08•C•The bomb and the swastika.indd

Transcription

Revue des Questions Scientifiques, 2015, 186 (1) : 99-124
Amand LUCAS
Université de Namur
[email protected]
The Bomb and the Swastika
Moral dilemma faced by history’s greatest scientists
who tickled the tail of the sleeping nuclear dragon
A play in four acts
Translated from the French with the help of Milton W. Cole
and Stéphane Coutu, Pennsylvania State University, USA
“It would be like tickling the tail of a sleeping dragon.”
Richard P. Feynman1
1.
Stated by Feynman to describe Otto Frisch’s dangerous experiments with nuclear criticality
during the Manhattan Project atomic bomb development, as quoted in Richard Rhodes’
«The Making of the Atomic Bomb.» [1]
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revue des questions scientifiques
Plan général
Dans ce numéro :
Introduction
Interview. Part I
Act I. The Letter to Roosevelt
Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard
Dans le prochain numéro :
Interview. Part II
Act II. The Meeting in Copenhagen
Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg
Interview. Part III
Act III. The Farm Hall Discussions
Otto Hahn, Werner Heisenberg, Carl F. von Weizsäcker
Interview. Part IV
Act IV. The Letters from Bohr to Heisenberg
Niels Bohr and Margrethe Bohr
Interview. Part V
Cast of characters :
The Acts :
Albert Einstein : father of relativity theory; 1921 physics Nobel Prize
(Germany®USA, 1933)
Leo Szilard : theoretical physicist (Hungary®Germany®England®USA,
1938)
Niels Bohr : pioneer of modern physics; 1922 physics Nobel Prize (Denmark)
Margrethe Bohr : his wife (Denmark)
Werner Heisenberg : co-discoverer of quantum theory; 1933 physics Nobel
Prize (Germany)
Otto Hahn : co-discoverer of fission; 1944 chemistry Nobel Prize (Germany)
Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker : theoretical physicist (Germany)
the bomb and the swastika
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The interview :
Margrethe Bohr : Niels Bohr’s wife (Denmark)
Anonymous BBC interviewer
Principal background characters :
Clement Attlee : British Labour Party leader from 1935-1955; prime minister
from 1945-1951
Enrico Fermi : nuclear Nobelist (Italy®USA, 1938)
J. Robert Oppenheimer : leader of the Manhattan project to build the atomic bomb (USA)
Hans Bethe : nuclear Nobelist (Germany®England®USA, 1935)
Frédéric Joliot-Curie : French nuclear Nobelist
Edward Teller : leader of the hydrogen bomb project (Hungary®
Germany®USA, 1935)
Aage Bohr : Danish nuclear Nobelist, son of Niels Bohr
Walther Bothe : nuclear Nobelist, member of the German Uranium Society
Walter Gerlach : leader of the German Uranium Society (1944-45), interned
at Farm Hall
Johannes H. D. Jensen : German nuclear Nobelist
Albert Speer : Nazi Minister of Armaments and War Production
Remarque sur la traduction
Pour la facilité des lecteurs francophones, l’ introduction générale ci-dessous
est reproduite dans sa version française originale. Toutefois la suite de la pièce sera
livrée dans sa version anglaise en raison des nombreuses modifications apportées
par la traduction au texte initial français.
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Introduction
À son arrivée, fin 1943, au centre atomique nouvellement créé de Los
Alamos (Nouveau Mexique, USA), le physicien danois Niels Bohr, patriarche
de la physique moderne, réfugié du nazisme, demandait au directeur du
centre, Robert Oppenheimer, à propos de la bombe en construction : « Is it big
enough ? ». Pensant déjà à la future stratégie de la dissuasion, il voulait savoir
si la bombe atomique du projet « Manhattan » (le programme américain de
construction d’armes nucléaires), le « gadget » comme l’appelaient Oppenheimer et ses collaborateurs, serait assez grosse pour empêcher tout conflit mondial armé dans l’avenir par crainte qu’un tel conflit n’entraîne l’autodestruction
de l’humanité? [1]
La réponse devait tomber moins de deux ans plus tard. D’abord dans le
plus grand secret, le 16 juillet 1945, avec le premier essai réussi d’une bombe à
fission nucléaire dans le désert américain du Nouveau Mexique. La bombe,
produisant une explosion équivalente à celle de mille gros camions de vingt
tonnes de dynamite chacun, s’avérait être plus « grosse » encore que ne l’avait
espéré Bohr et que ne l’avaient prévu les techniciens de Los Alamos. Quelques
semaines plus tard, le 6 août, l’énormité de la bombe était confirmée et démontrée publiquement par la destruction soudaine et complète d’Hiroshima
avec un seul de ces gadgets, suivie par celle de Nagasaki le 9 août.
Depuis cet été de 1945, la terreur engendrée par la bombe et ses multiples
perfectionnements ultérieurs a en effet épargné au monde de nouveaux
conflits armés généralisés, conformément à ce que pressentait et espérait Bohr.
Mais, revers de la médaille, l’humanité s’est en même temps condamnée à
vivre sous la menace permanente d’une autodestruction rapide par le feu nucléaire. À la fois gadget de paix et gadget de guerre, la bombe possède une
propriété de complémentarité similaire à celle développée par Bohr dans sa
physique et dans sa philosophie : plus grande est la menace nucléaire sur la
survie de l’espèce humaine, plus faible est le risque d’un conflit armé planétaire. La bombe a bien montré jusqu’ici l’efficacité de la stratégie de dissuasion
nucléaire (la bien nommée MAD en anglais : mutual assured destruction)
adoptée par les puissances mondiales, mais qui pourra garantir que jamais un
conflit local ne pourra un jour dégénérer en une escalade globale entrainant
une utilisation illimitée des armes nucléaires ?
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Si la conjoncture internationale récente a permis une certaine réduction
des arsenaux, l’espoir d’un monde définitivement débarrassé des armes nucléaires est malheureusement pure utopie. Ces armes existent et, quels que
soient les traités internationaux pour la réduction des arsenaux, ni la connaissance des processus physiques fondamentaux en jeu, ni les techniques de leur
mise en œuvre pratique ne pourront jamais être effacées de l’intelligence humaine tant que l’espèce survivra. Le nucléaire, au même titre que de multiples
technologies nouvelles, fait dorénavant partie indélébile du patrimoine scientifique et technique de notre espèce. Et s’il n’a fallu que deux années pour
créer, littéralement à partir de rien, le premier gadget, il est clair qu’aujourd’hui, avec les technologies avancées dont disposent les états, il faudrait
beaucoup moins de temps pour le recréer en cas d’urgente nécessité.
Pour l’heure, en dépit des dits traités, la menace n’a fait qu’augmenter à
cause de la prolifération des armes nucléaires et de l’accroissement de leur puissance destructrice. La dissémination s’étend aujourd’hui à quasi toutes les
régions de la planète, au gré de l’évolution des guerres, chaudes ou froides,
régionales ou globales, et en dépit des efforts déployés par les pays détenteurs
de l’arme pour freiner cette prolifération. Celle-ci a changé la nature de la
menace sans véritablement la réduire, voilà tout. En fait la prolifération, tellement redoutée par les « have » et souhaitée par certains des « have not », est la
conséquence immédiate de cette même complémentarité de la bombe qui
garantit aux pays qui la possèdent d’être à l’abri des attaques de pays hostiles.
Comment le monde en est-il arrivé à cette situation inquiétante ? La
mèche a été allumée il y a déjà plus d’un siècle. En effet la possibilité du suicide nucléaire était déjà vaguement pressentie dès la découverte de la radioactivité par Henri Becquerel en 1896, puis celle de la structure nucléaire de
l’atome par Ernest Rutherford en 1911 et surtout depuis la réalisation de
l’énorme énergie latente dans le noyau, en vertu de l’équivalence relativiste
masse-énergie
E = mc2 établie par Einstein en 1905. Souvent improprement qualifiée
d’énergie « atomique », l’énergie nucléaire avait déjà inspiré des fictions romanesques [2] et même des supputations scientifiques qualifiées toutefois de rêvasseries (« moonshine ») par Rutherford lui-même.
Mais le rêve utopique devait rapidement prendre une dimension inquiétante pendant les années 1932-1939, du moins dans l’esprit d’une douzaine de
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savants nucléaires dont certains seront mis en scène dans la présente pièce de
théâtre. C’est en effet pendant cette courte période que la physique nucléaire
s’est transformée d’une science ésotérique de laboratoire en une technologie
révolutionnaire à la fois effrayante et prometteuse [1]. Dans l’ordre chronologique, la succession rapide des évènements fondateurs fut la suivante : la découverte du neutron par James Chadwick (Cambridge, UK en 1932), et celle
du deutérium (et de l’eau lourde) par Harold Urey (New York en 1932); la
conception théorique de la réaction en chaîne nucléaire par le physicien émigré
hongrois Léo Szilard (Londres en 1934); la découverte expérimentale de la
fission de l’uranium sous bombardement neutronique par Otto Hahn et Fritz
Strassmann (Berlin en 1938-39), et l’explication théorique du phénomène par
Lise Meitner et Otto Frisch (Copenhague en 1938-39); enfin et surtout l’observation de l’ émission de plusieurs neutrons secondaires accompagnant la fission, observation faite indépendamment et simultanément par Frédéric
Joliot-Curie (Paris en mars 1939) et Enrico Fermi et Szilard (New York en
mars 1939). Ce dernier phénomène, une des conditions nécessaires à la réaction en chaîne imaginée par Szilard, marque le moment précis du lancement
de la course aux armements nucléaires et, simultanément, celui d’une nouvelle technologie industrielle pour la production d’énergie.
Que cette année 1939 soit en même temps celle du déclenchement de la
seconde guerre mondiale donne à la découverte de la fission une dimension
tragique extraordinaire : « The world is heading for grief » marmonnait Szilard,
fasciné et pensif, les yeux rivés sur l’écran d’un oscilloscope où il pouvait observer pour la première fois l’émission des neutrons de fission. Qu’est-ce qui le
préoccupait au juste ? Dans les circonstances historiques du moment, ce ne
pouvait être que la perspective apocalyptique d’une bombe atomique aux
mains d’Hitler. La fission venait d’être découverte à Berlin. Malgré l’exode de
nombreux scientifiques persécutés, l’Allemagne disposait largement de toutes
les ressources humaines et matérielles nécessaires pour exploiter la fission à
des fins militaires. Elle comptait dans ses universités et instituts d’éminents
savants, fervents patriotes, tels qu’Otto Hahn et surtout Werner Heisenberg,
co-fondateur de la physique quantique à la base de la compréhension moderne
de la structure atomique et nucléaire de la matière. Elle pouvait s’appuyer sur
une génération de jeunes et brillants chercheurs dont le physicien théoricien,
assistant d’Heisenberg, Carl F. von Weizsäcker. Celui-ci appartenait à la famille de diplomates allemands bien connue et ses relations dans les plus hautes
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sphères gouvernementales ouvraient un accès direct aux ressources politiques
et financières nécessaires pour la poursuite d’un vigoureux projet de recherche
sur les applications de la fission. Bref, en 1939, trois ans avant le lancement
effectif en 1942 du programme américain Manhattan, le Troisième Reich
avait tous les atouts en main pour s’emparer le premier du glaive nucléaire,
soumettre le reste du monde à l’esclavage et réduire à néant toute civilisation
décente. Heureusement la démence constitutive d’Hitler et de ses acolytes, les
circonstances politiques et militaires de la guerre, ainsi qu’une ou deux erreurs
techniques fortuites mais providentielles des scientifiques allemands, devaient
faire échouer le projet de développement précoce d’un armement nucléaire en
Allemagne nazie [3].
Dans la présente pièce de théâtre, l’auteur s’inspire de certains des évènements dramatiques de la naissance de l’âge nucléaire. Les scénarios qui suivent sont basés sur quatre « rencontres » mémorables entre quelques-uns des
scientifiques clefs cités plus haut et qui se trouvèrent plongés jusqu’au cou
dans ces évènements. Ces rencontres historiques, présentées ici dans leur
ordre chronologique, sont liées entre elles par un fil conducteur unique : le
rôle d’Heisenberg dans la tentative des savants allemands de fournir l’arme
atomique à Hitler [4]. Les préambules de chacun des quatre actes de la pièce
donnent quelques informations supplémentaires sur les personnages en jeu et
sur les circonstances historiques de leurs rencontres successives. En voici un
très bref résumé.
L’Acte I propose une reconstruction du fameux rendez-vous entre Einstein et Szilard. Il eut lieu en août 1939 à Long Island dans l’Etat de New York
où Einstein, réfugié aux Etats Unis depuis 1933, passait des vacances d’été [1].
Son objectif était de mettre au point la lettre au Président Roosevelt, signée par
Einstein et destinée à avertir l’Amérique et son Président du danger imminent
posé par les recherches sur la fission en Allemagne.
L’Acte II met en scène Bohr, sommité de la science atomique et nucléaire
de la première moitié du 20ème siècle, et son ancien disciple, collaborateur et
ami, Heisenberg. Leur rencontre de Copenhague en Septembre 1941 a fourni le
sujet de la pièce de théâtre « Copenhagen » de Michael Frayn [5] jouée avec le
succès mondial que l’on sait. Le dramaturge y exploite habilement l’incertitude sur ce que se sont dit les deux hommes et sur ce qui conduisit à leur
rupture. Pourquoi revenir sur cet évènement ? La raison en est que la pièce de
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Frayn a été composée en 1998, avant la publication, en 2002 par la fondation
Bohr, des lettres secrètes de Bohr à Heisenberg [6]. Ces dernières, écrites autour
de 1960, feront le sujet de l’Acte IV. Elles révèlent les vraies raisons de la « dispute » de Copenhague entre ces deux géants, prix Nobel de physique. L’Acte
II constitue une nouvelle tentative de reconstitution théâtrale de leur célèbre
rencontre à la lumière des lettres de Bohr.
L’Acte III donne une représentation partielle des « Farm Hall Transcripts », les Transcriptions de Farm Hall [7]. Celles-ci contiennent l’enregistrement secret (publié en 1992) des conversations de dix des plus importants
scientifiques allemands capturés par les Alliés et internés à Farm Hall en Angleterre après la défaite de l’Allemagne [8]. Trois seulement de ces dix personnages, Heisenberg, Hahn et Von Weizsäcker, sont mis en scène ici. Leurs
conversations au moment même de la tragédie d’Hiroshima, contiennent
quelques-uns des propos les plus révélateurs quant à leur état d’esprit en tant
qu’ « armuriers nucléaires des nazis ».
Enfin l’Acte IV montre Niels Bohr, conversant avec son épouse Margaret, en train de réexaminer ses brouillons de lettres à Heisenberg [6] dont la
teneur concerne le contenu de leurs conversations de Copenhague. On y voit
un Bohr en proie à la colère suscitée par la version apologétique de ces conversations qu’Heisenberg avait livrée à la presse internationale et par son rapport
édulcoré sur son rôle dans le programme allemand de l’exploitation de l’énergie nucléaire [9]. Dans ses lettres, Bohr rétablit la vérité historique et exprime,
avec le style élaboré et la diplomatie nuancée qui caractérisent tous ses écrits,
sa désapprobation à son ancien disciple et ami.
Afin d’assurer un lien historique entre les différents événements relatés
dans la pièce, une interview fictive, conduite en 1963 dans le cadre du programme radio de la BBC appelé Witnessess of Great Minds, est entrelacée
entre les quatre Actes. Un journaliste radio anonyme interroge Margrethe
Bohr, l’épouse de Niels Bohr, à l’occasion du premier anniversaire du décès de
son mari et du 50ème anniversaire du fameux modèle atomique de Bohr de
1913. Ce stratagème théâtral fournit un éclairage supplémentaire sur la continuité historique des faits. Outre ces parties d’interview intercalées entre les
Actes, chacun de ceux-ci est précédé par une courte préface donnant des informations supplémentaires sur les personnages et les circonstances historiques de leurs rencontres et interactions.
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L’entièreté de cette pièce est basée sur d’authentiques documents historiques, les lettres d’Einstein et de Bohr, les déclarations d’Heisenberg et les
Transcriptions de Farm Hall. Le suspense de la pièce est intrinsèque aux évènements historiques tels qu’ils se sont déroulés dans le contexte d’un monde
en pleine tragédie. La tension dramatique est au cœur de ces débats entre des
hommes confrontés à leur responsabilité de s’être impliqués, volontairement
ou non, dans la création d’une arme à la fois apocalyptique et prometteuse de
paix.
Plus que n’importe quel autre conflit, la Seconde Guerre Mondiale a représenté à la fois un défi pour la pensée éthique et une opportunité pour
d’ingénieuses inventions techniques pour les scientifiques du monde entier.
Comme telle, son histoire fournit un terrain fertile pour des récits réalistes et
fictionnels «d’ hommes et de femmes en de sombres époques», pour citer Brecht et
Arendt. Le drame présenté dans cette pièce témoigne du fait que confronter
ces événements continue de récompenser chaque génération en révélant l’ambiguïté des actions historiques, l’incertitude correspondante de leur interprétation et, par-dessus tout, l’étendue de l’attitude de l’homme et de ses
comportements moraux.
Références
[1] R. Rhodes, 1986 The Making of the Atomic Bomb, A Touchstone Book, N.Y.
[2] H.G. Wells, 1914 “The World Set Free”, E.P. Dutton
[3] A.A. Lucas, 2000 Uranverein, Alsos and Epsilon Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences 7-12, 335-359.
[4] D. C. Cassidy, 1992 Uncertainty. The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg,
W.H. Freeman, N.Y.
[5] M. Frayn, 2000 Copenhagen, Anchor, N.Y.
[6] Niels Bohr Archive, 2002 Documents released 6 February.
[7] J. Bernstein, 2001 Hitler’s Uranium Club, Springer-Verlag, N.Y.
[8] A.A. Lucas, (2005) Bombe Atomique et Croix Gammée, Mémoire de la Classe
des Sciences, Académie Royale de Belgique.
[9] Robert Jungk, 1956 Heller Als Tausend Sonnen, Stuttgart, Scherz & Goverts ;
traduction française Plus Clair que Mille Soleils, M. Bittebierre, Librairie Cumer-Fantin (Saint Étienne, France)
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Interview Part I
Witnesses of Great Minds (BBC radio interview in London, 1963)
Margrethe Bohr (MA) with an interviewer (IN).
The set : A radio studio, a table with microphones. MA and IN are sitting,
facing each other. They are off to the side of the main stage, in front of the main
curtain.
The theme music2 for Witnesses of Great Minds plays, as the lights come on
in the studio, with the main curtain closed.
IN : Dear BBC listeners, welcome to our weekly program Witnesses of
Great Minds. By intervieing world-famous personalities, this program aims
to help our audience understand some of the most important discoveries and
events of this century.
In this year 1963, we celebrate the 50th anniversary of Niels Bohr’s discoveries in quantum physics.
Niels Henrik Bohr was a Danish physicist who took part in several great
scientific events of this century. In 1913, he launched the quantum theory of
the atom which reached its final form only in late 1920‘s. Quantum theory,
together with Einstein‘s Relativity Theory, is the conceptual framework which
underlies our present understanding of the universe. Moreover Quantum
Theory provides the foundation for many of our advanced technologies.
2.
Any music theme appropriate to radio broadcasts in the 1950’s can be used, such as the theme
to the long-running BBC radio program “Music While You Work”.
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For today‘s interview, we have the honour and great privilege to introduce Mrs. Margrethe Nørdlund3 Bohr, wife of the late Niels Bohr, who passed
away last November.
On behalf of the BBC and the listeners to our program, I would like to
begin by thanking you, Mrs. Bohr, for agreeing to participate in this interview on the occasion of both the first anniversary of the death of your husband and the 50th anniversary of his great contributions to modern physics.
Thank you for answering my questions concerning your personal involvement during the course of Professor Bohr‘s great career as a scientist, philosopher and humanist.
But before we start, allow me to quote from one of your sons, Hans Henrik Bohr, who declared recently about you, Mrs Bohr :
“It is not possible to talk about my father without at the same time emphasizing the importance my mother had. Her opinion and judgment were his mainstay in daily life, and she shared her life with my father in every possible
way.”– Hans Bohr
Quite a compliment, isn’t it, dear listeners, about our guest of today?
Now, when did your meet your husband, Mrs. Bohr?
MA : Well, that was over 50 years ago, some years before Niels had finished his PhD in physics. We got married in 1912, after which Niels went on
to a postdoctoral fellowship at Cambridge and then to Manchester to work
with Ernest Rutherford.
IN : Oh yes, Rutherford had just discovered the nuclear structure of the
atom. Niels Bohr developed his model of the hydrogen atom. This was his
first great discovery of 1913, the famous Bohr model which we celebrate this
year. What excitement this breakthrough must have provided for him and for
you! As his young spouse, were you already playing the role of his closest
confidant?
MA : Indeed. At the beginning, I must confess that I was taken aback by
his tremendous enthusiasm. I was not at all familiar with the ways of researchers and the intoxicating effects that discoveries can have on them. I was
really quite astonished to see that someone could be so carried away by what
3.
The “ø” in “Nørdlund” is pronounced like the vowel in “bird”.
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seemed to be such minuscule, esoteric matters. But I quickly understood the
situation, especially after his publications came out. All of a sudden there was
this huge flow of congratulations coming from both unknown people and
great international scientists. Einstein was one of the first to write to Niels.
IN : Quite a confirmation indeed! The Bohr model of the atom developed by your husband 50 years ago was certainly one of the most important
scientific breakthroughs of the twentieth century, but then you witnessed a
whole series of further revolutions in which your husband took an active part.
The next big one was the creation of quantum mechanics. Please tell us how
you experienced that.
MA : That development lasted 15 years or so after Niels’ work of 1913. A
lot of young and not so young people started to converge around Niels in
Copenhagen in the 1920’s, especially after his Nobel Prize in 1922. It was a
very exciting and turbulent period. In retrospect I sometimes wonder how I
could find the time and energy to care for my children, the household, the
visitors at my husband’s institute, typing and retyping Niels’ manuscripts
over and over again, etc… Without understanding the technical details, I
could read the progress on the faces of the researchers, sometimes beaming,
sometimes somber. It was exhausting for me, but always a lot of fun, and of
course it was a great time in my life.
IN : How fascinating, Mrs. Bohr! One of the most remarkable visitors of
the period was a blonde young man from Germany, Werner Heisenberg, who
seems to have had a special place in the heart and mind of Professor Bohr.
Can you tell us a few remembrances about him?
MA : Oh yes! Werner was an extremely likeable person, with enormous
enthusiasm and talent. I could see Niels’ special way of treating him as if he
were another, older son of ours. He was also good at several things other than
physics, such as playing the piano, which he did at a nearly professional level.
I remember the two of them, Niels and Werner, sometimes shouting at each
other as if they were dealing with a matter of life and death, but always coming out of these discussions on friendly terms. Particularly in 1927, they had
a tremendous bout of creative activity when Werner came up with his strange
ideas of uncertainty. Back then, even the physicists were wondering what it
was all about. It was so new, so bizarre and so unexpected. I could sense the
tension in the corridors of the institute and at the dinner table for the evening
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meals when Niels was often looking dazed and absent-minded. You see, for
Niels, Heisenberg’s uncertainty was not just a technical point of quantum
mechanics. He kept telling me that it was a deep philosophical matter that
had impact not only on physics but also on all aspects of the natural world
and the human place in it.
IN : Impacting everything, including our outlook on life itself, wasn’t it,
Mrs. Bohr?
MA : Absolutely! I remember having to retype some ten times a manuscript called “Light and Life” that Niels was preparing for a conference.
IN : One is usually familiar with Professor Bohr’s fame in physics but
much less so in other scientific fields. Can you please tell us briefly about his
involvement with biology?
MA : Certainly. While working all these years in physics, Niels always
kept a particular interest in biology, His father, Christian Bohr, was a worldrenowned physiologist who specialized in the chemistry of hemoglobin in the
blood. So Niels was interested in that and in biology in general. In his paper
“Light and Life” mentioned before, I remember him trying to explain how
the concepts of uncertainty and complementarity are relevant to the processes of life itself. It was exhilarating to see him groping to understand the
deepest mysteries of life, as he had done about atomic spectra fifteen years
earlier. I can’t really tell you his thinking, except for one startling idea which
I will never forget, namely that one can’t learn anything fundamental about
the life of an organism without killing it! A weird idea! Life and death are
complementary, he said! Now, recently, people have discovered that there is
indeed complementarity everywhere in the life processes, but I am not sure
this has anything to do with Niels’ complementarity concept.
IN : Indeed no, Mrs. Bohr, it hasn’t. What you are referring to is a much
more prosaic kind of complementarity, namely the chemical complementarity of the bases in nucleic acids discovered by Watson and Crick in 1953.
Never mind the difference, dear listeners. That is an altogether different matter which, as some of you may remember, was the subject of our recent program on the tenth anniversary of the Watson-Crick DNA double helix. Now,
coming back to Professor Bohr, do you remember him talking about biology
with other scientists at the institute, with Heisenberg for instance?
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MA : No, not with Werner, as far as I remember. I don’t think Heisenberg had any strong inclination towards the life sciences. However, Niels often spoke about biology with others, particularly with another distinguished
visitor, Erwin Schrödinger. That is, when they weren’t quarreling about a new
version of quantum mechanics created by Erwin in 1926. You know that
Schrödinger left his native Vienna when Hitler occupied Austria in 1938. He
found refuge in Dublin for the duration of the war. While there, he even
wrote a celebrated book called “What is Life?” Quite a bold question for that
time! Niels was as excited as a child about this book. I tried to read it but, I
must confess, it was way over my head. As Niels explained to me, the book
mixed deep concepts of the new quantum physics with biology and even with
heredity.
IN : I am glad you mentioned this refugee episode, Mrs. Bohr. This will
bring us directly to our next topic, the discovery of the fission of uranium in
Berlin in 1938-39. That was quickly followed by research on all aspects of
nuclear fission and by the development of the atomic bomb during the Second World War. While Schrödinger fled from the Nazis and did not work in
atomic bomb research at all, many others refugee scientists from Europe did
become engaged in that effort, to varying degrees. Can you first explain to us
how your husband came to be involved in these events?
MA : Well, how could he not be involved, since, in 1939, shortly after the
discovery of fission by Hahn in Berlin, he created the first theory to understand the phenomenon? However, before I tell you about his personal involvement in the atomic bomb story, I would like to describe first what Niels
explained to me about the involvement of Einstein himself in the nuclear
business. Einstein took refuge in America in 1933. There was also a group of
brilliant physicists from Budapest who arrived there before the war. One of
them, Leo Szilard, went to see Einstein with a very special letter he drafted
with his friends. The letter warned of the great danger created by the discovery of fission in Berlin in 1938 and of the ongoing research in Germany on
military applications of this. Szilard’s visit to Einstein took place in the summer of 1939, just before the invasion of Poland by the Nazis. Of course all the
émigré scientists knew exactly what they were talking about when raising the
specter of Hitler armed with atomic bombs. They all had personal and painful experiences of the ongoing anti-Semitism and totalitarianism of the Third
114
Reich. They hoped that Einstein would agree to sign the letter and send it to
no less than President Roosevelt. Some nerve, as the saying goes!
Preface to Act I
Act I presents a fictitious account of the meeting, depicted below, between Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard in August, 1939, on Long Island, NY,
where Einstein was vacationing. Szilard, a physicist who collaborated scientifically with Einstein, was a recent refugee from Budapest, as were many
other distinguished scientists, like Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner. Szilard,
Wigner and Teller (who played important roles in the subsequent American
Manhattan Project to create the first atomic bomb) had drafted a letter for
Szilard to show Einstein. They hoped that the great man would agree to sign
and send this letter to someone of the highest political prominence and influence. The letter, warning of the threat of ongoing research in Nazi Germany
on the fission of uranium, was intended to encourage the president of the
United States to provide urgent assistance to American scientists, enabling
them to develop a new program of nuclear physics research. This letter, which
could be considered the first step toward nuclear arms’ proliferation, also
marked the birth of the Manhattan Project. It appears here in its original
form (in bold face), interspersed with fictional, yet plausible, words which the
two scientists might have said during their meeting. Among these is the word
“Martians”, a humorous reference to the extraordinary set of scientists from
Hungary, including Szilard, Teller, Wigner, John von Neumann, Theodore
von Karman, George de Hevesi, and Michael Polanyi. The name’s origin is
that Fermi’s estimations led him to wonder why there had been no evidence
of extraterrestrial life and to exclaim “where is everybody?”, to which Szilard
replied something like : “we Hungarians are actually Martians”.
115
Act 1 – The letter to Roosevelt
Albert Einstein (age 62) and Leo Szilard (age 43)
The lights dim on the studio scene and the curtain opens on Act I
Act I. The Letter to Roosevelt
Albert Einstein (age 62) and Leo Szilard (age 43)
The set consists of a table and two chairs, a violinist’s stand with a musical
score and a violin on the table. Also on the stand are two photos; a stack of papers
is on the table, filled with Einstein’s general theory of relativity. Entering, while
walking, he speaks to himself :
Einstein : It’s hot outside today. It’s cooler here… I’d better wait for
Szilard inside… Before he arrives I might have time to look at my calculations. I think I spotted something that could be wrong this morning while
sailing.
He goes to the table, sits down and examines the documents, slowly flipping
pages.
Einstein (mumbling) : I have to check this again! These equations are so
complicated! Ach! There it is; this m should be a n and that n should be a m!4
I am glad I found this mistake.
Someone knocks at the door.
Einstein : Come in!
4.
Note : the Greek letter “ m” is pronounced “mew”, like the singular of “mews”, and “ n” is
pronounced “new”, which rhymes with m.
116
Szilard enters. Einstein gets up and goes to greet him and shake his hand
enthusiastically :
Einstein (joyful) : My dear Leo! After so many years! Am I glad to see
you!
Szilard (beaming) : Hello Professor! Me, too, I am thrilled to meet you
again.
Einstein : How was the trip from New York?
Szilard : Well, it was somewhat… eh! uncomfortable, I should say. I
drove up together with Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner. Edward is a bit of
a reckless driver I am afraid. (laughing) It was quite an ordeal, but we made it
and …
Einstein (interrupting) : Well, where are your friends?
Szilard : They wish to greet you later. I hope you won’t mind. We thought
it would be better if you and I first discuss things privately.
Einstein : It’s fine with me. I see you haven’t stopped running around
together with your friends from Budapest! Evidently, you have kept in touch,
especially since so many of you migrated to America. I really am delighted to
see you again.
Szilard : Me, too! It is so nice to see you in good shape.
Einstein : Thank you! You look good yourself. Ah! You have worked
quite well recently. Your article with Fermi concerning the nuclear fission
reactor is quite interesting. Thanks for sending it to me.
Szilard : Yes. It’s been quite exciting for me to demonstrate with Fermi
the practical importance of your ideas about the equivalence of mass and
energy. How are you doing here in the United States?
Einstein : Oh! I’m happy here. The Princeton folks are nice to me and let
me work as I like. Every summer I enjoy coming here to do what I like best to
relax : sailing my small boat. But I can’t help thinking about the situation in
Europe. I am really terrified, the Nazi cancer keeps spreading!
Szilard : Indeed! As you know, Wigner and Teller both had to flee too.
They also gave me their support for the drafted letter that I mentioned to you
117
over the phone. And a thousand thanks to you for considering signing it.
Here is a copy for you to look at.
Szilard holds out a folder for Einstein. They sit down.
Einstein : Very well. I will read it out loud so that we can review it together.
Szilard : Perfect, Professor.
Einstein (reading out loud slowly) : Some recent work by E. Fermi and
L. Szilard, which has been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me
to expect that the element uranium may be turned into a new and important source of energy in the immediate future. Certain aspects of the
situation which has arisen seem to call for watchfulness and, if necessary, quick action on the part of the Administration. I believe therefore
that it is my duty to bring to your attention the following facts and recommendations :
Einstein stops reading and addresses Szilard :
Einstein : All of this is fine, but, Leo, you’re not saying to which administration or to whom these recommendations are addressed.
Szilard : That’s right, Professor, we want to discuss that point with you.
You suggested on the phone that it could be sent to Queen Elisabeth of Belgium?
Einstein : Indeed, the King and Queen of Belgium invited me to the
royal palace on several occasions. I was just looking at photos from that time
which I found recently in my papers.
Einstein gets up and retrieves the two photos from the violin stand. Szilard
then gets up. They look at the photos.
Einstein (nostalgic) : There I am with King Albert… He was really a very
friendly man. Here I am with the Queen. We had become good friends. I
played my violin with her… We had a great time!
The actors return to the table and Einstein continues.
118
Einstein : Then, alas, in 1934, the King accidentally killed himself when
he fell off a cliff he was climbing near Namur, in Belgium; a great tragedy!
But the Queen and I continue to write to each other…
Szilard (dismissive) : But, you know, Professor, the Queen has no political power in Belgium. Although she does have, for sure, some influence in the
world of Arts, she cannot insist on anything to the Belgian government!
However, it is that very government which must somehow be persuaded to
keep the Congo uranium from the Nazis’ clutches!
Einstein : Yes! You’re right. It will be difficult, and even more so as Belgium wants to remain neutral. So, what are you suggesting then? Whom
should we address this letter to?
Szilard : We can decide that in a while, after we have considered all of
the implications of the letter.
Einstein : OK. I will continue to read the draft letter.
In the course of the last four months it has been made probable through the work of Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilard in
America - that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction
in a large mass of uranium, by which vast amounts of power and large
quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated. Now it appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate future.
Einstein (speaking to Szilard) : That is what you discuss in your paper
with Fermi.
Szilard : Exactly.
Einstein (continuing his reading) : This new phenomenon would also
lead to the construction of … bombs,
Einstein stops for a moment and looks at Szilard, who nods his head approvingly. He reads more slowly while reacting with surprise and revulsion…
and it is conceivable - though much less certain - that extremely
powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed. (Einstein continues, as though in a trance) : A single bomb of this type, carried by boat and
exploded in a port, might very well destroy the whole port together with
119
some of the surrounding territory. However, such bombs might very well
prove to be too heavy for transportation by air.
Einstein rises from the table. Then, passing in front of the table, he turns
toward the audience and exclaims in German :
Mein Gott! Daran habe ich gar nicht gedacht! I never thought of that!
Einstein scratches his head, walking around in circles, thoughtful and preoccupied. He does some math in his head. His expression becomes more assertive. He
has just realized that the bomb is a real possibility. Turning toward Szilard (seated) :
Einstein : Could a chain reaction similar to that of your uranium machine be made to go very much faster? (Szilard nods approvingly). Then Einstein goes on (reproachful) : But you had not discussed this in the paper nor on
the telephone!
Szilard : Surely not. Especially on the telephone! This information has
become top-secret in universities. The American and British scientists have,
moreover, decided to postpone all publications about nuclear physics until
some future time.
Einstein : As far as that?
Szilard : Oh, yes! Naturally, the French disagree. Joliot has refused to
join our moratorium.
Einstein : It’s logical; he thinks he’s ahead of the Anglo-Saxons and fears
being scooped by them. But, this bomb story, I don’t like it at all, Leo!
Einstein (going back to his seat) : Anyway, let’s see what follows!
The United States has only very poor ores of uranium in moderate
quantities. There is some good ore in Canada and the former Czechoslovakia while the most important source of uranium is Belgian Congo.
Raising his head toward Szilard :
Aha! There we are! The Czech mines are in Nazi hands. The attitude of
Belgium will be critical!
Szilard stands up.
120
Szilard (forceful) : Exactly. This is why we must find someone sufficiently powerful to convince the Belgian government to instruct the Union
Minière not to sell Congolese uranium ore to the German. Indeed, it’s that
company which exploits the Congolese mines. Unfortunately, Queen Elisabeth has no power to affect that.
Einstein : It’s unfortunately true that King Albert is no longer there to
influence the government. I was somewhat naive with my earlier, well-intended suggestion. But, then, whom do you all suggest we contact…… Wigner,
Teller and you, the so-called “Martians” of Budapest, as you are referred to
around here?
Szilard (assertive) : Listen. The French are divided, the British military is
poorly prepared and they are both threatened by the Nazis. We see no solution other than to involve the United States.
Einstein (doubtful) : The United States? My dear Leo! The Americans are
a practical people. Aside from some émigré physicists like you, who will have
enough confidence in your preliminary laboratory results and theoretical
speculations? A lot of money and personnel will be needed for building a reactor and even more so for a bomb!
Szilard : You’re right, it is a big challenge. Most Americans think they
can escape from the war. They are isolationists. They think they are protected
by their oceans… Moreover, Wigner told us that some of the Generals that he
has met recently don’t understand this bomb concept and claim that they can
still rely merely on their “soldier’s courage”. But there is one person who will
understand this new nuclear challenge, I think… President Roosevelt himself!
Einstein stands up again, bursting out :
Einstein (incredulous) : What! The President of the United States? You
really believe, you Hungarians, that he can be convinced? He knows nothing
about physics!
Einstein, skeptical at first, mumbles to himself for a while, and then suddenly seems to realize something. He stares at Szilard while admonishing him
with his finger :
121
Einstein : Ach! Leo, you are sly guys! I have just understood what role I
am supposed to play in this story. You want to use me as a psychological lever!
… (turning toward Szilard) that’s it, isn’t it?
Szilard : Not exactly Professor! Of course we don’t want to do anything
without your agreement. But we do hope that…
Einstein (interrupting, angrily) : But Leo, I am a staunch pacifist, don’t
you remember? I left Germany as a youth when I hated the noise of marching
boots and couldn’t stand any kind of authority. Now you are asking me to try
to convince a head of State to make preparations for what could become a
race for nuclear armament? Don’t you see that this collides head on with my
pacifist soul?
Szilard : Of course I realize that! We have hesitated quite a lot before
deciding to bother you about that letter. We know your revulsion towards
anything related to the military. But you surely can see that war is coming.
Just like us Martians, you have taken refuge here, fleeing the Nazis. Hitler
will never be satisfied. After Austria and now Czechoslovakia, who knows
which country will be next...
Einstein (reluctant) : I am sorry but I have the feeling that by signing this
letter, it’s as if I am committing an act of war.
Szilard : Well, Professor, to start with, the war is not yet declared. The
letter just advises the President that America should be cautious, that’s all.
But, believe me, war is inevitable. It is coming for sure. You do realize that the
new perspective of atomic bombs changes everything. In the present international situation, in particular with the Nazi threat, it means much more than
yet another world war, however bad this would be.
Einstein (dubious) : What do you mean?
Szilard (assertive) : Well what it means is that if the Germans manage to
make the bomb first, they will surely win the war and then what? Can you
imagine the Nazis in possession of such a weapon?
Einstein (wakes up, frightened) : Mein Gott! You are right! If the Nazis
make this uranium bomb, it will mean not only German victory in Europe
but also world domination. It will lead to universal slavery in the service of
the master race…
122
Szilard (relieved) : Absolutely! You said it!
Einstein (convinced) : That must be prevented at all cost! Indeed the danger goes beyond war. If a committed pacifist like me admits that there are
evils worse than war, that may impress a politician of the caliber of Roosevelt... I agree with you Leo! We must place our hope in America. (Returning
to the table) Let’s look again at your letter and address it to Roosevelt.
Einstein and Szilard sit down again. Einstein reads :
In view of the situation you may think it desirable… - (Einstein looks
at Szilard : Mr. President, then, since from now on he’s the one I’m addressing. Szilard nods in agreement…) to have more permanent contact maintained between the Administration and the group of physicists working
on chain reactions in America. One possible way of achieving this might
be for you to entrust with this task a person who has your confidence and
who could perhaps serve in an unofficial capacity. His task might comprise the following :
a) to approach Government Departments, keep them informed of
the further development, and put forward recommendations for Government action, giving particular attention to the problem of securing a
supply of uranium ore for the United States;
Szilard (assertive) : Only Roosevelt will be able to get cooperation from
the Belgian government in procuring this.
Einstein : You’re likely right. But why designate this trusted person as an
unofficial appointment?
Szilard : It’s absolutely necessary to keep the project secret.
Einstein : Ach, ja! Obviously. I will never get used to this secrecy requirement!
Einstein continues :
b) to speed up the experimental work, which is at present being carried on within the limits of the budgets of University laboratories, by
providing funds, if such funds be required, through his contacts with
private persons who are willing to make contributions for this cause, and
123
perhaps also by obtaining the co-operation of industrial laboratories
which have the necessary equipment.
Einstein stops and asks Szilard :
You think that industrial concerns can be persuaded to support this
project?
Szilard : I am quite sure of that. I have already met a prominent businessman and a graphite manufacturer in order to obtain very pure graphite.
Einstein : Graphite? What for?
Szilard : To serve as neutron moderator in the reactor. It’s a complicated
story but I can explain it to you later, if you wish…
Einstein (interrupting) : Ah, yes, pure carbon! You refer to this in your
manuscript with Fermi. Let’s continue.
I understand that Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium
from the Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken over. That she
should have taken such early action might perhaps be understood on the
ground that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von
Weizsäcker, is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in Berlin where
some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated.
Yours very truly,
(Albert Einstein)
Einstein gets up.
Einstein : I see that you don’t hesitate to sound the alarm concerning
von Weizsäcker. Isn’t it Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Hans Bethe who
have recently proposed a mechanism of nuclear fusion in stars?
Szilard : Yes, but it isn’t Carl Friedrich who will interest Roosevelt. It’s
his father, Ernst von Weizsäcker. He’s Under-secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, and a close collaborator of Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop. That
means that the highest authorities in the Reich are already up to date on the
military prospects involving the fission of uranium. Moreover, we must be
124
concerned as to whether Werner Heisenberg, who declined American invitations to emigrate, may be designated head of the German nuclear research
program. You know his creativity and his efficiency!
Einstein (angered) : It’s frightening! Ribbentrop informed by the son of
Weizsäcker. That means that the German physicists did not hesitate to alert
Hitler! And with Heisenberg at their head, not only are they reproducing the
American results, they are probably ahead with applications!
Szilard : You said it! After all, it was in Germany that Otto Hahn discovered uranium fission just a few months ago. And Heisenberg is an expert
concerning nuclear structure. But you must let the President think that
America is not lagging behind. You know their touchiness in this country!
Einstein : Oh yes! … Ach! How much I would like to know the opinion
of Niels Bohr! We used to get along very well together. And he was the mentor and confidant of Heisenberg. Perhaps he would know more about the
state of German progress.
Szilard : I doubt it. The Nazis have declared this work top-secret. And,
in any case, it would seem difficult to get Bohr’s opinion without raising the
suspicion of the Reich. For that, we would need the help of American intelligence.
Einstein (dejected) : You’re right; that’s premature. For now we, alone,
are facing this responsibility! So, well, Leo! Retype this letter and I will sign
it. (despondent) But… what future!… what future for Humanity!…
(changing mood, enthusiastic again) There is the bomb, yes… But there is
also the reactor, that’s something positive! Come on, let’s discuss that with
our friends who have been patiently waiting.
They exit.

08•C•The bomb and the swastika.indd

Transcription

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