The Indus (or Harappa) Civilization

Detail aJ 2,13.
C H A P T E RT W O
The Indus(or Harappa)Civilization
( c a .z 3 o o t o r 7 J o B . c . )
Distinctive settlernentpatterns accompaniedby
cultural and techrological developmentsare well
documented from an early date in the northwestern regions ofthe South Asian subcontinent
and have recently been identified in the Ganges
Valley, However, the earliest known Indic
'civilization"l
conrplex which can be termed
in the stricrest.enseo[ the word i. the Indus.
or, as it is also called, the HaraPpa civilization.
Since early investigatorsoriginally thought that
the cities and toms of the culture were clustered
only in the Indus River Valley of Pakistan, it
was called the Indus civilization, a name which
is no longer considered truly descriptive. For
subsequent discoveries of sites belonging to
this culture have expanded its known geographic domain to include a region approxmaiely the size of western Europe, reaching
from northem Afghanistan and the border
between Pakistan and Iran on the west, south
along India's western coast to the Gulf of
Carnbay, east into the Gangetic headwaters,
and north to the foothills of the Himalayas. It
is fully expectedthat future researchwill extend
the boundaries and definitions of this culture
even further. The city of Harappa, where the
civilization was first discovered,haslent its name
to the alternate designation for this culture.
However, this name also has limitations since
over one hundred fifty sitesfrom this civilization
have been found, five of which may be called
cities in the proper senseof the term. Thus, the
city of Harappa is not to be considereda unique
example, nor necessarilyeven one typical of the
civilization as a whole.
Although extensive archaeological exploration and study has bcen carried out at HaraPpa
sites for much of this century,z information
about this ancient culture is still limited; many
basic questions about the people, their beliefs,
and pattems of life remain unanswered. Much
of what is surmised about the civilization is
IO
FOUNDATIONS
OF INDIC
CTVIIZATION
derived from our understandingof what occurs
"read
later in South Asia (we thus
into" Indus
phenomena) or from cross-cultural analogies,
primarily with the fourishing civilizations of
contemporaneous Mesopotamia, with which
the Indus peoples were in contact. This latter,
while comprising an important analytic tool,
should not automatically suggestan indebtedness
of the Indus civilization to those of Mesopotamia.
Becausesitesshowing experimental or formative stagesof developrnentfor the Indus culture
have been difiicult to identify, the antecedents
of the civilization remain elusive.In sorne cascs,
fooding and the rise of the water table have
obscured the lowest levels of Indus sites and
the early stages, which may have been the
formative ones, are inacccssible.For example,
it hasbeen estimatedthat ar Mohenjo-Daro, one
of the great metropolisesof the Indus civilization, the lower third of the site is unavailable
for study becauseof ground water. It is posible
that some sites will eventually reveal developmental stagesof the civilization while other sites
that do not might reflect the spread of the
civiliz'ation at an advanced stage and its superimposition on other modes of life.3
Indus-type artifacts have been found in reliably dated Mesopotamian strata ranging from
approxin.rately 23oo B.c. to about r8oo s.c.4
However, based on radiocarbon datess and
other archaeologicalevidence,the culture's main
period of florescence,its mature or urban phase,
is now believed to have taken place between
about zroo l.c. and r75o n.c,
Tn: Crrrrs,tuo Towr.ts
Many cities and towns of the Indus civilization
were laid out on rectilinear grids, with streets
oriented on north-south and east-west axes
(Fig. z.r). Such standardizationimplies a great
degree of civic planning and organtzatron, as
would be necessary
in an urban environmenc
where large populations lived in relatively small
areas.The common building rnaterial at Harappa sites was baked brick.6 A remarkable aspect
of the bricks is that they conform to specific
standards of size and quality throughout the
known geographical and chronological extent
of the culture. This uniformity indicatesa high
degreeoI centralizrtion.as weli as continuous
contact between various sites.Houses varied in
size, Some were probably several stories high.
Most display a similar plan with a squarecourtyard surrounded by a number of roon-rs, a
format which persiststirroughout South Asian
history and was later incorporated into both
domestic and religious architecture. The walls
closing oll the houses from the streets were
often high and apparently plain, broken only
by doorways, insuring tire residents'privacy and
protection. It is intercstingto note thrt doorways
leading into domestic compounds invariably
occur along small lanesor byways and are never
Iocated along the main streetsor thoroughfares.
It is posible that thc n.ronotonyof the walls was
relievcd by painting or by other decoration
which has not survived. Houseshad bathroorns,
and the cities had sophisticated methods of
drainage. Apparently, the urban citizen of the
Harappe culture led a comfortable life, even
by modcrn standards.
In addition to private dwellings and shops, a
number of large, apparently publlc, structures,
including granaries and citadels, have been
identified at vadous Harappa sites.At MohenjoDaro, a tank, gcnerally called the Great Bath,
has been unearthed (Fig. z.r, left). Becausewe
know that in latcr Indic life and religion,
bathing is essentialfor ritual cleansing, it has
often been suggestedthat the Great Bath had
religious significance, but there is no direct
internal evidence of this. At Lothal, on the
western seaboard of India, a large structure
often identified as a constant-water-leveldock
has been excavated.If this intriguing but controversialTstructureis a dock, it would represent
an engineering Gat of great sophistication.
Further, it would provide concrete evidence of
a means of sca trade between the Indus and
other civilizations.8 That Lothal n.right have
'1-:-,::i
been a trading por
the location of thr
makers, shell and
workers in craftst
Judging from th
peoples of the Ind
to have erloyed a
threats posed fior
the exte
discussed
nature al1dstreng
been found, but, J
is impossible to
regarding the rel:
life. The marked
artifacts does see
remained stableo
phenornenon that
of insulariry and
new or different
both. Wh e man
can also be noted
at Mohenjo-Darc
changes in the t
artifacts, such as
great constancyf
lack of change
human nature its
some important
many of the emb
THE INDUS CIVIIZATION
''
'., -.rr r:: r., -'
z.r. View of site showing Great Barh. Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.
FIarapp.period.
been a trading port city is further evidencedby
the location of the shops of metalsmiths,beadmakers, shell and ivory workers, and other
workers in crafts there.
Judging fiom the archaeologicalevidence,the
peoplesof the Indus civilization have been said
to have enjoyed a peaceful existence,with few
threats posed fron the outside, Scholars have
discussedthe extent of city fortifications and the
nature and strength of the weapons that have
been found, but, lacking any historical texts, it
is impossible to make an accurate statement
regarding the relative peacefulnessof Harappa
liG. The marked homogeneity of many of the
artifacts does seem to suggest that the society
remained stable over a long period of tin.re, a
phenomenon that may indicate a high degree
of insularity and the ability to quickly absorb
new or different elements into the society, or
both. While many distinctions can be made, it
can also be noted that in nine excavatedlevels
at Mohedo-Daro, for example, no significant
changes in the type and character of many
arti&cts, such as brick size, occurs, indicating
great constancy for several centuries.Since this
lack of change alrnosc .eems to go against
human nature itself, future researchmay hold
some important answers. It is possible that
many of the cmbellishmentsthat could demon-
strate the personality of the culture and indicate
greaterdifferenceswere made in easilyperishable
materials and have becn lost. Mcasuremenrson
excavated skeletal remains have shown that at
leastfour different racial types livcd at MohenjoDaro,e and thus complete homogeneity in the
society is not to be expected. In {act, archaeologists are increasingly able to make distinctions from site to site and over the course of
rime. Yet. the overnltelming impressiongivcn
by the buildings and structures of the Harappa
sitesis that of a controlled, conservative,wellordered,homogeneoussocietywith a centralized
government.
Although the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro
may have had some ritual purpose, and the
existenceofreligious ceremoniesis alsosuggested
by the discovery of a Gw fire altars at Harappe
sites, the lack of a major Harapp- structure
that can be identified positively with religious
ceremonies,such as a temple, is puzzling. Since
most of later Indic thought, art, and life is
dominated by religious concerns,and sincernost
other civilizations in comparable stages of
dcvclopment yield documentation of religious
beliefs, this is surprising. Clues to some of
the concepts fundamental to the Indus people
do exist, however, in the sculptures and seals
that have been found.
I2
FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVILIZATION
shell rvhen it rv;t
ficial types chal
subcontinent or
Thc treatmentof
Indic fashion) an
extant examPles
strictly controlled
propensity for I
torrn\.
z.z. tsearded man. From Mohcnjo-Daro, Pakistrn. Mrture I-Iarippa period. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c. Linestonc. FI: 19 cm. Nrrional
Muscunr, Karachi.
Scurlturr
The sophistication and teclurological advancenent evidencedin the organization and stmcture
of the citics of thc Harappa civilization are also
seen in sculpttral works. Aside lronr sealsand
terra-cotta scrrlpttucs,so fcr,v stone and n-retal
. c u l p t r ' r e 'l r a v e c o r n e r o l i g l r t i n c x c a v J t i o n c
(lcssthan two dozen are known) that the surviving examplesmLrstrepresentonly a tiny fraction
of the objects oncc proclucccl. A sculptural
traclition using nore ephemeral materials,slrch
as wood, must have cxisted alongsideol and
certainly prior to, the use of stone and netal.
All of thc sculpturcs found thrrs far are small
(the largestis only about forty centinretershigh),
and even those that arc brokcn rvorrld not have
bccn sizablervhen complete. Interestingly, there
is considerablevariety in the typcs of stone used
evcn among the few surviving exarlrples,suggestirg that the Dlateials were selcctedbecausc
of their intrinsic beauty, not becausethey were
rvidely avaiiable in the region. In fact, the
stonesuscd gencrally rvere not local to lorthwcst
India and Pakistan. It is likely that small pieces
ofdiferent stoneswere imported through trade,
pcrhaps as highly covetcd ra.,v n.raterials.
The purposesof thesc sn-rrllsculpturcsarc as
Lrnclearas thcir stylistic origins. It is not known
r''hethcr they were rnadc for secularor religious
ncccls,nor can thcir stylistic origins ancl precedents bc determined at prescnt. In general,they
do not appear to bc the tentative formuiations
onc rvould expect in a bcginning art tradition,
Rath.-r, they reflcct a mature stagc of artistic
developn.rcntin whicl.r problems of proportion,
scalc,rclation offorms, and surfaceenhancemcnt
are alJcarefully workcd out. While the forn.rative
stagcsremain undetermincd, th,-seworks can be
contextualizedby comparison to Mcsopotamian
cxan-rplesaswell as to latcr Indic art.
One sculpturc rcvcaling some af{initics to
Mesopotan-rian in-ragery is a carved limcstone
fragmcnt showing the head and shouldersof a
bearded man. It was found in one of the later
Harappa-period levels at Mohcnjo-Daro (Fig.
z.z). Some scholars have suggested that the
individual depicted rnight be a foreigncr,
perhapsa Mesopotamian,sincethe high, straight
nose rvhich blcnds aln.rost imperceptibly into
the forchcad, thc full lips, and the narrow,
slitlike eyes (one of rvhich was still inlaid with
1Ills ltneai
also in the treatr
configuration on
costumeworn by
associationswith
example, the ga
lcft shoulderis a t
potanian art, tho
onc-shoulderedg
tume suggeststha
stylc of clothing.
ment rcinforcesth
contact, for this p
Egyptian, Mesop
not in later India
wherc as a moti
case,tl.retrefoil pr
fiom dre surlac
with a red paste'
that it contribute
thc scuipture.The
with its ends ha
head,is a type se
reserved only fb
thesefeatures,wh
on the South As
seen to persista
some westetn A
direct contactbet
is not the only
sharedcharacter
a common debt t,
continuun of ide
formulation ofbor
civilizations.
Thc individual
often beencalled
vaious factors. :
this casea headb
a person of ran
wearing of turba
THE INDUS CIVIIZATION
shell when it was found) do not seemto leflect
facial types characteristic of the South Asian
subcontinent or that occur in later Indic art.
The treatment of the beard (itselfnot a typically
Indic fashion) and hair also differs fiom any
extant examples in South Asian art in the
strictly controlled striated patterns that reveal a
propensiry for linear rather than sculptural
forms. This lineariry and abstraction is evident
a]so in the treatment of the ear as a whorllike
configuration on the side of the head. The
costume worn by the figure may betray further
associationswith wcstern Asiatic culture. For
example, the garment that covers only the
left shoulder is a type cornmonly seenin Mcsopotamian art, though the popularity of a similar
one-shoulderedgarment in later Buddhist costume suggeststhat it may rellect a purely Indic
style of clothing. The trefoil design on the garment reinforcesthe suggestionof western Asiatic
contact, for this pattern is found occasionallyin
Egyptian, Mesopotarnian, and Minoan art, but
not in later India, although it docs appear elsewhere as a motif in Harappe art.10 In this
case,the trefoil pattern, which is slightly raised
from the surface of the sculpture, was {illed
with a red paste wherr the piece was found, so
that it contributed to a polychrome efect for
the sculpture.The headbandworn by the figure,
with its ends hanging down the back of the
head, is a type seenin later Indic art, but usually
"foreign"
types. Together,
reserved only for
these features,which have no known precedent
on the South Asian subcontinent and do not
seem to persist as Indic characteristics,suggest
some western Asiatic associations.However,
direct contact between the cultures at this time
is not the only possible explanaton for the
shared characteristics.Similarities may illustrate
) comrnon debt to an underJyingor Preexi5ting
continuum of ideasll that was important in the
formulation of both the Indus and Mesopotamian
civilizations.
The individual portrayed in this sculpturehas
often been called a priest, an assertionbasedon
various factors. The presence of headgear, in
this case a headband, suggeststhat he may be
a person of rank, for in later lndic art, the
wearing of turbans, crowns, and even simpler
,J
2.3. Seated figure. Frorn Mohenjo-Daro,
Pakistan. Mature Harappa period. Ca.
2roo rTJo B.c. Alabastcr. H: 29.2 cm.
Nalional Muscum, Karachi.
headgear is generally associated with highranking individuals. The meaning of his oneshouldered garment is unclear in the Indus
contcxt. but ir may have hed religiorrsassociations as suggested by its popularity in later
Buddhism. Further, the half-closed appearance of the slitlike eyes has led to the suggestion that the individual is practicing meditation, perhaps of a type known in later Indic
religious traditions. But such an identi{ication
must remain speculativeuntil a fuller picture
of the Harappa culture emerges.
Another sculpturefiom Mohenjo-Daro, made
of alabaster, shows further associationswith
Mesopotamianart (Fig.2.3). This male frgure
wears a garment that completely masks the
lower portion of his body. His seatedposture,
obscured by the garment, seemsto be a crosslegged pose witb the left knec slightly raised or
held high by the left hand. The body is quite
thin, and the arms and hands in particular lack
substanceand solidity. While the head is missing,
a strandfalling behind the right shouldersuggests
long hair or a wig. At first glance, the figure
indeed seemsto resemblea number of sculptures
from Mesopotamia. Closer examination reveals
that the rounded forms, the posture, and the
treatment of drapery and hair, while posibly
basedon similar or common aestheticpredispositions, cannot be mistaken for Mesopotamian
14
FOUNDATIONS
OF INDIC
CIVIIZATION
2.4. Male figure, three views. Fron Harapp:, pakisran. Mature
Harappe pcriod. Ca. 2roo-r7jo n.c- Red stoDe. H: 9.3 crn.
National Muscunl, Ncrv Delhi.
types. Yet, like the prcvious sculpture, this
carving does not suggest the forms of later
Indic art, either. Thus, while apparently related
to western Asiatic traditions, both seem to
expressan aspectof the Harappa civilization.
In striking contrast, other sculptures have
been found at Harappa sitcs that bear no
resemblance whatsocver to western Asiatic
forms.I hc.eworks.along with rhe vastmajoriry
of Harappa artifacts, clearly document the
cultural indepcndence of the civilization. Furthermorc.rnrny ofthese objecrsoffer inrriguing
evidence of continuities bctwcen Harappa
sculpture and later Indic art. Perhaps the best
figurative cxample showing both the independent tradition of the Harappans and its ties to
later Indic art is a small red stone statue of a
nude male figure that was found at Harappa
(Fig. z.a). Unlortunarcly. becauserhe piece
was not excavated under controlled conditions,
there is no archaeologicalproof of its eariy date.
Some have claimed that it dates from a later
period.lz However, several cogent argunents
for a Harappa-period date havc been put forth,
including the fact that the sculpture has drillcd
socketsto receive dowels for the attachnent of
the head and limbs. This feature is not seen in
later Indic stonc sculpture, but is a comrnon
Harappa terra-cotta technique, The carving
relates stylistically to some later Indic works,
but distinctionsare also present.Thus, the work
rnay bc acceptedwith some certainty as a product of thc Harappa civilization. Hopefully,
future scientific cxcavationswill unearth sin.rilar
pieces to verify this.
Perhapsthe urost striking aspectof this small
stanre is its naturalism. The body is subtly
modclcd and softly contourcd. Gentle transitions betwecn onc part of the body and another
arc created through sculptural means, rather
than with the usc of line. For example, the
abdorninal and pectoral regions swell in a threedimensioualnanner and arc not defined by any
outlite or linear den-rarcation.In contrast to the
preceding exan.rples of Harappa sculpture,
thcre is a total absenceof linear design, abstract
patterns, and other surface enhancement. In
much of later Indic sculpture, while some
linear patterns r.night be present, such as in
drapcry depictions, a major emphasisis on the
forns of the body, achieved, as here, through
sculpturalmeans.
Although from
static and frontal,
suggeststhat the f
as if the weight o
resting on one lr
createsa feeling o
imbalanceand thr
tion that reinforce
Plece.
The unadornec
generateda grea
fact of the nudity
genitalsdoesnot r
fertility. The san
{igureswhosehips
I o not deptcl rne
body would sign
'I
and a negation.
describe the hur
undue attention i
any case,the rea
mystery, for in
Indic art, total r
rather than the
the human forn
ments character
THE rNDUS CrVITZATTON
15
2.5. Female figurc, fronr and back views. From Mohcnjo-Daro,
Pakistan.Mature Harapp, period. Ca.2loo ITjo s.c. Bronze.
lI: rr.j cm. National Museum, Nerv Delhi.
Although from the front the figure sccms
static and frontal, the asymmetry of the back
suggeststhat the figure was meant to bc shown
as if the weight of the body was more heavily
resting on one leg than on the other. This
createsa feeling of implicit movement through
imbalance and thus provides a senseof animation that reinforcesthe overall naturalism of the
PleCe.
The unadorned nudity of this figure has
generateda great deal of discussion.The n-rere
fact of the nudity and tl.redepiction of the male
genitalsdoesnot nccessarilyindicatc sexuality or
fertility. The same would be true of fernale
figureswhosc hips and breastsmight bc apparent.
To not depict the sexual featuresof the human
body would signify a deliberate artistic choicc
and a negation. To represcnt them is simply to
describe the hun-ran form, unless, of course,
undue attention is placed on their depiction. In
a n y c a s e t. h e r e a 5 o nf o r r h c r r u d i t y r e r r a i n s. r
mystery, for in both Harappa art and later
Indic art, total nudity is by far thc exception
mthcr than the normal manner of presenting
the hun.ran form, although thc clinging garments characteristic of m"ny styles of South
Asian art almost suggest nudity. It is perhaps
becauseof the nudity, as wcll as the accident of
having lost the limbs and head in both cascs,
that this figurc is so often discussedin rclation
to the Lohenipur torso of the Maurya period,
around the third century a.c. (Fig. 4.ir). This
comparison has becn emphasizcdby thosc who
favor thc view that the piece from Harappa is
not a product of thc Harappa civilization. The
points of cornparisou are superficial, howcvcr,
for in tcchnique (the Maurya piece has a. characteristichighly-polished surfacc),thc mcthod of
dcpicting body transitions, and the presenceof
the socketsin the Harappa piece, thc sculptures
difller. Thc nudity of tl.re Maurya sculpture
might be related to a spccific religious cult.
Wherlrerrhis js lnre lor t he Harapp.rpiccc can
only ren.rainspeculativeat tlis tinc, for we do
not knorv who the sculpturc rcpresentsor what
purposeit served.In later Indic contexts,when a
figure is shown without clothing, as in the case
"Sky-clad"
of Digatrbara or
Jain figures, it
is generally not for the purpose of glodfying
thc human body, but rather rs a syn.rbol of
world renunciation and victory over the usual
needs of the physical body. It is possible that
OF INDIC CIVIIZATION
16 FOUNDATIONS
a similar reason explains this figure's nudity.
A well-prcscrved statue of a female figure
provicles a rare example of metal sculpturels
from the Harappa civilization. Quite difierent
in style fiom the red stone torso, it also shows
links to later Indic art (Fig. 2.5). Found at
Mohenjo-Daro in one of the later strata, this
small image is probably of a date late in the
history of the site. Thc piece is stylistically
quite unlikc either thc western Asiatic-type
forms or the more typically Indic forms thus
far describedin Harappa art. It nray rePresent
still another strand in this early rrt tradition.
Like thc red stonc figure, the body is nude, but
here the bodily forms are abstractcdinto long,
thin, pipe-like elemcnts and have none of the
softly modeled fcshinessof the red statue. The
elongated,lanky limbs scem to show a disregard
for naturalistic proportions, yet the ovcrall
effect is one of liveliness and animation. This
efect is largely achieved through the jaunty
po.ture. with both Iegs bcnt "nd rhe lefr leg
placed slightly forward while the bcnt right
arrn rests on thc right l.rip. This vitality has led
to the conrnon assumption that this figure
represents a dancer, a suggestion colored by
attempts to interpret carly Indic works in light
of later Indic civilization. It would bc of great
interest if this figurc is a dancer, for this would
demonstratea precedent for the later emphasis
on dance in South Asia. Howcvcr, such an
assertionis strictly speculativc,for it is impossible
to determine whether the implicd moven.rentof
the figure is that of a dance.
Although rhc girl is nudc. .]te is not unadorned. Shc wearsa nccklaceand hasnumerous
banglcs on her arrns. While it is most Lrnusual
to find an unclothed fernale in the whole range
of Indic art, jewelry is almost universally worn
by figures both female and male-throughout
thc many centudcsoftraceable Indic art. In gcneral, it is thc absence,not presencc,ofjewelry
that is the morc notable condition. A lack of
jewelry is often a delibcrately choscn means of
making a statement about an individual, such
as, for example, thc fact that he or she is a
rcligious mendicant. (The absencc of jewclry
may thus proviclc a clue to the meaning of the
red torso from Harappa,) Jewelry eventually
came to servc both decorative and symboiic
fuirctions in Indic art, but whether anything
nrorc than simple adornment is intended hcre
is unknown. As in tl.repreccding sculpture, the
nudity does not necessarilyimply sexuality or
fcrtility, since tl.rere is no cr.nphasison sexual
characteristics.(Perhapsbecauseof her adolescentlike lankiness, no onc has suggestedthat
"mother
goddes.") Other features
this girl is a
of intercst include the hair, which is ticd into a
bun at the nape of thc neck in a style similar to
that worn by many South Asian womcn evcn
today, ancl thc facial characteristics,including
the hcarrylips and high forchcad. These physical
features arc often said to be typical of the
Dravidians, the people who arc prevalent today
in south India and who may havc bccn the
principal inhabitantsof thc Harappa civilization.
Thus, this sculpture documents diffcrcnt forr-ns
and trends than do thc stone sculptures and
hrrther 'uggcstsrhe brerJrh of Hrrapps Jrr.
Numerous tera-cotta figures hrve been
recovcrcd from Harappa sites, but these di{Ier
considerabiy in stylc and decotation fion.r thc
stonc and nretal pieces. Thc terra cottas are
usually norc crudely executed and, sincc they
are far more comlnon! may representa popular
art form. Il as has been suggested,stone for
sculpture was o{tcn imported, thc usc of that
rnore prccious rnateial, and of mctal (which
would require a rclativcly sophisticatedtechnology), may have been associatedwith thc clite of
the society, whilc the ubiquitous terra cotta
could have servedthc artistic nccdsof the people
as a whole.
A common subject in tcrra-cotta figures is
the fenale. Thcse sculptures bear little rcscmblancc to the metal girl just dcscribcd,but it is
important to rcmembet that any apParent
differences have not yet bcen correlatecl to
possiblc artistic developments over time and
from place to placc within the Harappa civilization. Thc most corllnon typc of fen-Lalchas
wide hips, pcllctlikebreasts,tubular limbs, and
abundant .jewelry adornn.rcntsincluding nccklace, girdlc, earrings,and frequently an elaboratc
headdres (lig. 2.6). Terra-cotta figures are
generally smali and schematicallyrcndcrcd. Like
their pre-Harappa coLlnterparts,these are often
q
r
I
2-6. Fcmalefigure
Mature Herapptp
cotla.H: ca.15crr,J
"mother
g,
called
of this designat
occasionallyoccu
hip or at the br
suggestsplegnan
notherhood may
go so far asto sa
figure is the con
it is actualor pote
of the divine nr
insupportableat I
assune that the l
subject in terra
and Harappa tim,
of motherhooda
and the continuit
of any divine sta
this early emphas
be a strong basis1
on women in tl
consequently the
the r
Nonetheless,
imagcry at this e
A potential et
femalesdepicted:
by other objec
THE INDUSCIVITIZATION 17
sites. A definite referenceto procrcatron secms
to be intcndcd in a numbcr of carvings that
represent the phallLrs (lliga). While somc of
these are abstract and may only bc infcrred to
rcpresent the phallus, others are qrite naturalistic (Fig. u.7). Ring stonesbclieved to represent
tlre fernale generativc organ (yoni) also have
becr.rfound. Since few have been unearthedin
specific associationwith a /iiga, somc scholars
have discrcdited rhe interpretation of these
objects as iligas and yorls. Howcver, a convincing alternativc hypothesis has not been oli-ered,
:rnd bec.lrr.elingas,Lndyorrlsarc corrrrrronin
later Indic art, theseobjects m"y be acceptedas
early exan.rples.A rcligious cmphasis on procreation is a phenomenon associatedwith early
agricultural societiesdcpeirdcntupon thc bounty
of nature for their well-being and survival.
iater Inclic iconography, it is also
Pakistan.
2.6. Ferule fisure. From Mohcnjo-Daro,
Judging frorr"eternal"
"universal"
B.c. Terra
Matule Harappt pcriod. Ca. 2roo-r7jo
that
or
symbolism
possible
cota. H: ca. rJ cm. National Museum, Ncw Delhi.
is intcndecl by such objects. Thc lozl night
"born
representthe cloor through rvhich onc is
again," thcreby relating to the concept of
"motber
thc
aptness
though
countless rounds of rebirths (sarrsara),which
called
goddesses,"
as
is
When,
figures in latcr Indic thought. The liriga would
qucstionable.
of this designation
child
appcars
on
the
representthe procreativc.aspcctof thc universe
occasionallyoccurs, a sm^ll
abdomcn
(latcr,
or
a
bulging
of the Hindu god Siva) and thc ncans by
hip or at the breast,
least
the
concept
of
wlrich thc cndless cycles of birtl.r, deatl.r,and
sug:lests prcgnancy, at
ruight
cvcn
rebirth occur. The rcalization of nonduality,
motherhood may bc verified. One
in
cvery
fcmale
symbolizcd by the cornbination of n.Laleand
go so far as to say that inplicit
female principles, reprcscntsonc of thc cssential
figurc is thc concept of notherhood, whether
it is actual or potcntial. However, the asscssn-rent goals of later Buddhist and Hindu thought.
oI thc divine n.rurre -thc goddes' a'pect r'
insupportable at this date. Perhaps it is best to
assun-rcthat the popularity of the fen-raleas a
subject in terra-cotta art from prc-Har:rppa
ancl Harappa times is associatcdwith the idcas
o f r r r o t h e r h o o..nl d l t c n c el e r t i l i t y .p r o c r e r r i o r r .
and the continuity of lifc, although thc presence
of any divine status is unknown. It is truc that
this early emphasison the fbmininc asPectmight
be a strong basisfor thc later importance placed
on women in thc major lndic religions, and
consequently tl.reir pror.ninence in Indic art.
with fcmale
Nonctheless,thc meaningsassociated
i m a g e r y . r tt h i ' e . r r l yd a t er e m . u nu n c e r ( , i t t .
2-7. aiigd. Fron Mohcnjo-Drro,
A potential cmphasison the sexuality of the
Pakistan. Hxrappt period. Ca.
fcmales depictcd in the terra cottas is reinlorced
23oo r7Jo B.c. Stone. whcreaboutsof original unknown.
by other objects recovcred fiom Harappe
,d
FOUNDATIONS
OI INDIC
CNIIIZATION
2.8. Buil. From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan- Mature
Harappa period. Ca. 2rocFrzjo B.c. Terra cotta. l{:
cr. 7 cm. NarionalMu'eurn, Neu Delhi.
Perhaps such symbolism
grew
out of beliefs
distirguishable
as early as the Harappacivilizatlon.
Another aspectof fertility symbolism in the
Hartppa culture seems to exist in thc many
representationsof bulls. On Indus seals,bulls
outnumber all othcr motifs. Bulls are commonly found as isolated sculpturesas well (fig.
2.8). Often, the reprcsentations are highly
naturalistic. Severaldiferent varicties of bovine
animals arc easily distinguishable. Thcse may
represent some of the domesticated animals
that werc highly valucd in society and that
came to have great economic irnportance to
thcir owners. The bull, as potential sire of
generations of offspring, n.right have come to
have a synbolism associatedwith both wealth
and Grtility. The importance of this animal
may bcst be explained by examining somc of
the sealsthat have been recovered from various
Harappe sites.
Srars
Over two thousand sealsand seal impressions
have been found at Harappa sites.The majority
of sealsare made of steatitethat has becn coated
with an alkali and then fired to produce a white
lustrous surface.l4Usually, the sealsare square
in shapc and have a perforated boss at the back
for handling and suspension(Fig. 2.9). They are
generallysmall, averagingonly a fcw centimeters
across.Despitc their srnall size, sealssometimes
have elaborateinraglio designsshowing animals,
plants, geometric fomrs, and even s'ceneswith
humans or humanoids, as well as writing. The
decipherment of the writing on the Indus seals
is perhaps the rnost vexing problcm for the
interpretcr of this ancient civilization, for its
decipherment could sumnarily prove or disprove the numerous thcories that have bccn put
forth about the culture. Approximately four
huldred diflerent signshave been cataloguedfor
this apparently pictographic script. To date,
there has been no confirmed decipherment,
although many announcements to that effect
have been made.15The analysis of the script
and languagcis importrnt bccauseit miy conIirm the identity of at lcast sorneof the Harappa
people.For example,ifit relatcsto the Dravidian
languages,it would support the commonly
held view about an in.rportant Dravidian component of the civilization, though this would
not prcclude the existence of othcr linguistic
and ethnic groups anong the Harappa peoples.
Thc decodcd language lnight also provide a
key to thc interpretation of the sealsand their
designs. However, the seals n-ray have been
used as the personal marks of idcntification of
their owners and may contain only proper names
or titles of individuais rather than explanatory
rnaterial. As far as can be determined, the script
as it survivcs did not develop over the ccnturies
in which the Harappa cllture fourished. Its
origins and devclopments are thereforc as
enign-raticas the words it records.lo
Elcphants, rhinoceroses, and other anirnals
appear on thc seals,but the predominant zoomorphic motif is a profile represcntationof an
anir.nalstanding in front of what has been called
a manger (Fig. z.ro). Since the animal appearing
on such scalsis depicted with only one horn, it
has often becn identified as a unicorn. Although
the Indic context does provide somc validity to
the identification, for a one-homed creature
(ekalrhga)is known in the latcr Jain religion,l?
thc fact that the hcad of the animal is invariably
depicted in a strict profile, suggeststhat the two
homs of the anima
unicom is not beir
form of the anima
bovine creature,re6
the number ofhorn
"manger"
The
is
objectsof this type
the excavationsof
been used in religi
or may simply have
implicationsof the <
fiequently shown r
animal are alsouncl
In this seal,the s
anatomicalprecisio
are clearly visible
scemsto be reserve
in the seals,while hr
in a schematicand
was evident from
naturalism could al
hun.ranfigure, at L
texts. Obscrvation
seen in the differe
animals on Indus s
specificallydefined
zebu (Fig. 2.9), an
Harappa cave pain
secondis a bisonlik
as if fecding from a
example shown (Fig
represented type
THE TNDUSCrVITZATTON 19
2.9. Sealwirh bull design,tluec views. Fron Mohenjo-Daro, Pekiscan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca. 2roo-t7Jo B.c. Steatite.2.8 x
2.8 x r.3 cln. Departne[t of Archacoiogyof Pakistan,Karachi.
horns of the animai simply overlap, and that a
unicorn is not being showu at all. Indeed, the
form of tl.reanimal's body indicatesthat it is a
bovine crcature, regardlessof any peculiarity in
the number ofhorns.
"manger"
The
is also difiicult to interpret, for
objects of this type have not yct been found in
the excavationsof Harappa sites. It may have
been used in religious ceremgniesor sacrifices
or nay sirnply have been a fecding trough. The
implications of the double-ribbed pad or harness
frequently shown across the shoulders of the
anin-ralarc also uncicar.
ln this seal,thc subtlcty of n.rodelingand the
anaton-ricalprecision cvidenced in the best seals
are ciearly visible. Interestingly, naturalism
seemsto be reservedfor the carvings of animals
in thc seals,while hun.rrnsarc norn.rallydepicted
in a schematic and abstractedfashion. Yct, as
was cvidcnt frorn thc sr-nallrecl male statue,
naturalism could also be a cl-nracteristicof thc
human figure, at least in sonie Harappd contexts. Observation of natural forn-rs is further
seen in the clifercntiation of various bovine
anin-ralson Inclus seals,for at least three other
specifically defined types appear. The first is a
zebu (Fig. z.o). ln rnirrrll corrnror in preHarappt cavc painting as well (Fig. r.z); the
secondis a bisonlike creaturecommonly shown
as if Geding ftom a trolrgh, though not in the
exampleshown (Fig. z.rr); thc third is a seldom
rcprescntcd type with widespread, arching
2.ro. Sealwith horned animal. From Mohenjo-Daro,
Pakistan.Matlrrc Harappa period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c.
Steatite.H: J.7cn. National Museurn,New Delhi.
z . r t . S e a is h o l v i n g b u l l . F r o u M o h e n j o - l ) a r o , P a k i s t a n .
Matore Hrrappa pcriod. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c. Steatite.
H: ca. 4 cn1. National Muscum, Karachi.
2d
FOUNDATIONS
OF INDIC
CIVIIZATION
horns, perhaps a water buffalo. These tiny
carvings are oftcn exccuted with great verisimilitude, indicating the artists' intimate visual
knowledge of the anatorny of the anin.nls and
their possession
of sophisticatcdartistic methods
of r.nodelingtheir forms.
The emphasis on bovine animals in the
Harappa civilization may partly bc explained in
cconomic tctn-rs.An agricultural socicty would
have depended heavily on such animals as a
sourceof milk, possibly r.ncatand lcather, and as
bcasts of burden. The females of the spccies
would be in-rportant as propagators of firture
gencrations and as insurers of wealth's abundance. Nonetheiess,bulls rathcr than cows are
invariably depicted on the seals and in fteestanding Harappa sculptrue. Wc know from
later Hindu iconography that the bull becamethe
vehicle (uahana)of Siva and also a symbol of
sexualenjoyment. Therefore, perhapsthe prowess of the bull is also used in the Harappa
contcxt to symbolizeprocreativeand progenitivc
powers and thc rcsultant abundanceof the hcrds.
Thc possibleassociationbetween early depictions ofbulls and later Siva forms is strengthcned
by the occurrence of liitgas in the Harappa
coltext, for thc linga eventually becamc an
almost universal sign of the god Siva. Also, a
number of n-ralc figurcs on several Harappd
tlut srrggestassociaseri. have , haractetistic<
tions witir later Siva inagery. Thus, it is possible
that sonc of the beliefs and practices of thc
Harappa civilization scrved as a foundation for
aspectsof later Indic religion. The best,example
"proto-Siva"
on
of what has bcen cailcd thc
Indus seals shows a male figure seated in a
posturewith the solcsofhis {bet prcsscdtogether,
his legs splayed to each side (Fig. z.rz). The
.rms extend away fion.r the body and the
thumbs rcst on his kneeswhilc the fingcrs point
downward. Neither the leg position nor the
arm position is one that someone would
casuallyassume.l{ather, theseare highly formal
gesturesand may rcpresent a specific asaaaand
'ieat")
-fhe
reGrs
terrr' asalw (literally
nfulra.
ro the diffcrcnt lcg position. or:itting postures
usually assumedby a persouperforming mcditation or other religious practices in later Indic
culture. The terlli' mudrz refers to the hand
shown either ha
might be a comp
creature)or wear
prised of horns,i
of the beast'sch
"bull-man"
bc a
In Mesopotamia
drcssby a ruler w
divinity to him; t
indicatestill anoth
the Indus cultur
The tripartite .fc
2.12. Seal sho$'ing a 1og/n. From Mohcnjo-Daro,
Pakistln. Mature Hamppt period. Ca. zroo-r75o l.c.
Slealite. H: 3.4 cn. National Muscunr, New Delhi.
gesturesused within the same contcxt. While
individual asanas and mudras ca,ne to have
specific comn.runicxtive content, it is dilicult
to go beyond tl.re simple obscrvation that this
and other {igurcs on sealsin similar or related
configurations may bc pcrforming a religious
exercise or ritual. Meditation and the use of
asanasand mudras are usualiy associatedwith
yoga and yogic practices.Yoga, which r.neans
"to
literally
yoke," refers in the broadest scnse
r o b c l i c f r . r n dp r . t c r i c eb. y w h i c l r a p r r . r i r r o r r e r
"yoke"
attempts to
or unify l.rimself with the
divine or universal. It is a pan-sectarianconcept
associated with virtually every major Indic
rcligion, including Buddhisn.r, Jaitisn, and
Hinduism. Thr-rs,the apparcntreGrenceto yogic
practiccs in thc Harappa civilization does not
necessarilysignify the roots of any one specific
sect; it might represent a corlmon source for
a l l . I r i , i n r p o r r a n tro n o t e t h a r t h e l o g i c c o n cepts, as well as the use of asanasand turltas,
probably rcllcct indigenous developmcnts in
- 'r' - 'r' rhJt cJn be
traced to westcrn Asiatic sources.Becausethese
sccln to occrlr in a well-developed stage rvhen
{irst encountered in Harappa art, it nlust bc
assun.rcdthat a lcngthy period of evolution
precededtl.rem.
In contrast, a few elementsof this sealsuggcst
al nities to conceptsand forr.nsfound throughout westem Asia. For example, the figure is
distinctively Hara
indicated, homei
importance in Ind
pa times, in cont
shelter paintings
suggesr wesrem
important not to
nections,or to in{
of one culture to t
Since the later
associatedwith tl
has lent support tr
as a prototype of
dificult to discer
sculpture,it is por
faces,is ithyphalli
or has a tigerlike
featuresagain can
nography, as can
to be involved in
four animalssurrc
elephant, a tiger,
have been related
which he is Lord r
While many of
conrpellingargun
Si.'o"'i.ooo-g,"piy
-it is important to
characteristics
are I
At this early date
rlton pool of relig
of the Indic syste
the arrangemento
central figure sugg
diagram knom r
religions.le The sp
antelopes(one ofl
THI INDUS CIVIIIZATION
shorvn cithcr having horns (in which casc, hc
might be a composite, part-hunan, part-animal
creature)or wearing a hcaddress,whic[ is conprised of horns, ir.nplying the adoption of somc
of the beast'scharactcristics.Thc figure rnight
"bull-lnatr"
in concept, if not in actuality.
be a
In Mesopotarnia,thc wearing of a horned headdressby a rulcr was believed to inpart powcr or
divinity to l.riur; thc horns shown here may thus
indicate stili another tie, even ifindirect, betwecn
thc Indus culture and ar-rcicntMesopotauria.
The tripartitc form seen here seen-rsto be
distinctively Flarappan, and, as has already been
indicatcd, horned creatures clcarly had grcat
importancc in Indic culture, evetr in pre-Harappe timcs, in contexts like thc Stonc Age rock
shelter paintings, which do not necessarily
suggcst western Asiatic contacts. Thus, it is
important not to ovcrstresssuch possib)econnections, or to infer from them an indebtedncss
of one culture to thc other.
Since the later Hind11 god Siva is sttongly
associatedwith dre bull, the l.rorned heaclclress
haslcnt support to .intcrprctations of this figure
as a prototype of Siva. In aclclition,rvhilc it is
difiicult to discern thcsc featureson such a tiny
sctilpture,it is possiblethat thc figure has three
faces,is ithyph:rllic, and either wears a tiger skin
or has a tigerlike upper torso.18Each of these
f."tor., "g"ir-, can be rclatc.l to iater Sive iconography, as can the fact tl.rat the figurc sccnrs
to be involved in yogic practices.Further, thc
four animals surrounding the ccntral figure, an
elephant, a tigcr, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo,
h a v cb c e n r e l . r t e dt o S i v . r ' sP r ' u p . ' t ia r p e c r i. n
which he is Lorcl of Bcasrs.
Whilc rnaly of thesefeaturcssccn-rto provide
. . o n r p e l l i nJgr g u n r c n t \f o r r c l a t i n gr h c ' c . . r il o
5 r v . r c o n o g r a p l r y, n d i n d c c di r p r o b r b l y, l o r s
it is inportant to rerlenber that rnany ofthese
are not exclusive to thc god Siva.
characteristics
A r t h r ' c r r l y d a l e .r h c y n t i g l t t i r d i c r r c . , c o r n mon pool of religious iders lrom u'hich rnany
of thc Indic systclns developed. For examplc,
the arrangcment of thc four animals around the
centralfigurc suggestsa na4dala, a cosmological
diagram known in Saivism and other Indic
rcligions.leThe specific placcnent of a pair of
antelopes(one of which has broken off) beneath
2]
thc dais upon which thc figurc sits is prinarily
associatedwith later Buddhist iconography.
The seat itself, ancl its nore cllborate countcrpart, thc thronc, is usedin latcr Indic rcligions to
signify the high rank of the person who sits
upon it. It is probably inost accurxtc to assrnlc
"bull-n.ran"
and the acconpanying
that tl.re
clcmcnts of this famous seal relatc to many
conceptsfound in later lndic religioussystems,
inciuding Saivisur, but that these ideas arc lot
1 < tc r c l u . i v el o r n ) o r c o f t l t . r n .A . s u c l rt.r r e
scalis an important docul-ncntof a wholc rangc
ofconcepts funcllmental to tl-Lercligiots outlook
of a nuniber of Indic sects.What is cspccially
important about this scalis that, in contrastto
r l r e i n d i ri d r r . r l . c r r l p r r r r c f. o L r n d a r H . r r . r p p a
sites,whose meaningscould only be discussed
in thc most spccnlativc tcrn-rs, in this small
composition, we have definite proof of Harappa
religious practices, involving pcrhaps an carly
forln of yoga and possibly identity transferralin
lvhich a humatr takes on certain, probably
syn-rbolic,charactcristicsof othcr crcatures.
It is notable that g'hile the designsof some of
thc bull scals,or tbosc showillg othcr anirr-rxls,
repeat amon€! the corpus of Indus sea1s,t)ris
exalnple and othersshowing hurnan-typc figurcs
in rvirichrcligiousactivityis clefinitclyportrayed,
seen to have been uniqne. As a group, such
sealsconprise only a handful of the thousands
o f r c " l s t l r , t h " v c b e " r r r r n , . ' r r l r c ;, rl H . r r r p p . r
sites.Perhaps these I'ere the personal propertl'
of a ferv high-ralkir.Lgindividuals in the socicty,
w h i l " r h c o r h c r .r ' r , 1 l r r v eb e e n . 'g e n e r i rcl p c
c o r r ' o n r o w h o l cc ] n . " ro f p c o p l c .
Anothcr scal shou's a figure with a sinilar
headdress
stalding in a U-shapcdtrcc (Fig.z.r3).
Thc lcavcsarc those ofa lildl tree, which occurs
on Pottcry asa notif as early as the pre-Harappa
period. However, while thc neaning of this
t r e c i n e . r r l i e rc o n c c x c i. . r r r r L n o w r ri'r m . r y
havc bccn depicted only becauseof tl.rebear,rty
and symnetry of its leaves-it rnight bc assun.rcd
that its depiction hcrc is n.rore significant. Thc
ptpal ftee is one of the few idcntifirble plant
s p c c i c ro n H . r r . p p a. c , 1 . . l r ) p c r \ i \ l e n c er r r
symbol in South Asia,.particularly in Buddhisrn,
whercin it bccanc Sakyamuni Buddha's tree
of enlightenment,may not be ncrcly acciclcntal.
22
TOUNDATIONS
OF INDIC
CIVIIZATION
2.r3. Sealshowing cerernonywith figuresand bull.
FrornMohenjo-Daro,
Pakistan.
MarureHarappa
period.
Ca. zroo-r75on.c. Stearite.H: ca. 3 4 cm. National
Museun,Karachi.
2.r4. Seal showing serpenrsand frgures honoring a
1,ogir.From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappt
period. Ca. 2roo-r7jo B.c. Faicnce.H: ca, t-z cnt?
Presentwhereaboutsunlnown.
When used on seals,the plpal seernsto appear
in religious contexts,zoIn this seal,for exan.rple,
a complex ceremony is taking place, in which a
kneeling devotee propitiates the homed figure
in the tree. The kneeling figure also wears a
homed headdress,which suggcststhat he may
be assuming some of the characteristicsof the
figure in the tree-perhaps a deity-by means
of identity transGrral. Behind the kneeling
{igure is a bull, whose role here is unknown,
but the bull's presence reinforces a religious
associationfor bulls (as do the homed headdresses)
in the Indus context. The row ofstanding
figures along the bottom of the seal may also
be participantsin the events and they too wear
elaborateheaddrcsscs.If identity transferral, by
which the devotee seeks unification with a
divine essence,is truly indicated by a cor.nposition such as this, this would indicate a very
early source for the concept of union between
the individual and the univcrsal that perrneates
later Indic thinking. In fact, this concept so
strongly relates to the philosophical thinking
expressedin a body of tcxts known as the
Upanisads, believed to have been conposed
around 8oo-45o 8.c., that it might be suggested
that the Upanisadscould rellect the finaiization
of conceptsthat had bcen extant since Harappe
times.2l
A small faience scal is also startling for its
apparcnt rclationship to later Indic concepts
(Fig. z.ra). In this case, the seated central figure
appears without
headdress but in the same
yogic posture described in Figure z.rz. He is
being propitiated by two kneeling figures, one
to eithcr sidc, both of whon are backed by
serpentsrising up from the ground like cobras
about to strike. The obvious resemblanceof this
group to later Buddhist votive scenesin which
serpentdeities(r?agas)
pay homage to the Buddha
has been noted.2zIndeed, the parallel is so close
that the iconographic format must have continued from this early date to later periods,
although the specific meanings might have
changed.
Another seal that posesn-rany questions and
o{l'ersintriguing possibilitiesdepicts an anthropornorph and a zoomorph, each of which is
a cornposite of several forms (Fig. 2.rJ). The
zoomorph is essentially a horned tiger with
clearly defined facial features, feline paws and
ears,as well as stripes and a tail, while the anthropomorph seemshuman becauseofits upright
posture and the use of its forelimbs like arms
rather than like the legs of a guadruped. The
lower half of the body, including the cloven
hoofs, the tail, and the horns on the head, all
appear to be bovine, resernbling those features
its gesrurcs
of rnlrry bullr on other 1(als.Because
might be intcrpreted as an attack upon the
zoomorph, it has been suggcstcdthat this scene
representsan cvent in the Sumerian Gilgamesh
epic, in which tl
beast. However,
from the motif a
this interpretation
like forms on the
female, which wc
Enkidu imposibl
side, along with
was undoubtedly
nicate an event
everyday experi
still enigmatic.
Two other se
complexities of
first shows three
form (Fig. z.16),.
of the three anim
pattern. That a s
may be inferred b'
of a number bear
ple chosenshows
pattems are also 1
fiom a center, lil<
shoulders.Irl late
directionaland co
such forms. The
itself noteworthy
monly used by tJ
sociated with p<
Asia. Yet its app
the presumeddate
into ancient India
have been borr<
Harappan usage,
tacts between the
pans commenced
of the latter's civi
that Indo-Aryan
populating the Inc
Regardlessof
interpretations of
generalmight see
or other substa
between the Indt
culture, all of the
in the realm ofpos
it hasnot beenpo
relative chronolo
developmentalas
THT INDUS CWIIZATION
epic, in which the bull-man Xnkidu attacks a
beast. However, since the precise form differs
from the motif as found in Mesopotamian art,
this interpretation is unverified. Further, breastlike forms on the chest suggest that the {igure is
Gmale, which would make the identification as
Enkidu imposible. In any case,the tree at the
side, along with the two composite animals,
was undoubtedly carefully selectedto communicate an event outside the normal scope of
everyday cxperience,though its meaning is
still enigmatic.
Two other seals further demonstrate the
complexities of Harappa iconography. The
first shows three tigers interlinked in a circular
forrn (Fig. z.16), with the central shoulder mass
of the three animals developed into a complex
pattem. That a specific diagram was intended
may be inferred by comparing this sealwith one
of a number bearing abstractdesigns,The example chosenshows a srastlla (Fig. z.r7), but other
patterns are also found in which forms radiate
from a center, like that formed by the tigers'
shoulders. In later Indic art and architecture,
directionaland cosmic significanceis attachedto
such forms. The presence of the svastileais in
itself noteworthy, since it is a symbol commonly used by the Aryan peoples usually associated with post-Harappa times in South
Asia. Yet its appearancein a context prior to
rhepresumeddateof the lndo-Aryan migrations
into ancient India suggeststhat the motif rnay
have been borrowed by the Aryans fiom
Harappan usage, or more probably, that contacts between the lndo-Aryans and the Harappens commenced rnuch earlier than the demise
of the latter's civilization. Indeed, it is possible
that lndo-Aryans were among the people
populating the Indus civilization.
Regardlessof how plausible some of the
interpretations of Harappa seals and art in
generalmight seem,without written verification
or o*rer substantirl proof of the continuity
berween the Indus civilization and later Indic
culture.all of rheseintcrpretationsmust remain
in the realm ofpossibility only. In this discussion,
it hasnot been possibleto take into account the
relative chronological position of the objects,
developmentalaspectsof the Indus religion and
2'
2.r5. Sealshowing compositecreaturesand tree. From
Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca.
2Ioo-rZJo B.c. Steatite. H: ca. z-4 cm? National
Museurn,New Delhi.
2.16. Seal \irith interlinkcd tigers. From MohenjoDaro, Pakistan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca.2toa-r75o
B.c. Steatite.H: ca. 2-4 cm? National Mr1seum,New
Delhi.
2.r7. Seal with sl,astikdd,esigr.r.
From Mohenjo-Daro,
Pakistan.Mature Harappe period. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c.
Faience.r.5 X r.6 cm. Deparlnent of Archaeologyof
Pakistan,Karachi.
24 IOUNDATTONS
OF rNDrC CIVITZATTON
culture, nor cven interregional ramifications of
thc dcvelopments. The range in style of the
sealsculpturesalone suggcstschronological and/
or geographicalvariations.
In sorne cases,such as the reprcscntationsof
the bulls (Figs. 2.9, ztr), Harappa sexlsshow a
remarkable degree of naturalism that rcllccts
closeobscrvation of the physical world. Other
seals,such as those depicting cornpositeanimals
(Fig. z.r5), clemonstratc that thc Harappa
pcoplc were concerned with ideas that go
beyond evcryday cxpcrience even though they
may have borrowed hcavily frorn it. These two
predispositionssimiiarly coexist in the fabric of
later Indic thought. While they might now
appear to be contradictory, it will be shown
that they are not. In Act, their reconciliation is
one of the hallmarks of ancicnt India's artistic
and philosophic creativity.
PoTTERY
The same complexity and multiplicity of interpretation sccn in the sculpture and sealsof the
Indus civilization is encounteredin the study of
the painted pottery. Likc the other Harappe
art forrns, painted pottery displays affinities to
both Mesopotamia and to later Indic culture
while maintaining a great deal of individuality.
Most Harappa painted pottery is a black-onred ware, although some polychrorne wares are
also known. Harappa painted pots generally
display a varied assortmentof motifs, including
animal, vcgctal, and geometric forms. The
designs range from simple to conplex and
from abstract to representational.The motifs
are often crowded into an overall pattcrn on
the surface of a vessel. An intersecting circle
design(Fig. z.r8a) had great popularity. Further,
the motif apparently persists,for it resurfacesin
monumental architecture of the Maurya period
in the third century D.c. (Fig. a.l), suggesting
thc basic continuity of Indic civilization. Leaf
motifs, especially the pipal (Frg. z.r8b), suggest
des to both prc-Harappa and later Indic forms
and may have been used symbolically.
2.r8. Pottery motifs. A) Intcrsectingcircle ,rotif on painted pot.
Frorn Mohenjo-l)aro, Pakist:n. Harapp, period. B) Painredpot
(black on red) r'ith pipal leafdesigrr.Harappeperiod.
No one can say
demiseof the Indr
severalfactors,inr
cultural evolution
Some outposts o{
and no singlefate
of all settlementsi
While a general d
be cited as the en
or urban phase,a
iarly in the south
sphere, seemsto
l.c. It has been t
deforestationof tl
the land lesshabitz
tions to migrate ta
climatic changes<
were man-madeor
changesare still J
Mohenj o-Daro, flc
perennial problem
threat of continuin
the gradual aband
ological evidence
generations of in
suffered fiom fre
the damage was
rebuilt in a sho
decline in the urbar
THI INDUS CMIIZATION
Tnr
Ecrrpsr or tnl
No one can say for ccrtain what caused thc
demiseof the lndls civilization. Most probably,
sevcral factors, including thc natural processof
cultural evolutiou, combined to ellect its end.
Some outpostsof the society outlastcdothers,
and no single fate was rcsponsiblefor the demise
of all settlementsin this widespreaclcivilization.
Whiie a gcncraldate of around rTJo B.c. may
be cited as the end of thc civilization's lnaturc
or urban phasc, activity xt somc sites,particuiarly in the soutl.rem rcgions of the Harappa
spherc, sccms to have continucd to about 8oo
n.c. It lras been thcorized that desiccationand
deforestation of the lower Indus rcgion made
thc land lesshabitable, possibly causing populations to migratc to the eastand south. Whether
climatic changes did occur and whether they
were man-madcor the natural result ofgeological
changes are still highly arguable points.z3 At
Mohenjo-Daro, fooding apparently had been a
perennial problem; therc, it is likely that thc
threat of continuing scvereinunclationshcralded
thc gradual abandonttrent of the site. Archaeological cvidcnce reveals that thc last few
generations of inhabitants at Mohenjo-Daro
suflcrcd from frequent fooding. Each tirne,
the darrage rvas repaired or thc dwellings
rebrrilt in a .hoddier nranncr. \uggesting a
dcclinein the urbanizedcivilization itselfin what
Ilrlus
25
Ctvlrlz,arlor,t
"post-urban"
l.rasbeen called a
phase.zaOther
sites seem to have been abruptly abandoned
with no obvious signs of r.natcrialdcclinc prior
to clesertion.A commonly supplied explanation
for this phenomenon is that incrcasingnulnbers
of foreigners can-rcinto the area, causing a shift
in population distribution.
Scholars have debated thc exxct natLlre of
these nigrating peoples, but most agrcc that
incursions by peoplcs fron-r the northwest occurred around the secondquarter of thc second
millennium 4.c., regardless of whcther they
contributed to thc dcmisc of the Harappa
civilization or not. Most probably, thesc incursions did not corne at once, nor did they represent a unified effort by thc ncwcomcrs or onc
marked by violence.zs Rather, it is believed
that theseshifts in population took placc ovcr a
periodof.evcral hundredyerr,..rlTecting
v;riorrs
places unequally. Of thc scvcral ethnic, racial,
and linguistic groups thxt may have been
involvcd in thc displacernent of the Harappa
peoples, at least one component was made up
of Aryans who probably cntcrcd the Indic lands
fiom thc Iranian rcgion. The heritage of tl.rese
Indo-Aryans or Indo-Iranians26eventually became a dominant aspcctof n-ruchof subsequent
Indic civilization.
a
THE
ART OF AN(
w1
:"'-.rr!a-\jj{>.
,.I:: a:3;'1.''
t,
ANCIENT INDIA
Buddhist,
Hindu,Jarn
by SusanL. Huntington
with contributions by John C. Huntington
WEATHERHILL
New York . Tokyo