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Foundation 105: Spring 2009
A Literary Review an
education, and the acquisition of learning, for Muslims, reinforces "the values of
humanitarianism, morality, citizenship, peaceful coexistence, revulsion of racism
and discrimination, acceptance of the 'other', and is married to actively taught
skills of critical thinking and awareness".3 The vehicles through which these
attributes are acquired are as diverse as the forms of knowledge are vast. As
quoted on the Bangla science fiction webpage, a statement by the great science
fiction writer Isaac Asimov, "true science fiction could not really exist until people
understood the rationalism of science and began to use it with respect in their
stories".a For the early Muslim communities, there was no ccinflict between science
and religion, allowing for the free flow of scientific invention and innovation.
According to I.A. Ibrahim in A Brief lllustrated Guide to Understanding Islam,
the spread of Islam coincides with "great advances in medicines, mathematics,
physics, astronomy, geography, architecture, art, literature, and history...
Sophisticated instruments which were to make possible the European voyages
of discovery such as the astrolabe, the quadrant, and good navigational maps,
were developed by Muslims".t By extension we could arguably conclude that
the creation of these instruments has a direct correlation to the expansion of the
literary heritage of science fiction, fantasy, and speculative writing as a whole.
The astrolabe and the quadrant have been staples within the language ofscience
fiction writing as is found in some of our popular science fiction television shows
and movies such as Star Wars, Star Trek, and Dune. The Alpha, Beta, Delta, and
Gamma Quadrants and the astrolabe's use by the ancient mariners or its use as
spaceship monikers demonstrate the longevity of these early inventions and of
as tools of discovery. If people can now explore and discover
new worlds with the use of these new tools, then stories of other worlds, stargazing, time travel experiences, and "first contacts" are not impossible.
One of the greatest exampies of paranormal time travel is the account of the
Prophet's ascension from Jerusalem to Paradise while sitting in the Great Mosque
in Jerusalem; for Muslims these ideas were neither strange nor foreign. Yusuf
Nuruddin in his article, 'Ancient Black Astronauts and Extraterrestrial Jihads:
Islamic Science Fiction as Urban Mythology," notes this episode as an inspiration
for what he calls the science fiction motif, a belief system that inspires science
fiction, although he personally sees "very little cosmology which can inspire
works of Islamic science fiction".6 On the other hand, he maintains "...mythic
literature and/or science fiction by and/or about Muslims need not rely upon
Islamic cosmology".T Nuruddin continues, "Some of the stories in this (Arabian
Nights) collection, e.g. "The City of Brass" and "The Ebony Horse," might be
considered proto-science fiction..."B Often Muslim writers draw on these early
prophetic parables and religious miracles in developing their science fiction and
fantasy narratives.e
Contrary to Reuven Snir's article titled, "The Emergence of Science Fiction
in Arabic Literature," Arabic and Islamic science fiction and fantasy have been
around from the known beginning of the genre. Snir advances the Master
their importance
Narrativelo that equates the I
fiction as the absence of the
in the West, has paid little o
that charge, "Modern Arabic
stories, novels and PlaYs...n
because it has not been wide
will attest, the influence and
and varied history.
The resurgence of scienc
began in the late 1800s but h
have seen the influence and
graphic novels; the need to
been an incentive for writers
on the genre casting Islam ir
see science fiction and fantz
co-existence, while simultar
times where Muslims, todal'
people is the new boogeYma
point. Science fiction, fanta:
stories within the Islamic co
differences, and Provide a P
These writings are attemPtin
that challenge the Prevailinl
:
spirited dialogue about ider
article illuminates, Muslims
influence speculative fictior
the time-travel stories of th
Century African American Ji
Literature Review
A review of the literature or
of opinions regarding the hrthose writers who have use
print literature which com-rn
fiction and fantasY literaturt
group or subject rather tha
and writings on fictional Is
print literature and various
cataloging the various write
at www.islamscifi .com enco
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Foundation '105: Spring 2009
A Literary Re\
and writings of fictional Islam. TheAdherents.com-Religions inLiteraturewebpage
at www.adherents.com/1it/ discusses fictional Islam as a subject. A search on
Islamic science fiction brings up over 700 entries. Of course, none of these sites
provide a comprehensive overview. The majofiry of them offer )tstings nther
than any form of scholarly analysis of writings related to fictional Islam. The
only exception is the site AfroFuturkm a www.afrofufurism.net/text/about.htm1,
which focuses on African Diaspora writers of science fiction and fantasy and
Martian system mirror
Qutb and expressed ir
includes critical essays by writers who have also critiqued writings of fictional
the ascent of the Prop
Islam.
During their extendec
that coincidentally cor
The following selected scholarly articles investigate and discuss Islamic
science fiction and fantasy; Christian Szyska's "On Utopian Writing In Nasserist
Prison And Laicist Turkey" (1995), Michael Cooperson's "Remembering the
Future: Arabic Time-travel Literature" (1998), Reuven Snir's "The Emergence
of Science Fiction in Arabic Literature" (2000), Yusuf Nuruddin's 'Ancient
Black Astronauts and Extraterrestrial Jihads: Islamic Science Fiction as Urban
M),'thology" (2006), and Rebecca Carol Johnson, Richard Maxwell, and Katie
Trumpener's "The Arabian Nights, Arab-European Literary Influence, and the
Lineages of the Novel" (2OO7). These articles add to the richness of fictional
Islam by discussing how writers of Arabic and Islamic science fiction and fantasy
have influenced literature historically, from Europe to urban America and from
the Middle East to Africa. The authors'subjects often overlap, but each presents
the genre while identifying a few of the notable science fiction/fantasy writers
and writings how they have interpreted their religion in these new avenues of
Igovernance]
".15
Szyska also discu:
titled, Uzay CiftciLei.
II's venture on a m\-si
After traveling in ou:t
After several months
for earth where thel
statement, "The resull
those which confirm I
themes that Szyska d,
but they differ in tha.
Nar's novel speaks ol
essay Szyska highligt
governance and socie
"Ahmad Ra'ii
principally to\rar(
increase in klorrir
expression.
an esoteric path.
Christian Szyska's "On Utopian Writing in Nasserist Prison and Laicist Turkey"
tackles the use of utopian fiction, "fiction that goes beyond reality in order to
depict an imaginary community in its ideal form as an opportunity to reflect
upon the present situation."r3 The article presents the activity of writing as a
coping mechanism for Muslims incarcerated in an Egyptian prison and as a
plot device for a Turkish writer's quest for an Islamic utopia. The essay opens
with a discussion of writings by Egyptian political prisoners and their use of
the narrative to build an Islamic utopian world that allows them to escape the
persecution and alienation they experience within their present societies. These
stories are transmitted as plays and dramas that take their inspiration from the
writings of one of Islam's more controversial figures, Eglptian political prisoner,
the late Salyid Qutbla, a leader within the Muslim Brotherhood, a group that
has consistently fought against the secularization of Eglpt. The play Szyska
critiques is titled Al-bu'd al-khamis (7987), written by Ahmad Ra'if, a member
of the Muslim Brotherhood and a political prisoner. The story revolves around
three characters, two men and a woman, who become disillusioned with planet
Earth and decide to emigrate to planet Mars. On Mars they find a utopian system
run by the tolerant, intelligent, and non-violent Martians who are undergirded
with a moral and religious framework similar to Islam. Szyska notes, "The
the individual
co
mystic cognidor :
this way to reach
Michael CooPers'
concerns time trar el
earliest origins ofAi
parallels English 1ar1
legacy of time tra",'
popularity in the ,\
world, particularll-t
...offers a range of c
the wake of imPeria
the varied means irt
offered alternatives
the times, and ofte::
'
The CooPerson a
in fictional writings.
for an escape from r
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"u, JeIIJea uE ol pall are oqm sluellqequl eq]
'rq8rg rsol
SuIrnCI
ppo'r't a,rau slql ut dels PaPualxa Jlaql
raueld qtua^ala uE reAoJSIp '{aqr
eql Jo luef,sE aql
.plJoM puo)as eqt IIer .{aqi'urets.{s rets e ra^o)srp .{aqr 'raqdoJd
3ur1a'tel raryy
srq uo areds lalno uI
ol JelIuIs 'uoTsu./Jsvq'qn1 "q leql uolsslul
qred lerrlsdur e uo arnlual s'II
'aldruexa s,perurueqnl4 iaqdo'6 aql sroJllur reqr
s,reN '(slauuEc aced5) ualttl{t2 foz11 'pe14l
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a1s'fu5
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IIV roqlne gsl{rnl Jo la^ou
tt'" [alueu'ra'Lo3]
aq;,, 'satou e4s.{25
'
pep.rr8rapun ale oq^\
ruetsds uetdotn e puq 1eue1d qtl,trr peuolsnlps
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lsIJassEN u1 3utlt.t1t1
t
Jrluelsl ssnJSIp pue
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L
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JEN
a8edqaa,t
y
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uo Aessf entlereduoS puE
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Aseluel pue uo!13!l oouol3s ul urelsl
:uJelsl
leuollcli :sullueH
Foundation 105: Spring 2009
A Lite
Time travel allows the writers they profile to remedy the negatives of their lives
by fleeing; taking flight to outer space that provides an expansive canvas to
piesent u diff"r"nt narrative of serenity, freedom and tranquility. For some of
the writers this new canvas is represented by an Islam that offers the populace
a peaceful, just, and orderly utopia. Yusuf Nuruddin's article also fits into this
discussion of time travel and space from the perspective of African and African
American writers of Islamic science fiction and fiction'
Reuven snir's, "The Emergence of science Fiction in Arabic Literature" speaks
about science fiction in the Islamic world as "emerging" as if it is something
new, negating the history of writings in the field' He, nevertheless' traces
the
Arabic science fiction writings back to the 19'r' century. His article discusses
these
that
noting
works
earlier
emergence of Arabic science fiction from those
move as
were the "first steps on the road toward canonization".le Snir sees this
literary
as
a
fiction
science
Arabic
important to the recognition and legitimacy of
his
article
He
ends
research.
form and the acceptance of it for scholarly academic
saying:
,,...as there is a marked awareness in Western SF writers to stay away
fiom stereotypes and introduce authentic Arab and Muslim characters in
theirworks,itmaynotbelongthatscholarlycommunities...willstart
taking up the change to systematically explore Arabic
SF"'20
of opproval'
For Snir legitimacy is only relevant if the west has provided theseol
His analysis tends to erase the long tradition of Arab science fiction and views
fiction.
only the acceptance by the west as important to legitimize Arabic science
the
works
dismiss
to
used
been
Uniortunately, this is an argument that has
Black
'Ancient
Nuruddin's
Yusuf
of other writers especially writers of color.
connects
article
His
this
notion.
Astronauts and Extraterrestrial Jihads" rebuts
within the
the Arab, African, and African American to a long tradition of writing
fiction by
of
science
writings
early
science fiction genre. Nuruddin confirms the
within
manifestations
and
influence
and about Islam, providing examples of its
Nuruddin
States'
United
in
the
the urban community of artists and activists
and Ni
traces the writers of the Arab-speaking world such as Mustafa Mahmoud
science
urban
on
influence
their
and
salim from Egypt, and Imran Talib of S1'ria
fiction. He notes:
78
related charac:
Lawson. He h
into major nc'
"resplendent',
Nuruddin:
fiction, but pr
lesser knou r:
enlightened.
the bulk of
c
:
Barnes, Jalal-
connections::
Nuriddin, he -
fiction. Nuru
used Islam a:such as the \
and the
Nloo:
mainstream S
greater MusL-r
followers
oi
:
African Ameri
of the more s'.
spokesman \l
subscribe, in '
created the cl
the mlth "Tn
oppression".:the black mar
intergalactic :
genre of expr
science fictioi
Nuruddin, "L
wretched of t
political and
music of Afric
in the US anc
The Johns
"science fiction literature has been produced in many Arab countries;
the diverse rhemes have included life in 32"d-century Libya; the encounter
of mysterious aliens by a Palestinian hero living in the occupied territories;
and other fantastic discoveries and excavations as in Salim's p1ays"'2r
Literary Influ
at the origin
European nc
He then introduces the reader to American science fiction writers who
Islamicemerged out of an Islamic/Arab tradition and those writers who use
pastiches, an
character in --
Canterbury
T,
According to
6L
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n pe'dsui
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Foundation 105: spring 2009
A Literani Ri
the story travels from the Arabic literary realm moving into the English, German,
French, Hindu, and Spanish literary traditions. The article comments on the
iterations of Scheherazade's story and its impact on the status, situation and
character of women, the nature of female sexuality, and the interplay of sexuality
and domestic power. The authors note that "Nights presents an intricately
patterned, nuanced, at times highly indirect debate about the relationship of
male honor to female chastiry fate, slavery and human agencf'.27
The 'Arabian Nights" article provides a direct connection between Arab,/
Islamic influence on early writings of science fiction and fantasy that have yet to
be explored fully. For example, the authors spend considerable time dissecting
Cervantes' Don Quixote who, according to the authors, "...Cervantes claims (in
chaps. 8 - 9 of Don Qukote), his own manuscript was originally written in Arabic,
found by chance while he browsed among stalls of waste paper in the Toledo
marketplace and translated for him by a Morisco".2s They note how Quixote does
include repeated references to Arabic words, characters, and names that speak to
the lingering influence of Islam in Christian Spain and in their words, "...evokes
the Arabic sources of European romance and the substantial Islamic presence in
the great chivalric poems of Tasso and Ariosto".2e Further exploration of whether
or not this statement is true is fraught with controversy, but the authors take a
considerable amount of time to make their case and assert its plausibiliry.
The five articles confirm the recognition of the impact of Islam as a contributor
to the West and Europe's intellectual knowledge base relative to speculative
literary production. works that have had significant and wide reaching impact
as the Arabian Knights and Cervante s Don Quixote are examples of what scholars
describe as the mutual influence of cultures. Rev. Dr. Susan Ritchie in her article
"The Islamic Ottoman Influence on the Development of Religious Toleration
in Reformation Transylvania" writes "the recognition of mutual influence has
basically taken the form of acknowledging the European debt to Arab learning,
literature, and material culture".3o To acknowledge the Islamic contribution to
literature generally and speculative fiction in this case is not to elevate one group
over another, but to allow for an accurate teliing of history. It also provides
confirmation for Muslims that their knowledge and historical presence have
been the source of furthering intellectual and scholarly discovery. The history
of the marginalization of the writings and contributions of other ethnic
and
racial communities such as Africans and African Americans, as Nuruddin article
acknowledges, parallels what Islam and Muslims face in fighting for recognition
of their historical involvement in the creation and distribution of knowledge.
Writers such as Johnson, Maxwell, Trumpener, Nuruddin, and writings similar to
this articie provide opportunities for other scholars to build on this work, offer a
response, and an opening for Arab,/lslamic writings on science fiction and fantasy
to enter the academic canon.
Comparative
EssaY
Although over 30 v
similarities in some
interesting obsen'au
and Present, minor
I
perspective; Aldiss
on US and British
u
s
Biafran conflict. Si
Nasserist Prison Ari
the Future" articies
both Mazrui's and -1
respective historica-l
summary of both te:
Taking a cue fr{
Muslim, Paul Fadhil
because of an innoc
characters discuss r
of HARM (Hostile -1
to confess to a terro
he retreats into an ;
at other times follor.
realiry ends and the
real or a dYstoPial
:
similarities in the l
see as the other' I
Muslim and leaderi
In this alternai
him to blend intc
'
head of the hated
later revealed, is a
overthrows the e',-i
science and reasor
and leader of the (
of the Dogovers. a
reurning to
Sn gli
have his dog to bI.
Haven CitY that is
relationshiP has de
:
and thrown in jail I
than develoP a gc''
Taliban-1ike gor-er
goal of the gol-en-
L8
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dlqenxas;o .,{e1d:arr
pue uorlenlrs 'snle
eql uo slualuluoJ
'ueru;ag 'qs43uE
a
pue el^au tueJeil V
Aseluei pue uollsll ecualcs ul uelsl uo Aessl e^lleJeduof,
^
:uelsl leuolllll :su!)ueH
Foundation 105: spring 2009
tells Fremant he has the choice to stay in jail or take the dog to Safelkty in Stygia.
Fremant takes the dog to Stygia, but Safelkty shows contempt for the uniqueness
of the species, seeing it only as a means of advancing science. Again, Fremant
felt betrayed, "He thought he had only been doing 'the right thing.' Instead he
had demed rnbrat l.vas good and irue in h\s rraturd' t193) Srenrarrt -worrders
what does this all mean, is he the problem because he seeks to deny who he
is? Fremant ponders if anyone is worthy of leadership or is there such a place
as utopia? It is at these times when Fremant ponders the human condition that
he returns to the reality of his life as Paul where he continues to be tortured
in prison. \ /hen he is released from prison without explanation or reason he
returns home wearied and confused.
Paul comes to the conclusion that all of his dreams and visions are his attempt
to run away from who he is, a Muslim. Paul states in the book, "He had been so
eager to demonstrate to the Western world that he was not a ...not a Muslim, so
he had betrayed himself..." (194). His attempts to blend into society and ignore
that part of his identity came out in his writing, "those throwaway lines in his
novel, about the British prime minister being assassinated...They reflected his
true secret hatred for what he had become" (194). As the HARM concludes the
prime minister is actually assassinated similar to words in Paul's book. As the
British police are beating down his doo4 Paul, anticipating his fate, slips into the
world of Fremant and his last words bring him ful1 circle to the realization that
his Muslim identity is inescapable. His last words attest to that realization when
he says, "Oh Allah, the Merciful. .." (27O), but for Paul it is too 1ate.
An interesting addition to IL4KM includes a conversation with the write4
Brian Aidiss. He discusses the duality of Paul's existence, British and Muslim and
the religious struggle that occurs in both Stygia and on Earth. One section ofthe
interview appears to sum up how he feels about Muslims and his depiction of
Islam as personified in the character of Paul Fadhil Abbas Ali:
"Many people have taken refuge in Britain from dirry dusty villages
neither know nor understand the West.
Consequently, many would destroy it. They have never heard of that
ancient piece of sound advice: "When in Rome, do as the Romans do"
in the Middle East. They
(22q.
A Literary Re
science fiction titled. r
makes use of a themi
non-fiction, that he lat
have the strongest
h
indigenous ASr\carr a
novel concerns a triaof loyaity, love, life a
1970. The peopie cBiafrans, attempted
The defendant, pros.
'know each other in
period in Nigeria's .-,
,
The central fig:i:.
trial for mixing an
Said. A famed \lu-.'
,
was killed in a tra5r:
on trial for the cri::t'
is his miscalcularion
conclusion of the tria"to haunt a lonel1'bac
(145) for an undeter
is mitigated when d:
The second charal
-',
Gyamfi, considered
century...died in a'.
He is also on trial i:
prosecution of the c
tragedies of the u ar
stories of the Bialrar
unleashed a wat-e oi
The famed poer-
is not only on rial
of Biafra, who in rht
caused the deaths c
I
against Nigeria. his
According to Aldiss, leave off your ethnic, religious and cultural identities
when you leave your home country. But on the other hand IIARM reveals
that it doesn't matter, because you will never be accepted even when you do
qs the Romqns do as Paul attempted; he would never be considered a Romqn.
Unfortunately, Aldiss doesn't have a follow-up response to the dichotomy he
poses with IIARM and the real world advice he quotes.
Contrary to Aldiss's long career as an acclaimed science fiction writer, Dr.
Ali Mazrui is a renowned economist and schola4 who wrote only one work of
c
by acting as an lbo :
second to the ideli
crime committed
b'"-
his nation that is irrc,
for his nation that i,
(72). Verdicts for O
was not proven. Tht
the triple heritage
a
98
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v
Foundation 105: Spring 2009
A Literary
R€
relation to this old continent of ours" (135).
One of the major similarities in both texts is that the lead protagonist in both
Aldiss's H,\KM, and Mazrui's Trial are Muslim in name only. Neither character
a part of him that he
eager to demonstrate
he had betrayed him:
as the source of his p
come back to challenge them.
identity. Fremant's
represented by first :
Christian sect that be
In Mazrui's The T,
but they incorporate
system where they ar
story becomes a mea
central characters are
Said,/ Hamisi, the p
Salisha Bemedi who
adheres to the religious tenants of the Islamic faith, but they are both judged based
on that identity. In both IIARM andTrial the characters take on alternate names'
a further distancing from their Islamic identification where their current names
mark their Muslim origins. The stories also deal with characters transported to
alternate realities where their ideas and desires to escape their Muslim identity
A feature that Muslims will recognize in both text is the sTanger imagery
mentioned in Aldiss and Mazrui's works. In HAWI one of Essanits's men uses
this characterization of Fremant, "You, Fremant, you're always asking questions,
you'd be the Eternal Stranger. He thought the observation was acute. He was
eternally a stranger, even to himself" (64). This echoes the sentiments expressed
in Muslim writer Ian Dallas's science fiction novel The Book of Strangers
(7972).31 The story describes a librarian's mystical journey of self-discovery in
a technologically advanced world. The sfrangers that this book speaks of are
those people that seek to find the dedicated and spiritual teachers of Islam;
those who selflessly work to perfect their faith. The stranger concept in Islam
is from a saying of the Prophet Muhammad that is referenced in Dallas's book,
"Islam began as a strange element, and will become thus again, as it was at the
beginning. Blessed, therefore, are the Strangers."rz Paui,/Fremant is a Stranger
in both worlds, searching for his place in Stygia and British sociery. His journey
of self discovery leads to a tragic end, but in his final words, he finds his Islam.
The stranger theme also plays out in Mazrui's story in the characters of Said/
Hamisi and Aisha/Salisha, strangers who meet one night, fall in love, sleep
together and meet again in the After-Africa. Salisha reflects on their night
together in the After-Africa, "How could she have capitulated to a total stranger
in so short a time...who was this stranger who had known where to strike, in
spite of her intellectual armoury" (21)? The s1'rnbolism of the stronger in Islam
may not connect with the authors' intent, but the similarities in how their main
characters are described are noteworthy.
There are many other similarities in these stories to Christian Szyska's article
"On Utopian Writing In Nasserist Prison And Laicist Turkey" where the political
prisoners wrote fictionai stories to escape the persecution and alienation they
experienced in the Eglptian prison. In FIARM Paul's book and his Muslim identity
are the catalyst that lands him in prison where he is tortured. Similar to Szyska's
political prisoners it is the torture that precedes Paul's retreat into an alternative
world and it is the torture that generates the writing of the utopian plays. Another
similariry of the prisoners in Szyska's article with Paul, they were also judged by
their faith, but in contrast to Paul, this led them to search for an Islamic utopia,
a place where Muslims and non Muslims alike could flourish. Paul, on the other
hand, felt the alienation of living in a society where he was judged by his religion,
z
face the reality that
r
force them to examir
Paul faces tn IIARM.
Islamic sexualin
sexually repressed. hthose stereotlpes tiat
viewed sexuality as c
albeit marital sex, is
,
for both partners.
the Prophet
T
Muha:n
including a woman 1
This reality stands in
IIARM Aldiss says thi
and lovemaking." {:
rape as represented
I
by her father and rap
Moreover when Astar
he escapes. Fremant
even this reprehenslb
'Aster ceased struggii
face remained diston
like mindset that see:
love for Fremant in s
for what you did. r-o
you...Burning, burni
enslaved. He felt no r
for Bellamia, an older
Bellamia, is descr
Fremant comes to
1o-.
98
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qlrm
Jeq Sursn;uot ua4o taq elol o1 seruo) lueluaJc
slq
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pue parerSsrp iaq uel Jatsv Jo ede,r s,tueruarg ,,1a.to1 Sururnq '3utu,rng"'nod
a^ol I asneJag,, 'r{I{lvl. $lse eq JaUe senulluoJ eqs ..'elnrq nod 'pIP nod }el{.l,n. JoJ
nof a^rfiroJ o] papr)ep aAEq I,, leq Jo luetuteart srq;o atrds uI lueruaJc loJ a^ol
.,{:ols
or suraas legl laspul{u a{IT
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-raq qSnoqt
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lnq taq sade.r dleln.rq {rsauoqsrp Jo ratsv Sursnroe reue 'luEluarg 'sederse aq
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Aseluel pue uollsll ocual3s ul uelsl uo
:uelsl leuollcll :sullueH
AessS
a^lleJeduof, pue
^
Founclation 105: Spring 2009
Doris, a non-Muslim woman Paul married to further his escape from his Islamic
identity? Is Aster his Islam and Bellamia his escape from that identity? Bellamia
justify her appeal
is the only female character transformed, but only physically to
from someone
changes
her
of
his
description
her
with
to Fremant. After sleeping
on the
was
dreamy
(111)"
face
to
"Her
frumpy
old
and
that "he thought her
did
her
Bellamia
days,
following
the
of
satiety...In
beauty
pillow, and held the
(111)."
Bellamia
understands
lightly
more
to
tread
hair differently. She seemed
that her power lies in the domestic and sexual pleasure she provides Fremant,
but in the end she simply disappears as a figment of his imagination. What is
her fate and will he return to her are questions never answered, similar to other
works of fiction where the women are no more than sexual partners and then
disappear.
This characterization of women as objects of gratification is a common theme
in literature; women derive power via physical beaury or sexual exploitation,
their fate or fortune dependent on men. The views of women and sexuality
are combined in both Aldiss and Mazrui's use of female characters as sexual
partners to be used and discarded as needed' As Howard Eilberg-Schwartz notes
in ,,Off With Her Head: The Denial of Women's Identity in Myth, Religion, and
Culture" and is represented in both FIARM andTrial, neither author attempts to
disrupt "the classic gender distinctions that have linked men to speech, power,
identity, and the mind' while iinking women to the body and the physical."3a
Aldiss's females are linked to Fremant as love interests and sexual partners where
their fate is tied to his mental state as he moves from one world to the next'
Mazrui's starts out depicting Aisha as an intelligent and thinking woman, but she
is easily manipulated into a sexual encounter with Said after only a few hours of
acquaintance. Her fate is not known until towards the end of the story.
Mazrui further looks at issues of sexuality and gender throughout his story
with his main character Hamisi dealing with another charge that concerns his lack
of concentration while interviewing a nude witness as he prepared for the trial'
He is comfortable with seducing a Muslim woman who he also impregnates, but
exhibits shame at the open nudity displayed by some of the witnesses. Mazrui
describes this crime as Hamisi elevating his Islamic identity over his African
identity. Nevertheless Hamisi is found not guilry on these charges precisely
because he begins to see himself as a Muslim man, who has an inner sense of
modesty. On the other hand Hamisi's lack of a sense of Muslim modesty allowed
him to initiate a sexual encounter with Aisha that results in her getting pregnant.
This sexual act and its consequences is the miscalculation that leads to his losing
the trial. Aishah returns to Nigeria to have the baby and while at the home
of her uncle the Nigeria,zBiafra war starts, where she is murdered. He suffers
the ultimate punishment for his sexual misconduct' the loss of his child and the
woman he loved.
Similar to Aldiss's IIARM, Mazrui's Trioi sexuality is dealt with in terms of
abuse. Aishah is brutally raped and killed by a gang of Biafran independence
A Literary Reviev
supporters. Hamisi hears
his defense of Okigbo.
presence in the After Af
about her pregnancy, rap
Both main characters. P
had severe negative cons
miscalculation was wririr
torture, but also resulted
Another side issue thi
Islam about Muslim won
a symbol of oppression a
hooded and masked out
during his tonure in prit
signifies. In tl,ARM the I
to Fremant when he ask
Astaroth insists women
writers that see the veil ;
behest of men; it couldr
do. Covering women's h
stereotype Muslims and
notes in "Off With Her H
and Culture" accurateir
is presupposed by veilir
I
traditions including earlr
Covering the hair is a pt
but it is those Muslim l
labeled as backward, opl
This narrative is cor:
works, but the science
virulent anti-lslam scrai
way to raise the PeoPle
veil...and wear the ne1';
Blackman's Burden tell.
and as they work to rid
-i
practices. A big Pan oi:
who pretends to be a nau
who will remove their
health care. Rey'nolds b
about Islam as it relates
banner of Islam is she
they hold up the whees
throughout his second i
when questioned aboui
Lg
pauorlsanb uaq'r't
'pal-\\ol3,, pJoJMeJ) lauroH lalre'reqr uleur slq ruelsl lnoqe
slq uI la^ou puof,as srq-rnoq8nolqt
slaeq'vr aqr dn ploq daqr
ojeq^\ Ulrlg rou paarg Tapng 'satras
elu;y
,".,,ro,ror'*n1s1 isure8e 4reue sploudag ,r,,'ssatSord ;o
sI aqs sI uIelsl
se ueSed pue rue1s1"'.{lprder ssa:3ord o} Suro8
:1a.aa.
Io lauueq
arF]epunpa]Iuneq}ouueJeJI4VrluoN]eq1,,.ertr;yo]Sa]eIaJlISeiu€Isl]noqE
.arcJ
I{]IEaq
sluasarda;4ooq sploudeg
a3en3ue1 dloteuruegul ]Sou aq] Jo eulos
slle^ JIeq} aloural IIIa,r oqm
p,rn ,rortlrtp" ,"q S.rtpr.oord 'ruaql loJ-{JoM pue
ol spualard oqrrt
sraalunlo,L Burrr"r-rb",, ui
,"*o,,,o'tn"te3'ro
pre -rraq1
'allleu
e aq
3rq
y- 'salBrerd
Jlai{l Jo ued
ueruoe\ e ur Surpuas sr sertarJos Ieqrrt Jo uollerlllJul
ETITJV pIJ or ryoa't daql sE pue
pun ,r"pn"i ,r"ql 3,rr,rr*r"pun 'aruengul JITuEIsI Jo
aql silal uapJng slDLu4)D7g
sue)ueury u€rI4V pue ueeqqlJe3;o dnorS e;o ',ftols
pue"'iIeA
pazIIIAIr Jo saqlop eql"'seqlol) ^Aeu aq] ree^^
n.,,'"r"qnnf,r"ne alOoaa
dn a'tr8 ol s€^^ arnlels ur aldoad aq] esIEJ ol dert
aqt dorp tsnru arls,, '1t""
".it
)iooq slq uI ulerls urelsl-Bue luelnrll
,t1uo eqi araq,u (1961) uapJnfl s.uDut4)Dlg
aJualrs eql }nq 'ullorvr
ilrnlnrorno n lt"r"ro",t splou''(ag {)ehl roq}n€ uoI}f,IJ
sI aAIlelJEu sIqI
sralIJM uorlJIJ a)ualJs Jo Jaqrunu e lnoq8n-orql lualslsuoJ
pelaqel
lue-lou8t ro pessarddo 'p'rerr4req s€
,pezrteluSrls are leql Ia^ oq^^ uauloM IUIISnI I asoql sl ll lnq
pue ,pad.&oaJats
rsuortrpeJl qtleJ pue sellal)os -{ueur ut ualuo-l Jo ef,IlleJd E sr JIEq aql Sutratro3
pue 'rustepnl lbpepqrq3 d1'rea Sutpnpul suolllpeJl
,r,,'dtelros ueuro6 pue {aaJD
osle 'salrllerd Surlrazr dq pasoddnsard st
uretsa6 snoIJeA 1o ,rn"q lqr tn
'"'1
pue
qrrqi[ 1leq eq] Jo uollezlJlloJa el{l "',, leql selou "{lalernore "eJn}InD
sa}ou
,,ror'ar1"11 ,ql_{nt ui drpuepl s.uaiuoM Jo Ieruac aqJ :peeH reH qllM JJO" uI
ssIpIV pue suqsnl/{ od{loerels
ztrem,qrg-Sraqlls sv 'elllerJ€u leql sanulluoJ
s(ueulom 3ut'ra'ro3 'op
or ,tpuarsrzuoJ pue dlpareedar pasn sI JIeq
pun
"ri,ro*"p
aq dlqrssod l(uplno) ]t iuaru Jo lsaqeq
01 asooq) plno^^ ueuro,Vr IEID Surqlauros
Surqlauros se IIaA eql aas lEql sJalIJM
eql le pue sseJnp Jo lno JEa^\ uollro^A teql
',,(€t) pela^ o3 uaruo'Vr s}sISuI qloJelsv
esor{} Jo tespultu eq} sanuEuo) ssIpIV
o1 $lse aq uaq^ lueruer{ ol
no,r"'isareep'araq alnr egl s,ll"'ere; raq eas
^orrrt
S^eSJa]sVSeIIaAaIDJee^^o}]nqe)IoI{JoupEqueulo^^aq}fiftIW{u1.seuru3ts
aql ol plq raqloue 'uostJd uI einuol srq Suunp
Ia^ eq] reqr loqurds a,ttssarddo
Jleql eplslno pe{seu puE pepooq
papooq Ined seq osp ssrply'(17) (,"'auroq
uI 'uollepelSap pue uotssarddo 1o loqru'k e
]uart,, er8dt5 Jo uaruom ar{r /4IUtsH
'Jrerspeeq aql sI ueurom luIISnN lnoqe luEISI
sr Jre)speeq aql sralIJM.'tueru rog
s'te'vr1e sI leql enssl epIS laqlouv
uo sSuuu^^ urelseM uI af,eJJns aql qleeueq
osle lnq 'ernlJol
'asnqe pue ernlJo] 't'oon11'*'-tq Suua;;ns slroq uI pallnsar
oMl asoql SuDtrm se-/!\ uoIlEIn)leJSIuI
srq pesneJ .r{1Uo lou leql la^ou slq uI seull
a'tqe8au alelas peq
,,1rrn4 p"no1 ,{aqr asoqr pue sallasrueql roJ saJuenbasuoc
pue InEd 'sla]le'reql UIEIU qlog
leqt suoIlelnJIEJSIul rt8erl paDlruluo) ISIueH
'ade'r 'drueuSe'rd raq lnoqe
'asuaJep sIq PuB ISIueH alelsE^ep leql Jeprnu pue
pue eJI4V laUV aql ur aruasard
aql
,nq
.ftols aloq,tr
'olnt"'old
"qt ff"r-r"q
eH 'oq8plo Jo esuaJep sq
Jaq tnoqe qtnJt eqt Suiua8 1ou '{q seleln)leJslru
'srauoddns
eq uaq-u l-iols slql sreaq ISIIuEH
troddns ot sseullm e se eqslv sller
Aseluel pue uollsll osualss ul trelsl uo
:uelsl leuollsll :sul)ueH
AessS
aruapuadapul ue4eIg ro
Jo sruJe] ur qlrM lleep sr
eqt pue plJl{) slq Jo ssol
sJeJJns
eH 'pereprnu
aruoq aq]
le ellrl^^
sI
PIrE
3urso1 srq ol speal tEqr u
'tueu8ald Surlta8 leq ul j
pemolle dtsaporu ru1snl\
Jo esuas reuur ue seq oq
.,t1asoa:d saSreqr asaqr
uBJr4V srq relo &puapt
l 'sesseutrM etll -l
rnJzel
lnq 'sateu8ardurr osp aq
'IBIJI aqt ro; pa,reda;d aq
{rel sq suref,uor leql a3:r
.{-rots srq lnoqSno:qt :ap
'drols aqt yo pua
Jo srnoq arra; e .{1uo ra4e
aqs tnq'ueruom Supiutqr
'txau aql ol piJo^^ auo
eJar{,vr
sreutJed lenxas p
or,,'1errs.,(qd aqt pue -{po
teruod 'qreeds ol uaur
ol sldruaDe Joqlne rert::
pue 'uot8tlag 'qr{yri
q
'
satou ztremqrg-3raqiig c
IEnxas se sJelJeJeqJ alEr
drlpnxas pue uaruo-\\ is
'uor1e1ro1dxa lenxas
:o
'
aueql uoluluo) e sI uoD
uaql pue srauued ierrta,
Jaqlo ol JelIuIS 'Pala-,.''s-;
sr teI{M 'uorleur3eut sn
'lueuta;g sapr,l,ord aqs a
spuetsrepun
etulellrg
.'
raq plp eIIuEIIeg 'sdep
aql uo druea;p se.,r,l. aJE_:
euoatuos tuo,t-; sa8ueq; -
padde raq .frrsnl or -ipe
eruelleg ;&rruapt tetp
)nuEISI slq ruo4 adetsa
anlleJedtuo3 pue A elnau fueJalll V
Foundation 105: Spring 2009
non on one of his favorite peeve subjects...The Moslem religion exploded out
of Arabia with some new concepts that set the world in ferment from India to
Southern France...they couldn't get away from that Qur'an of theirs...we don't
even think of the Moslem world as particularly civilized."38 It is no surprise that
Reynolds sets his story among the North African Tuareg tribe, where the men veil
their faces and the women do not. Unfortunately, Reynolds sees this lack of face
veiling as some defiance of lslam, when rn fact, the women of Tuareg tribe cover
their hair, but not their faces, but again, it fits his narrative of the oppressive
nature of the veil and Islam.
In contrast to Aldiss and Relnolds's characterization of the veil, Ali Mazrui,
a Muslim, describes the veil in sophisticated language inTrial, using the Swahili
term for the head scarf,mtcrndio. He describes it as something that doesn't take
anlthing away from the Aisha's intelligence or beauty. For example Said/Hamisi
describes his first meeting with her, "Miss Bemedi was a striking figure. She was
dressed in a skirt and blouse, but wore in addition an embroidered mtandio to
cover her hair and fall down elegantly across her shoulders (11)." The veil is
mentioned as a part of her apparel and represented as a Muslim woman's choice.
ln Aldiss's IIARM, similar to Maztuls Triol, lslam, Christianity, and secular
society, "the curse of the trinity" is examined. Both stories provide intersections
with Islam, Christianity and the secuiar world, viewing them as flawed and
problematic. Christians are depicted as either fanatics or fatalistic in both
stories, while secular groups are less concerned with the humanity of their
fellow countrymen or women, but see domination as the ultimate goal. Similarly,
one could argue that both stories view Islam from a skewed perspective, as an
undesirable influence as portrayed in Aidiss's story and in Mazrui's story as an
inhibitor of natural expressions of sexuality. As Aldiss's Fremant seeks a world of
peace, he is disappointed when each of the groups he joins becomes a mirror of
the tyranny they had overthrown. Mazrui's Hamisi has looked at the world as an
intellectual playground, using his knowledge as a means of elevating himseif not
to enhance the world, but only to further his sexual exploits and massage his ego.
The After African world and the alternative world of Hamisi shock them into the
reality that actions have consequences that are often deadly.
-FIARM features Islam as a major aspect of the story with Fremant's realization
of himself as a Muslim and with that awareness he is freed from his tortures
and prison, both mentally and physically. He is also freed from the alternative
universe of his 'dreams' and his psychological torment, only to be thrust into the
physical world of torture again. He is constantly trying to discover if his visions of
a utopian sociery are real or a dystopian reality of cruelty and oppression. Or are
his visions a part of the psychosis he developed because of an abusive childhood
or are these visions the results of a fertile imagination gone awry? It is also in
Aldiss's HARM that you recognize some of Nuruddin's, 'Ancient Black Astronauts"
urban mythologrr concept where Paul's critique of the plight of Muslims in Britain
"the wretched of the earth" gets him in trouble. As Paul is arrested again he cries
A Literary Review and
out "Oh, Allah the Merciful...'
world that all "threats to stabil
the significance of Paul's faith
identity plays a minor role, b
significant not guilry verdict
characters see their Islamic ic
I
they come to this realization
\
Conclusion
This study of lslam in scienc
on critiquing historical and t
of two science fiction works
writings represent a rene\\€
works by and about Islam a
reveal is that some of the \\e
and there is a growing bod';
fiction and fantasy literan'
c
the shared legacy of time r.
how it has been co-opted il
the tragic shared experienct
their condition while search
a growing body oi science
Muslims and about Islam r
analysis. Science fiction '.',:
Moffitt, and G. Wil1ow \\iilsr
Islam and Muslims. This g
critical mass oF literarure r
fantasy writers of the Past.
This article also presentr
who, at different periods ir
plots while critiquing Islar
Their views and narrau','.
political and gendered Pe
ground their works in mcr;
mean they are free of bias.
falsehoods. That's the na;,
'Li
creative and imaginatir-e
Further opportunities :.
like slavery and emanciPa:
American writers such as 0,
and their use of Christiar.r
68
reqto Jo dpnrs qrdap-ur
uV 'saurl.{:ols
se luelsl puE
Jo asn llaql pue
q)ns sJalIJM ue)Ireurv
dlluellsuq)
eIAe]JO Se
poolg suollsLSeuJEg ue^el sp:liepalpul, s(Japng
pue d;e'r'e1s a41
uerrqv ,(q s3urlu.r,t uo,trg i,u"i" ur palrrdep se uorledrlue.',e
,rr"iqn,
e apnlJul q)JeaseJ JoJ salllunuoddo raqung
1o srsrtpue a,ttleredurol
pue aAqEaJJ
'asue)Il
aruleurSerut
aql
s'leql
'spooqesleJ
arnleu
tnoqe ile sI leql uoIlJIJ a.ttlelncads;o a'rua8-qqt Jo
'selq Jo aa4 ere '{aql uearu
atentadrad reql selJernrrn,ri r,tntnlq ro 'sad'{loalals
Sur8raru uI sryo-la laql punor8
lou saop tl 'uoIlJIJ a)ual)s qlIM sluale le)IJolsn{
'sa'rllrads'rad parapua8 pue prrtrlod
or lq8nos Imzel i p,rn'rrrpry q8noqrlv
,r.rorrrpnrt snorSrlar 'sJuazra lueJJn) alerodrorut se^IleJJeu pue sMaIA JIagJ
.s.,(e.*
lueraSp pue
JEITT'IS
ueuo uI s',lisnlN pue
.'elsl Surnbppr alqa't
srold
,sJet)uJeq) Jrar{t palJnJ}suo) eA€I{ 'aruq u1 spor.rad lualaJ.Jlp le 'oqa't
pue ,s6urilas
SJa]IJMo^^]SISEI]uo)puesareduror]eq}srs,(leueuesluasardosleal)IueSIqI
'rsed eql Jo sJalIrM dserueJ
pueuoIlJIJaf,ual)saq]]surcSepeJnsEauaquE]leqlaJn}eJa]IIJoSSeIuIeJI]IJ)
srql 'suIISnllJ pue luelsl
* A.rrpr,oorO ale s8urlrra,t pue sJoIDn€ ;o lsrl €ur"r'tor8
Surpr'tord aJe uosll6 lra.oIIIM'D pue 'crgJol I
aql llel tnqt
Jo sauols palrel
"1'o^
uoIl)IJ arual)S 'srs'(ieue
ppuoc to1de1 elaured 'saureg ua^als se q)ns slallJ^^
UTEISI lnoqe pue suIISnW
dFeloqrs roJ salllunuoddo sluasard leql
pun
"r,norD
pue uoIlJIJ eJuaIJS 1o dpoq Sura'tor8 e
tnoqe Jo .{q uattrran "rnr*r"r1
^selueJ
]uase.rdaJSaIJqJeasaql.erdolnJIueISIuero;SurqlreasaIIqMuolllpuof,JIeq]
eJnuol ;o aluatradxa paJeqs lSen aW
adersa o uoll)lJ aJuaIJS Jo esn .surIlJIA
sesol)slpaprtre-s,e>1s-'tz5's8urllasueqJnsnolJerrolurpaldo-oJue€qsEqlI^^oq
aulll;o-dleSel parcqs eql
pue .tuaudola^ap slr ,o3 ,nradurl aql 'aInlEJelII le^erl
pue uoll)IJ
'uouef,
ulppnJnN pue uosradoo3 ar{J
'fuera}Il '{serue;
^,r,loqs salJllJe
8ur'r'lor8 e sI alaqt PUE
eruelrs eqt olq de.rt slt Suqeru sI lerll aJnleralll 5o ''(poq
s'lseM eql Jo auros leql sI IEaAeJ
alnleJelrl Jrluelsl ul slooJ e^eq slxal peeJ lsoul
'suIISnI I pue urelsl ]noqe pue dq oFort
self,rtJe rlus pue uosuqof aql reqM
pe^^auar e luasarda-r s8utlua'L
uappq pue relndod aqr Surzdpue uI lseJelul
:srdaruo'
palerodrorut ler{l s{rom uoIlrIJ aruelf,s oMl Jo
ir;i",jt; aq1
'ni'*tt
pue p)Iro}s{q Surnbt]tn uo
stsf1eue ue qlp\ sapnlruo)''pun '8t"r'''^ '{peloqrs
UoIl)IJ aDueIJS UI IUEISI ;o '{pnrs sq1
dlm.orreu eJour palEltuaeuot ,{setue; puE
uorsnl3uoc
saIJJ aq uteSe patsarre
uretrJfl ur slurlsnl ,lo rq
,{stneuoJtsv {JEI€ luarlL
uI osle sI lI Z,{-r,,r,re auc
pooqplrr{J a^rsnqe uE I
aJe
JO 'uorssarddo pue
Jo suorsr^ srr{Jr Ja^oJsrp
eql otur tsn:ql aq or -ip
a^rteuJalle aql ruo4 p3
seJnuol srq ruo4 paaTJ
uorlezrTEaJ s.lueIuerc q]
:iIp'
eql olur uaql {f,oqs rsr
'o3a srq aSesseru pue srr
tou Jlesurq 3une.ta1a ro
uE se plJoM eqt lE pajo
JO JOJJrrrr e SeruoJaq sL
JO pFoM E s{eas tuellla;
ue se d;ols s(rnJZEK uI
ue se 'a,trlrads.rad pa-u;
'.{peprurg'1eoB ateurnln
rreqt Jo fituerunq aq:
r{loq uI )IlsITEleJ
lo
s-
pue pe.tteg se ruaqr 3
suorl)esJalur epltord sa
JelnJas pue'rfiruer1suri.
'aJror{) s{uEruo^^ rurlsnl
sr Ira^
aql
,,'(11)
srap
ot orpuelu peJaplolqul
sem
aqs
'a.rn3r; Suryln,
rsrureH/preS aldruexa r
a{et t,usaop reqr Surqra
IIIqeMS aqt Sutsn '7ru1
't1tzey1n
t1y '1tarr aql
,;o
aznssa;ddo eql Jo e.\LlE"
.peqleJsunUeIJopa^esSIueul]aqlleu.ele1uot]ezlleaJSIq]o}aruol,{aq]
se Ilnuapt trIue]sl Jleql aas sJaDeleqJ
asneDaq'lnq 'a8pal,vrou4re ol d'ressalau
qroq'pueaqrq'ru"-q,"t''dstqsaleSntruleq]lrlpJa^drpnStouluerqtuSts
lounu e sdeld drpuapt
.j *i^ -rq ,"prrrora rnqr ,,o'l'uSoral slql sl ll lnq 'a1ol
slq o1 qlleJ s(lned Jo erueeqtuSts aql
)rruelsl srq;o uorlruSor"i ,,rr,-ng 'etuo)lno
peq drllqers o slEarl{]" ile leq} plloM
ot tsEJtuo) uI '(IIZ'd) ,,1no paduuls eq ol
l eql qe[V 'qO" ]no
(g17'd)
a^DEuralle aql luo4 ,"rro,, "n"q eq se
""'lnJDral
AselueJ pue
uollsll osualss ul uelsl
uo Aess3 e^lleJeduroo pue
:uelsl leuollsll :sullueH
Ja^o) eqrrl 3arenl;o
{rEI srqt seas
aJeJ Jo
u
spl
aqt araq,r,t 'aq
IraA ueru
leql astrdrns ou sI tl t.
l,uop a1!\"'srlal{l Jo u€ol elpul luo{ luolxla_l
lno papoldxa uot8tla:
tueJaMV
^^al^ad
Foundation 105: SPring 2009
A Lit
novels by writers that have used Islam and Muslims as characters, settings or plots
would provide additional avenues of research. A study of Islam and Muslims
in science fiction and fantasy covering fi1ms, comics, and the horror genre can
also be an interesting area of research. The media and mass communications
scholar, Dr. Jack G. Shaheen has written extensively on the negative portrayal of
Arabs and Muslims in popular movies and the media, but a critique of science
fiction fiims would offer a valuable additlon to this work. A comparative study
of how other minority groups have been portrayed in science fiction and fantasy
is another research idea that would be of importance in ethnic studies.
This study makes clear that not only has the religion of Islam been an integral
ingredient in the creation, imagination, and stimulation of science fiction and
fantasy, but that Islam and Muslims can play an important role in countering
the MosferNorrative that removed non-Western contributions from the historical
record. There is a renewed interest in the Muslim world, both nationally and
internationally, to write science fiction, fantasy and comics that present other
perspectives of Islam and Muslims, thus adding to the richness of fictional Islam
and correcting the Master Nqrrative.
validiry
11
Reur
Ali Mazrui, The Trial of christopher okigbo (London: Helnemann Educational
Books, Ltd, 1971).
Anas Al-shaikh Ali, "The Need for Education", Islamica Magazine, 20
(2008) <riwwv.islamicamagazine.com/issue-20,/the-need-for-education.html. >.
3
Consulted JuIy 2,2OOB.
4 "Bangla science fiction." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, (2008) <http:/
en.wikipedia. ory/ w iki/ B angla-science-fiction > Consuited J uIy 29, 2OOB'
12
Nuruc
Science Frc
13
Chrisr-
Turkey", D
14
Sa1'r'ic
1948-795\-
and mater,
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Islamic go-,
15
16
17
Szl'sk;
1B
Micha,
Sz.vsk:
Sz.vsk:
Guide to Understanding
/
Islam' 2"'r' Ed'
Science Fi;
22
23
Nun:c
The l"l
the separa
of the blac,
Yusuf Nuruddin, 'Ancient Black Astronauts and Extraterrestrial Jihads:
Islamic Science Fiction as Urban Mythology", Socialism and Democracy 20'3
(2006), pp. 127-65, P 138.
24
25
26
Nuruddin, Ancient Black Astronauts and Extraterrestrial Jihads: Islamic
Science Fiction as Urban Mlthology, p 138.
Nurud.din, Ancient Black Asffonauts and Extraterrestrial Jihads: Islamic
Science Fiction as Urban Mlthoiogy, p' 138.
I
Proto-science fiction is used in thls lnstance to denote the early stages of the
development of this particular literary genre.
9
77 .'.'
20 Snir. i
21 Nuruc
world.
6
..
Reut'e:
lslam
(Houston: Darussahan, 1997), P. 57.
7
e
Islam 77.ii
19
Brian W Aldiss, HARM (New York: Random House, Inc.' 2OO7)'
5 I. A. Ibrahim, A Brief Illustrated
Master
Literature
(ENDNOTES)
1
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30
Susan Ritchie, "The Islamic Ottoman Influence on the Religious Development
of Religious Toleration in Reformation Transylvania", Seasons, Spring-Summer
Reviews
(2004), p. 59-70, at p 60.
31 Ian Dallas. The Book of Strangers. New York: Pantheon Books, 1972.
32 Dallas, The Book of Strangers, p. 151.
33 Joseph M. Carver, Ph. D. Stockholm slmdrome is when "victims support,
love, and even defend their abusers." 'uvwv.mental-health-matters.com/articles/
article.php?artID -469 Consulted December 12, 2OOB.
and Wendy Doniger, eds' Off With Her Head:
The Denial of Women's Identity in Myh, Religion, and Culture, (Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press, c1995), p. 9.
34 Howard Eilberg-schwartz
35
Eilberg-schwartz, off with Her Head: The Denial of women's Identity in
By
M1th, Religion, and Culture, p. 9.
36
Canary Fever: Reviettr'
MackReynolds. Blackman's Burden. NewYork: The Conde NastPublications
John Clute (Beccon Pub
Reviewed by Alvaro Zinos--^
lnc.,1967, p. 22.
37 Reynolds. Blackman's Burden, p.723.
38 Mack Reynolds. Border Breed Nor Birth' New York: The
Publications Inc., 7962, p. 84.
Conde Nast
The canary has been donr r
As the metaphorical tide
reviewer of "fantastika" (Ch
be regarded as the pror-erb
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man. His review collections.
significant Strokes (1968). a
hundred-thousand word, or
(2009), adumbrate a wise a
depths through skill. ingenu'
wings. That much is evideni
impeneLrable writings on or
How deep is the shaft? (
are full of words. When I sa','
amount for the issue at har
such hypoxia). Or are thel
?
If the purpose of a rerie
communicate to them inJ0i
to be a "reviewer" in that cI
the Russian linguist Roma:
said to rely most heaviir on
lunction (which is oriente
degrees"), the metalingual I
communication code; for er"
(which establishes, Prolo:
whether the contact is srill