the chronicle of la defense

auf Grund
und Westeuropa
In: Erdkunde
4, 1950,
inMittel-
druckverhaltnisse
The Chronicle
Clout:
Hugh
Binnendunen.
der vorzeitlichen
81-88.
Poser,
H.:
Die
und
inMitteleuropa
Lofigrenze
und Gegenwart
In: Eiszeitalter
nordliche
Klima.
das
spatglaziale
1, 1951, 27-55.
E. R.: Meteorologie
Reiter,
Wien
1961.
a. Peteet,
Maximum
Rind, D.
Glacial
ture
D.:
der Strahlstrome
Terrestrial
Quaternary
Soc.
Geol.
sea-surface
paleoclimatology.
111
1976,
(Col.)
die
der Erwerbstatigkeit.
lung und
von La Defense
trotzte der okonomi
Die Entwicklung
der siebziger Jahre
schen Krise
ebenso wie
zahlreichen
Wellen
der Kritik
und hat somit einen wichtigen
Beitrag
der Struktur
geleistet und
als ?moderner Weltstadt"
ort multinationaler
Unternehmen
von Paris
taglicher Aktionsraume
das Ansehen
gleichzeitig
und geeigneten
gesteigert.
Grofizugige
diesen neuen
erganzen
Freizeiteinrichtungen
von Tete Defense
in dem der Standort
Geschaftsbezirk,
Spreckelsens
massiven
Arc
de Triomphe
de
UHumanite
Der
wird.
eingenommen
im Nordwesten
Erfolg von La Defense
vorhandene
raumliche
jedoch
franzosischen
weiter
Kapitale
gungen
werden
gegenwartig
schaftigungsmoglichkeiten
insbesondere
in der neuen
,,Euro-Disneyland"
von Paris
Ungleichgewichte
verstarkt. Grofie
condi
13, 3, 1974,
305
climate
the Last
during
on periglacial
pheno
a. Moseley,
F. (eds.):
Ice
British
based
1958.
>
Planning, Prestige and Grands Projets inParis
current
The
sectoral
hat
in der
Anstren
shift
from
the manufacture
of goods to the provision of services is having a pro
found
impact
on
of employment
the mosaic
opportu
nities in the urbanised regions ofWestern Europe
(Daniels 1985). Deindustrialisation and the disturb
of manufacturing
work
stand
in contrast
ing collapse
with
the uneven
but nonetheless
expan
impressive
sector
with
and
(Martin
the experience
in the highly diverse service
Rowthorn
of many
1986).
other West
common
In
European
cities the urban fabric of Greater Paris displays the
powerful imprint of these divergent trends, as redun
dant
factory
premises
contrast
with
new
custom
built office blocks and together serve to accentuate
spatial
variations
in urban
morphology
and
econo
neue
darauf
Be
gerichtet,
von Paris zu schaffen,
la V allee, wo das
Stadt Marne
imOsten
errichtet werden
The
sion of job prospects
Stand
und
von
ice age boundary
Meteorol.
Glaciation;
interpretation
mena.
In: Wright,
A. E.
1975, 95-120.
ages: ancient and modern.
Liverpool
P.: Das Eiszeitalter.
Vorder
Bd. II: Europa,
Woldstedt,
asien und Nordafrika
im Eiszeitalter.
Stutt
2. Auflage.
Clout*
Vertei
raumliche
with
of Applied
Simu
the NCAR
using
4 figures
von La Defense
Die Chronik
Zusammenfassung:
Wahrend
der letzten dreifiig Jahre hat der expandie
rende Geschaftsbezirk
La Defense
nicht nur die Skyline
auch
W.M.:
circulation
OF LA DEFENSE
Hugh
sondern
a. Washington,
an
With
durch
87-230.
of
ofMeteorology,
University
of the atmosphere
in
circulation
In: Bull. Americ
Soc.
28, New York
B. G.:
R.
Williams,
Atlantic
THE CHRONICLE
Wohn-
the atmo
1979,
317.
gart
Neuorientierung
in der He de France
21,
Department
the general
In: Journal
tions.
In:
years.
of Late
Investigation
J.D.
(eds.):
and
paleoceanography
Am. Mem.
145, Boulder
zur
in Geophysics
J., Barry, R.G.
of the atmospheric
Circulation
Model
Global
tempera
In: Quaternary
consistant?
a. Hays,
verandert,
die Struktur
on
of mountains
influence
latitudes.
middle
146.
von Paris
The
sphere.
Staff Members,
On
Chicago:
at the Last
conditions
and CLIMAP
they
1985, 1-22.
24, New York
A.: Northeast
W.
F. a. McIntyre,
Ruddiman,
over the past 600.000
paleoclimatic
changes
R.M.
B.:
In: Advances
Williams,
lation
(Jet Streams).
Research
Cline,
R.
Smith,
273
1947, 255-280.
are
estimates:
ofLa Defense
soli.
*) I am
grateful to the staff of the EPAD
documentation
and for meeting me and my
the years.
for providing
students over
274 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
hit home and matters of social welfare and ecology
received an airing (Moseley
1980; Flockton
1982).
mic activity in the French capital (Bentham and
Moseley
1980; Boyer, Deneux and Merlin
1986).
For more than two decades these and other changes
have
been
in a wide-ranging
accommodated
A
master plan (DelegationGenerale au District de laRegion
de Paris 1965). However, Paris has not just been
planned in recent years but has also been embellished
by a galaxy of prestigious urban developments that
are
elsewhere
unrivalled
in Western
mark
Schema
was
presented
eleven
years
later and
in urban
history.
For
the Centre
example,
Na
tional d'Art Moderne
is popularly called the 'Pom
Centre'
in
honour
of its eminent patron; the
pidou
were favoured by Gis
museums
and
Villette
Orsay
and
Europe
revised
still remains in force {Prefecture
de la Region Parisienne
1976). Other grandsprojets are direct manifestations of
presidential power and their material expression
ensures that leading political personalities leave their
regional
proclaim themessage that Paris is a grand city, not
simply a great one (Chaslin 1985).
Mitterrand
and Franqois
has pro
The Parisian master plan of 1965 blended the lofty card d'Estaing;
ambitions of Gaullism with the heady spirit of the moted a host of cultural projects, most notably the
Bastille opera house (Woolf
1960s to devise a spatial frame for installing new
1987). The present
towns,
suburban
mass-transit
of
service
systems.
its fundamental
as population
With
logic
centres,
article
and
motorways
the passage
was
overtaken
by
events,
growth slowed down, economic crisis
Cerav-Pontoise
/^^S\^ /
/
aims
to trace
the controversial
evolution
/)
'^^^^
StQuwttin-En-YwIiTWtt ^ ^ t
*
Boissy-St-Leger
st.
.
** *
"
R6my-Les-Chevreuse *%^^^^^
Express Metro-Metro
Fig.
1: Greater
Grofi-Paris
\
Line 1-Railway
Paris
showing
mit La Defense
of the
vast new commercial district of La Defense, which
is the earliest and arguably themost significant of
these prestigious developments, and whose crowning
of time much
Ny
4?
??
the location
Motorway
of La Defense
Evry New Town
feature was decided by the President
gure 1).
The
'La Defense'
words
evoke
Parisians.
among
images
that name
sculpted
by
of Notre-Dame;
the forest
but
of glass
of
and
hill 9 km.
will
everyone
towers
concrete
and
statue
and
like
western
startling
fiction
science
a
What
silhouette.
of a
quarter
seemed
ago
century
-
more
urban
and
statue
commemorates
last
by the city's
the Franco-Prussian
Paris
proclaim
not
France
just
of La
unsuccessful)
defenders
invasion
against
of 1870. The
office
war
a
to be
but
The
'world
city' with
appro
to
corporations
the whole
of Western
Defense
also
provokes
contrast
sharply
ing reactions. For some the high-rise blocks clad with
sparkling glass and burnished marble embrace the
best
of modern
architecture
are
ings
no
and
the
symbolise
less
than
offensive
that
intrusions
reinforce
grudging
the
'Americanisation'
1977).
Between
acceptance
those
that
of Europe
extremes
the promotion
(Beaujeu
comes
of La
fense enabled skyscraper blocks to be banned
historic centre of the city.
of the Bois
presence
the
communes
to the west
De
in the
ordinary
tached
brand
of
an
of Saint-Germain,
which
alignment
acquired all the qualities of a voie triomphaleover the
centuries (Pilliet
1961). Thus, in 1667 Le Notre
extended theTuileries gardens and in 1724 theDue
superintendant
of
royal
gardens,
set out
the
Champs-Elysees on the eastern slope of Chaillot hill
(Le Roy Ladurie
1981). Thirty years later Ange
Gabriel
fashioned the Place Louis XV (Place de la
extended
Concorde) and in the early 1770sMarigny
the great axis beyond the site of the Etoile to reach a
new bridge across the Seine at
Neuilly. The status of
the voie triomphale was
by the
reinforced
and
and
suburbia,
railway
Nanterre
a
accommodated
small
comprising
factories,
yards.
far more
de
warehouses,
the west
However,
ward march of fashionable development was firmly
in progress and in 1912 itwas proposed to extend
the triumphal way beyond theAvenue de laGrande
Armee (Bastie 1964). The outbreak ofwar brought
ideas
to a temporary
halt.
in 1929 when the developer Leon
an architectural
launched
the Porte
Maillot,
reorganise
where
the Avenue
de la Grande
to
competition
a
busy
Armee
intersection
became
the
Avenue de Neuilly (Evenson 1979). Two years later
theCity of Paris sponsored a competition for ideas to
redevelop the axis all theway from the Etoile to the
la Defense.
The
proposed
an
winner,
architect
the
transforming
Porte
and the Pont de Neuilly and suggested that a
giant personification of Victory in the form of a
The site of La Defense is charged with meaning
since it is bisected by the historic royal highway from
the Louvre palace to the hunting grounds around
d'Antin,
and were
tenements,
houses,
de
rond-point
named
Bigot,
The Origins ofLa Defense
chateau
of
districts
enhanced
Puteaux
the Seine
Maillot
the
summit
residential
were
advantages
de Boulogne
They reappeared
a
of affluent
of Courbevoie,
of
Rosenthal
dis
figure themost beautiful vista in Paris and simply
Garnier
the creation
locational
such
'new'
to the
the Seine
when the firstmetro line was opened in 1900, linking
the Pont de Neuilly to the city centre. Conditions
were strikinglydifferentbeyond the city limitswhere
1982). For others these same build
France (Ardagh
across
Armee,
cemeteries
Eu
1985). Not surprisingly, the business
rope (Bateman
district
pride.
(but
for multinational
facilities
priate
serve
national
the heroic
stand
during
blocks
-
emphatically
to the
the Louvre
from
Chantecoq hill 22 m. above the river. The tree-lined
boulevards in thewestern part of theVille de Paris
whose
gradually become reality and is rapidly approaching
completion (Bastie 1964, 1984). Both images exhibit
extended
vista
great
Arc de Triomphe on theflattened summit ofChaillot;
the second ran from that point along theAvenue de
structured
has
275
la Concorde.
One
la Grande
visu
that has
given the citynot only a new business district but also
a new
ofLa Defense
(1806-1808) and the great Arc de Triomphe (1806
1837) and the installation of theObelisk in the Place
de
different
Barrias
Louis-Ernest
in 1883 at the top of Chantecoq
unveiled
north-west
alise
in 1983 (Fi
strikingly
recall
the
Some
The Chronicle
Clout:
Hugh
enhanced
further
when
Napo
leon ordered the building of the small Carrousel
arch
point
figure, be sited at the heart of the rond
la Defense,
was
whose
not
234 m. diameter
female
winged
de
far short of that of the Place de l'Etoile (256 m). The
jury noted approvingly that Bigot did not propose
arches or obelisks which had been popular in the
nineteenth
century
sky of greater
Paris,
but
"wished
a new
to create,
silhouette
the
against
a stage
marking
in the extension of the capital and characterising our
epoch, as theArc de Triomphe is the indelible mark
of the past century" (Ville de Paris etDepartement de la
Seine 1931 p. 16). Once again economic depression,
war
and
occupation
overtook
these
grand
designs
and by 1945 the slopes of Chantecoq hill were little
changed, being covered with undistinguished sub
urbia
and
crowned
with
Barrias'
statue.
Despite being 9 km. fromNotre-Dame and lying
beyond themetro terminus, La Defense had good rail
276 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
Fig. 2: The Site ofLa Defense in 1950
La Defense
1950
and road links to central Paris (Figure 2). Indeed the
avenue
running
between
the rond-point
and
the Pont
de Neuilly was one of the busiest thoroughfares in
France. The site had undeniable potential and was
by Andre
favoured
the
construction
Malraux
of
a
and
Le
for
Corbusier
museum.
twentieth-century
Wogensky
conceived a design with this inmind but
in fact thePrefecture de la Seine in inner Paris was to
be the only direct result of this architectural experi
ment. The Conseil General of Seine departementper
ceived the future of La Defense quite differently.
It was well aware of the difficulties that would be
encountered in attempting to redevelop parts of the
historic city centre toprovide additional office accom
modation and instead proposed that a completely
new business district be built at La Defense, for
which a plan was duly prepared by Charles Nicod.
In 1954 the Direction de I'Amenagementdu Territoire
designated La Defense as a priority site,which might
accommodate
ministries
and
sations, such as UNESCO
supranational
or NATO.
organi
Using proposals dating from 1951 a private scheme
was launched in 1955 by industrial firms to build the
Centre National
des Industries
et Techniques
for accommo
dating exhibitions thatwere too large for theGrand
Palais
in central
Paris.
The
result was
a vast,
vaulted
hall of 90,000 m2 that was opened by De Gaulle
in 1958. It was heralded as an impressive feat of
engineering but neither the business community or
the general public showed any immediate interest in
the area (Auzelle and Magnan
1984). However, a
come
to
number
of
visitors
did
theCNIT for the
great
Floralies show of 1959 and the pavements along the
avenue from the Pont de Neuilly were jammed with
parked
suburban
a
group
cars.
Perceptions
location were
of developers
of this
seemingly
to
change.
beginning
had
already
'remote'
Indeed,
con
proposed
structing office blocks along both sides of theAvenue.
The three localmunicipalities ofCourbevoie, Puteaux
and Nan terre had other preoccupations,
including
an urgent need to build social housing since the plain
of Nanterre had spawned the second largest shanty
town
around
Paris.
Developing theSite
In
order
financial
to respond
speculation
to
and
these
pressures,
piecemeal
to avoid
development,
and tomaximise the opportunities afforded by this
site along the great axis, the government set up the
EtablissementPublic pour VAmenagementde laRegion de la
Hugh Clout: The ChronicleofLa Defense277
Defense (EPAD) in 1958 (Anon. 1965). It was given
an operational existence of thirty years and was
charged with drawing up a master plan for the siting
of offices,
apartments
and
a
of facilities
range
on
a
total of 760 ha. site (comprising 160 ha. in Zone A the so-called business district - and 600 ha. in Zone
B). It was also empowered to expropriate land and
install the necessary
infrastructure and utilities
(roads, parking spaces, and gas, electricity and water
supplies). Sale of construction permits to developers
provides themajor source of finance for the EPAD
and this is supplemented by grants from the State,
the Paris transport authority and other agencies to
fund specific facilities such as schools and metro
stations. Running capital ismanaged by loans from
the Caisse desDepots etConsignations.The development
process required the demolition of no fewer than
9,200 dwellings, including theNanterre shanty town
which had housed about 1,000 families and 4,000
single people. Providing alternative housing in the
locality became a vital task for the EPAD which also
had to allocate new industrial premises for the 480
firms that itdisplaced.
Offices
Metro
Qj; Express
^^^^^^^^^^
ft#?^'
3:
housing,
schools
documents
La Defense:
Zone
was
to be more
A, the commercial
from the EPAD
Zone
A
and
administrative
roads, railway lines, bus terminals and other facili
ties - which would descend gradually to the Pont de
Neuilly. Local road trafficwould be directed along a
circular boulevard around La Defense and through
trafficwould pass in tunnels beneath the business
district (Figure 3).
The second principle embraced a gradation of
building heights, reflecting the fact that La Defense
than
^
l':
W;H Centre
Buildings
La Defense:
recreational
and
scenarios were
facilities as well as offices. Various
examined and the initialmaster plan was devised in
1962 to produce 860,000 m2 of office space, some
6,000 dwellings and a wide range of support facilities.
This received approval from theMinistry of Con
1964.
struction inDecember
The firstand truly far-sighted principle involved
a complete separation of pedestrians from vehicle
traffic in Zone A by means of a vast deck - to cover
^ Other
Steri^i
Source:
In 1960 the Plan d'Amenagement et d3Organisation
Generatede laRegion Parisienne stressed thatLa Defense
was not to be simply a business district but rather
a multi-functional development comprising shops,
(Geschaftsbezirk)
an
^estrian
Area
I
district
ultra-modern
CBD.
^^^^HdnnHousm9
MM
Office
42/1988
278_Erdkunde_Band
buildings were to form the highest layer of construc
tion; apartment buildings would have less than 8
and would
storeys
a
provide
be
favourable
to
around
courtyards
arranged
residential
environment;
and
service and amenity buildings would be low-rise.
The thirdprinciple was that about 30 office blocks
were
to be
to a standard
constructed
format
m.
(100
high and 25 storeys of 42 x 24 m.) to give 25-28,000
m2 of working floorspace apiece. The master plan
also included the possibility of a 200 m. supertower
constructed
being
facing
to serve
the CNIT
as a kind
of architectural symbol for thewhole of La Defense.
In
the years
ahead
controversial
mously
this was
to prove
an
to be
enor
issue.
the earlier
exceed
tower
for
the Groupe
altered
the
mentally
to what
sition
was
Defense
but
it soon
clear
became
the repetition of a single architectural
visual
produced
monotony.
Even
more
that
stereotype
was
serious
the fact that the firstgeneration of towers failed to
demand.
commercial
satisfy
Too
great
a
share
of
each building had to be devoted to core facilities and
the floorspace in individual towerswas less thanwhat
large firmswere seeking. By the late 1960s companies
in La Defense.
to be losing
Com
interest
was
than had
slower
investment
notably
con
became
and
the government
anticipated
appeared
mercial
been
vinced
of
the need
to obtain
greater
revenues
from
futuredevelopments on the site.This objective might
be met by building taller or by increasing the density
In addition,
of occupation.
the
'suburban'
location
of La Defense needed to be made more accessible by
a rapid transit link to the centre of Paris. In order to
achieve this the government accorded priority to the
construction
of the east/west
line of the express
metro
system, the Reseau Express Regional (RER) (Ronca
yolo 1981).
In 1968 theUnion desAssurances deParis proposed to
rehouse
various
operations
scattered
Nationales)
of western
Paris.
skyline
Oppo
'Americanisation'
as
perceived
a while
at
regretting
to become
destined
seemed
For
Manhattan.
another
some
least,
powerful
voices spoke in support of tall towers, with Paul
Delouvrier
(former supreme prefet for the Paris
President
Georges Pompidou arguing
and
Region)
in their favour (Evenson 1979). Yet another contro
versy raged in the summer of 1972 following propo
sals to complete thewestern end of the business dis
had
as Tete
known
become
The
Defense.
around
the city
in a double-sized building (70,000 m2) at La Defense
with a ground plan shaped like a three-point star.
Permission was duly granted and theEPAD set about
preparing a more liberal master plan for thewhole
site. In order tomake La Defense viable total office
floorspace was to be increased to 1,550,000 m2 by
raising themaximum height for blocks to 45 storeys
(180 m.). Apartment blocks were also permitted to
was
of office construction
generation
mas
the age of the giants, with
truly
second
The
workplaces
was
funda
des Assurances
intricacies of this issue will be explored later.
The Esso building was opened in 1963 and heralded
the firstgeneration of office blocks built to an essen
tially common prescription. Office staffwhose jobs
had been relocated from central Paris generally liked
new
implica
loud and long with many Parisians
that La
trict, which
Three Generations ofOfficeConstruction
their
The
maximum.
8-storey
tions of this new policy became clear in 1972 when
the first second-generation building (the 170 m.
unquestionably
sive towers being erected (Anon. 1970). These were
almost small towns in their own right,with theGroupe
desAssurancesNationales building providing 70,500 m2
of office
and
space
a workforce
accommodating
of
5,000, and the black Fiat building offering 102,500
m2
to the modern
to multi-national
problematic.
were
towers
staff. The
for 4,500
ments
finance
were
They
monu
awesome
as well
as
industry
soon
to be
they
proved
consumers
of energy
high
construction
but
with regard to air conditioning (the windows could
not be opened), lighting (especially in work space
near the core of the building) and operation of lifts
and other services. They had been designed in the
age of cheap oil but were opened after the energy
crisis
had
struck.
Not only were they inappropriate technologically
but theywere disliked bymany staffwho complained
of more
frequent
headaches
and
than
eyestrain
they
had experienced in their old offices. Even more de
pressing was the lack of cafes and corner shops for
lunch
time
use,
space,
and
an
an
absence
inadequate
of public
amount
transport
of parking
between
the eastern edge of the site (buses and urban metroat
the Pont de Neuilly) and facilities on the western
1981).
edge (Burtenshaw, Bateman and Ashworth
It was there that the station for the express metro
a fast link
(RER) had been opened in 1969 providing
was
extended to
to the Etoile (5 minutes). The line
to
Chatelet
Auber in 1970 and eastwards
(a further
in
1977.
5 minutes) and Nation
Indeed, in several
was
of La Defense,
the
salvation
respects theRER
an unfashionable
suburb
transforming
Nonetheless
business
district.
reached
into an
most
easily
workers
in the emerging 'tertiary city' at La Defense
had a
Hugh Clout: The ChronicleofLa Defense279
tidywalk from their train or bus in order to reach
their office and formany of them thismeant skirting
around
sites
building
for year
after
Even
year.
empty office space throughout Paris. The future of
La Defense and the financial viability of the EPAD
cross
struction
leased
the
phase.
and
at
the time
of Giscard
com
d'Estaing's
ing to office in 1974 a set of ecological arguments
started to be advanced to bolster this point of view.
The demand foradditional office space inParis plum
metted in the crisis years of themid-1970s but, of
course,
the
second
generation
of towers
was
interior
already
'
'
Jfci^L II
'
Track
; Running
Scnoot
W
it provides
gardens,
its staff were
arranged
the market
a
working
****
***
A
****
V*
\"*
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Sch00' ''
Andr6Malraux Park .
200
of
to be
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\V
".'.DanceSchool
Theatre
: .'
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had
Prefecture
(m) Station on Express Metro
#^Br^/^^^
'
loans
However,
organisation.
Court
^^^^^WLaw
m
special
secure.
V* \\
NlV*
\\\
.
^
^\ ^"^^^^
^
^^^^^^^\\
V Apartment
([ Y\^
.^tfe.
*?k *?
blocks
#M
- *^
towers)
(Aillaud's
4
?^
Ifl^
^
?
Fig. 4: La Defense:
Source: documents
La Defense:
Zone
re
to rescue
for offices
environment
for 1,350 employees. On average 130,000 m2 were
being completed at La Defense each year during the
firsthalf of the 1980s. This accounted for a quarter of
all new office space being created in theHe de France
region (Anon. 1985). By the end of 1987 just over 40
office blocks had been constructed in the business
under construction. During 1972 a record 325,000
m2 of office space had been marketed at La Defense
but by the end of 1975 275,000 m2 remained un
occupied on the site out of a total of 1,000,000 m2 of
0
from
and
began to recover in 1978 and by the following year
the problem phase seemed to be over.
A thirdwave of building began in 1980, involving
slimmer energy-saving blocks with officeswhich had
access to daylight and were equipped with windows
that could be opened forventilation. A good example
is the low, long Elysees-La Defense building (39,400
m2) which was opened in 1983. Enhanced by two
During 1973 President Pompidou's advisors dis
played strong opposition to the proliferation of tower
blocks
far
seemed
ing the great pedestrian precinct could be far from
pleasant since itwas frequently windswept or lashed
by rain. Working and living at La Defense could be
a depressing experience during the protracted con
r
Zone
^
B, the Quartier du Pare
from the EPAD
B, das Quartier du Pare
X
280 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
district.
built
the density
appearances,
Despite
ment
more
of develop
is comparable with that in parts of inner Paris
by Haussmann
for this
explanation
pedestrian
precinct,
one
hundred
is the large
and
gardens
other
forms
to the
of open
space.
business district (Zone A) at La Defense
employs a total of 65,000 staff in its office blocks
The
which
over
accommodate
French
300
and
foreign
firms.A further 2,000 employees work in the Quatre
Temps shopping and leisure centre sited at the hinge
point
between
west.
Quatre
the commercial
district
and
the more
residential Quartier du Pare in Zone B further to the
was
Temps
to start
scheduled
1979 but one major storewithdrew from the complex
and opening was delayed until 1981 (Burtenshaw,
Bateman
and Ashworth
1981). It is currently
the largest shopping centre in France, comprising
m2
105,000
of retail
and
and
space
storage
a further
75,000 m2 for technical facilities. As well as 180
individual shops and boutiques, 10 cinemas and a
of cafes
range
and
a Samari
it houses
restaurants,
taine department store (22,000 in2) and an Auchan
supermarket (20,000 m2). Shopping and strolling at
or after work
lunchtime
a
have
into a pleasure.
nightmare
cial facilities
are
been
transformed
these
Indeed,
for a catchment
appropriate
from
commer
1million people and attract shoppers from a wide
of western
stretch
the
Paris,
success
strategic
of La
node.
restructuring
In
ample
giving
as
Defense
fact,
Zone
A
of
evidence
a
suburban
is much
more
than an office city and shopping centre since 8,000
new
this
more
house
apartments
so-called
commercial
than
20,000
in
people
area.
The central feature of this district is the pedestrian
precinct, which is the largest (and some might argue
thewindiest) in theworld. Its first component is the
vast
and
exposed
parvis
the RER
between
building and Quatre Temps; the second is
the CNIT
which
for 1.5 km. descending
the esplanade
extends
toward
the Seine;
and then there are lateral
gradually
walkways giving access to individual buildings. Trees
have been planted along the esplanade, gardens have
been
laid
out,
and
numerous
sculptures
and
other
works of art have been commissioned by the EPAD.
These have been installed at appropriate points
throughout the pedestrian area. In addition, the
EPAD
further
scale,
front
der
the promoters
encouraged
to
artists
patronise
the environment.
enhance
and
has
of office
blocks
Miro's
Joan
each other on
Calder's
fantastic
and
On
occupants
sculptors
the grand
coloured
not
the parvis,
metallic
red
great
figures
far from Alexan
arch;
while
to
con
evoke
sculpture,
'La
long
Terre'
to
relegated
The OtherLa Defense
to popular
Contrary
very much more
controversial
La
perception,
site of Tete
Defense
a further
extends
Defense
is
the west of the
than Zone A. To
600 ha. (Zone B) in the communeofNanterre, which
had
contained
interwar
thinly-spread
derelict
quarries,
worked-out
suburbia,
warehouses
factories,
and flourishing shantytowns during the 1950s. Plans
to rehabilitate this sector involved construction of a
to
facilities
Prefecture and high-order
urban
of
Hauts-de-Seine
departement
a new
1964),
the
sub
in
(established
which
campus
university
serve
tem
acquired
porary notoriety in 1968, and a wide range of com
communal
and
amount
large
educational
as well
facilities,
of predominantly
social
housing
totalling some 6,000 dwellings. Within Zone B the
activities of the EPAD have been focused on the
Quartier du Pare which is separated fromZone A by
highways, cemeteries and railway land (Figure 4).
The Pare Andre Malraux
is a completely new
in size to the Luxem
creation that is roughly equal
bourg
Paris
of the Buttes-Chaumont.
the park
25 ha. it is the largest park to be laid out in
over
tect Sgard
vated
or
Gardens
Covering
surface
station,
Barrais'
matic and brutal 1970s, the environment of La De
fense is being successfully greened and humanised.
mercial,
as a
of about
a).
'Sleep
Derbre's
and Louis
globe
forms
a hidden corner on the vast building site, has been
reinstated in glory close to the site of the original
rond-point.By contrast with conditions in the proble
in
trading
on a bronze
human
1986
(Anon.
de Miller's
Henri
fashion,
tip-toes
counterbalanced
The
earlier.
years
extent devoted
discreet
walker'
the past
hundred
designed
which
from
has
years.
archi
Landscape
its linear lake and undulating
been
fashioned
hill
Chantecoq
from
to
sub-soil
exca
the
accommodate
RER, highways and other facilities beneath the great
deck of Zone A. The EPAD met more than half of the
cost of establishing the park, with the remainder
being provided by theMinistry of Cultural Affairs,
and the He de
the departementof theHauts-de-Seine
France
Tree
region.
have
species
selected
been
for
their robustness and ability to tolerate an urban
climate. Some 4,000 trees and 50,000 shrubs have
been planted in the park, with rarer species placed in
a
Wooded
garden.
stretches
and
footpaths
botanic
open
suitable
for local
residents,
alternate
patches
offer
a range
lunch-time
with
of routes
strollers
from
nearby offices, joggers (who favour the 4 km. long
in a
'green
path')
and
other
users.
The Chronicle
Clout:
Hugh
the amount of space that could be
To maximise
new
to parkland,
developments
housing
to be
and the score or so of 50 m. or
high-rise
towers
that make
up the Quartier du Pare form
devoted
needed
100 m.
some of the most distinctive apartment buildings
in the whole
resemble
Emile
of Paris.
plant
Aillaud's
in cross
stems
towers
tall
are
and
section
de
corated with clouds; they stand in sharp contrast with
the polychromatic pyramids designed by Kalisz.
Together they accommodate 4,200 households in
subsidised
seem
which
homes,
to be
to
acceptable
their residents. Certainly a visit to the pyramids and
the
towers
not
does
reveal
in active
people
against their housing conditions (Cornu
new
also
neighbourhood
an
has
dential,
being
of a major
location
1982). The
hostel
international
for young people but it is by no means
the
revolt
entirely resi
architecture
school, the Theatre desAmandiers (with 1,000 seats), a
centre
for young
the Paris
and
musicians,
Opera's
ballet school. Finally, over 160,000 m2 of officeshave
been built adjacent to theNanterre-Prefecture RER
station.
La
Defense
has
become
a
place
where
many
people live and many people work; but they are
rarely the same people, as the crowds disgorging in
rush hours
morning
show all
from buses,
trains
and
the RER
The ControversyofTete Defense
over
of La Defense
components
the past
quarter
century
but
were
installed
the westernmost
section of the commercial district, occupying the
perspective from the Etoile, remained undeveloped
until recently. Should the vista be closed at Tete
or should
Defense
some
architectural
form be
created
to lead the eye beyond? The question was certainly
not
new,
with
Bigot's
proposal
for this controversial
site originating in 1931. The latest round of debate
began in 1970 when a developer commissioned Ieoh
Ming
the New
Pei,
stic structure
high.
In fact,
to
a
architect,
design
maje
soar
or
70
80
storeys
perhaps
to elapse
before
the
years were
York
that would
thirteen
final decision was taken on how this prestigious site
should be used. The delay was partly due to changing
political personalities but was more particularly relat
ed to the profound difficultyof choosing an appropri
ately symbolic and monumental Tete Defense.
Pei designed a megastructure that would stand
more than 200 m. high in the form of a kind of giant
'V and would be the tallest structure in Europe. An
alternative
proposed
was
two
prepared
concave
by
buildings
the
other
-
black
enormous
that would
face
mirrors
parabolic
a scheme
Such
city.
281
Paris
on
back
reflecting
of course,
would,
close
as
act
and
the
the per
spective from the Etoile. The architect Badani left
the employ of EPAD in protest at this suggestion and
powerful public hostility to the idea was expressed
during the summer of 1972. President Pompidou was
consulted in September and declared that while he
found Aillaud's
project to be very fine he must
some
express
ture
His
reservations.
for Tete Defense
or a massive
personal
preference
be for either a tall sculp
would
jet of water.
Such
a feature
would
be visible from the Carrousel through the Arc de
Triomphe but would leave a large opening to the sky
(Chaslin
1985). Designs by other architects were
scrutinised and inJuly 1973 Planning Minister Oli
vier
Guichard
'mirrors'.
in favour
pronounced
He
also
that
suggested
of Aillaud's
structures
im
planted at Tete Defense should not be solely for com
mercial use but might also house a range of State
organisations. But as the economic crisis of the 1970s
deepened and wide areas of office space at La Defense
remained
so
unoccupied
irrelevant. In addition,
heading
for financial
Further
top-level
the whole
the EPAD
issue
seemed
seemed
to be
ruin.
In October 1978 the topic surfaced again when an
interministerial committee, chaired by Prime Mini
sterRaymond Barre, decided that theMinistry of
the Environment should be located at Tete Defense.
too clearly.
Numerous
ofLa Defense
Emile
-
Aillaud,
one
silvered
who
and
consultations
occurred
in the sum
mer of 1979 and ten architects were asked to submit
for
designs
a monumental
structure
that
would,
however, be totally invisible between the Carrousel
and the Etoile in order to preserve the prestigious
perspective of the Champs Elysees. To comply with
this prescription would involve limiting the height of
construction
to a mere
35 m.
Aillaud
modified
his
proposals formirror buildings once again but none of
the projects seemed appropriate. A further call for
ideas was launched in 1980, with Aillaud
drawing
up
version
yet another
and
ing a design which was
interest,
not
least
Jean
Willeval
submitt
greeted with considerable
from President
Giscard
d'Estaing.
But twomajor questions remained. Could a 35 m.
high structure be truly imposing, especially when
adjacent to towering officeblocks that soared to 170m?
And should Tete Defense not house a major monu
ment
of national,
if not
international,
significance?
Presidential elections were looming, which Giscard
was to lose. The implications of that event were
fundamental for the development ofTete Defense.
On 17 September 1981 the recently-elected Socia
list administration stated that earlier projects were
282 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
and
unacceptable
new
ideas
on
Mitterrand
President
cultural
rence on 24 September. These
and
the Louvre,
renovating
announced
in his
policy
first press
included expanding
the museums
promoting
of La Villette
and Orsay,
of Finance,
a megastructure
building
an international
would
house
la Communication.
de
relocating theMinistry
The
latter
a range
of attracting
prospect
the business
district
and
In the same month
a new
announced
scheme
Paris
the
indeed
and
the
to
activities
manifest
inter
France.
of Town Planning
theMinister
site and men
for the
competition
Maison
offered
of cultural
would
role of La Defense,
national
at Tete
and
which
Defense
confe
tioned other activities which might possibly be located
at Tete
Defense
a new
(for example,
for
headquarters
a new opera house and theMinistry of
UNESCO,
Town Planning, Housing
and Environment). By
clear that the new
it
became
1982
early January
was
to
inParis and the
house
be
sited
elsewhere
opera
new chairman of the EPAD
(architect Joseph Bel
for a major
sought designs
mont)
ture that would
be appropriate
bicentennial of theRevolution
An
international
struc
monumental
to commemorate
was
launched
which
296 competitors had entered by 4 October 1982 but
unfortunately very few designs were forthcoming
from theUnited States or Japan. The closing date
was
postponed,
more
were
submissions
requested,
and a grand total of 897 architects eventually entered
the competition. Some 424 designs materialised and
during the fourthweek ofApril 1983 an international
jury of architectsmet at theEPAD headquarters high
in the Fiat tower. On 25 May they announced that
the Arc de Triomphe de VHumanite was the winning
entry
(Anon.
designed
54-year
1984).
von
Otto
by
old professor
was
This
a
Spreckelsen,
of architecture
vast
'open
a
cube'
little-known
from Denmark.
The design not only symbolised a window to the
world but also offered a view into the future (Anon.
1983). It was pleasing to the President who met the
elusive
von
Spreckelsen
on
1June.
The
great
'open
cube' would be constructed a fraction (6?30') out of
true alignment with the triumphal axis in order to
avoid existing tunnels and underground facilities. It
would be faced with white marble and would com
x
prise twomassive 37-storey vertical buildings (105
105x18.7 m.), linked by two horizontal structures
with
three
storeys
apiece.
It would,
of course,
the details
President
Mitterrand
of
the
its environs
'cube',
and
possible occupants proved highly contentious. Build
ing permission was granted by the Hauts-de-Seine
authorities at the end of 1984 and on 9 July 1985
on
inaugurated
work
de la Communication
since
the site.
Completion of the whole structure is planned for
early 1989. Offices in the southern 'wall' will be
occupied by theMinistry of Town Planning, Hous
ing and Environment which should startmoving into
its new premises during 1988. Parts of the northern
building, the 'roof and the 'floor' will not in fact
theMaison
house
ment abandoned
the govern
the idea during 1986. Instead, this
space will accommodate
prestigious
mercial
The
cube
open
enterprises.
of com
a range
of Tete
-
Defense
and its immediate surroundings (which have been
to
entrusted
remain
architect
controversial
Jean-Pierre
to the last!
-
Buffi)
will
The Implications ofLa Defensefor theStructureofParis
the
in 1989.
competition
proved,
dwarf
the neighbouring Quatre-Temps and CNIT buildings
(Anon. 1986 b).
In January 1984 the Paris Airports Authority was
charged with implementing themajor construction
work. But although the broad design had been ap
At the start of 1988 La Defense is entering its com
pletion phase. More housing is being built south of
the Pare
Andre
Malraux
and
a wider
of offices,
range
shops and community facilities isbeing installed near
the RER
to the north.
of Nanterre-Prefecture
station
The greening of Zone A continues apace and a 150
room 4-star hotel has been opened in theMichelet
Work
neighbourhood.
on
continues
the Descartes
into which IBM-France will move in the
of
1988. In the shadow of the ever-growing
spring
frame of Tete Defense, the CNIT building is being
Tower
a
to accommodate
remodelled
a congress
centre
including
total of 3,000
participants,
with
range
of
several
halls
a trade
functions,
to seat a
exhibition
centre,
areas, a sports club and a high-quality hotel with 300
bedrooms. Already many tourists place the gleaming
towers and the esplanade ofLa Defense on their listof
places
In
to visit
in Paris.
architectural
and
terms
aesthetic
La
Defense
will always be a controversial addition to the gran
deur
of
the
capital
of France.
From
an
economic
point of view its facilities have attracted and success
fully anchored major French firmsand multi-natio
nal corporations thereby reinforcing the status of
Paris as a 'world city' (Bastie 1984). Yet it ispossible
to argue that at the regional scale La Defense has
is desperately
been almost too successful. The RER
crowded
at
peak
times
and
additional
means
of
public transport are needed urgently. After years of
debate
the decision
has
been
taken
to ease
the situa
tion by extending the urban metroacross the Seine at
Clout:
Hugh
the Pont de Neuilly
of La
esplanade
The Chronicle
and continuing it beneath
serve
to
Defense
an
the
intermediate
station before reaching an interchange with theRER
de laRegion d'lle deFrance 1984). In addition,
(Prefecture
the costly and technically complex option of doubling
the east/westRER tunnel through the centre of Paris
has
been
creation of so much prestigious office space
The
and
discussed.
service-sector
at La
employment
con
Defense
trasts harshly with the loss ofmanufacturing
eastern
the
has
and
suburbs
socio-economic
long-established
jobs in
to accentuate
served
within
disparities
and
differentiated
spatially
for over
operated
taxation
two decades
in order
measures
to steer
office development to the suburbs and periphery of
Paris (for example to the five new towns) and to the
eastern
side of the city rather
than on the west. How
was
Defense
treat
favourable
fiscal
given
on office construction
with
levies payable
in
La
ever,
ment,
Zone A being pitched at a lower level than in sur
western
rounding
districts.
This
of the scheme
and
conception
ment
before
the master
backing
Thus
Descartes
the Cite
has
been
established as a high technology science park within
the new
town
and
on
is capitalising
decentra
newly
in
lised facilities for research and higher education
data
electronics,
processing,
Even
engineering.
transport
urban
more
and
planning
was
significant
the
1987 for Euro-Disney
agreement signed inMarch
land to be installed on 1,785 ha. at a site on the
eastern side ofMarne laVallee which will be served
an
by
to the metro
extension
-
as well
as
a new
by
road
theme park is due to be opened in 1992
system. The
if promoters'
estimates
prove
-
correct
could
generate 20,000 jobs and attract 10million visitors
annually by themid-1990s, with roughly half origi
from beyond
nating
new
283
la Vallee.
Marne
and
greater Paris which the master plan of 1965 had
sought to reduce (Guglielmo
1981). Planning proce
dures
ofLa Defense
France.
A
of develop
later phase
ment will involve the construction of hotels, shops
and offices on land surrounding the theme park. A
great deal of faith is being placed on Euro-Disney
land
as
a
futuristic
in which
the
essential
stimulus
poise
to La
expression
sector may
service
for
of one
an
creating
of
evolve
the ways
and
eastern
as
the
counter
Defense.
reflected
the early
its receipt
of govern
announced
the
plan
principle of attempting to achieve spatial balance;
the allocation in 1965 of a vital regional role as a
and, more
especially,
as an office district
of
suburban
node;
restructuring
the promotion
of La Defense
international
that
importance
would
enhance
status ofParis and be truly in the interestof thewhole
nation.
and
In fact the implementation of planning procedures
fiscal measures
to regulate
office
in
development
the Paris region has been relaxed during the last few
years
and
market
been
in this more
of other
enhanced
experienced
liberal
western
by
environment
the office
whose
suburbs,
image
success
of La Defense,
the
pronounced
growth
(Tuppen
and
has
has
Bate
man 1987). Increased activity is reported in localities
such
as
and
this market-led
is likely to continue
future
Suresnes
Issy-les-Moulineaux,
Malmaison
as
La
to develop
Defense
pressure
and
Rueil
in the west
in the immediate
approaches
completion.
The
authorities of theVille de Paris (covering the inner
city) have responded to this trend with profound
disquiet and mayor Jacques Chirac has led a vigo
rous
for
campaign
promoting
in inner eastern Paris
employment
and
office
development
to provide urgently needed
to enhance
local
tax
References
the
revenues.
In
addition, emphasis has been placed more empha
tically on attempting to boost development in outer
parts of eastern Paris, notably in the new town of
Anon.:
de La Defense.
Amenagement
Architecture
25, 1965, 56-151.
Anon.:
13 ans, 26 tours a La Defense.
Moderne
Anon.:
1970, 27-31.
Concours
Tete Defense.
In: Techniques
et
In: La Construction
5,
In: Urbanisme
197, 1983,
26-31.
Anon:
Tete Defense;
Concours
International
d'Architec
ture. Electra,
Paris
1984.
a la Reflexion
sur les Bureaux
Anon.:
en Re
Contribution
Direction
de
gion dTle de France.
Regionale
ment dTle de France,
Paris
1985.
Des Artistes,
Anon.:
Un Quartier,
La Defense,
Paris
Anon.:
worth
EPAD,
1986 a.
La Grande
tion Moderne
Ardagh,
l'Equipe
Arche
45,
J.: France
1982.
R.
Auzelle,
neo-cortex
de La Defense.
1986b, 23-27.
in the 1980s.
In: La Construc
Penguin,
Harmonds
and Magnan,
R.: Le quartier de La Defense;
de la France?
In: Urbanisme
204,
1984,
74-81.
en l'an 2000.
des Editions Mo
Societe
J.: Paris
1964.
dernes, Paris
- :
du Grand
Paris. Masson,
Paris
1984.
Geographie
a
M.:
ana
Office Development;
Bateman,
geographical
Croom
London
1985.
Helm,
lysis.
Bastie,
Band
284_Erdkunde_
de Paris et de la
J.: Atlas et Geographie
de France,
vol. I. Flammarion,
Paris
1977,
Beaujeu-Garnier,
d'lle
Region
p. 91.
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Perspectives
DER INDUSTRIEANSIEDLUNG
PROBLEME
WIRTSCHAFTSGEOGRAPHISCHE
METROPOLE
DER AGYPTISCHEN
IN DEN NEUEN ENTLASTUNGSSTADTEN
Mit 7Abbildungen und 4 Tabellen
Gunter
of industrial
problems
Summary: Economic-geographical
in the new satellite cities of the Egyptian metrop
expansion
olis
Three
struction
new
satellite
in desert
areas
con
at present
under
near Cairo.
In each of these "New
cities
are
are designed
for 500000
inhabitants,
up to
Towns",
the year
80 000 jobs in industry are to be created before
with a
229 manufacturing
2000. Altogether
enterprises
17 000 people
had
started
than
force of more
labour
which
by the end of 1986. A survey of these firms
production
of capital-intensive
the predominance
revealed
enterprises
consumer
for the domestic
most
of which produce
goods
market
and
depend
largely
on
imported
inputs.
The
Meyer
main
entrepreneurs'
as the location
for
reasons
their
for choosing
factories
new
the satellite
cities
were
the good
tax reductions,
and
the low price of land,
infrastructure,
other incentives offered by the government.
Before setting up their factory in the new cities one out of
had already owned a factory in Cairo.
three entrepreneurs
are
of entrepreneurs
Other
traders,
groups
important
former
labour
companies.
The
native
emigrants,
"Islamic"
of
impact
and
foreign
engineers
is
investment
groups
of
So far, the overwhelming
majority
rising dramatically.
the labour force has to be transported
every day from the
in the Nile
localities
centre of Cairo
and from neighbouring
Delta
to the new
factories
and
back.
In general,
the latest