fact cards - Ms. Wood`s Class

TEXAS
INDIANS
FACT CARDS
Carol Baldridge
Illustrated by Jean Tamminga
TOUCAN VALLEY PUBLICATIONS, INC.
Copyright ©1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
ISBN 1-884925-5S-7
-~r, .
Cover design reflects the importance of com and buffalo to all Texas Indian groups.
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-'Contents.
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications. Inc.
APACHE -
LIPAN
(ah PAA chee - L E E palm)
agave plant
LOCATION
POPULATION
LANGUAGE FAMILY
west-centralTexas plains
1690 (estimate) - 500
1990 Census - 7 in Texas
Athapascan
HISTORY
The Lipan Apaches called themselves the "people
of the forest" and lived on the plains of Texas and
Oklahoma. Though they were in west Texas, they
were farther east than any other Apache group.
The Lipans were the only Apaches that lived i n
Texas for any length of time.
ground, but was folded up and tied above
shoulder level to keep it out of the way. Feathers
and trinkets adorned their hair.
The Lipan Apaches were encountered by Spanish
explorers led by Coronado during the mid-1500s.
By 1700 they were feuding with Comanches over
hunting tenitory. Even though Lipans sided with
Texans against the Comanche in 1839, white
settlers eventually drove the Lipans into
northeastern Mexico.
It was customary for men to pluck out their
beards and eyebrows. Faces and bodies were
decorated with several colors of paint.
By 1885 the Lipans had been removed to
Oklahoma Indian Territory near the Tonkawas.
By 1895 many of the Lipans had blended with the
Kiowa Apaches.
SETTLEMENTS
Historians have tentatively identified the Lipan
range as western Texas and eastern New Mexico,
from the west-central Texas plains to the presentday Santa Fe-Taos region.
When the Lipans followed buffalo herds, their
homes were portable tipis that could be quickly
and easily assembled, taken apart, packed up, and
loaded for the move to a new location.
APPEARANCE
Warriors cut o f f their hair on the left side of the
head even with top of the ear. Hair on the right
side grew long, sometimes almost reaching the
Men pierced the left ear with six to eight holes
and the right ear with at least one. On special
occasions a man would place an earring in each
of these holes.
Women pierced their ears and wore earrings of
copper wire and beads. Their hair was braided in
one long plait down their backs, but they wore it
loose on special occasions. Through trade they
obtained polished copper wrist and ankle rings
and necklaces of river clam shells.
CLOTHING
During the summer a Lipan woman wore a short
skirt and moccasins made of buckskin. She made
blouses from soft doeskin, cutting a hole in the
middle of the skin for her head to slip through.
A rawhide rope served as a belt around her waist.
A Lipan man wore a breechcloth, leggings, and
moccasins.
During the winter a Lipan woman wore a beaded
and fringed knee-length deerskin skirt, snug-fitting
leggings or trousers that went up to her waist, and
high moccasins. A Lipan man added a buckskin
shirt and a blanket obtained in trade. Children
wore long shirts of buckskin, but once they
became teenagers, they dressed like adults.
Card 5
The Lipans used a fire drill to light fires. This
was a long stick about the size and length of a
broom handle with a hole in the center and a
notch cut into its side. It was held on the ground
with one's feet, while another stick about the size
of an arrow was inserted into the hole and twirled
rapidly between one's palms.
The friction
produced heat and a powdery dust which filtered
down a groove onto dry leaves. The dust soon
began smoking as the leaves began to bum. A
small flame was carefully fanned into a blaze.
FOOD
The Lipans hunted buffalo in the fall and spring
when huge herds could be found on the southern
plains. Their hunting was cooperative, a group
effort. Once the Lipans acquired horses, all who
could ride, including women and children, would
circle the herd in a "surround" and continue
shooting until many buffalo had been killed.
Meat that was not immediately eaten was cut into
thin strips, placed on a rack made of branches,
dried i n the sun, and stored i n rawhide bags called
parfleches.
Lipans also hunted wild cattle, deer, antelope, and
smaller animals such as javelina and wild turkeys.
In early days the Lipans raised maize (corn),
beans, squash, and pumpkins, but once they
obtained horses, the Lipans rarely farmed.
The most important wild-plant food of Lipans was
the agave. They ate the flowers, stalks, and
bulbs, roasted the leaves, used the fibers to make
baskets and sometimes sandals.
They also
gathered prickly pear tunas (fruits), mesquite
beans, nuts, and wild fruits.
TOOLS
Their weapons were bows about four feet long
with bowstrings o f split deer or buffalo sinews
twisted together. Arrows were made of hardwood
and were always kept dry, since a warped arrow
does not shoot straight. Three feathers were
fastened to each arrow with sinew.
Quivers about four feet long were made from
skins to carry the bow, arrows, and fire-making
equipment. Oval shields about three feet by two
feet were made from thick bull buffalo hides.
Card 5
Water containers were made from the stomachs of
buffalos. Drawstrings tied the bags shut and
could be looped over a person's belt to hang from
the hip. Baskets large enough to hold five or six
gallons were smeared with tar to make them
waterproof. Each end of a rawhide strap was tied
to a basket so it could be carried more easily.
CEREMONIES
An older warrior could become a shaman by
having supernatural experiences and seeing
visions. He would perform various rituals and
make magic charms for small family groups or
even for the entire tribe.
CUSTOMS
A Lipan baby was placed on a cradleboard made
of buckskin stretched over a wooden frame. The
mother usually decorated the cradleboard with
beads, laced it up the front, and let the baby stay
inside all day. A t night the mother removed him
from the cradleboard and put him in her bed.
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
CADDO
(KAD doe)
facial tattoos
and pierced nose
LOCATION
POPULATION
LANGUAGE FAMILY
northeastern Texas
1500 (estimate) - 200,000
1690 (estimate) - 8,500-10,000
1990 Census ~ 289 Caddo in Texas
Caddoan
HISTORY
In 1541-42 the Spanish explorer Hernando de
Soto and his army reported Caddo bands living in
northeastern Texas and northwestern Louisiana
south of the Red River. I n 1686 the French
explorer La Salle and his companions encountered
Caddo bands living along Shawnee Creek in Rusk
County, Texas.
Early in 1691 four Spanish missions were
established among the Caddos in East Texas. Not
wanting to give up their own religion, the natives
became hostile, and the missions were abandoned.
By 1715 the Spanish decided to try again and
reopened these missions.
Meanwhile the French had founded Natchitoches
in 1699, and had built trading posts in this area.
At first the Caddos bartered mostly with the
French, who had a more generous trade policy
than did the Spanish. When the Caddos found
out that the French also traded with their enemies,
they decided to align themselves with the Spanish.
By 1835 the Caddos of Louisiana had been
pushed westward and relocated among the Caddos
and Choctaws in Texas. In 1859 the Caddos were
removed to Indian Territory in Oklahoma.
SETTLEMENTS
Made up of more than two dozen tribes, the
Caddos were the most sophisticated of all Texas
Indians. Successful sedentary (settled) farmers,
they produced a bountiful food supply and had a
well-developed social and religious organization.
The Caddos were grouped into three large, loosely
organized confederacies — the Hasinais (the
largest), the Kadohadachos ("real Caddo" or
"Caddo proper"), and the Natchitoches (the
smallest) — all sharing the same culture, but living
in separate villages.
The large Caddo population of about 200,000 at
the beginning of the 1500s decreased quickly as
they died from the European diseases of smallpox,
measles, and cholera. Two hundred years later,
the population had fallen to perhaps 10,000.
Caddo country is in East Texas, gently rolling
countryside sloping toward the Gulf of Mexico,
now known as the "piney woods." Part of the
Texas coastal plain, it has a mild climate. The
Caddo tribal complex, controlled by the tribe, is
located on 37 acres, seven miles north of
Gracemont, in Caddo County, Oklahoma.
APPEARANCE
When seeing Caddos for the first time, early
visitors were startled. Caddos had obviously
slanted foreheads (deliberately deformed during
infancy), pierced ears and noses (Caddo means
"pierced nose"), and were tattooed on their faces
from the forehead, down the nose, to the tip of
the chin. On their bodies were fancy tattoos of
plant and arrimal designs.
Men's hair styles varied from tribe to tribe. Some
men cut their hair short but let a thin, waist-length
lock grow from one spot. Others shaved or
plucked out all their hair except for a narrow band
extending over the head from forehead to neck.
Card 8
It was dyed red, greased, and feathers and down
from swans or ducks were stuck into it.
Women's hair styles were much simpler —
greased and parted in the middle, then braided or
gathered together and tied with strips of rabbit
skin into a knot at the neck.
CLOTHING
The Caddos were expert tanners of deerskin.
Using deer and buffalo brains, they treated
deerskin until it was very soft and became a rich
black color. Garments were fringed and small
white seeds were sewn on. Men wore leggings,
breechcloths, and shirts of deerskin. Women
wore sleeveless deerskin blouses and breechcloths
under mulberry bark or deerskin skirts. Buffalohide cloaks were worn in colder weather.
TOOLS
The Caddos used very basic cultivation methods.
In order to clear taller weeds from a field, they
set it on fire. They used hoes made from wood
or from the shoulder blade of a buffalo to prepare
the soil for planting and to clear weeds from
around growing crops.
The Caddos invented and used the same trotline
fishing rig that is used in East Texas and
throughout the Southeast today. Short lines were
attached about a foot apart along a long line.
Each short line had a baited hook. One end of
the long line was weighted down, and the other
was tied to a boat or a tree. Lines were checked
several times a day. Many large fish were, and
still are, caught using this method.
FOOD
Traditional
Caddo
farming
was
quite
sophisticated. They rotated their crops and used
plant and animal matter as fertilizer. Both men
and women worked in their large gardens. They
grew maize (corn), five or six varieties of beans,
squash, sunflowers, melons, pumpkins, and
tobacco.
The Caddos made pottery from clay, shaping the
jars and bowls by hand, polishing the clay with
smooth stones, and using shells and sharp sticks
to scratch designs on the wet clay.
These crops were eaten along with meat from
deer, buffalo, and bear. The Caddos picked wild
berries, nuts, figs, cherries, and peaches and dug
up edible roots and tubers. Occasionally, they
found a beehive and removed the honey.
The Caddos were clever hunters. Before they
acquired horses, they used dogs to hunt bear,
javelina, and even buffalo. Besides tracking down
animals, a dog could pull supplies on a travois.
The Caddos dug pits and baited them to trap
rabbit, coyote, fox, and beaver.
A hunter
disguised himself with the antlers and hide of a
deer so he could crawl close up to his quarry.
Card 8
Bamboo canes were split into threads and woven
into mats, sieves (strainers), fish nets, animal
traps, and baskets. Some of the baskets were
made in animal shapes; some were lined with clay
to make waterproof containers.
CEREMONIES
Special houses were built for war, feasts, and
dances. Prayers were said and offerings were
made for seven or eight days before war. When
the war was over, the special house was
completely burned to the ground.
CUSTOMS
Caddo men had a custom of weeping and wailing
when greeting strangers. Guests were welcomed
with much ceremony, gifts, and food. A crowd of
people would gather to look at the visitors.
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
LOCATION
POPULATION
LANGUAGE FAMILY
South Texas—Gulf Coastal Plain inland
from Galveston Bay, south and west past
present-day San Antonio
1675 (estimate) - 2,247
1843 - 0
Coahuiltecan
HISTORY
Little is known about the beginnings of the
Coahuiltecan tribes. We know their name is
taken from the northeastern Mexican state of
Coahuila. When they were first contacted by the
Spaniards, the Coahuiltecans were divided and
subdivided into perhaps as many as 200 small
tribes and bands.
Following the Spanish explorers came Catholic
missionaries. Missions were built, and attempts
were made to Christianize the Coahuiltecans. The
European explorers and missionaries brought
diseases which caused the Coahuiltecan
population to become sparser. Apaches and
Comanches attacked and killed many in the
remaining bands. Some of the Coahuiltecans fled
south to Mexico and blended in with other
groups. By 1850 the Coahuiltecans had
disappeared completely from Texas.
SETTLEMENTS
The Coahuiltecan tribes were spread over almost
all of southern Texas west of the San Antonio
River and the northeastern part of Coahuila,
Mexico. They ranged as far south as the Gulf
Coast at the mouth of the Nueces River. They
lived in small portable shelters made by placing
reed mats and animal hides over bent saplings to
form low, domed huts known as brush lodges.
They were hunters and gatherers in the brush and
cactus country of South Texas. It was difficult to
survive, so they had to leam how to adapt to their
surroundings and use almost everything.
APPEARANCE
The Coahuiltecans, by all reports, were a
handsome group of people, small and well-built.
Both men and women were tattooed, mainly to
show their tribe or band membership. Both sexes
pierced ears, noses, and breasts and inserted
feathers, sticks, and bones into the holes.
They had great strength and endurance. It was
reported that Coahuiltecan men could run after a
deer for an entire day without resting and without
showing fatigue.
CLOTHING
Because the climate was warm, the Coahuiltecans
did not wear much clothing. The men wore long
breechcloths that fell below their knees. Women
wore short skirts made of soft skins.
Both wore fiber sandals and lavishly decorated
their clothing with animal teeth, seeds, and other
ornaments. In cool or rainy weather, they put on
cloaks made of coyote hides or blankets made of
rabbit skins twisted into ropelike strands and sewn
together.
FOOD
The Coahuiltecans roamed around the west and
south of Texas in a constant search for food. Fish
were caught in the lagoons along the Gulf Coast
and roasted without being gutted. Sometimes the
fish were set out for as long as eight days,
allowing flies to lay eggs in the rotting flesh.
This was considered a special delicacy. Fish
bones were ground and eaten.
Card 11
It is said that their favorite foods were pecans and
the prickly pear cactus tunas (fruits).
The
Coahuiltecans squeezed the juice from the tunas,
dried them, preserved them by roasting, and
stored them for future use. Even the unappetizing
prickly pear skins were dried, pounded into flour,
and eaten. When the Coahuiltecans could not
find water, they squeezed juice out of the prickly
pear and drank it as a water substitute.
They gathered mesquite beans which they ground
into a nutritious flour. Agave bulbs were roasted
in pits, ground into flour, and eaten right away or
stored for future use. During the winter, roots of
various plants were the main foods but were often
hard to find and difficult to dig out of the desert
soil.
Historians believe that the Coahuiltecans did not
hunt buffalo. Deer were hunted in several ways.
Sometimes the deer were chased in relays for as
long as two days, long enough for the animals to
become totally exhausted and easy to kill. Other
times dry grass was set on fire or a brush fence
enclosure (a "surround") was made.
Deer,
javelina, and other small game were driven into
the enclosure.
Occasionally hunters were able to drive deer into
the Gulf waters, keeping them there until they
drowned. Eventually their bodies were swept
back onto the beach by the onshore breezes.
Card 11
Rats, mice, and snakes were hunted. Even the
bones were saved, ground up, and eaten. The
Coahuiltecans also searched for snails, ant eggs,
frogs, lizards, salamanders, worms, and spiders.
Wood and deer droppings were sometimes eaten
when food was scarce.
TOOLS
Pottery is not mentioned in any historical
documents relating to the Coahuiltecans. The
only basket referred to is a very large carrying
basket made from woven reeds and used with a
tumpline over the forehead to carry heavy or
bulky items.
The Coahuiltecans used bows made from the
tough mesquite root and long cane arrows. They
protected themselves with small shields covered
with animal hides. Their all-purpose digging,
grubbing, prying, and throwing tools were curved
wooden sticks. Knives, scrapers, and hammers
were made of flint. Scooped-out gourds were
used for storing flour or water.
Even the
hollowed-out insides of prickly pear cactus
"leaves" were used as containers.
CEREMONIES
Dances were held to
give thanks for
good fortune in
food gathering and
victories in war.
During the dance,
both
men
and
women shuffled and
hopped around a
large bonfire all
night without rest.
There was much
feasting, and shamans, or medicine men, made
speeches. Dances ended at daybreak, and guests
took home any leftover food.
CUSTOMS
A l l members of a Coahuiltecan band were equal.
Everyone was involved in food garnering and
hunts, and everyone received an equal share of
the food that was found or killed. A l l cooperated
in building shelters and defending their territory.
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
COMANCHE
(kah MAN chee)
bow and arrows
LOCATION
POPULATION
LANGUAGE F A M I L Y
Texas Panhandle south to westem Texas
1700 (estimate) - 20,000
1990 Census -- 1,478 in Texas
Shoshonean
HISTORY
The Comanche name comes from the Spanish
term, camino ancho, meaning "wide trail." The
Comanches were said to be the most determined
enemies the Spaniards, Mexicans, other Indians,
and Texans ever had.
Before 1600 there was one large group, the
Shoshones. During the 1600s the group separated
-- the Shoshones remained in Wyoming and
Montana, and the Comanches moved into what is
now Colorado.
Originally the Comanches were made up of six
divisons that had very descriptive names - Honey
Eaters, Those Who Turn Back, Those Who Stay
Downstream, Liver Eaters, Buffalo Eaters, and
Root Eaters. Later, a seventh division was added,
the Antelopes.
In the early 1700s, the Comanches moved south
from Colorado into Texas to challenge Apache
control of the Plains. The Spaniards had taught
the Comanches the value of horses in the hunt
and in war. Comanches became master horsemen.
They owned many horses, more than any other
American Indian tribe of that time.
The Comanches displaced Apache Mescalero and
Jicarilla bands who retreated to the south and
west. The Lipans alone were left to fight the
Comanches. Eventually even the fierce Lipans
fled into south-central Texas. The Comanches
flourished. The plains were perfect for people
who lived on horseback. The canyons of West
Texas offered natural horse corrals, and the plains
above the canyons had limitless grass and much
game.
By 1750 the Comanches controlled the southem
plains including western Texas, and would rule it
for the next hundred years. The Texas Rangers
were organized to protect the white settlers from
the Comanches.
SETTLEMENTS
The Comanches had no permanent settlements,
but lived in tipis as they followed the buffalo.
The Comancheria ("land of the Comanche")
covered an area of more than 240,000 square
miles. It remained under their control until 1875.
APPEARANCE
The Comanches were copper-colored with long,
straight hair. The men wore their hair in two
braids decorated with strips of fur, leather, and
perhaps a feather. Women cut their hair so it was
shorter than the men's and also wore braids.
Comanches were short and muscular. The men
plucked out their facial hair and tattooed their
faces and bodies. They pierced their ears so they
could wear earrings made of shells or bone.
Women painted red or yellow lines above and
below their eyelids. They also painted the insides
of their ears red and drew red circles or triangles
on both cheeks.
CLOTHING
Buffalo hides and deerskins were used by the
women to make clothing for themselves and their
Card 12
families. Boys wore no clothing for most of their
_ first ten years, then began wearing breechcloths.
Girls wore breechcloths until they reached their
teens. Then they wore loosely fitting, longsleeved deerskin dresses that were decorated with
fringe and beads. For cooler weather, everyone
wore robes and high boots made of buffalo hides.
FOOD
Buffalo, which they hunted from horseback, was
the lifeblood of Comanche culture. The ariimals
were butchered at the site of the kill. The meat
was then wrapped up in the hides and packed
back to camp on horses. Comanches also hunted
elk, black bears for their fat, antelope, deer, even
wild horses i f they were very hungry. They
preferred not to eat fish, wild birds, dogs, or
coyotes, but had no taboos against eating anything
when food was scarce.
The women gathered wild plants, fruits, berries,
prickly pear tunas (fruits), pecans, acorns, and
various roots to vary their diet. They did not
farm but obtained corn and tobacco through trade.
The women made pemmican (a dried meat
mixture) and stored it in parfleche bags.
TOOLS
The Comanches owned only those tools that could
be easily carried during their frequent moves.
Small household utensils such as scrapers for
tanning hides and spoons and ladles carved from
wood were always included.
Card 12
Bison-hid^ shields were decorated with bear teeth
to show that the owner was a great hunter, and
with horse tails to show power as a raider.
Feathers were used on a shield to fool the enemy
and spoil his aim as the shield moved.
Comanches also used red-painted lances when
hunting buffalo and a short ax in war.
The men's most useful and valued tool was the
bow and arrow, made from Osage orange or
hickory wood. The bow was short, about three
feet long, so it would be easy to use while riding
a horse. The bowstring was made of buffalo or
deer sinew which had been twisted together to
make it very strong. Arrows were made of
straight sticks from the dogwood tree.
CEREMONIES
"Counting coup" was showing courage during
battle by touching or hitting an enemy or killing
him close up, or by captaring horses from an
enemy camp. For the coup to count, it had to be
witnessed by others. After a battle, coups could
be claimed and judged by the rest of the warriors.
A n eagle dance, featuring weapons and clothing
decorated with eagle feathers, was given by a
warrior for his son or nephew so the boy would
get strength and power from the eagle.
CUSTOMS
When a tribe member got sick, a special
ceremony might be held to help him get well.
The shaman, or medicine man, prayed, smoked
tobacco, and used various herbs as medicine for
the sick person. I f the person died, all the female
relatives cried, tore their clothing, and cut
themselves with knives or sharp rocks.
Sometimes they even cut o f f a finger to show
how sad they were. The male relatives might cut
their hair.
The band council usually chose a war chief and a
peace chief. The war chief was an aggressive,
courageous warrior. He had total authority only
during raids or battles. The peace chief was
usually a wise and respected older male who was
willing to act as an advisor for the band.
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
JUIVL/
(hoo M A H no)
facial tattoos
|
LOCATION
|
Rio Grande Valley from El Paso
j downstream to the junction of the Rio
1 Grande with the Mexican Rio Conchos
POPULATION
1582 - 10,000 (high estimate)
1900 - 0
HISTORY
Of all the Indian tribes that have lived in Texas,
the Jumanos are the most mysterious. In 1536
they welcomed the Spanish traders, Cabeza de
Vftt*, o«*&. V\\t> Wc€&, companions, the first
Europeans tcAravel west along the Gulf Coast
into the interior of North America. These
Spaniards reported that the Jumanos were very
friendly and offered to be their guides into the
plains. Before long, the Jumanos became the
trade middlemen between various Texas Indian
tribes and the Spanish colonists who came north
from Mexico. The Jumanos had acquired horses
from the Spaniards and became busy horse
traders.
Anthropologists and historians often refer to the
Jumano "problem," that is, where they lived and
why they disappeared. There is evidence that the
Jumanos wac farmers in the Rio Grande River
Valley during the winter and buffalo hunters on
the plains during the summer. Most of our
knowledge about the Jumanos is based on the
writings of Spanish and French visitors.
SETTLEMENTS
The jumanos probably lived in rancherias, or
villages, and successfully farmed what was then
a fertile part of the Rio Grande's Big Bend
region. Their adobe houses (pueblos) were low
and square, half under and half above ground.
This type of house was well suited to long, hot
summers. A Jumano family slept in the cool
underground section during the day and, after the
|J|jp
v
LANGUAGE FAMILY
I originally Uto-Aztecan or Tanoan;
J later Apache. Spanish, or Caddoan
sun set, climbed up to the strong, flat roof to
catch the evening breezes.
When Jumanos went buffalo hunting into the
westem Texas plains north of the Davis
Mountains, they lived in easily-transported tipis.
In the late 1600s, when their Spanish friends and
protectors left the area, Jumano bands may have
allied with the strong Apaches. Other Jumanos
may have moved south into Mexico to earn a
living by working in silver mines. The Jumano
people gradually disappeared during the 1700s as
they blended with other Indian groups.
APPEARANCE
The Spaniards found the Jumanos to be a clean
and handsome people. A Jumano man cut his
hair to the middle of his head and used a special
red dye to make it look like a cap. From the top
of his head grew a long lock of hair into which he
twisted goose or crane feathers.
A Jumano woman wore her hair either loose or
tied close to her head. Both men and women
pierced ears and noses so they could wear the
coral and turquoise ornaments they obtained
through trade. They also tattooed rayas (stripes)
onto bodies and faces.
CLOTHING
Since the Jumanos lived in a climate that was
warm much of the year, the men and children
usually wore no clothing. The warriors would put
on buffalo-skin robes for special occasions.
Women and older men wore clothing made from
Card O
deerskins that were tanned until they were very
soft. The women made skirts and poncho-type
blouses of deerskin and cloaks from the tanned
hides of cattle.
The Jumanos hunted large and small game
including deer, antelope, elk, rabbit, armadillo,
beaver, and even porcupine, rodents, and snakes.
Part of the tribe traveled long distances to find
buffalo. The meat had to be dried during the hunt
so it would not spoil during the trip home.
Before the Jumanos owned horses, everything
from the hunt had to be carried on men's backs or
on dog travois.
FOOD
The Jumanos were mainly farmers, but they did
not irrigate their fields. Since the area where they
lived did not get much rainfall, they planted their
crops in river valleys and flood plains where the
soil was fertile and moist.
TOOLS
The Jumanos probably used digging and weeding
tools made out of sticks and animal bones. We
know they used bows and arrows, with bowstrings
made from animal sinew, to kill smaller game and
for war. They also used wooden clubs and
protected themselves with buffalo-hide shields.
Both men and women worked in the fields and
raised beans, gourds, squash, corn, cotton,
sunflowers, and tobacco. The women also kept
house, took care o f the children, ground the com
and seeds for flour, and cooked the food.
Food was cooked by stone boiling. Stones were
heated in a fire, picked up with long sticks, and
dropped into a gourd partly filled with water.
When the stones began to cool, they were taken
out, and more hot stones were added until the
water started to boil. Then food was put into the
gourd. Stone boiling was done until the food was
cooked. I f there were no gourd to use as a
cooking pot, the Jumanos would dig a hole in the
ground and line it with a piece of rawhide to
serve as a makeshift pot.
CEREMONIES
The harvest celebration always included a big
bonfire and lots of food. The Jumanos made
music by clapping their hands together and
singing. Others danced in time with the clapping.
CUSTOMS
When the Jumanos celebrated harvest time, it
gave them an opportunity to get together with
other bands and tribes. A special house was
prepared for guests, but the Jumanos did not come
out to greet them. Instead, they stayed in their
own houses and piled their belongings in a heap
in the middle of the room. Then they sat turned
toward the walls, heads down, with their hair
• , , hanging over their faces. This was their way of
welcoming their visitors.
(
The Jumanos gathered and ate several kinds of
cacti, including pitahaya and tunas (fruit) of the
prickly pear. Agave bulbs were cooked in earthen
ovens.
During dry years the Jumanos ate
flatbread made from grinding mesquite and
tornillo bean pods.
Card 13
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications. Inc.
KARANKAWA
(kah R O N K ah wah)
cane weir
LOCATION
POPULATION
LANGUAGE FAMILY
on the Texas Gulf coast from the
southem tip of Galveston Island south to
present-day Corpus Christi
1690 (estimate) - 2,800
1858 -- 0
Karankawan
HISTORY
In 1528 the Spanish explorer. Cabeza de Vaca,
and about 90 of his men were shipwrecked on an
island o f f the coast of present-day Texas. The
survivors were found and cared for by two
Karankawa tribes.
By spring, most of the
Spaniards had died of hunger or illness and had
given the Indians a stomach disorder that killed
about half of them.
The twelve surviving Spaniards, including a
seriously-ill de Vaca, traveled to the mainland
where they lived with another Karankawa tribe for
six years. After the Spaniards left, no Europeans
visited the Karankawas for more than 150 years.
In 1685, French explorer La Salle landed at
Matagorda Bay and established a fort in the heart
of Karankawa country. Settlers soon followed.
Spanish missionaries came north from Mexico.
De Vaca's account of his experiences with the
Karankawas is the most complete record we have.
As Spanish mission documents are found and
read, scholars may someday learn more about the
Karankawas and their lifestyle.
SETTLEMENTS
The Karankawas lived in northeastern Mexico and
along 400 miles of the southeastern Texas coast,
including the offshore islands. The mainland was
a coastal prairie — flat and grassy, with sandy
ridges and swampy regions. There were wooded
areas along the many streams that wandered to the
Gulf. As hunter-gatherers, the Karankawas lived
off the land.
Since they ventured out to barrier islands and
traveled even as far as 100 miles inland to find
food, their houses were portable lean-to shelters
covered with woven grass mats. Their biggest
problem was finding drinkable water. During the
summer, rain was frequent, but it evaporated
rapidly, so the Karankawas did not plant crops.
There was little rainfall in the winter.
There were at least five major bands or groups.
They shared a common language and culture, but
each lived independently of the others. None of
them got along with their Apache neighbors to the
southwest, the Comanches to the west and north,
and ever-increasing numbers of settlers coming
from the south and east. Excellent trackers who
knew the countryside of central and south Texas,
the Karankawas later became scouts for the
Mexicans and Anglo-Americans in wars against
their Apache and Comanche enemies.
APPEARANCE
The Karankawas were very tall and strong. They
had great endurance and could walk for miles
through the sand and swamps without tiring.
The Spaniards reported on the Karankawa males'
ferocious appearance. The faces of young boys
were tattooed, and the men pierced each side of
their upper chest and lower lip, pushing pieces of
reed through the holes. The men braided their
long, coarse hair, but the women let theirs hang
loose and uncombed. Mosquitoes were thick
along the coast, so Karankawas smeared strongsmelling alligator grease and mud onto their
bodies as a repellent.
Card 14
CLOTHING
Living in a warm climate, the Karankawas did not
need much clothing. Karankawa women wore
knee-length skirts made of deerskin and shawls of
Spanish moss.
Warriors sometimes wore
breechcloths, with fringe that almost touched the
ground behind them.
Their neighbors, the
Tonkawas, called the Karankawas "no moccasins"
since they always went barefoot. During colder
weather the Karankawas wrapped up in bear
skins.
FOOD
The Karankawas looked for food by wading in
shallow lagoons. Because of this, their Lipan
Apache neighbors called them "people walking in
the water." The Karankawas didn't use fishhooks,
but caught fish and alligators by shooting them
with bows and arrows. They also trapped fish in
cane weirs, raked up mussels and oysters, and
caught turtles.
On the mainland the Karankawas hunted deer,
occasional stray buffalo, javelina, antelope, bear,
small mammals, and birds. They gathered birds'
eggs, berries, nuts, and seeds.
1
Finding food was a grim struggle. In order to
survive, they had to eat almost any food they
found, including locusts, lice, bear fat, and even
raw and spoiled meat. They never spent more
than a few weeks at any one campsite but would
return year after year to favorite places.
TOOLS
Karankawa pottery was coated with asphaltum (a
tar-like substance) to make it waterproof. They
cooked by pushing pots containing food down
into glowing coals. They ground nuts, seeds, and
corn between large, flat stones, using the meal to
make bread that was baked in hot ashes.
Card 14
The Karankawas made wobbly dugout canoes that
were propelled with poles. These canoes were
used only for short trips across quiet lagoons.
Fortunately, Karankawas were good swimmers, as
the canoes often tipped over.
The Karankawas used cedar bows that were as tall
as they were. Their arrows were made of long
pieces of cane, with three feathers at the end to
increase
accuracy.
The Karankawas often
wore deerskin guards
on their left wrists
when shooting arrows,
to protect themselves
from the snap of the
bowstring. The long
bow and arrow in the
hands of a strong
Karankawa hunter was
a powerful weapon. It
was reported that they
could kill an animal
from a distance of 100
yards.
CEREMONIES
There was a dance held at each full moon and to
celebrate successful fishing and hunting trips.
Every day of the three-day ceremony each man
drank about five gallons of a bitter tea called
"black drink."
The Karankawas made music with tortoise-shell
tambourines, reed whistles, and simple flutes that
produced a droning sound. The men, who had
painted half their faces black and half vermillion
(red), performed a "shuffle dance" in a circle
around a big bonfire while making loud shrieking
sounds and contorting their bodies. Women never
danced but stayed on the sidelines where they
howled with their hair over their faces.
CUSTOMS
It was reported that the Karankawas practiced
cannibalism. I f they did, it was not due to hunger
but to take the ultimate revenge on their enemies
or magically to gain their courage and power.
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
TONKAWA
(TONE ah wah)
midden.
LOCATION
POPULATION
LANGUAGE FAMILY
the plains of central and
south central Texas
1690 (estimate) -- 1,600
1990 Census - 20 in Texas
Tonkawan
HISTORY
SETTLEMENTS
The name Tonkawa comes from the Waco word
for "they all stick together." The Tonkawas
called themselves "the most human of people."
Archaelogists believe they were natives of Texas.
The Tonkawas lived west of the Hasinais (a
Caddo tribe). Their range was on the plains of
central Texas ~ an area bordered by Cibolo Creek
on the southwest, the Trinity River on the
northeast, and coastal plains to the south.
During the late 1600s Spanish explorers found the
Tonkawas living in central Texas. The explorers
reported that the Tonkawas did not get along with
some of their neighbors including the Comanches,
who forced the Tonkawas to move farther south.
In 1719 the Tonkawas destroyed the sacred fire
temple of their nearby enemies, the Hasinais, but
were friends with other Caddo groups.
Until the 1800s the Tonkawas were hostile to any
Apaches. This helped them make peace with
Apache enemies — the Comanches, Wichitas, and
Hasinais. This reversed during the 1800s when
Tonkawas became friendly with the Lipan
Apaches and hostile toward the Comanches and
Wichitas. They usually got along with Atakapas
and Coahuiltecans to the south and southwest.
The Tonkawas befriended white settlers who came
into Texas during the early 1800s and often traded
with them. In 1855 the U . S . government moved
about 300 Tonkawas onto two small reservations
on the Brazos River. In 1862 a group of
Delawares, Shawnees, and Caddos, wanting to pay
off old grudges, massacred 137 Tonkawas.
By 1884 the remaining Tonkawas were
temporarily resettled near Fort Griffin, Texas. By
1905 they were reported to be prosperous farmers
on a small reservation near Ponca in Oklahoma
Indian Territory. Their descendants still live there.
They lived in scattered villages, sometimes
camping in brush huts on top of middens
(mounds).
They lived in small bands and
attacked outsiders who trespassed.
APPEARANCE
The Tonkawas were slender but well-built,
smaller than the Comanches, and fast runners.
Both men and women parted their long hair in the
middle and let it hang loose. Often the men
braided their hair or tied it with beaver fur to
keep it out of their way. Some women wore their
hair short.
Tonkawas painted and
tattooed their bodies and
wore lots of jewelry,
especially long earrings
and necklaces of shells,
bones, and feathers.
The women painted
black stripes over their
faces and bodies. Even
Tonkawa horses were
painted with colorful
concentric circles and
other designs that no
one could copy without
permission.
Janci
M
&
HI
Mm? I
Card 18
CLOTHING
Tonkawa men wore very long breechcloths that
reached below their knees. They decorated their
clothing with animal teeth and dried seeds. For
protection they wore buckskin or buffalo-hide
leggings and moccasins.
Tonkawa women wore short wrap-around skirts
made o f buckskin or rabbit skins twisted into
strands and woven together. I n colder weather
deerskin shirts and buffalo-hide robes kept
everybody warm.
FOOD
The Tonkawas were hunters, fishermen, and
gatherers. Since they did not plant crops and
harvest food to store for later use, they often were
hungry in the winter, jThey gathered pecans, acorns, and mesquite
beans, herbs, roots, sunflower seeds, fruits, and
especially tunas (fruits) of the prickly pear cactus.
Fish were caught, dried, and cooked or ground
into flour. Sometimes the Tonkawas left the fish
in the open air for over a week. Swarms of
insects gathered on them and laid eggs. The
rotting fish and larvae were eaten as a special
treat.
The normal hunting range of the Tonkawas
included buffalo country. Even once they had
horses, however, they preferred not to hunt
buffalo since they did not want to meet hostile
Comanches who roamed the Texas grasslands.
Deer meat and hides were especially important to
the Tonkawas. They made "surrounds" (brush
enclosures) to catch deer as well as smaller
animals. Wolves and coyotes were taboo, but
dogs, horses, and even spiders, ant eggs, worms,
lizards, rotten wood, and spoiled meat were eaten.
They sometimes sweetened drinks and stews with
handfuls of earth.
The women wove baskets and mats from grass
and other fibers. Pottery was made or obtained
from the Caddos to the east.
CEREMONIES
After killing their enemies, the Tonkawas made a
ceremony out of eating the flesh. This was done
only to gain the enemies' courage, never to satisfy
hunger.
A scalp dance was performed after the flesheating portion of the ceremony. Wearing war
paint and their best breechcloths, Tonkawa
warriors formed a large circle around the women,
who held up long poles topped with enemy
scalps. The warriors played rhythm instruments
- drums made of dried deerskins stretched tightly
over hoops, reed whistles, shell clackers, and
sticks or stones clapped together. As they played,
they chanted "Ha, ah, ha, ah" over and over while
leaping and dancing to the music. They danced
through the night, until everyone was exhausted.
CUSTOMS
It was reported that the Tonkawas were very
interested in the meetings of other Indians and
settlers. Tonkawas often appeared uninvited at
social occasions to see what was happening.
Bands were the basic units of Tonkawa society.
Individuals lived in family groups, and family
groups joined together to form a band. Bands not
only lived near each other but also helped one
another in daily activities such as building a new
dwelling, hunting, or gathering.
Babies stayed in cradleboards until they were a
year and half old. During this time a baby's head
was flattened by tying a board to it. Once the
forehead was sufficiently flattened, the child was
allowed to toddle
TOOLS
Tools were simple land basic. The most important
weapons in hunting and war were lances and
bows with arrows poisoned from the juice of
mistletoe leaves. For defense the Tonkawas made
shields, jackets, and helmets from buffalo hides.
Card 18
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
The American bison, commonly known as the
buffalo, was the largest of the North American
big game animals. The Great Plains grasslands,
extending south from Canada to the central part of
Texas and east from the Rocky Mountains to the
Mississippi River, was the home of 30-50 million
buffalo before white settlers began to arrive in the
1700s. Then buffalo were slaughtered by the
millions - some to feed the incoming settlers
and the rest simply to keep them from the Indians
who needed them to survive. By the beginning of
the 1900s, there were fewer than a thousand left.
APPEARANCE A N D BEHAVIOR
A buffalo bull can weigh as much as 2,000
pounds and stands more than six feet high at the
shoulders. His massive head and forequarters are
covered with long, shaggy hair. His body slims
down toward the hindquarters, which are covered
with shorter hair.
The female buffalo is
somewhat smaller. Both have horns, but bull
horns are larger.
The buffalo is sluggish, has poor eyesight, and
can be incredibly stubborn. Ordinarily a buffalo
herd moves at a slow, leisurely pace when
grazing. I f frightened or angry, buffalo can move
rapidly and be extremely dangerous and
unpredictable. Any sudden fright, such as the
shadow of a cloud or the bark of a prairie dog,
could cause a terrifying stampede, with the earth
shaking as they thunder over it.
L I F E ON T H E PLAINS
Buffalo were constantly on the move as they
grazed their way across the plains. About every
third day they needed to find water. Buffalo
migration was merely a moderate movement
northward or southward as the seasons changed,
as when they left the hot plains in summer for the
cooler north.
Buffalo had a habit of wallowing or rolling in
mud or dust. This helped get rid of old hair that
came off in patches, and disturbed flies and other
biting insects that settled on the bare spots.
Buffalo wallows were low spots on the land that
caught and held rain.
I f someone said the
"wallows are f u l l ," that meant there had been a
good, soaking rain. I f a wallow spot was not
available, buffalo liked to rub their bodies against
trees. This destroyed many trees and twisted
others out of shape.
Wolves and coyotes were the main enemies of the
buffalo. They attacked stray calves or old bulls
weakened by disease or wounds. Other enemies
were the grizzly bear and mountain lion.
A wind-driven prairie fire could race quickly
across the plains. Sometimes a buffalo herd could
not escape, and buffalo would be burned to death
or trampled in the rush to get away.
HUNTING
BUFFALO
Before the Indians had horses, they had to hunt
buffalo on foot. Sometimes the Indians would
chase the buffalo and try to shoot arrows at them
while ranning. Since that was exhausting and not
always successful, the Indians tried to sneak up
on grazing buffalo by crawling quietly through the
high grass while disguised in buffalo robes or
deerskins.
Another possibility was to create a "surround."
Indians would set the grass on fire on three sides
of the herd and shoot them as they tried to
escape. A variation of this was to build a threesided brush or wooden pen near a herd, drive the
Card 25
buffalo into the corral, and kill them from the
open side.
I f the tribe lived near canyons, they might use the
"buffalo fall" method.
They would build a
funnel-shaped pen with the narrow end at a c l i f f s
edge. Shouts and well-placed grass fires caused
the buffalo to stampede into the wide end of the
funnel and toward the cliff. Those buffalo that
ran over the cliff would be dead or crippled from
the fall. Indian women would be at the bottom of
the-cliff to kill any wounded buffalo and start the
butchering process.
E V E R Y T H I N G B U T T H E SNORT
The buffalo was the Indians' chief resource. It
furnished them with food; hides for tipis, warm
blankets, winter cloaks, shields, traveling bags,
footwear, and coffins; the skull for ladles and
drinking vessels; bones for tools, ornaments,
utensils and toys; horns for
spoons, drinking cups, and
headresses; brains for softening
sldns; shoulder blades for hoes
or picks; small bones for awls;
tendons
f o r thread
and
bowstrings; hoofs for glue to
attach arrow feathers; tail hair
for ropes, girths, and belts; oil
for cosmetics, cooking, and
ceremonial
purposes;
and
"buffalo chips" (droppings) for
fuel. When a warrior died, he
hoped he would go to a land
abounding in buffalo.
Card 25
T H E END O F T H E B U F F A L O
By the middle ofthe 1800s, the buffalo began to
disappear, many of them killed by white hunters.
According to one historian, there is evidence that
the U.S. military knew that the Indians depended
heavily on the buffalo and gave white hunters free
ammunition to wipe out entire buffalo herds.
This alarmed the Indians who then contacted the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
An oral
agreement was made that no white hunters would
be allowed south of the Arkansas River in
Kansas. But northwestern Texas was public land.
The oral agreement was invalid,
and the killing continued.
RESTORATION
The number of buffalo in the
U.S. was reduced to about 500
near the end ofthe 1800s. The
conservation-minded New York
Zoological Society worked hard
to bring these animals back. In
1907 two long horse cars
carrying fifteen buffalo left
New York City. This small
herd was placed in the Wichita
Forest Reserve in Oklahoma. More city-bred
buffalo were brought to Montana in 1908 and
South Dakota and Nebraska in 1913. There are
now over 100,000 buffalo grazing in North
American parks and reserves, including some in
Texas.
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.
KIOWA
INTRODUCTION
The presence of the horse changed the lives of
many Texas Indians.
It allowed sedentary
(settled) farmers to become hunters who rarely
went hungry. No longer did Indians have to wait
to hunt until grazing animal herds came close to
them. Being able to ride horses made it faster
and easier for hunters to reach the buffalo range.
Buffalo were easier to kill from horseback. More
buffalo could be slaughtered and more skins
carried back to camp than in the past, since horses
were stronger pack animals than dogs.
With horses for transportation, traveling long
distances was less of a problem. Bands could
meet more frequently for tribal ceremonies and
socializing. Bigger tipis could be made because
horses could drag longer poles and carry heavier
loads over rough terrain. Having horses also
increased the number of feuds between tribes and
invasions on neighbors' territories. Aggressive
tribes became even more aggressive.
HISTORY
Horses were first brought to the New World i n
the mid-1500s by Spanish explorers searching for
gold.
A Comanche legend tells about the
Spaniards who camped with them for several days
and rode "magic dogs." When the Spaniards left,
the Comanches followed.
As soon as the
Spaniards left their horses unattended, the
Comanches, realizing the value of the horses,
quietly led the herd back to their camp.
The Indian demand for horses skyrocketed.
Sometimes the Indians obtained horses in trade
from the Spanish colonists in northern Mexico
and New Mexico. The Caddos brought pottery,
baskets, hunting bows, and salt to the annual
trading fairs at Hasinai villages and exchanged
them for horses brought by the Jumanos.
Sometimes the Indians were able to catch strays
roaming on the plains. Horses were stolen at
every opportunity, not only from the Spanish but
also from other Indians. By the 1800s, stealing a
tethered horse from inside an enemy camp was
considered an act of tremendous bravery.
MUSTANGS
Horses that escaped from the Spaniards or the
Indians were called mustangs. These wild horses
lived on the lush grasslands with buffalo, elk,
antelope, and other prairie animals. The name
mustang may come from mesteno, the Spanish
word for stray animal.
Mustangs are usually smaller than the average
horse, about 14 hands (56 inches) high at the
withers and about 700 pounds. A mustang might
be any color and looks shaggy and untidy.
Mustangs are well-suited to life on the plains
since they are descended from Arabians and Barbs
(North African version of the Arabian), bred for
endurance and speed. These two qualities are the
basis for this old saying: " A white man will ride
the mustang until it is played out: a Mexican will
take it and ride it another day until he thinks it is
played out; then an Indian will mount it, and ride
it to where he is going."
Card 29
T H E INDIAN R I D E R
Both men and women were enthusiastic and
accomplished riders. Boys and girls learned to
ride early in life and spent much time racing each
other on horseback.
A rider mounted from the right side, Spanishstyle. To guide his horse, he used an Indian
invention called a "war bridle" made from a long
strip of braided rawhide. This rein was looped
around the horse's neck and the end curled up and
tucked into the rider's belt. I f the rider was
thrown o f f the horse, he could grab the loose,
dragging end o f the rein and catch his horse
before it ran off. During battle, an Indian would
hang down one side of his horse and use the
horse as a shield.
Indians rode bareback or made saddles copied
from the Spanish style, often with saddlebags to
match. To make a saddle for everyday use,
untanned buffalo hide was stretched over a
wooden frame. As the hide shrank, it tightened
around the frame. I n order not to weigh down the
horse, warriors and hunters preferred a lightweight
"pad" saddle, that is, a deerskin stuffed with hair
or grass, with a girth and short
stirrups attached.
By the 1960s, people began to worry that the
mustangs would soon disappear from the plains
forever. Schoolchildren wrote letters to
congressmen asking the federal government to
save these last wild horses. I n 1971, a law was
finally passed to protect the mustangs.
The federal government's Bureau of Land
Management (BLM) estimated in 1990 that about
42,000 mustangs were running wild in ten states.
Most of them live in the sagebrush deserts of
Nevada and Wyoming with the rest scattered
throughout other western states, including Texas.
The wild horse population has since grown to
between 50,000 and 75,000. They have increased
rapidly in number because they are legally
protected and lack natural predators. Ninety
percent of foals survive to adulthood.
The battle to control the population of wild horses
has been intensifying in recent years. Ranchers
do not want wild horses on land where cattle
could graze. Horses have been chased by planes
and helicopters, driven into traps, sold, and
slaughtered.
The B L M has tried to control
mustang overpopulation by putting some horses
up for "adoption" and has been testing the
effectiveness of a horse birth control vaccine.
RESTORATION OF T H E
MUSTANG
In the late 1800s, more than
two million mustangs grazed
on the Great Plains. As white
ranchers and farmers moved in,
they captured and killed
mustangs to make room for
more livestock and crops.
Eventually, only a few wild
horse herds were left and were
pushed into harsh, uninhabited
desert country.
Card 29
.© 1997 Toucan Valley Publications, Inc.