"Monolingualislll can be cured!"

CHAPTER
1
"Monolingualislll
can be cured!"
OVERVIEW
Monofingual is a ward used to describe a persan who knows or speaks only
one language. More than just a descriptive term, however, it is often a label
that implies certain judgments about a persen or a group of people. It
may be used to describe people who are provincial, unsophisticated , or
uneducated; il may also reter to a country, suc h as the United States, where
a large number of people have limited opportunities ta interael with people
of other language backgrounds. Regardfess of how il is used, the ward
monolingual general1y suggests a negative or deficient s!ate of being.
Although sorne people may be satisfied, or even take pride in being
monolingual, the label can serve as an obstacle for those who want to learn
a second language. In fact , for many people in the United States the idea of
learning a second language is perceived as a monumental undertaking that
is likely to result in limited success . For p eople in many other regions and
countries of the world , however, second language learning is seen as a
normal wayof lite. "Adults in these contexts con tinue learning additional
languages throughout their lives; neither age nor apt itude is considered [an]
important [factor] in the learning process" (Pavlenko, 2002, p. 298). The real
wOrld, as described by Doughty and Long (2003), is no longer monolinguaf:
Second language acquisilion-naturalistic, instructed , or both-has
long been a common activity for a majority of the human species
and is becoming ever more vital as second languages themselves
increase in importance. In many parts of the world, monolingualism,
not bilingualism or multilingualism, is the marked case. The
300-400 million people whose native language is English, for
example, are greatly outnumbered by the 1- 2 billion people for
11
whom it is an official second language. Countless children grow up
in societies where they are exposed to one language in the home,
sometimes two, another when they travel to a nearby town to
attend primary or secondary scheel, and a third or fourth if they
move to a larger city or another province for tertiary education
or for work. (Doughty & Long, p. 4)
ln large part, the fact that Americans freQuently consider second
language learning a daunting and even impossible task-an endeavor best
left ta students in a classroom-results trom a pervasive, monolithic view
of monolîngualism. The very ward implies sorne kind of inveterate and
entrenched condition . The "Snapshot " describing the message inscribed
on a T-shirt- "monolingualism can be cured" -serves to set the stage for
understanding our commonly held assumptions about what it means ta be
monolingua!. These assumptions are then called into Question by a portrayal
of my c olleague, Michael , who uses his native language in vividly different
ways depending on the people with whom he is interacting. This portrait
suggests that monolingual is not a constructive term but rather one that
brands people, often disempowering them in nonproductive ways.
The section devoted ta " Research Perspectives" will draw on various
theories that describe language- both a persan 's native and second
languages-as dynamic, evolving, interconnected systems that change and
shape each other. These theories underscore the degree to which the word
monolingual does not encompass the diverse and c reative ways people use
their native languages. In fact, these theorÎes support my notion that virtually
everyone is, in the broadest sense, multilingual. In addition, we will see that
Cook's (1991, 1999, 2002b) notions of multicompetence help reframe our
view of second language use. In particular, his notion of the L2 user - a
unique, individual speaker-hearer of a target language - stands in contrast
to an idealjzed native speaker.
ln "Perspectives for the Classroom" we will see that a revised
understanding of what it means to be multilingual underscores the need
for creating multilingual classrooms in whic h ail languages are valued . In
particular, multilingual classrooms have important implications for
understanding second language learner identities and for promoting the
development of what , cali multicompetent second language learners.
This muttilingual approach is not intended ta replace the important target
language activities designed to promote proficiency in the second language .
Rather, this approach should be viewed as a philosophy or a new way of
thinking about second language learning. In particular, this approach
underscores the idea that second language learners are not monolinguals
with blank slates. Instead, they are people with fully developed and
operative first (and often second) languages. Moreover, they come to the
classroom with varied backgrounds and unique identities that must be
acknowledged and valued in the context of the foreign language learning
experience. The "Conciuding Propositions" reiterate the idea that
multilingual classrooms can
learners who do no! perceiv/
speakers of the target fangu;
SNAPSHOT
The Tenne."sec Foreign Llngl
the annu:tl convention d edar
:tncl \Vore it [ 0 thl.! grrx:ery sIC
ouI line re:ld the logo and l'CI "
but 1 hope y Oll find :\ Curl! ."
ht:r. My T -sl1in look('d like~)
of cli ....l)rder o r l1ledil'al coml
made me realizt th:1I the pro
m o no lingualisll1 is a n i llncs~
he:llthy perSOll_ 1 considered
optimist1c
IX;CItISl' the y SUggl
:lblc. [1' Ihe st:Ht:J11en\ had ,~ai,
SllOUld ht" curee! . the lIleanin
fin cl. Il o\Vcv<.'f. the logo plai
aV;lil:1hle. Fin:dly, the word CI,
G1Il rc."tore a person 10 htaltl
plit s that lllonolinguali .... m is
have, hut tht: remedy for (!lb;
mc mocr of the TFLTA. 1 initi:
part of the cure. Howcvef. 1 k,
Sever:.. ' w eeks f;Hec \VI
menl, saki jokingly, "[ s p\::l~
logo on my T-s!liJ1 . Mich:u:l ,
p.lrticipated in the speech 0:.;
sou th . Whcn 1 visited hi:- li'
easily into tlteir acc<.'nted . rr'
sto rks. In hi,~ chl.~ .... rO()lll , hO'
comprex and sOllletimc s dilTi
literary thtnl)' . Strierl y :-pe:d
howevl::r, his faôlity with di}
guai understandi ng of Ia ngu
with varying eduGltional ha
tin~.~ l't'qui!'e sublly diffcrer
u .... ing .~ illlrk· declarative ulle
be replacetl by cümplet<.', (-'
wbcn
\':llkin~
with one's
~U I
ncously ch:lngc tlleir way 0'1
syntax , and disco ur.'il:'-to Ml
of wor . . l1ip, ;lnd so forThch:mgcs in n:gi'''tt~r arc not
Ch:q)t<.:r 1 •
" M()1l0lillgll : ll i~1ll
l';l n Il,;
cur~'d ! "
13
multilingual classrooms can promote multicompetent second language
learners who do not perceive themselves as monolingual, deficient native
speakers of the target language but as emerging multicompetent l2 users.
SNAPSHOT
The TcnllesSL't..: ron.;i~n l:tn/o:uagc Te:u:her.<: A,,--;ociation (lTl:Ji\) -;old T-,.. hirt.... :11
the ann u:1I convL'lltion dL'cl:lring .. lIlonolingunli.... 1ll can he curL'd!·· r houghl onc
and w on: it Lo Ille )o.;HKL'I)' .... tore one day where anollll!!" CllSl(Jtllc r in IhL' cl uxkout line reau Ihe logu and rcmarkcd kinuly, " 1 don't know ;m yhody w ho h:ls Ih;l !.
h ut [ hopc yOll find a cure. ~ Ir took HIL' sever:11 seconds 10 r~~a<."t. hut 1 lh:lIlked
ber. My T -shirl looked Ji].;e ....o many that seek 10 raise :J\vareness ahoui ....01l1L' kiml
of d isorder or rnc diGll condition . Tilt, !lice c u .... tomer 's spont :lnl!ous rcat·li< 1I1
mad e 11Il' rea1ize that the procbm.nion on the T~shin Ill:lkes il scem as liluligh
l11onolingualism i .... an illncss. an :Jilme nl , or a condit ion thal happl:ned 10 :1
health y l'l'l'son. 1 consi{knx l il mon.: clusd y. The worcl.~ C(// I IX! :In': h()p~rul :lI1d
optimistic heclll."<..: lhl'}' sug;..:\:st thal Ihe treatmenl for thl; iIlm.:."-~ i.-; :l1rL':ld)' :I\o":l ilable. If the st:lf.C1l1cnt had sait! mono!ing llalism <,:oll i ci lx:. 11111:--1 he. Ill i.~ht lx:. or
.~ hollld l x: l"url'd. the me:l11ing w o uld .' iuggest lhat a cure would hL· diflkli li 10
finù. Il ow<,·v~r. Ihl· Ingo pla inl y sr: ll es that tfe:lIlllenl for thl: i llnl:.'" i. . . ~dre:ld}'
:lvaibh!l:. finally, Ihe word c//re lead.... liS to be1i<.:ve th:!1 li prot"t..'tlufe (If some .... on
c m n,:slore a ,~rso n 10 h ~a lth. To ("oille tn the point, (h(: logo on tl w T -shin implies that Jllonolingual ism is a Jise~l."<..: Of conditi(Jn a he'lltll}' pt..'r:.llll (hlcS 11()f
have. hut the re!llL'(!Y for Ihis illn<.:....s is al 11;.In<.1. A .... a foreign bngu:lgl: teadlcr ~lnJ
Jllelllbe r o f the TFiTA. 1 initblly w o re the T·shirt wilh priul: and r..: lt gbd 10 lx:
part. of Ihe cu re. Ilowevl:r. 1 kepl thinking alX)lll whallhl· .~:1yi n g :\CIlI<llly implil'd.
Scvt!ml wceks later, w hen Miehad , my colkagué i n Ih(: English uqxl!1lllenL, saki jok ingl}'. bl ....peak universi ty and redn eck," 1 bcgan 10 rethink thl'
logo o n Illy T -shirt. Micha el d iLl no t spe:lk a roreign bnguagl:, hUI hl: (~I1;linly
p artici p:ued in the .-;pecl.."h comlllun il i<::.... of various sub<:ultul"es in lhe A11ll:ric1I1
sout h . when 1 vi ... ilc:d his livdy. sout llern , J'Canut f;l nn~r f:unily Mic!l:ll,1 Idl
t::t .~i l y inlO their '1l"I."c:nt ed, fril:ndly h:1I1tl:f, .-;h:lring inside job.:s :Incl c hildhood
stories. In his l"h~srnom , howl:vc:r. his st;lIluarLl AUle ril.::11l English spt:l:cll W: IS
comple:>.: :md sOllietimes diffil."ulr 10 understand for the unini1i:lIl'd in th~ nt:ld o f
literary theury. St rictly spo:.:a " ing, Mid lad wou l<.! he eon .... idered rlll llloli ng ll al:
Ilowevt: r, his b d!ily \Vith djffc:ren l re).!:isters and dialeCls sURge.·ned a Illllll iling uai underst:mding of la nguage. l.ik..: m osr p.:oplc rrnm :Ill walb of lire and
wi th v:uy i ng edllc:ll iolul h:lCkgrolinds, he knew intll iti\'dy tll:1I dilfcn:1lI seltings requin.: sublly differerH li ses of langlla gl:. A easual hUI p(!lite greeling
\Ising simplt· dc:d~II~ llive 1111 l! ranet..~s directnl :1\ ;1 ck'rk in :1 grncery store wOl1ld
be repht<:cd by complete. coherent .'>t:ntenccs and a c:ueful c hoiee of wonls
",hen t:dkin).!: with o nl"s superi or ab ml!. :111 illlportan t p ro jl'Cl. People .' ])0111;1 neously c11:lllgl: their \Vay (>f tal kin g- p ron llncialion, imon:llioll , won\ dl(lil'l: ,
."ynt:lX . Hnd d iscour." e- lo 1>uil lho:.: so:.:lIing. Evo:.:ry sitU:Hion-work , ." l'hool . phll"l~
of worsh ip, :tnd .~() fo rlh- cdls for an :1(ljustmt: nt i n regislcr. 1"11(;so:.: sUh l k
(" h:lngl·.~ in regist ~ r :11'<..' 1101 gencrally l'onsido:.:fl'd to he dJ:ln.~l·.~ in 1:lngu:lge;
14
Ch:l[ltcr 1 • - Mollolin)..:lInlblll
'~I!l
1....· ntr....d !·
IUJwever. Illi ~
imuithT cl p:u'ity 1(1 :t( lju .~ t (lIle·. . ~pee(·h Il' fitlht: SI-'Uing ~ug,!-(t.;...;t~
\ Il:lr Ill' )S1 p~., )['1...' Il;1 " c Il. ,11\ :1 1'( )I"ls,·i. )LlS :ll1d 1II1CtlllSl:Î()US :IW;lfencss (>1" the:
lllan.,. \\';I)'S bnguage C 1II lx: us.... d . In Ihe end. 1 slflpp.:d wt'aring Illy T -shirt
1)C<.:a u:O:.... il s\.'(;lm:d illn'-':.I.~ingly de:lf litai Ilwrt: i." n'I ilJne.~s 10 ht" CU1"l:d ;In<..l (hat
the \\'ord Illotlolingu;ll i..m Il:ls littl...: 10 d o \Vith wh;u re:tJ peopk' know antl d o
\Vith Llngu:lg...:_
~
YOUR VIEW 1
rait: to several people From different professions (s/udents, leachers, business ownidS, elC.) and
ast: Ihem 10 describe the drfferences in ways Ihey tait: to people-close fnene/s, (amily members,
l'lIofk colleagues, and 50 (o!rh Make a lisr of the different registers of speech rhey idenrify and the
words Chey USf' to describe each register
RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES
;mnou lldng tlrat ~ l1lonol ingu:l lisnr C:1Il 1)(; cllfL-'{ l ~
who migll\ he compl:t cenl as user.... nf onl)' Olle
[0 foreign langu;tge 'l'acher.. in ,he United States
is potL'nli:tlly (ktrime[ltal lu learncrs and IQ our
.. ()Ci et}' :11 b rge Ahovl' :dl, il. bys a hl:':tvy burdl'Il on Ihte· fnreign lan.~lIagc
le:lching pnl["t·sSi()JI. l'()Jlk'rring ()Il U.... The responsibilily for tr:lnst"<H1l1ing
(od:!}"s sruderllS i!ltn hilingllal or multilingua] citizens of :1 21s1 o:ntluy world .
Hcrwcver. forcign I:tng\t:lgc t~~:l ch l'rs :lJ"(.: gelll'r:t! l y unahll' to \ive up [0 ex pect:rtiun s lu cure I)lollnlinguali ...m; the p rohlt:m is 100 pcn':ls ive and lhl' goa l
....('ems unaltaill;lbk. A llhough often Ilnexprcssed. Icuchers and sl.udenr.s fre quentl y leave the dassrooll1 \Vilh :1 sense o f f.l ilure.
H:tllwr Ih:lll pcrpdu:lting rhl' il!..;:t Ihat the j)robkm lies \Vith inclTicienl
h::tchl'rs ;md pOOf .~t udl·nt.<; . il is c ....'icnIÎal to examine .some of our fundamen t:ll
:tsslimptions :lhoLil \}K>nlllingu:llisnt. Spel'îlk:tlly, Wl~ will dcntO/lstrale thal the
word Illonol in.l.!;u:d is in." llffkienl for cxplaining whal rcal lX'oP"'" do with thcir
nal ive bngu:lg...:S. FUt1hL'f1l101"", Wl' w ill s..:e rh:l\ 1110no lin)::ttal is nOt Ihe opposite
0[" hifin/.:u;tl ;tnd Ih:11 people J(, Ilot 1":111 !le~lll y itHO lire.'>!:' IWO ca'egories_ l n f:lCt.
r:'llher than en d()rsin~ ;ll1y ]loli()n .. !" a con linuum with monolingual :tf on..: end
and hi1ingual :11 the o tlter- w itiJ Olll' hein/.: positive a nd the o t her heing
negarive- wl' will I"dl~lrne III": issue in ;1 r10nlinear W;IY tn relli..:ct the valuc of
many kintls of l:ulgtl:t.~e li .'>..: . In ;!ddilil)ll. , ....1.' wi ll explore the me:ming of the
wonl II1l1l1ilil1,~/{(/1 in li.ld11 of rcecnt lllodds t!Jal ur:l\\' on dynalllÎ<: syslems t!JeI.ry (0 cx pl:tÎJ1 bnguagl" d cvdclpment. In :ldditioll, Cook 's ( 1991. 2002h. 2009 in
press) nOlion of t1111I1ico1l1pel"' tlCt· and the L2 ll .>;t' f serves to opcrationalizl':! dyn:lmk undersl:tllding Ilf sl;C<lIld 1:lnguage devcloplllellt :Ind use. Alxwe ail , W(!
.will show th:ll Ihl' tenn tlI or101ingu:I I is :1 tllC:ofeticd l1Jt1strUct :tnd th:H ail
Tite clL"\'l'f logo on the T -sh it1
SeIYl'S as :1 warning 10 Iho.'>('
I:tn.R u :l g~·. Ir i." al.... o :lll arlk;t!
ro .... I:!JlIp our :1 l"/)!ldiriol1 111;11
typica1!y k:arning rwopk ha
11iullilinWl:l l. multiculllll~11 COI
Deconstructing monolin!
Pcopk' who "[l..::!k llnly their
\Vork!. but lh",y ;In: [".'\\":1" an
lingu:dism h:I ... itKrl';lscd si;..:
CllJlH11011 [!lan 1ll:11l)' peopl..: 1
is frLxlucml y th..: C;lSl' Ih;1I ilia
itl·LI contact \Vitb (Ilh et' l:tn.1i
Ho\Vcvl'r. as \"l' saw in thl'
spù'eb 10 Ihosl' \\'ith whonl 1
:m: ;I\V;lrv Ihat differl'nl grlJll
spL'aking (or wrilin)::J. i n Ih·
MoreoH.'r. th",), ;In: likdy 10 1
to "Ider pe()p!t, ro ("()lk:lgut:'
lers , Ihl·refol"\.·. is ;Ul indic;"
;lnd v;l ri:thlt:
Iml\.·l""(l. regi....rers in th..: !
bngu;lgt'S in the !llind of :1 Il
,' il'w, "!tlherl' is no mort.: SCp;1l
pl·tem mimi th:1I1 [h",l"<.: is 1'll.:I\\
/Hm/l' and (frion :Ire dloice:< 1
;lnd jet arc' ,·hoÎCe:. for th~· 1I1(
llIuJt'icolnpetent mind relt:rs p
bngll:lges in th..: mim! of one
ont.··... na_in: I;rngu:rgt! an: sill
guag\.·s . More,wl'r, this s\\"itchi!
ibr tu hilingual nx!e-s\\"ildri
switdling CIl1 vecu !" hd\\'eer
unilingml "Pl':!ker" <p. lR7). l
pk- switch h el\\'l'en rq~islcrs
peoph.: s\\'itch I><.:t\\"e..:n their t·
l'hl' (ad that ' 'I)Cakers ar·
p:u1icllbr S<.:t1ing Su~\.·sts thal
prbed of multiple nxk:s. or Il
1....· l'iewed as:! .~ingk. J1lIlILib
of imlh'idu;ll sl><'::l ker:-.. This idr
f.:ual r)(.~rson is not two Illono lil
a dislinc[i\'(: linguisli(' .... rskl11
2001: J krdin:t & Jl'ssrwr 21}(J:
0rx'r~ He :llong ;\ con t inuum, w
languagl's. or just t1w se cond
not ditTlTl'mÎ:ltl' bel \\'l'l'Jj mOl
un thl' id!.:':1 thal Ihe fund:l!llen
[he S:llne (l'; u~l dis. 100 r J.
Ch:lpler 1 •
· Mon<ll in~lI :llism
cm Ile <:ltn,.'d!"
1S
lypictlly 1L:;lrnin~ PI.,'\iple h:lV~ IllI..' neccss,lry compctencks 1.0 parricipate ill
Illul!ilingl tal. muh inlhur.ll l.,'OllllnllnitÜ:s,
Deconstruding mono lingualism
l'eopk who ,... pt,.': d, !lnly tlll'ir n;lli~'l' IallgU:lgC {'cn:lÎnly exist in our 21s1-ccntUlY
\~orld, Iml thçy <lfL' f\:\\'L"- :IIH.I bril1<..'r bclwl.:'cn, lkscan:h indiClles tl1:lI 1l1ulrilinguali.... m h:I,'" innc,lsnl sig nifi c; , nll~' ovcr litt.' b:-.I d ec;H.k:s :lIld is 1':11' more
cOJl1 JllOn Ih:111 1ll:lIly people rl':dizl' (1 knlin:1 N ,kSS11<..'f, 20(2), NevcJ1helcss, it
i,.. fr<.:'qu,•.'llll)' Iht: ("';lSC 111:11 11l:U1~' Afll~ric:.l1l" 1I\'ing in the United Stales Il:IVl' lilllitr.:d 0'111:1<.:1 \Vilh olhe!' I:tngu:IW' grollps :Jnll alv considcrcd lUonol i ngllal ,
1-I(Iwcvcr. :IS \VI: .>;:I\V i n Iho.:' sl1apsho! of Mich:ld , pt:ople oiù:n :Idapl Thc.:ir
..;pcelJI tO thosc wilh WhOIll Ihey inlCr.H.'1. That is. typicLlly fl.1!lnioning rx.'oplt:
:trt: ;!wart' Ih"l d iffervI11 groups of pcuplo.:' USe difh:rcnl regislccs, or ways of
..;pe;lking (or wriling), in Iheir n:lllvL' bngu:tge dcpending on Ih e conlex\.
Morco\'t.'I', Iht'Y arc likcly ln \I.-;C difrc fI,:nt rcgistl'I'S when .~pe;lk ing 10 C'hildrcn.
10 older people, 1'0 col1r.:a;..:uL's :11 Wl)l'k. or ln intim:l1e pc..:rs, l'hc use of rcgis[('r:-.. Ihl'l'cforr.:, is :l n indil':tlion Ihal monoling\lalisllI is llIultidilL\cnsional
;lnd v:lri:thll:,
Indcl,.'t.1. regislefs in Ihl' 11l11ld 01':1 llIollolingu,lI slJL':tkt:r art' very mUt.:h like
bngu:Igcs in 1111: mind <Jr:1 bi l ingu:ll o r llIultilingual pcrsOll, ln Cook's (2{)001)
vÎt'W. "frIlleR' is 1l() Illon: sep:lJ~di(ln IX'lwL:cl1 the IwO languages in the Jl)ultÎt.:oll\pctr.:nt mind thall thl_Tt· i-; betwecn dill"crcnt ~tyles ancl getlrt:.-; in the mOllolingual;
j,lw/(! :H1d w,joll arl: c hoiet:s 1< li' I"xprcssing Ibe S:UI1C concepT, jusr ;IS say plalle
:lnd je' an.: choiec-o.; for Ihl~ lllonolingu:l1" (]l, 'J6), Ahhough Cook's nOlion of thr.:
nllllticolll]lclellT mimi l'cfers prindpally 10 the in[<.:'rconnecled knowledge of two
bngu:lges in Ihe mimI (If ont.' pel"Snn, hc implicilly :l<.: knowl edgt~s that rq.:istcl"S ill
onc's n:l1l\'e bngu:tg(,-' :I rc simibr 10 :1 multilingU:11 persoo's uS\..' of .scv~r.ll bn,QlIages, Moreflver, this switching of I\:gi.>;ters H. :ldapl 10 a P:1l1icubr lictting is simibr 1\) hilin).!u:tl cod ...• ,-;w il ('hjn~_1 1':lrad is (2004 ) nOIes Ihat "inll"rfcrcnce and
.- ;wilchinJ.( CIlI O("('Uf Ix.:lwr.:en bngu:lges as Ih .... y uù'ur hetweO:Il n::gi.'iltr.> in :4
unilingll:d spe:lkcr" (p , IH7), Thcrl'f',)I·t'. \vltclllcf intentiomtl or uu...·onsciOlls, pcop lr.: s\\'ilCIl helw....cn regislcf:-' in Iht'ir native bngu:tge v ...·Jy Illuch likc hi lingual
pcopiL' S\\'ilch hdw....en thcir twu bngllagl\o.;,
Th ...· Llcr Ihal spv;lkL'J"S ;trI.! c;tp:lbl..: of ch:mging r...·gisll::r or bnguagc 10 suil ;1
IXHliclIl:tr scni ng MIg,~cSLo.; Ih:H 1..':lch pcr..;on h:!s ;1 uniqw,-' language system 1..'01\1pri.>;l·d of Illuhipl .... ('od\~,-;, or tnlxks of c..... pn::.~sioll, ln olht·l' wOfd .~, language Gin
he \' Ît'wt;,'(1 ;IS:l singk. mliitilayercd , muhitlillll"nsional phcl1omellon i n Ille mind
(If indi\'idu;tI spcakcrs, This idea is umsistcnl w ith tlll..'ories proposing th:H:I !Jilinguai )"x:rson is 11011\\10 1l1ol1olingu:tls in one l'Xxly hUI ratht:r a sin~k speaker wilh
:1 disli ll('ri"e l ingui,... tk .o.;ysICIll (Cook. 1991. 1992. 20()zb, 2{X)5; Gf'(),o;j<.:";11l. 1997.
2Of)]: 1k'rdin:1 oS: JcsSlll..'r 200:!/, ln (irosjean 's (lOO 1) opini0Jl, hilingual pcopft.'
OpCl",;ltC :tlong:t \1l1llinu llin. lIsil)g jll:-'\ Ih.... fin..1 I:mgll:tg~·, (Ir !:lut h I1rst and set'Ond
I:tnguagcs, or JUS! thc ." t:coml bngu:l~W, T his holistk vkw of language use docs
n(11 diffVl'enliate Ix.:lw(~~ n Illflllolingu:llislli :ln(1 hilinWlalisllL Instc:ld. it is h;lscd
on the ic!l':! tbal thr.: fUll<l:ullcnlal conSl'ruct nI' monolingual :lIld hilingua l hl~lins is
tho.: S;\lll e (]>;Il~H,lis, 200" J,
If m()IHllingu;llism ;Iml hilingualisln arc v:\ rying 111:lnifest:l tions o f the samc
bngu:l).:l· IlllCll()III(;n:l. wc ("an n.~)-:ard ail p<.:ople as occ upying, or fun ct ionin.t: in. llluhip1c lin,L(lI isrÎ{" univcfSl.:s. Morl'over, this ex p:.J!lsive, holi!'lic v Îew
(If b !l.l!ll: lgC implil.'.<; Ih;ll ll1011ll1ingualisll1 is a thc(lrctiCII constnici th:ll does nO!
d("snihl · lhl." way.<; rc;tl pcopk Il,<;e l<lngu;lge. Halher. we mllsl consider rbal no
onl' i:-. 1'1.· :ll ly monolingu:t1 and 11l;lf ail pcoplc havI: a Illultibycred, multidimcn" ional bngu:lgl' .<;y.'tcm . Althollgh il rlla y he ovcrslated 10 say lhat ail people are
i nhc rclllly 11i1I1lilingll:tl, il is congruent wi Th CU1"fe!H ho Ji."tic theo ries Ih.lI takl." a
d)"n<lmil.' \"il..'\\' of bnguagl: systems. l ll-rdin:1 and .Icssner's (2002) dyn amic
1l1odcl of l\1u ltiti ngu:lli."rn (\)jvlM ) vio.;ws a lHultilingllal speaker as a ~ c()mplex
(I.~ydl(Jlinglli.~li<· sysh.:m I."omprising individu:" language system.s·· (p. 3). The il"
modd ,II."I."Ollnl,' for Ihe Cu..:t th:1I mliltilinguai speakers have scparate language
~ysl ell1 s hui Ck:.<;(TilJ\...." thl'lTl :IS sllhsy..,I'~ IllS th :11 "intcr:h,:t with each o ther and
intllU.:IKL· 1..':It"1I o lher w ilbin Ihe {'omplex :lIld dynamic.: system we l'aH mu ltilio*
gl la1iSJII ~ (Herdin:1 ,'" .IL-., sner, 2002, p. l'iO). Th is \'iew uf language :lS a compkx
:11"1":1 )' 'i]' sllhsy:-'IL'JllS so..:l S lhL' ;'(;Ige for an understanding of llluitilingualism,
1~ llhcr [11:1n !1l(JIlIJlingu:ll ism , as [he liJu n, btion for second bnKllagc developIlll"!l!. l n Ihl ' nn:11 :m :ll)o'sis. l1lonolin,~u:tlism is :In in:ldequ:lte description Ihm
dnes 11(,1 :1<."CO II11 I for 110,; kind s III' COJnlx~tcnci es :1 k:IJ'J 1\~ r hring." 10 Ihe second
1:J n;,,:u:lgv le:lJ"Jli llg 1:1.<;1\.
." •..:IS (l(
Multilingualism reconsidered:
I<o..-I.."<'n\ !!II..'uri,·, I!J;II vicw l:mgu:lge ;IS:t dynalllÎC sysl e m ( de Uot, 2008; de Hot,
Vl'rspour 8.; Lowil:, 2nn7; Cook, 2003, 20()7; Herdina 8; .Jl>ssne r, 20()2; .1:1IVis &:
l':lvll.."nl-.o, 200H: 1':I\r1 c nko, cd .. 2006) o lTel" ncw ways o f Ih inking abou t the
t ~' r ms l1lollolîngu;l1. hili ngll :I1, and rnultil ingual. 1{;llher than con,,,idering them
<,:]("11 ;1;' dislil\('1 (lL".~n ipti()ns wilh panicu!ar selS of anributcs, They IJcco ml! vari :ll1ls of 01U- l:mgll :l,~C .<;yslem. ln his fC VÎl:W o f dynamic sysl ems Iheory (DST),
dt> HOI 1200S) .' Ial('." lhal "DST is a P;1I1 o f Iht.: siudy of sysl em ,,, in w hic h .sy~1<' I11S an> ;.llIdivd :lS :1 wllole r.ll.her th:1I1 \Vilh :1 fOclI .... on Ihcir parl<;" (p. 176),
T his tIH;OI"l'l icl l '1:1111'(' .~upporl S ail undo..:r.'>l;l nding of I hc l:mguagt's in the mind
"r, !Ilt· 1)<.:I"s'!Il :l' :1 sÎngle :-,yslem ralh er Illan as :1 sl~ries o f indiv idu:!l I:.tnguagc~,
j\ 'I()I"I', wcJ". this \ 'ic\V 1I1l1!L'rsn)l'(:s thl: inrl:rcOnneCledno..:ss of l:tn~ll:rges \Vithin
flJK> S)'.'>I<': lll. Illl'rl.·l,y m:lking I\)onolingual , hilingual . :1 11<1 multilingual descripli{)ll~ (JI" Ihc ." :IIlll' b n~lI:lg(' sy"'ll..·tll. In fal..:l , given Ihis ho lisTic underslanding o f
LlII,l:II:1).:'-', l11ultilinglul is thl: unly term Ihat cap\ure.~ IhL' range and l11ultiplicil)'
of l:mgu:lgl· IISl>.
1krdin:1 :Iml Jessner"s (2()O2) Dj....IM t:lkes :1 dyn:unic systo.;l11s approadl 10
llll< krslandin.t.: Iltull ilillKualisll1 :
1\ dy ll:ltl)Îl" sysll..·m." appn)ach 1ll:lkt..<; I."le:l r tha. in this non-Hne" r
\\'flrld whidl is holislÎl", o..:verylhing is irlll>rcnnn e<.:led and surfacc
slru...-turl'S 1.':111 he Seen a," implid.ly corrdaled to a hig h degrt:t:.
Thh Il~: I (b Jo Ihe aSSlIl1lplion tha t l here I11lJ.~t :thv:lYs be :1 subtlc
o rder present. .. . ürc!L
lied IO,~,·!lH:r :lIId Ilm." r
futil iry \)1' stud}'illg p:lrtl
Among the 11Iosf import:lnt
JJ1(l(It:l o f Illllhilingualism :In
TheS\;: l'h:tl~I(: tcrisli cs :l{TOll!'
dcve lo pnu..:nt. language :llli
L'bll.xlness of tJwse proc essc
of 1l1ultilingll:tlism. viewing Cl
COlllll:c tcd.
DST ha." bec n appl iL'd
hiology, ;mL! l"ognil in: .<;dene.:<
10 ckscrihc lanf!.uage do.;vt'!o]1
(:IS ",dl :IS additional langu:l
(de liot, 2I)OH: ,k Bot. Versp.:)
P:lvknko. lOOK). r"lorecl\'l;:r. [J'
influence and sha[x' c:Kh mil
.Ic.~snc r, 2002: Jarvis K \'a vlc!
Ihrou/-(h 11~ln s tùrm alit111 .~. A~ P:
dynamic phcnolllcllon, Even \
:Kquirc new lillguis!ic rqx-rtc
11C'1's S;IY, 10 our parents vcrSll ~
A hovc :III. DST exp;md:
;1 billistic undcrst:lndin~ of S(
il11plil"itly rejccts :1 binary Il
learning in whicll le:ll"Ilers pl'
111o!101ingllal stML' to :1 mon:
dyn:llllic un,lt..:rstanding ()f 1:
viewing llluhilingu:disll1 :lS th,
whethe r the rl~S rK'CIÎ\ 'C" langll:
m:Jture o nl>" (Herdina 8; Jes.~1
mliltilingll:dislll as some it
bnguagc prolkiency i n Illon
syslcm Ib:11 :lCC(JUIlL" for Ihe r
:IS well as nther bngu:lges in
l11ullilingu:1lism indudes rL'gis
fo reign Iangu:lgcs, hl)lh i n'
underst:mding a("COlln l.~ for J
eX:Jmpk, hl'in~~ :lhlL' l n rlC':1d .'i
u n ly o ne'." n:n in> l:mgu:lge rCI
o lIer;; an opporlunily to recc
indu<k Ihe Illany \\':IYS Ih:lt 1
gU:lgcs 10 intcran \\"ilh :111 kin,
CU ltllJ': ll h:lckgl"l illlltis.
ortler pn.:scn l.
Ordc r, ch ao:- , cOlllplc xit y and w holt:n ess are ;1 1[
li~d tflgelher and Ihu s nowadays more a!ld l1l {) r~ res(;:arc.:hers fecl the
futility of slUd~' i ng p;1I1s in isol;lIion from the wholc. (p. &0
Among thL' 1H0sl impnrt:11l1 ch:!I":Jcteri sti cs of H erd ina and .Jcssn er's (2002)
m(xlL'l (,f Illll i tilingllali.~m arc 110nlin(:arity, imcrd l.:pcnlkncc, :I nd com plcx ity.
These characterisrics an:ount for firs t and :-econd (and th i rd, etc.) langu<l~c
dc"cloPlll<:l1l. Iangu:l~e :Ittri lion in ;Illy o f rhe 1:lngu:l ges, and lhe inl l.! rr ~bwdness of lhe.,,;, prun.:sscs. Alx>ve :111, the DMM is :1 holislic und ersta ndin~
of JllllltilillgU:dislll , vi(:wi ng one. IWO, Ihrel', or lllor~ language systems as intereOl1 nected .
DST ha..; Ix· ..:n :Ipplicd 10 Illany diffct1:'nl fidds, including eçonomks.
hiology, ;Hll! .. ·ogllitivl· .>;cil·nec: howev"or. it is only n.:.'ct""ntly 111:11 il ha ...; hl:1.:1l \Ised
1(1 tk·sefil}(; 1:lngu;lgt' dl~\'doplllcni. I ~()lh fin'I and se(:(jJl(1 language devl.:lopmclll
(;IS well :1S :H.ldirinnal bnguages) :11"1: \'i~wcd :1.'0 C< )lllpl~x. IlOnlino.;ar p rocesscs
(th.: Bol.. 200H; de Bo t. Verslxxlr ~'" T.owie, 2007; Herdin:l &. jl5Snl.:r, 2002; Jarvis &.
P:lvk'nko. 200.'-1.). Mo!"covn , Ihe vmious b ngll:tgc...; thal a pcrson knows :md uses
intluenel.: :lIld shapt' c:lch orher o\'e!" lillll: ;md \Virh lise (Cook, 2003: Herdin:l &
.Ies.~ll\.:r. 2002; .J:1I"Vis ~'* Pav lcnko, 200H) . EVl.:n a pt:r.~()n's n:llivt: language gocs
11lJ"()ugh 1r::1I \.s t'mn:ll it llls. A.s P:lvkn kt) (2()(){J; t) notes, "monnlingualism is indl.:cd a
d Yllamic phL'llomenoll. Eveil \Vith tho.: confines uf ono.: language, \VI.: conrinuously
acqllin : new linguislic rt1 X:lloin:s and heh:lvt: and fcel diffl.:ren!ly when talking,
le!"s .";: I}'. (Il our p;ll"c nls versus our c hildren "" (p. 1).
AIK)\Ie :t1I, DST expands O U f IIndl:rsranding o f Illultilingualism h y offering
a ht)Ii.~lic undcrst;ln<ling 01" Slx·t)J)d languagl.:: devel()pmenL. This unc1erslanding
im plidtly rejcets :1 hin:lry monolingu:ll -hilingual vicw of second Iangu:l ge
1L':lrninl-: in which Icarnl.:rs p rogress :llong a l incar continuum from !'i()me zero,
ll1onol inguiI\ Slall: 1.0;1 Il)On..: :ldv;lnccd st:lge of hi lin).(u:t! funçtioning. Ibtber. a
d~'n;lI11 i c u ndersl;lnd i ng of l angu agc d c:vdoplllel1t C1"t':lIes th c po.ssi hi li l y fo r
vit:wing Illultilingu;dislll a~ tht' dd:llllt st~lll' in which il is o f ~ littlt con:-.equt'l1cc
whe( he r lhl· rl'slxTlivt bngu;lge systcm is ;\vaibhle in il~ Incipil.:n! fo on Or:lS:l
m:l1ure OIlC·· fHenli ll:l & JL':-"";ller, 20û2. p . 11. Furl h ennorc, J~lI hl.:r [h:ln vicwi ng
lllultilingu:tli.-;m ;IS .~o llle ide: lli l.t'd cond ition c!w r:II::rt·l"i7.eù hy :ld v:IIKed
b ngu:lgl" prolkit'l1cy i n m ore [han IWO bngu:lgl.:s, ir is consiclerl.:d " dyn:llnic
sysll.:l11 Ihal :lCeou nlS for lhe nalur:ll ehh :lIld now Ur:l person ·s n:tlive J:mgUrlge
~IS well :IS {lther Ltlll-!l1:lges in v:Jfiou ...; SI:lg(;s n f developme-Ilt. T his neW sl:nse o f
mliitilingu:llism inclutks n:gisrcrs :Incl diall'crs in O!le'.~ natiVe l anguagL· and any
foreign lanl-!LJ:lgl:s. bolh indpient and h igh ly dc::vdoped . Moreovl:f, th is
Llndc r.~ landinH :I(·c! )u nt.-; fcw di fl"efl'nt l:(lmpetcnl"ie,<; in different Iangu:Jgl.:K For
ex:unpk, hl.:ing ahk ln read Sp:lnish , undersrand l)u\ch :md German , hUI speak
n nl y onc's native b ngu:lge rt'preSenls mulli li ngu al fUnt1ioninj.\. In the end. DST
orrers an oppol111nir}' 10 rcçnnsitler our definition of 1l1ultilingu;ll ism .sn as lo
indudt~ lhl.: ll1:my W:lys Ih:l! pcopko use l!Jt:ir nati ve Iangu;lgt's and o lher langU:lges 10 intcr:1("1 wilh ail kinds of pl.°opk· of simibr :md differenl linguislic ;md
n dtu 1";11 backgr< JllIlds.
18
Ch: l pll'l" 1 •
" M()I1f)li tl).( II ~ l i~1l1
Gin
IX'
curl:d!"
peopk' who kno w mo re tha
-+ YOUR VIEW 2
ReiJd rhe fo/lowing quotation taken (rom Philip He/diniJ and U/rike Jessner's (l001) book, A
Dynamk Model of Multilingualism: Perspectives of Change in Psycholinguistics. Ana/yze their
dilim ilbout multilingual proficiency in the context of the notion chat register in one's native language (01'slitules iJ lând of mu/tilingual functioning.
"The developmenl of multilingual proflciency leads te an enrichment of the individual language
system Dut, as the whole system adapls 10 new envÎlonmenlal and psychological communicative requirements as perceived by Ihe speaker, also changes ilS nature.· (p. 160)
Multicompetence and the L2 user:
ln 1"(":\"<.:111 yi.::lrs. Cook ( 199 1, 200 2b, 200j ) has made s i~ n itk~lnl contributio n:"> ln
lIllllc rst;ll1ding or second l;mgu:tg!.: th:vdo ])1llcnt and us!.:. In particul:ir, he
(Jill"
has Pillposc:d a Ihc:orel Îc d h~ lIlh';W()rk cal1ed multicompctencc Ihat accollnt:">
l'ur :l n indÎ vidll:d 's knowlcdge ( If l:l11gu;lgc, indudin~ botb !'irst bnguag!.: (:omr)(:IC: lln' :tlld ;1 devdoping unlk!rst;lmlin~ o f a :">ccond bngu:lge. IIis most recclll
dcfinilion (lI' IIIl iI/inJl II!X' /e/lce is '"Ihe knowk:clge of two bnguagcs in one mind"
(in prcss J. In :Iddi\io]l to ofkring;1 new approat:h to lItKk-r.~I:lnd ing people who
k no\\' ;m d u.'>(.· 11I0n.· th;m onc klngu:lge, ffiulticompc:tence .'>erves :1:"> a wa y of
avoidîng lbe krillS Illonolingu:d and hilingllal. ln addition to being fr:lughl with
suhjecri\'c II H::lI1ing , thesc IWO lerlllS do nol d c scrihe the wa ys real people.: use
1: lllguagl:. As \\'t.: w ill se l ' in Ch:l pter 2 , then: an.: more th;1I1 30 definitio ns o f the
\v(ml hilingu:d ;lIld little agreement as to ilS Il,caning. Multico l'llpetentt: is, therell)fl', :1 11 indusiv<.: Il'1'1Il I I1:11 t.:1l(:omp:lssc.~ a d )'n:l1nic undl.'l"St:lnding o f multilingua l
mind thal is not eql1ivalent tl
ThL" !llOS[ impo l1ao l COI
his notion of the 1.2 user, H
Olher langu:lge l!Km his o r h
first :IS a c hild (2002h, p .
M
encomp:l.~se.~ an eXlensive l~
child SI:lyillg with a famil y ir
with U Fllglish driving Lhl
in Sing,lpo re s w ilc hing bl:t
2002b , p. 1). a nd sa o n . The
the place of the w o rd bi linp
relalivdy advanced levd o f
slalc."; that the lerlll L2 l t~er (
a n d language :11 :lIl y level" (
seco nd la n!lliage is not :1 COI
comprehensive \Vay of d escr
IanWI:tge.
(onsider Cock's notions of mu/tiC(
when you think about a person wI
(iatec! with mu/ticompetence and
Iist5? Ho w do cooes terms he/p fi
I:tn.t..: II : I.~e U ~l.'.
1\<..:0:1'11 1)'. Cook 's /lotion 0 1" mllhÎl"01l11"lC1Cno: Il:ls IX.' ell :tpplied tn rese arch
ll i ult ilin!-(u:lli:-.m . i\comling tn j:lrvis :tnd Pavk'nku (200H), '"the Illultkolllpell.'I1("L· :\Ppl'o:\ch ;dlows LlS \0 Ihl;IH'ÎZl.' thl.' interaction bt.:lwl.'l.'n multiple languages
in 1hl' :.rJoC:lkt.:r·s mi nd as :t n;t rur:1 1 ;md o ngoing p rOCl:SS and 10 undel'sl:md why
lnl l hi li n.~ \ I ; ll ~ IIl:l Y pl.:rforlll diITl:l"l.'ntly fnlm Illo nolinguals in :dl oftheir l:mgu:tges,
induding th..: LI " ( p. 17 ). Similarly, J-lI: rdina :mu .!l·.-.;,. i!1(,'r (2002) cito.:: Iht.: signifil.~l lll·C: o f {~)( )k 's n c)l io n o f multkc)11l1Jl:lo.: nce fo r thdr Di\'IM . '111ey note thal Cuok 's
Inudel of l'Ilulticompctl:'nce is uniury :lnd vil.'WS htn~lIage syslems ilS :l wholl.'
C~llher t!1;lIl :IS SCp: II~ lIl' sys tCIll.~ , w l lL·J"(:!a.~ tbdr 1l10l.ld n.'cognizl.'s that bng uage
~ yst ~'lI IS l 'an hl.' inll"1"prclt.:d :1.0.; .~ l.' p:ml!\: .-,;ul>sySIl.'1l1S that inICI~l l:t w ith each o Lher.
ln (11111.T w\ )nls. Illey dl) no1 agree \Vilh (:()(Jk 's view o f a s in~le language system
ill \\" hid l. 'IJI" l:x:lln plc, "the hilingu:11 spcakl.'r o f Fre nch and Eng lîsh d oes n OI
ha vl' uJlllll1and of thc bngllagl' sysleills Fn.:nch and English but of a unitary
b llgu:lgc Sy.~ I L111 W l: wou ld h:lvl: 10 G ill Frl.'nch-Englis h ~ (p. 1'19). In:-.tead, Ihey
n >ll.~i dl'r Fre nch :lIld English as Iwo scp:mlle b ut inlerconnened language sysle111S. 1k spil<: slighll y vary ing views, thc..:n.: is no tjuestion Ihat C()()k's 1'I'I1IllÎCo mpetl·m ·... fr.l1l1c:work (lITers ;1 w ay for rt.: lhinkin ~ 1l111ltilingllal l:m gu:lgt.: use :md
I:tn.~ll:lgl; lk-vdoPlllenr. ltllpliÔI in thl: !lotion of multic()Jnpt:lc..:n...:e is the ide:! that
( II I
PERSPECTIVES FOR TH I
queslio ns rhat should si
21 s1 century involvc Ihe \Vay :
guaI , tlll l11ÎCuiturai \Vorld.
TIlL:
m o nolinRu:lli.sm is :t teml Ih al
spe;lkers of one language. Sr
language conslitule :1 kind of
language leamers. rt'gard l ès.~
room with a nascent sense of
will :lIlaly:œ Ihe mca nîng of Il
lx.' c1c::trimental in fostering a
guage , ln p:H1 iclIbr, wc will
modd Gm :lffec.1 the ways le:
language ;Hld culture. Thal is,
dicholomy 1x.~lween !llonoJ inl
and nonnalivc spe:lkcrs o f
Ch;lpll:f 1 • " M()no li ngu;tli~m Gin lx: t:tl n..-d! -
19
pL"ople who kllOw mon: titan o ne language have a d istÎnct, compound stail' of
mind Ihal is nOI cquiv:llenl 10 IWO (or morr.;) munolingual states.
The 1110S1 Îlilponant cOlllribulion of Cook's ll1ullkompetencc I"ramework is
his nOlion of Ihe 1.2 user. 110..' <.k·(jn,..s th<: 12 IIS"/';lS ",my [X-'rson \"ho lISo.::.<; ,lnother language than his or her tlrsl IangLlage (U ), Ihal is 10 say, Ihe one Ica m l
firs! :IS :1 dlild - (2002h, p . 1). He gocs on 10 show Iltat the (c rrn L2 liser
encollipasscs :Hl extensive range o f bnguage lISé, induding ~ an English S<.·hool
child Iil ayillH wilh <1 LlJllily in Germany on an exdl:lJlge .... a Camlc!ian trl.1(:ker
with LI EnHlish driving Ihrollgh French -spe:lkin,L\ Montreal, a street trader
in Singaporc swilching bCI\Vl.::en English and IWO Chinese dialects·' (Cook,
2002b, p . '1 J, :md 1i0 on. The importance of Ihis le rm lil:s in the fa ct Ibat it takes
the p1:tce of Ihe ward hilîngll:ll , w hich implicit ly sliMests 111:11 a pc!fson has a
relalivdy :Idvanû:d levd of prolkic::-ncy in his s~cond language. Bc::"(.';llIse Cook
states Ihal Ihl' H::rru 1.2 user cm refer to ~ :I pcrsnn who knows ;tncluses a second langll:lge ;Il :lny level ~ (200211, p. 4), ;1 person·s k:vd o f proficicnq in the
second bnguage is not ;t consi<.k:ra lion. M/I/liclIl1Ip<:fellf L2 tiser is, Ihcrdore, a
comprehensivL: way of descrihing a person who knows and IISL:S more th,m one
bnguag\;'.
-+ YOUR VIEW 3
Consider Cook's norions of multicompelence and the L2 user. List ail the words rha t come 10 mind
when you think about a MrSOll who is bilingual or mullilingual. rhen, lisl the lerms that are asso·
ciated with multicompetence and L2 user. What are the principal differences between yeur two
fis/s? How do Cook's terms help reframe OUf unders/andlng of second language fearningl
PERSPECTIVES FOR THE CLASSROOM
The question .... ,hat shou ld sh:lpc our thinking ahollt language leaching in the
21st Cl'ntury involve the ways WI.: want 10 prepare Icarners for life in a multilÎnguai. 1ll1l1lÎClIltllral \\'orld. I n the preceding sect ion we eSlahlishc d Ih:l l
Illonolingualism is ;t tenu Ihat d()(;s nO[ adequatdy dl'scribe langu:tge lise alllong
spe:tkcrs
one language. Specilk:llly, we delermim:d (hat regislers wÎthin one
language constirute a kind of muhilingual hlllctioning, suggesling Ihal ail second
language learners, regardles.>; of the ir p;ulicilbr hackground, come 10 the c1assroolll \Vith :1 nasct.:nt sense of whal il mcans to he 11lll ililingual. In thi!'; seclion we
w ill analyzl' tlLe meaning of l1t/f;l,Y! sp<'tlœr in an etTOIt Il) show rhat Ihis lerm cao
he delrimenwl in fostering a pos itive sense of sdf in relation to Ihl' wrgel I<ln,l.!;uage_ ln particular, \Ve will cxrlore the W;LyS Illat an idealized, nativc-speaker
ImxJd Gill :II"I'(,;el the ways le;lrners perceive Iht·llls.:.:!vL:S in relation to lh!.: larget
language :1Oc.1 culture. Thal is, :1 1l1ono1ingual orientation implicidy reinforces the
dichO{omy Ix;twctn m0l1o!ingu:11 native s peakers of a p;ulicular targel language
and nonnalive s pe;lkers of :111 kind.s-tcacht.:rs, learncrs, and m:m y others_
or
20
Ch:lp(\',. 1 • " Munolingll:llism Gill ho.:
t:un.:.; I !~
I lItim:udy, WL' will SCL' Il1at the fOfcign I:mguage cbssroolll GU) be an ideal site
for lc:ln1L'rs 10 dcvdop unique idcntitio.:,.. Ihat will elllpowcr Ihem as second Jan"
gU:Ige lc:m1t'1'S,
'1'0 affirm (hl' v;tlue of all 1:mgua~es and i<1cnrili<:s, we will examine the
role of a mllltilingu:11 forL'ign language dassroom, Ahhough many te;lc hers
,'(l'CSS Ihe illlporlancc of :m t~xcJusively largo.:t-languago.: approach , ro.:seafch
" hows th:1( must fordgn Iangu:lgo.: dassroollls :Ife :d n: a dy sile... of nlllltilingual
l.'ngagt:f1lenL lhl[ is, dl'spile tbeir hes1 dTDrts 10 curh thl' lISt' of English in the
<:i:lssroom, hoth students ;Ind tcachl'rs uso.: thdr common Jangu:lge for a variety
of rc:( sons. Ittthcr th:ltl viewing this :IS :( ncgative .strategy, ho wever, wc will
1.:X:l1nine Ihl' w:lys th:1\ muhiling ll:tI d:I.SSr{)OlllS hdp siudems develop an
ifwarl'(h ~SS and appred:rIÎDn of lin).ll(islÎC :lIld t.:lrltur.tl divt'rsity. Finally, we will
define Ihe Illlllticompcl\:nI sccond language learnl.'f who is empo\Vt'red by a
f.:l'Owing aW'lI"I: m.:ss or his uniqu<: idenlîl)' be(wcen his n:tlive I:tng:uage and his
dcvdoping sl..'cond bnguagc ,
Co nstructing mult ilingual identit ies:
SlUdcnts choose 10 .s nrdy :1 fordgn I:lngll: lgc for a variety of re:lsuns, both :lC:l(k~lll i c :l11d persona!. The vely bu of c!l<xl.sin,L: a p:lrtinlbr bnguage--Halian ,
Russi:ln , Cbinese, or AI~lhic-may rdlect a stlldent's sdr-image and scnse of self
in the world. Sorne .stude nl.. may l'L'';:) l'cry IXlsitiVt" :llxHlt the langu:lge-learninR
t.ask hl']()re lheln, WllL're:ls olll,-~rs m:t}' h:lrhor r'csentl11elll ()rdrc:ld: each stucJelll
h rings IIniqu{~ ways of umkrsl:mding his pbee in the \\'orlel to the I:mgu:lgeIcarning experiencc. Additionally, sludcnls' [carning goal.s--bolh conSCÎOlIS and
unconscious--are likely 10 V:lry widely as weil. They may he math'med hy extern:tl fat:lors , sucb as w:lI1ting ID satisfy a requiremenl o r earning a good grade,
or by pt'rsonal go:t[s, su c h :IS w:lI1ting to speak thL' target language weil enough
10 trave !. The point is Ih:lt c:lcll s1l1dent in :l da.ssronm ha ... a unique icJemity that
pb )'s :111 impor1:1Il1 role in the \Vay.S Ill' {: ngage,'i in Ihl.' l:tngu:lge-learning task .
Onc uf the crilic:d issues n::bl ....d to identity in Ihe foreign language dassf()(11ll inV<llves Ille l'ok Ilf thl..' ide;l)ized native spL':lker Tllat is, all s~c(}nd Jan).:llage !carner.s ha ve a PI..'I'CCpt ion of how a n:rli\'{~ speaker of the t:lC).lel language
lalks, ;lnt! l'ven wh:1t sile looks li"!..·. Although teacbers may vary with reg;lrcl fO
('ultur~tI hackground or proficicncy in the !.argl't bnguago.:, they afe :I[SO likely to
holt! up the n:nive s peaker as a role modd fOf their student'i. MorL'over, most ail
h::lrning n:sollfces- textbooks and andll:lry Illaleri:ds-reinforct: this model of;1
sl:lnd:.tr<.I, lllonolingu:rI native spe;lker. SOl1le srudr.:nls may try to imitate this ideali7-cd n:Hive ,~pl'aker in an efforl to he fecognized and validatcd by members of
thl' targel culttrre, whr.:re:ls mhe!'s m:ly prefer {O retain ;1Il identily as an outsider.
Ikg:lrdk'ss of;r learm:r's purpose, howt!ver, it is evidt'nt th:lI bOlh s[udellts and
teachers ddÎne good and pOOl' language learners in tenns of thL'ir scmblanct! to
n:llivl..' speake rs. In other words, the imp[iôt :luthority of the nativr.: speaker in :1
forcign I:mguage dassroom can play :1 signific:mt role in definin},t Ic:uners' idenTitil..·s :!S slKTessfu[ or inadequate.
Intcresl ingly , E)Jw()(ltl's (200H) s tudy of students of diverS\! bn~U:lgc back.,t.:round.. in an I:nglish bngu:lge cJasSfoolll shows that code-switehing serves as
a way of indicHing ce11ain Ihin
the study talkl..'(l 10 each othcl
vealt::d their sense of sdf as gc
tasks o r as ft"sistant Jearners 'i'
ered and etncrg~nt n:Hun: of i
are not me rcly learm:rs, but art
of constructing and cnacting n
how they preSCI1l thcmsel\'(:.~ :1
of grt::al signitkance" (p. ')51).
The bct Ih:1I a student's i
his perception o f an idealized
fa<:l th;lt native-qua lit y spcech
idea of a native speakcr is an i
ln recent times, the ide r
spe<lkt"r have Ix,"(!n put inl
and language teadlers is i
1t:'-1.\..'<I fe;\tures of pfo mm.
stefce typic:l l featlifeS o f
spe.:tker is, moreovcr, .. Ill'
is onc who speaks only h
hy one (stand.:trdized) nat
of variOllS bnguages o r la
and suhcultures . (Kr.1l11SCI
Rather th:tn end()rsîn~ a mo nt
p roposes tltal a l11ultilingu:d id{
language and tho.: L'lr.'!;et Iangu:l
speaking and interacting in be
cties of the sa ille bnguago.:" (
speakcrs perfor11l cultural a('l~ (
tip[e cu[tuml memlxl)ih ips. Sim
tirsl versus Ihe second ktngwrg.
L'i an initiat ion into ;1 kind o f:
more C1.lltures and languages" (
T h is notion o f a (hiftl spa
person's native langu:lgelcullll
I:mgu:lgt le:m1ing can pby an
selvcs as second bnguage Ic a:
:\gaînst an idcalized n:llive SpI
localcd bt!twcr.:n Iheir native la
an identity rhat e ffeTS them a
tures. Tht! i(\c:l Ihat identity is
eonsistcm with Watson-Gt!ge<
:\n<1 minci intc raclivcly shape
(and more) bngll:lges constilll
Clmptcr 1 • "Mollolin/!ualisill
~' an I~
l:lII"ed' "
21
a W;ty of indica till~ t.:erla in things ahout rhe ~t ll dents' idenlil y. Whcn ....!Udenls in
the study ralkt.:d to eaeh Olbc: r in tbdr shanxi native !angu:lges Illey olkn re\·eali...·d thcir :.e n.~ of self :1.... good 1l!:lrners who wer!;! :1 ligned \Vith the IC;l rning
(;Isk .~ u r as n.:si~t;lnt le;mlcrs who \Vere nol. t-:lIwoo d st:HC."; that the "multibyenxl and emergellt n;llure of identity mcans that the bodies in our dassrOOllis
are not Im:rcJy le:l rners, hut :Ire complex beings cng:.lgeu in an on~oing proccss
of eonstructin g and en:lcling new selves; theif code-switches make il dcar th;1I
how Ihey present thc:msclves ;me! how they wish to lx: see n by others are bmh
of grcat signincancc'" ( p . 5,4).
Tht: b et that a :-.tudcl1l·s identity as a bnguagl..! It:;\rner may he s haped by
his perception of an idc;llized n;llive speaker is problem;llic. ln addition to lhe
fa<.·r lhat nati ve-qllality speech is unatt;linahle for ll10st adult learnt!l"s, tl1L' vcry
idea of a nat ivc speaker is ; (11 inadeqllate ahstracti on:
ln reccnt times , the i<kntity 11.-; weil as the ;llIthority of the nati ve
spcaker Il:1\Ie bccn put into question. The "nativt: speaker" of linguists
;tnu I:tngu:lge te:lchers is in f:l <.1 an :lbSlr.tcrion ha5t..",< l on arbitr".lrily se-le<:ted featurcs o f pronunc i:Itiol1, g ......Imm.a r and lexkon, as weil ilS on
stereo typical fe;lturcs of appearance :tl1d c!e:1l1Canor.
l'he native
spt.-.lke r is, mo reover, a m onolingual, lllo nocullur:11 ab,..;u"aL1ion: hdshe
is olle w ho spe;lks o nly his/ her (st;mdrtrdize<.!) n:nive to ngue anu lives
hy one ù,tmdardi7.ed) national culture:. ln reality, mos\ people partake
of variOliS langu:l~es Of language v;ll;etie;s and live; by variolls cultures
;lI1d sulx:ultl m.:s. I Kr.llllsch . 199Ha, pp. 79-80)
H.u her th;11l e ndors ing a monolithic native speaker standard, Kralllscli ( 199&11
proposes that a Illullilingual idc ntit)' resiues in a third -"pan!. lx:tween the native
language and the targel languag e;. She dcscribes "1;.H1guage erossing'" as '"l iving,
speaking and inlcmcl ing in hetwcen spaces, aeros::; multiple bngu;l ges or varietie.s of tht sa me htn~uagc " ( p. 70) and argu es Thal by "crosSillg bngu;l gt:.o;
speako.::rs pert"orm cultural acts of identity" Cp. 70) thal ~I llow th(;111 to disphy multiple cultuml membcrships. Sim ibrly, lbin (2002) rc;Ccl.s the hin;llY notio n of thL'
first versus the seco nd bngu:lgc and f;lvors <l (hird Sp:lCC '"w!tert: language study
ü; an in itiation into a kind o f ."i<xül pracli c~ thal i.:; al lbe bounu:lry of two o r
more C lii ture.~ and bngllages" (p. 1:$).
This no tion 01':1 (hird s pace, or an identity th,l( lie.~ sOlllewhcrt: hetwci.:n il
person 's nati ve b ngu:lge/ c u ltu rc :lnd lite Target lan,\;(uagc/cu lture, suggesls lhat
language It:ilrning Cli n p la y an impolt :tnt role in helping sludcnts utf inc them -
.selves as second language IC;lrners. Thal i.~, rather \han measliring themselvc.:s
aga inst an idcalized nalive speaker, learm.'rs can create ;t sense o f self thal is
loc<ltcd herween the Îf n:ttive language and Iheir devdoping second bnguagcan identity that offe r.~ lhem ;1 unique pcrspe<..1 ive on both languages and cultures. 111e ide:1 rh:.ll iden tity is shape<.l hy Ihe Jangu;lge-lc:lrning expericnce i.~
consistent w ilh Watson-G egco's (2004) theo ry ab out how l:mgu:lge, culture.
anu minci intcractivcly shape each other such tha t learnl'J's' first :Incl second
(:m d 1110re) 1:lnguages l:onS1Îtute multiple re presenlalions of the world. Tt also
22
l:oinddes wjrh NOI1.on ;Hld Toohl.'}'·~ (2002) proposiTion [hal language learnin1-!
afft:l'ts h:arm:rs' itkmÎtÎcs ;lOtl G in exp;md Their und(! r.st~lnding of the ways langWlgc is Ils(!d as :t s(lo(.; i:tl pJ~lClÎn;:
Langwige kmning cngagcs the idcnrilics or k:lrners tx.·c\Ust' language
ilsdf is no\ only :1 li nguisTiI.: system or signs :I n<l symbo1s; il is llbo a
comr1ex social pr.u..:ticc in which t.he value and mcaning ascrilx:d lO
an lIlIe r.Inec arc delcrmincd in part by the v;duc ;Ind meaning ascrilx..·tl 10 the pl.:l"Son wbo speaks. Likewisc, how a bnguagc [earner
"1"0 dL'\'\'lop ~llI denls' ah ih
musl ;tvoid dcsi~ning lcarning .
Ihal {"(ll1lrihutc \0 ;ln klentity a
shou ld c I 1l1JO\\'L'1" lea m(.~rs 10 vit
culnll"cs and Iwo ({Ir mon:) ]X.""O!
Ihis lbird Sp:IO; :1.... :1 mulLilingl
bngll:lge and culture of ori~in .
divo.:rsc CI JmmllllÎly of k:ll"ncr.>
LlIITt.."nl rcse:If1,.'h suggests, l11ulh
Îmcrprl'Is Of çonstnlcts a written t(,;xt f(.'quires ,l n ongo În g negolbtion
guistic 1101"m. il Illllst alsa be l'ca
atno ng histo ric:d undcrst:mdings, contcmpor:uy n..:alities, and future
desin.:s. Thus, j:mgua!-:c Jcarne rs an: not only [carning ;1 lingub!ic system , lbcy aH; Ica rning a diverse set o f soc iocuh u m! praclice.., on en
hest undcrstrxKI in [he t"onte xl of wider ~bl ions of power. (p. JI ))
...on:ll idc ntil y. cthnkily, IllUlliClI
NOlton and Toohey (2002) go on to say thal our undcrstanding uf the relationshi ]) l~twccn fo rdgn bnguagt: lcarning and identity i." still in il" infancy and
rh:H rese:m:h is nc cdcd 10 CXpIOfl." the ways forci~n language study S h :lpC~ :1
person's ide ntity:
Interview srudencs srudying several '
self, or the;r identity, is connected 10
rience. QuesllOflS might include wiry
how rhey view Ihe larget language .:
ers of Ihe targel language, wlral il m
'nlt" gO:11 'Nt" sec for future resc;.m:h o n idcntity and languagc lcaming
is ln ck::vclop under..tanding... of lcarncrs :lS hoth sociatly constructed
:lnd cOllstraincd bUI :llso as embodied, scmiOlk and cmotioll:ll persons
who idcntify tbemsdvcs, n.-,sist idcmit"ications, and :1(.1 on thdr SOLi:ll
worlds. I.earm:rs· invesUllc nt.. in k::lrning bnguagcs, the ways in whidl
rhdr identilic... aJli:<:1 tbdr p:u1icipa!ion in sel:ond language activities,
and thdr :Icces... tCl participation in thc ;t(tivitics of their conummities,
musl ail he m.allt: rs o f consideratio n in our nllure resc:arch. (p. 1 2.~)
themSi'M>s good kélmers, and so fDl
En.:n thùugh rl..'sC:IH:h is nccded 10 sht.:d light o n this important dimcnsio n
of tlnguage Ic arning, it is dcar that k:aming goals Ihal cxplidtly articubtc Ihe
valuè" o f explnring a privilcged lhlftl sp:lCe GIn help lcarner.; establish idcnlities
Ih:1I :lfC consistent with their unique histo rie ... and experience.... As Pavlenko
(2002) nott:s, I:mgu:lge learn in g is a "...ilc of idemity construction" (p. 286) in
which "thl..' tWO-W:lY rcbtionship hctwe cn Iangu:lge and identity recognises that
lang uages .";Crv L~ 10 prod uce. reprodu n,.", lJ~tnsfor1ll and perform identities , and
rhat linguislic, gcnde r, raùal, e lJmic ;Ind dass ith.:nt ilies. in turn, anet1 the :lCce....'i
lO lin~uis{ic rc....o uro..'s :m d intcr.lctional opportuni! ;es, anuultimatcly, L2 lea rning
OUl comes" ( p. 2')8). Tht~ id ea lil;l r The foreign l:mguagc learn ing e xpericm.:e
should v;tlue learners' uniqut: idcntitit::s is ech{x:d in Kr.uns....b's ( 1998a) concept
o f :tpprop ri:ttio n . "'whercby [carneTS Illake a t'ordgn language and cu llllre thel r
o\Vn hy adopting and adapTing it to their own nccds and illlc rc,~ts H (p . 81 ).
KI~l ll1Sch gOt:s o n {() S:ly that "the ahil ity to :lcquirl..' :tnother pC-fS(m's bnguagc and
und efsf:lIld SOlllcone ebe's cult ure: while rt:taining on .... '''' own is on!.! aspect of a
more gencr.ll ahiHly 10 medi:lte bc\wccn St..'ver.il languages and cul!Ufes. called
rrn.,"-clllllll~d, intcrnL\llll~IJ . or multicu llur,ll cotlltllUniGltion" (p. 8I).
The multilingual classroor
T1tt~ tirst Slcp in h .... lping SttltlCI
lhe idl..';1 of a Illultilingual clas.'
Ihat Illany fordgn I:mgu:11o:e (\
ex clusi vcly in the cl assrclum
praclice . [{csl':l n.:h sho\vs Ilia!
te:tchcrs-ust: English in tht: cl
t:lkt:n 10 cu rh titis ncgali\'e Il
20U(}; Turnhull &- Arncll. 2001.:
"\"r:lÎn (2002) "the Ifowign la
m o n olinl-tua l "'pace in whkh 0
(c.g., a h.:av .... -your-Engli sh-:lt-t
aged l'rom llsinl-! thei!" LI (Ihre
is hmt:nt) ~ ( p . ~n Thc l'au is. lit
usc lllf..! targct langu age exd ll ~
guai fon.:ign bngu:lgc ('b.~.~roo
An open ack nowled/-:menl
:t mie in Iht: forcign bngu:l/-,(e c
:lwarCnL"s.~ of thcir ldationship 1
gll:lgc. In panic ll];lr. studt:nt" ca
lllcan tlisrt:~;Lrding o r e ven aha!
...1;lIc.... "tILi., J1)o!lOlingu:l! bi:ts i.~
Ch:ql!Cr 1 • " M()no] il\,IlU; I I i.~1ll cm be
Ulft:d!"
23
To ... kn:lnp :-.l11dents' ahilitit.:s 10 cng:lge in lllulticutturai ...'ommuniCllÎon. wc
lllu,.,l ;lvoid dcsi).:nill).!: Il~:lrning go:!l... ddi ned in term." of nativl: s~ lker st;t ndards
llul Clmlrihllh: 10 :ln idcnlily as :1 det'iciem ."t,>(:ond k1!),I.l\lagc lI~cr. hlSlc:ld. goals
..llOu td elll]X)Wl..'f !t.:;lrners 10 vicw lhcmselvt;.<; as standing bctwt.'t:1l two (or mou:,,)
culture.:s ; Ind tW() (or Il)()l'e) [X'Oples. FlIrlhcrJm)rc , Ihey .~ tl ( '111d come to lIm k: rs tand
this l.hin.l Sp:lC\.! :IS a lll11ltilingual re ,llity in which they can mave hetween thdr
langu:tg<.: and ('ulture of ori~jn, the t:l1'Ret bnguage and culture. and tho..;c of the
d ivers..: community o f !canlers with whom l11ey SlufC the d aSSI'OOIll. 1n<-ll.'"\.."(I, as
clIrrcnl rcscarch sllggesrs, 1l111Itilingu:\lism "muSt not only be :!o.:t:pted as Itw linguistic n0rm. il llHISI also l'lé rcalizcd That il i.s dosdy linked to th ...• concept ... of Jxr....nn:l! îdenlil)'. cthnicity, J\lllltkllltllraJism ~ ( 1krdim s.: Jl..'ssner, 2002. p. 1).
-+ YOUR VIEW 4
Inle!\liew students studying several different languages and rI)' to determine how the;r sense of
self. or their idenlity, ;s conneacd to or shape(} by their e/assroom Foreign langua9f /earning elCperienœ. Ouestions mlght ine/ude why theychose to study the language, what they hope ta achlé.'!,
how Ihey view the rarget language and mlture, thei, perœived proximity or distance From speakers of the target language, what it means ta be a successfullearner. whether or nOI they consider
themselves good learners, and sa Forth.
The multilingual classroom:
The Ih ... t si cp in hclping students ('onstrw; t :l mllhilingual itkntity is to :len'pl
the kk':l o f a lIIultilingLl:ll d assrooill . Th is p ro positio n is n o s malilhing ...:iVl-,n
th;lt Ill:lny fO[l'ign !angu:lge teachers hdievc that us ing the r:t rgel la ng uage
<..:x dll s iv<.:ly in (hL' dassru olll is an e ssenti:tl component of good It:;!ching
pr;lctice. Ikse;lrl:h s how .... (ha ! Ill:lny teachcrs -bolh (.:xperiencl'd :lnd n(wicc
h.,:tchefS-use English in !h c cbssrooill. hut that I bey bdiev~ s t~ps s hült1d Ill'
t"ken (1) ('u rl> thi.~ n egativ ...~ p ed:l,l(ogical praCliet: Ob teman, 200H; Kr:1Il1Cf,
200(i ; Turnhllll & Arndt, 2U02; W;Jrford , 2007 ; Wilk ~ rso n , 200H ). According 10
Tr:lin (1002) ~ Ihl: lforcign 1 :lIlg ll~lgd cbssroom is o ften ;ln ideo l ogictl ly
Illonolingua l spa ce in w h ich on ly tlte largèl bnguage is .'iuppo,sed lo he llsed
k.g. , a ll'; I\T- y()lI r- l ~ngli sll - at -Ih c - dn(J r S!:lIl Cl:) and sludents w ill he di.~ c( Jur­
agcd l'rom IIs in).:: the ir LI (( hrollgh disapprov:tl , pOOl' g rades, :md L:vcn punishmt'n' )~ ( p . 1) . The faCi i ... , howcvcr. thal IXJth teachers and studcnts d o n ot
use tilt' T:lI'ge\ language cxdusivcly. and rht:rcfore any notio n of;l ll\o nolinguai ror ...~ign l:tngu:lge dassroolll is :1 m}'th .
An ( 1)L'n :u:knowkdglllcnt Ihal bo th Englilih :mcl t.he targr.!t langu;lgc ha vl~
a rok' in the foreign Lmgu:lgc dassrOOIll can serve to hdp stllde nls devdl )p an
aW:lfl.'lless of tlu,:ir reb tionship to hOllt thei!' native !ang ll:1ge ;lJld the targd lang u:tgL:. In particuJar, stlld c nls C:ln sec ,h,lI Je:t rning a second IanguagL: ùocs \lot
Illcan disrq:arding or L:vcn abando ning thei .. tlrM languagc_ Ali Pavlenko ( 1002 )
slalcs, "Ibis mOlloli ngllal bi"s is l1l()st c vident in the unidi!'ectional pt.'I'Slk~t'l ive
which po~ils lhe ne\.:e...." ity to abandon o nc's first langu age :Incl \.:lIlture in ortler
to !carn <1 •..;<.:nl1ld langlt:I).:t." :111(\ a("(: uhurale inlO t h e Tt (W1"gct langu:tgel
group." Ip. l i!]). A multi lingual approacll , on the other ba nd. doc." not hold
rh ... t:lrgel I:mgu:lgc in a posilion of special CS[L->t'm, but r:.lthtr rl."Cognizes Ihe
v"lue of :111 languages. Mon:,ovcr, a llHthilingu:ll approach does flot assllme (hal
IC:lrners wanl lu acntltllralt" 10 the 1:lrgct language group, but instC:::ld leads
th e m If) expl(iI"!'; Their lingllistic, p."ychologit::ll , and social rdati onship with Iht."
1:11)..t<..'1 langu:lge. This :lppro:l<..:h at.tel npls to ~ investiwll<.~ and 10 thcorisc Iht." role
of bngll:lgc in COl1.'ilrllction and repr(xluclion o f .soci,11 rd:llions, :lIld thl: roll' o f
sod:11 dynamil's in the p rOl'l:ssl:S of additional bngll:tge learning and lISl:"'
( l':tvknko, 2001. p. 282 ).
Cle:lrly, the 1:11").(el Ltngu<lgc and cultul"C tnUSI remain Iho:; (,X~l1lral fOClls of
ill"l rlltTion. As wc will SL.""t.::' in Ch~ptt::r 2, (e:u..:hcrs and student'i Gin work togetht:r
\0 dt:sign:1 bnguage-llsc contT:IC[ for Ihe da.'-';1"oolll that spt!dfies why and when
English is :Ic<:cptahlt: :md Ihl: targe! language is cs.';t.:nti:tl. ln o ther words. a mullilingu:t1 :lppro:lch d(}~s /lot Ille:tn Ihal ~Irhit!:l!y or perv:lsivc llSO:; of En~1ish is aeco:;pl:thk·. 1{:lIltt."r, il i.-.; :1 way of conÇ(:iving o f t he foreign bn/o;:ll:lgc karning
\~.'\l"lCri\~m·\..~ in .... uch ;1 way as 10 affirm th<..· v:lhlO:; of ;111 th e bngu:lges that .<;llIdcllIS
Ill:' )' hring 10 ,ho:; fordgn l:tngu:lgt· c l;[ssn X)Jl1 . ror exall1pk, :1 SUKII:I1l in ;t Sp:lnish
das." whn"", p:trt:nl" ."pcl k KorO:;:ln mighl have a unique per.;pe(1ive TO offcr his or
her lllonolingU:11 English-srx:::lking d:ts,~m:lles . A~king SllClt a sllldcnt ln c\is(;uss
hl:r !inguistic :lIld cllltur:1I hackground ;lnd expcriell<.:~'" may hdp o thers devdop
;In ;tWarerH:.'.';'<; or whal langu;lges :11"0:; valued and of who tleddes 10 speak wlt:lt
langllag(~ wherc :md why. ln [a\..1 , recognizing the many I:tnguages stLld~nts bdng
to tltt: k:lrning task cm hdp Ic:tcllo:;rs :lnd .'iludl:nt.<; devd op an :lwarencss of the
ways I h:1I :.l native ",t:ln<.l;trd l angll:lg~MJ("h :IS British English or l'arisbn
Fr\"'ll1"h- ;trc rc\;tll.'d tO is.<.;ues of powcr and national cli tism. These kinds of <.lisclissions CIll help "'\LIdt."nt,~ explore 11ll' pcrceived St:1LU$ of tho:;ir OWIl 1:lnguagcs
:md cultures as wd! ;IS Ihal of lho:; largel languago:; and cultUft:. Ullim:lIcly, Slu dvnls m:ly g:lin :.t dO:;:I!"er lIndcrsT:l11ding ()r Ihdr rd:Hion",hip 10 Iho:; (",]l'gcl l:lnguage
:lIld cultUf<..'.
Thl' I!1U,,1 impon;lJlI k'alu1"e of a lllulTilingu:l1 d:lssnXJIl1 is Illal il ,>;crvcs to
d("("onslrtt<..·1 sl lIdcnls' conn.:pl of Ihe nalive speakcr. As wc diS(:u s.~"( 1 pre\'iousJy.
Ihe notion of:l n:ltivl: spl::lb,:r is :( lllonoJingu;ll, mO!lcx:ullllrJ.1 ahstr::tetion; rcal
]"x:op lv do nOI spt'ak o ne p :uticlliar st:.lI1dard version of En~lish , Frendl, (lo:;rman.
or Sp:l11bh. \XIh<..'n silldents Lln<.le~tand thal they do nOI have ln (:olllpare Ihcmsdve." 10 ;1 mylhictl naliv<..· sl){::ü;:l.;I". the y will he ablo:; to o:;xplore whal il !l1can.-.; 10
n)Jl."tn.l\"t Ihdr p:tr1 11.:1Ibr idl:ntiticS, rakillg intn considcr::IIÎon their backgrounds
:Illd l:tngu:lgl.; l'xperienc<..'s. Th is kind of aClivit.y allows for cvery sllIclent in tlle
dassro()111 ln ha \'o:; a distincl profilo:;, or an idenlit)' :mchor('d in whal K ralllsdl
(1<)1)1-\;1) CI Ils ;t "Ihird space" IX~lwo:;en I1K:ir native I:t n guago:; and cuhuro:; ;lnd the
t,lrgel l:tnguago:; :ll1d cll ltun..•.
If wc :Igro:;e 1!J:lt so:;co nd langll:lge k:lfnL'rs ."holiid expl o1"e thei r uniqul.'
idl:ntil ie~. WL' will h:1 Vl.' 10 reas."C."--; \carning goals Ih:'11 are not based Oll nativ<..'" p<::lkl.'r ."Iand:l rd .<;. In pallic ubr, l lli." Illeans 1.:11\'isioning Ie:.Khing lIl:l1crials ;111<1
aSS<..'SSIllL'1l1 inSlrulllents th:1I do nnl focu s 1I1liCjudy o n devcloping ao; ur::lC)' in
"Il: l:lrget 1:llIgLl:I.\.(e. CUITent
:1
to pIU IllOIL' prtJlkit..'IKY in Ii...,tt
i"ounded on lit\..' ide::1 tha! stu
~ IOIVt)vL'r. t llCS(;' apprn:ldlL'" d
dL'Ill()I1slr:llillg :In in(Tc;tsin ~
Ahllough it is nOI Illy p u rpoM
lilingu:l l ;Ippro:lcll. 1 h(lpt." l::K
()ur n)1lcL'pl i()1l (>i" IhL' f()k· ()f
ing. T he \..·~..;cntial poi nt al t hi~
10 v:lllIe and n:sp<..'ct COlllpdL'
practk:dly slx':lking. le<1
11l:ln:lgL' :1 11l1lltil ingu:ll lbs.~r,
ho\\'e\"\..'1". il1vo\\'es neat ing tb,
cdv\..'(1 nt)tÎlms :ll"l<Jut IJl(>nulin~
kind.~ o f discn.,,-~ iO lls will open
uniqul: :lnd <"'\1Jh'ing i(knlitil:s
cII."-"iolls will t1l:vd 10 1)1..: in En)
k ind o f :Lt"ivity :!!Hong their tr
1..'1"";. tlwn.· i~ \..·' ·l'I )' re;tSOI1 10 lx'
Thel.;(.: iSSUL~ \\'ill <"'J1llxJ\\"el" rhel
ln Ihe l'nt!. :1 nlllltilingu::
rn·t1gniz<..'" 111:11 k:lrI\<::1"S IJring
1"b.".~ronl11 :lnd tl1:11 ail tho:;sl.'
indiv ilh l:t! k:ll1lc rs. Funhenm
tion ... of thl' ll:lti\\..' spe:tker:1I
v:lri:ltirlilS \)1" sl:ll)(brd bnglla;
bngu:lgL' \"ilh ail o f iT." lJuir~
<ju ........aioJl 111:11 inpltl :lIld inlt.."r:1
I:tIIgu:lgl' dl·'Tlnplllcnl. exdu
Th:11 is, r:lth<:1" rl1 :111 prohib irinl
:tpp n,;(ch v:l l ul'." tl lL' P(ll<.."l1li:
idenlilies of :1 11 lc:l rnefS.
5pend /5 minutf'S dUfI"ng cla5~ tilm
cldss. Find out how m.Jny different )
or casual/y-during their lives. Mai
dents in a discussion about what d
on which of these languages are 5
them to explèirl which of their pel
Final!y, determine their reaction to 1
the" dassroom.
Ihl" [:11",1.\<"[ bngllag<.'. ClIrn.:nl approachl"s to foreign bnguagl.: wadüng th:!! ..,cl.:k
lu pnllll<l1l' pnll!<"ü..:ncy in lisll'ning . sr)l:~l kinR. n;;lding, ;Inti wril ing an: illlplicilly
IOllndt:d on Ihe ide;! Ih;u sluc!o..:nL" Illusi :H'h k ve l'erlain Jevl:ls of corn.'clnl·ss _
J\]oJ"l'oveJ', Ihese :Ippn 1:I("h<.'s dl'...c:rihe progrt',-;''' in ll'rm,'" tll:11 arc dosel y ft_:latcd TU
<!t;monslr:lling ail increasingly accur:llt: c()llIJlla nd of the largel l:ll1gu :l ge .
Although il is nOI my pmpns<-: 10 olilline specifie learninft goals ... uil~d 10 a llIullilingll:tl appro;\ch, 1 hop\; <~ ach ch:lp!t::r in J.)o llh/e l'aIl.: will contrihule 10 shifring
{.ur t'onn~prion o f Ihe role: of gr:.1I11111;1I· :md : ICCll l~ICy in second [:lI1guagL' [ca rn ing. The L'sscnli:d poinr ;H Ihis jUllnur<.· is ln ht>gin 10 l 'xp[or(; w hat ir 111igh! Illean
1<1 \':llul' :lnd n:spL'1 1 l"<llnpCIL'ndcs beyond gr:IJl1I1l:lIical aCL'uraL"y.
1'r:IClic:dly .... p(·:l kitlg. 1L':l chcr.... mu."t ;llTiv(; al :111 undcrst:mding o f how 10
Il\:Ul:lgt' :1 II lulT i lingu:11 cl:lssluom. Tht> essl~n li:d ('oll1 pnnL'nt of Ihi :, :IPI)['O; lcl!.
l!()\v('vl'r. irwolvcs cn:;lting thl' Oppo llunÎry for .~tudcn {s tn diS{'uss thdr pf"l:n lll("L'ivL·tlll(ltÎ(!!1S :1 1)()\rl JW)11(I[ ingua lism, Inulrilingll:llis!ll. :Incl n;ltÎVt: srL'ak~1's. Th~Slè
kimb o f di.,;t. ."u" ...ions will o pen up the po...." ihiliry for Sfl IÙl'ntS 10 undl'rstand thdr
1IIlil]\lt' :lIld cv o[ving itlL'nl it il.:s :IS sl.:cond language: k:arnL>I"S. OhviollS[Y. {ileS{; disI."u........io ns will J1L'1.XIIO l'li.:" in Eng lish. Although SOJll\~ Icachers may not cOJ\~idc r Ihis
kiml (If :lc\ivily :lI11(mg their tr;ldiLiona l rL'spo nsihiJilics as forcign bngU:lge tl'~K h­
l'J'S. rhlTL' is evcl)' reason ln Ix Jil;ve ,11;11 helping stuucnts dcvdor ;11\ awart'ncss (JI'
Iltl'.'i4; j.'N les will ernpower Ihem {o bL"L'Ome lifL·-long .o.;eçonu language [c;trnt:rs.
!n thl.: L'nd,:1 1ll1llTiling ual :Ippnladl t(~ f(}n~ign Iangl lagl.: teaching il n p [i<'itly
recogn izes th:11 ]e;rrnlT... hring 1l1any ditTL'n.:nl 1angll~lges 10 thl' fordWl bngll:lge
\."b ssrool1l and th:ll ail rhe.'il' l:mguagL's pLly a ro[c in Ihe k'arning p1'oc<::ss of
intli\'idual Icanlers. FlI11hL'rmnn:, Ibis appro:lCh go ...:s bt:yond traditional d cfinilions o r Ih(,: native .'iJll'akcr and Crl.::HL'S orrortu nilks 10 1'ccognizt' and n:spl'Ct
v~l ria l ion ... of slaJ){ b rd bn)-(lI:lgcs. Mn.;1 c spedally, t h is approach v,L1l1es karner
bngu:lge will! ail of ib qllirk s. fauJts, :md in~I Ct':lIl";.l ci ....s. Allh( lUgh Iht;:r(.' Îs n o
<]ul'."'l io n Iha l ill]llli ;md inter:I Clion in IhL" {:ll"j.~L't l:1ngllagC' art' t'rucial 10 sL:nmd
bngll:lge dc\'dopnwnl. L"xd usion o r ail olhcr languages is cOllnlcrp 1'oductive.
Th~lt i.... 1':llh\" r lh ~11l prohi hiling Il1\:' ll.~e nf :lny p:lrtic lilar bnguagl:\:1 1ll1lltilingll:d
:Ipproac h v:dtl<'s Ihl' pOI\:nrbl l"on l ri htl(ion~ of ail lall,t.!lIages and :tlTi rm:. tht'
l<lclll iIÎl:S or :111 lcarncrs.
... YOURV1EW5
Spend /5 minutes during class tlme ta/king Wlth studenl5 in an elementary-levef (oreign language
dass. FiM out how many different languages the students have been expose<! to-----e;ther formalfy
or casually-during their lives. Make a list of ail the languages on the board and then engage students in a discussion aboul what Ihese languages/cultures represent to them. Ask them ro reffea
on which of these languages are simUar and dissimilar from the targer language and why. Ask
rhem to explain which of theü' peers might be at an advanlage in leaming the target language.
Final/y, detl'fmine theif reaction ta learning how many languages are ·unspoken ~ and hovefing in
thel! classroom.
Defining mult icompet ent second language learners:
A." wc: .'>:IW carrier, Coo k's (J9'JI , 2002h) not ion of muhicompch..:nœ ."<.."I"\'es <lS :1
lheo reticrl fr:ullcwnrk for dc~ribillg muhilingualislll. 'Ille ide:t Ihal IWO (or mure)
[;mgu:tgcs :Irc nut separaI.... enlit;l:s but" ralhcr ;Irl: inlcrcOnneCIl:d in th!.: mind of
ont! person oO ..... rs :1 ho listic \Vay of cxamini ng tht.: rdatiunships betwl'cn a pel".~o n ·s first, second, :lI1d othLT language:--. Vario \ls phenol1wna, including bngu:lge
devdo pment (fi]":--t, s<.:cond, t!lird, or l\l(")rl.'), :1t1rilion . and maintt:nance, :IS wcJI as
cros....-linguisl Î<· intlut.:ncc.", Gill be seel1 : IS rdaled oo:u rn:m:....s within the mind of
u ne pt:r.-;on. Therefon..:, the mllllicolII!>elel/l Jl/il/ti refL:rs tn lht: inlegr.ltio n o r twO
or mon: !:mgti:lgl:S in Ihe mimi of on<.: rl: l~on. CrK)k's nOlion of Lhl: L2 Liser is :1
pt:rson with :1 lllulTicompctt:nl mimi who uses wh:t1cver linguistic n:SOllrces he
ha.-; ·'fur rL>;tI-lifc purposcs, sllch : IS n:porting symplolll.~ 10 ;1 dOClo!", ncgoti:1Ting :1
COIIII~ l ct, œading a pncm ·' (Cook, 20{)2b, p. 2). Mllltir.:OllljldclIl [2 liser is, therl'fore, a bro,:l<I lerm tbat dcscri bes ;1 person·s cOlllpu"ilt: knuwlt...uge and use of twO
o r more l:tngu:lgt:s.
T Ilc importan("(~ uf Cook ·., nolion of the ll1uhicompdcnt st:::cond bngu;lj.\c
u. .er lie." in the fan thal it il:ls tht: pOlenti;11 fur cmpowering sccnnd bnguagt:
Icarnt:::rs. Thal i .~ . becoming :1 second language Il.''cr is dl>arly :t more :ntain:lhlc
gO:I] lh:ln ;Icllieving n:tlive-like cOlllllla!l<1 (l;1 su·()n<1 bngtl:lgc. i\œor(l ing t( )
Cook , ·· ultitn:Hc att:li nmcnl is :1 monolingu;11 standard r:llhe r than an 1.2 S[;Hl dard" <Cook. 2002h, p. 6) and that ":Iny use C()llnts, howevcr small or ineffectiV(~·· (Cook, 200211, p. 3J. Thi." view of the second bnguag<.: liser stands in st:lrk
contr.:l.-;t 10 traditiona! goals lhar s(;."<.:k 10 promote aCCtlr:He, native-like .'i pL>('{:h .
A s ü)ok (2002c) notes, for mo . . t appro ;\ches in tho.:" 20lh ccnt\u")' "the go al set fo r
studel1ts was mustly 10 ge t a ," dose as possihlc tu monolingual native speakl:rs.
T he s iluations tht:y ellcounlered in ])oob wcn: Iho."C lu'>Cd on Illonolingual na tive :o;p...:a[;.l:r:O;j tht: tcachers (hat wcrt: 1lI0st :1l"l:qJt:lble werc native speak<.:rs."
(p . 5 29). The.'\(.> kinds o f goals can disc mpowcr h:;tchcrs and stlldenls :I like:
If L2 Icarncrs fcl'l that Ihe chid' mGlsure of /.2
.~ lI CC~SS
is passing for
nativt:, I..... w :I rc going to Il1cd il. Both teachers and sludc:nt'i becomc
frustratcù by scu ing lhctn.'it:lvts what is in effec{ an impossiblt: t:lfgCl, ugly ducklings regretti ng they will ncwr h ecomc ùU <..: ks witho ul
:jpprt:ciating th:1\ Ihey :Ire reall y <..:ygncts. ( Cook, 2002c, p. 331)
Goals ddined in l.el"l11S of b t.:collling a Illulticomp<..:lem second language lise r
sUAAest ;J signitlclIll sh ift in o ur Ihinking ;lboll t foœ ij.(E1 language tC<lc hing and
second lan gll ;*~ kaming. In fact, this appro:ll"h ca lls fo r an c ntire ftlhinking o f
what w(~ wallt slucknts tu know and do \Vith rhd r second l;tngllage. To kllllC
this !"elhinking we will ta lk il ho ut goals that prolllote nHl lticompct<.:nt second langU:lge \earners--karners who wi ll lx.: p rep:lft:d 10 he second bngllagc llsers.
Hallll:!" Ihan o utlin ing prescriplivl: goals designcd to prom(lte Illullicompdcnl second langu:lgc learnt:rs , Wt will ex p lore :1 ne\\' way o f lhinking
abolll wlrat wc d o as ford g n I:mgll:lge IC",cb<.:rs. Our objective w ill be 10
adv:l11ce ;J philosophy aboui fordgn languagl: tt::lehing thm will ro ste r lhe
<kvcJopmenl o f multicompclcllI second langu:lgt 1earnt:rs. In othCf words, il
Ls not a quesl io n of c h angil
of c lrefully n: thinkin~ goal:
fu i 1(::1fners . To th:lt end,
througholll ! )uIlIJl" T(/Ik:
1, First, \\le mus t p roviJ
).:uages Sllcccs.'ifully. Ir
second la n guage Il'arr
br real multiJ ingual p<
he sbown the richne."'.
through conl'ersation
c ncou nler Ih<.: l<tngu:lj.l
second Iangllagc, w l'
things tll:lt lnnnol ingu:
2. Sl'cund. we IllU."1 IH<
œbtt:d tn I:tngll:lge le
studl:nl s undcrsl:lnJ t
bngu:lgt"" and idtntÎlY,
klc:r th:rt I:rnguages ir
(20lJ2) argues in b vo
··crc ating;l s p at.:e for Il
ing hngll:lge t\rat :IJ!
tht:y Sl.::t foot in dass"
st;mn:.-; they b ring inl
prc judin:sJ loward th
sion aJl10ng speakers (
d ard bnguagc is cons!
individllal uses and i
have a growi ng aware
extricahly linked. and
lht:ir leadler and peel
üppol1unîty te) ...:xplo·
e ncouillering a new la
guage Icarning.
3. Th ird . and perhaps mu
u.-;e Eill-tlish in the cb~
dOl'S not onet" :1 re:lli.'
Moft:ovcr. us ing EngH
dent..., to discus:-- the co
te Il t'Cl ua Il y sri1l1ul:tti Ilg
stlldy of the tar}.«:t b np
ln Ille end, lh...: notio n of a
rtfranle our rhinkillg aboui
learning. t\hov~ ail, this 1l0!
th:1l are not hascd on a mOl
newly defincd umlerst:,ndinl
is nOI a question of t:h:mgin g ~v eryl hing we J o in our c1assrooll1s, hut ratho..: r
of t..,,::m:futly rClhinkillg go:d.. :md re-o..:llVisioning the cha nlClcri:>tics of s uccessfu i l earn~rs. "1"0 lh:1\ c nd , three central pri nciples will guide ou]" rhinking
Ihroughout Douille 'J'fllk:
1 . Fi!"SI, WL' must providl.:: modeb of [o..:al people using thei r seco oJ langll:lges Sllcl'L'ssflllly. Instead of using Ihe native speaker as thc modd for
sc(,,:ond language: Icarners, we ,~ 1Lollld offer models of rc:\1 langu:lge usc
hy real multilingu:d I~ople. ln Cook's (2002c) words, "sllldents Ilccd 10
1)4;!" shown the rkhness o f 1.2 use. Itlrher Ihan a few L2 lIScrs stumbling
through co nvers:ltio!l S wilh powerful native s p ea k er.~, [hey need {()
cnt:ounler Ille bng uage o f people who lise the b nguage d re<:tivdy as a
set:lHld language , who. because they s pe;lk IWO languages. C:ln say
lh ings lh at 1l1onolingual n:l1ive spo..::!I<e r... l'an never say" ( p . 338).
2. Set.:ond, W\O' musl prolllo!t :tW3renl.:SS abou l Ihe vas! :trr .. y of issu..:s
rt·l:ltl.:d t n language It'arning :tnd l:tnguage ttse. \'(Ic C:ll1nOI :!,;SUtlle rhat
sllldcnts undcrsta nd complex issues, such as the relationship Ix:twecn
bl!lglla ~t· ;lnd identity, d efiniti o ns of monolingual or tnultilingu:ll. or the
idt';j Llt:lt I:Ingua gcs inte racl in tho..: minus o f multilingu:l1 peopl e. Train
(2002) :\rgues in f:tvor of devdopin~ critieal language :l\varcn\!ss,2 or
" cn~:lIing : t sp:It:C for Litt: exploration of bdiefs and expcriem:cs concerning Ja ngu:tge thal a il sludents hring with them l'rom the firsl moment
they set f(Jot in dass" ( p. 17), Maki ng studenL'> :l\vare of thc ;mirudin:1l
stances 11wy hring in volves e xploring th<.: ir bdiefs (ido.::ologies. bi:lses .
prejudio:s l low:II'J the l:mgll:lgc, apprn:iating the diversity of expression atnong ,~pe: tkc[s of that b nguage, questioning how tht., native st:lnda rd b ngttagc i,,, constrllcted ltnd [<.:presented, and re tlect ing criti cally on
individual uses a nd instituri o nalized norms. Muiticolll pclenl karnt.: r,~
havo..: a growing a wareness of llw ways rhat language and power are lncXlricahly linked, and undersla nd that [heir aUimdes, as wdl as Lhose of
Iheir IC:It"her and pe ~rs, shape their vicw o f th:\{ language. II:lVing the
opponunity lo cxplon: the ma ny questi ons thal arise n:llura1Jy From
I.:llcountering :1 t1ew language :md CultUfC s hould be part o f foreign langlla~e karning.
3. Th ini. and rx:rh:lps moSI impo J1:1nt we must give st"udents opponunitics to
IISI.: EnKlish in ,hl.: cb s... room . i\ tllonolinXll:lI, tar,li(èt lanj.tl\;lge dassr(X)1l1
docs not "ffer :\ n:ali slic vision of 0\1 1' 21 s1 ccntury l11ulti1ingu:d wor1c1.
Mort·ovcr. lI.sing English in Ihe fort:ign language c!as..<;rOO1ll allows stu(kms \t! discLiss tlle comp!ex i ,~su cs re latecl to language lmd culturl;! in intellcctua lJy stimu bting ways-perha]>s 1llotiv:lting them to conti nue tllci!"
st udy of the target bn gll:l ~c.
ln the t:nd. the notion Of:l 1Il1iiticompetcm second bnglla~e Icarner serves to
n:fl~lme ()u r thillking about foreig n language teaching and second language
Io..:arni ng. Ahov(: ail , Ihis no tion ul1tk:rst.:orcs the importance of learning goals
Ihat ;Ire not b:l.-;t'd on a mono1ingual, native spc:1ker standa rd but mthcr on :1
newly ddllled IInderstandin,l.; of the second IanXl1agc user.
~
YOURVIEW6
The idea of il multicompetenr second language leamer is based on Cook's (200 1) notion of the
multieompetem il user, One of the characteristics of a multieompetent second language learner is
awareness of language and langua~ leaming, Given what you have {ead in this chaptel. list the
specifie things you cons/der impartanr 10 know, How does your list (ontribufe 10 your unrkrstanding of a multicompetent second language leamer7
ln :Iddition, rese:trch .st
Live bngu:lge is similar 10 :d
(Cook 2002h; Pavlenko, 200
ricubr st:uing, ," LLch as talkin;
o rs in a work environmcnl.
words, bnj.(uage U1>C in one':
Hy extension, learners comt
q '1lllx'Lencies Ihat cannoL ,li
Ihe wl/nl monol inguaiisill 1)1.
sll~lCl l'OlK't:pt thal doe,~ Ilot
Proposition 1,2
Conclu ding Propositions
Jl fl/lti/illgl/al claSSI'()OIll
Proposition 1,1
Allhough 1110st fOfcign bnl-!
10 fnn:ign I:lnguagl: tl:~lchi
MOlloli ngllalism i s 1:1/1 ÎI/(uleq/lllie l e /'111 fOI' {/escribillJ{ 2/st centllly
!(/lIgU(/KI' use,
v;lricty of r"':I....on,;, [nsH:;] d (
il is important ln n.:t·()gniz~
fuw ign langu:lge cbssroom
selfings when: peopll.'
Most p !..!opll' hdicve Ihey are monolingual i f they Gm 't s lx'ak :l1lo ther langu:lge
Ilue ntl y. III facl , th!..!rc is often :10 ÎmplÎ!..!d sense Ihal 1l)onnlingualism h 1I1e
nor!11 :lnd {h;tl h ilingualism is re servt:d fur :1 pri v iJeJ:~cd J'l'w, As Wei notes,
· people who arc hrought up in a ." odet}' w hcn..: m o nolingu;llism and unieulruralism ;tfC p rolllotr.:J as Ihe no m1.11 way
life ohcn think Ihal bilingualislll is
o nly for a fe w 'spe cia l' people" (2000, p . 'i). TIlis ullspoken und ersl :mding thal
1ll11ll0linguai people ;Irc linguislic illy d l'ficient, Whe1"C;lS bilingual people :11'1..'
linguisric dl y Sll pCrÎO I', nOI only dis';lIades people t'rom learning a second ta ngll:lge h ut :lbu disempowers Ica mer." who pen.:CÎve la nguage le:lrning as a
( bulUing 1: I ~k. Tht, l";1Ct i .... , ho\.vl:!vcr, that few\:!r ;tnd fe\Vef of people in tlte
U n jtl~ d St; lll.::,> live in lingllisti<.: :Illet cultural i.... ol:llion . An yone with ac<.:ess (0 tcl ed... ion and the Internet is likdy ln hc l."xposed to ,lIlOlher lan,gu:lge. Moreov~r,
Ihen: :Ire increasing numl?ers of products sold in gruc~ry slo res "nu large chain
slores t!t:lr have notices :lnd dir~c1ions in o the!' languages, The point is, people
no longer live in ling uislic isolation and Ih ey h:lve rt:gular e l1co u nters \Vith
o ther bngu:lgcs Ix:sides Engli sh:
helWeell Iheir bllguag~s. SI
le:lching implicilly reeu).(ni i
the fo rcign I:t n~ua~e d assn
learning proeess o f indivi
beyo l1d Iradition:t! dennitj(
standard bnguages. fi naHy
ils t[uirks, faulLs, and inacCl
or
ln our days o f fn.:quclIl border crossing, and of multilingl.lal, lIlullinlltur;,l forl'ign language t' bssl'OoJ)ls, il is appropri:nc l O l"ethink the
11lt)Jl()]ingual n;l five speaker I1Imll as Ihl..· t:lI}:cl o f foreign language eduGl\ ion. As \Ve revisit the m;lrkl..'(1 :lnd unmarkcd forms of language
IIscrship, 1 propose Ikll \Vl' make the interr.:ultur.11 spC:lker o f Ihe.: unlll:u'k<xl t()fIl l, thc innnite of langu:.ge use, and the monoling ual mo not'uhur;tl speaker :t slowly disappc:uing spel'ies 01';\ natÎonalistic myth.
(K'~lIl1s('h,
lY9Hh, p. 50)
sr
in,!.: 1:l1lgu:tge ;tgain."t ;1 mOl
ou r gt);t!,,, 10 aCCOL1n1 for su'
qUl'st inn lhal inpul :md inl ~
bngu:'gl.' {kvelopmenl , ex(
Th:l l is. r..n hl'I" Ihan prohibi
glial appro:lch valu(::s the D
Proposition 1,3
Mulficompelellt secom
lallguage usel'.\'.
Cook 's ( l C)l) ], I!JIJ2 , 2002b >
n:fr:ulle our goals fo r sccon
dl.·...c rihes 1 111~ sum o f ail 1:11
Vil'W of I:tn~ll:lgc That valu,
guage ;md the dcveloping ~
Ch:lpl.... r 1 •
"Mono]i n~u <l ]i~m
cm be:: cun:d!"
29
ln :H klilio n, reso,:::l reh s\lggests th;H alternatin~ between regi stl.:f:'i in o ne's nativt' bn/-:lIage is ,..illlibr 10 alternating belween languages for a bilingual pe!"S(m
(Cook, 2002b; P:lvlenko, 2006). Thal is, ocing able to adapt one's speech 10 a Ixtrtkular setlin/-:, such JS (;1 lking 10 chiklren, ln Jx:!..'r." :\1 a social evenl , or 10 slllx'rims in :1 work en vironmem. refleclS :t kind of multilingual runclioning. [n olb .... r
words, language use in one's native b ngu,lge is mtdtidi1ll1::n.siomll and ad:tptabh:.
Br extension, learner.; come to the S(...Tond language learning task with a set of
C(Hll peIL'ncies tltat G.ll1not adequmely be described as mo nolingual. I n Ihe cnd,
thL' wIJrd monol ingualisll1 1l1eans diiTerent Ihings to cjifferenl people and is an abSIr.I•.:1 COl1<:ept thal d ocs no t d esnibe w hat rcal people d o \Vith 1:mguage.
Proposition 1.2
Mulfilillgutl/ cJtlSS'"OOlIlS emPQwl!" second
Itmg lla~e
learners.
Althougil must foreign hngu:1ge teadlcrs endorsC a t:J(~et bnguage :lpproadt
10 fort'i}ln l;tnHuagl! t<:ach i n g, !"x)(h studems ;mcl tcachers ll!'iC English for :t
v; lric.:ry of rea son!'i. [nsl cad of viewing the use of English as a negative strateg y,
il i:- import:Ult 10 re<:ognize Ihe m any p ositive effects o f c rea ti ng a nmltilingu al
f( JI'dgn 1:lnguaw: cb"'.sroOlll . Fir.<;t , it n:f1eCl.s real lang u:l~ c use in the world; in
sl'tlin,t.: ... w here pcople spcak morc t!tan one langu :l j.!(' p eople :tltern:ltl~
hclwcCll their 1:l ngu;If,:l!s. Second , ;t multili ngll al appro:1ch to fo reign bngllag!.:!
l e; ldlin ~ i mplicilly recogni:œs lhat Jearm:rs h ring l1lany different languages ln
the foreiJotIl bngu:tge cb ssrooltl and ,hat ;lll these Iangu:lges play a l'ole in the
Icarning prol."<:s.<; of ind i vidu;!l !ca roers, Funhermore, This appro.u.:h goes
hcyond traditional deCinitions of the native spe'lker lo include variations o f
s!:lmbrd bnguage!'i. Finafly, this :Ipproach val uL's Icarner language ",ith ail of
ils quirks, LIU!!"'. and in:lccur:lcies. nathef Ihan measuring a lea rner's developing bnguage aga in.~ t :1 m onolingual. native .s pc:l k~r standard , we m ust ada]>t
our go:!! ... 10 ;1C~Ollllt for s u cc~.s.sful sccond lan gua~e lise. Altho ugh Ihere is no
qucslion tlt:ll input and inl(.;)";lction in the (;lrget bn,lo(uage are nucial to second
langu:lge dcvdopm~nt , exdusion of aH olher 1:m,guages is counterproductîve.
Th:1 1 i.~, rarhcr lhan prohibiting the use o f any ]x lrticular langu'lgc, :1 multilingU;II approacl l valuc..:s the p o tential contJibution ... of :IJl languages.
Proposition 1,3
Mllilicolllj)ldent second fangua,ew leal'/wrs I)ecom e succe.\·.V III seco nd
I(/H.t!.U(/ge 1I.~e,.s.
Cook'" ( I <)<)I , 11)92, 2002b) nmions of mul!icom pct~nce and ,he L2 user serve to
1"t-fr: lIne our goals I{IJ' ,~cond la ngu:lge karners. The idea tbal mu lticolllpetencc
de,scril"X's IIK~ sllm of ;111 bnguilge:S in the: mind of one pcrson o Crers a holistic
\'i l~ \\: of la nguage th:11 v alue... Ihe foIes o f both Lhl..' fully developed nativc language :lnd the dcvdoping second language. ln addition, Cook describes the 1.2
lI~er :IS :1 persnn who lises an)' I:ml-:lI:lgc
:1Il}' lcvcl for any pllrposc. This
broad, holistic um1cr:-r;l nding of bngllagl ! dcvdoPllll'O[ and langu:IAc lise offc rs :1
nc;:w vision for :lJlil.:ubting gO;lls for d l...sroolll fon.: ign bnguage lt:'arning. l n particubr. il t:h! llkng~s us 10 rll{xlcl re;i l lllullilingu:lllangua.l::l: use in our d~is.<;room!)
:Ind 10 makc our stu<.!L-nts ;l\va rc or tlu..:ir pntc nti .. 1 as se(:ond 1:mguage users. The
1l11lItil'()Ill]:>t:tc nl second bngu!lgc ]e:lrt1Cr, thcrl'fnre, has ample ()ppoltllnities ln
intl.:"r.ICI in the I:lfgcl b ngll;lge and to come 10 ll/ldt:r->Iand ,mu appredale his d istinctive Gl p:lhiliti<:." :1.":1Il L2 liser. A ... P:tvlcnko ( 2002) S:lyS, "the kl:y 10 SllCCCSS is
,..;;:cn in plcnliflll inh,: r:lction:t] Oppol1uJliri cs, whil;.; Ihe <-k:... ired oUlcome i.~ Illulticnm]x~ll:n('e mlher than idc;.lizl·d 'n:l1ivc-sfX':l kcrness'" (p. 29H). l.carning goals
rh:11 art..:' :1I1il'U!;lh:d in lerm;'i or dev('lnping lIlulticolllpelent second bn gua~t'
I~:trners w i!] pnJl11tl!l: 111ulTin 1ll1peTl'ni ;'L"(':~ ,ncl language lISl:rs.
: 1(
Suggested Readings on Multili ngualism
Researching Your Language Stories
1. I fsing YOI II! VIE\V 5, have SII I(I"I1IS ill rh..: ,·h ....~room k<!l:Jl :1 juum:11 ( l lht.: w;lys
Illeir ~~'n~l" ,,1' .~df in rd:ll ioll l" th .. I:lr~~'l 1a n~u ag,:ku lturt'" ~ hifls on'r Ille {·our......: (,1'
1he scm, .~lt.: r.
:1. A ... k e;Kh sr udenl ln IX'gin his jou rn:ll w il h :1 d t.:la iled pOl1r.lil of his bngu;4l-\C
expl·ri .....nH·s- hoth nalive :m d scnmd la nJ.:ua~el<
h_ GiVl' slud<:llIs ~pedfk il1 .~rructi"T1 .~ 1\·).::lrdin.l( lht.: numher of limcs the)' should
wrill" in (Iwir journ,tls. flor eX:l1nplt', rOll 11li.l(IlI have th cm write th'c or six elltric.~
ol'er rhe ("0111".'.<.: of :1 .<;Clllt:."ler. Ik ..."\If\' 10 (ulk-CI Ihôr jOllrn:1 1 en t rit:~ OIll'e o r
tIVice dming Ih<.: .~'~Illel« .....r rn 1><.: ",un! Ih<:y ;Irt.: followÎnJ.: yOuf <Iin.:clions.
"-. All llt.: <:nd "t't lll' SCl llesll'r 0)1\C(1 ail tl l<: j'Hlll lals. Ikad tllt.:1ll Glfl:fllll y lu aSI:l'r\:l in
the ki lld.~ of lopi." Ih:1l s..·l"lll 1" h.: ~ ·.~p..C("Î:lII}' p'·nincnl. Cre'llt.: a liS! o f nm11ll01l
("OIllllll·nIS. hnlh IXJ.~ilil"'· :md fll'.!.!:ll i",·.
nt/UN 1'1/;"\\/ ) : SI,,,IIII JO; lIIillllles tlil/"III~ â(/ss lime 1(/lkiJ/~ I/"ifb sll/del/ ls iJ/
.".;flld"lIls I./(II~' IX'l'lI
l''illd 1,lIf {,Ol/' IIIU/ly diJje,.elll
(/11
/(1II~lIa~f!S l!.Je
1"'1KJSt'd l(i-(';(I)(!"fi"'lI/a/~l' /JI" ctisl/{//~j'-,III,.ill~ fbeir iiI/t'S. Mal..'t.'
lisl Il" ail 1be {(/II.~I/(/.!.!('.~ "" Il,,, hOfl rd '/lltl Il)('/1 t'II.1~(/~e st udel/ I." i 1/ ( , disCllssioll a/xml
II'ballb,'-,(' klll~II(/!.!/·.v'c IlIIIl/"('S l"I'jl/,-,s{'lIf fI! Ibl'II/. ,1sk 1/1('111/0 n:fh'lÏ /JII wb/cb o/lb('...1'
tI
Fil/(lI~) '. deWflllill(' /hdr J"t'(lCli,
(/lui blJ/~,,.ill~ ill lb ..;,. cf{/s.~/"(!/.!II
2, t I... e lhe IiSI rOll et<:,viscd for'
sl!nmd l:tn).:ll:!).:l· !<.:;lrn.... r '"'he
of the 1llos1 inten:stin).: rupie
;1. Imervi,'w IWO .stlldl:nI.~.
M:l"ond l;mgu:l)..\e and (ll
th ird l:l1l).:u:!<-:e k .g .. a Cl
.::Kh of lht:1lI Ihl' qU1:'1<1
knows ahout bngu<I).tl' Il
h. Compare thl: studenl ... · ,
Illidlilingu:11 bll).:lIagl· le
1:lI1gu:II.W IC:lrnin.lt. NOIe
fi OUR \ 'Π\F 6:
l'm1mils f{l{Je 1-.1 ,,-,·el". Ckn:J, >11. 1Ir--: : )I.·l llltilinguai M:lI1ers.
Ilcretin:/, 1'., ~'" .Il,,~sller. I l. (lfKi2). I l (~1"lI(lIIlk 1///J,ld 0I ,l/Idlili'WI/(/lislIl: P"I"Sf'L,..:ti' ..", {if
d)(III,!.!1.! ;11 p~)d,tllill,l!,lIislic.~. Ck vl"d( Il!. 111\: t\ llIhilinJ.:ual Marrt.:rs.
.J;II"1"h. S. ~~ l':o vl,·nk(!, A. LwoHJ. ("ru....,lil/gllisli<; ÎI~J1l1el/œ ill 1r/l1~II(fW' alld c(J~!l i{it H{ .
1\,'\\ Y(uk t!'HIIIL"d~<.:.
t>.rams..:h, { .. t l ')')HJ. ülllglla.!..'" II/III ",11111'1' Nell York : Oxf~ >rd University l'rc.......
KI';\1l1St"l l, C. CW021. Til..: pril'i ll:gl" of tlt..: nun-n:llil'l" ~pe:lk<.;r. In C. Blylh (Ed.) . .-1.'1/ (\'(;"
;}O{)J· 17',' SO<':/I"ill!,~lIislir.~ 0/); we(!.!11 ((/! I~I/{/!!." ("/fI.".sn !/"IIIS l pp. 25 1-2(2). Bosl,)n:
1kil1le.
l'I'.lin, I!_ \Xl. ( 2002/. 1111.: (n o nJIl:ll i v,' sl;llld:trd \;!n).:LlaX<': in fon:i).tfl Ianj.(ua).tl:" CdU(':Ilion : A crilic;tI fl<:rspé'cliv(:". tn C ISlylh ( Ed .), 1111(1.\"(. '2002: 71.w .w.cÎolill,l!,lI isrics
,!rJ;"~'(~II~lrm.!~III(W' Ô{ISSlYlfJIIIS (pp. j - .N L J~ '.. tcm: lldnlc.
(;4)( ,k, V _ ( Ed.). (2CK 12 J.
('/el/lf'lIlt1/:r-h'/\'1 jfll"/'ÎJ.!.II IrIll~fII.I).!I' âfl_"'~ .
ItJlI.~/,(I).!.'S (II"" Sil/Ii/rI/" UI/d dÎss
('.\]JllI/l/lI'b;';b r!llbeir/x'(!'x mi).!
'11)~'
Mm I.!ltl mil
(2(XJ } ) IW/Ù!II ,!/thl' Ill1l1ticOII//1<'I,
st:oJlld 1(l1I~1/(1.~!!
lefln/I'/" /s
(1/1'(/ .
hw'(! feu" il/ Ibis cha/A"I". lisl
rlrx'" .lVlII/" lis! ('III/Irilm/e 1(, .1 ~!IIr II
.Il/II
Notes
\. \'(le will R'C in Ch:lpl<!f 11
01' :1 11 :I~ ..:S.
2. Till: nOlion of niric;!t I:Hlgl
gubl Norman F;lirdough (\
1Il:1rlow, l ll>: : l't.:arsnn Edu
(lIIl1~J'Sis: 1bl' crifiatf sllId)'
:lIld soughr 10 cOllsiJ<!r ;11l(
l il.:ub r il... rd:llion 10 lht: n:
Ch:lph.:f] • -,\ lol1olinguaIL"1ll l::m bt: cunx l!"
31
IlIll,~I/{//.!t'S (II'(: .~III/i{m-lll/d dissimilarJ i"()/11 I/Ie 11IIJ.!1!/{U/I/.!lIl1/.!(' t/1/({ll'lJY. As!! rll<:11I If!
('.\pluill II'hl cb (!( l!Jdl"/)(.'('I"S m i/.!bf lx' m dll at/t'mlll' }},,' i ll lear"iI1J.1lbf! IfII'J{el/tIIIRllog(' .
Fil/(//(l '. t!e(er/llilll! (bdr /"(!(IuiOIi If) I,>tlrllillg h(lu' 1//(/1/.1' fal/gll(/Re,_ tire "'/11I ..;po{'e/l "
(111l11)(werillg illlbdr ôtlSSnKJlI/.!
ri Willl lhe ropi c.~ of wl1:lI;1 1l111ltkolllp..:kl1t
s.,..·nmd bng\l:lge le:lrtlL'1" ."houl.! know :,hollt bnglla~e IC:lrning. Chuos<; four 0 1" 11\'(,:
or the 1ll0~1 in1.t:rcsling lOpk's ;lt1d It~lIlsf{)rl11 {helll imo <lllO;;slions.
:1.
I nterview I WO sll1den l.~. O IlL' English-."peaking .~tuJ cllt wilh Hill!: t:XPOSUI"L' 10 a
sccond langu;lge :md <Ill<.' hilingu:II slltdenl ror whorn the {:Ifgel I;lIlgu;'~c is a
lhird 1:lIlguag..., ( t' .g .. :1 ChitwS<. ~Alllt~ri(';11) SlllCknL whn is sllIdying G"nll;IT1L Ask
(,::Idl o f them Ihe qlwstions h :ISl'd .m yuur list of turics 10 find out whar hL'
knnw." :11)\ )\11 bngllag" l'':lrnillg.
h . Cn nl p:tr..., lill' sIIlJt;nt.~' ;Illswcr~ 10 d t'I.;rminc Ihe Ji fkrenL'L'.~ b(.·I\\"L"t"n wbat a
lllutrilingu;tI l:lll).;\I:lgL' 1<.::lrncr :Illd :1 hcgin ning I;Jn~lI :tgL' Ic:lfnt'r knows :lhoUI
l:mgu:lg<.:' Il::lrning . NOIe' llolV lhdr p"'n:l 'plioIlS an: simi\:lr 01" difkr"nL
2. Us<; Ihc Iisl yOll dcvis\:J for )'U Ill{ VIEW
fJ Of IR l'lIi\V 6-
nIt! Idetl
'l li lIIulli(;(mlpclcll/ .Ç("CO/U/ /(II/RUt/P't! {ea/'lW,- Îs h(.L'>t!t! UII
(2001) IlolÎ0 11 olthe 1III1IIIcO III/J<.'/(!I/l12 Il.',-'/".
()II~'
(JIIIJ('
Cook:~
ch(m/Cf<:/"Î.~lics '!Ia IIlIdIÎCO/II/Jelell/
.'>t'Colld ItllIJ.!II(I,I.,'f' /canler i.~ ( 111 '(//"<:1/(.''-:; t{{allg/la!.:e lIIullrmWllIge /(!a/"lIiIlR . Gia'il lI'btll
I~JlI bltl'e /'('ad ill Ibis c;hUjJl<.!l: fisllll<' "/I/:'Ci/k Ibill.(~s .l't'" Cf)II.~lth:r iIllIX)11tI1II/() ~m(l/l'. HU/l'
dOt'S )"11 r fisi ' :"llIrilmle (0 .l'm'l' /11lllerS/wuli Il,!},!,!
Notes
1. We will sc" in Ch:lpll" 2 Ih:1l oH.Ic-swilching is OlllHllon :lmollg hilingu:l1 ]"x_'opk
(>]" ail :Ig"s.
1, The notion of c rirk':tlla ngu:lg ..' aW;lrenù.';$ (CLAJ \"':lS first inrroduccd hy
BIi!i~h linNorman l'airdollgh (F"irdollgh, N, Wd./. (1992). C ri/ical hll/gl/oge all l(lI'{!II('S.~
11i:lrlow , l JK: Pearson EU ll(";llion Umil ('dl: l'a ifl::lough, N.( 1995). Cri/Îcal tllsc(}//I"St'
(/IIl1~I 'sis: lb! ' c ri/k al Slll(~l' r?J" Iml/.!/w,W' [llarlow, UK : l'c:If"$On Eductlion Lillli{LXI. f)
:lI1d ~)Ughllo umsidcr :md ;lCr on Ih(,: :;o:x:Îopolilinti nalure o f 1:lllgu:lgc US<.:, in particli lar ilS rd;u;oll 10 III<.' exc....-i"... ,,1' pOwer.
glli.~t