Chief Red Cloud James Cook. Agate Fossil Beds National Monument.

In the
Reflections on R
Nationa
In the late 1800's, Eu
and rancher James Cook
Oglala Sioux Chief Red
common goals: to respel
preserve the artifacts of a
friendship-unique to thi~
cultures-led to a major
housed at Agate Fossil Bec
government-to-governmel
Graves Protection and Re
Their friendship serves as
consultation process, inch
networks with descendant
in this process.
In his last visit to Agl
James Cook a letter thanl
him a painting that Cook
expressed his need for his
Chief Red Cloud
Melissa Baird, Ph.D. recently can
implications of World Heritage des
she is an expert member for the
International Scientific Committee
James Cook. Agate Fossil Beds National Monument.
34
Ruthann Knudson, Ph.D. is thc fon
Harrison, NE. She is currently the I
Indian, an Adjunct Faculty membe
her own consulting firm, Knudson
(MT) Resource Conservation and
California Academy of Sciences, S
\
In the Spirit of Old Friends:
Reflections on Repatriation at Agate Fossil Beds
National Monument, Nebraska
by
Melissa F. Baird
Ruthann Knudson
Introduction
In the late 1800's, Euroamerican Nebraska Territory frontiersman
and rancher James Cook (Cook 1980, Meade 1994, NPS 1980) and
Oglala Sioux Chief Red Cloud (Olson 1965, Paul 1997) met for
common goals: to respect and learn each other's way of life and to
preserve the artifacts of a threatened culture. Their mutual respect and
friendship-unique to this time of rampant conflict between these two
cultures -led to a major collection of American Indian artifacts now
housed at Agate Fossil Beds National Monument and subject to ongoing
government-to-government consultations under the Native American
Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA; Fine-Dare 2002).
Their friendship serves as a model for reflection on the repatriation and
consultation process, including the necessity of establishing long-term
networks with descendant communities, and the importance of mentors
in this process.
In his last visit to Agate in early May 1908, Red Cloud presented
James Cook a letter thanking him for his friendship and bequeathing
him a painting that Cook had commissioned. In the letter Red Cloud
expressed his need for his legacy to be remembered:
Melissa Baird, Ph.D. recently completed a dissertation that examines the social and political
implications of World Heritage designations on local and indigenous communities. In addition,
she is an expert member for the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
International Scientific Committee on Archaeological Heritage.
gate Fossil Beds National Monument.
Ruthann Knudson, Ph.D. is the former Superintendent ofAgate Fossil Beds National Monument,
Harrison, NE. She is currently the Executive Director of the Friends of the Museum of the Plains
Indian, an Adjunct Faculty member at Montana State University-Great Falls, and is Principal of
her own consulting firm, Knudson Associates. She also serves as Treasurer of the North Central
(MT) Resource Conservation and Development, Inc. Area, and is a Research Associate of the
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.
35
I want you to always own and keep that picture-as
long as you live, and then let your oldest son have it to
keep. Then I am sure my children and their children can
always go and look at the face of one of the last of the old
Chiefs that lived before the white men came to take our
lands and turn us from the old trails we had followed for
so many hundreds of years. I will soon go to join myoId
friends and now on my last visit to you my friend I want
to say through my nephew and interpreter Mr. Phillip
Romero that in you I think my people will always find
a true friend and I want them to listen to your words of
council.
James Cook and Red Cloud adopted an ethic that was based on
mutual respect and understanding and their friendship was extraordinary
for times where historical and social forces emphasized tension and
distrust.
In this paper, we use their friendship as a model for reflection on the
experience of working with Native peoples and land managers on issues
ofrepatriation. Historically, Native American peoples and archaeologists
have had difficulties understanding each other, particularly when dealing
with issues related to reburial or repatriation (e.g., Downer 1997).
Contemporary dialogues have benefited from adopting strategies that
seek alliances and recognize the validity of diverse viewpoints. The
allegiance between Cook and Red Cloud and their legacy of respect is
reflected in contemporary dialogues between land managers and Native
peoples at Agate Fossil Beds National Monument.
Agate Fossil Beds National Monument: A Brief Introduction
Agate Fossil Beds National Monument (AGFO) is aU. S. Department
of the Interior NPS unit located in the "Panhandle" of northwestern
Nebraska, an area that is breathtaking in its beauty and starkness. The
Monument was authorized in 1965 and includes 3,070 acres along the
Niobrara River, of which 2,270 are federally owned and the rest are
private. AGFO is open year-round and has about 17,000 visitors from
around the world each year.
This region has historically been used by many Plains Indian groups
including the Apache, Arapahoe, Arikara, Cheyenne; Crow; Dakota
36
Sioux, Kiowa, Lakota Sic
and Shoshoni. Euroameril
and geographic makeup of
AGFO attracts visitors
and the museum's collect
surprised to learn that AGF
includes some 500 ninetet
artifacts. A portion of this
that was created in consult~
'90s. In addition, the Mo
the James and Harold Coo
related to Native culture a
donated to the NPS by Jan
in 1963.
Setting the Scene: Unitt
James (
James Cook was born
"his marksmanship and f(
Cook traveled extensively
game and supplies to the r
exploring the Plains (Mead
to visit his friend Dr. Elish
the Niobrara River. The ra
hunters interested in his f
marry Graham's daughter, I
it 'Agate Springs Ranch'.
excavations at the fossil
to Agate to collect specir
1990:6).
In 1876 Cook asked B
at the Red Cloud Agency
introduce him to Chief Rei
fossils in Sioux territory (J
the aging chief of the Ogl<
met Cook but he and his ba
Reservation in South Dakl
\
.eep that picture-as
ldest son have it to
j their children can
)f the last of the old
:n came to take our
'Ie had followed for
III go to join myoid
)U my friend I want
:rpreter Mr. Phillip
Ie will always find
n to your words of
ethic that was based on
iendship was extraordinary
s emphasized tension and
1
model for reflection on the
nd land managers on issues
peoples and archaeologists
r, particularly when dealing
ion (e.g., Downer 1997).
m adopting strategies that
diverse viewpoints. The
d their legacy of respect is
land managers and Native
ment.
: A Brief Introduction
GFO) is aU. S. Department
mhandle" of northwestern
beauty and starkness. The
lldes 3,070 acres along the
ly owned and the rest are
about 17,000 visitors from
many Plains Indian groups
Cheyenne; Crow; Dakota
Sioux, Kiowa, Lakota Sioux, Nakota Sioux, Omaha, Ponca, Pawnee,
and Shoshoni. Euroamerican contact drastically changed the cultural
and geographic makeup of this region.
AGFO attracts visitors who primarily come to explore the fossil beds
and the museum's collections of Miocene fossils. Many visitors are
surprised to learn thatAGFO is also home to the Cook Collection, which
includes some 500 nineteenth and twentieth century Native American
artifacts. A portion of this collection is displayed in a beautiful exhibit
that was created in consultation with the Oglala Lakota in the 1980's and
'90s. In addition, the Monument maintains, interprets, and preserves
the James and Harold Cook family historical documents and ephemera
related to Native culture and history. This exceptional collection was
donated to the NPS by James Cook's son, Harold Cook, after his death
in 1963.
Setting the Scene: United States and American Indian Relations
James Cook and Chief Red Cloud
James Cook was born in Michigan in 1857 and was known for
"his marksmanship and fearlessness" (Meade 1990:5). In his youth
Cook traveled extensively and worked as a hand on cattle drives, sold
game and supplies to the railroad and worked as a guide for geologists
exploring the Plains (Meade 1990). In 1879, Cook traveled to Nebraska
to visit his friend Dr. Elisha B. Graham at his '04 Ranch,' located near
the Niobrara River. The ranch attracted many paleontologists and fossil
hunters interested in his fossil rich land. Cook met and would later
marry Graham's daughter, Kate, and purchased the '04 Ranch,' renaming
it 'Agate Springs Ranch'. Cook continued with the paleontological
excavations at the fossil beds and invited numerous paleontologists
to Agate to collect specimens for their museum collections (Meade
1990:6).
In 1876 Cook asked Baptiste "Little Bat" Garnier, an Indian scout
at the Red Cloud Agency (33 wagon miles east of Cook's ranch), to
introduce him to Chief Red Cloud. Cook wanted permission to collect
fossils in Sioux territory (Meade 1990:3). Red Cloud, Makhpiya-Luta,
the aging chief of the Oglala Lakota, lived at the Agency when he first
met Cook but he and his band were soon (1878) moved to the Pine Ridge
Reservation in South Dakota. Red Cloud is perhaps best remembered
37
for being the only Native American leader to direct a successful war
against the United States. Red Cloud and his people prevented the
United States Army from advancing the Bozeman Trail and forced the
United States into a peace conference in 1868 (Viegas 2005).
From their initial meeting, Cook and Red Cloud set in motion a
friendship that would span over thirty years. The Pine Ridge Agency was
95 wagon miles from the Agate Springs Ranch and the Lakota needed
passes (Marks 1998) to leave the Agency area. Cook frequently got
permission for Red Cloud and his entourage to visit Agate Springs Ranch.
The Lakota traveled by wagon for several summer weeks each visit­
where they could hold traditional cultural dances and ceremonies at the
Ranch, feast on beef when desired, and practice their traditional crafts
sitting under the cottonwoods. Those visits were usually accompanied
by gift exchanges - food and shelter for quilled and beaded moccasins
and vests,
...articles representing their old wild life, things that
they had kept and treasured for many years. These they
would present to father [Harold Cook], knowing that he
would protect and value them as relics of days that were
gone forever (Cook 1968: 139).
The cross-cultural material exchange was an expression of the
harmony and respect between these individuals and groups.
As Dorothy Cook Meade (1990:3; Harold Cook's daughter) notes:
Sioux and Cheyenne leaders came with their families,
pitching their tipis on the banks of the Niobrara, hunting
pronghorns with Cook, and talking for long hours.
There were long talks, tales of olden times and dances
around the campfire. Although most of the chiefs spoke
no English, they communicated in sign language and
through interpreters when Cook's grasp of their language
failed.
This mutual esteem was exemplified in Harold Cook's leave-taking
from the Agate Springs Ranch in September 1907, as described by his
father (Cook 1980:207-208)
"[O]ur eldest son was leaving home to attend school
in Lincoln, Nebraska. It was the first time in his life that
he had ever been separated from his parents and home.
38
The Indians, who \I
one hundred yards 1
son was leaving u
which was to take
lined up on each :
door to the drivew
them, each woman
began to chant the
part from their own
the Indian camp, a
best they owned, (
aged chieftain tool
close, placing his (
his back, and he s:
is my friend. I and
and think of you w
forward and embr
time were dim wit
of both the red an
the scene."
The Cook Collection (
AGFO, reflects these man)
Cook family from the 1881
blankets, pipes, navel an
quillwork, and items from
collection, as did his son, H
room" so visitors could se
Indian artifacts (Meade 191
The Impol
The magnitude of Jame
be understood by recogniz
19th Century, the US had
Indian into the larger whil
Indian culture, laws, lands
such as the Indian Remov
Indians to reservations, W
\
to direct a successful war
his people prevented the
eman Trail and forced the
~ (Viegas 2005).
ed Cloud set in motion a
'he Pine Ridge Agency was
lch and the Lakota needed
lrea. Cook frequently got
visitAgate Springs Ranch.
lmmer weeks each visit­ lces and ceremonies at the
tice their traditional crafts
",ere usually accompanied
led and beaded moccasins
ild life, things that
, years. These they
:], knowing that he
s of days that were
vas an expression of the
ils and groups.
i Cook's daughter) notes:
with their families,
~ Niobrara, hunting
g for long hours.
I times and dances
of the chiefs spoke
sign language and
;p of their language
larold Cook's leave-taking
1907, as described by his
ne to attend school
time in his life that
parents and home.
The Indians, who were encamped in their lodges about
one hundred yards from the ranch house, knew that our
son was leaving us. When the conveyance drove up
which was to take him away, the old Indian women
lined up on each side of the walk leading from the
door to the driveway; and as my son passed between
them, each woman gave him a handshake, and then all
began to chant the songs which they sing when they
part from their own kinsmen. When the carriage passed
the Indian camp, all the men came out, dressed in the
best they owned, old Red Cloud taking the lead. The
aged chieftain took my son in his arms and held him
close, placing his cheek against the boy's and patting
his back, and he said: "I am an old man. Your father
is my friend. I and my people will give you his name
and think of you with good hearts." All the men came
forward and embraced the boy, whose eyes by this
time were dim with tears, as were those of a number
of both the red and the white women who witnessed
the scene."
The Cook Collection of American Indian artifacts, now housed at
AGFO, reflects these many visits between Red Cloud's people and the
Cook family from the 1880's through the early 1900's. Gifts included
blankets, pipes, navel amulets, painted hides, clothing, parfleches,
quillwork, and items from famous battles. James Cook cherished the
collection, as did his son, Harold who displayed these items in the "bone
room" so visitors could see this magnificent assemblage of American
Indian artifacts (Meade 1990: 12).
The Importance of This Relationship
The magnitude of James Cook and Red Cloud's friendship can only
be understood by recognizing these turbulent times. By the end of the
19th Century, the US had a clear agenda: to assimilate the American
Indian into the larger white society. This included the eradication of
Indian culture, laws, lands, and languages. Earlier federal objectives,
such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the forced relocation of
Indians to reservations, weakened the Indian nations. By 1887, the
39
US passed the General Allotment, or Dawes Act, which authorized the
break-up of Indian reservations into individual allotments and the sale
of "surplus" lands to white settlers. The U.S wanted to remove any
vestige of 'Indianness' and force Indians to exchange their communal
beliefs for the larger society's individualistic ideology. After the Civil
War the US was able to focus its full force and strength on westward
expansIOn.
It is revealing that Chief Red Cloud, a warrior and a statesman and
charismatic leader of the Oglala Sioux, relied on a Euroamerican rancher
to preserve the legacy of his people. It is evident, though, that he had
little choice. The ensuing deluge of Euroamericans overwhelmed the
Plains communities and their lands. The Lakota nation wrestled with
forced reservation life and was involved in numerous conflicts, including
the Great Sioux War of 1876-77 (Paul 1997:7). By 1890, the Indian
people were demoralized and defeated and had lost the fight against the
United States. The massacre of nearly 350 Indians at Wounded Knee
marked the "passing of the Indian frontier" (Utley 1984:257). The
tragic and senseless 1890 slaughter of Sioux people at Wounded Knee,
who had peaceably gathered for the Ghost Dance and hope of reviving
their culture, signified the last hope for Indian people and the nadir of
American Indian history. The assault on their cultures, their people,
their lands, was now complete.
Yet, despite this acrimonious relationship with whites, Chief Red
Cloud and his people respected and trusted Cook and considered him
both an ally and a friend. It is in this spirit-the spirit of friendship
- that the repatriation process at AGFO was undertaken. The tone of
their interactions still resonates today in the ongoing and productive
dialogues between land managers and Native communities.
Repatriation and Consultation at AGFO
Few issues between archaeologists and Native communities have
been as heated as those surrounding repatriation. 3 In 1990, the Native
American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 25
U.S.c. 3001), was passed by the U.S. Congress and signed into law to
ensure sensitive treatment of Native American graves and associated
grave goods. NAGPRA sanctions the repatriation - the return of­
human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural
patrimony to tribes and c
descent or cultural affiliati,
NAGPRA "has fundament
Native Americans interact" .
highly controversial in the'
communication between COl
"archaeologists and Native
and deal forthrightly with re
have not been stripped bare
be dealt with on this issue."
The Consultatio
In 1995 detailed invent(
Fossil Beds and Scottsbluff I
in a national mailing sent OUI
Department of the Interior ~
specialist, was responsible j
AGFO Superintendent Knu
moved to AGFO in 1996.
In 1996-7 a database Wi
Iron to describe the AGFO i
and artifacts presumed to b
patrimony. Coincidentally.
analysis of the AGFO and
the "scalps") verifying thei
by Moor-Jansen and Westc(
Hughes (1998) complet
and SCBL remains and not~
skull discussed below) coul
Therefore, he identified 31
northwestern Nebraska Panl
were located, concluding th
the remains. The tribes wi
is affiliated include the Ok
Apache; Northern and SOUl
Sioux; Northern and Southe
Flandreau Santee, Lower B
40
\
Act, which authorized the
ml allotments and the sale
l.S wanted to remove any
exchange their communal
c ideology. After the Civil
and strength on westward
arrior and a statesman and
on a Euroamerican rancher
vident, though, that he had
nericans overwhelmed the
lkota nation wrestled with
merous conflicts, including
7:7). By 1890, the Indian
ad lost the fight against the
Indians at Wounded Knee
." (Utley 1984:257). The
,people at Wounded Knee,
)ance and hope of reviving
an people and the nadir of
~eir cultures, their people,
ip with whites, Chief Red
Cook and considered him
it- the spirit of friendship
s undertaken. The tone of
Ie ongoing and productive
~ communities.
[)n atAGFO
Native communities have
ltion. 3 In 1990, the Native
ation Act (NAGPRA, 25
ress and signed into law to
can graves and associated
latriation- the return of­
~cts, and objects of cultural
patrimony to tribes and organizations that can demonstrate lineal
descent or cultural affiliation with the items subject to repatriation.
NAGPRA "has fundamentally changed the way archaeologists and
Native Americans interact" (Swidler et al. 1997: 18). NAGPRA, though
highly controversial in the 'academy,' has allowed for the inception of
communication between constituencies. As Downer (1997:32) asserts,
"archaeologists and Native Americans are beginning to discuss things
and deal forthrightly with repatriation. Museums and curation facilities
have not been stripped bare. Indians are seeing that archaeologists can
be dealt with on this issue."
The Consultation Process at AGFO and SCBL
In 1995 detailed inventories of material in the collections of Agate
Fossil Beds and Scottsbluff (SCBL) National Monuments were included
in a national mailing sent out to U. S. Native American tribes by the U. S.
Department of the Interior Secretary. Mark Hertig, the AGFO Museum
specialist, was responsible for these activities for both monuments and
AGFO Superintendent Knudson continued in that joint effort after she
moved to AGFO in 1996.
In 1996-7 a database was created by enrolled Crow Indian Yvonne
Iron to describe the AGFO and SCBL Native American human remains
and artifacts presumed to be sacred Native objects or items of cultural
patrimony. Coincidentally, a bioanthropological description and
analysis of the AGFO and SCBL collections' human remains (except
the "scalps") verifying their Native American identity was completed
by Moor-Jansen and Westcott (1999).
Hughes (1998) completed a cultural affiliation study of the AGFO
and SCBL remains and noted that none of them (excluding the Klallam
skull discussed below) could be associated with a specific Indian tribe.
Therefore, he identified 31 tribes as being culturally affiliated with the
northwestern Nebraska Panhandle landscape in which AGFO and SCBL
were located, concluding that any or all of them could be affiliated with
the remains. The tribes with whom the AGFO and SCBL landscape
is affiliated include the Oklahoma, Fort Sill, Jicarilla, and Mescalero
Apache; Northern and Southern Arapahoe; Fort Peck Assiniboine and
Sioux; Northern and Southern Cheyenne; Cheyenne River, Crow Creek,
Flandreau Santee, Lower Brule, Oglala, Rosebud, Santee, Spirit Lake,
41
Standing Rock, and Yankton Sioux; Northwestern Band and Wind River
Shoshoni; Shoshone-Bannock; Shoshoni-Paiute; Comanche; Crow;
Omaha; Nebraska and Oklahoma Ponca; Pawnee; Mandan-Hidatsa­
Arikara; and Kiowa.
Within the AGFO collection five artifacts had been historically
identified as "human scalps" with no verification of their human nature.
In 1999 Knudson had these artifacts examined by the Laramie (WY)
County Coroner to adjudge their human nature; four (NPS 2001b)
were determined to be of human origin, which was confirmed by their
associated historic records, and one was judged to be a decoration made
of horse hair. There was documentation that two of these were affiliated
with the Pawnee, one with the Blackfeet, and one with the Crow. The
Pawnee and Blackfeet scalps were repatriated, but the Crow have
declined to request the return of the scalp of a historic Crow member.
One Native American skull in the AGFO collections had been
acquired by James Cook in the early 1900s from an antiquities shop in
Seattle, Washington. Documentation associated with the skull stated that
it had been found on Vancouver Island, Be. Because the historic Native
American community associated with the BC find spot were Klallam
Indians who live on both the Canadian and U.S. sides of the Juan de Fuca
Strait, Knudson initiated consultation with the Lower Elwha Klallam
tribe in Port Angeles, WA. The Lower Elwha requested repatriation of
the skull, all appropriate legal documents were completed (NPS 2001 a),
and the skull was repatriated to the Washington state tribe in 2002.
In 1999 Superintendent Knudson initiated personal contact with the
31 AGFO/SCBL-Iandscape-affiliated tribes, beginning conversations
with them about a future NAGPRA consultation event. This event
would include discussion of the scalps present in the AGFO collections,
but only as ancillary to the primary discussion about the other human
remains in the AGFO and SCBL collections whose cultural affiliation
was initially unclear.
In 1999, Dr. Margaret Conkey, Baird's advisor and mentor, con­
tacted the junior author, Dr. Ruthann Knudson, the Superintendent of
AGFO and after some exchange Knudson invited Baird to serve as the
NAGPRA Coordinator, under her direction and sponsored by the Na­
tional Park Service (NPS) and the Student Conservation Association.
Baird followed up on the initial tribal connections made by Knudson
42
and responded to inquiries
gathered and reviewed SuP]
tribes on issues of reburia
research in the Monument a
Upon completion of this tm
for review by tribal govern
to be held where tribal rei
NAGPRA-eligible collecti
from both AGFO and SCB
Legally appropriate rep
were invited to consult ane
event at Fort Robinson St
The NPS proposed to pay
Native participants. Of the i
Sioux; Crow; Crow Creek
Peck Assiniboine and Siou
Ponca of Oklahoma; Ponca
Three Affiliated Tribes 0
Wind River Shoshoni;) ser
Siouan Intertribal Repatrial
tribes (Flandreau Santee ~
represented at the meeting
these exchanges and the di.
TheW.
On June 2, 1999 repres
groups met at Fort Robin
facilitate the development
and SCBL should interact
the National Historic Prl
Protection Act, NAGPRA
manage cultural resources
between Monument and
productive. The worksho]
understanding and address
focus was on productive e:
were raised, these were :
'\
~stem
Band and Wind Ri ver
Paiute; Comanche; Crow;
Pawnee; Mandan-Hidatsa­
facts had been historically
ation of their human nature.
ined by the Laramie (WY)
nature; four (NPS 2001b)
lich was confirmed by their
ged to be a decoration made
two of these were affiliated
nd one with the Crow. The
riated, but the Crow have
~ a historic Crow member.
GFO collections had been
from an antiquities shop in
lted with the skull stated that
Because the historic Native
Be find spot were Klallam
.S. sides ofthe Juan de Fuca
the Lower Elwha Klallam
ha requested repatriation of
~re completed (NPS 2001 a),
~ton state tribe in 2002.
ed personal contact with the
s, beginning conversations
mltation event. This event
:nt in the AGFO collections,
)ion about the other human
IS whose cultural affiliation
; advisor and mentor, con­
ison, the Superintendent of
nvited Baird to serve as the
I and sponsored by the Na­
:onservation Association.
mections made by Knudson
and responded to inquiries from both NPS employees and Tribes and
gathered and reviewed supporting documents for consultations with the
tribes on issues of reburial and repatriation, proposed archaeological
research in the Monument and its effect on traditional cultural properties.
Upon completion of this task, all supporting documents were distributed
for review by tribal governments and plans were initiated for a meeting
to be held where tribal representatives could discuss the monuments'
NAGPRA-eligible collections and related issues with representatives
from both AGFO and SCBL.
Legally appropriate representatives from each ofthe related 31 tribes
were invited to consult and see the collections during a June 2-3, 1999
event at Fort Robinson State Park, Crawford, Nebraska, and AGFO.
The NPS proposed to pay all travel expenses and honoraria for these
Native participants. Of the invited tribes, 14 (Arapahoe; Cheyenne River
Sioux; Crow; Crow Creek Sioux; Duck Valley Shoshoni-Paiute; Fort
Peck Assiniboine and Sioux; Lower Brule Sioux; Northern Cheyenne;
Ponca of Oklahoma; Ponca of Nebraska; Rosebud Sioux; Santee Sioux,
Three Affiliated Tribes of the Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan; and
Wind River Shoshoni;) sent representatives to the event. Because of a
Siouan Intertribal Repatriation Memorandum of Agreement, three other
tribes (Flandreau Santee Sioux, Oglala Sioux, Yankton Sioux) were
represented at the meeting as well. What was important was the tone of
these exchanges and the dialogue that continues today.
The Workshop, June 2-3,1999
On June 2, 1999 representatives from the afore-mentioned 14 tribal
groups met at Fort Robinson, Nebraska at a workshop designed to
facilitate the development of inter-tribal consensus about how AGFO
and SCBL should interact with tribal governments in compliance with
the National Historic Preservation Act, Archaeological Resources
Protection Act, NAGPRA, and other legal requirements and how to
manage cultural resources within the monuments. The interactions
between Monument and Tribal representatives were positive and
productive. The workshop was designed to assist the Monuments in
understanding and addressing the needs of the tribes. In this light, the
focus was on productive exchanges. Although questions and concerns
were raised, these were addressed amicably and with an emphasis
43
on respect. During these discussions the Lower Elwha skull in the
collection was mentioned, as were the four scalps, and it was decided
that these items were outside the purview of the current discussions
about landscape-related materials.
On June 3, 1999, the group met at Agate Fossil Beds National
Monument, where the attending tribes were able to view the NAGPRA­
eligible remains and associated items. After this review and their
own discussions, the tribes presented to the Superintendent of Agate
Fossil Beds and Scottsbluff National Monuments a signed request for
the repatriation of the human remains and associated funerary objects
based on an assertion of joint cultural association. That request was
subsequently agreed to by the Monument managers, that agreement
being published in the Federal Register (NPS 2000) with a subsequent
correction because of the genetic mis-identification of tone remains
(NPS 2001 b). A Repatriation Agreement was signed by Superintendent
Knudson and all 17 tribes (NPS 2005) and is currently on fIle at AGFO
awaiting implementation.
Working with Descendant Communities
Consultation and collaboration with Native groups is critical to
building positive relationships and requires a long-term time investment
and commitment from all involved for these relationships to be fruitful.
Establishing a working rapport, built on mutual trust and respect for
differing worldviews and opinions is vital for these relationships to
evolve. Some may argue that they do not know how to take the initial
steps - that the consultation process is too cumbersome, too difficult, or
they lack the connections and resources necessary for consultation. Yet,
as Ben Rhodd, a Potawatomi Indian (cited in Russell 1996:15) asserts,
"all it sometimes takes is sitting down with the people you fear and
talking with them on a human level. A lot of it is your approach as
an individual." At AGFO lines of communication were consistently
being checked and rechecked and the tribes were consulted at all stages
AGFO's implementation of a proactive approach that included all tribal
groups in all stages with all relevant material in the consultation process
not only facilitated communication but also improved relations.
It is also essential that people new to the consultation process have
mentors to help guide them in interacting with descendant communities.
44
/
In Baird's experience, wo
archaeologist and tribal mt
insight into the consultation
working with tribal groups
to explore the consultation
resolve potential conflicts a
with their guidance.
It is increasingly de
and descendant communiti
relationships to be fruitful.
at AGFO is one example
constituencies can be posit
Cook and Chief Red Cloud
between the AGFO and Tri
together with patience and·
continue to reflect upon OUl
Cook and Chief Red CIOl
structure future dialogues.
\
Lower Elwha skull in the
scalps, and it was decided
of the current discussions
.gate Fossil Beds National
able to view the NAGPRA­
fter this review and their
Ie Superintendent of Agate
iments a signed request for
associated funerary objects
>ciation. That request was
managers, that agreement
)S 2000) with a subsequent
nification of tone remains
.s signed by Superintendent
s currently on file at AGFO
:ommunities
·ative groups is critical to
llong-term time investment
relationships to be fruitful.
lutual trust and respect for
for these relationships to
now how to take the initial
1mbersome, too difficult, or
ssary for consultation. Yet,
n Russell 1996: 15) asserts,
h the people you fear and
t of it is your approach as
nication were consistently
were consulted at all stages
:)ach that included all tribal
in the consultation process
improved relations.
~ consultation process have
h descendant communities.
In Baird's experience, working under the tutelage of a professional
archaeologist and tribal members on these issues provided invaluable
insight into the consultation process. Knudson's honesty and experience
working with tribal groups on multiple levels provided an opportunity
to explore the consultation process. A mentor is essential in helping
resolve potential conflicts and many awkward moments can be avoided
with their guidance.
Conclusion
It is increasingly clear that relations between archaeologists
and descendant communities must be grounded in respect for these
relationships to be fruitful. The repatriation and consultation process
at AGFO is one example of how interactions between these two
constituencies can be positive and productive. The legacy of James
Cook and Chief Red Cloud was reflected in the contemporary dialogues
between the AGFO and Tribal representatives with both sides coming
together with patience and fortitude to work on these issues. We must
continue to reflect upon our interactions and recognize that like James
Cook and Chief Red Cloud, our discourse today may inform and
structure future dialogues.
45
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