Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India - IGU-COG

Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and
Geoparks In India
R.B. Singh and Subhash Anand
University of Delhi, Delhi, INDIA
1
Introduction
The development of all biotic and abiotic resources relies on bedrock, soil, landform
and related systems and processes. The diversity of these systems and processes determines the richness of biodiversity. The geological history of India started with
geological evolution about 4.57 billion years ago. Indian geological formations consist of the Deccan trap, the Gondwana and the Vindhyan and those that originated in
Pleistocene, Tertiary and Pre-Cambrian periods. Conventionally, the country is divided into three physiographic regions viz., the Himalaya and associated mountain
chain (5,00,000 sq. km.), the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains (7,00,000 sq. km.) and
the Peninsular plateau (19,00,000 sq. km.) including the coasts and the islands. The
world’s 14 highest peaks and few large rivers of the world are located in the Himalaya.
The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains located in the northern part of the country, extends for 3,200 km. from the river Indus in the west to Brahmaputra in the east. Its
width varies between 150-300 km. The senile peninsular plateau in the south is triangular in shape and has some of the oldest mountains of the world with elevation varying between 600 and 800 meters. The Islands include the Lakshwadeep (36 coral
Islands), the Andaman (200 Islands) and Nicobar (19 Islands) (Singh, 2012). Out of
the total geographical area of the country, 2,386,000 sq. km. (Himalayan and Peninsula region) is made up of hard rock.
Geodiversity is defined as the variety of geological features, including rocks, minerals, fossils, soils, geological units and landscapes, which are the result of the Earth’s
evolution and history (Panizza, 2001). According to Brocx and Semeniuk (2007),
geoheritage is a concept concerned with the preservation of features with importance
to Earth science, such as landforms, natural and artificial exposures of rocks, and sites
where geological features can be examined. A geosite is a locality that constitutes part
of the geoheritage of a territory. UNESCO in its Geoparks International Network of
Geoparks programme describes a geopark as a territory encompassing one or more
sites of scientific importance, not only for geological reasons but also by virtue of its
archaeological, ecological or cultural value. Preserving the rocks beneath our feet is
necessary for earth science and for education; it is a vital part of nature conservation.
Geoparks and geosites can become our modern earth science clubs if maintained and
Author: R.B. Singh,Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi – 110007,
INDIA; [email protected]
Subhash Anand. Department of Geography, Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi, Delhi – 110036,
INDIA; [email protected]
www.igu-cog.org
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
11
manned with urgent top priority dedication (Ahluwalia, 2006).
2
State of Geodiversity in India
Geodiversity is the natural range of geological (rocks, minerals, fossils), geomorphological (landform, processes) and soil features. It includes their assemblages, relationships, properties, interpretations and system (Gray, 2004). India is both a
mega-biological diverse country with outstanding geodiversity (Figure 1) and this
diversity helps to define its fifteen bioregions. India occupies just 2.4 per cent of the
Earth’s land surface and has 7 per cent of the mammals, 12.6 per cent birds, 6.2 per
cent reptiles, 4.4 per cent amphibians, 11.7 per cent fishes and 6 per cent flowing
plants of the world (Singh, 2012). The remarkable geodiversity that includes Himalaya, Thar Desert, Deccan Plateau, Sunderbans and Lakshdweep coral reef islands.
Outstanding geographical heritage such as these iconic features are celebrated as part
of India’s national identity. Many are inscribed World Heritage Sites and many are
included on India’s National Heritage List.
Figure 1 Geological map of India
Source: Geological Survey of India, 2001
2.1
Mountain
The mountains of India are broadly classified into two types: extra-peninsular or Himalaya and peninsular (Wadia, 1919). The geological structure and age of Himalaya
fall into three broad stratigraphical belts viz. The Northern or Tibetan zone, The Central or Himalayan zone and The Outer or Sub-Himalayan zone. The first zone lies
behind the line of highest elevation and is composed of continuous series of highly
12
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
fossiliferous marine sedimentary rocks, ranging in the age from the earliest Palaeozoic to the Eocene age. The central zone comprises mostly of crystalline and metamorphic rocks - granites, gneisses with unfossiliferous sedimentary deposits of very
ancient age. The third zone corresponding to the Shivalik range is composed entirely
of tertiary, and principally of upper tertiary, sedimentary river deposits (Figure 2).
High relief, snow-capped summit, deeply dissected topography, antecedent drainage,
complex geological structure and rich temperate floras in the sub-tropical latitudes
give a distinct character to the Himalayan mountain ranges. The Eastern Himalaya
covers an area of 67,500 sq. km. with many piedmont plateaus present in this area.
Geologically, this area is characterized by a fault scarp with well foliated schist abutting against gneissic rocks and locally defining the lineament of artisans springs (Nag
& Sen Gupta, 1992).
Figure 2
Geodiversity in Himalaya - (a) Horizontal layering in Himalaya; (b) Loess structure in the
Lahul and Spiti, Himalaya
The most important ranges of Peninsula are: The Aravalli mountains, the Vindhyas,
Satpuras, the Western Ghats and irregular broken and discontinuous chain of elevations known as the Eastern ghats. Aravallis were a prominent feature of the old
Plaeozoic and Mesozoic era and extended as a chain of lofty mountains from the
Deccan to possibly beyond the northern limit of India. In present time, they are just
deeply eroded remnants laid bare by repeated cycles of erosion. The Vindhyas are for
the most part composed of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks of ancient age. The
Vindhyas and Satpuras form the backbone of central India. The western and eastern
parts of Satpuras are formed of Cretaceous basalts; the central part is composed, in
addition to a capping of the traps, of a core of granitoid and metamorphic rocks overlaid by Mesozoic sandstones. The Western Ghats, as the name Ghat denotes, are,
down to Malabar, steep-sided, terraced, flat toped hills or cliffs facing the Arabian
sea-coast running parallel to it. The horizontally bedded lavas of which they are
wholly composed have, on weathering, given rise to a characteristic "landing stair"
aspect. Beyond Malabar they are composed of very ancient massive crystalline rocks,
and not of horizontal layers of lava-flows. The broken and discontinuous line of
mountainous country, the eastern facing the Bay of Bengal, and known as the Eastern
Ghats, has neither the unity of structure nor of characteristic of a mountain-chain.
Among the remaining, but less important, hill ranges of the Peninsula are the
trap-built Rajmahal hills of western Bengal, the Nallamalai hills near Cuddapah, built
of gneissose granite, and the gneissic plateau of Shevaroys and Pachamalai,
south-west of Madras.
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
2.2
13
Desert
India has a vast desert comprising of about 390,000 hectare of land. The deserts of
India are diverse in nature and vary from hot sandy desert in the west to cold desert in
the north. The Indian deserts can be classified into following three forms.
2.2.1
The Sandy Desert of Rajasthan
The Thar desert is the western most fringe of the Deccan mainland forming shield
area of the Indian sub-continent during pre-Cambrian times. On the west rock exposures are less frequent but known to include Malani igneous rocks, Vindhya, Marine
Jurassics and Eocene rocks. It is understood that this area was under sea during Jurassic times which is evident from fossils recovered in the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan
(Figure 3). Highly fossiliferous marine deposits over Talchir beds show that species
lived in more or less isolated arms of large sea spread over the Himalayan region
(Chauhan & Sharma, 2008).
Figure 3
2.2.2
Desert diversity in Western Rajasthan - (a) Sand dunes in Thar desert and
(b) Cultivating sand dune
The Cold Mountain Desert of Trans Himalaya
Cold deserts in India have been formed primarily due to the rain-shadow effect of the
towering Himalayan mountain wall and its offshoot ranges which run in an arcuate
shape from the Indus gap in the north-west to the Brahmaputra gap in the north-east.
There are two physiographic classes of cold deserts in India viz. Trans-Himalaya and
Inner dry valleys. The cold desert extends like flat tableland towards the north. High
mountain ranges like the Karakoram and Zaskar dissect the cold deserts. Broad sandy
river terraces have been formed by the larger rivers such as the Indus, in the core zone
of the cold desert. The inner dry valleys are formed by high mountains on all sides.
Often, they may be in the form of steep gorges with rivers draining their bottoms
(Negi, 2002).
2.2.3
The White Salt Desert of Kutch
The Kutch landscape comprises an array of tectonogenic geomorphic elements in the
form of uplifts and residual depressions. Elevated landforms are occupied by Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, whereas the residual depressions or low-lying regions between the uplifts consist of Quaternary sediment successions marked alluvial river
terraces in the rocky mainland and the mud-flats and salt pans in the Great and Little
Ranns and Banni Plains. The general forms of the uplifts are marked by domes and
asymmetric anticlines. All major uplifts are bounded, at least on one side, by a fault or
14
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
a sharp monoclinal flexure, and on the other side by gently dipping peripheral plains,
the strata (Tertiary) which dip gently into the surrounding residual depression (Biswas,
1980).
2.3
Coastal
The coast of India is comparatively regular and uniform, and contains marshes, lagoons, mud-flats, peninsulas, creeks, gulfs, and islands. It is only on the Malabar
coast that there are many lakes, lagoons or back-waters which form a noteworthy
feature of that coast. These back-waters, e.g. the Kayals of Travancore, are shallow
lagoons or inlets of the sea lying parallel to the coastline. They form an important
physical as well as economic feature of the Malabar coast, affording facilities for
inland water-communication. The whole sea-board is surrounded by a narrow submarine ledge platform, the "plain of marine denudation," where the sea is very shallow,
the depth being much less than 100 fathoms. This shelf is of greater breadth on the
Malabar coast and on the Arakan coast than on the Coromandel coast. From these low
shelving plains the sea-bed gradually deepens, both towards the Bay of Bengal and
the Arabian Sea, up to a mean depth of 2,000 fathoms in the former and 3,000 fathoms in the latter sea (Figure 4).
Figure 4
Geodiversity in Western coast of India – (a) Cove in North Canara coast and (b) Back-waters
The seas are not of any great geological antiquity, both having originated in the
earth movements of the early Tertiary times, as bays or arms of the Indian Ocean
overspreading areas of a large southern continent (Gondwanaland), which, in the
Mesozoic ages, connected India with Africa and with Australia. The islands of the
seas are continental islands, with the exception of the group of coral islands, the Maldives and the Laccadives, which are atolls or barrier-reefs, reared on shallow submarine banks, the unsubmerged, elevated points of the ancient continent. Barren Island
and Narcondam are volcanic islands east of the Andamans. The low level and smooth
contours of the tract of country which lies in front of the South-east coast below the
Mahanadi suggest that it was a submarine plain at a comparatively late date which has
emerged from the waters. Behind this coastal belt are the gneissic highlands of the
mainland, the Eastern Ghats, which are marked by a more varied relief and rugged
topography. Between these two lies the old shoreline.
3
Geographical Dimensions of Geosites in India
India has many natural marvels located in diverse natural environments. The geodi-
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
15
versity of the country is responsible for the wider range of geosites. The natural geosites vary from natural springs, caves to fossil parks.
3.1
Natural Springs and Glacial Lakes
Schiagintweit documented ninety-nine well-known thermal springs in India in 1864.
R. D. Oldham in the 19th century published the monumental work of his father, T.
Oldham (1882) which documented an inventory of three hundred thermal springs
covering the entire country (www.portal.gsi.gov.in assessed in December, 2012). The
Ministry of Power and Irrigation constituted a committee on 'Hot Springs' in the year
1963 to explore the commercial utilization potential of thermal springs in India. The
committee inducted members from the Geological Survey of India, National Geophysical Research Institute and Jadavpur University, Kolkata. All the thermal springs
of India were classified on the basis of their geo-tectonic setup and grouped into six
Geothermal Provinces viz. (i) Himalayan Province - Tertiary Orogenic belt with Tertiary magmatism, (ii) Areas of Faulted blocks - Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, West coast
regions and Son-Narmada lineament, (iii) Volcanic arc - Andaman and Nicobar arc,
(iv) Deep sedimentary basin of Tertiary age such as Cambay basin in Gujarat, (v) Radioactive Province - Surajkund, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand and (vi) Cratonic province Peninsular India.
There are some 340 hot springs spread throughout India. Of these, 62 are distributed along the northwest Himalaya, in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand. They are found concentrated along a 30-50 km. wide thermal band mostly along the river valleys. Naga-Lusai and West Coast Provinces manifest a series of thermal springs. Andaman and Nicobar arc is the only place in India
where volcanic activity has been reported. Some of the islands like Barren are still
active. The area is in the continuation of the Indonesian geothermal fields and can be
good potential sites for geothermal energy. Cambay graben geothermal belt is 200 km.
long and 50 km. wide with Tertiary sediments. Thermal springs have been reported
from the belt although they are not of very high temperature and discharge. The area
contains oil and gas at considerable depths. High subsurface temperature and thermal
fluid have been reported in deep drill wells in depth ranges of 1.7 to 1.9 km. Steam
blowout have also been reported in the drill holes in depth range of 1.5 to 3.4 km. The
thermal springs in the peninsular region are more related to the faults, which allow
down-circulation of meteoric water to considerable depths. The circulating water acquires heat from the normal thermal gradient in the area, and depending upon local
condition, emerges out at suitable localities. The area includes Aravalli range,
Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament, Godavari and Mahanadi valleys and South Cratonic
Belts (Geological Survey of India, 2001). There are numerous glacial lakes in Himalayan region (Figure 5).
3.2
Fossil parks
Fossil parks serve as important keys for learning about the diversity and evolution of
life through time. The goals of fossil parks are not only to preserve the fossils in collections but also to educate the public about the values of fossils, to instill a desire to
16
Figure 5
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
Combining geodiversity and geographical heritage - (a) Transhumance and High Mountain
Spring and (b) Hemkund Sahib, religious site of Sikh religion
protect these valuable national resources, and to act as centers for international collaboration in research and conservation (Nareerat, Paul & Pratueng, 2009).
3.2.1 The Ghughua Fossil National Park of Madhya Pradesh is a unique destination in India, which has been blessed with a priceless treasure trove of plant fossils.
Fossils belonging to 31 genera of 18 plant families have been identified. These fossils
represent life as it occurred in this area some 65 million years ago. Well-preserved
fossils of woody plants, climbers, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds have been found
here. Palm fossils are particularly numerous. Interestingly, many of these fossil plants
have living relatives. Some of these occur in the Western Ghats, Sikkim and northeast
India, while many others are native to Africa, Madagascar and Australia. This proves
that at one time in the distant history of the earth, India, Australia and Africa formed a
single huge landmass that shared a common vegetation spread (Figure 6).
Figure 6
Ghughua Fossil National Park (Source: Government of India)
3.2.2 Siwalik Fossil Park, Saketi, Sirmur District, and Himachal Pradesh
(HP) contains a rich collection of 2.5 million year old vertebrate fossils from Siwaliks
which covers an area of about 1.5 sq. km. at Saketi, in the Markanda valley of Sirmur
district, HP and was built to check indiscriminate destruction of fossil bones. A large
and rare collection of vertebrate fossils recovered from Siwalik hills in Saketi and
adjacent areas has been displayed in a field museum in the park. The site has been
developed to a panorama of Plio–Pleistocene period (Ca 2.5 million years) through
massive afforestation. Besides securing global recognition and focused conservation
for the site, funding is also expected to pour in for advanced systematic research, international collaborations and tourism development.
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
17
3.2.3 Marine Gondwana Fossil Park at Manendragarh, Sarguja District, Chattisgarh is an unique exposure of fossiliferous marine Permian (280 – 240 million
years ago) rocks of Talchir formation belonging to Gondwana Supergroup. It is exposed for a length of about one km. upstream to the confluence of Hasdeo River and
Hasianala. The marine fauna is represented by the dominance of pelecypods/ lamellibranchs.
3.3
Fossil Parks
Geological Survey of India (2012) has been a pioneer for developing several Fossil
Parks in India including:
3.3.1 The National Fossil Wood Park, Tiruvakkarai, Tamil Nadu is a geological
park maintained by the Geological Survey of India. The 20 million years old wood
fossils, scattered over 1.00 sq.km. are fenced within nine separate enclaves. Only a
small portion is open to the public. There are 200 fossil trees of various shapes
ranging between 3 and 15 meters in length and up to 5 meters in girth. They lie strewn
and half-buried in the soil. Scientists speculate that the trees did not originally grow at
that site, but were transported there before they were petrified.
3.3.2 Akal Fossil Wood Park, Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan is a wonder for the
tourists who know that Jaisalmer is a part of the great Thar desert. The petrified wood
carries signature of the luxuriant forests in a warm and humid climate, bordering the
sea some 180 million years ago. The 21 hectare Fossil Park contains about a dozen
fossil wood logs lying horizontal in random orientation. The longest specimen is 13.4
m x 0.9 m. The fossils are of petrophyllum, ptyllophyllum, equisetitis species and
dicotyledonous wood and gastropod shells of Lower Jurassic period.
3.3.3 National Fossil Wood Park, Tiruvakkarai, Villupuram District, Tamilnadu has 200 fossil trees ranging in length from 3-15 metres and up to 5 metres in
girth are seen lying horizontally embedded in Cuddalore Sandstone of the
Mio-Pliocene age (20 million years).
3.3.4 National Fossil Wood Park in Sattanur, Perambalur District, Tamil Nadu
contains large trunks of petrified trees of Upper Cretaceous age (100 million years).
The trees belong to conifers (non-flowering) that dominated the land vegetation during that period. The fossilised tree trunk at Sattanur measures over 18 metres in
length.
3.4
Stromatolite Park
3.4.1 Stromatolite Park, Bhojunda, Chittaurgarh District, Rajasthan is an exposure within the massive Bhagwanpura Limestone of the Lower Vindhyan age.
Stromatolites are structures produced by blue-green algae, which through their filaments, attract and bond carbonate particles forming a mat. They are stratiform, columnar and nodular structures in carbonate rocks resulting from the combination of
life activity and sediment trapping and binding ability of algal assemblages and preying bacteria. They form generally in shallow water where tides bring floating sedimentary material continuously and make it flow through carbonate particles. Stromatalites are known as impression of one of the earliest form of life on earth.
3.4.2
Stromatolite Park, Jhamarkotra, Udaipur District, Rajasthan is the largest
18
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
and richest deposit of phosphorite associated with stromatolite. It is another site preserving evidences of early life on the earth. The stromatolites occur over a strike
length of 15 km. in rock phosphate within Precambrian Aravalli Supergroup of rocks.
The rock phosphate occurs in dolomitic limestone associated with stromatolites appearing in grey to bluish grey colour shades and in variable forms and shape (Geological Survey of India, 2001).
3.5
Natural Caves
In India, many caves are popular tourist sites. Although, there are thousands
of caves in India, research expeditions occur in very few states. The caves of Ajanta
and Ellora (Figure 7), Udaygiri, Barabar, Sigiriya, Undavalli and Pandavleni are famous for archaeological finds and ancient architectural value. Cave research in India,
encompassing the study of speleology and biospeleology, is still in its infancy.
The stalagmite formations present in most natural limestone caves resemble Shiva
Linga (an Indian God), due to which most of the caves in India are considered of
great religious import. In addition, several universally known caves related
to Buddhism also exist in India.
Figure 7
(a) Ajanta and (b) Ellora caves (Source: Wikipedia)
The Indian state of Meghalaya is famous for its many caves, which attract tourists
from India and abroad. The quantity and length of caves in Meghalaya exceeds that of
any other known Karst region of India. A few of the caves in this region have been
listed amongst the longest and deepest in the world. The limestone band of Meghalaya extends from west to east along the southern boundary of the state and is
approximately 200 km. long and 30 km. wide. It runs from the West Garo Hills in the
west through the West Khasi Hills, East Khasi Hills and into the Jaintia Hills in the
east. The famous caves of Meghalaya are: Mawsmai Cave (Figure 8), Krem
Mawmluh, Krem Phyllut, Krem SohShympi, Krem Mawsynram, Krem Dam, Krem
LiatPrah, Krem Um-Lawan, KaKrem Pubon Rupasor, Krem Kotsati, Krem Umshangktat, Krem Lashinng, Krem Sweep, Siju-Dobkhakol, Tetengkol-Balwakol,
Dobhakol Chibe Nala, and Bok Bak Dobhakol.
Depicting the historical saga of Andhra Pradesh, the caves are spread all over the
area of the state. Housing the rock-cut statues of Lord Buddha, some of the caves date
back to the oldest of centuries. Today, these natural caves are some of the exquisite
tourist appeals of Andhra Pradesh. While the Belum caves of the state are the natural
underground passage ways that are well-known for being second to the Meghalaya caves in terms of their length, Borra caves established near the river of Gosthani
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
19
are built of the inherent limestone deposits. Undavalli caves are yet another natural
splendour of Andhra Pradesh. Found by the side of the Krishna River, these caves are
believed to have been discovered in the early periods of the fourth and fifth centuries.
The Yaganti caves of Andhra Pradesh represents a beautiful conglomeration of pristine natural subterranean channels. Other important caves of Andhra Pradesh are
Guthikonda caves, Guntupalli caves, and Moghalarajapuram. The state of Madhya
Pradesh is also an adobe of caves. The famous caves of Madhya Pradesh are Bhimbetka, Bagh cave, Udayagiri caves and Jana Mana caves.
Figure 8
4
(a) Entrance of Mawsmai Caves, Meghalaya; (b) Inside view of Mawsmai caves
Geographical Heritage in Diverse Natural Environments
“Geographical heritage” is a descriptive term applied to sites or areas of geographical
features with significant scientific, educational, cultural, or aesthetic value. Scientifically and educationally significant geographical heritage sites include those with
textbook geographical features and landscapes, distinctive rock or mineral types,
unique or unusual fossils, or other geologic characteristics that are significant to education and research. Culturally significant geoheritage sites are places where geologic
features or landscapes played a role in cultural or historical events. Aesthetically significant geoheritage sites include landscapes that are visually appealing because of
their geologic features or processes. Many geoheritage sites can be tourist destinations and provide local and regional economic benefits (Geological Society of America, 2012). Concern for geoheritage has increased across the world over the last two
decades.
4.1
The Himalaya
The Himalaya form a highly rugged and continuous stretch of high mountainous
country, which flanks northern India for a considerable length and runs from the
Brahmputra gorge in the east to the Indus in the west. A large number of places in
Himalaya possess the natural potential for attracting tourists because of their geographical diversity.
Majuli-Sivasagar, Assam Himalaya – Recently Majuli has been declared a
UNESCO World Heritage site depicting the largest riverine island of the world (Figure 9). Many geosites located in the Ladakh region are being extensively used by
people and hence have the potential of becoming future geoparks (Figure 10).
20
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
Figure 9
Figure 10
4.2
Majuli Island – An UNESCO World heritage site
Geographical heritage as educational tool in Ladakh Himalaya
Deserts
The Geological Survey of India and Rajasthan State Mines and Minerals Limited have
identified many geographical heritage sites. Among them following are some few
sites:
4.2.1 NephelineSyenite, Kishangarh, Ajmer District, Rajasthan is a pluton emplaced along the core of an antiform of metamorphites in Aravalli craton of Rajasthan.
Kishangarhsyenite, by which the unit is also called has been dated 1,590 million years
to 1,910 million years.
4.2.2 Barr Conglomerate, Pali District, Rajasthan composed of pebbles of
quartzite and rarely granite gneiss, set up in a fine grained pelitic matrix. It has unconformity with the basement gneiss in the vicinity of Barr. Conglomerates are important in geology as they aid in subdividing geologic history on the basis of sedimentary breaks. The pebbles are stretched to an extraordinary extent, about 20 to 30
times their original dimension.
4.2.3 Sendra Granite, Pali District, Rajasthan It is a unique example of nature’s
capacity as a sculptor. Sendra granite, a plutonic igneous rock of about 900 million
years ago, intrudes into the Delhi Supergroup of metasedimentary rocks. Large bosses
are concordantly emplaced in the calc – gneiss while small bodies are mostly distributed in and around the hornblende schists.
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
21
4.2.4 Welded Tuff, Jodhpur District, Rajasthan in the Jodhpur Fort hill area occurs within the terrace like weathered Malanivolcanics. The welded tuff, is a product
of emanations, that spurted out from volcanic vents and were carried away by air to
settle down. They are composed of glass, quartz and feldspar. On cooling they develop joints which gives rise to columns and terraces.
4.2.5 Jodhpur Group – Malani Igneous Suite Contact, Jodhpur District, Rajasthan lies at the foot of the picturesque Mehrangarh Fort within the Jodhpur city.
The igneous suite marks the last phase of igneous activity of Precambrian age in the
Indian Subcontinent. The rock is characterised by purple to red and ash coloured
laminated tuff with chocolate coloured chalcedony, dark red obsidian, purple, reddish,
buff, whitish and greyish coloured rhyolitic tuff related to ignimbrite. The contact is
enhanced by the multi-coloured igneous suite in contact with light coloured Jodhpur
sandstone.
4.2.6 Great Boundary Fault at Satur, Bundi District, Rajasthan is characterised
by a faulted boundary between Pre-Aravallis and Upper Vindhyans having NNW –
SSE trend. It represents a zone of disruption constituted by a number of parallel and
oblique faults resulting in a step like feature.
4.2.7 Eddy Current Markings at Panchmahal District, Gujarat are exposed in
sedimentary (sandstone) surface of Upper Aravalli Lunavada Group of rocks. These
marks are believed to result from dragging of a small limb of a larger floating log
caught in a vortex or eddy current of a stream or from a movement of a pebble. The
petrified marks of the eddies around the whirl balls, form spiral-ribs.
4.3
Coastal
There are many geological marvels on the coastline of India of which the following
have been explored by the Geological Survey of India:
4.3.1 Columnar Basaltic Lava, Coconut Island (St. Mary’s Islands), Udupi District, Karnataka displays majestic array of multi-faced columns developed in the
basalts of Deccan Trap. These marvellous structures, called Columnar Joints in geological parlance are nature’s exquisite handiwork. The geometrical form of the rock
mosaic resembles the work of an expert sculptor. The Deccan Trap, evolved due to
vast outpouring of hot molten basaltic lava in the western part of India during Cretaceous – Eocene time (about 60 million years ago) and are now present as flat topped
hills and step like terraces.
4.3.2 Charonockite, St. Thomas Mount, Chennai, Tamil Nadu is a typical exposure of quartz-feldspar-hypersthene rock, characterized by presence of two pyroxene
facies metamorphism. The name ‘Charnockite’ originated from the use of the same
rock as tombstone of Job Charnock, the founder of Kolkata. The constituents of the
rock suggest of its origin in particularly 'dry' and high temperature condition and believed to have important bearing in elucidating primordial crustal evolution of the
earth.
4.4
Peninsular India
4.4.1 Peninsular Gneiss National Monument at Lalbagh, Bangalore, Karnataka
is composed of dark biolite gneiss of granitic to granodioritic composition containing
22
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
streaks of biolite. Vestiges of older rocks are seen in the form of enclaves within the
gneiss.
Peninsular Gneiss of the region is dated 2500 to 3400 million years.
4.4.2 Pillow Lava, Maradihalli, Chitradurga District, Karnataka, hosted within
Chitradurga schist belt of Dharwar Group, is one of the best of its kind in the world.
They are formed when hot molten lava erupts under water and solidifies in the form
of roughly spherical or rounded pillow-shape. The lava gets chilled so suddenly that
part of the flow separates into discrete rounded bodies a few feet or less in size. This
pillow lava has been dated 2,500 million years.
4.4.3 Pillow Lava, Iron ore belt, Nomira, Keonjhar District, Orissa is an exposure of well-preserved pillow structures. Individual pillows are roughly ellipsoidal
and closely packed with a maximum thickness of 2 m x 0.6 m. The basic lava is fine
to medium grained, green to bluish green coloured with abundant vesicles filled with
quartz. The lavas and the associated pyroclastics and tuffs are underlain by quartzite
and overlain by shale, chart – shale and banded hematite jasper.
4.4.4 Pyroclastic Rocks in Peddapalli, Kolar District, Karnataka is a welded
agglomerate of large fragments of granite, granite gneiss, basalt and banded ferruginous quartzite set in a matrix of ignimbrite. While many rock fragments are angular
some of them appear to be well rounded. Some rock fragments of granite gneiss
measure up to 80 cm in diameter.
4.4.5 Natural Arch in Tirumala hills, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh is one
such unique geological marvel in the country measuring 8 meters in width and 3
meters in height. It has been carved out of quartzite of Cuddapah Supergroup of
Middle to Upper Proterozoic (1,600 to 570 million years) by collective action of
weathering agents like water and wind over a long period of several thousands of
years.
4.4.6 Eparchaean Unconformity, Tirumala hills, Andhra Pradesh separates the
Proterozoic Nagari Quartzite from the oldest Archaean granite representing a time gap
of over 800 million years. The unconformity is supposed to be a period of remarkable
quiescence without much structural disturbance and igneous activity in the history of
earth.
4.5
Geographical Heritage as Tourist Sites
Geotourism is the provision of interpretive and service facilities to enable tourists to
acquire knowledge and understanding of the geology and geomorphology of a site
(including its contribution to the development of the Earth sciences/ Geographical
sciences) beyond the level of mere aesthetic appreciation (Hose, 1995). India is a
country with diverse physical attributes, rich cultural heritage and eventful ancient
history therefore tourism plays a major role in showcasing this great country to the
rest of the world. Of late, there has been significant initiative in promoting tourism
even in remotest corners of the country. Indian subcontinent exhibits imprints of varied geological processes through the ages and is a storehouse of interesting geological
features. It is imperative that the tourist map of India would be greatly enriched by the
inclusion of these geological monuments and alike, so that the visitors from the country and abroad can have an insight in the real past - the formation of the subcontinent,
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
23
the orogeny, the paleo-environment and the exotic collection of paleo-flora and fauna
(Figure 11).
Figure 11
National Geological Monuments
Source: Geological Survey of India, 2001
5
Geoparks in India
The idea of geopark is originally very much related to the geological scientific interest of sites. However, landscape plays a role and the fact that social and economic
issues must be considered, the geological scope alone seems to be limited. Thus
“Geo” is more than geology; it involves geographical, geomorphological and landscape aesthetics as well. The concept of a geopark is particularly important for the
economic revival of economically depressed regions that thanked their early industrialization on mineral resources (Baele et al., 2012). India is a heaven, where you can
find many enjoyable places, experience the natural beauty of nature and also encountergreat historical places. The country can be called a 'Land of Geographical diversity'.
In a vast country of sub-continental dimensions like India whose rocks provide a
unique spectrum of geoheritage and geodiversity from the oldest (nearly 4,000 million
years old) to the youngest rocks, establishing geoparks for showcasing geological
attractions for public education, recreation and sustainable economic development,
can be a comprehensive panacea (Ahluwalia, 2006). UNESCO operates a Global
24
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
Geopark Network (GGN) Programme under which people who live in areas of great
geological importance cooperate to preserve them. By 2012 a total of 91 geoparks
from 27 countries have been included in the GGN but the Government of India has
yet not established any geoparks. The Geological Monuments and fossil parks built by
the Geological Survey of India are in utter neglect.
The cliff overlooking the Varkala beach, a unique sedimentary geo-morphological
structure in an otherwise flat Kerala coast and the surrounding areas are on course to
become India’s first national geopark under a Geological Survey of India (GSI) initiative to preserve geologically important sites in the country. Varkala is the only place
in the west coast of India where sediments in the mio-pliocene age (1.3 million to 25
million years ago) have been exposed. The geological monument/ geopark project
would help in protecting the endangered cliffs which preserve the pages of earth’s
history, nature’s chemical lab, and storehouse of micro fossils (Mahadevan, 2012).
Establishment of any geopark in country can also foster scientific research and cooperation with universities and research institutes, stimulating the dialogue between the
geosciences community and local population. A few other sites in North-East India
also have the potential to be developed as geoparks (Figure 12).
Figure 12
6
Geographical sites for potential geopark development
Geoparks: Policy Development and Livelihood Security
In order to promote the above principles in a more appropriate and desirable manner,
there is a need to develop a National policy on geoparks under the umbrella of the
Planning Commission and Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India. Such
development would generate new prospects of employment through these emerging
enterprises. It is supplemented through revitalization of the indigenous cottage industries and prosperity to certain artisan groups. Considering the vast potential of
geopark development in Indian states, a comprehensive geopark resource centre is an
important need at state levels. Such centre will not only provide advisory services to
the people but will also coordinate various interlinked activities. These centers would
enable identifying indigenous knowledge; coordinate participatory learning, facilitate
publications in various regional languages, and encourage policy development at different ministry levels. Training based on Geographic Information System technology
will help in capacity building of different stakeholders (Singh, 1998) (Table 1).
R.B. Singh, et al.: Geodiversity, Geogrphical Heritage and Geoparks In India
Table 1
Sectors
25
Potential activities based on geoparks
Activities
Mountaineering
Trekking (Geo-paths and Geo-routes), Climbing, Skiing, Paragliding, River Rafting,
Bonfire, Ropeway
Recreation and Leisure
Cycling, Hiking, Boating, Surfing, Angling, Sight Seeing/Nature Watching, Guided
Tours, Cultural Programmes, Fairs and Festivals
Educational
Scientific Excursions, mine and quarry visits, Earthquake Museums, In-situ Seminars/Workshops/Short Courses, ‘Georiums’, live participation in various geographical activities
Historical and Religious Pilgrimage, Archaeological Sites, Excavation
7
CONCLUSION
Geological features and processes are formed over millions of years and contain a
range of values that require special care. Fine crystal structures, such as those found
in limestone caves, may be easily broken by human breath, while fragile calcified
plant remains can be crushed by careless walkers. Other features including fossils
have been damaged or lost due to large scale activities such as mining and construction. Human activity can also bring changes to water quality, hydrology, soil forming
and development processes and local wind patterns, resulting in the deterioration or
loss of geological features that have formed under past climate or geological conditions. Often described as relics or fossils, these features provide evidence of past life
and atmospheric, hydrological and biological processes and, if disturbed, will never
recover. Mapping geographical heritage is especially important in protected areas, as
it is essential for the prescriptive zoning of the territory and for the processes of impact assessment. In India, local initiatives in scientific diffusion and education are
important to create awareness about geographical diversity, which need to be
achieved through capacity building for teaching about geoparks in life-long learning
programmes. The land use also poses threat to the geographical diversity and therefore, there is a need to integrate geoconservation in land-use planning. Lastly, there is
a need for a legal framework under National policy on geoparks to support geoconservation strategies involving local communities at different levels.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to Mr. Ajay Gurjar for providing assistance for preparation of this paper.
References
Ahluwalia, A. D. (2006). Indian geoheritage, geodiversity: Geosites and geoparks. Current Science.
91(10).
Baele, J.‐M. et al., (2012). Geoheritage, geoconservation and geotourism. Proceedings of the Contact
Forum “Geoheritage, Geoconservation & Geotourism”. Geological Survey of Belgium, Brussels
Biswas, S. K. (1980). Structure of Kutch-Kathiawar region, Western India. Proceedings of 3rd Indian
Geological Congress, Pune, 255-272.
Brocx, M., & Semeniuk, V. (2007) Geoheritage and geoconservation: history, definition, scope and scale.
26
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOHERITAGE
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. 90, 53–87
Chauhan, T. S., & Sharma, U. K. (2008). Desert ecosystem in India. Tropical Biology and Conservation
Management. Vol. IX.
Fuertes-Gutie´rrez, I., & Ferna´ndez-Martı´nez, E. (2012). Mapping Geosites for Geoheritage Management: A Methodological Proposal for the Regional Park of Picos de Europa (Leo´n, Spain). Environment Management.
Geological Society of America (2012). GSA Position Statement – Geoheritage, April, 2012. The Geological Society of America.
Geological Survey of India (2001). Geothermal Atlas of India, GSI Special Publication No 19.
Ghosh, S. (1954). Discovery of a new locality of marine Gondwana formation near Manendragarh in
Madhya Pradesh. Science Culture, 19(2): 620.
Gray, M. (2004). Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature, John Wiley and Sons, London.
Hose, T. A., (1995). Selling the story of Britain’s Stone. Environmental Interpretation, 10(2): 16‐17.
Mahadevan, G. (2012). Varkala cliff to be nation’s first geopark, The Hindu, Thiruvananthapuram, July 7.
Mazumdar, M. K. et al. (2010). Promoting geoparks and geotourism for sustainable development, with
special reference to North-east India, paper presented at IGU Seminar, Cotton College, Gauhati.
Nag, P., & Sengupta, S. (1992). Geography of India, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi: 40-44.
Nareerat, B., Paul J. G., & Pratueng J. (2009). Paleontological parks and museums and prominent fossil
sites in Thailand and their importance in the conservation of fossils. Notebooks on Geology – Book
2009/03.
Negi, S. S. (2002). Cold Deserts of India. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Panizza, M. (2001). Geomorphosites: concepts, methods and example of geomorphological survey. Chinese Science Bulletin, 46, 4–6.
Seitz, J. F., & Tewari, A. P. (1964). Prediction of reservoir silting rates in the Himalayan region, International Geological Congress, 22nd, New Delhi: 244-245.
Singh, R. B. (1998). Ecological techniques and approaches to vulnerable environment: Hydrosphere and
Geosphere interaction, Oxford and IBH Publication, New Delhi.
Singh, R. B. (2012). A Geographical mosaic of Incredible India: Introducing natural and cultural heritage;
Singh, R. B. (ed.) Progress in Indian Geography. A Country Report, 2008-2012, 32nd International
Geographical Congress, Cologne, Germany (August 26-30, 2012). Indian National Science Academy,
New Delhi: 14-23.
Wadia, D. N. (1919). Geology of India. Macmillan and Co., Ltd., London.