River of Life - Totally Thames

Transcription

BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River of Life Bosphorus
The Bosphorus may look like a river but it is in fact part
of the sea. It is a strait connecting the Sea of Marmara in
the south with the Black Sea in the north. The Bosphorus
is currently crossed by two suspension bridges and a
third bridge planned between the current two. A rail
tunnel is currently under construction at the southern tip
of the Bosphorus. The city of Istanbul was founded at the
southern end of the strait and has developed on both the
European and Asian shore. These days, more than twothirds of the Bosphorus is within greater Istanbul (see
adjacent photo).
From earliest times, the Bosphorus has been of strategic
naval importance and has been long associated with
myth and legend. It is also a significant boundary,
marking the edge of Europe and Asia. The name Asia
may be interpreted as ‘land of sunrise’ whereas Europe
may have meant ‘sunset’ or ‘land of darkness’. Early
travelers cannot have failed to appreciate the
significance of traveling a waterway marking a division
between light and dark.
The depth of the Bosphorus (also known as the Istanbul
Strait or Boğaziçi in Turkish) at the middle of its channel
ranges from 50 to 75 meters for the most part, but at one
point about halfway along its course, around the suburb
of Arnavutköy, it suddenly deepens to 110 meters. Its
maximum width is some 3,500 meters, measured
between the two lighthouses of Rumeli Feneri and
Anaduli Feneri, and its minimum is 700 meters.
One recent theory is that the Bosphorus originally
followed the line of a pre-historic river-valley and that the channel we now know
was formed in about 5600 BC when the rising waters of the Mediterranean and
the Sea of Marmara breached through to the Black Sea, which at the time was a
low-lying body of fresh water. Some people think that the resulting massive
flooding of the northern shores of the Black Sea is the historic basis for the flood
stories found in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Noah’s Flood in the Bible.
Another theory holds that the deep and jagged cleft of the Bosphorus was formed
as part of a cataclysmic earthquake caused by movement in the nearby African
and the Eurasian tectonic plates. This theory is supported by the appearance of
the opposing shores of the Bosphorus which seem to fit eachother like the pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle. In fact, from a geological point of view, the zone is still
notoriously active.
Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans
Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s
Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme
www.riversoftheworld.org
River of Life The Cow-Crossing
The name
Bopshorus
comes
from the
Greek
‘bous’
meaning
cow, and
‘poros’
meaning
crossingplace so
therefore
Bosphorus
is
‘crossingplace of
the cow’.
In Turkish,
the strait is
called
Boğaziçi;
boğaz
means
throat.
The cow
and the crossing place have their roots in a Bronze Age Greek myth of Zeus and
his mistress Io, daughter of the river God Inachus. Zeus changed Io into a cow to
conceal her from his jealous wife Hera. But Hera was not deceived and drove Io
away, pursuing and taunting her with a relentless flying insect that forced her to
swim the strait between Europe and Asia.
Other legends associated with the Bosphorus include Jason in his Argonaut and
the search for the Golden Fleece based on folk-memories of the first Greek
voyages through the straits in about 1200BC.
The surface water of the Bosphorus is not very salty because it is fed by the Black
Sea and its current is north to south. Almost all of the streams that flow into the
Bosphorus itself are insignificant. Only the streams known collectively as the
Sweet Waters of Europe and the Sweet Waters of Asia can lay claim to be rivers.
The former, which feed the Golden Horn are now heavily polluted and largely
covered over. The fortress of Anadolu Hisari stands at the mouth of the Sweet
Waters of Asia, two streams known in Turkish as Göksu Deresi (Great Heavenly
Stream) and Küçük Göksu Deresi (Small Heavenly Stream).
The Bosphorus empties itself in the Sea of Marmara at Istanbul and the speed of
the current diminishes suddenly here. As a result, the surface waters and the
waters of the salty under-stream start to mingle, sweet here, salty there. These
mixing waters support many different species of fish from swordfish to hamsi
(small fish belonging to the anchovy family). These days, even schools of dolphins
can be seen frolicking in the waves as they make their way through the strait. The
photo above shows early morning fishermen with the kilometre-long Bosphorus
Bridge in the background.
River of Life Golden Horn
The Golden Horn
(Haliç, or Estuary in
Turkish) stretches
northwest for some
11 kilometers from
Saray Point now a
public park at the
promontory of land
at the confluence of
the Bosphorus and
the Sea of Marmara.
The Golden Horn
has an average
width of about 400
meters.
No one is certain of
the origin of the
name Golden Horn.
One suggestion is
that it was coined
during Mehmet the
Conqueror’s siege of
the city in the 15th
century, when all the
gold and precious
objects that the
Byzantine citizens
could collect were
thrown into the inlet
to save them from
being taken by the
advancing Ottoman
forces.
At its northern end two little streams flow into it. Alibey Suyu on the west and
Kâğithane Suyu on the east were once known as the Sweet Waters of Europe,
but now they are little more than sewers. It is hard to believe that for centuries the
meadows between them were the site of royal gardens, palaces and pavilions and
was a favourite holiday destination for city-dwellers. Progress has replaced the
palaces with ramshackle factories and the meadows have all but disappeared.
Today the Golden Horn is settled on both sides, and there are parks along each
shore. The Galata Bridge connects the districts of Galata and Eminönü. Two other
bridges, the Atatürk Bridge and the Haliç Bridge, are located further up the Horn.
Until the 1980s the Horn was polluted with industrial waste, but has since then it
has been cleaned up. Many of the old waterfront buildings between Galata Bridge
and Atatürk Bridge have been cleared recently in the construction of a new
system of parks and promenades along the Golden Horn. From the latter bridge
one can walk on the Stanboul shore all the way to Eyüp, which had in the
nineteenth century, the reputation of being wildly romantic and picturesque.
Unfortunately, on the opposite shore of the Golden Horn, are some of the worst
slums in the city. The best way to reach Eyüp is by ferry from Galata Bridge, a
journey of some 30 minutes.
Polluted River Oil Spills
The
Bosphorus is
one of the
world's busiest
waterways and
navigation is
made more
difficult by the
massive 120
to 150,000 ton
oil tankers that
can pass
through the
straits. The
image on the
rights is of the
mosque at
Ortaköy with
the Bosphorus
Bridge in the
background.
Increased
shipping traffic
has
heightened
fears of a major accident that could have serious environmental consequences
and endanger the health of the 17 million residents of Istanbul that live on either
side of the Straits. Shipping traffic has been increasing since the end of the Cold
War to the point that around 80,000 vessels per year (nearly one every 5 minutes)
now pass through them. Around one-tenth of these are carrying crude oil or
liquefied natural gas tankers from Russia, Central Asia and the Caucuses.
Between 1988 and 1992, there were 155 collisions in the strait. To help solve this
problem, in January 2001, work began on building a comprehensive radar and
vessel control system for the waterway.
In March 1994, the Greek Cypriot tanker Nassia collided with another ship, killing
30 seamen and spilling 20,000 tons of oil into the strait. The resulting oil slick
turned the waters of the Bosphorus into a raging inferno for five days, but because
the accident occurred a few miles north of Istanbul, a potential urban disaster was
averted.
Water-bourne traffic is likely increase as the six countries surrounding the Black
Sea develop economically. In December 1999, the Volgoneft-248, a 25-year old
Russian tanker, ran aground and split in two in close proximity to the southwest
shores of Istanbul. More than 800 tons of the 4,300 tons of fuel oil on board
spilled into the Sea of Marmara, covering the coastline with fuel oil and polluting
about 5 square miles of the sea.
While major spills can bring about immediate environmental consequences, the
presence of large oil- and gas-carrying ships in the strait causes other problems,
such as the day-to-day release of contaminated water as the ships ballast their
holds. A recent survey has shown that pollution in the Bosphorus has contributed
to a decline in fishing levels to 1/60th their former levels.
Resourceful River Strategic Route
As the only passage
between the Black Sea
and the
Mediterranean, the
Bosphorus has always
been of great
commercial and
strategic importance.
The Greek city-state of
Athens in the 5th
century BC was
dependent on grain
imports from the Black
Sea area and they
maintained alliances
with cities which
controlled the straits.
The strategic
significance of the
strait was also one of
the factors in the
decision of the Roman
Emperor Constantine
the Great to rename
the city as
Constantinople, in 330
AD and make it capital of the Roman Empire.
To defend their growing city, the Romans built sea walls that extended along the
shores of both the Golden Horn and the Marmara. These walls were rebuilt and
strengthened during the reign of Theophilus in the 9th century to protect
Constantinople from a sea-borne invasion. The sea walls joined to land walls built
by Theodosius II in 447 totally enclosing the peninsula. The walls were about 10
meters high, protected by defensive towers at regular intervals and the interior of
the city was only accessed through fortified gates.
In 1394 the Ottomans built Anadolu Hisarı (the Fortress of Anatolia, pictured
above) on the Asian shore at one of the narrowest points on the Bosphorus (just
below today’s Fatih Bridge). And, in 1452, as part of his plans for the conquest of
Constantinople, Mehmet the Conqueror ordered the construction of the mighty
fortress of Rumeli Hisari (Fortress of Europe) on the opposite bank. With this in
place he could control the strait and prevent reinforcements from reach the city he
planned to besiege. Mehmet ordered each of his viziers to take responsibility for
one of Rumeli Hisari’s three main fortifications. Mehmet said that if his tower was
not completed on time then the vizier would pay with his life. Of course, the
officials drove their workers hard and completed the whole fortress in just four
months.
Control over the Bosphorus has been the subject of a number of hostilities in
modern history, notably the Russo–Turkish War of 1877 to 78, as well as the
attack by the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles in 1915 in the course of the First
World War. Today, the straits are treated as an international shipping lane.
However, Turkey retains the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea
nations (such as that of Greece, a traditional enemy).
Resourceful River Chained Estuary
The scimitar-shaped
Golden Horn, a
flooded prehistoric
estuary, separates
the old and new
parts of European
Istanbul.
The Ottoman’s
Topkapi Palace (see
photo left) sits on the
promontary
betweent he Golden
Horn, the Bosphorus
and the Sea of
Marmara.
The present Galata
Bridge between
Eminönü and
Karaköy is the fifth
structure to have
been built between
these two points,
with the first one, a
wooden structure,
erected in 1845, and the first metal span in 1878. The Galata Bridge has been the
main artery of Istanbul’s daily life since then.
The Golden Horn is one of the best natural harbours in the world and has
sheltered Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and other ships for thousands of
years. It joins the Bosphorus just at the point where the Bosphorus enters the Sea
of Marmara, forming a peninsula at the tip of old Istanbul.
The Byzantine Empire had its naval headquarters along the Golden Horn and
walls were built along the shoreline to protect the city from naval attacks. At the
entrance to the Horn, a large chain was pulled across from the old town to the
Tower of Galata on the northern side, preventing unwanted ships from entering.
The enormous bronze-link chain (part of it is on display at the Military Museum at
Harbiye – see left) was kept afloat by buoys.
There were three notable times when the chain across the Horn was either broken
or circumvented. In the 10th century marauding hoardes from the Black Sea
dragged their longships out of the Bosporus, around Galata, and relaunched them
in the Horn. At the beginning of the 13th century, the Crusaders crossed the
Bosphorus and stormed the Castle of Galata, a fortress at the mouth of the
Golden Horn, breaking the chain that closed the entrance to the port. They then
constructed a bridge of boats to cross to the Horn. The chain was still in use 1453
when Mehmet the Conqueror came to the throne and laid siege to Constantinople.
It repelled the Turkish fleet when they attempted to break the chain at the mouth
of the Golden Horn but Mehmet knew his history and, like the marauders before
him, had his fleet of 70 ships dragged across Galata into the estuary over greased
logs. Cows and hundreds of soldiers hauled the boats out of the Bosphorus at the
point where Dolmabaçhe Palace now stands.
Resourceful River Water culture
By the time of
Theodosius I’s death
in 395AD, all of the
major houses in
Constantinople had
running water piped
in from reservoirs, as
well as lavatories,
which drained into
the sea, and most
had private baths.
There were planning
rules that protected
the rights of houseowners to a view of
the sea.
Two of the greatest
aqueducts built in
the Roman period
are the Mazulkemer
Aqueduct and the
Valens Aqueduct.
These aqueducts
were built in order to
channel water from
the western edge of
the city to the city
centre where the
water was later collected in the city's numerous cisterns.
One of Justinian I (527 to 565AD) public works was the vast subterranean
reservoir on the First Hill known as the Basilica Cistern or Yerebatansaray (the
Underground Palace), by far the largest underground cistern in the city. It is 139m
long by 65m wide with 336 columns (2 are mounted on classical pedestals in the
form of Medusa heads, one upside down and the other on its side). It received
fresh water from as far away as Belgrade Forest. Throughout the Byzantine
period the cistern was used to store water for the Great Palace and the other
buildings on the First Hill. General knowledge of its existence seems to have been
lost in the century after the conquest and it was only rediscovered after 1545 and
then cleaned and renovated in 1985 and opened to the public in 1987.
The Turkish hamam is a direct descendents of the baths of ancient Rome and are
built to the same general plan. There are well over 100 Ottoman hamams in
Istanbul, which tells of the important part they played in the life of the city. Since
only the very wealthiest Ottoman homes were equipped with private baths, the
vast majority of people have, for centuries used the hamams of the city to cleanse
and purify themselves. For most of the poorer people of modern Istanbul the
hamam is still the only place where they can bathe.
Nevertheless in Europe, largely due to ignorance, like the harem, the hamam was
inextricably associated with eroticism and paintings like The Turkish Bath in 1862
by the French artist Ingres (see left) did much to spread a sensuous reputation for
hamams throughout Europe.
Working River Ferries & Fishing
The surface current in the
Bosphorus runs from 3 to 5
kilometers per hour from the Black
Sea in a southerly direction to the
Sea of Marmara. However, an
extraordinary thing happens at a
depth of about 40m. There is a
sub-surface current here that
travels in the opposite direction
and this is so strong that fishing
nets can sometimes drag boats
north against the surface flow.
Both shores of the Bosphorus are
indented with bays and harbours
and, in general an indentation on
one shore corresponds with a cape
or promontory on the other. These
points and coves set up swirls and
eddies that make navigation
dangerous to the inexperienced.
Sea transport is vital for Istanbul,
as the city is practically surrounded
by water on all sides: the Sea of
Marmara, the Golden Horn, the
Bosphorus and the Black Sea. Many Istanbulites live on the Asian side of the city
but work on the European side (or vice-versa) and the city's famous commuter
ferries form the backbone of the daily transition between the two parts of the city even more so than the two suspension bridges which span the Bosphorus.
Karaköy port in Galata is used by the large cruise liners. Istanbul's main cargo
port is located in the Harem district on the Asian side of the city. Istanbul is served
by a cheap and relatively comprehensive ferry system. Ferries going up the
Golden Horn to Eyup can be caught from the Eminönü side of Galata Bridge on
the upstream side; while on the downstream side there are connections to piers
along the length of the Bosphorus. Tickets are relatively cheap, costing anything
between 3 and 10 Turkish Lira (£1.50 to £5). Kabitaş is the terminus for ferries
across to Üsküdor on the Asian and on to the Princes’ Islands and other
destinations in the Sea of Marmara.
Local fishermen still ferry passengers across the strait for a modest fee, one of the
most popular crossings being from Bebek on the European shore to Anadolu
Hisari. The design of some of the old fishing boats is directly descended from the
days of Jason and the Argonauts. For high-end water travel there is also a water
taxi. Just like a land-based service you phone and the taxi comes to you. Prices
are competitive too. At the time of writing, a trip from Kuracesme (by the
Bosphorus Bridge) to Eminönü is 85 Turkish Lira (about £40).
Fishing is a popular pastime on the Golden Horn and Bosphorus. Everyday,
scores of enthusiasts hang rods from the upper and lower decks of Galata Bridge
and around dawn and dusk the straits are peppered with small fishing boats.
Some of the catch can be savoured in Istanbul’s old fish market, Karaköy Balik
Pazan, which is located at the foot of the northern side of Galata Bridge.
Working River Bosphorus Cruise
The typical Bosphorus cruise involves zigzagging up and down the
shores. You embark at Eminönü on the south side of Galata Bridge
and stop alternately on the Asian and European sides of the strait.
The 17 mile trip from Eminönü to Anadulu Kavaği takes about one
and a half hours and costs about 4 Turkish Lira (about £2). You can
jump on or off at any of these places, although you have to pay again
to get back on.
At Ortaköy, famous for its Sunday arts and crafts market, there is a
striking mosque on a little promontory at the water’s edge. It was
completed in1855 and is now overshadowed by the super-modern
Bosphorus Bridge, one of the world's largest suspension bridges. Just
decades ago, the villages beside the Bosphorus north of Ortaköy
were small and tranquil, inhabited, as they had been for centuries, by
fishermen whose livelihood was the catch from the Bosphorus. Today,
the villages have been subsumed by the expanding metropolis of
Istanbul, while land along the Bosphorus has become highly coveted
real estate.
The unbroken stretch of road that runs from Kabataş all the way up to
the Black Sea is known by locals as the Sahil Yolu (Coast Road). It is
particularly suited for pedestrians on the stretch between Kuraçeşme
Park and Rumelí Hísari, where there is a walkway that skirts the
Bosphorus for the whole distance. Just nera the Park is Galatasaray
Island, a leisure complex in the middle of the Bosphorus owned by
Galatasaray Football Club. Also known as Su Ada, it boasts two
swimming pools, a host of restaurants , bars and clubs.
Arnavutköy (below left) is one of the most attractive villages on the Bosphorus due
to its abundant yalis. These wooden Ottoman mansions built by the water were
once popular with the aristocracy, who followed the imperial court’s move from
Topkapi Palace down to Dolmbahçe. The next village along is Bebek, one of the
most afluent areas on the European shore. The Valide Pasa’s yali, built in 1902, is
located here. It now serves as the Egyptian Embassy.
Rumelí Hísari (above left), named after the monumental castle perched on the hill
above, is the next village, which now sits in the shadow of the Fatih Sultan
Mehmet Bridge. People travel to here for miles around to eat at Iskele, one of the
Bosphorus’ most famous fish restaurants.
Opposite on the Asian shore is Kanlica, a fishing village that is now a favoured
suburb for the wealthy. Crowds gather in the restaurants and cafes along the
shores to sample its famous yoghurt. Shortly after, Hidiv Kasri (now converted into
a restaurant and garden café) is built at the most dramatic promontory on the
Bosphorus. Beykoz and Korusu woods are also popular retreats with cafes and
restaurants with delightful views and clear fresh air. A little further on the narrow
strait widens and disappears into the Black Sea.
Yeniköy and Tarabya Bay on the European shore are fashionable villages with
expensive restaurants and nightclubs. There are handsome yalis and a long line
of summer embassies with beautiful gardens and parks. Beyond Sanyer is Rumelí
Kavaği, the last ferry-stop on the European shore and after this is Altin Kum or
Golden Sands, named for its beach. Two lighthouses flank the Bosphorus as it
reaches the Black Sea.
River City Istanbul
Istanbul is
unique is so
far as it is the
only city in the
world that
stands astride
two continents.
Its population
these days
now exceeds
15 million.
The first Greek
colony on the
Bosphorus
was at
Chalcedon
(today’s
Kadiköy), on
the Asian side,
founded in
about 675 BC.
Seventeen
years later,
Byzas the
Megarian
founded Byzantium at the confluence of the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus.
Byzas was said to have consulted the Delphic Oracle, who advised him to settle
‘opposite the land of the blind’. Apparently, the oracle was referring to the
residents of Chalcedon, who must have been blind not to appreciate the much
greater advantages of the site chosen by Byzas. The great advantage of Byzas’
site was its defensibility, surrounded as it was by water on three sides and to the
west, a defensive wall could be erected (see map from 1573 above)
Another advantage was that the Golden Horn provided a superb natural harbour.
The promontory of land also acted as a barrier to divert shoals of fish that swim
down the Bosphorus from the Black Sea, forcing them into the port and creating
an abundant fishery that became one of the principal sources of income for the
people of Byzantium. Other important sources of income were the tolls and
harbour fees paid by the ships that passed through the strait, for Byzantium
controlled the Bosphorus from the beginning of its history, and this was the
principal reason for its subsequent rise to greatness.
The city was originally known as Byzantium and it was then renamed
Constantinople when Constantine the Great made it the capital of the Roman
Empire in 330AD. Then in 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Turks under
Mehmet the Conqueror, becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire under its
present name Istanbul (from the Greek phrase which means ‘in the city’, ‘to the
city’ or ‘downtown’). The Ottoman Empire reached its zenith with Süleyman the
Magnificent (1520-66) whose empire extended throughout northern Africa and
southern Spain and reached the gates of Vienna in the west. The Ottoman Empire
came to an end in 1923 with the founding of the modern Republic of Turkey
whose capital was then established in Ankara.
River City Bosphorus Bridge
Two modern
bridges now span
the Bosphorus.
The first of these,
Bosphorus Bridge
(or Bogazici
Koprusu) crosses
between Ortaköy
on the European
shore and
Beylerbey in Asia.
The view from the
bridge looking
south is shown
left. The bridge
opened on 29
October 1973, the
50th anniversary
of the founding of
the Turkish
Republic. The
second bridge,
Fatih Sultan
Mehmet Koprusu,
crosses just
upstream from
Rumelí Hisari and
Anadolu Hisari, the
Castles of Europe
and Asia. This
opened in the summer of 1988; exactly 2,500 years after the Persian King Darius
built his bridge of boats on the Bosphorus across this same stretch of the strait.
When it opened it was the sixth longest suspension bridge in the world, the span
between its two piers is 1,090 meters.
The Bosphorus Bridge is a toll bridge, charges are made for passing from Europe
to Asia, but not for passing in the reverse direction. This toll has been so
successful that it has paid off the investment of the bridge’s construction within the
first ten years of its operation. Since April 2007, a fully computerized LED lighting
system of changing colours and patterns, illuminates the bridge at night (see
below left).
The only time that pedestrians are permited on the bridge is for the Istanbul
Eurasia Marathon, organized annually in October. It starts from the Anatolian part
of Istanbul, crosses the Bosphorus on the bridge and ends in the European part
during which the bridge is closed to traffic. Visitors to Istanbul in October can sign
up for the 'fun run' at many points round the city and take the opportunity to cross
the bridge on foot, many take picnics to enjoy the view. On 15 May 2005, US
tennis star Venus Williams played a show game on the bridge, the first tennis
match ever to be played on two continents. On 17 July 2005, British Formula One
driver David Coulthard drove his Red Bull racing car on the bridge first from the
European side to the Asian side, and then turning with a spectacular powerslide at
the toll plaza he raced back to the European side. Cameras located on the bridge
issued him with an automatic fine for speeding.
River City Marmaray Tunnel
Marmaray is an
undersea rail tunnel
being constructed
under the
Bosphorus. When
completed, it will be
the world's deepest
undersea immersed
tube tunnel. The
name Marmaray
comes from
combining the name
of the Sea of
Marmara with ray,
the Turkish word for
rail. Construction
started in May 2004
and completion is
expected in 2012.
After that, usage of
rail transportation in
Istanbul is predicted
to soar from 4% to
28%, taking it to third
highest in the world,
behind Tokyo (60%)
and New York City
(31%).
The project is currently two years behind schedule, largely due to the discovery of
Byzantine-era archaeological finds on the proposed site of the European tunnel
terminal. The excavations produced evidence of the city's largest harbour, the 4thcentury Port of Theodosius. Archaeologists uncovered traces of the city wall of
Constantine the Great, and the remains of several ships, including what appears
to be the only ancient or early medieval galley ever discovered. In addition, the
excavation has uncovered the oldest evidence of settlement in Istanbul, with
artifacts, including amphorae, pottery fragments, shells, pieces of bone, horse
skulls, and nine human skulls found in a bag, dating back to 6000 BC.
Tunnel construction is only about 18km from the active North Anatolian fault line,
which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara. This fault line has been
responsible for several deadly earthquakes. In August 1999 a catastrophic
earthquake led to the collapse of a large number of buildings in the west of the
city, including some of the unrestored sections of the Theodosian city walls.
Scientists calculate the chances of the area being hit by a quake of 7 or higher on
the Richter scale may be as high as 77%. The waterlogged, silty soil on which the
tunnel is being constructed has been known to liquefy during an earthquake; to
solve this problem, engineers are injecting industrial grout down to 24m below the
seabed to keep it stable. The walls of the tunnel will be made of waterproof
concrete coated with a steel shell, each independently watertight. The tunnel is
made to flex and bend similar to the way tall buildings are constructed to react if
an earthquake hits. Floodgates at the joints of the tunnel are able to slam down
and isolate water in the event of the walls' failure.
River City Galata Bridge
The oldest recorded bridge over the
Golden Horn was built during the reign
of Justinian I in the 6th century. In
1453, during the Fall of Constantinople,
the Turks assembled a mobile bridge
by putting their ships next to each other
and used it for transporting their troops
from one side of the Golden Horn to
the other.
In the years 1502–1503 plans to
construct the first bridge in the current
location were discussed. Sultan
Bayezid II solicited a design from
Leonardo da Vinci. The artist utilized
three well-known geometrical
principles, the pressed-bow, parabolic
curve and keystone arch, to create an
unprecedented single span 240m long
and 24m wide bridge for the Golden
Horn, which would have become the
longest bridge in the world of that
period if constructed. However, the
ambitious design did not meet with the Sultan's approval.
Michelangelo was also invited to offer a design for a
bridge but he did not take up the offer and the idea of
building a bridge across the Golden Horn was shelved
until the 19th century.
A smaller scale version of Leonardo da Vinci's Golden
Horn Bridge was brought to life in 2001 near Oslo in
Norway by the contemporary artist Vebjørn Sand, the first
civil engineering project based on a Leonardo da Vinci
sketch to be constructed (see left).
The first Galata Bridge at the mouth of the waterway was
constructed in 1845 by Valide Sultan, the mother of
Sultan Abdül Mecid (1839-1861) and used for 18 years. It
was known as the Cisr-i Cedid or New Bridge to
distinguish it from the earlier bridge further up the Golden
Horn, which became known as the Cisr-i Atik or Old
Bridge.
There was a second bridge in 1863 and a third a few
years later in 1870. The fourth Galata Bridge was built in
1912. This was constructed on floating pontoons which
had the effect of blocking pollution travelling down the
Golden Horn. Unfortunately, it was badly damaged in a
fire in 1992 and towed up the Golden Horn to make way
for the modern bridge now in use. The fifth Galata bridge,
completed in 1994, is a bascule bridge, which is 490m
long. It has an upper deck for vehicles and trams and a
lower pedestrian deck lined with shops and restaurants.
River Culture Princes’ Islands
The most famous of all the beauty spots in the
vicinity of Istanbul are the Princes’ Islands, the
little archipelago of nine islands just off the
Asian coast of the Sea of Marmara. The isles
are about an hour’s sail by ferry from the
Galata Bridge. Of the nine islands, only five
are settled.
In antiquity the islands were known as
Demonisia, the People’s Islands. In Byzantine
times, rebellious princes, deposed monarchs
and troublesome associates were interned
here in convents and monasteries, hence the
name ‘Princes’ Islands’. A steam ferry service
from Istanbul was started in the mid-19th
century and the islands became popular
summer resorts with Greek, Jewish and
Armenian communities.
These days, horse-drawn carriages known as
Phaetons are used on the islands (motor
vehicles are not permitted) and most of the architecture is pine and stone-pine
wooden constructions. However, many of the wooden buildings are in a very poor
state of repair and fire seems to strike frequently. When it does, the wooden
buildings are often replaced by standard concrete structures and in the process,
the islands are losing some of their distinctive historic character.
The largest of the islands, Büyük Ada or Prinkipo, is the only island that most
people visit and is fast becoming over-developed. Its rapidly expanding village has
a large number of attractive summer residences and several good hotels and a
posh country club. Out of the built-up area there are lovely pine groves and other
forests, wild cliffs plunging down to the sea and sandy coves for bathing.
En route to Princes’ islands the ferry passes Kiz Kulesi (otherwise called Maiden’s
tower or Leander’s Tower – pictured left). In
ancient times, a predecessor of the current
18th structure functioned as a tollbooth and
defence point; the Bosphorus could be closed
off by means of a chain stretching from here to
Seraglio Point.
According to popular Turkish legend, a sultan
had a much beloved daughter. One day, an
oracle prophesised that she would be stung to
death by a venomous snake. The sultan had
the tower built in the middle of the Bosphorus
to protect his daughter. On her 18th birthday,
the sultan brought her a basket of exotic
sumptouous fruits as a present, but a
poisonous asp was hiding among the fruits.
The snake bit the young princess and she died
in her father's arms, just as the oracle had
predicted. Hence the name Maiden's Tower.
River Culture Sarayi
Topkapi Sarayi (sarayi is Turkish
for palace) was begun in 1462 by
Mehmet the Conqueror and then
extended by each succeeding
sultan until it became a miniature
city. At its height, at least 4,000
people lived inside the complex,
serving the imperial household.
Sultan Abdül Mecit moved into the
newly build Dolmabahçe Palace
in 1853 and by 1909, Topkapi was
completely abandoned. In 1924 it
was converted into a museum
and has been undergoing a
continuous programme of
restoration ever since.
The suburb of Beşiktaş on the
European shore has the largest
concentration of Ottoman
pleasure palaces and pavilions in
Istanbul. Early illustrations show
this area as a green paradise of
gardens and parks interspersed
with waterfront palaces. The first
and foremost palace is the
magnificent Dolmabahçe (which
translates as ‘filled-in garden’). It
was built in the ‘modern style’,
which is why its façade owes
more to Verseilles than the domes
and arches of Topkapi. Nearby
Ciraĝan Palace, built in 1874 by
Sultan Abdül Aziz, was also
constructed in French château
style.
Dolmabahçe is sited on the
harbour from which Mehmet the
Conqueror launched his attach on
Constantinople in 1453. The
harbour was completely filled with
stones on the order of Ahmet I at
the beginning of the 17th century.
The area was landscaped as a
shore side grove of small palaces
and pavilions set aside for
imperial use. Sultan Abdül Mecit
demolished these to build his
palace. The construction of Dolmabahçe nearly emptied the imperial treasury and
its running costs contributed to the empire’s bankruptcy in 1875.
River Culture Yali
For hundreds of years, the wealthy
inhabitants of Istanbul have been
building summer residences along what
were once beautiful rural parklands on
the banks of the Bosphorus. These days,
with the surrounding landscape rising to
heights up to 200m is densely developed
with palaces converted into museums
and hotels, waterside restaurants,
mosques, docks and all the detritus of
modern developments.
The word ‘yali’ comes from the Greek
word for ‘coast’, and describes the
waterside wooden summer residences
along the Bosphorus built by Ottoman
aristocracy and foreign ambassadors in
the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, now all
protected by the country’s heritage laws.
Some 620 yali survive. The photo on the
below left is the Afif Ahmet Pasa Yali.
Finely worked wood was the
predominant construction material
chosen for yalıs, as it was for the large majority of traditional Turkish houses.
Successive restorations often caused the wooden parts of the overall structure to
be gradually reduced, but wood nevertheless remains the prominent and
identifying material of historic yalıs.
Asnavutköy and Bebek (Turkish for baby),
two of the most beautiful Bosphorus
villages, are famous for their beautiful
yalis. Some of these have boat moorings
carved beneath them. Caiques were used
to row the sultans and their guests to and
from their yalis. The oarsmen, called the
Bostanci, reputedly barked like dogs while
they rowed so as not to overhear the
sultans talking. The largest of the sultans
caiques dates from 1648 and needed an
incredible 144 oarsmen to power it.
The oldest surviving yalı is the one built by
the grand vizier Amcazade Köprülü
Hüseyin Pasha in 1699 at the Kanlıca
district, on the Asiatic shores of the
Bosphorus. The image above left was
painted in 1720 and shows festivities on
the Golden Horn.
On the opposite European shores, the oldest to remain is the Şerifler Yalısı in
Emirgan which was built in 1780. The most expensive yalı is Erbilgin Yalısı
located in Yeniköy, Istanbul. Forbes magazine listed is as the fifth most expensive
house in the world with a price tag of $100 million.

River of Life - Totally Thames

Transcription

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