A Study of English Loan Words in Selected

Transcription

LANGUAGE IN INDIA
Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow
Volume 9 : 4 April 2009
ISSN 1930-2940
Managing Editor: M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.
Editors: B. Mallikarjun, Ph.D.
Sam Mohanlal, Ph.D.
B. A. Sharada, Ph.D.
A. R. Fatihi, Ph.D.
Lakhan Gusain, Ph.D.
K. Karunakaran, Ph.D.
Jennifer Marie Bayer, Ph.D.
A Study of English Loan Words in
Selected Bahasa Melayu Newspaper Articles
Shamimah Binti Haja Mohideen, M.HSc. (TESL)
Language in India www.languageinindia.com
9 : 4 April 2009
A Study of English Loan Words in Selected Bahasa Melayu Newpaper Articles
14
A Study of English Loan Words in
Selected Bahasa Melayu Newspaper Articles
International Islamic University Malaysia
2006
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
At present there are around 6000 languages spoken in the world and every
language has its own distinct vocabulary containing thousands of words. Speakers of
each of these languages are in contact with others who speak different languages. It
has been found that when languages come into contact, there is transfer of linguistic
items from one language to another due to the borrowing of words (Ansre, 1971;
Hock, 1986; Bokamba, 1988; B. Kachru, 1989; Y. Kachru, 1982; Mkude, 1986;
Pandharipande, 1982; Thomason and Kaufman, 1988; Viereck and Bald, 1986,
Weinreich, 1953.) Expansion in vocabulary where new words enter a language is a
natural consequence of language contact situations (Bloomfield, 1933; Hock, 1976;
Aitchison, 1985; B. Kachru, 1986 and Bokamba, 1988;). Speakers learn words that are
not in their native language, and very frequently, they tend to be fond of some of the
words in other languages and „borrow‟ them for their own use.
According to Hock (1986: 380), “the term „borrowing‟ refers to the „adoption
of individual words or even large sets of vocabulary items from another language or
dialect.” This process is called borrowing although the lending language does not lose
its word, nor does the borrowing language return the word. A better term might be
„copying‟ but „borrowing‟ has long been established in this sense and words that are
borrowed are called loan words (Trask, 1996).
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According to Kachru (1994) who is one of the experts in the area of contact
linguistics, there are essentially two hypotheses about the motivations for the lexical
borrowing in languages. One is termed the „deficit hypotheses‟ and the other one is the
„dominance hypothesis.‟ In the words of Kachru (1994: 139), “the deficit hypothesis
presupposes that borrowing entails linguistic „gaps‟ in a language and the prime
motivation for borrowing is to remedy the linguistic „deficit‟, especially in the lexical
resources of a language.” This means that many words are borrowed from other
languages because there are no equivalents in a particular borrowing language. For
example, one will need to borrow words when s/he needs to refer to objects, people or
creatures which are peculiar in certain places, which do not exist in his/her own
environment and is not significant in the lives of his/her community, so no names
have been given to refer to those things. Examples of such words are kookaburra (a
kind of animal) that English has borrowed from a native Australian language,
Wiradhuri, and chipmunk, from Alqonquian, an Amerindian language. Lexical
borrowing also applies to cultural terms relating to food, dress, music, etc peculiar to
certain groups of people. English has borrowed musical terms from Italian such as
soprano and tempo, culinary terms from French include casserole, fricassee, au
gratin, puree and sauté (Jackson, 2002). Conversely, some other languages have
borrowed English words relating to entertainment, sports and words regarding
Western culture. The Czech language has borrowed a lot of English sports terms such
as „football,‟ „hockey‟ and „tennis‟ (Vachek, 1996) Japanese has borrowed the words
„baseball,‟ „table tennis,‟ and„golf.‟. The women‟s magazines in Japan have borrowed
English terms for cosmetics and modern fashion (Ishiwata, 1986). Words are also
borrowed for new concepts and ideas for which there are no local equivalents. This
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especially happens when a particular concept is introduced in a particular country. For
example, some mathematical concepts such as algebra and algorithm were introduced
by the Arabs. Glasnost was taken into English from Russian a few years ago to denote
the new political and social climate initiated by President Gorbachov in the former
USSR. This borrowing is seen in education and specialized areas also (Trask, 1996).
In Higa‟s view (1979: 378), “the „dominance hypothesis‟ presupposes that
when two cultures come into contact, the direction of culture learning and subsequent
word-borrowing is not mutual, but from the dominant to the subordinate.” The
borrowing is not necessarily done to fill lexical gaps. Many words are borrowed and
used even though there are native equivalents because they seem to have prestige.
This is the case in a prolonged socio-cultural interaction between the ruling countries
and the countries governed. An example of the dominance hypothesis is when in the
past, the English used to borrow a lot of words from the languages of their colonizers,
particularly from French. Later, when the English became very powerful, they
colonized many other countries around the world. The people from these countries
borrowed English words into their languages. At present, since the English speaking
countries have become advanced, and the English language is one of the most
influential languages of the world, English lends words to other languages more than
it borrows. This contact between a language and English is termed „Englishization‟
(Kachru, 1994).
The number of loan words or the domains the loan words are from is
determined by the degree of influence a language has on another language. For
example, in the Philippines, there are more loan words from Spanish compared to
English since the country was once colonized by Spain. The words from Spanish
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have influence in religion, social organization, law and government (Bautista, 1986).
In Malaysian history, Hinduism was the religious belief of Malays before Islamic
spread to the Malay Empire. This explains the Indian influence where there are many
loan words from Tamil and Sanskrit in Bahasa Melayu. After the arrival of Islam, a
lot of Arabic words were borrowed for religious use. English is the third most
important influence on Malay after Sanskrit and Arabic. English was imported to
Malaysia through colonization, especially in the education system where the medium
of instruction has been in English. Then, the early post-independence period focused
on introducing and implementing Malay as the national language and medium of
instruction in schools. The medium of instruction from primary up to tertiary level in
the Malay language had to be fully established if the language was to be capable of
functioning as a medium of teaching. Therefore, it needed to be modernized in order
to create a scientific and technical discourse for the Malay language. Its vocabulary
had to be widened so that new ideas in various specialized fields including science and
technology could be expressed by borrowing or adjusting English phonemes,
morphemes, phrases or sentences to be inserted within the Malay language (Asmah Hj
Omar: 1984: 15). The policy of changing the medium of instruction from English to
Malay has forced translation (mainly from English into Malay) to the forefront as it
was crucial that science and technological information and information from other
specialized areas be made available in Malay. This is when the borrowing of English
words into Bahasa Melayu began. When there were no Malay equivalents for some of
the English words, the words were left without being translated and instead, were
borrowed for academic use. Examples of English loan words in Bahasa Melayu are
petroleum, diesel, zink, elektronik, telekomunikasi, debit, kredit, invois, import,
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eksport, birokrasi, korporat, insentif, ego, kaunseling, etc. Such adaptation led to the
expansion of the Malay vocabulary and this was given the most attention by the
language planning committee. The Terminology Committee was set up to deal with
the introduction of foreign words into Malay (Quah, 1999).
At present, Bahasa Melayu has found a way to further expand its linguistic
resources by being in contact with English as the latter is a language of wider
communication and the countries in which it is a native language possess highly
advanced technology and modernized systems of communication than before. This is
due to the move from an agricultural to a technology-based economy. There is mass
import of English loan words, particularly in the areas of science and industry. This
can be seen in many Bahasa Melayu books and the mass media.
This study will provide further insights into the understanding of the functions
of English loanwords in the general process of discourse production in Bahasa
Melayu. It will be conducted by a method of textual analysis of English loan words in
selected Bahasa Melayu newspaper articles. The printed media is chosen because it
reaches a large number of people from all walks of life and it is one of the most
accessible and referred source of information The study will have as its corpus Berita
Harian and Utusan Melayu. The aim of this study is to illustrate further some
processes and tendencies of borrowing English words into Bahasa Melayu, at the
present time. The study will examine motivations of lexical borrowing from English
into Malay and the effect of the loanwords on speakers/readers and their attitude
towards loanwords.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
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Currently, one can observe that there are many English loan words in Bahasa
Melayu and this is seen in various reading materials such as books, newspapers,
journals and magazines and the electronic media through television and radio
programmes. The cry among the „purists‟ is that the language has been too inundated
with English words. When many English words enter a particular language, no doubt
it will cause dissatisfaction among certain groups of people. For example, in Finland,
there is a rather negative attitude towards the use of English elements, which are felt
to merely have iconic functions (K. Sajavaara, in Viereck and Bald, 1986: 76). Berth
(1957: 143). A German writer, felt that English elements could „poison‟ the language
because they are contrary to the spirit of the German language. In India, the position
presented by Raghuvira (1965: 206-207) cited in Kachru (1994) was that Indians
should have respect for their own languages and resist the thralldom of European
languages. Purists everywhere emphasize on local cultural identities, as opposed to
cultural and linguistic pluralism in which English is one of the partners.
Those with the opposing views, on the other hand, consider English as part of
the local literary and linguistic traditions. To them, Englishization is not a „deficiency‟
or „decay‟ as it has been viewed (Hock, 1986; B. Kachru, 1989; and Y. Kachru, 1989);
rather, it is a sign of linguistic innovation. Ferguson (1968: 28) cited in Kishe (1994)
noted that when a language is extended for new functions and topics, linguistic
resources expand to meet the new demands. Because of development in science and
technology, education, business, etc, there are a lot of new phenomena and therefore,
new concepts had to be introduced. To express these concepts for which there is no
suitable local equivalent, when the local equivalent may alter the meaning and fail to
communicate messages effectively, speakers of other languages would have to borrow
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the English terms until they create their own terms. According Kishe (1994), in her
article „The Englishization of Tanzanian Kiswahili,‟ certain groups of Kiswahili
speakers, mainly educators, feel that the Englishization of Kiswahili is indispensable
considering the role English has as a language of specialization, and its usefulness as a
source of vocabulary and new ideas with which to express meanings more precisely.
According to them, Englishization is a valid process for modernization, which
becomes necessary if the language is to communicate certain current ideas and
information. However, between the purists today and the pro- English advocates, there
is a debate on the question whether „modernization‟ necessarily entails
„westernization‟ and „Englishization.‟
With the Malay speakers and writers too, some English concepts are difficult
to translate into or express in Malay. Either the concepts do not have Malay
equivalents or it would mean a cumbersome task of paraphrasing the meaning of the
word into Malay. This is the case with the words spekulasi, resolusi, inflasi, didaktik,
dinamit, roket, reaksi and reformasi (Quah, 1999). As far as the purists are concerned,
if there is yet no suitable Malay words for such concepts, it would be better to go to
other sources such as Indonesian, Arabic and Sanskrit or create new words in Malay
itself rather than to depend heavily on English as the language clearly has done.
However, as far as the man in the street is concerned, it is so much easier to use the
English word, which is so near at hand, than search for some other word which may
not be as appropriate for expressing concepts which are after all, long linked with
English.
The argument by the „non- purists‟ earlier was on the importance of English
loan words to convey information in specialized areas and to fill „gaps.‟ However, at
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present, English has much more influence and power in the less dominant languages.
The use of English loans are no longer restricted to educational areas and areas of
specialization. The use is no longer restricted to registers or to refer to Western
cultural terms. In the Malay mass media, many English words are used even though
there are Malay equivalents. For example, the word registrasi (registration) is
sometimes used instead of the Malay equivalent „pendaftaran.‟ Examples of other
words that have Malay equivalents are dialek (logat), kos (harga), komunikasi
(perhubungan), geografi (ilmu alam) and situasi (keadaan) ( Wong, 1986 ).
This phenomenon of using English words although there are local equivalents
can also be observed in some other languages because of the great influence English
has on these languages and their speakers. Many non-purists in countries where
English is the second language seem to find the English alternatives better possibly
due to psychological reasons among which English words trigger thoughts of
modernity or sophistication. Japanese studies have shown that in certain contexts the
English alternative is believed to be more effective in conveying messages.
One of the concerns of this study is to what extent speakers can „Anglicize‟
their languages or reject English elements. Should a language be kept pure at the
expense of effective communication? Or if Englishization entails „modernization‟,
should a language be modernized at the expense of its identity? With these questions
in mind, the researcher will observe ways in which the English loan words have
facilitated communicating messages in Bahasa Melayu and ways in which it has
interfered with the language.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
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The study will address the following questions:
1.
What are the loan words often used in the selected texts and what is
their frequency?
2.
What might be the justification of the writers in using English loan
words with Malay equivalents in their articles?
3.
What are the readers‟ and writers‟ attitude towards the use of such
English loanwords?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
1.
To identify the kinds of loan words used in Bahasa Melayu.
2.
To analyze the writers‟ purpose of using the English lexical items in
their Bahasa Melayu articles.
3.
To find out the writers‟ attitude and the readers‟ response towards the
use of English loan words with Malay equivalents.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This study will develop further the studies conducted by Hayashi & Hayashi
(1995), who analyzed speakers‟ motivation in using English loan words, Abdullah
(1995), who identified the use of English loan words with Malay equivalents in
Bahasa Melayu newspapers, Bobda (1994), Leitner & Sieloff (1998) and others by
combining their methodologies and provide a wide source of information. From this
study, one will be able to further understand the process of linguistic transfer between
English and Bahasa Melayu and the importance of English lexical resources as the
„giver‟ language in certain areas and be aware of the lexical gaps in Bahasa Melayu in
certain areas that needs to be filled. Understanding functional dimensions for the
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lexicalization from English in written discourse, particularly in applied linguistics or
any educational and informative materials can create awareness among the purists that
not all English words „poison‟ a language and the borrowing of certain English lexical
items can enrich the vocabulary of a language in order to be able to express things one
normally cannot express in Bahasa Melayu. There is a cultural and historical
importance of providing an exhaustive record of the appearance of each loan word in a
language because words embody facts of history and record great social evolutions
and feelings in nations. Much may be learned by noting the words which one
particular nation has been obliged to borrow from other nations. Drawing conclusions
on the kinds of the lexical gap in Bahasa Melayu and the nature of English lexical
borrowing can enable a person to interpret the social, cultural and educational
development in Malaysia. Apart from understanding the semantic functions of loan
words, one will also be able to interpret the communicative function and the nature of
language contact.
The findings from this study can draw the attention of English teachers on the
English loan words and loan registers that are normally found in educational Bahasa
Melayu articles so that they can make use of the English loans to teach English
vocabulary. In this way, the students will be able to understand concepts that come
from the English language when they read Bahasa Melayu reading materials.
The results from this study can also help us understand the process of
linguistic transfer and the problem of linguistic interference (where the English words
intrude into Bahasa Melayu.) This research will raise awareness on word
borrowability so that writers will be more selective in borrowing English words and
make sure that English words are borrowed only to fill in the „gap‟ in Bahasa Melayu
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lexical resources. It is hoped that from this study, writers will understand the
difference between linguistic „transfer‟ and linguistic „influence‟ and control the
English „influence‟ on Bahasa Melayu.
This research can be further developed in other studies of Englishization,
particularly in the linguistic transfer from English, a language of advanced Englishspeaking countries, to languages of developing countries. Such studies can also find
out the influence of English lexical items in domains other than specialized areas and
Western culture and find out if the Englishization has extended from English „transfer‟
to English „influence‟ or power. There can also be a comparison of English influence
on languages of former colonies and those that are not of former colonies.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 OVERVIEW
The present research studies English loan words in Malay articles from a
semantic as well as functional point of view. This is based on the theory by Tannen
and Wallat (1993: 59), in which “a word, sentence or message is interpreted and
produced according to the speaker‟s world knowledge and structured according to the
past experience. This prototypical knowledge of the world and experience that are
expressed is not universal, however, but varies from one speech community to another
and many lexical items are used in highly specialized contexts. This explains the fact
that when a particular meaning, concept, phenomena cannot be expressed in one‟s
own language, s/he will need to borrow from other languages to communicate the
intended message.
The literature review will be divided into two sections. The first section
reviews some of the important terms and concepts related to language contact. The
review of related studies in which some of the methods can be adapted and some of
the findings would be of interest for this research will be presented in the second
section.
2.2
IMPORTANT TERMS/CONCEPTS
The following are some important concepts used throughout the study. These
concepts are related to the different types of borrowing and the possible causes of
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borrowing. Some causes are cultural, while some are related to the dominance of the
speakers of one language over the speakers of another. In most cases, the causes of
borrowing is basically semantic, to express meanings or refer to things or events
which one cannot express in one‟s own language. There are also developed theories
where loan words are used for coherence in a discourse.
2.2.1
Cultural borrowing
Cultural borrowing occurs when contact between two cultures results in
language contact. The two cultures in question are topographically separate as in the
case with Malaysia, which has frequent contacts with America and liberally borrows
from American English. English is one of the languages that have borrowed
extensively to refer to terms from other cultures. For example, bazaar and pundit are
of Hindi origin, curry and catamaran is from Tamil, tycoon, from Mandarin and
rickshaw of Japanese which is also found in Tamil ( Trask, 1996).
2.2.2 Intimate borrowing
Nortier and Schatz (1992) give the following explanation of „intimate borrowing‟:
Intimate borrowing is a lasting form of borrowing that occurs when two
languages are spoken in the same geographical area, often as a result of
domination of one group over the other. In this situation the dominant
language functions as donor language for the subordinate, receiving
language. The dominant language is spoken by the oppressor, or at least
by the most privileged and powerful group. The subordinate language is
spoken by the dominated group (p.187).
According to McMahon (1994: 201), “in a linguistic relationship of unequal
prestige, the borrowing will be concentrated in the semantic fields where the more
prestigious speakers wield the greatest influence. In the case of English, the Norman
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Conquest initiated heavy lexical borrowing into English particularly in the area of
administration, religion, food, warfare, arts, etc (Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. and Hams,
N; 2003). During the French rule, since French was the dominant language, French
words replaced Old English words. For example, crime replaced firen and uncle
replaced eam. French and Old English components were combined to form a new
word, for example, the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. At
some other times, two different words with roughly the same meaning continued into
modern English. Thus there is the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish
and desire.
2.2.3
Dominance hypothesis
This is one of the hypotheses for borrowing, which is similar to the
phenomenon of intimate borrowing, where the dominated language borrows words
from the dominant language. The difference is that the speakers of the dominant
language do not necessarily have to be in the same area as the speakers who are
dominated. The language for which words are borrowed could be influential because
the speakers are advanced scientifically and technologically. For example, English
continues to play a vital role as a competing language in most of the developing
countries. It is a powerful and influential language in the domains of education,
administration, literary creativity, in international as well as intranational interactions.
It is also believed to open the doors to so-called cultural „enlightenment.‟ It is a tool of
some form of exploitation and political consolidation. Therefore, it symbolizes the
„killer language‟ for various regional languages and cultures. (Kachru and Smith,
1996; Philipson and Skutnabb-Kangas, 1986; Philipson, 1992).
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2.2.4 Coherence
The notion of coherence has been discussed from various perspectives in the
past. It is concerned with conceptual connectivity in discourse, which the speaker or
hearer seeks in conveying or interpreting a message. Some theories focus on linguistic
properties of sentences such as anaphoric expression (Halliday and Hasan, 1976)
while others concentrate on functions of actions performed by utterances. Most of
these theories are concerned primarily with the relationship of meaning between items
or statements. That is, the connectivity of the logical relationship between statements
in discourse. In this study, it is concerned with the connectivity of the choice of
English loanwords to larger units beyond the sentence and the goal of the
speaker/writer. This will be dealt with further when discussing the study conducted
by Hayashi & Hayashi (1995).
2.2.5 Frames
Tannen and Wllat (1993) stated the following:
A word, sentence or message is interpreted and produced according to
the speaker‟s world knowledge, structured according to the past
experience. A conceptual framework of this kind can be classified into
two different categories of sense. One refers to interactive
characterization of scenes, activities or events for interpretation and
production of the message. The other is abstract knowledge structure on
people, objects, settings (p.59).
Both senses are known as „frame.‟ Fillmore (1982: 121) argues, “frame is not only a
static representation of the world which is stored in the knowledge but a device which
is used to describe situations or understand situations.” He also comments,” in the
process of using a language, a speaker „applies‟ a frame to a situation, and shows that
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he intends this frame to be applied by using words recognized as grounded in such a
frame.”
2.3 RELATED STUDIES
This section reviews the studies by Stubbs (1998) and Garland (1997), which
are concerned with finding semantic categories of loanwords in English. Studies that
are concerned with the communicative functions of English loan words, and
psychological and attitudinal reasons for English loans are those conducted by
T.Hayashi and R.Hayashi (1995), Rebuck (2002), Roksana (1995), Bobda (1994) and
Leitner and Sieloff (1998) are also reviewed. All these research highlight language
contact situations.
German loanwords and cultural stereotypes by Michael Stubbs (1998) from
the University of Trier, Germany is an analysis of loanwords in German found
through computer-assisted lexical research. He conducted his study by locating all the
German loanwords since 1900 for which there are 1250, by using the Oxford English
Dictionary on CD-ROM. From the results, one can find that the influence of German
on modern everyday English is much larger in academic areas. Technical terms are the
largest number of words found, with a total of 750 out of the 1250 loans. The largest
sub-categories of technical terms (30%) are for mineralogy and chemistry. Many other
words come from biology, geology, botany, medicine, physics and maths. Many of the
technical words were coined in German from Greek and Latin elements. 80 items
were proper names for people, places, titles of work of art, etc. 30 words found their
way from earlier forms of German into Yiddish before entering English. He found 25
historically motivated German words from a particular historical period. These are
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words borrowed in response to world political events, such as cold war (1945),
sputnik (1957), Watergate (1972), perestroika(1987), intifada (1988) (dates show first
attested uses in English and military terms.)
90 post-1949 Arabic loans in written English was written by Garland (1997).
In his study, he has located 90 Arabic loanwords since 1950 by referring to Webster‟s
third new international dictionary of the English language (1961), and the two
volumes in the Oxford Addition Series (1993), current editions of eight desk
dictionaries (especially Merriam Webster‟s college dictionary, Webster‟s tenth, 1993),
new-word dictionaries like Robert Barnhart‟s and John Ayto‟s volumes, David
Barnhart‟s periodical Barnhart dictionary companion (BDC, 1982) and Merriam
Webster‟s new-word supplementary edition. Garland made comparisons between the
number of Arabic words in different semantic categories.
The leading semantic fields represented are, in the following order - politics,
military, food, Islam, money and clothing. Politics leads the semantic ranking. Eleven
of the 18 items (21.57%) relate to colonialism or occupying powers or abettors, for
example, Baath Socialist party in some Arab countries and in the zila parishad, a
district council in India. Five of these political terms denote the desire to overthrow an
existing government, like the dawa (in the former Belgian Congo), Iraqi National
Congress (a London-based provisional government seeking to overthrow Saddam
Hussein), and Al-Dawa ( lit., „the call‟, a magazine aptly named by the Muslim
Brotherhood seeking Hosni Mubarak‟s ouster from the Egyptian leadership). 7 words
relate to the opposition against Israeli occupation (Hamas), with the loan translation
Great Satan, a derogatory term designating Israel‟s America supporter and enemy of
Iraq.
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There are 9 food items, with 6 starters (tapenade), dips (hummus), soup
(halim), sandwich (falafel), or salad (tabbouleh), the cooking device tandoori and the
Kwanza feast karamu. There are 8 Islamic terms, 3 of them naming Islamic
organizations (e.g. Islamic Jehad). The other five relate to rulings drawn from the
Quran or based on Islamic council decisions, as in the ayatollah‟s fatwa against
Salman Rushdie and in various Arab fatwas since then. The Arabs, long famous for
geography, have given English 7 recent items denoting an area or the people
associated with it (e.g. Qatari). Money also offers 7 items with 4 names of monetary
units in Africa (birr) 2 in the middle East (halala) and riel in Cambodia. Among the 5
clothing item, hijab is used to refer to the traditional veil or headscarf worn by Muslim
women. Two other items reflect Muslim dress (e.g. khansu).
From identifying the semantic categories of loan words, one can find out the
nature and significance of those words in English. For example, English has borrowed
some of the Arab and German political and military terms to report current issues.
The high amount of words relating to academic as compared to other semantic
categories reflect the German contribution to science. It is interesting to find the
specific scientific area in which the German words have influence. The writer expects
to find most English loan words to be found in specialized areas when comparing the
number of English loan words in different semantic categories but she will need to
find out the specific specialized domains in which English words play an important
role in Bahasa Melayu.
From the researches on German and Arabic loans in English by Stubbs (1998)
and Garland (1997), one can find that at present the English language mainly borrows
to fill lexical gaps, i.e borrow words for which there are no English terms), and many
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of the words they borrow are peculiar to the culture, environment, current issues and
contribution of the speakers of the language they take words from. The English are not
likely to borrow many words for which there are equivalents in their language.
The writer can use a similar method, which is to analyze the semantic
categories English loans are used in to find out the significance of English loans in
Bahasa Melayu. Apart from that, she will analyze the use of the words in the context
of the articles in selected Bahasa Melayu newspapers. In this way, the writer can
identify the type of borrowings. It is from analyzing the semantic categories the
researcher can rationalize the external situation which prompted the borrowings,
changing cultural values, lifestyle and the nature of language contact. By identifying
words without local equivalents, the writer can study the nature of the lexical gap in
Bahasa Melayu for expressing certain ideas, expressions and events precisely. In this
way, the writer can identify the „frames‟ which Bahasa Melayu needs to express for
which there are no suitable lexical suitable lexical items to express them.
In a study on English loan words in Malay language newspapers in Singapore,
Roksana Bibi Abdullah (1995) analyzed 2 popular Bahasa Melayu newspapers in
Singapore- which are Berita Harian (which is printed on weekdays) and Berita
Minggu (printed on weekends) from November to December 1994. The focus of her
study was to identify English loan words with Malay equivalents, which have not
entered the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka dictionary. Roksasna Bibi Abdullah (1995)
reported that journalists of the Berita Harian group (including Berita Minggu) were
not considerate in using English loan words in three ways. The writers:
1)
used English loan words when there were Malay expressions available;
for example: trainer for jurulatih
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reviu for ulasan
instruktor for pengajar
2)
used accepted English loan words, but did not observe the Romanized
Malay system of spelling
for example: scenario
blue chip
komandar
3)
used accepted loan words, but it differed from Malay morphology;
for example: banker
perbankan
analgesik
Of the three types of usage, the first was the most widespread. 65 % of the English
words have local equivalents. The problem with such usage by newspaper journalists
causes problems to students who regard newspaper language as a model. Roksana Bibi
Abdullah urged the writers and editors to be more careful and serious about Malay
language usage in the newspapers as newspapers have strong influence on their
readers. From the results, one can understand that many English loan words in Bahasa
Melayu are not used to fill lexical gaps. Ruksana was concerned about her findings
and she raised the question whether the use of English words was due to the attitude
of the writers who wanted to look for the short cut by simply using English words if
they do not know the suitable Malay terms or whether they underestimate the
effectiveness of Malay words in conveying their intended messages. From this study,
further research ought to be developed to find out the purpose behind the use of
9 : 4 April 2009
35
English loans although there are Malay equivalents. Are the writers transferring their
code-switching practice to their formal writing? Are some of the loan words in any
way easier to use? For example, is it easier to say bajet (budget) compared to the
Malay equivalent belanjawan and uniform compared to pakaian seragam?
Some other studies have their answers to the question regarding the reason
words are borrowed despite having local equivalents. Based on the dominant
hypothesis some studies have found that the choice of loanwords among speakers is
psychological and for „special effect‟ in communication (Rebuck, 2002, Kachru, 1994
& Kishe, 1994). For example, according to Kishe (1994), in Tanzania, English loans
are used even though there are Kiswahili equivalents for certain words because the
local words are perceived to sound less educated.
In the case of Japanese, among the ones that have conducted in-depth studies
are Rebuck (2002) and Hayashi & Hayashi (1995). In Mark Rebuck‟s (2002) study
where he analyzed the function of English loanwords in Japanese print
advertisements, he found that the reasons for lexical borrowing were for psychological
effect, to make the product that is advertised appear sophisticated. In an advertisement
for cosmetics, he found that specialist English terms were used to give the product an
aura of “scientific reliability.” Numerous difficult English loanwords were used in
advertisements, which were unlikely to be understood by the target audience. This is
to elicit a kind of inferiority complex, which may lead them to perceive the product as
being somehow superior and desirable. Pateman (1983) suggests that when the
audience try to find out the meaning of these loanwords, these advertisements may
become a source of intellectual challenge the same way as a crossword puzzle. This
may lead to the product being more highly appraised.
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36
Rebuck (2002) also found that English loan words were often associated with
sophisticated lifestyle. They may be used in place of Japanese equivalents because of
their cosmopolitan appeal. From an advertisement for a new block of luxury
apartments in Nagoya, he found that loanwords were used to convey an image of a
modern Western home and lifestyle. For example, the English word „kitchen‟ was
used in preference to the Japanese word daodokoro because it was more likely to
trigger images of a place which is spacious and modern. To state that housekeeping is
easy in describing the kitchen, the word hauuskiipingu (housekeeping) is used as it fits
with the image of a modern kitchen better than kaji (housework).
English loans are also used because they are believed to give a better image of
those referred to and described. In an NEC mobile advertisement which pictured
several successful people holding their NEC mobile stating their names and
occupations, English loan words were used to refer to these occupations which were
namely a writer, a musician, producer and fashion model to give a positive image
although there are Japanese equivalents to refer to those occupations
Finally, it has been found that the Western loanwords usually trigger positive
stereotypes. In serving to underline the high prestige of the product, manufacturers
give cars English names such as Civic or Lancer, to evoke images of quality,
reliability and practicality while French names may be preferred if they desire the
image of elegance, taste, sophistication or charm.
This review has found that the use of English in Japan is rather circumscribed
compared to countries like India or Singapore where English is more
“institutionalized.” The filling of lexical gaps is only one of the functions. In the field
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37
of advertising, and possibly in other discourse areas, special effect givers play an
equally important if not more important role.
As more studies have been conducted in the area of lexical borrowing, other
theories that are more recent have been developed based on the findings. For example,
in Japan, the notion of „coherence‟ has been discussed from various perspectives in
the past. It is concerned with the connectivity of the choice of English loanwords
beyond the sentence level to the goal of the speaker/writer (Hayashi, T and Hayashi,
R, 1995). The study conducted by Hayashi, T and Hayashi, R (1995) in the article
sheds light into the use of English loanwords in Japanese discourse from a cognitive
perspective. They conducted their study based on the perspective that when a speaker
or writer uses a word in a text, that particular word is chosen with a specific
motivation.
The study was conducted by recording conversations in various settings at
faculty meetings and interview sessions. English loanwords used in the Japanese
spoken discourse were analyzed in four categories of coherence, which are
explanation, elaboration, metaphorical and use exemplification.
The study found that the most common use of loan words was to explain ideas
or objects. From a talk recorded at a faculty meeting in a particular university, a
professor in a university wanted to explain the new curriculum that he proposed in
order to revise the current curriculum. The course units required for graduation were
classified into three groups: compulsory major-subjects, compulsory general-art
subjects, and elective subjects. She used the loanword „gray zone‟ to describe the
elective subjects because the word refers to a prototypical situation which is neither
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38
black nor white. The electives do not fall in the category compulsory major-subjects
or general-art subjects because electives can be chosen.
The study also found that a speaker may use loanwords in a statement to make
it coherent to the topic that is being talked about. From a speech recorded at a library
briefing for staff, the librarian‟s goal was to describe a place, which is called
buraujingu koona (browsing corner). The loanword was used to refer to a browsing
corner because it gives connotations of modernity and uniqueness. Upon realizing the
need to describe the corner in more explicit ways, she added information about what
was in the browsing corner, by using two English words teeburu (table) and suturu
(stool). The use of English loans was supposed to be for coherence as the topic dealt
with something modern. These words are more effective than the Japanese
counterparts tukue (desk) and isu (chair) in appealing for the modernity of the
browsing corner.
Loan words can be used to correspond to previous statements. At a faculty
meeting, Mr. X mentioned that the intention of a school in Japan, the Waseda
Technology School, when it was first established was to provide a wide variety of
people with an education in physics and technology. He explained that it has been the
tradition to offer the opportunity of learning with more popularity. He borrowed the
word “popularity” because it corresponds with the earlier statement, „to provide a
wide variety of people.‟
The study also found the use of loan words as metaphor. In an interview
discussion, a feminist critic wanted to describe the tough working conditions of young
Japanese. She mentioned that white-collar male workers of marriageable age who had
responsible positions in their work were too busy to meet women, go on dates or fall
9 : 4 April 2009
39
in love since they worked from morning till night like the 7-eleven American store
that opens from 7 a.m. till 11 p.m. She referred to men who could still get married
under such circumstances as men of seven eleven, which means men who are versatile
enough to arrange a date before 7 in the morning or after eleven. The English loan
word seven-eleven is used metaphorically to vividly depict a workaholic Japanese
white-collar worker.
At one of the university meetings, „K‟s goal was to explain the social and
educational implications of offering educational programmes for non-regular students.
In explaining the lexical meaning of the term „university extension‟ which many
Japanese do not have the knowledge scheme of the term, he took time to illustrate it
with an English loanword karuchaasentaa („culture center‟), whose frame is similar
but not identical to „university extension.‟ The word evokes prototypical culture
knowledge of a school in a Japanese community where anyone regardless of age, sex,
or academic background can enroll. With this statement, a student can indirectly relate
to the kind of service, which the university extension is supposed to provide.
This study conducted by Hayashi, T and Hayashi, R shows the function of
English loan words in occupational settings. The speakers in the settings of the
research borrowed certain expressions from English to make their whole message
clearer. It shows that English loan words were needed not to refer to a single item or
concept, but to make the meaning of the whole discourse clearer. The finding of this
study suggests that when words are put together to construct a statement, the
propositional content bears logical relevance to both his/her goal and ongoing adjacent
segments. The data showed that English loanwords are used with a purpose, not only
within but also beyond sentence levels and as integral parts of discourse. The findings
9 : 4 April 2009
40
show that English loanwords in Japanese discourse are not used for simply filling in a
lexical gap, but used for a variety of sociocultural and discursive motivations.
The studies on English loans in Japanese indicate strong influence of English
lexical items. Being the lingua franca, English has become a dominant language.
Borrowing from English began with the purpose of filling lexical gap, so as English is
seen as having much prestige, more words are borrowed for other purposes. The writer
will investigate if the findings from the Japanese studies by Rebuck (2002) and
Hayashi, T and Hayashi, R (1995) apply to the use of English loan words in Bahasa
Melayu.
The researcher will study the motivations based on the deficit and dominant
hypothesis with regard to the English loanwords in Malay as well as replicate some of
the studies of other researchers such as Hayashi, T and Hayashi, R (1995) and Rebuck
(2002) in the area of Englishization, to find out if their theories of the motivations of
lexical borrowing based on their findings applies in Malaysia to Bahasa Melayu.
The article, Lexical innovation process: Cameroon English was written by
Augustin Simo Bobda (1994) from the University of Saskatchewan in Canada. It deals
with various loans from Pidgin English, indigenous languages and French. The loans
found in Cameroon English are not just the direct loans. They also include loan
translation.
One of the main problems that concerned Bobda, relating to borrowing in
Cameroon English was whether the borrowed items were instances of interference or
whether they were truly integrated into the Cameroon English . To measure the
degree of integration of a borrowing, Bobda has conducted various tests. They
included the availability test proposed by Mackey (1970) and the tests of
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41
translatability and acceptability by Hasselmo, quoted by Mackey (1970). The
availability test finds out words that are at the disposal of the bilingual speaker when
the opportunity arises for him/her to use a concept. For example, when a cue is given
and a word from the lender language „B‟ tends to come to mind more readily than its
Cameroon English equivalent „A,‟ it can be assumed that „B‟ has been integrated into
the bilingual speaker‟s first code. The test of translatability assesses the bilinguals‟
ability to identify equivalents in their other language.
Bobda mostly tested the availability of a selected number of loans, by asking
questions to elicit them. For example, to elicit mandat (money order), he asked each
respondent, „How do you usually send money to a person living in a different town?‟
And the response was usually something like„Of course by mandat.‟ The results
showed that the availability of a large number of loans was very high, nearly 100%.
The purpose of Bobda‟s study was to study the correlation between availability
and acceptability of some loans among Yaounde University students. The purpose of
the acceptability test is to obtain a range of possible attitudes towards selected items
from a foreign language. Acceptability in the study was not tested by asking
respondents directly whether they accepted a given loan or not. After asking questions
to elicit the use of loans on the sheet, the researcher gave another sheet to the
respondents, containing the same questions, but with multiple choice answers which
included the loan under investigation. If the respondent used a loan in the availability
test but chose instead the native English equivalent in the multiple choice test, this
suggested somehow that although the loan was readily available to him/her, s/he did
not accept it for actual use in communication.
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42
A large number of borrowings would easily stand the availability and
translatability tests, but very few would pass the acceptability test. The items that are
not likely to be accepted as English are mostly direct loans, particularly the recent
ones. Indeed while words like bordereau, bon de caisse, petente, rappel, demande
d’explication, and dash occur almost systematically in the speech and quite often also
in the written production of the Cameroonians, very few educated speakers would
accept them as English words because they may be of French origin.
The result shows that although there are French loan words in Cameroon
English, such as bordereau, bon de caisse, petente, rappel, demande d’explication,
and dash, respondents did not accept these words as the norm. Such words, which are
direct loans, have not been assimilated into the English of Cameroonians. Some of the
French loan words are not seen as the norm as they have not been assimilated or
integrated into Cameroonian English. It shows the difference between availability,
translatability and acceptability. There is a difference between the existence and use of
words in written discourse and the acceptance of the words by the common speakers
of Cameroon English. They do not let foreign elements be integrated into their
language unless they are not aware that these are loan words. Some of the words that
have long been borrowed and have acquired full citizenship in the English of
Cameroonians were not recognized as loan words because they have been in use in the
English of Cameroonians for a long time.
From this type of study, further research can be developed to find out the
common speakers‟ criteria of loan acceptability. Do they have to do with prestige,
melody of the foreign word or special effect? Respondents need to be probed further
on the reasons why they accept or reject certain loans. From such tests, the present
9 : 4 April 2009
43
writer can find out the English words which seem to interfere with Bahasa Melayu
speech and writing and those with necessary functions.
2.4 CONCLUSION
In their studies on German and Arab loan words in English, Stubbs (1998) and
Garland (1997) grouped the words that they had identified according to their semantic
categories, such as politics, food, geography, science, etc. It is important to group
words according to these categories to find out the specific external factors which
influenced the borrowing of the words. The study conducted by Rebuck (2002)
reflected the dominance of English words, in which they are borrowed more than just
to fill the lexical gap. According to Rebuck, English words are used in place of
Japanese equivalents in the media for better image and impression of products and
services advertised as well as the advertisers themselves, since English words are seen
as prestigious. The writers believed that their messages would have an impact on their
audience if they used certain English loan words. In dealing with the problem raised
by Roksana, the present researcher will base her investigation on the findings from
Rebuck‟s research. She will find out if Rebuck‟s findings applies to writers and
speakers in the Malay mass media since English words also have a big influence on
Bahasa Melayu. Since many Malays are exposed to the Malay mass media, it is also
necessary for the present writer to find out their response to the English loanwords in
terms of comprehension and attitude by conducting studies that are similar to Leitner
& Sieloff (1998) and Bobda (1994). In the following chapter, the methodology used
for the study will be explained in detail.
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44
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The study was conducted using the method of textual analysis. It is functional
and semantic oriented. The aim of this study was to find the answers to the following
questions : What might be the purpose of the writers in using English loan words in
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45
their texts? Is the introduction of the English loan words justified in the specific
context of the selected texts? Are there Malay equivalents for those words? What
problems may the English lexical items pose to Malaysian readers ? The writer will
use a derived framework, which is a combination of the frameworks by Roksana Bibi
Abdullah (1995) and Bobda ( 1994 ).
3.2 DATA COLLECTION
Qualitative research was conducted in a holistic way. The tools for this
research included the actual authentic newspaper materials in Bahasa Melayu which
are read widely, interviews were conducted with and questionnaires administered to
the writers, students and some experts of Bahasa Melayu.
3.2.1 Samples
I. Malaysian students and staff from IIUM
48 students, 10 lecturers and 10 other staff from IIUM were selected as sample readers
although they were not representative of all the readers of Bahasa Melayu newspapers.
However, from this university, the researcher selected a variety of samples to make
the subjects as universal as possible. She included respondents from different age
groups, between 18 to 58. The respondents are from every state in Malaysia but the
majority of them are from Selangor. As for their economic backgrounds, the
occupations of their parents are mainly businessmen or businesswomen, teachers,
housewives, policemen, self-employed people, general workers and others. 45% of the
respondents are from rural areas while 55% are from urban areas. As for their
language background, a vast majority of the respondents ( 89.1%) have not been
educated in an English speaking country.
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46
II. Writers
20 writers of the newspapers analyzed were surveyed (Please refer to Appendix 1 for
the full survey items). The sampling of texts was done in such a way so that those
from feature articles as well as editorials were represented. The sampling was also
done in a way that those from different domains such as local news, entertainment,
sports, business were represented. There were 3 writers from the literature section, 3
from entertainment, 7 local news writers, 4 from business section and 3 from
education.
Table 1.1 Research tools
No. of articles
No. of interviews
No. of surveys
Feature articles
70
-
-
Editorials
70
-
-
-
-
68
Writers
-
-
20
Experts
-
3
-
140
3
88
IIUM students and
staff
Total
3.2.2 Research design
I. Data collection from texts
a)
The research data was collected through a textual analysis of authentic
materials. The materials included some Bahasa Melayu newspapers editorial and
feature articles from Utusan Melayu and Berita Harian. Around 140 articles were
analyzed, 70 feature articles and 70 editorials from July 2004 to July 2005. To
ensure validity, the writer included articles from various domains. Although the
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47
selection of articles was mostly done at random, the present researcher was
careful to include articles which dealt with important issues. The writer ensured
that there were articles which dealt with Malaysian social, political, educational
and economical issues and some current issues. The researcher grouped the words
identified according to their semantic categories to see the significance of English
loan words in Malay and find out the areas in which the words have influence.
They were grouped according to their part of speech. From the study of nouns she
found out which terms and concepts were borrowed. With regard to adjectives it
was discovered how writers expressed themselves and gave their opinions by
using English loans. In counting the words, the writer adapted the method by
Muysken and van Hout Tilberg ( 1994 ) from the University of Amsterdam. They
counted the types ( the actual words occurred), tokens ( the actual words as well
as their frequencies) and hapaxes ( words which occur only once), and
categorized them under different parts of speech. To understand the English
influence, it is not enough to study the type of words that exist and the semantic
categories they belong to. It is important to look at the actual frequency of the
occurrence of words. A word has significance if used frequently. From the results,
the researcher ranked the type of words (parts of speech) normally borrowed and
found out which types of words were used more frequently in relation to others
( please refer to Table 1.2 for exemplification ).
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48
Types
Table 1.2
Tokens
Nouns
xx
xx
Adjective
xx
xx
Verbs
xx
xx
Adverbs
xx
xx
Exemplification of table for the total types and tokens of the English
loanwords in selected Bahasa Melayu texts
b) The researcher followed Ruksana Bibi‟s (1995) method to calculate the
number of words with Malay equivalents, but in this study words without
English equivalents and those with close equivalents were also calculated in
order not to be biased ( Table 1.3 ).
Words without equivalents
xx
Words with close
equivalents
xx
Words with equivalents
xx
Table 1.3 Exemplification of table for the total number of words with and without
equivalents
The method of textual analysis conducted by the present researcher is exemplified as
follows :
Sample text :
Bidang penyelidikan dan pembangunan ( R&D ) perubatan dalam menghasilkan dadah
atau vaksin sebagai penawar dala mengubati sesuatu penyakit kini berkembang sejajar dengan
keperluan semasa. Malah bidang tersebut dilihat penting sebagai inisiatif awal dalam
menghadapi pelbagai kemungkinan penyakit kronik yang melanda populasi dunia.
Contohnya, AIDS, virus HIV, penyakit jantung, diabetes, kencing manis, sindrom pernafasan
akut teruk (SARS) dan sebagainya. Tidak dinafikan masih ramai daripada kita mengamalkan
cara perubatan tradisional, khususnya mereka yang berketurunan China dan India. Walaupun
amalan perubatan tersebut mempunyai keunikannya tersendiri, penggunaannya bagaimanapun
tidak diiktiraf dalam bidang sains dan perubatan.
Menurut Perunding Interventional Kardiologist Damansara Heart Centre, Dr. Tamil
Selvan Muthusamy, selain tidak memperoleh kelulusan Pentadbiran Syarikat ( FDA ),
perubatan tradisional banyak mengabaikan kajian-kajian yang dapat membuktikan
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49
penggunaannya terhadap sesuatu virus. Katanya, untuk menghasilkan sesuatu vaksin atau
dadah, saintis perlu menghabiskan sekurang-kurangnya 10 hingga 20 tahun melakukan kajian.
Sering kali ia terpaksa dilanjutkan dan hasilnya masih tidak menentu. Di samping perlu
membuktikan keberkesanannya terhadap virus penyakit, eksperimen lanjutan perlu diteruskan
terhadap haiwan makmal. Sebelum itu, pemerhatian, perbincangan dan kajian mengenai
punca-punca penyakit perlu dilakukan. Ini melibatkan pakar perubatan dan saintis yang
berkecimpung dalam bidang tersebut. Contohnya statins yang diimplementasikan sebagai
vaksin bagi mengurangkan tahap kolesterol penyakit jantung.
Dalam proses penghasilannya, data perubatan daripada 361, 662 pesakit jantung Amerika
Syarikat dikumpul dan kemudiannya dianalisis melalui kaedah kuantitatif serta kualitatif.
Sebelum itu, mereka turut memasukkan data yang diperoleh dalam kajian Framingham yang
dilakukan pada 1970-an. Dalam kajian itu, pengkaji „membuka‟ kawasan penempatan baru
kepada 40,000 hingga 50,000 pesakit jantung yang menawarkan diri untuk terlibat dalam
kajian tersebut.
Tahap kesihatan mereka dicatat dari semasa ke semasa. Pada masa yang sama, para
pengkaji juga berpeluang mengaitkan penyakit tersebut dengan faktor genetik. Sepanjang
tempoh tersebut, pengkaji berjaya membuktikan bahawa penyakit jantung mempunyai kaitan
rapat dengan tahap kolesterol, tekanan darah, cara hidup seperti merokok dan juga penyakitpenyakit kronik lain seperti diabetes. Berasaskan maklumat asas itu, penyelidikan lanjutan
dijalankan dengan mengaitkan faktor-faktor sampingan yang dilihat turut menjadi penyebab.
Sejurus mendapat perkaitan dan maklumat tersebut, dadah tersebut akan dicuba pada
haiwan-haiwan eksperimen di makmal. Setelah terbukti berkesan, ia akan digunakan kepada
manusia. Dalam menjayakannya, pengkaji akan mendapatkan para sukarelawan yang
bersetuju menjadi subjek eksperimen. Kumpulan kecil tersebut akan diletakkan di bawah
pemerhatian pengkaji dan semua perkembangan akan dicatatkan.
Apabila ia terbukti tidak mendatangkan kesan sampingan, saiz eksperimen akan
diperbesarkan dengan penglibatan subjek yang lebih ramai. Sepanjang proses tersebut,
perubahan, perkembangan, pencapaian dan kesan-kesan yang mengaitkan penggunaan dadah
tersebut dengan faktor-faktor persekitaran akan direkodkan. Proses tersebut melibatkan masa
yang amat panjang dan sekiranya dadah tersebut tidak menepati apa yang disasarkan,
penyelidikan semula terpaksa dijalankan. Dalam pada itu, faktor psikologi turut diambil
kira.Iaitu „kesan placebo‟ yang dikaitkan dengan pemikiran dan tanggapan subjek semasa
berada dalam tempoh eksperimen.
Tallying worksheet :
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50
Nouns
NE
Vaksin ( 4 )
Verbs
CE WE NE CE
Adjectives
WE NE
WE NE CE WE
/
inisiatif
/
Kronik ( 2 )
/
populasi
/
Virus ( 3 )
/
Diabetes ( 2 )
/
sindrom
/
tradisional (2)
/
keunikannya
/
sains
/
saintis ( 3 )
/
eksperimen ( 5 )
statins
CE
Adverbs
/
/
diimplimentasikan
kolesterol ( 2 )
proses ( 3 )
/
/
dianalisis
/
kuantitatif
/
kualitatif
/
data
faktor
/
/
genetik
/
subjek ( 3 )
/
saiz
/
direkodkan
dipraktikkan
/
/
/
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NE – No equivalent
CE – Close equivalent
WE – With equivalent
The number in brackets indicate frequency of occurrence
II. Questionnaire
The researcher designed a structured questionnaire. The first part gathered basic
information about the respondents such as age, educational, economic and language
background, programme of study ( for the university students ), domain of articles
written ( for the writers ). A separate questionnaire was designed, especially for the
newspaper writers. The aim was to find out the common reasons for using English
loanwords with already Malay equivalents. In the second part, the questions tested
respondents‟ perceptions and attitude towards using certain English words even
though there are Malay equivalents.
( Please see Appendix 1 ).
III. Interview
Interviews were conducted with Bahasa Melayu experts- a lecturer in BM and
language experts from Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
3.3 DATA ANALYSIS
3.3.1 Words without equivalents
For data analysis, the researcher grouped the nouns according to their semantic
categories such as place, building, vehicle, food, music, abstract nouns, etc. From the
abstract nouns the kind of terms and concepts borrowed were identified. In this way,
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52
the researcher studied the significance English words have in Bahasa Melayu. The
adjectives were studied for the kind of terms that most precisely communicate the
writers‟ intended descriptions or expressions which do not exist in Bahasa Melayu.
So, the researcher studied the lexical gap in Bahasa Melayu, that is the kind of words,
referents and expressions which Bahasa Melayu would not be able to convey with its
available lexical resources. ( Please refer to Appendix 2 for exemplification ).
3.3.2 Words with close equivalents
There are some English loans with close but not precise Malay equivalents. This is
where the researcher made a semantic comparison between the English term and the
closest Malay equivalent ( Please refer to Appendix 3 for exemplification) in terms of
the meaning and use in context. Standard English dictionaries such as the Oxford
(2003), Cambridge ( 2003 ) and Macmillan ( 2002) and the official Bahasa Melayu
dictionary, Kamus Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka ( 2002 ), were used in this comparison.
For finding out the Malay equivalents of the English loans, the researcher used the
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (2002) dictionary. The researcher also consulted some
experts such as Bahasa Melayu linguists.
3.3.3 Words with equivalent
Based on the English loan words with Malay equivalents that are found to have a high
frequency of occurrence or tokens, the researcher has done the following :
I. Conducted a survey adapted from Bobda (1994) on the perceptions of newspaper
writers and readers on the English loans. In this survey, the writers and readers were
presented with 44 pairs of words. The questions in the survey included extracts from
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53
Malay newspapers. For each question, there was a blank to fill and two options were
given for them to choose their answer to fill in the blank. One option was the English
loanword and the other one was the Malay equivalent. If they chose the English loan,
they were enquired about their reasons. This same survey was given to a sample of
writers. ( See Appendix 1 ). This gave the researcher some idea on words which were
generally accepted by a sample of readers for their effectiveness and rejected for its
perceived intrusion.
II. Studied the communicative functions of such words in the context of the articles. This
method is adapted from Rebuck ( 2002 ) and T.Hayashi and R. Hayashi ( 1995 ).
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will be divided into two parts. The first part will deal with words
without equivalent while the second part will be on words with equivalent. There will
be a discussion on the types of words borrowed, the semantic categories they belong
to and the significance of the entry of such words. The functions of loan words with
equivalent and the reason for their use will be discussed. The attitude of the sample
readers and writers towards the English loan with Bahasa Melayu equivalents will also
be discussed.
4.2 PROCEDURES FOR BORROWING WORDS
4.2.1 Causes of borrowing
The more similar the structure the easier it is to borrow. Too much difference
makes borrowing difficult. Weinrich (1953) found that a big difference in structure
between Sanskrit and Tibet restricted borrowing from Sanskrit ( cited in Puteri
Roslina 1994 : 35 ). The similarity between the English and Bahasa Melayu is that
both are SVO languages, having the word order Subject, Verb and Object. Nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs are easier to borrow compared to function words. The
lexeme which is frequently used will last longer while those rarely used will very
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possibly disappear quickly. According to Weinrich, words that are easier to remember
are more stable and they will quickly replace old words that are not stable ( cited in
Puteri Roslina 1994 : 35 ). Borrowing is done to avoid a situation where one word has
different meanings. It enables a language to have separate terms for each meaning.
Weinrich gives the example “corona” used by Italians in Switzerland which has two
meanings. The first is “garland on the head,” second is “crown.” The Italians
borrowed „kranz‟ from German to distinguish between the two meanings and this
word refers to the first meaning ( cited in Puteri Roslina,1994 ).
4.2.2 Reasons for borrowing
There are three important factors why Bahasa Melayu resorts to lexical
borrowing . First of all, although a language can fulfill the need of a community at one
time, it
has potential to expand to fulfill current and developing needs. Secondly,
every community is open to contact with other communities and culture. Thirdly,
every culture has potential to change although the response or reaction to the stimulus
varies from one community to another (Sheikh Othman , 1979 ) cited in Puteri Roslina
( 1994 : 33 ). This means that every culture is influenced by other cultures, but the
degree of language contact varies in different language contact situations.
4.2.3 Procedures for borrowing
The researcher has referred to Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (2002) to find out the
procedure for forming words.
The steps in forming words to refer to a concept, process, state or feature are as
follows:
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Step 1 – Find a suitable Malay word
Step 2 – Borrow from a language family. If a word does not exist in Bahasa Melayu,
borrow from a related language like Banjar – gambut ( pain ), Sunda – nyeri ( pain ) ,
Iban – engkabang ( ellipenut ) , Jawa – awet ( lasting ),etc.
Step 3 – Borrow from English, which is the international language if suitable terms
cannot be found from languages from the same language family.
Step 4 - Refer to other languages.
Bahasa Melayu conforms to the rules of lexical borrowing. Foreign words are
borrowed if the meaning is suitable, the word is shorter than the Malay translation and
if it is easier compared a polysemous Malay word. The borrowed words are
assimilated according to the Bahasa Melayu orthography and pronunciation in order to
borrow without losing the Bahasa Melayu identity. According to Zubaidi Abas ( 2000
), among the fully assimilated words which are treated as Bahasa Melayu words are
basikal, sepana, wayar, lessen, tayar, saman and kelab. Words which have long been
used are kempen ( campaign ), kastam ( custom ), denggi (dengue ), geran ( grant )
and pencen ( pension ). Words that are borrowed without any assimilation are
normally recent and has yet to be assimilated into Bahasa Melayu.
According to the procedure for forming words, Tatacara Pembentukan Istilah
(TPI) that was introduced by PUPIBM ( Pedoman Umum Pembentukan Istilah Bahasa
Melayu ), there are 3 important factors why BM borrows ( Ainon Muhammad in Mior
Hamzah et al, 1992 : 107 ). Firstly, Bahasa Melayu does not have the mechanism to
coin new words. Secondly, TPI does not have the method to coin new words from
available resources. Thirdly, Jawatankuasa Tetap BM ( JKTBM ) does not from the
beginning enforce that every new term must be a Malay word.
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4.3 HIERARCHY OF THE TYPES OF WORDS BORROWED
Words borrowed from another language into Bahasa Melayu are mostly content
words because they carry meaning. van Hout & Muysken ( 1994 ) state the
following :
The words of a language are loose elements but at the same time they
are part of a system; the lexicon itself is partly structured and the
context in which words occur in the sentence may manifest themselves
in the fact that some categories appear to be borrowed more easily than
others at least are borrowed more frequently than others (p. 41)
This fact was proven by the Sankritist William Dwight Whitney (1881), who arrived
at the following hierarchy :
1) nouns – other parts of speech – suffixes – inflection - sounds
Haugen (1950) elaborated on this hierarchy, using data from Norwegian immigrants
in the United States, to include :
2) nouns – verbs – adjectives – adverbs - prepositions
Nouns are borrowed more than verbs according to this perspective, verbs more easily
than adjectives, and so on. Independently from Haugen, Singh ( 1981 ) came to a
hierarchy on the basis of English borrowings from Hindi :
3 ) nouns-adjectives-verbs-prepositions
In this present study, the researcher has the following hierarchy :
Nouns - adjectives – verbs – affixes
Types
Tokens
Nouns
607 (78.73%)
2197
Adjective
128 (16.60%)
299
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Verbs
Adverbs
36 (4.67%)
0
72
0
Table 2.1 Part of speech of the English loanwords borrowed in this study
This hierarchy is somewhat similar to that of Singh whereby more adjectives were
borrowed compared to verbs. The results vary depending on the languages, but despite
differences in the duration of language contact and the languages involved in contact
the common finding is that nouns are the most frequently borrowed followed by either
adjectives or verbs, followed by other word classes. According to van Hout and
Muysken ( 1994 : 42 ) , “A very important factor involves one of the primary
motivations for lexical borrowing, that is, to extend the referential potential of a
language. Since reference is established primarily through nouns, these are the
elements borrowed most easily. ”
4.4 LEXICAL GAP
In many cases, the most compelling motivation to borrow words is “need”.
There are new innovations in every era. Our linguistic system does not possess all the
necessary terms to explain these innovations. It is much easier to borrow terms rather
than invent new ones. Hock and Joseph ( 1996 ) asserted that the need for us to
decode and encode the ever-changing world around us through language is the
ultimate motivation for lexical borrowing.
Lexical gaps are not always due to external factors. It can be inherent in the
language itself, the culture and way of expression of the language users. Blank ( 2001
: 8 ) states that “speech communities create their own conceptual systems or in other
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words : a “world” of their own, which is then subsequently verbalized. This is to say
that concepts are neither universal nor are they really language-specific. They rather
are culture specific and thus extralinguistic phenomena.” The need to borrow has
become a necessity in today‟s borderless world. With a lot of traveling and migration,
languages borrow from one another to fill any existing gap in their lexis. Such
borrowing can only be enriching each other‟s language.
4.5 WORDS WITHOUT EQUIVALENT
Most of the English loanwords identified ( 68.74%) were without Malay equivalents.
The researcher has recorded English loanwords from selected newspaper articles in
Utusan Melayu and Berita Harian and grouped them according to their part of speech.
The nouns were grouped in the following semantic categories –
People, place, vehicle, objects, material/substance, food, clothes, building, titles,
mathematical measurement, technology, education, economy/business, politics,
science, medical field, music/entertainment, ideology/beliefs, official matters,
event/activities, situation/state, thought/idea, feeling and other abstract nouns. The
researcher found that terms relating to technology were the highest in number (35)
followed by words relating to people, with 29 words and economy terms , with 21
words. Medical field provided 18 words and science had 15.
4.5.1 Nouns
People
Table 2.2 List of words relating to people
English loanword
English word
1) kartunis
cartoonist
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2) bos
boss
3) doktor
doctor
4) Eksekutif
Executive
5) juruteknik
technician
6) kuarter master
quarter master
7) pengkritik
critic
8) felo
Continued
9) suspek
fellow
suspect
10) ateis
atheist
11) hipokrit
hypocrite
12) responden
respondent
13) pempetisyen
petitioner
14) idola
idol
15) presiden
president
16) waran
warrant
17) rasionalis
rationalist
18) Rejimen
Regiment
19) panel
panel
20) krew
crew
21) juri
jury
22) kadet
cadet
23) sarjan
sergeant
24) veteran
veteran
25) fanatik
fanatic
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26) sindiket
syndicate
27) diplomat
diplomat
28) kontraktor
contractor
28 loans which relate to people were identified from the study. Among them
are terms that refer to people who do certain things, act in certain ways or have certain
beliefs such as rasionalis, ateis, fanatik and hipokrit. Words which characterize roles
are bos, kuarter master, a military officer that is in charge of providing food,
uniforms, presiden and felo. Collective nouns which refer to a certain group of people
having common roles are krew, juri and panel. Some terms are occupational such as
doktor, eksekutif, kartunis, juruteknik, kadet and diplomat. Many of these occupations
are professional occupations which did not exist in a mainly rural society. As the
country developed, people with such occupations came into existence as their services
and contributions were necessary. Occupational words reflect professions related to
Western education and training which is more formal.
Colonialism introduced
government servants for national security. There existed uniformed personnel such as
sarjan and kadet. The practice of conducting field research has prompted the
borrowing of responden.
Title
Table 2.3 List of words relating to titles
English loanword
English word
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1) Jeneral
General
2) Kapten
Captain
3) Mejar
Major
4) koperal
Corporal
5) Sarjan
Sergeant
6) Leftenan
Lieutenant
7) Komando
Commando
8) Lans Koperal
Lance Corporal
9) Profesor
Profesor
10) Professor Dr.
Professor Dr.
11) Dr.
Dr.
There were 11 words relating to titles. Many titles borrowed are military terms. In a
Malay Sultanate, they had different titles and roles. Malay titles like Laksamana,
Bendahara, are ancient. The military system before is different from the Western
military system. The military system today provides for various ranks of officers.
Therefore the various ranks have to be adopted and adapted in Bahasa Melayu. The
military rank has the following order, with the General being in one of the higest
positions in the army, followed by Lieutenant General, Major General, Colonel,
Lieutenant Colonel, Major, Captain, Lieutenant, 2nd Lieutenant, Warrant Officer,
Sergeant, Corporal and Lance Corporal.
In academia, because of the existence of the institutions of higher learnings
and there is pursuit of academic excellence, the education field is becoming more
advanced. There is development in research, there exist scholars and intellectuals.
This resulted in the introduction of titles such as „Professor.‟ Academicians are
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ranked based on their contributions in research and publications and the title of
Professor has the highest rank.
Place
Table 2.4 List of words relating to places
English loanword
1) stesen
English word
station
2) auditorium
auditorium
3) stadium
stadium
4) klinik
clinic
5) kafe siber
cybercafe
6) Studio
Studio
Continued
7) trek
track
8) kem
camp
9) muzium
museum
Building
Table 2.5 Words relating to buildings
English loanword
English word
1) banglo
bungalow
2) siling
ceiling
3) lif
lift
4) kondominium
condominium
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Vehicle
Table 2.6 List of words relating to vehicles
English loanword
English word
1) helikopter
helicopter
2) lori
lori-lori
lorry
lorries
3) bas
bus
4) jeti
jetty
5) ambulans
ambulance
6) bot
boat
7) basikal
bicycle
8) motosikal
motorcycle
9) brek
brake
Continued
10) enjin
11) hoverkraf
engine
hovercraft
We can notice that the English loan words relating to place and building reflect
urban life. There are 11 words relating to vehicles. These vehicles were not invented
by the Malays who were technologically backward then. They were not known to
Malays who lived in the pre-industrial environment. Some modes of transport were
invented for construction which were needed for industrial development such as lori.
Advances in the transportation system are reflected in the words bas, bot, jeti,
helikopter and ambulans. At present, there is a vehicle with advanced technology,
hoverkraf, which is a vehicle that can move over both land and water. This vehicle
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raises itself above the surface by blowing air downwards. Words which refer to parts
of vehicles are brek and enjin.
Measurement
1) kilometer
2) millimeter
3) inci ( inch )
4) gram
5) kilogram
6) sentimeter
7) bilion
8) knot
9) nautika ( nautical )
10) meter
11) trilion
12) unit
13) dolar
13 mathematical terms including inci, hektar, minit, dozen, are measurement
terms that were adopted during the period of British colonialism. Meter, kilometer,
sentimeter and kilo are the American system of measurements which is in line with the
standardization of measurements throughout the world. Minit, hektar, liter and tan are
units approved for the use by the International System of Units ( ISI ). Billion and
trillion are American names. They are coined from the Latin prefixes bi- (n = 2) and
tri- (n = 3), respectively.
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A nautical mile is a unit of length. It is not an SI unit. It is accepted (although
discouraged) for use with the ISI. According to the international standard definition, 1
nautical mile equals to 1852 metres . The nautical mile was introduced for maritime
and aviation purposes, in international law and treaties, to determine the limits of
territorial waters. The term "knot" was derived from the practice of using a knotted
rope as a method of gauging the speed of a ship. The rope would be thrown into the
water and trailed behind the ship. The speed in "knots" would be measured by the
number of knots that passed off the ship and into the water in a given time.
Months
Table 2.7 Words relating to months
English loanword
English word
1) Ogos
August
2) September
September
3) Disember
December
4) Julai
July
5) Februari
February
6) Januari
January
7) Mac
March
8) Oktober
October
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9) April
April
10) November
November
The Muslims have the Islamic calendar, Chinese have their lunar calendar and Indians
have their Indian calendar. Names of months in Bahasa Melayu are used based on the
English or Gregorian calendar introduced by the British for standard and official use.
The names of these months are also used internationally.
Technology
Table 2.8 List of words relating to technology
English loanword
English word
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1) teknologi
technology
2) telefon
telephone
3) radio
radio
4) kad prabayar
prepaid card
5) web
web
6) memori
memory
7) e-mel
e mail
8) komputer
computer
9) televisyen
television
10) audio
audio
11) audio-video
audio-video
12) video
video
13) gajet
gadget
14) kamera
camera
15) TV
TV
16) satelit
satellite
17) fon telinga
earphone
18) elektrik
electric
19) slaid
slide
20) on-line
on-line
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Continued
21) CD
CD
22) Internet
Internet
23) Letrik
Electric
24) telekomunikasi
Telecommunications
25) mikrofon
microphone
26) kabel
cable
27) protokol
protocol
28) mod
mode
29) enkripsi
encryption
30) hi-fi
hi-fi
31) DVD
DVD
32) PDA
PDA
33) Sistem Teater
Theatre System
34) Portal infopks
Infopks portal
35) aplikasi
application
36) kabel
cable
36 technology terms have been identified in this study. Due to the multimedia
era and the advances in recent technology, a lot of new inventions dealing with
computer technology and internet ( cybercafé, internet, slaid, online, aplikasi, PDA
and enkripsi, Portal infopks), advanced means of communication and exchanging
information ( telekomunikasi, internet, kad prabayar, audio video, satelit ) and
advanced means of entertainment ( hi-fi CD, DVD and Sistem Teater ) introduced by
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foreign countries have prompted borrowing. Such terms had to be borrowed because
they were new in Malaysia, which is not very advanced in science and technology and
at the same time cannot afford to be behind where information and knowledge on this
field is concerned to enable it to catch up with the rest of developed countries.
Education
Table 2.9 List of words relating to education
English loanword
English word
1) universiti
university
2) kursus
course
3) konvokesyen
convocation
4) fakulti
faculty
5) kelas
class
6) modul
module
7) institut
institute
8) institusi
institution
9) kampus
campus
10) Akademi
Academy
11) ko-kurikulum
co-curriculum
There are 11 terms relating to education. Education in the Malay land before
British colonization was different from the present. According to Beebout
( 1972 : 104 ), “the schooling in the Malay States consisted primarily of religious
classes conducted by Muslim missionaries. These classes later developed into formal
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religious schools. Parents taught their children practical skills. The Malay royalty were
taught the Quran, since they were to be religious leaders, and also military skills, and
some astrology.”
Since the British colonization, the education system has changed. We are
presently
following the western education system which is well established
worldwide and has a formal education tradition. Since it is from the British that
Malaysia has inherited her present educational system a lot of educational terms,
including terms relating to higher education, such universiti, fakulti, institut,
kampus,were borrowed from English.
Literature
Table 2.10 Words relating to literature
English loanword
English word
1) Intertekstualiti
intertextuality
2) plot
plot
3) audiens
audience
4) ontologi
onthology
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Field of study
Table 2.11 Words relating to field of study
English loanword
English word
1) Linguistik
Linguistic
2) farmasi
pharmacy
3) teologi
theology
4) estetika
aesthetics
5) falsafah
philosophy
Some words reflect exposure to different kinds of
new knowledge from
different areas. In higher institutions, there are courses and programmes for those
pursuing specialized fields of study. The existence of the study of language features
in general as well as particular languages in terms of their structure, grammar, history
has prompted the borrowing of linguistik. The introduction of the study or practice of
preparing drugs and medicine has prompted farmasi. Some of the fields of knowledge
originated from the Greek, which the British have adapted. These include teologi and
estetika in Bahasa Melayu. Modern literary appreciation has prompted the borrowing
of some terms from literature as well.
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Economy/business
Table 2.12 List of words relating to economy/business
English loanword
English word
1) akaun
perakaunan
account
accounting
2) ekonomi
economy
3) dividen
dividend
4) bank
perbankan
bank
banking
5) aset
asset
6) insurans
insurance
7) agensi
agensi-agensi
agency
agencies
8) francais
franchise
9) francaisor
franchisor
10) francaisi
francaising
franchisee
franchising
11) e-niaga
e-commerce
12) royalti
royalty
13) subsidi
subsidy
14) komoditi
commodity
15) kredit
credit
16) insentif
insentive
17) bonus
bonus
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18) konsortium
consortium
19) promosi
promotion
20) import
Continued
21) eksport
import
eksport
22) kargo
cargo
23) geran
grant
24) draf
draft
25) kastam
custom
There are 25 business and economic terms. Business, trade and economy are also
going through changes and development. They are expanding. Today, there are more
advanced methods of doing business. The country is developing and pursuing business
and economic success. The modern way of managing goods and properties is reflected
in words such as aset. There have also been new services, reflected in agensi. A new
way of giving wages is reflected in the word bonus. New practices are reflected in the
word insentif, which is something that is given for workers and businessmen to
encourage them to work harder, and subsidi, financial assistance given by the
government or an organization to reduce the cost of a product or service. A new way
of selling and advertising is reflected in promosi. The development of different kinds
of industry has prompted the word sektor. An organized way of handling money has
prompted the borrowing of akaun. A special field of study relating to money
management is perakaunan. Import and eksport are the modern versions of old
business practices. The selling and buying of products from other countries was done
on a small scale in the past. Modern concepts of business were introduced by those
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from more developed countries. Bahasa Melayu does not have such terms because the
modern way of managing economics was quite new to the people then and they could
not find similar concepts in Malay. Concepts relating to organized economic
management and modern business practice needed to be introduced into the Malay
language.
Politics
Table 2.13 List of terms relating to politics
English loanword
English word
1) politik
politics
2) parti
3) parti-parti
kepartian
party
parties
4) Presiden
President
5) parlimen
parliment
6) agenda ( 1 )
agenda
7) manifesto
manifesto
8) Sivik
Civic
9) Komanwel
Commonwealth
According to Stubbs ( 1995 ), words are borrowed in response to political
events. There are 9 terms related to politics in this study. Before British colonialism,
the Malays were ruled by Sultans and the system of government was a Sultanate.
During British occupation, in the late 1945 there were signs of political consciousness
among the Malays. This led to the formation of their own political party, which is the
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United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) founded by Dato Onn bin Jaafar of
Johor in March 1946. His purpose was to eventually prepare the Malays for selfgovernment. The forming of political parties began during the rule of Tunku Abdul
Rahman, based on what he had learned from the United Kingdom. In the West, they
have a multi party system. The Malaysian political and government systems have
changed during and after British colonialism. Now Malaysia has a democratic society
of different ideologies. Malaysia is a federal, within the Commonwealth. Malaysia has
a complex federal political system, with a constitutional monarchy whereby the head
of state ( His Majesty Yang di-Pertuan ) is elected every five years. The country‟s
administration is regulated by Parliament. There are elections for the Parliament and
state assemblies. UMNO encouraged the British to introduce local elections in 1951,
the Malaysian political and government system was influenced by the British and
therefore, some political terms from English have been borrowed.
Science
Table 2.14 List of terms relating to science
English loanword
English word
1) sains
saintis
science
scientist
2) elastin
elastine
3) spora
spore
4) hormon
hormone
5) inframerah
infra-red
6) oksigen
oxygen
7) hidrogen
hydrogen
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8) kolagen
collagen
9) molekul
molecule
10) vitamin
vitamin
11) karbonat
carbonate
12) sodium
Continued
13) mineral
sodium
14) nuklear
nuclear
15) angiotensin
angiotensin
mineral
Medical
Table 2.15 List of medical terms
English loanword
English word
1) metabolisme
metabolism
2) virus
virus
3) sel – T
sel
sel-sel
T-cell
cell
cells
4) komplikasi
complication
5) DNA
DNA
6) AIDS
AIDS
7) fisiologi
physiology
8) fisioterapi
physiotherapy
9) sindrom
syndrome
10) ulser
ulcer
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11) dialisis
dialysis
12) Obstetrik
Obstetrics
13) gout
gout
14) sklerosis multiple
multiple schlerosis
15) korda spine
spinal chord
16) arteri
Continued
17) strok
artery
stroke
18) farmaseutikal
pharmaceutical
19) abdomen
abdomen
20) tisu
tissue
21) ligamen
ligament
There are 15 science and 21 medical terms. The scientific words borrowed are
related to certain substances, for example, mineral, sodium, protein, elastin, kolagen
and gases such as hydrogen and oksigen. The medical terms borrowed are related to
biology and the internal structure of the human body, for example, arteri,
abdomen,tisu,ligamen and korda spine. Some terms refer to substances in the body,
for example, tisu, hormon, kolestrol and DNA. Some terms refer to the internal parts
of the human body, for example, sel, ligamen and abdomen. New terms relating to
diseases or medical problems ( gout, ulser and strok ), medical procedures (dialisis
and fisioterapi ) and medical treatments ( kuarantin, vaksin and pemvaksinan ) are
continually being coined. These are modern medical procedures which are different
from the traditional forms of treatment. Studies, discoveries and ongoing research in
the medical field are more advanced in the West. The DBP refers to experts in
specialized fields of knowledge such as business, science and technology and
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medicine from universities to find out if there is exact meaning in Malay words to
express certain concepts. Many terms from specialized fields such as the medical field
had to be borrowed because in Bahasa Melayu there are no suitable equivalent terms.
Transferring knowledge and information from translation also led to borrowing.
Music / entertainment
Table 2.16 Words relating to music/entertainment
English loanword
English word
1) box office
box office
2) kartun
cartoon
3) bes
bass
4) pop
pop
5) rock
rock
6) muzik
music
7) jazz
jazz
8) skrip
script
9) komedi
comedy
10) tango
tango
11) infotainmen
infotainment
12) filem
perfilemannya
film
filming
13) album
album
Clothes / fashion
Table 2.18 Words relating to clothes/fashion
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English loanword
1) skirt
English word
skirt
2) jeans
jeans
3) gaun
gown
4) blaus
blouse
5) kot
coat
6) aksesori
Food
Table 2.18 Words relating to food
English loanword
accessory
English word
1) salad
salad
2) jem
jam
3) stik
steak
4) krim
cream
5) ceri
cherry
6) protein
protein
7) karbohidrat
carbohydrate
8) yogurt
yogurt
Borrowing words was also necessary to refer to things which were nonexistent in the Malay way of life before. There are 8 words relating to food. Certain
food items like salad, jam, stik, krim and ceri were not familiar to Malays earlier but
nowadays these foods are eaten in Malaysia. There are 13 words relating to
entertainment. Words related to entertainment such as pop, rock, jazz, and kartun and
fashion terms reflect Western cultural influence. Malaysians today are enjoying
Western music. This music style and genre have been adapted into the modern culture
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and are enjoyed by Malays today, particularly the younger generation. There are 6
words relating to clothes or fashion. Fashion terms reflect the new trends in fashion.
Apart from wearing traditional baju kurung and baju kebaya, it has also become a
trend to wear jeans, skirt, blouse and coat.
Ideology / beliefs
Table 2.19 Terms relating to ideology/beliefs
English loanword
English word
1) ideology
ideology
2) idealisme
idealism
3) sekularisme
secularism
4) hedonisme
hedonism
5) humanisme
humanism
6) imperialisme
imperialism
7) komunisme
communism
There are 7 terms relating to ideology.Words associated with ideology reflect
some of the beliefs of people today. These beliefs originally came from the West. All
of these beliefs were incompatible with the Malay culture and may not have been
shared by Bahasa Melayu speakers. But in order to describe the value systems of
others who practice them, it has become necessary to borrow relevant terms from the
source language, which for our purpose is English. Moreover, at present, there is a lot
of western influence that has gradually changed some people‟s mentality. There exists
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the belief among some that pleasure is the most important thing in life ( hedonisme.)
There also exist a belief system based on the principle that people‟s spiritual and
emotional needs can be fulfilled without following a religion ( humanisme.) A system
of social organization or practice that does not allow religious influence
( sekularisme ) has also become common in the world today.
Legal
Table 2.20 Legal terms
English loanword
English word
1) Akta
Act
2) Artikel
Article
3) memorandum
memorandum
4) Seksyen
Section
5) Enakmen
Enactment
The ancient Malay law was the „Hukum Kanun Melaka‟ and the „Hukum
adat.‟ „Hukum Adat‟ was made of „Adat Pepatih‟ and „Adat Temenggung.‟ But, The
Malaysian judicial system today resembles the system in the United Kingdom
inherited from the colonial period. This is why there are some legal terms from
English. Akta refers to a law that has been officially accepted by the Parliament or
State Legislative Assembly. Artikel refers to a legal agreement that deals with a
particular point. Memorandum refers to a short legal document with important details
on an agreement
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Administrative
Table 2.21 Administrative terms
English loanword
English word
1) sistem
system
2) dokumentasi
documentation
3) birokrasi
bureaucracy
4) lesen
license
5) imigresen
immigration
6) visa
visa
7) kuota
quota
8) kontrak
contract
Organized administration of the nation is reflected in the above words. In
many things we do today, we have to follow certain procedures and observe certain
regulations.
Malaysia has adopted the Western official system during and after
colonialism. The word birokrasi reflects a complicated official system that has a lot
of rules and processes which are modeled on the Western official system. It was the
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English who started the visa, an official mark made in a passport which allows a
person to enter or leave a particular country and other immigration procedures.
Current official practices are reflected in the words kuota and kontrak. The
requirement for an official document that gives permission to do or own something for
a period of time prompted the borrowing of lesen. The need for official approval when
doing something is reflected in the words Akreditasi meaning Accreditation, e.g Sijil
Akreditasi Makmal Pengujian.
Writing
Table 2.22 Words relating to writing
English loanword
English word
polemik
polemic
petisyen
petition
teks
text
Things
Table 2.23 Words relating to things in general
English loanword
English word
1) komik
comic
2) kalendar
calendar
3) kad
card
4) beg
bag
5) replika
replica
6) tiub
tube
7) bateri
battery
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8) kondom
condom
9) pen
pen
10) fail
file
11) dokumen
document
12) mel
mail
13) koleksi
collection
14) tabloid
tabloid
Material / substance
Table 2.24 Words relating to material/substance
English loanword
English word
1) gel
gel
2) nikotin
nicotine
3) plastik
plastic
4) zink
zinc
5) metanol
methanol
6) nilon
nylon
7) platinum
platinum
8) narkotik
narchotic
9) krim
krim
Natural resources
petrol
diesel
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Petroleum
Michael Stubbs ( 1998 : 19 ) said, “ Words embody facts of history and are a record of
great social revolutions, revolutions in nations and the feelings of nations. Much may
therefore be learned by noting the words which nations have been obliged to borrow
from other nations.” The words above imply that there is historical significance.
British colonization had an influence in the Malaysian education, political, the military
and legal system and some official matters. That is why there are terms from English
in these areas.
Events / activities
Table 2.25 Words relating to events/activities
English loanword
English word
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1) pemerosesan
process
2) hobi
hobinya
hobby
3) kempen
campaign
4) senario
scenario
5) provokasi
provocation
6) misi
mission
7) sesi
session
8) forum
forum
9) ekspedisi
expedition
10) operasi
Ops Jagakawan
operation
11) projek
projek-projek
project
projects
12) ekspo
expo
13) rutin
routine
14) kronologi
chronology
15) tragedi
tragedy
Some of the events are events that happen in the modern day such as projek,
ekspo and pemerosesan. These are events that take place for business and industrial
developments. Loanwords are borrowed to reflect important events and tasks with a
definite and specific objective to achieve certain aims, targets and ambitions.
Examples are words such as misi, ekspedisi and operasi. The need to pursue social or
economic improvements is reflected in kempen and projek. Events which involve
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proper systematic planning and arrangements and effective execution of tasks are
reflected in the words operasi, ekspedisi and projek. Urban life and urban tasks are
reflected in the words proses and logistik.
Some of the words reflect the modern version of old events such as forum and
misi. The word forum reflects the need to discuss important current issues. Today, the
discussion of current issues would be done through the mass media such as radio and
television, with a vast audience unlike in the past. The word „misi‟ reflects a more
modern and systematic means of performing special assignments in another place,
conducting negotiations, establishing relations with a foreign country, etc.
Events reflect the very being of human existence and human affairs. Our daily
affairs and tasks involve resolving problems, seeking knowledge, making discoveries,
treaties and communication. English words seem to better express modern and current
situations, constraints and developments.
Situation / state
Table 2.26 Words relating to situation/state
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English loanword
English word
1) harmoni
keharmonian
harmony
2) pemodenan
modernization
3) globalisasi
globalization
4) konflik
conflict
5) eksploitasi
exploitation
6) konsolidasi
consolidation
7) krisis
crisis
Some words reflect the attitude and response towards external events.
Development in the way we view and describe our experience is reflected in words
like tragedi, krisis and kronologi. The word tragedi is borrowed to be able to express
the occurrence of unfortunate events effectively, with high intensity. This is because
there are many things involved in this word. It does not only refer to unfortunate
events but it involves feelings, responses and consequences. Current external
situations are reflected in the words eksploitasi and konsolidasi. Words like krisis and
konflik reflect complications of our experience. When writers use these words, they
convincingly draw the attention of the readers towards current issues. Controversial
issues in the media have prompted „kontroversi.‟ We are sensitive to our surroundings
and issues that concern the community and the country.
Pemodenan and globalisasi reflect very recent change. Ideas and cultures
circulate around the world. The increasing integration of economies around the world,
particularly through trade and financial flows, the movement of people (labour) and
knowledge (technology) across international borders have prompted the term
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globalisasi. The term glokal, was introduced by the deputy UMNO President, Datuk
Seri Najib Razak. It refers to a situation where one needs to give international
contribution at the local level by giving input, voicing views and also by taking certain
effective steps. For example, looking after the environment at the local level itself can
contribute to reducing haze problems and river pollution. Malaysians are also urged to
help in international crisis such as tsunami and give financial assistance to poor
countries.
Mental processes
Table 2.27 List of words relating to mental processes
English loanword
English word
1) memori
memory
2) nostalgia
nostalgia
3) perspektif
perspektive
4) kritis
critical
5) imej
image
6) dimensi
dimension
7) konsep
konsep-konsep
concept
concepts
8) idea
idea
English has different words relating to thoughts or mental processes. There are
different words connected to memory such as memori and nostalgia, and different
words relating to perception and idea such as perspektif and imej. Words related to
cognitive skills are kritis and konsep. Kritis and dimensi reflect modern and mental
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development as the modern Malaysian society is urged to think critically and be more
broad minded. The borrowing of various terms that deal with specific thought and
mental process has enabled writers to express thoughts effectively.
Others/ Miscellaneous
Table 2.28 List of other words without equivalents
English loanword
English word
1) komunikasi
communication
2) draf
draft
3) aksi
action
4) versi
version
5) resipi
recipe
6) strategi
strategy
7) fenomena
phenomena
8) akademik
academic
9) faktor
factor
10) rekod ( 1 )
record
11) rekod ( 2 )
record
12) media
media
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(continued)
13) pacific
pasifik
14) generasi
generation
15) identiti
identity
16) tabloid
tabloid
17) fotografi
photograpgy
18) aura
aura
19) indeks
index
20) pos
post
21) dokumentasi
documentation
22) kelas
class
23) logistik
logistic
24) konteks
context
25) clean & jerk
clean & jerk
26) minoriti
minority
27) mega
mega
28) pakej
package
29) prototaip
prototype
30) provokasi
provocation
( See more on Appendix 5 )
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4.5.2
Adjective
Table 2.29 List of adjectives without equivalent
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1) aksi
action
2) audio
audio
3) kreatif
creative
4) teknikal
technical
5) intensif
intensive
6) pelvik
pelvic
7) kondusif
condusive
8) moden
modern
9) profesional
professional
10) saintifik
scientific
11) strategik
strategic
12) toleran
tolerant
13) rasional
rasional
14) positif
positif
15) praktikal
practical
16) fanatik
fanatic
17) materialistik
materialistic
18) domestik
domestic
19) klinikal
clinical
20) kompetitif
competitive
21) imaginatif
imaginatif
22) idealistik
idealistic
23) pasif
passive
24) formal
formal
25) empirik
empiric (see more in the Appendix 6)
As for the adjectives, words which are related to quality are berprestij, kreatif, toleran,
berkaliber, berkoordinasi, berpotensi, bermerit, positif, negatif, pasif, eksotik and
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popular. Those which describe a situation include kondusif, kritikal, kronik and
serius. Adjectives that describe attitude are rasional, materialistik, fanatik,sensitif,
sinikal, agresif and emosional among others. Words relating to characteristics are
moden, sistematik, strategik and futuristik. Adjectives which indicate something
specific or special are praktikal, saintifik (dealing with science), teknikal, profesional,
klinikal, empirik, Sivik, maritim, marin and korporat ( are relating to coorperation in
some way) komersial ( is related to the producing, advertising, buying and selling of
goods in large quantities) and mekanikal. Those which indicate what something
involves are intensif, imaginatif ( involving imagination), progresif ( involves the
support of new or modern ideas or methods ), domestik and elektronik. Words which
categorize the specific type of things are audio, aksi, tropika, ( type of climate ),
tradisional, terapeutik ( type of treatment ) and Demokratik ( a form of government).
Adjectives which indicate the special nature of something are formal, subjektif,
simbolik and estetik.There are many adjectives which are formed from nouns such as
mekanikal from mekanik; sistematik – system; teknikal – teknik; sains – saintifik and
konvension - konvensional. This is because the attributes are related to the nouns.
Looking at the adjectives, the words kreatif, dinamik and progressif are
borrowed to emphasise the necessary characteristics for success and modern
development. The characteristic of people today who are inclined towards materialism
has prompted the word materialistik. Certain adjectives like komited, praktikal and
berdedikasi are used to describe the character of certain people. These traits are
necessary to meet the demands of modern working life. The word intensif and
kompetitif also reflect the demands of the working life.
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Some English words have the advantage of flexibility in the sense that the
same word can be used as a noun, verb or adjective , as in the words „corporate,‟
„executive,‟ „import‟ and „export.‟ The equivalent for the noun „kosmetik‟ is alat solek
but if this word is an adjective, there is no equivalent. The word „create‟ ( verb ) is
„mencipta.‟But „creative‟ ( adj ) does not have equivalent. Other such examples are as
follows :
future – masa depan
futuristic ( futuristik )- no equivalent
symbol (simbol) n – lambang
symbolic ( simbolik ) adj - no equivalent
compete v – bersaing
competitive ( kompetitif ) adj – no equivalent
tradition ( tradisi ) n – adat resam
tradisional adj – no equivalent
progress v – membangun
progressive ( progresif ) adj – no equivalent
imagine v - bayangkan
imaginative ( imaginatif ) adj – no equivalent
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4.5.2 Verb
Table 2.30 List of verbs without equivalent
English loanword
English word
1) import
import
2) eksport
mengeksportkan
eksport
3) dipolitikkan
politicized
4) telefon
menelefon
telephone
5) mengkritik
criticize
6) diproses
processed
7) memfailkan
file
8) difrancaiskan
franchised
9) mempromosikan ( 2 )
mempromosi
promote
10) difakskan
faxed
11) didiagnosis
diagnosed
12) dilabelkan
labeled
13) melobi
lobby
14) beraksi
act
15) berfungsi
function
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16) mengakses
access
17) buli
bully
18) berkomunikasi ( 1 )
communicate
19) berbasikal
cycle
20) bermotosikal
ride a motorcycle
21) berkempen
campaigning
From the verbs, we can see that many English loan words are turned into verbs by
using the Malay affixes. To make the verbs passive, the prefix di and the suffix -kan
may be attached. Some of the active verbs have the prefix meng- or mem- and the
suffix –kan attached.
4.5.4 Loan words and current developement
Language change happens when we start leading the urban way of life. The
researcher has observed that English has many terms that reflect a professional,
systematic nature of modern tasks and the handling of daily matters in working life
and administration. There is the adjective berkoordinasi which had to be borrowed to
reflect that, nowadays, the proper method of executing a task is to have different parts
of a job and plan be well organized so that the people involved work together
effectively. The verb, memfailkan and the noun, dokumentasi are borrowed to reveal
some of the current official practices. An organized means of planning a task or a
project is reflected in the word draf, which is the preparation of a piece of text, a
formal suggestion or drawing, containing the main ideas and intention before
preparing the developed form. Agenda describes a systematic, professional and
organized way of conducting meetings. Current diplomatic practices are reflected in
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the word protokol. A country‟s administration is jointly done by the cabinet ( kabinet )
of ministers.
English has some words which show that there are different interrelated
elements that make up a whole, be it in features, organization, procedures, actions or
tasks. These are sistem, operasi, proses and strategi in BM. The word strategi reflects
the need to have special skills, take some effective steps to achieve something and
resolve certain problems in current circumstances.
Some words have significance in mental development. The words faktor,
risiko and komponen show change in the way we analyze, evaluate and assess facts,
events and our experience. Development in the way we make sense of events, facts
and our experience is reflected in the word konteks. Words like risiko, sentimental and
kompromi are not just the entry of concepts that do not have equivalent in Bahasa
Melayu. They reflect new developments in our society‟s being and feeling.
4.5.5
Partial – loans
The following are partial loans which the researcher has identified :
1) juruteknik ( technician )
2) jurufoto (photographer)
3) aeroangkasa (aerospace )
4) ultraungu ( ultraviolet )
5) Pasca graduasi ( post graduation )
6) pasca produksi ( post production )
7) Laman web ( website )
8) fon telinga ( ear phone )
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4.5.6 Affixes
The following are some foreign affixes which have been borrowed:
1) bio - relating to living things (e.g biokimia)
2) anti – opposed to (anti-perang)
3) pra- before ( e.g kad prabayar)
4) pro- supporting something (e.g proaktif
5) makro – concerning a whole systrem ( e.g. makroekonomi )
6) multi- more than one (e.g multilateralisme
7) pan-Islam
8) is – ( equivalent to –ist, for example, novelis, cerpenis)
4.5.7
Loan translation
The following are loan translations which the researcher has identified.
1) perkhidmatan pesanan pendek ( SMS )
2) Perkhidmatan pesanan multimedia ( MMS )
3) Sindrom Pernafasan Akut Teruk ( SARS )
4) Teknologi bantuan reproduksi ( ART )
5) kad pengenalan pintar ( smart card )
6) selesema burung ( bird flu )
7) demam Akademi Fantasia, Bollywood ( AF fever)
8) pengundi hantu
9) melayari
( phantom vote )
( surfing )
10) laman web ( website )
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4.5.8
Inadequacy inherent in some Bahasa Melayu vocabulary
Some borrowings reflect some kind of inadequacy in Bahasa Melayu which is
not related to foreign culture, ideas, behaviour or new experience. This is seen in
words such as Konvensional, formal, eksotik, subjektif senario, risiko, rutin, harmoni,
nostalgia, emosi, simpati, komen, fenomena, identiti, aura, konteks, potensi, sosial,
prinsip, misteri, lagenda, set, fakta, kreatif, kondusif, fanatik, sinikal, taboo, buli and
kronik. Some of the words which describe people‟s action and behaviour that exist
everywhere such as pengkritik, hipokrit, sinikal, buli, toleransi, etc are not something
unfamiliar in Malaysia There are hypocrites in every society. Although the speakers of
Bahasa Melayu practice tolerance and live in harmony, they do not have a single word
to describe being tolerant. The experiences and feelings conveyed by the words emosi,
simpati, nostalgia, fenomena, misteri, rutin are not foreign to us. In Bahasa Melayu,
certain experiences, situations, events, attitudes and actions will need to be expressed
by way of circumlocution. A single word in English is sufficient to capture certain
expressions and descriptions concisely and effectively.
4.5.9 Stereotype
Michael Stubbs ( 1998 : 19 )states that “quite apart from historically
significant cases, loanwords often confirm national stereotypes and symbolize the
foreign and the strange.”. Jucker ( 1996 ) discusses how loanwords can provide both
positive and negative local colour. In this study, the researcher has found some words
that reflect Western philosophy and way of thinking: sekularisme, hedonisme,
humanisme,etc. Western people have different belief systems. Malays are not easily
able to relate to sekularisme and hedonisme. Some of the loans reflect the attitude of
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the speakers of the donor language and describe the materialistic attitude among
people today. The word „ateis‟ had to be borrowed because it is quite rare to find
freethinkers in Malaysia . The word empirik reflects Western belief that any fact must
be scientifically proven. Theories should be based on observations of the world rather
than intuition or faith.
There are some negative words such as sinis, buli, kritik, hipokrit, label and
agresif. Some of these words are used disapprovingly to describe the attitude and
behaviour of certain people. The use of such words shows that writers and speaker are
influenced by English people‟s way of expressing themselves.
4.5.10 Lexical gap in Bahasa Melayu vocabulary
Looking at the semantic aspect, the researcher found that many words
borrowed were precise and their Malay equivalent did not capture the precise meaning
of these terms. Meaning would be distorted and therefore, the intended message,
expression would not be conveyed.
This is seen in words like „komen,‟ and
„potensi.‟The word „optimum‟is related to best, most suitable, most favourable
condition within a range of possibilities. The word „komen‟ is a word that can fall
under the category of verbal act. It indicates a specific verbal act, which is a remark
giving an opinion. „Potensi‟ different from „keistimewaan‟ or „kebolehan.‟
The
capability or possibility of achieving something which is not yet realized is embedded
in „potensi.‟ Konfrontasi is close to an argument or a fight but it is specific in manner
in the sense that it involves hostility compared to „perselisihan.‟ Deklarasi is close to
announcement, but it is more official. Inkuiri is close to question, but it specifies the
purpose of questioning. It refers to a question asked to get information. Ekspedisi is
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related to a journey to a distant place, but it specifically refers to a journey that is
organized for a particular purpose and it sometimes involves going to a dangerous
place. Some words are borrowed so that Bahasa Melayu vocabulary will expand and
have groups of relational words, where the difference in meaning is in the manner,
context, condition or circumstance.
Some of the English words are flexible and wider in their usage. The word teks
can refer to anything that consists of writing that does not include pictures. It can be
an article or a literary piece of work, any written record of words in a speech, or
lecture. Writers find such a word easy to use. The word „bos‟ refers to anyone who has
the authority to give orders and to control, be it in professional or non-professional
contexts compared to „majikan.‟ The central meaning of „tema,‟ is „the main subject.‟
This word can refer to the main subject of a story, poem, an event, a speech, art
exhibition or discussion. The word „platform‟ is a concrete noun that has also acquired
abstract meaning. The word „platform‟ in platform perbincangan ( discussion
platform ) refers to a base that facilitates people to have discussion unlike „dataran.‟
When we think about resipi, we are normally familiar with the ingredients and steps in
preparing a meal. But this word can be extended to refer to any formula, steps or
means to a desired end unlike the word ramuan. In an article entitled „Resipi gaya
hidup sihat.‟ The word „recipe‟ was used creatively and it refers not only to food
recipe but also tips for healthy eating habits. The word „kestabilan‟ cannot be
translated as kekukuhan because „kekukuhan‟ refers only to the positive condition in
strength and steadfastness, but „kestabilan‟ extends to the positive conditions in many
aspects such as safety, peace, harmony, health, etc. „Positif‟ is a flexible adjective
used to describe any favourable situation, result, and characteristics. Beroperasi
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applies to anything that does some work. It applies to business companies, equipment,
a service, etc.
Example 1
Kesemua projektor berprestasi tinggi itu menawarkan imej berkualiti Native XGA dan
NATIVE SVGA untuk LV-S4 di samping beroperasi secara senyap dengan pelbagai ciri lain
untuk kemudahan pengguna.
Example 2
Ibu bapa, ketua kampong, guru-guru jawatankuasa masjid, ketua-ketua politik juga mereka
yang ternama perlu menjadi idola yang dikagumi
( „Kelebihan sembahyang berjemaah‟ Mingguan Malaysia, 12 September, 2004 pg 99
Amran Kasimin )
In the English expression, the word „idol‟ commonly was used to refer to celebrities.
The excerpt from a Malay article in Example 2 conveys that anyone that we respect
and admire can be an idol. Such words which do not have suitable Malay equivalents
in all contexts are maximized to be used in many contexts. The wide referential
potential of single words is exploited in order to communicate messages.
There are some loan words exploited for creative and metaphorical use. For
example, the word „solo‟ in the expression „zaman solo‟ is used to mean leading a life
of being single, without being attached to any life partner.
Example 3
Beliau turut menarik perhatian, adalah satu kesilapan untuk merawat warga emas sebagai satu
koleksi sistem-sistem organ dan bukannya serorang manusia yang masih berada dalam
keadaan yang baik dan tidak terjejas, yang kadangkala tidak boleh dijangkakan kelakuannya
( Mingguan Malaysia, 25th September 2004 pg 22 „ Penilaian Kesihatan era emas )
Example 4
Dia hanya membuat ramalan berdasarkan soalan-soalan lepas dan juga soalan-soalan
percubaan lalu. Ramalannya tepat. Pelajar macam kena loterilah.
(„Kejar kecemerlangan‟ Mingguan Malaysia ,14 November 2004 pg 10)
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Example 5
Justeru itu kebangkitan Malaysia ini menjadi pusat graviti baru umat Muslim dan negaranegara Islam dan seterusnya mencetuskan hasrat OIC untuk menggunakan kepakaran
Malaysia bagi menjalankan perubahan dan pembaharuan dalam pertubuhan negara-negara
Islam itu.
( Mingguan Malaysia , pg 8, 11 Disember 2004)
Example 6
Setelah sekian lama „terhegeh-hegeh‟ dengan satu demi satu masalah yang akhirnya terpaksa
ditelan sendiri oleh karyawan seni, sekurang-kurangnya dengan penubuhan majlis ini ia akan
menjadi destinasi mengadu segala macam masalah.
In English, „koleksi‟ normally applies to objects but in Example 3 , as a figure
of speech, it is also extended to refer to organs. In example 4, the writer used lottery as
an anology to describe the students‟ luck in predicting exam questions correctly. Just
as one is in good luck when his or her exact lottery number is announced in a draw,
students would be very lucky if the exact questions they predict appear in the actual
exam. „Destinasi‟ is used metaphorically rather than literally in Example 6. Destinasi
means that the ceremony becomes a place people head for to relate their problems.
Example 5 is an excerpt from an article about reformation and implementation of
Islam Hadhari ( civilizational Islam). In that excerpt, the word „graviti‟ is used in the
sense that Malaysia‟s development has become a new force for Muslims in OIC
countries to make use of Malaysia‟s expertise for them to reform.
Some of the English loanwords are comprehensive and indepth in meaning.
The concept of the word „komunikasi,‟ in the study of communications is that it
involves, the act of sending and receiving messages, it involves the message, whether
verbal or non-verbal, written or spoken, it involves the medium of communication, it
can be smaller or on a larger scale, which means, it can be among a few people or
there may be a mass audience. Words like emotion ( emosi in BM ) cannot be easily
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defined. According to Anna Wierzbicka, ( 1999 : 2 ) “ The emotion seems to combine
in its meaning a reference to „feeling,‟ a reference to thinking, and a reference to a
person‟s body. For example, one can talk about a “feeling of hunger” but not about an
emotion of hunger.” One can also talk about a “feeling of loneliness” or a “ feeling of
alienation” but not an “emotion of loneliness” or “ emotion of alienation.” That is
because while these feelings are clearly related to thoughts ( such as “I‟m all alone,”
“I don‟t belong here” etc.), they do not imply any associated bodily events or
processes ( such as rising blood pressure, a rush of blood to the head, tears and so
on ). The word emotion however, with its characteristic combination of three
components ( related to feeling, thinking and the body ) cannot be adequately replaced
by „perasaan.‟ „Akademik‟ is broader than pelajaran as the former involves every
aspect of education, learning, teaching and research. Identiti involves a set of
individual characteristics by which a person is recognized. Words like kempen,
operasi and strategi, convey the meaning that there are many different things to be
done to achieve one‟s goal. Krew denotes the act of working together to produce or
operate something. It is more concise and sounds more technical than kumpulan.
Therefore, writers make use of loanwords that can describe the depth and aspects of
the message, state and experience that they intend to communicate.
4.6 WORDS WITH CLOSE EQUIVALENTS
Table 2.31 List of words with close equivalent
English
1) Canselor
The president of a university
2) eksklusif
Special for a particular occasion, people..
Bahasa Melayu
ketua universiti
The leader of a university
khas
special in general
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3) dinamik
Energetic
cergas, pantas, bertenaga
4) skim
rancangan
A systematic plan
5) kos
Expenses
6) kek
A sweet baked food made from a mixture of
sugar, eggs, flour and butter
active
plan
harga
price
kuih
sweet snack
7) kalori
tenaga
A unit for measuring energy supplied by food
and released upon oxidation by the body
Energy
8) sandwich
roti
Slices of bread with meat, vegetables, egg,
cheese, etc between them
bread
Continued
9) hotel
rumah penginapan
An establishment providing meals and
accommodation for payment
a house to spend the night
10) toksik
racun
Poisonous by chemical means
poison
11) tragik
menyedihkan
Causing or involving great sadness because
someone suffers or dies
causing sadness
12) data
maklumat
Information in a form that a computer can use
Information
13) dimonopoli -
dikuasai
Controlling by preventing others from being
involved in it.
controlled
14) meminimumkan
mengurangkan
Reduce to the smallest amount or degree
reduce
15) foto
gambar
A picture of something that you make with a
camera
picture
16) skuad
pasukan
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A team in a match
group
17) pistol
senjata api
A small gun that you hold in one hand
fire weapon
18) permit
surat kebenaran
An official document that gives you
permission to do something
permission letter
19) roket
pesawat
An air vehicle designed to travel through
space
an air vehicle
20) revolusi
perubahan
A sudden, major change in ideas and methods
change
21) pil
ubat
A small piece of medicinal substance for
swallowing with water
medicine
22) Presiden
ketua
The person who has the highest position in an
organization or institution
leader
Continued
23) spesies
jenis
kind, variety, type
A class of organisms grouped by virtue of
their common attributes
pameran, pertunjukan
24) ekspo
exhibition
Show of industrial products or technology
tekaan
25) spekulasi
Guess
Guesses about why something has happened
or what might happen
persembahan, pertunjukan
26) konsert
performance
Musical performance
27) era
Zaman
A period of time characterized by particular age
circumstances, events, or personages
28) implikasi
Physically or not physically observable
implications of an action or circumstance
kesan
physically observable effects
29) fakulti
A department or division in branches of
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learning at a college or university
jabatan
30) reformasi
department
Action to improve social or economic
conditions by alteration, correction of error,
or removal of defects.
pembaharuan
A change for the better; an improvement.
There are only 30 ( 3.89%) English loanwords which have close but not exact
Malay equivalents From many of the pairs observed, it can be seen that the Malay
equivalent is quite general. Such is the case with the pairs kek-kuih, biskut – kuih,
sandwich – roti, foto – gambar, pil – ubat, etc. There are some words in which the
closest Malay equivalent is the generic term as in pil which is part of ubat, pistol,
which is part of senjata api, kek is part of kuih, sandwich is part of roti and roket is
part of pesawat. Some close Malay equivalents are not suitable for specific use such
as shown in the pairs spesies – jenis, ekspo – pameran / pertunjukan, kalori/tenaga,
permit/surat kebenaran and data/maklumat.
From the pairs above, we can see that although certain English words can be
translated into Malay, the translation may not give a precise meaning. In the context of
an organization, a society or a country, the word we use must be appropriate and
specific. This is why we need to use presiden to refer to the head in these contexts.
The word ketua may give the connotation of trivializing the role of presidents since
ketua is so general it can also refer to the head of a village or a group of teenage
gangsters. It is the same case with the word ekspo and skim. Using pameran when
referring to the exhibition of industrial products can trivialize the event because
pameran can refer to any exhibition be it for commercial or decorative purpose. Skim
refers to a systematic plan. So, referring to it as „rancangan‟ which applies to any plan,
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whether systematic or not, can undervalue the systematicity of the scheme. Not using
specific terms can cause confusion. For example, in the context of health, „tenaga‟ can
refer to physical energy or the energy in food. The word pelakon is a neuter noun and
it can refer to a male or female movie star but the words aktor and aktres specify the
gender of the movie star. This is why when one wants to specify the gender in award
presentation ceremonies, it would be more economical to use these single terms rather
than „pelakon lelaki terbaik‟ or „pelakon wanita terbaik.‟
There are some words in which the equivalent mentioned in the Malay –
English bilingual dictionary is not precise or accurate. In the Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka Malay – English bilingual dictionary ( 2002 ), the equivalent of „fakulti is
said to be „jabatan.‟ „Jabatan‟ is an old word in education which refers to an academic
department which is much smaller than a faculty. The word „fakulti‟ connotes wider
terms. It refers to all subdivisions of learning, teaching, training and research in
different areas of knowledge. Today, „jabatan‟ refers to administration departments in
government offices and the private sector. The equivalent of „implikasi‟ according to
the bilingual dictionary, is kesan which is result. But there is a difference between the
result in these two words. „Kesan‟ restricts itself to the physically observable and
visible results. „Implikasi‟ goes beyond what is visibly seen. It also refers to things we
can perceive. For example, the consequence of a fire outbreak is visibly observable,
but the implications of having a one session school involves money, time, attitude and
dedication. „Pembaharuan‟ cannot substitute „reformasi‟ although it refers to change
because there is a difference in the degree of intensity. „Pembaharuan‟ is a milder
word. „Reformasi‟ refers to a drastic change, possibly with far-reaching consequences.
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Language mixing is sometimes necessary to overcome communication
obstacles and enable smooth communication. It is difficult to find precise words to
express what is in the heart and mind of certain speech communities. The use of
English terms has become too pervasive. The English words serve our specific
language needs. Weinrich (1953: 7) stated that “using ready-made designation is
more economical than describing things afresh. Few users of language are poets.”
Words are used to communicate feelings, thoughts and external events.
Loanwords reflect the interaction of humans with the environment around. That is
why this study goes beyond identifying English loan words. Many words that were
borrowed reflect development in society, the social, mental, political and educational
development, among others. From the loans, one can observe that English loans have
an influence in the area of economy, technology, transport, numerical terms, military ,
education and medical development . Linguistic import and export frequently go hand
in hand with the import and export of ideas. Kishe( 1994 ) states that Englishization
is indispensable as long as English continues to be looked upon as the main source of
modernizing a language and expanding the vocabulary. He adds that it is necessary
for code – elaboration, which deals with the expansion of the lexicon and the modes of
expressions.
Studies on loanwords have revealed that they enable users to be able to express
current issues and record perceptions of them and draw attention. It also reflects
mentality, developing values and changes in society. Some of the loanwords help
writers express their opinions, feelings, concerns as well as relate their perceptions of
current issues and events.
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A language could be considered inadequate or deficient if it failed to fulfill its
primary functions, which is to transmit messages, establish contacts and provide
sufficient means for giving expression to feelings and describing experiences. In this
regard loan words are not introduced to corrupt a language, but rather to enrich it.
4.7
WORDS WITH EQUIVALENT
Words are borrowed not only for the precise meanings they convey. The loan
words have other advantages. Apart from extending referring ability, the reasons for
lexical borrowing are also for semantic association and to trigger positive images that
cannot be done with certain native words. However, a word does not convey the same
semantic association for everyone. People in society have different attitudes towards
certain loan words in terms of acceptance. They even vary in their knowledge of the
loan words.
The theories by Kay (1995 ), and Winter (1973 ) postulate that loanwords may
be preferred for the following reasons ; they are more modern, effective and global. In
the words of Kay, “The existence of many loanwords which have Japanese
equivalents provides an alternative tone of discourse. The use of English loanwords is
not only a reflection of modern Japanese culture but also helps serve it by creating a
modern atmosphere.” Kay adds “With rapid international information exchange such
as news reports and competition and cooperation in technology, the availability of a
common vocabulary is helpful ” (1995 : 74). Winter
(1973 : 138). states that
“speakers may find a replacement in their language a word which has become obsolete
or lost its expressive force” This means that some of the existing words in their
language are not as suitable or effective as they used to be in conveying messages and
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they are replaced by foreign words. According to Hayashi & Hayashi (1995 : 55 ),
“there are many cases of parallel vocabulary items, Japanese words and English loan
words which have the same denotative meaning, yet differ in connotations they
convey. The difference of connotation may be one of formality, degree of technicality,
attitudinal neutrality and so on.” Some of the researcher‟s findings are in line with the
above theories and she has also discovered other reasons.
The table in Appendix 4 presents the list of English loan words with Malay
equivalents. What is meant by the expression „with equivalent‟ is that the Malay
equivalent has the same meaning as the English loan words. Semantically, there is no
difference in the pairs. The difference is more in connotation and pragmatic use, for
instance : isu is shorter to use than perkara pokok; biologi refers to the study of both
animal and plant life and is more popularly understood in academia compared to the
compound expression kaji hayat; akauntan sounds more professional than jurukira.
Since humanity shares ailments which are common, their terms in English seem to be
more widely used. To quote a few : insomnia and artritis. “Diabetes” seems a
euphemistic term in contrast to kencing manis. ( For a full list of English loanwords
and their BM equivalents, please refer to Appendix 4 ).
From the newspaper articles, the researcher could observe that some of the
English loan words are becoming more popular than their Malay counterparts. Since
readers and writers prefer to use the English loan words, there is a possibility that the
Malay equivalents will disappear. For example, „inovasi ‟ is more popular than
„pembaharuan,‟ „disiplin,‟ more than tatatertib. Aktiviti has become more popular
than „kegiatan.‟ It is even used in Malay short stories in the newspapers which
normally use less English words. „Prosedur‟ is more popular than „tatacara.‟ When the
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English loanwords become more popular in use than their Malay equivalents, these
Malay equivalents may soon become obsolete or lose their expressive force.
4.7.1 Reasons English loanwords are more popular than their Malay
equivalents in Malay newspapers.
In the following pages, there will be more discussion on the issue of English
loanwords with equivalents, according to categories of topics:
a) Modern development
We can see that many Malay equivalents are no longer used today. A few examples
are mata-mata ( police detective ) and rumah sakit ( hospital ). Terms relating to
various fields of study have changed. The meaning has become wide to suit the
current contexts. Specialized terms such as kaji hayat, kaji purba, kaji bumi, ilmu
hisab, ilmu kemasyarakatan, kaji bintang / ilmu falak are not contemporary. Kaji
purba has been replaced by arkeologi because of new and modern developments in
the field. It refers to a scientific study of old remains whereby archaeologists today
study the archaeological record through field surveys and excavations and through the
laboratory study of collected materials. Furthermore, the study now covers many
areas. It includes history, social study and human culture. The word ilmu hisab is now
known as matematik. According to Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, the former means,
counting. Today, maths is a study that includes arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
Kishe ( 1994 ) indicates that modernization of languages in developing countries is
dependent on the English language as many modern concepts come from this
language. The borrowing of many English words in various fields of study indicates
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that modernization of Bahasa Melayu has been taking place to cater to the modern
development .
b) The English loanwords sound better
Some words are preferred over their Malay counterparts because they sound better.
For example, one is more likely to say „keputusan akademik‟ instead of „keputusan
pelajaran.‟ „Akademik‟ sounds more scholarly and suits the context of higher learning.
Farmasi sounds more sophisticated than kedai ubat and restoran sounds more classy
than „kedai makan.‟ Sometimes artis is used instead of penyanyi because penyanyi
does not sound as glamorous. Moreover, artis is also synonymous with entertainer,
whereas penyanyi is restrictive.
c) Appropriate collocation
Some loanwords are used because they have a more appropriate collocation. This is
the case with TV realiti, which is translated from the English concept, reality show.
Reality programmes, programmes which are based on real experiences of competitors
pursuing their goals, ambitions, which started in the West, are also becoming popular
in Malaysia. Writers tend to use TV realiti as it would not make sense to say „TV
hakikat.‟ In the context of entertainment, the Malay word, „hakikat‟ may not
communicate the concept and nature of the programme. Furthermore, „hakikat‟ sounds
too serious. Hakikat deals more with reality of life. In the context of such
programmes, „reality‟ refers to real life as opposed to fictitious.
E.g
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Di bawah deklarasi yang akan dikeluarkan Isnin ini, negara-negara anggota juga mengiktiraf
kepentingan proses integrasi dan pembangunan komuniti ASEAN bagi membangunkan
komuniti di rantau Asia selain menyatakan sokongan mereka kepada usaha negara – negara
ASEAN.
( Najib garis 3 cabaran Komuniti Asia Timur – „Menjelang Sidang Kemuncak Asean ke11 Kuala Lumpur. Utusan Malaysia pg 4, 11 Dec 05 )
There are contexts in which the Malay equivalent would not be appropriate. In
some articles, the word komuniti does not only refer to a group of people living in a
particular area. It is also used to refer to a group of people with the same profession or
activity such as komuniti pengimport/pengeksport and komuniti perniagaan. In the
business context, it would be odd to say „masyarakat pengimport/pengeksport‟ or
„masyarakat
perniagaan‟ because the meaning of „masyarakat‟ does not include
people involved in similar activity. The example above shows that the word
„komuniti‟ can be extended to refer to people living across countries with similar
interests. This is to show group membership and solidarity.
There are also some linguistic reasons for using where the local equivalents
may not sound appropriate in certain collocations. This is the case with the expression
„membuat persepsi.‟
Example 1
Kita tidak seharusnya membuat persepsi bahawa masalah ini menular agak ketara.
(Utusan Malaysia 22 Mei 2005 pg 2 „Disiplin: Kabinet sokong tubuh empat
jawatankuasa bertindak.‟ )
The English expression, „making perception,‟ if translated as „membuat
pandangan‟ in Bahasa Melayu would be an incorrect collocation. In Bahasa Melayu,
mengemukakan pandangan would be a better expression.
Example 2
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Majoriti murid S.R.K. Kelana Jaya meminati muzik
The word „majoriti‟ can easily be replaced with „kebanyakan‟ in sentences such as the
above, where it appears at the beginning of a clause followed by the subject of the
sentence.
Example 3
Sesiapa pun yang mendapat sokongan majoriti di Parlimen dan dengan perkenaan Yang di –
Pertuan Agong dia boleh dilantik sebagai Perdana Menteri. MM 18 Julai 2004 pg 10 PM tetap
hak Melayu ?
If it comes after a noun, „majoriti‟ would be a more suitable word.
d) Euphemisms
Japanese studies such as the ones conducted by Rebuck (2000) found that English
loans are used for euphemistic purposes. The Japanese word can be too direct or
implies negative evaluations. For example, they prefer to use shinguru mazaa ( single
mother ) instead of the harsher sounding mikon no haha ( unmarried mother ). To refer
to a cleaner, they borrow the word „cleanliness staff‟ to make the job sound pleasant
although the job, condition and pay is not any different from any cleaner ( soojifu ). In
some of the Malay newspaper articles, the researcher has also found English
loanwords used as euphemisms. For example, when describing poor health or a bad
situation, teruk, which is closer in meaning to „bad‟ or „awful‟ has a negative
connotation and is not effective in conveying a message because it does not raise
concern or awareness about a problem. To refer to expenses, the word kos is preferred
over „harga‟ because „harga‟ connotes the price of cheap products as it often co-occurs
with murah and berpatutan while kos is more sophisticared in the context of economy.
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e) Flexibility in use
Another reason some English loan words are used is because some of them have
central meanings which can be pulled and stretched according to the edges
(Aitchinson, 2001). In other words, some word loans are used because they are
semantically elastic and flexible. With a core meaning, the referential potential of the
words can be extended. For example, the central meaning of „produk‟ is something
produced as a result of a process or a system. The word „produk‟ can be used to refer
to big and small items, objects or services and a piece of work. The word is also
flexible because it can be extended to refers to anything that is produced whether it is
tangible or not, whether it is produced from raw materials, produced in the factory or
whether it involves intellectual or mental effort.
Example 1
“Walaupun tahu status saya sekarang saya percaya peminat tetap memberi peluang yang adil
kepada penyanyi seperti saya terus aktif jika produk yang saya hidangkan kepada mereka
menyelerakan,” katanya. (Utusan Malaysia - Pancaindera pg 3. 20 November 2004
.‟Zarina tak rimas lagi.‟)
Example 2
Seperti di Sabah yang mempunyai kawasan perladangan terbesar kelapa sawit, ia boleh
digabungkan untuk dijadikan salah satu produk pelancongan. ( Berita Harian 2 Oktober
2004 pg 2 „Sabah miliki potensi industri pelancongan kesihatan.‟)
In the first example, music as a produk refers to the whole performance as a result of
the singer‟s work. In the second example, the tourism “produk” is as a result of
agricultural activities, which are important in Malaysia.
Example 3
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Penglibatan Ericsson kali ini ternyata mencipta satu definisi baru dunia telekomunikasi
apabila ia turut membawa segala cabaran dan saingan perlumbaan tersebut secara langsung
kepada pengguna telefon bimbit dan juga menerusi Internet.
Another example is the word „definisi.‟ In the third example, the word „definisi‟ is
extended to something else, not just meaning of words. The meaning of words is not
necessarily verbally expressed but also proven with something visual, a creation
which can be observed.
f) The English word has a wide or indepth meaning
There are English words with different Malay equivalents which give specific
meanings according to the context. „Konflik‟ can be synonymous with „perselisihan,‟
„pertikaian‟ (differences in views), „persengketaan‟ ( difference in views that cause
fight ), „perkelahian,‟ „pergaduhan‟ ( argument ), „pertempuhan,‟ ( fight, battle )
„percanggahan,‟ etc. Yet this word is preferred because it refers to many aspects. In
some contexts, konflik can involve all the specific meanings conveyed by the Malay
equivalent. The word „mesej‟ can also have different equivalents depending on the
context, for example, amaran, ingatan, pengajaran, pesanan, etc. However, in some
contexts, „mesej‟ is intended to give a wide meaning. For example,
Drama itu mengandungi mesej yang baik supaya kita, terutamanya orang Islam, jangan lekas
berputus asa dalam hidup.
In the excerpt above taken from a film review, the drama refers to a sad film
called ‟ „Sehelai Selendang Sutera.‟ This film is about a person disappointed with life
after the death of his sibling and mother. In the context, the mesej refers to the whole
drama because the drama has some lessons to be conveyed which can be direct or
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indirect. The word mesej does not only refer to particular statements and dialogues.
The conclusion and moral values from the entire drama has the message.
The word „isu‟ has a broader meaning than „persoalan.‟ The Malay equivalent,
„persoalan‟ refers to questions raised on a certain matter. When something becomes an
issue, we do not just raise questions. We would argue debate, discuss and be
concerned about it.
g) Varying the vocabulary
The researcher has also found instances where English loans with equivalents are used
to make the vocabulary varied. „Dari aspek‟ and „dari segi‟ were used interchangeably
in an article about tsunami. In the following example, the writer used both the English
loan and the Malay equivalent interchangeably „mutu hidup‟ dan „kualiti kesihatan.‟
Since the English words have been accepted as Malay words they are treated as
synonyms.
Example 1
Mudah-mudahan persekitaran kita tenang, semuanya dapat menyedut udara bersih dan
menikmati nafas yang segar, berupaya mengelak dari pembaziran dan dapat menggunakan
perbelanjaan untuk tujuan yang lebih berfaedah serta meningkatkan mutu hidup dan kualiti
kesihatan.
The writers, who probably prefer to use the English loan to convey the intended
message, at the same time want to enable readers who may not be familiar with the
English words to understand their message by including the Malay equivalents as
synonymous. This is seen in the following examples:
Example 2
Menyentuh mengenai masa depannya, Jimmy menegaskan, biarpun belum puas menjadi
pengacara atau hos, apa yang jelas ia telah membuka lembaran baru dalam hidupnya.‟
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(Utusan Malaysia, Pancaindera -
17 April 2005 pg 7 “Yezza” identity Jimmy
Shanley.‟ )
Example 3
Reaksi kanak-kanak terhadap bencana ini banyak bergantung kepada tahap umur yang
menentukan tahap kognitif atau pemikiran mereka. (Utusan Malaysia, 16 Jan 2005 pg 10
Trauma : Bunyi kenderaan disangka ombak besar.)
Example 4
Walaupun slogan atau iklan yang dipaparkan menyeru pemandu sentiasa mengingati orang
tersayang … MM 9 Oktober 2004 pg 10 Berfikiran waras semasa memandu di jalan raya.
Example 5
Biasanya teman lelaki yang bukan profesional sering berasa prejudis atau prasangka terhadap
wanita profesional kerana mereka sukar untuk diserasikan dengan alam kehidupan biasa.‟
Example 6
…..Sebagai ketua animasi, Yusri memang terikat dengan tanggungjawab mengendalikan
proses imej dijana menerusi computer atau computer – generated image ( CGI ) (Berita
Harian Hip pg 21 Disem Yusri tarik diri bintangi QKQI kerana Cicak Man 6
Disember 2004)
h) Context, topic and formality
Loan words are used in Bahasa Melayu newspaper articles to suit the context,
the topic and formality. For example, although the word „pemandangan‟ is equivalent
to landskap ( landscape ), in articles on landscaping, writers prefer to use „landskap‟ to
suit commercial or professional contexts. This is seen in the collocations „konsep
taman dan landskap,‟ and „perunding landskap.‟ This word is used as a register in the
context of profesional landscaping as in the example below:
Example 1
Landskap hijau dan bunga-bungaan serta pancutan air berbentuk singa, istana Alhambra
mencetuskan konsep kesenian “ Taman dalam rumah.” (Berita Harian pg 11, 11 Disember
2004 „Alhambra Cetus konsep Taman Dalam Rumah.‟)
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Morrow, cited in Hayashi& Hayashi ( 1995 ), mentioned that difference in formality
between the English loanwords and the local equivalents influences the choice of
English loanwords. Example 2 below shows that in the context of the formality of
election, the word majoriti is a one word expression to refer to most votes.
Example 2
Pada pilihanraya umum lalu Kamarudin menewaskan calon Pas, Dr. Mamad Puteh dengan
majoriti 1695 undi. (Utusan Malaysia, 15 Ogos 2004 BN, Pas letak calon di Kuala Berang. Pg
2)
Example 3
Kongres Kepentingan Bangsa yang berakhir hari ini mengeluarkan resolusi 29 perkara yang
antaranya ..
In the above sentence in Example 3, „resolusi‟is used instead of „penyelesaian‟ as this
suits the formality of political conventions.
Example 4
Festival yang khusus menayangkan filem-filem dari Asia dan hasil kerja pembikin filem
kelahiran Asia itu sebelum ini pernah memberikan fokus kepada sinema Hong Kong, Korea
Selatan, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, China.
Example 5
Chemman Chaalai juga terpilih bertanding dalam Festival Tiga Benua Nantes di Perancis,
acara filem yang memberikan tumpuan kepada sinema Asia, Afrika dan Amerika Selatan.
In examples 4 and 5, the word „sinema‟ is used instead of the Malay equivalent
„wayang‟ to suit the international context as the word „sinema‟ is more global.
i) Creative exploitation
Some English words are used for creative exploitation. For example, a religious article
borrowed the word „organisasi.‟ The concept of „organisasi‟ is used to urge people to
work together, cooperatively rather than being individualistic to contribute to society.
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This word has a more systematic and organized connotation than the Malay equivalent
„pertubuhan.‟ It is coherent with the idea of order which is conveyed in some parts of
the article :
Example 1
Berorganisasi penting dalam mengatur kehidupan, kemasyarakatan dan sistem
Example 2
Sesungguhnya Allah sangat menyukai orang yang bekerja / berjuang di jalanNya dalam
barisan yang tertib bagaikan bangunan yang bersusun rapi ( Surah Saf Ayat 4 )
Example 3
Tanpa organisasi perubahan sukar berlaku. Kemajuan pula tidak akan berlaku dengan teratur.
Example 4
Dalam tradisi Islam berorganisasi itu dihubungkan dengan konsep jemaah.
The other words or phrases which exist together with „organisasi‟ such as „mengatur,‟
(arrange), „barisan yang tertib,‟ and „bersusun rapi‟ show that the word „organisasi‟
has the connotation of being well organized. The word „organisasi shows also unity
while „pertubuhan‟ does not give that connotation. The article lists all the things
necessary for „organisasi.‟ It involves mental exertion, energy and plan.
The word „produktiviti‟ is used in newspaper articles instead of its Malay
equivalent, „daya pengeluaran‟ because it is coherent in the context of modern
economy and industrial developement. Some words are used to suit the context of
formality. In the context of election, the word „majoriti‟ is more effective than
„kebanyakan‟ to suit the formality of elections when mentioning majority votes.
Medical articles, normally use English terms rather than the Malay equivalents
to refer to diseases or medical problems to suit the context of specialization. This is
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the case with insomnia ( suhad ), hernia ( burut ) testis ( buah pelir ) and sperma
(benih jantan). Writers often use „kesihatan fizikal‟ rather than „kesihatan jasmani.‟
j) The Malay equivalent is polysemous
According to Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, English loans are also borrowed if the
Malay equivalent has many meanings, if they have different definitions which are
semantically distinct from one another, and writers find it better to make use of a word
that conveys related meanings. „Pandangan‟ is a word with many meanings not related
to perception. It can mean a stare, something that is seen or something that is at the
center of attention. According to an expert from the lexicography department at
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, the word „mutu‟ has the following meanings : the first
meaning is to be sad, be quiet and to ponder. The second meaning is to be in a
dangerous situation, the third meaning is different kinds of permata. Another meaning
is the measurement of the purity of gold.
The last meaning is the standard of
goodness, intelligence, etc. The meaning of kualiti is included in the last meaning.
„Kualiti‟ is part of „mutu.‟ The Malay equivalent of mengedit, which is „menyunting‟
has totally different meanings. 1) To pluck a flower to make a decoration, 2) to
arrange film before screening and 3) to proofread and improve a piece of writing.
k) Register
In certain articles, loanwords are used as register. For example, in a medical
article, antenatal is used instead of „sebelum bersalin,‟ fertiliti instead of „kesuburan.‟
Obesiti is a global term derived from English and it is more widely used than
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„kegemukan‟ and it seems such register is common in medical articles in BM. There
are some technical words such as kognitif for which the Malay equivalent is not
technical enough. Some words show exclusiveness. Postur is a technical word to refer
body position. Skuad is a sports register to refer to a team. „Vokal‟is a music register
for voice. These English loanwords with equivalents are used to suit the specialized
contexts. English words are necessary to convey modern knowledge ( Kishe, 1994 ).
l) Length of word
According to Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, English words are also borrowed and used
because they are shorter than the Malay equivalent some of which is made up of
compound words. For example, hospital is chosen over rumah sakit and fisiologi,
over kaji tugas organ. Also, „inisiatif‟ is used instead of „daya usaha.‟ „Komposer‟ is
used instead of „penggubah lagu.‟ Other examples are arkeologi - kaji purba, slogan
– cogan kata, stesen – perhentian, isu – persoalan, perkara pokok, Antikuiti – barang
purba, zaman kuno, masa purbakala.
m) Adequacy
Some words are borrowed because the Malay equivalent does not cover all the
meanings conveyed by a particular English word. The polysemy of a particular
English word is not necessarily the same as the one in its equivalent in other
languages. For example, „perhentian‟ is only as in the bus station or railway station
while the English loanword “stesen” can also refer to radio, television, petrol station,
etc.
Example 1
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Saya sudah pulih, berusaha untuk terus normal macam orang lain.
Example 2
Pengarah Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran ( JPS ) Perlis, Hanafi Mohd Nor, berkata paras air di
daerah Arau menyusut ke tahap normal. (Berita Harian „Paras air di Arau semakin susut,
Kangar bertambah teruk 21 Dis 2004 pg 7)
In these contexts, normal means nothing wrong, the usual. “Normal” has a Malay
equivalent if it means ordinary or usual ( biasa ).
Example 3
Seboleh-bolehnya Arin tidak mahu mengenang situasi berhari raya dengan statusnya sebagai
isteri kedua yang pernah dilaluinya suatu ketika dahulu…..‟
Example 4
Status dirinya sudah bergelar isteri.
The word „status‟ has equivalent if it refers to position ( taraf ). In these examples, the
writers have exploited this word to extend it to refer to conditions and situations.
Example 5
Dia mempunyai karakter menarik sebagai seorang pelukis.
In the context of art, this word, which refers to a unique quality, is more appropriate
than the Malay equivalents. Bahasa Melayu has the following equivalent for
„karakter.‟ 1- the qualities in someone‟s personality ( sifat ) 2 – a person in a in a
novel, play, film, etc ( watak ) and 3 – a person‟s behaviour ( tabiat ).
n) Slight difference in meaning
Based on the contexts and definitions in the dictionary, the researcher could conclude
that some loan words differ from their equivalents because there is slight difference in
meaning and connotation from the Malay equivalents. This is seen in the word lokasi
where the Malay equivalent would be kawasan/tempat.
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Example 1
Seramai 12 pelajar AF2 dipilih daripada 4000 calon yang diuji bakat dalam 13 sesi pada Mac
dan April lalu di sembilan buah lokasi di seluruh Negara. (Utusan Malaysia 15 Ogos 2004
pg 1 Zahid mara Akademi Fantasia)
Example 2
Menurut Salahuddin, pengguna juga sebenarnya boleh mengesan lokasi pengirim e-mel yang
diterima jika mengetahui maklumat yang diperlukan
Example 3
Kami memilih lokasi strategik yang mempunyai pelanggan terpilih…
Berita Harian pg 18 2 July
Example 4
Sebuah pesawat Nuri milik Tentera Udara Diraja Malaysia ( TUDM ) dengan 10 penumpang
termasuk juruterbang dipercayai hilang di kawasan hutan Long Seridan, tidak jauh dari lokasi
nahas helikopter Bell 206
Example 5
Imbasan CT dan MRI pesakit akan digunakan untuk mencari lokasi barah dari rangka kepala
denhan tepat. Utusan Malaysia, 20 November pg 27 2004 „Harapan baru pesakit barah otak.‟
From the textual analysis, it was found that the word lokasi exists together with the
following: „kemalangan‟ (accident ), „nahas kapal terbang‟ ( plane crash ), „uji bakat‟
(audition), and „barah‟ ( cancer ). From these contexts, the researcher could draw the
conclusion that „lokasi‟ connotes a specific place where something happens or takes
place while the Malay word „tempat‟ or „kawasan‟ refers to a place in general.
Nowadays, graduan seems to be replacing the Malay equivalent, siswazah
.There is slight difference in meaning according to Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Graduan refers to a person who will get the degree on convocation day while
siswazah refers to someone who has passed the last examination university or
someone with university education. There is not too much difference because it is
understood that anyone who has passed the last exam in the university will convocate.
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Sekular is seen to be more effective in conveying a message than its Malay
equivalent duniawi. The meaning of duniawi is more general. It just refers to being too
concerned about material things but the word „sekular‟ tells something more. It
connotes rejection of values, especially religious values in daily affairs. The meaning
of „tatatertib‟ is limited to abiding by the rules while the meaning of disiplin is wider
and includes self-control control and will power.
o) Metaphor
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the Japanese studies reveal that some English loanwords
are used as metaphors for special effect. In this study, the researcher has found some
instances of using English loanwords as metaphor. It is interesting to see how the
writer used an English word for a metaphorical effect in a religious article.
Example 1
Rasulullah menjelaskan bahawa orang yang bankrap itu ialah mereka yang datang menghadap
Tuhan pada hari kiamat kelak dengan pahala puasa, sembahyang, zakat dan sebagainya, lalu
dating mereka yang dizalimi ketika hidup di dunia menuntut hak masing – masing
(Utusan Malaysia Malaysia pg 9, 4 July 2005 „Hak mereka yang dizalimi….. Dr
Amran Kasimin)
Example 2
Orang yang seperti inilah yang dikategorikan sebagai benar-benar bankrap dan akhirnya di
tolak masuk dalam neraka ( Same article )
The English loanword „bankrap‟ and the Malay equivalent, „muflis‟ both refer
to being financially insolvent. In this article, the meaning of the word „bankrap‟ is
extended to refer to loss of spiritual rewards. The article mentions that in our daily
lives, we may have worked hard to accumulate rewards but yet mistreating people can
make us easily lose the rewards. The article uses a business situation as an analogy. In
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business, if a businessman makes serious mistakes, he can lose the profits he made
easily.
Example 3
Saya tidak pernah berniat untuk mengajak orang yang membenci sesiapa ( walaupun
sudah ramai orang sastera yang sejak zaman beliau muncul sebagai teroris sastera
membencinya.) (Utusan Malaysia 18 Dis 2004 Affanci keliru tradisi ilmu pg 31
Rahim Abdullah.)
In the above example, teroris is not used literally as in a person who uses force or
violence to achieve political goals, but metaphorically to refer to those who somehow
do injustice to literature.
p) Modern image
According to Kay in Japan, “loanwords are often associated with a sophisticated,
western lifestyle and may be used in place of Japanese words of equivalent meaning
because of their foreign appeal. Their modern image often makes them preferable to
domestic equivalents where these exist ” ( 1995 : 74 ). The researcher found that
advertisers prefer to use English loanwords rather than their Malay equivalents to
advertise products. In a beauty product advertisement on a facial mask, „mask‟ is used
instead of „topeng.‟ ( Inginkan mask yang sesuai untuk kulit anda ? ) Sales advertisement
always use „karnival‟ instead of „temasya‟ as in „Karnival jum bisnes,‟ „Karnival
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dalam taman.‟ In cosmetic advertisements, „lipstik‟ is commonly used instead of
„gincu‟ bibir.
Many companies in Malaysia prefer to give English names to their companies.
The following are some of the names of companies identified from the newspapers :
Telecom Research and Development Sdn Bhd ( TMR & D )
Deloitte Consulting Malaysia
KRU Motion Pictures
Sonata Film 3
Power Records Sdn Bhd
Airbus
4.7.2 Results of survey
The researcher had sent surveys to 68 readers and 20 writers. The first part of
the survey gathers the respondents‟ background information such as their language,
education and social background. The second part of the survey presents 44 pairs of
English loanwords with their Bahasa Melayu equivalents ( Please refer to Appendix 1
for the survey). The respondents generally do not have the habit of mixing languages
when they speak. There are more respondents from rural areas compared to urban
areas although the difference is very little. 80 % of them have not been educated in an
English-speaking country. The main language spoken in the schools they went to was
Bahasa Malaysia. Most of the respondents are from a modest economic background.
The following tables present the frequency of the respondents who chose the English
loan words as opposed to the Malay equivalent and vice-versa.
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Preferred English loanwords among readers
English loanwords that are found to be more suitable and effective in conveying
messages
Table 3.1 biologi vs kaji hayat
Valid
biologi
kaji hayat
Total
Frequency
60
Percent
88.2
Valid Percent
88.2
Cumulative
Percent
88.2
8
11.8
11.8
100.0
68
100.0
100.0
60 readers, which makes 88.2 percent, chose biologi instead of „kaji hayat‟ while only
8 readers chose „kaji hayat.‟ The word „biologi‟ was found to be more suitable and
effective in conveying messages by both readers and writers because in the education
context, the word „kaji hayat‟ is rarely used. Furthermore, „kaji hayat‟ is an outdated
word. Just like other terms relating to specialized fields of study such as „arkeologi,‟
the concept has added new meanings which are relevant to current developments.
Table 3.2 arkeologi vs kaji purba
Valid
Percent
77.9
Valid Percent
77.9
Cumulative
Percent
77.9
100.0
arkeologi
Frequency
53
kaji purba
15
22.1
22.1
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Between the pairs „arkeologi‟ and „kaji purba,‟ 53 readers ( 77.9%) chose the English
loan „arkeologi‟ while 15 ( 22.1 % ) chose the Malay equivalent, „kaji purba.‟ Readers
found the word „arkeologi‟ more popular and modern as well, apart from being
suitable and effective in conveying a message. From the contexts of the excerpts from
the articles, the researcher could come to the conclusion that the word „arkeologi‟ has
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a deeper meaning than „kaji purba.‟ It indicates that it involves interpreting the
society, human life and culture in the past by studying their remains while the term
„kaji purba‟ just connotes studying the remains of old things.
Table 3.3 lokasi vs tempat
Frequency
Valid
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
lokasi
60
88.2
92.3
92.3
tempat
5
7.4
7.7
100.0
65
95.6
100.0
3
4.4
68
100.0
Total
Missing
Percent
System
Total
Table 3.4 statistik vs perangkaan
Valid
statistik
perangkaan
Total
Missing
Total
System
Frequency
59
Percent
86.8
Valid Percent
88.1
Cumulative
Percent
88.1
100.0
8
11.8
11.9
67
98.5
100.0
1
1.5
68
100.0
60 readers ( 88.2 %) preferred „lokasi‟ rather than „tempat.‟ Only 5 of them ( 7.4 %)
preferred „tempat.‟ 3 of them ( 4.4 % ) did not make any choice for these pairs.
Between the pair „statistik‟ and „perangkaan,‟ 59 ( 86.8%) preferred „statistik‟ while 8
preferred „perangkaan.‟ 1 respondent did not make any choice. The word
„perangkaan,‟ which is the Malay equivalent of „stastistik‟ is not used at all in
newspapers. „Statistik‟ seems more suitable and effective because it refers to figures
that show a group of numbers that represent a fact or describe a situation. It goes
beyond just showing numbers as connoted by „perangkaan,‟ for example :
Statistik yang dikeluarkan oleh polis mengenai perilaku pendatang asing ini sangat
membimbangkan. Tahun lalu misalnya, statistik polis menunjukkan 15 798 kes ragut
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dilakukan oleh pendatang asing dan pendatang Indonesia yang paling banyak terlibat.‟
(Utusan Malaysia 18 July 04 pg 10).
Table 3.5 sekular vs duniawi
Valid
sekular
Frequency
61
Percent
89.7
Valid Percent
89.7
Cumulative
Percent
89.7
duniawi
7
10.3
10.3
100.0
68
100.0
100.0
Total
Table 3.6 disiplin vs tatatertib
Frequency
Valid
disiplin
tatatertib
Total
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
63
92.6
92.6
92.6
5
7.4
7.4
100.0
68
100.0
100.0
Table 3.7 operasi vs gerakan
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Total
Percent
operasi
52
76.5
gerakan
14
Total
66
System
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
78.8
78.8
20.6
21.2
100.0
97.1
100.0
2
2.9
68
100.0
For the pairs „sekular‟ and „duniawi‟ 61( 89.7% ) chose „sekular‟ while only 7
(10.3%) chose „duniawi.‟ An overwhelming majority chose „disiplin‟ instead of
„tatatertib.‟ The Malay equivalent may be less attractive. 52 respondents ( 76.5%)
chose „operasi‟ because they found it easier to use as well as more suitable. This word
is easier because the Malay equivalent, „gerakan‟ is very general and it also has
different meanings. It can refer to physical movement or an activity. The phrase
operasi is wide and connotes that it involves many aspects such as military planning
and coordination besides activities in certain places. Furthermore, this word is globally
understood and globally known.
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Table 3.8 festival vs pesta
Valid
Missing
Frequency
55
Percent
80.9
Valid Percent
83.3
Cumulative
Percent
83.3
pesta
11
16.2
16.7
100.0
Total
66
97.1
100.0
2
2.9
68
100.0
festival
System
Total
For the pairs „festival‟ and „pesta‟ 55 readers (80.9%) chose „festival‟ because they
found it more suitable and popular in entertainment contexts since a film awards
ceremony usually had this word, for example, Festival Filem Antarabangsa Tokyo.
Furthermore, „pesta‟ seems to be associated with smaller events while film festivals
are on a large scale, at the regional, even international level.
Table 3.9 industri vs perusahaan
Valid
industri
Frequency
61
Percent
89.7
Valid Percent
91.0
Cumulative
Percent
91.0
6
8.8
9.0
100.0
67
98.5
100.0
68
100.0
perusahaan
Total
TotalHAS MISSING
61 readers (89.7%) chose „industri‟ over „perusahaan‟ while only 6 (8.8%) chose
„perusahaan.‟ 1 respondent did not state his/her choice. From the responses, the word
„industri‟ seems to be easier and more suitable because the Malay equivalent,
„perusahaan‟ is not as flexible as „industri‟ in its usage. Industri has a more advanced
connotation in the context of development and economy.
Table 3.10 isu vs persoalan
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135
Frequency
Valid
isu
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
63
92.6
92.6
92.6
5
7.4
7.4
100.0
68
100.0
100.0
persoalan
Total
Percent
63 readers (92.6%) chose isu while only 5 (7.4%) because they found it more suitable
and effective in conveying message, as well as easier to use and understand. It is
easier to use because it is shorter. It is easier to use shorter words in the plural, for
example, isu-isu.
Table 3.11 konflik vs persengketaan
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Percent
konflik
54
79.4
persengketaan
13
Total
67
1
1.5
68
100.0
System
Total
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
80.6
80.6
19.1
19.4
100.0
98.5
100.0
Nearly 80% of the readers preferred „konflik‟ to „persengketaan‟ as the former was
shorter, more effective and easier to use.
Table 3.12 aktiviti vs kegiatan
Valid
aktiviti
Frequency
52
Percent
76.5
Valid Percent
76.5
Cumulative
Percent
76.5
100.0
kegiatan
16
23.5
23.5
Total
68
100.0
100.0
52 readers (76.5%) preferred found „aktiviti‟ while 16 (23.5%) preferred
„kegiatan.‟ The majorty of the readers chose „aktiviti‟ because they found it more
suitable and effective, easier to use and understand as they were more familiar with
this word than its Malay equivalent.
In the newspapers, the Malay equivalent,
„kegiatan‟ is not very popular.
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Table 3.13 produktiviti vs daya pengeluaran
Frequency
Valid
produktiviti
41
daya pengeluaran
27
Total
68
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid Percent
60.3
60.3
60.3
39.7
39.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
41 (60.3%) readers preferred „produktiviti‟ while 27 (39.7 %) preferred „daya
pengeluaran. More readers preferred the word „produktiviti‟ because it is found to be
more suitable and effective in conveying messages in economic contexts according to
the readers the majority of the readers. „Daya pengeluaran‟ sometimes refers to
general effort.
Table 3.14 alternatif vs pilihan
Valid
alternatif
Frequency
40
Percent
Valid Percent
58.8
58.8
pilihan
28
41.2
41.2
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
58.8
100.0
40 (58.8%) readers chose „alternatif‟ instead of „pilihan‟ while 28 (41.2%)
chose „pilihan.‟ More readers chose „alternatif‟ because the word „pilihan‟ may not
give the intended message as it is too general. Alternatif conveys the following
meaning : „the only other choice or the second choice.‟
Table 3.15 moral vs akhlak
Frequency
Valid
moral
42
akhlak
26
Total
68
Percent
61.8
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
61.8
61.8
38.2
38.2
100.0
100.0
100.0
41 readers ( 61.8%) preferred „moral‟ over „akhlak‟ while 26 (38.2%) preferred
„akhlak.‟The word „moral‟ was found to be more suitable to use according to the
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readers and writers. According to a Bahasa Melayu expert from the Centre for
Languages and Pre-University Academic Development from International Islamic
University Malaysia (CELPAD), Siti Baidura, this word is more universal, commonly
used to be suitable to the context of a Malaysian society where there are Muslims as
well as non-Muslims. This is also mentioned by some of the readers. The word
„akhlak‟ which is adapted from Arabic would be more suitable in the religious
context.
Table 3.16 organisasi vs pertubuhan
Valid
organisasi
Frequency
43
Percent
63.2
Valid Percent
63.2
Cumulative
Percent
63.2
100.0
pertubuhan
25
36.8
36.8
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Frequency
40
Percent
58.8
Valid Percent
58.8
Cumulative
Percent
58.8
pandangan
28
41.2
41.2
100.0
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Table 3.17 persepsi vs pandangan
Valid
persepsi
For the organisasi – pertubuhan pair, 43 ( 63.2%) chose „organisasi‟ because they
found it more suitable and effective, easier to use and understand. 25 of them (36.8%)
felt otherwise. The readers found persepsi to be more modern apart from being
suitable and effective in conveying message compared to „pandangan.‟.
In their responses, as regards their reasons for the preference of English loans,
the most popular answer given by readers was that the English loan words were more
suitable and effective in conveying messages. The pattern seems to be similar as in the
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case of the words alternatif, biologi, fokus, lokasi, operasi, industri, konflik, statistik,
sekular, moral, aktiviti, disiplin, produktiviti, and definisi.
There are many English loan words which the readers find to be more suitable
and effective in conveying a message. The researcher has interviewed some experts
from Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, from the Jabatan Pembentukan Istilah ( the
Department of Terminology Formation.) When the researcher consulted some Bahasa
Melayu experts from Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka on many of the words such as
festival, konflik, statistik, aktiviti, organisasi, denisi, fokus, operasi ,persepsi and
others, they stated that there is no difference in meaning between these words and
their Bahasa Melayu counterparts. The only difference is that in the pairs, one is the
English loan and the other one is the Bahasa Melayu word. Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka accepts English loan words once they have become widespread in use by
writers and users. Dictionaries include new words only after those words have come
into widespread use. Bahasa Melayu users have a choice whether to use the English
loan word or the Malay word. The response of the writers and readers towards some
words has got to do with their attitude. Psychologically, they would prefer the English
word over the Malay word even though the Malay word gives the same meaning. It is
the media which makes certain words more popular and this influences the readers‟
attitude. Kishe ( 1994 ) in her article on English loanwords in Kiswahili mentioned
that the preference for English over Kiswahili terms is mainly psychological. She gave
an instance in which the standard term for „certificate‟ is stashahada but the English
term „diploma‟ is gaining more acceptance to the extent that the Kiswahili term
stashahada is disappearing because it is considered too African or Arabic, especially
in the context of higher education. Other such words which seem to have overtaken
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their counterparts in Kiswahili, include „sekreteriati` ( secreteriat ) and numonia
(pneumonia). The Kiswahili equivalents are „kamati‟ and „kichomi.‟ This situation in
Kenya is an indication of the power of English loanwords.
Preferred English loanwords by readers for other reasons
Table 3.18 program vs rancangan
Valid
Frequency
51
Percent
75.0
Valid Percent
75.0
Cumulative
Percent
75.0
rancangan
17
25.0
25.0
100.0
Total
68
100.0
100.0
program
Table 3.19 aktif vs giat
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
aktif
61
89.7
89.7
89.7
giat
7
10.3
10.3
100.0
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Most of the readers chose „program‟ and „aktif‟ over their Malay counterparts because
they found them easier to use and understand. 51 readers (75%) chose „program‟ over
„rancangan.‟ For the aktif – giat pair, 61 readers ( 89.7%) chose the English loan aktif.
They are probably more familiar with these words. From the contexts of the
newspaper articles, the researcher concludes that „giat‟ shows higher intensity in
activeness. This can be seen in the example below.
Ketika ini, kerja-kerja pemasangan badan dan kemudahan pesawat pertama A320 AirAsia
sedang giat dijalankan.
Table 3.20 definisi vs takrifan
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
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Valid
definisi
61
89.7
89.7
89.7
takrifan
7
10.3
10.3
100.0
68
100.0
100.0
Total
Table 3.21 slogan vs cogan kata
Valid
slogan
Frequency
58
Percent
85.3
Valid Percent
85.3
Cumulative
Percent
85.3
100.0
cogan kata
10
14.7
14.7
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Table 3.22 atlit vs olahragawan
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
atlit
54
79.4
79.4
79.4
olahragawan
14
20.6
20.6
100.0
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Nearly 90% of the respondents had come out in support of „definisi.‟ It sounds catchy
and academic. 58 readers ( 85.3%) preferred slogan over cogan kata. Slogan is found
to be easier to use, understand and was more popular among readers because it sounds
catchy and easier to pronounce. For the atlit – olahragawan pair, 54 ( 79.4%) readers
chose atlit while 14 ( 20.6%) chose olahragawan. ‘Atlit‟ is preferred because it is
easier to pronounce as it has less syllables than olahragawan/wati. There is
grammatical flexibility in the sense that we can pluralize by saying atlit-atlit.
Moreover, „atlit‟ is gender neutral. With olahragawan/wati, it is also vague whether it
refers to one or more.
Table 3.23 finalis vs peserta akhir
Valid
finalis
Frequency
50
Percent
73.5
Valid Percent
73.5
Cumulative
Percent
73.5
100.0
peserta akhir
18
26.5
26.5
Total
68
100.0
100.0
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Table 3.24 artikel vs makalah
Valid
artikel
makalah
Total
Frequency
65
Percent
95.6
Valid Percent
95.6
Cumulative
Percent
95.6
100.0
3
4.4
4.4
68
100.0
100.0
Table 3.25 logik vs penaakulan
Frequency
Valid
logik
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
61
89.7
89.7
89.7
7
10.3
10.3
100.0
68
100.0
100.0
penaakulan
Total
Percent
Table 3.26 produk vs barangan
Frequency
Valid
Percent
produk
48
barangan
20
Total
68
70.6
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
70.6
70.6
29.4
29.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
Table 3.27 tradisi vs adat resam
Valid
tradisi
Frequency
38
Percent
55.9
Valid Percent
55.9
Cumulative
Percent
55.9
100.0
adat resam
30
44.1
44.1
Total
68
100.0
100.0
Table 3.28 graduan vs siswazah
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
graduan
43
63.2
63.2
63.2
siswazah
25
36.8
36.8
100.0
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Total
68
100.0
100.0
Table 3.29 kanser vs barah
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
kanser
47
69.1
69.1
69.1
barah
21
30.9
30.9
100.0
Total
68
100.0
100.0
From the finalis – peserta akhir pair 50 readers (73.5 %) preferred the English
loanword finalis while the rest of the readers chose peserta akhir. The readers who
chose „finalis‟ responded that „finalis‟ sounded more modern and therefore it is more
popular. From the artikel-makalah pair, 65 readers (95.6%) chose artikel while only 3
(4.4%) chose makalah. Artikel was found to be easier to use and understand because
the respondents seemed to be more familiar with this word. The Malay equivalent,
makalah is hardly used today. For the logik-penaakulan pair, the majority of the
readers, 61 of them (89.7%) chose logik while only 7 (10.3%) chose penaakulan. Both
the readers and writers felt that the words „artikel‟ and „logik‟ were easier to use and
understand. Logik is easier because it is shorter than „penaakulan.‟ For the produkbarangan pair, most readers and writers chose produk over barangan because it is a
more popular word. Some find the latter too general. 48 readers (70.6%) chose produk
while 20 readers preferred barangan. ( Tradisi is said to be easier to use compared to
„adat resam.‟ Both the readers and writers group found „graduan‟ easier to use and
understand and considered it more popular. The universality of this word made the
respondents more familiar with it. The readers who chose „kanser‟ over „barah‟
considered this word more popular because this is a more common word in the
medical field.
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English loan words preferred by the writers
Absolute preference for English loanwords
Table 4.1 arkeologi vs kaji purba
arkeologi
kaji purba
Total
Frequency
20
0
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.2 disiplin vs tatatertib
disiplin
tatatertib
Total
Frequency
20
0
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.3 festival vs pesta
festival
pesta
Total
Frequency
20
0
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.4 isu vs persoalan
isu
persoalan
Total
Frequency
20
0
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.5 program vs rancangan
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Frequency
program
20
rancangan 0
Total
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.6 atlit vs olahragawan
Frequency
atlit
20
olahragawan 0
Total
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.7 artikel vs makalah
artikel
makalah
Total
Frequency
20
0
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.8 logik vs penaakulan
logik
penaakulan
Total
Frequency
20
0
20
Percent
100
0
100
Table 4.9 produk vs barangan
produk
barangan
Total
Frequency
20
0
20
Percent
100
0
100
The writers showed a strong preference for
33 loan words against the equivalents available, a very high percentage of 80.4%. In
some cases, their preference for the loanword was absolute, for example, arkeologi,
disiplin, festival, isu, program, atlit, artikel and logik. All 20 writers (100%) chose
these words instead of their Malay equivalents. It may probably be assumed that since
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145
the journalists read a lot of news material in English in their line of work, they may be
strongly influenced to use loanwords.
Pairs in which the writers were equally divided in the preference
Table 4.10 kanser vs barah
Frequency
10
10
20
kanser
barah
Total
Percent
50
50
100
Table 4.11 alternatif vs pilihan
alternatif
pilihan
Total
Frequency
10
10
20
Percent
50
50
100
Table 4.12 realiti vs kenyataan
realiti
kenyataan
Total
Frequency
10
10
20
Percent
50
50
100
The writers were equally divided in the case of the following pairs : realiti –
kenyataan, alternatif – pilihan and kanser – barah. 10 writers ( 50%) chose these
loanwords while the other half of the writers chose the Malay equivalents.
English loanwords that are preferred because they are found to be more popular
Table 4.13 inisiatif vs daya usaha
Frequency Percent
inisiatif
11
55
daya usaha
9
45
Total
20
100
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Table 4.14 aktif vs giat
aktif
giat
Total
Frequency
18
2
20
Percent
90
10
100
Table 4.15 finalis vs peserta akhir
finalis
peserta akhir
Total
Frequency
16
4
20
Percent
80
20
100
Table 4.16 persepsi vs pandangan
Frequency
persepsi
11
pandangan 9
Total
20
Percent
55
45
100
When probed on the reasons for the writers‟ preference for English loanwords, the
finding was that the popularity of the words influenced their choice. Such is the case
with the words aktif, program, atlit(also suitable ), inisiatif, finalis, arkeologi ( it is
also seems to be more modern), elemen, realiti, intelektual, persepsi (also modern)
and isu. 18 writers ( 90%) preferred aktif while only 2 ( 10%) preferred giat. For the
inisiatif-daya usaha pair, 11 writers (55%) chose inisiatif while 9 (45%) chose daya
usaha. For the finalis-peserta akhir pair, 16 writers (80%) preferred finalis while only
4 (20%) preferred peserta akhir. 11 (55%) writers chose persepsi while 9 (45%) chose
pandangan.
English loanwords that are preferred because they are found to be easier to use and
understand
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Table 4.17 industri vs perusahaan
Frequency
industri
18
perusahaan 2
Total
20
Percent
90
10
100
Table 4.18 aktiviti vs kegiatan
Frequency
aktiviti 16
kegiatan 4
Total
20
Percent
80
20
100
Table 4.19 konflik vs persengketaan
Frequency
konflik
16
persengketaan 4
Total
20
Percent
80
20
100
Table 4.20 produktiviti vs daya pengeluaran
Frequency
produktiviti
15
daya pengeluaran 5
Total
20
Percent
75
25
100
Table 4.21 definisi vs takrifan
definisi
takrifan
Total
Frequency
15
5
20
Percent
75
25
100
Table 4.22 organisasi vs pertubuhan
Frequency
organisasi 16
pertubuhan 4
Total
20
Percent
80
20
100
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Table 4.23 slogan vs cogan kata
slogan
cogan kata
Total
Frequency
18
2
20
Percent
90
10
100
Table 4.24 graduan vs siswazah
graduan
siswazah
Total
Frequency
15
5
20
Percent
75
25
100
Another main factor that influenced the writers‟ preference was that many of the
English loans seemed easier to use and understand. Such is the case with the words industri ( this word was also found to be more suitable and popular), festival, konflik,
aktiviti, slogan ( these words were also found to be more popular and suitable ),
disiplin, isu, graduan, organisasi, produktiviti, artikel, logik, definisi, alternatif ( these
words were also found to be more modern and popular ). 18 writers ( 90%) chose
industri and slogan while only 2 ( 20%) chose their Malay equivalents, perusahaan
and cogan kata. 16 writers ( 80% ) chose konflik, aktiviti and organisasi while only 4
writers ( 20% ) chose their Malay equivalents, persengketaan, kegiatan and
pertubuhan respectively. For the graduan-siswazah, definisi - takrifan and produktiviti
- daya pengeluaran pair, 15 writers (75%) preferred the English loanwords while
only 5 (25%) preferred their Malay equivalents.
English loanwords that are preferred for other reasons
Table 4.25 biologi vs kaji hayat
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biologi
kaji hayat
Total
Frequency
15
5
20
Percent
75
25
100
Table 4.26 sekular vs duniawi
sekular
duniawi
Total
Frequency
18
2
20
Percent
90
10
100
Table 4.27 lokasi vs tempat
lokasi
tempat
Total
Frequency
18
2
20
Percent
90
10
100
Table 4.28 fokus vs tumpu
fokus
tumpu
Total
Frequency
11
9
20
Percent
55
45
100
Table 4.29 statistik vs perangkaan
statistik
perangkaan
Total
Frequency
15
5
20
Percent
75
25
100
Table 4.30 operasi vs gerakan
operasi
gerakan
Total
Frequency
15
5
20
Percent
75
25
100
Table 4.31 tradisi vs adat resam
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tradisi
adat resam
Total
Frequency
16
4
20
Percent
80
20
100
Table 4.32 moral vs akhlak
Frequency
15
5
20
moral
akhlak
Total
Percent
75
25
100
The writers found the words biologi, lokasi, sekular, fokus, statistik, operasi, moral
and disiplin to be more suitable and effective in conveying message. The words
kanser and produk were found to be more modern than their Malay equivalents.
Bahasa Melayu equivalents
Out of the 44 pairs of words given, the BM equivalents were only chosen in 13
pairs by the readers, thus giving a percentage of 31.7%. The readers had a strong
preference for English loan words, i.e 68.3% of them. This goes to show that educated
readers do get influenced by English loan words due to their exposure to reading
materials in English. The BM equivalents which the readers preferred over the English
loanwords were : akhir, instead of final; lalulintas for trafik; dilaksanakan, and not
direalisasikan; keadaan for situasi; kencing manis, rather than diabetes; kejadian, not
insiden; daya usaha for inisiatif; segi for aspek, ciri for elemen; kenyataan, for realiti;
perbahasan in place of perdebatan; cendekiawan for intelektual and kebanyakan for
majoriti.
As for the writers‟ preferences it was found out they preferred the following
BM equivalents : akhir instead of final; lalulintas for trafik; dilaksanakan, and not
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151
direalisasikan; keadaan for situasi and kebanyakan for majoriti. Only 5 BM
equivalents were preferred by the newspaper writers.
Pairs in which the Malay equivalent is preferred by both readers and writers
Table 5.1 a) final vs akhir ( readers )
Frequency
Valid
Percent
final
10
akhir
58
85.3
Total
68
100.0
14.7
Table 5.1 b) final vs akhir ( writers )
final
akhir
Total
Frequency
8
12
20
Percent
40
60
100
Table 5.2 a) trafik vs lalulintas ( readers )
Frequency
Valid
Percent
trafik
16
lalulintas
52
76.5
Total
68
100.0
23.5
Table 5.2 b) trafik vs lalulintas (writers)
Frequency
trafik
8
lalulintas 12
Total
20
Percent
40
60
100
Table 5.3 a) direalisasikan vs dilaksanakan (readers)
Valid
direalisasikan
Frequency
21
Percent
30.9
dilaksanakan
47
69.1
Total
68
100.0
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Table 5.3 b) direalisasikan vs dilaksanakan (writers)
Frequency
direalisasikan 8
dilaksanakan 12
Total
20
Percent
40
60
100
Table 5.4 a) situasi vs keadaan ( readers )
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Situasi
13
Keadaan
55
80.9
Total
68
100.0
19.1
Table 5.4 b) situasi vs keadaan (writers)
situasi
keadaan
Total
Frequency
9
11
20
Percent
45
55
100
From the pairs of words given, it seems that most of the English loanwords are
preferred over their Malay counterparts by the respondents. Out of all the 44 pairs, it is
in the trafik /lalulintas, informasi/maklumat, final/akhir, direalisasikan/dilaksanakan,
situasi/keadaan pairs, the Malay equivalent is preferred among both readers and
writers. We can conclude that the English loanwords, trafik ,informasi, final and
situasi are generally not accepted by readers and writers and are perceived to intrude.
The respondents may not be very comfortable with the English words. As we can see
from the results, there is quite a big difference in the responses for the word final,
trafik and situasi. According to van Hout & Muysken ( 1994 ) the frequency of use in
the donor language has an influence over the choice of a word. Since these Malay
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153
words are commonly used, the writers and readers are more familiar with them and
therefore, have preference for them over the English loanwords.
Differences in the preference between readers and writers
The discussion of results follows the tables below :
Table 5.5 a) diabetes vs kencing manis (readers)
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Percent
diabetes
23
33.8
kencing manis
43
63.2
Total
66
97.1
System
Total
2
2.9
68
100.0
Table 5.5 b) diabetes vs kencing manis (writers)
diabetes
kencing manis
Total
Frequency
13
7
20
Percent
65
35
100
Table 5.6 a) insiden vs kejadian (readers)
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Percent
insiden
30
44.1
kejadian
36
52.9
Total
66
97.1
2
2.9
68
100.0
System
Total
Table 5.6 b) insiden vs kejadian (writers)
Frequency Percent
insiden
kejadian
Total
13
7
20
65
35
100
Table 5.7 a) inisiatif vs daya usaha (readers)
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154
Frequency
Valid
Percent
inisiatif
28
41.2
daya usaha
40
58.8
Total
68
100.0
Table 5.7 b) inisiatif vs daya usaha (writers)
inisiatif
daya usaha
Total
Frequency
11
9
20
Percent
65
35
100
Table 5.8 a) aspek vs segi ( readers )
Frequency
Valid
Percent
aspek
33
48.5
segi
35
51.5
Total
68
100.0
Table 5.8 b) aspek vs segi ( writers)
Frequency
12
8
20
aspek
segi
Total
Percent
60
40
100
Table 5.9 a) elemen vs ciri (readers)
Valid
elemen
Frequency
33
Percent
48.5
ciri
35
51.5
Total
68
100.0
Table 5.9 b) elemen vs ciri (writers)
elemen
ciri
Total
Frequency
12
8
20
Percent
60
40
100
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155
Table 5.10 a) realiti vs kenyataan (readers)
Frequency
Valid
Table
Percent
realiti
32
47.1
kenyataan
36
52.9
Total
68
100.0
5.10 b) realiti vs kenyataan (writers)
realiti
kenyataan
Total
Frequency
10
10
20
Percent
50
50
100
Table 5.11 a) perdebatan vs perbahasan (readers)
perdebatan
Frequency
28
perbahasan
Total
Missing System
Total
Percent
41.2
39
67
57.4
98.5
1
1.5
68
100.0
Table 5.11 b) perdebatan vs perbahasan (writers)
perdebatan
perbahasan
Total
Frequency
Percent
15
5
20
75
25
100
Table 5.12 a) intelektual vs cendekiawan (readers)
Valid
Frequency
24
Percent
35.3
cendekiawan
44
64.7
Total
68
100.0
intelektual
Table 5.12 b) intelektual vs cendekiawan (writers)
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156
Frequency
intelektual
16
cendekiawan 4
Total
20
Percent
80
20
100
Table 5.13 a) majoriti vs kebanyakan (readers)
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Majoriti
36
Kebanyakan
32
47.1
Total
68
100.0
52.9
Table 5.13 b) majoriti vs kebanyakan (writers)
Frequency Percent
Majoriti
9
Kebanyakan 11
Total
20
45
55
100
With some pairs, there is a difference in the preference between the readers
and the writers. The readers preferred the Malay equivalents of the words diabetes
(kencing manis ), insiden (kejadian ), inisiatif ( daya usaha ), aspek ( segi ), elemen
(ciri ), realiti ( kenyataan ), perdebatan ( perbahasan ) and intelektual
( cendekiawan ) while writers preferred the English loanwords. Elemen, inisiatif was
found to be more popular among writers. Aspek is found to be more suitable. For the
pair realiti / kenyataan, there is almost a tie from the responses among the writers. The
writers who chose this word found it more popular.
As regards „insiden‟ and
„kejadian,‟ readers chose „kejadian‟ because they were more familiar with this word,
but writers chose „insiden.‟ „Insiden‟ was not accepted by nearly 53% of the readers,
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yet it is commonly used in newspapers. Writers found this word easier to use, more
modern and suitable. Between „diabetes‟ and „kencing manis‟, the latter was the
preferred choice of readers while writers found (diabetes) more modern, suitable and
popular. Writers chose „intelektual‟ because they found it more modern and popular
while readers chose cendekiawan.
For the majoriti / kebanyakan pair, writers
preferred kebanyakan, but readers chose majoriti because they found it easier to use
and understand.
„Inisiatif‟ was not preferred by the readers as compared to „daya usaha.‟ „Segi‟
was slightly more favoured than „aspek‟ by the readers, whereas „aspek‟ was by the
writers. The same observation applies to the elemen-ciri pair.
The preference for „realiti‟ and „kenyataan‟ was equally divided between the
writers ( 50-50 ). Fewer writers favoured „perbahasan‟ to „perdebatan‟ while the
Bahasa Melayu word was the favoured choice of the readers.
While „intelektual‟ was the widely preferred choice for the writers,
„cendekiawan‟ was preferred by nearly 65% of the readers. The readers had a slight
preference to use the loan word „majoriti‟ while the writers were slightly in favour of
„kebanyakan.‟
The researcher could observe that from the pairs of words where there are
differences in the preference between readers and writers, while the readers preferred
to maintain using the Malay equivalents as they are more familiar with them and not
yet used to the English loans, the writers generally preferred the English loanwords.
Their preference is probably because the writes have more English influence and
exposure as their job involves international communication and they are also exposed
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158
to a lot of materials in English when they need to find information. The concluding
chapter of the thesis comes next.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Borrowing words from other languages has been an on going process in all
languages. The English language itself has evolved with many borrowed words from
other languages. There is no language that is free from foreign or external influence.
From all the loanwords the researcher has gathered, there is the phenomenon of
linguistic transfer, which is seen from the words without equivalent and words with
close equivalents. Such words are borrowed to fill the lexical gap in Bahasa Melayu,
which means they have been borrowed to express concepts and to refer to things for
which there is no suitable Bahasa Melayu equivalent and to maintain the accuracy of
the meaning conveyed by the foreign lexical item.
Borrowing words seems much more convenient than to create new words in
Bahasa Melayu to express the same terms. Furthermore, the concepts which have long
been associated with English are better expressed with English words which can
capture the meanings concisely. We can observe that many words that were borrowed
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159
were prompted by external factors such as history, external events and circumstances,
social, political, economic, educational, scientific, technological and mental
development, change in trends, practices, attitudes and beliefs, new experiences,
perceptions and outlook due to urbanization and contemporary social issues and
material development. In our daily lives, there is exchange of information and ideas as
well as traveling which has made us share new knowledge.
Globalization has tremendously influenced the current flow of information.
Malaysia cannot afford to lag behind
where information and knowledge are
concerned to enable it to catch up with the rest of the developed countries. Exposure
to other knowledge and new ways of expressing also prompt borrowing.
Some lexical gaps are due to factors inherent in the language itself. Borrowing
also happens because no language has precise words to express every idea, feeling,
thought, action, concept, process, characteristic or state. Some languages have exact
terms to refer to things for which other languages may have to use phrases or resort to
circumlocution.
Many English words, those with as well as without equivalents in BM are
borrowed because they have some semantic advantages. There are words with central
meanings which can be extended to many contexts. There are also words for which
there are precise meanings or those words which are broad in meaning and cover
many aspects. So writers can maximize the use of such words in expressing
themselves.
In a borrowing situation, the borrowing language must stand to benefit in some
way from the transfer of linguistic material. Bahasa Melayu has gained a lot from
borrowing the words without equivalents in the language. Kachru ( 1994 ) is of the
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opinion that we cannot deny the fact that English is a valuable resource in our
linguistic repertoire which must be used to our advantage in spite of the love-hate
relationship with English in Asia and Africa.
For the words with equivalents, we can see that some English loans seem to be
more popularly used and seem to be gradually replacing their Malay counterparts.
These words are no different semantically, yet Malay language users prefer them
because of their attitude. Some English loan words are used because they seem to
sound more sophisticated, modern or elegant. There are Malay equivalents of some
English loans which have become archaic and no longer used today. Writers are very
much influenced by the English language, exposed to knowledge, information, ideas
and culture from the West. That is why they tend to be fond of using English loan
words in newspaper articles The findings of the survey on responses by sample
readers is that the frequency of use plays an important role in the popularity of English
loan words. The Malay equivalents for some of the English loan words are rarely used
in the spoken media or discourse, which makes the readers more familiar with the
English loans.
The researcher has also found reasons which are justified and understandable
in the use of English loan words. From the findings, the researcher found that English
loanwords are used to replace their Malay counterparts in specialized areas because
the concepts are relevant to modern contexts. English words have been borrowed for
the following reasons :- the Malay equivalent does not have a wide application, cannot
be used in all contexts; the English loan word is more suitable in certain collocations;
for euphemism; some English loans are semantically elastic and flexible, with central
meanings that can be used in various contexts; the English loan word gives a wider
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and indepth meaning; to vary the vocabulary; for discourse functions to suit the
context of the texts and events; for creative exploitation; the Malay equivalent may not
capture the real meaning; the English loans appear more specialized and are used as
registers; the English loan is shorter; there is difference in connotation, which makes
the English loan more effective; the borrowed words are metaphorical and English
loans are associated with sophisticated lifestyle.
5.2 IMPLICATIONS OF STUDY
ESL teachers may use the findings of the study to bring about spelling
awareness among their students. The close similarity in the orthography of the BM
and English spelling systems of the loan words and the original English words are
likely to be a source of spelling confusion when writing in English. Students need to
be acutely aware of the spelling differences. Spelling activities to instill this awareness
may be given . For example, students may be asked to give the English spelling for
loanwords in Bahasa Malaysia which are similar in spelling and also have identical
sounds. Examples of such words are :
kolej
hoki
fakulti
vokasional
wad
Since the original words in English and the loan words in BM sound quite
alike, pronunciation activities may also be designed and practiced to get the students
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162
to pronounce the English words with the correct stress. This is quite important,
otherwise some students may end up pronouncing the target words following BM
phonological distribution. The following pairs of words will serve to illustrate :
In English
In BM
vacuum
vakum
reactor
reaktor
technology
teknologi
textile
tekstil
normal
normal
ESL learners who are familiar with BM loanwords need to be much aware that
the loan words have been adapted and are not meant to replace English words in terms
of their spelling or phonology. They must be proactive and find out the differences
between the BM loan words and the English words the former are derived from. Such
a comparative study only stands to benefit the learners as they become more
competent in using both languages with greater linguistic accuracy.
Language researchers conducting studies in relation to both languages may
now be able to understand better loan words in BM which have been introduced
through the English language, although the words themselves may have entered
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163
English through other languages. Those involved in research can further improve their
knowledge of etymology.
Journalists for BM newspapers and magazines can gauge the widespread use
and impact of BM loan words in the mass media. They can evaluate whether it is
acceptable to have so many loan words, whether it is possible to have other BM words
or coin new ones from existing language resources in the language. Resorting to
English most of the time is an easy way out, but will not the identity of BM be
affected? Journalists are influential guardians of a language. So they have to exercise
discretion.
The Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka can use the present study as a basis for future
changes to be made in the various language components. As English is the
international lingua franca by and large, it is difficult not to be influenced by it. If the
loan words from English can indeed benefit BM users and the development of the
language in the domains of science and technology, the loan words can be used in a
systematic way in terms of how they are spelled and pronounced.
5.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The following are some suggestions that interested people can pursue :
1)
English loan words in the electronic media, namely radio and television
have not been adequately studied. The use of loan words in those two
mediums can be systematically studied, categorized and findings made
available for the benefit of interested groups.
2)
The Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka has to form a committee of experts to
look into the widespread use of English loan words in BM. The
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164
committee can come up with BM words which are already available for
new developments or coin new ones as and when necessary, for
example : „surgeri‟ can be replaced by pembedahan and tsunami may be
replaced by ombak maut. If the English loan words are found to be
concise, they may be retained.
3)
The publishers of BM newspapers need to form a committee to
standardize the use of English loan words in their publications. This will
ensure systematicity and consistency in terms of orthography and
semantics. “Jemaah menteri” and “kabinet” are synonymous. The
former is in BM while the latter is a loan word. Both refer to the English
word, “cabinet” ( of ministers ). Such a committee will ensure that
English loan words and BM words are appropriately used.
4)
Research may be conducted on the current loan words to study whether
they truly do not have equivalents in BM. While it may be justified in
specialized fields, there are other less specialized ones where loan words
may not justify their use, for example: „kapital‟ ( capital ) for modal,
‘ isu‟ (issue) for tajuk, „direktor‟ (director) for pengarah, „diplomat‟
(diplomat) for duta and „servis‟ (service) for perkhidmatan /
penyelenggaraan
5)
Since there is a considerable number of English loan words, some of
which are recent, research can be conducted among a selected group of
readers to find out if they comprehend the many English loan words
which appear in Bahasa Melayu articles.
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165
5.4 LIMITATION OF STUDY
The limitations of this study are related to constraints of time and the scope of
this study. There are 4 newspapers. Two broadsheets and two tabloids. The former,
namely Berita Harian and Utusan Malaysia were selected for the present study. The
reason being they are more established and reputable for serious research. The tabloid
newspapers were not included.
For reliability and validity reasons, apart from the journalists at Berita Harian,
the respondents of the questionnaire included those from the International Islamic
University Malaysia. The survey was not broadened to include members of the public
for the reasons mentioned earlier.
The present researcher believes that this study is a modest contribution to the
field of loan words in particular and Bahasa Melayu-English bilingualism in general.
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APPENDIX 1
Pilih perkataan Bahasa Melayu atau kata pinjaman daripada Bahasa Inggeris untuk
mengisi ruang kosong. Sekiranya anda memilih kata pinjaman Inggeris, pilih
sebabnya samaada perkataan itu lebih mudah, lebih moden, lebih berkesan atau
lebih popular daripada perkataan Melayu. Sekiranya ada sebab lain, sila nyatakan.
1. IT IS ( Sistem Maklumat Pengangkutan Bersepadu menyampaikan ______
trafik yang tepat dan berguna untuk membantu merancang perjalanan di sekitar
Lembah Kelang.
A. . informasi
B maklumat
i)
lebih mudah digunakan atau difahami
ii)
lebih moden
iii)
lebih sesuai atau berkesan dalam menyampaikan mesej
iv)
lebih popular
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170
Lain- lain ________________________________________
2. Jika kaedah keusahawanan dianggap gagal membantu segelintir orang Malaysia
untuk membolehkan pergerakan sosial keluarga mereka ke strata lebih atas,
pendidikan dan latihan sumber manusia menjadi ________ terbaik
A alternatif.
B. pilihan
i.
ii. lebih moden
iii. lebih sesuai atau berkesan dalam menyampaikan mesej
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain _________________________________________
3. Perkembangan dalam bidang _______ berlaku dengan begitu pesat terutama
dalam bidang bioteknologi, kejuruteraan genetik, dan teknologi makanan.
Perkembangan ini memesatkan lagi sumbangan terhadap kemajuan dalam bidang
perubatan, pertanian dan perindustrian yang secara langsung atau tidak langsung
mempengaruhi kehidupan manusia.
A.
biologi
B. kaji hayat
i.
ii. lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
4. Timbalan Ketua Polis Negara, Datuk Seri Mohd. Sedek Mohd. Ali meminta
Suruhanjaya Diraja Penambahbaikan Perjalanan dan Pengurusan Polis Diraja
Malaysia
( PDRM ) _________ kepada usaha meningkatkan imej dan kewibawaan pasukan itu.
A. fokus
B. tumpu
i.
ii. lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
5. Apabila Anna disahkan menghidapi ________, dia menurut nasihat doktor untuk
mengamal gaya hidup sihat.
A. diabetes
B. kencing manis
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171
i.
ii. lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
6. Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi berkata, pihak asing tidak sepatutnya
melibatkan Malaysia dalam ________ pengeboman di Kedutaan Australia di Jakarta.
A. insiden
B. kejadian
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
7. _________ sebenar helikopter yang dipercayai terhempas pada Isnin lepas yang
membawa tujuh orang masih gagal dikesan.
A. lokasi
B.tempat
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
8. Enam anggota tentera terbunuh apabila helikopter Nuri terhempas dan meletup di
kawasan _______ tentera di Banding, Perak pada jam 5.petang
A. operasi
B. gerakan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
9. Dengan penduduk Islam dunia yang dianggarkan 1.8 billion, pasaran produk halal
dianggarkan AS$560 bilion (RM2.12 trillion ) setahun serta cukup besar untuk
diterokai pengusaha ________ makanan.
A. industri
B. perusahaan
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172
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
10. Seorang pelakon Malaysia yang berjaya membawa pulang sesuatu anugerah dari
sebuah _______ filem antarabagsa dianggap satu kebanggaan.
A. festival
B. pesta
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
11. Bagi Pergerakan Negara-Negara Berkecuali, penyelesaian terbaik terhadap
_______di Palestine dan Israel adalah dengan melaksanakan segala resolusi yang
diputuskan oleh PBB.
A. konflik
B. persengketaan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
12.
_______ yang dikeluarkan oleh polis mengenai perilaku pendatang asing
sangat membimbangkan. Tahun lalu misalnya, ________ polis menunjukkan 15, 798
kes ragut dilakukan oleh pendatang asing.
A. statistik
B. perangkaan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
13. Banyak ______ tempatan telah berjaya menembusi pasaran global terutama
Asean, China, India dan negara di Timur Tengah.
A. produk
B. barangan
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i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
14. Masyarakat atau negara yang menganuti dasar atau falsafah menolak urusan
agama sama sekali daripada urusan kehidupan harian dan pemerintahan negara
digelar negara ________
A. sekular
B. duniawi
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
15. Kita seharusnya menapis segala kebanjiran budaya dan ideologi luar agar sesuai
dengan budaya, _______ dan nilai keagamaan yang menjadi teras pemerintahan kita.
A. tradisi
B. adat resam
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
16. Gerakan globalisasi yang mampu membunuh nilai _______ dan agama serta
etika kita seharusnya ditolak.
A. moral
B. akhlak
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
17. Isteri Perdana Menteri, Datin Seri Endon Mahmood hari ini dianugerahkan
Ijazah Kehormat Doktor Kemanusiaan berikutan sumbangan beliau terhadap
________ kemasyarakatan, tugas-tugas sukarela dan kebajikan di peringkat
antarabangsa dan tempatan.
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174
A. aktiviti
B. kegiatan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
18. Selain itu, beliau juga _______ dalam bidang kemanusiaan di peringkat
kebangsaan dan menjadi penaung kepada Yayasan Budi Penyayang Malaysia,
Persatuan Kesihatan Mesra Kanak-kanak Malaysia, Persatuan Bulan Sabit Merah dan
lain-lain.
A. aktif
B. giat
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
19. ________ “Jangan terpedaya, tembakau membunuh” sempena Hari Tanpa
Tembakau Dunia menjadi satu peringatan supaya tidak terjebak dengan aktiviti
merokok.
A. slogan
B. cogan kata
v.
vi.
lebih moden
vii.
viii. lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
20. Kementerian Pembangunan Usahawan dan Koperasi berjaya mewujudkan kirakira 1,634 usahawan baru melaui dua ________ Gerak Usahawan yang diperkenalkan
tahun ini. Timbalan menterinya, Datuk Khamsiyah Yeop berkata, _______ itu yang
sebelum ini diadakan di Selangor dan Kedah berjaya melebarkan sayap perniagaan
sehingga memperoleh RM 5 juta.
A. program
B. rancangan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
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175
21. Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi mahu penyelidikan ________ di negara ini
dipertingkatkan bagi menyokong usaha-usaha mengenai kajian sejarah dan
pembentukan tamadun lama. Menurutnya, penemuan dalam ________ dapat dijadikan
bukti kepada pembentukan tamadun sesuatu kaum atau penduduk asal di sebuah
negara selain mempunyai hubung kait dengan pembentukan identity masyarakat.
A. arkeologi
B. kaji purba
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
22. Ibu bapa memainkan peranan penting dalam soal _______ pelajar kerana mereka
bertanggungjawab mengawasi setiap tingkah laku anak masing-masing.
A. disiplin
B. tatatertib
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
23. Raja Pecut Asia Tenggara, Nazmizan Mohamad tidak menolak kemungkinan
melupakan hasrat mempertahankan gelarannya di Sukan Sea Manila, November
depan. Ini berikutan _______ kelahiran Dungun, Terengganu itu masih terasa sengal
di tulang kering kanannya ketika menyertai Kejohanan Olahraga Terbuka Selangor,
Sabtu lalu.
A. atlit
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
B. olahragawan
lebih moden
lebih popular
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176
Lain- lain __________________________________
24.
Pasukan bola sepak Pahang akan memasuki peringkat _______ dalam
pertandingan bola sepak Asean Football Federations ( AFF ) setelah menewaskan
Brunei.
A. final
B. akhir
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
25. Pemilihan perkataan „infotainmen‟ mencetuskan polemik termasuk DBP yang
menganggap slogan baru RTM itu sebagai tidak sesuai kerana salah dari _______
pembentukan istilah serta tidak mendukung makna yang jelas.
A. aspek
B. segi
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
26. _______ peraduan melalui SMS sudah banyak diperkatakan oleh persatuan
pengguna kerana ia membabitkan eksploitasi ke atas seseorang yang mengeluarkan
banyak wang untuk menyertainya.
A. isu
B. persoalan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
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177
27. Kejayaan Hilda menjejak kaki ke universiti setaraf Universiti Harvard, Amerika
Syarikat adalah atas _______ sendiri setelah melihat profail dan prestasi yang dicapai
oleh universiti tersebut.
A. inisiatif
B. daya usaha
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
28. Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) mempunyai lebih 34,000 penuntut yang sedang
mengikuti pengajian di pelbagai peringkat. Pelajarnya kini menikmati kemudahan
pengajian lebih selesa serta bermutu hasil pembangunan pesat yang dilaksanakan
dengan matlamat melahirkan _______ berkualiti, berdaya saing serta cemerlang.
A. graduan
B. siswazah
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
29. Dua juruterbang tempatan akan mencatat satu lagi sejarah kebanggaan negara jika
mereka berjaya menamatkan misi penerbangan mengelilingi dunia merentasi enam
benua dalam tempoh 24 hari. Misi ini akan _______ di bawah program Malaysia
Boleh yang dianjurkan oleh Kementerian Belia dan Sukan.
A. direalisasikan
i.
ii.
iii.
B. dilaksanakan
lebih moden
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178
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
30. Berikutan peristiwa-peristiwa keganasan yang berlaku sejak 11 September,
masyarakat di Barat mempunyai _______ bahawa keganasan berkait rapat dengan
Islam.
A. persepsi
B. pandangan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
31. Debaran Akademi Fantasia sampai ke kemuncak apabila Zahid muncul juara
menerusi konsert akhirnya yang berlangsung di Stadium Putra Bukit Jalil. Zahid
menyampaikan lagu berjudul Biarkan bulan bicara dan Milikku mengetepikan lima
lagi ________ AF2 termasuk pencabar terdekatnya Linda
A. finalis
B. peserta akhir
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
32. Tumpuan utama dalam pengurusan pemasaran ialah bagaimana menawarkan
produk atau perkhidmatan yang memberi kepuasan serta menepati kehendak
pelanggan. Matlamat ini tidak terhad kepada _______ perniagaan sahaja. Jabatan
kerajaan atau ________ sukarela juga perlu prihatin kepada keperluan memberi
khidmat yang mampu memuaskan serta memenuhi kehendak pelanggan mereka.
A. organisasi
B. pertubuhan
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179
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
33. Kesesakan ________ di Lembah Klang kian meruncing disebabkan kadar
penggunaan pengangkutan awam yang semakin berkurangan. Kadar ini menurun
daripada 34 peratus pada tahun 1985 kepada 16 peratus pada masa ini, terutamanya
bagi penggunaan bas. Sebaliknya, kadar penggunaan kereta persendirian telah
meningkat secara ketara daripada 47 peratus kepada 71 peratus.
A. trafik
B. lalulintas
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
34. ________ murid S.R.K Subang Jaya meminati muzik kerana bagi mereka muzik
menyeronokkan, menghiburkan dan memberikan ketenangan. Muzik moden (terutama
rancak, rock, rap dan pop semasa) paling diminati oleh murid-murid diikuti oleh
muzik tradisional dan muzik berunsurkan agama.
A. Majoriti
B. Kebanyakan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
35. ________ jerebu di Lembah Kelang telah menjadi semakin teruk sehingga ia
dapat menjejaskan kesihatan. Oleh itu, sekolah- sekolah terpaksa ditutup
A. Situasi
B. Keadaan
i.
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ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
36. Laporan fenomena jerebu pada rahun 1997 menunjukkan negara di rantau Asia
Tenggara kerugian hampir AS$ billion dalam pelbagai sektor ekonomi, selain masalah
kesihatan dan pengurangan __________.
A. produktiviti
B. daya pengeluaran
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
37. ________ ini cuba memperlihatkan bagaimana orang Melayu mempunyai
kemahiran dan pengetahuan farmaseutikal tentang tumbuh-tumbuhan yang dijadikan
sebagai ubat dan penawar kepada penyakit.
A. Artikel
B. Makalah
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
38. Bajet yang besar bukanlah jaminan kejayaan sesuatu filem tetapi jalan cerita yang
mantap, olahan, mesej dan bakat merupakan _______ yang penting.
A. elemen
B. ciri
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
39. Para pengkaji di Universiti Harvard, Amerika mendapati hampir tujuh daripada
setiap sepuluh jenis ________ tidak ditentukan oleh gene langsung, tetapi ditentukan
melalui cara hidup kita. Tiga puluh peratus berpunca daripada merokok, 30 peratus
9 : 4 April 2009
181
berpunca daripada pemakanan yang tidak sihat dan kira-kira 10 peratus disebabkan
tabiat buruk seperti tidak bersenam.
A. kanser
B. barah
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
40. Salmah ingin memastikan bahawa impiannya untuk berjaya dalam kerjayanya
menjadi ________ dengan bekerja bersungguh-sungguh
A. realiti
B. kenyataan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
41. Dengan bermotokan „Berkredibiliti dan Berketerampilan‟, Kelab Debat Kolej
Islam Malaysia telah berjaya membawa nama Kolej Islam Malaysia ke peringkat yang
lebih tinggi di dalam arena ________.
A. perdebatan
B. perbahasan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
42.
Ujian untuk menjadi salah seorang pegawai pentadbir ini mengukur
9 : 4 April 2009
182
kecenderungan- kecenderungan seperti daya menyelesaikan masalah menggunakan
_______, interprestasi data dan konsep-konsep matematik, serta menilai potensi
untuk menjalankan tugas-tugas pentadbiran yang asas seperti perancangan dan
membuat keputusan.
A. logik
B. penaakulan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
43. Memberi satu ______ yang tepat mengenai cinta ialah sukar.
A.
definisi
B. takrifan
i.
ii.
lebih moden
iv.
lebih popular
Lain- lain __________________________________
44.
A.
Professor Khalid Hassan merupakan seorang _______ dalam bidang falsafah
cendekiawan
B. intelektual
i)
Lebih mudah digunakan atau difahami
ii)
lebih moden
iii)
lebih berkesan dalam menyampaikan mesej
iv)
lebih popular
Lain-lain ________________________________
9 : 4 April 2009
183
APPENDIX 2
Example of data for words without equivalent
Bahasa Melayu has lexical gaps in expressing or referring to the following :
Nouns
People

An officer responsibe for accommodation, food, and equipment in a
military unit - kuarter master ( 3 )

Someone who likes to pretend - hipokrit ( 3 )
Technology

Website - web ( 6 )

Electronc mail - e-mel ( 7 )
Abstract nouns

A task requiring considerable or concerted effort - projek 5

Strong feelings- emosi 6
Adjectives
Bahasa Melayu has lexical gap in the adjectives which mean the following :

Easily irritated, offended, hurt – sensitif 3

the present or recent time/contemporary - moden 5
9 : 4 April 2009
184
APPENDIX 3
English loans
Malay equivalent
konsert
pertunjukan
model
contoh
era
zaman
kos
harga
skim
rancangan
Example
of data
for words
with
close
equivalen
ts
APPENDIX 4
Example of data for words with equivalents
9 : 4 April 2009
185
English loans
Bahasa Melayu equivalent
motif ( intention )
niat
produk
barangan
gender
jantina
program (TV)
rancangan
intelektual
cendekiawan
realisasi
laksana
positif (good)
baik
kualiti
mutu
mesej
pesanan, berita, maklumat
isu
hal, masalah, perkara
komunikasi
perhubungan
final
akhir
artis
penyanyi
APPENDIX 5
More other words without equivalent
English loanword
English word
31) professional
professional
32) potensi
potential
33) premis ( 1 )
premis
34) sektor
sector
35) sinonim
synonym
36) tema
theme
37) tradisi ( 1 )
tradition
38) teori
theory
39) toleransi
tolerance
9 : 4 April 2009
186
40) sosial
social
41) ton ( face)
tone
42) tekstur
texture
43) kabinet
cabinet
44) landskap
landscape
45) misteri
mystery
46) minimum
minimum
47) mekanisme
mechanism
48) fungsi
fungsinya
function
49) komponen
component
English loanword
English word
50) loteri
loterilah
lottery
51) skrin
screen
52) postur
posture
53) maple
maple
54) serial
serial
55) lagenda
legend
56) justifikasi
justification
57) akses
access
58) profail
profile
59) kes
case
9 : 4 April 2009
187
60) risiko
risk
61) nombor
number
62) sindiket
syndicate
63) reformasi
reformation
64) fakta
fact
65) teknik
technique
66) gimik
gimmick
67)retorik
rhetoric
68) sistem
system
69)meta-nilai
meta-value
70) model
model
Continued
71) kategori
category
72) maksima
maximum
73) Seksyen
Section
74) Sub Seksyen
Sub Section
75) prinsip ( 1 )
prinsipnya
principle
76) Protokol
Protocol
77) arena
arena
78) trend
trend
79) agenda
agenda
80) pengkelasan
classification
9 : 4 April 2009
188
81) label
label
82)set
set
83) genre
genre
84) emosi
emotion
85) simpati
sympathy
86) gossip
gossip
87) standard
standard
88) biro
bureau
89) badminton
badminton
90) moto
motto
91) keunikan
uniqueness
92) tennis
tennis
93)gansterisme
gangsterism
APPENDIX 6
More adjectives without equivalent
English loanword
English word
26) negatif
negative
27) simbolik
symbolic
28) popular
popular
29) tropika
tropical
30) estetik
aesthetic
31) formatif
formative
32) tradisional
tradisional
33) terapeutik
therapeutic
9 : 4 April 2009
189
34) berpotensi
with potential
35) senior
senior
36) progresif
progressive
37) Sivik
Sivic
38) alternatif
alternative
39) poket
pocket
40) berkaliber
with calibre
41) berkarbonat
carbonated
42) solo
solo
43) emosional
emosional
English loanword
English word
9 : 4 April 2009
190
44) bermerit
with merit
45) termoden
most modern
46) reproduktif
reproductive
47) maritime
maritime
48) Marin
Marine
49) komersial
commercial
50) korporat
corporate
51) berteknologi
with technology
52) audio
audio
53) berapriori
with apriori
54) digital
digital
55) taboo
taboo
56) konvensional
convensional
57) Eksekutif
Eksekutive
58) berkoordinasi
coordinated
59) multimedia
multimedia
60) obses
obsessed
61) fatalistik
fatalistic
62) klasik
classic
63) sentimental
sentimental
64) futuristik
futuristic
65) eksotik
exotic
66) sinikal
cynical
67) subjektif
subjective
9 : 4 April 2009
191
68) agresif
aggressive
69) kritikal
critical
70) elektronik
electronic
71) serius ( 1 )
seriusnya
serius ( 1 )
72) kronik
chronic
73) senior
senior
74) konsisten
consistent
75) online
online
76) sinikal
cynical
77) sensasi
sensational
78) futuristic
futuristic
79) regular
regular
80)akademik
academic
81)global
global
82)demokratik
democratic
83) electronik
electronic
84) sensitive
sensitive
85) mega
mega
86) sosial
social
87) sistematik
systematic
88) berprestij
with prestige
9 : 4 April 2009
192
APPENDIX 7
Words with Malay equivalents
English loanword
1) insiden
kejadian
2) pengeboman
letupan
3) individu
orang /seseorang
4) imej
gambar
5) polis
mata-mata
6) operasi
beroperasi
gerakan
7) akademiknya
pelajarannya
8) kualiti
berkualiti
mutu/sifat
9) inisiatif
daya usaha
10) komunikasi
perhubungan
11) berkomunikasi
bertutur
12) program
rancangan
13) informasi
maklumat
14) patriotisme
kesetianegaraan
15) graduan
siswazah
16) fokus
tumpu
9 : 4 April 2009
193
English loanword
17) isu
persoalan, perkara pokok
18) aspek
segi, sudut
19) merealisasikan
melaksanakan
20) organisasi
pertubuhan
21) alternatif
pilihan, jalan
22) aktiviti
kegiatan
23) intelektual
cendekiawan, cerdik pandai
24) elit
golongan atasan
25) status
taraf / kedudukan
26) nasionalis
pejuang kebangsaan
27) minda
fikiran
28) serius
teruk
29) arkeologi
kaji purba
30) antikuiti
barang purba, zaman kuno, masa
purbakala
31) tiara
gandik
32) industri
perusahaan
33) seks
persetubuhan
34) festival
pesta, temasya
35) artis
penyanyi
36) delegasi
pengutusan, perwakilan
37) model
peragawati
9 : 4 April 2009
194
9 : 4 April 2009
195
38) okey
boleh tahan
39) syif
giliran kerja
40) impak
kesan
41) aktif
giat, cergas
42) dikategorikan
kategori
digolongkan
golongan
43) obesiti
kegemukan, gemuk gedempol
44) lokasi
tempat, kawasan
45) hospital
rumah sakit
46) arkitek
jurubina
47) akauntan
jurukira
48) bankrap
muflis
49) atlit
olahragawan
50) biologi
kaji hayat
51) aksesori
alat/hiasan tambahan
52) mengadaptasi
menyesuaikan diri
53) antenatal
sebelum bersalin
54) kanser
barah
55) artritis
penyakit sengal, radang sendi
56) enakmen
undang-undang
57) finalis
peserta akhir
58) definisi
takrif, istilah
9 : 4 April 2009
196
English loanword
59) ekstrem
terlampau
60) etnik
bangsa
61) etika
sistem / prinsip akhlak
62) debat
bahas
63) insentif
dorongan, pendorong, perangsang
64) kelab
persatuan
65) komuniti
masyarakat
66) berkasual
kasual
bersahaja
67) kuantiti
jumlah
68) Kastam
langganan
69) konsentrasi
tumpuan
70) komprehensif
menyeluruh
71) kapasiti
keupayaan
72) mesej
mesejnya
pesanan, berita
73) maksimum
had/darjah tertinggi
74) nasional
kebangsaan
75) Majistret
hakim, pengadil
76) moral
bermoral
akhlak
77) pelan
rancangan, rangka
9 : 4 April 2009
197
English loanword
78) respons
tidakbalas, sambutan, jawapan, balasan
79) mempromosikan
menggalakkan
80) premis
perkarangan
81) realiti
kenyataan , hakikat
82) kestabilan
kekukuhan
83) teater
teater-teater
panggung
84) tradisi
adat resam
85) situasi
keadaan
86) sekular
duniawi
87) visi
wawasan
88) wayarles
tanpa dawai / kawat
89) zon
mintakat
90) reaksi
tindakbalas
91) persepsi
pandangan, tanggapan
92) reputasi
nama baik
93) poket
saku, kocek
94) unik
satu-satunya, tiada tara/bandingannya
keunikan
95) sosiologi
ilmu kemasyarakatan
96) superintendan
pengawas, penguasa
9 : 4 April 2009
198
English loanword
97) konflik
perselisihan, sengketa, pertikaian,
pertentangan, percanggahan
98) fundamental
asas, dasar, utama
99) dekad
dasawarsa
100) berdialog
berbincang, berunding
101) episod
adegan, peristiwa
102 ) keegoan
keakuan
103) dominan
paling kuat, penting, berkuasa
104) disiplin
tatatertib
105) notis
pemberitahuan, kenyataan
106) media massa
sebaran am
107) manual
buku panduan
108) menu
senarai hidangan
109) fasa
peringkat, perkembangan, tahap
110) ejen
orang perantara
111) format
bentuk, rupa, gaya, susunan
112) fantasi
khayalan
113) flet
pangsa
114) diabetes
kencing manis
115) kurikulum
sukatan pelajaran
116) dispesifikasikan
ditentukan, ditetapkan
117) tropika
kawasan khatulistiwa
9 : 4 April 2009
199
English loanword
118) skrin
kaca
119) Asisten Komisioner
Penolong Pesuruhjaya
120) tip
panduan, petua
121) Genetik
genetik
kaji baka
baka
122) relevan
berkait
123) produktiviti
daya pengeluaran
124) normal
biasa, lazim
125) objek
barang, benda
126) mesin
jentera
127) nota
catatan
128) moraliti
kesusilaan
129) Ginekologi
sakit puan
130) bereksperimen
beruji kaji
131) fizikal
jasmani
132) eksternal
luaran
133) flora
tumbuhan
134) famili
keluarga
135) demonstrasi
tunjuk perasaan
136) final
akhir, penghabisan
137) spiritualiti
kerohanian
138) testis
buah pelir
9 : 4 April 2009
200
English loanword
139) sperma
benih jantan
140) kolumnis
penulis ruang
141) kafe
kedai kopi
142) karektor
sifat, ciri, peribadi
143) lateks
susu getah
144) komposer
penggubah lagu
145) arena
gelanggang
146) artikel
rencana, makalah
147) Geologi
kaji bumi
148) sensitif
sensitiviti
prihatin
kepekaan
149) gossip
umpatan
150) insomnia
suhad
151) hernia
burut
152) bajet
belanjawan
153) penganalisis
pencerakin
154) dicaj
dicas
155) deposit
simpanan cengkeram
156) inovasi
pembaharuan
9 : 4 April 2009
201
9 : 4 April 2009
202
English loanword
157) kompleks
rumit
158) Matematik
ilmu hisab
159) polisi
dasar
160) simbol
tanda, lambing
161) struktur
pembentukan, susunan, binaan
162) prosedur
tatacara
163) prejudis
prasangka, praanggapan
164) Prebet
persendirian, perseorangan
165) resolusi
niat , azam, ketetapan, penyelesaian
166) tong
penyepit
167) sivil
awam
168) elastik
anjal
169) kombinasi
gabungan
170) personaliti
sahsiah
171) berorientasikan
arah, hala, haluan
172) drastik
keras
173) eksistensi
kewujudan
174) mengedit
menyunting
175) Personal
peribadi
176) Astronomi
kaji bintang, ilmu falak
177) produk
barangan
178) trafik
lalulintas
179) kosmetik
alat solek
9 : 4 April 2009
203
180) literal
harfiah, zahir
181) konvensyen
adat kebiasaan
182) drama
sandiwara, peristiwa
183) dominasi
penguasaan, pengaruh
184) farmasi
kedai ubat
185) majoriti
kebanyakan
186) restoran
kedai makan
187) hotel
rumah penginapan
188) logik
penaakulan
189) slot
ruang waktu
190) panik
cemas
191) tuisyen
kelas bimbingan
192) internal
dalaman
193) retorik
seni berpidato
194) obsess
asyik, ghairah
195) saiz
ukuran
196) alumni
bekas mahasiswa
197) teknik
cara/kaedah
198) cool
tenang
199) komplikasi
kerumitan, kesulitan
200) motif
niat, tujuan
201) elemen
unsur, ciri, anasir
202) kritikal
genting
9 : 4 April 2009
204
203) statistik
perangkaan
204) transformasi
penukaran, perubahan
205) variasi
kelainan
206) komitmen
kewajipan
207) slogan
cogan kata
208) posisi
kedudukan, keadaan
Center for Foundation Studies
International Islamic University
Malaysia
[email protected]
9 : 4 April 2009
205

A Study of English Loan Words in Selected

Transcription

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