration for sending societies: some
theoretical considerations", in Robert F. Spencer (ed.) Migration and
Anthropology (Seattle, University of Washington Press for the American
Ethnological Society, 1970), pp. 9-20.
This paper focuses particularly on the 'migration ideology' backed up by
reference to Philpott's work on Monserratian migration. Monserratians in
Britain share the same ideology and notions of a moral obligation to the
home community which includes remittance payments and an eventual return.
Even if only 20% will return (Philpott's estimate) most talk and act as
if they will. Return migrants have the effect of altering the material
culture of their home villages (housing, flush toilets, refigrerators,
etc.), but produce little economic innovation.
NC*
Philpott, S.B. West Indian Migration: the Monserrat Casef (London,
Athlone Press, London School of Economics Monograph on Social
Anthropology, No. 47, 1973) 210 p.
This study looks at Monserratian migration largely in terms of its
background in the island and effects on the home society, although parts
are concerned with the community in London. Makes frequent reference to
the impact of remittances, less so return migration. Most of the material
on remittances and return migration is contained in more succinct form in
Philpott's 1968 article which is largely drawn from chapter 7 of this
monograph.
NC*
Philpott, S.B. "The Monserratians: migration dependency and the maintenance of island ties in England", in James L. Watson (ed.) Between two
cultures: Migrants and minorities in Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell,
1977), pp. 90-119.
Monserrat has the highest rate of emigration from any West Indian
territory, largely due to the collapse of cotton exports in 1952. Expectations to return vary according to class. In the upper class, emigration
is viewed as a permanent or long-term move. Lower class workers perceive
it as more temporary, at least initially. Their behaviour is influenced
by remittance ties, care of their children and an ambition to return home
to a higher status. Such prestige derives partly from migration as a
socially valued experience and partly from accumulated wealth. Yet
returnees produce very little social or economic innovation, largely
because the potential for such innovation on a small island is limited.
Returnees cannot return to the ordinary labouring jobs they did before
emigrating without loss of new-found status. Capital investments to
establish an independent position tend to be culturally defined: rum
shops, vans, buses, cattle. As the demand for these services is less than
the supply, many returnees are forced to re-emigrate.
[0352W]
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WE
Pinilla de las Casas, E. "Les travailleurs emigres retournant dans leur
pays", Sociologie du Travail, Vol. 10, No.4 (oct.-dec. 1968), pp. 458-459.
GE*
Piore, M.M. Birds of passage; Migrant labour and industrial societies
(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979), 229 p.
An important study of labour migration, written from a critical
perspective. The book contains many passages and sections on return
migration. Return migration is mostly seen by Piore in a negative light
which in fact questions the whole utility of the migration phenomenon.
Conventional wisdom has it that returnees make two principal contributions to the development process of the home area. First migrant
remittances are thought of as being a channel for acquiring critically
needed foreign exchange. Second, the migrants themselves are supposed to
develop industrial skills which can be usefully deployed in the country
of origin. In reality the beneficial effects of these contributions are
rather elusive. Returnees often spend savings and remittances on imported
luxuries, or the money is held abroad; little is allocated to local
development projects. Nor have returnees been a significant source of
industrial skills, Piore argues. The most skilled tend not to return.
Those who do return are loath to enter in their home country the kinds of
jobs they did abroad. Returnees are also unwilling to recommence agricultural work. Their attitudes degrade such work and also foster the
rejection traditional farming by non-migrants. In the extreme, return
migration kills off traditional agriculture or leads to rural jobs being
performed by new migrants from other, less developed countries. Temporary
migration creates a sharp distinction between work on the one hand and
social identity on the other. Social identity is rooted in the place of
origin - the home, the village, the community. Work abroad is divorced
from this in that it is regarded as purely instrumental as a means to
higher economic status. Income earned abroad, by whatever menial,
degraded means, enables upward status at home. In this sense the migrant
is an 'economic man' par excellence; work is asocial. Several anecdotes
express this, e.g. a Mexican returnee: "I work there (in the USA), then
at home I am king". Or a Puerto Rican: "If I'm going to do that kind of
work, I'd rather do it over there (USA); then I can come home and be
myself". This line of argument also opposes the conventional view that
successful migrants settle abroad and failures return. In terms of the
migrant's self-perception it is the succesful ones who return with their
nest-egg; the failures stay abroad, still desperately saving. Piore also
criticises the terms first, second, third generation etc. Children who
migrate before adolescence seem to adopt the culture of the destination
and therefore reintegrate with difficulty upon return. Post-adolescent
migrants never shake off their ethnic origins; their return is easier.
AS*
Piatt, J.B.
"Emigration of scholars and the development of Taiwan",
Development Digest, vol. 4, No. 1 (1966), pp. 42-46.
This paper discusses the problem of the persistent loss of qualified
people and a proposed scheme to redress this balance of brain loss. At
present almost all scientists and graduates leave Taiwan - about 2,000
per year. Only 5% return. This is mainly due to low financial returns and
lack of research opportunities, equipment, etc. This loss will have
severe detrimental consequences on Taiwan's future educational standards.
To prevent this, it is proposed to set up 5 centres for research and
graduate study in Taiwan. These will offer advantageous research posts
and facilities for a few returnees who will be complemented by a
[0352W]
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programme of visiting researchers from the US. Salaries will not be as
high as in the US but by providing a comfortable living standard it is
hoped to go some way towards stemming the continual outflow of qualified
people.
AF
Plotnicov, L. "Going home again - Nigerians, the dream is unfulfilled",
Transaction, 3 (117), pp. 18-22.
WE
Poinard, M. Rapport sur les retours au Portugal (Paris, OECD, 1971),
87 p.
The concept of return migration and public opinion. Statistical data on
the return migration from France and the Federal Republic of Germany; the
role of the returnees in the Portuguese economy.
WE
Poinard, M. "Le million des immigres. Analyse de l'utilisation de l'aide
au retour par les travailleurs portugais en France", Revue Geographique
des Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest" (oct. 1979), pp. 511-539.
WE
Poinard, M. Retour des travailleurs portugais. Migrations et Societes, 5
(Paris, documentation francaise, 1979), 141 p.
Monograph on the return migration of Portuguese migrant workers from
France. Reviews current economic conditions, labour market situation and
migration policy of Portugal, presents survey data covering the migrants'
distribution
by
age
group,
family
structure
and
occupational
qualifications, and
examines employment opportunities and social
integration of returning workers.
WE
Poinard, M. "Le retour de travailleurs migrants au Portugal", Migration
Etudes. 22 (Mai 1979), 19 p.
LA
Poitras, G. Return migration from the United States to Costa Rica and El
Salvador (San Antonio, Border Research Institute, Trinity University
1980), 34 p.
Describes the personal and demographic characteristics of Costa Rican and
Salvadorian samples of return migrants to study the pattern of migration
to the United States and to examine the characteristics of the return to
the home countries.
LA
Poitras, G. The US experience of return migrants from Costa Rica and El
Salvador (San Antonio, Tex., Trinity University Research Institute,
1980), 140 p.
WE
Polizos, N.J. Consequences des retours en grece des emigrants (Paris,
OECD, 1970), 43 p.
Technical and professional training of emigrants. Effects of the
returnees on the Greek labour market.
WE*
Portero, B. "Cooperatives para el retorno", Carta de Espanar No. 292
(abril 1984), pp. 14-20.
WE
Portugal
Contribution presentee par le Gouvernementf IL0 Tripartite
Technical Seminar on Second-Generation Migrants, Granada, 1982, (Geneve
1982, IL0-RER/79/001/SEM.II/15.A), 29 p.
Conference paper on educational policy and social policy in Portugal
regarding second generation Portuguese migrant (immigrant) youth in
Western Europe. Covers migrant education and language teaching, role of
migrant associations, vocational training, cultural factor identity and
return migration.
[0352W]
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WE*
Poschl, A. and Schmuck, P. Die Riickkehr - Ende elner Illusion. Tiirkische
Gastarbeiterfamilien in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und die Probleme
ihrer Riickkehr in die Tiirkei
(Munich, Deutsches Jugend Institut,
Materialien zur Auslanderarbeit, 1984).
WE*
Presidenza
Consiglio
Ministri
Comitato
Interministeriale
per
l'Emigrazione Disposizioni e tendenze normative per la formazione degli
emigrati (Rome, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, 1980), 197 p.
Legislative information at European (EEC), national and regional levels
on educational and professional training of migrants, including for
return.
AS*
Price, C. "Australian migration: settler gain and loss", in J. Zubrzycki,
Enquiry into the Departure of Settlers from Australia (Canberra,
Australian Government Publishing Service, 1973), pp. 25-34.
Examines the question of settler loss in Australia, pointing out that
loss is often tempered by 'second-timers' - returnees from Australia who
subsequently come back again. Estimates based on cohort loss, period loss
and a deficit model all give an 'attract-hold' loss ratio of about 25%
for 1965-72, but figures vary between nationality. Leaving aside the
early post-war settlers, the loss rates after 10 years of settlement work
out at 30% for British, Italian and Maltese settlers, 40% for Dutch and
German, and about 20-25% for Greeks and Yugoslavs.
WE , Puigjaner, J.M., et al. La desemigracion
Documentacion social 3, 1974).
(Madrid, Fundacion Foessa,
WE
Radlovic, 0.
"Normativeno regularanje privremenog
zaposl avanja
jugoslavenskih gradjana u inozemstvu", Rasprave o migraci.iamaf No. 3,
41 p.
AF*
Read, M. "Migrant labour in Africa and its effects on tribal life",
International Labour Reviewr vol. 45, No. 6 (1942), pp. 605-631.
In this interesting early study of African migrant labour Read maintains
that the outstanding sociological aspect of the African labour market is
the phenomenon of the 'temporarily urbanised' migrant who maintains
strong links with his village of origin. Life in the villages changes as
men leave and return, and others leave. This paper, based on extensive
field surveys in Nyasaland, examines the nature of these changes taking
place. The author shows that the popular conception of the African
migrant worker returning to his village with only a box of trashy trade
goods and after giving them away right and left sinking back easily into
his old village ways, is very far from the truth.
WE
Rellini, G.P. Les politiques du retour (Clermont-Ferrand, Faculte de
Droit et de Science Politique, 1978).
Action programme for return migration policies in Europe. Based on the
Council of Europe and 0ECD schemes.
WE
Reyneri, E., Barone, C , Cacciola, R.
Emigrazione meridionale nelle
zone d'esodo (Catania, Universita di Catania, Facolta di Scienze
Politiche, 1976), 3 volumes
Report on emigration from agricultural areas and rural communities of
Sicily 1945. Presents the results of a questionnaire/survey of the
demographic
characteristics,
marital
status,
educational
level,
motivations and attitudes of migrant workers, the economic structure of
[0352W]
- Ill emigration areas, the geographic
distribution
and
duration
of
international and internal migration, various aspects of return
migration, changes in political participation of return migrants.
WE
Reyneri, E., and Mughini, C. "Return migration and sending areas: from
the myth of development to the reality of stagnation", in The Politics of
Return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome,
New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 31-36.
Explains the various "myths" on the benefits of return migration for the
country of origin, through the example of return migration situation in
Southern Italy.
WE
Reyneri, E., Scuderi, M. and Sineri, G.
Emierazlone di ritorno e
professionalita. Un indagine sulla Sicilia Centrale (Catania, 1979).
WE*
Reyneri, E.
"Emigration and sending area as a subsidized system in
Sicily", Mediterranean Studiesf vol. 2, No. 1 (1980), pp. 88-113.
This important article reports the results of a major research project on
the effects of emigration and of return migration in central Sicily; 15
settlements, peasant or former mining villages, were sampled and 594
interviews with members of migrant households carried out. Some of the
results, particularly as they effect return migration, can be set out as
follows. The older migrants are when they leave Sicily, the more likely
they are to return after a short time. This is because of their greater
difficulties in adapting to a changed way of life. Many migrants,
however, have a migratory cycle, from departure to return, over 10 years.
A critical point seems to exist at 6-7 years. Another break occurs at 15
years when many migrants start to think of their stay abroad as
permanent. Commuting migrants, who alternate periods at home and abroad,
disappear after this time. Various reasons for return are given: 62% are
strictly personal and the economic crisis seems only to play a minor
part. About 60% intended to remain at home, 30% intended re-emigration,
and 10% were undecided. Young adults are the most prone to re-emigrate.
The relationships between occupations before departure, abroad and since
return are explored. There are interesting data on family budgets of
returnees and on remittances, which reach their highest levels after
10-14 years of absence, falling thereafter as migrants come to realise
they may be abroad permanently. The sending area exists as a subsidised
economic system. Remittances do not support the capitalisation of
development initiatives but are spent in the purchase of houses, goods
and services which do not promote increased productivity locally. In
conclusion, the sending areas experience waste of capital and fragmentation of labour, both of which are obstacles to economic progress.
WE*
Rhoades, R.E. "Intra-European migration and development in Mediterranean
Basin", Current Anthropology, vol. 18, No. 3 (Sept. 1977), pp. 539-540.
Fieldwork was carried out by Rhoades in southern Spain to test, at a
regional level, the validity of two theoretical propositions on return
migration: (1) that migrants from rural areas who have worked in foreign
industry bring back modern work habits and industrial skills when they
return; and (2) that foreign earnings are utilised to establish
return-migrant businesses which revitalise the rural sector. Generally
these hypotheses were not upheld. Although there are variations in the
pattern of responses by 133 interviewed returnees (by age, size of
settlement etc.), few skills were acquired and most of the investment was
in housing, furniture, consumer durables and precarious businesses like
»
*
r
[0352W]
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shops and bars. In conclusion, the developmental effects of intraEuropean migration on southern Spain are insignificant, if not actually
negative; the benefits exist in the minds of industrialists and
government officials, not in the reality of the economic structure of the
region.
WE*
Rhoades, R.E. "Intra-European return migration and rural development:
lessons from the Spanish case", Human Organization, vol.37 (Summer 1978),
pp. 146-147.
Precise knowledge of return migration is now urgently needed in
Mediterranean Europe. The debate on the 'ideological balance-sheet'' of
European labour migration - whether migration is developing or exploiting
sending countries - can only be accurately accounted by analysing what
happens to returnees. Rhoades looks at villages in Andalusia where he
interviewed 133 returnees from the Federal Republic of Germany. Three
types of return situation emerged. Young, single migrants free of family
ties tend to be mobile and return to the village prior to re-migrating to
other parts of Spain. Young married migrants also return to the village
temporarily, moving on to urban or coastal locations. Older marrieds
return to the village permanently, settling back to live off investments.
This third category is numerically the most important, and is the main
group treated in the paper. Numerous data on remittances and returnee
investment are given. Investments go in two main directions: housing and
home furnishings; and small-scale businesses. There are interesting
descriptive passages on returnee lifestyles, home furnishings and social
attitudes. Overall, the rural development impact is cosmetic rather than
positive.
WE*
Rhoades, R.E. "Towards an anthropology of return migration", Papers in
Anthropology, vol. 20, No. 1 (Spring 1979).
An introduction to a special issue of Papers in Anthropology on return
migration, edited by Rhoades. The journal contains papers by Brettell,
Rubenstein, Swanson, Rhoades, Bennett, McArthur, Eikaas, McLane,
Griffiths, Carpenter, Gmelch and Deleney, Gmelch and Rhoades and Wiest.
In this introduction Rhoades advances reasons why return migration has
been a neglected field of study amongst anthropologists and outlines the
different approaches contained in the papers which follow.
WE*
Rhoades, R.E. "From caves to main street: return migration and the
transformation of a Spanish village", Papers in Anthropology. Vol. 20,
No. 1 (1979), pp. 57-74.
Alcudia de Guadix, a village in southern Spain studied by Rhoades, is
typical of many other Mediterranean villages which have become special
"migrant suburbs" of industrial cities in the Federal Republic of
Germany. In Alcudia a new district - el centro aleman - has been built in
recent years along the main road. This is where the returnees from the
Federal Republic have built their new houses and opened their new
businesses. No longer do they live in the caves of the old village
centre. This paper primarily looks at the physical alterations in the
rural sector which have been brought about by return migration. Most
migrant Alcudians go to the German town of Neuss where at one time 128 of
them worked in the same factory. Rhoades sampled 118 returnees in the
village. Alcudia is not typical of villages in the region, being bigger,
richer and more of a service centre, even before migration. Because of
its 'German connection' it has become even more rich when compared to
surrounding villages which have migratory links elsewhere (Barcelona,
France, Switzerland). The main physical impact of return migration is new
[0352W]
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housing. This has led to inflated property prices. Many new houses
combine businesses such as bars, shops, bakeries, mechanical workshops.
The German flavour of house furnishings is very strong. Returnee investments have led to a staggering growth of small-scale businesses. Yet the
population continues to decline. Competition increases and some returnee
enterprises fail. Other returnees invest in farming, buying agricultural
land and farm machinery. Yet the agricultural economy remains depressed,
and returnees are not particularly innovative. They see security in land.
Politically, returnees are conservative or moderate. Migration does not
foster leftist tendencies. Outward manifestations of return migration
exhibit facets of change and development. But these changes are superficial and entirely dependent upon external agents. The village has
experienced a facelifting but continued prosperity is by no means
guaranteed. Returnees' savings and investments will not last the rest of
their lives. Many will experience a declining standard of living; some
may have to re-emigrate. The future of returnees' children is equally
uncertain.
WE*
Rhoades, R. "European cyclical migration and economic development. The
case of Southern Spain. The return of urban migrants to their rural homes
and their impact there", in G. Gmelch, W.P. Zenner, eds. Urban Life;
Readings in Urban Anthropology, (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1980).
pp. 110-119.
Some scholars, who have argued that migration is beneficial to both the
host and donor societies, claim that return migration has beneficial
effects on the migrants' rural homelands. First workers may bring back
valuable work skills and industrial experience that will upgrade the home
labour force. Second, the migrants' foreign earnings may be used to
establish innovative businesses, co-operatives and farms that will contribute to the revitalisation of the rural homeland. In this ethnographic
case study of a southern Spanish village, Rhoades raises serious doubts
about these mechanisms. His argument is hung around individual biographies of migrants who are divided into three categories: failures (los
fracasados), swallows (los golondrinas) and Germans (los alemanes).
Overall, return migration's contribution to village economic development
is little more than skin-deep.
GE
Ribeiro, A.G. "Le retour pathologique du migrant", in Psychopathology of
the Transplantation of Migrants (Strasbourg, European Science Foundation,
1983) pp. 61-64.
NC
Richardson, B.C. "The origins and continuity of return migration in the
Leeward Caribbean", paper presented at the Fifth Annual Conference of the
Caribbean Studies Association, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles, May 7-11,
1980, 8 p.
Examines the migratory movements of people from the Eastern Caribbean as
being fundamental to their livelihoods. Most information concerns the
islands of St. Kitts and Nevis but many conclusions can be extended to
the other Caribbean islands.
WE*
Richardson, A.
"A shipboard study of some British-born immigrants
returning to the United Kingdom from Australia", International Migration.
vol. 6, No. 4 (1968), pp. 221-238.
Explores the psycho-social determinants of return migration amongst a
small sample of British born male, married, skilled manual workers; the
main contrast investigated is the difference between those who had
decided to resettle permanently in the UK and those who were undecided.
[0352W]
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The following differences were significant at the 5% level: undecided
returnees were more anxious, were less unsettled in Australia, are more
similar in outlook to comparable samples of Australian-born men, and
mention more often parents, relatives and friends as the things they look
forward to most in the UK; permanent returnees more often mentioned that
they look forward to the following in the UK - economic security, better
working conditions and better social services.
WE
NC
Richmond, A.H. "Return migration from Canada to Britain", Population
Studies, vol. 22, No. 2 (July 1968), pp. 263-271.
Statistics of 36,514 migrants returning from Canada to Great Britain are
compared with 195,383 immigrants entering Canada between 1956 and 1965.
Other statistics on type of past migration and future migration
intentions by sex and age are also discussed.
WE*
Richmond, A.H.
"Demographic and family characteristics of British
immigrants returning from Canada", International Migrationf vol. 4 No.l
(1966), pp. 21-27.
Tabulation and brief discussion of results of a survey of 427 British
returnees from Canada. The main features of the tabulated data are as
follows: women returnees were younger than men returnees, except for old
widows; manual workers were more likely to be single; the existence of
close relatives in Canada depresses the inclination to return; and
similarly the existence of close relatives in Britain encourages return,
often precipitated by a crisis such as illness. 30.5% of returnees intend
to re-emigrate to Canada.
GE
Richmond, A.H. "Explaining return migration", in The politics of return.
International return migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New
York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 269-275.
Reviews the existing theories and typologies on migration issues.
Includes voluntary and involuntary migration, immigrant adaptation and
return migration.
GE
Rizzo, L.
"La nouvelle politique de 1'immigration: le FAS et
formation retour", Alphabetisation et Promotion, 90 (Janvier 1980),
pp. 31-35.
AS*
Robinson, V. "Bridging the Gulf: the economic significance of South Asian
migration to and from the Middle East", in R. King (ed.) Return migration
and regional economic problems (London, Sydney, Dover, 1985), pp. 243-272.
This study is concerned with recent labour migration from Bangladesh,
India and Pakistan to the six Arab States which together form the Gulf
Cooperation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the
United Arab Emirates). It focuses on the economic significance of this
movement for the sending societies, and the relative balance of
advantages and disadvantages which accrues to those societies through
emigration, remittances and return migration.
»
Rocca, G.
"Cause e prospettive dei rimpatri",
Internazionali. Vol. 2, No. 1-2 (1974), pp. 71-84.
f
WE
WE
Affari
la
Sociali
Rocha-Trindade, M.B. "Caminhos para a reinsercao", Conferencia sobre
retorno e reintegracao dos emigrantes (Lisboa, Instituto de Estudos para
o Desenvolvimento, June 1984), 12 p.
[0352W]
- 115 WE*
Rocha Trindade, M.B. "La sociologie des migrations au Portugal" in
Current Sociologyr vol. 32, No. 2 (1984), pp. 175-198.
Reviews selected literature on Portuguese migration, including return
migration.
WE
Rodie, R. Workers abroad and their reintegration in the local economy
under the five year development plan 1968-1972 (Turkey)f (OCDE,
MS/M/503/273, mai 1968).
GE*
Rogers, R. "Incentives to return: patterns of policies and migrants'
responses", in M.M. Kritz, C.B. Keely, S.M. Tomasi, eds. Global trends
in migration: theory and research on international population movements
(Staten Island, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1981),pp. 338-364.
This chapter reviews and analyses several return incentive policies used
or contemplated in various countries in different parts of the world. The
policies fall under three headings: return-bonus schemes, reintegration
projects and employment creation projects. Return bonus schemes are
operated from the host country and incentives are financial. An evaluation of the French repatriation bonus is given. Similar schemes were
discussed, but not implemented, by the Federal Republic of Germany and
the Netherlands. Several examples of reintegration services, operated by
origin countries, are mentioned, but more detailed data are given for
return incentives offered by Colombia (to university graduates), by
Algeria (to blue-collar workers) and by Israel (to all returnees, subject
to certain criteria). The third category of policy, the use of migrants'
savings for job creation in their home countries, is illustrated by
reference to Dutch aid to returning migrants for private sector job
creation, by Yugoslav schemes for integrating migrants in the socialist
sector, and by the well-known Turkish workers' co-operatives. The general
conclusion is that return incentives function mostly as extra aids to
migrants who were returning in any case, or who intended to do so in the
near future. The French, Colombian and Israeli experiences show that
monetary incentives are not often decisive in inducing return. Long-term
benefits such as attractive jobs and housing, are the most effective
inducements. A useful comparative review of a little-researched aspect of
return migration.
GE
Rogers, R.
"Return migration in comparative perspective", in The
politics of return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by D.
Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 277-299.
Critical review of existing theories on migration issues. The author
questions the validity of the current literature on the failure of
returning migrants to contribute to their home countries' economic
development, and describes the inadequacy of the analysis, the sampling
and the evaluation criteria of such studies.
WE*
Roodjuin, J. "On things that change and things that don't change in the
villages of Terra di Lavoro, Caserta, Italy", Mediterranean Studies, vol.
2, No. 1 (1980), pp. 114-140.
This is basically a study in changing patterns of "clientelismo", a form
of patronage much studied by anthropologists, especially those specialising in Italy. One of the hypotheses examined in this paper is that
returning migrants to southern Italy might be an 'avant-garde' bringing
in their experiences of modern forms of organisation in foreign countries; in this way they would form pressures for horizontal social
organisations - political parties, class based social groups etc. - which
would cut across traditional vertical patron-client chains. On the other
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hand, it is also acknowledged by Roodjuin that return migration which has
gathered pace since late 1973, will create more pressures on limited
resources so that the original mechanism for "clientelismo" may be
intensified. These notions are examined by means of anthropological
fieldwork in two villages inland of Naples. One village is in the rich
plain, the other in poor mountain country. In both villages no great
decline in clientelism could be observed, but the more sophisticated way
in which people manipulate clientelistic relationships could be a prelude
to the disappearance of this form of patronage.
WE
Rogue Amaro, R. "Linhas de investigacao possiveis sobre o regresso dos
emigrantes", Conferencia sobre retorno e reintegracao dos emigrantes
(Lisboa, Instituto de Estudos para o Desenvolvimento, June 1984), 4 p.
The document looks at the perspectives of return migration to Portugal,
the attitudes of local population toward the return of Portuguese
emigrants, the differences in the motivations of returnees by sex, and
the economic and political measures that would harmonize the return of
Portuguese emigrants with the regional development.
WE*
Rose, A.M. Migrants in Europe; Problems of Acceptance and Adjustment.
(Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1969), 194 p.
The basic subject of this book is the integration of migrants into
European urban society. Some highly original concepts and methods are
proposed, but some of the techniques and data used are suspect or poorly
explained. The book contains a section on the acceptance and adjustment
of migrants who return to their home countries. Drawing mainly on OECD
studies, the following generalisations are made about return migration.
The main pushes to return are expulsion from the country of immigration
as a result of laws restricting length of stay, poor housing, failure to
adjust and lack of occupational mobility. The main pulls are improvement
of job opportunities back home, family ties, retirement and accumulation
of savings to invest in a house or small business. Young, unskilled,
unmarried workers stay the shortest time abroad but also show greater
propensity to re-emigrate. All emigrant countries favour the return of
their emigrants, especially those with skills and capital. No immigration
countries discourage return and some encourage it (Federal Republic of
Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands). Few returnees have acquired
skills during their stay abroad, but many have learned modern work habits.
GE*
Rosenmiiller, C. "Riickkehr fbrdern", Bundesarbeitsblatt. No. 1 (1984), pp.
5-9.
GE
Rosoli, G. "L'emigrazione di ritorno: alia ricerca di una impostazione",
Studi Emigrazione/Etudes Migrationsr vol. 14, No. 47 (ottobre 1977),
pp. 235-246.
Comparison with the most discussed issues and policies concerning return
migration.
GE*
Round Table on Voluntary Repatriation. Voluntary Repatriation: A
Background Study. Meeting convened by the Office of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees in cooperation with the International
Institute of Humanitarian Law (San Remo, July 16-19, 1985), 241 p.
(Mimeo).
This paper examines: 1) recent experience and practice concerning
voluntary repatriation; 2) the principles and rules of international law
which are relevant to voluntary repatriation and how international law
can be developed to promote this solution; and 3) how voluntary
repatriation can be promoted in practice.
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NC*
Rubenstein, H. "The return ideology in West Indian migration", Papers in
Anthropology, vol. 20, No. 1 (1979), pp. 21-38.
Few studies have been made of return migration to the West Indies. This
paper examines one aspect of return migration - the pattern of beliefs
and expectations that migrants hold concerning their eventual return home
- within the context of a village study on the island of St. Vincent. In
this village 59% of the 213 resident adult males of over 30 years of age
are returned migrants, from a variety of destinations both within the
Caribbean (Trinidad, Aruba, Barbados, Cuba, etc.) and elsewhere (the US,
England, etc.). The return migration orientation affects the behaviour of
both the migrant abroad and those remaining behind in the sending unit.
The mere idea of returning (as opposed to actual physical return which
may or may not take place) has been instrumental in producing (1)
affiliation with village peers in the destination society, (2) preference
for marriage to fellow islanders, (3) a social and sentimental involvement with the home community and the household from which migration took
place, (4) the sponsoring of the migration of kin and friends, (5) the
remitting of money to relatives, and (6) the purchase of village housing
and land. Although remittances have enhanced the lifestyle and wellbeing
of recipients, they have tended to depress agricultural productivity and
perpetuate migration ambitions of the young - an ambition many will not
be able to fulfill.
NC
Rubenstein, H.
"Return migration to the English-speaking Caribbean:
Review and Commentary", in Return migration and remittances. Developing a
Caribbean perspective, ed. by W.F. Stinner, K. de Albuquerque and Roy S.
Bryce-Laporte, RUES occasional papers No. 3 (Washington D.C., 1982),
pp. 3-34.
Typology of the returning migrants and comparative analysis of intraregional return movements. Demographic and historical process and
ideology of return migration.
WE
Runft, H.
Ruckwanderung der auslandischen Arbeiter. Symposium Zweite
Migranten-Generation, Centre Europeen culturel de Delphes, 1-3 oct. 1980.
WE
Saba, V., Frittella, A., Fratini, M. "Problem! dell'emigrazione", Affari
Social! Internazionali, (Milano), vol. 7 No. 4 (1979), pp. 159-213.
Compilation of articles on emigration problems, with particular reference
to Italy.
Surveys unemployment trends in EEC countries, immigration
policies of Switzerland and the US, schooling and housing problems of
migrant workers, migration policy as regards Italian return migration,
regional applications of EEC instruments, international relations.
WE
Sacchetti, G.B.
"II reinserimento dell'emigrato nella communita di
partenza", L'Emigrazione Italiana in Europa negli Anni Sessanta. 19e
reunion du Comite catholique pour les Migrations intra-europeennes
(Alghero, 1968), pp. 117-132.
AF
Safir, T., Khelladi, M.
"Strategies individuelles de retour",
L'emigration maghrebine en Europe: Exploitation ou cooperation? (Alger,
CREA, n.d.), pp. 429-444.
AS*
Saifullah Khan, V. "The Pakistanis: Mirpuri villagers at home and in
Bradford", in James L. Watson (ed.) Between two cultures: migrants and
minorities in Britain (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1977), pp. 57-89.
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The material presented in this paper is based on research carried out on
Mirpuri families in Bradford and on their relatives in villages in Mirpur
district, Pakistan. Part of the chapter is a section on 'returning home'.
Firstly, there is a relatively small number of permanently settled
returnees, due largely to the continuing limited number of opportunities
at home. There are few jobs outside of farming, and this is unlikely to
change in the future. Yet, by returning home the migrant demonstrates to
his relatives and his villagers that he is fulfilling their expectations. These extend to generous gifts to friends and relatives, and to
donations to village projects. The returnee gains in status and wealth,
but he is often disillusioned by corruption and overburdened by all the
obligations expected of him. Older returnees can adapt back again quicker
than young returnees. Returnee investment is mostly directed to traditional outlets: houses, land, perhaps a small business.
Salmon, C.
pp. 55-59.
"Le retour de petits americains", Travail, 2-3 (1983),
Saloutos, T. Thev remember America: The story of the repatriated Greek
Americans (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1956).
One of the very few largescale early studies of return migration, this
study mostly refers to the period 1908-24, stressing the years
immediately before and after the First World War (1911-14, 1919-21), when
repatriation was heaviest. Reference is also made to post-Second World
War repatriation, and it is noted that the motives for, and character of
return migration have not appreciably changed over this nearly 50-year
period. Returnees to Greece were accorded different treatment in
different places; in some places ignored, in others respected. Of the
half million Greeks who had emigrated to America by 1931, about 40%
eventually returned. Some repatriates were simply fulfilling their
original intention of returning home as soon as their financial status
improved. Others had various and complex motives: nostalgia, the effects
of the 1907 US recession, loyalty to the Greek cause in the wars against
Turkey, the desire to find a Greek wife, climate and health. The amount
of money the returnee took back varied with his date of arrival in the
US, the length of his residence, his personal spending habits and the
type of work done. As a rule, the repatriate was a small businessman, a
restaurateur or shopkeeper, or an employee in some workshop or small
industrial plant. There were few professionals in the return flow.
Wealthy businessmen were also absent; those who had become rich tended to
stay on. The returnee often returned in a highly emotive state of mind;
he gave little thought to the problems of settling back in Greece. Most
headed back to urban areas, though there were large numbers who went back
to their natal villages. Especially in the towns, returnees were viewed
as moneyed upstarts: scorned but also envied. Coming mostly from poor
rural origins, migrants were not thought of as having gained culturally
or intellectually. They had become wealthy by working long hours in
menial jobs. In rural areas the welcome home was more genuine. A number
of nicknames for the returnees are described, and their behaviour traits
analysed - clothes, speech, mannerisms etc. Many returnees were unhappy,
finding reintegration difficult and being dissatisfied with many facets
of Greek life. A number of case histories are presented. Overall,
however, Greece received considerable financial, social and psychological
benefit from the returnees. They brought new views on democracy, health
standards, social behaviour, business practices etc. They also imported
pro-American, pro-Western, free enterprise sentiments.
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WE
Salvatori, F. Jeunes migrants de la deuxieme generation;
Identite
culturelle et liens avec le pays d'originer preformation et formation
professionnelle pour le retour; reintegration socialeP culturelle et
professionnelle au retour; contribution presentee par la Federation
CGIL-CISL-UIL,
ILO Tripartite Technical Seminar on Second-Generation
Migrants, Granada, 1982 (Geneve, 1982, IL0-RER/79/001/Sem.11/19.C), 24 p.
Conference paper presenting the views of a trade union federation in
Italy concerning Italian second-generation migrant (immigrant) youth in
Western Europe. Covers cultural factor identity, prevocational training
and vocational training, return migration, employment opportunity and
social integration.
NC
Samaroo, B. "In sick longing for the further shore: Return migration by
Caribbean East Indians during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries", in
Return Migration and Remittances; Developing a Caribbean Perspectiver ed.
by W.F. Stinner, K. de Albuquerque and R.S. Bryce-Laporte,
RUES
occasional papers no. 3 (Washington D.C., 1982), pp. 45-72.
NC*
Samuel, T.J. "Migration of Canadians to the USA; the causes", International Migration, vol. 7, Nos 3-4 (1969), pp. 106-116.
About half this paper is concerned with the causes of return migration.
Among the causes discussed are economic factors of rising wages and
opportunities in Canada, disappointed expectations in the US, domestic
ties, social and political factors (the Vietnam war, violence in the US).
Unfortunately very few data are employed to verify these reasons, and
there is a heavy reliance on the work of others.
AS
Sanbar, E.
"Territorialites palestiniennes: La communaute nationale
palestinienne et l'idee du retour", Peuples Mediterraneens-Mediterranean
Peoples. 18 (janvier-mars 1982), pp. 129-143.
WE
Sanchez, F.
"Les migrants retournent-ils en Espagne? Motif de leur
retour", Migrations (series informations), 8, 1967.
NC*
Sandis, E.E. "Characteristics of Puerto Rican migrants to and from the
U.S.", International Migration Review, vol. 4 No. 1 (1970), pp. 22-43.
This paper sets out to assess the current state of knowledge about the
socio-economic and motivational characteristics of Puerto Rican migrants
to and from the US mainland. Various data sources are reviewed - US
censuses, Puerto Rican Labour Department, the Bureau of Economic and
Social Analysis in Puerto Rico - but each in turn only gives a partial
coverage of the issue. The educational selectivity of Puerto Rican
migration is discussed; it appears that returnees have a higher median
value of years of schooling than those remaining in Puerto Rico
(non-migrants) and those remaining in the US (migrant non-returnees).
This is due partly to selection of migrants who leave Puerto Rico to
begin with. Occupational selectivity yielded a similar pattern; 44% of
returnees had white collar jobs, compared to 32% non-migrants and 17%
migrant non returnees. Income levels of returnees are midway between
those of Puerto Ricans in the US (higher) and of Puerto Ricans on the
island (lower). Return involves a drop in income but to a level well
above the island average. An interesting hypothesis is put forward that
return migrants are people who were downwardly mobile in occupation in
the US and returned to Puerto Rico to re-establish their status. A plea
is made for better data to test this and other hypotheses.
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WE
Sandlund, T. "Economic change and migration: The Finnish case", in The
politics of return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by D.
Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 201-209.
Examines the different periods and patterns of Finnish migration and
analyses the reasons for return. Statistics on migration between Finland
and Sweden from 1968-1981 and distribution of population gain and loss
between 1950 and 1975.
WE*
Sanjust, A.M. "Re-integration of returnees in Sardinia", Migration News,
vol. 18, no. 2 (1969), pp. 14-18.
An interview survey of 161 returnees carried out in various communities
in Sardinia in 1968. Most had been in the Federal Republic of Germany.
94% returned to the same community from which they had emigrated, and 62%
to the same job they had done before departure. Only a relatively small
proportion had improved their occupational standing via emigrating. Among
reasons stated for return (some respondents cited more than one) were
family reasons (122 cases), economic interests in Sardinia (49), low
earnings abroad (35), shortage of work (19) and high cost of living (18).
Returnees expressed mixed feelings on how they found Sardinia upon
return. The survey looked at attitude formation and influence through
migration. 51% were of the opinion that their own emigration experience
would be a positive contribution to improving Sardinia; 49% felt
otherwise.
AS
Sannyasi, B.D., and Chaturvedi, B. A Report on the Emigrants Repatriated
to India Under the Assisted Emigration Scheme from South Africa and on
the Problem of Returned Emigrants from all Colonies (Calcutta, 1931).
WE
Santos, A.M.D. "Les emigrants portugais et le retour au pays", Options
mediterraneennesf 22 (1973), pp. 67-69.
WE
Saraceno, E. Emigrazione e rientri II Friull-Venezia Giulia nel secondo
dopoeuerra (Udine, Cooperativa editoriale "II Campo" 1981), 102 p.
WE
Saraceno, E.
"Scuola e rientri: il caso di S. Giovanni in Fiore",
Dossier Europa Emigrazione, 10 (1980), pp. 5-8.
WE
Saraceno, E. An analysis of the three main types of reentry in Udeine
and Pordenone fom 1970 to 1977 (0ECD, 1978).
WE*
Saraceno, E. "The occupational resettlement of returning migrants and
regional development: the case of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy", in R.
King (ed.) Return migration and regional economic problems (London,
Sydney, Dover, 1985), pp. 69-78.
This study is in three parts. The first is a brief account of the
circumstances surrounding return migration to the Friuli-Venezia-Giulia
region. The second is an analysis of changes in the local industrial
labour demand providing the economic framework within which migration and
return took place. The third analyses the professional careers of return
migrants and their occupational resettlement pattern.
WE
Saraceno, E. "Indagine sui rimpatriati nel Friuli-Venezia Giulia" Studi
Emigrazione/Etudes Migrations, vol. 17, no. 58 (June 1980), pp. 174-202.
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WE
Saraceno, E.
"Return migration in Friuli-Venezia Giulia", in The
politics of return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by D.
Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 67-71.
Results of a survey of 1500 returnees to the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region
conducted between September 1980 and March 1981. Work and family
histories.
WE
AF
SCDC Travailleurs migrants. Perspectives de retour (Groupe de recherches
SCDC, 1975).
AF*
Schapera, I. Migrant Labour and Tribal Life: A study of conditions in the
Bechuanaland Protectorate (London, Oxford University Press, 1947), 248 p.
An early study of South African labour migration, mostly to the mines,
which makes some reference to return and its effects on tribal life. Many
men return home frequently for agricultural work, for a rest and to keep
in touch with their families and tribal societies. There were complaints,
however, that the younger men do not stay at home for very long. Data are
presented to show that the duration of return visits has been falling. In
1931, 33% stayed for more than 12 months, in 1943 only 20%; and in 1931,
14% stayed for less than 12 months, in 1943, 35%.
WE
Schierloh, H. Le "ulluslonl del Ritorno" (Camerino, Istituto di Studi
Linguistic! dell'Universita degli Studi, 1981), 32 p.
WE
Schilling, C. "Three research studies on Italian returnee migrants",
Migration News, vol. 18, no. 2 (1969), pp. 1-24.
WE
Schmiedeck, R. "Motive zur Ab- und Ruckwanderung bei Osterreichischen
Wissenschaftlern und Akademikern", K'dlner Zeitschrift fur Soziologie und
Sozialpsvchologier vol. 3 (1973), pp. 594-606.
WE*
Schreiber, J.M. "Ethnicity as a factor in Italian temporary worker
migration", in Brian M. Du Toit and Helen I. Safa (eds.) Migration and
Urbanization; Models and adaptive strategies (The Hague, Mouton, 1975),
pp. 265-271.
A study of Italian migrant workers carried out in Molise in southern
Italy. The sample of 203 returned or visiting migrants included two local
ethnic sub-groups: 65 Albanians and 23 Slavs (such groups are fairly
common in Italy, resulting from refugee migrations in the Middle Ages and
later). Schreiber discovered a process of ethnogenesis whereby Molisans,
and especially the Albanians and the Slavs, subjected to discrimination
and abuse when abroad, reacted by identifying more strongly with their
community. Return migration brings this enhanced ethnic consciousness
back to the home village, where it stimulates a revival of local ethnic
festivals and culture.
WE*
Schulte, A.
Produktive Ruckkehr? Ruckwanderung. Beschaftigungsproblematik und Kooperativen in einer abhangig entwickelten Region. Das
Beispiel Suditalien (Hannover, University of Hannover, 1985), 72 p.
GE
Scobie-de Maar, M.J.A.
Migration and return of highly-qualified
manpower: a bibliography of recent publications 1965-1971 (Oslo,
Norwegian Research Council for Science and Humanities, 1971), 13 pp.
WE
Scuderi, M. and Sineri G. "Rimpatri e formazione professionale", Dossier
Europa Emigrazione, 2 (1980), pp. 6-8.
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WE*
Sealy, P. "Repatriation and the numbers game", Race Todayf (1970) vol. 2
No. 6, pp 191-192 and vol. 2 No. 77, p. 236.
Plans for repatriating British blacks enjoy a growing currency. This
short double paper looks at the likely numbers volunteering for assisted
repatriation and finds them to be minimal. The wider political
implications of a repatriation policy could involve a backlash from the
British black community.
WE*
Secretaria de Emigracion. Jornadas sobre derecho de los emierantes en
materia de seguridad social v desempleo (Madrid, Secretaria de
Emigracion, 1985), 43 p.
Discusses existing legislative measures on social benefits for Spanish
migrants, with particular reference to the bilateral agreements on social
security between Spain and the Federal Republic of Germany and Spain and
the Netherlands.
WE*
Secretaria de Estado da Emigracao - Centro de Estudos Potencialidades
distritais para o investimento de emierantes (5 volumes) (Porto, Centro
de Estudos, 1985).
Sectoral studies and material concerning investment for five Portuguese
districts: Viana do Castello, Braga, Braganca, Porto, Vila Real.
WE*
Seferagic, D. "Scientific work in Yugoslavia on migrant returnees and
their impact on the mother country", International Migration Review,
vol. 2, no. 3 (1977), pp. 363-364.
This is a review paper largely made up of abstracts of available studies
on Yugoslavian return migration, most of which are in Serbo-Croat and
published or issued by the Centre for Investigation of Migrations of the
Institute of Geography, University of Zagreb. The documentation is
arranged by republic. Synthesising the results of the 20 studies
summarised, Severagic offers the following brief conclusions: (i) returns
have not been in distinct waves like the emigration; (ii) return is not
yet institutionalised, with only 50% of returnees consulting Employment
Services; (iii) savings are mostly invested in housing and consumer
goods; (iv) the positive effect on the Yugoslav economy is minimal; (v)
more attention should be given to formulating policy related to return: a
better organisation of banks and customs facilities, and a long-term
switch from exporting people to importing jobs and foreign investment.
WE
Seilhamer, S., Prewitt-Diaz, J.
"The return and circulatory migrant
student", Migration Today, vol. 11, No. 1 (1983), pp. 20-23.
WE*
NC
Semmingsen, I. "Emigration and the image of America in Europe, in Henry
Steele Commager (ed.) Immigration and American History (Minneapolis,
University of Minnesota Press, 1961), pp. 26-59.
This unusual paper looks at the influence that letters from migrants in
America and returned migrants from America had on the image of America
held in European countries like Norway, Poland, Italy and Ireland. Most
of the paper draws material from Norwegian accounts, and there are some
fascinating passages describing return migrant behaviour in rural Norway
in the mid-nineteenth century. The migrants, mostly Norwegian peasants
who became farmers in the American Mid-West, behaved ostentatiously on
their return, flaunting their American drawl and habits (chewing gum,
smoking incessantly). They complained of the backwardness of rural
Norwegians. After 1880 Norwegian migration to the US became more
temporary, with a larger number of returnees. The 1920 Norwegian census
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showed many returnees, and most were youngish (40% returned before the
age of 40); 72% had been abroad for 2-9 years. Most returnees took over
farms, but after 1880 fishing also became popular. Returnees were amongst
the first to adopt agricultural machinery and tended to introduce a more
rational view of life and work in general.
WE
Serra-Santana, E. "Return of Portuguese: Economic goals or retention of
one's identity",in The politics of return. International return migration
in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies,
1984), pp. 55-56.
Results of a research project carried out between 1978 and 1981
consisting of interviews with 34 families of returnees.
Motives and
patterns of the return to Portugal.
WE
Seruya, L.M. and Pisco, M.L. 0 retorno dos emigrantes Portugueses na
Europa e o desenvolvimento regional - Hipoteses de investigacaor paper
presented
at
the Conferencia
sobre Regionalizacao
Desenvolvimento,
Lisbon, October 7-8, 1982. IED.
NC
Sheffield, E.F., McGrail, M.M., eds. The retrieval of Canadian graduate
students from abroad (Ottawa, Association of Univiersities and Colleges
of Canada, 1966).
NC*
WE
Shepperson, W.S. Emigration and disenchantment: Portraits of English
repatriated from the United States (University of Oklahoma Press, 1965).
211 p.
The insights into returned migrants presented in this historical study
are gleaned from the writings of those who had themselves lived in the
United States but had not emigrated permanently. This being the case, the
picture that emerges and the views expressed are very much those of the
middle and upper classes. The views of the returning labourer are not
explored. The book is divided into six sections, each discussing a
particular set of causes for return. The first section sets out the
two-way movement of Englishmen across the Atlantic with reasons for this.
Thereafter specific frustrations experienced by returnees are illustrated
by case-studies of the individuals concerned. Through their eyes the US
is portrayed as a land without plenty, a land of uncertain reward, of
unfulfilled aspirations. The strength of ties to the UK are also
important. Why did so many Englishmen return? The reasons are various but
include misrepresentation by shippers and other of what America was like
and had to offer, resulting in disappointment and disaffection when the
reality was discovered. There were few real openings for the skilled
artisan class. Emotional dissatisfaction and psychological discontent
affected those who had not used their intelligence to think through their
emigration motives. Another problem was the inability to come to terms
with a society that still lacked refinement and culture, and with a
different political system. Overall, the text is rather repetitive but
provides an interesting set of insights into the migration and return of
a privileged class who could not make the best of a decision once made.
WE
Siampos, G., Moussourou, L.M. Socio-cultural integration in Germany and
reintegration of the migrants returning to Greece. paper presented at
the
International
Workshop
on
"Cultural
Identity
and
Structural
Marginalization of Migrant Workers", held in Hamminkeln iiber Wesel, 10-12
December 1980.
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Signorelli, A., Tiriticco, M.C., Rossi, S. Scelte senza potere; il
ritorno degli emigrantl nelle zone dell'esodo (Roma, Officina Edizioni,
1977), 306 p.
Monograph on return migration in Southern Italy. Presents the results of
a 1974-75 questionnaire/survey of the age, educational level, marital
status, housing, class attitudes, desire for cultural change, political
participation, trade unionization, occupational status and economic
conditions of returned migrant workers and how they use their savings.
Signorelli, A. "Regional policies in Italy for migrant workers returning
home", in R.D. Grillo (ed.) 'Nation' and 'State' in Europe; Anthropological Perspectives (London, Academic Press, 1980), pp. 89-103.
Italian governments and authorities have
consistently
encouraged
emigration but ignored return migration. Only very recently, with the
establishment of regional administrations and with the First National
Conference on Emigration in Rome in 1975, have the rudiments of a policy
on returnees emerged. Some researchers have explained repatriation by
reference to certain individual characteristics of the emigrants such as
age, education, geographical origin, etc. According to Signorelli, migration, and therefore return migration, is less the result of individual
initiatives, or of the surplus of workers in the sending countries, than
the product of the development model adopted by advanced industrial
countries. From this structural point of view an immigrant becomes
integrated (or not) for reasons other than his psychological attributes.
The stability of his employment depends on the extent to which it is
profitable to keep him or dismiss him. Further, an emigrant who returns
is not so much a man without qualities, or who has failed to adapt, as a
unit expelled from a particular, precarious sector. The post-return
situation can also be defined in structural terms: the hypothesis is that
the migrant will be either under-employed or unemployed, or underpaid, or
in precarious employment. A series of questions can be asked to explore
these relationships: (1) what are the interests of the emigrants who go
back to their own country? (ii) are the emigrants aware of these
interests? (iii) if this is not so, then what are the interests imposed
on them by other groups and classes? (iv) what do emigrants expect of
public institutions? (v) how do public institutions such as the regional
administrations respond to these expectations? Some of these questions
are dealt with in reference to the south Italian region of Apulia.
Studies completed seem to show that returned migrants are aware of their
own interests but act in pursuit of these interests only in the sense
that they emigrate abroad to acquire the means to change their situation
at home. The change that they strive for is not to press for stable work
conditions at home; they aim instead at personal security in the
ownership of house and land, which may be rented out to provide an
income. The 'change' sought is a personal one, not of the social system
of which they are part. The returnees seek change through individual
action (by accumulating savings by extreme self-denial for a period
abroad), not through collective action (such as political or trade union
activity aimed at modifying the overall patterns of work, investment
etc.). Emigration is thus inexorably reproduced, either handed down from
one generation to another, or in the same person who ultimately has to
emigrate again if his 'security' fails. Pursuing a private strategy for
change does not therefore act in the real interests of the emigrants.
Even so, emigrants abroad do experience realisations about the lack of
justice in Italy and the shortcomings of public institutions there, but
few believe that they can do anything to change the system, and therefore
political party and trade union membership is low amongst returnees. Four
policies for the Apulian region emerge: (i) vocational training and
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retraining of returnees in directions relevant to the needs of the
regional labour market; (ii) inserting individuals into jobs for which
they have qualifications or experience; (iii) guidance, technical
assistance and financial aid to small investors who wish to start
productive activities in agriculture, craft, trade or industry; (iv)
similar incentives to (iii) to be given to those who wish to form cooperatives.
WE
Signorelli, A. The reintegration of second-generation migrants and the
adult migrant return process, ILO Tripartite Meeting on the Reintegration
of Second-Generation Migrants in Cases of Voluntary Return, Belgrade,
October 1984 (Geneva, 1984, IL0-RER/79/001-SEM.III/1), 38 p.
WE
Signorelli d'Ayala, A.
Contadinl ed emigrazione.
II problema del
rientro e l'impiego dei risparmi, Relazione tenuta a Trieste il 4 ottobre
1975 presso l'Istituto di Giornalismo Agricolo, 20 p.
WE
Silva, M. (co-ordinator) Return, emigration and regional development in
Portugal (Lisboa, Instituto de Estudos para o Desenvolvimento, 1983).
WE*
Silva, M. "0 fenomeno do retorno na dinamica do emprego e do
desenvolvimento regional", Desenvolvimento. vol. 1, No. 2 (July 1985),
pp. 115-132.
Based on the results of a survey carried out in 1984, the article deals
with return migration estimates and previsions; brief socio-economic
characterisation of the returned emigrants; modes of reinsertion of the
returnees in the Portuguese economy and impact of return migration on
regional development.
WE
Silva Santos, I. "Algunas consideracoes sobre o retorno de emigrantes",
Analise social (5), 18 (1967), pp. 288-298.
LA
Simmons, A.B., Cardona, G.R.
"Rural-urban migration: who comes, who
stays, who returns? The case of Bogota, Colombia, 1929-1968",
International Migration Review, No. 18 (Summer 1972), pp. 166-181.
AF
Simon, G. "Industrialisation, emigration et reinsertion des emigres en
Afrique du Nord. Le cas de la Tunisie et de l'Algerie", in Recherches sur
1'industrialisation et 1'urbanisation en Mediterrannee, Afrique du Nord,
Espagne, Grece, iournees d'etudes du 14 et 15 mars 1975 (Universite de
Poitiers, travaux du Centre Geographique d'Etudes et de Recherches
Rurales, 5, 1975), pp. 83-99.
AF
Simon,
G.
"Industrialisation,
emigration,
reinsertion
de
la
main-d'oeuvre qualifee au Maghreb", Hommes et Migrations, No. 902 (15
mars 1976), pp. 1-14.
Article on industrialisation, emigration and return migration of skilled
workers in North African countries.
AF
Simon, G. "Faiblesse et difficultes des retours definitifs en Tunisie",
Hommes et Migrations, No. 975 (15 sept. 1979), pp. 19-25.
LA
Simon, T. "Mexican repatriation in East Chicago, Indiana", The Journal
of Ethnic Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Summer 1974), pp. 11-23.
WE
Simoncelli, R. "La geografia dei rientri", in G. Valussi (a cura di)
Italian! in Movimento
(Pordenone, Grafiche Editorial! Artistiche
Pordononesi, 1978), pp. 75-92.
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WE
Sindacato Italiano Assistenti Social! Region! d'ltalia e i rlentrl degll
emigrant!; atti del Convegno Europeo del Patronato sias Svoltosi a Lecce
nei Giorni 30-31 ottobre 1976 (Roma 1976), 99 p.
Conference report on the problems of return migration in Apulia in Italy.
Discusses the demographic, economic and sociological aspects of
emigration, presents the social assistance role of social services and
comments on relevant legislation.
WE*
Sjollema, B.S. "Return migration and development aid: when the migrant
workers in Western Europe go home", Migration Todayf No.5 (1965),
pp. 14-24.
An early paper on the problems and potentialities of return migration in
Western Europe. The discussion is couched in very general terms but one
or two specific points of interest are made, for instance the tendency of
returnees not to settle back home and to become schizophrenic in their
divided loyalties and in their inability to decide where they belong.
AF*
Skinner, E.P. "Labour migration and its relationship to socio-cultural
change in Mossi society", Africa, vol. 30, No. 4 (1960), pp. 375-401.
Labour migration is a prominent feature of most contemporary African
societies. In this long paper Skinner shows how the migration of several
thousand Mossi from Burkina Faso to Ghana is related to socio-economic
changes taking place in Mossi society. The paper is based on field data
collected from two Mossi villages. Already by 1914 the Mossi had
developed a pattern of seasonal migration which harmonised with their
agricultural cycle. Labourers were able to work abroad to raise money for
their taxes and other purposes, and maintain their fields during regular
seasonal return visits. They were away December to May. Still today,
money is the overwhelming migration motive. On the other hand there is a
tendency for about 20% to fail to return in any one year, and some
migrants spend 2-3 years in Ghana before returning home. Interestingly,
migrants try to return in the middle of the night, under cover of
darkness. Skinner puts forward the following reasons for this: (i) it is
a practice carried over from the days when a migrant returning in
daylight would be seized upon and robbed; (ii) the migrant wants to avoid
being spotted by the retainers of the chief, who might make unreasonable
demands for gifts; (iii) he wants to play down the emotion of the return,
and so he creeps in when everyone is asleep. The only occasion when a
returnee is a centre of attention is when he visits the main market place
in his district - a symbolic day of exhibitionism, wearing of fine
clothes, payments of cash and beer to friends and relatives and to
accompanying minstrels who sing his praises and those of his ancestors.
Once the celebrations are over the migrant is reabsorbed without further
fuss: migration brings little lasting prestige beyond a few worldly goods
(bicycles, clothes, some furniture, kerosene lamps etc.). Wife stealing
is a more serious problem, and is largely associated with migrancy. All
in all, this is a valuable contribution to the study of return migration
in the West African context, and it is regrettable that it has not been
followed by similarly detailed and rigorous, and more up-to-date studies.
AF*
Skinner, E.P. "Labor migration among the Mossi of the Upper Volta", in
Hilda Kuper (ed.) Urbanization and Migration in West Africa (Westport,
Conn., Greenwood Press, 1965), pp. 60-84.
Covers much the same ground as the 1960 paper but with some additional
data collected on brief visits in the early 1960s.
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WE*
Slater, M. "Migrant employment, recessions and return migration: some
consequences
for migration
policy
and development", Studies in
Comparative International Development, vol. 14, No. 3-4 (Fall-Winter
1979), pp. 3-22.
Foreign migrants in Western Europe are finding their presence resented by
increasingly wide sections of the host communities. Pressures for return
mounted during the 1970s. Two reasons are adduced for this: economic
recession since 1973; and the belief that migrants constitute a political
and a social burden. A large-scale return movement has, however, not
taken place, in spite of a high level of job loss amongst migrants and
the fact that they are concentrated in insecure sectors of the labour
market. The data on emigration and returns across the 1973/74 recession
periods are reviewed. Emigration certainly fell dramatically (except for
Italy, an EEC member and therefore protected by free movement rights);
returns rose, but not so sharply as emigrants fell. The experience of the
Federal Republic of Germany contradicts the assumption that those
migrants who return are the ones who can most easily be sent home: over
1973-75 Turks in the Federal Republic of Germany only decreased by 4%
whereas Italians and Spaniards both registered declines of 30%. Slater
suggests that employers tend to keep on the more docile Turkish workers
(Spaniards and Italians are more active in union affairs). Turks are
likely to not want to return because of the lack of jobs back home,
whereas the Spanish and Italian economies have been more buoyant. The
conclusion reviews the policies enacted in various countries to encourage
repatriation: the French grants for returning migrants; the French and
German vocational training programmes for migrants prior to their return;
and investments by France, the Federal Republic of Germany etc. in the
sending countries.
GE
Sobbrio, G.
"A proposito di talune e condizioni economiche per
realizzare un maggiore equilibrio fra emigrazione e rientri", Affari
Sociali Internazionalif 4 (die. 1973), pp. 39-51.
WE
Sole, R. "Retour des Emigres", Hommes et Migrations. 983 (janv. 1980),
pp. 23-26.
WE
Sole, C. "Return of internal migrants from Catalonia", in The politics
of return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat
(Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 57-60.
Results of a survey of households in the metropolitan area of Barcelona.
Main variables determining immigrant's willingness or intention either to
stay or to return.
WE
Souza-Ferreira, E. de
Research project: Economics of the reintegration
of emigrants, the case of Portugal. ILO Tripartite Meeting on the
Reintegration of Second-Generation Migrants in Cases of Voluntary Return,
Belgrade, 1984 (Geneva, ILO, 1984), 10 p.
WE*
Souza-Ferreira, E. Reintegracao dos emigrantes Portugueses - Integracao
na CEE e Desenvolvimento Economico (Lisbon, CEDEP, 1984), 137 p.
Analyses the reinsertion of returning migrants in the Portuguese economy
in relation to Portugal's integration in the EEC. Reviews migration
policies in France and the Federal Republic of Germany as well as
Portuguese labour market prospects. Concludes with a series of proposals
for a regional development oriented Portuguese reintegration policy.
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WE
SSAE
"Services pour le retour et la reinsertion des
immigres", Accueillirr 46 (Janvier 1978), pp. 1-6.
WE
SSAE
"L'experience finlandaise: retour et reinsertion des travailleurs
immigres", Accueillir, 48 (mars 1978), pp 3-6.
AS
SSAE
"Au Japon: le retour des enfants", AccuejJLlir, 48 (mars 1978),
pp. 1-6.
WE
AF
SSAE
"Les immigres en milieu rural et la formation: 1) Des collegiens
portugais en Auvergne; 2) Des Africains candidats au retour",
Accueillir, 72 (juillet-aout 1980), pp. 6-10.
GE
Stark, T.
"II ritorno degli emigrati. Stato attuale degli studi e
proposte", Studi Emigrazionef No. 8 (febbraio 1967), pp. 172-178.
Critical analysis of the research studies on return migration.
WE*
Stark, T. "Should the migrant workers in Europe be encouraged to return
to their home country?", Migration News, vol. 16, No. 2 (1967), pp. 5-14.
A useful summary of the OECD Seminar on "Emigrant workers returning to
their home country" held in Athens in April 1966. The first point made
was the newness of the phenomenon, never examined before in the technical
literature. Accurate numbers on returnees are impossible to come by.
Policies and attitudes on return vary both among sending and receiving
countries. Turkey and Greece favour returns, Italy has no policy as yet,
Spain's attitude is that of the free choice of the migrant and in
Portugal economic conditions do not favour substantial returns. France
and the UK generally favour assimilation of ethnic minorities; the
Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland do not. Some studies of
return migration mentioned motivation but their validity was questioned.
In Greece most returnees head for towns. Greek, Turkish and Italian
survey data indicate that returnees want independence not factory work.
More adaptive training for returnees is needed, both abroad and in the
home country.
AF
Stelzer, J.P.
"Retour des
(aout-sept. 1977), pp. 10-12.
WE
Stichting Nederlands Centrum Buitenlanders
Experimental scheme of
returnee
development
projects
for
foreign workers:
policy
and
implementation bv the NCB-IMOS Office , Report covering the period August
1976 - October 1980 (Utrecht, 1980).
Report on the role of the Netherlands in an experimental employment
creation scheme for migrant workers through promotion of development
projects in their country of origin after return migration. Reviews
background of the scheme, implementation, institutional framework and
effects, focusses on migration policy and international co-operation
implications, and includes recommendations.
NC
Stinner, W.F., de Albuquerque, K., Bryce-Laporte, R., eds.
Return
migration
and
remittances:
developing
a
Caribbean
perspective
(Washington, D.C., Research Institute on Immigration and Ethnic Studies,
Smithsonian Institution, 1982), 322 p.
Essays on return migration and emigrant remittances in the Caribbean.
travailleurs
Algeriens",
travailleurs
Accueillir,
42
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Discusses the motivation for and types of return, historical and current
trends, geographic distribution, demographic characteristics, use of
remittances, related social implications and economic implications, etc.;
includes case studies of Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Costa Rica, El
Salvador and Suriname.
NC
Stockton, W. "Going home: The Puerto Rican's new migration", The New
York Times Magazine (November 27, 1978), pp. 89-90.
WE
Storbeck, D. "Flucht oder Wanderung? Eine Ruckschau auf Motive, Folgen
und Beurteilung der Bevolkerungsabwanderung aus Mitteldeutschland seit
dem Kriege", Soziale Welt, vol. 14, No. 2 (1963), pp. 153-171.
WE
Stbssel, R.
Die Ruckwanderung
(Schwarzenbach, 1958), 137 p.
WE
Stout, H.S. "The morphology of remigration: New England University men
and their return to England 1940-1960", Journal of American Studies, 10
(2 August 1976), pp. 151-172.
LA*
Strachan, A. "Government-sponsored return migration to Guyana", Area.
vol. 12, No. 2 (1980), pp. 165-169.
What can be done to stop or reverse the brain drain from developing
countries? Since independence in 1966 Guyana has operated a sponsorship
scheme to top up the already considerable return flow of qualified
Guyanese. The operation of this scheme is reviewed. Numerically it has
not been a great success, but it has attracted back some highly qualified
personnel to fill important jobs. The scheme seems to favour blacks over
East Asians. Because of the high level of public ownership in Guyana, the
scheme could not be easily introduced to other developing countries.
WE*
Strachan, A. and King, R. Emigration and return migration in southern
Italy; A multivariate, cluster and map analysis (Leicester: Leicester
University Geography Department, Occasional Paper 9, 1981), 21 p.
This largely methodological paper examines regional contrasts in rates of
emigration and return migration in southern Italy. The analysis is for
the three regions of Puglia, Basilicata and Calabria and uses data at the
commune level, there being 788 communes in the three regions. Shortcomings of these micro-level data are recognised. A range of data is
incorporated into the analysis, including annual runs of emigrant and
return migrant numbers, figures for population 'temporarily absent' and
socio-economic variables on population structure, employment, education
and housing drawn from the 1961 and 1971 censuses. A principal components
analysis of 26 migration and related variables yielded six components
(social status, active labour force in agriculture, temporarily absent,
return migration ratio, housing amenities, and age structure) whose
spatial patterns were then computer-mapped. Most of the mapped patterns
echoed the same basic regional contrast between, on the one hand,
relatively high status, economically prosperous Puglia and, on the other
hand, the more upland, economically problematic regions of Basilicata and
Calabria. The return ratio (return migration compared to outmigration)
was highest in Puglia. A composite map based on a clustering algorithm
synthesised these patterns into regions of varying status and migration
trends.
von
Auslandsschweizern
seit
1939
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LA*
WE
Strachan, A.J. "Return migration to Guyana", Social and Economic Studies,
(Kingston) vol. 32, No. 3 (1983), pp. 121-142.
This study summarises some of the relevant findings of European research
and compares this with evidence available for the Caribbean in an effort
to highlight similarities as well as differences. Then, using official
sources, an analysis is made of the return movement to Guyana. How many
people are returning? What type of person is involved? (age, ethnic
origin, occupation) and where are they coming from? An interview survey
provided information about a sample of return migrants. Why had they gone
abroad? How long had they stayed? And why had they returned? Their life
since returning is considered, as are their attitudes towards being home
and how satisfied they are at being back. In a concluding section the
dilemma facing Guyana is outline and discussed. The return flow is very
considerable, the quality and motivation of the returnees is high, but
the satisfaction levels expressed are very low, leading to thoughts of
re-migration.
WE
Studi Emigrazione/Etudes migrations
"The policies for economic and
social reintegration of return migrants in the Mediterranean basin",
Studi Emigrazione/Etudes migrationsf vol. XVIII, No. 63 (Sept. 1981),
pp. 337-347.
Summary of an international seminar held in Catania in December 1979.
Results of the different reports on the economic and social reintegration
of returnees in Italy, Yugoslavia, Spain and Turkey.
GE
Studi Emigrazione/Etudes Migrations
L'emigrazione di ritorno; Rassegna
bibliografica, No. 72 (December 1983).
Bibliography on return migration.
NC*
Sutton, C. and Makiesky, S. "Migration and West Indian racial and ethnic
consciousness", in Helen I. Safa and Brian Du Toit (eds.) Migration and
Development (The Hague: Mouton, 1975) pp. 113-144.
In this study of a Barbadian village the authors suggest that returned
migrants bring back new values and beliefs when they go back home.
Returnees from the United States contribute to the awakening of racial
and political consciousness. Whilst only a few returned migrants were
directly involved in introducing Black Power ideology and literature into
the village, most were conveyors of political messages, however inadvertently.
WE
SVIMEZ
"Emigrazione di ritorno", Informazioni SVIMEZf vol. 28, No. 5
(15.3.1975), pp. 185-186.
GE*
Swanson, J.
"The consequences of return migration for economic
development: a review of the literature", Papers in Anthropologyf vol.
20, No. 1 (1979), pp. 39-56.
Americans mistakenly take it for granted that migrants aim only to settle
in their new 'land of opportunity'. For most migrants, however, America
is perceived as a transitory episode, a means to various ends such as
paying of debts, building homes, buying land or starting a business in
the 'old country'. In this review, discussion of the economic effects of
return migration focuses around four key issues: manpower loss, remittances, repatriated skills, repatriated ideas. Students of emigration
generally regard manpower loss as a good thing so long as it reduces the
problem of unemployment of unskilled workers in the sending society.
Sometimes, however, it goes too far, leading to the collapse of agriculture and the complete depopulation of villages. Evidence from countries
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like Turkey shows that most emigrants are skilled workers which causes
consequent problems of skill shortage In the sending labour market. It is
difficult to distinguish how much the shift from agriculture to emigration as the mainstay of the peasantry is the consequence of depopulation
and how much it is the result of a larger volume of remittances which
increasingly dwarfs traditional farm revenue. Remittances constitute an
important element in the balance of payments, as Swanson 's own research
in Yemen shows. Economic theoreticians are generally pessimistic in their
speculations about the developmental role of remittances. Certainly,
large segments of migrant earnings are spent on raising living standards
and another large portion finds its way into the conspicuous consumption
of large and elaborate housing. Little remittance capital finds its way
into productive enterprises. Remittances may also create inflation. The
introduction of new ideas certainly accompanies return migration but
generally these reflect superficial urban
consumerism
rather
than
meaningful change. Skill acquisition is equally equivocal. If the migrant
was unskilled when he left, he is unlikely to return with useful new
trades. Any skills learnt abroad are likely to be irrelevant to the
labour market of the return society. Some workers even lost, or failed to
utilise, skills they previously exercised before leaving. In conclusion,
most evidence points to conservative models of return migration. The more
favourable models of change and development are theoretically possible
but seldom work out in reality.
AS*
Swanson, J.C. "Some consequences of emigration for rural economic
development in the Yemen Arab Republic", Middle East Journal, vol. 33,
No. 1 (1979), pp. 34-43.
Since the development of oil fields in the Arab Peninsula tens of
thousands of Yemenis have left their homeland to work as labourers.
According to the February 1975 census, 1,230,000 Yemenis, 19% of the
total population, were working abroad. This number has probably increased
since 1975. For the most part, the migrants are adult males, 'sojourners'
who spend a major part of their lives abroad but maintain their orientation towards their home country to which they ultimately expect to
return. Because the Yemeni emigrant intends to return he follows an
economic strategy aimed at minimising expenditure abroad in order to
maximise the amount of money available for investment or conspicuous
consumption back home. This 'ideology of return' thus ensures substantial
remittance flows. These are now the largest source of foreign exchange.
Emigration is the most important sector of the Yemeni economy after
agriculture. This paper then goes on to examine the interplay between
emigration and farming in three sample villages chosen from different
environmental locations. The debate on migration's economic contribution
to sending communities is sketched in. Judged on the criterion of whether
the migrants themselves benefit from migration, the conclusion is that
Yemeni migration is very successful. Returnees come back with savings,
enjoy improved living standards and new houses abound. Wages in the
sending villages have increased, but little consolidation of small
holdings has occurred. Returnees and remittances bring in cash surplus to
rural Yemen, for which there are few investment opportunities outside of
houses and land. Land prices have shot up as a result. Some returnees
invested in mills, but these now have limited markets due to their oversupply. Some investment has also occurred in modernising farming: irrigation, wells, tractors, etc., but there are inter-village contrasts
here, depending on the varying potentials for agricultural intensification. At the same time, much marginal land is being abandoned, and food
imports into Yemen rise.
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AF
WE
Taamallah, K. Les travailleurs tunislens en France; Aspects sociodemographiaues. economiaues et problemes de retour (Tunis, Publication de
l'Universite de Tunis, 1980), 555 p.
WE
Tapinos, G., ed. International migrationf proceedings of a Seminar on
demographic research in relation to international migration, held in
Buenos Aires, Argentina, 5-11 March 1974 (Paris, CICRED, 1974), 303 p.
WE
Tapinos, G.
"Retour et developpement: l'exemple
Migrations Etudes (20 mars 1979), pp. 1-11.
WE
Tassello, G. and Favero, L. La problematica del ritorno deeli emigrati e
del loro reinserimento in Italia, rapporto curato dal CSER su Commissione
del CIEM (Rome, CSER, 1979), 277 p.
NC*
Taylor, Edward "The social adjustment of returned migrants to Jamaica",
in Ethnicity in the Americas, edited by Frances Henry (The Hague: Mouton,
1976), pp. 213-230.
An interesting insight into the Jamaican return movement, doubly valuable
because of the paucity of good, detailed work in the West Indies. In
Jamaica the emigrants are a privileged group in that they have had the
chance to benefit from the migratory experience and are viewed as being
fortunate by non-migrants. Those who return come back after 2-15 years
abroad, bringing back skills and money to enhance their lives. The role
of leadership in Jamaican return migration is discussed through the lives
of William Bustamante and Norman Manley - political leaders whose
philosophies were developed during years abroad. Also important is the
continuity of the Jamaican return experience over the years between the
1880s movement to Panama and the post-war migration to Britain. The
specific study carried out by the author was based on interviews with 135
returnees carried out during 1971-73. Taylor found that 70% of migrants
had rural origins but returned to the city in search of work in the
skilled and professional spheres. They returned mainly because of 'pull'
forces - jobs, desire to set up in business, family ties, idea of
contributing to the development of Jamaica, etc. The push factors were
health, climate and racism. The returnees were mainly in the active age
groups and had a lower rate of unemployment than the Jamaican average.
However, satisfaction levels were not that high: 30% were satisfied, 61%
fairly satisfied and 9% dissatisfied with their post-return situations.
To account for this the concept of relative deprivation is introduced.
This occurs when the returnee judges his position not by what he had
before leaving for abroad, or by reference to the average of the
population as a whole, but by comparison with those higher up the social
scale. Re-emigration is often the result.
WE
Tempesta, I. "Comportamento sociolinguistico degli emigrant! salentini:
indagine a Montesano e Miggiano", in Puglia ed emigrazlone di ritorno
(Galatina, 1977), pp. 95-103.
Social and socio-linguistic adaptation of Italian returnees in the region
of Salento.
WE
Testa Alavez, J.
Documentacion e informacion en la emigracion: una
contribucion al estudlo de los movimientos migratorios (Madrid, Centro de
Documentacion, Instituto Espanol de Emigracion, 1977), 410 p.
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espagnol 1960-1978",
- 133 -
Reference book pertaining to migration policy, emigration and the
problems of emigrants (incl. migrant workers, return migration, brain
drain, etc.)Discusses problems of documentation and information
sources, and includes a directory of research centres, information
centres and international organisations with activities in this field.
AS
Thomas, E.-J. "Le phenomene migratoire et le retour des migrants en
Turquie. Etudes de cas", in E.-J. Thomas
Les travailleurs immigres en
Europe; Quel statut? Etude comparative de la condition des travailleurs
immigres en Europe (Paris, Presses de l'UNESCO, 1981), pp. 183—214.
NC
Thomas-Hope, E. Return migration; positive, negative or neutral Impact
on development, paper presented to the conference "Migration and
Development in the Caribbean", September 14-16, 1984 (College Park, Md.,
University of Maryland, mimeographed).
WE*
Thompson, S.L. Australia through Italian eves; a study of settlers
returning from Australia to Italy (Melbourne, Oxford University Press,
1980), 271 p.
About 25% of the 365,000 Italians settling in Australia since 1947 have
returned, a substantial proportion for a country like Australia committed
to immigrant settlement. This book is an account of a survey carried out
in 1970 into returnees from Australia in selected communes in northern
and central Italy (Provinces of Treviso and L'Aquila). The research aimed
to discover why so many Italians had left Australia and what had happened
to them on return. 138 households were interviewed in all. Returnees were
categorised into those permanently resettled in Italy, those who were
visiting and therefore planning to go back to Australia, and those who
were undecided. The cost of the re-emigration is, however, often prohibitive. Family reasons dominated return decision. Important were social
difficulties in Australia, including health circumstances. Economic
security in Australia had to be balanced against psychological satisfactions in Italy. A lot of detailed descriptions are given of job experiences in Australia: many worked in factories, as concrete contractors, or
as agricultural workers (cane cutting and tobacco fields). More than half
were financially worse off since return; only a sixth were better off
since return; the rest could not differentiate. Unfortunately there is
little investigation of employment patterns since return - a big weakness
of this study. Improved and new housing for returnees is discussed and
considered a prime target for migrants' investment. Many returnees
complained of the coolness and lack of friendliness of Australians, of
discrimination at work and of general racial prejudice. Nor is the return
without its problems; returnees find their home villages changed and many
of their friends away abroad. But employment opportunities had improved
somewhat compared to what they were before migrants left Italy. Most
returnees acclimatised back home after a while. The text of the book is
liberally sprinkled with anecdotes and quotes from interviewees.
»,
«
Appendices give tabulations of official and interview data, and the
questionnaire, together with notes on methodology.
The bibliography
reveals that this rather lightweight study was done largely in isolation
of, and possibly in ignorance of other research on return migration, in
Italy and elsewhere. There is also the inexplicable gap of ten years
between the carrying out of the research and the publication of this book.
,
WE*
Thompson, S.L. "Italians who returned home", in J. Zubrzycki (ed.) Enquiry
into the Departure of Settlers from Australia (Canberra, Australian
Government Publishing Service, 1973), pp. 51-60
[0352W]
- 134 -
A resume of the book summarised separately in the previous abstract. This
resume concentrates on the data sources and problems and sets out the
framework of research with very brief listing of results.
NC
Tobias, P.M. Emigrants' changing perception of home, paper presented at
the American Anthropological Association, 82nd Annual Meeting, Chicago,
16-20 Nov. 1983.
This paper, based on the phenomenological approach to the "everyday
world" developed by Alfred Schutz, explains how emigrants' knowledge of
"home" is newly created as each new social situation demands and why
emigrants who finally return home after long absences often have
difficulty
readjusting.
Illustrative
materials
are
drawn
from
biographies of Grenadian emigrants.
WE
Toepfer, H. "Mobilitat und Investitionsverhalten tiirkischer Gastarbeiter
nach der Remigration", Erdkunde, 34 (1980), pp.260 ff.
WE*
Took, L. "Land tenure, return migration and rural change in the Italian
Province of Chieti", in R. King (ed.) Return migration and regional
economic problems (London, Sydney, Dover, 1985), pp. 79-99.
This study attempts to explore the tenure migration interface by means of
a questionnaire administered to a sample of 82 return migrants
interviewed in three villages located in Chieti.
WE
Toren, N.
"The effect of economic incentives on return migration",
International Migration, vol. 13, No. 3 (1975), pp. 134-144.
This study demonstrates that the Israeli Government's incentive programme
1968-1970 aiming to promote the return of Israeli migrants has not
achieved its goals. Analysis of the attitudes of return migrants toward
the economic benefits of this programme.
AS*
Toren, N. "Return to Zion: Characteristics and motivations of returning
emigrants', Social Forces, vol. 54, No. 3 (1976), pp. 546-558.
This study investigates return migrants from the US to Israel and poses
two crucial questions of migration research: "Who goes?" and "Why?". It
also examines the links between the two, i.e. between migrants' characteristics and motivations. Characteristics are those bearing on "success"
as measured by level of education and occupation; motivations are
classified by developing and operationalising the push-pull model for
explaining migratory selection and movement. The sample is composed of
191 returnees from the US who re-entered Israel in 1970 and were interviewed by means of a structured questionnaire in 1971. The data show that
return migration from the US is non-selective and that returnees are
motivated largely by the attraction of Istael rather than the repulsion
of America. A subclassification of the push-pull dichotomy reveals that:
(i) the decision of the more successful returnees is primarily influenced
by perceived occupational opportunities back home; (ii) the less
successful are motivated chiefly by patriotic and religious attachment
and loyalty to Israel.
AS*
Toren, N. "Return migration to Israel", International Migration Review,
vol. 12, No. 41 (Spring 1978), pp. 39-54.
This is the most comprehensive account of Nina Toren's important work on
Israeli return migration. Israel is a unique country migration-wise:
immigration is the very raison d'etre of the state. In a sense this is
return migration, after an absence of countless generations and thousands
[0352W]
/
^
*
,
l
- 135 -
of years. This was the spirit of the 1950 Law of Return which was based
on the idea of the 'in-gathering of the exiles'. However, the Ministry of
Immigrant Absorption, set up in 1968, also put out a separate policy for
the 'returning residents', Israelis who had left Israel and who were to
be tempted back. These people are called yordin, 'those who go down';
whereas new immigrants to Israel are called olim, 'those who go up' - a
nomenclature which reflects the value-laden attitude towards the problem
of migration to and from the country. There is a general feeling that
those who leave Israel and settle in another country for extended periods
are deserters. The return facilities for this group were applied to those
who left Israel between 1952 and 1964 and who returned during 1968-70.
The main incentives offered were: (i) interest-free long loans for travel
and shipment of belongings; (ii) special mortgages for apartments; (iii)
business loans to encourage the setting up of small factories, agricultural or other enterprises; (iv) customs and purchase tax relief (e.g. on
buying or importing a car); (v) two years free secondary education for
returnees' children. Non-migrants criticised these measures and the idea
of 'deserters' getting favourable treatment, so the policy was abandoned
at the end of 1970. Even so, the policy appeared in fact to have, little
or no effect on drawing back emigrant Israelis. No significant increase
occurred in the number of returnees for 1968-70 when compared to the
years immediately preceding or following it. In the second part of the
paper Toren looks at the motives of return of those who did return during
this period. A sample of 199 subjects was drawn from the 1878 adult
returnees who re-entered Israel in 1970. Most of the returnees came from
the US but there were sizeable numbers from Canada and France too. Using
a technique known as reason analysis, Toren presented respondents with a
list of 25 reasons for returning to Israel and asked them to indicate the
extent to which each reason had affected their decision. The 25 reasons
focussed around 6 dimensions and included both push and pull factors. The
dimensions were economic, occupational, family, social, personal problems
and value commitments. Results showed that commitment to patriotic values
was the most potent force for return. Second in importance were family
motives. The economic dimension was relatively unimportant. When asked
about the special benefits for returning Israelis, only 9% said that
these had crucially affected their decision to return. For one-third of
respondents, they had no effect, for another third they had a catalytic
or triggering effect, and for another fifth they were one reason among
others in the return decision.
Torruellas, L.M. and Vazquez-Calzada, J.L. Labor Force Characteristics
and Migration Experience of the Puerto Ricansf Part II. A cross sectional
analysis of return migration to Puerto Rico using 1970 census data (Rio
Piedras, Social Science Research Center, 1976).
Townsend, A.R.
"The role of returned migrants in England's poorest
region", Geoforum, vol. 11, No. 4 (1980), pp. 353-369.
Trebous, M. Migrations et developpement. Le cas de l'Algerie (Paris
OCDE, 1970), 242 p.
This important study concentrates on Algerian workers in France (and less
so in Belgium and the Federal Republic of Germany) and on their
vocational training prior to their return and reintegration into the
Algerian labour market. The main conclusion is that it is in Algeria's
interest to improve the preparation and selection of its workers who go
to Europe and preferably to send workers of urban origin who are young,
- 136 -
unmarried and literate. The specific relevance of this conclusion was
destroyed
by Algeria's
subsequent
(1973) decision to terminate
emigration. Nevertheless the study is a valuable record of Algeria's
emigration prior to 1970 and of the occupational and training experiences
of Algerian migrants in France, and the data on the productive
reintegration of returning Algerian workers (Part 4 of the book) are
detailed and of great use for comparative purposes. Algerian emigrants
have an undying attachment to their home country. Many want to return to
industrial jobs, but, finding them not available in great numbers in
Algeria, re-emigrate to France. Unfortunately the return of the more
skilled workers has not been rationally organised. The experience and
potentials for returnees vary from one region to another in Algeria. Many
detailed case-studies of returnees are referred to in footnotes.
WE*
Tribalat, M. "L'immigration des etrangers aux Pays-Bas", Population
(Paris), vol. 40, No. 2 (mars-avril 1985), pp. 299-334
After a brief analysis of the history of immigration into the
Netherlands, the author attempts to answer three questions: (i) how many
foreigners who entered in any one year return home? (ii) how long do
these foreigners stay in the Netherlands before they return? and (iii)
what proportion of former return migrants go back to the Netherlands? The
Dutch statistical material permits answers to all three questions for
both men and women migrants and for various nationalities. Most return
movements take place one or two years after arrival in the Netherlands;
the overall propensity to return has been decreasing in the last three
decades; there are striking differences among nationalities - for
example, Italians and Spaniards return much more frequently than
Moroccans and Turks - and up to a quarter come back to the Netherlands,
especially among the nationalities tending to stay in that country.
WE
Trillat, M. "Problemes sociaux poses par les retours au pays d'origine",
Accueillirr 56 (Janvier 1979), pp. 1-4.
AS
Tuna, 0. Yurda Donen Iscilerin Intibak Sorunlari (Ankara, SPO Research
Report, 1967).
AF
WE
Tunisie Contribution presentee par 1'Union Generale Tunisienne du
Travail (UGTT)f ILO Tripartite Technical Seminar on Second-Generation
Migrants, Granada, 1982 (Geneve, 1982, IL0-RER/79/001/SEM.11/24.C), 9 p.
Paper on the social integration and return migration of Tunisian migrant
workers and second-generation immigrant youth and children from EEC
countries in Tunisia. Discusses migrant education and the involvement of
migrant worker associations; suggests (1) leisure activities for visiting
migrants and (2) social policy and economic policy measures in favour of
returning migrants.
WE
Turkey, Devlet Planlama Teskilati
Yurt dlsindan donen iscilerin
sosyo-ekonomik egilimleri uzerinde bir calisma (Ankara, 1974).
Report on a survey of the socio-economic behaviour of Turkish migrant
workers upon their return to Turkey.
NC
Ugalde, A., and Langham, T.
"International return migration to the
Dominican Republic", paper presented at the Fifth Annual Meeting of
Caribbean Studies Association Curacao, Netherlands Antilles, May 7-10,
1980, 24 p.
[0352W]
,
»
*
- 137 -
Characteristics of return migrants in the Dominican Republic who had
difficulties in adjusting to the way of life in the country of
immigration.
UGT Espaenef Contribution presentee par 1'Union General de Trabaladores
(UGT)t ILO Tripartite Technical Seminar on Second-Generation Migrants,
Granada, 1982, (Geneve, 1982, IL0-RER/79/001/SEM.11/18.C.1), 8 p.
Presenting the comments of a trade union federation in Spain concerning
return migration of Spanish second-generation migrant (immigrant) youth.
Covers
migrant
education,
prevocational
training,
problems
of
unemployment and cultural factors.
Underhill, E., Babel, M.F. "Return of migrant workers and their families
to their country of origin", International Child Welfare Review. No. 34
(Sept. 1977), pp. 36-44.
Conference paper on migration policies for return migration with
particular reference to EEC countries. Examines problems of children and
yough upon return to the home country, legal aspects of the transfer of
social security contributions or benefits, the need for a unified system.
UNESCO
Seminaire international sur 1'identification des problemes
auxauels se heurtent 1'insertion des migrants dans le pays d'accueil et
leur reintegration dans leur pays d'origine (Geneve 26-30 avril 1976),
11 p.
UNDP/ILO European Regional Project for Second Generation Migrants.
Tripartite meeting on the reintegration of second generation migrants in
cases of voluntary return, Belgrade, 17-19 October 1984. Final Report
(Geneva, ILO, January 1985) 18 p. Also available in French.
Unger, K. "Greek emigration to and return from West Germany", Ekisticsf
vol.48, No. 290 (Sept-Oct. 1981), pp. 369-373.
This article presents the first results of a study financed by the
Volkswagen Foundation entitled "Remigration and social structures return migration of labour and its effects in urban Greece". The paper
looks first at Greek migration statistics and then relates the first
results of a questionnaire to 574 Greek returnees in Athens, Salonica and
Serres. Greek migration statistics were terminated by law in 1977. For
the period 1970-77 58% of emigration was to the Federal Republic of
Germany and 61% of returnees came from that country. Based on a spatial
framework of 52 districts, five migration/return migration indices are
cross-correlated
with various indices of regional socio-economic
structure. The remigration ratio (returnees per 100 emigrants) is higher
in districts with a higher proportion of their population working in
industry and in services and where social and housing conditions are
better. Moving to the results of the questionnaire survey, returnees had
been abroad for an average of 11.4 years, and 53% would like to reemigrate to the Federal Republic of Germany. Return migration contributes
to urbanisation: 56% of the returnees interviewed in Athens and Salonica
originated in provincial, rural areas. Motives for the original
emigration were mainly economic, but return motives were mainly related
to family and personal circumstances. 42% regretted returning to Greece:
hence the desire to go off again. Occupational data are presented for
jobs before migration, first and last jobs in the Federal Republic of
Germany and present job. A strong tendency is noted to avoid dependency
employment since return. Destinations for savings and remittances are
also described: most goes on house building, children's education,
setting up a small business, purchase of a car and support of relatives.
- 138 -
WE
Unger, K.
Arbeitskrafteriickwanderung
Universitat Bielefeld, 1982), 11 p.
WE
Unger, K.
Die Riickkehr der Arbeitsemigranten
Lauderdale, Verlag Breitenbach, 1983).
WE*
Unger, K. "Return migration and regional characteristics: the case of
Greece", in R. King (ed.) Return migration and regional economic problems
(London, Sydney, Dover, 1985), pp. 129-151.
An English summary of Unger*s work.
WE
Unger, K.
Greek emigration and return - structural factors and
characteristics of the migrants, paper presented at the Symposium on
Return Migration and Reintegration (Saarbriicken, Oct. 1980).
WE
Unger, K. "Occupational profile of returnees in three Greek cities", in
The politics of return. International return migration in Europef ed. by
D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 93-99.
Results of a survey of 574 returnees from the Federal Republic of Germany
to Athens, Salonica and Serres. Statistical data on the professional
categories of the returnees and the change of occupation upon their
return.
WE*
Unger, K. Regional characteristics and return migration - the case of
Greece. (Bielefeld, Working paper No. 66 of the Sociology of Development
Research Centre, University of Bielefeld, 1985), 29 p.
As emigration (especially the European case of labour migration) can
primarily be defined as a reaction of the individual towards certain
factors of its surroundings, it is worthwhile to see to which extent the
pattern of return migration is being affected by the areas of destination
and of origin. The secondary data reported in this paper were collected
from the different sources of the National Statistical Service of Greece
(especially the Population and Housing Census of 1971), whereas the
primary data was generated during a field work period in Greece in 1980.
WE
Uniao Geral dos Trabalhadores Portugueses Contribution presentee par
1'Union Generale des Travailleurs, ILO Tripartite Technical Seminar on
Second-Generation Migrants, Lisbon, 1981 (Geneve, 1981, IL0-RER/79/001/
SEM.I/26), 18 p.
Conference paper on second generation Portuguese migrants (youth) in
Western European countries. Covers migrant education, cultural relations
with Portugal, and measures taken relating to social integration,
voluntary return migration and new migration in receiving countries.
AS*
Useem, J. and Useem, R.H. The Western educated man in India: a study of
his social roles and influences (New York, Dryden Press, 1955), 237 p.
The object of this book is twofold: to present the results of a field
investigation in India of the consequences of a Western education; and to
make proposals that may be of practical aid to policymakers interested in
international cultural exchange. Social-anthropological fieldwork was
carried out in Bombay State and consisted of 110 interviews with returned
students, analysing their roles within the local environment. The book
comprises five chapters on distinct themes of the study. The first
describes the kind of persons who study abroad and their aims. Ch. 2 is
concerned with the changes in character and outlook which result from
[0352W]
nach
Griechenland
(Bielefeld,
(Saarbriicken,
Fort
- 139 Indians obtaining a Western education. With only few exceptions (3 out of
110) the foreign-educated rate their foreign experience as beneficial in
their self-advancement, though there are some differences between
returnees from Britain and from the US. Ch. 3 looks at a key problem,
that of the role of returnees as transmitters of science, technology,
skills and business methods. The fourth chapter asks whether persons
educated abroad acquire a true understanding of the foreign country and,
to the extent they do, to what extent this understanding is communicated
to other Indians. Finally, the authors develop a series of policyrelevant suggestions. An interesting early study of a special type of
return migration. A lot of use is made of quotes from the interviews.
WE
NC
Vagts, A. Die deutsch-amerikanische Riickwanderung; Problemef Phanomenef
Statistikf Politik, Soziologief Bioeraphie (Heidelberg, Beihefte zum
Jahrbuch fur Amerikastudien, 1960), 216 p.
WE*
Van Amersfoort, H. Immigration and the formation of minority groups; the
Dutch experience 1945-1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982),
234 p.
Chapter 7 of this book is on the "immigration" or "return migration" of
the Indonesian Dutch. The difficulty over terms is because some of the
migrants were born in Indonesia and some in the Netherlands. They came to
the Netherlands in 4 waves between 1945 and 1958. The repatriates had
Dutch passports and were judicially Dutch, yet they received little
welcome by the Netherlands authorities who thought they should have
stayed in Indonesia after independence and adapted to the new situation.
Yet, in spite of this opposition, they have integrated well and do not
form a 'minority'. Repatriates themselves found certain problems however:
the climate, the food, the Dutch 'coolness'. Factors enumerated for the
successful reintegration of the repatriates were: their heterogeneity of
status; their legal status as Dutch; their realism; the political
situation which made it possible to ease the reinsertion by means of help
with finance, housing, jobs, schools etc.
WE*
Van Amersfoort, J.M.M.
"Migrant workers, circular migration and
development", Ti.ldschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie. 69
(1978), pp. 17-26.
The author starts off by reviewing the debate on migrants in Europe with
particular reference to the issue of whether they are going to settle
permanently or return. He criticises the notion that there is a simple
unavoidable choice between a relatively quick return, on the one hand,
and a permanent settlement of migrant families on the other. Van
Amersfoort finds that Moroccan labourers in the Netherlands fit neither
of these two types. They migrate fairly late in life when they are
already married with established families, stay a long time in the
Netherlands and have no concrete plans either to permanently stay or
return. A more apt description of them is 'circular migrants' who migrate
semi-permanently, or at least for long periods, spending one month each
year in their villages of origin, most of which are in the Moroccan Riff
area. As such they are unlike the typical West European migrant labourer
and more like the circular migrants noted in regions like south-east
Africa and the New Hebrides. In all cases, the migrant, although his stay
abroad is long term, is almost totally oriented to his home village
society. He is abroad only as a labourer and participates hardly at all
in the social life of the foreign society. Though most of the Moroccan
migrants studied by van Amersfoort expect to return to their villages one
[0352W]
- 140 -
day for good, they have no idea when this will be. This type of migration
has led to rising living standards in the Riff but for this improvement
to be sustained, circular migration will need to expand further to take
account of rising population in a stagnant peasant economy. Unfortunately
reduced employment opportunities in Europe make this difficult. Circular
migration has also increased the dependence of the Riff economy on
outside sources and has not permitted development of the local resource
base in any way. Circular migrants and returnees have little economic
impact beyond sustaining their families and improving housing, diet and
material living standards.
Van Dijk, P.J.C., Penninx, R.
Migration and development: the
Netherland's REMPLOD project; an experimental venture in the integration
of research in the field and policy making (The Hague, Institute for
Social Research in Developing Countries, 1976), 12 p.
Report on migration policy making in the Netherlands with regard to
return migration to Yugoslavia, Portugal and North Africa. Covers the
role of the Netherlands in employment opportunity creation for returning
Yugoslav, Portuguese and North African migrant workers.
Van Dijk, P.
"Discussion notes on institutional arrangements",
Conferencia sobre retorno e reinteeracao dos emierantes (Lisboa,
Instituto de Estudos para o desenvolvimento, June 1984), 4 p.
The author analyses the prospects of return migration in the light of the
integration process in the country of immigration of migrant workers'
families, who constitute the decision-making unit. Possible reintegration
strategies should actively involve the chambers of commerce and industry,
the agricultural organisations and, where applicable, investment banks in
the countries of return.
Van Gendt, R. and Garcia Passigli, G. Return migration and reintegration
services (Paris, OECD-42 77 01 1, 1977), 64 p.
If more attention could be paid to the reintegration of the return
migrant and his family, the whole migratory process could be turned to
greater benefit for all concerned. This report is the result of an OECD
intergovernmental project in which many countries of high emigration
participated. The first three chapters contain descriptive material on
return migration: its causes, characteristics and consequences. Country
statements are included for Finland, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain,
Yugoslavia and Turkey. For each country there are sections on use of
savings, employment services, training needs, social services, including
housing and education, and information provision. Reintegration is viewed
as a complex management problem. An integrated approach is called for,
with emigration and immigration countries participating equally.
Vanderkamp, J.
"Return migration: its significance and behaviour",
Western Economic Journal, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Dec. 1972) pp. 460-465.
Return migration to Canada for the period 1966-68. Report of the size and
time pattern of return flows.
Vangelade, J. "Stocks and flows in the analysis of return migration",
Populationf vol. 37, No. 6 (Nov.-Dec. 1982), pp. 1194-8.
Distinctions between stocks and flows in the analysis of return
migration, through the example of migration flows between Upper Volta and
Ivory Coast.
- 141 -
WE
Vaz Dias, M.
24 p.
GE
Vaz Dias, M. "Le retour volontaire: la formation retour n'est-elle qu'un
piege?", Alphabetisation et Promotionf 98 (novembre 1980), pp. 29-31.
WE
Vaz Dias, M. "Le double rejet", Alphabetisation et Promotionf
(septembre-octobre 1981), pp. 25-28.
WE
Vedris, M. "Policies on the return and work reintegration of Yugoslav
migrant workers", in The politics of return. International return
migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat
(Rome, New York, Center for
Migration Studies, 1984), pp 141-145.
Examines the effects of out-migration on Yugoslavia and the economic
impact of the measures adopted by the government to facilitate the
returnees' reintegration.
WE
Velikonja, J.
"Geography of return migration", in The politics of
return. International return migration in Europef ed. by D. Kubat (Rome,
New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 247-250.
Reviews the different theories and models applied to the problems of
return migration by geographers.
WE
Verbunt, G.
"Travailleurs etrangers dans 1'incertitude du retour",
Cahiers d'actlon religleuse et socialef 484 (15 nov. 1968), pp. 661-664.
AF
Verhaeren, R.
Les problemes de la reinsertion; Etude du
travailleurs algeriens (St.Martin d'Heres, AEFTI, 1977), 10 p.
CN
Vidal, D. "The loneliness of the returning Newyorican", The San Juan
Star (October 5, 1975), p. 5.
WE*
Vigorelli, P.
"Returning migrants re-employed in Italian industry",
Migration Newsf No. 18 (1969), pp. 3-13.
An interview survey of 416 returnees was conducted in four large Italian
chemical complexes. Returnees represent less than 2% of the workforce in
these factories, although in other factories the proportion of returnees
may be higher, up to 5%. Most returnees knew something about industrial
opportunities in Italy before they returned, although personal reasons
governed most of the actual return decisions. Most interviewees (87%)
applied directly to the factories to get their jobs; only 9% used the
Labour Exchange. 47% got a job immediately upon return. 85% had worked in
industry abroad and thought therefore that they had accumulated valuable
industrial experience, but only 12% returned with some qualification.
About a third of returnees were contemplating emigrating again. Vigorelli
considers that returnees who are oriented towards industrial employment
are probably a minority of Italian returnees. Moreover, the sample
interviewed is rather narrowly defined.
WE
Vigorelli, P. "La grande industria Italiana e il ritorno del lavoratori
emigrati", in L'emigrazione italiana in Europa negli anni sessanta. ed.
by G. Bonicelli (Roma, UNAIE, 1969), pp. 133-156.
WE*
Virtanen, K. Settlement or return; Finnish emigrants (1860-1930) in the
international overseas return migration movement (Turku, The Migration
Institute, 1979), 275 p.
[0352W]
Retour au Portugal; Vlaeem sem futuro (Paris, CIEMM, 1979),
107-108
cas
des
- 142 -
Of the 380,000 Finnish emigrants before 1930, about 20% returned. This
rate was about the same as that of other Nordic countries, but lower than
the Southern European rate. Sample communities were studied, plus
passenger statistics, passport data, church records and interviews. The
most important reason for return was homesickness (21%) followed by
unemployment (15%). Many returns took place as a result of an intended
temporary visit home. From North America more returns took place from the
east coast: it was easier to return from factory jobs than from farming.
Returns from Australia, South America and South Africa were higher than
from the US and Canada. The 1930 depression was important. Most of the
returnees settled down back in Finland, using their savings to purchase a
farm or house, making a significant local impact on the community.
WE
Virtanen, K. "Return migration of the Finns from overseas countries", in
The politics of return. International return migration in Europe, ed. by
D. Kubat (Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984),pp.221-228.
Historical patterns of Finnish return migration since the 19th century.
WE
Von Delhaes-Gunther, Haberl, O.N., Parwez, 6., Schlumm, H.B. and
Schmidtke, H.P.
"Riickwanderung - eine Perspektive fur auslandische
Arbeitskrafte?",
Aus
Polltik
und
Zeitgeschichte,
Beilage
zur
Wochenzeitschrift das Parlamentf No. B 32/84 (11 August 1984), pp. 19-33.
AS
Vredenbregt, J. "De Baweaners in hun moederland en in Singapore" (with
summary in English), Luctor et Emereo (1958).
WE
AF
Wagner, M. Le retour promotionnel des immigres. Une experience francaise
en matiere de transfert de technologie (Paris, Caisse Centrale de
Cooperation economique, 1980).
GE
Wagner, M. "Vers une politique de cooperation entre les peuples: la
formation retour", Migrants Formation (17-18 octobre 1976).
WE
Wagner, M. "La formation professionnelle des travailleurs immigres en
vue de leur retour au pays d'origine. Analyse d'une experience", Droit
socialf 12 (decembre 1976).
WE*
Wagner, M. "Vocational training for returning migrants", Migration Today.
vol. 21 (1977), pp. 117-124.
Projects for retraining returning migrant workers have been very few in
Europe. A proper policy depends on the initiative and co-operation of the
state authorities of the countries of immigration and emigration, and of
course the migrant. The interactions are complex, often conflicting and
frequently break down. Possible roles for the church are also identified.
Walaszek, A. "Return migration from the USA to Poland", in The politics
of return. International return migration in Europer ed. by D.Kubat
(Rome, New York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 213-219.
Historical patterns of Polish return migration from the U.S.A. as from
the 17th century. Examines the role of the Polish ethnic organizations in
the U.S. in the return movement.
NC
Walker, W.J. A geographical analysis of return migration: an Eastern
Kentucky case study (Lexington, University of Kentucky, 1978), 215 p.
[0352W]
*
-^
- 143
WE*
Walsh, J.A. "Immigration to the Republic of Ireland, 1946-71", Irish
Geography, vol. 12 (1979), pp. 104-110.
The publication in 1978 of vol. II of the 1971 Irish Population Census
enables for the first time detailed analysis of immigration into Ireland.
In 1971, 1 in 22 people residing in Eire had been born outside the
Republic - 80% in Great Britain and 8% in the US. Return migrants are
classified as those immigrants who were born in Ireland. Immigrants
numbered 11,000 during the year preceding the census, returning migrants
13,500. Most immigrants were nevertheless of Irish origin, mainly the
second generation children born to return migrants. Age, sex, education
and employment contrasts are also briefly noted.
GE
Walston, Lord
pp. 7-8.
GE
Warren, R., Marks, P.J.
pp. 113-124.
NC
Warren, R., Marks, P.J. "Foreign-born emigration from the United States:
1960 to 1970", Demography, vol. 17, No. 1 (1980), pp. 71-84.
AS*
Watson, J.L. Emigration and the Chinese Lineage: The Mans in Hong Kong
and London (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), 242 p.
Three chapters of this book touch directly or tangentially on return
migration. They are chapter 7 on "Emigrant ties to the home community",
ch. 8 on "Sterling houses" and ch. 9 on "social change". Together these
three chapters comprise the second half of the book, the first half being
concerned with a description of the emigration background and of the
Mans in the London catering trade. Remittances are one indication of the
commitment of Man emigrants to their home village on the northern side of
mainland Hong Kong, 2 miles from the Chinese border. Some interesting, if
rather speculative, data, based on Post Office and other local records,
give indication of the massive importance of remittances to the village
economy. 'Contribution drives' are launched amongst Mans abroad for
financing public works - the renovation of the village temple being a
case in point. The classic pattern of emigration involves 'deferred
gratification' whilst abroad. The usual pattern is for the worker to deny
and minimise his material needs (food, clothing, lodging etc.) whilst
abroad in anticipation of the long planned for trip home, during which he
will spend all his savings in a matter of months. Cheap charter flights
enable an average frequency of return of once every 3-5 years. When
emigrants return, a festival atmosphere prevails, which includes lavish
banquets, gambling etc. 'Birthday banquets' are held for foreign-born
sons, to legitimise the lineage which may involve Eurasian or other halfcaste offspring if the emigrant has married a non-Chinese. 'Sterlinghouses' are a prime target for remittance spending, transforming the
physical appearance of the village. The village of San Tin has changed
from being a centre of production to one of consumption. Nearly one-third
of 'sterling houses' are left empty, however, as their occupants reemigrate to Europe. House investment is seen as the safest form of
investment, now that land is no longer profitable with the decline of
agriculture. Returned emigrants find life boring and uneventful in the
village, so many re-emigrate. Those who remain in San Tin often become
addicted to gambling. Some returnees bring back European wives: British,
Dutch, German.
[0352W]
"Repatriation: why it is wrong", Race Today (May 1969),
"La formation-retour", Migrations, 21 (1977),
- 144 -
WE*
Watson, J.L. (ed.) Between two cultures: Migrants and minorities in
Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1977), 338 p.
The interest of this book, by a group of anthropologists, is that it
comprises a series of ethnically-focussed studies, all of which consist
of fieldwork both in Britain and in the sending society. Many of these
essays therefore contain descriptions of the role and impact of return
migration, although return migration is never the central focus of the
chapter and there are few hard data on the return migration streams in
question.
AS*
Watson, J.L.
"Chinese emigrant ties to the home community", New
Communityf vol. 5, No. 4 (1977), pp. 343-352.
About 60,000 Chinese live in Britain. This paper focuses on emigrants
from one Hong Kong village, San Tin; 85-90% of working-age males in this
community work in Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom and other
parts of western Europe. The village's economy is totally dependent on
remittances. The 'classic pattern' of Chinese emigration involves close
ties and an eventual triumphant return to the village as a wealthy
person. Although this pattern has been changing in the 1970s, home ties
are still strong. Chinese restaurant workers inhabit islands of Chinese
culture and are the least assimilated of migrants of Britain; they are
sojourners in an alien culture, working only for the day when they can
return to retire in comfort to their own villages. Patterns and amounts
of remittances are discussed: the 1970-71 average was 20-30 Pounds per
month. The clearest evidence of emigrants' ties is the boom in house
construction financed by them, replacing land as the traditional method
of financial prestige. These 'sterling houses' now comprise a quarter of
the houses in San Tin. They are two storeys high and much better equipped
than traditional one-storey village houses. Migrants also put money into
the village in the form of 'contribution drives' for schools and other
public buildings. Early emigrants returned infrequently because of the
expense and length of the sea trip. Now charter flights bring most
migrants back every 3-5 years for a visit, usually coinciding with the
Lunar New Year festival. Even on return visits (as opposed to permanent
return stays) migrants participate fully in community life and are sought
out by village elders for their opinions on important village decisions
and affairs. Most return visits last about 3 months. Returnees bring
gifts and are very free-spending on these visits. Some engage in
gambling, risking their hard-won earnings. Another returnee obligation is
to provide banquets for up to 800 people. Elaborate re-entry banquets
mark the permanent return of migrants, as opposed to the visitors. Such
extravagant behaviour may seem irrational to western eyes, but in fact
they are a means of guaranteeing returnees* future security in the
village.
AS*
Wellington, J.S. "Indonesian physicians studying abroad", Journal of
Medical Education, vol. 43, No. 11 (1968), pp. 1183-1191.
Wellington interviewed 36 medical lecturers in Indonesian universities
who had had their postgraduate training in the US or Europe. They were a
carefully selected group who had been given leave by their sponsoring
departments only after agreeing to return to their teaching posts after
completing their foreign training. Much of the article is about the
utilisation of training after return and includes a catalogue of problems
and complaints such as lack of recognition for innovation and enterprise,
shortage of equipment, lazy students, etc.
[0352W]
J
,->
•
,
- 145 -
AS
Werth, M., Yalcintas, N. Migration and re-integratlon; transferability
of the Turkish model of return migration and self-help organisations to
other Mediterranean labour-exporting countries (Geneva, ILO, June 1978;
mimeographed
World
Employment
Programme
Research working
paper;
restricted), 128 p.
Paper on the impact of return migration on the labour market in Turkey.
Considers the Turkish model of re-integration of the migrant worker as
typical for Mediterranean countries of emigration, includes comparative
analysis of migration for employment in Greece, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria
and Yugoslavia.
WE*
Werth, M. "Riickkehr- und Verbleibeabsichten tiirkischer Arbeitnehmer", in
H. Korner and U. Mehrlander (eds.) Die "neue" Auslanderpolitik in Europa
- Erfahrungen in den Aufnahme- und Entsendelandern (Bonn, Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1986), pp. 121-138.
WE
Wichelmann, S. "Promoting re-integration in their developing countries
of origin of professionals and skilled personnel trained in an
industrialised country", International Migration, vol. 15, No. 2-3
(1977), pp. 236-242.
Study on the policy of the Federal Republic of Germany to facilitate the
return migration of professional and skilled personnel. Looks at the
reintegration programme in Brazil undertaken from 1974 to 1976, and the
professional and scientific vocational training in the Federal Republic
of Germany.
GE
Widgren, J.
AS
Widmann, H.
"Reintegration tiirkischer Migrantkinder, Bilanz
Forschungsgreise", Bildung und Erziehungf vol. 3, No. 4 (1978),
pp. 377-386.
NC*
Wiest R.E. Rural community development in Mexico: The impact of Mexican
recurrent migration to the United States. University of Manitoba
Anthropological Papers 21 (Winnipeg, 1978).
GE*
Wiest, R.E.
"Anthropological perspectives on return migration: a
critical commentary", Papers in Anthropology, vol. 20, No. 1 (1979),
pp. 167-187.
A series of anthropological papers is reviewed (many of them appearing in
the same volume as this paper). The papers add to the growing evidence
that return migration and remittances do not have a favourable impact on
sending societies in terms of stimulation of production or distribution
of products, and suggest that migratory labour is strategic for the
maintenance of growth of industrial centres. Otherwise the papers break
little new ground. Wiest makes the following specific recommendations:
(1) More attention needs to be given to social class and social structure
in the study of return migration; (2) the impact of non-migrants needs to
be studied; (3) socio-economic change involves more than looking at
social mobility; (4) high status emigration and return deserves more
notice; (5) ideology as an element in migration decision-making is worth
further investigation; (6) cyclical migration needs to be recognised as
part of a wider global process of resource reallocation; (7) the
exploitative nature of migrant labour should be more sharply defined.
The migratory chain (Paris, OECD, 1977).
einer
- 146 -
AF
Wihtol de Wenden, C. "Le retour des travailleurs immigres en France dans
leur pays d'origine", Die Dritte Weltf vol. 8, Nos. 3-4 (1980),
pp. 291-305.
WE
Wihtol de Wenden-Didier, C. "Les orientations recentes de la politique
francaise de retour, 1980-1981", L'emigration maghrebine en Europe.
Exploitation ou cooperation (Alger, CREA, n.d.), pp. 315-329.
WE
Wihtol de Wenden-Didier, C.
"Return migration in France and the
Franco-Algerian agreement of 1980", in The politics of return.
International return migration in Europe, ed. by D. Kubat (Rome, New
York, Center for Migration Studies, 1984), pp. 171-174.
Examines the different provisions of the agreement, as regards financial
aid, occupational training, reintegration and aid to development.
GE
Wilder-Okladek, F.
Research on return migration and the concept of
"intention of permanence" in migratory theorvf paper presented at the
International Sociological Association, Research Committee on Migration,
University of Waterloo, Oct. 17-20, 1973
WE*
Wilder-Okladek, F. The return movement of Jews to Austria after the
second world war; with special consideration of the return from Israel
(The Hague, Nijhoff, 1969).
WE*
Wilder-Okladek, F. "Analysis of 1970 survey of returned British migrants
from Australia", in J. Zubrzycki (ed.) Enquiry into the Departure of
Settlers from Australia
(Canberra, Australian Government Publishing
Service, 1973), pp. 67-69.
Summary of results of a survey of 477 UK returnees from Australia. Data
are given on respondents' age, sex and employment. Reasons for departure
are grouped into two broad categories: reasons involving rejection of
life in Australia; and non-rejection' motives. 59% gave 'non-rejection'
reasons, mostly to do with personal, family and employment matters. The
41% who gave 'rejection' reasons stressed homesickness, loneliness,
financial difficulties and dislike of the Australian way of life. 77%
thought that they had made the right decision in returning.
AS
Wilpert, C. Returning and remaining - context and dynamics of decisions
to return among Turkish migrants in Germany, paper presented at the First
European Conference on International return migration (Rome, 11-14 Nov.
1981).
GE*
Wilpert, C. and Morokvasic, M. Bedingungen und Folgen internationaler
Migration; Berichte aus Forschungen zu den Migrations-blographlen von
Familien. Jugendlichen und Auslandischen Arbeiterinnen (Berlin, Institut
fur Soziologie der Technischen Universitat Berlin, 1983), 316 p.
This volume centres on the question of the 'Migration and future
orientation of migrant families' (Wilpert). The attempt is made to
analyse the orientation to return or to stay of Turkish and Yugoslav
youth and their parents in function of subjective evaluations and
objective conditions.
WE*
Wilson, J.A. and Gaston, J. "Reflux from the 'Brain Drain'", Minerva,
vol. 12, No. 4, (1974), pp. 459-468.
- 147 Early discussions on the brain drain of scientists revolved around two
major issues: the cost of educating a scientist who subsequently
emigrated; and the problems of building a scientific community in those
countries denuded by brain drain. Little attention has been given to
those scientists who did return. This paper is concerned with two
questions: (1) what are the characteristics of returning scientists
compared to non-returnees? (2) what factors relate to the decision to
stay abroad or return? The data came from a 1964 survey of British and
Irish scientists resident in North America and from a 1968 survey of 42
of those who had returned. Returnees tended to be the younger scientists,
many of whom had gone to North America for PhD work and had never
intended to stay there very long anyway. Returnees also tended to be
lower paid (because of the age difference) and regarded themselves as
less successful than the 'stayers', although they were better qualified
(more had PhDs). Chemists tended to return, physicists to stay, whilst no
engineers returned. The returnees came more from university jobs; the
stayers were more in industry. Main reasons for return were ties to
Britain and feelings of nationality, preference for the British way of
life, ties to relatives and the wishes of wives to return. Rarely was the
return related directly to employment opportunities in Britain, although
85% had obtained permanent employment on their return. Reservations about
the return decision were expressed by many; 5% regretted the original
migration decision to go to North America but 48% regretted returning.
GE*
NC
Wiltshire, R. "Return migration to lagging regions: a bibliographic
survey with special reference to North America and Europe", The Science
Report of the Tohoku University (Geography), vol. 28, No. 1 (1978), pp.
87-99.
A review of return migration literature rather narrowly confined to
certain North American and European examples. Some interesting points are
made in the conclusion. Wiltshire points out that studies of return
migration have tended to stress the economic motive, a natural tendency
given the success of economic models in predicting other forms of
migration. As an economy advances the role of financial considerations in
migration, and return migration, may decline. Analysis of social conditions is important. Wiltshire concludes that it is necessary to place
return migration within an expanded framework for the analysis of
regional economic development in relation to progress along the path to
modernisation.
WE
Yap, K.S. Remieratie: een bildraee aan de economische ontwikkellng der
herkomstlanden? (Den Haag, REMPLOD, 1975).
WE
Yugoslavia
Contribution, Standing Conference of Institutes for the
Promotion of Upbringing and Education in the S.F.R. of Yugoslavia, ILO
Tripartite Technical Seminar on Second-Generation Migrants, Granada,
1982 (Geneva, 1982, IL0-RER/79/001/Sem.II/17.A), 14 p.
Recommendations on education and social integration of second-generation
immigrant children upon their returfn migration to Yugoslavia. Discusses
language teaching in the mother tongue, psychological aspects, curriculum
development, attainment appraisal, school guidance.
AF
Zehraoui, A. "La politique algerienne d'emigration et le retour des
emigres", Pluriel, 19 (1979), pp. 45-68.
WE
Zehraoui, A. "Le retour: mythe ou realites?",
Nord (1981), pp. 229-245.
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Annuaire de l'Afrlque du
- 148 -
Sociological analysis of the return migration patterns in Algeria. The
article focuses on the family aspects of emigration and return migration,
and on the bilateral relations between Algeria and France.
Zell, S. Puerto Rican migrants; a socio-economic study (San Juan, Puerto
Rican Planning Board, 1972).
Zell, S. A comparative study of the labour market characteristics of
return migrants and non-migrants in Puerto Rico (San Juan, Commonwealth
of Puerto Rico, 1973).
Zidaric, V. Odgoino-obrazovnl rad na mater inskom leziku s diecom
migranata kao ledan od preduv.leta za niihovu reintegraci.lu u domovini,
(1977).
Zingaro, R. "Re-integration of returnees in Andria", Migration Newsf
vol. 18, no. 2 (1969), pp. 19-22.
A brief account of a study of 57 return migrants in the town of Andria in
Puglia, Southern Italy. All had been in the Federal Republic of Germany,
leaving in the early 1960s and returning during 1965-67. Reasons for
return are tabulated but the most interesting data are on employment: 44%
returned to jobs in building and small-scale industry, 30% to agriculture, 14% to small businesses (shops, bars, etc.) and 12% to become
craftsmen. Only 10% of those who had been unskilled before departure
managed to move into skilled occupations upon return home. Investment was
mostly in houses as a symbol of social advancement.
Zubrzycki, J. Enquiry into the Departure of Settlers from Australia
(Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, 1973), 117 p.
This is the Final Report of the Committee on Social Patterns, headed by
Zubrzycki, to the Australian Immigration Advisory Council. Three
different mechanisms of estimating the proportion of immigrant settlers
in Australia who returned to their countries of origin yielded remarkedly
similar figures: the overall rate of settler loss during 1966-71 was
between 22 and 24%, or an average of 37,000 returnees per year. The
highest departure rates were for North America (73%), New Zealand (60%),
Scandinavia and the Federal Republic of Germany (both 44%). Very low
rates applied to Greece (8%), Asia (9%) and Yugoslavia (11%). The UK rate
was about average (23%). Fewer females left than males. Single people are
more likely to depart than families. A sub-sample survey indicated that
about a quarter of returnees from Australia re-emigrate back again to
Australia. The departure rate generally rises with employment status and
skill level; the highest departure rate was for 'persons of independent
means'. Reasons for departure are often complex but survey findings
indicated a number of characteristic types, excluding dissatisfaction
with Australia. Some of these types and motives were: highly-skilled and
professional migrants who move back and forth as 'transilient' migrants;
old people returning home; people committed to their homeland; homesickness; difficulty of integration (communication problems, lack of
acceptance by the Australian community); medical problems; employment
difficulties; housing shortage; and the status reduction involved in the
migrant existence. A list of 18 recommendations is given to improve
migrants' lives in Australia and perhaps reduce dissatisfaction and the
rate of return. A series of separate contributions is contained in
appendices.