Pradeep Kumar Rao and Om Jee Upadhyay

Transcription

ISSN 0976-0830
AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES
Volume 2
l
Number 2
l
'Vijaya Dashami', October 2011
Editors
The Journal of Rekha Smriti Shodh Sansthan
Gorakhpur (U.P.)
An Interdisciplinary Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences
Editorial Advisory Board
U.P. Singh, Ex Vice-Chancellor, V.B.S. Purvanchal University, Jaunpur
R.P. Mishra, Ex Vice-Chancellor, Allahabad University, Allahabad
Pratap Singh, Ex Chairman, Higher Education Service Commission (HESC), Uttar Pradesh
Adya Prasad Mishra, Ex Vice-Chancellor, Maharshi Mahesh Yogi Vedic University, Jabalpur
Ram Achal Singh, Ex Vice-Chancellor, R.M.L. Awadh University, Faizabad and Ex Chairman,
Higher Education Service Commission (HESC), Uttar Pradesh
K.B. Pandey, Ex Vice-Chancellor, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur and
Ex Chairman, Public Service Commission, Uttar Pradesh
Shivajee Singh, Ex Head, Ancient History, Archaeology and Culture, D.D.U. Gorakhpur
University, Gorakhpur
D.N. Tripathi, Ex Chairman, Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), New Delhi.
Narendra Kohli, Renowned author and thinker
Makkhan Lal, Director, Delhi Institute of Heritage Research and Management, New Delhi
Ram Sakal Pandey, Ex Pro Vice-Chancellor, Allahabad University, Allahabad.
S.C. Bose, Ex Head, English, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
V.K. Srivastava, Ex Head, Geography, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
N.K.M. Tripathi, Dean, Faculty of Arts and Head, Psychology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University,
Gorakhpur
Sheo Bahal Singh, Ex Head, Sociology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Pratibha Khanna, Ex Head, Education, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Banarasi Tripathi, Ex Head, Sanskrit, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
A.K. Singh, Head, Philosophy, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
A.K. Srivastava, Head, History, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
R.N. Singh, Head, Defence and Strategic Studies, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
P.S. Chaturvedi, Head, Ancient History, Archaeology and Culture, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University,
Gorakhpur
S.S. Verma, Ex Head, Geography, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Sadanand Prasad Gupta, Professor, Hindi, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Shri Prakash Mani Tripathi, Head, Political Science, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
S. Yadav, Head, Economics, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
P.C. Shukla, Professor, Economics, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Poonam Pant, Professor, History, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Rajwant Rao, Professor, Ancient History, Archaeology and Culture, D.D.U. Gorakhpur
University, Gorakhpur
V.K. Srivastava, Head, Sociology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Satyendra Kumar Singh, Head, Music and Fine Arts, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Usha Singh, Music and Fine Arts, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES
Volume 2

Number 2

Editors
Rekha Smriti Shodh Sansthan
Gorakhpur (U.P.)
This Journal is a Referral Volume.
ISSN- 0976-0830
Vol. 2

No. 2

, an interdisciplinary refereed or peer reviewed journal of Humanities and
Social Sciences is a biannual (Varsh Pratipada and Vijaya Dashami, i.e. March and
October months of a year) and bilingual journal of Rekha Smriti Shodh Sansthan,
Gorakhpur (UP).
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Volume 2
Number 2
CONTENTS
Articles
1.
Pages
Securitising People in the Post-9/11
Terrorist Environment : Issues,Trends and Prospects
Rajendra Prasad ....................................................................................................................
2.
Secular India and Muslim Reservation
Makkhan Lal .........................................................................................................................
3.
79
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71
Demographic Dividend in India : Asset or Liability
Satish Chandra Dwivedi ...................................................................................................
9-
64
Problems and Protection of Migrant Labours’ in India
Sudha Jain ..............................................................................................................................
8.
58
Indo-Bangladesh Ganga Water Treaty : An Analysis
Savita Kumari .......................................................................................................................
7.
52
Anger, Action and Reaction : A Dialogue between
the Salt Satyagrahis of Sholinganallur and the British Police
R. Balaji ...................................................................................................................................
6.
37
Mystics-Scholars of Allahabad During 16th-17th Century
Mohammad Zafar Minhaj .................................................................................................
5.
22
Why Central Asia Thesis of Vedic Civilization
T.P. Verma ..............................................................................................................................
4.
1
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12- 1857
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14-
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15. Position of Women during Bahamani Kingdom
Santosh Kumar Jadhav .......................................................................................................
153
16. Historicity of the Hamzanama and
the Cleaveland Museum Tutinama Projects
Ashok Kumar Srivastava ...................................................................................................
156
17. The Concept of Life after Death in Islam
Md. Iftekhar ..........................................................................................................................
159
18. Indian Press towards Professionalism :
An appraisal in the National Interest
Kedar Nath .............................................................................................................................
175
19. Liberation and Recognition of Cultural Roots :
An Appraisal of August Wilson’s the Piano Lesson
Soumya Jose ...........................................................................................................................
186
20. Wallace Stevens Exponency: Owl’s Clover and the Social Imagination
Nisha Somarajan ...................................................................................................................
21-
192
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Sec uritising Peop le in the Post-9/ 11 Terrorist Environm ent : Issues,Trend s ...
x1
Securitising People in the Post-9/11 Terrorist
Environment : Issues, Trends and Prospects
Rajendra Prasad *
Post-9/11 trans-national terrorist environment gave an exceptional opportunity to
the entire world for global cooperation and fresh approach to identify the “new
face of terrorism”. Terrorism has emerged as a potent instrument to achieve certain
objectives; it is not an end in itself. This element gained more prominence as, in the
aftermath of 11th September 2001, the focus of the international community shifted
to the South and Southwest Asian region due to increasing impact of religious
radicalism and expanding nexus of terrorist activities in the regional context. The
world has witnessed the gradual rise of disruptive graph of terrorism on the one
hand and the dis-arrayed efforts of caging the genie of trans-national terror on the
other hand, involving a lot of uncertainty, insecurity and trans-nationalization of
violence in the age of globalization. Though the killing of Osama Bin Laden, the
most wanted person in trans-national terrorism, on May 2, 2011 on Pakistani soil
has certainly caused demoralization in the Al Qaeda circles across the world, the
generic and reactionary trends in Jihadi terror, right-wing terror in Asia, Europe and
elsewhere still remain indomitable challenge for the comity of nations. The prime
focus of this paper is to analyze the scenario in the post-9/11 period, to judge the
limitations of the global war on terror (GWOT) and prospective preventive and
reactive measures and, finally, to suggest options for foreseeable future.
The terrorist catastrophe of 9/11 was an exceptional act of violence perpetrated
against the sole Super Power of the world-the United States of America, causing
worldwide denouncement of the ‘act’ and its perpetrators’ and prompting
initiation of a global war against terror. As realised, the genie of terrorism in the
post-9/11 period has already despised national frontiers and acquired
international dimensions. It has given way to a world-wide, unprecedented
acceleration of indiscriminate and/or selective employment of violence or threat
* Dr. Rajendra Prasad is senior-most Professor in the Department of Defence and Strategic Studies and Dean,
Faculty of Science, D.D.U.Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur (U.P.), India. He was awarded Ph.D.Degree by
Gorakhpur University for his seminal work on India’s Civil Defence in the Nuclear Age (1981). As a distinguished
teacher and researcher, Prof. Prasad is accredited with the teaching and research experience of over thirty four
years. He has contributed extensively on contemporary problems of war and peace; science, technology and
national security; arms control and disarmament; South, Southwest, Southeast Asian security and international
strategic affairs. Dr. Prasad has traveled widely to many countries such as Fiji Islands (1986), Australia (1986),
Thailand (1986), USA (1996, 1999), UK (2005), Austria (2007) and Italy (2009) for mutuality of view and
research. He is recipient of Second Prize of the Ministry of Defence, Government of India in 1990 for his
seminal writing Bhartiya Itihaas ki Rooprekha.
2
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to use violence, including murder, assassination, sabotage and subversion, the
destruction of public records and property, hijacking of planes, buses and ships,
holding passengers as hostages, the capture of holy places, kidnapping
government officials, diplomats and business executives, remote-controlled blasts
against military personnel and convoys, suicide bombings and killings, etc., aimed
at fulfilling a variety of political and strategic ends in different parts of the world
in general and South Asia in particular . We listen to and read of new events of
terrorism almost daily. This exceptional and challenging rise of terrorist violence
without borders has created dreaded ebbs and flows in the domain, range and
scope of international relations. On the question of exceptionalism, the New
York Times noted in its editorial :
If the attack against the World Trade Center proves
anything it is that our offices, factories, transportation
and communication networks and infrastructures are
relatively vulnerable to skilled terrorists .......Among the
rewards for our attempts to provide the leadership needed
in a fragmented, crisis-prone world will be as yet
unimagined terrorists and other socio-paths determined
to settle scores with us.1
The explosion toppled more than the twin towers of World Trade Centre: it
disrupted the illusion that Americans were protected, somehow, to the plague of
terrorism that beleaguered so many countries. The 9/11 terrorism outpaced the
global public perception of the real- as just about every public official and media
authority has been opposed to concede, the US preamptive ability of the
intelligence community, law enforcement, airport security, military, and other
governmental agencies. Shock and dismay created an immediate and nearly
similar reaction of the event that was confined in official discourse to
condemnation, retribution, and counter- terrorism. But there is a responsibility
to interpret 9/11 in a proper context that reached beyond the immediacy of the
US tragedy and official loss of power, prestige and glory in the world arena.
What then was the impact of terrorism in South Asia in general and India
in particular? This question gained more prominence as in the aftermath of 11th
September 2001, the focus of the international community shifted to this region
due to increasing impact of religious radicalism and expanding nexus of terrorist
activities in the regional context. Historically, South Asia is viewed as a region
of deep-rooted inimical postures and internal discrepancies wrapped with
deleterious reasons, such as territorial disputes, economic disparities, political
instabilities, sectarian and communal violence, ethno-religious conflicts of varying
potentialities, cross-border terrorism, illegal drug trafficking through Golden
Crescent and Golden Triangle, money laundering , organized crime, increasing
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militarization and proliferation of small arms in the South Asian societies, etc.
The South Asia, therefore, remains politically fragile with the inherent possibilities
to threaten regional peace and stability with cross–border ramifications. According
to a futuristic study done by a Mumbai-based think tank, Strategic Foresight
Group (SRG), South Asia represents today one of the most militarized societies
in the world, Sri Lanka being at the top2. For example, recurring communal
problems and ethno-religious resurgence in India, particularly coupled with the
cross–border terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir, Maoist insurgency in Nepal,
Tamil imbroglio in Sri Lanka, a series of bomb explosions in Bangladesh, each
with long-term security implications for the region, have been brought into the
focus of several studies in recent times. The massive presence of the US and the
allied forces in Afghanistan – once upon a time the safe heaven of the Talibans
in the geographical proximity of the South Asian region – is also a fact to be
admitted with in so far as the long-term implications of the offensive against
international terrorism are concerned. Perhaps the most significant fact is that
the governments in South Asia have not shown ‘South Asian Consciousness’ in
resorting to effective preventive and reactive measures to suppress terrorism in
their respective countries, either individually or collectively. At present, India
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal continue to remain bogged down in
terrorism and that too at an alarming rate. The prime focus of this paper is to
analyze the scenario in the post-9/11 period, to judge the limitations of the
global war against terror and prospective preventive and reactive measures and,
finally, to suggest options for foreseeable future.
The Expanding Arena of the Threat
Post-9/11 terrorism involves the threat of violence, individual acts of sporadic
violence or a protracted campaign of violence waged necessarily to impose the
realm of fear and alarm. It is violence for shock effects not only and sometimes
not at all, against the actual victims but the innocent third parties of any country,
irrespective of nationality, religion, creed, ethnicity, etc. Historical evidences that
followed the post-9/11 terror acts in different parts of the world bear the testimony
that terrorism can be resorted to by the dedicated bands of ideological groups,
separatist groups, ethno-religious groups, groups instilling fear in quasi-colonial
environment, groups in exiles from countries opposing the regime in their
homeland, state-sponsored terrorists, norco-terrorists and the recently added ecoterrorists and the like. These typologies of terrorists are based on terrorist
motivations and pose numerous structural and functional problems because of
the limitations prevailing between a particular terroristic motivation and intended
modus operandi. It becomes therefore necessary to have a clear-cut distinction
between various terrorist groups on the basis of their modus operandi. For
instance, terrorists who operate against their own countrymen and terrorists
4
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who operate against foreign nationals. The former are likely to be more selective
for their targets, while the latter are more inclined towards indiscriminate threat
or its use. There can be another speculative point which might be significant in
relation to the terrorists based abroad and terrorists based in their own country;
those based abroad are more likely to depend upon support from patron states
or supportive sub-culture from outside.
In the fragile post -9/11 scenario, some governments are prone to proclaim
as terrorism all shades of violent acts committed by their political opponents,
while the anti-government extremists promptly make an outcry to have been the
victims of government terror. What is termed as terrorism thus seems to be
based on a moral judgement. If one party can openly mark the symbol terrorist
for its opponent, then it has indirectly aroused others to resort to its moral
standpoint. Terrorism is what the bad guys do.3 The long-drawn difference of
opinion persists regarding the appropriate definition of ‘terrorism’. As Richard
E. Rubenstein points out: “To call an act of political violence terrorist is not
merely to describe it but to judge it ......... Descriptively ‘terrorism’ suggests violent
action by individuals or small groups. Judgementally, it implies illegitimacy………
To the defenders of a particular regime or social order, any politically motivated
disobedience (even mass resistance) smacks of terrorism ………… And on the
other hand, a regime in power is considered terrorist by those who deny its
legitimacy even if they are but a handful and their opponents legions. Nobody
wants to be called a terrorist; terrorism is what the other side is up to.4
In democratic societies like India, the USA and others, terrorists get several
opportunities to identify themselves with some aggrieved group(s) of people.
Furthermore, the openness of a democratic society extends more opportunities
for the indulgence of external groups, arms and financial and psychological
support of patron states than in a non-democratic society. In each case, a
democratic country has to be more cautious towards public opinion and human
rights; point of caution lies for taking stem steps at an early stage of the progression
of terrorism; and, in curbing the challenge of terrorism, normal legal and law
enforcement agencies and systems are expected to be used. 9/11 gave exceptional
opportunity to the entire world for global cooperation and fresh approach to
identify the “new face of terrorism.5
What the sensitive and peace-loving people have learnt about the threat of
post-9/11 terrorism, first of all, is that it is not purposeless violence. Terrorism
has emerged as a potent instrument to achieve certain objectives; it is not an end
in itself. It is not just like nature’s act of disastrous earthquake or tsunami before
which we are helpless. Terrorists and those who support them have specific
goals; terrorist violence is the means of attaining these goals. The past records
and ever-increasing data on the relatively newer means, methods and goals of
x5
terrorist violence have found harsh expressions in almost every part of the globe,
especially South Asia, South-east Asia, Central Asia, Middle-East, Europe, Oceania,
etc. It is indicative of the fact that the prevention of terrorism would not be
feasible without international cooperation in different forms and ways.
Goals of Terrorism in a Fragile Global Scenario
In the post-9/11 period, terrorism may be the most potent instrument of some
governments, as well as tactics of revolutionary and other anti-government groups,
aimed at attaining broader strategic and specific tactical goals. Based on the
historical evidences and the new face of terrorism in a changing world scenario,
some can be identified as follows :
1.
Individual acts of terrorist scourge are aimed at carving out definite
concessions, such as the release of prisoners, the payment of ransom or the
flash of a terrorist message under the fear of killing. Terrorists very often
strive hard to create dramatic situation thereby intimidating a government
or regime to fulfil their specific demands immediately.
2.
Terrorism may be aimed at inducing relatively wider publicity advantage in
the age of Information Revolution.6 By expanding the rein of terror, a terrorist
organization or its outfits can draw public attention towards its ultimate
goal and put itself as a group that must be recognized for the stated or
projected ends. The propaganda attained by terrific acts of violence and
fearful situation induce people and media to make a mountain out of a
molehill for uplifting the stature of various terrorist groups and primacy of
their cause. Dramatic and sometimes symbolic acts of violence may provide
enough publicity to terrorist groups operating in a particular milieu. In a
way, it facilitates demonstrative leverage to the perpetrators of terror to use
violence and unleash warning of further spate of violence. The phenomenal
developments in the field of information and communication technologies,
electronic media and international press are playing vital roles in the
propagation of this kind of terror-induced publicity, intra- as well as internet facilities to instill the act of fear. The 9/11 terror events clearly taught
the lesson that the strength of various terrorist organizations and their outfits
for the use of these technologies had grown exponentially for the purposes
of training, command and control, international money transactions and
coordination of activities at various levels.
3.
Terrorism may be resorted to by some groups to initiate collapse of the
existing social, economic and political structure and to attenuate
demoralization of the society, especially under the shadow of the current
trends of globalization. This may be a typical and attractive goal for the
revolutionary, religious, separatist or anarchistic terrorists in the relatively
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destabilized societies and soft nation-states. Many revolutionary terrorist
groups initiate terroristic violence on the ground that it is a paramount
process to mobilizing the masses towards revolution. Especially, the
developing societies are more prone to such challenges due to the “rising
but frustrated expectations of people”7. Particularly in the age of globalization,
the paradigm shift from traditional to non-traditional approaches to security
in general and protection and empowerment of the people in particular
have made the whole situation quite complex and uncertain. In such a
situation, the traditional barriers of tradition, culture, economy, technology
have been dismantled, causing more conflicting images of human well-being
between the developing and the developed societies. Notably, starting from
9/11 to the launching of campaign of global war against terrorist axis of
Taliban, Osama bin Laden, Al Qaeda and their associates in Afghanistan,
South Asia and elsewhere, from the US liquidation of Saddam-led Iraq during
Gulf war -II to the Bali blasts in Indonesia to London blasts in July 2005,
from Pakistan-sponsored cross-border terrorism in Jammu & Kashmir to
attack on Indian Parliament to more brutal acts of planting explosives in
five separate trains and two stations in Mumbai- the economic Capital of
India , killing 181 and injuring over 700 innocent passengers on 11th July
2006(popularly known as 7/11 in media circles)8 and the recent 2011 serial
blasts in Mumbai and from many more acts of terrorism in other regions to
the growing voices of international cooperation and related developments,
etc., the world has witnessed the gradual rise of disruptive graph of terrorism
on the one hand and the dis-arrayed efforts of caging the genie of transnational terror on the other hand, involving a lot of uncertainty, insecurity
and trans-nationalization of violence in the age of globalization.9 Globalization
holds out great promise if it is managed properly, for both rich and the
poor. But it will only work if the winners share with losers.10
4.
Terrorism may be aimed at deliberately unleashing repression and revenge
which may eventually lead to the bitter criticism and a sudden and complete
downfall of an unpopular government. Such activities may be directed against
the security personnel and law enforcement agencies of the government; at
the same time, deliberately perpetrated atrocious acts, the kidnapping of
foreign diplomats or business executives, or sporadic violence against civilians
can also be launched, aimed at blemishing government and frustrating it to
react outrageously. The government may thus be compelled by the terrorists
to self-collapse or ouster from power.
5.
Terrorism can be a potent instrument to enforce cooperation and a gesture
of admiration and reverence. These are the usual phenomena of state or
institutional terrorism, but terrorists themselves may also use institutional
violence against the individuals of their own group to ensure utter dedication
x7
to their goal. State-sponsored terrorism is also directed against another state.
In the international comity of nations, there are some nations which have set
up specialized agencies to carry out terroristic acts against other states. States
that sponsor terrorism are employing it as an instrument of conflict to attain
specific strategic goals in the situations they can not use conventional means
and methods. Another dangerous trend in state-sponsored terrorism has
been found due to the coercive diplomacy of powerful industrial nations
particularly when they get involved in such blatant coercive practices of
diplomacy to intimidate less powerful developing nations. One of the
resultant consequences has been the state-sponsored inter- or trans-national
terrorism by relatively weaker nations against the powerful ones as a
retaliatory action.11 But after 9/11 and especially with the initiation of global
war against terror, this trend has assumed enormous reverberations in
different regions. South Asia has experienced several dramatic situations,
particularly due to the changing behaviour of Pakistan towards Taliban and
her cooperation with the Bush and Obama Administrations in its fight against
terrorism, both regionally and globally12.
Historically, Pakistan was caught into cross-fire due to her proxy war and
supportive culture of terrorist violence against India. Above all, we should
understand the critical position of Pakistan in supporting state-sponsored terrorism
without any exaggeration or distortion: Pakistani leaders officially denounce the
use of terrorism as an instrument of state policy, yet there is a wide-ranging gap
between their utterances and practices. In the post-9/11 period, at least in
principle, the long denial by Pakistan of not making India a victim of crossborder terror is a self-explanatory case in tormenting the mutuality of their
relationships in the South Asian region. In the prevailing scenario, the Pakistansupported ideological campaign of “one man’s terrorist as another’s freedom
fighter” can not be given any acceptability in J& K or elsewhere. One who does
not hesitate in employing terrorist tactics is to be treated as terrorist. Hence, for
operational criteria in the post- 9/11 situations, “one man’s terrorist is every
man’s terrorist” .This kind of perceptive approach might be more practicable in
identifying the new face of terrorism. Furthermore, violent and fanatic individuals
are not rare in various religiously and politically volatile and unstable societies
.Terrorism, whether old or new, would long since passed away had it not been
for significant support from outside.13 Post-9/11 developments and growing
terrorist violence have exacerbated these trends in exceptional ways.
6.
The 9/11 catastrophic event evidenced the growing strength of many skilled
terrorist individuals, their organizations and global networks to execute the
acts of punishment for causing death, destruction and despise14. Terrorists
often seek to stress upon the point that the victimized persons or objects are
somehow guilty or they are the despised symbols of economic, political or
8
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social system opposed by the terrorists and their supporters. In many of the
terrorist campaigns, persons have been killed and buildings or objects have
been severely damaged because they represented symbols of the opposed
government or system. In case of 9/11, terrorist hijackers transformed three
commercial jetliners into highly explosive kinetic munitions, toppled the
twin towers of the World Trade Center, substantially damaged the Pentagon,
killed more than three thousand people, and triggered a state of emergency
and tarnished the US Super Power image to a larger extent. Like-wise, the
terrorist attack on Indian Parliament in Dec 2001 and the 26/11 in Mumbai
in 2008, series of terror blasts in Pak after the killing of Osama Bin Laden
on May 2, 2011, etc have all challenged the authority of respective
governments in power.
Thus in a nutshell, while the most hitting impact of terrorism is fear, it may
be used to achieve a variety of goals: specific concessions, dramatic publicity for
terrorists and their cause, disruption of existing social order, provocation of
repression, enforcement of compliance and cooperation or punishment of those
despised by the terrorists. A single event may be aimed at obtaining several of
these goals simultaneously.
India’s Stakes
India faces the challenges of two kind of terrorism-the domestic edifice by some
sections of our own people, the foreign state-sponsored and externally aided
terror acts. The domestic terrorism itself has different objectives-political and
religious as in the case of the terrorist groups in Jammu & Kashmir, purely
religious as in the case of the jihadi terrorist groups perpetrating terror outside
J&K, ethnic as in the case of Assam and ideological and economic as in the case
of the Maoist or Naxalite elements operating in the tribal areas of India. Over the
years, as claimed by India’s incumbent UPA government and intelligence agencies,
we have also witnessed terror activities perpetrated in terms of right-wing
extremist violence in some parts of India.
Foreign state-sponsored terrorism is mainly the terror act of the jihadi
organizations such as the Lashkar-e-Toiba (LET), the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen
(HUM), the Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami (HUJI) and the Jaish-eMohammad (JEM)
operating from Pakistani territory and the HUJI perpetrating their activities from
the bases in Bangladesh. Their members are Pakistani or Bangladeshi nationals
or other foreign Muslims and their activities on the Indian soil are sponsored by
the intelligence agencies in order to serve their own goals, especially for purpose
of creating a polarization between the Muslim and Hindu forces in India.
Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) has the additional motive of causing
disruption and disorder in J&K through terrorism.
x9
Foreign state-aided terrorism gets space due to indigenous terrorist groups
receiving assistance in the form of training, financial assistance and arms and
ammunition from the terrorist organizations and the intelligence services of
Pakistan and Bangladesh. Examples would be the Khalistani terrorists who used
to be active in Punjab and Delhi till 1995, the Kashmiri terrorist groups, the
Students’ Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) and the so-called Indian Mujahideen
(IM) and the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA). Foreign-aided terrorist
groups are creating instability in India and keeping the Indian security forces
preoccupied with internal security problems. In conformity with Acharya
Kautilya’s assertion, we must admit that “the (said) internal challenges are just
like lurking hoods of snakes and they must be crippled or brought into full
control”. Global Dimensions
At present, terrorism has expanded its tentacles as a global phenomenon and
recurring mode of political violence. The terms ‘international terrorism’ and
‘terrorist groups’ are used frequently as convenient ensemble of terms in which
are included all sorts of terrorist violence with grave international intricacies or
acts of violence which are beyond the internationally followed diplomatic norms
and rules of war and peace. It may encompass a variety of acts which have been
particularly outlawed by international agreements, treaties and conventions.
International terrorism in this sense has emerged as a new kind of conflict
against the existing system w aged outside the system 15. Therefore, the rules,
norms and procedures of the system do not find any legitimate domain for their
practicability. For instance, terrorists recognize for fewer neutrals and innocent
civilians. They may hit a person as their target simply on the basis of nationality,
ethnicity or religion or a person can become a victim by mere chance by watching
a film in the cinema hall when a terrorist bomb bursts or by passing through a
railway, bus or airport waiting-room when passengers are gunned down
indiscriminately or when suicide bombings and detonation of remote-controlled
bombs cause enormous death, fear and alarm. The fear and alarm produced by
even a low level of violence may be much demoralizing. It can compel
governments to divert enormous resources to meet the challenge of terrorism.
Some ‘soft’ governments may be compelled to think for the release of arrested
or jailed terrorists if keeping them behind the bars is likely to make such
governments easy targets.16 While terrorists disrupt the fundamental tenets and
norms of international order and peace, they have deep yearnings to seek
international sympathy and pressure to attain their stated or projected ends.
Paradoxically, some terrorist organizations and their outfits have already been
able to gain substantial concessions from vulnerable governments.
10
x
The campaigns of terrorism or individual acts of terrorism perpetrated against
foreign diplomats, diplomatic facilities, or business executives can undoubtedly
embarrass and defame several governments, worsen their relations with many
other governments, weaken their resolve and contribute to the gradual erosion
of authority. If pre-occupied with the problems of widespread unemployment,
foreign debt burden, rampant inflation, corruption, deep-rooted religio-ethnic
tensions, or political unrest, etc., such governments would be compelled to step
down or extend more/additional authority to the military. In some cases, coupled
with other reasons, this situation may also allure the military take-over. No
governments have fallen solely due to the acts perpetrated by domestic or foreign
terrorists.
Terrorism has the compelling force to escalate conventional conflicts,
stretching them far beyond the territory/region involved. In certain regions,
terrorism has complicated the long standing disputes and made their solution
extremely difficult. This is, for instance, discernible in the Middle-East, where
the fate of the ‘peace process’ remains uncertain due to the terrorist acts of
Hamas and underlying political instability. Kashmir dispute between India and
Pakistan is another intractable problem, which is entrapped in the maw of terror.17
Alarmingly, current trends of terrorism have germinated the seeds of newer
problems for the protection of individuals, once they are outside their national
confines. It has also superimposed a variety of questions about the national
responsibility. When terrorists from one nation board a jet plane on another
nation’s soil and attack a person or object in a third nation, what basic
responsibility does every nation bear in preventing the activities of terrorists
against the foreign nationals? International terrorism also poses a specific question
before all such countries in which successive and deliberate terrorist attacks are
very likely to inflict tremendous damage on the diplomatic facilities and structures.
While most governments hope that the responsibility falls squarely upon the
host government to protect diplomats and the diplomatic facilities, it remains
still very uncertain as to what extent the host government will be accountable in
the cases of nationals of another nation who may just be passing through or in
transit at one of its airports.
International terrorism may create serious problems for seeking the priority
between the settlement of political disputes and the creation of objective conditions
for the feasibility and practicability of informal understandings and formally
negotiated and institutionalized agreements on arms control. Trans-national or
international terrorism may shake the roots of confidence building measures
(CBMs) for arms control in any region of the world, particularly in the South
Asia18. At present, terrorist teeth for inflicting damage, destruction and shock are
more sharpened, and the large scale proliferation and international flow of
x11
increasingly sophisticated and highly powerful miniaturized weapons will
remarkably strengthen their position. The miniaturization, the increased potency
and large scale availability of weapons have added new dimensions to terrorists’
armed potential. Rapid scientific and technical advances are creating an ever
increasing array of deadly agents of chemical and biological scourge- a
phenomenon with rising implications. It is simply a point of time when terrorists
would opt for these deadly weapons in their use.19 The enormous difficulties in
defending against terrorist attacks with chemical and biological warfare agents
waged without warning against military and civilian targets need not be
elaborated here. Known as ‘atomic bombs of the poor’, they can create catastrophe.
The vulnerability of nations across the full spectrum of these threats calls
necessarily for those confidence-building measures which have far been ignored
or neglected. This situation is closely intertwined with the proliferation and
diffusion of conventional arms, especially the efforts of terrorists to procure
small arms and light weapons in South Asia and elsewhere through illegal
channels.20
At the same time the international politico-strategic milieu, which facilitated
the possession, perfection and development of nuclear weapon systems and the
formulation of nuclear war doctrines, might be faced with serious challenges due
to the imminent danger of nuclear terrorism in the foreseeable future. As terrorists
become more skilled, sophisticated and more technology-reliant, there are
indications that the nuclear aspect of terrorism is a real possibility21. There are
authentic reports that, in the past, nuclear fissile materials have been diverted
from the plants of the “nuclear haves”. Attempts of stealing weapon-grade fissile
materials and nuclear components have also been reported by the world media
and other reliable sources. The stolen nuclear materials can be used into
rudimentary nuclear explosive devices22. In addition, toxic nuclear materials can
be used as radiological warfare agents or ‘dirty bombs’ by specialized terrorist
gangs. Presumably, a canister of radioactive waste product could inflict heavy
loss in a densely populated locality and also could provide substantial
opportunities to terrorists to blackmail their target nation. In such circumstances,
the questions of safety, security and arms control intertwined with the nuclear
arms as well as peaceful nuclear uses would appear to be extremely clumsy and
absolutely critical. Particularly, given the existing animosity between India and
Pakistan and uncertain and fragile nature of regional politics, the situation can
be extremely grim in the nuclearized South Asia. 23
Over and above, the wide-ranging repercussion of post-9/11 terror may
reach far beyond anything yet imagined or seen in political, strategic or military
terms. The factors that have exacerbated the scourge of terrorist acts could, in the
foreseeable future, introduce seminal changes in the nature of regional and global
conflict. Terrorism though rejected as a legitimate mechanism of conflict by most
12
x
traditional military establishments in the post-9/11 period and even earlier, could
assume the dimensions of surrogate warfare. Once the deadly means of warfare
possessed by the conventional forces in the conflict–ridden areas are readily
available to international terrorist groups and their outfits with the intention to
instill fear and shock in the hearts and the minds of people, international terrorism
would truly emerge as “the conflict of hearts and minds”24
In such circumstances, the nature of war, the ideas of security, war potential
and military power presumed by respective governments may also undergo
unprecedented transformations, adjustments and re-adjustments.
Factors Operating in a Terroristic Milieu
No simplistic generalizations can be prescribed with regard to operating factors
in a terrorist milieu. Terrorism in different forms surfaces in many countries at
different times as a consequence of idiosyncratic inter--linkages of various factors.
Various factors which contribute to a terrorist milieu may be religious, economic,
historical, cultural, ethnic, technological, geographical, demographic,
psychological, political, and ideological, etc. Very often the accelerated rate of
change, the destabilization of value system and lack of capacity to govern may
predispose a society to terrorism25.
Notably in such cases, the role of media remains very critical in
operationalising critical elements in the terrorist milieu. In many countries, the
irrational publicity and mismanagement of information and communication
technologies, electronic media and press have made the over-all situation more
prone to propagandise the terrorist cause. In addition to providing wide-spread
publicity for terrorist attacks on persons and facilities, the media have contributed
wittingly or accidentally to the terrorist designs in several ways, such as giving
information about the deployment of police and security personnel and
denouncing harsh government actions in dealing with the terrorists, particularly
during their detentions, trials and punishment. In democratic countries, such
situations are repeatedly exploited by terrorist organizations and their supporters
to the best of their advantages. India is now faced with such a challenging
situation in the post-9/11 period, in which the case of Parliament attack convict
Mohammed Afzal Guru, who has been sentenced to death, has been publicized
out of proportion in certain media circles. However, for terrorist groups, even
bad publicity is preferably more fruitful than no publicity. Recent developments
in the information and communication technologies and sophistication in news
broadcasting-radio, television, communication satellites-are undoubtedly a boon
to publicity-seeking terrorists.
The modern industrialization processes require the introduction of extremely
fragile infrastructures, which are easy to disrupt and the media can make sure
x13
that such disruptions generate maximum fear and alarm in the hearts and minds
of the target group and the innocent by-standers. Furthermore, it is a constant
trend of advancing science and technology to put more and more power available
at the disposal of smaller and smaller terrorist units or groups. The accretion in
international terrorism can be accredited, among other things, to technological
progress which have provided terrorists with new capabilities. Modern means of
transportation, especially planes and ships, facilitate them unprecedented levels
of mobility, flexibility and maneuverability to strike anywhere on the target.
Modern technical advances in munitions have made weapons less expensive,
more easily portable and more lethal. Emerging chemical-biological technologies
and new weapons, including several explosives, toxins and sophisticated devices
are increasing terrorists’ ability for catastrophic violence.26
The support of terrorism by patron states and existence of sympathizers or
a supportive subculture are also crucial factors in the terroristic milieu. The
patron states have soft corner for terrorist groups fighting on the foreign soil.
They offer training, munitions, money, documents, intelligence support, and
logistical facilities to terrorist groups. In addition, patron states may be a force
of psychological support and political legitimacy for terrorist groups. In some
cases, patron states may wish to covertly assist sub-national groups and delegate
training and support activities to ‘satellite’ countries or to other terrorist groups.
The presence of a sympathetic constituency makes the milieu more favorable to
terrorism and this subculture provides useful sub-ways to the recruiting of future
terrorists.
While the post-9/11 edifice of ideology may act as the prime motivational
element for some terrorist groups, it may sometimes prove detrimental to the
cause of nationalist or secessionist groups, in that it curtails their sympathetic
appeal to the civilian population in the target country. Evidently, such cases can
be relatively verifiable in politically more conscious regions, such as Europe, but
it may not necessarily be viable in many cases of politically less conscious regions
of the world. It may also be pointed out, however, that to divert renewed public
attention to their group and cause, terrorists may employ new designs and tactics
in a manner that does not lead to escalation. From the terrorists’ stand-point, this
escalatory stalemate may have numerous limitations, such as alienation of the
majority of the public, both domestic and international, and legitimization of
counter-terrorist governmental measures in a more favourable milieu.27
The terrorist acts that have occurred in Asia, Europe, the United States or
elsewhere in the post-9/11 periods posit enough evidence that generational shift
that develops in a terrorist milieu is one of the most potent factors in the intensity
and brutality of terrorism. Older generations had been more ideological,
indoctrinated and selective, later generations are visibly more violent and brutal.
14
x
In most of the terrorist conflicts, every four years or so a new “generation” holds
a commanding role in terrorist pursuits as older leaders and the “brains” are
either killed, eliminated or captured, and their “soldiers” emerge as leaders28.
This generational shift may produce newer trends and interests within the ambit
of over-arching terrorists’ supportive subculture, which in turn may produce
lesser constraints and may aggravate ruthless terrorist activities by their new
generation. If we go by the past historical speculations of 9/11 and aftermath, we
can draw a specific inference that too much violent acts of indiscriminate mode
can provoke harsh reactions and larger intricacies towards international
cooperation against terrorists. The US global war against terror has certainly
aggravated such trends, particularly after the Gulf War II.29
Response to the New Wave of Terrorism
The US-led global war on terror (GWOT) after 9/11 clearly required a clarion call
from all civilized, sensitive and informed minds and decision-makers in global
Capitals that they must respond to curb the scourge of terrorism within the rule
of law, lest people become insensible collaborators during a terrorist campaign,
especially Jihadi terrorism emerging from religious radicalism in a globalized
world. The modus operandi planned to curb terrorism should be based on an
adequate understanding of the individual, group and organizational attitudes of
terrorists. The more autonomous groups are, the more counterproductive
retaliatory reaction is likely to be. This is due to the fact that it will promote
group cohesion, glorify identity of the group, minimize internal tensions and
amplify world stature of the group. In the event of larger terrorist groups too,
retaliatory policies can signify their identity. The similar argument can also be
put forward in case of states acting as patrons or germinating a supportive subculture in the terrorist environment. In fact, a policy which is formulated and
implemented to render the path of terrorism utterly unattractive is the most
potent process of counter-terrorism. The first and foremost objective should be
to discourage potential terrorists from seeking recruitment in terrorist cadres,
germinate the seeds of mutual suspicion and tension within the groups and deny
external support to them.
As part of serious initiatives, the national, regional and international milieu
should be made a politically, socially, culturally and economically sound one
with the intention to cut to the minimum breeding grounds of most forms of
terrorism. In addition to international cooperation in economic, cultural and
social fields, including specific research and exchange of information, there may
be numerous other important measures irrevocably required in dealing with the
emerging challenges of terrorism. Fighting terrorism, domestic, trans-national or
international, is not only a problem of the government, security forces and the
x15
law enforcement agencies, but also an uphill and consistent task of the target
societies. The actual and even potential target countries should devise ways and
means to identify patrons and sympathizers, to persuade and pressurize them
through diplomatic and other channels towards the renunciation of statesponsored terrorism. The 9/11 events clearly sanctified that nations are required
to carry out some initial steps and measures aimed at caging the genie of terrorist
violence. As prescribed in a previous work by this author, a suggestive framework
can be presented as follow s: 30

Adequate and effective coordination of intelligence and contingency
planning;

Strict security measures at embassies, airports and the venues of international
gatherings and meetings;

explosives and other deadly means of terrorist attack against persons or
objects;

Consistent screening profiles to identify terrorists;

Implementing more stringent custom provisions;

Provisions for protective clothings, gas masks and specialized Civil Defence
measures as part of the long-term planning against Chemical and Bioterrorism.31

Observance of stepped-up security arrangements at the nuclear power
establishments, sites and other facilities built by the nuclear weapon states(
NWS) , near-nuclear states and potential proliferators to help prevent any
event of nuclear terrorism in foreseeable future. Nuclearized South Asia
requires specific attention and specialized knowledge.32

In the nuclear weapon states (NWS), stronger fences have been built around
the nuclear plants and facilities and large scale use of electronic sensors and
other devices have been added to detect intruders; this could also be followed
by all others, especially India and Pakistan.

Improved avionics for the civilian planes along with sophisticated safety
devices by using state of the art technology to separate passengers from
captain’s cabin and crew members in case of any emergency;

Clamping strict international pressure on the patron states and sympathizers
of state-sponsored international terrorism;

Concluding bilateral and multilateral extradition agreements;

Development of counter-terrorist elite combat forces to fight terrorists and
initiatives to provide impetus to other nations to support rigorous actions
against terrorists; and
16

x
Denial of unrestricted access and use of press, electronic and communication
media by the terrorists and proper media management in a terrorist
environment.
Crisis Management Options
In protracted terrorist campaigns, military contingency planning is needed in the
primary stage of terrorism, well before taking the decision to use military force.
Quick response with overwhelming momentum provides opportunities to launch
hard actions against terrorists. Once the military or paramilitary forces are
employed, the ultimate goal should to destroy terrorists and their structure as
speedily as possible. Intense responses have the benefit of restraining the media
coverage for undue publicity to terrorism. But in certain situations of statesponsored terror, the use of force can be the ultimate option, especially if it
involves long-term implications33. India, for instance, had mobilized its armed
forces against Pakistan after the terrorist attack on Parliament in 13 December
2001, but had ultimately chosen to withdraw by applying serious unilateral
restraints.
The use of force in countering terrorism should be cautiously planned and
executed to minimize collateral loss of persons and facilities, limiting resentment
among the population and curbing the subsequent emergence of sympathizers
or supportive subculture in the terrorist milieu. The situation in South Asia
remains very volatile in this context, particularly due to deep-rooted inimical
postures of India and Pakistan against each other.34 In fact, terrorism after 26/11
remains the single largest zig-saw puzzle to have been solved for any renewed
successful pace of Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) and normalization of
India-Pakistan relations.
International Cooperation
Following the on-going foot-prints of 21st century, especially after 9/11, the voices
of international cooperation under the leadership of the United States did provide
some impetus to agree on and devise measures to curb scourge of terrorism, both
regionally and internationally. The feeling of international community of shared
core values is a moral ingredient of the UN Charter and signifies the authority
of International Law. In cases of incessant scourge of terrorism, however, the
attitude displayed by the international community largely proved to be rhetoric.
Even if some acts such as murder of diplomats and innocent businessmen and
hijacking of planes continues to remain as a threat, trans-national terrorism would
maintain its essential trend of inflicting more of a challenge for democracies. In
a poly-centric and globalized world of today, as a follow-up of post-9/11 drive
x17
again terror, fresh avenues must be sought, which should be aimed at garnering
effective international cooperation from both the developed and developing
countries for curbing the plague of terrorism and eradicating its roots gradually.
Furthermore, some nations have maintained restraints in extending support
to stern actions against terrorism. Some have shown their inability to prosecute
or denied to extradite terrorists captured or taken shelter on their soil. The apathy
or skepticism of these governments to extend cooperation for firm anti-terrorist
drive may be derived from their fear of reprisals by terrorist gangs, or they may
be constrained by perceived interests, commercial or otherwise. There are also
problems of differing perceptions and legal ramifications both nationally and
internationally. For example, in South Asia, Pakistan’s long-drawn perception of
‘terrorists’ operating on the soil of Jammu and Kashmir as ‘freedom fighters’ still
looms large over the horizon due to tinted eye-view of Pakistani decision-making
elites.
Legal Ramifications of Curbing Terrorism
Taken in legal terms, terrorism encompasses both the act and the perpetrator.
While prevention and intelligence are aimed at curbing terrorist acts, prosecution
and punishment are against the perpetrator(s) of terrorism. Combating terrorism
requires an International Law approach entirely different from what is needed
for humanization of armed conflicts at the international level. It encompasses
international law treaties on inter-governmental cooperation for the prevention
and punishment of acts of terrorism. The terrorist is nothing but a criminal
offender in terms of national law. International law can provide no more than
some agreements on inter-governmental cooperation. Such agreements may ramify
the scope or accelerate the efficacy of legislation and cooperation among different
administrations in various states. But a global counter-terrorist convention is yet
to emerge.
In November 1987, the member states of the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) adopted the SAARC Convention on the
Suppression of Terrorism but, due to political reasons, it remained unimplemented.
In the Eleventh Summit in Kathmandu (January, 2002), the leaders of the SAARC
had taken a pledge to make collective efforts to suppress terrorism. An additional
clause was added to the SAARC Convention on Suppression of Terrorism in the
12th SAARC summit. All such measures constitute a regional approach to many
of the well-established principles of International Law in dealing with terrorism.
In principle, all the member states are committed to extradite or prosecute alleged
terrorists, thus to refrain them from enjoying safe heavens. Regional cooperation
is also envisaged in the context of preventive action against terrorism. Exchanges
of information, intelligence-sharing and technical expertise are the major areas
18
x
identified for mutual cooperation under all conventions. Coordination among
Liaison Officers (Anti-Terrorist Law Enforcement Officers) is to be developed
through holding international meetings continually at regular intervals to monitor,
evaluate and improve counter-terrorist strategies.35 The SAARC Terrorist Offences
Monitoring Desk (STOMD) has been set up in Colombo to collate, analyze and
disseminate information about the terrorist events, strategies, tactics and modus
operandi. Its aim is to concentrate on all terrorist acts which are designed and
executed to inflict disastrous impact on life, property, socio-economic development
and political stability as well as on regional and international peace and
cooperation.36
Unfortunately, despite their proclamations and goodwill gestures shown in
their diplomatic dialogues and meetings, the member states of the SAARC have
not made any serious effort towards implementation of the SAARC Convention
for the Suppression of Terrorism. There is, therefore, an urgent need to observe
how terrorism is being contained by other regional groupings or areas beyond
SAARC.
Concerted domestic, regional and international drive is irrevocably required
to combat the menacing monster of terrorism. One of the most effective measures
taken by the UN against terrorism so far has been the Resolution 1373 (28
September 2001) of the Security Council through which a number of mandatory
decisions were taken on terrorist financing, obligating states to refrain from
providing support to terrorists and to take necessary steps to prevent financing
of terrorism and deny safe heaven to terrorists.37
The Future Ahead
The bottom-line marks the fact that the new trends of post-9/11 terrorism have
germinated a variety of permutations and combinations with regard to its nature,
ends means and impact on the hearts and minds of people living in South Asia
and elsewhere. The principal factor as to why we need to be informed about
various ramifications, threat perceptions, measures and counter-measures against
terrorism is deeply intertwined with the open reality that the individual or group
acts of terrorism can emerge as a domineering threat to domestic, regional and
international peace, stability and security. In a fragile world of today, it is difficult
to derive any final view of what will be the fate of a counter-terrorist campaign,
such as that of US-led global war on terror (GWOT), especially when the US
troops are in a state of phased withdrawal from Afghanistan. Presumably in the
prevailing post-9/11 circumstances and terrorist ramifications, it may strengthen
the resolve of some governments or administrations, while weaken others in the
terror-hit South Asia and elsewhere. Terrorism can complicate the resolution of
long-drawn bilateral disputes; worsen relations between the involved nation-
x19
states. It can also pose incessant problems for reciprocal unilateral restraints in
a terrorist environment; hamper region-based future confidence building and
tension control negotiations at bilateral and multilateral levels. In one of his
discourses on war, renowned British thinker Capt. B.H. Liddell Hart once
suggested that “if you wish for peace, understand war”. This can be amplified
by stating that “if you wish for global peace and security, understand terrorism
in its various shades and modes”. This amplified notion will provide ways and
means to curb the problem. South Asian nation-states and civil societies are also
reminded of a corollary, which entails the fact that a group of devils ought to be
able to devise and agree on ways and means to ensure their survival and peace,
provided they are intelligent devils. Those who face the challenges of terrorism
are not devils, nor are they angels. They are human beings, but so far they have
not evidenced sufficient wisdom and virtue in dealing with this new mode of
conflict. This requires new initiatives and paradigm shifts. Hopefully, the road
to paradigm shift is open to all in the post-9/11 circumstances.
REFERENCES
1.
Edington, Mark. (March 2, 2003).The New York Times.
2.
See: Reddy, Muralidhar. (September 27, 2006). South Asia’s most militarized society, The
Hindu.
3.
Form one such view, see: Jenkins, B.M. (1975).International Terrorism as a New Mode of
Conflict, Los Angles.
4.
Rubenstein, Richard E. (1988). Alchemists of Revolution: Terrorism in the Modem World, New
York, pp. 17-18.
5.
Prasad, Rajendra. (15-16 November, 2002). The New Face of Terrorism and the Problems
of Peace, unpublished paper presented in the National Seminar on Terrorism and the Culture
for Peace held at the Malviya Centre for Peace research, Banaras Hindu University.
6.
See: Freedman, L. (1998). The Revolution in Strategic Affairs, Adelphi Papers , No.318, IISS,
London; also, see, Swarup, R.N., Matheswaran, M., Wisdom Warfare,in Prasad, Rajendra
(ed.) . (2002). India’s Security in 21 Century: Challenges and Responses, Dominant Pub., New
Delhi.
7.
For one such argument, see: Singh, Jasjit. (1991-92). Security in a Period of Strategic
Uncertainty, Asian Strategic Survey, IDSA, New Delhi, p.18.
8.
According to Police and Intelligence sources, there was ISI hand in Mumbai blasts. These
blasts on trains were planned, executed through LeT, Jaish and SIMI. See: Special
correspondent. (October 1, 2006). The Hindu
9.
See: Keohane, Robert O and Nye, Jr, Joseph S., Introduction, in Nye, Joseph S. and Donahue,
John D. (eds.). (2000). Governance in a Globalizing World, Washington, D.C.,Brookings
Institution Press; Goldblatt, David and Perraton, Jonathan. (1990). Global Transformations:
Politics, Economics and Culture , Stanford, Calif, Stanford University Press,; and Davis,
Lynn E. (2003).Globalization’s Security Implications, RAND Issue Paper 245, Santa Monica,
California.
20
x
10. For detailed arguments, see: Economist and Nobel Laureate Josheph Stiglitz. (September
29, 2006). Globalization will only work if the winners share with losers, The Hindu.
11. For one such analysis, see: Subrahmanyam, K. (1986). Terrorism to the Forefront of the
Stage, Strategic Analysis, Vol. 10, No.3, pp.237-248.
12. See the excerpts of interview given by Mussarraf, General Pervez. (September 28, 2006).
We want to let people defeat Taliban, The Hindu
13. See: Prasad, Rajendra, Nemesis of Violence and Our Common Future, in Prasad, R.(ed.).
(2002). India’s Security in 21st Century: Challenges and Reponses, Dominant Publishers, New
Delhi, p.59. Also, see: Netanyahu, Benjamin. (1995). Fighting Terrorism, New York. In his
study, Netanyahu focused on state-sponsorship, the anti-western motives of radical Islamic
groups, and the need to move swiftly to close down terror networks. His prescient strategy
has been adopted by the United States and its allied nations during the global war against
terror after 9/11.
14. For details, see: www.fbi.gov./mostwant/terrorist/fugitives.htm; also, see the conceptual analysis
by Derian, James Der. (2001). Virtuous War: Mapping the Military-Industrial-Media
Entertainment Network. Boulder, Co and Oxford, UK, Westview/ Perseus.
15. Jenkins, B.W., op.cit., fn. 3.
16. For one such analysis, see: Prasad, Rajendra , Terrorism and the Problems of Peace in the
Contemporary World, in Sinalarat, P. (ed.).(1987). Higher Education and the Promotion of
Peace Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, pp 143-153.
17. Prasad, R., in Sinalarat, P. (ed.). (1987).fn.17, p. 146.
18. Prasad, R., in Sinalarat, P. (ed.). (1987). fn.17, p.147; also, see: Prasad, R., Revisiting South
Asian Security and the Scope for Confidence Building, in Prasad, R. (ed.). (1998). Perspectives
of Security: National and International, Radha Pub., New Delhi, p.44-45.
19. For a detailed account of CB agents and emerging Chemical–Biological technologies, see:
Prasad, R. (1988). India’s Civil Defence in the Nuclear Age, Prakash Books, Bareilly, pp30-46;
also, see: Thyagarajan, S. P. (2005). Bio-Terrorism, in Malviya, Gopalji (ed.), Security
Dimensions of Peninsular India, Centre for Security Analysis, Chennai, pp17-20.
20. For diffusion process through illegal channels, see: Klare, M.T., Light Weapons Diffusion
and Global Violence in the Post–Cold War Era, in Singh, J. (ed.).(1995). Light Weapons and
International Security, (published by Indian Pugwash Society, British American Security
Information Council and IDSA), New Delhi, pp.1-40; also, see: Singh, J., Light Weapons
and Conflict in Southern Asia, in the same book, pp. 50-62.
21. Toole, T.O. (1985). Growing Concern about Nuclear Terrorism, International Herald Tribune.
After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the danger increased unprecedentedly, see:
Jones, R.W. and at.el. (1998). Tracking Nuclear Proliferation, Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, Washington, D.C., pp.5-7; Rajagopal, S., Terrorist Threat to Nuclear
Installations, in Malviya,Gopalji(ed.). (2005).op.cit, fn.20, pp.107-118.
22. For a study on fissile material theft and its implications, see; Uday Bhaskar, C. (July 1996).
Fissile Material Theft and Post-Cold War Security, Strategic Analysis, Vol. XIX, No.4, pp.
601-614;also, see: Hippel, Frank,von. (2003). The Safety of Stored Spent Nuclear Power
Reactor Fuel,Science and Society, http://www.princeto.edu/~globsec/people/
fvhippel.spentfuel.htm.
23. See: Rajagopal, S., Terrorist Threat to Nuclear Installations, in Malviya, Gopalji (ed.).
x21
(2005). op.cit., fn.20, pp.107-118.
24. For one such analysis, see: Segaller, S. (1986). Invisible Armies, London, p.20.
25. For details, see: Prasad, R., Nemesis of Violence and Our Common Future, in Prasad, R.
(ed.).
op. cit. fn.14, pp 54-61.
26. See: Prasad, R., Terrorism and the Problems of War and Peace in the Contemporary
World, in Sinalarat, P. (ed.). (1987).op .cit, fn.17, p. 149; also, see: Dikshit, Prashant. (October
1995). Weaponisation of Societies, Strategic Analysis. Terrorists can resort to cyber resources
to intimidate or coerce others. See: Joshi, A., Cyber-Terrorism, in Malviya,
Gopalji(ed.).(2005).op.cit, fn.20, pp.91-106.
27. For the strategy of combating terror, see: Segaller, S.,op.cit. fn.25.
28. For one such view, see; Jenkins, B.M. (ed). (1982). Terrorism and Beyond, Proceedings of an
International Conference on Terrorism and the Low Level Conflict, Rand Corporation.
29. For this report, see: (September 25, 2006).The Hindu.
30. For details, see: Prasad, R.,in Sinalarat, P.(ed.). (1987). op.cit, fn.17, pp.148-149.
31. For specialized civil defence preparedness and protection against Chemical and Biological
challenges from a state or non-state actor, see: Prasad, R. (1988). India’s Civil Defence in the
Nuclear Age, op. cit., fn.20, pp.146-168.
32. For protection against explosive nuclear and radiological terrorism, specialized preparedness
is irrevocably required. For details, see: Prasad, R. (1988). India’s Civil Defence in the Nuclear
Age, fn.20, pp.168-193.
33. Prasad, R., in Sinalarat, P. (ed.). (1987). op.cit, fn.17, p.149.
34. Subramanian, Nirupama. (September 22, 2006). Pakistan- Balochistan Blaze, Frontline,
pp.114-117.
35. See: Saeed, Amera, Regional Cooperation at the Track II Level: Cracking the Genome of
Intergovernmental Processes, in Afroze, Shaheen (ed.). (2002). Regional Cooperation in South
Asia: New Dimensions and Perspectives, BIISS, Dhaka, p. 408.
36. Ibid.
37. Hafeez, Beenish. (Spring 2004). Understanding and Combating Terrorism in South Asia,
Regional Studies, Vol. XXII, No. 2, p. 103.
22
x
Secular India and Muslim Reservation
Makkhan Lal *
On 15 August, 1947 India became a free country, indeed, after loosing its onefifth of the population and one-third of geographical area. The partition of the
country was demanded on the principle of two-nation theory i.e. Muslims are
different kaum and have nothing to do with Hindus and they cannot live with
Hindus on the principle of equality to all. Despite the fact that the theory was
and remains absurd, demand was accepted. The theory is absurd can be illustrated
by the fact that more than 98% of Muslims are Hindu converts. The most articulate
and powerful theoretician for the creation of Pakistan was Sheikh Mohd. Iqbal
- popularly known as Allama Iqbal. It must not be forgotten that Iqbal was born
as a Hindu - Kashmiri Brahmin. His grandfather converted to Islam sometime
after the birth of Iqbal.
Despite all this, the demand for a separate state for the Muslims was accepted
(33% of the territory for 20% of the population) just for the sake of peace between
the two communities. The newly created state of Pakistan chose to be an Islamic
state and the parent state i.e. India decided, as per its seven thousand years old
tradition of sarvapanth samabhava to be a state where each-and-everyone will be
equal irrespective of caste, creed and religion- i.e. ‘a true secular state’ in modern
idiom. India decided that we will be a state based on sarvapanth samabhava or
sarvadharma samabhava, where all citizens will be governed by a Common Civil
Law. Article 44 of the Constitution says, “The state shall endeavour to secure for
the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India.” This Common
Civil Code still remains a distant dream; even after six decades of independence.
A perusal of the behavior and policies of the political parties, political leaders
and the ‘secularists’ alike shows that everything is being done to make sure that
the question of the Common Civil Code, enshrined in the Constitution and being
insisted upon constantly by the Hon. Supreme Court of India, is best forgotten.
For the last three decades or even more a trend has been witnessed. The
judgements of the various courts are being seen in the communal light and not
in the light of the Constitution and Law of the land. Whenever a judgement goes
against the political motives and unjust aspirations of a particular minority, the
courts become a subject of intense criticism and media debate. The Hon. Courts
are painted in a bad light but the moment a judgement is against the Hindus (i.e.
* Founder Director, Delhi Institute of Heritage Research and Management, New Delhi
Sec ula r Ind ia a nd Muslim Reserva tion
x23
86% of the population), it is not only welcomed but also the very same courts
and judges are lauded as ‘secular’, independent and free from baises. Indeed, an
act of inducement and emotional blackmail. What does all this mean? The answer
is appeasement and minorityism.
Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee was ostensibly appointed by the UPA
Government to look into the matters concerning “Social, Economic and
Educational Status of the Muslim Community”. The subject matter itself shows
as if the social, economic and educational problems in the other communities
and among the followers of other religions in India do not exist. If that is not the
case then it can be safely presumed that even if the social, economic and
educational problems do exist in other communities and the followers of other
religion in India, they do not merit any attention because they do not form a
vote-bank or they do not form a “very strong, well knit and well-organized
minority...that could force the partition of the country.” Be it as it may.
However in order to escape criticism and alienation of other minority
communities the UPA Government came up with another magic box under the
garb of Rangnath Mishra Commission which recommended reservations for
Muslims as well as other minorities like Christians and so on. But let us come
back to Sachar Committee Report which deals exclusively with the Muslims
reservation issue.
Sachar Committee
Sachar Committee claims to be based on actual data of economic, social and
educational conditions of Muslims. But the fact is that it is not only full of
inaccurate data but also in many areas it dwells in the realm of fantasy. A large
number of problems and deprivations that are being faced by most of the Indians,
irrespective of caste, creed and religion, have been presented, as if, those of
Muslims alone. Many of the problems discussed in the report have nothing to do
with the polity, government and the economic conditions. They emanate directly
from the social customs and the religious beliefs. It is impossible to believe that
Justice Sachar and his learned colleagues are unaware of this aspect of the problem.
The insinuating conclusion of the Sachar Committee concerning the “political
participation of the Muslims” and the recommendation that the report has made
in the matter is really fantastic. The notification of the Government of India
certainly had not mandated the Committee to go into political matters. But it still
has gone into it. What is most shocking is that the remedy it has suggested is the
same that the most rabid Muslim communalists have been asking for the very
same remedy which was based on two-nation theory that finally led to the
unprecedented human miseries, both for the Hindus and Muslims, and partition
24
x
of the country. The report says :

Political Participation, Governance and Equity
“As has been indicated earlier in the chapter, many persons the
Committee interacted with, felt that lack of adequate “Muslim Voice”
in the Government, even in local self government bodies and similar
other grassroots institutions has resulted in a situation that Muslims
have lagged behind. In their view, political participation and
representation in government structure are essential to achieve equity.
It was alleged by many that participation is denied to Muslims through
a variety of mechanism. Two specific instances were cited in this
context:

Non-Inclusion of Muslims in the voter lists : It was pointed out that many
names of Muslims were missing in the voter lists of a number of states. Not
only does this disempower them, it also makes them ineligible as beneficiaries
of government scheme.

Notification of Reserved Constituencies : Attention of the Committee was
drawn to the issue of Muslim concentration assembly being declared as
‘reserved’ constituencies where only SC candidates can contest election. By
this move, it was argued that Muslims are being systematically denied
political participation.
The Committee then suggests the method for the greater participation of the
Muslims in the political process in the following manner :
“Establishing a More rational Procedure for Delimitation of
Constituencies
“The Committee also recommends the elimination of the anomalies
with respect to reserved constituencies under the delimitation schemes.
A more rational delimitation procedure that does not reserve
constituencies with high minority population share for SCs will
improve the opportunity for the minorities, especially the Muslims, to
contest and get elected to Indian Parliament and the State Assemblies.
Apart from these two initiatives it is important to evolve other methods
to enhance political participation of the Community.3”
Non-Inclusion of Muslims in the Voters lists
Is it not a fact that many a times omissions of individuals, families and even
localities from the voters list happens for a variety of reasons - families not at the
station at the time of the revision of the voters list; not taking any interest or
checking the voters’ list to see that their names are in the list; and, of course, the
x25
political parties conniving with the officers responsible for the revision of voters
list for the inclusion of ‘their’ people and even the exclusion of voters which they
suspect that they will vote against? In one instance even the name of the Chief
Election Commissioner and several senior civil servants living in most important
localities were not there in the voters list. Several of the employees in the
Rashtrapati Bhawan and also residents there in also had the distinction of not
being on the voters list. Can we really say that all these instances happened
because of the fact that they were Muslims? Let us accept that missing names
from voters list is a disease which has its origin in the carelessness on the part
of the people at individual as well as community levels. To say that Muslim
Community is being excluded from voters list deliberately is nothing but
trivialization of the problem and travesty of truth.
Notification of Reserved Constituencies
Regarding the notification of the Reserved Constituencies Justice Sachar and his
colleagues have gone several steps beyond than what even the most
fundamentalists among the Muslims have been demanding for. The report
recommends “the elimination of the anomalies with respect to reserved
constituencies under the delimitation schemes.” It further recommends “A more
rational delimitation procedure that does not reserve constituencies with high
minority population share.”
In other words Sachar Committee recommends the reservation of seats on
the basis of communal electorates which is nothing but re-importing the ghost
of two-nation theory. Also, Sachar seems to forget that there has been an
unprecedented and unnatural growth of the Muslims population in certain regions
of the country, much after the constituencies were reserved of SCs ans STs.
Therefore to blame the delimitation commission for the biasness is really sad.
What is required is a thorough investigation as to how such an unprecedented
and unnatural growth of the Muslim population took place in those areas.
Communal Reservations and Constituent Assembly
The question of reservation of seats on the basis of the communal electorates was
considered in detail by the Advisory Committee appointed by the Constituent
Assembly. In the beginning the Advisory Committee which was chaired by H.C.
Mookerjee, himself a Christian, recommended for the reservation of seats for the
minorities, including Muslims, on the principle of proportional representation in
terms of population to be elected by joint electorate and not on the basis of
communal and ‘separate electorates’. The proposal said that:
“All elections to the Central and Provincial Legislatures will be
held on the basis of joint electorates with reservation of seats
26
x
for certain specified minorities on their population ratio. This
reservation shall be for a period of ten years at the end of
which the position is to be reconsidered. There shall be no
weightage. But members of the minority communities for whom
seats are reserved shall have the right to contest general seat.”4
It must be mentioned here that Muslim League was also part of the Advisory
Committee and the Constituent Assembly. The decision to do away with the
separate electorates was taken by an overwhelming majority, near consensus.
However the recommendations of the Advisory Committee were taken up
for the discussion in the Constituent Assembly on 27 and 28 August. After a
detail discussion it was decided to defer the matter because the “effect of the
Redcliff award on the population structure of East Punjab and West Bengal was
not accurately known; further a tragic and immense migration of population was
taking place across the frontiers of these Provinces.”
The Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities, and Tribals
and Excluded Areas met on 24 February, 1948. In order to come to a quick,
reasonable and expeditious solution on the issue it appointed a committee of
Sardar Patel, as its Chairman; Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, K.M.
Munshi, and B.R. Ambedkar. This sub-committee submitted its report on 23
November 1948.
The report was discussed by the Constituent Assembly for two days, 25 and
26 May 1949. The recommendations as adopted by the Assembly were included
in the Draft Constitution. In the nutshell the committee recommended that:
“Some members of the Committee felt that, conditions having
vastly changed since the Advisory Committee made their
recommendations in 1947, it was no longer appropriate in the
context of free India and of present conditions that there should
be reservation of seats for Muslims, Christians, Sikhs or any
other religious minority. Although the abolition of separate
electorates had removed much of the poison from the body
politic, the reservation of seats for religious communities, it
was felt, did lead to a certain degree of separatism and was to
that extent contrary to the conception of secular democratic
State.”7
The Committee resolved that :
“That the system of reservation for minorities other than
Scheduled Castes in Legislatures be abolished.”8
The Committee had already rejected the proposal of reservation in the services
x27
for any community except for the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled tribes.
The Debates in the Constituent Assembly
On the issue of the reservation for the Muslims in the Legislatures, Services and
Cabinets was discussed thread-bare in the Constituent Assembly. Most of the
prominent leaders of both Hindu and Muslim communities were against the
reservations bases on religious. It is very important that we recall some of the
statements made by the framers of the Constitution of India :
Naziruddin Ahmad : I think that reservations of any kind are against healthy
political growth. They imply a kind of inferiority........ Then, again, Muslim
reservation is linked up with separate electorates, which led to so many
disasters. Therefore I should submit that to carry on reservation would only
serve to prepetuate the unpleasant memory of those separate electorates and
all the embitterments that accompanied them.....I therefore submit that
reservation for Muslims would be undesirable.....Sir, reservation is a kind of
protection which always has a crippling effect upon the object protected. So
for all these reasons, I should strongly oppose any reservation for
Muslims.......From the Muslim point of view alone, we do not want any
reservation whatsoever.....Those of my honourable friends who think that
there should be reservations, have their eyes on the past. They are looking
behind. But our eyes, the eyes of the Indian Muslims, should be facing the
future.
Begum Aizaz Rasul : For my part I have from the beginning felt that in a secular
state separate electorates have no place. Therefore the principle of joint
electorates having once been accepted, the reservation of seats for minorities
to me seems meaningless and useless......To my mind reservation is a selfdestructive weapon which separates the minorities from the majority for all
time.....It keeps up the spirit of separatism and communalism alive which
should be done away once and for all..... We want to finish with the past
and we want that a new page should be turned over in which all communities
living in this country would feel happy and secure.....Sir, I feel that we
Muslims should pave the way for not only the introduction but the
strengthening of a secular democratic State in this country. The only way in
which we can do it is by giving up reservations........
Muhammad Ismail Khan : I am very glad that this decision has been taken and
I welcome it. Why? Because this reservation of seats would only keep alive
Communalism and would be ineffectual as a safeguard for the Muslim
minorities or for the matter of that for any other minorities......That is why
I want to do away with Communalism in the shape of separate electorates
so that when they come here they can speak with the same authority as any
28
x
other member and as a representative not only of the Muslims but also of
the majority community. There is no half-way house between separate
representation and territorial electorates.....Moreover we desire that our State
should be non-communal and secular. Here is an opportunity and we should
grasp it. Let us not stand in the way of the emergence of a really secular and
non-communal State.
Jawaharlal Nehru (United Provinces: General) : I wish to associate myself with
this historic turn in our destiny: for, indeed, it is a historic motion that my
colleague, the Deputy Prime Minister has put before this House. It is a
motion which means not only discarding something that was evil, but turning
back upon it and determining with all our strength that we shall pursue a
path which we consider fundamentally good for every part of the
nation......Now, all of us here, I believe, are convinced that this business of
separatism, whether it took the shape of separate electorates or other shapes
has done a tremendous amount of evil to our country and to our people. We
came to the conclusion some time back that we must get rid of separate
electorates. That was the major evil......We decided some time ago in another
connection that we should have no truck with communalism or separatism.
It was rightly pointed out to us then that if that is so, why do you keep these
reservations because this itself will make people think in terms of separate
compartments in the political domain......Where you are up against a fullblooded democracy, if you seek to give safeguards to minority, and a
relatively small minority, you isolate it. May be you protect it to a slight
extent, but at what cost? At the cost of isolating it and keeping it away from
the main current in which the majority is going,- I am talking on the political
plane of course- at the cost of forfeiting that inner sympathy and fellowfeeling with the majority.
Frankly I would like this proposal to go further and put an end to such
reservations as there still remain........One of the biggest things in regard to
them is this one of separate electorates, reservation of seats and the rest.
Therefore, I think that doing away with this reservation business is not only
a good thing in itself - good for all concerned, and more especially for the
minorities - but psychologically too it is a very good move for the nation
and for the world. It shows that we are really sincere about this business of
having a secular democracy.
Shri Tajamul Hussain : Reservation of seats in any shape or form and for any
community or group of people is, in my opinion, absolutely wrong in
principle. Therefore I am strongly of opinion that there should be no
reservation of seats for anyone and I, as a Muslim, speak for the Muslims.
There should be no reservation of seats for the Muslim community. (Hear;
Hear). I would like to tell you that in no civilised country where there is
x29
parliamentary system on democratic lines, there is any reservation of
seats.......what is reservation, Sir? Reservation is nothing but a concession, a
safeguard, a protection for the weak. We, Muslims do not want any
concession, do not want protection, do not want safeguards. We are not
weak. This concession would do more harm than good to the Muslims.
Reservation is forcing candidates on unwilling electorates.......We must exert
ourselves. Separate electorates have been curse to India, have done
incalculable harm to this country. Reservation is the offspring of separate
electorates. Do not bring in reservation in the place of separate electorates.
Separate electorates have gone for ever. We desire neither reservation nor
separate electorates. We want to merge in the nation. We desire to stand on
our own legs. We do not want the support of anyone. We are not weak. We
are strong. We are Indians first and we are all Indians and will remain
Indians....We are not a minority. The term ‘minority’ is a British creation.
The British created minorities. The British have gone and minorities have
gone with them. Remove the term ‘minority’ from your dictionary.
I appeal to all minorities to join the majority in creating a secular State. In
the new state of things, I want that every citizen in India should be able to
rise to the fullest stature and that is why I say that reservation would be
suicidal to the minority. I want the minorities to forget that they are minorities
in politics. If they think they are minorities in politics, they will be
isolated....The minorities should look forward to the time when they could
take their place not under communal or racial labels, but as part and parcel
of the whole Indian community....I would ask the majority community, not
to thrust reservation on the Muslims. If you honestly and sincerely believe
that it is a wrong thing, for god’s sake, do not give us reservation. You knew
that separate electorate was a wrong thing for the Muslims and for India,
and you never consulted the Muslims.
Hasrat Mohani : I opposed the principle of reservation of seats at a time when
the Congress Party was in its favour. We refuse to accept any concession. In
case the majority party, or the Congress Party, accepts reservation of seats,
its claim of creating a secular State and of putting an end to communalism
would be falsified.
B. H. Zaidi : For nearly forty years, the Muslims were used to the props and
crutches provided to them by the British. We came to love these prop and
crutches. Many a patient who has lost the use of his legs and is given
crutches will tick to them and would like to lean on them even when some
good surgeon has given him back the use of his legs. These generally wish
to cling to their crutches. Crutches is not the right word; I should say, stilts
because, stilts not only support you, but also give you artificial height. If we
30
x
throwaway these stilts, not only do we need to trust to the strength of our
legs but also we are reduced in height. We were given some artificial
importance in this country. It was an importance which was nothing more
than an illusion....We are given the use of our legs. We are being taught the
lesson of self-reliance. Would any person possessing any self-respect, any
pride, any manliness in him, cling to artificial safeguards? Is it not against
his grain, does it not go against his self respect to ask for, to pled for, and
to cling to, artificial props and safeguards? Are these really safeguards? Do
they provide the safety? Do they serve the ends we have in view?
Sardar Patel (on 27-8-1947) : Well, when Pakistan was conceded, at least it was
assumed that there would be one nation in the rest of India- the 80 per cent
India - and there would be no attempt to talk of two nations here also. It is
no use saying that we ask for separate electorates, because it is good for us.
We have heard it long enough. We have heard it for years, and as a result
of this agitation we are now a separate nation. The agitation was that “We
are a separate nation, we cannot have either separate electorates or the
weightage or any other concessions of consideration sufficient for our
protection. Therefore, give us a separate State.” We said, “All right, take
your separate State.” But in the rest of India, in 80 per cent of India do you
agree that there shall be one nation? Or do you still want the two nations
talk to be brought here also? I am against separate electorates. Can you
show me a free country where there are separate electorates? If so, I shall
be prepared to accept it. But in this unfortunate country if this separate
electorate is going to be persisted in, even after the division of the country,
woebetide the country; it is not worth living in. Therefore, I say, it is not for
my good alone, it is for your own good that I say it, “forget the past. One
day we may be united. I wish well to Pakistan. Let it succeed. Let them
build in their own way, let them prosper. Let us enter into a rivalry of
prosperity, but let us not enter into that rivalry that is going on today in the
land of Pakistan. My friend the mover of the amendment says the Muslim
community today is a strong-knit community. Very good....you are verywell organised community. Tell me, why do you behave like a lame man.
Be a bold and strong man, as you are well-organised and stand up. Think
of the nation that is being built on this side. We have laid the foundation
of a nation.......Therefore I say, and appeal to you, “What are you doing?”
Think about it. Do you expect any one man in this country outside the
Muslim League who will say ‘Let us now also agree to separate electorates’.
Why do you do this? If you say, “We want now to have loyalty on this side
of this nation”, may I ask you “Is this loyalty?” Are you provoking response
of loyalty form other side? I have no intention to speak on this, but when
the mover of this amendment talked such a long time and it was supported
x31
by the leader, then I felt that something is wrong again still in his land.
Therefore, my dear friends, I ask you, “Do you want now peace in this land?
If so do away with it.......I appeal to you ‘let us at least on this side show that
everything is forgotten.”
Sardar Patel (on 28.8.1947) : When I agreed to the reservation on the population
basis, I thought that our friends of the Muslim League will see the
reasonableness of our attitude and allow themselves to accommodate
themselves to the changed conditions after the separation of the country.
But now I find them adopting the same methods which were adopted when
the separate electorates were first introduced in this country, and in spite of
ample sweetness in the language used there is a full dose of poison in the
method adopted...We now have got he division of the country. In order to
prevent the separation of he country this formula was evolved by the
nationalist Muslims, as a sort of half way house, until the nation becomes
one; we wished to drop it afterwards. But now the separation of the country
is complete and you say let us introduce it again and have another separtation.
I do not understand this method of affection. Therefore, although I would
not have liked to say anything on this motion, I think it is better that we
know our mind perfectly each other, so that we can understand where we
stand. If the process that was adopted, which resulted in the separtation of
the country, is to be repeated, then I say: Those who want that kind of thing
have a place in Pakistan, not here (Applause). Here, we are building a nation
and we are laying the foundation of One Nation, and those who choose to
divide again and sow the seeds of disruption will have no place, no quarter,
here, and I must say that plainly enough....You cannot have it both ways.
Therefore, my friends, you must change your attitude, adopt yourself to the
changed conditions. And don’t pretend to say “Oh, our affection is very
great for you”. We have seen your affection. Why talk about it? Let us forget
the affection. Let us face the realities. Ask yourself whether you really want
to stand here and cooperate with us or you want again to play disruptive
tactics. Therefore, when I appeal to you, I appeal to you to have a change
in your heart, not a change of tongue, because that won’t pay here....You
have got what you wanted. You have got a separate State and remember
you are the people who were responsible for it, and not those who remain
in Pakistan. You led the agitation. You got it. What is it that you want now?
I don’t understand. In the majority Hindu provinces you, the minorities,
you led the agitation. You got the partition and now again you tell me and
ask me to say for the purpose of securing the affection of the younger
brother that I must agree to the same thing again, to divide the country
again in the divided part. For God’s sake, understand that we have also got
some sense. Let us understand the thing clearly. Therefore, when I say we
32
x
must forget the past, I say it sincerely....There must be reciprocity. If it is
absent, then you take it from me that no soft words can conceal what is
behind your words. Therefore, I plainly once more appeal to you strongly
that let us forget and let us be one nation.
Sardar Patel (on 26.5.1949) : When the separate communal electorate nation was
moved, it was supported by the great Muslim leader, who swore loyalty to
the Constitution in this House and immediately after packed off to Karachi.
He is now carrying on the work of the Muslim League on that side. He has
left a legacy here-a residuary legacy perhaps in Madras. Unfortunately, there
is still a very large amount of funds belonging to the old Muslim League,
which was the All India Muslim League, which has yet to be settled, and
some of our friends still claim that they might get some big chunk of those
funds if they still persist in continuing the old League here. Even if the
money, or a good portion of it, could be brought here, I doubt if it would
do any good to those who get it. Those who claim that in this country there
are two nations and that there is nothing common between the two, and
‘that we must have our homeland where we can breather freely’, let them
do so. I do not blame them. But those who still have that idea that they have
worked of it, that they have got it and therefore they should follow the same
path here, to them I respectfully appeal to go and enjoy the fruits of that
freedom and to leave us in peace. There is no place here for those who claim
separate representation....
I remember that the gentleman who moved the motion here last time, in
August 1947, when asking for separate electorates, I believe, said that the
Muslims today were a very strong, well-knit and well-organised minority.
Very good. A minority that could force the partition of the country is not a
minority at all. Why do you think that you are a minority? If you are a
strong, well-knit and well-organised minority, why do you want to claim
safeguards, why do you want to claim privileges? It was all right when
there was a third party: but that is all over. That dream is a mad dream and
it should be forgotten altogether. Never think about that, do not imagine
that anybody will come here to hold the scales and manipulate them
continuously. All that is gone....You have got a free mind to think now and
therefore you begin to feel that what you have done in the past may perhaps
not be right...But there are some people who worked for separtation, who
claimed all throughout their lives that the two nations are different and yet
claim to represent here the remaining “nation”....I appeal to every one of
you to think before you vote, to search your conscience and to think what
is going to happen in the future of this country. The future shape of this
country as a free country is different from the future that was contemplated
by those who worked for partition. Therefore, I would ask those who have
x33
worked for that to note that the times have changed, the circumstances have
changed and the world has changed and that therefore they must change if
they want salvation. Now, I need not waste any time on the question of
separate electorates...
Implementation of Sachar Committee and Rang Nath Mishra Commission
Reports and India’s Future
However, the Sachar Committee report and the Prime Minister, who has never
w on even a Gram Panchayat election, saying that the “Muslims have first right on
the resources of the nation”, has put not only the principle of ‘equality’ and
‘equal opportunity for all’ irrespective of caste, creed and religion on a burner
but also the whole Constitution being put into the dust-bin. I leave it to the
‘wisdom’ of our leaders, academia, and the experts. Nevertheless, it is necessary
to understand that some of the recommendations of Sachar Committee and Rang
Nath Mishra Commission are nothing but an assault on the Constitution of India
which is already under heavy strain in the hands of our ‘leaders’ who are more
concerned for their votes, elections, and powers than anything concerning the
future of the country.
Let us not forget a simple but brutal fact: “Those who ignore their history are
destined to become very soon the part of history.” This is what is going to happen to
India and the Hindus. Today India is a ‘secular’ country just because it has more
than 86% Hindu population. Hindu tradition from the time immemorial has
been that of vasudhaiva kutumbakam, atithi devo bhava and sarvdharma sambhava. It
must be underlined that most of the religions which came in India were not just
‘tolerated’ but in fact welcomed, and accepted by the society under the dictum
atithi devo bhava and ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti. All the three Semitic religions
found respectable place in India and among the Hindus. The Zoroastrians found
love, peace and protection in India. We need not be given the lesson of
‘secularism’.
All those who chose to live in this country chose the primacy of the
Constitution of India based on sarvdharma sambhava with no place for the religion
in the formulation of Governments’ policies and State’s polity. It is our solemn
duty to see to it that this cardinal principle is adhered to in letter and spirit and
the meaning of ‘secularism’ is not reduced to appeasement of any particular
community or caste.
In this context it would be worthwhile to recall Liaquat Ali’s visit to India
in April 1950 and Jawaharlal Nehru succumbing to his pressure to start again the
separate electorate in the Legislatures and reservations for the Muslims in the
services. N.V. Gadgil gives following narrative of the incident in his autobiography
34
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Government from Inside:
“Liaquat Ali came to Delhi in March 1950, had discussions with
Nehru and one fine morning at 10 o’clock Nehru placed before
the Cabinet a draft of his agreement with him....The final two
paragraphs in the agreement accepted the principle of
reservation for Muslims in proportion to their population in all
the services and representative bodies in the constituent states
of India. Similar provisions were suggested for the Central
Government also. Each of us got a copy of the draft but no one
would open his mouth! I said, ‘these two paragraphs nullify
the whole philosophy of the Congress. The country had to pay
the price of division as a result of acceptance of separate
electorates. You are asking it to drink the same poison
again’....After a detail discussion in the Cabinet the next day
whole provision of reservation was dropped”,(p. 191).
It must be said to the credit of Jawaharlal Nehru that he not only allowed
his colleagues the freedom of thought and speech but also accepted their view
point if it was in the interest of the nation. At the same time to save the position
and prestige of Nehru in the eyes of visit Pakistan’s Prime Minister, Sardar Patel
told Liaquat Ali (on 5th April, 1950) on the issue of reservation for the Muslims
on the communal lines:
“I am quite sure that the party will not accept it and the country
will not swallow this bitter pill. We have conceded one Pakistan;
that is more than enough.”
Later, on the issue of the reservations, Jawaharlal Nehru wrote to all the
Chief Ministers on 27th June 1961:
“I have referred above to efficiency and to our getting out of
our traditional ruts. This necessitates out getting out of the old
habits of reservations and particular privileges being given to
this caste or that group. The recent meeting we held here, at
which the Chief Ministers were present, to consider national
integration, laid down that help should be given on economic
considerations and not on caste. It is true that we are tied up
with certain rules and conventions about helping the scheduled
castes and tribes. They deserve help but, even so I dislike any
kind of reservation, more particularly in Services. I react strongly
against anything which leads to inefficiency and second-rate standards.
I want my country to be a first class country in everything. The
moment we encourage the second-rate, we are lost.
x35
“The only real way to help a backward group is to give opportunities
of good education; this includes technical education which is becoming
more and more important. Everything else is provision of some kind
of crutches which do not add to the strength or health of the body. We
have made recently two decisions which are very important:
one is, universal free elementary education, that is the base;
and the second is scholarships on a very wide scale at every
grade of education to the bright boys and girls, and this applies
not merely to the literary education, but, much more so, to
technical, scientific and medical training. I lay stress on the
bright and able boys and girls because it is only they who will
raise our standards. I have no doubt that there is a vast reservoir
of potential talent in this country if only we can give it
opportunity.
“But if we go in for reservations on communal and caste basis,
we swamp the bright and able people and remain second-rate
or third-rate. I am grieved to learn how far this business of
reservation has gone based on communal considerations. It has
amazed me to learn that even promotions are based some times
on communal or caste considerations. This way lays not only
folly, but disaster. Let us help the backward groups by all means,
but never at the cost of efficiency. How are we going to build
the public sector or indeed any sector with second rate-people?”
That is Jawaharlal Nehru, almost after 12 years after the Constitutional
provisions for the reservation for Scheduled Casts and Scheduled Tribes only.
The debasement of the politicians can be understood but what do you do when
even the Supreme Court Judges start approving citing such phrases and books
as “Merit, My Foot: A Reply to Anti-Reservation Racists”. What do you do when
even the Supreme Court Judges say that “merit and efficiency is [sic] a pure Aryan
invention, aimed at maintaining their monopoly.....Efficiency is very much on the lips of
the privileged whenever reservation is mentioned.”
In the eyes of even the Hon’ble courts now the suggestions of Jawaharlal
Nehru is nothing more than “a pure Aryan invention, aimed at maintaining their
monopoly.” Poor Jawaharlal! He could have never imagined that a day will
come when his own party under the control of his own foreign born granddaughter-in-law will reduce to the level of an Aryan Racist and the one whose
sole aim was to maintain the monopoly of Aryan Racists.
Today it appears as if all those framed the Indian Constitution and all those
who contributed to is in various ways, right from the drafting of the Commission
to participating in the Constituent Assembly Debates and moving more than
36
x
7000 amendments to the Draft Constitutions were all fools. In the light of today’s
wisdom of the pigmy politicians and some of the judgements of our highest
court one is compelled to reach the conclusion that the likes of Dr. Rajendra
Prasad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, K.M. Munshi, Begum
Aizaz Rasul, Muhammad Ismail Khan, R.K. Sidhva, M.R. Jayakar, Tajamul
Hussain, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Col. B.S. Zaidi, C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyyar, B.N.
Rau, Bhim Rao Ambedkar and a hosts of others were all fools and deserve to be
consigned to the dust-bin of history and the constitution framed by them is
nothing but a worthless.
However, the reservations recommended by the Sachar Committee and Rang
Nath Mishra Commission has altogether different dimension. It is being demanded
on the basis of religion. Let us not forget that India was divided by raising the
bogey of two nations theory, demand for the reservations in the armed forces,
government services, educational institutions, etc. and the separate electorates
on the basis of religion for the Muslims. The fresh demands for reservations and
the recommendations of the Sachar Committee’s recommendations much be seen
in the light of the last two hundred years of the country. Let us not forget as to
what was the mandate of the Constituent Assembly. Also, we must take note of
the shrill voices of the Muslim leaders and intellectuals coupled with the support
of Communist parties constantly threatening the further division of the country
if their demands are not met. Congress appears to be playing the game again.
Any shortsightedness on the part of leaders with a concern for the country and
the people of the country is bound to spell doom on the country, its people and
several millennia old civilization which has always believed in equal respect for
all religions and welcomed all the religion in its land.
Why C entra l Asia Thesis of Ved ic C iviliza tion
x37
Why Central Asia Thesis of Vedic Civilization
T.P. Verma*
Central Asia Thesis of Vedic Civilization (CATVEC) has advanced the view that Vedic
civilization originated in the Meru (Pamir) region where Manu first landed. The
Indian landmass, i.e. the ‘Ark of Manu’ drifted from Antarctica and joined Eurasian
landmass giving rise to several geological upheavals like uplift of Pamir and
Himalayas. This was the site of the activities of Indra and several other legends
described in the Puranas and Samhitas. Many modern scholars have perceived
mobilization of tribes from this region towards west and south giving rise to IndoEuropean, proto-Indo-European and Aryan Invasion theories. The CATVEC is suitable
answer to these and many such problems.
That Central Asia was the cradle of human civilization i.e. is a puranic concept
and it has several allusions in the Vedic literature also. During about last two
centuries or so European scholars intensely engaged in investigating the origins
of humanity, which they fondly call Indo-European question. But in spite of
enormous efforts of several generations of scholars working on the issue no
consensus seems in sight. Consequently the whole idea of Indo-European has
flopped. In fact it initiated in a right direction but was put on wrong path due
to biblical concepts of history as well as European ego that emerged from their
world wide success in capturing political and economic resources of almost all
the continents. On the academic front when the Sanskrit language became known
to the people of the continent they concentrated on Vedic literature and ignored
Puranas as trash. Soon Sanskrit also was discarded or dethroned from the status
of original language out of religious, political and egoistic bias. From this point
the Indo-European search took a wrong track that was destined to reach nowhere.
One can only wish if the Indo-Europeanists could consider the Puranic
history for their quest and have examined biblical accounts in that light. An
unbaised view of both the sources can reveal that the story related in the Old
Testament is a crud caricature of Puranic history.
Now we deal in brief the Puranic account about the descent of Manu, the
first progenitor of humanity, on the Mountain of Meru or the present Pamir
Mountains.
* 397-A, Ganga Pradushan C. Road, Bhagwanpur, Varanasi-221 005
38
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It is interesting to note in the beginning that this thesis has its base in the
sciences of Geology and Geography and is also supported by ancient ecology. At
the same time there are written records in Hindu literature, occasionally
supplemented by ancient literatures of world civilizations and traditions. A
number of modern scholars, European as well as others have also repeatedly
favored Central Asia for the mobilization of human tribes and races (as they call
it) in different parts of Europe and Asia. Archaeologists who have worked in
Soviet Central Asia (Kurgan and Andronovo cultures) and Bactria and Margiana
Archaeological Complex (BMAC) also try to convince that there are Vedic elements
in them. Some ancient West Asian cultures also give message that their roots
were in Vedic culture. So far as linguistics is concerned it has become a victim
of colonial politics and is used as a tool to maintain European hegemony.
Linguistic studies have been limited to European context only; the other continents
of the world remain unattended. In fact there is hardly any language in the
known world, with few exceptions, in which Vedic/Sanskrit roots/words cannot
be traced.
Many Indo-Europeanists may object to these claims as chauvinistic,
nationalistic or Hindu fundamentalist/revivalists etc. but we cannot help but
put our ideas in a logical way.
We begin with the identification of Puranic Meru or Sumeru with Pamir
Mountain in Central Asia. In the puranas whole of Asia is called Jambudvipa
and Meru (Pamir Mountain) was its nave. The puranas assert that it was the
Meru that elevated first in the sea now know as Tethys Sea. We relate this with
the modern continental drift theory according to which the Indian landmass
collided with the Asian landmass thus starting a chain of geological upheavals
giving rise to Asian and European mountain systems. According to puranic
chronology this happened about 120 million years ago but modern geologist
estimate about half of this period.
Geological Background
According to the Continental Drift Theory, Plate Tectonics and Sea Floore Spread
Theory the north-western portion of the Indian sub-continent first collided with
the Eurasian landmass giving rise first to the Pamir plateau. S.M. Mathur informs
“Deep seismic soundings and seismotectonic data in the Great Himalyas-PamirHindukush region has led a team of scientists in the National Geophysical
Research Institute to conclude that the northern boundary of the Indian Plate
does not lie along the Indus Suture Line nor along the Main Central Thrust, but
falls much to the north of the combined Indo-Tibetan block. The new plate
boundary is postulated to coincide with the southern margin of the Tien ShanNan Shan mobile fold belt, passing south of the Ordos and Shanshi blocks,
x39
turning finally northeastward towards the southeast of Peking (Beijing).”1 This
confirms the puranic assertion that other mountains of Asia are connected by
their filament or roots (kesara). These kesara mountains, as recorded in the puranas
(VP II. 27-30) are 5 each to its east, south, west and north. Beside these there are
maryada (boundary) mountains also. Accordingly the Jathara and Devakuta are
Boundary Mountains that are spread from north to south up to Nila and Nishadha
mountains. Gandhamadana and Kelasa lie east-west in the sea.2 To the west of
Meru Nishadha and Pariyatra also are Maryada Parvatas. In the north Trisringa
and Jarudhi are Varsha Parvatas (i.e. Country Mountains). Both of these have
their roots in the East and West Seas (VP II. 41-44). “The early Indo-Iranians
believed that all mountains were connected by their roots to High Hara; and that
all bodies of water were connected to the magical sea.”3
S.M. Mathur further notes “The northward movement of the Indian Plate
against the Central Asian landmass closed the Tethys gap. The subduction of
this plate underneath the eastern Eurasian Plate pushed up the Tethyan sediments
to form the Himalayan chain.”4
Some puranic legends can be explained in the light of this geological
phenomenon. The present author has explained the puranic legend of Ark of
Manu as Indian landmass that drifted through for several millennia and finally
collided with Eurasian landmass. It certainly was not an ordinary Ark which
was carried by Lord Vishnu Himself. The biblical description of the Ark is just
a caricature of the original story. Orogenic process that started after this collision
changed the face of Eurasia to make of fit for the origin of man; and Manu was
their progenitor. The Meru (Pamir) came out first from the sea with its other
auxiliary branches and Himalaya erupted next.
At that time the Ganga plain was the North Sea.5 The two puranic legends
are related with this incident. Sage Agastya is said to have drunk this water and
the region became dry. When he was asked to release the water he said that it
is now consumed, something else to be done to redress it. Then the people
started efforts to bring Ganga River to plains thus created.6 The other legend
about Agastya muni is related with the lowering of the Vindhya Mountains
which started rising in competition of the Meru.7 This, again, is a geological
phenomenon. When the Indian landmass collided, naturally its speed was arrested
and, consequently, Vindhya started rising. This puranic legend of Agastya gives
the credit of lowering Vindhya to him and also his association with the human
activities in South India.
The two puranic legends reveal a chapter of human history that has never
been recorded. This indicates that human history goes back to several millennia.
It is a question as to how the Vedic people could know of it cannot be understood
40
x
by persons who are apt to compress human civilization within ten thousands of
years.
The puranic descriptions are of considerable antiquity pointing to geological
times. We will come to the mountains, rivers and the countries around the Meru
or Pamir that can be understood only if we postulate very ancient period of time.
This also goes to explain why rivers and towns of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are
not mentioned in the Rgveda; perhaps they did not exist at all at that time. The
puranas also mention several rivers that are difficult to trace now because since
then several geological changes have made it impossible to identify most of
these rivers in their exact positions as described in the puranas. The Vedic people
were good mariners8 is proved by the instances described in the Rgveda but
European scholars have postulated that they were ignorant about sea because
according to them Vedic Aryans originated in the Punjab region where there is
no sea. The puranic geological features advanced by us are supported by modern
geological studies.
Dr. S.P. Gupta’s exposition gains importance here who has described some
geological features of Central Asia that throw light on the situation during
antiquity. We are citing some excerpts from him below.9
“Thus in the beginning, some 500 million years ago, a vast sea existed from
Western Europe across to China and the northern shores of India which was
then separate land-mass…. For over 100 million years the sediments brought by
rivers formed huge beds of sedimentary rocks in the sea. Then some 60 million
years ago, it is hypothesized, ‘the Indian land-mass collided with he Asian landmass. The impact crumbled the layers of sedimentary rock along the edges of the
two continents, creating a line of colossal mountain ranges, among them the
Pamirs, the Tien Shan and the Himalayas. The newly formed mountains trapped
the sea in north, creating a huge inland basin. As the welding of India to Central
Asia continued over next 25 million years, this basin was wedged up by edge of
the Indian land-mass and was drained to the west- into the present-day Black
Sea and the Mediterranean- leaving Turkestan with only a few large saline
“puddles”, among them are the Caspian and Aral Sea.’
“Then followed the period of the creation of fresh-water rivers, such as the
Amu and the Syr which, along with numerous others, now lost or merged, kept
on meandering, through their own loads, deposited, cut and re-deposited and to
be re-cut once again.”
This description by Gupta is valuable in understanding puranic narration of
ancient rivers emanating from the Central Mountain of Meru. The puranas relate
that in the beginning the Meru attracted atmospheric moisture, figuratively
emanating from the toes of Vishnu going to Brahma’ gourd or vessel called
x41
Ganga (not to be confused with the river Ganga of India) and was arrested on
Meru in the form of glaciers. The Rgvedic hymns have variously praised these
fresh water streams that were like milk to all forms of life from plant to animal.
The Vedic god Indra is said to have released fresh water from mountains by
killing the demon Vrtra (glacier). Indra is praised in hundreds of hymns. However,
initially four rivers are said to have issued from Meru in all the four directions
and these are Sita used to flow in the east, Alaknanda in the south, Calshu in the
west and Bhadra in the north. Gupta has noted that these rivers, ‘kept on
meandering, through their own loads, deposited, cut and re-deposited and to be
re-cut once again.’ This geological fact is reflected in Vedic and puranic accounts
where a good number of sets of rivers are observed. In some later layers of
puranic legends of the descent of Ganga transforms into seven streams.10 Thus
descent of Ganga in antiquity from atmosphere cannot be ruled out as myth.
Similarly, the existence of Caspian Sea also has something to do with the
Vedic and Puranic legends. Strabo wrote that “to the country of the Albanians
belongs also the territory called Caspian, which was named after the Caspian
tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe, has now disappeared.”11 The same source
equates this name with Sanskrit Kashyapa. Kashyapas are one of the seven
Vedic rishi families who have been known as ‘exclusive Soma family’.12 In the
puranic historical tradition Kashyapa is known as a progenitor (Prajapati) who
married the daughters of the progenitor Daksha from whom all species of life
have originated. We have reasons to believe that Pamir was the region of Daksha
and the Caspian of Kashyapa. The point cannot be treated in detail for of want
of space in this short article. Some other names of this sea, like Sarmatic sea,
based on a people called Sarmatians, can be associated with Vedic Sarama, who
spied Panis for Indra. The Panis inhabited the northern parts Central Asia and
the Dasa/Dasyus usded to live in the Caspian steppes. Both are described as
enemy of the Aryans.
That the Caspian Sea was landlocked long before 5.5 million years ago is
attested by the fact that its salinity is approximately 2.1%, about a third the
salinity of most sea water. A very large depression area around Caspian and
Aral suggests that the whole region must have submerged and also that
subsequently the hydraulic system of the region must have frequently changing.
Therefore it is no wonder if geologists assert that at one point of time Oxus River
(Amu Darya) used to flow in the Caspian Sea, now forms a delta in the Aral Sea.
We do not have ecological data of very ancient period but Vedic and puranic
references indicate that this region might have been friendly to human habitat.
Vedic peoples like Rishikas, Paradas, Ashvakas, Uttara Madras, Uttara Kurus
etc. lived here. To this list we can add Dasa/Dasyu and Panis, as stated earlier,
of Vedic and Iranian literature. The Airyanem Vaejah of Avesta has been variously
identified with the Pamir region.13 It was the combined legendary home of the
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Vedic and Iranians; thus both lived together in the region for long time. The
Iranians are clubbed together with the Dasa/Dasyu in the Rgveda where Indra
is requested to kill both Arya and Dasyu.14 The Iranian mythology also holds
that ‘it contained the first mountain created on earth, Hara Berezaiti or High
Hara…. Close to mountain was a sea, called Vourukasha in the Avesta, where
the “Trees of All Seeds” grew.’15
Nine Segments of Jambudvipa
The puranic history relates that there were nine divisions of Jambudvipa with
Meru (Pamir) in the centre. The central country was known as Ilavritavarsha or
the country of Ila. The countries to its immediate north were called Ramyakavarsha
(i.e. Beautiful Country), Hiranyamayavarsha (the Golden Country) and the
Uttarakuruvarsha (i.e. the Country of the North Kuru People). These names can
roughly be recognized but their physical boundaries cannot precisely be defined.
This also suggests that these regions were inhabited during the Vedic and Puranic
times. Countries to the south of Ilavritavarsha were Bharatavarsha,
Kimpurushavarsha and Harivarsha. These were South Asian countries. To the east
of Meru was the country of Bhadrasvavarsha (i.e. China) and to its west was the
country called Ketumalavarsha (i.e. West Asia). These were the nine divisions of
Jambudvipa, i.e. Asia.16
Ilavritavarsha in Rgveda and Puranas
The Ilavritavarsha is mentioned in the Rgveda as ‘best place on earth’ and ‘the
abode of Ila’ where the sacred fire was established.17 This is referred to in a
number of hymns.18 This region has also been called as ‘Centre of the Earth’
(Nabha Prithivya).19 Many of these mantras speak of the sacred fire being established
in the ‘Abode of Ila’ that was the ‘Centre of the Earth’ and ‘the best place on
Earth’. This recalls the puranic legend when Pururavas, the son of Ila is said to
have established three Agnis (Ahavaniya, Garhapatrya and Dakshinagni) in the
region.20
However, the puranic legend relates that Ila was the first son of Manu who
later transformed inta a woman, called Ila, and bore a son named Pururavas,
with Budha, the son of Chandra.21 That her abode was in the Meru region is
attested by several references in the puranas also. The Matsyapurana asserts that
Manu still lives on Meru and he retired to Mahendra Mountain after installing
Ila (as Sudyumna in man form) on the throne.22 The place where Siva was amusing
with Uma also was in its vicinity because Ila or Sudyumna entered there while
on hunt on a horse back to find himself transformed into a female. Matsya23 calls
it Saravana while Vayu24 calls this place Umavana. The last name becomes
significant when we see it in geological sequence. Meru was the first to emerge
x43
and Himalaya evolved later. The mythology records that Uma or Sati was the
daughter of Daksha Prajapati who lived around Meru. In her next incarnation
Uma was born as Parvati, the daughter of Himalaya.
Identification of Saryanavat
But the name Saravana of Matsya is more significant that gives some more
precise clue to geographical identification. We begin with Maujavata Mountain
where Soma is said to grow.25 The Atharvaveda relates Maujavat with Bahlika
(Bactria in Afghanistan) where there still exists a region called Munjan. The
language of this region is called Maunjani. This we will discuss later. Here there
is a lake Zeravshan in the middle Sogdianna region. There is a river of this name
also that is lost in the deserts before reaching Oxus. This is referred as Saryanavata
in the Rgveda. David Frawley notes “The main sacred Soma lands in the Rig
Veda are called Sushoma, Arjikiya, Sharanyavat and Pastyavat. 26 Here we are
mainly concerned with Saryanavat which can be identified with ‘Zeravshan in
the middle Sogdiana’ and also with Saravana of the Matsyapurana. The Rgvedic
references to Saryanavat do not specify the geographical regions but some epic
references attach this with Kurukshetra. Some modern scholars also support the
theory. But they do not appear correct in the light of following evidences.
In a hymn of Rgveda (VIII. 64.11), where devata is Indra, it is said that Soma,
most dear to Indra, grows in Saryanavat which is in the (region of the) river
Sushoma and Arjikiya. Saryanavati is again mentioned in a hymn (VIII. 6.39)
where Indra is prayed to rejoice at this place.
The 113 hymn of mandala IX of the Rgveda is dedicated to Soma (as devata).
Its first mantra relates that Indra, showing great prowess, killed Vrtra after infusing
great strength in him by quaffing the Soma in Saryanavat. In another mantra
(113.6) of the same hymn it is said that Brahma Pavamana recites chhanda (Veda)
in this place. This is where Vaivasvata (Manu) is the king (113.8). Here it may
be recalled the statement of Matsya, already mentioned, that Manu is still residing
on Meru Mountain. David Frawley’s note also is important that “Sharyanavat is
associated with the place where Indra defeated Vritra (IX. 113.1), symbol of both
glacier and cloud. Sharyanavat in the Rig Veda occurs as a great place of
mountains.”27 For the latter sentence he gives the reference of Rigveda X. 35.1(?)
but actually it is the second mantra in which ‘parvatan Saryanavat’ occurs. Sayana
explains the compound as ‘saryanavati sarasah sambandhinah parvatan’ meaning
the lake called Saryanavat on the mountain near Kurukshetra.28 This is the nucleus
of the confusion that misleads the scholars. There is no mountain near Kurukshetra
where glaciers and clouds can be seen. Scholars believing in this have tried to
identify places in the vicinity of Kurukshetra.29 David Frawley has cited Jaiminiya
Brahma(III.64) which also mentions Saryanavat to be in Kurukshetra.30 There are
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many such instances where such lapses have crept in Indian literature.
The Dadhyancha Legend
Similarly the legend of Dadhyancha was also connected with Haridvara by
Sanskrit scholars. The Rigveda (1.84.13-14) relates that “Indra, with the bones of
Dadhichi, slew ninety times nine Vritras. Wishing for the horse’s head hidden in
the mountains, he found it at Saryanavat.”
Here the legend goes on that Dadhyancha (Dadhichi), the son of Atharvan,
gave away his bones to Indra from which Tvashta fabricated thunderbolt for
Indra to kill Vritra. Another story is that “Indra having taught the science called
Pravrgya vidya and Madhu-vidya to Dadhyancha, threatened that he would cut off
his head if ever he taught them to anyone else; the Asvins prevailed upon him,
nevertheless, to teach them the prohibited knowledge, and to evade Indra’s threat,
took off the head of the sage, replacing it by that of a horse; Indra, apprised of
Dadhyanch’s breach of faith, struck off his equine head with the thunderbolt; on
which the Asvins restored to him his own.”31 mountains at Saryanavat. Dadhyancha
is again mentioned in the hymn 116.12 of the same mandala which is addressed
to Asvins. Thus the story of Dadhyancha completes as regards Indra and Asvins.
The Zeravshna in Sogdiana
The venue of the happenings was Saryanavat which was in the vicinity of some
mountain. But it is not clear if it was a place, river, lake or mountain. Scholiast,
however, call it a lake in near Kurukshetra. But, however, as we have mentioned
this can be identified with Zeravshan in Central Asia. We are inclined to identify
Rgvedic river Sushoma of Nadi-sukta with the river Zeravshan.
“Zeravshan Valley (also Zarafshan or Zarafshon) is situated in northern
Tajikistan, embedded between the impressive mountain ranges of the western
Pamir-Alai massive. “Zeravshan” – which means “Golden River” in Tajik- is the
main stream which crosses the valley and which supplies its inhabitants with a
most precious resource: water. The area is famous for its unique mountain
landscape and its beautiful lakes: the Alauddin lakes, the Kulikalon lakes,
Iskanderkul lake, the seven lakes of Shing among many others. … The Tajik
ancestors – fire worshippers called Sogdians- have lived more than 1500 years
along the Zeravshan valley- a history which is still visible at the Old Penjikent
archaeological site and the remote Yangob valley.”32 Citation from the Columbia
Encyclopedia: Zeravshan. “Zeravshan, river, c. 460 mi (740 km) long, rising in
Turkistan Range of Pamir-Alai mountain system, in Tajikistan. It flows westward
through the agricultural Zeravshan valley, then into Uzbakistan, past Samarkand
and Bokhara, and disappears in the desert near the Amu Darya, N of Charjew.
x45
The valley, irrigated by the Katta-Kurgan reservoir, is one of the chief oases of
Central Asia and is on the site of the ancient Sogdian. The Zeravshan Mountains,
forming the southern watershed of the river, rise to c.18, 480 ft (5630 m)…. It
rises at 39°35’E/ 39.5°N 70°58' on the fringes of the Pamirs in Tajikistan, flowing
due west for some 300km, passing Penjikent before entering Uzbekistan at 39°32N
67°27'/39°53'N 67°45'E, where it turns west-to-north-west, flowing past the
legendary city of Samarkand, which is entirely dependent on the oasis thus
created, until it bends left again to the west north of Navoiy and futher to the
southwest, passing Bukhara before it loses itself in the desert beyond the city
Karakul, not quite reaching the Amu Darya, of which it was formerly a tributary.
The Zeravshan rang (or Zeravshan mountains) rises to the south of Sughd Province
in Tajikistan, reaching the highest point of 5,489 m (Chimtarga peak) in its central
part…. Zerafshan is also a city in Uzbekistan’s Navoiy Province, called “the gold
capital of Uzbakistan”.”
Thus, if our identification of Saravan of the puranas with Saryanavat of
Rgveda, which was in the vicinity of the mountain Maunjavat, and which is non
other than Zeravshan in the Pamirs, is accepted, there can be no doubt that this
region was the place where these hymns of the Vedas were created by rishis.
Then it were the mountains of Meru (i.e. Pamir) and Saryanavat where Vedic
god Indra killed Vritra and found the horse-head of Dadhyancha.
Archaeology and Dadhyancha Legend
Now we can recall the Sintashta culture, in Soviet Russia, where ‘one burial
contained the corpse of a decapitated victim whose head had been replaced by
that of a horse’ and archaeologists find ‘reason to connect the fate of this individual
with Dadhyanch myth of Rgveda’.33 But it may be noted that though the burial
reminds of the Vedic story; it cannot be related to the incident. Due to certain
constraints we are not going to refer to other archaeological finds of Andronovo
and Kurgan cultures and also of BMAC etc. that scholars have correlated with
Vedic culture.
Linguistic Evidence
Now we can turn to the realm of linguistics. Indian scholars are not only suspicious
of linguistic studies of Vedic and Sanskrit languages by Indo-Europeanists but
also feel anguish about the tyrannical application of it. Bhagwan Singh is one
among these. He observes:
“The Indo-European problem is predominantly a linguistic one, but the
field of Indo-European studies is the slaughter house of linguistic theories. It
may appear strange, but it is true that the problem was never discussed
46
x
linguistically. There can be two approaches to a study- scientific and pseudoscientific. The first relies on hard data and verifiable laws and ends with findings
which enjoy sanctity for what they are. The second arises from a priori
assumptions, proceeds with pretensions of real quest, rejects the ‘unwanted’
results, and ends with equally fragile conjectures. The Indo-European problem
starts with assumed Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-IndoAryan languages reconstructed on the basis of dubious phonetic laws are hostile
to the hard linguistic data, and ends with a linguistic quagmire full of tricky
jargons.”34 Another eminent scholar, Makkhan Lal writes: “Quite often, these
practitioners of philology were so illogical, so incoherent, so absurd, so adamant
and arrogant, and indeed their impact has been so devastating that it has aptly
been termed as ‘linguistic tyranny’ by Jim Shaffer, an American archaeologist.”35
However, there are clinching linguistic evidences to show that Ilavritavarsha
in Central Asia was a Sanskrit speaking region where a number of Sanskrit
related languages are still being spoken, although there are Iranian influences as
well on them. This is not something unnatural because of Iranian dominance in
the area for quite some time. Yaska, in his Nirukta, says that people of Kamboja,
i.e. Pamir region use the roots in their original sense while those in the Arya
countries use derivatives.
There is a Sanskrit word ‘Sava’ that means a ‘dead body’ in our languages.
But this is not the meaning of the original root. Yaska, elaborating the prakriti
(original) and the vikriti (derivative) uses of the roots, notes that the Kambojas
use the word ‘Savatili’ in its original sense ‘going’ (savatirgatikarma kambojeshveva
bhashyanta). And then after citing an example of vikara of the root ‘savati’, i.e.
‘going’, he mentions that here, in the Arya janapadas, its derivative meaning is in
use in the sense of a dead body from which the life has gone.36 The Kaushitaki
Brahmana is more specific on the point. It says that “The language in the north
is pronounced with intelligence; people go to north to learn language, and
whosoever comes from there people assemble to listen him.”37 It is interesting to
note that during Panini’s time also the language of this region, which was none
other than the Vedic one, was considered standard.38
Now we can examine languages of this region which are known as the
Galcha group of languages. “Linguistic evidence, combined with literary and
inscriptional evidence, has led many scholars of note to conclude that ancient
Kambojas originally belonged to the Ghalcha-speaking area of Central Asia. For
example, Yaska’s Nirukta (11.2) attests that the verb savati in the sense “to go”
was used by only the Kambojas. It has been proven that the modern Ghalcha
dialects, Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashmi),
Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi, mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the
headwaters of Oxus, still use terms derived from ancient Kamboja savati in the
x47
sense “to go”. The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobi around the headwaters of
Zeravshan (identified with Rgvedic Saryanavat/Sushoma river by us) in middle
Sogdiana, also still contains a relic “Su” from ancient Kamboja saviti in the sense
“to go”. Further, according to Sir G. Grierson, the speech of Badakshan was a
Ghalcha till about three centuries ago when it was supplanted by a form of
Persian.”39
It is well known that Old Persian of Avesta was a prakrita of Vedic Sanskrit,
and, it is no wonder that, during Persian dominance in later periods, languages
of this region have influenced these languages. But, however, the Europeanists
have used this as a tool to colonial interests. They gave an opposite view on the
issue. The authors of the Vedic Index write “Yaska, in his Nirukta, refers to the
speech of the Kambojas as differing from that of the other Aryas.”40 Perhaps it
was Sir Grierson who initiated this wrong assumption and his faulty inference
was cited by all who followed him. This amounted to propaganda against India
in favour of Iranian which suited their Aryan Invasion Theory. This propaganda
is still continuing that Indo-Iranians were a branch of Indo-Europeans from
where Indo-Aryans emerged and invaded India.
We have dealt the Vedic roots of the Kambojas in some detail.41
Vahlika and Mujavant (also Mujavat) are mentioned in the Atharvaveda42
where the languages Valkhi and Maunjani are still spoken. The word Ghalcha or
Galaca certainly was derived from Skt. “galda” (=speech).43 In Sanskrit ‘gala’, for
throat and speech is in use in modern Punjabi and many other languages in
Afghanistan. It is interesting to note that we have identified Druids/, as having
their origin in this region only on the basis of having the name Gall.
Concluding Notes
This rather sketchy outline of Central Asian Thesis of Vedic Civilization is a
preliminary note and is part of a comprehensive study. Many details have been
left out that are being taken care of. It goes to explain many events of world
history like dispersal and movements of people from Central Asia to different
parts of the world. It is said in Mahabharata that “Meru stands in the middle
where all were born.”44 Another verse from Valmiki Ramayana claims that “all
people were created by me and all were of single colour, similar form with one
language.”45 This is in accordance with biblical belief about the origin of man
and language. In the light of Vedic and Puranic details the biblical narrations
appear crude caricatures by ignorant people who derived their knowledge from
hearsay.
This thesis reverses the Indo-European myth that people and tribes moved
from west to east. Now it is possible to trace the origins the peoples like Druid-
48
x
Celts, Greeks, Scythians, etc. from the Vedic people (i.e. Manu) in Central Asia.46
For example we can relate the Celts or Gauls with Ghalcha speaking people,
whose priests, the Druids, maintained high standards of Vedic learning of 20
years course of study. In fact most of European people claim to be the descendants
of Danu.47 The Russians trace their origin from Rusi, Rusik who can identified
with the Rshika people described in the Mahabharata. Under the aegis of this
theory it is also possible to explain as to how the Mitanni and other Indo-Aryan
peoples could bypass the Iranians and retain Vedic religion and deities like
Indra, Nasatyas in Mesopotamia. David Frawley’s observation about Ila is
interesting: “The Persians call their homeland Ila. Elam, an ancient kingdom in
southwest Iran, may be related term and is a very ancient kingdom comparable
to Sumeria. The Tamilians call their kingdom Ila or Ealam. The Semitic term for
god as Il, as in Elohim, Allah (Al illah) may also be related to Vedic Ila r Il as
Agni (the burning bush of Moses). The Phoenicians also worshipped Il. Their
God Baal is ba-il. The term Ila, therefore, contains some of humanity’s oldest and
most enduring ideas of divinity. It suggests Ila-Varta as the original homeland
of humanity, particularly as a place of spiritual origins and guidance.”48 Even the
Mitanni used the term ‘Ilu’ or ‘Ilani’ prefixed to Vedic gods Mitra, Varuna,
Nasatyas and Indra. The name of Ila had assumed many forms in west Asian
cultures to denote a god or goddess.
Before concluding it must be explained as to how the Indian subcontinent
became the centre of Vedic culture. In fact Afghanistan, including Ilavartavarsha
at Meru or Pamir region, later called Kamboja, culturally remind within the fold
of Vedic civilization till about eleventh century CE, after that Islamic forces
overpowered them. A continues series of records is available to show that whole
country, from northern Afghanistan to Kanyakumari, was culturally one unit
and was known as Bharata, the land of the Bharatas. The Vedas recognize
Ilavartavarsha on the Meru as the navel or the centre of the earth where the first
Agni was established for worship. This was the prime region where Indra is said
to have killed the demon Vritra and released fresh glacier waters from the
mountains, which for the Vedic rishis was as precious as milk for all sorts of life.
The famous Aila or Lunar and the Solar families sprang from there and spread
all over the world. According to Vamsa Brahmana a long list the Vedic teachers
starting from Kamboja Aupamanyava, flourished there. He is mentioned in the
Satpatha Brahmana at the top of the list. The Vamsha Brahmana belongs to Samveda,
dedicated to Soma that used to grow at Maujavat Mountain. Again, the northern
most site of the Harappan civilization is located at Shortughai in northern
Afghanistan. In the sixth century BCE Kamboja and Gandhara were included
among the sixteen Mahajanapadas of India. Asoka also speaks of Yona (i.e. IndoGreeks) and Kambojas within his empire. During the Kushna period we find
epigraphical references from Mathura about ‘the Lord of Wakhna (Vakanapati)’.49
x49
We also hear of Bhiksu Budharakshita from a sangha from Badakhshan
(Vadakshasya) near Pamir.50 There was a Tokhari Tila near Mathura from where
statues of Kushana kings were recovered.51 This suggests that the Kushanas were
known to us as Tokharians. The Mehrauli Iron Pillar near Delhi records that king
Chandra conquered Bahlika (Bactria) having crossed the seven mouths the river
Sindhu.52 In the tenth century one Khotanese king (now in China) calls him
‘Gaustana bala chakravarti-rajeshvara’, the ‘ekachhattra of Jambudvipa’. He again
informs in this inscription, written in Kharoshthi script, that ‘in this continent of
Jambudvipa are sixteen countries, there are eighty-six thousand cities in the
continent of Jambudvipa.’53 The Khotanese called their country Gaustana (i.e.
place of Cow). Is it not intriguing that Indian scholars, following the footsteps
of their foreign brethren, have tried to place these regions within the boundaries
of the British Empire?
It is regrettable that since about two centuries Indians are repeatedly being
told that the British India was the limit of their country; and a false statement
tends to become true only by repeating like a mantra. Any inclination to peep
beyond the western frontiers of British India was sneered upon. The situation
has not changed much.
We are aware that some of our Indian fellow scholars also may not like the
idea that there was a time when the language of the Kambojas was regarded as
the original Vedic language and the people of Aryavarta were using derivatives
of the roots. One of the eminent scholars holds ‘Due to Sakas and Yavanas the
Bahlika and Gandhara regions were cut off for some time from the political
boundaries of Bharatavarsha and cultural ties with them was slacked. And
therefore Patanjali has kept the country of the Sakas and Yavanas out of the
Aryavarta and also out of realm of sishta Sanskrit.’54 But it is not possible to
accept that language is something that can be kept in abeyance for a few centuries
for any reason. With all reverence to him we cannot blame him for this because
this was the academic trend of his time. We, now, do not treat Sakas, Yavanas
(Greeks of Bactria), Kushanas and Hunas, etc. as invaders. In India they showed
all reverence to religious and cultural practices followed by local Hindu rulers.
Ujjayani, under the Kardamaka Sakas, remained the cultural capital of India for
several centuries. These so-called foreign invaders never showed any disrespect
to the established religious and cultural norms of the country. Rather they showed
their readiness to preserve the varnasrama system of the Society. In the light of
the Khotanes king Visha Dharma (978-82 AD), quoted above, we cannot believe
in the colonial myth of Saka-Yavana invasions as foreigners invading India from
Afghanistan and Central Asia. In fact, there seems a rush among these tribes to
reach India and follow the rule of dharma. Their raids should be regarded not
more than those of the Rashtrakuta raids in northern India.
50
x
This thesis of Central Asia as a centre of Vedic civilization has solutions for
many Indo-European problems like Proto-Indo-European language and quest
for the original home.
REFERENCE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Mathur, M.S.Physical Geology of India, 2003, New Delhi, p. 190.
Probably by that time these two mountains could not emerge from the sea water. Now
these are parts of the Himalayas.
http:/rbedrosian.com/lmyth.htm.
Mathur, M.S. Physical Geology of India, 2003, New Delhi, p. 191.
In some copperplates of twelfth century depressed land is remembered as Uttara Samudra.
European geologists now call it Tethys’ sea.
Mahabharata, Vanaparva, ch. 105. The preparations for the descent of Ganga are related
in subsequent chapters.
Ibid ch.104.
David Frawley, Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Secrets of Ancient Civilization,2003, Delhi, pp.
45-46.
Gupta, S.P. Soviet Central Asia: Borderlands, Vol. I, 1979, p. 9-10.
“According to one Puranika legend, the Ganga divided on its descent into seven streams,
termed the Nalini, Pavani, and Hladini, going to the east; the Chakshu, Sita and Sindhu, to
the west; and the Bhagirathi or Ganges proper to the south. In one place in the Mahabharata,
the seven rivers are termed Vasvaukasara, Nalini, Pavani, Ganga, Sita and Jambunadir, in
another, Ganga, Yamuna, Plakshaga, Rathastha, Sarayu, Gomati and Gandaki. In a text quoted
and commented on by Yaska, we have ten rivers, named Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Satudri,
Parushni, Asikni, Marudvrdha, Vitasta, Arjikiya and Susoma, of these, the ParushniI is identified
with the Iravati, the Arjiki with the Vipassha, and the Susoma with the Sindhu.“Rgveda
Samhita, Vol. I [Mandala I] H.H. Wilson and Bhashya of Sayanacharya, ed. by Ravi Prakash
Arya and K.L. Joshi, 1977, Delhi, pp. 82-83. Obviously these names cannot be attributed
any single period. The Puranas are history books revised from time to time and record
facts of their period; but seldom expunge old records. The skeptics have used/abused this
for their ulterior motif.
Caspian Sea, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Shrikant G. Talageri, The Rigveda A Historical Analysis, 2004, 134 and 148.
Verma, T.P. “Kambojas: the Vedic People who moved Allover World” Itihas Darpan, Vol.
14(I), 2009, p.4.
Rgveda VII, 83.1
Iranian Mythology, http:/rbedrosian.com/Imyth.htm.
Ibid p.48 etc.
Rv. III. 23.4.
Rv. I. 28.1; II. 101; III. 23.4, 29.9; VI.1.6; X.1.6, 70.1, 91.1 & 4, 191.1 etc.
Rv. I. 143.4; II. 3.7; III. 5.9, 29.4; IX.72.7; X.1.6.
Bhag. Pu. IX. 14.46.
The European scholars have refused to accept the legend of Ila as myth. The authors of
Vedic Index did not inter Ila in the work. But recently an American named Thomas Beatie,
originally a woman, changed her sex, but later decided to have a child and gave birth to
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
x51
a girl. Since then a good number of transgender cases have come out in media.
MP 11.38.
Ibid, 11.44, 45, 47 etc.
Vayu., 85.27.
Rv. X.1.
Frawley, David, The Rig Veda and the History of India, 2003, New Delhi, p. 144. He cites RV
I.84.14; VIII. 6.39; VIII. 7.29; VIII. 64.11; IX. 65.22-23; IX. 113.1-2; X. 35.2 and X. 75.75.5.
Ibid. p. 145.
Rgveda Samhita of Sayanacharya, edited by Ramagovinda Tripathi, Varanasi, 2007, pp.53839.
See Talageri, S.G. p. 115 ff and, David Frawley, Op. Cit. p. 145-46.
David Frawley, Op.Cit. p.145.
Rgveda Samhita, H.H. Wilson and Bhashya of Sayanacharya, ed. by R.P. Arya and K.L.
Joshi, Vol.1, 1997, p. 289.
http://wikitravel.org/Zeravshan.
See Edwin Bryant The Quest for the Origins: Vedic Culture, 2001, Oxford, p.205.
Singh, Bhagwan. The Vedic Harppans, 1995, New Delhi, p.320.
Lal, Makkhan Eternal India, July 2009, p.55.
Niruktam of Yaska, Durgacharya, with comments by Mukundarajasarmanah, 2002, Varanasi,
pp. 61-62.
KB 7.6.
Agrawala, V.S. India as known to Panini, p.39.
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/kambojas
Vedic Index, Vol.I, p. 138.
Verma, T.P. “Kambojas: The Vedic People who Moved Allover World” Itihas Darpan, Vol.
14(1), 2009, pp.1-15.
Atharvaveda V.22.5, 7 etc.
Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.350: col.I.
44 Vedka Sampatti by Raghunandan Sarma. p.256-57.
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
Valmiki Ramayana VII. 30.19.
Maha.Van. 187.53.
Frawley, David op.cit. p. 235 ff.
Op.cit., p.29.
Sircar, D.C., Select Inscriptions,I, 1965, p.152, fn. 9 for Wakhan (37N, 74E) in Central Asia.
Heinrich Luders, Mathura Inscriptions, 1961, Gottingen, p. 75-76.
Ibid, p.131.
Sircar, D.C., Op.cit., p.283-84.
H.W. Baily in Bharati, Bullatin of the College of Indology, Central Asia Number, edited by
A.K. Narain, 1966-68, Nos. X & XI, pp.12-13.
54 Agrawala, V.S. Patanjalikalina Bharatavarsha, 1996, Varanasi, p.42.
52
x
Mystics-Scholars of Allahabad
During 16th-17th Century
Mohammad Zafar Minhaj *
Allahabad was an important Sarkar and capital of Mughal Subah Allahabad,
situated on the bank of Ganga and Yamuna. The place has a religious importance
from ancient days in India. When, Akbar reorganized his territorial boundaries
by his empire. Allahabad became provincial capital and a fort was built on the
confluence of two river Ganga and Yamuna.* People, from every walk of life,
including mystics scholars from adjoining areas migrated here and a full fledge
city was developed. Gradually a number of Khanqahs/Daeras (hospices) ** were
established by different Silsilah (order).
This paper seeks to provide biographical sketches of a number of medieval
Sufi saints who flourished in Allahabad during the Mughal period. The
information is based upon a number of important works and biographical
dictionaries such as the Maasir-al Karam of Gulam Ali Azad Bilgrami, Zabda’t al
Muqamat by Mohd. Hashim, Bahr-i Zakhkhar by Wajihuddin Ashraf, Anwarul
Arifin by Hafiz Mohd. Husain, Nazhat ul Khwatin by Maulana Abdul Hai.
Syed Muhibullah of Manikpur was Naqshbandiya sufi, contemporary of
Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujadid-i Alfsani). He went Burhanpur to studied
Naqshbandi practices. Zikr (Remembrance) from Mir Mohd. Noman. He also
studied the idea of Shaikh A. Sirhindi as contained in the letters of Mujaddid the
Naqshbandi. Having impressed, he visited Mujaddid and practiced under him.
The various forms of Naqshbandiya contemplation and Zikr (Remembrance),
Mujaddid sent him to Manikpur but he failed to make any impact upon the town
folk and returned back to Allahabad where he led solitary life in Zikr-i-Khafi
(silent Remembrance) rest of more detail of his life and activities are not known.1
Another prominent sufi of Allahabad was Khwaja Kalan Jhonsvi,2 who was
the son of Nasiruddin Jhonsvi, after receiving his primary education from his
father travelled the Jaunpur for higher studies. He spent many years in the
company of learned Alim of Jaunpur and returned to Jhunsi. His father conferred
his Khirqa-i Khilafat (cloak of succession) on him. He devoted major part of his
life in the service of people of the region. He had a number of disciples among
them, Shaikh Tyeb bin Moin Banarsi (d.1043AH/1633-34) was an eminent Sufi.
* C/o Professor Tariq Ahmed, CAS, Dept of History, AMU (Aligarh) email : [email protected]
Mystic s-Sc hola rs of Alla ha b a d During 16th -17th C entury
x53
He died in 1004 AH/1595-96 and was buried in Jhunsi.3
Shah Abdul Latief, the Qadri sufi of Akbar’s time, received the spiritual
training under the guidance of Shaikh Raju Muhammad on Jaunpur. He was
bestowed the khilafat of Qasbah Yahyapur (district Allahabad), here he established
a khanqah which was known as Daera shah Rafiuzzama. He died in 1039 AH/
1629-30. There is very little information regarding his life.4
Shah Abdul Jalil, born in 992AH/1504-05AD, at Allahabad. He was a chief
disciple of Khir Shaikh Muhammad. Sadiq of Gangoh(Saharanpur). He was chishti
sufi. He received Khir qa-i-Khilafat (Rob of Khilafat) and was send to Allahabad
for spiritual mission. He was staunch supporter of Wahdat-ul wujud (unity of
being). So many miracles are related to him. Once Allahabad had faced a heavy
flood, he was staying near the river. The water was increasing all over his Khanqah
and government officials were requesting to leave the place immediately but he
refused to do so. He was in meditation; the water touched his place but slowly
went back. He died in 1114 AH/1602 AD. His khanqah was a great place in
spiritual circle. Dara Shikoh constructed a mosque adjoining to his khanqah.5
Shaikh Tajuddin Jhunsvi was son of Minhajuddin Siddiqi Jhonsvi. He was
a prominent sufi and scholar of Islamic jurisprudence. His ancestor came from
Delhi and settled down in Jhonsi (Allahabad). He received his primary education
form Naseeruddin Jhonsvi and for higher studies went to Jaunpur, where Shaikh
Noorullah bin Taha became his teacher. He wrote a boon on Tib (medicine), Tajul
Mujribaat. He received spiritual training from two Silsilah (order), one from
Suhrawardiya under the guidance of Abul Fath Zafrabadi and the second was
Khwaja Kalan of Chishtiya order. But he preferred to spread out the teaching of
Chishtiya order in lien of Suhrawardiya. He died in 1030 AH/1620-21 AD and
was buried in Jhunsi.6
Shaikh Muhibullah Allahabadi born in 1587 at Sadrpur near Allahabad was
a great name in the Sufi circle of North India. He completed his traditional
education under the guidance of Maulana Abdus Salam Lahori. Sheikh
Muhibullah completed traditional education and went out in search of a spiritual
mentor to quench his mystical thrust. He visited many contemporary Chishti
sufi centres and obsessed with mysticism. In the search of spiritual mentor came
to Gangoh, Qasbah in Saharanpur district, where Shah Abu Said Gangohi, the
grandson of Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi had established a Khanqah. Shaikh
Muhibullah impressed by his spiritual eminence and scholarship, decided to join
the circle of his devotees. Later on, he settled at Allaahbad. He had a firm faith
in Wahdat ul Wajud (Unity of Being) at the basis of all higher spiritual experiences.
The doctrine caused him to be criticized severely. He went through the works of
Ibn-ul Arabi, Fusus-ul Hikam and Futuhat Makkiya and found himself with the
same views.
54
x
Shaikh Muhibullah received spiritual sovereignty (Wilayat) of East. The other
disciples depressed and complained that we are endeavoring for a pretty long
time and never got the sweet water of union while Muhibullah did not taste the
flavor (hardship) of meditation were slowed with such a blessing. Shaikh Abu
Said replied that “Muhibullah was such a man that had brought candle in one
hand and fire in the other; as soon as it was shifted it become lighted that was
the grace of God which he bestowed upon whomever he liked how could be
delay when God has hastened.7
As far as his scholarship is concerned, he was master of Arabic and Persian
languages, written commentaries on Ibn-ul Arabi’s works, and alleged them not
to adhere the originality of sense and meaning, one among such works was
‘Sharah Qari’, a commentary on ‘Fusus ul Hikam’ in Arabic. Though, it was too
difficult for an ordinary man to go through Fusus ul Hikam. He realized that the
Arabic commentary is not useful for scholars in India. So again, he wrote in
Persian. He is the author of following works:

Tarjumat-ul-Kitab : It is a commentary on the Quran in Arabic.

Haft Ahkam,( regarding divine realities), IO DP 024.

Hashiya Tarjumat-ul-Quran: this is a commentary on Tarjumat ul Kitab.

Anfas-ul-Khwas : In the pattern of Fusus-ul Hikam it is divided into several
‘nafs’ (sections) the last one contains an account of Shaikh Abu Said Gangohi
his spiritual mentor.

Tswiya (Equalization) (Arabic,persian), MS MAL, Aligarh, No. 322.

Ahsan-ul-Khwas : Manuscript, Rampur Raza Library, no. 322.

Al-Mughaltai Aama : MS Rampur, 366 IO 1395.

Aqaid-ul-Khwas, MS India office, 1392.

Tajalliyat-ul-Fusus (Arabic) MAL Abdul Hay collection.

Sharah-ul Fusus (Arabic) MAL Abdul Haq

Kitab ul Mubin, MS Rampur.

Manazir Akhas-ul Khwas, MAL Shaifta collection

She Rukh, IO DP 1002

Ibadat-ul khawas al khwas (contains a discussion on various aspects of pantheistic
mysticism)

Maktubat *: This is a collection of 18 letters of Shaikh Muhibullah addressed
to Ulema and Mashaikh. These are as follows;
Mullah Mahmood Jaunpuri; Shaikh Ataullah, Mir Muhammad
x55
Qannauji,Mir Syed Abdul Hakim, Shaikh Abdur Rahim, Shaikh
Taj Mohammad, Shaikh abdur Rahim, Shaikh Abdur Rahman,
Shaikh Abdur Rahman, Miyan Shaikh Abdur Rahman, Shaikh
Abdur Rasheed Jaunpuri, Shaikh. Abdur Rahman, Shaikh Abdur
Rahman, Shaikh Abdur Rahim, Shahzada Dara Shikoh,
When, emperor Shahjahan expresses his desire to meet, Shaikh politely
refused 8 Dara was also much attracted by his deep spiritual knowledge and
scholarly interpretation of monistic theory. He had a great regard for the Shaikh
and seek his guidance in mysticism. He had correspondent with Shaikh on many
queries.
In one of his queries he asked Shaikh that whether in administrative affairs
of the state any discrimination is permissible between Hindus and Muslims.
Shaikh replied “the Faqir is not in position to give exhort ion, the truth is this
that the thought of well being of people must always remain in the heart of the
rulers without any discrimination because all human beings are creature of God;
and the prophet, who is the leader of this world and hereafter shows mercy to
everyone without making distinction among the pious, sinner, believer and nonbelievers, as it is described in the Quran; we sent thee not save as mercy into all
human beings”.9 Dara Shikoh due to his spiritual attachment accepted the
viceroyalty of the Subah Allahabad. He had a number of disciples some are as
follows: Mir Syed Muhammad Qannauji, Shaikh Muhammadi, Qazi Sadruddin.
Shaikh Muhibullah died in 9th Rajab 1057 AH/1648 AD.
Syed Muhammad Afzal, son of Syed Abdur Rehman, born in 28th October
1628/10-Rabi-ul Awal 1038 AH in Syedpur Bhitri, Ghazipur. He acquired the
traditional learning of Ulum-i-din (Religious sciences) from Hamid Syedpuri.
Shaikh Muhammad Arif and Shaikh Mah Banarsi in Ghazipur. Later on, he went
to Kalpi for further study. Here, he got spiritual training as well as Khilafat from
Mir Syed Muhammad Kalpvi, a Chistiya Sufi. On 5th Jamadi sani 1060/24 May
165010 at the instruction of his spiritual mentor (Pir) moved towards Allahabad
and established a Daera (khanqah).11 It is very interesting that he was trained as
Chishti but he followed Naqshbandi and propagated Qadri order. He was the
ocean of sufistic thought and values. He was very simple living personality,
devoted to people. Love of humanity was on his principles. He got prominence
in his area. A number of miracles are related to him. He died in 15 Zil Hij 1124
AH/2 Jan. 1712 AD. He wrote many treatises such as, Kashf-ul-Istar-e-Sharah,
Hafiz, Bin-ul-Jamhoor, Sharah Maulana Rum, Marsia-e-Rushd, Maktubat-e-Abe-Murshidi. These works are available in the library of Daera shah Ajmal in
Allahabad.12
Shaikh Mohammad Yahya, commonly known as Shah Khoobullah Allahabadi
son of Shah Muhammad Ameen was born in 1680 AH/1669 AD. He was nephew
56
x
of Shah Afzal. When he was ten year old his father died. Then he came to
Allahabad along with his uncle Shah Afzal and got academic as well as spiritual
training from him. Shah Afzal later on appointed his Khalifa (successor).13 He
was a well known Alim (scholar) and was known for follow Shariat strictly. His
theological and sufistic works became popular among the contemporary ulema
circles. Some of his works are as follows :
Dafyat’l alam, Maakhiz-ul-Aeteqaq, Bish-Shaikh wal Murid, Khulasut
ul Amal, Sharah salasiyat-i-Bukhari (commentary on the Bukhari
-i), Bazaet -Mazjat, Sharah Risalae Makkiya(commentary on Risalai-Makkiya), Al-Kalam (on relationship between Pir and Murid).
Wafyat-ul Alam.He was a miraculous sufi of his time. It is said
that Shah Muhibullah Bihari (d. 1707/1119 AH) and Shah
Amanullah Banarsi (d. 1119/1707) received the spiritual training
under his guidance. Shah Khaabullah is said to have bestowed
Khirqa-i-khilafat (cloak of succession) to his son Shah Mohammad
Nasir Afzali (d. 1749 Ad). Shah Muhammad. Yahya died in 11
Jamadi Awal, 1144 AH/1731 Ad and was buried in the premises
of Daera Shah Afzal.14
Shah Muhammad. Nasir was second son of Shah Khoobullah. His father
enrolled him in the Khanqah of Shah Afzal. Here he obtained education as well
spiritual training under his guidance. He wrote a number of books and treatises
related to various aspects of Sufism such as Muntakhab-ul-Amal, Jawahar-i-Nafsiya
and Azkar-i-Ashar. He died in 1749 AD, at Allahabad and was buried in premises
of Rauza Shah Afzal.15
He wrote many treatises such as Qurat’l Aenen fi rafadyn, Noor ‘l Sittah,
Durrat’l Tahqeeq.He was on the way to Hajj third time, died in Burhanpur,
1164AH/1751 AD, tomb is situated beside Shah Abdul Lateef Burhanpuri.16 Shah
mohammad Fakhir Allahabadi has a poetic name ‘Zaer’.He was son of Khoobullah
was a great mystic Alim, at the age of 21 received the Khirqa I khilafat (rob of
succession) from his father. When, he was at the age of 28 th went to Makkah
to perform Hajj, during the stay of Madina studied Hadith,from sheikh
Muhammad Hayat Sindhi. Shah Muhammad Qutbuddin was the son of Shah
Fakhir born in 1138AH/1725-26AD.He had received education under the guidance
of Maulvi Barkatullah Allahabadi. He wrote Masnavi Naan wa Quliya,and Bustan
ul Hanfiya.He died in 1187AH/1773-7417During the time of later Mughals in
Allahabad a number of Khanqahs/ flourished,
Thus, we can say in the light of above mentioned work, the detailed
description about the life sketches and the works produced by various Sufi saints
of different orders made an intellectual ambience of Allahabad. We also get
information that during medieval period Allahabad became very important
x57
because of the presence of these Sufis and their contribution in establishing
socio-religious harmony in the region.
REFERENCES
*Akbar built a fort here in 1580 (Due to the political disturbance) to reduce the political
importance of Jaunpur.
** (It was a centre of worship as well as teaching and evangelism) Edt. E. V Donzel Etel.
Leiden,The Encyclopedia of Islam Vol. IV, E.J. Brill, 1978, p. 1025, F Steingas,
Persian Dictionary, p-243
1.
Mohammad Hashim Badakhshi, Zabdatu’l Muqamat,Kanpur 1890, pp 382-83, Maulana
Abdul Hay, Nuzhat-ul-Khwatir, Vol. IV, Daeratul Maarif Osmania University Hyderabad
p.282. vol, 2, Indological Book House,Delhi, 1969, p281
2.
Jhusi, A small town in in Tahsil Phulpur on the norh bank of Ganges, three miles east of
Allahabad.A.Fuhrer, The Monumental Antiquities and inscriptions in the north western
provinces and Awadh
3.
Nuzhat ul Khwatir, vol. V, p.143
4.
Shah Mohd. Shabbir Ali, Qutub Daera, published Naami Press, Lucknow, 1979, p. 4
5.
S Shaukat Husain Naqvi, Tazkirat ul Maarif, Rizvi Press, Allahabad, p. 2.
6.
Nuzhat-ul-Khwatir, Vol,.V, p. 10.
7.
Anwar ul Arifin, p. 506* Maktubat Shaikh Muhibullah Allahbadi, Zakhira Ahsan Collection,
MS MAL-AMU Aligarh
8.
K. A. Nizami, Tarikh-i- Mashaikh Chisht, Idarah Adbiyat,Delhi.P,225
9.
K A Nizami, Shaikh Muhibullah Allahabadi, Fikr O Nazar, vol,ii,No.-2,Aligarh p112
10. Hafiz Muhammad Husain, Anwarul ul Arfin, Munshi Naval Kishor Lucknow, p. 534.
11. Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami, Masir-al-Karam, lucknow , p. 211.
12. Wajihuddin Ashraf, Bahr-I- Zakhkhar,vol 1, University Farsi Akhbar, zamima no. 256-57,
MAL, AMU, ALIGARH; p- 763, Masir-al-Karam, Vol. II, P- 211; Nuzhat-al-Khawatir,
Vol.VI, p. 279; Bahr-i-Zahkhar, Vol I, folio. 762.
13. Bahr-i Zakhar,Vol. 1, folio.765.
14. Masirul Karam, Vol. II, p. 212.
15. Bahr-i-Zakhkhar, Vol. 1, folio 768.
16. Nuzhat ul khwatir, Vol. IV, p.341; Anwar ul Arfeen, p465
17. Nuzhat ul khwatir, Vol. IV, p367
58
x
Anger, Action and Reaction : A Dialogue
between the Salt Satyagrahis of
Sholinganallur and the British Police
R. Balaji*
Preamble
Gandhiji announced for a mass protest called salt satyagraha in 1930 in order to
oppose and violate the Salt Act of the British Government in India.1 The response
to the call of Gandhi was immense. People all over India entered into the vortex
of the Gandhian politics.2 This monograph analyses the emergence of the people
of Sholinganallur out of rage against the British’s exploitative Salt Law and
surveys the measures taken by the British police to suppress the patriotic deeds
of the people of Sholinganallur region.3
Sources of Data
This paper is mainly based on the archival data. They include Fortnightly Reports
1930-31, Under Secretaries Safe File, Nos 687 and 699(a) Report on Salt
Administration in British India, 1930-31, Reports of the Madras Salt Commission,
1930-31 and Fortnightly Report dated 18.06.1931 and Newspaper Reports 193031. Secondary works have also been consulted for the study: B.S. Baliga’s, Madras
in the Struggle for Freedom. Rajaji and G. Ramachandiran’s, Vedaranyam Uppu
Sathygragham Charithiram, Saroja Sundararajan’s, March to Freedom in Madras
Presidency, Arnold David’s, The Congress in Tamilnadu: National Politics in South
India, 1919-1937, C.J. Baker’s, The Politics of South India, Ganeswa Nayak’s, A
Study of Modern Indian History: 1757-1947 and M.P. Sivagnanam’s, Vidudalai Poril
Tamillagam. The sources collected were sorted out and presented in an order.
Objectives
This study has the following objectives :
1.
To find out the strategies adopted at Sholinganallur to break the Salt Law.
2.
To analyse the propaganda techniques adopted to gear up the Congress
*Assistant Professor, Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar (Tamilnadu)
Ang er, Ac tion a nd Rea c tion : A Dia log ue b etw een the Sa lt Sa tya g ra his ...
x59
creed and
3.
To know about the suppressive and repressive measures taken by the British
authorities to counter act the political deeds of the people of Sholinganallur
region.
Sholinganallur Salt Satyagraha : An Anti-British Action
Salt Satyagraha was carried on at Sholinganallur, a village nearly six kilometers
from Madras.4 It was led by Sankara Iyer and Munusamy Mudaliyar. On 15
April 1930 some 100 volunteers from North Arcot district planned to go
Sholinganallur by bus to organize a salt agitation. Since they were prevented
from getting into the bus by the police, they marched in a procession to
Sholinganallur. The satyagrahis encamped at Sholinganallur from 17th April, 1930
onwards.5 The volunteers put up a shed in Sholinganallur with the materials
supplied by the villagers. The satyagrahis were also supported by the leaders of
Madras.6 T. Prakasam and others visited the Sholinganallur camp to support the
salt movement and exhorted the villagers to support the satyagrahis. The leaders
like Rangaiya Naidu and Munusamy Mudaliar explained the people why the
Salt of Law should be broken. Their persuasion bore fruit and the villagers began
to show interest in the activities of the satyagrahis. 7 They provided food,
refreshment, accommodation and other essentials to the satyangrahis.
The satyagrahis had dug a pan about 6 x 4 feet and took the water from the
Buckhingham canal in the hope of getting salt.8 But the salt pans did not yield
any good result, so the volunteers tried their luck by digging pans in a nearby
village called Semmancheri. Here also the volunteers did not meet with any
good result.9 So the satyagrahis advised the people not to buy salt. They asked
them to cook food with salt water obtainable from Buckhingham canal.
Besides, attempting to break the Salt-Law by boiling sea water, meetings
were organized all most all the days from April, 1930 at Sholinganallur and
nearby villages in order to obtain the support of the public. Even Anti-British
processions were organized which went into the villages nearby Sholinganallur.10
The people on many occasions opposed the British by not allowing the salt
officials to visit their villages. At Sholinganallur dramas were enacted to explain
to the people the existing political situation in India.11 One Shankaran was an
effective public speaker who was very popular among the local people. The
following figure shows the dimensions of the salt satyagraha at
Sholinganallur.
60
x
Fig. 1
Dimensions of the Salt Satyagraha
Meeting
Breaking of
Salt Law
Procession
Dimension of
Salt Satyagraha
Hartal
Publicity by Enacting
Dramas
Non-cooperating with
Government Officers
On the other side the government started suppressing the salt satyagraha. 12 The
District Magistrate proceeded to Sholinganallur village and stayed there on
18.4.1930. The Sub-Divisional Magistrate, the Stationery Sub-Magistrate and the
Reserve Police were already there. The next day Sholinganallur salt pans drained
off by salt peons.13 Hence, the satyagrahis prepared fresh pans. They threatened
the village munisif for resignation and came in to clear police officials. The
villagers evinced sympathy for the satyagrahis.14 The Reserve Police encamped
in the village were jeered at. The District Magistrate decided to take more severe
action. Appadurai Naicken, a Congress activist of the village, was convicted
under section 143 I.P.C. by the Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Saidapet, and then
released. The District Magistrate also took action against the popular congressites
of the region.15
A congress volunteer from the Hindustan Seva Dal addressed a number of
meetings. Durgabai, Mrs. Lakshmipathi and Bakthavatsalam visited the place
and geared up the congress activities.16 It was proposed to March in a procession
with pots to the beach on their leadership on 2nd May, 1930. Consequently the
Sub-Magistrate, Saidapet, issued an order under section 144 Cr. PC. It insisted
the satyagrahis not to do anything politically within the radius of five miles of
the place. Hence, the proposed procession was abandoned.
On 9 May 1930 a meeting of loyalists was convened by the District Magistrate.
Only a select few were invited. It was decided to form committees and carry on
x61
Table – 1
List of Persons Arrested in Connection with Shollinganallur Salt Satyagraha
S.No.
Name and Address
1.
V. Alagesan
06.10.1911
S/o Viswanatha Muthaliyar
Vedachala Nagar,
Chengalpattu
Student of
Madras
Presidency
College
6 months in
Trichirapalli Jail
2.
Bashyam S/o Narayanasami Chinglepat District
Illiterate
1 year in
Trichirapalli Jain
3.
Chakkarapani
1895
S/o Chinnathambi Koundan
Thinnanallur, Madurandhagam
Illiterate
Arrested and Sentenced to
1 year in Under section
123 Cr.PC in 1930 Vellore
Central Jail
4.
Gopalasamy
02.01.1890
S/o Duraisamy Iyanger
Pillaipakkam Sriperumpudhur
B.A
Under section 1431
PC kept in Alipuram Jail
5.
Munudamy
13.12.1907
S/o Munusamy Mudhaliyar
104, A. Sangetha Vidvamanika
Literate
6 months under 188 IPC
section during Pillai (St)
Kanchipuram 1931 kept in
Madras and Alipuram Jail
6.
P. Irusappa
Sholinganallur
T. Kosalarama.
S/o. Thulukkana Naicker
Sholinganallur
1902
Illiterate
-
Illiterate
3 months kept in
Central Jail, Madras
Arrested and Sentenced
to 3 months under section
147 and 32 IPC kept in
Central Jail Madras
8.
Kullappa.
S/o Venkatachal Naicker
1896
Illiterate
to 3 Sholinganallur Post
months under Adyar (Via)
section 147 and 332 IPC
kept in Central Jail Madras
9.
C. Singaram.
S/o Chinna Naicker
Sholinganallur
-
Illiterate
to 3 months under
section 147 and 32 IPC
kept in Central Jail Madras
10.
P. Srinivasalu
.S/o Perumal Naicker
Sholinganallur
-
Illiterate
to 3 months under
7.
Date of Birth
Status
Educational Imprisonment
section 147 and 32
IPC kept in Central
Jail Madras
Source : This table is complied from K.H. Gandhi Who’s Who of Freedom Fighters : Chennai :
1973, Fortnight Reports 1930-31, Under Secretary’s Secrete Files Vos. and Notice News
Paper Reports, 1930-31.
62
x
counter-propaganda by means of private talks, lectures, etc.17 Silver vessels to
village officers and cash to village menials were presented by the District
Magistrate at the meeting for their sincere service for quality satyagraha.
The volunteers made eight more pans in May 1930 and filled two of them
with salt water. Ten of the volunteers left for Madras and ten more took their
places.18 On 6 May 1930, two volunteers, Shankar and Swami Shanmugananda
were convicted and sentenced to six months’rigorous imprisonment each by the
Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Saidapet, under 117 I.P.C. and 74 Salt Act.19 This was
the beginning of imprisonments in this district. One Thambu was also aware of
imprisonment. A villager Ponnan Ganapathi Naicker was charge-sheeted before
the Stationary Sub-Magistrate for harbouring the satyagrahis. An order under
section 144 Cr.P.C. was promulgated by the Stationary Sub-Magistrate, Saidapet
applying it to the whole taluk and the volunteers were cleared out of the place
by the police on
16 May.20 The shed put up for their sojourn was dismantled. The volunteers
began to frequent the village and other places in Saidapet taluk but as often as
they appeared so often were they arrested and put into a bus and dropped on
tie road some miles off. This ended the activities of the volunteers to an extent.21
On 2 June about 150 to 200 of the villagers assembled behind the village temple
under the leadership of one Muthukannu Naicken of the place to hold a meeting
in defiance of the order under section 144 Cr.P.C. The Sub-Inspector and his men
ordered the assembly to disperse. The villagers dispersed but assembled again
and threw stones and brickbats at the police. Three constables were injured. Fire
was opened and the villagers dispersed.22
When the police were returning the villagers again followed them in the
rear and pelted stones at them.23 Fire was opened again and again the villagers
dispersed. The police on their way back to their camp entered a casuarina tope
when the villagers for a third time attacked them. The police again fired and
finally cleared the villagers. On the whole nine buck shots and 28 ball cartridges
were fixed.24 But only one was killed and two wounded, because it was night
time and the villagers were protected by the casuarinas tope. Twelve policemen
were injured and four of them were injured badly. After this quiet was restored
and Sholinganallur saw the end of the Satyagraha activities.
One Kusappa Naicken and 12 others of the village were convicted. The
reserve force there was withdrawn during the last week of June 1930.
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
The people of Sholinganallur region much instilled by patriotic fervour organized
and participated it themselves in salt satyagraha. Theirs was successful. The
x63
suppressive measures of the government did nothing before their patriotism.
Such patriotic nationalism is now required which would relieve India of its
present day challenges.
REFERENCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Arnold, David, The Congress in Tamilnadu. New Delhi: Manohar Book Service, 1977, p. 50
Ibid.,
Baker, C.J. The Politics of South India, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Ltd, 1976.
Letter from the District Magistrate to the Under Secretary to the Government of Madras,
May, 12, 1930.
A. Ramasamy, Tamil Nattil Gandhi (Tamil), (Madras: Gandhi Nool Veliyettukazhagam,
1969), p. 22.
Ibid.,
Rajan, T.S.S. Tamil Nattil Gandhi. Madras: Gandhi Nool Veliyeettu Kazhagam, 1969, p.
46.
Ibid.,
Rajayyan, History of Tamilnadu, 1567-1982 (Madurai: Raj Publication, 1982), p. 33.
S.R. Bakshi, Gandhi and Civil Disobedience Movement (New Delhi: Gitangali Publishing
House, 1985), p. 110.
S.R. Bakshi, Mahatma Gnadhi: Congress and its Leadership (New Delhi: Anmol Publication,
1990), p. 66.
Fortnightly Report, dated 18.06.1931.
Under Secretary Safe File No. 699(A), dated April 19, 1930.
Ibid.,
Under Secretary Safe File No. 687, dated May 31, 1930.
Ibid.,
All India Congress Committee Paper, File No. G. 86-1930.
Young India, April, 24, 1930.
B.S. Baliga, Madras in the Struggle for Freedom, (Madras: Government of Madras, 1960),
p. 22.
Ibid., p. 23.
Sivagnanam, Ma. Po. Vidhuthalai Potil Thamizhagam. 2 Vols. Madras: Poongodi
Pathipagam, 1984, p. 120.
Saroja Sundararajan, March to Freedom in Madras Presidency 1916-1947. Madras: Lalitha
Publications, 1989, p. 129.
Ibid.,
Rajaji and G. Ramachandran Vedaranyam Uppu Satyagraham Charitram. (Vedaranyam:
Kasthuriba Kanya Gurukulam, 1984), p. 115.
64
x
Indo-Bangladesh Ganga Water
Treaty : An Analysis
Savita Kumari *
Water sharing at Farakka has been a long irritant in the relations between India
and East Pakistan and since 1972 Bangladesh. The genesis of the problem lies in the
wide seasonal fluctuation of the average discharge of about 100000 cusec is more
than adequate, the lean month (especially from mid April to mid May) pose difficulty
in meeting the water requirements of both India and Bangladesh. The Ganga waters
dispute began in 1951 when India decided to build a Ganga barrage at Farakka in
order to divert water from Ganga to the Bhagirathi-Hoogli to make Calcutta part
navigable through out the year which is situated on the confluence of the rivers.
The Barrage was constructed in West Bengal and is 17 kilometers away from the
India-Bangladesh border and is 22.8 meters high and 2120 meters long. Though in
this research paper an attempt has been made to find the some objectives that are
what is the nature of the dispute of the Ganga water sharing? How the treaty came
into existence for the resolution if this dispute and to what extent it is good for
resolution?
The crux of the problem is sharing of waters in the lean season which has been
identified in the intergovernmental agreement as January 1st to May 31. The
primary purpose of the Farakka Barrage was the diversion of a part of the water
of the Ganga to the Bhagirathi/Hoogli arm for arresting the deterioration of
Calcutta part; and the secondary purpose was to protect Calcutta’s drinking and
industrial water supply from the incursion of salinity.1
This construction was necessary for India because Sir Arthur Cotton in 1858,
Stevenson Moore in 1919, Sir William Willcocks in 1930 and other engineering
experts had suggested that the water of Ganga flowing into the Bhagirathi was
of utmost important for keeping the water way safe for navigation to the sea.
Keeping this in mind, the chairperson of the Bangal Boundary Commission
awarded to India Murshidabad district (where Farakka is situated) although it
was a pre-dominantly Muslims area and gare Khulna district to Pakistan by way
of compensation, where the Hindus were in a majority.2
When India started to construct Farakka barrage in 1951, Pakistan government
objected it. The government of Pakistan characterized this as a threat to her
*
Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra (Haryana).
Ind o-Ba ng la d esh Ga ng a Wa ter Trea ty a n Ana lysis
x65
security and had argued that such an action would jeopardize the irrigation
projects of East Pakistan and that under international law India is not entitled to
proceed with its construction unilaterally. But India assured Pakistan that Farakka
barrage would not disturb the irrigation schemes of East Pakistan.3
On coming into existence of Bangladesh amicably in view of positive and
helpful role played by Indian Government during the liberation struggle of
Bangladesh. Under the leadership of Shiekh Mujibur Rahman Bangladesh’s
relations with India were cordial. But Bangladesh objected the constitution of
this project on these grounds that (a) It will affect her water development projects
such as Ganga-Kobadak irrigation project, the Dhaka Northwest Project, the
Pabna project, the Faridpur-Baridpal-Barisal project. (b) River navigation, the
heart of Bangladesh transport network. (c) It will affect crop and plant life by
lowering the ground water level (d) It will have adverse effect on river and
estuarine fisheries etc.4
The most significant achievement of the bilateral consultation after the
emergence of Bangladesh under Mujib leadership was the creation of a Joint
River Commission during Indira Gandhi’s visit to Dhaka in 1972.5 This Joint
River Commission comprising of the experts of the both countries on a permanent
basis to carry out a comprehensive survey in the fields of flood controls. The
experts were also directed to study the irrigation projects on the major river
system and examine the feasibility of linking of power grids of Bangladesh with
the adjoining areas of India so that the water resources of area could be utilized
on equitable basis6
The complex issues of Farakka were temporarily resolved through an interim
agreement of April 18, 1975. Under an interim and short term agreement reached
at Dhaka it was agreed that India was to draw a specified quantity of water for
its feeder canal for the benefit of Calcutta port. The following scheme was fixed:
Period
Daily withdrawal of waters
21 to 30 April
11000 cusec
1 May to 20 May
12000 cusec
21 May to 31 May
16000 cusec
The remaining water was to flow to Bangladesh.7 It was further agreed that a
joint team of experts would surprise and observe the effect of withdrawal on
Bangladesh and the Hoogly River. This agreement according to Mr. JagJivan
Ram who was then Minister of Agriculture and irrigation was a “break-through”
and set an example of mutual understanding and accommodation. But after the
assassination of Sheik Mugibur Rahman in August 1975, the Bangladesh
Government started maligning India at every opportunity accusing her of taking
66
x
all the waters of Ganges. The Farakka issues which had received enough publicity
through controlled press and other media became the kingpin in the relations
between India and Bangladesh.8
Bangladesh internationalized the issue on November 16, 1976, Mr. J.S.Mehta,
foreign Secretary of India said in specially committee of the U.N. on the Farakka
issue that the distinguished representative of Bangladesh stated that Bangladesh
required 49000 cusec water which is a false figure and no data had given for the
explanation of this figures. He also said that it is a bilateral question and United
Nations, should encourage the process.9 Bangladesh also raised this issue at
Islamic foreign Ministers Conferences (May 1976) and in the Non Aligned
Assembly at Colombo in August 1975. Bangladesh argued that India is violating
International Law.
However it is clear, therefore that the decision of the Indian Government in
building the Farakka barrage is not contrary to the rules of international law.
India’s stand is justifiable according to customary rule of international law and
according to Hormon Doctorine. The saving of Calcutta port is a matter of vital
urgency for India and diversion of water in order to flush slitt off from the port
is only way to achieve that legitimate objective.10 India’s position can also
justifiable under Helsinki Conference Rules 1966 as a state can make a use of
international river under article 13 which determine the reasonable use of
international river for social and economic needs of the state but without
disturbing any existing condition.11 Bangladesh’s allegation of ‘unilateral upstream
diversion’ of waters was false and baseless. Hence India had not violated any
principle of international law.12 On this issue China began to support Bangladesh.
A “Beijing Review” commentary accused India of having arbitrarily built the
Farakka barrage to the deteriment of the interest of Bangladesh Farakka issue
was exploited by china not only to strengthen its relation with Bangladesh but
tarnish India’s image in the region.1
India wanted to resolve the problems with their neighbours also at cost of
some loss. The issue of sharing of Ganga waters at Farakka was partly resolved
by mutual agreement signed between the two countries in Dhaka on November
5, 1977.14 India agreed to release as much as 34500 cusec (i.e., 63 percent out of
the 55000 cusec to Bangladesh, keeping only 20500 cusec i.e., 37 percent) as
India’s share. In India general opinion was that this was an excessively generous
to Bangladesh. In case of unusual lean flow of water India was ready to provide
80 percent of its stipulated share. But nothing came out of these proposals.
After the change in government in both countries Mrs. Indira Gandhi in
x67
India and Lt. General H.M. Ershad in Bangladesh came to power. The new
government in India felt that agreement of 1977 was harmful to Indian interest
but accepted it as a legacy of Janata rule. They wanted a new solution or settlement
of dispute.15 A memorandum of understanding was signed in Delhi on October
7, 1982 where both the leaders agreed to terminate the 1977 Farakka agreement.
The memorandum provided for the sharing of waters for the next dry season.16
In February 1984 both the sides presented their proposals to each other.
India advocated for a barrage across the Brahmaputra at Joghigopa to be linked
with a 324 kilometers long canal passing through Bangladesh and joining Farakka.
Secondly India wanted to construct three dams on Dihang, Subansiri in Arunachal
Pradesh and Tipaimukh in Barak on Myoram-Manipur border. Bangladesh on
the other hand wanted 12 dams to be constructed in Nepal and storage to be
built at Chisapani, Kali Gandaki I and II, Trishul Ganga, Seti, Sapta Kosi and
Pancheswar, this meant including Nepal to solve the water problem. Both the
countries rejected each other proposals.17
On November 22, 1985 a three year agreement was signed which give a
temporary solution to the problem. Bangladesh’s irrigation minister came to
Delhi to sign this agreement. This the renewation of the MOU of 1982 (i.e., the
1977 agreement without the guarantee clause. Under guarantee clause if the
lowest flow of Farakka fell below 75 percent of the standard flow which governed
the schedule, the difference between that and the standard flow was to be shared
on 50:50 basis by two sides).18
After the MOU of 1985 lapsed in 1988 there was no agreement or
understanding between the two countries for several years. There were no serious
efforts to enter into discussion with a view to find a lasting solution of the
problem. After 1988 in the absence of any agreement India gradually increased
the diversion towards the Bhagirathi-Hoogli arm, leading to renewed complaints
from Bangladesh.19
In 1993 Bangladesh Prime Minister Khalida Zia also raised this issue in
General Assembly of UNO. She accused India about the unilateral withdrawal
of waters from the barrage. She said that India is harming the Bangladesh rights.20
The environment changed on this issue after the formation of new
governments in both countries, the prime minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina
and Indian Prime Minister H.D.Dewe Gowda signed this historic treaty on the
sharing of the Ganges waters in New Delhi on December 12, 1996. Under ‘30
year Ganges Water Treaty’21 on sharing on Ganges water arrangement have been
68
x
made to share the water in following way :
Period
(1949-88)
Average of total flow India’s share
Cusec
(cusec)
Bangladesh’s share
(cusec)
Jan 1-10
107516
40000
67516
11-20 97673
40000
57673
21-31
90154
40000
50154
Feb 1-10
86323
40000
46323
11-20
82859
40000
42859
21-28
79106
40000
39106
Mar 1-10
74419
39419
35000
11-20
68931
33931
35000
21-31
64688
35000
29688
Apr 1-10
63180
28180
35000
11-20
62633
35000
27633
21-30
60992
25992
35000
May 1-10
67351
35000
35351
11-20
73590
38590
35000
21-31
81854
40000
41854
It was a landmark event in India- Bangladesh relations. It symbolized that given
political commitment and goodwill; these two countries can resolve even the
most interactable of problems between them. The treaty also sent a salutary
signal to other South Asian Countries that despite asymmetry between India and
its small neighbours, given the political will, determination, a positive attitude
and goodwill, other neighbours of India could also strive to resolve differences
with their large neighbour amicably.22 The resolution of Farakka dispute has also
strengthened India’s democratic regime in Dhaka, improved India’s image in the
world in general power like US and China.23
However this treaty was criticized on some grounds in Bangladesh like this
treaty specify maximum withdrawal by India and minimum availability to
Bangladesh in ten days segment from January 1st to May 31 each year. However
Bangladesh still feel they have been shortchanged as project that require more
water such as Ganga Kohadak project benefiting primarily Khulna division can
not be carried out. Also decrease flow of Ganga in Bangladesh also harm the
Sundarbans, an international environment site shared with India.24it was clear in
the Bangladesh National Party (BNP) manifesto of 2001 election that if the party
comes to power it would seek appropriate changes in the 30 years agreement on
x69
water sharing with India.25
In India there was some criticism on expected lines in West Bengal but it
was fairly muted. At the national level the BJP questioned the treaty but this
seemed as a pro forma move rather than a serious criticism based on a careful
analysis. There have been some complaints in Bihar and Utter Pradesh that their
needs have been kept in mind in the treaty, but these became silent after centre
government assurance.26
It is felt in Bangladesh that this treaty is not working properly because
Bangladesh not getting the proper quantity of waters allotted to her. Its main
cause is lean flow of water in March. According to Ramaswamy R Iyer four
factors are responsible for this (1) low flows (2) alternate 10 days patterns (3)
Farakka-Hardinge Bridge discrepancy (4) Gorai problem.27 So these are the
problems created by the nature and not by the man.
So the Ganga water treaty is based on the principle of no harm to either
side. It is fair to say that the upper riparian state, in planning its own water uses,
should keep the interest of lower riparian state in mind and refrain from causing
undue injury or distress to it. India kept this thing in mind and due to this the
Ganga Water treaty came into existence. In practical terms, this may not cause
any difficulty in the near future. This treaty successfully solves the dispute of
sharing of Ganges waters between India and Bangladesh. This is a fair treaty but
differences in perceptions at some stages do exist. This will need to be avoided
by wisdom and goodwill on both sides.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Ramaswamy R Iyer, “Dispute and Resolution: the Ganga Water Treaty”, Lalit Man Singh,
et.al(ed), Indian Foreign Policy: Agenda for the 21st century Vol.2. Konark Publishers,
New Delhi, 1998, p.128.
S.S.Bindra,”Farakka Barrage Agreement- a Review”, Sunder Chopra (ed), Studies in Indian
Foreign Policy, Guru Nank Dev University Amritsar, 1980, p.336.
Ibid.
Boudhayan Chattopadhyan, “Harnessing the Himalayan Water Resources”, MS Agwani,
Ashwani K. Ray, I.N. Mukergee (ed), South Asia: Stability and Regional Cooperation,
Centre for research in Rural and industrial Development, Chandigarh, 1983, p.71.
V.N. Khanna, Foreign Policy of India, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1997, p.157.
S.R.Chakravarti, “Indo-Bangladesh Relations: the Mujib Period” , S.R.Chakravarti, Virender
Narayan (ed), Bangladesh: Global Poiltics (Vol iii), South Asian Publishers, New Delhi,
1988, p.240.
N. Jayapalan, Foreign Policy of India, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi,
2001, p.324.
S.S. Bindra, op.cit, p.340.
J.A. Naik, (ed), India and the West Documents 1976-1978, Avinash Reference publishers,
70
x
Kohlapur, 1981, p. 327.
10. J.S. Bains, “The Farakka Barrage: International Law Aspect”, Modern Review, Vol.cxii,
no.5, November. 1962, p.368.
11. Helsinki Rules on the uses of waters of the international rivers, www.librarylaw.pace.edu/
research/waterlaw.html.
12. S.K. Kapoor, International Law and Human Rights, Central Law Agency,
Allahabad,2002,p.238.
13. P.S. Jayarame, India’s national Security and Foreign Policy, A.B.C. Publishing House,
New Delhi, 1987, p.128.
14. A. Appadorai, M.S. Rajan, India’s Foreign Policy and Relationa, South Asian Publishers,
New Delhi, 1985, p.610
15. N.Jayapalan, op.cit.,p.338
16. Sangeeta Thapliyal, opcit, p.1046.
17. Ibid, p.1047
18. Ahmad Tariq Karim,” the Bangladesh-india Treaty on Sharing of the Ganga Waters: Genesis
And Significance”, BIISS Journal, Vol-19,no.2,April 1998, p.324.
19. Ramaswamy R. Iyer, opcit., p.128.
20. Salahuddin Ahmad, Bangladesh: Past and Present, APH Publishing Corporation, New
Delhi, 2004, p.25
21. Ashrof Mahmood Dewan, Khondokar Nizamuddin, “ Impact of Ganges water Diversion
on South west part of Bangladesh: a Perception Study”, BISS Journal, Vol.20, no.2, April
1999, p.185.
22. Ahmad Tariq Karim, opcit,p.234.
23. Nalini Kant Jha, “India and Bangladesh- the Trach Back to Normally” India’s Foreign
Policy in a changing World, South Asian Publishers, New Delhi, 2000, p.186.
24. Craiq Baxter, Davin T. Hagerty, South Asia in World Politics, Row man and Littlefield
Publishers, Inc, USA, 2005, p.76.
25. Rajesh Bhardwaj, Sanjay Bhardwaj, “Indo-Bangladesh Relations: Trends and issues”, BC
Upriti, Mhan Lal Sharma, SN Kaushik (ed) India’s Foreign Policy : Emerging Challenges
and Paradigm Vol.ii. Kalinga Publication, Delhi, 2003, p.451.
26. Ramaswamy R Iyer, “ Three River Water Treates”, P.Sahadevan (ed) Conflict and
Peacemaking in South Asia, Lancer’s Books, New delhi, 2001, p.382.
27. R.S. Yadava, Bharat Ki Videsh Niti–ek Vishleshan, Kitab Mahal, Ailahabad,2004, p.297.
Prob lem s a nd Protec tion of Mig ra nt La b ours’in Ind ia
x71
Problems and Protection of
Migrant Labours’ in India
Sudha Jain *
Migration is much larger phenomenon encompassing half of the workforce in informal
sector. The Governments are encouraging external migration for remittances and
internal migration for cheap labour to meet the profits of finance capital. The
problem of Migrant Labour is too huge and requires cooperation and coordination
between trade unions and other social factors. The movements for the recognition
of migrant workers rights are gaining support. Eventually even the states must
come to recognize these rights by ratifying the United Nations Convention for the
protection of the rights of all migrant workers. Social workers and their role in the
intervention of migrant workers’ problem can help by applying different strategies.
Migration is an important feature of human civilization. It reflects human endeavor
to survive in the most testing conditions both natural and manmade. Migration
in India is in existence historically, but, in the context of Neo Liberal Globalization
assumes special significance, for Trade Unions and Civil Society. As a consequence
of the neo-liberal policies followed by the successive Governments, there are
serious income disparities, agrarian distress, inadequate employment generation,
vast growth of informal economy and the resultant migration from rural areas
to urban, urban to urban and backward to comparatively advanced regions in
the most appalling conditions. Under the pressure from the International Finance
Capital, Governments both Central &Provincial are further de-regulating the
labour markets and further enlargement of the informal sector. In the given
context Migrant Labour poses a serious threat and challenge to Civil Society in
general and Trade Unions in particular.
Causes of Migration
Migration in India is mostly influenced by social structures and pattern of
development. The development policies by all the governments since
Independence have accelerated the process of migration. Uneven development
is the main cause of Migration. Added to it, are the disparities, Inter regional
amongst different socio-economic classes. The landless poor who mostly belong
to lower castes, indigenous communities and economically backward regions
*Assistant Professor, Indore School of Social Work, Indore (Madhya Pradesh).
72
x
constitute the major portion of Migrants. In the very large tribal regions of India
intrusion of outsiders, settlements by the outsiders displacing the local tribal
people and deforestation also played a major role in Migration.
Conditions of Migrant Labours
In terms of employment, construction is the largest sector in India after agriculture.
Most of the labours in construction are migrant labours. The working hours are
from sunrise to sunset. The working day of women often stretches from 14 to 16
hours, combining house work and work at site. On the site, women are paid Rs.
80-90 a day while men are paid Rs. 100-175. Masons earn up to Rs. 175-250 a day.
The work place is unsafe. The workers have no social security, compensation to
injuries, access to drinking water, and health care. India has the world’s highest
accident rate among construction workers. A recent study by the International
Labor Organization shows that 165 out of every 1,000 workers are injured on the
job. (NSS report,2007) There are 20 million domestic workers mostly migrants
from rural India. Regular streams of new migrants, leaving behind, scorched
fields and emaciated families in the tribal belts of Bihar, Orissa, Chattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Assam, and Mizoram for Mumbai, Delhi and other Metros. They are
desperate to join the army of domestic workers. They are willing to work for
much less than those who are already working. They are victims of constant
verbal and sexual abuse, working without any grievance redressal mechanism.
Worsening their situation are the local Governments’ brutal eviction drives –
dislocating and destabilizing the lives of the very people without whom the
cities would come to a crippling halt. Further, they have to live in make shift
tents with plastic covers. They are forced to bathe and defecate out in the open.
As they are migrant workers, they do not possess Public Distribution System
(PDS) Cards and hence forced to buy food grains and kerosene at higher market
prices. The ruling elite which consider Child Labour as a menace little realize
that it is a natural consequence of migrations.
The next large group of migrant workers consists of sex workers whose
earnings get shared among seven heads like pimp, landlady, police, protector,
money lender, medical practitioner and groceries supplier. In mining sector,
adult miners are paid Rs.100/- rupees per day. Teenagers get Rs.9/- for every
puttu (iron basin). Small scale mining notorious for massive employment is highly
productive and profitable to the employers. In fact it is polluting, unsafe,
disruptive, and in many cases, outside regulatory regimes. In addition, rampant
corruption, lack of safety standards, medical care, protective gear and appropriate
technologies make small-scale mining a hazardous occupation. Workers
often pay for their food, fuel, water and medical expenses if they are injured at
work.
x73
Magnitude of Migration
Migration in India is predominantly short distance with around 60% of migrants
changing their residences within their district of birth and 20% within their state
(province), while the rest move across the state boundaries. The total migrants
as per the census of 1971 are 167 million persons, 1981 census 213 millions, 1991
census 232 million and 2001 census 315 millions. As per the census of the year
1991, nearly 20 million people migrated to other states seeking livelihood. Within
a decade, the number of interstate migration doubled to 41,166,265 persons as
per the census figures of 2001. It is estimated that, the present strength of interstate
migrants is around 80 million persons of which, 40 million are in the construction
industry, 20 million as domestic workers, 2 million as sex workers, 5 million as
call girls and somewhere from half a million to 12 million in the illegal mines
otherwise called as “small scale mines”. It is estimated that at present around
five and a half million Indians are working in the oil exporting countries of
middle-east and another 2 millions in the developed world.
92% of the domestic workers are women, girls and children and 20% of
these females are under 14 years of age, as per a study conducted by an
organization Called “Social Alert”. There is a perceptible phenomenon in this
migration, that is, the tremendous increase of women workers migrating either
individually or in groups to find work. They are travelling very long distances
even for short-term employment, in the absence of any prospect or promise of
employment, still they are migrating. This is a disturbing trend, as in the event
of not getting employment, they end up as victims of sexual abuse. Even if they
get employment, they have to work under in-human conditions.
Migrant Labourers face additional problems and constraints as they are
both labourers and migrants.
Hence, there is no improvement in the working and living conditions of the
migrant workers. There is lack of sincerity on the part of the Rulers and Policy
Makers in ensuring compliance of the barest minimum of the so called legislation.
There are no structures to adequately address the basic issues concerning migrant
labour relations, leave aside, addressing the whole gamut of labour relations.
The reasons are obvious. The Government desires large pool of cheap migrant
labour, be made available to the capital, both Domestic and Foreign. The Indian
Judiciary occasionally comes to the rescue of the Migrant Labour and makes
pronouncements and observations to fill the gap in the justice delivery system.
Inspite, the Rulers and Policy makers conveniently ignore and bypass with
impunity. Legislation failed, because, Regulatory mechanisms are over stretched,
inadequately structured, manpower deficient and resource crunched. State lacks
sincerity, yet, Migrant workers are not organized sufficiently to lobby and form
74
x
a pressure group. There is lack of support from civil society. One noteworthy
enactment to address seasonal migration is Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), which guarantees 150 days of
employment in a year. The rate of daily wages is, as per the Minimum Wage
applicable to that territory. Though the Act was announced with much fanfare,
it did not really take-off the ground, as there is neither political will nor social
commitment and hence it largely remains on paper. It is implemented successfully
only in a very few places which is a miniscule. In most cases the funds are
canalized to vested interests. Lack of organizational structures, awareness, desire
on the part of the trade unions and Civil Society Organisations permit such
deprivation and exploitation. It is a sad commentary upon the conduct of the
Trade Unions and Civil Society Organizations in the cause of the Migrant Labour.
Legal Provisions
The Government of India made an enactment in 1979 in the name of “Inter-state
Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act
1979”. Though the act covers only interstate migrants, it lays down that contractors
must pay timely wages equal or higher than the minimum wage, provide suitable
residential accommodation, prescribed medical facilities, protective clothing, notify
accidents and causalities to specified Authorities and kin. The Act provides right
to raise Industrial Disputes in the provincial jurisdiction where they work or in
their home province. The act sets penalties including imprisonment for noncompliance. At the same time the act provides an escape route to principal
employers if they can show that transgressions were committed without their
knowledge. Needless to say, that the Act remained only on the paper.
First step on a long journey
Some Trade unions and Non-Governmental organizations though very small in
number made sincere efforts to alleviate the problems of the migrant workers.IMF
initiated an effort to organize the Migrant Workers at the Ship breaking Yard at
Mumbai and Alang through Steel, Metal & Engineering workers’ Federation of
India (SMEFI). These Migrant Workers were organized in the existing union
Mumbai, Port Trust, Dock and General Employees’ Union (MPTDGEU) by
amending the constitution and reducing the rates of subscription.
Non-economic demands like civic amenities, Occupational, Health and Safety
(OHS) and social problems were taken up. The beginning was to provide safe
drinking water at the workplace. As a next step, First Aid Boxes were provided
and Blood Donation Camps were organized with the help of St. Johns Ambulance.
Identity badges/Membership Cards were issued. Mohalla Committee
(Neighborhood Committee) was set up to integrate these Migrant Workers to
x75
bridge the language and cultural gaps. NGO’s were involved and collaboration
with them really helped in organizing the workers. The union encountered stiff
resistance from employers, money lenders, local mafias and apathy from
Government agencies. The Supreme Court of India appointed a Monitoring
Committee, while disposing a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the famous
Clemenceau case. The Migrant Workers Union submitted a memorandum on
socio-economic conditions of the Migrant Workers and it is considered by the
Apex Court as a source of reference. This effort spread to Alang which is the
largest Ship breaking Yard in the state of Gujarat. The Alang Shipbreaking workers
came into the fold of this initiative and registered the first ever union of
Shipbreaking workers in India. As on date the union membership stands at
5,705.As part of this initiative, training programmes and workshops were
conducted exclusively for Migrant workers. It is an amazing experience that the
Migrant Workers spoke about themselves in their language and took active part
in decision making effort for redressal of their grievances. There are some efforts
like these, but they are not strong enough to build pressure in the corridor of
powers to represent the legitimate and genuine issues of Migrant Labour. Some
voluntary groups and nongovernmental organizations also have taken up the
issues of migrant workers.
The road ahead
Migration will be much larger phenomenon encompassing half of the workforce
in informal sector. The Governments are encouraging external migration for
remittances and internal migration for cheap labour to meet the profits of finance
capital. The problem of Migrant Labour is too huge and requires cooperation
and coordination between trade unions and other social actors. Trade Unions
being a dynamic and vibrant social institution can contribute to social change in
a big way, provided, they absorb migrant workers in their rank and file and
make them equal partners for sustainable development and social justice. The
NGO’s having skilled manpower and resources can provide the trade unions
with research and background. Trade unions with their organizational structures,
organizing skills can take on the employers, Policy makers and governments for
a better deal to the Migrant Workers and contribute for social harmony and
sustainable growth. Trade Unions have been working for defending and
promoting Trade Union Rights and Human Rights, but it is high time, that, they
take up the Migrant Workers Rights and address the causal aspects of the “cause
and effect relationship” of migration, so that, the conditions which create migrant
labour are addressed and necessary policy shifts and alternatives are created.
The trade unions in general and GUFs in particular should fight against violations
of trade union and human rights and abuses against Migrant workers. Eventually,
there would be decent jobs both in the Exporting and Recipient countries and the
76
x
“race to the bottom thus checked”.
Social work intervention and role of social workers
Specific Objectives

Ensuring social protection for workers through convergence of existing
schemes and services, both at source and destination areas, to reduce their
indebtedness and poverty situation;

Empowering the workers by imparting rights based awareness education
and enabling them to organize themselves and engage in collective
bargaining;

Implementing workplace improvement measures and facilitation to workers
and their children to access government schemes while they are at
workplaces; and

Experimenting improvements in recruitment systems and working conditions
including regulation of payment of wages and advances through active
social dialogue process among tripartite partners.
Social work intervention

In the Districts of destination/workplaces, worker and family welfare and
other enterprise productivity-enhancing measures aim together to uplift
conditions in the workplaces, and hence enable the fulfillment of basic
workers’ rights without undermining enterprise viability; and

In the source Districts from where migrant workers originate, measures are
taken to improve the functioning of recruitment systems, so as to eliminate
the use of abusive and coercive practices, and to better track migrant workers
to improve their access to social protection and other publicly-funded
schemes.
Action Strategies for implementation

To protect the migrants from physical distress, Govt. needs to ensure that
there should be consulates in the host region with appropriate health
personnel and services.

The person who is hiring the labour may be in agriculture or industry
should take the responsibility for ensuring the health needs to the hired
labour.

Should mobilize more social workers to help.

x77
Employer need to assist migrants in accessing govt. medical system and
services.
To enhance the self esteem and psychological wellbeing of the migrant
labour

Provide training/educational programmers for migrants to help them to
know of and access medical services.

Develop educational and training kits on migrants’ health.

Provide orientation booths and migration counseling services.

Home regions should give top importance on the creation of local jobs than
encouraging people to migrate to undertake low dignity jobs.
As support groups act of as first line of defense in protection of migrant
labourers

Should recognize migrant trade unions, organisations and support groups.

Should help migrants to build their statewide networks of support group.

Should help support groups to mobilise their resources to help the fellow
being in crises.
To raise awareness about the extent of migrants problems

Should include media to raise migrants’ problems.

Should conduct more research studies on issues related to migrants problems.

Produce and disseminate resource material on migrants’ problems.

Education of people against racism should be in courses in the formal
education curriculum of schools.

Social workers can help, sensitize authorities and public opinion, so that the
same resources and opportunities available to local places of migrant workers.
The movements for the recognition of migrant workers rights are gaining
support. Eventually even the states must come to recognise these rights by
ratifying the United Nations Convention for the protection of the rights of all
migrant workers.
78
x
REFERENCES
Achary Dr. P.K. 2007, “Migration and Trafficing of women”, Women’s link, Social Action
Trust, New Delhi, Vol. 13 No. I
Hamare Kanun. 2009, Inter State Migrant labour Act, 1979, Multiple action research group,
women and child development department.
Indore Development Plan, 2010, Demographic features of Indore, Directorate of Town &
Country Planning Madhya Pradesh & Space Application Center, Ahmadabad.
Nayak Nalini. 2005, “Globlisation and its promises”, economic and political weekly vol. XL,
New Delhi.
Sumitra Sarkar. 2006, Women labour force in unorganised sector, “study on construction
workers in Navi Mumbai”, Personnel Today.
Dem og ra p hic Divid end In Ind ia : Asset or Lia b ility
x79
Demographic Dividend in India :
Asset or Liability
Satish Chandra Dwivedi *
INTRODUCTION
The demographic dividend is defined as a rise in the economic growth due to
a rising share of working age people in a population. This phenomenon occurs
with a falling birth rate and a consequent shift in the age structure of the
population towards the adult working ages. (James, 2008)
Those who don't believe in the concept "excess is bad" argues that every
mouth to be fed comes with two hands that can be put to work. Economists with
this perception have seen the problem of development as being one of employing
more workers in more productive activities that can yield larger surpluses without
depriving them of the basket of goods they currently consume. If the larger
surpluses thus garnered are invested, growth would accelerate. The economic
problem in poor countries was that of identifying and implementing a strategy
that can make this happen. (Chandrashekhar, 2006)
This demographic dividend is expected to resolve automatically the problem
of garnering the surplus over consumption needed for investment. A nation's
population can be divided into those in the labour force (say, the 15-64 age
group) and those outside it. Given the availability of work and the resulting
employment, the division broadens to include those outside the labour force,
those available for work but unemployed and those in the actual workforce.
Since those outside the workforce would be consuming part of what is produced
by currently employed workers, the ratio of those outside the workforce to those
in it the dependency ratio, would among the factors influencing the surplus
available for investment after current consumption. Hence, everything else
remaining the same, the higher the share of workers to non-workers, the larger
would be the surplus and for given unemployment rates, the higher the ratio of
those in the labour force to those outside it, the larger would be the surplus.
Demographic Dividend and Age Structure
Demographic dividend is a result of change in age structure. According to the
* Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Buddha Postgraduate College, Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh).
80
x
theory of demographic transition, the size and age structure of population in all
countries tend to change over time because of the nature of the demographic
transition.
According to demographers, decline in death rate depends on the exogenous
factors. Initially, the death rate tends to decline because of declines in infant and
child mortality resulting from improved public health interventions related to
water and sanitation, and to medical interventions such as vaccine coverage and
the use of antibiotics. At a later stage the decline in the death rate and increases
in average life expectancy result from reduced death rates in the middle and
older age groups because of higher incomes, improved lifestyles and better and
more expensive medical technology.
On the other side decrease in birth rate depends on the endogenous factors
such as age of marriage and the fertility rate. Both of these depend on the level
of development. Development often leads to the dilution of social norms
prescribing early marriage and fertility rates within marriage decline as higher
child survival rates, female education and labour market opportunities associated
with development reduce the desired family size. Besides these factors, the decline
in birth rates tends to begin well after the decline in death rates sets in.
The difference in the relationship between death and birth rates on the one
hand and development on the other affects not just the rate of population growth
but the age structure of the population. The initial fall in infant mortality and
improvement in child survival results in a boom generation, with a large number
of people in younger ages. After some time, the lagged fall in fertility rates
reverses the baby boom, resulting in a bulge in the younger ages. As is to be
expected, the bulge created by the baby boom moves up the age structure resulting
in the fact that at some point the population in the working age (15-64) is much
higher than it was previously and would be subsequently. (Chandrashekhar,
2006)
Demographic Dividend and Economic Growth
Change in age structure can have significant implications for economic growth.
Periods characterised by a low dependency ratio would be characterised by
higher growth, if the inducement to investment surpluses exists, whereas periods
characterised by a higher dependency ratio would be characterised by a slow
growth, unless productivity increases raise the output of a smaller proportions
of workers enough to neutralise the demographic deficit. But if the "window of
opportunity" available when the population bulge enters the working age groups
is to result in an acceleration in growth, the processes of development which in
part created this bulge must have been such as to ensure that the quality of those
entering the workforce is of the desired level and that these workers find
employment opportunities as and when they enter the labour force. K.S. James
x81
has quoted some studies that show a strong positive association between
demographic variables and economic outcomes (James, 2008). For example, the
study of Boom and Williamson (1998) of 78 Asian and non-Asian countries showed
a powerful positive impact of growth of the working age population on economic
growth the estimates showed that nearly one third of the economic miracle of East
Asian countries can be attributed to demographic dividend. A study by Behrman et.al
(1999) using panel data for several since 1950 found a strong positive association
between the age pattern and economic outcome. Anderson's (2001) study of
Scandinavian countries using data since 1980 also found a positive association
between the share of economic growth and the share of the working age
population. Boom et.al.,(2003) and Boom et.al. (2006), using a panel data of
countries from 1996 to 2000, established a positive association between the age
structure and economic growth in India and China.
However, there are some other studies which show that positive impact of
changing age structure on economic growth is not inevitable. For example,
Navneetham (2002) found a positive impact of age structure on economic growth
in south east Asia but failed to see such relationship in south Asian countries.
Boom et.al. (2003) have shown that age structure transition seems to have failed
to augment economic growth in Latin America.
Age Structure of India's Population
Table 1.1
Percentage Distribution of Population by Broad Age Groups, Major States (1961 and 2001)
State
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Gujrat
Haryana
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
All India
0-14
1961
39.54
42.32
42.89
N.A
42.16
42.64
40.82
40.67
39.10
43.57
42.66
37.61
40.50
40.93
41.04
15-59
2001
32.07
41.54
32.84
35.99
31.91
26.08
38.21
32.14
32.23
31.39
40.10
26.96
40.83
33.28
35.40
1961
54.23
52.07
52.17
N.A
52.11
51.53
54.02
54.07
55.23
49.87
52.19
56.79
53.22
54.06
53.30
60+
2001
60.32
52.01
60.25
56.49
60.40
63.44
54.66
59.12
58.50
59.57
53.12
64.15
52.10
59.60
57.10
1961
6.23
5.62
4.94
N.A
5.73
5.84
5.16
5.27
5.67
6.56
5.14
5.60
6.29
5.01
5.6
2001
7.61
6.45
6.91
7.52
7.69
10.48
7.14
8.74
8.27
9.03
6.78
8.89
7.07
7.12
7.5
Source : K.S. James, "Glorifying Malthus: Current Debate on 'Demographic Dividend' in India",
Economic and Political Weekly, June 21, 2008, Table 1, p.66.
82
x
As is clear from the Table 1.1, there has been a drastic change in the age structure
of the population in the 0-14 and 15-59 age groups in many Indian States over
the four decade period, 1961-2001.
Important trends are as follows :
1.
States like Gujrat, Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab and Tamil Nadu recorded a
more than 10 percentage points decline among children of 0-14 age groups
between 1961-2001. As against this States like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan have registered declines of less than 3 percentage points.
2.
In the working age of 15-59 years, a phenomenal increase of over 10
percentage points was registered in Kerala over the four decade period
1996-2001. Other States recording significant increases in the proportion of
the working age population include Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Karnataka,
Punjab and Tamil Nadu. Maharashtra and West Bengal closely follow these
States with around 5 percentage points change in the proportion of the
population in the working age group. Most of these States also have around
60 percent or more of the population in the working age population group.
As against this, many norhtern States like Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa and Rajasthan registered only marginal increases in the proportion of
the working age population over the four decade period 1961-2001. In Uttar
Pradesh, the proportion of the working age group population actually
registered a decline.
A significant factor pointing to the demographic dividend is the declining
dependency ratio. The dependency ratio was more than 0.9 in 1971. It fell to 0.8
in 1991, 0.73 in 2001 and is expected to further decline sharply to 0.59 in 2011 as
per the Technical Group on Population Projections (Census, 2001). "This decline
sharply contrasts with the demographic trends in the industrialised countries
and also in China, where the dependency ratio is rising. Low dependency gives
India a comparative advantage and a progressively lowering dependency ratio
will result in improving our competitiveness." (GOI, 2008).
The age structure of the population presents an unprecedented opportunity
to India and this has been called India's demographic dividend. As is clear from
Table 1.1 more than a third of India's population in 2001 was below 14 years of
age. "In 2020, that average Indian will be only 29 years old, compared with 37 in China
and the United States, 45 in Western Europe and 48 in Japan. This implies that by the
end of the second decade of the present century. India would manage to create
a large and growing labour force which may deliver unexpected spin offs in
terms of growth and prosperity." (Chandrashekhar, 2006). Table 1.2 presents a
more detailed information on likely population trends in future on all-India
basis. As is clear from this Table, out of total population of 102.9 crore in 2001,
x83
61.9 crore (i.e., 60.2 per cent) people were in the age-group 15-65 years. This
number is likely to increase to 90.8 crore (i.e., 67.8 per cent of total population)
by 2021 and further to 95.7 crore (i.e.,68.4 per cent of total population) by 2026.
In other words, India will have a large working population. In his famous book
Dreaming with BRICS: The Path to 2050, Goldman Sachs confidently predicts that
it is on account of this advantage that among the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia,
India and China) India would be amongst the top three economies in terms of
GDP in the years nearing 2050. C.P. Chandrashekhar also states, "India is in the
midst of a process where it faces the window of opportunity created by demographic
dividend." (Chandrashekhar, 2006).
Table 1.2
India's Population Projections
Year
Total
Below 15 years
15 to 65 years
Above 65 years
2001
102.9
36.5
64.9
4.5
2006
112.2
35.7
69.9
5.6
2011
119.3
34.7
78.0
6.6
2016
126.9
34.0
85.1
7.8
2021
134.0
33.7
90.8
9.5
2026
140.0
32.7
95.7
11.6
Source : Population Projections for India and States 2001-2006 - Census of India 2001: Report of the
Technical Group on Population Projections constituted by the National Commission on
Population, May 2006.
Demographic Dividend or Demographic Liability
Critics of the 'demographic dividend' argument have pointed out that while the
age distribution changes create supply side potential, the utilization of this
potential ultimately depends upon the 'policy environment' in each country. In
Indian context, the following points are worth noting:
1.
With India facing a major deficit in the area of health and education, the
conversion of a growing labour force into a quality workforce is difficult to
achieve.
2.
Considering the jobless growth in the liberalisation phase, it has not been
easy to utilize the population bulge. It is likely to result in more and more
unemployment. According to C.P. Chandrashekhar, "The demographic dividend
argument ignores the fact that available workers are not automatically absorbed to
deliver growth." Strategies to exploit the opportunities offered by country's
demographic transition must be adopted. But India's experience during the
liberalisation phase suggests that markets do not ensure that such policies
would be adopted so that the country manages to take advantage of young
population bulge vis-a-vis greying population of China, USA, Japan and
other developed countries. Hence, the possibility is that India would miss
the opportunity to grow faster due to population bulge. Most of India's
population bulge will be unskilled and unemployable and market will do
84
x
nothing whereby this population bulge becomes skilled and employed.
Without training growing workforce in skills and making them employable,
the potential resource that the country's demographic transition offers will
be wasted. According to Eleventh Five Year Plan, "The criticality of Skill
Development in our overall strategy is that if we get our skill development act right,
we will be harnessing 'demographic dividend'; if we do not get there, we could be
facing a 'demographic nightmare'." (GOI, 2008)
3.
The UN Population Fund (UNFPA) in its State of World Population Report
2005 asserts that India at present stands on the verge of a one-time window
of opportunity. This country has one of the youngest population in the
world. However, the state of women in the country might prevent it from
capitalising on this opportunity. Presently, India has been recording
impressive economic growth which means that this country has enough
resources to invest in education and healthcare for this population which
will make them skilled and employable. Resources are there to create jobs
for this population. Commenting on the situation, Hendrick van der Pal,
UNFPA representative in India, remarked, "Without employment
opportunities, this window would be insignificant- you will end up having
mere shoeshine boys." (Mishra and Puri, 2010)
This window of opportunity, though presently available to India can be
rendered irrelevant because almost half of the working population in the country
is not empowered enough to make a difference. The Thrust of the Population
Report is on gender equity. The population report asserts that the lack of education
and women empowerment is like a vicious circle that needs to be broken if the
country wants to use the window.
Thus, it is clear that demographic dividend India can be an asset if we
manage it properly through education, skill development and productive
investment otherwise it will be a liability rather than window of opportunity.
REFERENCES
James, K.S.; Glorifying Malthus : Current Debate on 'Demographic Dividend' in India; Economic
and Political Weekly; June 2011, 2008, p. 63
Chandrashekhar, C.P.; Does Demography advantage India? Front line, Volume 23- Issue 01,
Jan.27, 2006
Government of India; Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-12, New Delhi, 2008, Volume 1., p. 9091
Census of India 2001; Report of The Technical Group on Population Projections constituted by
the National Commission on Population, May 2006.
Mishra and Puri; Some Demographic Issues; Indian Economy, Himalaya Publishing House,
New Delhi, 2010, p. 126-129.
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j
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l ka
Ldf̀r d pfj =ksadh Hkw
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rq
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ds fy, dfodeZdk fu"i knu rks fd; k gh vkykspukdeZdk l Eiknu Hkh fd; kA i zlkn] i Ur]
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r , oavkykspukR
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A ; gk¡ dfork dh Hkkoki Uurk i j
fo' ks"k cy fn; k x; k gS
A MkW
- uxsUnz dh O
; kogkfj d l eh{kk esaLi "V dFku] vkst vkS
j ' kkL=
fu"Bk l gt r%fey t krh gS
A vkpk; ZuUnnq
ykjsokt i s;h usft l l kS
"Booknh LoPNUnrkoknh l eh{kk
dk ekxZi z'kLr fd; k Fkk MkW
- uxsUnz us ml h ekxZdks vkS
j iq
"V fd; kA ^j l fl ) kUr* mudh
vR
; Ur i zfl ) df̀r gS
A bl dsvfrfj Dr nso] i Ur] j hfrdky] vk/kq
fud fgUnh ukVd i j mudh
LFkki uk, ¡ vkt Hkh fgUnh l eh{kk dks l EiUu cuk; s gq
, gS
A
a
vkpk; Z' kq
Dy] LoPNUnrkoknhdfo&l eh{kd uUnnq
ykjsokt i s;h] ' kkfUrfi z; f} osnh] gt kjhi zlkn
f} osnh vkS
j MkW
- uxsUnz rFkk buds fopkjksal s l ger&vl ger l eh{kdksaus fgUnh ds , d , sls
l eh{kk yksd dk fofuekZ
. k fd; k ft l l sfgUnh dk vkykspuk ' kkL= vR
; Ur l e`) gks l dk gS
A
bu l eh{kdksadhnf̀"V ekuorkoknhgS
A; q
xl R
; dk i zfrfcEcu budhvkykspuk dk i {k gS
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ekuoh; ew
Y; ksadk fo"k; buds l eh{k.k dk es#n.M gS
A v[ k.M nf̀"V dk l t̀ u budk fe' ku
i zrhr gksrk gS
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; vkS
j t hou dks i j Li j t hoh Lohdkj dj rs gS
A ; gk¡ dkO
a
;
92
x
esal kS
Un; ZvkS
j vkuUn dh i zfr"Bk gq
bZgS
A Nk; koknh f' kYi vkS
j fopkjksadsuo fogku dksbu
l eh{kdksaus[ kw
c l j kgk gS
A dgusdk rkR
i ; Z; gh gSfd j hfrdkyhu j l ] NUn] j hfr] oØksfDr
l smBh vkykspuk dh ygj ekfeZ
d LFkyksadh i gpku] yksdea
xy fo/kku vkS
j la
Ldf̀r dsfogku
rd i gq
¡p x; hA dfork dh O
; kfIr rhozcq
f) ] ek=k fopkj vkS
j fu[ kkfyl dYiuk rd gh l hfer
ughagSvfi rqfgUnh dsl eh{kdksausbl sekuo ek=k dsHkkoksadk l cy l a
okgd Lohdkj fd; k
gS
A Hkko ds Lrj i j ] dY; k.k vkS
j yksd ea
xy ds fo/kku esa
] j l ds vkuUn esa
] fpÙk dh
fueZ
yrk esavkS
j fo' o dsdY; k.k esa
sdfork , d l ' kDr ekè; e gS
&^gfFk; kj* ugha
A dfork ; k
l kfgR
; la
ns'k nsrk gS
] la
dsr dj rk gS
] HkkoukvksadksvfHkO
; fDr nsrk gS
] ' kkUr&l q
Unj yksd dh
voèkkj.kk cukrk gS
] ûkjk* ; k ^Qrok* dk l t̀ u ughadj rkA bl esal ekt rks gksrk gh gS
O
; fDr Hkh j grk gS
A l kekft d l j ksdkj Hkh gksrsgS
Al a
a
Ldf̀r dh yksdksUeq
[ kh i zof̀Ùk; k¡ rksfo| eku
gh j grh gS
] yksd vkS
a
j i j yksd dk l eUo; Hkh gksrk gS
A bu fofo/k i zof̀Ùk; ksal si fj i w
. kZfgUnh
l eh{kk l S
) kfUrd vkS
j O
; kogkfj d nksuksaLrj ksai j i ; kZ
Ir i zfr"Bk vft Z
r dj pq
dh gS
A
chl oha' krh ds pkS
Fksn' kd ¼
1936&37 bZ
-½dsvkl &i kl dkyZekDl Zdh fopkj/kkjk i j
fgUnh esal kfgR
; &fo' ys"k.k vkS
j foospu dh , d u; h i ) fr fodfl r dh x; h ft l sî zxfroknh
l eh{kk* ; k êkDl Z
oknh l eh{kk* dgk t krk gS
A l eh{kk ds{ks= esaml l e; nksi zdkj dh i zof̀Ùk; k¡
i ui usyxh Fkha
& l kekft d ; FkkFkZ
oknh vkS
j l ekt oknh ; FkkFkZ
oknhA i gyh i zof̀Ùk dk fodkl ; w
j ksi
esaLoPNUnrkoknh l kfgR
; dh i zfrfØ; k esagq
v kA U;w
Vu] xS
yhfy; ksdsoS
Kkfud fopkjksal sl ekt
esa; g l Uns'k x; k fd l Hkh t hoksadh t S
fod i j Eij k , d t S
l h gS
A bl dk l h/kk i zHkko l kfgR
;
i j ?kfVr gq
v kA Ýka
l esaeki kl k¡] t ksyk bR
; kfn ys[kdksaus ; FkkFkZ
oknh l kfgR
; fy[ kuk i zkjEHk
fd; k ft l s i zdr̀oknh l kfgR
; Hkh dgk x; kA bl esa t hou ds ohHkR
l vkS
j ?k̀f.kr i {kksa dks
vf/kd egÙo feykA prq
j l su ' kkL=h] l sB xksfoUnnkl ] _"kHkpj .k t S
u vkfn fgUnh esabl ds
i z;ksDrk cusA bl l kfgR
; ds i zHkko esavkdj l eh{kk, ¡ Hkh fy[ kh x; ha
A
l ekt oknh ; FkkFkZ
okn dk cht kjksi.k ekDl Zl si gysghxsy usfd; k Fkk i j ekDl Zusml s
,d O
; ofLFkr rFkk l q
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ed
HkkS
frdokn ds : i esaO
; k[ ; kf; r fd; kA ghxsy ds vuq
l kj } U}kR
ed i zfØ; k ; k ekufl drk l s
lR
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j i j Li j foj ks/kh fopkj/kjkvksal sl R
; dk ekxZyf{kr fd; k t k l drk
gS
A ml sghxsy us^vkbfM;k* i zR
; ; dgkA ekDl Zusghxsy dh bl fopkj/kkjk dk foj ks/k fd; k
vkS
j dgk fd i zR
; ; Hkh HkkS
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A ml usvi uk fopkj Li "V dj rs gq
, dgk]
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¡A**8
dkyZekDl Z; g Lohdkj dj rsgS
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y esaeS
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oknhl eh{kk x 93
gksrh gS
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y vk/kkj vFkZgS
A l kfgR
S
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=.k vFkZdj rk
gS
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x] nkl ; q
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r oknh ; q
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j l ekt oknh ; q
x ds
[ k.Mksaesaog l kekft d vkfFkZ
d fo' ys"k.k dj rsgS
A mudsvuq
a
l kj l ekt esanksoxZgS
& ' kks"kd
a
vkS
j ' kksf"krA /keZ
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¡t hokn vkS
j l kfgR
; l Hkh det ksj dk ' kks"k.k dj rs gS
A vr%
a
l kfgR
; dkjksadk nkf; R
o gSfd og ' kksf"kr oxZdk l eFkZ
u dj mudsmR
Fkku dk l kfgR
; l f̀t r
dj sa
A bUghafopkjksads vUrxZ
r ^fgUnh i zxfr' khy ys[kd l a
?k* dh LFkki uk gq
bZ
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vè; {krk i zsepUn us bl fVIi .kh ds l kFk fd; k Fkk& ^î zxfr' khy uke j [ kus dh dksbZt : j r
ugha
] l kfgR
; rks Lo; aea
s i zxfr' khy gksrk gh gS
A**
bl fopkj/kkjk dk i zHkko fgUnh l kfgR
; i j Hkh O
; ki d : i l si M+
kA dfork dsl kFk x|
fo/kk, ¡ Hkh bl l svNw
r h ughaj gha
A bl dsvuq
l kj l Ppk i zxfr' khy l kfgR
; ogh gSt ksi w
¡t hoknh
rÙoksadsfouk'k vkS
j l ekt oknh rÙoksadsfuekZ
. k dk l eFkZ
d gks] t gk¡ oxZ
ghu l ekt gks] l kfgR
;
t urk ds fy, gksA i zxfroknh l eh{kd l kS
Un; Zdh fn' kk t ut hou vkS
j ; FkkFkZesans[krk gS
A
vkfFkd
Z fo"kerk vkS
j va
/kfo' okl dk og foj ks/kh gS
A vkuUn dks og l kfgR
; dk l kè; ugha
l k/ku ekurk gS
A l kekft d oS
"kE; dk ; FkkFkZfp=.k gh ml dh l kS
Un; kZ
uq
Hkw
fr gS
A bu fl ) kUrksa
dksysdj fgUnh esai zdk'k pUnzxq
Ir] f' konku fl a
g pkS
gku] j ke foykl ' kekZ
] j kgq
y l ka
dR̀
; k; u]
ver̀j k; ] ; ' ki ky] ukeoj fl a
g] eS
ustj i k.Ms; usi zHkw
r ek=k esaekDl Z
oknh l eh{kk dk l t̀ u
fd; kA bl i ) fr esau; s i zfrekuksadk l t̀ u vkS
j iq
j kus dk mR
ltZ
u [ kw
c fd; k x; kA bl
dky[ k.M dh l Eiw
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; kogkfj d gh dgh t krh gSi j dfork ds vusd i zfrekuksa} kjk
lS
) kfUrd l eh{kk dk Hkh , d cMk+ ra
= l f̀t r gq
v kA
fgUnh esaf' konku fl a
g pkS
gku ekDl Z
oknh l eh{kk dsi q
j LdrkZekust krsgS
A 1937 bZ
a
- esa
^fo' kky Hkkjr* esamudk , d ys[k ^Hkkjr esai zxfr' khy l kfgR
; dh vko' ; drk* i zdkf' kr gq
v kA
rnuUrj ^: i kHk* i Ur t h vkS
j uj sUnz ' kekZds l Eiknu esafudyk ft l esabl fopkj ds dbZ
fucU/k Ni sA f' konku fl a
g usdbZi q
Lrdksadk l t̀ u dj i zxfroknh l eh{kk dksfgUnh esaLFkkfi r
fd; kA j kefoykl ' kekZus ekDl Z
okn l s i zHkkfor gks i ; kZ
Ir ek=k esai zxfroknh vkykspuk fy[ kh
i j mUgksa
usl a
Ldf̀r i j Eij k vkS
j yksdksUeq
[ kh ' kkL=ksadk l eFkZ
u fd; kA fgUnh i zns'k i j dbZuohu
ekU;rk, ¡ nha
A bl fy, mUgsabl l a
xBu l si nLFk dj fn; k x; kA mudh nf̀"V esaj k"Vªh; èkjksgj ksa
ds i zfr l Eeku] l a
Ldf̀r ; ksavkS
j i j Eij kvksads l kFkZ
d rÙoksadh i gpku l s gh vkykspuk dk
l gh ekun.M fudy l drk gS
A
f' konku fl a
g pkS
gku ew
yr%va
xzsth l kfgR
; dsvè; srk Fksvr%ekDl Z
oknh l eh{kd dkW
Mosy
dk mudsfpUru i j i ; kZ
Ir i zHkko FkkA ekDl Zdsek=k HkkS
frdoknhfl ) kUr l sghl eLr l kekft d
l eL; k, ¡ fo' ysf"kr ughagks l drhA
a ^vkykspuk ds eku* i q
Lrd esapkS
gku egksn; fy[ krs gS
&
a
94
x
êkDl Z
okn , d e' kky gSfdUrq, d ek= ughafd dsoy ml dh j ks'kuh esagh gesaeuq
"; ds
9
l eLr bfrgkl ] l a
Ldf̀r vkS
j Kku dksns[kuk i j [ kuk pkfg, A* l kfgR
; dkj ver̀j k; ekDl Z
oknh
vkykspuk dh i zof̀Ùk Li "V dj rs gq
, fy[ krs gS
] ^êkDl Z
a
oknh vkykspuk l kfgR
; dh og l ekt
' kkL=h; vkykspuk gSt ks l kfgR
; dh , sfrgkfl d O
; k[ ; k dj rs gq
, l ekt vkS
j l kfgR
; ds
vU;ksU;kJ; rFkk xfr' khy l EcU/k dk mn~
?kkVu dj rh gSvkS
j l psru : i esal ekt dkscnyus
okysl kfgR
; dh l f̀"V dh vksj ys[kd dk è; ku vkdf"kZ
r dj rh gS
A**10 vkykspd eS
ustj i k.Ms;
VksVj h bxYVu dk mYys[k dj rsgq
, ekursgS
afd ekDl Z
oknh vkykspuk dk mís'; l kfgfR
; d df̀r
dhvf/kd i w
. kZ
r k dsl kFk O
; k[ ; k dj uk gS
] ft l esaml ds: i ] ' kS
yh vkS
j vFkZdsi zfr l a
osnu' khy
l ko/kkuh gksrh gS
A11
bu l kjs l UnHkksZ
ads i fj i zs{; esans[kus&i j [ kus l s i zrhr gksrk gSfd vkt fgUnh l eh{kk
HkVd x; h gS; k dgk t k; fd vfroknh fopkjksadh vuq
xkfeuh gksx; h gS
A oLrq
r %ekDl ZHkh
Hkkjrh; l ekt ds l a
f' y"V l EcU/kksavkS
j ' kkL=ksal s i w
. kZi fj fpr ughaFksA 1855 bZ
- ds i w
oZ
mifu"knksadk vj ch&Qkjl h l s va
xszth esavuq
okn ughagks l dk FkkA vr%ekDl Zds fl ) kUr
i j l Eiw
. kZfgUnh l kfgR
; dksew
Y; ka
fdr dj uk l ehphu ughagS
A Hkkjr esavkè; kfR
ed i zokg dh
l ?kurk vkS
j l kekft d vUrl Z
EcU/kksadh xw
<+
r k l sekDl ZvufHkK Fks; | fi mudsoDrO
; ksarFkk
ys[kksal s èofur gksrk gSfd i w
j c dh vkè; kfR
edrk l s muds vkè; kR
e t xr~dk xgj k ukrk
gS
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dkyhu l ekt vkS
j ns'k l si zHkkfor gksdj fd; k FkkA
vr%muds fl ) kUr l koZ
nsf'kd vkS
j l koZ
dkfyd ughagks l drsA rkR
dkfydrk dh bl h i zof̀Ùk
usvusd l kE;oknh j k"Vªksadh uha
o vkt [ kks[kyh dj nh gS
avr%i sjksL=kkbdk t S
l sl a
' kks/kuoknh
fopkjèkkjkvksadk t Ue gksj gk gS
A ekDl Z
oknh l a
' kks/ku esafo' okl ughadj rsA Lo; adks^dj sDV*
Hkh ughadj rsA mudsi zxfrokn dk mn~
?kks"k , d fi a
t j c) fopkj dsfy, gS
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dk vHkko gS
A mudh bl i zof̀Ùk usfgUnh vkykspuk l a
l kj dksfNUu&fHkUu vkS
j fnXHkzfer dj
fn; k gS
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oknh l k/ku l s Hkkjrh;rk dks l kè; cukus okys j pukdkjksadks vi us
fofHkUu l a
xBuksal scfg"dr̀ dj fn; kA j kgq
y] f' konku fl a
g] ver̀j k; ] j kefoykl ' kekZbR
; kfn
bl ds i zcy n`"Vka
r gS
A
a
ekDl Z
oknh l kfgR
; dh ' krZl ekt l ki s{; rk gS
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e vkS
j /keZughagS
A /keZ
i zlw
r
fopkjksadh yEch i j Eij k] ft l sl L
adf̀r dgrsgS
aog Hkh ux.; gS
A t c ge fgUnh l kfgR
; ds
l UnHkZesa ekDl Z
oknh vkykspuk dh i M+
r ky dj rs gS
a rks vkfndky] HkfDrdky] j hfrdky vkS
j
vk/q
fud dky dk , d cM+
k va
' k bl dh i fj f/k esaughal ekrkA bl ds} kjk O
; k[ ; kf; r l kekft d
l j ksdkjksaesaHkkjrh; /keZ
] vè; kR
e vkS
j fo' kq
) l kfgR
; fuj FkZ
d gS
A t gk¡ } U} gS; k t kfr l ew
gksa
ds chp l a
?k"kZgSoghabudh vkykspuk dk dsUnzfcUnqgS
A t gk¡ fo"kerk dh [ kkbZvR
; Ur xgj h
oknhl eh{kk x 95
gSoghaekDl Z
okn ykxwgksrk gS
A t gk¡ Hkkjrh; l ukru i zokg dks dkYifud l keUrh ; k cq
tZ
vk
q
dgk x; k gSoghabudhl eh{kk j l xzg.k dj rh fn[ kk; hi M+
r h gS
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rFkk vk/kq
fud dky esaft u l kfgfR
; d xzUFkksadk cg̀na
' k j k"Vªh;rk] ; q
) dh' kkS
; ZxkFkk ; k vkè; kR
e
dh j l /kkjk l svkIykfor gSogk¡ i zxfrokn dh dksbZ#fp ugha
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l k]
l gkuq
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fr dh foof̀r gSogk¡ budk l kS
Un; Z
' kkL= vl Qy gkst krk gSD; ksa
fd ekDl Z
oknh l eh{kd
bl s oS
; fDrd Hkko ekudj misf{kr dj nsrk gS
A budh nf̀"V esal kS
Un; Zdh vuq
Hkw
fr l kew
fgd
; k l kekft d gksrh gS
A t gk¡ l a
?k"kZugha
&} U} ughagSogk¡ l kfgR
; budh nf̀"V esat Ue gh ugha
ysrkA bu vk; kfrr vkS
j , dka
xh nf̀"V; ksal sfgUnh l kfgR
; dk Hkyk ughagq
v k gS
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d
dforkvksal s ; q
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us NksM+fn; k gS
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e
dk fodkl Hkh mUghal kekft dksadschp gksrk gSt gk¡ } U} vkS
j } U}kR
ed HkkS
frdrk gS
A Hkkjrh;
fpUru esaHkkS
frdrk dh vfr' k; rk l s vkè; kR
e gh cpkrk gS
& fQj og i zxfroknh vkykspuk
l s ckgj D; ksa
\ bu i z'uksadk mÙkj i zxfrokfn; ksads i kl ughagS
A fgUnh dk l Eiw
. kZHkfDrdky
yksdt hou esavkè; kfR
edrk dsi zLQq
Vu dk i ; kZ
; gS
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l kj Hkh l kspsarks; g ' kksf"kr
oxZdk gh vkUnksyu gS
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&vè; kR
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fgUnh dk l ew
pk l kfgR
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au&dghavkè; kR
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e dh vuq
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j nkl ] rq
yl hnkl ds dkO
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e
ds l kFk l edkyhu l ekt Hkh fo| eku gS
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e] /keZvkS
j ije
psruk dk fodkl gksrk gSrksekDl Z
oknh ml sfdl fBdkusyxk, ¡xsogh t kusa
AO
; fDr dh LorU=rk
vkS
j ml dk LorU= fpUru Hkh ; gk¡ ckf/kr gS
A dchj dh O
;a
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gS
A i j mudsvkè; kfR
ed Hkko] j ke esaMw
ck dchj dk eu mUgsauki l Un gS
A fuj kyk dh ^fHk{kq
d*
tS
l h dfork, ¡ muds vuq
dw
y gS
ai j ^N=i fr f' kokt h dk i =*] ^rwvkS
j eS
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a
iw
t k* vkS
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yl hnkl * mudsân; esaLFkku ughacuk l dh gS
A D; k l eh{kk dh ; g [ k.M nf̀"V
a
i {kèkjrk ds nks"k l s cp l drh gS
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fr D; k gksxh\
ekDl ZdsfpUru esavf/kdkj vkS
j miHkksx dk efgek e.Mu gq
v k gS
A mnkjrk vkS
j l gdkj
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l k vkS
j oxZl a
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A ml h HkkoHkw
fe esai zxfroknh l eh{kk
dk Hkh fodkl gq
v kA ^Vkbi ~
M* vkS
j ^czk.M* l kfgR
; fy[ kk x; kA dFkk l kfgR
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A
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ohZj kT; ksaesaBhd , slk gh gq
v k] j kT; us ew
y fuokfl ; ksa, oacká ns'kh; i zokfl ; ksadks
la
?k"kZdsfy, vi usgky i j NksM+fn; kA i fj .kke l keusgS
A vxj l j dkj uscká ns'kh; i zokfl ; ksa
dksvi usl a
j {k.k esaysdj ] ' kj.kkFkhZekursgq
, ] mudh oki l h dk i z;kl dj rh rksfLFkfr dq
N
*
i zoDrk] bfrgkl foHkkx] fo| kUr fgUnwi h-t h- dkW
yst] y[ kuÅ
mÙkj i w
ohZHkkjrh; j kT; ksaessa' kj.kkFkhZl eL; k %, d vè; ; u x101
fHkUu gksrhA bl dsi gys fd nsj u gks t k, Hkkjr l j dkj dks bl fo"k; esadq
N l kspuk gh
gksxkA
orZ
eku ; q
) ksaesa
] ej us okyksaesa
] 10 esal s 9 l kekU; ukxfj d gksrsgS
] bl cM+
a
hl a
[; k
us u dHkh onhZi guh gS
] u dHkh cUnw
d i dM+
h gS
] os cl nw
l j ksadh yM+
kbZesafi l t krs
gS
] ge mUgsa' kj.kkFkhZdgrs gS
a
A4
a
bZ
- esaHkxorhiq
j e~esa' kj.kkfFkZ
; ksadh orZ
eku l eL; k i j vk; ksft r l a
xks"Bh l sfudyh
; g i fj Hkk"kk ' kj.kkFkhZl eL; k dksLFkkuh;rk l smBkdj oS
f' od cuk nsrh gS
A ' khr ; q
) l ekIr
gksus ds ckn ; g l kspk x; k Fkk fd vc ' kj.kkFkhZl eL; k dk vUr gks t k; sxk] fdUrqfo' o
dsdbZns'kksaessat krh; l a
?k"kksZ
] ubZj k"Vªh;rkvksadsmn; ] fga
a
l kR
ed vyxko dsdkj.k ' kj.kkfFkZ
; ksa
dsu; sl ew
g rS
; kj gksj gsgS
A , d rj Q rksbu ' kj.kkFkhZl ew
a
gksadh vi uhew
yHkw
r vko' ; drkvksa
l st q
M+
h l eL; k, ¡ gS
] t ksl h/ksrkS
a
j i j ekuokf/kdkjksal st q
M+
k el yk gS
] nw
l j h rj Q buds} kjk
vi us' kj.k LFkyksaesa/khjs&/khjst Tc gksrst kusdsi z;kl l st ksl kekft d&l ka
Ldf̀r d] j kt uhfrd
o t ul ka
f[ ; d i fj orZ
u l st q
M+
h l eL; k, ¡ mB [ kM+
h gksrh gS
] og u; si zdkj dsl a
a
?k"kZdk dkj.k
curh gS
A
a
1995
' kj.kkfFkZ
; ksa} kjk vi usew
y LFkku l sfudydj ] vi us' kj.k LFkyksai j i gq
¡pdj ogk¡ l a
?k"kZ
dh fLFkfr cuus dh i zfØ; k ds ge nks vk; keh : i ns[k l drs gS
&
a
Environmental
Stress
Migration from
Region A
Conflict in
Region B
Environmental
Stress
Conflict in
Region A
Migration from
Region A
Conflict in
Region B
Hkkjr ds mÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksaessa' kj.kkfFkZ
; ksads vkus rFkk l a
?k"kZdh] ; g nksuksai fj fLFkfr; k¡
i kbZt k l drh gS
A i gyh i fj fLFkfr esaos yksx gS
a
at ks LorU=rk ds ckn fi Nys 60 o"kksZ
aea
s
yxkrkj Hkkjr dh l j U/kz l hek dk ykHk mBkdj Hkkjrh; l hek esavoS
/k : i l s vk x; s gS
a
rFkk nw
l j h i fj fLFkfr esa
] ; g yksx i q
u%LFkkuh; yksxksal s j kstxkj dsvol j rFkk vfLerk ds
i z'u i j l a
?k"kksZ
ads pyrs] vkUrfj d foLFkki u dk dkj.k cu j gs gS
A
a
mÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksaessavkus okyksadk l cl s cM+
k i zokg cka
Xyknsf'k; ksadk j gk gS
A cka
Xykns'k
fo' o dk pkS
Fkk l cl scM+
k d`"kd l ekt gS
] fdUrq; gk¡ Hkw
feghurk dh nj ] t ul a
[ ; k of̀) dh
nj l s Hkh rhoz gS
( ogk¡ ds yksxksadk vi us ns'k l s i yk; u dk ; g eq
[ ; dkj.k gS
A Hkkjr
102
x
dh vksj
4000
fdeh- dh yEch l j U/kzl hek bl voS
/k vkod dksvkS
j vkl ku cuk nsrh gS
A
cka
Xykns'kh ?kq
l iS
B vkS
j ml l smR
i Uu vkl Uu l eL; kvksadh Hkfo"; ok.kh] rR
dkyhu t ux.kuk
lq
i fj UVsUMsUV l h-, l - eq
yu us vi uh 1931 dh t ux.kuk fj i ksVZi zLrq
r dj rs l e; gh dj
nh Fkh] t c mUgksa
usdgk fd] fi Nys 25 o"kksZ
aesat ks , d cM+
k cnyko ns[kk x; k gS
] og ; g
gSfd] dq
N gh l e; esaca
xky l svl e esa
svk; st ehu dsHkw
[ ks?kq
l iS
fB; svl e dh l H;rk
vkS
j l ka
Ldf̀r d l a
j puk dks i w
j h rj g u"V dj nsa
xsA5
bl dk vxyk pj .k 1947 esarc ' kq
: gksrk gSt c foHkkt u ds l e; yxHkx 1 yk[ k
ca
xkyh fupysvkl ke l si w
ohZi kfdLrku esapysx; sA vi zS
y 1950 bZ
- esausg: rFkk fy; kdr
vyh dschp , d l e>kS
r k gq
v k fd osyksx ft Ugksa
usnksuksarj Q dh l hek i kj dh gS
] vxj
6
fnl Ecj 1950 rd oki l vkrs gS
arks mudh l q
j f{kr oki l h r; dh t k; sxhA
buesa
sl scgq
r l svxysnksl ky essaoki l vk; sA fdUrq60 dsn' kd esafo' ks"kdj 1962
bZ
- esaphu ; q
) ds ckn ek¡x mBus yxh fd bu rFkkdfFkr i kfdLrkuh ?kq
l iS
fB; ksadks oki l
Hkstk t k, A t cfd cka
Xykns'k l svk; syksxksadk rdZFkk fd ge i w
ohZi kfdLrku l sughacfYd
foHkkt u l si w
oZ
] iw
ohZca
xky l svk; sgS
A 70 dsn' kd esai w
a
ohZi kfdLrku dk cka
Xykns'k ds: i
esai fj orZ
u dsnkS
j ku cka
Xykns'k l s?kq
l iS
fB; ksadh , d ubZygj vkbZ
] t ksmÙkj i w
ohZj kT; ksaesa
s
t kdj l ek x; hA
, slk ughaFkk fd Hkkjr l j dkj dksbl ?kq
l iS
B dk va
nkt k ughaFkkA Hkw
ri w
oZfuokZ
pu vk; q
Dr
Vh-, u- ' ks"ku usU;w
; kdZVkbEl l sckr dj rsgq
, dgk fd vkl ke dh fuokZ
pu l w
ph esadj hc
7
1 fefy; u i z
okfl ; ksadsuke gS
A xg̀ j kT; ea
a
=h j gsJhizdk'k t k; l oky usvi usdk; Z
dky ds
nkS
j ku 14 t q
ykbZl u~2004 dksj kT; l Hkk esa, d i z'u dsmÙkj esadgk fd bl l e; mÙkj&i w
oZ
8
esadj hc 1]20]53]950 voS
/k ckX
aykns'kh j g j gs gS
] ft udh l a
a
[ ; k j kT; okj bl i zdkj gS
&
Table-1
Illegal imigrants
State
50,00,000
Assam (31 December 2001)
57,00,000
West Bengal
800
Arunanchal Pradesh
30,000
Meghalaya
59,500
Nagaland
3,25,400
Tripura
mÙkj i w
bu fons'kh i zokfl ; ksadh l a
[ ; k dk vUnkt k 1979 bZ
- dh fuokZ
pd l w
ph l s i zkIr rF; ksa
l s yx l drk gS
A9
Table - 2
State
Electoral Roll
Indigenous N.E. Citizens
Foreign Nationals
Assam
13 Lakhs
19.5 Million Plain &
Hill Tribes
2.3 Million
Meghalaya
39 Thousand
1.3 Million Three main
Tribes
1.5 Lakh
Manipur
-
1.4 Million Two main
Tribnes
1 Lakh
Nagaland
-
0.7 Million
Negligible
Tripura
-
1.7 Million
3/4 of Total
Population
Mizoram
-
0.5 Million
30 Thousand
dsckn vxysrhl o"kksZ
aesa; g l a
[ ; k c<+
h gh gS
A fuf' pr rkS
j i j bl usvi uh
vkt hfodk dsfy, LFkkuh; yksxksadsi zkdf̀r d fgLl sesal sfgLl k c¡Vk; k gksxkA , d l e; , slk
vk; k] t c LFkkuh; yksxksaus bu ckgj h yksxksads l kFk vi uh t ehu vkS
j j kstxkj ck¡Vus l s
bUdkj dj fn; kA ; g bUdkj] nksckjk ruko dk dkj.k cuk vkS
j i zokl h yksx i q
u%foLFkkfi r
gq
, A eksuh#y gl u usvi usvè; ; u esafi Nys60 o"kksZ
aesagq
, vkUrfj d foLFkki u dkseq
[ ; r%
fuEu Hkkxksaesack¡Vk gS
&
1979
¼
1½vkl ke ¼
eq
[ ; r%cksMks {ks=ksal s½rFkk es?kky; l s ca
xkfy; ksadk foLFkki u ¼
2½f=i q
jk
l s ca
xkfy; ksadk foLFkki u ¼
3½i f' peh vkl ke l s ^Vh VªkbC
l * dk foLFkki u ¼
4½fet ks
je l s
fj ; ka
x dk foLFkki u ¼
5½v#.kkpy i z
ns'k l spdekvksadk foLFkki u ¼
6½ef.ki q
j l sukxk dq
dh
o i sfV; ksadk foLFkki uA
mÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksads l ekt ksaesaruko dks l e>us ds fy, bu vkUrfj d foLFkki u vkS
j
bl l s t q
M+
h l eL; kvksadk t kuuk t : j h gS
A10
104
x
Table-3
Internal Displacement in Northeast India (1947-Present)
Assam
Manipur
Year
Causes
No. of Displaced
Persons
Ethnic Groups
1947
Partition/Riots
53,000
Muslims
1961-67
Prevention of Infiltration
192,097
from Pakistan (PIP) Scheme
Muslims
1970
Asamiya Language
Movement
Unknown
Hindu Bengalis
1972
AASU (Asamiya Language
Movement)
Unknown
Hindu Bengalis
1980
Assam Movement
(Lok Sabha Elections),
Nellie Massacre
1200-3000
Na-Asamiya Muslims
1984
Choulkhowa Chapori
(Darrang), Silapathar
(Lakhimpur), Gohpur
(Darrang)
Unknown
Bengali Hindus, Exrefugee/displaced
East Pakistan, ethnic
Nepalis
191-93
Bodoland Movement
60,000
Bengalis
1994(July)
Massacres at Kokrajhar,
Barpeta, Bongaigaon
1,000 persons
(60 villages)
Na-Asamiya
Muslim peasants
1995 (Oct)
Massacre at relief camp
Banspari in Barpeta
70,000
Na-Asamiya at
Muslims, Hindu
Bengalis, Santhals,
Nepalis
1996 (May-June)
Ethnic Cleansing
(Bodoland Movement)
2,50,000
Ethnic Santhals,
Bodos, Nepalis
1998
Ethnic Cleansing
(Bodoland Movement)
82,000
Santhals, Bengalis,
Bodos, Nepalis
1992
Kuki/Naga ethnic conflict
Thadous
11,000
15,000
Kukis & Nagas
Thadous
1993-97
Paites, Meiteis, Pangal
Muslims
Naga Ceasefire Extension
7,500
1,000
7,000
Paites, Meiteis
Pangal Muslims
Nagas
1980
Anti-foreigner Movement
60-100 families
Nepalis
Grouping of Villages1010
45,000
Mizos
1997
Bru (Reang) National
Liberation Front
15,000-50,000
Reangs
1997
1999
2001
Ethnic Violence
Anti-foreigner11
Anti-foreigner
62,880
Unknown
1,466
Kukis/Paites
Nepalis
Burmese, Nepalis
1980-92
NLFT attacks
30,000
Non-tribals
1997
ATTF attack on non-tribals
2,614
2,434 non-tribals
Mizoram 1967
Tripura
mÙkj i w
1998-2001
Nagaland 1980s
Conflict between Tripura
25,000
Tribals and Bengali migrants12
Bengalis
Anti-foreigner/extortion
Border/clashes, Merapani,
Bokajan
Not known
NepalisNepalis
7,000- 10,000
Nepalis, Bengalis
Meghalaya 1980,1987,1991 Foreign National
Movement
Sources : C. Joshua Thomas, ed., Dimensions of Displaced People in North-East India, New
Delhi, 2002; USCR (1999): Country Reports: India (www.refugees.com); Human
Rights Features (2001): No Refuge: The Plight of the Internally displaced persons
in India, Embargoed for 16 March (www.hrdc.net); M.Hussain, State Identity
Movements and Internal Displacement in the Northeast. Economic and Political
Weekly, December 16,2000.
Table- 4
Internaly Displaced Muslims in Kokrajhar and Bongaigaon Districts11
of Relief Camps
No. of Families
No. of Persons
Malvita
450
1570
8
Jamunagiri
475
1972
11
89
389
1
750
3184
2
1244
5696
4
Bhowraguri
550
2554
57
Amteka Bhowaguri
141
622
1
47
196
0
Ananda Bazar
Patabari
Jaipur
Amteka Sidabari
No. of Deaths in
the family
mDr rkfydk] mÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksaesavkUrfj d l a
?k"kksZ
adk og vk[ ; ku gS
] t ksorZ
eku l eL; kvksa
dk t ud gS
A vki l h l a
?k"kZvc Hkkjr l j dkj dsfo#) l a
?k"kZesarCnhy gkspq
dk gS
A 1979
esa
si kjs'k c#vk dsusrR̀
o esacuk United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA)] cksMksyS
.M
dh i zkfIr dsfy, cuk cksMksl sD; ksfjVh QkslZ
] ft udk uke vc cnydj us'kuy MseksØsfVd ÝUV
vkW
Q cksMksyS
. M (NDFB) dj fn; k x; k gS
] , slsbl {ks= esayxHkx 30 NksVs&cM+
sl ' kL= l ew
g
la
?k"kZ
j r gS
] ft l dsdkj.k nf{k.k , f' k; k dk ; g Hkkx l eL; kxzLr cuk gq
a
v k gS
A vkS
j Hkh[ krj ukd
ckr ; g gSfd bu j kT; ksads ; s l ' kL= xq
V LVsªVsft d rkS
j i j , d nw
l j sl st q
M+
s gS
avkS
j
feydj dke dj rs j gs gS
] tS
a
l s fd ULFA dk us'kuy l ks'kfyLV dkma
fl y vkW
Q ukxkyS
.M
(NSCN-IM)] dsbl kd eq
okg xq
V l sut nhdh l EcU/k gS
A bl l e; mYQk dh28ohacVkfy; u
a
dks t ks ml dh ce LDok; M gS
] E;ka
ekj vkS
j v#.kka
py i zns'k esaNSCN (Khaplang) xq
V
106
x
dsl kFk feydj dke dj j gh gS
A ULFA dsl EcU/k us'kuy MseksØsfVd Ýa
V vkW
Q cksMksyS
.M
(NDFB) l s H
kh gS
A dkerki q
j fyczs'ku vkxZ
ukbt s'ku (KLO) bu l cl s feydj dke dj
j gk gS
A
gkyk¡fd fga
l k dksfdl h Hkh rj g l sokft c ughaBgj k; k t k l drk] ysfdu i z'u ; g mBrk
gSfd D; k mÙkj &i w
ohZl ekt ksad h fpUr k, ¡ xS
j okft c gS
\ 1991 dh t ux.kuk dsvuq
a
l kj cka
Xykns'k
dh t ul a
[ ; k 10]79]92]140 Fkh] 1996 esa
s ; g c<+
dj 11]99]57]313 gks x; hA bl vk¡dM+
s
l s dksbZl eL; k ughagS
] fdUrqvxj ge bl eè; dh fuokZ
pu l w
ph mBkdj ns[ksarks i k; sa
xs
fd 7 vDVw
cj ] 1995 dkst kjh l p
wh esa
s5]60]16]178 oksVj nt ZgS
A t cfd 1991 dh fuokZ
a
pu
lw
ph esaNi s oksVj ksal s 61]65]567 de gS
A 1991 esa; g l a
[ ; k 6]21]81]745 FkhA vkf[ kj
;g l a
[ ; k dgk¡ x; h\ t cfd 1991 esacka
Xykns'k dk ?kuR
o 1981 ds624 l s969 gksx; kA
i z'u ; g Hkh gSfd] pkjksarj Q l sbruh cM+
h t ul a
[ ; k dk mÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksaesa
sHkjusl sogk¡
ds l kekft d] l ka
Ldf̀r d okrkoj .k rFkk t ul ka
f[ ; d vk/kkj esaD; k i fj orZ
u vk; s\
uoEcj 1998 esavkl ke dsxouZ
j , l -dsfl Ugk usj k"Vªi fr dks, d vkS
i pkfj d fj i ksVZ
HksthA fj i ksVZvkW
u byhxy ekbxzs'ku buVwvkl ke l cfeVsM Vqn i zslhMsUV vkW
Q bf.M;k ckbZ
xouZ
j vkW
Q vkl ke] uke l sHksth xbZ; g fj i ksVZcgq
r dq
N c; ku dj rh gS
A bl ds vuq
l kj
vkl ke esa
sfgUnw
] eq
fLye t ul a
[ ; k 1951&61 dschp Øe' k%33-7 i zfr' kr rFkk 38-5 i zfr' kr
dh nj l s c<+
h] 1961&71 ds nkS
j ku ; g Øe' k%37-2 i zfr' kr rFkk 31 i zfr' kr dh nj l s
c<+
hA t cfd 1981 l s1991 dschp ; g Øe' k%41-9 i zfr' kr l s77-4 i zfr' kr dh nj l s
c<+
h vFkkZ
r ~ vkl ke esa t c fgUnwt ul a
[ ; k 1961 l s 1991 ds chp 37-2 i zfr' kr l s
41-9 i z
fr' kr gh c<+j gh gSt cfd eq
fLye t ul a
[ ; k 31 i zfr' kr l s77-47 dh nj l sof̀)
dj j gh gS
A bl ds pyrs 1951 esavkl ke esa
s t ks eq
fLye t ul a
[ ; k 24-68 i zfr' kr Fkh og
1991 es
a28-42 i zfr' kr gks x; hA 1991 dh t ux.kuk ds vuq
l kj /kq
cj h] xksyki kjk] cj i sVk
rFkk gsydUnh vc eq
fLye cgq
y ft yscu x; sgS
A nksft ysukS
a
xka
o] dj hexa
t 1998 rd eq
fLye
cgq
y gkst k; sa
xsrFkk eksjxka
o ft yk cgq
r rsth l sml vksj c<+j gk gS
A ; g eq
l yeku t ul a
[; k
of̀) n' kdksal s cka
Xykns'k l svkl ke dh vksj gks j gh voS
/k ?kq
l iS
B dk urht k gS
A fl Ugk ds
vuq
l kj ; g i fj orZ
u u dsoy vl eh t urk dh i gpku dsfy, cfYd j k"Vªh; l q
j {kk dh nf̀"V
l s Hkh fpUrkt ud gS
A mudk va
ns'kk gSfd t Ynh gh vkl ke esaHkh f=i q
j k vkS
j fl fDde dh
rj g xS
j vl ehcgq
er esagksa
xs] rFkk vkxs; g i zfØ; k og̀r~i w
ohZi kfdLrku vFkok og̀r~cka
Xykns'k
ds vka
nksyu esacny l drk gS
A fcYdq
y , slk gh va
ns'kk mÙkj i zns'k ds orZ
eku , oai f' pe
ca
xky dsHkw
ri w
oZj kT; i ky Vh-oh- j kt s'oj dk gS
] fd Hkfo"; essaHkkjr dsi w
j c esa, d ca
xkyh
cksyus okys eq
fLye ns'k dk [ krj k ea
Mjk j gk gS
A12
mÙkj i w
v#.k ' kkS
j h us vi uh i q
Lrd ^n l kbysUV MseksxzkfQd buostu* esa2001 dh t ux.kuk
ds vk/kkj i j cka
Xykns'kh l hekorhZvkl ke ds dq
N ft yksaesaeq
l yeku vkS
j xS
j eq
l yekuksadh
13
t ul a
[ ; k of̀) i j nf̀"Vi kr fd; kA
District
Muslims %
Non Muslims %
Total %
Dhubri
29.5
7.1
22.9
Golapara
31.7
14.4
23.0
Hailakandi
27.2
13.3
20.9
Karimganj
29.4
14.5
21.9
Cachar
24.6
16.0
18.9
14
bl h i zdkj bu vk¡dM+
ksadks Hkh ns[k l drs gS
a
&
Table - 6
Population Variation in India and Assam in Percentage
Year
1901 - 11
1911 - 21
1921 - 31
1931 - 41
1941 - 51
1951 - 61
1961 - 71
1971 - 81
1981 - 91
1991 - 2001
Assam
16.99
20.48
19.91
20.41
19.93
34.98
34.95
23.36
24.24
18.85
India
5.75
0.31
11.00
14.22
13.31
21.51
24.80
24.69
23.82
21.34
vFkkZ
r ~1901 l syssdj 2001 ¼
1971&81 o 1991&2001 dksNks
M+
dj ½yxkrkj fi Nys100
o"kksZ
aessavkl ke essat ul a
[ ; k of̀) Hkkjr l sU;w
ukf/kd : i l sT; knk gh j gk gS
A , d vkS
j fu"d"kZ
ds fy, ; fn ge bu o"kksZ
aesavxj Hkkjr vkS
j vkl ke esaeq
l yeku t ul a
[ ; k of̀) dks ns[ksa
rks16 i k; sa
xsfd LorU=rk dsckn 1951 l s2001 rd dso"kksZ
aesavkl ke essaeq
l yekuksadh of̀)
15
Hkkjr esa
s of̀) dh nks xq
uh j gh gS
A pw
¡fd mÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksaesavkfnokl h t urk dh cgq
yrk
gSbl fy, vxj ge bu vk¡dM+
ksadks vkfnokl h , oaxS
j vkfnokl h t ul a
[ ; k of̀) ds l UnHkZ
esaysarks f=i q
j k esaft l i zdkj xS
j vkfnokfl ; ksads i zos'k l s vkfnokl h t ul a
[ ; k vYier esa
vkbZgS
] og dq
N l e; esamÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksaesavkfnokfl ; ksadh t ul a
[ ; k dk D; k gky gksus
16
okyk gS
] ; g crkus dks i ; kZ
Ir gS
&
108
x
Table-7
Year
1911
1931
1951
1961
1971
1991
2001
India
22.39
23.49
9.91
10.71
11.21
12.12
13.42
Assam
16.23
22.78
24.68
25.30
24.56
28.43
30.91
Table-8
Tribal Population in Tripura
Year
1901
1911
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
Tribunal Population %
52.89
48.48
56.37
50.26
50.09
36.85
31.53
28.95
28.44
30.94
31.05
l cl s cM+
h fpUrk dk dkj.k ; g gSfd ckgj h ns'kksal s vkus okyh ; g cM+
h t ul a
[; k
Hkkjr esayxkrkj i S
j t ekrh t k j gh gS
A {ks=h; rFkk j k"Vªh; j kt uhfrd i kfVZ
; k¡ oksV cS
d ds
a
ykyp esayxkrkj] fuokZ
pu l w
ph esa
s buds uke t q
M+
r s t kus dks t kudj Hkh vut ku cus gq
,
ga
A vc ; sj kt uhfrd : i l segÙokdka
S
{kh gksrst k j gsgS
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a
j ughat c f=i q
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ls
vU; j kT; ksaesaHkh xS
j vkfnokl h l j dkjsagksa
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esal q
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j vkfnokfl ; ksadksvkfnokfl ; ksadh t ehusa[ kjhnusdh Nw
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a
rq
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i k; fu; j l s ckrphr dj rs gq
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; ogkj ughafd; k gS
]
mÙkj i w
; gh v' kka
fr dk dkj.k gS
A17 l EHkor%bl h v' kka
fr dks ns[krs gq
, gh i w
oZl sukè; {k t uj y
oh-i h- efyd usHkkjr ds^j k"Vªh; vkR
el krhdj .k , oa, dhdj .k dh l eL; k* dksHkkjr dsmÙkj
, oamÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksads i fj i zs{; esagy dj us dks i zeq
[ krk nh FkhA
l p ; g gSfd bl {ks= dsyksxksadseuksfoKku dksfcYdq
y ughal e>k x; kA ge t Ue
l s ukxk gS
] rFkk ?kVuko' k Hkkjrh; t S
a
l k êkbUMl sV* , d fnu esaughai S
nk gksrkA ; g vi uh
oS
pkfj d , oal ka
Ldf̀r d vfLerk l s i zse dj us okyksadh mit gS
A ; g mHkjus okys ' kka
fri w
. kZ
vkUnksyuksadks vuns[kk dj l ' kL= xq
Vksadks egÙo nsus dk i fj .kke Hkh gS
A
, d yksdrka
f=d ns'k gksusdsukrsgesamÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksaesagksusokyscká ns'kh; , oavkUrfj d
foLFkki u l s t q
M+
h l eL; kvksai j i u
q%xkS
j dj uk gksxkA , d rks gesamÙkj&i w
ohZj kT; ksads ew
y
fuokfl ; ksadh l ka
Ldf̀r d vfLerk rFkk j kstxkj l EcU/kh fpUrkvksadksl e>uk gksxk] nw
l j sckgj
l s vk pq
dsyksxksads i zfr Hkh ekuoh; nf̀"Vdks.k vko' ; d gS
A Hkkjr l j dkj dks ; g fuf' pr
dj uk gksxk fd ; g ckáns'kh; ?kq
l iS
B] fdl h Hkh i zdkj l s #ds rFkk i gys l s vk pq
ds yksxksa
dksfpfg~
ur dj dsmUgsamudsns'kksaesaoki l t kusdsfy, j kt h dj uk gksxkA bl dsfy, Hkkjr
dh i w
ohZl hek l s t q
M+
s j kT; ksadk l g; ksx ykt eh gksxkA
REFERENCE
1
North East located at : Longtitude 89.46 Degree E, to 97.3 Degree E & Latitude 21.57
Degree N to 29.30 Degree N.
2
Census of India 2001
3
Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunanchal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland & Sikkim.
4
Seminar on “Contemprary Refugee problems”, April, 22-24 1995. Bhagwatipuram.
Sponsored by U.N.H.C.R.
5
Politics of migration by Dr. Manju Singh, Anita Publication, Jaipur. 1990, P-34 & 35.
6
Assam issues : The Biginning ......... by Vijay Kumar Dhanan, United Publishers, Guahati,
1985 P- 34 & 35.
7
12 Feb 1905, Newyork Times.
8
Home ministry According to I.B. Report.
9
C. Joshua Thomas (ed) Dimensions of Displaced People in North East India, Regency
Publication, New Delhi 2002, USCR 1999. Country Report: India (www.refugee. com):
Human Rights Features (2001); No Refugee; the Plight of the internally displaced persons
in India, Embargoed for 16 March (www.hrdc.net); M Hussain, state Identity movement
and Internal Displacement in the North East, Economic and Political weekly, December
16, 2008.
10 Lianzela, Internally Displaced persons in Mizoram in C. Joshua Thomas (ed) 2002 p. 241251.
110
x
11 Ibid.
12 Quoted by Arun Shourie, the Silent Demographic Invasion, Part 1 to 3.
13 Ibid.
14 Census of India various years.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 Pioneer 16 January 2006.
Unsy[ k.Mfoæ
ksg neu esa; ksxnku x 111
egkor [kk¡ [kkus[kkuk dk cqUnsy[k.M
foæksg neu esa ;ksxnku
iadt dqekj *
egkor [ kk¡1 , d i zdkj dh eq
xy i noh Fkh t ks eq
xy l ezkVksa} kjk vi us l S
fudksa, oal j nkjksa
dks muds } kjk fd; s x; s i z'ka
l uh; dk; ksZ
ads miy{; esai znku dh t krh FkhA l ezkV t gk¡xhj
us1605 esavi usdq
' ky l S
fud t ekuk&csx dksml dsmR
d`"V dk; ksZ
al si zHkkfor gksdj êgkor
2
[ kk¡* dh i noh l sl q
' kksfHkr fd; kA t ekuk&csx dsfi rk dk uke x; w
j csx Fkk t ksew
yr%' khjkt
ds fuokl h vkS
j fj t oh l ; ~
; n FksA egkor [ kk¡ ds i q
= [ kkus t ek¡ us vi us fy[ ks bfrgkl esa
vi usi w
oZ
t ksadh oa
' k Ük̀a
[ kyk beke ew
l k j t k l st ksM+
h gS
A ml usbl ckr dk Hkh mYys[k fd; k
gSfd ml dsi w
oZ
t cM+
sgh i zfrf"Br , oa, s'o; Z
' kkyh FksA3 x; w
j csx fet kZeksgEen gdhe dsl e;
4
esa
s ' khjkt l s dkcq
y vkdj ; gk¡ ds , d i j xus esaj gus yxs vkS
j fet kZds ; d%t okuksa
esa
HkrhZgks x; sA fet kZgdhe dh eR̀
; qds i ' pkr~t c vdcj us dkcq
y dks vi us l kezkT; esa
feyk fy; k rc x; w
j csx vdcj dh l sok esapys x; sA fpÙkkS
M+; q
) esabUgksa
us vi uh ohjrk]
l kgl rFkk l S
U; dq
' kyrk dk i fj p; fn; k ft l dkj.k t ekukcsx cgq
r de vk; qesa' kkgh l sok
esa' kkgt knk l yhe dsvgfn; ksaesa' kkfey fd; sx; sA5 ml usvi usvkpj .k l s' kgt knsdksbruk
vf/kd i zHkkfor fd; k fd cgq
r FkksM+
s l e; esagh ml dh fu; q
fDr i k¡p l nh ds ea
l c i j gks
x; h vkS
j og ' kkfxnZ
&i s'kksadk c[ ' kh fu; r gq
v kA rR
i ' pkr~t gk¡xhj ds' kkl d cuusdsrq
j Ur
ckn 1605 esaegkor [ kk¡ dh i noh l s l q
' kksfHkr gq
v kA6
egkor [ kk¡ dsl e; dh j kt uhfrd i fj fLFkfr; k¡ cM+
h gh fo"ke Fkha
A eq
xy nj ckj "kM~
;a
=ksa
vkS
j dq
pØksadk dsUnzFkk ft l dk eq
[ ; dkj.k eq
xyksaesamÙkjkf/kdkj l EcU/kh fuf' pr fu; e dk
vHkko , oaeq
xy vehjksadk LokFkZ
iw
. kZj oS
; k FkkA fdl h fuf' pr fu; e dsvHkko esa' kkgh oa
'k
l sl EcfU/kr i zR
; sd O
; fDr vi usdksl kezkT; dk mÙkjkf/kdkjh l e>rk Fkk vkS
j fl a
gkl u i zkfIr
dsfy, "kM~
;a
=ksavkS
j fonzksgksadk l gkjk ysrk FkkA vr%vol j oknh , oaLokFkhZeq
xy vehj rFkk
l j nkj Hkh vi usLokFkZfl f) dsfy, bu "kM~
;a
=ksavkS
j fonzksg esal fØ; Hkkx fy; k dj rsFksA
egkor [ kk¡ Hkh bu nj ckjh xq
VcfUn; ksavkS
j "kM~
;a
=ksal s vNw
r k ughaj g l dkA ml us ' kkgt knk
l yhe vkS
j [kq
l j ksdhcxkorksadsl e; Øe' k%vi usfi z; Lokeht gk¡xhj dsi {kdkghl eFkZ
u fd; kA
*
v/; {k] bfrgkl foHkkx] ¼
LukrdksÙkj½fo| kUr fgUnwi h-t h- dkW
yst] y[ kuÅ
112
x
l ezkV t gk¡xhj us1611 esaesg#fUul k dsl kFk fookg dj ml sûw
j &egy* dh mikf/k i znku
7
dh t ks1616 esaûw
j t gk¡ csxe* esai fj ofrZ
r gksx; hA uw
j t gk¡ ust gk¡xhj dsân; i j vi uk
vf/kdkj t ekusdsckn ' kkl u i j Hkh vi uk vf/kdkj t ekusdsfy, i z;R
u dj usyxhA eksrfen
[ kk¡ dsLo; ads' kCnksaesa; fn ; g dgk t k; sfd fgUnksLrku dscM+
s&cM+
smUufr' khy i zkUr uw
j t gk¡
csxe ds l EcfU/k; ksavkS
j l sodksadh t kxhj gSrks vfr' k; ksfDr u gksxhA8
' kkl u ' kfDr; ksa dk uw
j t gk¡ ds gkFkksaesa dsUnzhdj .k] ' kkl u dk; ksZ
a dk uw
j t gk¡ xq
V } kjk
la
pkyu] ml ds l EcfU/k; ksarFkk l eFkZ
dksadh vl k/kkj.k mUufr vkS
j fnu&i zfrfnu t gk¡xhj dk
uw
j t gk¡ dsgkFkksadk f[ kykS
uk curst kuk vusd i q
j kuso LokfeHkDr ' kkgh l sodksausi l Un ugha
fd; k D; ksa
fd , d rks os , d efgyk ds fu; a
=.k vkS
j ' kkl u esadk; Zdj uk vi us LokfHkeku
vkS
j e; kZ
nk dsfo#) l e>rsFksrFkk nw
l j suw
j t gk¡ vkS
j ml dsl EcfU/k; ksadh vuko' ; d , oa
vl k/kkj.k mUufr l s bZ
"; kZdj rs FksA i fj .kkeLo: i eq
xy nj ckj esauw
j t gk¡ foj ks/kh xq
V rS
; kj
gksx; k ft l dsi zeq
[ k egkor [ kk¡ FksA ml dh nf̀"V esat gk¡xhj dk uw
j t gk¡ dsgkFkksadh dBi q
r yh
cu t kuk eq
xy ckn' kkg ds ekFks i j , d dya
d ds l eku FkkA pw
¡fd ml s vi uh vl hfer
LokfeHkfDr dsdkj.k ckn' kkg dsl keusfuHkhZ
drki w
oZ
d vi usfopkj j [ kusdh Lora
=rk Fkh] vr%
ml usckn' kkg dksuw
j t gk¡ ds fo#) HkM+
dkusdk dk; Zfd; kA9 bl l s uw
j t gk¡ rFkk egkor [ kk¡
ds eè; oS
euL; rk dk cht kjksi.k vo' ; gks x; kA vr%uw
j t gk¡ us egkor [ kk¡ dks t M+l s
m[kkM+Qsa
dusdsfy, i z;R
u i zkjEHk dj fn; sA nj ckjhj kt uhfr esa
segkor [ kk¡ rFkk ml dsl eFkZ
dksa
dk i zHkko ' kw
U; dj usdsfy, 1617 esaml s dkcq
y rFkk ca
x' k dk xouZ
j fu; q
Dr dj ' kkl u
10
dsUnz l s gt kjksaehy nw
j Qa
sd fn; k x; kA
Qj oj h 1628 dks' kkgt gk¡ dk cM+
s/kw
e&/kke dsl kFk j kt fryd gq
v kA bl vol j i j
ml us ^vcq
y eq
t ¶Qj ' kgkcq
í hu eksgEen l kgc dj kus l kuh ' kkgt gk¡ ckn' kkgh xkt h* dh
11
mikf/k /kkj.k dhA 9 ebZ1628 dks egkor [ kk¡ [ kkust gk¡ dsLFkku i j nf{k.k cj kj vkS
j
[ kkuns'k dk l w
csnkj fu; q
Dr gq
v kA 12 ebZ1628 dksegkor [ kk¡ usmij ksDr vl k/kkj.k dì kvksa
ds i zfr dr̀Krk i zdV dj rs gq
, vi us Hksa
V l ezkV ds l Eeq
[ k i zLrq
r dh rFkk nw
l j s o"kZt c
' kkgt gk¡ [ kkus&t gk¡ yksnh dks n.M nsus ds fy, nf{k.k dh vksj pyk rc egkor [ kk¡ dks
j kt /kuh fnYyh dk l w
csnkj fu; q
Dr fd; kA12
4
t gk¡xhj ds' kkl u dky dsvfUre o"kksZ
aesafonzksgksavkS
j "kM~
;a
=ksadh t ksck<+l h vk x; h
Fkh] ml dk i zHkko ' kkgt gk¡ ds ' kkl udky i j i M+
s fcuk u j g l dk vkS
j ml ds fl a
gkl uk: <+
gksrsgh cq
Unsy[ k.M dsj kt k t q
>kj fl a
g dsfonzksg dk l keuk dj uk i M+
kA t q
>kj fl a
g] vksjNk
uj s'k ohj fl a
g nso ¼
uj fl a
g nso½dk i q
= FkkA ohj fl a
g nso usl ezkV t gk¡xhj dh ' kkgt knxh
Unsy[ k.Mfoæ
ds l e; esaml ds l a
dsr i j l ezkV vdcj ds i j e fe= , oai j ke' kZ
nkrk ' ks[k vcq
y Qt y
13
dk o/k dj ds' kgt knsdsân; esaLFkku cuk fy; k FkkA ; | fi vdcj dsl e; esaml si dM+
us
dsfy, cj kcj eq
xy l suk, ¡ fu; r j ghavkS
j ml svi usi zk.k cpkusdsfy, t a
xyksaesaekjs&ekjs
fQj uk i M+
k i j Urqt gk¡xhj dsckn' kkg cuusi j ml dsHkkX; dk fl rkjk ped mBkA og l ezkV
t gk¡xhj dk fo' ks"k dì ki k= , oafe= cu x; kA ml ds} kjk fd; sx; sdq
dR̀
; ¼
vcq
y Qt y dk
o/k½ds i q
j Ldkj Lo: i t gk¡xhj us ml s rhu gt kj dk ea
l c i znku dj l Eekfur fd; kA
MkW
- cukjl h i zlkn l Dl suk ds vuq
l kj ml dh eq
xy nj ckj esa, slh ' kku Fkh fd fdl h dk
Hkh l kgl u gksrk fd ml dsvR
; kpkjksadh f' kdk; r dj l dsvFkok l ezkV dk è; ku gh ml dh
vksj vkd`"V dj l dsA14
l ezkV } kjk i znku l Eeku , oai zfr"Bk dsckot w
n ohj fl a
g dsnq
"V LoHkko esadksbZi fj orZ
u
u gq
v k vfi rqog vR
; f/kd nq
"V gksx; kA t gk¡xhj ds' kkl u dky dsvUr esa
] t cfd ml ds
xa
Hkhj : i l schekj i M+t kusdsdkj.k eq
xy nj ckj "kM~
;a
=ksa, oaxq
Vca
fn; ksadk dsUnzcu x; k]
' kkl u O
; oLFkk vLr&O
; Lr gks dj j g x; h vkS
j dsUnzh; ' kkl u dk fu; a
=.k <hyk i M+x; k
rksbl sl q
v ol j l e> dj ml usfonzksgh Hkkoukvksadk i zn' kZ
u i zkjEHk dj fn; kA ml usvi us
i Mk+slh t eha
nkjksa rFkk fudVorhZ' kkgh bykdksa i j yw
Vi kV dj , d cM+
s Hkw
&Hkkx i j vi uk
voS
/k vfèkdkj dj fy; kA bl i zdkj vuq
fpr l k/kuksa} kjk vFkkg /ku&l a
xzg dj rFkk , d fo' kky
l suk l a
xfBr dj ml us, slk , s'o; Z, oai zHkko LFkkfi r dj fy; k t ksfd ml l e; fdl hfgUnq
Lrkuh
' kkl d dks i zkIr u FkkA15
l ezkV t gk¡xhj dh eR̀
; ql srhu&pkj ekl i w
oZohj fl a
g nso dh eR̀
; qgksx; hA rR
i ' pkr~
ml dk i q
= tq
>kj fl a
g ml dk mÙkjkf/kdkjh gq
v k vkS
j ml usvi usfi rk } kjk voS
/k l EifÙk i j
vi uk vf/kdkj cuk; s j [ kk i j Urq' kkgt gk¡ us vi us j kT; kfHk"ksd dsi ' pkr~t c j kt dk; ksZ
adk
dBksjrki w
oZ
d t k¡p&i M+
r ky vkjEHk dh rks bl l s t q
>kj fl a
g ds efLr"d esavusd i zdkj dh
vk'ka
dk, ¡ mR
i Uu gksusyxhavkS
j og Hk; Hkhr gksmBkA16 bl dseq
[ ; nksdkj.k Fks] i zFke ml ds
fi rk ohj fl a
g nso usvuq
fpr l k/kuksa, oa' kkgh fu; eksadk mYya
?ku dj vi uh ' kfDr , oal EifÙk
esavFkkg of̀) dj yh Fkh rFkk vi usi M+
kslh t eha
nkjksadsbykdksai j voS
/k vf/kdkj dj fy; k
FkkA vr%ml ds mÙkjkf/kdkjh ds : i esabl l EifÙk , oabykdksadk Lokeh t q
>kj fl a
g Fkk]
f} rh; t q
>kj fl g dh vuq
i fLFkfr esaml dsi q
= foØet hr us] ft l i j fd og vkxj k vkrs
l e; cq
Unsy[ k.M ds' kkl u dk dk; Z
Hkkj NksM+vk; k Fkk] fj ; kl r esavU;k; , oavR
; kpkj dk
okrkoj .k mR
i Uu dj vi uh i ztk rFkk deZ
pkfj ; ksadh l gkuq
Hkw
fr [ kks nh FkhA ml us cgq
r ls
deZ
pkfj ; ksadks dBksj n.M fn; s Fks vkS
j dq
N dks dS
n[ kkuksaesaMky fn; k FkkA bUghadS
fn; ksaesa
ohj fl a
g nso dk odhy , oai ze[qk l ykgdkj dì kjke xkS
M+Hkh Fkk t ks fdl h i zdkj cUnhxg̀
114
x
l sHkkx dj vkxj k i gq
¡p dj ' kkgh l suk esaHkrhZgksx; kA17 vo' ; ml ds} kjk ohj fl a
g , oa
foØekt hr dsvR
; kpkjksa, oamuds} kjk vuq
fpr mik; ksal svFkkg /ku l a
xzg dk foLrr̀ fooj .k
l ezkV ' kkgt gk¡ dksi zkIr gq
v k gksxkA bl h i zdkj foØet hr dsgkFkksa; kruk , oavi eku Hkq
xrdj
l hrkjke uked fj ; kl r ds, d vknj .kh; vkS
j ekU; l sod usU;k; dsfy, , d Hkkjh f' kdk; r
nj ckj esai s'k dhA18 bu i fj fLFkfr; ksaesaj kt dk; ksZ
adh dBksjrki w
oZ
d t k¡p&i M+
r ky dsvkns'k l s
tq
>kj fl a
g dk Hk; Hkhr gkst kuk LokHkkfod FkkA ; | fi bl l e; rd ' kkgt gk¡ ust q
>kj fl a
g
dsi zfr fdl h i zdkj dk Øks/k , oavi zlUurk i zdV ughadh Fkh i j UrqfQj Hkh og vi usfi rk
rFkk i q
= dsdR̀
; ksadk Lej .k dj ft l dk mÙkjnkf; R
o fdl h u fdl h : i esaml i j Hkh vo' ;
vkrk Fkk] dBksj n.M dh dYiuk l sdk¡i mBkA vr%Hk; vkS
j fuj k'kk dh voLFkk esafl ok;
HkkxusdsdksbZnw
l j k mik; ml dh l e> esaughavk; kA i fj .kkeLo: i og 11 t w
u 1628 dks
vk/kh j kr esafcuk ' kkgh vkKk i zkIr fd; s vkxj k l s Hkkx [ kM+
k gq
v k vkS
j vksjNk i gq
¡pdj
vi uh Lora
= l Ùkk LFkkfi r dj usdh rS
; kfj ; k¡ vkjEHk dj nhA ml usnq
xksa
Zdksl q
n`<+dj l suk
19
vkS
j l kexzh , df=r dj yh vkS
j ekxksZ
adks cUn dj fn; kA
tq
>kj fl a
g dk ; g vf' k"V O
; ogkj fuf' pr : i l s ' kkgh fu; eksadk Li "V mYya
?ku , oa
fonzksgh Hkkoukvksadk [ kq
yk i zn' kZ
u FkkA bl l s' kkgt gk¡ Øksf/kr vo' ; gq
v k i j UrqfQj Hkh yxHkx
pkj ekg rd t q
>kj fl a
g dsfo#) dksbZdk; Z
okgh ughadh t k l dhA bl dk eq
[ ; dkj.k ; g
Fkk fd ml l e; cY[k ds ' kkl d ut j eksgEen us dkcq
y vf/kdr̀ dj us ds mís'; l s ml s
?ksj j [ kk Fkk vkS
j l kezkT; dseq
[ ; l suki fr egkor [ kk¡ dsv/khu l Hkh cM+
s&cM+
sl j nkj vi uh
l sukvksads l kFk dkcq
y vfHk; ku i j FksA bl ds vfrfj Dr t q
>kj fl a
g dks o' k esadj uk dksbZ
l j y dk; ZughaFkk D; ksa
fd ' kkgt gk¡ bl ckr dksHkyhHkk¡fr t kurk Fkk fd cq
Unsy[ k.M dh nq
xZ
e
HkkS
xksfyd fLFkfr dsdkj.k l ezkV vdcj dh l suk, ¡ Hkh ohj fl a
g dks i dM+
usesavl Qy j gha
Fkha
A cq
Unsy[ k.M dh fLFkfr vdcj ds l e; dh vi s{kk ' kkgt gk¡ ds l e; esa
s dkQh fHkUu Fkh
D; ksa
fd t gk¡xhj dsl e; ml dh fo' ks"k vuq
dEik dsl gkjsohj fl a
g nso usvi uh ' kfDr vkS
j
l k/kuksaesavi kj of̀) dj yh FkhA vr%t q
>kj fl a
g dks nf.Mr dj us ds fy, vko' ; drk
Fkhfo' kky l S
U; rS
; kfj ; ksa, oacq
Unsy[ k.Mdhl q
fu; ksft r ?ksjkcUnhdh] t ksfd dkcq
y tS
l segÙoi w
. kZ
vfHk; ku ds l kFk&l kFk l EHko u FkkA vr%dkcq
y dh l eL; k dk l ek/ku gksrs gh] ' kkgt gk¡
us vDVw
cj 1628 ds vUr esaegkor [ kk¡ ds usrR̀
o esa10]000 l okjksa
] 2000 cUnw
dèkkfj ; ksa
vkS
j 500 osynkjksa, oarhjnkjksadh , d fo' kky l suk t q
>kj fl a
g dsfo#) n.M nsusgsrqHkst
20
nhA bl l suk esal ; ~
; n eq
t ¶Qj [ kk¡ ckjgk] fnykoj [ kk¡] bLyke [ kk¡] l j nkj [ kk¡] j kt k j ke
nkl uj oj h] ut j cgknq
j [ kq
os'kxh] j kt k j kst vQt w
¡] Hkxoku nkl cq
Unsyk vkfn dsl kFk vkS
j
nw
l j s cgq
r l s i zeq
[ k l j nkj l fEefyr fd; s x; sA egrkc [ kk¡ dks ; g vkns'k fn; k x; k fd
Unsy[ k.Mfoæ
og vi uh l suk dsl kFk Xokfy; j dsekxZl scq
Unsy[ k.M esai zos'k dj sa
A ' kkgt gk¡ usl suk Hkstrs
l e; egkor [ kk¡ dksuknj h l fgr [ kkl f[ kyvr o t M+
kÅ dyxh o , d yk[ k #i ; k udn]
fnykoj [ kk¡ dks gkFkh o Ma
dk vkS
j bLyke [ kk¡ dks l ksus dh t hu l fgr ?kksM+
k o gkFkh rFkk
>.Mk i znku dj l Eekfur fd; kA bl h i zdkj vU; vehjksai j Hkh ' kkgh dì k, ¡ dh x; ha
A21
ekyok ds l w
csnkj [ kkus&t gk¡ yksnh ds uke Hkh bl vk'k; dk ' kkgh QekZ
u t kjh gq
vk
fd og ml i zkUr dh l suk rFkk j kt k foV~
By nkl xkS
M+
] vuhjk; fl a
g nyu] l Qnj [ kk¡ rsoynkj
fl j kS
t ] uw
: í hu dq
yh] ek/kks fl a
g dNokgk ds i q
= ' k=q
' kky] cyHknz ' ks[kkor] i hj [ kk¡ fe; kuk]
' kknh [ kk¡ mt cd] j kt k fxj /kj] [ ka
t j [ kk¡ vkS
j j kt k Hkkjr cq
Unsyk ft l dsfd t q
>kj fl a
g ds
l kFk foj kl rh >xM+
s FksD; ksa
fd ml dsnknk j ke pUnz l st gk¡xhj ckn' kkg us vksjNk dk j kT;
Nhu dj ohj fl a
g nso dksnsfn; k Fkk] dsl kFk pUnsjh dsj kLrsl st ksfd vksjNk dsmÙkj
dh vksj gS
] egkor [ kk¡ dh l gk; rk ds fy, i gq
¡p t k; sA bl l suk esa8]000 l okj] 2000
iS
ny cUnw
dph vkS
j 500 csynkj FksA uw
: í hu dq
yh dksbl l suk dk okds&vkuohl , oac[ ' kh
fu; q
Dr fd; k x; kA22 vfHk; ku esarhozrk ykus, oal S
U; dk; Z
okgh dsl w
{e fuj h{k.k rFkk vko' ; d
funsZ
' k dsmís'; l s' kkgt gk¡ Lo; aHkh 23 j oh&my vO
oy 1038 fg. ¼
10 uoE
cj 1628½dks
j kt èkkuh vkxj k dk i zcU/k ot hj [ kk¡ dksl kS
i dj f' kdkj dj rsgq
a
, Xokfy; j dh vksj py fn; k
vkS
j 18 t ekfnmy vO
oy 1038 fg. ' kq
Øokj ¼
3 t uoj h 1629 bZ
-½dks og Xokfy; j i gq
¡p
x; kA23
' kkgh l sukvksaus fuf' pr ; kstukuq
l kj cq
Unsy[ k.M esai zos'k dj vksjNk dh ?ksjkcUnh dj
ekj&dkV vkjEHk dj nhA egkor [ kk¡ [ kku&[ kkuk Xokfy; j gksrs gq
, vksjNk ds fdys l s 16
dksl dh nw
j h i j ^t kng* dLcsrd t k i gq
¡pkA [ kkus&t gk¡ yksnh uj oj dh vksj l svkxsc<+
rs
gq
, dMkj xk¡o rd] t ksfd vksjNk l s3 dksl dh nw
j h i j Fkk] i gq
¡p x; kA vCnq
Yyk [ kk¡ cgknq
j
dkyi h l s py dj bZ
j t ds fdys rd t k i gq
¡pk] t ks fd vksjNk l s 16 dksl dh nw
jhij
FkkA bl i zdkj ' kkgh l sukvksaus cq
Unsy[ k.M ea
s i zos'k dj Hkh"k.k l a
gkj fd; kA ; | fi cq
Unsyksa
usvi uh i w
j h ' kfDr l si zfrj ks/k vo' ; fd; k i j Urqoseq
xy l sukvksadk l keuk u dj l ds
vkS
j eq
xy l suk us l kjs i zns'k dks mt kM+MkykA24
tq
>kj fl a
g vi uh ' kfDr , oal k/kuksadh bl nq
nZ
' kk dks ns[kdj ?kcj k x; kA fo' ks"k : i
l sbZ
jt t S
l svt s; nq
xZi j eq
xyksadk vf/kdkj gkst kusl sml dh l kjh vk'kk, ¡ /kw
y esafey
x; havkS
j ml dk l kgl Hka
x gksx; kA fuj k'kk dh bl ?kM+
h esaml dh i ztk esaHkh ml dsfo#)
vl Urks"k QS
y x; kA bl dk eq
[ ; dkj.k ; g Fkk fd ml usvi usvuq
t gfj nso fl a
g dksvi uh
25
iR
uh ds l kFk vuq
fpr l EcU/kksads l Unsg esafo"k ns fn; k FkkA , slh fLFkfr esat q
>kj fl a
g
dsl Eeq
[ k bl dsvfrfj Dr dksbZpkjk u Fkk fd og eq
xyksadsl Eeq
[ k vkR
el ei Z
. k dj nsD; ksa
fd
116
x
i ztk dsvl g; ksx vkS
j eq
xyksadhl k/ku&l EiUurk , oamudhu`'ka
l rki w
. kZo n`<+l S
fud dk; Z
okfg; ksa
dks ns[kdj ml s , slk i zrhr gksus yxk Fkk fd muds fo#) l Qyrk i kuk vl EHko gS
A vr%
foo' k gksdj ml usl suki fr egkor [ kk¡ dkseè; LFk cukdj {kek; kpuk dh i zkFkZ
uk dh] fd ; fn
bl ckj ml dsnks"kksadks{kek dj fn; k t k; s] rksog ckn' kkg dk t hou Hkj HkDr cuk j gsxkA
ml dh bl i zkFkZ
uk i j egkor [ kk¡ rFkk vU; vehjksaus ml ds nks"kksadks {kek dj us ds fy,
l ezkV dks fl Qkfj ' kh i = fy[ ks] ft Uga
s Lohdkj dj rs gq
, ' kkgt gk¡ us t q
>kj fl a
g ds nks"kksadks
{kek dj fn; kA26
tq
>kj fl a
g dsi ru dsi ' pkr~' kkgt gk¡ usj fookj 23 t ekfnmLekuh1038 fg. ¼
8 i Qj oj h
1629 bZ
-½dks Xokfy; j l s vkxj k ds fy, i zLFkku fd; kA l ezkV ds vkxj k i gq
¡pus i j 15
Qj oj h 1629 bZ
- dks egkor [ kk¡ us l sok esamifLFkr gksdj t q
>kj fl a
g dks dksfuZ
' k ds fy,
i s'k dj usdh vkKk ek¡xh vkS
j l ezkV dh vkKk i zkIr dj ml ust q
>kj fl a
g dsxysesa: eky
Mkydj rFkk ml dsnksuksafl j ksadksvi usgkFkksaesai dM+
dj ml s, d vi j k/kh ds: i esa' kkgt gk¡
ds l Eeq
[ k i s'k fd; kA dksfuZ
' k vkS
j t ehcksl dh j Leksadks vnk dj us ds i ' pkr~t q
>kj fl a
g
usl ezkV dk , d gt kj eksgj sarFkk 40 gkFkh Hksa
V fd; sA t q
>kj fl a
g l s15 yk[ k #i ; k ; q
)
{kfri w
frZHkh ol w
y fd; k x; kA ; | fi ml dk 4 gt kjh 4 gt kj dk ea
l c rksi w
oZ
or~cgky j [ kk
x; k i j Urqml dsea
l c dsosru dscj kcj t kxhjksadksNksM+
dj ml dh reke t kxhjsat Cr dj
yh x; hat ksml us vi usi M+
kslh t eha
nkjksal scyi w
oZ
d Nhu yh FkhA ml s ; g Hkh vkns'k gq
vk
fd og 2000 l okj vkS
j 2000 i S
ny cq
Unsyksadksysdj nf{k.k esa' kkgh l sok dj sA bl i zdkj
tq
>kj fl a
g us ' kkgh vkns'k dk v{kj' k%i kyu fd; kA27
l ezkV usegkor [ kk¡ dkscq
Unsy[ k.M esat q
>kj fl a
g dsfonzksg dsneu vkS
j nf.Mr dj us
ds QyLo: i i q
j Ldr̀ fd; kA l ezkV us egkor [ kk¡ [ kkus&[ kkuk dks 3 j t c ¼
17 Qj oj h
1629 bZ
-½dks l ksus dh t hu l fgr [ kkl ' kkgh rcsys ds nks ?kksM+
ksavkS
j cgq
ew
Y; f[ kyvr l s
l Eekfur fd; kA bl dsvfrfj Dr nf{k.k dh l w
csnkjh ds l kFk&l kFk t gk¡ fd ml ds i zfrfuf/k ds
: i ea
saml dk i q
= [ kkus&t ek fu; q
Dr Fkk] ml sj kt /kkuh fnYyh dh l w
csnkjh Hkh i znku dh x; hA28
xzUFk funsZ'k
1-
QksLVj ] fofy; e ^vyhZVsªoYl bu bf.M;k* i -̀ 327
2- xS
j r [ kk¡] dkexkj gq
lS
uhêvkfl j st gk¡xhjh*] , f' k; k i fCyf' ka
x gkml ] cEcbZ
] 1978] i -̀ 67
3- ' kkguokt [ kk¡] l el keq
n~
nkS
yk êvkfl j &my&mej k*] , f' k; kfVd l kslk; Vh vkW
i Q ca
xky ¼
Hkkx&3½
] 1889&91 ]
i -̀ 385&86
4- ; d%
t oku&og l S
fud Fkst ksvPNsdq
y l sl EcfU/kr gksrsFksAog vi uhdq
yhurk] vkpkj&O
; ogkj , oafo' okl vkfn
xq
. kksadst kS
gj fn[ kkdj ckn' kkg ds[ kkl ?kq
M+
l okjksaesaLFkku i krsFksAvdcj dsl e; esa; g vgnhdgyk; sAvkt kn]
ekS
ykuk eks- gq
lS
u ^nj ckjsvdcj h*] ykgkS
j ] 1910] i -̀ 56
Unsy[ k.Mfoæ
5678910111213141516171819202122232425262728-
fLeFk] oh-, - ^vdcj n xzsV eq
xy*] vkDl QksMZ
] 1917] i -̀ 264
' kkguokt [ kk¡] mij ksDr i -̀ 386
eksrfen [ kk¡] eksgEen ' kjhQ ^bdckyukek&, &t gk¡xhjh* ¼
Hkkx&3½uoy fd' kksj i zsl] y[ kuÅ] 1870] i -̀ 517&18
eksrfen [ kk¡] mij ksDr i -̀ 535
^bfUr[ kkcst gk¡xhj' kkgh* ys[kd vKkr&i k.Mq
fyfi ] fczfV' kE;w
ft ; e] j ksVksxzkQi zfr vyhx<+l sUVj vkW
Q, Moka
LMLVMh
¼
Hkkx&6½
] i -̀ 451&52
eksrfen [ kk¡] mij ksDr i -̀ 547
dt ohuh] eksgEen vehu ^ckn' kkgukek* i k.Mq
fyfi d& j t k i q
Lrdky; ] j kei q
j ] i -̀ 116
' kkguokt [ kk¡] mij ksDr i -̀ 399 ¼
Hkkx&1½
HkDdj h] ' ks[kQj hn ^t j oj hrq
y[ kokuhu* ¼
Hkkx&1½
] i kfdLrku fgLVksfjdy l kslkbVh] dj ka
ph] 1961] i -̀ 74 j ke] ykyk
dsoy ^rt fdj rq
y mej k*] i k.Mq
fyfi &ekS
ykuk vkt kn i q
Lrdky; ] vyhx<+
l Dl suk] MkW
- cukjl hnkl ^fgLVªhvkQ
W' kkgt gk¡ vkW
Q nsgyh*] bykgkckn] 1973] i -̀ 77
[ kkQh[ kk¡] eksgEen gkf' ke êq
Urf[ kc&my&yq
ckc*] , f' k; kfVd l kslkbVhca
xky ¼
Hkkx&1½
] i -̀ 406
^ckn' kkgukek*] mij ksDr i -̀ 240
MkW
- l Dl suk] oh-i h- mij ksDr i -̀ 77&78
f=i kBh] j ke i zlkn ^j kbt , .MQky vkW
Q n eq
xy bEik; j *] bykgkckn 1956] i -̀ 32
[ kkQh[ kk¡] mij ksDr i -̀ 408&09
dt ohuh] mij ksDr] i -̀ 321&22
i zlkn] eq
' khnsoh^' kkgt gk¡ukek*] eS
a
dfeyu dEiuhvkW
Q bf.M;k } kjk i zdkf' kr] 1979 ¼
Hkkx&1½
] i -̀ 241
[ kkQh[ kk¡] mij ksDr ¼
Hkkx&1½
] i -̀ 407
^ckn' kkgukek* Hkkx&1] mij ksDr i -̀ 245
^' kkgt gk¡ukek*] mij ksDr i -̀ 53
MkW
- l Dl suk] oh-i h-] mij ksDr i -̀ 79
^ckn' kkgukek* Hkkx&1] mij ksDr i -̀ 246&48
dt ohuh] eksgEen vehu ^ckn' kkgukek* i k.Mq
fyfi d& j t k i q
Lrdky; ] j kei q
j ] i -̀ 248
MkW
- l Dl suk] oh-i h- mij ksDr i -̀ 79
lUnHkZ xzUFk&lwph
1234567-
rq
tq
dst gk¡xhjh& l ezkV t gk¡xhj&l j l ; ~
; n vgen [ kk¡ } kjk l Eikfnr , oai zdkf' kr] vyhx<+
&1864
t gk¡xhjukek & vcq
y gl u] uoy fd' kksj i zsl] y[ kuÅ 1898
ckn' kkgukek & eksgEen vehu dt ohuhi k.Mq
fyfi ] j t k i q
Lrdky; ] j kei q
j
fgLVªhvkW
Q t gk¡xhj & MkW
- csuhi zlkn] bf.M;u i zsl] bykgkckn 1930
fgLVªhvkW
Q ' kkgt gk¡ vkW
Q nsgyh& Mk-Wcukjl hi zlkn l Dl suk] l sUVªy cq
d fMiks] bykgkckn 1973
j kbt , .MQky vkW
Q n eq
xy bEik; j & i zks- j ke i zlkn f=ki kBh] l sUVªy cq
d fMiks] bykgkckn 1956
n eq
xy fdf' ki , .Mn uksfcfyVh& vkj- i h- [ kkslyk] bykgkckn 1934
118
x
1857 ds Lokra«; lej esa
xksj[kiqj {ks= (xksj{k izkUr) dk ;ksxnku
iznhi jko * ,oa yksds'k dqekj çtkifr **
bZ
- dk o"kZvk/kq
fud Hkkjrh; bfrgkl esavR
; Ur egÙo dk o"kZj gk gS
A oLrq
r %eq
fLye
dky esafo| eku vf/kdka
' k j kT; ek= Åi j h rkS
j i j gh eq
xy l Ùkk dksLohdkj dj rsFksA eq
xy
l kezkT; l sek= mudk l EcU/k dj nsus, oavko' ; drk i M+
usi j l S
fud l gk; rk nsusrd FkkA
osvi usvkUrfj d ekeyksaesai w
. kZ
: i s.k Lora
= FksA xksj[ ki q
j {ks= ds' kkl d vi usfof' k"V HkkS
xksfyd
fLFkfr ds dkj.k vU; {ks=ksadh vi s{kk vf/kd Lora
= FksA ; gk¡ ds j kt i w
r ksadk bfrgkl vi us
LokfHkeku , oaLora
=rk ds fy, fons'kh vkØe.kdkfj ; ksal s l nS
o la
?k"kZdk j gk gS
A va
xsztksads
vkusdsdkj.k i fj fLFkfr; ksaesai fj orZ
u gksusyxk D; ksfd bUgksa
us' krkfCn; ksai q
j kus<k¡psdksrksMu
+s
dk i z;kl fd; kA ft l dsdkj.k ns'kh j kT; ksadsl kFk gh l kFk ogk¡ dh t urk esa
sHkh va
xszth j kT;
dsfo#) vl a
r ks"k dh Tokyk l q
yxusyxh FkhA bl h vl a
r ks"k dk i zFke foLQksV 10 ebZ1857
bZ
- dks QkS
t ds fl i kfg; ksaesa' kq
: gq
v kA ft l us /khjs&/khjs i w
j s ns'k esaQS
ydj i zFke Lora
=rk
la
xzke dk : i ys fy; kA
1857
ft l l e; l Eiw
. kZmÙkj Hkkjr vkS
j eq
[ ; : i l smÙkj i zns'k esafczfV' k l j dkj dsfo#)
l oZ
= foj ks/k , oal a
?k"kZvkjEHk gks pq
dk Fkk] xksj[ ki q
j dk {ks= Hkh bl l s vyx&Fkyx u j g
l dkA Qyr%i w
ohZmÙkj i zns'k dsi w
j sxksj[ ki q
j {ks= esaO
; ki d : i l sLora
=rk l a
?k"kZdh ygj
QS
y x; hA
xksj[ ki q
j esal u~1857 bZ
- dsebZekg rd fcYdq
y ' kkfUr dk ekgkS
y Fkk] ysfdu vkt ex<+
dh l S
fud Nkouh esacM+
hl a
[ ; k esal S
fudksads j gus , oa, d= gksusl s xksj[ ki q
j ds i w
j s {ks=
1
esavkra
d QS
y x; kA
bl l e; xksj[ ki q
j esaHkkjrh; QkS
ft ; ksadh nks dEifu; k¡ ekS
tw
n Fkha
A , d dk eq
[ ; ky;
vkt ex<+rFkk nw
l j s dk eq
[ ; ky; l q
xkS
yh Fkk rFkk MCY; w
- fofu; kMZdks xksj[ ki q
j ds dfe' uj
dk vfrfj Dr dk; Z
Hkkj Hkh l kS
i k x; k FkkA2 l eLr xksj[ ki q
a
j okfl ; ksadh nf̀"V vkt ex<+vkS
j
QS
t kckn l svkusokysl ekpkjksai j yxh j grh FkhA l eLr mÙkj i zns'k esa
srsth dsl kFk Lora
=rk
i zkpk; Z
] egkjk.kk i zrki LukrdksÙkj egkfo| ky; t a
xy /kw
l M+
] xksj[ ki q
j
** i z
oDrk] i zkphu bfrgkl ] egkjk.kk i zrki LukrdksÙkj egkfo| ky; t a
xy /kw
l M+
] xksj[ ki q
j
*
1857
dsLokra
j {ks= ¼
xksj{k i zkUr½dk ; ksxnku x 119
la
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; kj gks x; sA42 fgj xksVk LVhej ds i S
uk
i gq
¡pus dsi w
oZgh duZ
y j ksØk¶V us e>kS
yh j kt k dh l suk rFkk fczfV' k l j dkj dh fl [ k , oa
xksj[ kk l suk dsl kFk cj gt ckt kj l sgksdj t kusokysekxZl si S
uk xk¡o esavk MVkA43 ml us
l Hkh Lora
=rk l sukfu; ksadksvkR
el ei Z
. k dj usds fy, 10 feuV dk l e; fn; k] ysfdu dksbZ
l sukuh mifLFkr ughagq
v k rFkk mUgksa
usbl dk t okc xksfy; k¡ pykdj fn; kA44 vUrr%30 t q
ykbZ
1857 dks duZ
y j ksØk¶V us vi us l S
fudksadks xksyh pykus dk vkns'k ns fn; kA bl Hkh"k.k
la
?k"kZesanksuksarj Q i ; kZ
Ir gkfu gq
bZ
A45
Lora
=rk l sukfu; ksaesal scgq
r l syksx Hkxk fn; sx; sfdUrqfl [ k l suk dsÅi j , dk, d
vkØe.k dj Lora
=rk l sukfu; ksaus mUga
safQj frrj &fcrj dj fn; kA fl [ k l S
fudksadks ?kk; y
gksrk ns[k j ksØk¶V usl a
rq
yu [ kksfn; kA bl dsckn ml usfgj xksVk LVhej l si w
j si S
uk xk¡o i j
ce o"kkZdj usdk vkns'k t kjh dj fn; kA46 unh dh rj Q l sHkh"k.k xksykckjh dsi fj .kkeLo: i
cMh
+l a
[ ; k esaL=h&i q
#"k rFkk cPpsekjs x; s( i w
j k xk¡o xksys l syxh vkx esa/kw
&/kwdj t y
mBkA fL=; k¡ vi uscPpksadksysdj b/kj&m/kj Hkkx j ghFkharFkk va
xzst l S
fud mUgsavi uhxksfy; ksa
47
dk f' kdkj cuk j gs FksA cgq
r l h fL=; ksadk ' khy Hka
x gks x; k] t ks fL=; k¡ vi us ' khy dh
j {kk u dj i kbZ
amUgksa
us ?kk?kjk unh essadw
ndj vi uh t ku ns nhA48 ft l LFkku i j fL=; ksa
us vi us i zk.kksadh vkgq
fr nh Fkh] ogk¡ muds l Eeku esaefUnj cuok; k x; k ft l s l rh ?kkV
dsuke l st kuk t krk gS
A ; g LFkku vkt Hkh ; gk¡ l q
j f{kr gS
AiS
uk xk¡o dsyksx vkt Hkh
124
x
vi us fdl h ' kq
Hk dk; Zdh ' kq
#vkr bl l rh ?kkV i j i w
t k&i kB ds ckn gh dj rs gS
A49
a
fczfV' k l S
fudksads } kjk i S
uk xk¡o i j yxHkx 45 feuV rd ceckjh , oaxksykckjh dh
xbZft l ds dkj.k ; g xk¡o HkLel kr gks x; kA50 cgq
r l s l sukfu; ksadks fxj ¶rkj dj t syksaesa
cUn dj fn; k x; k rFkk mu i j eq
dnespyk; sx; sft l dsQyLo: i dq
N dksvnkyr usdkysikuh
rFkk dq
N dks Qk¡l h dh l t k nhA51
iS
uk xk¡o ds bl ; q
) dh l cl s cM+
h fo' ks"krk ; g Fkh fd ogk¡ ds j kt i w
r t eha
nkjksads
l kFk l Hkh fgUnw, oaeq
l yeku i fj okjksaus, dt q
V gksdj fu%
LokFkZgksdj va
xzstksadsfo#) vkf[ kjh
ne rd l a
?k"kZfd; kA bl l a
?k"kZesamej ko fe; k¡ t ksgdhe Hkh Fks] uscgq
r gh egÙoi w
. kZHkw
fedk
fuHkkbZ
A bl xk¡o dh , d fo' ks"krk ; g gSfd i S
uk i w
j c i V~
Vh esaeq
fLye vkcknh T; knk Fkh]
eq
l yekuksa} kjk j ke&t kudhefUnj dk fuekZ
. k dj k; k x; k rFkk i f' pe i V~
Vhesat gk¡ fgUnwvkcknh
vf/kd Fkh ogk¡ fgUnq
v ksaus, d efLt n dk fuekZ
. k dj ok; kA orZ
eku l e; esa
sogk¡ fgUnw
&eq
fLye
, drk dk fel ky dk; e gS
A
iS
uk ds l rh ?kkV i j 1 fl rEcj 1997 dks' kghn Lekjd xzke i S
uk t ui n&nsofj ; k dk
f' kykU;kl rR
dkyhu eq
[ ; ea
=h l q
Jh ek; korh } kjk fd; k x; kA ysfdu ; g vR
; Ur nq
%
[ kn rF;
gSfd l u~1857 bZ
- dsi zFke Lora
=rk l a
?k"kZl sysdj 1947 bZ
- dsLora
=rk i zkfIr rd ; gk¡
ds ohj l i w
r ksaus vi uk l c dq
N U;ksNkoj dj fn; k i j Urqohj l i w
r ksadh ; g /kjrh vkt
Hkh i z'kkl fud mis{kk dk f' kdkj cuk gq
v k gS
A
xksj[ ki q
j l s39 fdeh- nf{k.k rFkk ck¡l xk¡o l s17 fdeh- nf{k.k esafLFkr xxgk dsj kt i w
r ksa
usHkh Lora
=rk l a
xzke esaHkkx fy; kA oLrq
r %xxgk pkS
j kl h xk¡oksadk , d l ew
g gSft l esagrok]
Mq
ej h] egnsb; k] ck¡l xxgk] dR
Fkkpd] gkVk] i k.Msikj] dq
l ekS
j k cq
tq
xZ
] i ' ki q
j ok bR
; kfn gS
A bl esa
a
j kt i w
r ksadh l a
[ ; k vf/kd FkhA ft l l e; va
xzst vf/kdkjh xksj[ kk l S
fudksads l a
j {k.k esa17
vxLr 1857 dksxxgk gksdj vkt ex<+dh vksj fczfV' k [ kt kusdsl kFk t k j gsFks] ml h l e;
i k.Msikj ds Lora
=rk l sukuh xksfoUn cyh fl a
g us ; g l w
puk Hksth Fkh fd va
xzstksadks xxgk
vkS
j cM+
gyxa
t dschp j ksddj [ kt kusdksyw
V fy; k t k; sA52 ; | fi xksj[ ki q
j dsukft e eq
gEen
gl u dh l suk ds vkus esa
s foyEc gksus ds dkj.k xxgk ds j kt i w
r ksaus fugR
Fks va
xztksavkS
j
53
xksj[ kk l S
fudksal s ekspkZfy; k] ft l esaxxgk ds yksxksadks Hkkjh {kfr mBkuh i M+
hA
HkkS
oki kj dsJhusr t eha
nkjksausHkh1857 dsi zFke Lora
=rk l a
?k"kZessava
xzstksal sdM+
k eq
dkcyk
fd; kA ft l l e; va
xzst HkkS
oki kj ?kkV l sj kLrk cnydj j kIrh unh i j ukoksadk i q
y cukdj
xksj[ ki q
j l svkt ex<+dh vksj fczfV' k [ kt kusdksyst k j gsFks] ml h l e; HkkS
oki kj dsJhusr
t eha
nkjksarFkk vkl &i kl dh t urk usbl [ kt kusdksyw
Vusdk i z;kl fd; kA ; fn ft yk eft LVsªV
1857
dsLokra
j {ks= ¼
fe- cMZus u; s ukoksadk i q
y ughacuok; k gksrk rks va
xzstksadh l Eiw
. kZl suk j kIrh unh ds
HkkS
oki kj ?kkV i j gh Mq
cksnh t krhA bl hfy, vkt Hkh j kIrh dsu; s?kkV dkscMZ
?kkV dsuke
l s t kuk t krk gS
A54
vxLr 1857 bZ
- dks eq
gEen gq
lS
u us fonzksgh l S
fudksa ds l kFk dIrkuxa
t ij
vf/kdkj dj fy; kA va
xzstksausbl si q
u%vi usdCtsesadj usdsfy, 40 l S
fud Vq
dfM+
; k¡ Hkstha
A
ysfdu bUgksa
useq
gEen gq
lS
u l sl a
?k"kZdj usdsct k; ml dk l g; ksx nsuk i zkjEHk fd; kA 1857
bZ
- dsckn t c ; g fczfV' k ' kkl u dsv/khu vk; k rksogk¡ dst eha
nkjksai j ; g vkjksi yxkrs
gq
, fd mUgksa
us Lora
=rk l sukfu; ksadk l g; ksx fd; k] mudh l EifÙk; ksadks gM+
i fy; k x; kA55
12
bZ
- dsi zFke Lora
=rk l a
xzke esaykj dsHkou fl a
g dseu esa
sva
xzstksadsi zfr Tokyk
HkMd
+ mBhA ml l e; e>kS
yh j kt nj ckj va
xzstksadk l eFkZ
d cuk gq
v k Fkk vkS
j og ns'knzksgh
dk; ksZ
aesafyIr FkkA vr%Hkou fl a
g us e>kS
yh j kt i j p<+
kbZdj ml s n.M nsus dk i z;kl
fd; kA bl dh l w
puk e>kS
yh dsj kt k mn; ukjk; .k eYy dksfey xbZ
A ml us va
xzstksal s l q
j {kk
dh ek¡x dhA56 nw
l j h rj i Q Hkou fl a
g dsusrR̀
o esa/kjesj dsfot ; cgknq
j eYy] Hkou fl a
g
dsi q
= xksiky fl a
g] cj Mhgk dsxksfoUn fl a
g] } kfj dk fl a
g] i S
uk dsBkdq
j fl a
g] f' koozr fl a
g]
i YVu fl a
g] f' kot ksj fl a
g] dq
¡v j fl a
g ds Hkrht s gfj fd' ku fl a
g] xksj[ ki q
j ds uk; c ukft e
eq
l jQ
Z [ kk¡ ds l kFk i k.Msikj fpYyw
i kj ds j kt k] cLrh ds f' koxq
yke fl a
g vkfn 25 fnl Ecj
1857 dks l ks
gui q
j ds i w
j c i ks[kjs ds nf{k.k rj Q ckx esavi us dS
Ei Mky fn; sA57
1857
bl l a
?k"kZesapw
¡fd Hkou fl g
a , oamuds l kfFk; ksadh i j kt ; gq
bZft l esaHkou fl a
g dk
l kFk l ksgui q
j ds ; q
) esavfgj kS
yh ds Jhukjk; .k n; ky dkuw
uxks t ks Hkw
ri w
oZl gk; d dysDVj
58
Fks] usfn; k FkkA vr%27 fnl Ecj 1857 dksgh ukjk; .k n; ky dkuw
uxksdsl kFk budk ?kj
rksi l s mM+
k fn; k x; kA ysfdu ; s va
xzstksadh i dM+l s ckgj j gsA59
ebZ1857 bZ
- dksQkS
t ds fl i kfg; ksal si zkjEHk gksus okys i zFke Lora
=rk l a
xzke dh
Tokyk /khjs&/khjs i w
j s ns'k esa
s QS
y x; h ft l dh yi Vksaus i w
ohZmÙkj i zns'k ds xksj[ ki q
j {ks= dks
Hkh vi uh fxj ¶r esaysfy; kA , d l S
fud fonzksg l si zkjEHk gksusokyk l a
xzke i w
j h vke t urk
dk fonzksg cu x; kA dq
N bfrgkl dkjksadk er gSfd bl fonzksg esadsoy l S
fudksarFkk mu
j kt kvksavkS
j t eha
nkjksausHkkx fy; k ft udh t kxhjksadksfczfV' k l j dkj usgM+
i fy; k Fkk] bl
fonzksg esavke t urk dh dksbZHkkxhnkjh ughaFkhA ysfdu ; g er mfpr i zrhr ughagksrkA
D; ksa
fd i w
ohZmÙkj i zns'k ds xksj[ ki jq {ks= esabl i zFke Lora
=rk l a
xzke esaft u yksxksaus Hkkx
fy; k] os fu%
LO
kkFkZ: i l s fczfV' k l S
fudksal s yM+
s ft udk , d gh y{; Fkk&^fons'kh nkl rk l s
vi us ns'k dks eq
Dr dj kukA*
10
126
x
dsi zFke Lora
=rk l a
xzke dh xksj[ ki q
j esa' kq
#vkr l Ùkkl h j kt k mfnr ukjk; .k fl a
g
usxksj[ ki q
j l svkt ex<+Hkstst k j gsfczfV' k [ kt kusl sHkjh ukoksadksyw
V dj fd; kA Qyr%
bl {ks= esafonzksg dh Tokyk t xay dh vkx dh rj g QS
y xbZ
A ft l esa
s Mq
ej h ds t eha
nkj
cU/kwfl a
g us vkt ex<+t k j gsfczfV' k [ kt kusdks yw
V fy; k rFkk [ kt kusdks xj hc t urk esa
c¡Vok fn; kA cU/kwfl a
g dh l Qyrk l sva
xzstksadksfpUrk gq
bZrFkk va
xzstksausbudk neu dj us
dk i z;kl ' kq
: fd; kA va
xzstksausl j nkj l w
j r fl a
g et hfB; k dh fu' kkunsgh i j cU/kwfl a
g dks
fxj ¶rkj dj Qk¡l h i j p<+
k fn; kA
1857
bl Lora
=rk l a
xzke esa#nziq
j dsl Ùkkl h j kt k] cU/kwfl a
g dsvykok ykj dsHkou fl a
g
us i S
uk ds i YVu fl a
g] f' koozr fl a
g] cj Mhgk ds xksfoUn fl a
g vkfn dh l gk; rk l s e>kS
yh
dsns'knzksgh j kt k dksn.M nsusdk i z;kl fd; kA i S
uk ds t eha
nkjksa
] fgUnq
v ksarFkk eq
l yekuksaus
bl Lora
=rk l a
?k"kZesafu%
LokFkZ: i l sfgLl k fy; kA i S
uk dst eha
nkjksausi S
uk xk¡o dsl eLr
ukxfj dksadks l kFk esaysdj va
xzstksadks dM+
h pq
ukS
r h nhA bl l a
?k"kZesai S
uk ds mej ko fe; k¡
us egÙoi w
. kZHkw
fedk fuHkkbZ
A bl ds l kFk gh ; gk¡ dh fL=; ksaus Hkh c<+
&p<+dj fgLl k fy; k
ft l dk i zR
; {k i zek.k vkt Hkh l rh LFky ds: i esai S
uk xzke esaLFkkfi r gS
A bl l s; g i zekf.kr
gksrk gSfd ek= l S
fud fonzksg l si zkjEHk gksus okyk l a
?k"kZ/khjs&/khjsvke t urk dk l a
?k"kZgks
x; k ft l esabl {ks= dh vke t urk us i w
j s euks;ksx l s fgLl k fy; k rFkk va
xzstksadks dfBu
pq
ukS
r h nhA oLrq
r %; g fonzksg nck fn; k x; k ysfdu bl {ks= esava
xzstksadks dM+
h pq
ukS
r h dk
l keuk dj uk i M+
kA
lUnHkZ
12345678910-
usfoy] , p-vkj-%xksj[ ki q
j , xt sfV; j okY; w
e XXxi] fMfLVªDV xt sfV; j vkQ n ; w
ukbVsMi zkfoUlst vkQvkxj k, oa
vo/ki `"B&188
va
l kjh] vgl u%Hkkjr dhi zFke va
xM+
kbZ
] i `"B&123&124
fl a
g] Bkdq
j i zlkn%ft yk xksj[ ki q
j dsLora
=rk l sukuh] i `"B&2
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %Lora
= fnYyh] i `"B&144
i k.Ms;] MkW
- j kt cyh%xksj[ ki q
j t ui n vkS
j ml dh{kf=; t kfr; ksadk bfrgkl ] i `"B&234&35
l Ùkkl hj kt k l si zkIr l k{; ksa
--] j k"Vªh; l gkjk] xksj[ ki q
j ] l kseokj 15 vxLr 2005 dk ys[k
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i `"B&303&304
ogh] i `"B&152
E;w
fVuhuS
j sfVo , u-MCY; w
-i h- vkxj k i -̀&16 ¼
j k-v-y½
xksj[ ki q
j ft ykf/kdkjhMCY; w
- i sVl Z
u } kjk12 t q
ykbZ1857 dksHkkjr l j dkj dsi kl Hkstkx; ki =%i zhE;w
fVuhj sdkMZ
l~
cq
dla
- 177] j k-v-u-fn-A
1857
1112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142-
dsLokra
j {ks= ¼
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&145
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&145
r=S
o
i k.Ms;] MkW
- j kt cyh%xksj[ ki q
j t ui n vkS
j ml dh{kf=; t kfr; ksadk bfrgkl ] 1946] i -̀&271
r=S
o
m-i z-fM-x-] xksj[ ki q
j 1987] i -̀ 302&303
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&304
nS
fud t kxj .k%7 fl rEcj 1997] i -̀&2
i k.Ms;] MkW
- j kt cyh%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&277
r=S
o] i -̀&278
Mq
ej hdksVZesai zpfyr t uJq
fr; ksadsvk/kj i j i zkIr t kudkjhdsvuq
l kj
i k.Ms;] MkW
- j kt cyh%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&273
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&144
r=S
o
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&372
xksj[ ki q
j dsdk; Z
okgd ft ykf/kdkjh} kjkcukjl dsdfe' uj dksvkt ex<+l s28 t q
ykbZ1857 dksfy[ kkgq
v ki =]
i= l a
- 37
usfoy] , p-vkj-%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&188&95
fl a
g] Bkdq
j i zlkn%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&1] 2
r=S
o
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&298&303
fl a
g] Bkdq
j i zlkn%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&2
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&348
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&333
fl a
g] Bkdq
j i zlkn%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&2
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&348
vksfjt uy Vsyhxzke l a
- 529 fnuka
d 9 tq
ykbZ1857] l -j s-#- y[ kuÅ
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&303
5 tq
ykbZ1858 dksxksj[ ki q
j dsdfe' uj l h- foa
xkfQYM} kjk fofy; e ew
j ] l sØsVj h, u-MCY; w
-i h- xouZ
esa
V dsi kl
Hkstk x; k i =] i = l a
- 135 ¼
l -j s-#- y[ kuÅ½
uj sfVo vkQ bosUV~
l bu xksj[ ki q
j %E;fw
VuhLi ksVZ
l ] 1857&58 , -fl -fl - ua
~
-471] i -̀&5 ¼
j k-v-y-½
r=S
o] i -̀&3&6
Qk-fM-, u- MCY; w
- i h- uj sfVo vkQ bosUV~
l Qkj xksj[ ki q
j ] n ohd , a
fMa
x] 28 Qj oj h1858 ¼
l - j s- #- y-½
fl a
g] Bkdq
j i zlkn%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&2
128
4344454647484950515253545556575859-
x
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&297&300
fl a
g] Bkdq
j i zlkn%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&2
uS
j sfVo vkQ bosUV~
l bu xksj[ ki q
j %E;fw
VuhLi ksVZ
l ] 1857&58 , -fl -fl - ua
~
-471] i -̀&5 ¼
j k-v-y-½
Qk-fM-, u- MCY; w
- i h- uS
j sfVo vkQ bosUV~
l Qkj xksj[ ki q
j ] n ohd , a
fMa
x] 28 vxLr 1857 ¼
l - j s- #- y-½
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&150
usfoy] , p-vkj-%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&229&34
ys[kd usLo; ai S
uk xk¡o dk Hkze.k dj dsogk¡ dsyksxksal st kudkjhi zkIr dhA
fl a
g] Bkdq
j i zlkn%i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&2&3
ft yk t t j sdkMZ: e xksj[ ki q
j ] Qkby l a
[ ; k 5] 1857&58] i -̀&12
mÙkj i zns'k fMfLVªDV xt sfV; j xksj[ ki q
j la
Ldj .k 1987] i -̀&38
r=S
o
Hkkjrh; bfrgkl l a
dyu l fefr i f=dk] l a
Ldj .k 1985] i -̀&133
mÙkj i zns'k fMfLVªDV xt sfV; j nsofj ; k l a
Ldj .k 1988] i -̀&284
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&297&302
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&297&302
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&300
fj t oh] l S
; n vrgj vCckl %i w
oksZ
) r̀] i -̀&301
egkR
ek xk¡/khdk oS
Kkfud fpUru %e' khuhdj .k dsfo' ks"k l UnHkZesax 129
egkRek xk¡/kh dk oSKkfud fpUru %
e'khuhdj.k ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa
vjfoUn foØe flag * iz'kkUr **
vkt ds ; q
x esa; U=ksa, oae' khuksadk bruk vf/kd i zHkko gSfd bl ; q
x dks gh vkS
| ksfxd
;q
x dgk t kusyxk gS
A vkfne ; xq l sorZ
eku vkS
| ksfxd ; q
x rd e' khuhdj .k mÙkjksÙkj fodkl
dh vksj vxzlj gS
A vkt vkS
| ksfxd l H;rk vi uk fodkl bl l hek rd dj pq
dh gSfd
u dsoy ' kkjhfj d oj u~ekufl d dk; ZHkh ; U=ksadsekè; e l sfd; k t kusyxk gS
A vkt O
; fDr
e' khuhdj .k ¼
vkS
| ksxhdj .k½dk i {k/kj gksx; k gSvkS
j tS
l k orZ
eku HkkS
frdoknh O
; oLFkk esafn[ kkbZ
Hkh nsj gk gSfd ' kkjhfj d Je l scpus dsfy, orZ
eku esaT; knk l sT; knk e' khuhdj .k dh
ckr Lohdkj dh t krh gSegkR
ek xk¡/kh bl i j Eij k dsfo#) FksA mudk fo' okl Fkk&cM+
si S
ekus
i j mR
i knu l sgh fofHkUu l kekft d vkS
j vkfFkZ
d nks"k mR
i Uu gq
, gS
A e' khuksadk mi; ksx euq
a
"; ksa
dks vkyl h cuk nsrk gSvkS
j og i fj Je l s drj kus yxrk gS
A e' khuksads mi; ksx l s fga
lk
1
dk foLrkj gksrk gSbl fy, xk¡/kh t h us Je dh egÙkk o i fo=rk dks LFkkfi r fd; k , oa
e' khuhdj .k dks Je dh egÙkk ds ekS
fyd ew
Y; ds i zfr?kkr ds : i esans[ksA
mUgksa
us dgk Hkkjr esavf/kdka
' k yksx , sls gS
aft Ugsafnu esa, d gh ckj [ kkdj l Urks"k
dj uk i M+
r k gSvkS
j mudsml Hkkstu esaHkh l w
[ kh j ksVh vkS
j pq
Vdh Hkj ued dsfl ok vkS
j
dq
N ughagksrkA gekjsi kl t ksdq
N Hkh gSml i j gesavkS
j vki dksrc rd dksbZvf/kdkj
ughagSt c rd fd bu yksxksads i kl i guus ds fy, di M+
k vkS
j [ kkusds fy, vUu ugha
2
gS
A vr%xk¡èkh us fy[ kk vFkZj puk , slh gksuh pkfg, fd fdl h dks Hkh vUu vkS
j oL= ds
vHkko dh rdyhQ u l guh i M+
sA3 l Ppk vFkZ
' kkL= rksl kekft d U;k; dh fgek; r dj rk gS
A
4
og l eku Hkko l sl cdh HkykbZdk] ft l esadet ksj Hkh ' kkfey gS
] i z;R
a
u dj rk gS
A bl fy,
xk¡/kh t h us vkèkq
fud vkS
| ksfxd vFkZ
r U= dks e; kZ
fnr dj us dk vkxzg fd; k] t ks e' khuhdj .k
l svfu; fU=r l k gksrk t k j gk gS
A mUgksa
usfy[ kk vkt t kst urk esamu ; U=ksadsi zfr , d
i kxyi u l k l kdkj gksj gk gS
] ft UgsaJe dh cpr dj usokyk crk; k t k j gk gS
] mul sJe
dh cpr rksgksrh gSi j ml dsdkj.k yk[ kksayksxksadh j ksVh fNu j gh gSvkS
j osj kg dsfHk[ kkjh
*
**
vfl LVsUV i zksQslj ] n' kZ
u' kkL= foHkkx] j kt LFkku fo' ofo| ky; ] t ; i q
j ¼
j kt LFkku½
' kks/kkFkh]Z n' kZ
u' kkL= foHkkx] j kt LFkku fo' ofo| ky; ] t ; i q
j ¼
j kt LFkku½
130
x
cu ds ?kw
e j gs gS
A5 e' khuhdj .k dh ykHkoknh i zof̀Ùk dks ba
a
fxr dj rs gq
, xk¡/kh us ekuk fd
ekuookn dksR
; kx dj dkj[ kkuksadk mís'; dherksa¼
ew
Y; ksa
½esaof̀) o /kul a
p; ek= j g t krk
gS
A l kezkT; oknh uhfr; ksadh vkykspuk dj rsgq
, xk¡/kh ; g ekursFksfd e' khuhdj .k dk fodr̀
Lo: i ] Hkkjr i gq
¡pk gS
A
xk¡/kht hdkse' khuhdj .k ¼
m| ksxokn½dsc<+
spj .k] ekuo l ekt dsvk/kkjHkw
r uS
frd vkn' kksZ
a
ds fy, l peq
p vfHk'kki ekyw
e i M+
sA muds vuq
l kj m| ksxokn vl a
[ ; i ki ksa, oavuFkksZ
adh
t M+gS
A mudk ; g vuq
Hko vi usns'k esaoS
nsf'kd m| ksxksal smR
i Uu dq
i zHkkoksai j vk/kkfj r gS
A
m| ksx dsfy, dkQh ek=k esadPpk eky vkS
j bl dsrS
; kj eky dsfy, cM+
k ckt kj pkfg, A
; fn vk/kq
fud i fj i zs{; esans[ksarksvfodfl r ns'kksadksmPp rduhd l EiUu fodfl r ns'k
ckt kj l e>rs gS
a, oaos vf/kd mR
i knu dj vi us mR
i kn vfodfl r ns'kksaesaMEi dj rs gS
A
a
bl dsfoi j hr vfodfl r ns'k vf/kdka
' kr%rduhd ¼
e' khusa
½fons'kksal si zkIr dj rsgS
aft l dsdkj.k
mudksdPpk eky] e' khuksadsdy&i q
t sZvkfn fons'kksal svk; kr dj usi M+
r sgS
] , oabl dkj.k
a
osvkR
efuHkZ
j cuusdsct k; fodfl r ns'kksai j fuHkZ
j gkst krsgS
A bl i zdkj vfodfl r ns'kksa
a
dk ' kks"k.k m| ksxokn dk , d vko' ; d va
x gS
A bl h ds l kFk l kezkT; oknh of̀Ùk] vkS
| kS
fxd
, dkf/kdkj] i zfrdYi j [ kusokysnw
l j sns'kksadsvkfFkZ
d , oaj kt uhfrd fodkl dksft Ugsaj kt uhfrd
rj hdksal sj ksdusdk nq
"pØ] mul smR
i Uu ckj&ckj dsdya
d , oa; q
) vkS
j l cdsÅi j ' kks"k.k
dj usokysj k"Vªksadh l ka
Ldf̀r d] vkfFkZ
d vkS
j t krh; Js"Brk dk gokegy [ kM+
kdj ' kksf"kr j k"Vªksa
dk uS
frd i ru dj us rFkk "kM~
; U= vkfn l c feydj l a
l kj dks i frr cuk j gs gS
A6
a
xk¡/kh cM+
si S
ekus i j mR
i knu ds dV~
Vj foj ks/kh FksA mUgksa
us dgk esjk Li "V er gSvkS
j
eS
abl s l kQ&l kQ dguk pkgrk gw
¡ fd cM+
si S
ekus i j gksus okyk l kew
fgd mR
i knu gh nq
fu; k
dh l a
dVe; fLFkfr dsfy, ft Eesnkj gS
A , d {k.k dsfy, eku Hkh fy; k t k; fd ; U= ekuo
l ekt dh l Hkh vko' ; drk, ¡ i w
j h dj l drsgS
] rksHkh mudk ; g i fj .kke gksuk gSfd mR
a
i knu
dq
N fof' k"V {ks=ksaesagh dsfUnzr gkst k; sxk vkS
j bl fy, forj .k dh ; kstuk esagesanzkfoM+i zk.kk; ke
dj uk i M+
sxkA nw
l j h vksj oghamR
i knu gks, oaoghaml dk forj .k gks] rksforj .k dk fu; U=.k
vi usvki gkst krk gSml esa/kks[kk/kM+
h dsfy, de xq
t kb' k gksrh gSvkS
a
j l V~
Vsdsfy, rks
fcYdq
y ugha
A xk¡/kh ekurs Fks fd t c mR
i knu vkS
j miHkksx nksuksafdl h l hfer {ks= esagksrs
gS
arksmR
i knu dksvfuf' pr : i rd vkS
j fdl h Hkh ew
Y; rd c<+
kusdk yksHk ughaj g t krkA
bl gkykr ea
s vFkZ
O
; oLFkk l s t ks vusd dfBukb; k¡ vkS
j l eL; k, ¡ gksrh gS
aog Hkh ughaj g
t k; sxhA ; fn vk/kq
fud i fj i zs{; esackr dj sarksxk¡/kh dk l hfer mR
i knu , oal hfer forj .kkR
ed
O
; oLFkk xk¡/kh ds vi fj xzg fl ) kUr dk gh , d : i gS
A vkt dh i fj fLFkfr esa t ul a
[; k
vR
; f/kd c<+j gh gS
A bl fy, mR
i knu dksvR
; f/kd c<+
kuk i M+
sxk] mR
i knu dsdsUnzh;dj .k dks
egkR
ek xk¡/khdk oS
j ksdus ds fy, xk¡/kh dh i nkoyh esadgsarks l kew
fgd mR
i knu ds l kFk fodsfUnzr forj .k dh
O
; oLFkk R
kFkk l eq
fpr l E;d forj .k dh O
; oLFkk gksA
xk¡/kh dsvuq
l kj vk/q
fud l H;rk okLro esal Pph l H;rk ughagS; g rksi S
' kkfpd l H;rk
gS
A;w
j ksih; l H;rk dsckjs esaosekursFksfd ; w
j ksih; yksx vPNs edkuksaesaj grsgS
A i gys
a
,d O
; fDr vi us; ksX; Hkw
fe i j Lo; a[ ksrh dj rk Fkk] vc , d O
; fDr cM+
sHkw
&Hkkx i j df̀"k
dj l drk gS
A i gysdq
N yksxksa} kjk ew
Y; oku ys[ku fd; k t krk Fkk] vc dksbZHkh dq
N fy[ kdj
t urk dk efLr"d nw
f"kr dj l drk gS
A i gys O
; fDr Lo; ads ' kjhj l s dk; Zdj rk Fkk vc
i zR
; sd O
; fDr e' khuhdr̀ gksx; k gS
A cVu nckusdh nsj gSfd gj dke rS
; kj gS
A bl l H;rk
esa ft l esa uS
frdrk ds fy, dksbZLFkku ugha gS
A xk¡/kh dk vk/kq
fud e' khuhdr̀ l H;rk dks
uS
frdrkfoghu crkus dk vfHki zk; oLrq
r %fdl h dk; Zesa' kjhjJe dk l E;d vuq
i kr u gksuk
gS, oa; fn e' khu } kjk cpsl e; dk l nq
i ; ksx ; fn t ufgr , oavkR
efgr dsdk; Zesayxk; sa
rkse' khu dk ; g mi; ksx uS
frd gSvU;Fkk vuS
frd gS
A bl dsfy, Hkkjr esadksbZLFkku ugha
gS
A xk¡/kh dk dguk Fkk fd HkkS
frd l H;rk , oal q
[ k&l k/kuksadsi hNsHkkxuk , d cq
j kbZgS
A ; fn
vkt dse' khuhdr̀ l ekt esans[ksarkse' khuksal sfu' p; gh l e; dh cpr gksrh gS, oauhjl rk
okys dk; ksZ
aesae' khu ds i z;ksx l s dk; Zdh dq
' kyrk c<+
r h gS
A bl fy, e' khu dh l hek dk
fuèkkjZ.k dj uk gksxkA dEI; w
Vj Va
d.k ys[ku esafuf' pr l e; dh cpr gksrh gSysfdu bl esa
ys[ku dh cgq
yrk , oays[ku dh xq
. koÙkk] nksuksafoj ks/kh fn[ kus okyh ckrksaesal a
xrrk ns[kuh
gksxhA
vkS
| ksfxd l H;rk dsrhozfodkl usekuo ek= dk t hou [ krj sesaMky fn; k gS
A vkS
| ksfxd
fodkl l s' kgj hdj .k c<+
k vkS
j vkS
| ksfxd cfLr; ksadk fuekZ
. k gq
v kA ysfdu m| ksxksaesadk; Zdj us
okys Jfedksadh n' kk cM+
h n; uh; gksrh pyh x; h ft l dk dkj.k e' khuhdj .k Fkk D; ksa
fd cM+
s
iS
ekusi j e' khuhdj .k l sj kstxkj dsvol j ksaesadeh vk; h vkS
j xj hch dksc<+
kok feykA ysfdu
e' khuhdj .k l s de f' kf{kr (Technicians/Diploma Holders) dksfV ds yksxksa ds fy,
vf/kd j kstxkj l f̀t r fd; s t k l drs gS
avkS
j bl i zdkj ds u; s j kstxkj l f̀t r Hkh gq
, gS
A
a
ysfdu ; U=ks|ksx dsckjsesa, d cM+
h fpUrk ; g gSfd ; U= l s mR
i knu rksrsth l s gksrk gS
vkS
j ml dsl kFk bl i zdkj dh vFkZ
O
; oLFkk vk t krh gSft l dksdksbZl e> ughal drkA ft l ds
cq
j s i fj .kkeksadks ml l s gksus okys ykHk dh vi s{kk T; knk t kuk t krk gS
A l Hkh pkgrs gS
afd
gekjs ns'k esadj ksM+
ksat oku yksx LoLFk l q
[ kh gksavkS
j vkè; kfR
ed nf̀"V l s mudk fodkl gksA
gekjs; gk¡ vHkh Hkh cgq
r T; knk gkFk csdkj gS
A ysfdu t c gekjk ckS
a
f) d fodkl gkst k; sxk
vkS
j gesaegl w
l gksxk fd gesa; U=ksadh vko' ; drk gSrc ge mudks vo' ; xzg.k dj sa
xsA
gesam| ksx pkfg, rks ml ds fy, m| eh cuuk gksxk i gys ge LokoyEch cusarks gesanw
l j ksa
132
x
ds usrR̀
o dh mruh vko' ; drk ughaj gsxhA , d ckj ge vfga
l d vk/kkj i j vi uk t hou
x<+ysa
] rc fQj ge ; U=ksadk fu; U=.k dj uk t ku t k; a
xssA
; U=hdj .k usm| ksxokn dkst Ue fn; k vkS
j m| ksxokn l sxj hch] csjkstxkjh] Hkq
[ kej h vkS
j
vl ekurk i ui h] bl rj g m| ksxokn l ekt esa vusd fodf̀r ; k¡ i S
nk dj rk gS
A vr%xk¡/kh
e' khuhdj .k l s i gys LokoyEcu okyh ckr dgrs gS
a vkS
j muds i w
oZ
orhZfopkjksa esa bl hfy,
m| ksxokn vfHk'kki ds : i esamHkj ds vkrk gS
A
xk¡/kh m| ksxokn dsf[ kykQ gS
ai j Urqekuoh; miHkksx dsfy, t : j h , oavk/kkjHkw
r m| ksxksa
dh LFkki uk dsi {k/kj FksA ysfdu osbu m| ksxksadk fuekZ
. k , oafu; eu j kT; ds fu; U=.k esa
j [ kus ds i {k/kj FksA xk¡/kh i w
. kZ
: i s.k e' khuksads fo#) ughaFksA os vfoosd vkS
j xS
j pq
fua
nk
rj hdsl svk; kfrr rduhd dsfo#) FksfdUrqxk¡/kh bruk Lohdkj dj rsFksfd dq
N cM+
sm| ksx
t : j gksa
] t ksvk/kjHkw
r vko' ; drkvksa, oavi uh mi; ksfxrkvksadsdkj.k t : j h gksa
A cM+
sm| ksxksa
ds l EcU/k esaxk¡/kh ds eq
[ ; fu"d"kZbl i zdkj Fks&
1-
eq
[ ; , oadsUnzLFk m| ksxksadk j k"Vªh;dj .kA
2-
vkS
| ksfxd mR
i knu ds dsUnz , d gh LFkku i j u cusa
A
3-
mR
i knu O
; fDrxr l a
xzg gsrqu gksdj l ekt l a
xzg dsfUnzr gksuk pkfg, A mR
i knu esa' kks"k.k
dk vHkko gks] ekuoh; Je dksmfpr i zfr"Bk i zkIr gksA Jfedksadksl eq
fpr ns; mR
i knu
ds vuq
i kr esafeysA
; gk¡ xk¡/khdsj kT; dhvo/kkj.kk dk l a
f{kIr mYys[k dj uk i zkl a
fxd gksxkA xk¡/khdk vfga
ld
j kT; vfga
l k vkS
j i ztkrkfU=d j kT; i ) fr dk l a
xBu gS
A ; fn O
; fDr dh LorU=rk i ztkrU=
dk l kj gSrksbl dh l q
j {kk vkS
j iw
. kZfodkl vfga
l k esagh l EHko gS
A7 xk¡/kh us; g Hkh dgk
8
fd vfga
l k dk i z;ksx dsoy O
; fDr gh dj l drk gSj kT; ugha
] bZ
' oj dk vi eku dj uk gS
9
bl dsvUrxZ
r l cy vkS
j nq
cZ
y l cdksfodkl dk l eku vol j feyrk gS
] i zR
; sd L=h&i q
#"k
10
vi us ckjs esa Lo; a fpUrk dj rs gS
a] buesa HkkS
frd vkfFkZ
d vkè; kfR
ed fofHkUu i zdkj ds
l k/kuksadk mi; ksx l Hkh ds l kekU; l q
[ k ds fy, gksrk gS
A l fg".kq
r k11 vkS
j /keZfuj i s{krk12
bl ds vko' ; d xq
. k gS
avr%vfga
l d j kT; dk y{; l cdks vf/kdre l q
[ k i znku dj uk gS
A
bl esaO
; fDr ds fodkl ds fy, vf/kd l s vf/kd l q
v ol j i znku fd; k t krk gS
] j kT; de
l s de ' kfDr vkS
j ncko dk i z;ksx dj rk gS
A
bu l Hkh fcUnq
v ksadksns[krsgq
, orZ
eku i fj i zs{; esaxk¡/kh dk eUrO
; ¼
j kT; fu; U=.k½mfpr
, oardZ
la
xr i zrhr gksrk gS
AtS
l s m| ksxksai j j kT; dk fu; U=.k gksuk dq
N l hek rd mfpr
egkR
ek xk¡/khdk oS
gS
A fut h {ks= dh dEifu; ksadk y{; l kekU;r%t ul sok dsfUnzr u gksdj vFkZ
dsfUnzr gksrk gS
A
t ul sok dh i zkFkfedrk f} rh;d gksrh gSbl fy, fut h {ks= dh dEifu; ksadh i zkFkfedrk vFkZ
, oat ul sok nksuksa dsfUnzr gksA
bl dsl kFk gh xk¡/kh , slh O
; oLFkk pkgrsFksft l l scM+
svkS
j NksVsm| ksxksadschp l eUo;
LFkkfi r gksA mudk ekuuk Fkk fd cM+
s m| ksx mR
i knu c<+
kus esarks l Qy gks t krs gS
ai j Urq
mR
i knu esavf/kdkf/kd yksxksadk l g; ksx i zkIr dj us esavl Qy j grsgS
A vr%cM+
a
s dkj[ kkuksa
l s l gh yksd j kT; dh l q
[ kkuq
Hkw
fr vl EHko gS
A D; ksa
fd t ks yksx pksVh i j gksrs gS
aos xj hc
et nw
j ksai j muds j gu&l gu ds rj hdksai j ft udh rknkn dkj[ kkuksaesapkj&i k¡p gt kj gksrh
gS
] ncko Mkyrs gS
avkS
j euekuh dj rs gS
AtS
a
l k fd vkt ds fodfl r vkS
j vfodfl r ns'kksa
ds m| ksxi fr et nw
j ksadk ' kks"k.k dj rs gS
A
a
dq
N fodfl r ns'kksads l UnHkZesa
] , oadq
N fodkl ' khy ns'kksads l UnHkZesaHkh xk¡/kh dk
eUrO
; mfpr l k i zrhr ughagksrkA D; ksa
fd ogk¡ xS
j l j dkjh l a
xBu ¼
, u-t h-vks-½dh l fØ; rk]
ekuo vf/kdkj vk; ksx dh LFkki uk] vUrj kZ
"Vªh; l a
xBu , oaehfM;k Hkh cky Jfed] L=h ' kks"k.k]
et nw
j ' kks"k.k vkfn ds fo#) vkokt mBkrs gS
A
a
t gk¡ rd e' khuhdj .k dk l EcU/k gSrkse' khu dk vkfo"dkj bl mís'; l sgq
v k Fkk fd
euq
"; dk dk; Zl j y vkS
j l gt gksvkS
j ft l l sdksbZl eL; k ughagksA i j UrqorZ
eku esae' khuksa
dk vU/kk/kq
U/k vkS
j vfoosdi w
. kZmi; ksx fd; k t k j gk gSft l dk i fj .kke gekjsl keuscsjkstxkjh
vkS
j l kekft d vl ekurk ds : i esagekjs l keus mifLFkr gS
A t gk¡ , d O
; fDr bl l s l q
[ kh
gq
v k oghavusd O
; fDr csdkjh l s xzLr gksus ds dkj.k Hkw
[ k l s ej us yxsA , d oxZe' khu
ekfydksadk gks x; k rks nw
l j k oxZvl gk; vkS
j ' kksf"kr gksdj t hus okyksadk gks x; kA t S
lk
fd xk¡/kh t h ds fopkjksaesai k; k t krk gSfd rduhd vko' ; drk dsfUnzr gksuh pkfg, A pw
¡fd
Hkkjr dh 80 i zfr' kr t ul a
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;a
x bf.M;k] 17-2-27
xk¡/kh] esjsl i uksadk Hkkjr] uot hou i zdk'ku] vgenkckn] 1947] i -̀ 74
;a
x bf.M;k] 15-11-28
gfj t u] 9-11-37
gfj t u] 13-11-24
MkW
- /khjsUnzeksgu nÙk] egkR
ek xk¡/khdk n' kZ
u] fcgkj fgUnhxzUFk vdkneh] i Vuk] i -̀ 82
gfj t u] 25-5-32] i -̀ 143
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x bf.M;k] 30-7-31] i -̀ 199
gfj t u] 14-7-46] i -̀ 220
136
x
10-
gfj t u] 27-5-37] i -̀ 143
11- ; a
x bf.M;k] 23-9-26] i -̀ 334
12- gfj t u] 22-9-46
13- ; a
x bf.M;k] 13-11-24
14- fj pkMZch- xz
sx] fQykW
l Qh v kQ bf.M; u bdks
ukW
fed Ms
oyi es
UV] uot hou i z
dk' ku] v genkckn
15- ; a
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16- gfj t u] 17-11-34
17- xks
i hukFk /kou] n i ksfyfVdy fQykW
l QhvkW
Q egkR
ek xk¡/kh] uot hou i zdk'ku] vgenkckn] 1962
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i k.Ms] dq
ekj i znhi] xk¡/khdkvkfFkZ
d , oal kekft d fpUru] fgUnhekè; e dk; kZ
Uo; u funs'kky; ] fnYyhfo' ofo| ky;
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/kou] , u-t h-] i kW
fyfVdy fQykW
l QhvkW
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ek xk¡/kh] uot hou i zsl] vgenkckn] 1957
dì ykuh] t s-ch-] xk¡/khfgt ykbQ , .MFkkW
V] l w
puk , oai zlkj.k eU=ky; ] Hkkjr l j dkj 1971
mUuh[kku] i h-ds-, u-] xk¡/kh, .Ml ks'ky psUt] j kor i fCyds'ku] t ; i q
j ] 1979
fl a
g] j ke t h] xk¡/khn' kZ
u eheka
l k] fcgkj fgUnhxzUFk vdkneh] i Vuk] 1986
oekZ
] Mh-i h-] i kW
fyfVdy fQykW
l QhvkQ
Wxk¡/kh, .Ml oksZ
n; ] y{ehukjk; .k i zdk'ku] vkxj k] 1986
fl a
g] n' kjFk] xk¡/khdksfouksck dhnsu] fcgkj fgUnhxzUFk vdkneh] i Vuk
9- Bandhophayaya J., Social and Political Thought of Gandhi, Allied Pub. New Delhi 1969.
10- Bodra B.John, Conquest of Violence: The Gandhi Philosophy of Conflict. Pristen University
Press, New Jersy 1958.
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fj i fj Je] Hkxoku dsva
' k l smR
i Uu i fo=] yksHk rFkk
nEHk l sl oZ
Fkk j fgr] fu"i ki ] _t ]q O
; kf/k fofueq
Dr rFkk i j e vkfLrd gksuk pkfg, A22 ; t eku
Z
oS
y{k.k; q
Dr vkpk; Zdk oj .k dj vky; &dYiukFkZHkw
fe dk xzg.k dj rk gS
A Hkw
fe pkj i zdkj dh
dgh xbZgS%1- l q
o.kkZ
] 2- l q
Hknzk] 3- i w
. kkZrFkk 4- /kw
ezk A bu pkj Hkw
fe; ksads y{k.k
v/kksfyf[ kr gS
A dnEc rFkk vt q
a
Z
u l sl a
PNUu] Ik'ksR
i y&foHkw
f"kr] ukfj dsy&ou] pEid rFkk pUnu
l s;q
Dr] yrk&xq
Yeksa l s vkPNkfnr] l kxj &l ehiLFk i zkxq
nd~
] fLuX/k] ' kkfUr rFkk i q
f"V i znku
dj usokyh Hkw
fe dks^l q
o.kkZ
* Hkw
fe dgrsgS
A ft l Hkw
a
fe dsi f' pe Hkkx esa; kfKd o`{k O
; ofLFkr
gksa
] Hkw
fe Hkw
/kj ds l ehi vkfJr gks] Iy{ko`{k&l ek; q
Dr gks] fu"i ko] dksnz] dw
yR
Fk&{ks=k&l a
;q
Dr
gks] nf{k.k esaczhfg rFkk /kkU;&{ks= O
; ofLFkr gks] i kfyr o`{kksal s; q
Dr gks] unh rFkk rhFkksa
Zl s
l efUor] {khjo`{kl eksisr] m| ku rFkk miouksal sl q
' kksfHkr] yrk rFkk xq
ohZl s; q
Dr] â| ] l kxj
dsl ehi fLFkr] l q
xU/k&dq
lq
eksal smisr Hkw
fe l q
[ ki znk gksrh gSvkS
j ml h Hkw
fe dks l q
Hknzk Hkw
fe
dh l a
Kk nh xbZgS
A foHkhrd , oavkd l s i w
. kZ
] vi zHkw
r ksnd] bZ
"kr~fLuXèkk Hkw
fe dksi w
. kkZHkw
fe
dgrs gS
A iw
a
. kkZHkw
fe dks i q
f"Vnk dgk x; k gS
A os.kq
ou&l a
dh.kZ
] Luq
fg , oa i hyq
ou l s vkoÙ̀k]
ys"ekrd] vdZ
cgq
yk foHkhrd l sl ekor̀] x/̀kz] ok; l ] xksek; q
] ; sukfnx.k&l a
;q
Drk] fuLrks;k] l ks"kjk
Hkw
fe dks /kw
ezk Hkw
fe dgrs gS
A i kn~
a
el a
fgrk us /kw
ezk Hkw
fe dks {k; nk dgk gS
A {k; nk Hkw
fe
fofo/k j ksxksR
i kfndk gksrh gS
A vr%
] vky; &dYiuk ds fy, ml dk R
; kx dgk x; k gS
A23
okLrq
Hkw
i j h{k.k ds Øe esai kn~
el a
fgrk us rFkk i k×pj k=kxe dh vusd l a
fgrkvksaus Hkh l kekU;
: Ik l s bl h i zdkj Hkw
fe ds pkj Hksn rFkk muds y{k.k crk; s gS
A24
a
Hkw
fe&i j h{k.k&Øe esaHkw
fe&i j h{k.k&Qykuq
l kj mÙkek] eè; ek rFkk v/kek : Ik l s Hkw
fe rhu
i zdkj dh dgh xbZgS
A vky; &dYiuk esav/ke Hkw
fe R
; kT; dgh xbZgS
A Hkw
i j h{k.k dk nw
l jk
25
ekxZcht koi u dgk x; k gS
A Hkfw
e dso.kZdsvuq
l kj Hkh Hkw
feHksn fufnZ
"V gS
A bl i zla
x esa
' osro.kZHkw
fe mÙke] i hr , oayksfgro.kZHkw
fe eè; e rFkk d`".ko.kZHkw
fe v/ke Hkw
fe dgh xbZ
26
gS
A ukjnh; l a
fgrk us czkã.kkfn o.kksa
Z ds fy, vky; &dYiuk ds fy, Hkw
fe&i j h{k.k dh
fof/k dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A ; | fi ukjnh; l a
fgrk usHkh l a
{ksi esao.kZ
] j l rFkk xU/k dsvuq
l kj
Hkw
fe&i j h{k.k dk l kekU; funsZ
' k fd; k gS
] foLrr̀ Hkw
i j h{k.k dh dsoy , d gh fof/k of.kZ
r gS
A27
Hkw
i j h{k.k dsvuUrj ^Hkw
fe' kks/ku* dk vol j vkrk gS
A ml Øe esai zFke okLrq
&Hkw
fe&i zos'k
dhfof/k dk funsZ
' k of.kZ
r gS
A okLrq
Hkw
fe esai zos'k dj usl si w
oZcfy i znku dj rsgS
A ; g cfy&i znku
a
; t eku dsl kFk vkpk; ZokLrq
Hkw
fe dh l hek i j dj rk gS
A bl vol j i j uÙ̀k] i s;] ea
xyi kB]
ea
xydq
EHk] nhi] èot &N=k; q
Dr czkã.kksadsl kFk Hkw
fe dh i znf{k.kk dj fn~
d&fofnd~LFkkuksaesacfy
i znku dj ] Hkw
r ] fi ' kkp] j k{kl ] xzg rFkk ukxkfn ds fy, cfy&i z{ksi dj rs gS
A cfy&i z{ksi ds
a
ckn eU=ksPpkj.ki w
oZ
d Hkw
r &fi ' kkpkfn dksml LFkku l svU;= t kusdk vkxzg fd; k t krk gS
A28
Hkw
r &fi ' kkpkfn dh eU= } kjk i zkFkZ
uk dj rs gq
, vU;= t kus dk vkxzg dq
N bl h i zdkj vU;=
29
Hkh ns[kk t k l drk gS
A ukjnh; l a
fgrk usHkh Hkw
r kuq
Kki u&: Ik esami; q
Dr Hkw
Z
r kfn dh okLrq
Hkw
fe
140
x
l s t kus dk vkxzgi w
oZ
d funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A30 bl i zla
x esai z;q
Dr eU= i kn~
el a
fgrk rFkk ukjnh;
31
la
fgrk esamHk; = l eku gS
A
Hkw
r kuq
Kki u dsvuUrj Hkw
fe' kks/ku dk vol j vkrk gS
A Hkw
fe' kks/ku&Øe esad"kZ
. k vko' ; d
gS
A i kn~
el a
fgrk esaHkw
d"kZ
. kkfn fof/k dk foLrr̀ o.kZ
u fd; k gS
A czkã.k ds fy, &i yk'k] {kf=;
dsfy, &U;xzks/k] rFkk fo' k , oa' kn
wzdsfy, &Iky{kA bl dsfodYi ds: Ik esal Hkh o.kksa
Zdsfy,
32
U;xzks/k rFkk fi Ii y dk ; q
x rFkk yk³ ~
xy dfYir gksuk dgk gS
A ukjnh; l a
fgrk us i zFker%
okLrq
Hkw
fe dsd"kZ
. k dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A ; gk¡ d"kZ
. k dsfy, nks' osr o`"kHkksadk i w
okZ
fHkeq
[ k mi; kxs
33
34
fufnZ
"V gS
A vusd i kŒpj k= rFkk oS
[ kkul &vkxe&xzUFk esad"kZ
. k fo"k; of.kZ
r gS
A l kekU;r%
l oZ
= i kn~
el a
fgrk dhrj g ghd"kZ
. k fo"k; dk o.kZ
u gq
v k gS
A i kn~
el a
fgrk usl Ird"kZ
. k dsvol j
esav/kksfyf[ kr : i esal kr eU=ksadk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
%
i zFke d"kZ
. k&ew
yfo| k ¼
¬ueks ukj k; .kk; ½
f} r h; d"kZ
. k&i q
#"kl w
Dr
r r̀ h; d"kZ
. keU=&fo".kq
lw
Dr
pr q
FkZ d"kZ
. keU=&fo".kq
xk; =h
Ika
pe d"kZ
. keU=&IkŒpksifu"kUeU=
l Ir e d"kZ
. keU=&Hkw
fel w
Dr 35
d"kZ
. k ds l e; fufeÙk i j h{k.k vko' ; d gS
A d"kZ
. k&dky esao`"kHk dk fufnzr gksuk vkfn
v' kq
Hk fufeÙk dgsx; sgS
A nq
a
fuZ
feÙk n' kZ
u gksusi j ] IkŒpksifu"kn~
&eU= l s' kr ckj ?k̀r dh vkgq
fr
fofgr gS
A36 Jhiz'ul a
fgrk usd"kZ
. k ds vuUrj ; t eku rFkk vkpk; Zds} kjk rR
dky mifLFkr
37
czkã.kksadks /ku nsus dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A
Hkw
fed"kZ
. k ds Ik'pkr~ml Hkfw
e dks [ kksnrs gS
arFkk ml s l e dj ds ml esaoS
".ko&oht ksadk
oi u dj rs gS
A t c ml esaQy vkrk gS
a
] rc Ik'kq
v ksads } kjk ml s pj krs gS
A bl fØ; k dks
a
38
xkspkj.k dgrs gS
S d"kZ
a
. k ds ckn i q
u%ml dk ' kks/ku dj rs gS
A fQj ml Hkw
a
fe dsl eR
o rFkk
eǹq
R
o dk i j h{k.k fd; k t krk gS
A i j hf{kr Hkw
fe dks l c rj g l s rky ek= [ kksnrs gS
Aiq
a
u%
ml h [ kksnh gq
bZfeV~
Vh l s [ kkr dks i w
. kZdj i R
Fkj rFkk ; f"V vkfn ds } kjk ml dks i hVdj
39
n`<+cukrs gS
A Hkw
a
fe ds eè; Hkkx esaokLrq
&i w
t k dk fo/kku gS
A40 okLrq
iw
t k i zk; %okLrq
iq
#"k
dh vkjk/kuk ds fy, dh t krh gS
A okLrq
iq
#"k ds i fj p; ds fy, fo".kq
la
fgrk esaof.kZ
r ,d
dFkkud dk i ; kZ
ykspu vi sf{kr gS
A bl dFkkud dsvuq
l kj okLrq
iq
#"k HkkxZ
o¼
vl q
j ksadsvkpk; Z
' kq
Ø½ds Losn l s mR
i Uu gq
v kA ml ds vt s; i j kØe dks vusd nsorkvksaus l fEefyr : i l s
l ekIr fd; k Fkk vkS
j ml si j kft r fd; k FkkA mu nsorkvksausml vl q
j dksi j kft r dj LoxZ
l suhpsfxj k fn; k FkkA og i j kft r rFkk LoxZl si frr vl q
j vc Ik̀Foh i j v/kkseq
[ k gksdj
oS
i Mk+ gq
v k gS
A41 ; g fo"k; bl l sfdfŒpr fHkUu : i esal kekU;r%bl h i zdkj l uUn&l a
fgrk esa
42
Hkhof.kZ
r gS
A , d vU; o.kZ
u dsvuq
l kj okLrq, d vR
; Ur Hk; a
dj j k{kl gS
A og 53 nsorkvksa
ds } kjk ekjk x; k FkkA okLrq
&; kx ds vol j i j mUghansorkvksadh i w
t k dh t krh gS
] vkS
j
43
mUgsacfy i znku dh t krh gS
A i kn~
el a
fgrk us l a
Ldr̀ rFkk ' kksf/kr Hkw
fe esacfy&i znku rFkk
lw
=i kr ds ckn l w
=&l fU/k; ksai j f' kyk l a
LFkkfi r dj ] v/kkseq
[ k] i zkd~
f' kj rFkk dks.k Hkkxksaesa
i kf.k rFkk i kn i zlkfj r okLrq
iq
#"k ds è; ku dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A l kFk&l kFk ml h okLrq
iq
#"k ds
vkjk/ku dk Hkh fo/kku fd; k x; k gS
A44 l kekU;r%okLrq
iq
#"k dk ; g : i ukjnh; l a
fgrk esa
Hkh of.kZ
r gS
A okLrq
i n&dYiuk&Øe esaokLrq
iq
#"k dsv/kkseq
[ k ysVs gq
, : i dk o.kZ
u mfYyf[ kr
gS
A45 bl i zdkj dsokLrq
iq
#"k dsnf{k.k&i k'oZesaokLrq
gkse fd; k t krk gS
A ; g okLrq
gkse LFkf.My
i j vfXu i zTofyr dj IkŒpksifu"kn~
&eU= l s?k̀r ds} kjk ' kr ; k l gl zvkgq
fr ds: i esal Eikfnr
gksrk gS
A bl dk i z;kstu okLrq
&'kkfUr dgk x; k gS
A ; {k] j k{kl rFkk fi ' kkpksads fy, Øe' k%
vi kekxZ
] ' keh rFkk [ kfnj ds} kjk gkse dk fo/kku gS
A bl i zla
x esaokLrq
ukFk dseU= l sHkh
46
gou fofgr gS
A
; | fi vky; &dYiu&o.kZ
u&Øe esauxj &; kstuk fo"k; d vR
; Ur i zR
; {k l EcU/k ughans[krs
rFkkfi vky; &dYiuk l si w
oZuxj &; kstuk , d vko' ; d fo"k; ds: i esaLohdkj dh t k l drh
gS
A vr, o oS
".ko&vkxe dsdq
N xzUFkksausf' kYi' kkL=h; xzUFkksadh rj g bl fo"k; dk i zfri knu
fd; k gS
A i kn~
el a
fgrk us xzkekfn dks prq
oZ
xZ
&Qynk; d crk; k gS
A ml ds vuq
l kj xzkekfn ds
v/kksfufnZ
"V y{k.k gS
&
a
1-
xzke&czkã.kksadk vkokl ] 2- vxzgkj&czkã.kksadk vkokl ] 3- i q
j &{kf=; ksadk vkokl ]
4- uxj &{kf=; ks
adk vkokl ] 5- i Ùku&oS
' ; ksadk vkokl ] 6- efydkdq
y&oS
' ; ksadk vkokl A
xzkekfn ds fy, dfYir Hkw
fe dks i k¡p HkkxksaesafoHkDr dj ckgj dh vksj l s, d Hkkx
dk R
; kx dj vof' k"V pkj HkkxksadksØe' k%1- czãk] 2- nS
o] 3- ekuq
"k rFkk 4- i S
' kkp Hkkx
ds uke l s fufnZ
"V fd; k x; k gS
A bu pkjksaesal s nS
fod rFkk ekuq
"k Hkkx esaf} t kfr; ksadk
47
xg̀&fuekZ
. k fd; k t kuk pkfg, A okf' k"Bl a
fgrk ds vuq
l kj ekuq
"k Hkkx ds ckgj vU; t kfr; ksa
ds fuokl dk Hkh fo/kku gS
A48 g; ' kh"kZ
&l a
fgrk us fo".kq
&vky; &dYiu ds fy, dsoy czkãHkkx
49
dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A i kn~
el a
fgrk usxzke dseè; Hkkx ¼
czãHkkx½esaIkŒpew
frZ
e; gfj dh LFkki uk
dk fo/kku fd; k gS
A bl sfoi zksadk i Œp; kx dgk x; k gS
A pkrq
j kR
E;&fl f) dsfy, prq
ew
frZdh
Hkh LFkki uk dh t k l drh gS
A vFkok l okZ
FkZ
&l k/kd , d ew
frZdh LFkki uk xzke&eè; esa
s dj
l drsgS
A50
a
ukjnh; l a
fgrk usxzke dseè; esavky; dksi zk³ ~
eq
[ k ; k i zR
;³~
eq
[ k gksuk dgk gS
A xzke
142
x
dh i w
oZfn' kk esai zR
;³~
eq
[ k nsoky; &dYiu fofgr gS
A dks.kksaesansoky; &dYiu fuf"k) gS
A Ikf' pe
fn' kk esai w
oZ
eq
[ k] rFkk xzke ds nf{k.k rFkk oke Hkkx esai zkd~rFkk i zR
;³~
eq
[ k nsoky; &dYiu
fufnZ
"V gS
A51
nsoky; &dYiu ds fy, d`"V rFkk ' kksf/kr Hkw
fe esavky; &dYiu l s i w
oZokLrq
i n nsorkvksa
dk vpZ
u vko' ; d gksrk gS
A okLrq
i n&dYiu&Øe ds l kFk&l kFk mu i nksaesafo| eku nsorkvksa
dk funsZ
' k ukjnh; l a
fgrk usfd; k gS
A okLrq
iq
#"k dk f' kj bZ
' kku dks.k esarFkk nksuksai S
j uS
_R
;
dks.k esagksrsgS
A LoHkkor%oke rFkk nf{k.k gLr Øe' k%ok; O
a
; rFkk vfXu dks.k esagksrs gS
A
bl rj g v/kkseq
[ k fLFkr okLrq
iq
#"k ds fofo/k va
x rÙkr~okLrq
i nnso ds LFkku i j fLFkr gS
A
tS
l s&okLrq
iq
#"k dsoD= esavki ] ân; esavki oR
l ] dkuksaesafnfr vkS
j LdU/k esai t Z
U; dgk
x; k gS
A
okLrq
iq
#"k dsnsgxr nsorkvksadh i w
t k dj fnXcfy i znku dj rsgS
A ml dsckn b"Vdk gkse
a
dk vol j vkrk gS
Aiq
u%okLrq
nS
or gkse dk fo/kku gS
] fQj bUnzkfn nsoksads fy, gkse dj rs
gS
A52 bl i zdkj okLrq
a
nsoksarFkk okLrq
iq
#"k dh vkjk/kuk dj vky; &dYiu dsfy, vU; i zfØ; k
dj rs gS
A
a
okLrq
nsokfn&vkjk/kuk dsvuUrj vky; &dYiu l si w
oZckyky; &dYiu dk funsZ
' k ns[krsgS
A
S
a
ckyky; l s og nso&efUnj foof{kr gS
] ft l esansoky; &dYiu vof/k esackyfcEc dh LFkki uk
dj ml dk vpZ
u vkfn dj rs gS
A i kn~
a
el a
fgrk ds vuq
l kj ckyky; &dYiu dk mn~
ns';
53
nsoky; &fuekZ
. k&dky esanS
R
; ] nkuo rFkk j k{kl ksadsminzo dh ' kkfUr gS
A LFkkoj fcEc vFkok
nsoky; dst h.kZgksusi j ckyky; &dYiu dk vol j vkrk gS
A dfYir ckyky; esacky&fcEc
dh LFkki uk dj vky; ds t h.kksa
Z
) kj&Ik; Z
Ur ml h cky&fcEc ea
s Hkxonkjk/kuk dj rs gS
A ukjnh;
a
la
fgrk usckyky; &dYiu dsdq
N fufeÙk crk; s gS
A ; | fi ukjnh; l a
a
fgrk usde&l s&de , d
gkFk rFkk vf/kd&l s&vf/kd nl gkFk ds ckyky; dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
] fQj Hkh i kn~
el a
fgrk us
l kr gkFk] i k¡p gkFk vFkok rhu gkFk ds ckyky; &dYiu dk fo/kku fd; k gS
A54
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk esaHkh bl h i zdkj rhu rj g dsvky; ksadk funsZ
' k fd; k x; k gS
A ; gk¡ f' kyk
rFkk b"Vdk l s fufeZ
r vky; dks l a
fpr] nk#e; vky; dks vl a
fpr rFkk e.̀e; vky; dks
55
mil a
fpr dgk x; k gS
A
ryksadsvk/kkj i j ckyky; dsv/ksfyf[ kr Hkkx dgsx; sgS
%, dry i zkl kn esa1- i kn]
a
2- i z
Lrj ] 3- xzhok] 4- f' k[ kj rFkk 5- Lrw
fi A f} ry vky; esa& 1- vf/k"Bku] 2- pj .k]
3- i z
Lrj ] 4- dw
V] 5- ' kkyk] 6- l a
LFkku] 7- i Œt j ] 8- i zLrj ] 9- osnh] 10- xzhok]
11- f' k[ kj rFkk 12- Lrw
A f=ry vky; l s} kn' k rykof/kd vky; esa
%1- miku] 2- t xrh]
oS
3-
dq
eq
n] 4- i fV~
Vdk] 5- okt u] 6- osfndk] 7- pj .k] 8- ga
l ekyk] 9- di ksr]
56
11- i z
frosfndk] 12- d.kZrFkk 13- f' k[ kjA
10-
i zfr]
ukjnh; l a
fgrk usvR
; Ur l a
f{kIr rFkk l kekU; : i esansoky; ds64 Hksn dgsgS
A ; gk¡
a
dsoy l a
[ ; k dk funsZ
' k ns[krsgS
A vky; dsfofo/k ukeksarFkk y{k.kksadk funsZ
a
' k ; gk¡ ughans[krsA57
i j i kn~
el a
fgrk us l a
f{kIr y{k.k&funsZ
' ki w
oZ
d vky; ksa ds uke fxuk; sa gS
A ogk¡ dgk x; k gS
&
^^vkuUR
; kr~rr~i zHksn&uke~
&fdfŒpnso i zn' ; Z
r s** vFkkZ
r ~foekuksads ¼
nsoky; ½ds Hksn vuUr gS
A
a
bl i zdkj ; s vky; l a
[ ; k esa 51 dgs x; s gS
A HkkxZ
a
o&l a
fgrk us Hkh dq
N vky; ksadk
v/kksfyf[ kr : i esao.kZ
u fd; k gS
A%1- es#] 2- eUnj ] 3- dS
ykl ] 4- foekuUNUn] 5- uUnuk]
6- l eq
nz] 7- i n~
e] 8- o`"k] 9- x#M+
] 10- ufUno/kZ
u] 11- dq
Œt j ] 12- xq
gj kt ] 13- fl Eg]
14] l oZ
r ksHknz] 15- ?kV] 16- ga
l ] 17- oÙ̀k] 18- prq
"dks.k] 19- ' kksM'kkl z 20- v"Vkl zA58
bl i zdkj ; gk¡ 20 i zdkj ds vky; ksa dk dsoy uke&funsZ
' k ns[krs gS
A ekdZ
a
. Ms;&l a
fgrk us
v/kksfyf[ kr foeku&Hksn dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
%1- l kS
eq
[ ; ] 2- i koZ
r ] 3- efUnj ] 4- l kS
"Bo]
5- dY; k.k] 6- l q
n' kZ
u] 7- l e³ ~
xy] 8- ukukefUnj ] 9- bUnq
Hknz] 10- Hknzd] 11- l kS
Hkfnzd]
59
12- =S
yksD; ] 13- l w
;Z
dkUr] 14- egsUnz] 15- foey] 16- pUnzdkUr rFkk 17- LofLrd! bu
l =g foekuksadk ekdZ
. Ms;&l a
fgrk us uker%funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A
S
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk esai zk; %17 rj g dsfoekuksadk funsZ
' k fd; k x; k gS
A bu foekuksadsuke
l kekU;r%ogh gS
] t ksi kn~
a
el a
fgrk esafufnZ
"V foekuksadsA60 Jhiz'u&l a
fgrk usbu mi; q
Dr foekuksa
Z
dsy{k.k dk funsZ
' k Hkh fd; k gS
A bl dsvfrfj Dr bZ
' oj l a
fgrk usHkh foekuksadsHksn dk funsZ
'k
fd; k gS
A61 l uUn&l a
fgrk esafoekuksadsckjg Hksn dgsx; sgS
] i j ; gk¡ Hkh ukjnh; l a
a
fgrk dh
rj g dsoy l a
[ ; k&funsZ
' k ns[krsgS
A vky; ksadsfofo/k ukeksadk funsZ
a
' k ; k vkS
j dq
N vf/kd o.kZ
u
ughans[krsA Jhdj kfn dgdj dsoy , d dk uke&funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A62 fo"oDl su&l a
fgrk usefUnj ]
63
fu"k/k] ukxj ] nzkfoM+rFkk cslj ds: i esai k¡p rj g dsvky; crk; sgS
A ; gk¡ budsy{k.k
a
Hkh dgs x; s gS
A oS
a
[ kkul kxe&xzUFkksaus Hkh vky; ds fofo/k Hksnksadk o.kZ
u crk; k gS
] ft uesa
64
65
66
foekukpZ
udYi ] l ew
ÙkkZ
pZ
ukf/kdkj ] rFkk dk'; i &Kkudk.M dk mYys[k fd; k t k l drk gS
A
nsoky; &dYiu&Øe esai zFkes"Vdk&U;kl , d egR
oi w
. kZva
x gS
A vr%i kŒpj k=xe dsvusd
67
xzUFkksausbl fo"k; dk foospu fd; k gS
A Jhiz'ul a
fgrk usi zFkes"Vdk dh t xg êw
ys"VdkU;kl *
' kCn dk i z;ksx fd; k gS
A oLrq
r %ew
y b"Vdk ; k i zFkes"Vdk dsvk/kkj i j gh rksl Eiw
. kZnsoky;
dh fLFkfr fuHkZ
j dj rh gS
A cgq
r gh l ko/kkuh ds l kFk oS
".ko&vkxe&xzUFkksaus i zFkes"VdkU;kl &
fof/k dk o.kZ
u fd; k gS
A i zFkes"VdkU;kl &Øe esagh xHkZ
U;kl dk Hkh vol j vkrk gS
A ' ka
dq
&LFkki u
68
vkBksafn' kkvksaesafd; k t krk gS
A bl Øe esav"Vk{kj eU= ; k } kn' kk{kj&eU=k dsi z;ksx dk
144
x
funsZ
' k fd; k x; k gS
A vuUrj vi j kg~
S
. k esapkj b"Vdk, ¡ mu j s[kkvksai j LFkkfi r dj rsgS
Ai q
a
u%
ckjg] vkB ; k pkj b"Vdkvksadk U;kl fofgr gS
A b"VdkU;kl vkXus; dks.k l s vkjEHk dj
bUnz fn' kk&i ; Z
Ur fd; k t krk gS
A t gk¡ rd i zFkes"VdkU;kl ds LFkku dk l EcU/k gS
] og } kj
dsnf{k.k Hkkx esagksuk dgk gS
A b"VdkU;kl dsvol j esadq
N ' kq
Hkk'kq
Hk&i j h{k.k dk Hkh funsZ
'k
ns[krs gS
A bl i j h{k.k ds fy, ' kq
a
Dy i q
"i ; k ykt k dk fuoZ
i u dj rs gS
] vkS
a
j ml ds vkoÙkZ
dk i j h{k.k dj rsgS
A nf{k.kkoÙkZfuoZ
a
i u ' kq
Hk rFkk okekoÙkZfuoZ
i u v' kq
Hk dgk x; k gS
A v' kq
Hk
l w
p uk gksus i j ' kkfUr d s fufeÙk i z.ko t i d k funs
' k fd ; k x; k gS
Z
A69 bl i z
la
x ea
sai kn~
el a
fgrk
us dsoy bruk gh dgk gSfd ' kq
Hk fufeÙk gksusi j fl f) i zkIr gksrh gSrFkk fufeR
r v' kq
Hk
gksusl s ' kkfUr dk vkpj .k fd; k t kuk pkfg, A70 b"VdkU;kl ds Ik'pkr~i q
"i rFkk v{kr&i z{ksi
dj rsgS
] iq
a
u%xÙkZdksi w
. kZdj rsgS
A xÙkZ
a
iw
frZdsfy, ukjnh; l a
fgrk us{ks=t eǹ~rFkk i kn~
el a
fgrk
71
usi q
. ; rhFkZ
] ' kkys; vFkok dsnkj dh ef̀Ùkdk l sxÙkZ
iw
fÙkZdk foèkku dgk gS
A b"Vdk rFkk dk"B
l s dfYir gksus okys vky; esab"Vdk dks i zFkes"Vdk : i esaxzkg~
; dgk x; k gS
A72
i zFkes"Vdk&U;kl dsckn vky; &xHkZ
U;kl dk vol j vkrk gS
A ; g xHkZ
U;kl l Hkh dY; k.ksPNq
yksxksadksdj uk pkfg, A ft l i zdkj euq
"; kfn i zkf.k; ksadst hou dsfy, xHkkZ
èkku&l a
Ldkj l oZ
Fkk
vko' ; d rFkk vi sf{kr gksrk gS
] ml h i zdkj vky; dh l Qyrk ds fy, Hkh xHkkZ
èkku vR
; Ur
vko' ; d gksrk gS
A bl fo"k; dk fo' kn foospu i kn~
el a
fgrk] fØ; k i kn ds NBoa
s vè; k; esa
ns[k l drsgS
A bl xHkZ
a
U;kl &i zla
x esagkse&fof/k Hkh vko' ; d dgh xbZgS
A xHkZ
gkse dksl oZ
dken
dgk x; k gS
A } kn' kk{kj&eU= rFkk v"Vk{kj&eU=k l svV~
BkbZ
l ckj ; k vkB ckj fry] ?k̀r rFkk
e/kql sgkse dj rsgS
A ml dsckn ^¬ cht sH;%Lokgk* vkfn eU=ksal sckjg ckj vkgq
a
fr i znku
dj rsgS
A vUrr%xHkZ
a
Hkkt u dseè; vkT; &i z{ksi dj bl gou dksl ekIr dj rsgS
A73 bl i zdkj
a
xHkk/Zkkuk³ ~
&gkse dsvuUrj xHkZ
U;kl dk vol j vkrk gS
A bl dsfy, dq
N nzO
; ksadk funsZ
' k fd; k
x; k gS
A xHkZ
U;kl dk l e; j kf=dky crk; k x; k gS
A74 xHkZ
U;kl ³ ~
&gkse&l Eiknu dsvUrj nsf'kd
vf/kokfl r xHkZ
i kr l sysdj v"Vk{kj eU= dkst i rk gq
v k] gfj dk Lej .k dj rk gq
v k ^l i oZ
r
ouknsoh* bR
; kfn eU=i kB dj rk gS
A iq
u%
^^l oZ
Hkw
r ky; s nsfo i oZ
r Lr uef.Mr sA
l eq
nzol us ekr fj ea xHkZl ekJe; AA**
bl eU= ds mPpkj.k ds l kFk i w
oksZ
Dr nzO
; ksal s ; q
Dr xHkZ
Hkkt u dks xÙkZesaj [ kdj xÙkZ
dks xksew
= l s i fj Iyq
r dj rk gS
A75 ; gk¡ l kfnz}hi l eq
nz&Hkw
e.My&i F̀oh nsoh dh _rq
&Lukrk L=h
ekudj rFkk vi us dks l okZ
Hkj.kHkw
f"kr ds'ko l e>dj vky; kfn ds l kQY; ds fy, i F̀oh esa
xHkkè
Zkku dk foèkku fd; k x; k gS
A76 ukjnh; l a
fgrk usxHkZ
i k= ds vfèkokl dh ppkZughadh
gS
] i j i kn~
el a
fgrk usxHkZ
i k= dsvf/kokl u dk rFkk rr~
i z;q
Dr gkse dk Li "V o.kZ
u fd; k gS
A77
oS
bl i zdkj fofgr ; g xHkZ
U;kl &fØ; k oS
".ko&l Eiznk; dsvky; &fuekZ
. k&Øe esa, d egÙoi w
. kZva
x
dgh t k l drh gS
A i kŒpj k=kxe dsvusd xzUFkksadsl kFk&l kFk oS
[ kkul kxe dsHkh vusd xzUFkksa
us bl fo"k; dk foospu fd; k gS
A78
xHkZ
U;kl dsIk'pkr~i zkl kn&dYiuk dk vol j vkrk gS
A ukjnh; l a
fgrk us, dgLr i fj ek.k
l svkjEHk dj l kSgkFk i fj ek.kksfPNr̀] , dHkw
fe ¼
, dry½l sl IrHkw
fe ¼
l Irry½
&i ; Z
Ur vky; &dYiu
79
dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A i kn~
el a
fgrk esa , d Hkw
fe l s } kn' k&Hkw
fe&Ik; Z
Ur vky; &dYi u dk
fo/kku dgk gS
A80 vxLR
; &l a
fgrk us nks vk/kkjksai j vky; ds Hksn dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A
g; ' kh"kZrFkk of' k"B l a
fgrk us Hkh vky; dk mPNªk; rFkk rykuq
xq
. k&foHkkx mi; q
Dr : i
Z
l sgh dgk gS
A81 i zkdkjksarFkk } kjksadh l a
[ ; k dsvuq
: i Hkh i zkl kn dsHksn gksrsgS
A bl Hksn
a
82
ds vk/kkj i j fo".kq
fryd&l a
fgrk us 11 i zdkj ds i zkl knksadk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A oS
[ kkul kxe
esa, dHkw
fe&vky; dksv/ke] f} Hkfw
e&vky; dkseè; e rFkk f=Hkw
fe&vky; dksmÙke vky; gksuk
dgk gS
A vkjk/kd ds l keF; kZ
uq
l kj mÙkeksÙke vky; } kn' kry rd dfYir gks l drk gS
A83
i kn~
el a
fgrk ds foLrkj dh vi s{kk f} xq
. k mR
l s/k ds vuq
xq
. kry dk gksuk crk; k gS
A l kFk gh
bl usvkjkèkd dsfoÙkkuq
l kj vky; dk mPNªk; gksuk dgk gS
A } kn' kry&vky; esav/kksfyf[ kr
: Ik l s nsoksadh LFkkIkuk dk fo/kku gS
%
ukjnh; l a
fgrk usoÙ̀kkfn Lo: i dsvk/kj i j pkj i zdkj dsvky; ksadk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A
; spkj v/kksfufnZ
"V gS
%1- oÙ̀k] 2- prq
a
j l z] 3- vk; roÙ̀k] 4- vk; r prq
j l zA oÙ̀k&vky; &dYiu
l s l oZ
ykHk] prq
j l z vky; &dYiu l s okfŒNrkFkZ
&ykHk] oÙ̀kk; r&vky; &fuekZ
. k l s eks{k rFkk
prq
j l zk; r vky; &dYiu l s' kkfUr rFkk i q
f"V dh i zkfIr gksrh gS
A84 i kn~
el a
fgrk usHkhpkj vky; ksa
dk i zk; %bl h i zdkj funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A i kŒpj k=kxe&xzUFkksaus Hkh fcEc dh fLFkfr ds vuq
l kj
vky; &dYiu dk fo/kku fd; k gS
A85
vky; esavUrr%f' k[ kk?kV&LFkki uk rFkk ml ds fy, Lrw
fi &foU;kl dk vol j vkrk gS
A
i j ml l s Hkh i gys ew
/ksZ
"VdkU;kl dk Øe vkrk gS
A vr%i gys ; gk¡ ew
/ksZ
"VdkU;kl ds fo"k;
dk l kekU; fopkj dj ml dsIk'pkr~Lrw
fi U;kl i w
oZ
d f' k[ kk?kV dh ppkZgksxhA ew
/ksZ
"VdkU;kl &fofèk
i kŒpj k=kxe rFkk oS
[ kkul kxe dsvusd xzUFkksaesaof.kZ
r gS
A foekukpZ
udYi usew
/ksZ
"Vdk dsfy,
86
^l ekIrs"Vdk* ' kCn dk i z;ksx fd; k gS
A
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk rFkk fo"oDl su&l a
fgrk us ew
/ksZ
"VdkU;kl &fØ; k dks vky; &dYiu&Øe esaml h
i zdkj egÙoi w
. kZekuk gS
] ft l i zdkj i zFkes"VdkU;kl dksA87 ew
/ksZ
"VdkU;kl dsvuUrj Lrw
fi &dhy
dk LFkki u dj rs gS
A Lrw
a
fi ds vk/kjHkw
r dhyfo' ks"k dks Lrw
fi &dhy dgrs gS
A i kŒpj k=kxe ds
a
vusd xzUFkksaesal a
{ksi vFkok foLrkj dsl kFk bl fo"k; dk o.kZ
u ns[krsgS
A88 dk'; i &f' kYi' kkL=
a
146
x
rFkk f' kYij R
u usbl dsfy, Lrw
fi &n.M l a
Kk nh gS
A Lrw
fi &dhyksadk vfèkokl u fd; k t krk gS
A
89
bl Lrw
fi &foU;kl &Øe esaHkh vUr esaxq
#nf{k.kkfn dk funsZ
' k fd; k x; k gS
A
Lrw
fi U;kl dsckn f' k[ kk?kV&LFkki u dk vol j vkrk gS
A foeku dsÅi j f' k[ kk?kV dk Lo: i
v/kksfyf[ kr : Ik l sfofgr gS
A oÙ̀k rFkk prq
j l zvky; i j l eoÙ̀k f' k[ kk?kV] oÙ̀kk; r&vky; i j
prq
j l z f' k[ kk?kV] prq
j l zk; r i zkl kn i j ; Fkk'kksHk f' k[ kk?kkV fufeZ
r gksrs gS
A prq
a
j l z vky; dks
x#M&
+fpg~
uksal syka
fNr dj rsgS
A oÙ̀k rFkk oÙ̀kk; r&vky; dsva
a
xksadks' kq
Hk okguksaesafpfg~
ur
dj rs gS
A90 i kn~
a
el a
fgrk l s rFkk dq
N vU; i kŒpj k=&xzUFkksaus ^f' k[ kk?kV* dh t xg ^f' k[ kkdq
EHk*
91
' kCn dk i z;ksx fd; k gS
A t gk¡ rd f' k[ kk?kV ds mR
i knu&nzO
; dk i z'u gS
] og Lo.kZ
] j t r]
rkez] fi Ùky vFkok ef̀Ùkdk dgk x; k gS
A Lrw
fi U;kl dsIk'pkr~rq
j Ur gh f' k[ kk?kV dh LFkki uk
gksuh pkfg, A ?kV dk vxzeq
dq
ykdkj ; k nhikdkj gksuk pkfg, A ml dsuhpsl q
euksgj i a
dt dh
dYiuk fofgr gS
A92 dfi Œt y&l a
fgrk ds vuq
l kj f' k[ kk?kV&U;kl ds Ik'pkr~rn³ ~
Hkw
r gkse gksuk
93
vko' ; d gS
A
nsoky; esa} kjkfn dk LFkku v/kksfyf[ kr : Ik esadgk x; k gS
A foeku&; q
Dr xHkkZ
xkj ds
vkxs , d } kj fofgr gS
A ml ds vkxs v) Z
e.Mi esaHkh , d } kj dk fo/kku gS
A v) Z
e.Mi
l svkxsckgj xy rFkk xy dsvkxseq
[ ke.Mi dk dYiu gksrk gS
A ukjnh; l a
fgrk dsvuq
l kj
eq
[ ke.Mi ds vkxs ckgj i w
oZfn' kk esaLuku dq
fel a
;q
Dr] i w
okZ
fHkeq
[ k x#M+dk vkokl dfYir
gksuk pkfg, A vFkkZ
r ~; g x#M+
kokl foeku ds l Eeq
[ k gksrk gS
A94
foekunsork&o.kZ
u dsvuUrj ml dso.kZ
ysi dk fo/kku fd; k x; k gS
A ; g fo"k; Hkh vusd=
of.krZ gS
A i kn~
el a
fgrk ds vuq
l kj f=oLrq
e; o.kZ
&fuekZ
. k dj o.kZ
ysi dj uk pkfg, A ' kkL= esa
ft l dsfy, t kso.kZfofgr gS
] ogh o.kZml sfn; k t kuk pkfg, A czk'k.kfn o.kksa
ZdsO
;R
; kl gksus
l so.kZ
&l k³ ~
d; Zgksrk gS
A95 vky; esal q
/kkysiu rFkk ysiu dsHksn dk funsZ
' k ns[krsgS
A i k"kk.k]
a
' kdZ
j k rFkk rØ&bu rhu i zdkj dh fi "V l q
/kkvksadksf=Qyk&t y l s, d ckj] nksckj ; k rhu
ckj l fEefJr dj ml esa[ kfnj ] vt Z
u rFkk ' kkYeyh&rks; l fEefJr dj rsgS
A ml ds ckn ?kV
a
esal HkhoLrq
v ksadk i fj DokFk dj ] i q
u%xq
M+
&i kd&j l l sml dk DokFk fd; k t krk gS
A ml DofFkr
i nkFkZl s/kke dk vkysiu fd; k t kuk fofgr gS
A , slk vkysiu fpj LFkk; h gksrk gS
A vèkksfyf[ kr
: i l sysiu dk =S
foè; dgk x; k gS
%i k"kk.k] ' kdZ
j k rFkk rØ&l q
xU/k esai zFke ml l sf} xq
f.kr
i fj ek.kkR
ed ckyq
dk&l fEefJr dj rsgS
Ai q
a
u%ml dk fi "V dj rsgS
A i zFke ckj esa; fn og vPNh
a
rj g fi "V ughagksrk rksf} rh; ckj ; k rr̀h; ckj Hkh ml dksfi "V fd; k t krk gS
A bl rj g
fi "V dj usdsckn vkysi rS
; kj gkst krk gS
A ml l svky; dksvkfyIr dj rsgS
A96 ml dsi ' pkr~
a
vky; dscfgHkkZ
x dkso.kZl sfoHkw
f"kr dj usdk funsZ
' k Hkh i kŒpj k=&xzUFkksaesacrk; k x; k gS
A97
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk usvky; &o.kZdsfy, ' osr] gfj r] uhy o.kksa
Zdk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A fo"oDl su&l a
fgrk
oS
us fofo/k o.kksZ
i o.kZ
&dYiu dh fof/k dk fooj .k fn; k gS
A98 ukjnh; l a
fgrk us o.kZ
ysikfn fo"k;
dh ppkZughadh gS
Al q
o.kkZ
fn l sl q
' kksfHkr nsoky; dksmikugkfnLrw
I; Ur dud] eq
Drkef.k vkfn
l s foÙkkuq
l kj foHkw
f"kr dj us dk fo/kku gS
A99
rr̀h;koj .k dsvkxsvkLFkku&e.My dk LFkku dgk x; k gS
A100 i kn~
el a
fgrk usl Hkh i zdkjksa
esae.Mi&dYiu dk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A 26 /kuq
ekZ
uokyk e.Mi mÙke e.Mi dgk x; k gS
A v"Vkn' k
/kuq
ekZ
uokyk e.Mi eè; e rFkk } kn' k /kuq
ekZ
uokyk e.Mi v/ke dgk x; k gS
A vkLFkku&e.Mi
dk oS
dfYid eku mi; q
Dr gh dgk x; k gS
Z
A vkLFkku&e.Mi l oZ
eq
[ k gksuk dgk x; k gS
A101
vkLFkku&e.Mi dsvkxsxksiq
j dsvUnj gh èot i hB dk LFkku fufnZ
"V gS
A rr̀h;koj .k dsckgj
egki hB&dYiu dgk x; k gS
A Hkw
r ] nS
R
; ] j k{kl kfn rFkk l HkhnsorkvksadsHkou e.Mikfn l svya
dr̀
gksuspkfg, A ; sHkh rr̀h;koj .k esadgsx; sgS
] prq
S
a
FkkZ
oj .k esai hB rFkk i Œpe vkoj .k esaegki hB
dk dYiu gksuk pkfg, A nf{k.kkfHkeq
[ k foeku gksusi j e.Mi i w
okZ
fHkeq
[ k gksrk gS
] i f' pekL; foeku
gksusi j e.Mi i f' pekfHkeq
[ k] mÙkjkfHkeq
[ k foeku gksusi j nsoe.Mi i w
okZ
fHkeq
[ k gksuk dgk x; k
gS
A102
i zkl kn&xHkZ
xg̀ ds} kj&i k'oZesap.M&i zp.M dk LFkku dgk gS
A v) Z
e.Mi ds} kj i j t ;
rFkk fot ; dk LFkku fufnZ
"V gS
A ukjnh; l a
fgrk dh vi s{kk ; gk¡ p.M rFkk i zp.M dk LFkku
Li "V : i esa} kj i j Øe' k%nf{k.k rFkk mÙkj Hkkx esagksuk dgk gS
A ; gk¡ mu&mu ew
fÙkZ
; ksa
ds Lo: i kfn Hkh of.kZ
r gS
A103 vky; ds pkjksarj i Q l oZ
a
= prq
j l zk; r y{k.kksisr i zkdkj&dYiu
104
vko' ; d gS
A
i fj okj&fuos'k ds fy, ] efUnj dh ' kksHkk ds fy, rFkk pkjksa vksj l s l a
j {k.k ds gsrq
105
i zkdkj&dYiu vko' ; d gS
A Jhiz'ul a
fgrk usl kr i zkdkjksadk mYys[k fd; k gS
A ; sl kr i zkdkj
vèkksfyf[ kr dgs x; s gS
a%1- vUreZ
. My] 2- vUrgkZ
j ] 3- eè; gkj] 4- i kfj Hknz] 5- i oZ
r]
106
6- oS
| kèkj] rFkk 7- l oZ
os"Vu A HkkxZ
o&l a
fgrk dsvuq
l kj v/ksfyf[ kr rhu i zkdkj dgsx; sgS
%
a
1- v U
reZ
. My] 2- vUrgkZ
j r Fkk 3- e; kZ
nkA107 fo"oDl su&l a
fgr k us r hu i zkdkjksa dk
fo/kku fd; k gS
A l kekU; : i l si zkdkjksadksxksiq
j;q
Dr gksuk dgk gS
A108 O
; kogkfj d : i l sHkh
nf{k.k Hkkjr dsvky; ksaesa; g ns[kk t k l drk gS
A i zk; %l Hkh vPNsefUnj ksadsi zkdkj xksiq
j;q
Dr
gksrsgS
A foekukpZ
a
udYi usHkh l kr i zkdkjksadk funsZ
' k fd; k gS
A ; gk¡ i zkdkj&xksiq
j ksai j nsorkvksa
dh ew
frZ
; ksadk dYiu Hkh fufnZ
"V gS
A109 okf' k"B l a
fgrk dsvuq
l kj xksiq
j e.MiksadsvkxsdfYir
110
gksuk pkfg, A dfi Œt y&l a
fgrk usxksiq
j dksi zkl kn l sf} xq
f.kr mfPNªr gksuk dgk gS
A111 i zkl kn
ds i w
oZfn' kk esai q
"i kokl vkXus; dks.k esaegkul gksuk pkfg, A egkul esaHkh vfXudks.k esa
pq
Yyh rFkk pq
Yyh ds i f' pe esafuR
; kfXu&vk; ru dk LFkku fuf' pr gS
A efUnj ds nf{k.k esa
gj dk LFkku i f' pe fn' kk esagsfrHkou fofgr gS
A112
148
x
okLro esanf{k.k esagh vkt Hkh i kŒpj k= fofèk l svf/kdka
' k oS
".ko efUnj ksaesafo".kqdh
mikl uk gksrh gS
A vr%Li "V gSfd oS
".ko i zkl kn fuekZ
. k dh i j Eij k vR
; Ur O
; ki d <a
x ls
oS
".ko vkxeksaesamfYyf[ kr gSrFkk i zR
; sd fof/k&fo/kku dk foospu l E;d~<a
x l s i zfri kfnr
gq
v kgS
A
lUnHkZ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
, fyes.V~
l vkW
Q fgUnwvkbDuksxzki Qh] okY; w
e 1] i kVZ1] t uj y bUVªksMD'ku] i -̀ 1A
besai zfrdr̀ksa
] 5-3-96] t hodkFksZpki .; s] 5-3-99
, fyes.V~
l vkW
Q fgUnwvkbDuksxzkQh] okY
W
;w
e 1] i kVZ1] t uj y bUVªksMD'ku i -̀ 4
' kMfoa
' k vkW
Q fgUnwvkbDuksxzkQh] okW
Y; e
w 1] i kVZ1] t uj y bUVªksMD'ku i -̀ 4
ykS
xkf{kxg̀~
; ] 18-3
xkS
r e/keZ
lw
=] 9-13-14 , oa9-66
' kka
[ kk; uxg̀~
;l w
=] 4-12-15
vki LrEc xg̀~
; lw
=] 1-11-30-28
O
kkf' k"B/keZl w
=] 11-31
fo".kq
/keZ
lw
=] 69-7] 30-15] 70-13] 91-10
egkHkkjr vkfni oZ
] 70-49
vuq
' kkl ui oZ
] 10-20&21
vk'oesf/kdi oZ
] 70-16
Hkh"ei oZ
] 112-11
foLrkj dsfy, nz"VO
; ] dk.ks] /keZ
' kkL= dk bfrgkl ] Hkkx , d] i -̀ 390&391
vxLR
; la
fgrk1] 1-1&106] ¼
y{k.k 1&174] 1&74 i zdkj½
] vxLR
; la
fgrk] 1- 898&93 v] vfgcq
èU; l a
Z
fgrk]
36-31&49 l q
n' kZ
u&efUnj dk Qy] bZ
' oj l a
fgrk] 16-219&247 ¼
i zdkj , oaefUnj dhO
; oLFkk½
] 266&287 efUnj ksa
dsi zdkj] dfi a
ty la
fgrk] 10-1&3v ¼
Qy½
] 61&66 ¼
ckjg ry½
] 69&72 v] ¼
ukxj ] nzkfoM+, oacslj ½
] 729&88
¼
fofHkUu HkkxksadsfuekZ
. kl EcU/khfof/k&fo/kku½
] t ; k[ ; l a
fgrk] 20-73&131 v ¼
i hB , oami i hB vkfn½
] ukjnh;
la
fgrk] 13-1&164 v ¼
iw
. kZ: i l sefUnj dsi zR
; sd Hkkx dsl UnHkZesamfYyf[ kr fof/k½
] v- 17-16 c & 92 v
¼
t h.kksa
) kj ½
Z
] v- 28-2&12 v ¼
nks i zdkj ½
] 109&117 v <k¡pk dk foospu] i j e l a
fgr k] v- 18-1&10
¼
/kuhO
; fDr dsfy, vPNkgSefUnj fuekZ
. k½
] i kn~
el a
fgrk] fØ; ki kn] v- 4-25&29 ¼
foHkkx½
] 35&45 ¼
fofHkUu i zdkj
dsrÙo½
] v- 5-85&90 ¼
efUnj fuekZ
. kdkQy½
] i kjes'oj l a
fgrk] v- 10-2&106 v ¼
i zrhdkR
edrk%i Pphl rÙo½
]
iq
#"kksÙke l a
fgrk] v- 3-2&31 ¼
efUnj &fuekZ
. ki j fj okM~
l½
] v- 4-1&6 ¼
dk"B dhi Vfj ; k¡l oksZ
Ùke l kexzh½
] 44&50
¼
N%i zdkj dsuke , oao.kZ
u½
] i kS
"dj l a
fgrk] 40-92&109 , ¼
l kekU; o.kZ
u½
] v- 42-72 ¼
i sze proportinate to
icon½
] ekdZ
. Ms; l a
fgrkv- 4-45&88 ¼
l =g i zdkj½
] fo' okfe= l a
fgrk] v- 21-1&23 v ¼
iw
. kZo.kZ
u] Hksn %60&67
v½
] v- 23-1 &44 v ¼
t h.kksZ
) kj½
] fo".kql a
fgrk] v- 13-1&87 i zFkes"Bdkvkfn] 609&68 ea
fnj ¼
bZ
' oj dk' kjhj½
]
v- 23-1&59 ¼
l HkhnsorkgS
afdUrqfo".kql oksZ
i fj ½
] 60&79 ¼
i fj okj nsork&d{kczãk.Mdsi zrhd½
] fo".kqfryd l a
fgrk]
6-1&342 v ¼
fuekZ
. k fof/k] 449&498 pkj i zdkj½
] fo"od~
l su l a
fgrk] v- 34-7&59] Jhi z'u l a
fgrk] v- 5-1&7
oS
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
¼
pkj i zdkj dko.kZ
u½
] v- 8-1&36 v i w
. kZeki l fgr v- 9-1&40 ¼
21 i z
dkj dko.kZ
u½
] 41&53 ¼
ew
/ksZ
"Vdk&j hfr½
]
54&63 ¼
foeku i j ew
frZdkLFkku l q
fuf' pr dj uk½
] 64&96 ¼
ew
frZi j vkysiu½10-1&69 ¼
e.Mi½
] l uR
dq
ekj l a
fgrk]
czãj k=k] v- 8-144 ¼
; =&r= o.kZ
u½l kR
or l a
fgrk] v- 24- 280&430] v- 25-4&375 ¼
fuekZ
. k½
] g; ' kh"kZl a
fgrk]
vkfn dkO
; ] v- 3-1&41 ¼
eki ] ; kstukrFkkva
x bR
; kfn½v- 38-678] v- 44-12-19 i zrhdkR
edrki zfrekt ho gS
A
i k×pj k= l a
fgrkvksaesai zkl kn dsfy, vk; ru] xHkZ
xg̀] xksiq
j ] rky] i zkdkj] ckyky; ] e.Mi] foeku] vkfn ' kCn Hkh
nz"VO
; rksgS
aghbl dsl kFk ghxHkZ
U;kl ] t h.kksZ
} kj] i zFkes"Vdk] ew
/ksZ
"Vdk Hkhè; ku nsus; ksX; gS
A
vxLR
; &l a
fgrk] v- 1] vfu#) &l a
fgrk] v- 11] HkkxZ
orU=] v- 3] g; ' kh"kZ
&l a
fgrk] vkfndk.M] v- 5&6]
bZ
' oj l a
fgrk] v- 16] dfi ×t y&l a
fgrk] v- 7] i kS
"dj &l a
fgrk] l uUn l a
fgrk] v- 10] Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] okf' k"Bl a
fgrk]
v- 3] fo".kq
la
fgrk] v- 12]23] fo".kq
r U=k&l a
fgrk v- 2-5] fo".kq
fryd&l a
fgrk] v- 5] fo"oDl su&l a
fgrk] v- 34]
l ew
rZ
pZ
ukf/kdkj] v- 2] foekukpZ
udYi] i - 2] 3
vi j kft ri P̀Nk] dk'; i ' f' kYi' kkL=] rU=l eq
Pp; ] ekul kj f' kYi' kkL= vkfnA
Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fØ; k i k-] 1-12&15
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-2&4
Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fd- i k-] 1-15&19
Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fd- i k-] 1-15&19
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-14&25
Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fd- i k-] 14-15&25] vxLR
; &l a
fgrk] 1-1&13] vxLR
; vfu#) &l a
fgrk] 11-25] HkkxZ
o&l a
fgrk] 3]
g; ' kh"kZ
&l a
fgrk] vkfn dk.M5 19&28] 6 1&14] bZ
' oj &l a
fgrk] 16-14] dfi ×t y&l a
fgrk] 7-1&11
foLrkj dsfy, nz"VO
; ] pkS
/kjhj k?ko çl kn] i k×pj k=kxe] fcgkj j k"VªHkk"kk i fj "kn] i Vuk] 1987] i 0̀ 172
i kn~
el a
fgrk] fd- i k-] 1-32&39
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-5 & 12
i kn~
el a
fgrk] fd- i k-] 1-41&47
vxLR
; &l a
fgrk] 1-15&16] g; ' kh"kZ
&l a
fgrk] vk-dk-] 6-16&17] dfi ×t yl a
fgrk] 8-9] okf' k"Bl a
fgrk] 3-13&14]
fo".kq
la
fgrk] 12-41&42] fo".kq
fryd&l a
fgrk] 6-24
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-27&31
i kn~
el a
fgrk] fd0i k-] 3-2-3
Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fØ; ki kn] 3-4&8
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-31
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] 5] vxLR
; &l a
fgrk] 1-14&22] g; ' kh"kZ
&l a
fgrk] vkfn dk.M] 6-20] ekdZ
. Ms; l a
fgrk] 2] fo".kq
la
fgrk]
12-36] 13-5 & 7] foekukpZ
udYi] i Vy 3] l ew
r kZ
pZ
ukf/kdkj&5
i kn~
el a
fgrk] fØ; k i kn] 3-18&21
ogh] fØ- i k-] 3-22&30
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] 5-30&32
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] v- 14] i kn~
el a
fgrk] fØ- i k-] 3-27 & 30] l ew
r kZ
pZ
ukf/kdkj] 5] Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] 5-26&29
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] v- 14
150
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
x
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] v- 14
fo".kq
la
fgrk] 5-36
l uUn&l a
fgrk] 10-39&41
vukYl vkW
Q n Hk.Mkjdj vksfj; .Vy fj l pZbfULVP; w
V] okW
Y; w
e 35] 1954 bZ
0
Ikkn~
ela
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-54
Ikkn~
ela
Ikkn~
ela
O
kkf' k"B l a
fgrk] 2-23
g; ' kh"kZ
&l a
fgrk] vkfn dk.M5
Ikkn~
ela
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-151&152
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-54&67
Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fØ; k i kn] 41&3
Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fØ; k i kn] 4-6
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] 6-3&6
Ikkn~
ela
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-139
HkkxZ
ol a
fgrk] 3-19-20
ekdZ
. Ms;&l a
fgrk] 4-45&87
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] 16-219&247
bZ
' oj &l a
fgrk] 16-219&247
l uUn&l a
fgrk] 11-71
fo"oDl su&l a
fgrk] 34-23&39
foekukpZ
udYi] i V- 7] i 0̀ 28
l ew
r kZ
pZ
ukf/dj .ke] 7-14&40
dk'; i &Kkudk.M] 10
vxLR
; &l a
fgrk] 1] vfu#) &l a
fgrk] 11] g; ' kh"kZ
&l a
fgrk] vk-dk- 8-10 rFkk 11 ¼
rhu vè; k; ½
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-68
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-69&76
Ikkn~
ela
ukjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-76&77
Ikkn~
ela
oS
ukjnh; l fa
grk] 14-77&80
74 Ikkn~
ela
75 ukjnh
; l fa
grk] 14-81&85] i kn~
el a
76 Ikkn~
ela
77 Ikkn~
ela
78 Ikkn~
ela
79 ukjnh
; l fa
grk] 14-86&87
80 Ikkn~
ela
81 g; ' kh
"kZl a
fgrk] vkfn dk.M] 13-27&28
82 fo".kq
fryd&l a
fgrk] 6-18
83 l ew
r kZ
pZ
ukf/dj .k] 7-11&13
84 ukjnh
; la
fgrk] 14-88&90
85 Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fØ; k i kn] 5-11&13] i kS
"dj &l a
fgrk] 42-77] Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] 12-2&4
86 foekukpZ
udYi] i Vy] 13
87 Jh
i z'ul a
fgrk] 9-40] fo"oDl su&l a
fgrk] 34]
88 dk"; i f' kYi' kkL=k] v- 42] f' kYij R
u] v- 34
89 Ikkn~
ela
90 ukjnh
; la
fgrk] 14-98&100
91 Ikkn~
ela
92 Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] 9-38&40
93 dfi Œt y&l a
fgrk] 10-129&132
94 ukjnh
; la
fgrk] 14-118&121
95 Ikkn~
ela
96 Ikkn~
ela
97 ekdZ
. Ms;&l a
fgrk] 5-10&27] i kn~
el a
fgrk] fØ; k i kn] 14-47&119
98 fo"oDl s
u&l a
fgrk] 6-13&27
99 Ikkn~
ela
100 ukjnh
; la
fgrk] 14-122&125
101 Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fØ; k i kn] 10-38&44] ekdZ
. Ms;& l a
fgrk] 3-60&64
102 ukjnh
; la
fgrk] 14-129&130
103 Ikkn~
ela
fgrk] fØ; k i kn] 1093&79
104 ukjnh
; la
fgrk] 14-90&91
105 Ikkn~
ela
73
152
x
Jhiz'ul a
fgrk] 10-5&7
107 H
kkxZ
o&l a
fgrk] 3-25&27
108 fo"oDl s
u&l a
fgrk] 34-19
109 foekukpZ
udYi] i Vy 19
110 O
kkf' k"Bl a
fgrk] 3-185111 dfi Œt y&l a
fgrk] 10-81112 U
kkjnh; l a
fgrk] 14-131&136
106
Position of Wom en d uring Ba ha m a ni King d om
x153
Position of Women during
Bahamani Kingdom
Santosh Kumar Jadhav *
INTRODUCTION
The study of the Bahamani society will be incomplete without the reference to
the position of women. The position of women in a society reflects the standards
of its civilization, culture and refinement. Prophet Mohammad is reported to
have said, “Paradise lies at the feet of the mother”. During the ancient time
position of women was very high but as the days were pass on, the position of
women were declined. For that reason it is rightly said, position of women
during middle age is called as “Dark Age” in the History of India.
1) Purdah System
Purdha system was almost a common feature in Indian women in Bahamani
period. According to the holy Quran women should not ordinarily go out of
their homes and if forced to do so they should strictly observed Purdah. The
women of middle class also strictly observed purdah and always appeared in
‘Chadar’ and ‘Burqas’ or long garments which cover their heads and bodies
down to their ankles. Even among the Hindu women to save their women folk
and to maintain the purity of their social order. Hindu women during Bahamani
period milder and less elaborated from the Purdah commonly known as
‘Ghoonghat’.
2) Birth of a daughter
During Bahamani kingdom birth of female child received with great
disappointment. To desire for a male child was so much intense that the people
of the then times visited to holy tombs to ask for male child. It was because the
then society realized the difficulties in getting a suitable bridegroom for their
daughters and also the demand of high dowries.
3) Early Marriages
Early marriages were another common practice during the Bahamani period.
* Research Scholar, Dept. of Studies in History, Gulbarga University, Gulbarga (Karnataka).
154
x
Both Hindu and Muslims practiced child marriages. In the imperial families
however marriages were performed when the girl completed the age of thirteen
or fourteen, and boys would have fifteen or sixteen.
4) Polygamy
During Bahamani period, except wealthy Hindu people remaining were believed
in monogamy. But polygamy is allowed in Islam and a man could marry as
many as four wives at a time. Polygamy was much practiced among the noble,
travelers and autocrats. Even though Muslim community permitted to marry
four wives but the common Muslim preferred to have one wife. Due to the
polygamy women’s status was deprived. She suffered trouble not only from cowife but also from her relatives.
5) Divorce System
According to Prophet Mohammad showed his extreme disapproval towards
divorce and said. “The woman who asks her husbands to divorce her without
a cause even a smell of paradise is forbidden to her”. The Muslim laws and
customs allowed divorce unconditionally but was loaded upon with extreme
disapproval by wise and honorable persons.
In Muslim community though a man had greater rights than a women and
could divorce his wife against her will, but wife was also entitled to demand a
separation on the grounds of ill usage the withholding of due and proper means
of maintenance and certain other causes.
During Bahamani kingdom accept low class community people remaining
were not allowed to take divorce.
6) Economic Position of Women
During the Bahamani rule the economic position of Muslim women were much
better than the Hindus. A Muslim woman acquired a definite share in the
inheritance and she had also the right to sell it. Unlike her Hindu sister, she
retained this right after marriage. The interest of Muslim women was further
safeguarded after her marriage through Maher; where as Hindu women had no
right to the property her husband’s parents. A Hindu woman, who was entitled
to maintenance and expenses of subsistence besides moveable property like
ornaments, jewellery, costly apparel etc. which is called as Stridhana.
7) Position of Women as a Widow during Middle Age
During Bahamani rule, Muslim widow enjoyed a more respectable position unlike
Position of Wom en d uring Ba ha m a ni King d om
x155
the Hindus. A Muslim widow as allowed to attend the festivals of betrothal,
Nikah and birth ceremonies as Islam takes a more generous and liberal view
about them and gives them permissions to enjoy the fruit full of life. The only
ban on her after her husband’s death was to observe strictly the period of ‘Iddat’.
The Muslim widows also enjoyed property rights and had a share in the property
of her late husband. If she had a child her right over this property was 1/8 but,
if she was childless then ¼ of the property.
CONCLUSION
Through as a wife women enjoyed all the rights and if she failed to come up to
her standard, she might be divorced in Muslim family. It was believed by many
scholars that the position of women was not better than that of an ordinary
maid. A pregnant women was much respected by her husband, relatives and
even by all the inhabitants of the place belonging to her caste. Though, during
Bahamani kingdom, women of Hindu and Muslim societies were subordinate to
the men but they were given due importance.
REFERENCE
1.
H. K. Sherwani
: The Bahamanis of the Deccan.
2.
Prof. K. N. Chitnis : Socio-Economic History of Medieval India.
3.
V. D. Mahajan
: Muslim Rule in India.
4.
Majumdar R. C.
: The Age of Imperial Unity, Vol-II
5.
B.N. Luniya
: Life and Culture in Medieval India,
6.
Kausar Zinat
: Muslim Women in Medieval India, New Delhi-1992.
7.
Lane-Pool Stanley
: Medieval India.
156
x
Historicity of the Hamzanama and
the Cleaveland Museum Tutinama Projects
Ashok Kumar Srivastava *
The Dastan-i Amir Hamza is generally regarded as the earliest example of Mughal
painting. According to Abul Fazl, this huge project was completed in twelve
volumes containing fourteen hundred illustrations. There has been much
controversy amongst art critics regarding the date of the commencement and
completion of the Hamzanama undertaking.
It has been suggested by some authors1 that it was commissioned by
Humayun but eventually completed during Akbar’s reign. The small atelier of
Humayun, as an adjunct to the royal library, would not have been in a position
to initiate such a huge project which undoubtedly needed a large establishment
such as Akbar commanded. Besides, there is no evidence to show that this project
was even conceived of by Humayun.
The fact that it was a production of Akbar’s studio alone has been attested
to by at least three contemporary sources, the Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh of Mulla
Abdul Qadir Badauni, the Nafais al-Ma’asir of Mulla Ala-ud-daula Qazvini, and
the Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl.2 Mulla Abdul Qadir Badauni furnishes two pieces
of information about the Hamzanama series: firstly, it took fifteen years to
complete the project; secondly, it was completed by 1582.3 This suggests that
Hamzanama undertaking was completed between 1567 and 1582. Mulla Ala-uddaula Qazvini, while describing the events of 1565, remarks that it is seventh
year that Mir Sayyid Ali is busy in preparing the illustrations at Akbar’s orders.4
By saying this, Qazvini informs us that the Hamzanama was begun in 1558, but
he says nothing about its date of completion. As Badauni clearly mentions that
the Hamzanama was completed in fifteen years, it may therefore be concluded
that it dates of commencement and completion fall between 1558 and 1573.5
The conclusion drawn on the basis of the information supplied by Badauni
that the Hamzanama was illustrated between 1567 and 1582 does not appear to
be logical, if it is regarded as the earliest project of the Akbari studio, as he also
indicated that Akbar’s atelier remained some what inactive and unproductive
during the first eleven years (1556-67) of his reign. Furthermore, the view of
some scholars6 that Akbar neglected painting due to an insufficient number of
* Professor, Deptt. of History, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Historic ity of the Ha m za na m a a nd the C lea vela nd Museum Tutina m a Projec ts
x157
artists and his insecure position in the empire during the first decade of his
reign, is not borne but by any contemporary or later authority. The date of 1558
for the commencement of the Hamzanama, as suggested by Qazvini, rejects the
theory that there was a gap of about eleven years between Akbar’s accession and
the commissioning of the Hamzanama.7 Abul Fazl’s account regarding Akbar’s
keen interest in the art of painting from his earliest youth8 strongly supports the
view that having reorganized his atelier within two years of his accession, Akbar
would have been able to initiate the Hamzanama project. Given this, it appears
more feasible to conclude that the dates of commencement and completion of the
Hamzanama fall within the period 1558 and 1573.
The Akbar did not overlook painting at the outset of his reign but rather
took a great deal of interest in having manuscripts illustrated in his studio,
shortly after he ascended the throne in 1556, is also confirmed by the Tutinama
of the Cleveland Museum of Art.
There is also much controversy among modern art critics regarding the
dating of the Cleveland Museum Tutinama. Some of the dates suggested, though
on different grounds, by the scholars are c. 1560-65,9 c. 1560-68,10 c. 1575-80,11 c.
1576-80,12 c. 1580,13 c. 1580-90.14 The Cleveland Museum Tutinama reflects much
closer affinities with the Hamzanama than the Rampur Tilasm and Zodiac, the
1568 Deval Rani Khizr Khan and the 1570 Anwar-i Suhaili, but only in the sense
that many of the Hamzanama elements are found here in an immature form. On
the whole, the Tutinama examples are cruder than those of the Hamzanama. The
predominance of indigenous features from the Chaurapanchasika, the IndoPersian, and the Laur-Chanda groups, which are not observable to the same
degree in any of the Mughal manuscripts of the formative stage, suggest that the
native artists were largely responsible for the Cleveland Muesum Tutinama. So
far as the Persian elements are concerned, such as in figure drawing, landscape,
architecture, and use of colours, the Cleveland Museum Tutinama shows that
the artists, who were certainly of Indian origin as stated above, had not yet
adapted themselves fully to the Persian traditions. Rather, it would be more
correct to say that their workmanship indicates that they were apprentices with
regard to Persian painting. It would therefore be reasonable to suggest that the
Cleveland Tutinama represents a state in the atelier of Akbar when new recruits
were still in the process of acculturation.
Considering what has been said above, it seems very probable that Cleveland
Tutinama belonged to the formative stage of Mughal painting, and also that it
was painted earlier than the Hamzanama. As a period between 1558 and 1573,
has already been assigned to the Hamzanama, and further assuming that as the
Tutinama was comparatively a small project that could have been completed
within a period of two or three years, it may be dated between 1557 and 1560. 15
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x
REFERENCES
1.
T.W. Arnold and J.V.S. Wilkison, The Library of A. Chester Beatty: A Catalogue of Indian
Miniatures, vol. I, p. xx; A.K. Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of Indian Miniatures in the Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston, part VI, Mug hal Painting, p.4; Sir Leigh Ashton, ed., The Art of India
and Pakistan, pp.93, 140; Stuart C. Welch, ‘Early Mughal Miniature Painting from Two
Private Collections Shown at the Fogg Art Museum’, Ars Orientalis, vol. III, p. 135; M.A.
Chughtai, ‘Mir Sayyid Ali Tabrezi’, Pakistan Quarterly, vol. IV, 1954, pp. 25-26.
2.
Ain-i Akbari, vol. I, p. 115.
3.
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikhi, tr. W.H. Lowe, vol. II, p. 329.
4.
Nihar Ranjan Ray, op. cit., p.23.
5.
According to Pramod Chandra (op. cit., p.67), it was completed between 1562 and 1577.
6.
Early Mughal Miniature Painting from Two Private Collections, p.135; Karl J. Khandalvala
and Jagdish Mittal, ‘An Early Akbari Illustrated Manuscript of Tilasm and Zodiac’, Lalit
Kala, no. 14, pp. 12-13,15.
7.
Anis Farooqi, Art of India and Persia, p. 13.
8.
Supra, p. 20.
9.
Pramod Chandra, op. cit., pp. 166-68.
10. E.S. Lee and Pramod Chandra, ‘A Newly Discovered Tutinama and Continuity of the
Indian Tradition of Manuscript Painting’, Burlington Magazine, vol. CV, 1963, pp.547-54.
11. Anand Krishna, ‘A Reassessment of the Tutinama Illustrations in the Cleveland Museum
of Art and Related Problems on Earliest Mughal Paintings and Painters’, Artibus Asiae,
no. 35, 1973, pp. 267-68.
12. Karl J. Khandalavala and Jagdish Mittal, op. cit., p. 17.
13. Stuart C. Welch, ‘Review of Basil Gray, The Art of Mughal India’, Artibus Asiae, no. 28,
1966, p. 100.
14. M. A. Chughtai, ‘Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot)’, The Pakistan Times, 22 Nov. 1964, p.2.
15. For the best discussion relating to dates for the Cleveland Museum Tutinama, see, The
Tutinama of the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Origins of Mughal Painting, pp.
152-68.
The C onc ep t of Life a fter Dea th in Isla m
x159
The Concept of Life after Death in Islam
Md. Iftekhar *
Belief in ‘Allah’ and belief in the hereafter a respectively the first and the last of
the fundamental and important principles of Islam. A life after death, according
to Islam, implies a state of existence which begins with death, but a complete
manifestation of which takes place when the fruits of the actions done in this life
take their final shape.
Islamic scriptures confirm that the death is not the final end of the destiny
of man. Death is not the complete annihilation of the existence of a man. After
death, a man does not disappear completely. It is the body which dies. The self
of a man does not die. The death of a physical body does not mean dissipation
of the self. In the death only the physical body of a man gets its end. The Hadis
says, “The soul of a man remains even after death of the body with its particular
qualities and personality. After death, the soul has the feeling of pleasure and
pain also”.1 We find many verses in Holy Qur-an which supports the idea hereafter“Surely those who believe and those who are Jews,
and the Christians, and Sabeans, whoever believes
in ‘Allah’ and the last day and does good, they shall
have their reward from their Lord, and there is no
fear for them, nor shall they grieve.”2
This verse strikes at the root of the idea who may be entitled to salvation.
“And who believes in that which has been revealed
to you and that which was revealed before you, and
they are sure of the here after”.3
At other places in the Qur-an we find some more verses –
“As to those who do not believe in the here after,
we have surely made their deeds fair seeming to
them, but they blindly wander on.”4
“We keep up prayer and pay the poor-rate, and of
the here-after, they are sure.”5
In Islam, the mystery of the life after death, has been solved clearly and the
* P.G. Department of Urdu, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur (Bihar)
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idea reached its perfection as did other important fundamental principles of
religion. The gulf that generally interposed between this life and the life after
death, is the great obstacle in the solution of the hereafter. Islam makes that gulf
disappear altogether. It makes the next life only a continuation of the presentone. On this point, The Holy Qur-an says:
“And we have made every man’s actions to cling to
his neck, and we will bring forth to him on the
resurrection day a book which he will find wide
open.”6
The verse quoted above reveals the principle that every action produces an
effect which is made to cling to a man and that, this very effect will be met with
on the resurrection day in the form of a wide open book. The reckoning of man’s
actions shall be his own work on the day of resurrection. The nature of that
reckoning and the word ‘Wazn’7 and the work ‘Mizan’8 (Holy Qur-an, 7:8; 55:7)
shows clearly that it is nothing but a complete manifestation of the effect of the
deeds done in this life. The verse “And the measuring out on that day will be just;
then as for him whose measure (of good deeds) is
heavy- those are they who shall be successful”.9
And the verse“And the heaven, He raised it high, and He made
the measure”.10
And the verse“certainly we sent our apostles with clear
arguments, and sent down with them the Book and
the measure, that men may conduct themselves with
equity……”11
The above mentioned verses throw a flood of light on the nature of the
reckoning and the ‘Wazn and ‘Mizan’, showing clearly the great facts which will
be brought to light on the day of resurrection will not be anything new but only
a manifestation of what is here hidden from the physical eye. The life after death
is, therefore, not a new one, but only a continuance of this life, bringing its
hidden realities to light.
The following other verses of the Holy Qur-an further clarifies the point“And whoever is blind in this, (life), he shall also be
blind in the hereafter”.12
“O Soul, that art content return to your Lord, well
pleased with Him, well pleasing Him; so enter
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among my servants and enter into my garden.”13
The above quoted verses show that a hellish and a heavenly life both begin
in this world. The blindness of the next life is surely hell, but to the verse- ‘only
those who are blind here shall be blind in the here-after’ makes it more clear that
the spiritual blindness of this life is the real hell, and from here it is taken to the
next life. We are here told in plain words that those who remain blind to the
truth in this life, remain blind in the life after death, which shows in the first
place that it is here that a hellish life begins with spiritual blindness; secondly,
that the hell of the next life is also a blindness. Similarly, it is the soul that has
found perfect peace and rest that is made to enter into Paradise of the next life,
which is only a continuation of the peace and rest which a man enjoys spiritually
in this life.
Thus it is clear that according to the Holy Qur-an, the next life is a
continuation of this life an death is not an interruption but a connecting link, a
door that opens upon the hidden realities of this life.
The Qur-an describes three stages of man’s life, vis. his life in this world, his
life in ‘barzakh’, and the great manifestation of all spiritual realities that will take
place on the day of resurrection.14 And, it describes three stages in the spiritual
growth of a man’s life. The lowest stage of the self is called ‘Ammarah’.15 It is, in
fact, the lowest stage in the spiritual growth of man. The next stage is called the
‘Lawwaamah’16 which is referred to in The Holy Quran 75:2, as the ‘self-accusing
spirit’, when the slightest departure from the path of rectitude at once rouses the
pangs of the conscience. The third stage is the stage of perfect-the ‘Mutama’,
innah’,17 or, the content soul, where it is in perfect peace, having attained the
goal of perfection“O soul that art content”
“Return to your Lord well pleased (with Him)
We pleasing (Him)”.
So enter among My Servants”
“And enter into My garden”.18
These verses refer to the highest stage of the spiritual development of man,
the stage in which he rests contended with his Lord, and find his quietude, his
happiness, and his delight in Him. This is the stage of life which we term the
heavenly life. The pure and perfect, sincerity, truth and righteousness of a person
are rewarded by Almighty God by granting him a heaven upon this earth. This
stage of soul is the state of its perfection. This state is the destiny of man’s self
or soul. Almighty Itself arranged the ways for the perfection of the soul. The
following verses of the Holy Qur-an is worthwhile quoting here-
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“Consider the sun and his light”
“And the moon when she borrows light from Him”.
“And the day when it exposes it to view.”
“And the night when it draws Veil over it.”
“And the heaven and its make”.
“And the Soul and its perfection.”
“So He intimated to it by inspiration its deviating
from truth and its guarding (against evil).”
“He will indeed be successful who purifies it”.
“And he will indeed fail who corrupts it”.19
The first six verses quoted above speak of the man’s physical requirements
and the seventh verse draws our attention to the perfection of soul. As to
arrangements for the perfection of soul, the spiritual requirements must also be
fulfilled, and this is stated in Verse 8 to 10.
According to the popular belief of Islam, at the time of death Angels come
and take the soul of the man from his body. We find reference in ‘Hadis’ and in
many other scriptures regarding the abode of the dead. ‘Hadis’ says“at the time of the death of a religious man the
angels come to him with very soft silken clothes
and confirm him that ‘Allah’ (God) is pleased with
him because he has faith upon ‘Allah’. Angels ask
the soul to come out from the body. Then the soul
of the man comes out from the body just like the
fragrance of musk. Angels receive the soul very
delicately and gently.”20
And, at the time of an unbeliever or wicked man’s death, the angels come
to him with very rough clothes and confirm him that as the does not agree with
the God (Allah), so ‘Allah’ too is not pleased with him. Angels order the soul to
come out from the body and the soul comes out like the bad smell of the corpse.21
A.S. Tritan, in his book, ‘Islam Belief & Practices’, writes that“Izrail, the angel of death, has two forms, one
beautiful in which he approaches a good man and
one hideous in which he draws near to a bad man.
He draws the Soul of a good man gently from his
body but tears out an evil soul violently.”22
After the death, when the dead is laid in the grave he is questioned by the
angels. If the dead is the believer of God and a good man, he wakes up in the
grave and sits before the angels without any fear and answers the questions
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easily. In the grave, the dead is asked about his faith in ‘Allah’, religion and
prophet whom he believes The good man answers that his God is Allah, his
religion is Islam and his prophet is Hazrat Muhammad (s.a.w.). After that, the
angels ask him whether he has seen the ‘Allah’ or not? The man replies that it
is impossible for a man in this physical or material world to see ‘Allah’. Then,
the angels open the windows of the heaven and hell one by one and show him
the glimpse of the heaven and the hell in short and he is being assured for his
destiny which is heaven.22A
In the Hadis, we find also another reference of bad ones“And he who is bad one wakes up with fear and
does not give the answer properly. He tells
everything with doubt. Angels show him too the
glimpse of the heaven and hell and make him aware
about hi s dest i ny w hi ch i s hel l ” 23
A.S. Tritan adds that“two angels- ‘Munkir’ and ‘Nakir’ ask the dead, who
is your God? Who is your prophet? What is your
religion? If the man gives the right answers- ‘Allah’,
‘Muhammad’ and ‘Islam’, he is admitted to bliss
otherwise the angels torture him.”24
After death, a soul, according to its action or deed, gets its reward or
punishment, pleasure or pain in the next world. Where does the soul live and
pass its time after death? What sorts of things and states he is to face in the next
world? All these are very difficult to understand and almost all impossible to
conceive for us in this material and physical world. In Scriptures, we find the
notion of the world where a soul lives after death till the greater resurrection is
called ‘Barzakh’. Barzakh is a vast world. The soul who is new comer to this
word (Barzakh) come across the other souls who had already arrived there earlier
to him.25
A.S. Tritan writes“When a dead man arrives from the earth, they
crowed round the new comer asking news of their
friends.”26
Moulvi Muhammad Ali explains the state of ‘Barzakh’ as follows“According to The Holy Qur-an, there are three
states of man’s life, viz., his life in this world, his
life in ‘barzakh’ and the resurrection; the state of
‘barzakh’ being the intermediate state of ‘barzakh’
being the intermediate state in which the soul lives
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after death till the greater resurrection. Hers it is
stated in plain words that no one who has passed
into the state of ‘barzakh’ through death’s door is
allowed to go back into the previous state.”27
A commentator insists on the point that it is a moral barrier. It is defined as
‘what is between this world is between the dead and return to this world and
what is after death’. Entrance into ‘Barzakh’ is a euphemism for death.
The state of ‘Barzakh’ and its pleasure and pain are said to be imagined with
the state of a person’s dream, and his experience of pleasure and pain. Since it
is impossible to understand the true state of ‘Barzakh’ in this World, so one can
understand it only through the analogy of the dream.
According to A.S. Tritan“Not everyone entered ‘Barzakh’ which might be a place of punishment.
One account divides the dead into classes. The bodies of some turn into dust and
their souls wander in the world of sovereignty (Malakat) under the sky of this
world. Some sleep and know nothing till the first trump wakes them; then they
die (the second death).28 Some remain two or three months in the grave and their
souls fly on birds to Paradise. Some ascend to the trump and stay close to it till
it sounds: there are as many recesses in it as there are souls.29 Prophets and saints
have the choice of remaining in this world and appearing to men in dreams or
of ascending to one of the heavens. In the Barzakh, the good souls and the bad
souls have their separate residence.30 Good souls have their residence at high
and better place called ‘Illiyyun’ and bad souls get their shelter at the lower
place called ‘sijjin’.31
The state of Barzakh is not the final destiny of man. Islam holds that there
will be the day of doom ‘Kayamat’ and the day of judgment. Prophet Muhammad
(s.a.w.) says- “each and every person will be raised on the day of ‘Kayamat’.
They will be raised in the same position in which they died.”32
On the day of the doom (kayamat), the earth and the heaven will be shaken
violently and will be emptied of their in habitants. A fire will come out from hell
and will burn till the earth will become black cinder and the skies will be boiling
oil; then it will be sent back to the hell. The water of life will be descended from
the throne of God, moisten the earth and the dead will come back to life. God
will restore Israfil to life and will sound the first when all souls will return to
their body. The Qur-an says“And the trumpet shall be blown, so all those that
are in the heavens and all those that are in the
earth shall sown except such as Allah please; then
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it shall be blown again, then lo: they shall stand up
awaiting.”
“And the earth shall bean with the light of its Lord and the Book shall be
laid down, and the prophets and the witness shall be brought up, and judgement
shall be given between them with justice, and they shall not be dealt with
unjustly.”
“And every soul shall be paid back fully what it has done, and He knows
best what they do.”32A
True believers, who died during pilgrimage will be given garments from
Paradise. In the interval between the two blasts of the trumpet will be second
death; the interval is said to be of forty years. At this point all are seated on their
graves.33 One question may arise here that how does a dead body and destroyed
body gets life once again and how will it be raised again? According to Islamic
belief, such type of questions show distrust upon the Almighty God and His
powers. The knowledge of the mechanism of getting the life of the dead one is
beyond the man’s capacity. God is Almighty and He can dos anything even
beyond our imaginations. At one place the Holy Qur-an says
“This is because ‘Allah’ is the truth and because He
gives life to the dead and He has power over all
t hi ngs.” 34
“And because the hour is coming there is no doubt about it; and because
‘Allah’ shall raise up those who are in the grave.”35
The above mentioned verses make it clear that because God has power over
all things so He can give life to the dead too.
Hadis says that on the day of the ‘Kayamat’ all men will be raised in three
different ways- some will be on foot, some will be on ride and some will complete
their way walking on heads.36 Those who will ride are the special and selected
persons of Allah; and, those who will walk on head are un-fortunates who had
never followed the teaching of the Prophets (s.a.w.) and Saints in the physical
world, on the contrary, he did all the opposites and wrong in his part.37 All the
raised deads are the subject of the Judgement. According to the popular belief
on the day of the judgement men will be gathered in a great plain, will seek a
hiding place from God and find none. The location of the place where the men
will be gathered and the affairs of the judgement will be taken place has not
been pointed out. Someone believe that it may be somewhere in the Kingdom of
God, the outer world while someone hold the view that after the day of ‘Kayamat’,
this very earth will be ruined and will take the shape of a barren land or great
plain, where the affairs of the judgement will be decided. Wherever it may be,
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but it is certain that all men will be gathered on that plain. The believer and good
souls will get their reward and wicked and bad souls will be tortured. The Quran says“Allah gives you life, then He makes you die……
then will He gather you to the day of resurrection
wherein is no doubt, but most people do not know.”38
On the day of judgement, the deeds of the man will be produced before
God. According to the popular belief, the record book of man’s deed will be
brought and will be produced by the two angels- Kiraman & Kaatebin. It is believed
that the ‘Kiraman’ collects the records of good deeds while ‘Kaatebin’ collects the
records of bad deeds of the man. The good soul or the believer will get the ‘book’
in his right hand and the bad soul will take the ‘book’ in his left hand.39 The Quran further says“Nay but you give the lie to the judgement”
“And most surely there are keepers over you”
“Honourable recorders”
“They know what you do”.40
Making the above Verses of the Qur-an further clear and puring the popular
belief, the commentator Moulvi Muhammad Ali says“Every action of man is recorded and bears fruit- is one of the principal
doctrines of the religion of Islam. Of course, it is not meant that angels are sitting
with pen in their hands and ink-stands before them on desks, the Copyists,
noting down that at such and such time such one did such a good or such a bad
deed. That would be the distortion of the teaching of Qur-an. The terminology
of writing down book and records is only meant to show that every deed is
preserved so that it has a certain effect, for the best method known to men of
preserving what has happened is written. In what manner it is preserved, who
the angels are that are charged with the duty of preserving it, in what form of
the books will appear as evidence against the guilty, are circumstances which are
beyond the compass of the present state of our knowledge. But that all our
actions are preserved, the effect of which we must fully witness, is a truth which
cannot be denied”.41
On the day, every one will be busy with his own affairs. No one will take
care of others. Describing the scene of the Judgement, Mohammad told his
favourite wife“…….all would be necked at the day of the judgement: The women too she
exclaimed- “on the day each will be so taken up with his own affairs that he will
have no thought of others.”42
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On the day a friend shall not avail his friend nor shall they be helped.43
‘Hadis’ says that on the day, there will be three such occasions which will be
very important and hard for the each person. They are the occasion of ‘meezan’
i.e., estimation or judgement, the occasion of getting the deed-record book and
the occasion of passing over the path or the bridge of ‘sirat’44 The Qur-an says“And measuring out on that will be just; then as for
him whose measure (of good deeds) is heavy, those
are they who shall be successful.”45
“And as for him whose measure (of good deeds) is light, those are they
who have made their souls suffer loss because they disbelieved in our
communications”.46
Thus each and everybody will get the fruits according to his actions. In this
connection, the Holy Qur-an says“And Allah created the heavens and the earth with
truth and that every soul may be rewarded for what
it has earned and they shall not be wronged.”47
Islam does not recognise the doctrine that man stands in needs of any
mediator to reconcile with God, and therefore, meditation or intercession in the
sense in which the Christian doctrine is held unknown to Islam. The Holy Quran further says“And be on your guard against a day when one soul
shall not avail another in the least, neither shall
intercession on its behalf be accepted, nor shall any
compensation to be taken from it, nor shall they be
helped.”48
But there is another aspect of it also. The Prophet to whom the Divine will
is revealed, is the Model for this people. He is perfect, and by pointing out a way
enables others to attain to perfection. In this sense he is called a ‘Shafi’ or
Intercessor. The doctrine of Shafa-at or intercession, is a well- known doctrine,
according to which the prophets and the righteous will intercede for the sinner
on the day of the judgement.49 Those who take the Prophet for their model may
thus attain perfection, which is the real meaning of salvation in Islam. But as all
men are not equally gifted, nor have all equal occasion to attain to a state of
perfection, although they have exerted themselves to their utmost, Divine mercy
will take them by the hand and amendment will be made for such defects through
the intercession of the Holy-one who has served for a Model to his followers. It
is in this sense that Islam recognises the doctrine of intercession in the life after
death ‘Hadis’ describes that besides prophets the Martyr; who died for religion
may intercede and the very young children will get the chance to intercede for
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their parents on the day of judgement. But in the context of the principle of
intercession, one thing is markable that any kind of intercession may be possible
only with the permission of God as to the Holy Qur-an says
“…..who is he that can intercede
With him but by his permission”.50
God the Almighty will give judgement according to the deeds of the men.
Those who will get reward will go to the Paradise and punished ones will go to
the hell. Before admission to Paradise, the righteous will quench their thirst at
a lake outside of the Paradise. Paradise has many gates, one gate of mercy is
never shut.51 It is said that the poor will enter five hundred years before the
rich.52 Unbelievers have no entry into Paradise. The doors of Paradise are shut
for the wicked and disbelievers. The Holy Qur-an says“Surely (as for) those who rejected our
communication and turn away from them haughtily,
the doors of heaven shall not be opened for there
nor shall they enter the garden until the camel pass
through the eye of the needle; and thus do we reward
the guilty.”53
Believers will be welcomed by angels and the heavenly vergins, who are
always virgin. Paradise is conceived as a garden where everyone has his mansion
in the midst of grateful shade and cooling streams. Paradise is the place where
everyone will be healthy all the time, they never grow old nor they die. The Quran says“All Peace and no harsh words disturb the scene. Muslim Paradise is a place
where there is no grief and, where toil and fatigue no more afflict man; it is all
peace and satisfaction and the highest bliss.”54
The Qur-an further says“And they shall say: (All) praise is due to Allah,
who has made grief to depart from us………..”
“Who has made us slight in a house abiding for ever out of His grace; toil
shall not touch us therein, nor shall fatigue therein afflict us.”55
Here is drawn a true picture of Paradise: who has made grief to depart from
us. This shows that freedom from grief and anxiety is the real bliss of Paradise.
The repeated promise to the righteous that shall have no fear nor shall they
grieve, as frequently stated in the Holy Qur-an expresses the same truth. We find
parable in Muslim Scriptures which not only describe the blessings of the life
after death, but also give a description of the fertile land which they were to
inherit in this life.
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“A parable of the garden which those guarding (against evil) are promised;
Therein are rivers of water that does not alter, and rivers of milk the taste
whereof does not change and rivers of wine delicious to those who drink and
rivers of honey clarified.”56
The Paradise is the place of perfect peace. The Qur-an says – “The gardens
of perpetuity which the Beneficent God has promised to His servants while
unseen; surely His promise shall come to pass.”
“They shall not hear there in any vain discourse, but only ‘peace’, and they
shall have their sustenance therein morning and evening.”57
It is by making peace here with the Creator and His creatures that one can
find peace here after, and this is the great truth underlying the Islamic idea of
paradise, for a paradise it is frequently stated in the Holy Qur-an that there shall
be nothing but peace therein. Scriptures describe there are hundred grades in
paradise“The distance between each two grades is as much as between the earth and
the sky. ‘Firdaus’ is known as the highest grade of paradise where- from the four
rivers of paradise flow and the throne of The Almighty and The compassionate
God exists.”58
In Islamic belief, the nearness to God and to get the grace of God is the
highest achievement of man for his existence. Those who dwell in paradise are
able to have the gift of the grace of God.
Like some other religions Islam too has the most significant truth with
regard to the next life being brought to light. Similar to many other religions,
Islam has also made several attempts to unveil the secrets of the hereafter. The
Holy Qur-an makes clear the state after the death is a complete representation,
a full and clear image of men’s spiritual states in this life. Here the good and the
bad conditions of the deeds or beliefs of a man are latent within him, and their
poison or panacea cast its influence upon him only secretly, but in the life to
come they shall become manifest and clear as noon-day.
The shape which our deeds and their consequence assume in this life is not
visible to the eye of man on earth, but in the next life it will be unrolled and laid
open before him in all its clearness. The pleasures and pains of the next life,
therefore, though spiritual in reality, will not be hidden from the ordinary eye
as spiritual facts are in this life. It is for this reason that while, on the one hand,
the blessing of the next life are mentioned by physical names as an evidence of
their clear representation to the eye, they are on the other hand, spoken of in a
saying of the Holy Prophet on things which, “the eye has not seen, nor has ear
heard, nor has it entered into the heart of man to conceive of them”.59 The
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description of the blessing of the next life is really an explanation given by the
Holy Prophet of the Verse of the Qur-an, which says“No soul knows that is in store for them of that
which will refresh the eyes.”60
To the same effect we may quote here another Verse of the Holy Qur-an“On the day you will see the faithful men and the faithful women, their
light running before them and on their right hands.”61
This verse shows that the light of faith by which righteous men and women
were guided in this life, and which could have here be seen only with the
spiritual eye, will be clearly seen going before the believers on the day of
resurrection.
As in the case of the blessing of Paradise, the punishment of hell is also an
image of the spiritual tortures of this life. Hell is said to be a place where one
shall neither live nor die.
“Whoever comes to his Lord guilty, for him is surely hell; he shall not die
therein nor shall he live.”62
It should be remembered in this connection that the word of God describes
those who walk in error and wicked as dead and lifeless, while the good it calls
living. The secret of this is that means of the life of those who are ignorant of
God, being simply eating and drinking and the satisfaction of physical desires,
are entirely cut off at their death. Of spiritual food they have no share, and
therefore, while devoid of the true life, they shall be raised again to taste of the
evil consequences of their evil deeds.
In Islam, one of the points of importance, which throws light on the mystery
of the life after death, is that man is destined to make infinite progress in that
life. Underlying this is the principle that development of man’s faculties as it
takes place in this life, however unlimited, is not sealed by finality; but a much
wider vista of the realms to be traversed opens out after the death. Those who
have wasted their opportunity in this life shall under the inevitable law which
makes every man taste of what he has done, be subjected to course of treatment
of the spiritual diseases which they have brought about with their own hands,
and when the effect of the position which vitiated their system has been mollified
and they are fit to start on the onward journey to the great goal. Many
commentators even give their emphasis to the limitation on the duration of
abiding in hell too. While the next life is a life of unlimited progress then the
punishment of hell should not be everlasting. A commentator explains why the
punishment of hell, according to the Holy Qur-an, is not everlasting“Abiding therein so long as the heavens and the earth endure, except as
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your Lord please; surely your Lord is the mighty doer of what He intends.”63
By quoting the above verse of the Holy Qur-an, the commentator Moulvi
Muhammad Ali explains“This limitation on the duration of abiding in hell
except as your lord please, is also in the Holy Quran
in 6:129, and it shows clearly that the punishment
of hell is not everlasting”.
A comparison with the following verse makes this notion more clear“And as to those who are made happy they shall be
in the garden, abiding in it as long as the heavens
and the earth endure, except as your Lord please: a
gift which shall never be cut off.”64
Here too, we have that those in Paradise shall abide there as long as the
heaven and the earth endure, but the statement is immediately followed by
another: a gift which shall never be cut off, thus showing that, in fact, there is no
limitation upon eternity of Paradise and the words ‘except of your Lord please’
have been used only to express the unbounded power and greatness of the
divine being. In the case of hell, however, the words ‘except as your Lord please’
are followed by a statement which corroborates the limitation thus placed, for
the word ‘fa’al’ (in Arabic) as an attribute of the Divine being, indicates that He
does even those things which seem impossible to others.”65
Various sayings of the Holy Prophet corroborate the statement made above.
For instance, the concluding portion of one of these which is met within one of
the most reliable collections, runs thus“Then will Allah say: The angels and the prophets
and the faithful have all in their turn interceded for
the sinners, and now there remains none to intercede
for them except the most merciful of all merciful
ones. So He will take out a handful from fire and
bring out a people who never worked for any good.”66
There are also other sayings“Surely, a day will come over hell when it will be
like a field of corn that has dried up after flourishing
for a while”; and again, “Surely a day will come
over hell when there shall not be a single human
being in it.”67
Another saying of ‘Umar on record’ is also worthwhile quoting here-”Even
if the dwellers in hell may be numberless as the sands of desert a day will surely
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come when they will be taken out of it.”
Thus according to the view of many commentators, the Qur-an rejects the
popular doctrine of the eternity of the hell. The punishment of hell is not
everlasting for faithful (Muslims). It is meant to clean a (Sinner) man of the dross
which is a hindrance in his spiritual progress, and when that object has been
achieved, its need vanishes. Those in paradise shall not be idle, but they shall be
continually exerting themselves to reach the higher stages. We find that paradise
is not only a place to enjoy the blessings of one’s previous good deeds, but it is
the starting point of the development of the higher faculties of man. It is for this
reason that they are taught to pray ever there to their Lord as we find in Holy
Qur-an, “O, our Lord: make perfect for us our light.”69
When the people of heaven will be enjoying pleasure and bliss all of a
sudden, they will see a bright light where they will raise their heads, they will
see that their Lord is manifested over them.
Lord Allah will say“O Men of heaven Bless is be on you; then Allah
will see them and the people of Heaven will also
see Allah. They will not attend to the pleasures of
Heaven, they will rather be observed in the vision
of the Lord. They will go on seeing the Allah so
much so that He will disappear from their eyes and
only His light will remain. Meaning thereby, only
the effect of the vision of the Lord will persist.”70
REFERENCES
1.
Khan, Md. Farukh, Hadis-Saurabha, Markazi Maktaba Islami Ind., Delhi-6, p.270.
2.
The Holy Qur-an, (containing the Arabic text with English translation and commentary by
Maulvi Muhammad Ali).
3.
Ibid., 2:4.
4.
Ibid., 27:4.
5.
The Holy Qur-an, op.cit., 27:3.
6.
Ibid., 17:13.
7.
According to Raghib, Imam of the Mufradat, ‘Wazn’ means the knowing of the measure
of a thing. Mujahid used to say Wazn means judging. The explanation of Wazn as meaning
justice and judgement as given by Mujahid, A Mash and others has largely been following
by later.
8.
‘Mizan’ or ‘Heezan’ does not signify in the Holy Qur-an a pair of scales for weighing
things, but a measure, as signifying any standard of comparison, estimation, or judgement
and the term is here, and elsewhere, used in this broad sense.
9.
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The Holy Qur-an, op.cit., 7:8.
10. Ibid., 55:7.
11. The Holy Qur-an, 55:7.
12. Ibid., 17:72.
13. The Holy Qur-an, op.cit., 89:27-30.
14. Ali, Maulvi Muhammad, Holy Qur-an, op.cit., f.n., p.692.
15. Ibid., p. 486.
16. Ibid., p. 487.
17. Ibid.
18. The Holy Qur-an, op.cit., 89:27-30.
19. The Holy Qur-an, 91:1-10.
20. Hadis, op.cit., pp. 272-273.
21. Ibid., p. 273.
22. Triten, A.S., Islam : Belief & Practices, Hutchinson’s University Library, Hutchinson, House,
London, WI, p.185.
22A. Hadis, p. 270.
23. Hadis, p. 271.
24. Triten, A.S., Islam: Belief & Practices, op.cit., p. 48.
25. Khan, Muhammad Farukh, Hadis, footnote, p.273.
26. Triten, A.S., Islam : Belief & Practices, op.cit., p.15; Hadis, op.cit., pp. 272-273.
27. Ali, Moulvi Muhammad, Holy Quran, op.cit., footnote, p.692.
28. Tritan, A.S., Islam : Belief and Practices, p. 150.
29. Ibid., p.151.
30. Hadis, op.cit., p.273.
31. Tritan, A.S., Islam: Belief and Practices, op.cit., p.152.
32. Hadis, p.282. “Illiyyun” – A few commentators hold that like Sijjin, Illiyyun is not the
name of place but that of a record – Moulvi Md. Ali; Holy Qur-an, op.cit., f.n., p.1171.
32A. The Holy Qur-an, 39:68-70.
33. Tritan, A.S., Islam: Belief and Practices, op.cit., p.151.
34. The Holy Qur-an, op.cit., 22:6.
35. Ibid., 22:7.
37. Ibid., footnote, p.283.
38. Holy Qur-an, op.cit., 45:26.
39. Tritan, A.S., Islam: Belief & Practices, op.cit., p.47; Hadis, op.cit., p.286.
40. Holy Qur-an, op.cit., 82:9-12.
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41. Ali, Moulvi Muhammad, Holy Qur-an, op.cit., footnote, p.1169.
42. Tritan, A.S., Islam: Belief & Practices, op.cit., p.47.
43. Holy Qur-an, 44:41.
45. Holy Qur-an, 7:8.
47. Ibid., 45:22.
49. Hadis, p. 290.
50. Holy Quran, 2:255.
51. Tritan, A.S., Islam: Belief & Practice, op.cit., p.45.
52. Ibid.
54. Hadis, p. 292.
55. Holy Qur-an, 35:34,35.
56. Holy Qur-an, 47:15.
57. Holy Qur-an, 9:61, 62.
58. Hadis, op.cit., p. 293.
59. Hadis.
60. Holy Qur-an, 32:17.
61. Holy Qur-an, 32:17.
62. Ibid., 20:74. – Those in hell shall not live, because the life shall be granted only to those
who are reborn in this life, nor shall they die because death would mean cessation of their
torment – Holy Quran by Moulvi Muhammed Ali, footnote 1592.
63. Holy Qur-an, 11:107.
64. Holy Qur-an, 11:108.
65. Ali, Moulvi Muhammad, Holy Qur-an, footnote, 1201, p.472.
66. The reference has been taken from the book, ‘Holy Qur-an’ by Moulvi Muhammad Ali,
footnote, 1201, p.472.
67. Kanz-ul-Ummal, Vol.iii, p.245.
68. See, Fat-h-ul-Bayan; Fat-h-ul-Bair; Dirr-i-Mansoor and the Had-il-Arwah of Ibn-i-Quyyum.
– Here the reference is taken originally from the book, ‘Holy Qur-an’, by Moulvi
Muhammad Ali, footnote, 1201, p.472.
Ind ia n Press tow a rd s Professiona lism : An a p p ra isa l in the Na tiona l Interest
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Indian Press towards Professionalism :
An appraisal in the National Interest
Kedar Nath *
Mass media have affected and influenced people belonging to all classes in
various ways. Justice Sen (1987) rightly held that the mass medium undoubtedly
be considered to be one of the most effective weapons in arousing popular
conscience and generating public opinion. Mass media perform multifarious
functions namely enlightening the public, safeguarding public liberties of citizens
and providing entertainment to the masses and in general providing information
to the people. It was generally agreed that mass media would have a key role in
building up our democratic polity and enlighten the social fabric. In other words,
mass media are charged with the responsibility of influencing human being and
his faculties in various spheres of life.
Impact of Press
Undoubtedly, print medium plays an important role as a mass communicator in
the modern society. By providing information and opinions on matters of public
concern, print medium helps in shaping the minds of people. It can serve
independently and as supplementary to other media by giving a balanced account
of news along with background, better interactive, investigated and thorough
reporting coverage, a wide variety of reading material and shapes of opinion in
their columns. Malhan (1985:88) observed that, “Newspapers today occupy a
prestigious position in the galaxy of media with their roles varying from an
informer to a critic, from a narrator to a commentator, from an investigator to an
analyst, from a mentor to a teaser, from a peace preacher to violence or racialism
baiter”. Press constitutes the best instrument for enlightening the mind of man
and improving him as a rational, moral social being. Press has the major
responsibility to provide information and create a climate for discussion. Press,
being a fundamental public institution of the society, plays a vital role in creating,
shaping and reflecting the public opinion. Press could broaden the impact of
writing by bringing knowledge into the hands of the general public.
In India, print medium took its roots first in the major provincial capitals of
British India – Calcutta, Madras and later Bombay. These cities with their
* Department of Defence and Strategic Studies, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur.
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surrounding areas accounted for the bulk of newspaper circulations. As the
freedom struggle gained momentum, newspaper was published from the main
centers of agitation. Newspaper readership in the beginning continued to remain
in urban areas. After independence, the print medium emerged from its precolonial past and spread into semi-urban and rural areas. With the development
and growth of newspaper technology and sharp competition, the costs of
published a newspaper also rose. The advertising world, the backbone of
newspaper industry attracted the highly circulated newspaper fueling the growing
difference between big and small newspapers. The power of print medium
attracted, big industrialist to invent in newspaper industry. Monopolies and
chains have become the order of the day. The missionary zeal of pre-independence
days was away to commercial interests. Today, newspaper have become class
media catering to the rich and powerful. However, the language newspapers do
cater to the lower levels of the society. Though the press is the fundamental
institution in our society, it has yet to identify its true post independence role.
Press Freedom and Social Responsibility
Press Freedom and Social Responsibility are the twin issues, which cause extensive
debate around the world. For media, press freedom is a sacred ideal, to be
defied, fought for and protected at any cost. For other responsibility is a quality
which, media are seen as abusing at any cost. For others responsibility is a
quality which, media are seen as abusing and neglecting and even discarding in
the pursuit of circulation and profit. In his regard, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru rightly
said “There is no such thing as absolute freedom. Freedom is always accompanied
by responsibility. Freedom always entails an obligation, whether it is the nation’s
freedom or the freedom of the press” (Ahuja, 1998:29). Press has high social
responsibility. This view has been reiterated by most of the scholarly journalist.
Press has the great role to make decisions instantaneously with a sense of
responsibility towards society (Agarwal, 1970). It has been proved many times
that the press influences the society. Gorwala (1971) submits that there was a
notion prevalent many persons choose journalism to serve the society. He further
asserts that the tendency to view journalist as a member of profession seem to
rest largely on the recognition of his work, which entail high social responsibility.
The association of responsibility seems to rest upon the general belief that the
press has much influence in society. Rau (1968) contends that journalism is a
profession with its own sense of fellowship as a profession. The main idea behind
acknowledging journalism as a profession is the pursuance. This is well indicated
by a much quoted phrase from a judgement of noted judge Frankfurter in the
case of Associated Press Vs. US (1943) : In addition to being a commercial
enterprise, it (the press) has a relationship to public interest unlike that of any
other enterprise of profit ……………. The business of press, is …………. the
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promotion of truth regarding public matters by furnishing the basis for an
understanding of them” McQuail, 1933:36).
Freedom and responsibility should always be complimentary to each other.
The press should accept the responsibilities towards society by giving a true,
accurate and objective, balanced picture. It has to reflect the pluralistic character
of the society. The theory of responsibility is simple that everyone is responsible
for the consequences of an action. An old legal maxim very aptly says, “No right
without responsibilities”.
Is Journalism A Profession?
The professions have long carried distinct moral obligations with respect to public
and private decision making and behavior. What we do as professionals and
how we do it, whether in commercial or non-profit contexts, our sense of integrity
and our regard for self and others, affects the lives of every one. However,
journalism is a noble profession, as it is service oriented, yet a section of researchers
held different points with reference to journalism as a profession. It is contended
that newspaper journalism is a profession with its own techniques, traditions
and sense of fellowship. There is a distinction of journalistic profession from
other professions with the vital aspects like freedom of speech and expression is
a very wide fundamental right, whereas the legal and medical practitioners have
no such conventional right and also for its organized industrial aspect. Porter
(1968) argues that by the conventional definition of the word ‘ profession’, the
occupation of the journalist is not a professional at all, as there is no formal
training required either to secure a job or to fit it well. There is no system of
licensure or cortication of journalists. Any official body of the profession does
not police their activities. Azmi (1977) contends that journalism is a professional
as it has a body of knowledge imparted in training institutions affiliated to
universities and exercises self regulation to some extent. Karnani (1977) submits
that there is no doubt about its status. But whether it even become a profession
in the real sense of Law and Medicine, as journalists are all employees and
cannot be regarded as independent practitioners. Eapen (1969) has perceived
that journalism is on the way to professionalism due to education in journalism
which started much earlier in 1938, organization of occupation associations at
the national level (the first being IFWJ in 1950), he formation of the Press Council
of India for self regulation in 1966.
Above all these apprehensions, journalism is a noble profession with its
service element and therefore every journalist owes an obligation towards the
society. A journalist is described as a social engineer. Hence this profession
needs to be necessarily monitored by ethics.
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Need for Ethics
In modern times when the business angle is gaining priority in newspaper
industry, there is a need for an exhaustive and vigorously enforced code of ethics
for journalists. There is a controversy about the extent of observance of public
interest by the journalists. The press does not exhibit social commitment. The
press has not worked in accordance with the declarations made to public.
Journalists have assured the public of their observance of high social responsibility.
But the public is not convinced by these assurance and made several allegations
of neglect of the interest of masses. Indian public is largely unsympathetic to the
press and is critical of its performance and efficiency. The allegation of neglecting
social interest has been confirmed by various studies of newspaper content.
Kamath (1980) in his study analyzed the contents of 8 major English dailies of
4 regions in 1978. It has been found that the social interest has not been given
due consideration. Further Indian journalism has been accused of being obsessed
with politics at the at the cost of public interest. Indian journalism also to be
blamed for urban bias due to monopoly of urban business class and majority
come from urban domicile. Newspaper are moneymaking enterprises to their
owners, thus considerations of social service or dedication, truth and justice are
irrelevant to them. Suppression, distortion or falsification of news leads to loss
of hard work as well the initiative or public good. Newspaper journalism is
supposed to be he embodiment of self-sacrifice for public interest but this is a
myth in the present situation.
The declining standards of reportage in newspapers are proved in few of
the empirical stasis. According to Sharma (1990), a good majority of journalist
agree that they exploit their status for non-journalistic purposes. They subscribe
to the view that any reporting which proved false is seldom or never admitted
and rectified. It has been accepted that sensationalism has become a practice in
journalism to achieve fame and name. Further, hey felt that they have to give
preference to proprietor’s business interest.
There is the need for a statutory code of ethics for journalists, as was the
case with other professions. It is impossible for the law to be over vigilant to
conduct the press, as there are vast areas, which are outside the jurisdiction of
law and are uncovered by any legal regime. Apart from which the new advances
of technologies have imparted urgency to the entire debate of responsibility and
the need to draft and redraft existing codes of ethics.
Press Codes of Ethics
Since early 1920s, codes of professional ethics of journalists began to be formulated.
It is code of honor of professional conduct that distinguishes a profession from
a mere occupation. A few organizations of journalists have made their effort in
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this direction. The AINEC constituted a code of ethics in 1953. This code defines
the calling of journalism as a profession meant to serve and to guard the public
interest. Later on in 1986. The AINEC again formulated a code of ethics for the
press in reporting and commenting on communal incidents. In 1976, a committee
of 17 editors presented a code of ethics for journalists to promote the national
unity, solidarity, integrity, the economic and social progress of India and to
propagate and project the national objectives of democracy, socialism and
secularism. The National Union of journalist in 1981 and the IFWJ in 1986 made
declarations on the observance of high degree of norms and social responsibility.
The All India Small and Medium Newspapers Association had drawn up a code
of ethics in 1975. Contrary to this, the editors Guild of India is against drawing
up of any code of ethics for guidance of journalist on the ground that responsible
people cannot be governed by codes. Thus a section of journalists are against
framing a code for journalism. Apart from these efforts, the Press Council Act
1965 contained a provision in Chapter III under the heading “ Powers and
Functions of Press Council” in Sec. 12(2) (b) “to build up a code of conduct for
newspapers and journalists in accordance with high professional standards”.
This was repeated in the press council Act of 1978 in Sec. 13(2)(b), although the
First press Commission hand recommended (1954) the formulation of codes of
ethics as one of the prime responsibilities of Press Council, it had been the
consistent view of the Council that these provisions spoke of building up a code
of conduct.
But the attempts at framing an exhaustive code for professional bodies of
journalist in various countries including India have either proved futile or resulted
in mere enunciation of certain basic principles in general terms. They had not
proved when it came to applying them to individual cases. If the Council reduced
these principles into a kind of code of conduct of journalistic ethics or propriety,
they would have a tendency to attain a degree of rigidity, which might give rise
to differing interpretations. So the view that prevailed all along was that it was
neither necessary nor desirable or even feasible to draw up a comprehensive
code, but it would be better and more useful to build up in course of time.
There is an argument that the task of enforcement of the codes cannot be left
to the government or the politicians alone. The whole process or system of
enforcement of the responsibilities should evolve some kind of code of conduct
and evolve the mechanism to implement it. On the other hand, the readers
should be involved to represent on the committees and panels assigned in the
task of implementing the codes of ethics. This would result in a healthy
environment in favor of responsibilities. The Time of India set a new trend by
appointing Justice P.N. Bhagwati, Retired Chief Justice of Supreme Court of
India as its internal ombudsman. The Nav Bharat Times, a Hindi Daily of the
Time group also appointed Mr. T.N. Chaturvedi, former, Comptroller and Auditor
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General of India as its ombudsman. The idea of ombudsman is of Swedish
origin. Though the concept of ‘Ombudsman’ originated in Sweden, the press in
USA first adopted it. The Ombudsman is an independent person appointed on
a non-renewable, non-cancelable contract to monitor the contents of a newspaper.
A senior professional appointed from outside, reviews the contents on a daily
basis to evaluate a newspaper’s adherence to the principles of professional
journalism.
The other suggested media monitoring mechanisms include the formation
Editorial Committees to rigorously scrutinize the contents of their own media. It
is for the newspaper organization to have a mission statement or statement of
goals and objectives with the editorial position of the newspaper from time to
time. It is possible then for both the employees and public to measure the
performance against its stated objectives. This method is essential because a
proper evaluation of performance or a proper monitoring of content can only be
done if one knows what the aims, goals and objectives of the medium are? Social
institutions such as consumer group, voluntary organization, courts research
institutions could play a role in studying the manifest contents of newspaper of
determining the amount of coverage give to various issues and the bias – the
extent to which the media are performing their gate- keeping and agenda setting
role. Sometimes, the existence of these mechanisms is resentful among media
professions as they consider a direct threat to the freedom of expression and to
their perception of the moral mission of media.
The Mac Bride Report says that the codes of ethics at national and in some
cases, at the regional level are desirable, provided that such codes are prepared
and adopted by the profession itself, without government interference. The fast
pace of technological developments throws up a complex gamut of regulatory
challenges to society.
Press Ownership
The India press has been a private commercial since the days of pre independence.
Today individuals own the largest number of newspaper with a circulation of
more than 1/3rd of share of the total circulation with ¾ of the total number of
newspaper published in India. Joint Stock companies, many of the industrial and
commercial ventures constitute another 1/3rd of share of total circulation even
though they own only 7.9% of the total newspapers published in the country. It
is to be noted that the government publications are few (1.7% of the total number
of newspaper published) and have a mere 2 percent share of the circulation.
There are a small number of newspapers brought out by the cooperatives religious
and political groups or by journalist themselves (RNI Report, 2001). The Times
of India is the largest publishing house. Indian Express Group is the closest
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competitor owned by Goenka Industrial House over the Birla’s own Hindustan
Times Group, Anand Bazar Group. Malayala Manorama Group rules the roost.
Ownership of newspapers is thus concentrated in the hands of these few groups;
as a result wield much power. The concentration of ownership is a major threat
to a free press and ethics for it considerably narrows the range of opinion and
the field of debate (Kumar, 1982). The commercialization of the press attached
big industrialists like Birla, Goenka, Dalmai to acquire interests in newspaper
industry. It development of concentration of ownership in the newspaper industry
and brought profound alterations in the character of he national press. The chain
newspapers are up surging and led that a few press barons decide what majority
of newspaper reading public in India should be told very morning. Multiplying
circulations and swelling advertising revenues now beckon the newspaper
proprietors. As time passes on, the concentration of ownership in the newspaper
industry steadily continues to increase. The second Press Commission also
considered the ownership structure of big newspapers and accepted that where
newspapers are controlled by industrial house, hey become mere instruments
promoting owner’s business interest at the helm of public interest. But the
Commission does not believe that the solution lies in destroying in industrial
character of big newspapers. In an empirical study of Sharma (1990), it is felt that
the journalists accept that if there is clash between the management’s interests
and public interest, the later is always or almost subordinated. Thus newspapers
constitute money making enterprises to their owners and the considerations of
social service or dedication, truth, justice are irrelevant to them.
Editorial Freedom
The traditional supremacy of the editor is no longer in existence and holds well
in vies of the proprietor. Economics play a major role in shaping information
today. Therefore the control of the management is needed to sustain the economic
independence of the paper. The proprietor interferes directly or indirectly in the
editorial independence. The moral mission of the media takes second place.
Editorial policy directly relates to the editorial freedom. In India, newspaper
organizations mostly the proprietors lay down the editorial policy in view of
their business interest. Journalist are compelled to follow these policies as against
to their professional demands. A journalist is expected to operate within this
framework of editorial policy. The Second Press Commission (1982) evaluates
the controversy and concluded that the right of the owner to lay down in advance
the editorial policy can not be taken away. But as long as the management states
editorial policies in advance, every employee journalist has to follow. Mulgaokar
(1971) stated that it is unhealthy that the adherence to a particular policy affects
the fairness, objectivity and accuracy of significance to the newspaper reading
community because such views are against the interests of the proprietor or a
182
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certain class or classes of people.
The Constitutional protection of freedom of pres is extended not only to
journalists who do the newsgathering, but also to the owners of media outlets
through which information is disseminated. Media owners may or may not give
enormous freedom to their editors and reporter. But that has become a matter of
choice, but not law. If the media owners continue to attempt their own biases in
newspaper coverage, they have to risk loosing the readers who are capable of
judging balance and accuracy in reporting among the array of journalistic products
available in this information market place. This tendency of viewing news as just
one more “Profit Centre” among corporate board of directors certainly result out
to be a great decline.
Education and Training
There is unanimous agreement over the need for education and training to strive
for excellence in the area of journalism. The need for education and training is
acknowledged by note journalist. Professional education in all possible forms
and training provides a theoretical and academic basis for journalism practitioners.
Education is perhaps the best monitoring mechanism. It is necessary to educate,
on the way the media works and on the way in which media decisions are made
and forces which act as restraints. So that a more informed discussion of media
role in society and an understanding of necessity of freedom to ensure its
responsibility is spread among the practitioners. Further it is unreal and unfair
to expect a journalist to adhere to a moral standard when his qualifications are
inadequate to the tasks he has to fulfill. The best method in which an ethical
code can be maintained by journalist is when they become professionals in terms
of educational levels, qualifications and incomes. The UGC status report (1981)
on Journalism education stressed the need for training. The Desai Committee
(1977) holds that most of the institutions do not train in the roles of a
communicator and social animator and suggested that journalism departments
should adopt a cluster of villages as the Faculty’s Laboratory to inculcate concern
for rural, cultural and social interest.
Working Conditions
A journalist who does not enjoy good pay and working conditions can not help
to advance the cause of responsibility and ethics, as they will be tempted to fall
prey to corruption and the so called envelope journalism is going to survive. A
study of the background of journalist working in Indian media organizations
shows great variation in professional standards, incomes and benefit packages.
While established national media maintain very high standards, the same can
not be said for the small newspaper or regional language newspapers in rural
x183
areas wherein the journalist are not qualified and are low paid. The Working
Journalists and other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of Service and
Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1955 lays down the minimum standards of service
conditions applicable to journalists and newspaper employees. The Working
Journalists (Fixation of Rates of Wages) Act 1958 prescribes the minimum rates
of wages payable to journalists. These legislations are mandatory and cannot be
argued that such laws have an adverse effect on the viability of newspapers and
therefore threaten freedom of press. Accordingly, the Supreme court has held
that these laws are essential social legislations. This Act made a provision for the
establishment of a Wage Board for fixing basic salaries, hours of work, provident
fund and regulation of service conditions. Many a not have statutory mandate.
In spite of these legislations, still there is inadequacy in monitoring the strict
implementation of the provisions incorporated in different legislations. In the
exchange for elusive access to inside information, journalists are easily drawn
into a vicious circle dominated by a culture of nepotism; patronage and money
politics in which the corruption practices of gifts have been largely prominent.
CONCLUSION
Though codes of ethics are formulated far ahead since 1920s in India, but they
don not address enforcement. It is the code of honor of professional conduct that
distinguishes a profession from a mere occupation. Hence a Statutory Code of
Ethics must be formulated applying to all the mass media, integrating the media
personnel in different roles. And the implementation of the code shall be strictly
attached to the upgraded Media Council of India in the place of the Press Council
of India. Countering to the criticism leveled against the Press Council of India,
there require certain modifications to this august body. The Press Council should
be upgraded and restructured as the Media Council to bring all the mass media
under its purview. There is a need to create Regional Councils on each language.
It has to undertake the task of educating the press on its existence and secondly
on its functions and powers. There is a need for multiplicity of media monitoring
mechanisms in promoting ethical standards. Professional ethics be continuously
upgraded and strengthened in terms of training, research and resource inputs
with the view of upholding and promoting standards. Regional organizational
and educational institutions should be encouraged to carryout comparative
research on media ethics. The output of such a research should be widely
publicized. Appropriate regional organizations should compile and circulate a
recommended framework drawn from codes of ethics from various countries
and invite communication practitioners to define the framework drawn from
codes of ethics from various countries and invite communication practitioners to
define the framework in actionable terms within their national context. There
should follow regional acceptable standards of ethics on issues such as violence,
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horror and sex. The journalistic ethics formulated from time to time and the
relevant publications on ethics and standards mist be translated to different
languages and should be widely circulated to the comfort of stringers. Training
is required not only for the reporter but for the whole desk. Minimum educational
qualifications shall be prescribed for journalists. Licensing may be made
mandatory for journalists at the entry level. A lot of the language newspaper are
functioning more or less through stringers for various reasons. This has created
a situation in which cases of defamation; misreporting, exaggeration and
unprofessional standards surface on. And the monitoring of language newspaper
is not as powerful as English language newspapers. Expert panels may be created
at the level of each newspaper organization at least to monitor the coverage of
the most sensitive issues such as communal or war related, health, women issues
etc.
More than codes, there should be constant endeavor to develop professional
conscience among the practitioners. Media Council can request all of those
associations to include in their constitutions or their rules, a provision that if
these directions given by the media Council are not complied with, then the
associations should suspend or cancel their membership till such time as they
comply with their directions. Reservation may be instituted for membership for
women in the ensuing Media Council, keeping in view the coverage of women
related issues and problems effecting the women in different media.
REFERENCES
1.
Sen, A.N. (1987). “Media as an Instrument of Peace “. Press Council of India Review. 8:13.
2.
Malhan, P.N. (1985). Communication Media – Yesterday, Today and Tommorrow. New
Delhi: Publication division.
3.
Ahuja, B.N. (1998). Story of Press, press Laws and Communications. New Delhi: Surjeet.
4.
Agarwal, Shushila (1970). Press Public Opinion and Government in india. Jaipur: Asha
5.
Gorwala A.D. (1971). “The Press As An Educative Factor”. In A.G. Noorani (ed.) Freedom
of Press in India. Bombay: Nachiketa.
6.
Rau, Chalapathi, M.(1968). The Press in india. New delhi: Allied.
7.
McQuail, Dennis. (1993). Media performance: mass Communications and the Public Interest.
New Delhi: Sage.
8.
Porter, William, E. (1968). “ Journalism”. In David L. Sills (ed.) international Encyclopedia
of the Social Sciences. Vol.8. New York: Macmillan.
9.
Azmi, H.A. (1977). “How far is Journalism a Profession?”. India Press: Vol.IV.No.3. March
17-21.
10. Karnani, J.K. (1977). “Professionalism in Newspaper Industry is a Myth”. Indian Press.
Vol.IV.March7-9.
x185
11. Eapen, E.K. (1969). Journalism as a Profession in India: a Study of two States and Two
Cities. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. University of Wisconsin. In Rajendra K. Sharma. (1990).
Journalism as a Profession in India (a Sociological perspective). Bombay: Media Promoters
12. Kamath, M.V. (1980). Profession Journalism. New Delhi: Vikas.
13. Sharma, Rajendra kK. (1990). Journalism as a Profession in India (A Sociological Perspective).
Bombay: Media Promoters
14. Kumar, Keval, J. (1982). Mass Communication in India. New Delhi: Jaico.
15. Mulgaokar, S. (1971). “The Press in Free India”. In. A.G.Noorani (ed.). Freedom of Press
in India. Bombay: Nachiketa.
186
x
Liberation and Recognition of
Cultural Roots : An Appraisal of
August Wilson’s the Piano Lesson
Soumya Jose *
August Wilson, the twentieth century African American playwright is an
iconoclast who exploited the medium of theatre to authenticate the African
American cultural lineage in a white dominated country like America. Wilson’s
singular achievement and literary legacy is a cycle of ten plays known as the
Pittsburgh Cycle. Each play is set in a different decade depicting the comedy and
tragedy of the African American experience in the twentieth century. As a
descendant of the black slave family, Wilson always felt the need to recognize
the struggles that his forefathers endured in their journey towards emancipation.
Snodgrass in August Wilson : A Literary Companion remarks, “Wilson divulged
that his parents concealed the wrongs and indignities they suffered in their early
years “(215) . Wilson found this position disturbing and Savran quotes Wilson’s
perspective on his parents’ attitude in the book entitled Their Own In Words :
The fact of slavery is something that blacks , do not
teach their kids –they do not tell their kids that at
one time we were slaves.That is the most crucial
and central thing to our presence here in America.It’s
nothing to be ashamed of. Why is it, after spending
hundreds of years of bondage, that blacks in America
do not once a year get together and celebrate the
Emancipation and remind ourselves of our
history?(295)
Through his writing Wilson endeavours to illuminate the past of those
unspoken African American people. This paper demonstrates how he aims to
teach that the history must be shared and accepted and then valued for the
lessons that it teaches before the future can be achieved. The play taken up for
analysis is The Piano Lesson, which fetched the second Pulitzer Prize for Wilson,
the doyen of twentieth century American Theatre.
The action of the play centres on an old family piano. Berniece lives in
* Research Scholar, Department of English, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar-608002, Tamilnadu
Email : [email protected]
Lib era tion a nd Rec og nition of C ultura l Roots : An Ap p ra isa l of Aug ust ...
x 187
Pittsburgh with her uncle, Doaker and her daughter, Maretha. Her brother Boy
Willie comes from the South to sell the piano to gather enough money to buy a
piece of land owned by the son of their former slave owner, Sutter. Berniece
keeps the family piano, with its beautiful carvings and dark past in her parlour.
She keeps it clean and dusted, but will not touch its ivory keys. She sees blood
on those keys. The piano represents a family history that Berniece can not cope
with and so it remains untouched by her.
Berniece can not deal with her family’s tragic past. She can not let go off the
memory of the father who died retrieving the piano from the slave owning family
that possessed it. She can not see past the sweat of her slave grandfather who carved
the faces of her family on its wooden surface or the tears of her mother as she played
it , mourning over her lost husband.
Wilson portrays Boy Willie as a character who sees the piano as a means to
achieve his life goal. Boy Willie’s approach towards the much revered family piano
springs up from his utilitarian attitude. As an unemployed youth in his early thirties,
Boy Willie dreams of a prosperous future by selling the piano which is a reminder of
their days of slavery. Boan, in the article entitled “ Call and Response : Parallel
‘Slave Narrative’ in August Wilson’s The Piano Lesson” comments , “No one seems
to require psychological reconstruction through material means more than Boy
Willie”(265). Boy Willie believes that land ownership will provide an equal footing
with the whites. As Boan notes, “Boy Wille embarks on an archetypal quest for selfrealization by attempting to purchase the very land that his family had been forced to
work as slaves, and working it himself for his own profit “ (268).Boy Willie explains
to Berniece, “If my daddy had seen where he could have traded the piano in for some
land of his own, it wouldn’t be sitting up here now. He spent his whole life farming
somebody else’s land. I ain’t gonna do that”(46).
Boy Willie tries to achieve what his forefathers have not even dared to dream of.
He yearns to attain the social and economic mobility which was denied to his
ancestors. For Boy Willie, the prospect of selling the piano and buying Sutter’s land
is, according to Elam, “a counter claim on what constitutes ownership and the right
of property”(147). Berniece can not agree with the reasons that Boy Willie projects
to justify his plan to sell the piano.According to Berniece :
BERNIECE : Money can’t buy what that piano
cost.You can’t sell your
soul for money.It
won’t go with the buyer.It’ll shrivel and shrink to
know that you ain’t taken on to it.But it won’t go
with the buyer.(50)
Boy Willie considers piano as a property left by his grandfather for him to
start life anew. He says :
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BOYWILLIE : I ain’t talking about selling my soul.
I’m talking about rading that piece of wood for some
land. Get something under your feet. Land the only
thing God ain’t making no more
of. You can
always get you another piano. I am talking about
some land .What you get something out the ground
from….You can’t do nothing with that piano but sit
up there and look at it.(50)
Berniece’s approach to the piano is sentimental where as Boy Willie’s is
pragmatic and practical .According to Boy Willie, if he could sell the piano and
buy Sutter’s land it would be something quite worthwhile in comparison with
the foolish sentimental reverence that his sister confers on the family piano. But
Berniece has her own justifications for the reverence that she pays to the piano:
BERNIECE : Mama Ola polished this piano with
her tears for venteen years. Seventeen years she
rubbed on it till her hands bled. Then she rubbed
the blood in. . .mixed it up with the rest of the blood
on it . Every day that God breathed life into her
body. She rubbed and cleaned and polished and
prayed over it. (52)
Boy Willie tries his best to convince Berniece of the prospects that a piece
of land would offer :
BOY WILLIE : If you got a piece of land you will
find everything else fall right into place. You can
stand right up next to the white man and talk about
the price of cotton. . . .The weather and anything
else you want to talk about. If you teach that girl
that she living at the bottom of life, she’s gonna
grow up and hate you. (92)
Like Wilson’s parents, Berniece does not divulge the stories behind the
carvings on the piano to her daughter, Maretha. When Boy Wille asks Maretha
whether his mother told her how that pictures got on the piano, she replies, “She
say it just always been like that since she got it”(22). On another occasion Boy
Willie points out the necessity to reveal the history of the piano to Maretha. Boy
Willie asserts :
BOY WILLIE : If you want to tell her something
tell her about the piano. You ain’t even told her
about that piano. Like that’s something to be
ashamed of. Like she supposed to go off and hide
somewhere about that piano. You ought to mark
x 189
down on the calendar the day that Papa Boy
Charles brought that piano into the house. You ought
to mark that day down and draw a circle around it
. . . and every year when it come up throw a party.
. . If you did that she wouldn’t have no problem in
life. She could walk around with her head held
high. (91)
Boy Willie and his friend Lymon make a futile attempt to move the piano
out of the house. When he tries to lift the piano everybody in the house feels the
presence of Sutter’s ghost which disturbed Berniece earlier in the play. Wilson,
here exploits the dichotomy between Christianity and African traditional beliefs
to establish his point that a return to their cultural roots is inevitable for the
complete liberation of African Americans from the shackles of slavery.
In the beginning of the play, Berniece vehemently voices her disagreement
with this faith in the ghosts of the Yellow Dog. “I don’t want to hear that nonsense. Somebody down there pushing people in their wells” (5). At the same
time Berniece does believe in the Holy Ghost and actually sees Sutter’s ghost.
She, more than any other character, on some conscious level, recognizes the
presence, the coexistence of the ancestors within the world of living. She confesses
to Avery, “I used to think them pictures came alive and walked through the
house” (70). Her decision not to play the piano is a deliberate attempt to avoid
waking these spirits.
The Christian image in the play comes to the limelight when Berniece makes an
arrangement with Avery to exorcise the ghost of Sutter from their house. Avery
represents the force of Christianity in the Black world: “Thirty eight years old, dressed
in a suit and tie with a gold cross around his neck. He carries a small Bible. (22)”
Avery carries the “written word” (22) with him, which serves as the white man’s
God. Avery represents the Christian way in the play. He is a minister and feels he has
been “called”. Avery has a dream in which the Lord speaks to him. He relates :
AVERY : I had a peace about myself that was hard to explain.
I knew right then that I had been filled with the
Holy Ghost and called to be a servant of the Lord.
It took me a while before I could accept that. But
then a lot of little ways God showed me it was
true. So I became a preacher. (25)
The conflict between African traditional beliefs and Christianity reaches its
climax at the end of the play. Berniece asks Avery to bless the house so that the
ghost of Sutter will flee. After reading the Bible, the previous night, Avery comes
to the house and begins the ceremony as follows :
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x
AVERY : O Holy Father we gather here this evening
in the Holy name to cast out the spirit of one James
Sutter. May this vial of water be empowered with
thy spirit. May each drop of it be a weapon and a
shield against the presence of all evil and may it be
a cleansing and blessing of this humble abode. (104)
The entire act of exorcism is reliant on the words in the Bible. Avery’s
blessing and exorcism do not work. Christian words fail in front of the demons
of the past. Boy Willie does not believe in Christianity. He sees that religion is
useless against the ghost, and he takes on the ghost physically. Berniece knows
that she cannot win by herself. She knows that the power lies with the ancestors
within the piano. She begins her own exorcism; she plays the piano and sings:
BERNIECE : I want you to help me. . .
Mama Berniece . . .
I want you to help me
Mama Esther. (107)
Thus she helps Boy Willie and they begin to win over the ghost that haunts
them. Berniece accepted the past and her ancestors and drove away the ghost of
Sutter. Berniece, by accepting the tenets of African traditional beliefs was able to
accomplish something Avery could not do with all his words and the Bible.
Wilson chose the African way to overcome the obstacles in The Piano Lesson.
With the final scene of The Piano Lesson, Wilson reifies the African oral
tradition and questions the validity of African American faith in conventional
Christianity. Western culture has embraced the miracles of saints, the appearance
of angels, the power of otherworldly forces within the testament of the Bible, but
has dismissed traditional African Religion’s magic and worship of invisible
spiritual beings as primitive and unreasonable. Wilson’s juxtapositioning of ghost,
religious traditions and spirituality within the narrative of The Piano Lesson
argues against such western cultural superiority. Berniece’s invocation of the
ancestors in conjunction with Boy Willie’s call to battle exorcises the ghosts of
the past that threaten the present. Her action strengthens the bond of familial
ties and reaffirm “the African” in American experience.
Boy Willie does not feel ashamed or afraid of his past, but he ignores its
significance ,not truly understanding the value in its teachings and how it passes
a story on to the future. In the end Boy Willie understands how powerful the
preservation of the past is, as Berniece uses the piano itself to exorcise the ghost
of Sutter,the son of slave owners and the cloud of darkness that hung over their
family tree. When Berniece plays the piano, Boy Willie understands that
preservation of the past is inevitable and it is something that can not be measured
x 191
in money. Wilson truly shows that understanding the past is valuable and worth
more than monetary things ,something that should be cherished and understood,
especially in the African American past with its constant struggle for self. He
strongly believes that there is no future for African Americans who refuse to
fully embrace their past under racial slavery.
REFERENCES
Boan, Devon.”Call and Response : Parallel ‘ Slave Narrative’ in August Wilson’s The Piano
Lesson”.AfricaAmerican Review 32.2 (Summer) : 263- 272.
Elam, Harry Jr.The Past as Present in the Drama of August Wilson.Ann Arbor :U of Michigan
P,2006.
Savran, David.In Their Own Words.New York : Theatre Communications Group, 1998.
Snodgrass, Mary Ellen. August Wilson : A Literary Companion. Jefferson : Mc Farland and
Company Inc, 1996.
Wilson, August. The Piano Lesson. New York : Plume, 1990.
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Wallace Stevens Exponency : Owl’s Clover
and the Social Imagination
Nisha Somarajan *
The Development of the poem The Old Woman and the Statue (1934) into the fivepoem sequence Owl’s Clover (1936) was prompted by the 1935 review of Ideas of
Order by Marxist Stanley Burnshaw. Owl’s Clover is anomalous in Stevens’ work
in the explicitness of its engagement with contemporaneous social and political
circumstances, featuring in its cast of characters Burnshaw himself, the socialist
“Bulgar,” and gun-wielding Europeans in Africa. Critical attention to the poem,
which initially focused on the extent to which that engagement is aesthetically
successful, has recently focused on the extent to which it is politically satisfactory.
The present article demonstrates that the poem contains a broader argument
about art and deals with the ideal function of art in society.
Owl’s Clover develops a conception of the function of art in society that can
be called by adapting Stevens’ own term, “exponency.” An exponent can be one
who expounds or interprets, a representative, an advocate, or a symbol. Stevens’
conception of the social role of the artist is a subtle compound of all these senses
of the term. The conception endures throughout his essays on reality and the
imagination and is closely related to his conception, about poetry as a source of
supreme fictions. His first statement of this conception appeared on the jacket of
the 1936 trade edition of Ideas of Order (Bates 192). “The more realistic life may
be,” Stevens writes, “the more it needs the stimulus of the imagination”; and “in
any society, the poet should be the exponent of the imagination of that society”
(OP 223). The wording is significant: the poet is to be the exponent not of his
own imagination but of his society’s imagination This, in concentrated form, is
the central contention of “Owl’s Clover.
The idea of poetic exponency that emerges in Owl’s Clover and afterwards,
in Stevens’ essays is a conceptual relative of reflection theories of art and as such
embroils itself in a number of the difficulties that reflectionism entails. A superficial
sort of reflectionism is a commonplace in ordinary thinking about art. As Francis
Sparshott puts it, “it is obvious that all art reflects the society in which it is
produced, in the sense that the artist shares the beliefs and attitudes of his
fellows and exploits a repertoire of themes and forms that he finds current”
(268). In this sense the idea of “reflection” is indeed a truism with few implications
* Research Scholar, Department of English, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar
Wa lla c e Stevens Exp onenc y : Ow l’s C lover a nd the Soc ia l Im a g ina tion
x193
for the understanding of the nature of art. But reflection has also been put forward
as a theory of the function of art: “it is… sometimes said that it is the function
of a culture’s arts as a whole to provide a sensible and emotional counterpart for
the configuration of their society: that is, to symbolize it” (Sparshott 268). It is
this conception of reflection as the function-that is, the social significance and
importance-of art that Stevens’ principle of exponency absorbs.
All forms of reflectionism implicitly rely on a conception of the connection
of art to its society as somehow organic and insofar as organic, necessary of
inescapable. The modernists, however, had no such comfortable confidence in
the relation of their art to its age. One of their pervasive preoccupations was
concerned with how to create a genuine literature of the time.
A poet might easily lose years, as Pound feared, “Observ[ing] the elegance
of Circe’s hair/Rather than the mottoes on sun-dials” (61). Stevens felt the threat
of this spectacle no less acutely than his contemporaries, and his conception of
poetry as the exponent of the social imagination seems to have developed at
least in part as a response to it. His commitment to that conception was
strengthened further by his consciousness of what he feared were the grievous
psychological consequence-individual and social-of the collapse of that edifice of
the Western imagination, the Christian heaven. Stevens ascribes to an essentially
reflections conception of the sustaining function of art in society, but, in an
attempt to forgo reflectionism’s untenable organicism he proposes that function
as a normative, rather than a natural, principle. In the form of the principle of
exponency, he maintains a version of reflectionism as an ethical imperative-the
sole ethical imperative of the artist.
This ethical imperative is dramatized in The Old Woman and the Statue, which
begins by confronting the specter of an art out of all spiritual alignment with its
age. The section opens with an image of a statue in a park-a group of winged
marble horses pushing off into flight. What is described is the sculptor’s vision
of how his creation would spring to life surrounded by a ring of trees in the
shifting light of a windy autumn sky. Trees and light the sculptor envisioned,
but no human beholder other than his own disembodied consciousness implicitly
on the scene of its own imagining. So imagined, the marble is dramatically alive:
white forelegs taut
To the muscles’ very tip for the vivid plunge,
The heads held high and gathered in a ring
At the center of the mass, the haunches low,
Contorted, staggering from the thrust against
The earth as the bodies rose of feathery wings... (OP 75)
That living force is abruptly obliterated at the entrance of the consciousness
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that does not respond to it. At the appearance of the eponymous old woman,
The mass of stone collapsed to marble hulk,
Stood stiffly, as if the black of what she thought
Conflicting with the moving colors there
Changed them, at last, to its triumphant hue….(OP 76)
The old woman is generally understood as a casualty of the Depression, her
obliviousness to the statue a consequence of that, and this section of the poem
as an account of art rendered impotent or irrelevant in the face of material
exigency. Material poverty is accompanied by depression of spirit, and it would
be wrong to discount either Stevens’ intentions or the Depression-era context of
the poem. But as the woman is presented as suffering from material poverty, that
poverty is figured largely metaphorically, through terms of spiritual or
psychological distress. Introduced as a “bitter mind,” the woman walks:
with chalky brow scratched over black
And black by thought that could not understand
Or, if it understood, repressed itself
Without any pity in a somnolent dream. (Op 76)
In cantos III and IV the woman’s mind is described in terms of darkness,
isolation, fear, and inarticulate straining-her trouble is the vast and shapeless
night in which her mind endures; she walks “search[ing] for clearness” (OP 76).
The strongest indication of material poverty in these cantos is the word “destitute”
(“She was that tortured one,/So destitute” [OP 76]), but “destitute” in this context
is at least as easily understood spiritually as materially. Two further possible
indications of material poverty appear in canto V, which speaks of “a need that
pressed like cold,/Deadly and deep” and of the “Suffering, which fate assigns
/To the moment” (OP 77-78). In the first case the “need” is conveyed in terms
just as abstract as the terms of the earlier “destitution” and just as readily
interpretable in spiritual terms. From the latter instance, with its indication of
external forces, of circumstance, the best case can be made for representation of
the Depression. But this indication does not shift the emphasis of the preceding
cantos away from the psychological suffering-the repressed thought, the mental
night, and the search for clarity. The emphasis on the psychological is a sign of
the tension between Stevens’ undertaking to write a poem that would respond
to social and political circumstances and his other, not wholly incompatible but
somewhat distracting, undertaking to discount the need for that response by
articulating his conception of art as the exponency of the imagination.
In canto V the narrative voice breaks into what Helen Vendler calls “a
nostalgic crescendo,” “an apotheosis, irrelevant in its way, of evening untroubled
by suffering” (104-05)-untroubled, by the old woman. Though the narrative voice
is not distinctly differentiated from that of the preceding cantos, there is a
x195
discernible distance between the poet’s voice and this rueful vision. The vision
is aligned with that of the sculptor in canto II, the descriptive vocabulary here
being but a subtle variation on the first. the legs
Would flash in air, and the muscular bodies thrust
Hoofs grinding against the stubborn earth, until
The light wings lifted through the crystal space
Of night. How clearly that would be defined! (OP 78)
The sculptor’s cry for clarity lost is as abortive as the woman’s search for the
same. As the artist’s work is inert, so is the woman destitute. Woman and artist
by their failure to connect are mutually forsaken.
“The Old Woman and the Statue” does not make explicit the cause of the
statue’s failure to prevail against the darkness of the woman’s mind, but it does
suggest two possibilities, not mutually exclusive: that the sculptor, fashioned the
statue for the audience of his own consciousness alone; or that the statue represent
not the unintelligible product of solipsism, but a vision of sublimity to which the
disenchanted contemporary mind is unable to respond. Both of these possibilities
are supported by the context of the poem as a whole.
Several critics have understood “Owl’s Clover” as entailing and interrogation
by Stevens of his own poetics, identified as “romantic.” Harvey Teres, though
not on an antagonistic note, argues that in the global political crisis of the early
and mid-thirties Stevens “was forced to interrogate his own understanding of
the imagination his relationship to romanticism, and ultimately his role as poet”
(154). The obsolete aesthetic represented by the statue does appear to be a romantic
one-romantic in the derogatory sense of florid, overwrought, and impossibly
transcendental. Although the first canto of “Mr. Burnshaw and the Statue” records
the Marxist’s contemptuous dismissal of the status as a “jotting-down of the
sculptor’s foppishness,” and the second canto opens with the poet’s call to
“celestial paramours” to “Chant sibilant requiems for this effigy” (OP 79), the
over-glorious, sky-aspiring statue is not an embodiment of an aesthetic that
Stevens would have considered himself as having a stake in.
His injunctions to the muses in Mr. Burnshaw and the Statue not to “weep for
peacocks that are gone/Or dance the death of doves” and to be “No longer of
air but of the breathing earth” (OP 80/83) are but reiterations of one of his
already most established themes. Stevens’ conception of exponency entails, a
rather drastic view of the spiritual expiration of art. In the context of “Owl’s
Clover,” that the statue embodies a romantic aesthetic is less important than that
it has ceased to suffice, as all creations of the imagination, eventually, will cease
to suffice: romanticism is not revealed to be a falsehood, only a superannuated
truth.
196
x
Mr. Burns haw and the Statue, which follows “The Old Woman and the
Statue,” develops this sense of aesthetic transience. It constitutes a rejection of
the ancient equation of art and immortality and, by implication, the cultural and
historical universalism of humanism. The idea of exponency at work in “Owl’s
Clover” does slip at times into organicism, positing a connection between art and
society that Stevens would later describe as “umbilical” (OP 263). If art is
umbilically related to its society, it follows that art, in an important sense, is truly
alive only in the cultural moment of its creation.
Mr. Burnshaw and the Statue repudiates the comforts of the equation of art
and immortality and its implicit universalism and replaces them with a rather
uncompromising view of the recoverability of the past-a stoic embrace of the
implacability and finality of change. But this view of change is one significantly
constrained by the lingering organicism in Stevens’ conception of poetic
exponency. The lingering reliance on organicist conceptions of both society and
the relation of art to society is something that Stevens would manifest some
trouble with in his essays, though without ever quite relinquishing it. In “Owl’s
Clover,” that reliance, discernible in Mr. Burnshaw and the Statue, is disclosed in
The Greenest Continent.
Owl’s Clover begins with the images of the artist and the old woman mutually
forsaken. It comes toward its end by generalizing the figure of the woman into
an entire generation and her blackened thought that “could not understand/Or,
if it understood, repressed itself” (OP 76) into the ominous portent brooding
over the heads of that generation “that does not know itself” (OP 98).
When Stevens began developing his conception of poetry as a source of
supreme fictions in the early 1940s, he was reformulating the sense of the function
of art in society he had expressed in Owl’s Clover. Like the principle of exponency,
the supreme fiction idea holds the poet to the rather exalted and grave position
of responsibility for the imaginative, which is to say, the psychological, wellbeing of his society. Also like the principle of exponency, the notion of supreme
poetic fictions embroils itself in positing (or tries to will into existence) both a
connection between the poet and society that is somehow organic and a society
that is somehow an organic unity. Stevens’ principle of exponency, like reflection,
conceives of psychological or spiritual change as an alteration in a unified
sensibility, but not as a change from unity to irreducible plurality. A supreme
fiction, a we know, “Must Change”; but Stevens seldom considers seriously the
idea that it might shatter. The “incalculable difficulty” of writing “the poetry of
the present” (NA 115) is rendered incalculably more difficult if there is no
coherence of present sensibility: the exponent of the social imagination must
have a coherent social imagination to represent. At least as late as 1951, Stevens
was still treating America almost as though it would produce poetry in the way
x197
that ancient and tribal societies one produced gods: “the gods of China are
always Chinese; ….the gods of Greece are always Greeks” (OP 263), and if “there
is such a thing as an American [,] …. the poems that he writes are American
poems” (OP 315).
REFERENCES
Pound, Ezra. “Hugh Selwyn Mauberley.” Selected Poems of Ezra Pound. New York: New
Directions, 1957.
Sparshott, Francis. The Structure of Aesthetics. Toronto and London: University of Toronto
Press and Routeldge and Kegan Paul, 1963.
Stevens Wallace. The Collected Poems of Wallace Stevens. New York: Random House,1954.
- - -. The Necessary Angel: Essays on Reality and the Imaginates. New York: Vintage Books, 1951.
Teres, Harvey. “Notes Toward the Supreme Soviet: Stevens and Doctrinaire Mardism.” The
Wallace Stevens Journal 13.2 (Fall 1989): 150-67.
Vendler, Helen. On Extended Wings: Wallace Stevens’ Longer Poems. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
University Press, 1969.
198
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vk%fdau n`’; r see O
; ogkj %; fn u n`’; r s]
r nkoq
R
r aj kt kuai kydaHkfxuhifr afoKkI; Hkfxuhaekr j ap
foKkI; S
r ef/kdj f.kdanw
j hd‘R
; k=kU;ef/kdj f.kda LFkki f; "; kfeA29
; gka' kdkj dh ew
y Hkkouk pk#nÙk dks n.M fnyokuk gS
A vr%ew
yHkkouk , d gSpkgs
U;k; k/kh’k ; g n.M nsvFkok bl sgVkusdsckn dksbZvU;A
9-
fnokLoIu & bl j {kk ; q
fDr esaO
; fDr dYiuk t xr esafopj .k dj dsvi usruko dksde
dj rk gS
A30 ol Url suk t c ' kdkj dksml ds} kjkdghxbZvf’k"V ckr i j Ma
kVrhgSrks' kdkj
ml svi uh eurj a
Xk vFkok fnokLoIu dsvuq
: i ; g l e>rk gSfd &
204
x
ekeUrj s.k l q
fLuX/kS
"kk xf.kdknkfj dk uuq
A ; su ekaHk.kfr
^, fgA JkUrks·fl A DykUrks·fl * bfr & vkS
j mÙkj nsrk gS& vgau
xzkekUrj ao uxj kUrj aok xr %---- r oS
o i `"Bkuq
i ‘f"Bd; kfg.Meku%
JkUr%DykUrks·fLe l a
o‘Ùk%
A31
, r L; nfj nzpk#nÙkL; o/; uh; ekuL; S
r kokŒt ul a
enZ
%
] ; L; ka
osyk; keLekn‘’k%i zoj ksoj ekuq
"kksc/; auh; r sr L; kaosyk; kadhn‘’kksHkosr~
A32
' kdkj } kjk ns[ks x, fnokLoIu dk ; g vn~
Hkq
r mnkgj .k oLrq
r %ml ds pfj = ds l oZ
Fkk
vuq
: i gS
A
10-
foLFkkiu (Displacement)
foLFkki u og euksjpuk gSft l ds} kjk fdl hfopkj ; k oLrql sl EcfU/kr l a
osx fdl hvU; fopkj
; k oLrqi j LFkkukUrfj r gkst krsgS
A33
l ks·Lef} /kkukai z.k; S
%d‘’khd‘r ksu r su df’pf} HkoS
foZ
ekfur %
A
funk?kdkysf"oo l ksndksânksu‘.kkal r ‘".kkei uh; ' kq
doku~
AA34
pk.Mky
uxj hiz/kkuHkw
r so/; ekusd‘r kUrkK; kA
fdaj ksfnR
; Urfj {keFkok· uHkzsi r fr ot ze~
AA35
mifj fyf[ kr nksuks' yksdksaesapk#nÙk dsi zfr ' kksd dsl a
osx dksi zdf̀r i j LFkkukUrfj r dj
fn; k x; k gS
A
11-
iyk;u (Withdrawal)
î yk; u ds} kjk O
; fDr vi usvki dksekufl d } U} dhi fj fLFkfr l scpk ysrk gS
Aog ml l eL; k
dksgy dj usdk i z;kl gh ughadj rk gS
A^36
foV&ol Url susA
fdaR
oaHk; su i fj ofr Z
r l kS
dq
ek; kZ
u‘R
; i z;ksxfo’knkSpj .kkSf{ki UrhA
mf} XupŒpydVk{kfol ‘"Vn‘f"V
O
; kZ
/kkuq
l kj pfdr k gfj .kho ; kfl \ 37
eP̀NdfVde~esai z;q
Dr vi zR
; {k j {kk & ; q
fDr; kax205
vf/kdj f.kd dFke~
A i zFkeeso j kf"Vª; ’; ky%dk; kZ
FkhZ; Fkk l w
; ksZ
n; s
mij kxksegki q
#"kfui kr eso dFk; fr A ' kks/kud] O
; kdq
ysuk| O
; ogkj s.k
Hkfor O
; e~
A Hknz] fu"ØE;ksP; r ke~&xPNk| A u n‘’; r sr o O
; ogkj %bfr A38
U;k; k/kh’k&D; ksa\ i gysghj kt k dk l kyk dk; kZ
FkhZgS
At S
l sl w
; ksZ
n; dky esa¼
yxusaokyk½xzg.k
¼
fdl h½egki q
#"k dh e‘R
; qdksl w
fpr dj rk gS
A ' kks/kudA vkt dk U;k; & fopkj {kksHk l s; q
Dr
gksxkA l kS
E;A ckgj t kdj dgks& t kvks] vkt rq
Egkjk fookn ughafopkj fd; k t k, xkA
12-
vUr% {ksi.k (Introjection)
tc O
; fDr okrkoj .k dsxq
. kksadksvi usO
; fDrR
o esa' kkfey dj ysrk gSrc O
; fDr dhog i zof̀Ùk
vUr%
&{ksi.k dgykrh gS
A^39
ê‘PNdfVde~
* esabl dsmnkgj .k ds: i esa; g ysl drsgS
a&
laokgd
t kukfe u ØhfM"; kfe l q
es#f’k[ kj i r ul a
fuHka| w
r e~
A
40
r Fkkfi [ kyqdksfdye/kq
j %dÙkk’kCnkseuksgj fr AA
pk#nÙk vkS
j ol Url suk dsi fj p; dsl e; fonw
"kd dk ; g dFku &
Hkks%
] } kofi ; o
qkal q
[ kai z.kE; dyedsnkj koU;ksU;a' kh"kZ
s.k
' kh"kZ
a
eker kS
A vgeI; eq
uk dj Hkt kuq
l n‘’ksu ' kh"ksZ
. k } kofi ; q
oka
41
i zlkn; kfeA**
fu"d"kZ
l e; pkgsdq
N Hkhgks&orZ
eku] Hkw
r ; k Hkfo"; dky&euq
"; vkS
j ml dhew
yHkw
r Hkkouk, a, d l hj gh
gS
avkS
j j gsa
xhA l e; o l eL; kvksadk Lo: i cny t krk gSfdUrqbul sfui Vusdsj {kk & mik;
O
; fDr oghvi ukrk gSft Ugsog l fn; ksal svi ukrk pyk vk j gk gS
A dksbZfoKku fdl hrÙo dks
; k fl ) kUr dkspkgsfdl h Hkh dky & [ k.M esai fj Hkkf"kr dj s; k u dj s; sbl dh eksgrkt ugha
gS
A t ho&ek= l sl Ec) ; sfØ; k, ao i zfØ; k, avck/k : i l spyh vk j gh gS
a
avkS
j j gsa
xhA
euksfoKku ft Ugsj {kk ; q
fDr; kadgrk gSvkS
j mudsHksn] miHksn dj rk gS
] ml dsfo"k; esa
la
Ld‘r l kfgR
; ekS
u /kkj.k dj i ‘Fkd l sO
; k[ ; k ughadj rkA og bUgsadFkk es' kCnkFkZdsl eku
vfuok; ZrÙo ds: i esaO
; kIr l k ekurk gS
A dkj.k dksbZHkh gksdFkk l kfgR
; bl dsfcuk , d
i x Hkh vkxsughac<+
r k gS
A
206
x
ê‘PNdfVde~
* esai z;q
Dr ; fn bu vi zR
; {k j {kk ; q
fDr; ksadsi z;ksx i j fu"d"kkZ
R
ed n‘f"V Mkysa
rksfuEuka
fdr fcUnqgekjsl e{k mHkj dj vkrsgS
a&








l eLr i zeq
[ k vi zR
; {k j {kk ; q
fDr; ksaesal sî yk; u* dk l okZ
f/kd mi; ksx fd; k x; k gS
A l eLr
i zdj .k xzUFk ds, dkf/kd va
dksaesai zeq
[ krk l sbl j {kk & ; q
fDr dksLFkku i zkIr gS
A dgha
ol Url suk i yk; u dj j gh gSrksdghal a
okgd] ' kdkj] nq
nZ
j d] vk; Z
d] U;k; k/kh’k vkfnA
f} rh; LFkku ^vkS
fpR
; LFkki u* uked j {kk & ; q
fDr dksi zkIr gksrk gS
A ^’kdkj* uked i k=
dk rksyxrk gSt S
l s, d ghdke& ^rnkR
eh;dj .k* dj uk gS
A og] pk.kD; ] okl q
nso] n%
’kkl u]
q
j ko.k] guq
eku vkfn l svi uk rknkR
E; cS
Bkrk gS
] Lo; adksmudsl eku l e>rk gS
A
{kfri w
frZuked j {kk ; q
fDr dk l okZ
f/kd mi; ksx ol Url suk] ml dheka
] /kw
r k vkS
j enfudk t S
ls
L=h i k= i zeq
[ krk l sdj rsgS
A
a
' kdkj] l a
okgd & î zfrxeu* uked vi zR
; {k j {kk ; q
fDr dsi z;ksDrk gS
A nks"kkjksi.k dj i zlUu
a
gksusdk i zeq
[ k dk; Zî z{ksi.k* fof/k l sdj uses' kdkj dq
’ky gS
A
î zfrfØ; k fuekZ
. k* dk mi; ksx de LFkyksai j fd; k x; k gS
A ^’keu* uked vi zR
; {k & j {kk
& mik; dsl okZ
f/kd i z;ksDrk ekFkq
j] l a
okgd] | w
r dj ] foV] psV vkfn i zk; %fuEu Js.kh ds
i k= gS
A
a
l cl sde i z;q
Dr gksusaokyh; fqDr ^fnokLoIu* gS
Aml s' kdkj usT; knk mi; ksx fd; kgS
Al Eiw
. kZ
i zdj .k esapk#nÙk ^neu* dk mi; ksx dj rsgq
, l okZ
f/kd fn[ kkbZnsrsgS
A
a
^vUr%
{ksi.k* okrkoj .k ds xq
. kksadks vi us O
; fDrR
o esa' kkfey dj us esal a
okgd] nq
nZ
j d]
pk#nÙk dkso/k dsfy, yst krsl e; dsukxj &t u vkfn gS
A
a
^foLFkki u* esavi usfopkj] l o
asx vkfn dksvU; i nkFkks±esaLFkkukUrfj r dj rsgS
A bl j {kk
a
& mik; dsi z;ksDrk i zeq
[ k : i l spk.Mky] foV] pk#nÙk vkfn gS
A
a
mifj fyf[ kr i zeq
[ k vi zR
; {k j {kk & ; q
fDr; ksadk ê‘PNdfVde~
* esav/; ; u dj usdsi ’pkr~
fu"d"kZ: i esadgk t k l drk gSfd fofHkUu i k=ksa} kjk i z;q
Dr ; sj {kk & ; q
fDr; kavi uhl q
Unj rk
dh pj e voLFkk dksi zkIr dj l kFkZ
d gq
bZgS
A
a
lUnHkZ lwph
1-
xsV~
l , oavU;] ' kS
f{kd euksfoKku i -̀
614-615
2-
czkmu] t s- , Q- & 1940
3-
xsV~
l , oavU;] & ' kS
f{kd euksfoKku i -̀692
eP̀NdfVde~esai z;q
Dr vi zR
; {k j {kk & ; q
fDr; kax207
4-
dksyeS
u & 1976& Jherhvkj-ds- ’kekZ JherhMkW
- , - ckjksfy; k] Jhd`".k nq
cs&f’k{kk dseuksoS
Kkfud vk/kkj
5-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
; k[ ; kdkj&ds-ds- f=i kBh½1@
10
6-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
; k[ ; kdkj&ds-ds- f=i kBh½ 1@
55
7-
Jherhvkj-ds-’kekZJherhMkW
-, - ckjksfy; k Jhd‘".k nq
cs& f’k{kk dseuksoS
Kkfud vk/kkj
8-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
; k[ ; kdkj&ds-ds- f=i kBh½& i -̀&53
9-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
; k[ ; kdkj&ds-ds- f=i kBh½&i `&62
10-
eksjxu] Jherhvkj-ds- ’kekZJherhMkW
- , - ckjksfy; k Jhd‘".k nq
csf’k{kk dseuksoS
Kkfud vk/kkj
11-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
12-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
13-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
14-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
15-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
16-
MkW
- ekFkq
j & f’k{kk euksfoKkuA
17-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
18-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
19-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
; k[ ; kdkj&ds-ds- f=i kBh½&9@
17
20-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
; k[ ; kdkj&ds-ds- f=i kBh½i +̀
+
511
21-
czkmu ¼
1940½
] Jherhvkj-ds- ’kekZJherhMkW
cs&f’k{kk dseuksoS
Kkfud vk/kkj
22-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
; k[ ; kdkj&ds-ds- f=i kBh½&i `&1@
39
23-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
1
24-
i h-Mh- i kBd & f’k{kk euksfoKku i ‘-
25-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
26-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
27-
, e- , M- xkbZ
M& vxzoky i fCyds’ku & i ‘-
28-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
28
29-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
30-
i h-Mh- i kBd & f’k{kk euksfoKku i ‘-
31-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
32-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
3334-
455
296
455
' kekZi st ¼
1962½Jh
erhvkj-ds- JherhMkW
- , - ckjksfy; k Jhd`".k nq
Kkfud vk/kkj
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
46
208
x
35-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
8
36-
HkVukxj l q
j s’k & f’k{kk euksfoKku & i ‘-
37-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
17
38-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
39-
Jherhvkj-ds- ’kekZJherhMkW
Kkfud vk/kkj i ‘-
40-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
6
41-
' kw
nzd] eP̀NdfVde~¼
O
323
250
Form IV
[See Rule 8 of the Newspapers (Central) Rules, 1956]
1.
Place of Publication
Gorakhpur
2.
Periodicity of Publication
Bi-annual
3.
Printer’s Name
Nationality
Address
Om Jee Upadhyay
Indian
C/141/276, Indra Niketan
South Humayunpur,
Gorakhpur-273001
4.
Publishers’ Name
Nationality
Address
Pradeep Rao & Om Jee Upadhyay
Indian
South Humayunpur,
Gorakhpur-273001
5.
Editors’ Name
Nationality
Address
Pradeep Rao & Om Jee Upadhyay
Indian
South Humayunpur,
Gorakhpur-273001
6.
Name and address of individuals
who own the newspaper and
partners or shareholders holding
more than one per cent of the
total capital.
South Humayunpur, Gorakhpur-273 001
7.
Printed at
Moti Paper Convertors
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I, Om Jee Upadhyay, do hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the
best of my knowledge and belief.
Sd/Om Jee Upadhyay
Publisher
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Dear Editor,
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2. The cover page of the typescript should contain: (i) title of the article, (ii) name (s) of
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3. Though there is no standard length for articles, a limit of 5000 words including tables,
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(a) Reference to books should present the following details in the same order: author's
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(b) Reference to institutional publications where no specific author(s) is (are) mentioned
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(c) Reference to articles in periodicals should present the following details in the same on:
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(d) Reference in the text or in the notes should simply give the name of the author or
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ekufodh ,oa lekt&foKku dh vUr% vuq'kklukRed 'kks/k if=dk
In the Pious Memory of
Jherh js[kk xqIrk
(16.03.1958-01.11.2008)
Published by Om Jee Upadhyay on behalf of Rekha Smriti Shodh Sansthan,
C/141/276, Indra Niketan, South Humayunpur, Gorakhpur-273 001,
E-mail : [email protected], [email protected]
Printed at Moti Paper Convertors, Betia Raj House, Betiahata, Gorakhpur Ph. : 0551-2334184

Pradeep Kumar Rao and Om Jee Upadhyay

Transcription

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